ANNE HOLLANDER. AUTHOR
OF
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Moviug Pictures is a bold and pro\'ocative interpretation or Western Ilrt thll t links the great tradition or North European painting to modern cinema. llnd 8Uggest.'4 how paintings. prints, and moving pictures are interconnected modes of art that in comparable ways d cpict moments in the narrative flow of human life. Beginning with the great IllIt..'4ters of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries- Van Eyck, Durer, Bruegel- and moving through the his tory of European art to the lulvent of movies and the modern era , Anne Hollander ex plores ce rtain a rtis tic impu lses and traditions that have taken account or the arbitrary. random way vision sorts out dramatic elements in a given s ituation, that have und erstood the di80rderly way vis ual phenomena strike th e eye, and that have used mobil e imagery to, as she puts it. set t he viewer's psyche in motion. These im pulses and trad itions were present in European art all along; later the camera. especially the movie camera, WtL~ well s ui ted to take UI) the same artis tic task, since its work is d one wi t h and by mO\'illg li ght, by the constant shift of scale and focus, and by un apprecilltion oC the emotional and expressive power of light s triking the forms within tl pi cture fram e, A related theme of Mov illg Pict,u'e, concerns the relation betwee n originill Aand I>rints, and between high "lid popular art. Man y of the West's greatest works of art h"ve found their way into the hearts of vi ewers t hrough the medium of reproduction; printed bJackautl -white illus trations. born in Northern Europe ill the fifU.-enth ce ntury, SUPI}lemented pa intings a nd recreated them for thouStluds and t housands of people, The !iDlirces of cinenlll , tl8 well , lie in the dy nami c rela. tion between original visual ideas lind repeated cOI>ies of them; 1ll00'ies, like till rel)roductions. the author arg ues. ha\'e a special broad-based power to invite private fau · tas},. to pro\'oke memory and 888OCiation, and to evoke an umnediated personal response from the viewer,
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AI.SO HY A N !"'.: nO I. I. AN IH.;!(
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Moving Pictures
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Alfred A. Knopf NlW
York 1989
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ACKNOWLEDGME NT S
I r('Cf'j\'cd g rNl 1 h~'lll iu wr it iug this book rrum <:OllwrS liliOIi S w itll St'n> rui pj·oplt·. I wish {'spt'ciully to IIHUlk Hogl' rs Albri ll oll. Mllrth u Ii oliundcr. Hosuli ud KI'UUSS, mul Dt,'rt'k P llrfil ro r tlU'ir t'I Ulbling suggestions. objec t ions. PI'OWK:ut io lUi, 11114 1 j·Il{; Ollrugt' IIIl' III .
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CONTE I TS
Introductjon ONE
Moving
a
Pic/IIIT1
Lighl and Visiun M arjoo
Ia
and N arrn riw
;) ;)
1lI,lr k and \'<'bite>
:1 :'
Culor and Reality
.. :1
The Sixll'nuh Cm/llf)'
n l RtH' F OLK
E IVI
Thl Em'h, Bt,rotIJU Dutch G enre
1 I I)
I :) R
Frmrh Prin /I,' lVallum, Chard;"
SF.V"",
NINI.: 1'1: :>1
H ogflrlh. GreJIZt. Gol'fl
240
lrla/ere% r,' TUYIltr, M arlitt
Fritdrhh, Schll';"d; Aitllu/ and
I !I i
~:! l
,[irpolo. P;y(l1ltJi , uUla/fllo
EIG HT
:! fi I
/ '/ ;1 i llf/1ItIlct
Eng/ish Art and lII11stration; Whistler HIIUfliS
FO U RTHS
FIFTHS
99
UlIldJcapt: Pr;IIIJ: Rmdmmdl
SIX
TWI:lLVE
..
." -,
Tht Fi{tulllh CUI/liD'
T'tI? O
HHI!.N
1:J
Ameri ca
Twentieth-emlll? Gnlphics; Alot,its SONn't l (or JlhlJlrali01I1 Stltrl Dlbliogrtlph), lmJ Noln I ud!')'
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Frana iff the Nine/lt/llh CtIl/II'1
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Moving Pictures
Copyrighted maeria
Introduction
o V I E S, like paiutings, ute illl£' lId('(1 (or all li me. Theater is {'p ht·menll-euch P"OdU Clioli lusts only UIS IOllg us it!! !"Ullo 1.I1It.1 each per(or lllall(:(' is a IIt'W vers ion of Iht' pit·cf'. 13111 a pai ll tiu/.{ or II 1II0\"ie is 1111 ('IIduring work. subject onl,\' to ci r ClIlIIstlHlt ill1 iujur)' lind d l'CIlY. OUI' .. !!latloll to !lIm"je!! lind paintings is 011(' of' hope\t'ss illf'quulil,\': Iht'." will anthUI! us.
Our mutabi lity
rf'cording 8illl l)h' inc idf'ntN, ('wn b.· forf' ~c rf't· n pll.lYs f'XisLt'C1, IlIlld ~ Ih~m ins tant ly IIIHI pt' r ll lllUf'lll ly iltlPOl'tlilit 10 li ff'. What IllI'Y liitlllHl first SCt~llIto lJf' WIlS 111'1. lit It'llsl 1101 in tllf' SIl IIll' IIJliv('I'S{, with the' works of HPlllb"Ulltlt IIml :'Il ie hrlllllg{-' Io , But IIIIYOII(' cou ld IUI"{' told , froll1 L1u' kimi of fUI'c(' tht' SCI'{'f'II imlll!f' had, 111111 IIH)\'i{'s \\'(" '(' linkrd In cOIII(lt'lI illl! piCl ul'('S uf 1111
kinds, Pf'oplf"s dre(lf's! ff'(' lillg's W(,I'i' f'lIg11/.!l'd by ! iI{' lliCIIII'('S tll {, IIISi'lV{'s, Os tlll'Y hud Iwr ll hy f';lI' lii'r illuminations, paintinj!s, ami (' II~p'a,'illgs-lJy all wOI'ks that outlas! and 1l'lIl1scf'lId thr "iewer, Ollf' rf'IlSOII was Ihlll t'If'!rU' lltS of t hO!w ('arli(-'r " isiolls IUl'kNi ili ll u' scr(,('11 illlllg'(-', ('x(-'rlillg IIl1'irold power ill " III'\\' ((Will, ft wus 1101 just lilt' show, 'I' hf'ull'r hus II ditl'f'rl'lIt mal,d e, lilt' SPf'lI of lin' P(-'f'fOI'llHlIlCf', wh ich ca r rif's und if'lIcf's liwa:" hy 11If' i IIHIIN] incy 01' t hf' f'\'(' 11 t. Tllf' tl ll' ulr iCIiI S(lI'III1I1lY (,lI sily Iw hrokf'II, ruil1('d by II lu'('ukduWII 01' 1I1f'1Ilol'y or 11('1'\'e; IIlId it is sl ightly dill'(, l'ent i'llch lilllf', But fil lll sharf'S in tile j)(-'rfCCI, ullciUlIIgiug aclioll of still pic lun's, which limy 1Jf' inl{' r l'lJplf'd only ir Ih.:> SlI r rllC(' is cow-'rNI, or 1IH'lu. 01' if Ih(' light di('s, Just as God und Alillm perpetuully lose touch on the ceiling of the Sistillc Chap'·l. so "' I'cd
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4
MOVIN G
PI C T U R ES
illld Ginger alwu.\'s do the Cllriocil ill exnc! l." the slime Wtty 1I0W as the il , a nd for('ver. TIU' c\'t.'r· fresh youth s and mllid l'IIS 011 K N ILIS G~c ian urn are more like movie Ilctors limn likt· dead Tll imll lind dt'ad Burbage, whose best ef· fects arp long s in ce lost. The powc r of fi lm co mes from b£>i ng mnde of e ndless pic tures. lind d oi ng for peo ple whut I>iel.ures d o, ruth er thun tlnything like wlw! IIH' t healt' r does. Not illl piclU r('s, howeve r. A pnrlicu lar sort of pictu re seellls to be ill mot ion ('\'e ll wh ile> it does 1I0 lIll0"(', seems to b(' showing II IIlllch larger sect ion o f li me Ihlln the frauif' cn n co ntain . ami S£'C IIl S to invite ou r' pal'ticiplltion ill th e rnow' lIl{'1I1 of it s pOlenliul n(lrrlll iv(' . The fo llow ill g di scussion is a S('ul'ch through the histo ry of IIrt for 1IJ(' kinds of pic ture tlutt attem pted lind prcfigul'ed whnt cine llW iat('r lIct u nlly did, lind thllt for'm u bnckg roll nd nnd rOlllldution fo r mov ielS , T his pro to'cillc Ulutic urt WtlS mostl y crell ted by plIill t(' rs, But in lurge pl1 rt til(' (,Illot io llal ('frec ts thnt wer(' 111081 te llin g ill til('il' pa int ings aud In ost d('eply i lit (' r'na i i1.ed by the publ ic, alld t hat. e\'('11 tunlly round I h('i r wily iuto Ci lll' IUII , first rCllchNI the hellrts of t lll·ir viewe r's through t he mediulII of r('produ ct ioll , PllillLings have bC(,1I I'cp rod uced lIS prin ts ever s inc(' the fift eenth C('Iltlll'Y; lind im por'tu nt works , tran s mut ed by graphic technology int o fam ilillr images, coul d g radually gel onto mor<' illtilluHe e lU otiolllll tel'lIlS with the I)ublic thlln tlu',Y could c\'t.' r estublis h rrOIll fix ('d ll il d often inaccl'ssible sites, Reproduct io ns ha nging ill pl'ovincial schooll'oollls 01' pl' iU l('d iu his tory tex tbooks s how pll in ti ll gs doillg this larger workIIInking suggl's ii ons, insli llillg vis uul no tio ns, nrollsi ll g I'('Sl>onse8 , helping to fllltllt' moving lund scilpe o( th (' inwu rd ('y(' for g(,lIerati ons of people who might neve r see t he origi nals, The SO UI'C~S of cine ma lie ill thi s d,\OlUlltl ic 1"C lutioIlSili l) bt.'tw(·en ol'iginal "irmul id(,lls IIl1d th ei r rep(,l1ted trllllsilltioll, through wh ic h t hey Clln kec p movi ng into t he w o rld o~ IIWtl r'C IWSS. With the story or l'e l}rodu Clio liS /l lso ~oc.s the s tory of po pular graphic illus trnt ion. o f re.llis tic pic tulocs lIslInlly bUS('d 011 d isCO\'('ri('S propolluded first in g rellt pniutill gf' but thell r('nwde Ilgllin und ligni n wil h d ifTerc lll (, lI lpiUl ses, ('x pressly to persuade, inrol'lIl , iiluminalt.', or shock, )lany pllinl.l'rs \\'CI'e skilled graph ic arti s t s the mselves , (lW8I'(, of th e powel' o f r('pelltubl(' lind adaptable illUlgC l'y cve ll ir pn intillg c laimed th ci r chi e f d rOit. III g(, ll('rul the artists I cull PI"Ol ooci nt"lIIutic. many of who m \\'(,I'e lit horne wit h bo th pll int II lI d print s , worked in th l' trndition of Northcrn Europ(', Thut t raditio n hud defi ned ill,elf by Ih(' middle o f t he fi ftee nth cCllt u ry us s('c killg to rendl'r bot h real lind fnntllst ic IIHl tcrial , sllcr<'d or S('CU IIlI', ill terms o r OIHiCli1 ('x(>(,l'it' lIc(' I'Hther t.han r01'1n1l1 idellls, T his pictor ia l trllditio n, whic h dt' p('llded 011 lIsing til £' mys te!'y of surfnce to t'xprcss l he mys-
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tel'y of bilsie IIll!tlllillg, look at:t:oUIII of thi' arbi tl'a r'y and nlildolll qu al it y o f visioll iISi' lf, I IIi' illsttlbil ity of sight, llud t he lack of (OI'um l ordi'I' in I he wHy pIIl'1I 01ll('1I11 ll Cll!tll ly s lrih the eye ; and it used 11 11 t llrse to re fl ('C I Ihl' UIlce l'w iu 1ll0n'1l1('lI l o f cO llsciOll s lless, Late l' the t:IUlU' I'lI , es pecially tli p III O\,' iug C,IIII{'I'a , (,(Isily loo k up t his sa Ill{' task, s illct' ils wOl'k is dour wholly by ligh l IIli d 111(' COIlSIlllI 1 s hifl of .scl.l lt.' lind (OC lIS, Bll t Ih(' (1I'1I1IIIlli(: (O I'lIIl1ll.1s hnd 1l1l't',Hiy ht'i'li pro"idl'd hy (II(' I>
SlI gt'S : u ud so do 111 (' (il'st woodcuts, which dutc from t.he SIlIII(, C{, lllll l'Y, :\!O\'ips, a lthough th('y a l'l~ shown ill \ ' iI !) t 1I11ditOl'i uIII S Hlld U(h '(' I'lised in IIlUSS lIlNlin, ill fa cI do lh f' Smllf', So do 1't' pl'od ll elio ll s, ilnd so always d id illustrations , III con Ll'us t to /!rl'lIt I'l'l'scO(' s ill cli u l'clrrs 01' g'I'Nlt E>xhibitions in 1ll1lSeIHUS, 01' to p(,I'fon ll aIl Cf'S 011 stagt·s, to wh ich Iwople lIlu s t go in public g l'Oll p" in ol'd(' I' 10 know Ihey 11I'f' sN'ing ilt't. 1'(' prOdUcNI UJ'Il.l lld ilills ll'lIli\'(' I.II' L hll"f' bef'1I otl'('I'Ni in books 1111£1 joul'Ila ts und sill~lf' she('ts for privati' co ns umption , Each 011(' of lhei r t holli'Hl lld s or co p i('S Hilll $ lit OIiP "iewel' nt 11 lilllC, I n IIIllgll~illl'S IIlId n('Ws p'lJ)I"'S , t (> l('visiun and 1II0\'il'S, illlllges s l riki' ('/lc h o r liS personally lind withollt pl'Ppa!'lllion , atl','cli ng' liS a lmost wilhoIlIIlC kllowINiglll('Ilt. p(' ri lHps 1111111(' 1Il00' P I'> I,'ollgl,\' for I lml. The 111'1 or III{' pa s t hilS il1fh'Nlc('(i ' he 1II0\'il'S nol in th(' wa," lIIovie· III llkp l'S lUi"!' Ir ied to !'("Cl'l'ate w(' lI·kIlOWII j!I'I'ut works -although I he,\' hn\'(' d Ol!(' IllIIt oft I'll- but Ilu'ollgh Ih(' 1I11dying n~SO IUIIICe ill theil' eyes il nd h('a l'Is of thp vis lI lIl inw!!'('I'Y of tht' pa s t. II hilS co nI(' th l'ough t ilt' rollowillg lip of old II H' lIlu r i{'s II lid "irma I hHlJ ils privately ubsOI'b('(l lJy Ihe rill ls , pho tog t'ilphs,
C pyr
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MOVINO
l'l CTU KI-:S
hOlll('" wl1('tll(,1" IIOW or fifty yt'ars frolllllow " Ilikl'ull r('prOductiolls" tht'y ill" vilt> prinlt(> fUIIIIIS.\"" I)rinlt(' 1I1('llIory
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HS80eiltlioll" 1101 public {·xcilt·-
1'11(' d(,IIHUIII of 11I f' piClnr!' is l}{'rsollUl I1I1lI ulllllediuted: th(' urtisl. I ht, p.~rfo l"ltl(, l" willi 1111 hiJoi dt· IIHlllds. is nhsr"n1.
I/U' llt.
Th is uhsc'nc," i,. IIIIU\ III"" rl'u\u ,"" or III1 ICIt No,"II! I-;urol)(,11I1 urI.
Altl!ull~h
(,lIch ,"i"\\"(' r kllows t hlll tilt' hn·lIll1ll1k illJ.:' (·n·Pet WIIS IIIII((e by the PII'"1)08i\'(> ( h' si~1I UllcI
skill of Ih(> 1\1"lis t. Ihe impact of /I H{' llIlmtllcll Bible sce ne or II V('rllwl' r illlt·rior is prilllltrily thul of Ilw suhjl'ci. th e ullIlosph€' re, nnd 111('
;l Clioll" I n (:OIlIl"lIsl. the inililll illlJ}lIc l of n pllillling ill til(' ' "('ry dii"f(>relll classical 3ml Itulinn Irlillilion-I ('1 liS suy Oil{' of HUI)hlle l's- is IhUI of II llt'rrOrIllIlIlC('" wilh III(' subjl'c t ,"isibly (nlld perlUlI)S also hrelllhlukillgly) huilt juto it. 'I'lli' r{'tll'c l ions on 111('1<1 1 ami ghlfois pllillt('d ill U Vlln Eyck All ' II ll1l cialioll
UJ" II
Kllif still·lir('
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lik,' SPOlllll llt'OIiS mirllci cs, wherelts Ihe
d,"u pt'ril"s paillh'd by Boltic('lIi S('(' II\ like "llrililions ill II s ung nriu " AIIh ou~h w(' know Ilwl Villi I-:,vck (Iud Knlr also nctulilly applied tt bmsll, we IIr{' 1101 ill\'il('(1 10 Ihillk first of lhllllls w{' look " TIlt' {'ITeet of t1wir jlainlings is III om'r III{' pIU~ 1I0IlH.'"11 li S fr{'silly springi llg illio ('xiSI (, II C(, " the dt:'pic l ed (" ""'lis liS
1Ullllrlli nccurrt'uc('s" Th(' slIhj(,CI lIIay well be ubsorbillg' ill ilself;
hul i f il is in fa c tlwutrul or boring, tile nwdiulII will force it to b(' Illt'linillg· rlll- \\"illlolil UPP ill""1I1 illlf'I"\"(,lIlillll " III lilt' ol her Iradit io n of urI , Ihe elas"ic nnd mod('rn "'"t IhHI clills ntll'lI tioli to ils(' lf" interve ntion is III(' w"nlf' poinl : Iil p f10\\'(""lS 011 tilt, 11Iblt' nrc' ill\{' I"pslillg' olily becnulSc of wlllli thC' pllilllC'r has dout' ahoul I lwlIl" I n cillf'lIIl1tic Ilnrl proto·cint'mat ic llrt, Ihe Howt'rs lire IlUld{' illler{'sli llg' by II sorl of IIll1gic thut lIutkes th e ir nH'r(' vis ibili! ,v set'1lI a significllnl slory ill ils{'lf.
In thf' followillJ! chupters I ('xplor(' whut loo ks 10 III{' like the impul se to IIIl1k e nrt or Lh is kiml , alld I PU!"SlIl' il s (,1II{'rgoence in the mo,fies, becal1se I think its history i~ cOll tiIlUOUS. III the firsl c hapl er I try to locate Iltt' specific sou rces rOT" till' ('flloti\'(' power or IIJ O,"ilig-pic turc illlilgery" I see il first i'l til(' d is tillct iw rendering of light. by th(' pilillt('rs of Ihe North ~uropean Hellil issn ll ce. logelher with their wllys of co mposi ng the space ill pictures 10 lSugg('st and invi l e psychological molioll " But printNi graphic illustru-
tion was also born ill K'ortherll Enrol)e in Ihe fifteenth cent ury, to suppleIIlelll liI(' paintillg" IIl1d to begin re-crNltillg Ihelll ill graphic forlll; alld I wllnl 10 show why Ihe black-alld·white media htl\'(' had a special power to 1II0W' III(' world ('\"('r sinc('. By harnessing III(' elements of light and shlld e, und h~' lIlukinf,! pictures 110 1 on ly repeuluble but movable and aduptable, th('Y 1111\"(' shown whut i!'J e8s(,lItiul for Ilt'lling illHlges to do their dee pest (,lIJotionlll WOI·k" Thr rest of the book rollows ttl(' hi story of Western painting and gnll)ilics fro III the fifleellth to the twent ie th centu ry, reading the work of
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7
liS a lli' lII pl~
to Itl, 1 CII1I1I'lISI s uch I)icIIII'I'S lu III(' cl a ssic kiml , whic h CI'l'<111' II (icliw wo.-l d \\,11(')'(' eOillph'I('ll (>SS is th t' uillL lind ,hl' 11'1](' subj<'t.:1 uf 11](' IlUITlltiw is l he :I I,tis t. k uch classic al'! 01'\('11 II Sf'S clln:'l'ully \\TOllj!ht iJI~ U ll ly liS its vt'ssf'l of CCJ IIIPI'p hi'lIsi\'('I\('ss: pll illll'rs inn'lIt \'i!; iuIiS o f colol'lIlid OJ,di' r Ihal lIIukl' dt'liciolis wholt' Sf'IISf' out uf t lit- UIlPUhlhlhh·. illd ig('sli lJl (' mwld, f'spf'cially 0111 uf 011 1' pU I'l iallllld Oftl'll incou qm'iI l' ll si iJh' \'it'ws of i1. 'rili' ai ll l of s lI ch picl lI l'{'s is 10 (,lIl iJudy 1111 illl'lIl uf 111' 1 it s!'lr liS It fore!' rm' ordl'l'. wil li l'pfonnillK Ulal l'lt"' llt i ll~ POWI'I', Til l' point uhollllllo\'ic's is Ilul,jllsllhat IIH',\' 111 0\'(', 11111 liIa lt lll',\' mow liS, And IIH~ c hit·f wily till'y do lIm l is hy oll'I'I'inl! sl'ls of Ilill,t inl ami pll zzlinl! \,it-ws, jusl as IiI'" dof's , a nd IllHkillg 11 1'1 tlil'('ctly 0 111 of t hril' arhitral'y , 1111 (illish(·d 1I1l11l1't', 'I'll(' wo.-ld is IW{,Sl'llt l'd il l II flu id lIl{'(liUIll thai d('I><' llds 011 im!olllp lt.'tt·lU·ss , quic k cllIlIlj!f' , lind oft{'11 on 1lI1lbiguily, Cillf' 1I1111 ie 111'1 IIit·,,(', 1'(11'(' j'!l j!aj!('s OUI' illlxil'ty ami f'lIlpat h." fil·s!. and "IIows Iwalll." 1o ar is(' 1'1'0 111 Ill(' \'t' I'Y l(ulllil." of eO ll lillj!(' lI cy Ihul illforll1s 111(' illll.lgt's, B"l'o l'(' tlu' CamP l'lI ('x isl('Ii. mall." at'lislS illliL" slilllllPdil.l II'i('d 10 do IIif' SHill{' Ihi,,!!, to crNI'" b{,llllly Iii" SClIIlt' Wil.". lIlld illri(,NI 10 CI'PlIl(' IlII1Tll li\'{', 1'('\'l'a1inl! a stol'y ill IllI' UI 1PI·('diclllbh· flow of visllal li ft· IIlld st·izing Liw yil'wl'l"s soul wilh ii, 1'<11 111'1' t IHln IlI'('plll'in!! IIlblf'III1X t hilI ('X posed I hpi.- OWIl I11I1S h' I'." , MII Il,\' o f th(> II l,tis lS 1 d iscuss hel'(' fo ll owed the ol'igiIlUll'XlIlllp l(' S('1 forlh in t ht' ~() .. t ll l'l'Il Hf' llliisSlIIlC{" di l'('ct ly or d{'rinlti\'pl,\' 0.- ohliqu{'ly, AI Ih(' Sit lilt' lil ll{, 1111'." SI'I' III 10 11 1110(1('1'11, pos t-cill l' Jrlll1i c f'Yt' to lu)\'(' 1)I"{'figm'('(11 11I' Wll.V 1Ilc>\'it·s w(H'k us pictlll'(>s ill Ih(> mod('I'I ' wol'll!, I SN' til(' I'is(' of film as II Ilulurul cou linuutioll of 11]('i,' SI)(>cilil ki nd of illustrnti\'(, illl pul sl', whic h IIPIWllI'f'd ill sl'rioll s pa inti ng' of 1111 kind s liS Wf'1I as in iI'ss s('.- i(",s graphic wo rk, Wh (,11 1II0\'i('-llIUk('rs cllm(' 10 cr('ul{' the ir OWII life lik{' fictiollS , Ihl'." wt'nl r ight 011 followillj! t hl' SlIl1ll' cXl.IIll pll' ill t il{' Ill'\\' 11I1lg'uagl' or till' CillllP ril, Til(' dl'si l'(' 10 1I1ukl' pic lures ill l iIis WH.". IIsillg' C(' rl llill opticnl {'!l'I'c ls to IIPPNll to 1I11COIIscioliS f{'{'lings !'ut hl'!' limn lo til{' conscious inlf'lIig(,llcl', is {'ssl'll lially l'0 l1111llt ic ill th(' d(,f'p('si Sf' Il SI', COl1llllitl('d to 111(' IWl'SOllitl ill ils \,pry fOI'Ill. 1'Vl'1l i r the topic is g('lll'l'IIl 01' 1l0 ll COlllll1i ttu l, I r till' to pic is il St'lr "olllnillic, l irl' Ci llf'llla is IIOW a bl'tt e l' lll{'diulII thltuallY otlW I' fo r carryin J.! il 1'000WIll'c! ill Ih.' lII odl'l'II wol'ld, 11101'(' s(,I'ioIiS und IlIO I'{, potf'lll llilllllH'OSe fiction o.- IIlI'll tt'I' , Mo\'ii'S con tilHlt' 10 f'xpollild Slwcificli lly ,·o lluw!ie 111('1II('s\'Ilri(' li('s of obs('ss i\'{' passion , t ilf' mons lel' c l'('ation, til(' spil'ilulIl
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
8
MOVIN G
PI CTU RJo:S
qu('st-with greater se ri Ollsness lIlIIn any othe r cu rrent mode
or fiction;
and indeed with the same seriou sness visible in t he works of German fllld English Romantic paiulcrs llnd SO IlIC of their later followers ill the Uni ted States. Such paintings are now in fact being take n more seriously thnn c,'e r: they are sharing in ou r new se lf-awa re pa ssion for movie romance. The vitality of cinematic imagery (or conveying rOlllantic myths res ides in that sa me ancient relia nce on ntmosp heric lighting and arbitrnry composition, 011 fid el ity to s hifti ng visual circlI1'llstuncc, however minimally suggested, rather OHlII to fixed, known pielorilll expectntion . Pictures in th is mode, now presented ill movies in dramatic se(luences that perpetually promise sti ll more reve latio ns cast ill the saHle mode, grip Illld draw th e prlvute imagi natioll- i n fa ct "romanticize" any material. Th ey d o this es pecially wit h material that might be co ns idered the most objective and detached. All eged ly neu tral thellles, those that were once thought to unde rlie the Dutch gen re works of the seventeenth century, are often the ones that gr ip mos t effectively; t he viewer feels magnetized, not pressed or pushed. The more the pniuter or movie-make r working in this psychological mode tieemti nof to be making a point, the more we feel like tieeking for one , looking longer , gu essing what it is or will be. On th e ot her hand, if the visual material in the pictur(' is fas hionably stylized. as in 1930 'ti comedicti or 1950's melodramati, the effect of rendering it in the es· sentially unslee k ci ne matic medium increases the e motive power of the reo s uit. Duteh painters .had already discovered this point, too: ideally exquisite s otin dresses and invented perf('ct furllitllr(' look pregllunt with dnl.ma, if mobile lighting and composition c harge th e atmos phere wi lh feelillg and irwile t he viewe r 's projec li oll , Everyone knows that bad movies ean be thrilling 11Ild have an appeal beyond thei r der.·cts, Thi s is usually becllus(> or th~ visua l thrill built illt o t he mediulIl, lhe Iight·borllc pictu re that. trallscC Ild 8 bad actillg, bad writ· ing, and bad cdi t illg, Any picture i8 bette r thall no picturf', wher'CIlS nn (' III burrllssing live per(ornHlllc{' is much worse than Hone lit all. A dull lee lU re or a co mic speech llIay be exerucillting; but llny ti lide show or clllss room movie-howevcr grimly instnJCtive the material. e\'en graphs nnd cell stnl ctu re -has its array of irres isti ble prizes, Vis ual illustration, without the imposi tion of n pr{'sent performer or an insistcnt artis t' s hand, fills some obviously dcc l> gill) ill our iuner lives, beyond the desire for e nterta inment or t he qucst for knowledge, I ~ i f(' 8ee m8 to nef"d illuminating through th e ey£', whnt.ev{'r other bcnefits tire gaincd from reading und learning; the sou l needs its own window. Dramatic printed captions, voice·ovcr co mmc nts in slide lectures lind later in movies, and background music are all reinforcements for the illustrative, or what
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
9
might bettt~I' be called the illuminative mode as a dil'eel challllel to til{' iudi· viciua l psyche. 011 the stage this was first. suggested by the famous diorllmas of the early 1800's, which ptqduced d "lllllutic nUl'rllt.i\'c Ollt of large pictun's lit frOIll behind alld unrolled 011 a stuge to II1Hsicalllccompuu imcn Lj und the Illll sic dnullIls of Wngllcr lute r took lip t ilt"' idea of s peak ing to the ullconsciolls by fusing living pictures lind Ill{,llningfu\ thematic sound. Suo Pf'l'tilies Pl'ojccted ove l' the IlI"OScc nilllll arch durillg a performance confi rm eve n mOre strongl,Y the relation betwee n opera and fillll ; and llIu sic video further rei ufo rccs UI(' cO lillect.io n bctweclI cillclIllltic visual illlHgCI'Y lind mu sic's power over the psyche. L.lutcly Ilrt museums ha\'c !Scizcd 011 the cine · lIlal ic trick of p ..o\·idillg ca ll1lcd uudib le captio ns to go along with the pic· t.1I n"8. fll n1isilillg COlit i IlU 0US commC l1hu·.r 011 tupc wit h CI.I rphones, II llIovi IIg Irllck of soulld thllt s peaks perso rUilly to ench visi tor nnd tUni S the whole glilicry into a 1II0vif' Ir OIlS(,. Soon olle may well hll"c a c hoice of speech or IIIlI s ic wit.h t.he show.l'lw disembodied voicl' k('eps t.he event. Wf'1I UWlly from allY awkwul'd pf'I' formuli ce by a living gu ide, ,ll1d makes the PUilllillgS see m comfortably like filmcd rl'prod uctiolls of thclllseives, C inemu is tile Ht'west fOl'1IL of illustratioll. It ellcapsulnt.es the whole history of figuraliv(> art, hel pillg itself to that h is to ry's lIlost effec tive devices, cOllt illll illg t.he special tri uruph of art for t.he public that was begun by prints aud e ngravings ulld couti llU('(i tlll'ollgh the dynumic agency of t ire cumern. Public exhibitions of pailltillgs thllt are IIOW possib le 011 un in lernalionnl sca le, with wOl'ks of urt t.ruwlillg lIlI over th e wodd to be secn by peo· ph' who might never hope lo visi t. them, al'e ollly olle PIlI't. of the wily lIrt has becolllc part of public co nsc iou s ness, The ot.hel' way is t.hrough iti:i ghostly existe nce ill the gl'aphie world, the king of whieh is now the In ovies. Now on ly hooks for chi ldren ar(> co nsistently illust rated: books for adults ilre 1I0t i:iupposcd to 1I(>t~d pictures. Magaz ines and newspapers make up for that la ck in adult lif(', ovcrlappi ng inspircd Ildvcrtisiug photography with glossy photojollrlllJlislU so t lUH together t hey cleli"er a s ingle glittering cine ll ultic mOlllage of life like fantasy. Other g raphic material, also con· ce ived by illlllgilllltiolis trllillcd ill t he c illc tnutic st.yle of ullusioll , makes narrllt ivc out of vis uul situations that. revenl uud suggest without expla inillg', Telcvisi on docs the same, Ci nema, that great infanl, has demonstrated to other lIIed in how to lise Pllst lIl't to su it. the prCSCllt eye, how to reSI)olld, absorb, l'enecl, ulld move 011, sei7.ing what is needed mal eati ng it without thanks , flourishing with ungoverllilb le energy 011 mixed garbage and gour· 1Il{'t. ral'c, "'ilm Illld telcvision fram es ul'e stull'ed with IIIllterilll grubbed wit.hout CCI'('UlO ny rroll! ?thlnet nlld GO,\'8., rrom Vehizquez alld Vermecr, rrom ' I'urllel', Churc h, !llld BicrstndL, just as cOllllllcl'cili1 pho lography also is. All of these <11'(' tii tcrt'(1 t hroul!h grnphic cO ll ve llt iolls thal lllllY mod ify
C pyr
te
10
M OVING
PI CTU RE S
but CllIIlIOI o bsell "" liI(' sourc('S 01" IIIl1t(' tlwi,' rfl'{'c ls. Th e whol<' Itlakes II mod ern ill ul)trntivc nrt of incomparable ric hness , ('\'(> 11 t hough it htcks coherl' nce. MeaJlwhil e the origina l .\Ianet" and Vprmepl's art' still with liS, glow ill g like live coa ls ill t he galll'ries, but al so winking ill mill iature from millions o f posl elll'ds und posters. In ally age find uny mcdiu /II , most urI i1> bud . Th is is jlls ta s Inl e of pa in I· illg ill tilt' Renui ssllllce as it is of 1II0vies ill t he 1\\'(>lIl i('1.h ce ntu ry. lind 110 {!"t1C1' of cOlllmerc ia l art thall o f serious pOI'trait s; but we al'e now mor(' lIwllk(' to the badness in certain gCllres t.hun to th at in oth ers, b('cau se o ur prese nt ranking system is re trollcl ivc. W(' a re llIort' incli ned to sec nil RelIuissance frescoes a s bett er than all nillctct'nth 'ce ntu ry falO hioll plflt ('s, be· cause we have come to be li ew ill the superio rity o f both fresco a nd the Re nai!Osnnee Lo uny so1'1 of commerc ial ra s hioll nrt, Bll t ill rUCL good fres · coes are proportio nately li S rare as good rlls hio n 1>18t('s. So, of eou rsc, are good movies. Wc ita\'{' CO IlH' to bel ie\'e, 1ll00'CO\'Cr, I hal II work of art Inn," bl' good o nly ir it. has some kind of artistic int egrit y, t hut it mu s t display som{' obNl ie nc(' to t he scl r· peq)c tllnting laws of a l·t itse lr I'lithel' tha n smack of g r('(·d. OppOI" tun islII , and exploitntion; und so we a I',' illclincd to vllIlIt' those artistic med ia t hntmake s uc h inte grity ensi('r to main tuin ill Oll l' ow n soc iety, But good art. has had It woy of npPf'ltl'ing in alh·gedly debllsed gellres , and th e bad exalll pies ill lofty olles huve be('ll merc iless ly shown up d uring bot h th e nine teenth ami twentieth c('nt.uries, sometimes obscuring the good nlto· gethel', By such l1Iea l1 S l1illeteenth'cc lltu ry a cademic u nd narrativc pninting was di scoullt ed fOl' most of t he twcn t ie th , 1111 o r it I'uted at t h" low level of its obviolls di sllsLe rs, lI olIy'\\'ood Inovies w('r(' alice consi d ered tlun wny, t.oo, La tely we have t.hrown all pn illt illg rrom the past into one ba sket , not. t ryin g to distiuguil, h good frolll blld ill case we llI ight. be proved wrong le,te l' a ll , and pre fe rring 1.0 assume that eve ry thing is good ror somethi ng, C lIl" rent. pa int in g receives t.he same enlarged IIceeptalice. In I. IJ(' all eged ly low medhl , the same luck o f d isc rim inat.i on .secms to mutter less. but it ulso works to obscure difl'e rences o r qnulity and muke good j udgme n t KII the harder, Yet. the d ilTere nc('s are sti ll Lhe r<' bet wee n the few good t.hings und th e hu ge number of inferior products, just. as they are in any epoc h and any form o f a rt. F ine works live s urrounded by s hoals or noble failures and ba sely corrupt projects ill th e same medium , lament· ab le botchcs and slick bags or tricks, things flawed . dull , shallow, fali:;(:, or c razed , or just. un t.ale nted efforts-an d , of course, things made up out of stole II parts , the bad , sad , mad , and mov ing Frankenst e in monsters of art. But in mllc h bad art t here is oftc n real satisfactio n fol' its ti me, some · ti mes for nil t ime ; and it a cquires a sort of provisiona l goodness that reo
( "lpYriOh
Ie'" I
/ lIlrodlld ioll
I I
s idps in its abil ity to ilion' Mild plpltsp, tlmt mnkPs it IU.\I"d Lo II P 01" throw Ollt uitvgf' l iler, ill fuel Lhllt oftI'll JIlukps it 1'11(1111'(', So thp ditlicllil ips of' judgnn.'lIt abou t nrtistic uuthcllticity UI'C f'ul,ther cOll1pJicHt ed b,\' Ilu' question of uutilt'lltie r('spOIISt', '1'111'1'(' is ('\'('111111 ciCIlIPnL of Iht, 1IL0ying IIlId Ih(' pl('asillg thut call llIakt, good works of IlI't S(,PIII qllPs t ioliubJe , j ll st Ill' enliSt' tawdry (Illes s harc iii it- and it is thilt elplIlt'r lt that lIIa(h'nlllllovit's ser lll suspec t lit Ihr l)('g inning, Tll p IIIcdi1l111 nowcd too I'Pilrlily ill liI(' rmolional Will, which wus thcn rapidl y lo sill ~ 1)I'('sl iJ,!(' among I II(> fille ilr ts, Th(' d istinCLion bptwt'PIl high arl illld low nrl has bC(>1I \' f'xl'd by lilt' ditlicult y illmak iuJ,;' thest' olh(' I' disti nctions, Thc h'ltlplation hus ul'is(>1I dm'illl! Ill(' COIII'S(' or lIIodern hislory t o Ihink thaI allythilllZ illlPnci('(1 to nl/lke 1I101lP,\' 0 1' othpl'wis(' sllccppd by wOJ'king din' cLi,\' Oil OUI' I'pt'lilll,!'i)-pol'llog' raplry is tilt' mosl I'Xtl'(,llIt' (>xllIupll'. udn'I'lising art is ulloth('I'- IHIISI 1)(' had ill iha·lf 1IlIfllht'r'pl'm'p low lJy 1I111.II1'p, t'sl)('ciall.v wh(,11111{' normal bad Ilt'SS COItIIllOIl lel most al'l is cOllsicl rr'pd to h(' 11 quality of 11i(' I!t'III'(' iISt'lf'. Thi s situutioll OIlC(> uppliNI to 1I0\'(>ls, which \\'('1'(' cO li sidt'r('(1 /J d('lJilSt'l1 fOl'III, pUl'lly bpcallsp of tlH' )1lt'Ul)II I'(' Ihpy ga\'(~ , thri .. ob\'iolls link 10 PI'iVill(' falltas.v, It took g('IWt'lIlio Il S of' gl'(,llt wQI'ks to tl'anSCt'lId tilp 11 01'111111 ha dII('SS or mos t Ilo\,p ls, ami Illilkt, 11 11 ackllow\('dgNi fin(' a rt Oll t or PI'OS(' fic tio n, TlIollj.!h hud t'(' liginu i) art of tll(' pust is sti llj.! iwlI 111 01'(' cl't.'dit tlUlII bud mlvl'rtisil1g' urt of th is c(>IIIIII'Y. tilt' Illulllt'ss is qui t(' similar, Good pOI'1I0graphy is !Jnfor'IIiIUI It'ly 1101 so clt'H!'l,v rc(!ogll ized 10 b(' 'wllt'r t hlill bud: g rPill vIIIl IP , cun ill SO I1 )1' CIIS(>S ell li ght(>n lat('I' percpptioll of Ih(' origi nal hy su ilj(>Clilll! it to s('lccti\'c brutal usagc. (!(l11 ('\'e l1 sel'lll to illJpron' on it by 1 '(, ln od('lill~ it in II hl1r!Sher fOI'lIl . u d lllnb(>1' lIlodf', 'r hl' "impro\'(> IlI(,lIl" is a l1'ick pt1'N:t; the or ig illal I'('tains ils !Sup{'riority, wllic h is I\('wrlhl'it'ss ('lIlulI leed lind (>n ric h('(1 by bnd 1I'(' IIIII1('I1I-lIot by COlltl'USI , hut sOIll('how by l.1 cOIl1bimlt ioll of sOI'did attrition all(\ addPfi f' lIlotiOlwi frpig-hl. likp a "IIinNI s t atuf',
IJ('sl) obviolls but no I(' ss (!Ollllllon is tlIP n'lianc{' o r good art Oil had for c('rtlli ll cllf'lIp cll'('cl s or cl'ufh' dl'tuils, for c\(-'\'{'r \~'nys to takp shOl'ICUlS or use filler, for sUI'(>,fire blllllllllIotif's, Su c h hll'ceuy works both \\'llyS. so thut the bad sOllrcp can also b(' cn r ic hed by b('ing robbNI. \'isuul artists haw in 1',1t:1. ull lw('11 slPuling' 1'1'0111 onl' unoth('I' 1'01' CPI1t1,l l'i('s Heross 11 11 bOlillciuri(>s , und tht"y II r(' aidNI in Ihis by th(' fluid graphic nwdia, which put cW l'y lh ing indiscriminut{'ly up 1'01' grabs, The 1H 0vi{'s in this c('utury rt'pl"('s('ut a IIlllg'
C pyrlg"";d
te
I2
MOVING
PI C T U RES
nifieent compendiulll of all such t hi eve ry and its enormously sati s fyi ng and profitabl e results . The most co mmonly stolen good s ure I he arrungeme nts that. guarant.ee emotional res ponses. That is why camera art can d o the best st.ealing, s in ce its form depe nds 0 11 the light and dark that c reate feeling th rough pictures by UII COlIscioliS means, and thus hi de th e ve ry fact of th eft per haps eve n from t he t.hie r. Only when t.he images hit t.h e sc reen d o the effects becom(' visib le, as they begin to feed the visuill habit s of future gencr8tiolls on all th e va ried and accumu lated treasures of the past.
ONE
Moving Pictures Light and Vision
A
is Ii SC(IUCllce of pictu res made with 8. ca mera and pro· jected on 8 screen. Since the cameru defill(,s the medium. movies are purt of the history of till ('8111(' 1"8 art; tit,,), nrc heirs to the claims SLKk('(1 by I>hotographers at the v{'ry beginning of the c811wra's life. But photographic pre lt'llsiolls wcre formed ugninst II background of concern for the proper chorneter and runCI ion of painting. The fur-reaching possibilities s hown by th e carly C8111er8 were perce ived by eyers truined in s trlltcgics that pai nte rs hnd worked out for !"('lIdering reu lit), inside u (rume; Il li d such artis tic s trut· egies were kll OWI1, IIlleust by artists themscln's, to hllve (',"olved from cur· lier painters' methods . WhUl('\'cr the camcra could do liS illuminator of t he visual world W8S first. se(, 11 in I)aintcrs' terms, backed up by centurit,s of pniliLcriy lrndition. TodllY the movies. 88 they contilille to further camera work in the mode of realistic pictorial sequences, nrc still cilgaging with certnill paillters of tlH' 1)IINt. Photography itseJr soon escaped painters' tel'lIIs. The s lill ca meI'll estnh· li shed and expanded its own sepa l'ule empire of 11\(' eyt' und cve ntuully, liS n rt' produ ctive IIgent. lurlled hack 1.0 CO lUlllt'r Iminting itse lf. But 1.11(' link be tW('(,1I the II (,W pictorial scop(' of the cnmcrn und the long his tory of pnintillg was nuthclltic, IIlId certain painters in lht' Illter !linNeellth century, slich as ~18I1et. Degas. ulld Caill('botte, rcspolI(\ed to til(' call1cril even lIIorc cr('lttively than photographers could at the time. Pain ters wer(' e\'ell able to lake the cntncra beyond its imllH'dilllel,v apparellt possibilities lind proj('ct it into til<' cinelllllt ic rcu lm-to Hluk(' paintillgs Ihlll iook 1101. like photognlphs but like (rllllles from hYPOl hcticn l movie!:>. To do t hi s, t lH',v dr('w nol jus t. on th(' tlewly rl'\'Nt\l'd cnpll cities of t h(' sti ll Cnlll('rn, but 011 till l'xisti uj.! piliulcrl,v trnditiou Ihnt history-mi uded urlist!!l could sec WllS nlr('ltd,\' 11 Iigll{'(l with C'IIIH' rn vision . Thi s WIIS thl' tradition of M OV IE
14
MOVING
P I C T U Ufo:'S
North Europcn ll realism, which uinctcenth -century a rtists saw most vividly fl ouri s hing i ll sc\'cnleenth -ce ntu ry Holland, but whose sou rces ltty in the Flemish urI. of the fift ee nth century. That trad it ion was continued and lIlodifiNI thl'oughou l til{' intcrwO\'e n history of Europea n art: many pll inlt' rs s ha,'cd i l l th e pa rt iculn r ly North ern proto·ci nematic impuls(' without beillg t hemse lves Nordic , luwillg nbsorbed the or igi nal Flemish and Dutc h princip lr s. V('h\7.qucz, C hardin , Turner, a ll d Goya had l.Iffini ties with Du tc h and Fl emish art; and t heil' works contri buted to this pict.orial trud ilioll , which I thillk led to modern c ine nHl, CVC Il1ll0 rC than t.o the o pposin g eluss icul one , which inexorably led to modern pa in t ing, F'OI' fi ve ccntllri('s rl'lllistic puint ing in Northe rn Europe wus expressed ill whut K(' lIl1c th C lark call s the Alternutive Con\'e nti on-u mode of rendt'ring vis ibl e rea lity ill urt t hat wus fliudam enllllly diffe rent from th e elnssiei1.i ng tradi t ion est.llbli slH'd by Itnl iun H,e lluissall c(' arti s ts 811d t heorists , 011(' way to describe what NOI'th('rll art ists did is to sny they inve nt ed n ci n(' ltl<\ ill pa inlN'ly ter ms, 1'll('r(' wns more to this t hnn Ic\Jillg s tories nnd re ll de riug IIHllIl'ul appenl'ullccs cO II \'ilici ngly- ituliu li RCll uissll ll ee painte rs were "e l'y good Itl bot h of th ose. Bu t. a cinema tic ort. lll so in\'ests lIutural np· penrunces with lIl1'ir ow n absolute meanin g. and Ihell ineorporutes the vi('wer in lo the lIui"crsc l11('se up pea runces e reute, Th e viewe r 's ow n immediate visuul l'x pcl'ience is evoked by the visulil world illside t he rruHIl', so Iha t his l'es pomH's to the I)ictu rc can be direct, not. med iated by a lacit neknowlcdgmcnl thnt. t he artist 's styl(' is what r('aily cOllveys t he pic lure's 1Ill'lllliug. II ch di rect .. lTec ls w(,I'e IlUllU\gcd by "wny paint('rs of Northcrn E u ropt" begin ning wilh Vun Eyc k. T he class icnl trad ition in art. fOIlUc\Ni on ideuls attributed to 1.1 revi,'ed a ntiqui ty , c lll h rn ced whut wns be lieved to be n highe r (' rspecti \'c, t he learned di scovery or the Italian Hennissance, was o ne excc ll c llt. dev ice fo r promoting th e sense of the arti st. as inspired int('rpre tcr and techn ic inll . III this tradition th e pnillte r I>crform s fo r til(' view(' r; his /lct (110 1 his SUbjec t,) is whtol! you see . When t he call1cra first co me int.o li se, it. seemed to destroy or at. leusl to s id('s lep this fUll ct io ll of the artist. as "ica r of our res ponses to the visi ble
rt-d
I
Ie
Movillg Picf ltres
I5
world . Bet.\\'('cll t.he t hing was a trick of th e light. arousing c heap wondl.'l' and stup('fnctio n . lI elll'i F oc illon wr6te in hi s 19:16 t'ssay on "The Artis t's I-Iu lld " ubou t " the c rlH'1 i ner tia of the photogrn ph , a ttailled by 1I hnndl pss eyl', l'clwlli ng 011 1' sympathy {'\' PH w hill' llLtrHcti llg it, a marvpl 01' light hut u I)Uss ivt' III Oll st(' r . Photog nlphy is like the art of allother plam't. . , , Th t· 111111(1111'\'('1' illt(' rn 'lI<'s to spl'cnd ave!' it t he warmth lllld flow flf humnn Ii fl'. " Th e sp<,1\ o f pho togruphs is cf' l·tui nly diO'e rc nt fl'o m the olle lhut lIl ov i{'s wea\,('. Pussivi t y is one of pho tography's s trollg po ints. illld detachment is on{' of th l' most I'I~SOllHnt tl O\('S it CU ll strike. The belief is wides preHd lI1IIt is U IIN ttl'lIl observer, whic h lI1 ukes t he photognlp hcr a supe r Im nulII e rput ul'(, who cun turn t he !o;unl{' cold mnc hiup 011 humH II pain und s hUll it' thll t ht' lurns 0 11 bu ildill gs and wlIlcrfalls-u witn ess- beare l', not a CI'NUOI·. Much o f t he rasci nutio n of t he s till CUIIIC I'U comes f l-Olll its func ti on as ulYi c ia l YO.\'('U I' fOI' t he squeamish public , its 1'01(' as pro fe!o;s ional s py 0 11 til(' Si'C I'p IS o r lift' , d('ath, lind unli\' ing mutt e r . And H {Iuit e nllt ul'u l op posing des it·/' lUI S also lI11ow('(1 the p hotog rllphl~ 1' to imitatC' th e classic pa in t er, so Ihat his \'ision IIlId If'c h n iqlle d o minat e his subject. Hul still a nOlh el' \-iew e nvisions t ht, Cli me ru IJ S IIlltll'tistie tool thut CIl II ellgc ndc r its own myth , roIIIIIII C(' , and dru lll u us Iluillting lin d poe lry do. C o ns idercd t hat Wil Y, the sti ll en lltt~ ra is 1\ s t ugt' 011 the Wily to the moyie ca mc rll . III o rder to {'lIgage th e vil'w(' r wit h the hHllll ti lig kiml of IIl1l'rulive suggest.ed by Hem b rnndt u nd Iht'
C'IIlU' l'li
n{,
I l ooc h, by 'I'I1I'1 U'I' or ) 11.1 11<'1 lind Degas, t here lw ei t.o be movies, Ilotj us t phOI ogl'lI piIY. :\l o\'ip'g()(>rs kn ow tl ult hUIHUIi wt\ rlllt h Il\uy scc m to flow s traight rro m the pyl' o r 111(' mo\·i ng CII llwra if s(' I wit hOllt. the int {'1...·{'lllion or "thl' Urtist's hllnd ." l\i oYe lUcnt lind lighl Cl'cutc cin(,matic drllma when th(' moviemak pr's lIH1-ruti \,(' will turn h is <,ye 0 11 the worl d: 1I11d ill t.h is way thf'y b rillg it clo~j(' r to c('rta in paint.erg' wOl'k than s til l phot.ogrHphs can ever be. A photograph IIlll y ind('('d r(']l('llind fn scinntc, bUI t hl' images on 1I movi e scr ee n (' lI g ul f lind Iran sfol'llI ; a n d 1II0de rll r('spou ses to mov ies, lIot lo photo·
r.
grap hs. an' lILOI'(' like what c(, I,tll in te rs in t he \'ol,t ll(' I'1\ trl.ldition often tri ed for this e iTeet , too, ai m ing fO I' II j e\\"('I-l i k£o Ll'UlISpa rcllcy t hilt IIIllde the piet ure 8C(>1II to be co nduct i ng light
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
I6
MOVING
PI C T U K~;S
1llI'oll g-1l ii , rHli1cr 1111111 ri.'fl ccl.i ug (,X IC'rIIU Il y app lied light r,'om it s IIl ocicll'(l S Ul"fIlC(' s. J\lulJ)' works i ll the NOdhem s tyle show all illulIlillll tillg doo r o r wi nd ow ill the bu c k 01' sid!' , as if to siglllll t.hi s u illL to bl' a SOH"C" of ligh t IIlId IlUl II sc!w uu' for its rernlc ti on. Today. ill l iI(' :\I useo del Prado ill i\tild r id , V{' I6.zqu('z· cel ebl'Ulcd ptli nt ill~ I,(J.~ .1/('lIilJ(l.':
is f'x h ihitl'd uloll£' ill II (!;\I,k ,'oo m a nd lit invisi h ly f.'om t ilt'
s idf' , so I hlll til{' d istll ll! o pel! doorwlIY alld tull windows insi d e tht' Jlllint ing S{,l' 11i to bt, lightillg the !"OOHl ill t he III USClIIlI , 1I0t just t ht"' "00111 ill t he pic· IU I' (' ,
Til£'
p i t: IUI'" S{'{' IlI S
pn>jl'ctl'd-it is set lip to look like a film shot. /ind
t ht'n' i s PVC'I! a 11I1I..-i (' 1" k t~ (' p i llf! l ilt' II I1(\ it'IICl ' I'rOIll approac hing it s s urface,
just HS ill II IllUvi(' thl'a l l'/", Wh lll t his arnUlg('llll'lIl in fa c t cloes is to show bow IUll ch likl-' 11 fi lill shot th e paillting already lookli; lind it o nl y tukes mOlllt'lIt tu iltlagiHI' ct'I,ltl in ot h('1' wOI'ks dispillye d t lt e Sllllle
WII)':
II.
VPI'll1eer 'S
cual ol h"I' D Ul ch IIl'tists ' iUl\' r iOl"s, for (,XlIlIlpl(', w hic h IIlso hlln~ light-fill('d wi llliows 1111(1 dool"s, 01' V('!{lzqtu'Z' o thl'l' paintings s llowi ug' tile same kind of amhigu ous actioll 1111(1 ilh IlUi lliitioll-'I'!tc Forge of Fil/('(lil 01'
Th~
Spinners
"iew (1'0111 hackstug'e 01' Il Cu illebo tle SLrl'l' L The quusiPl'ojl'c led lIIod l' of dis p lay !'cvl'lI ls wha t Las .tJ cllill(lS (und its kiudn:d) is
--01' /I
I)" I!IIS
!'f'u lly l ikl' : 1101 11 photogl'aph, wh ic h ma y sit f l'oz(,11 011 t h(' pa ge, but 11 c inc IIIlIt ic i'nlg lll(,lll , all (, 1Ig'ulfing, lighl-made, pass iu g mOntenl, LOllI! he fo/,l' pllot Ol:"l'IIph.", e h iurosc liro modes o f rea listic pic tul'e-lIIilki ng
had hl'l'" d('\'(' \o pf'd ill NOl'tlwl'1I Europe, w hl'l'e ligh t itse lf is II prec ioll s SOUI'C(' to II(' ClIl'{'fully tllpped, TIt(' gl'Pllt es! Not,tlt Eu ropcutl jln int('I-s, bc~illllillg
illlli(' fiftp('lItlt ee u l lll')', u sed l ightil s ifit ",(Ore nliv£', ill\' it illg il lllld
coaxing it. t o eXjlllnd IInci Cl'ellt e ils own visioll s, For Italian paint e rs, 011 t hp othf' l' h
II s u li l t'xpl'I'i£'IICe, Wh et her'upplied in pn in t. or by the 1II0vie CU IlI t hi s " pho togra ph ic" method gives u pf'clli ia r atlU oJ:o;p hc l'e to thf' phe-
{' Yf"S
1I01ll£'1I/J it 1'('eol'
C pyrtg""-;d
te
I7
und tllf.'1I lIIoddt'd by n pllinlf'r 'S I{'llnled IIl1d inforillin g IWll d.
w hi JlIW~ 1
int o
~ hal}('
by tl lf' Lrillianc(' of a tulor{'d bru sh: it does 1I0t show color seized away from IUItIll'(' to be 11 forlllil l tool lI ulIlipulill ed int o Ie-ail ing its own IIU' tonomous li l'f". 1L d o{'s 110 1 shuw 11 cl('\,j' rly c n'utf'd artificilll splice PO PUIIlINI by ,'uvishilllr!ly h('l ic\'obh' fictio ns. II see lll s 10 be sOlll(ll hin g th e nrtist hus 1Il0llll' II l urily cOlljuN.·d. 1I 0t wrough t. l..Iigh t ')(' huvt's insidl' III(' frame just liS it do('s out sidf' it : ami I!!£' artist 8('('1118 10 s luml hack sllyiug, tikI' Iht' e1ll1l ' {'nt, B('lIuld whut Ih (, I'(' is. Sc rupul ollsly hllrd·('dj:{rd d ('ta ils II r (' qu it(' 111111('(:t'SSUI'\' 10 t hi s (""rct-i t CUll be cl"t'u !t'd l'utir('h' Iw toulllil\' I'elal\'red with ,. fll'cks IIl1d s lUudgf's. as in II Hf'mbrn ndl or 11 Goya, alld ('\'('11 wi l Ii "wk· wUI'(lIy iJppli" tl OIH'S, HS in n Mune t. But il wu s probub ly tht' ('xqllisilrly me· t icu lous V,lli E yek who firslilc h il'\'ed (-'nlire slIcerss with rt'lldering linin i'll!
.
.
lig-h t illg, Il is own IIl1ch'rslnnding of il s \'ITf'cl ilIlPf'I.l rs in his iuscripl.ion 0 11 th(· Al'liolfin i 1IL1lrt'iug(' po rtmil-"J ol/ tl lll. CS dl' f:yck Illill/ il'," o r " JlllI va ll r.yc k wu s hert,"-uot 0111." willll'ssin g I.lll~ wrli(l in g hUI "sN' ing" lilt' scent.' illto (>xi!')I(' II C(, fol' us, jllst IlS ir (mi lll had 1I0lhilll! 10 flo wilh it. In til(> fiftcenth C('lIllu·y. 0 11(' uspec l or I he NOl'lhe l'n IISC of' light WII!') Ihe illusionistic 1'l' lIdl' r ilig 01' SI Il'r "h uueill' SS {,Y(,, '" illl' pllrl illlly nncl rcll'ntlN;s ly focll scd 011 tlw vllrinble 1I 1.lpt'llrIIllC('S or t ilillj!S, S('l'IlIS to cx poS(' nO l ju sL t.he p!L('IIOIll(,IIU hilt 111(' \'i(' \\'('r, ton . Nakl'fl rcpr(,· st'lltat io lis of sl'parIlU! objects , !Is ing' ligh l t'I1'('c ls nPI)ul"ell tly uned it cd hy nn ieil'lll o f visua l o r id('olo!!iclI l hlll"lliO IlY, 1111\,(' lin un sett ling effect. Th in gs thai look too int.li \"i dulllly I'('u l rorc{' U r('I
t o mnk(' or t hcm f Their pe rf('ctioll ll ud I h('i l' l ot nlily see m t.o churgl'
the m with lII('ilniug: bu t. what. do Ihcy lIIean 1 Ami what a,'(' l iI('." IIsking or I l iJ:oi II&: if lhe ul'li st hud Idl t he IIwlIuillg 10 bc providcd b." Ih{' vicw('r , Ami ind('('d, IIll egorica l significtlllc(' hilS beell t"lwrgl,t.iclllly read int o IlIl\1ly
tiS '
paiulings in the ~orlh('rl' trad itio n liS if it lind b ('PII plIlI('(1 into the m , SIlIJ red lind tugged by IIII' shurp hook o f 11i(> chul'gl'fI IU IIIOfO phc rl' , Th(> Jln's · cuce or objects li n d pe rSOIl!) mllni rested by Northe rn lig ht. is II s t clld y invi , tntiOll , so me t imes nil illlpCrllli \,(' demand, Amhi guous gt'lIr(' works ill t.h(' s('\'('lItec nth ·cc lltu,'y Du tc h Il"lI ci ili oll 111:\\'(, lI('cd('d c illbornh' 1Il0rulni{,lIlI ing /ltt/lchl'd 10 them in tili s ce ntury, purtly bectl lls(' of til c famil ia r r{'elill!!s o f Ulyst.e r iou s IIwllrCIIC&:S Hilt! e:
not- d
Ie
I8
MOVIN G
I·I C TUR.~S
miu('d t o th e sowl'rigHly of cr r al i\'(' will serv('d by II trni ned hllnd; lind its d(>sc(,lIciu lI ls haw fl ouris hed in BIlI'Oqu(' rh r lor-ic. Rococo ,,If'gull ef', Nl'ocl ass ic unci Homun t ic drnmll.lurgy. IlII pressiouis l viiJrllllc(', allli lU odrnl (oJ'lIm] abst rae l iflll. 'I' I\{' IIIN1 11i n~ of sepa l'lll e ph t'1l 0lllenli i II It class ic piel u ,'P primarily IlOllrislr(>s til!' illl('1"1I111 CO II(' I'(, 11C(, of li lt' wilolf'. T Ill' lI!,tist COII ducts t he pai lltillg' likr H symphony. s l unding lip in front; n ll lh(' purlS sern' 011(' art istic !>!lrposf', 11 0\\"('\,('1' lu 'bitrary lIH' ir choict' and nrrau g(,IIIf' 1I1 lIIay appellI' . Tlu' Jlllinti n g hol d s jlst'lf nnd i l s IlH' lIl1 i ng logl' thcl' in 1i1(' 11('1 o f it s hlll'lllOn iolls (or m. If it is "(,lIlis t ic,
lilly
s tl'llllg(' I.I c liulI 011 tile
P
l UI'('t.! fif,!un's, allY "jo l('nce, all)' cryptic nrnlllgelllents o f Innd sca p l'
o f I)ie-
und ob-
j ec ts -us ill G io rgiolw's 'I'n Il/H'Jt'/lt. ror (·xIIIIIIJlc. or Bolticl'lI i' s Pr im(It'em, o r IHJII1 P P,'(·-HaplulPl il (' lIurl'llti vp works-llI ll,Y in\' ite s tudy, p!t iloso ph icnl or theOlogical s pt'culntion , ulld h istoric ul inte r pretation; but. t!t ry lire HOt. di l'('ctl,V III ls(' ltl ing, Till' s uhj('CL itselr d ot,S 1I0t IIwke ulicomfoT'tllbly dil'CCL ps.yc hologicul d e lllltllds-nit hollgh LIt(, painfer llIay , 011 his OWII behu lr. The eOlllposi lion . tlli:' pale tte, tll(> c ri s p 0 1' fu zzy 1'l' Ilr 8nf('-IHlf(> fro Ul unea si ness, and sa fl' t o fpel wltut cvel' pleusul'e IlIlll profit. that unit.y it s elf nO'ords, ~ o III1lt.te l' how Lur· bul(>u t. or prc ul iar i!tp a c tio n inside th e frum p, it ca nnot. gC'l o ut. Whul d ocs gel 011 1 is Iht' nlPSSILg'(' of urI il sel f l llll! (;III'rielo; allY subjt'ct ill s nlllti OIl . S trong e m olio lll.ll denumds Ilr(' made, but ind irec tly by 111(' nrtisl Ihrough Ih e paillt. ACl io ns und ob,il'cls in m ovies g(, 1 s trllighl.at the " i(>wer ill a way that is III odds with th ese clnssic nims or IHtilltillg, ('\'{' I, hc ror(' we havc eO ll s id('r('d thl' differe nce bet wee n a m oving ami u s till imuge, III t il l'ir essellliullooks, film s m oV{' li S with 11 kimi or pictor ial rh'lIIalld 1.hnt Ulany painters do no l ever wi 8h 1.0 Hutkc-all IIl1l11cd iuted appcul thnt. goe8 s lraight Ihrough our <'ycs to our rc(' lin gs first. und leuv('s t.lI l' u rti s t 's arti st.ry aside. Il l/lny r eali stic illlug(', light uud shud ow d o thi s wo rk be tt er thnn lint' and color, 01' ('\'('11 explicit s tory und llClioll. Almost I.t c(,H lllry of b lnck-and·wh itt, c ine ma · LOg- r uphy has proved Ihi s . ('\,('fl morc t hnn st.i ll phologruphy; but paintcl"s , alld espec ially graph ic artist s work ing in blac k and white , knew it. long
Iw rOI'e, F o r hUllutl! c rN,lures depe Hde n!' 011 th e !iun , the ac l ioH o r light. hns un o bvious primlll drama that. compel s the human imaginati on . Th e IIl1jvl' rsai drullluti c 1'(·lnliol1 b('t.WCPll li ghlllild "is ion hus ro r c('(1 t.he lIleUlphors ro r a c hil.'ving r ed e mpti o n , for gaining ullde rsland ing, ror acquiring kuowledge, ror all t.raul;ccllde n ee. Con scquently, light in figurati,'e art , as Van Eyc k discove red , has un edgl' ove r lIny o th e r rorlllH I e le m e nt.. If t he drll1ll8t ic a c· tion or ordinary light ca n be acc urate ly represe nt.ed in a r eligious p ic ture,
(
~ Igt";
tar I
.1I01'iIlO P idu N!$
1•
for eXl1ll1plr, tltr imagr ClIlI IIIlIlIifes t s piritual trnns figurat ioll s imply by sitowiug' th(' r('ullight. of day 011 til(' righ t groll l) o f CO lli 111011 obj ec ts , 1'lwy will fit'cm to fill with IIH'Ullillg, just. as the wOJ'ld see ms to fill with it wil('li dllWII lH'cuks, And so 1111 ord illury stull]£' CUll ctTectin' ly b e s hown a s liw sncrE'd birl hplncc of till' RE'dc{, lIl('r. 110 1 by applying slngy s poli ij!ht s or SII ' perllllt.urill gold m ys, hut jus t b~' s howillg exactly how th ill duy lighl filtt'rs through the UIIC\'Clllim\)crs of n b"okr ll d oor. ']'wo C('u turies lal{'r, II s illlilnr ru s h o f hu IlIn II IIIl'uning sel' lII S to fill t hl' "oom wh cre 1\ \\'omnll is slUlld ing III he r kil c he ll window 8nd no thing III ull is 11I1PP('lI ing, exce pl fo r milk I)our· inl-! 0 111 ltlld ligh t comi ng' in (1 . 1).
1.1
JAN VERMfn:R .
WOlli n" Pouri llY M ifk
20
M OVING
PICTURES
Li ght d0f'8 not s tay s ti ll. The movie clI.mera by its very nattlr(' cngngc8 our feelings about Ollr relation to the llIovcnwnL of the rarlh and SUIl, simply by making art 0111 of the COIISt8 nt action of light, even withoUlshowing any othe r kind of movement. T he
iighlenmcnl: the pictu re is a discovery. But at the same time. the still image is a lesson in conti ngency. The discovery is 1I0t one instant, but Il dip into a now of light thaL must keep changing. that shows what both is and is not a present moment, i\ moving present tha t is always full of both hOI)e ulld loss. And so t he Vermeer is like a seq uence of movie frames, not like u photogrltph t hat tries to freeze t he light. Th e st ill image is ladell with eO llstn llt s hift , like still mome nts ill li fe itselr. The passage o f every daylight hour chllllges t he relationships between light. s hadow, and color in the seen world . Ev{'rything directly seen is nl80 set'll in motion, since ligllt itself 1I10\·es; und so lIot on ly docs nlltllre never stay the sa me, it never stays looking the SUIIlC. Any lII ode of visual "rt, like Vermeer's or like the movies, th at makes t hi s point ubout light in terms of personal expe rience is bound to be very affec ting. It engages our d eepest f('elings about our r('l ation to time, vision, lind IlIKteria l things. Our se nse of tra ll s ience. Mo\,ies do just that, whatever style of film- lI1a ki ng they arc C!lst in alld what evc r else t.hey do. And so t he d ia lectic of li ght und dark ellsures the e motionul pol('ncy of ally movie e\'en wit.hout all exciting see llllrio or good llcting und editing-just by rt'prescnti ng the mutable chiaroscuro that makcs liS sec and know thc Illutnblc world. Hcccnt adv811ces in colo r ci nematography" re in fact largely a llIatt e r of im prove men ts in 1ight ing. In early color movies, the color lendNI to flatten und deaden th e Ilntura l chin r osc uro of thc cnmera med ium . llnd tiS Sl8 ule.y Cuvc ll points out , they sec mcd unreal s ud inex press ive in CO llseqlw llce , less ruthe r thnn more like nnture. Movies rcd ou bl c t ile cfT{~c t of light's motion by nclllHlly moving. The picturf' ncver s tands s till, just 8S light never does-and just us lh(' ('ye l1('ver docs. T he moving ('y(' is the other ha lf of moving light, the anlliogue of the individual desiring h('ltrt and searching mind. Th e fixed gaze is the property of death; the livillg eye is in malian, always ranging ror food . Aguin, modes of a rt usi llJ.,t human ('x l}erience for their subject that both e ngage the sca nniug eye and suggest its all alogy to the inne r li fc ca n rcly on 8 raw emotional pull. III mo\,jcs the cnmeru itself iti the seeking gaze, d Cllutnd ing f' nlightenment, und its c hoices CR Il demonstrat.e its s upe ri or ins igh t : good ci nematography aud editing gi\·e the etfeCL or satis fying the cye's imnlt'cii-
c
11!o /'illf) /-'ir fll/'l!s
21
111(' prior longings III ('n'r," illStllllt. Ideally, the Cllll1cra une r ringl," finds whal t!lf' hod;ly f')lf' lind Lll{' mind's CYf' nrf' both unconsc ious l:\, lusting fOI', or P('rIU11)S drending, Th(' moving' f'y£, is OP£'II, 11 nd it signifies opelllless to experience-the consta n t susceptilJility o f the illdi\' idual illll('l' lif", which ill iI sacred COilh'xt used to be culled 111(' soul. Imi1nting the 1II0\'(,II1('nl of light and e),('s, fill11s WOI'k directly 011 the 1II0d(,I'1I psyche ill Ihe S'UlI£' wlty Ihat Vlln Eyck's r('lig-iolis piclu r£'s ollce worked 011 the fifteenth- century so ul. Tltr Fl e m ish puilltiugs wel'(, (1IIIIOIlS for arousing p iolls f('t'ling almost too St'lI sllt iomdly for ltn l iun "iews of 1I rl isl ic propril'ly, Thf'Y did it. not just by sh('dtl iug I ighl on tlu> break o f wool ell folds lind Ihe wrillklillg of knuckles (slri king the soul with II'IIlh as til" eyf' il; s lMwk wilh 1111f'1I01lU'lIa), hul by plilling tit£' soul itsel( into mOlion. 111 111'1. fo r thr soul to h" 1110\,(,(1. th(' eyC' lHu st movc; ancl so, qu ite aparl from tht· light. t ilt' I)ailllillg' II1l1sl IIIUV(', To nutke this Imppell, tltf' p ic l.ur(' plall(, . III(' l'Il'eel of a flat. fixed. Illld cOlltaining su rface, lHust s('c m to disllppcnr , ~1I1urill Iigblillg goes H IOllg wily toward c reuting Ih is illu siun, uut it is nol the o lily t hillg' Ihul dol'S, The forllls inside' t he frllllle CIIII hl' so IIrrunged Ihllt t ite frllm£' itsel(sf'clIls to be m oving through spnce and III{' nelion insiti(' il rerpetunlly goin)!, Oil, The e."e Illlly 1II 0\'(' over ii, ur £'\'1'11 ill alld oUl o f ii, with t he rlilidolil sca li it uses 011 rea l life, Thi s SCIISt' of the frullle I)Olelllillll." moving fl'OIll liide to liid(' or "I' unci down is g ivclI by cOHlJlos it io ns Ihnt 111'(' dt'lihcl'lItt'ly mnd(' to St'('lII nrbit rury- tl lltt IU'(' IImdf' so Ihnt the pailltillg S('('l)lS to suy, II' you look at this sc('/I(' from just herr' for n 1Il01llellt. "very thing III' r'lIIg('s it s('lf like this; bul yOIl call 1)luillly I;('e Ihat a sl i(Cltlly dilTe l'e n!. "if'w would do just as well. You could obviously shi ft. n bit 10 tile lrft, 01' climb up on sou-wIlti n g Hud look dowII : you lIIigh t jusl sce SOUl(' morf' of th(' hOl'lo;e o"e r hf'rc, or h,ss of the s hrubbel'.v over Ihl're , 1II00'f' sky 01' ft'wer towns(olk, Mnyhe you will in n mill IItt' , Thc visllnl field is oITe l'('{lus subj('ct 10 rCll rrnllge lll(,!lt. jU1i1 us il is in the dllily li(e of Ihe eyt"' , Illld of t hl' nllt'lIlioll, and of the feclings, Pllint illgs Ihul s lIgg{'l)1 t h is t urn th t' p llllli' inlo all empl~' screen where IIction in lind ou t lind 10 II lId fro is ulwllYs illllllilwnl. alld Ihe floli ling eye ilnd s nu l arc (')( post'fl lo ullkllOWII possibililiN., This t" tl'('et appf'ars in Hugo "1111 cler Oo£'s, bUI it shows up mu ch lu!('r ill Ooyu and many o lhers ",('II berore movies, Such Ul't ullsettles rulht'r lhllil "lcnses, unci raises expec tati ons rathel' limn snlisfyi llg them, Like film it 8 11~~csts 11 g'n'at deal m01'1" than it s tates und mllk es s ll'ong, if tlllllrl icuint ed. drmllnds on Ihe iudi\"iduill • VIewe r , All till'se dTt"'cts al'(' !Jallll'ally s trongcr whf'1l Ihf' su bj ec i mllllcl' insidf' the (rlllJl(, is fUllliliur and (:ollvcnliollal. Thl' IlOssibilil ies suggested bC,vo!Jd thc (ranI(', o r in II clitl'erClIlI\' ChOSl'1l frunH'. CU ll IIIl1ke a sacred o r a trite •
C pyr
te
22
M OV ING
PI C T U RE S
subjec t ambiguous and suggestive ly incomplete-they make fl. Flem is h Annun cintion , for exnmplf". into 8 SCf"ne of prese nt expecta ncy rathe r than rit· ual mystery. or 8 Dt'ga 8 lIude in Iwr bath dist.u rb ing ill sl('nd of pleasa nt. The " fixing" of the imuge has been d one so that it kee ps our private feeling on the 1lI0 ve ; th e demand 0 11 the viewe r is for 11 \'i lll i sort of medil.lIti oll . U conditio n of steady psychic acti on-us in d ream ing, fantasizing, or ill ord i· nary seei nll'. By psillting of this kind , we are never really take n out of Ollr· selves; we arc mea nt to s tay in oursel\,('s as we purlicipalf". And the pict ure s eems to kee p s hifting to include our in ner move ment s in its OWII mOlion , to a llow room for our unconsc ious li\'es, Tllt're nre mOI'e ways to ma ke a sti ll painting mo\'e. A pa int er llIay n\"oid flllll iliurl y s tylized cudcnccs for t he figurlll poses , alld so Ilc hi cve th(' look o f ull fini!ihed progressi oll . Th is 111('11115 illsisting on a sli ght ambiguity of humun forllls , so that til(' sha pes tuken by 1lI0\"illg bodies becolll e austruct lIud unfit ted to stti lida rd notiOIl S of propcr pictorilll uclioll . 'I'h e kneel in g and the march ing, the registering of grid Or surprise CU Illiol be immedi at ely "" M!ud" : they IIIl1st be watclted. G('org(~s de Itl Tour, likr Hembrundt . was vcry good at this-it is lUI anti· clnssic s t rategy of gl"CUI force. Si milarly. by tipping down the pictured floor, II puint er CU ll kee p the frume IlIO\" ing toward li S, mysteri ous ly enlarging so that we feel invited 10 move int.o th~ picture. At th e sa llle lime the revc rse motion occ urs : in the ~mHlII Dutch interiors with visible distant open in glS, t he pict ure is both coming to en· close liS and retreating, drawing us with it lifter t.he light. This is the en· gu lfing cffec l , a camernlike movement that comcs to cla im the viewe r, acknowledging 110 barrier betwee ll th .;> action and his inner life. Th e rfl'ect is tlw opposit.e of t he OIl(' thu t stays at II fix ed distance inside II s till frume and WN&\,CS its pictoriu l Sl)e ll to entrnnce us into s tilln cs~ before it. That is the effe ct of pictures by Leo nardo or Rubens, fo r exa mple, aL which th e eye tends t.o stare us at a whirling gold wat.ch , alld the feet to sta nd rooted-or even to bllck lIWRY in awe. The perfec t pers pecti ve in a Pi cro dell a F' rane('sea has a silll il llr effect.. The movement inside sHch a p icture is au tonomous, t he vibrations sc lf·generutcd. It is nn in culltllt io n, hUlnming with the int.e rplllY of color, the accord of shapes lind vol umes, the poetry of line, or with the dazzling urray of visible st rokes dealt by u mas· terly wri s t, tracks that the ensorcell ed eye cannot res ist lraeing in their da nce Ilrolln d the confines of the plalle. Reali s tic nnrrutivc couched in such terms exerts an enOrmou s power: th e action hilS been woven like II charm nnd see ms like fate. But it is it gcneral fn le, neve r co nnee t.ed with 0111" OWII privilte d esti ny as we cnn fee l it. Gazing at Ho me gM!UL pllinting's ill tha t 1II0de CUll turn you t o stone or s top you r breath. They invoke t he arl ifice of eterni ty and tran scend lh e
c
""
MQI'illY Pict ures
23
common bu si ness o r livi ng, en!n whi le they nUI,\' po ri ray it. BilL 111(' "moving" picture invites the ey(' boll l 1.0 III OV(' into III(' piCIUI'(! Ulld thell to s tuy free inside il. free to scan , to pause, to c lose in and mo\'e back , to find its OWII path. 1'he uncertain pllth of private fecl ing is correspond ingly oprned uP. and so we projec t the Illat ions of Ou r own souls into the pictUl'e to e ngage with th e action. In paintings by Rembrand t suc h as til e very la te Conspiracy of Clo ud ius Civilis in Stockhol m (1.2), for example, or t he 1646 A doratiOll of th e Shepherds (1.3) in Mun ic h, insp ired lighting IHIlS the atmosphere int o motion, so thllt it overflows the space and reaches towa rd the viewe r; meu llwhi le the figul'e s tyle and compositional mode suggest co nt inll ous be hu\' ior ill 11 shifting fra me, The result is lIIo\'ing dralJJlI wit hout st rong color. \'igorous a ction, or s urface detail. It s mot ion moves us, w h tlten~r Hembrandt's subject; and we tl nSwer with t hat emotional response which automaticnlly follows th e relSpolise of t he t',\'e to light. Th~ 1I11 r rati\'c act.ion illsidf' the pic ture is psychologicall,\' rl·t'ight.cd ill UdVilIIC{' lind Iweds 110 thentriclIl e lllphl.ls is 01' cO llvclltiullul rhetoric_ GClStllrl'S IIml pOSlllrcs, fneinl ('xpl'cSlSiolis and dl'np-
1. 2
REMBRA NDT VAN RIJN,
Tlt eCon!lpirocyo/Cto"diW JCilJiii!l
24
MOVING
l ,a
" I C T U RE S
REMBRANDT VAN RIJN , Tlt e Atioratioll ofllt eSlt elJilu d&
••
•
25
-'fOl-iIlY /'icf'lr(,1I
cry 1I10\'('1IH'1I18 IIrc lIlut('d , UlIs l."ii1.l'll. Ill ul unrotuSNI, Hlld yt' ! l.lcliic\'c IIIIlX -
inllllll impllct.
Us ing al most 110 fig ure's tiollllll~ fT('ct
all. 'l'urlwr II Cllicwti u s imillir clulI'ged CIlIOwilh landscape Iwo c(, lIlUri rs 1:11l','lIy IIsing light liS if it were lit
tilt' IIg(,lIt of physicill I II rim 1(, lI ce nlld t lltliCIYSIII . Til l' g r elll Tu mel'S lin' c i 11('IIIlIlie bccliuse of this lIIf'thod- tlw l i~h t work s di l'f'C lly 011 till' ({'{'Jill!!,", so ns to render wi lid lind Wilt ('1' ill it s dislinclin' i,\' (, lII otional \£'rIllS . ~o e1f' t.achll l c lll about til£' sce l Ll' pol"l rn.wd i s IW I'll lissiblt· 01'('\'('11 puss iblf'. YOl l 111'(-
there.
Motion and Na lTative Bc cll u~;p t hey lire IIIl1de Oil\. of fOr\\'iIl'd III On'!IIl'II!. il S w C' IIIIS oul of IIH' fUll -
c1il1Il Cnlll\!s of lighlllnd shadow, filllu. UI'C esscllliull,v dnllHillic lind IIOt th eatricu l. Drunllt orders nct ioll us menn in g . Illld ('xp<"riellcillg th e lIIo\'ell1(,lIt o f lill1e is neccssury to it , whe rclis t h('uter cu n be s tutic lik{' 1111 e lllbl e m or nn t"piphnlly-the si gnificlllil uc tiOIlIlUt,\' 1111 be Silll1lltulleous. IIltd IIIUY consist o f some timeless und cOllstaut interac t io ll . BOIIIc('lIi'8 Hi,.,,, 01 "elllu. for I'> xalllple ( 1.4), like IUUII)' Ita liun Henui ssnllc(' pnilltings. is II piece of the nte r- 11I1 Ilppn r i lion. HOt. II dra IIllit ic sce l1l'>, E n~ 1I t hough it pu rport s to show ItII event., t·verything is prj' Selt1 lit OIlC(' IIml all I'('\a t io n s hips a l rca dy com pleted , only wlliti ng 10 be d t"cipitf'rC'l1 by th e "iewe r . 1'111' pic t.ul'ed 1II0\,e· III C lltf~ of wa\'cs, limbs , hair, fabri c. ami wind go now he re but. r emnin stlltionnry. stlllldillg' for til t· cterllnl , cc irs tinlill osnic Lhnt holds n il things in o rbit. herr showlI fix ed and recycling foreve r . By eontrust, movies. likr S hllkes pcll rr's p lays 11110 Greek tragedi es, IIrc a.lwuys goill g gomewlwr{' ullknoWII und takillg u s with thcm. Drama d c· mn nds th is d{'vicc. N('v('rtht'l{'ss they a lso relllilill pic turcs, C\'e ll if thcy do not fit illto Bottice lli 's pic tor ill lll n i\'c l-se. Th ry do fil into He rubrundl 's lind 00)'8's-lhat is, into It schf' lIH' of eX I)I-ession fOlllld('d on the dinleetic of night and day, and thl' 1)l'ogrl'ss through th e m Ihllt produ ces th(' next day nnd night, u nd the lIexl. III this p icLO riullrllditio n , ull otherseen IIlO\'l' IIICll t, is subjec t to til(' inlrH ctubh' mO\'(>1lIf'nt. through tinw-the 1lI00'e lll(>n l f'Xpressed by t.he 1Il0tiOll of cllrthly li ght nnd itll coro ll a ry dnrkness. In s till pictures, that motion is pcr ceptibl(' o nly t hrough t he flui d act ion of the eye. which 1111$0 mirrors t he uncertain jOll rllE'." o f P(>nsOllHI ('xperie n ce-the inner StlltC. 8ubjcct to outer circulII sta n ce. P ic tures lhut uppeal to this conncc· tion bel-wccn time Knd consciolls llCSI; I>oint up th e fact thllt th e time lesl; lIui · ,'crl;(' is 1111 absolutf' \'oid. Ollt er d arkncss: t here is 110 cos mi c harm ony thut we CUll nc \.unlly scc_ HUII UlII seei llg menus on ly sc(' iug sOlllr iJt.iIlY. 11(,\'('r c\,·
c
,
26
MOVING
1.4
PI C T U RE S
SAN ORO 80TTICEI. L J , TIll Hirlll of \'t' IIU
e rylhin g; the view is s ubjCCli \'c. alwa~'s frolll here-as the light shows. This is Ih e fundamental s tuff of drUm 8j und the cincmtllic kind of art d e monslmtcs it, lI si ng chiaroscuro pictures to engage us in il. In film a rl, it puts the pictures into an actual moving seque nce. Evc!! it the movie ca mera sits on a mot io lli ctis su bject, the film is still movi ng and .....e lire stili waiting, expectant und res pond in g, ou r eyes und 8virils in lIIotioll . Movies lhllt end wi l h fade-outs 011 continuing ac ti on, or more reccnt ly wilh freeze-frames, s how how t llcllesstU!88 is li t the core of the medium-no tnblenu CR n put a tnlC s top to visua l fl ow or to Ihe flow ortilllc and feeling. The drams itse lf is propelled by editing all
Moving Pic/ures
27
movies becnme n populnr narrat ive form , and they seellled to be aimed ill a d ifferent di rection rrom lhe Olle f taken by modern pllin ters. Espec illlly in t he Unitl'd States, movies Ililtura lly all ied themselves with the persuasive llrts of entertainment und propagandll, dtll-ing the same period when mod· ern painting WIIS succeeding mOl"e und IlIMe in dew clli ng itsclf rrom those t hin gs. Sti ll ph otography _,Iso became a rorm of modern nrl directed away from sl'llsationa lislll und toward n rOl"llw l seriousness that ClIstlrt'd an accompanying high est lwtic status. On ly pholojourJllllisls und certnin photographers in the documen tary s ty le, d en- loping their medium at t he same tillle. showed an nffinity wi th ci llelllut ic illustration. i\ lovie-mnkillg became show business, carried on by a huge industry mounting vast coll aborat.i,'e efforts to pleuse the public and makt· a profil : wher('lIs paintings, and urtistic photogruphs , wel·(' prrceived to be th e inspired WMks of s illg le individuals pursuillg estllPt ic ~oll i s in pref(,I'f'uc(' til world ly aims. The dramatic pictorial narrativ('s of film urt fiolll·is hl!ti for decades ill Holl~"wood , rur away from modern pain t('rlj' Ijtudios. '('hp brilliant art dircction uud cine· nu){og raphy thnt creli lNI the visua l f1uvor of popular movi es Ol)erated ill th('ir own separate uniwrse. As art critics of our own time begun to view paintcl·s of the past. with model'llisllllld for malist ey{'s, lIJovil.'s lost Ih eir con llectioll 1I0t ollly with modern a l'1 bu t with IIrt his tory . '·Finc Art'· could be referred to in movies on ly by Ul uking list· or \'isllulllllllsio ns to u known wOl·k of art; but.lhese al · lusio ns explicitly sought to ~mppress till' cinematic nature or fi lm, instead of clelllons trati ll g consti tutional affinities bet.ween ea rlier picturE'S and t he art of movies. Meanwhile all independen t urt of ci ncnul was gene rated, as film-mak ers dcvelop('d thp medium on its OWl! te rms , referri ng and alluding to t he works of its OWI1 pust , and its distance from painting seemed to increase. l3y our day, film is thought. to hll\·e more aflinities with the whole histo ry of li terary fictions, novel s in particular, than with painting. The steady engagemcnt or COlllIHon fantasy and the multi -laye red ehuract er of fi lm art give it an obviolls I)Oet ie dimension; to scholars of poetics, movies seelll like lII odels of modern poetic consciouslless, llnd by now the entire corpus or fi lm history II UIY be viewed i ll the light of such an uWllrcncss. But t he Ilctull l picloria l vessel in which it is all carried has its own significant aptitude for this poetic and narrative work . The power o r the cilwmlltic met hod of pictu re-making, already esta blished during cent uries or rcalistic pai ll ti ng in the t rad ition begun by the Flemish, n('ver lost its hold. It s abi lity 10 engage, mystify, Ilncl llnnen 'e the beholder 1I0W sen'es t.he ur t of movies in t he same way it always did. It is sometimes said t hat movi('s ca r ry on the tradi t ion of speclaeular historical narrat i,·c Ilnd fictiona l ullecdot e in painting. With respect to sub-
C pyr
te
28
MOVING
PI C TURES
jeet IUHl..ter, they c(' rtn iniy huvc dOlle so. Cost.u me epics arc sup posed to corre!
or of Lord IJcigiltoll , Poynt.er, and Alllllt-TadcllIlI . By
th~ Sllme
token one
Illight argue Ihnt film melodrlllllus tlud domestic comedies curry all the nar-
rative art d erived from the descriptive and somewhat coy DutCh genre scenes of the lillel' seve ntee nth century-those by Mehm , Nelscher, nnd Van Mieri s-nnd continued during the eight eenth lind nine teenth cen turies when trallslated into the language of Grclize and Pragonard, or of Wilki(' , "'ned , and t"'rith . This descriptive style was the mo ld ill which mos l historicn l and anecdotal pa in t ing of those two centuries was casti but except for the th e mes) there is hardly unything c ine matic ubout the wlIy any of it looks. Lawrence Gowillg hn s point.ed o ut lIlI importllllt difference bet ween wllat Vermee r does and what DOli and t.een do, when they paint a wo man work ing in n kitchen or a group sitting nrol1nd u tl1b lo. It boils down to the dif· fcren ce bel'wcen letti ng tiS sec something ami cl1re full y describiug it to liS . Any Vermeer sce n(', like 11 film shot, is rf'ndered in term s of reve lation t hrough light, the CO ustli ll t agent of possibility. It avoids t he cl eve r lIlulli»u latiolls of drawing and co mpos itio n that gove rn II Steen or a DOli, wh ereby ou r eyes and minds are pushed into IIccept.ing II preconcc i,'ed shape, a way ror thingfs to look I.hnt we expcc1. T he fsubdued dramll be twee n men nnd WOlliell in Vermeer appears to be unfolding alld even escapillg the fram e as we watch; but in Steen and DOli the scene is ostensive, complete within the fralll e, ullveiled as 011 11 stage, and nccolllpnnied by an explnnatory gloss. The gloss is pic torin l. It is the visible choice made to expound u scelle IlC ' cord ing to a se t o r stylistic ru les for composit.ion, modeling, ali(I delineation . a sc heme t hat. the painter k n ows th e be holder has previously assimilated as a language suit.able for carrying t he intended meanings. Thus know ing comes b e fore seeing, not. during it ; expeotations are satisfied, 1I 0t mysterious ly rni sed, and so II comrortable re illtion be t.wee n picture lind viewer is mllinlnined . 1'housand s o f nine teenth·ce ntury narrati"e paintings devoted to s tartling in cident. or he roic action have t.his textun) fhwo r-llnd stich work s arc basically lit odd s wit h cinelllll, no matte r how meticu lous and natu ralistic t.h e hi storical details or how sensatiollll i the subjec l. Th ey are always m ore like the luc id theate r of Bo tticelli or t.he spectac les s tnged by Rubens than l h r ambiguous drama of Re mbrandt. The narrative meaning in c ine matic art is discove red by absorb ing the sequ e nce of pi ctures directly, not. by rending them and ullde rstAllding them. Watchi ng n movi(', yOIl have no time to read : YOll arc imme rsed in the 1)001, IIOt looking at itl> surfil ce, ami you mu st swim , Such 1I1llllediated vi· sion is al so ofTer('d by IIlUlly painters. but no t. the 011('8 I!iving the le isurely
(
~ Igt";
tar I
29 en terta inment provided by F rit h and Mc issoni cr, t he se nsuous plcnsure produced by Titinn and Dclacl'oix , or the intellectua l cxcl'cise afforded by
mu ch Pre-Raphaelite art. Good Illov jrs, and what I am call ing protocinemat ic pnintings, slisluiu
II
drllma of illllll ill(,lIt disclosul'c Ilnd in ci pient.
revelation, T he story is not explai ned to un audience but. revealed to a par' tic iplIlIl. The seelle of expectation is uneasy: whllt is going 10 hapllcn f Not. ill the pia l, bll t si m ply before Our eyes, It will n ot necessarily be ter r ible 01' wouderful, just sOlllet.hi ng not. yet s('e n. S il c h UII IItmosphere can invest n Ilcutrai or tranquil sc(' ne with 11I('tllling whell Ihel'(, is us yet Ilothillg ob\tious fo mCilil-thc sense t hllt it is about to 11\('1111 sOIlU'th illg, Pai n ti ngs that COnvey th is feel ing u'lld not to ,'c pay a millut(" siltisfying sl udy o f Illan)' d('l ui II" They sec m to d c mund glilllCillg .11 , g lllllCillg 1I\\'11y, 1111£1 then glancing blick , as if thc cyc had missed someth illg it might yet appre hend t he next in~ tan l. T hey benr watching, Deillil!; lIlay indeed abound , but no study yie lds an obviou s rplutionship Hm ong Ihe lll, only th(' s ll'ong sense of illlllli11('111 IlWllIlillg us ,
rOl'
The grea t scenic pain t ers or the cight('clll.h Ilnd n iucjce llth ccntul'ics produced sOllIcthillg less li ke llIo\' ics lind IIIOI'C like Ihe sClIslltiollll1 h ist.oricllilloveis of Wa lter SCOIL, which werc \'e l"y Ihl' lltl"icltl ill eonceptioll lind visual dew.i\. Th e stage of Scou 's time follow('d It ,'('ci pl'nca l pat.t.el'n whe n it udllpted his books, IIsing tubl('llUX lind t heu lrical alTllIlgc mclI ts taken from histor icul paintillgs, 'I'ht, literury groulld 011 whic h 1Il0St. histo r iCll1 narrali\'(! paintings stood und the languuge- likc mod e ill wh ic h they we l'e often set for th gllve t hem a s t llged flavor to begin wit h, lind they were ofte n fo u nded 0 11 l'espectNI lII odds dCl'ivcd 1'1'011\ th(' cl a ss ic i( l'lIuisSIlIICC "theat ricIJ I" ' st.yle. Nothin g is more ullselllillJ!' t han to look ul sOllie s ign ifi cl1 llt-seem ing cOll1 l1lunication und fee l, I Cill l't rCild this , Whllt is it nbouU Yet !lIlIch movie power is gCllcl'lltNI by that vc ry ciI'CulIlstcIl ICC-IIIl:1,vbe I'll get it in II m inute; I 'll hep wn tching, Ol hcr cogni tion COllies {Illite easily; ollly logical 01' " textua l" eOlll l)l'ehellSioll el udes, Wiltehi n g lIIo\' ies is ill fact II cco lllp lished
ill these coudit iollS, wit h Ilmbiguit y as l.l givclI, cllch shot full of whllt hasn't yet hUpP(!IIUd , lIIay hUPPt'lI , 1Il1l." ht, uct lluily Imppl'lIillg but be inex plicuble utlli l later, or may b(> present but 11(>\,('1' Il(,NI ('xpillinillg. Th is is eharllc teristie of the cincmatic lIIode, Any ull folding dnlllltllllll,Y contllin the prescncc of phcllomenu that con tribute lIli ghtily to the audie nce's cngagelllent ill the action, but a lso fai l to con vey any rrlldahl(' lIlellning. Matel'inl objrcts-ears, buildillg'S , II'et's , chail's -are IlOctic in pUl'e ly pic lorin l wllyS: t hey lire thcllIs('lvcs l)ot(,lIlilll ehllrllct('rs ill the c ine mllt ic drllllltl, 11 01 iUllll ilHllt(' p l'ope l,tics ill\'('sl('(1 wil h 1IIl'IIIJillg 1'1'0111 clscwhcl'e, Pai n ti n~ s ill whieh ordi nary obj{'cl s arr fillNI with th(' ir OWII self-awnrc
C pyr
te
30
M OV I NO
PI C T U RE S
breutiling li ff', and Sel' lIl ind ep(' tl ciently to claim a s ha re in th e d ra ma' s un· known flirlhE'r d('n~ l o pm e Il18- lI ot obedient ly 10 support its patcllt ce rt.ain Lies-are t he for(>nlllllE'rs of Rim. The objects in Van Eyck's mllI"I"iagc portrait arC' like' this: so are th e Diles in Ma net 's ulwclteOI/ ill Ihe Studio. So, too, nrf' Ihe bllildings ill H s t ree t sce ne by BCl'ckheyde or the parts of cilUrch int.erior s by EItIUlllI ('1 de Wi lte, or the wllte r and fir e in Turne r 's visions. Tlws{' paint ings urc lIot unecdo ta l, but t hey 8re infinitely drumutic, full of pl'omis{' lt ll d continu OliS s uggest ion . Pu illting' b('cl.lIu c deeply divided and sha rp ly co mp rom ised in F rance after the middl e of til(' !lUil cC ll lury, soo n after t he ca me ra made its appear· III1C(,. Th(' IIt'W fllndllllwuta li st Realism propounded unci p racticed by Cour· b('l tl ud oth(' r pai ute'Nt of his generation d emanded acute c urrency of subj ('c t. and ull r ll f"t.o r ical honest y of execulioll, instead of cstu bl is hed th(,IIH~ S s uavely r('ncIe rl'd ill standard artis t ic t el·ms. The lIew idea ls of Frf'u Ch HcalislIi were luter refined by the I mpressio nis ts alld ex pnnd('d by ymbol is l pa in\.f' r8 s('(' killg 1.0 rt'lldcr imaginative ralhe r Ihu n optical or polit ica l realiti('s. In pa r i ins pired by the adva nce o f science, Reali sm led still furth e r. 10 an f'xtre me conce rn wit h ul ti nulte structure; a nd advanced pain te rs took II nlll' rowin g path toward a r ealism expressed in th e abs traction and red uction of form. In this long process, avowed ly narrntive und illustrative pa inting lost out and lost cllste-los t " reality" of a kindwithout. lI ow('v(' r , losi ng uny power . Both the showing a ll d telli ng of stori es nc\'cr ceased be ing d one in picturf's. hut their con tinuing life was nourished in the graphic arts, whe re the narrat ive t radition had great cumulative fo rce and all t he unbroke n a uthority of popula r art. Th ese prillted media. howeve r, had many of the same a l1 tecede nts in the great "ei ne matic" art of the past, llnd n s imilar lice nse to cO ll ce lllrate 0 11 a n CCO llom)' of e motional effect. I will e\·entuully t ry to show th at the re is mu c h more forul a l affi ni ty between movies and d ramatic bl ack-and·white ninetee nth-century illust ration than be twee n movies ll nd IIlOSt narrat ive Salon-painting of the same per iod. The swift establishment of th e came ra cou ld on ly complicate Ih e progress of mid-ninet.ee nth -century Hea lili lll in painting. Pe ter Galaslii has de monst rated how a gene rat ion of pa inte rs in several traditions had been exper ime nti ng with new ways to cOII\,ey visualaetualities and had c rea ted all arti stic cli mate for t he camera's ilH'e ntion and acceptance. As ea rly as the late e igh tee nth ce ntu ry, casual vi cws, ambiguous sce nes, and unprepossessi ng subj ect matte r vi ewed from odd angles had begun to concern ce r tain painter s , a lmost as if the scann ing or tracking actioll a possible camera were more interest ing than an ability to fix details. More than anticipat ing photography, they see med to have been searching for a ei ne ma-
or
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3,
Jl/ot'iIlY P icfllres
togl'aphy thllt could Ilt thnt time only occur in still art. The camera it s{' lf hnd 10 caLch up only in this century. EV(>11 though the first photographs w(>r!' monochrolllatic. the new pic{m'es made by "the pencil of nature" were ulHlllswerably " rear' when it cllm£' to the look of light 011 surfnces and th e rnnd ollliook of lIIuu ral things - the uct ioll of wut er , t he Cluste r ing of brunch es , the fl ow of hair and c loth, and thr millut.(' detai ls of faces. Despit e their vcracity, however, early phoLogra ll hs were hnrd for some /trt-'ra ined "i cwers 10 " sce"-one Indy spoke of leaws I'esemblillg "bits of tin: ' The il .md for a long Li lll(, afte rward, t he IIIcchallicnl camera eye seemed 10 many to be obviously soulless and d etac he d from feeling, and only the creat ive nrti st: s eye could st ill clnim to be imaginntive and persolll.li ; a nd so cnmer a art carlyon beca me com monly associnted with hearlless Ilild chilly academism. " Photographic" ca me to meall congl'a led in an aspic of perfect d('tail s, 1I0t informed with a new di mellsion of light and 1Il0tion. But the poet ics of camera art dm'eloped qui ckly enough, und much inte r course with painting began to occur as both painter s and photogrl.lphers res ponded to emotional flavors in the formal pro pe rties of photographs . It was tlu'n, ill 1he 1860's, that Ve rmeer wns reciisco,rered and revived, the work or Frans lial s was first cxhibit.ed in its own museum nt Th c Hugue, and many paint c rs paid lIew attent ion to Dutch art because it seemed to prefigure mod ern artistic conCE'rn s , now that the camera had come to add to them . I would cluirn t llll l. a r11ture CillC1l111 seemed 1.0 lurk in these old works, and that paint.ers coul d see it the l'c. eve n i£ photograph ers had not yet. gOIlE' so fur. But the cam era sal. ull comfortably between high and low art, whe re it still rema ins. Photography might propose a new sct of poss ibilities for paint ing und itself draw upon old o nes; but at the sallie time it was simply the newest and most mec hanical graphic art, obviollsly open Lo corrupti on, c learly ready to become a tool , like muny o thers, to be used mainly for commerci a l purposes, Among t he seve ra I Ilea r ly s imu Ita IICOUS inventors of photography, some in fa ct camE' upon it whil e searching (or a ll imp roved reproductive lII ethod that mi ght incrcase t.he corn merc ill l scope of all pic ture -making, Although the engraved r eproduc ti on of paintings had been an estab lis hed branch of graphic art for ce ntu r ics, it was exclusivc and expens ive. I t had mu ch more importallee for artists and connoisseurs t.han for the public at large, who were eonsulIle rs of all the popular political, comme rcial, an d crude re ligious image ry flooding Europe sinee the invention of printing itself. Cheaper, more generally a ccessible, and more accurate re produ ctive methods were constantly being sought and tried; but it was the came ra that made the greatest leap.
c
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32
MOVINO
PI C TURES
The most importHnt. result or the cunwru's d evelop ment ",us u kind or synt hes is of high alld low I.lrl. Through photographic rel)l"oduction , grettt pnilltings could b(' instantly trallslllut{'d directly into popula r imagery (I S lJ''olog,,01J''.~, Their rcullooks, their basic beuuties and virtues cou ld be e xpost'd to eve l'YOI1(', in the SUIIlC medium tilat exposed til(' beauties of t he cityseupe, lli{' hair-open blossom, or the Il€'ighbor's kids-and th e slime one thlll ulso {,1I1{'rwined und swayed the cllge r public with nil kinds o r c rud e, slick, rllllllY, or scntirne ntnl junk_ And so Ih{' M OII(l I..i.~(l nnd Vermeer 's wonuill pOllrillg mi lk could become part of en'ryone's \' islial eOllseiousness , Ilnd illflut'lI cc ('veryonc's unconscious iell'll or how a picture of II wOlnan looks-()r call be mude LO look fo r ccrluill rCllsons-right nlong with Garbo alld Grlludnm , the girl ill the beer lid and Ihe i3tricken widow in the newspllper. Movies are the rich es t art thllt. grcw o ut of this synthetic " is ioll c rellted by til(' ca nlt'ra. Fi lm-muk ers Clln 1I0W drnw d iN'ctly . even largely !lIICOIl sciously, 011 the great urt of th e Pllst. l)ecl.lui3c the eurnera itself Ims long sinc(' tnken possession of it. III I. Mo\,ies hllw built on the vislIui pu s t, using old artislic mea li S lind trall sluting th(, l!! d irectly into film-nil uetivit y (Iuit{' d istinct rrom the mere nllllsion to actual pllintings. The bc!)" filmimagery. t il {' SlUff that makes mO\' ics the art they are, df'rives its l)Ower from th {' cxpressi\'e me thods lIsed for cC llturies in the kind of rCllliSI art devoted t.o evoki llg subjective experience, The CiunerH. , bc iug both III)Opulur grnphic mediulll ami a reproductiv(> mirror through which s uch IIrt becu llle a ccessible, lUIS nllowcd the 11I o\ries to curry it. Oil,
Black and White Beclluse it is bOlh "reproduc tivc" a uel "creativc" and IIllly copy or filk c 8S ens il." as invent, grnphic art. is situated at II c rollsrollds, II mee ting pilice fo,' lhE' mosl rt'fined and the erudeH I aims. It is IIH' large ly unac knowiedgc(l brol.hE'1 of urt, 1.0 which high thollghl , low fceling, und cOlllmerciul iu te rl'st all rcsort , to make use of the SlIllIe cOllllllodities 011 lin equill foot illg. Popu llir graphic art , which evc l'yone sees without looking lit it. gavc dircctulIdm'ground lloul·ishment t.o 1111 th e flow e rs of tine art achieved at a curefully great distnnc(' from it, and also pro\rided most of t.he visull l cducation o f the audien ce for fine art. Meanwhile tile world 's grent pnilltings and sculptures w('rc gradually tr811sIIIutl'{I by rep roduc tion into polmla r grnphic art thelllseives. c llteri llg ttU' s trelt lll o f public consciousness aud plunging ltelo\\' thut illto th{' public unconscious. to h{'lp nUl'ture ttll visua l life. For cl'n turi es . this re production of great. arl , like most popular art. was rell l-
iZf'{1 in somc kind or bla ck-und -whi l(' mediulII : and eons('q uently 111(' language of lUouoch"olll(' vision has bN'n tile grelit/ill(jIHl ["(I/I('ll of W('stt:'I'1l ilrt. "Grllphie" IIlPIIIlS "Iikr \\'ritill~"; il now nl80 llLeltllS "li ke tl'ulh," Th rse two lIl('anill~s cOlllbim' and div(,I'g!' WII(,11 pietUl'l's ,U't' tl ... isslll', Pro lll till' parly six te enth celltury until well inlo Iill' nineteenth, III'{St pictOl'iul r(' l}roducliolls of hoth sCIII I}lur(' and paill t illg' \\'('1'1' hlnc k-u nd-wh ite prin ts dOlle by IlI"of('ssiollu l c nlZ"/l\'('rs, who t:opi('d on ln 111('1,,1 plait's f,'oul drllwillgs, whic h had in IlIrn lH'I'n copi ed by II hand s t ill d ill'cl'(,lIt frO Ill tht· Ont' t lUiI Iwd IIIl1de l iIe ori!! iulil \VOI'ks, 'I'h(' olillinl' s , sputilllll l'I'lI l1 gelllellts, 1I1I(IIOllal lIlonI1lI'y, hlack-lIllll-whit(> pit:llll'PS also b(,CIIIIW tools of instnrclion , !lOIlll' of thetll dillg'I'I.tI1lS IItIll I1WPli, TIIl~ sP W(' I't~ ofTl"'ed ill t ill' Su lUl' clean und I'eglllal' lines used 10 silndp tile Clll...."S uf I'pulislic botanicnl :;peci ll u.' II S, 01' to cla !' ify th(' walls of pictuJ'p(1 fortifications, S il1lilllr cl'isp lillI'S would IIIlll't:h alongsicil', in platoons of words fO"llI('d 10 escm't th(' iUUlges wilh nil IIH' s lrl'llj,tth of prillll'd IYlll' st raight inlo the \' i('\\'('r 's Und('rsla lid i ng, 'l'hl'sl' ('lIdy t:omhinut iOIlS of jll'illtNI mll'tls IIIIfI picllll'('S 1H'lpNI IO forlll th e IIl:11lOC iut ioll I.Ic l w('CI1 ulut:k-lIl1d-white p l' i"tt'd 1'{,PI'(,S('l1t"tiulIlS IIl ld H'"
ndorllNI t I'tI t il fu In('ss t hili giws 111(' IeI'll! " graph ic" 011(' of its 111('1111 i IIgS, We hn\'(' built 011 Ihis associalion th(' idt'lI lhut if l:I pictllr(' is ill hblck IIlId white, it call bp appl'e h(,lldl'd IIlm'e clcnrly, eW' n I hough it may be t'njoypd less , By eXl(,llsion , photographs IIlId 1II0\'i('s in bluck I\lId white 111'(' cO llsidel'l'd good because liley ltr(' so true , 1101 lwclJuse tlw.\' lire so "{'a l. "'IH'ir oftl'1l br illiallt b(,llllty rests 011 th is, "I..i villg colol'" IIIU~' be 11101'(' lil'{·likl' lind II1M(' d('licious. but. tikp lif(' itst'if, it is IIlso 11101'(' distrllctill~, ('" t l'll1Lcill~ and mislellding, Wt'. I:l.re bnck to B.elllbl'llllcit lind till.' powl'r of clriut'oscu l'o to ill\'ok('
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34
MOVING
PI C T U RE S
the sou l rather than please Lhe senses-und thus to stand for unud orned psychological truth, rather than the abstract fictions made possibl e by the limitl ess orc hestration of color. Graphic and photographic modes he re ove rlap. In piclorial illustration or narrative art, photo-graphic black-a nd -white rendering (the chia rosc uro mode. wh ether done by a came ra or etc hing, lithography or ink lind wash) has the powe r to suggest both the objective t ruth of printed mutter and t he subjective truth of feeling, which is signified by th e image of prese ntly faIl ing light that must always iliumilUlte olle particular poin t of view. It has n distill ed intensity that carri es o,'cr easi ly from the etchings of Rembrandt, Pironesi, aud Oo.),a straight into t he documentary st.yle or photography and on in to film. noir. Ci rcumsta nccs and cvents offcrcd in this pictorial mode have double impact, given th e interaction betwecn their two wllys of being Hgraphic.'· All this is leaving out drawing, the tru ly " written " pictures done by the flexibl e hand and wrist that. draw a story ror us as we watch. This is t.nlly " d esc riptive" a rt, personal and spontancous, wilh the air or being imp ro· vised for prescnt. company. it has a great t.heatrical rascination, akin to what enchan ts in classic art. In the co mic vein, Wilhelm Busch, Al Hirsch· feld , and Daumicr draw like witty conversat ionali sts. cven more lik e jugglers or dall cers; the IHlllei keepQ movi ng, as we wlll.ch open·m outh ed lIud laugh and manTel. Such cursive comic art, moreove r, now ga ins its reul power from being printed immcdiately in thc t.housands for everybody, a nd appea ring in new daily or weekly versions that urge 110 pondcring und demand no study. Such art looks swiftly done, das hed off like a brirr note to th e whole worl d whil e th e thought is sti ll occupying the artist-and through the modern print media , th e entire public may get. it at a glance. Black-and·white ex pression delivers laughs widely and rast, as it does al1 ot.her emotional freigh t.. Th e reading eyc is rcady for it, j ust. as it. is for printcd typc, and noth ing impedes thc swi rt flight, and s harp dig of g raph ic wit. Nothing in color is ever so funny, even t hough it muy be more fun . Th e blnck-a nd-wh ite mode remains the ve hicle or a truthfulness that is temporally conce i\'ed and notated, a nd that deals with the drama of subj ec· tivity. Color, working direc tly on the scnses, affects independent responses oC !IIood much more than it urges sympnthy or promotes thought. However important its sensory impact is, color is unnecessa ry to significa nt narrat ive , as co mic strips show. In colored popu lar art, the colo r se n 'es thc inter· ests of pleasure, nOt meaning; and in Exprcssio nist art it has sometimes sen 'ed the inte rests or anxiety aud pain. Color may be more effcctively used for ncutralmcaning in a code or dingram t hun for narrativc mcaning in reo ali stic represent.at.ion . Wheth er " written" (li ke ca lligraphic ea rtoon art and
not- d
Ie
I
35 lille ('ngruving) Or' )'cv('uled (li ke Fritz Lung movies, u('wspuper photograph s , l1ud Rembrundt ('teh ings), pictorial lIarrali \'E~ in black and wiLile has II satisfactory completeness of ('motiollul im pact and a higlu' r speed of e tl'ec livclIPss thall lInyth illg ill color. It moves. Hlld it il!l movi llg. Gf'llcru, li ons of urt love rs hung cngrm-ings und, Inte r, monoch rome li thoJ(TUphic or photographic reproductions of g reat I)u inlings i ll their hOIlH'S-lllo\'cd, through arrangcllU'ntlS of tone alone. by the works of Ruphue J und Reynolds , or Murill o unci Guido Heni uliSUP l>Ol'ted by the bcau ti('s of t he spec· tnlln. Suc h rcproduc('d works, III though Ilu'y look olwiously itlcompl<.'t(' as paintings , nc\,prtheiess loo k powerfully r(,lIlns pi ctures, Th l'Y IIHYl' a forcl" not lIlI likc black-alld -whit e NCIISlItio llU I illuSlrllliulI, Whe ll Ih(' photog rapher joined the pllililc r liN l.l ff'lIow arti st. 1If' 11180 jo ilJ{'d thf' gmphic nrl i8t. s haring 110 1 onl~' in pnillters' sf'I'iollS aillls bllt in t he esscn tia lly underground movemen t 01' I)Opullll" cOlHllIe rciu llll'l , wilh its t.I'IHlil io na l ll im to s t i r the pub lie wilh cOllledy. sex, violencf', Itlld SI'III,ilne ll1. 'fll\' camel'a coul d now cOllvcy tht'se thillgs ill the poteut c hi a roscuro rt'lld c ril1g 1hllt ill lilt> fi nf' urIs hud lo ng since cstn bli s hed so finn II grip on tht> feelings, Th e ealllel'a was thu s assured of a pot C'lIti al forc{' a s tl popular graphic lIJ{'diu lIl greater ('\'en than lha t o f skillful draw ing, .\I eallwhilt· it could reproduce gr('at pnint ings in that Sll llI e ch ia roscuro, nnd s hurp in t he trnditio ns of grent priJl tllwking, As It IH'W form of bluck-und-w hil t' l' X I)J'('f~ s ion, the camCl'a walS slipPo l' ted by u formidable hil)tory o r persuusin· colol'less image, muk illg. e nd owed with Itlyt ltic possibil ities u nd IIssociutions us wellns ord in ary appeal. i''1O\' i(''s took tllat hi sLO l'Y to th(" III'XI. slep, EWIl1Ulllly , film-makers eould combine tlU' familiur Iht>llH' s o f popular grlJpllicl!> wi th t hE' accumulated e motio nal fll\\'OI'S of repl'oduced pai n ti ng a nd tile directly powe rful graphic bea ut y of phoLography, thc I("gucy of Rcmb rlJlldt.. Tlwy pNformNi t ill' gr(>ut synthes is I'oresi't' ll o r envisiOlwd by the Ililw{(·elll.h -cc·ntury H("u lists, Wilh Bltude luire us their s po kes man , to c reat e a Ill'\\' his tory-pain ting in gellre terms, making universal my th!!> o u t o f ("\,cryday lllat c l'in!. Th e o ld r("product i" e grit phic urI s we 1'(' t hl' ltIeUlu; o r moving' lh(' (jilt> II rts iuto the wOl'ld, or gelling thclII to do tlH·ir b,'ouder eu ltund lind ('lIIolionnl work , and th e Cllllle ra 80011 camc to do the 8ame j ob, Golll.ius' glanlorous sixtel' nth·cc ntury e n g rnvillg o f the Fl.1rnesc H e l'cu les , for example (1. 5). rcnde red with g listenillg mliScu lul.ul'c HI,d s hown ud ulired by up·gn1.ill g' ci tizcns . is ec hoed by the glor iolls mod ern photogru!>hs of Mic he langelo's sculptures, which caress und exu lt hi s work s with sed ucti ve ligh t ing Ilnd buthe the III ill d ru mat ic lust e r for everyo llc' s eyes, so t hlit i\1 ieheln llge lo lUuy touc h cvcl'yo ne's hearl-c\'c lI those who CU llllc"e l' get to Ho me o r 1-'lon' nce, Monoc h ro me sculptul'e yiclds IIlllllrlllly to en illlll ceml'lIt by the black-
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MOVING
:.\6
P I CT U RES
-
1.5
liEN ORI C K OOLTZI U S ,
Tit !' Funt(!,(! lIu('Nlt •.
Engraving lIlId ·white ClIllleru , just lHI it did LO the suuvitics of engraving: but pnint.ings also took on n(lw qlllliitirs under th e ca mera eye t.hat sees beyond t he colors. Whlll. the bluck·und·white Cll lIIc ra docs to u pninting is not to give II reading of ii, liS lUI e ngruvi ng docs, bulto make a movie of it-to plumb . tU~ it were, its cill{,llllltic heart. It tells the "story" of the painting by trttllsluting it int o t il£' grllphic 1IIt'(liullI o r uUluitigat('d drllma. Thus pllinting wus grndually tnlllsmuted into popullir g raphic art in the {,lIIolional medium of light and shade, 1I0t. just. in the intellectual t.erms of (llIgrs\'Nl lines-which ha\'e. liS W illilllll M. Ivins has rel>eat.edly dcmonstrated, their own editoria l ef'f'£'ct 011 any original. Ninetee nth·century blt,ck·and-white photographs of paintings began to sha re in the uncanny emotional atmosphere of the carle d e v jsj/e portraits and lOl>ographical studies being purveyed by professional comme rcial photographers. The black·aud-white reproductive camera seemed not to take something away from paintings but to add somet hing, as the engra\·jng teChniques also had
37 dOI\l'--Hlily this ti uH' il was SOUl(' lh illg' d in'cll~' op licul lllH I d i r'('clly ("tuO-
liomll. Ihl~ Ir'Ulhfuhlt'ss (If light, not wriltf'lIlnnguugf'.
"CiIlCIIlHtic" pailllillJ,!'s of till> latf'r lIill(>((,(,IIII, eel ,lu l'Y. thl' works hv • :\i llll{' 1 and I)('J!HS 01' hy 11 0 111(,1' nnd ElI kills 111ul S(,('III must pn'g:IlHIlI wilh pussibi litif's rOf' IIIIIVi('-t: ll1H(' I'll 1lI'l, !(,IIlIIO b(' subdll f'd in PiL!t·IIf' . T ill'.\' din" I' ~(' f"olll IIIP im prl'ssio nist way 01' lI silll!' dYllulllic colOl' it st'll' to pr-oliuc('
111(' light ulI(l lll lify ti L{' s UI'ru e£'. Si ll1illl l-]Y. ill thf' COllt(,IIIPOI' )"('11I1101l8I1 il> In' ' lw('I' 1\ til(' 100 1ILI S~·S 1t' 1II and 11i (' io>ubjC'ct IlIIllI('r ~ i \'('s lilt' p lli ll l ill~S Ih l'll'll t III OSpilf' I'C', just /lS in filllls . I I is nOl 111(' vilmillt rdntiolls llip ,HII Oni!' lilt' colol"s t hut pl"illlllriiy cou nt s, 1101" I ill' illl (,I'li ct iOIl het \\,I'{'II colors !llId CO lllpOsitioH that C,'t'I\I(,8 II su bjpcl. as ill I lIIp , 't~ ss i o ll ist works, Tilt' ~('IIC'nll illl puhw of lIIost /n-ow{-'(lI y Il('ul is t pn int illj:! ill til(' m idd l(' of th(' C('lltlll'), WIIS towHI'd II loliochrolllY; IIlId t his l't~ tl'(' Ut 1'1'0111 col Ol' s uggt~sts 1111 IlWll l't'!It' SS thn t HppmxilJllJlioll to It gruphic 1II0d(' might b(' IlP PI'Op"ia le to both psyc holoJt'icli l and socin l tnl lh -It' lling, {'\'('Il withou t Il11Pcdo tl' , TIt(· SIlJlJlI'('ssio ll of col Ol' ill paint ing nppa)'(,lItly glllll'UIII('('(llhc loo k of both sl.lb.il·cti\,\, cngug(,Illl' lI t IIlId dl'tllch(-'f l Obs(' ",'ul ioll, CO II C(-,1I 11'l.1 1iull 0 11 dyna mic color' I'cln tiolls, 011 til(' ol h(,I' hnll d , as ill IJllp,'('ss ioni slII 01" E xpl'(,sSiOll is lll , producNI u vivi d sc nsOl',\' lIIi ii \~ u in which Ih(' su hj('c t , whu\('vc r it WIIS, could 11(' dissolwd 01' s ubli me(I, Hnd wlil'I'C' t ile Ill'lis, 's fl lndlllll('ntai sk ill and clwiN' still I'orllwd t\l(' IIlosl lIotic(,Clblr (' l l~ III (, III S of II\(' piclIIl'e, j us l Il S il l tht, IIlIliall Ht'IIUissli ll ce, A I)U I't' (' UC' I'goy, H sclf- p('rpt' tuul ing lifl' , is g('II(, I'u l('(i by tht, inl(,I'uc lion of Ih t' colol's the (JaiuIC'r dt'ploys: lind Ihe ir lwulIl." (01', us ill Villi Gogh, l it('ir 11 II Iwu rllblt' "ib)'u llc.") !'ll\' isill's (" '(-'II be for(' lite suhj<'c l 1'('giSIf'I'S, Ambi guous r('clill~s , IIl1 coml'ol'tabll' fa ct s , or lInC('I" la in CiI'CIIIIIShIl I Ct~ S IIIl1y be nPI)I'rltl'lId('d 0111." I,!tl'ongh II S('IISUI'." veil wo\'{' n by Iht~ culO1', which 111('11 giv('s Ihe su hj('c I 1111 ('xlrillsic lIIeUSlll'(' o f stl'ess or deligh t.
Color proves t hi' pllillt(·", II defi ll iti\'(' ly s('panlt ('s h im 1'1'0111 thl' WOl'ku· day gl'u ph ic p r'ucl iti onC' r ulld I'liises his f'O'Ol'ts int o Ihe spilf' l'e of aI'CII11(' un · derstnlldillg, Til(' 1111 f'gNI "Sf'C I'e1S of th(' Old Mll stt· l's" \\'(> ,'(' nil ubollt th(' co nlrol o f color, whic h nWlIIlI Iht' conll'ol of Il ili uru l fo)'ct's, II lld coloI' supported t lw iti('11 of th(' ll)'lisl as ullll logu(' o f It di"iuc crf'nl or with It d i"im' plan, Wh (' 11 p.tinl(·l's s lich us t il(' 11II]lI'('ss ion ist s wis lll~d to I'(-,IISS('I'I II J(' autonomous so\'e l'ei~lIt." of the P1lill l (, I"'S IIrl. tlwy natu ra lly used calm' to COIl tain ilnd ell'\'III(' Ilwi!' m' w " isioll of the paint e r ' s realit," - pe l'lmps pnl'tic ui uri." to di s t ill gu islt thei rs r"olll oth(' l', {'tio lillcd 0" degraded 1II0d es of showi ng ii, Bul ~lll l U't (by COIl t l'lIst with Ih (-' IlIlc l' "IOllet), D('g'lS (by ('ontrus t w ilh ({ ('noid, und Vuillnrd (by cont rast. wi t h Boullal'd) ort(' u wui ved this divin(,
C pyr
te
38
MOVING
P I CTURES
prerogative: they frc{luently withdrew frolll the intoxicating st'usory possi· bil ities of color, choosing instead to work with t.he psychologically s uggestive possibi lities of tone. They ulso wor ked in print medill. o ft en ex perimentally, us Rembrandt had dOli€,. In t he tona l puinlings of these urt.isus. color is ut rcmcly potClI l, just ns it is in Vermee r; but whllt. predom· inates is the emoti ve fhwor conjured by th e d iul eetic of lighlilud shade. 1'0unlity unifies the muted palette. just as it docs in Ve lazquez-a nd the interm itte nt \' j"id color works nil the better as the servant of tonc. This tonal preclomins llce produces the "grap hic" look, graphic ill the sense o f being psychologica lly realis t ic: the subjPct is percehred and rendered liS contingent li nd ephe mera l, immediate unci so mewhat ulIlbigllOUS rather than t imeless lind remote, beautiful and elcltr. A perfect biliunce of color re ga rdless of subject, 011 t he ot her hund. I\S in a painting by M.at isse. pro· duceli a s8t isfaction unclouded by t he d runHl of emotional cirtu msta nce. The wcb of color holds the woman on th c sofu und inside the room forevcr; and wc arC not forcibly engaged by hcr Illomentu ry illner stllte. Thc artist is seen t o master uud subdue the subject through the mediulll, und so to ma s· ter us. In portraiture, the subjecllllus l ideally be s hown to master the paint er to II ce rtain degree-to have hi s or hel' OW II elll ot iollol valence a nd tempol'ul imporlance. Thul. is why Vehizquez '. Vnn Dyck's, und Rf' mbrtlndl.·s t.ollEtI priOl'it ies Iml(h~ them HIISH rpn ssed lIlasters of t he port ra it genre. i\hHlet lind Sargent. cont in ut'd their program , und the movie Clunern is final heir 10 the method. The most beloved lnod ern screen I)crforlllcrs lirc spoken of liS being "loved" by the ellmera: t hei r illmost souls arc drawn out by its fleeting, contingent , tonal mode of rendering, und so they draw the viewe r to them. Th ere nre peop le who clI nn ot.allow the cn wera to love them-pe rlUlps t hey should only be paint ed by Matisse or Mod iglialli. It if; now commonplace to see th e deliberilt e use of Hopper and Jo~a kin s in the 1)l'oduction d('sign o f current movies, ('ve il when they nr(' not directly quoted, IIlthough Ihey of te ll a re. But it. is also notiecnb le that s uch purl icu· Inrly cinematic pai nting is t he on ly kind that trllnslnLes well int.o actual fi lm. Att ernphi to s ugges t Haphael und BOltieell i or Poussinlook contrived, wh ereas the Cnrn\,lIggcsque frulllcs ill Th e Ferdict, for eXlIlIlple, blended 1I1l1l0ticeably und effectively with the modern subject. Goya ha s been \'ery well and also lInn oticeably tran sferred to film. si nee in both pai nt ing und graphic IIrl his fusions of to nnl ubstructioll with emotional content. nrc so compl ete. nnd his temporal sensibility is so keen. Goyu's sense of fnshion , for ('xalllple , was clear ly as acute as hi s s('use of horror or irony; and nil his work s record agonies und atllb iguilies ill procegs, 1101 frozen moments . Mode rn eyes Ilud minds t ruined by movies hll\'e learned to apprecillte
(
~ !Qt".
tarl I
39 c(-'rluin artist s of Illp pas t. ill pl"t'ferrnce to others. who wer(' more udmired be fore the aSCC lld tUl C~' of CUIII('I'a visio n. :\lllny or t tl C' pnintf'rs J will be d iscussing lat er 011 \\"(>1'1" only consideffd I?rr,l! if] this celltur.\". at !{'lIst p:trlly beCllli se {Iwi ,' ciu('mutic s ty le of gellius IIOW see ms con g<' n ial , whereas it lI sed to be
1110 1'('
IWrpi('xi ng' Il nd I('ss (·lTt·c liv(' . Guido
i{ ('Ili IlIId
Hop lll'lc l
have lost some of thei r sup r('lllacy to V(-' rflu't-r illlli Chlll'di u. Pirancs i has appt'ai ed profou ndly to ci lU"ma -trn illed viewers ill the twen tiet h century, j ust us he did to Baud(·hlirc's pr'ophc l iclI lI;v ci u(,lHutic soul more t hun to the gCllcrolliinctc('nth -cclltul'Y IHlblic. ClH-(l Va ggio a nd Vehhqu e1. ar(' IIOW preferred to Hubc lI s. whose huge pilinterly udell is led him to c illphasiz(> Ii cur· sive and c llrOllllltic fl ow of fonn rflt her' thall 10 tlIp t he fl ow of light. In Ru!)e lls th e ullmN lillled cye is IIlwnys less importllnt thun the med iat ing, life·gi" in g. und I'IUlo bling han d , But Ca ravaggio and V('luZ{IUe 7, s how the altc l'lutl in> p reoccu patio n wilh tOile and il s cn pflc ily 1.0 sugges l th e mys tcry in appcurlincNi , Th ei r int e res t in the (lir('c t links between light. visio n, lind f('cl in g stl" ik('s 11 111 01'1' sYlIl pnt he tic chord ill t he mod('rll film ·goe l' tha n Rubens' robus t lin d brill ill nt idl'ulizll tions ever Ctlll , CnsplIl' Da\-id Fri edric h. th.· efl'l'ct of whose work depcnds greu tly o n dramut ic ilrrullgenlenls of t.one, eS I)cc ially buc k lighting, hus ach i('\-ed a greut vogu e in ou r t ime, H is wily of cente l'ing a n imllge is ill fa ctl ikc the lise of u mov in g ca mera gnldulilly homing ill on an objec t , to invest it with menning by fixing it in the ccu lt' r of til(' fnllll e-il II'CC , 11 Iwrson frolll the bac k, ll ovies 1I 0W u ll ow us 10 r('spond willillgl y lO sllc h tuctics , ruth er than reject the m us 100 blatan tly "ro llw lllic," Th e AlnericlIlI "Lurninist " la nd , scupe pu illtel's ha\'(' conH' ill for n sillli lnr new ,'('spect, now thut fil m-m akers 1111\'(' s how n liS no l 10 feur llrlistic cOlllpl'omis(' in th('i r lighting eO'ec ls, The Ame riclllI I~ o lll ilntic puilltel"s ' \'it'w or 1I111ILre lin d st rong lies with G c rllHIIlY, alld the ir tCcilll i4l1t'S o f Illud scape pailltinl! s how Ihis: the snme bltek lighting IIsed by Se hink('1 ill 18 1-1 ( 1.6) Wtl S e mployed in 1860 by P,'ecle r ick Ed",i n Chit I'c h, !\I ocle m ec hoes o f this l'c lUI ion I'C801ll11 e in t he ill flu ence of German fi lm-direc tors lind cille lHl.ltoj!raphe rs who camc I.lud IIIl1 (lt~ Ame r iCII Il ru ovi (, s ill a Oe rm lill HOllllllllic· R('u lis l gt'nre-l he fillll /loir, whl' re lig ht ing IIIl1tl('!'S so lillICh, 1'lu:':'o" bequC'lIlhNI tI d istinct ive killg· d om o f ci ne malic l'Culil,V to th (' Amel"iean imaginat.ino li fr , These Germ an fillll-mukel'S we,'f' themselv(' s 1IiIIIlI'til he il's to the old !\OI'lhe rll nl'tist s' m odC', w hich nSf'S light li S l hl' prirHl.lry l.I nillll.lt o l' o f feeli ng, Their movies helped later grllf'nlliolls of A III(' r icn n fihlHllll h l's to tran s lllu te the " gra phic" I)ict OI'ill l lU od (, i III 0 t he basic Sill 0' o f Ill odenl Vi8ioll, II lodenl feeling, und llI od e rll fUlLtlt sy, III pal'l th rou(!h th('lU , we can IIOW "s('e" F ri£' clric h, c hinkel , C hurch, II lId o lhe r pninters us ing s imilnr Romantic method s deriving fro m the ~ o l' th ('I'lIlnldilion ,
(
noh
M OV IN O
'0
1.6
PICT
KARl . "' K IEDHIC'II SCHINKE l ••
RES
(;(If}tlr
('olll"/t'I" brill UII',,.
Our modenl dillicuity ill aCllIully "sccillg" whut HULll)' people origil1ully (ouml so c1rcudful abollt MUllet's Olympia ( 1.7) ill t he 18 60's, or 'urgent's Jl/ad(lllll' X (1. 8) I.weilly ycu rs Illt e r, Hhows how mu ch til{' Clllllcrn hns c ilulIg'{'d Ollf\' isioll. Although it wus tllC' harsh. ri.'ulislicnllyerolic impact of the se (elllllll' por'l rliit s thulllctuully go,n'c offense. the "oiced objcctiolili were ubollt Ihe teclllliqul·-t!t(· application of puillt. IIie color find the lIlodeling. liIf' ullpr('cedcnll'd df'luils . The unb,'ufuble s('xillcss of these two \,pry elif· f('rcllt WOII\£'II is COII\'cyeclnot on ly by their unc(lui\'ocul postures, accouter · ments, lind expressions. but by Ih(' way they fire lighted-the up· rront.
flush·bulb dir('cIIH'S8 ill both IUl.inlings. Tht' lightillg CJPoses the women, nlld so 8('('IIIS to expos(' the unqualified \'igor or their sexuality. 'I'll{' veil lias beelllirted: they liN' too " gnlphie:' Th€' wry Jilek or fluttering tOllol gradntion-flHIt€'ring. tlull is. to the \'i('wef's art istic lind erotic expecluliollsgin's til(' portrllits lire ill a new dimellsion or Hrtis lic reulil.\'. This is not just
4I
tile II('W world of lIIod('rn pllinting, but 11i (' s ugj!('sli\,(' phOlo-gruphic world
llmt lhe movies lat er ('xpaml('(1. • Anoth er cinematic and in itil.llly IIIU1 ccej)tl.lbh· {'h'menl ill these two Plliul illgs il> their' oll'er of bOlh I!rllpilic rl~ lltiti(' s und cOIIH'lItiolllll (Orolic IIlltt £> rilll closely liukNI in 0111' imag(>. '1'11(>." cOlu hiu (' th e kind of thill!! thllt WIIS CO m mOil ill l!itylizt·d. clll'up (','o ticil (MlldlillH' OI.lIlII"l'IIII'S conwl ill g. coslllt'tics . und ori,.!'illllll," sliPlwd s ilo uld(> r SIrup: Olymp iu's sl ippe rs. l) uSS,velll. ulld
Il('ck ribbon) wilh till' eslllblis hNI cO lllponents of lit:' rioms B('ulislH (Ih (' loo k of lIIusch· IIlid hone. 10 say lIothillg' of will and ChllrllCI(','. 01 1 III(" f Uel'S IIlId
bodit·s o f bOI II women). TIH'Si' SHme CO lli billlli iOlls now produce the wholt.' vi·
slla l fluvol' o( the lHovie-swr iIlUl g£'-llir piquallt detai ls o r a WOIII
~,
...
•
,r
-• •
• I I
-->t.._'. :. , I.i J.; nOUAHU )IANt: T _ OIYIII J1ill
42
MOVING
1.8
PI C T U RE S
JOHN SINGER S ARGENT.
,\!adOIllt; X
Movi"U Pict ures
43
By the begilll1iug of thi s ce ntury. a wh ole gcnerali on lifter Mad ame X, eyes cond itioned simultaneOlisly 1))1 monoc hrome .'cprodu cl ions of pa int' ings alld by black-and-whit.e cOlllmercial art were bound to be well primed for the \·isual poe tics of black-and-wh ite moyies, even as they were finding modern I>aintiug increasingl y difficult. ;; High " and oo low" urt thus began to split even furth er in th e general awareness: pain ting carne to be seen in modern is t term s, and th e painterly antecedents of mov ies lost art istic credibility.
Color and Reality Authentic illu stration is not th e same as narrat iye a rt. The bes t ill ustrations give t.he se nse of an instant full of the possibi lities of t he adj acent instants, n \tisioJl of the phra se in process, not its cadence. Narrlltive painters who freeze a moment , like photographers wit h similn r aims. IlInk c a stat ic mcmorial out of a fl ee ting srco nd- an urtifi cinl cad(, llce, The graphic kind of iilustrntive spirit, on the oth er hand , ncve r tries to eternal ize an instant but rather to suggest (not nu rra te) 11 wh ol{' ('vent. Rembrnndt did it in both painting nnd grnphic work ; modern photojournal is m docs it; and th e comic graphic art thnt do('s it best is not the kind by Daum ie r or Busc h. which sh ows u sequ ence of funn y pOlOes d('scribed by th e artist's han d, but th e kind done by Pei ffer or chub:, which shows only the same two peopl e talking or olle person th inking in eneh fra n l(~ . Th(' words lil a)' nppcur to be the point ; but lIctually t he graphic vis ion of dcv(' loping emotio nal eo ufrontation or inner state is what gives li f(' to t.he text. Th e monochromy of such imagery aids its vcracit y, nnd our satisfac tion with it comes from Oll r cinematic underst.anding of life. Movi es turned popul a r graph ic illu stration into poet ry and con tinu ed t he process of turning ecrta iu kinds of serious figurut ivc painting into gra phic art; and so t hey produ ced n s~' nth es is alld a mod('rni zati on of both. Figurative painting ha s cOllie back in to fnvor partly because of our cinelIIut ic u ..... ureness: movie vis ion hus mude it po~s iltlc 1.0 find H ..... Hy t owHrd a " post- modern " real ism ill pa inting it self, to forlll a bridge with all its old realis ms, pa rtly becau se of the fu sio n thnt t he popu la r graphic a rt of mill has ach ieved wilh traditional paillterly method s for appea ling to the modern soul. Old-fashio ned graphic illustrations, such us S idney Paget's ';S herlock Hol mes" pictures for Tlte St rolld Magozi1le, compare both wi th certa in pain te rs' sketches and prin ts Dnd with the co ntinuit y sketches (or storybon rds) made in designing scenes for movies. There is an affinit y among
c
44
M OV I NO
1' l C T U ItES
1. 9 EDO UAKD MA Ni': T , ,.hl Parat/i,. Lithogrttph
1. 10
WILLIAM C AMBR ON MENZIE S,
con tinu ity sketch ror
Gon ~
With
Ih~
Wind, 1939
.1I(lI'ill{/l-'idllrl's
•
-. .
..
•
1.11
ANTIIONIE VAS DYCK ,
Clld.t Carryillg 1M Cron. Sketch
sOllie of VHn Dyck 's prf'lim inary skelciH'Joi in ink Hlld wllsh , GOYH'", CClpricJws, lI oIIU' I" )j und PHgl"'S lIIugu z ilW ilhu.tl'lI li o ll S, ;\hlllf'l 's 81111111l ithogruI)hic urullll scc nf's , und tilt' slIr\'ivi ng !i hl cht"'!i IIIn (h' fo r "'Cf'I1('8 ill GOl/e lYjfll fl! r \Vjllli or H itchcock 's TIl(' Birds ({'WI! though thosl' mO\'if'!i wc rf' in co lor, th e I!Itorybonrd s for IlwlII sigllificlIlll ly did 1I0t lIi.'ed lillY) (1.9- 1.1 :1). The pict.orillllllc thod cO ll sists IIIlliuly of massing figurt·s lind obj('c ts both nC8r 8nd fur in deep buck-ope ning SPIIC(', IIl1d rI'ndering th em in piltches or light 811d s ha tl!' for lUu.ximulII e lllotio llal alld kinetic effect. All s nch works s how all urrallg('mellt o f light and shade go\'crlling the " o rd innry" disposition of significant e leme nt s. We Iherdore Illay no t f'lIsi ly " relld" the event in t.erms of composi t io n, us we ca n in 8 labl eHu likc pnintillg, but we fee l plunged into it wit h one glan ce, To understand it, wr mu st "watch" whut is hllPpe ning. try to f("("1 it out ; the composition itself does not gi,'(' IIway th e story , IlIudcli tio n th('re are 11 0 line llr cllresses or thr urt ist's hund to cmphasize snd direct the fl ow of mroning, 110 " writing" to il('l l> us, aud no "b"3ut y" to disl rtlc t 11 8, just as th ere ito no color to s wamp our IItt (,lltio n .
46
M OVING
PICT U RE S
1. 12 S ID NEY f"AOET , " Hiseyesrelllll>OlllheSliekin
l'lohnes' hand." 1901. Illust ration ror COllIm Doyle's Tlt e lIolHtd 0/ tlte 8(Jsktroilfu
The co mm on ru etor IllUong the m all is t he so\'creignty of chiarosc uro vi· SiOlillS lhe esse nce of meaningl'ul illu minntio n in pictures. And this leads to the idea thut ('VCII mO \' ies in color ure graphic- I hat is, esse ntially in blac k li nd whi te. In 111 (> so me wily. Ma llet's Olympia 81so is. lind Madame .Y. too. Th(' color in many color mo\,j(,s is a pure ulHcnity, a modern luxury unci not 8 necessity. Thi s s hows Ill ost when they are perpetuated o n black·and-wh ite telc\rision , lik e t he mobi lizillg black·aml·w hi le photographs of great paintin gs . The eurren t process of "colorization" used for old black ·and ·whi te movies does nothing ot all for their lIa rrative impact; but it se rves to give t hf'm nn updated look and the air of gencrnl opulence audiences now expect on the sc rce n us a matter of course. Colori zed movies don't look more rea listic. they j us t loo k morc lush, d el icious, lind expensive and th ere fore more
Moving Pictures
41
familiar to new audiences. To a ce rtain extent, color ha s remained irrelevant, as it was in I he beg inning, to the profound effect mo\,ies have on modern life. I noted earlier Ihat the advent of color for movies in facl created a setback in the quality of their realism, not an advance. The advance was in the unalloyed pleasure and excitement early eolor gave to t he sequenee of images, despi le its fruit-sulad , Curri er-u nd · lves look. Efforts at ci ncmatic unrea lity iron ically looked "realer" in color: musical co medy, historical pageantry. nature·adventure, and t. he morc ritunlized and opcratie Westerns. The pl easure t hese gave was the same pro\·jded by N. C. Wyeth and l\1 axfield Parrish figuring fort h legend und fsntnsy ill rainbow hu es. But tme "graphic" renlism remained in the rich range of bla ck-and-white imagery used for urban and tmburban melodrama, the fab les of organized crime, psychological thrillers, or thc Grapes of Wroth forms of nlrai grimness ,
1.1 3
FRANCISCO OOVA, Mala NQCIt~, Aquatint
from !.,o, Capn'd!o" 1799
48
MOVINO
P I C T U RE S
which derived most direc tly from Rembrandt. Color made Monument Val · ley morc beautifu l in Wes terns , bUlnol morc dramatic.
T he real ities of both wild nnture and the unruly di stan t past are made (,8 sier to take in color, which moll ifies and beautifi es the IInfnrnilinr, the harsh, and t he dangerous. Moden l horrOI"S submit to the same beautifying effects , as i ll Apocalypse Now. Colo r keeps the m, 8S it keeps the ~'1 iddl e Ages or the Sahara Desert. unrea l enough to bea r. Spilled blood is mu ch more baldly horribl e in b lack and white, llithough it is morc exc iting ill color- und of coursE' m OfC bcnu ti fl il. Th e flavors of the psyche arc echoed ill colors, and co nsequently color has n historic connec tion with Ii.ymhol. In art, a realistic imuge using colors lIlay trude simultaneous ly on thei r sy mbolic mea ning und the ir d irec t sensory effect , as wh en red is worn by a dftngeroll s ly uUracli\'e wOlllan or wh ite by a young and l>tlre oue. Crealive perve rsity mny hu\'e euormou s play and produce considerable tell8ioll if impact. and meaning are mude t.o di ve rge, as when Expressioni s t. pa inters use gree n ror s kin or red for grass, or wh en un e,·il wOlllan wears whit.e, 8S ill th e lIIovi e Fatal AUractjQ1I . But. color see ms to fl oat free of real ism in art. anyway, e\'e ll whi le enhatlcing it. Rather it. is con\'entioll81 color relations. which have t.hei l' own perceptual reality , that artists fuse with renlisl ic compos it ion und lighting in order LO ma ke rea list.ic images look righ t. All color in art. is a code, as Gornbrich IUHi sa id, not. 811 imitnt.ion. Th e colors in color photography and ci nclUlit.ography a rc no -'reuler" than t hose of pnint , wh ich huve long adhered to Ilrti s l.ic conventi ons indepe nde nt. of nat.ure, and t.o the technical limi tations of the mediu1Il . Printed color,just like painted color, is a techn ical matter of great complex ity, and the photogrllph ic color-rep rodu cti on of paintings is a well -known technologica l pitfall. Usually no two color phot ographs of the sa me paint.ing are a like, IU ld few are like the painting itse lf, wh ich in turn i~ oft.clI not lIlu ch like nature. The "reality" of color in photograp hic reproduction or in d irect. photogra phy find cinelllsert flow er blosso ming aga in s t the drab sand, the glistening emerald insect. in the harsh crevices of th e bark. 'I'he se nsuous power of color photog-
Cpyr
tel
MOl'iIlO I-'ietllfes
raphy Iwlps to c mphnsi r.c the dishlll ce bet wecll wildlife and our life ; tlnd color 1I 0 W ('1(,"lltes Nature ill io Ih e highes l sphere of Art , to di s lillg'u is h it fro m ~ I all . especially 1II0d ern Western Man , Thi s is allolher way that color CU ll sllggl~S I t he cc leslilll p lll ll , whih' bluck lind while sllIlIds fo r 1II111llil.lne arrnnge ll1 e n ts, '1'1If' gaudies t. \Veste l"ll fi lms ( /10 /11' , /)(I!J,... of /l n tl 'ell ) hm'e ulways imsisled lLt'u\'il y 0 11 th is cO II\'c ntiolllll HOll ulIllic di\'isioll iJNwf'e n sce lle ry alld hUlIlli nily, Apurt from tllf' i!o;iHU' o f colo r , ol d lIiIlNf'l' nth 'c(, lltliry ROllulIl lic, Rf'lIli st lerms d efined ord illlll'Y I)Opul ll r lIIo"it~ S us II piclOriul g em'e lind c n'uted th ei l' IIrt istie Illlld scl1pc in th e mode l'lI imagination , The c hia roscllI'o film mediulII , like )luinl ing in t he !{ OIl IlUll ic· !{('u lis t Il'adil io ll, fu sed Ho malltic i d enl ~ aoon 1 I tH' sowreign ty of fee Iiug wi 1. 11 (11' 1ui Is of IIclIl (' vislIlI l ClII' I't ll CY, T hill is how 1l1O\' i(,s could I! i\'e l'Olllllntic 1IIl1'I'uti\'p II lIIodel'lI viLulit,\', j ll s t wh ell mod e rn pllin t ing bega n Lo f1ud il II st--.lcss and pmsse. Pai lll i ll~ became accept IIble a s leg i t illlnt e ly abs t ra ct: but del iiJcrah' ly lIbSlntct or' SII rreal ist ic Ii 1111 was upl lo be experienced us II d is lllrbi n~ d t~ Jla rl ll I't' from I hc ro ma n tic stlllldnrd se t by the g reut popuhll' Illltst e l'pi('ci'S of mclodrulIIlI, comedy, documellhll'Y, lldn'lI1Url', und cr im(' cn p('r t lllli g llve 1Ut)\' i('s 1lwi .. ge ne rat ive pla ce ins ide the wo rld 's fallLlIsies , All tllesl' I!(' IU'('S take pic lo r ia l reali s m for th e ir s till,ting point. 'r hey proceed iJy calling attention 1.0 the ex ll'lIordi · nury in t hl' ordillllr)" lind t hey ll11fold U J'o li ulIltic ta li' IILdde ('lIt il'ely of /'l' a)· is t ic pic l.ul·es con tuinin g thai SII IlI C pHI'adox- lI con t inllous flow of directly I)rese n ted nCluali Lie s, bUI ('lIc ll p reglllHi l wit h poss iblf' IIwHlling lind ellch givillg bir th to th e IWXI, II SO l" 01' perpl'lUll 1 \'{' I'IU('('r or' ).) UII CL. 1111 o ngo ing Go~'a . all elld less I loppf'l', hut used to c rt'II Le II fuiry lale n ot lUu c h dill't' re llt fl'olU " Ci llcie rell u" o r " Jac k Ihe Giuu l Kill e .. ... Oth(, l' kind s o f fil m Slrl.l;n a~aill s , thl.ll standard. III fi(olsio ll, Oodurd s)I' cifi cnll y brings up in the dinloglli.' tl!('II\'llI lt ' fwrd(' film-lIlnker' s s tl'll g ~le ngaiust t he I'ol'ce o f .. tbt, s t tll'~'" in llIodem ci lle lllll tic eX I)('(:tlltiollsultho\l gh it is 1I leg il illlllH' rorcl' in ('x l>t'c llll iolis a bout graphic urI. whic h film is by d c fllli t ioll , BUI f,!' rl1 pilic "story" lIerd 1I0t be 1\ IIwlod ruma or II true · to·l ifr IlIl rruliw', o llly t ill (,lIIot iouully slltis fy ill~ dl'ulllutic Sl'qUf'Hce. like II lIIy lh- UIl ('IIIOll01l1l1ly rCll listic dl'llluU !';II CIt liS til{' gTNlt phOLO' grnphic illustrators li kf' Remhrund t o!1'e lw l. or t hf' g rent illlllll i nl.l l in~ pain ters l ikl~ Vl~ rll w e l'. F'il lll ' lIInkpl's lIeed ollly do t hat. as AIILOlli oui d oes, CS I)('ciu lly in 1.' :E cl i.;;sf' ulld I.AI .\'uUI' (bo th , IIl1LIII'ully. in bluc k alld wh it.(,), IHld 110 pl ollllo re (>lu iJorl1le 1.111111 t he st.o ry o f illllCI' ShiH' S is requ i red to sut· is fy t hf' IU'NI fo r ' ·s lor~·." Bu t wi t hou l Cl1I ol ioll(lI coul in uil Y, It fi lm becolIJ{'s disj o iJlIt~d und i rri lat ing und (>llsy 10 fo rge t , I! owt'\'c r bf'1l1l1iflll. T hi s is be' cll use t he ve ry 1I1lt u re o f the chinl'oscuro mod e SetlS up the expcc lllt io n o f recoglli za ble psyc hic Illove nle li l.
C pyr
te
50
MOvING
PI C T U Rt;S
Si nce cinematography is only one l>tll't, of lHovie -makiug. whallh e audi o
ence eventually sees is t he
re~iUlL
o f II good d en I of r lludolll
c irCII UlSll1l1 CC
in-
te rmixed with the result of carefu l effort. Movie- makin g is intrinsically somewhat aleatory. partly because it represents the combined erforts of di· verse practiliollf'rs who art' not all aiming fo r the Slime thing, ar(' lIot eve n comp lete ly aware of eac h o ther's aims or sO lllcti m(>s eve n of th eir own. and
are not in comp lete agree ment about
illl ln e dill Le COllllIIOll
goals. One single,
absolute co ntrolling a rtistic purpose was impossible for t he popular movies that have shaped consc iousness. Moreover, th e U1o\'ie·cumera eye itself cun only come to some agreement with the phe nolllc lia unde r its gaze; it Cllllno t towlly control o r shape Ihrlll , having no lumds. TIl(' human hands and eyes that he lp the cmn era to give us its fhut! results, especi ally those of ed itors, mus t wo rk wi t.h the fund a me ntal arbitrariness of film footage itself. Ulti mately the viewing eyt" allows for a nd comes to delight in the flu); of c hance in any s hot. and that ve ry arbitrllriness becomes pu rl of th e stuff of the myth itself. t.h e romauce as well as the real it y. M EYE R S C HAP J R 0 speaks of all art fusing through hindsig ht after the Armory S how of 19 13, 10 c real(' a modern c rit ic ism that could nccount fo r the art of both present ilnd I)II SI. The gradull l IIscendllll cy imd pervasiveness o r movie-ca mera visioll hns ulso done t hi s to us , nlthough without o ur a c tually knowing it. c rentillg both n 1U0vie·goer's response to past art and an art \·iewer' s res po nse to lUo\'ies. We did not kuow this wa s happcni ng, because for a IOllg time th e poetic c harac ter of gral)ilic filmimagery was no t so consc iously perce ived as were th e things thnt linked movi es to theate r . Movies we re allowed 1.0 be emo ti ona l im i er i aill/llelll , but art was supposed 1.0 be judged by modl'rll s ta11dlJrd s thut precluded putting their emo tional , illust. rat ive, and drnmlJtic qunlities fi rst. But movies stirred up respo nses lhut had alrendy bee n schooled by the ubsorptioll of old pictoria l c ucs, transmitted through illus triltions that used th e ol d fo r· mulas 8nd through the graphic reproduction of pas t art. Many early mov ies were s tagy . Vaudevi lle turns and other lhentrical 1UUt eria l we re I)rese nted us if seen insi de u s tuge fral1l e. lI ota picturc fru1rIe . In those ea rly days, move ment was the point, not cameru image ry. But th e more the medium advanced, th e c loser it come to its draml.uic pictoria l an· eestors and th e furthe r from the s tage. Authen tically ci uemutic motion is co mprehensive, surg ing in a nd out of the fra me and back un d forth in time like psyc hic move me nt. It is qui te un like the te lllpo rallan g uage of the theater, wh ic h moves along at a fb: ed distnnce from the wut c her , with COlwe ll ' tiona I s tage rhy tlmus gove rn ing it s phrasing. the s tage space enclosing th e a c tion, the stage time forcing the issues, a nd t he live performance itself in·
(
~ Igt";
tar I
51
Modl/!J Pirf'lI"es •
•
vOki ng (h e concept of $llcrtd artific(' " But trll(' cinemlltic drulllll III 1ll0\' ,CS and psi 1\ t ings follows Ii IILO\"e lll f'lIt sim iii! r 1.0 Dide r'ot "Ii ~e ll "'f' of h is own soul
as
" /III
lab/ean mOlleoll/": As :\iichuf' i Fri l'Ci l)uys, it works as the ,'eflection
of "'i nt ('gral yN constuntly chung-iug being:" Alld Ihut is the slory" The ClIlllerll, which ill still photoJ!ruphy Cll lliook so objPCli\'l'. in motiolJ is 1IH' narrali\'p v('ss('1 of subjec li\"it.\' it self, lik(' Ih(' dreallier's t'Yf', or the pu illtel""s eye in t he idiosyncratic t.raditio n I will hal,'r be tracking, Not detached observation , n OI lin-Iy COIIIIII(,1I1I1r)" but tota l (,llgagf'lIJ('nt is what it o!T('rs-u 1)(' rsliasiw' lIess of SN-ill!!, 1101 liS U1llh-rstulill illJ,C 01" us kllowlNlge. but us bcillg itself" 'I'll " work of s{'{' illl! is ""lId,',"cd so as to sigllify the illltlg(' of tilll(, nnd OU," 1II0v('l .r(' nl th,"ough it, liS Wt' "Il l ry to find lire COl"respolIdence bt~IWN' 1I Ollr ill wurd jOlln."."s lind 1I1i' 1II11I"eil of olllwnrd t'\'('nts"
I
(
~ Igt";
tar I
TWO
The Pi teenth Century
By
TH E
of the fifteenth ce ntury , "';uropcu ll pllinting had YI\nQui8hed spacl~ und fre ed itse lf from ob('dic llce to th e flut su rfnce that hud d ictat.ed Ih e nil t' s (or fi\'{' IIl1lldrcd years. 'I'h(' bou nd B E 0 I NN I N 0
ary of n picture th ereafter beenm e a gat l'wny to llnother world, rathel' than a box (or tl'casu rl'S that might b(' conh' mpillt cd wh ile t he)' kepllhe ir pln ce, e mbedded in gold or fixed ill IIbslruc lio n. Durillg tl\(' previous century. when sClI lpt,Ol'S au(1 illulIl innt.on; liS w(·IIIII" pnilltr-rs s l l'U~Ufl{'d to recnptllre t he SI)lltial illu sion p rnctic('d illllllt if(lI i ty. progress in su c h ('ffort. was inter natiollnlly s hnred. J ellll Puce lie, pain ting IIHlIlll sc r i pts i ll Pa ris ill the 1320 ' s , coul d lise mllt('riaJ developed n d ecllde before by Ou ccio ror his two II ltul'picecs in iell8. 0 1' by Giovunni P isil no 1'0 1' his I'clid sculpturps in P i, stoia. Frellch , Itnl in n, unci Burgli lld iu ll arti sts fre e l,v lenrned as mllch rro m cuc h othe r UI!! diffcl"Cnt loculities li nd d iffc rent lIl edill 8Howed , And gradlltilly solids ngnin (,Illerged froll1 t he plan e, scu lpture ngai l1 stood free, and pictured 111811 ell s l hi s s hudow. Aft.er the eO lmn on battle WIl S over, iuclivicluill illt erpretlltions auel celebruti ons or t he s hnred triumph of illu sion ille\'itahly uppeared. Fle mish, Dut ch . and Ge rman artists call1(' to pursu c visua l gouls differ ent rrom t he o ne (w I illn classicist Ii sou g ht. '('he revival or !lnt iqu ity WtlS an (taliun preoccupat io n, ulld til(' iden of it ",us seized OIlIlS 11 mea ns to c rell te II version or cosm ic orde l' in the worl d nlld in th e lIIilld by menllS or urI.. Pnllofsky a nd others huve desc ribed the connec ti on betwee n 1111 ideui i7. ing Renaissu nce Neopla to nism and tlw idea o r order in Ita lian a l't-II link that contrast.s s hll rply with thc cOllllcet io n be tweeu Goth ic ~ or t hcrn a r t a nd a med ieva l Homillal ist philosop hy that sees fund amental IIwaning in discrel c phenomena , Apart from the idea thttl minut e IHl rticulars have infi nite s ign ifi ca nce, th e pr imury influ ence o n the fifteenth -ce ntury p ain ting' of Nort hern ElI -
c
,'ope WIIS tht· illustl'llli\'(' impIIls(-' that. ert-'Ilt l,d til(-' grt'at IIHIUIiScript illu lllinutiolls (rum thaI r('lo('iou, III hoth th(' fourl('('nth /Iud fil't('{'nth cen tu r ies, illustnltNI books Wl'l'e IllOr,' COli 11110 II in F rtlllc!' Itmllh(-' N('titerllllld s thlll1 aL lilly otlH'r Lillll~ o r plllc('; lind by tlH-' I ;l!JO's thl' artis ts who IIIlldl' tlll'lII wCl'e pushing pict Ol'iul limit s flll'IIl(-' I' Ihllll ilnY01I1' (,Is(', Italiun s inc\lIdNI. 'I' he uimN of i l ht~ lrll t ioll , liS mode rn ('yes cOll ccin' it, 111'(' c('J'llIillly weil s('I'''NI by Ih c idea thllt IIlIi\'CI'8111 meaning dw('lIs in cas lin I ilc tualitit's, ill SI)('cific pxalllpics I'atllpr Ilulil ill OIH-' it! "111 forlll, in Sl)('c ific time rutit(' r lIuw (-'t('rnity , Such IIsSlI mptiolls ppl'Ulit. llll~ pl'ovi8ioll al (1'llIlIing of SCI'IH'S lind the opI'uing lip of possible spac(' 111'011111 \ til(' lIeI iOll , and ulso t hI' llS(' of rUIl dom pht'1I01lWIIII ill Sllcn~d illlll~I'S to sugg.... st till' sacrl'(hwss of tht' rando m ill lif.· its(-'lr, Book illustrllt.ioll , ill which such visunl 1I0tiollS wel'l' fir'sl Sl't I'OJ'tlt , WilS an ill t iumte art spcking dil'pct impacI 011 it si ngle \'iewel' al cios(' 1'osp, ')' 11 (' divillt~ phlll is Plitpilt ill till' divi uc I!mbjt'cl IIIl1ttcr-Lhe Fnll. tilt' 111cn rllt1tio ll , til(-' Pnssioll, IIHlI'lYl'doUlS Ilud lIlil'llcips-hu t its I)(-'rsollill menn · ing, s uc h IlS n Book of I-lOllI'S for pri"lIte USt' would properly convey, is embodied by the pierc illlo('Jy specific pic to rilll method , III the ill ullli ltlit ed works o( the Boueicaut Muster ul tilt' tnrn of the fiftp('nth cen tul'Y. ror ex8mple, cllc h shllrp bend or tht' nl'lIl or ungJe or Lh(' rlll'lIiture, eac h fold of the robe 01' sWllg of th(' callopy cllllllors ror individu al ntt(,lItion , No r hyt hmic hurmonizing und foc using technique (-, lI ables the (-'yp to s lide o\'er tributary Illilteriol to 1\ celll rll l ico n , N(·wly dj'\'('!OpNI pen;pectinllllrrllllg'I'lIIcllts givc the setting a spat ial conviction thut allows the scene 10 be ope n-bucked, open-sidrd , 01' set lit 3n I.llIgll', so t hat the s pact' stays in mo tioll , F eeL point ill s lightly different direc ti ons, (-'ach hund has u st'parllt.e notnhle gestul'e, heads are nl d ifTer(,IlL le\'els Ilnd tilt or tUI'll lit what spe lll S like indi \,iduul will , A corner or the book sticks out O"Ci' the tllhlc's edge, What unites suc h scenes fo r tlH' eye is a new Wily with light alld texture, 811 Iltmosplt e re, later perfected by the Fl e mi sh panc l-painters, Ihat gi \feS t he sellse or m iraculolls common p resence to many dispurnte things-the
C pyr
te
54
MOVING
"J CTU RE S
lutrm ony thut the eye autollJlltieuJly creutcs in IIctuullife. The very displlr· ity of ohj('cts mennwhilc suggests the idea of subject ivity-the uniqu e soul under God's c.yc, Ow uu iquc object under the light. To look is to be personnlly ellgnged , 1I11d identified with particularity. Th e sucred story being il· lustrat ed is offered in terms of experience, not or eternal and trllnscendent tnll h, and 80 tht' very forms in wh ich persons lind things uud their relatioms nre cast lIIust have the provisional and ulH:ertain look of livinJt, which is governed by the nature of chance as well as by natural Inw. The Northenl pnnel-pnintcrs who built ullOn the illuminators' discover· ies lind methods lIutde inte nsified use of tl.em to the same effect: direct spiritual persHllsio n and present engagement. Th e further explornt ion , beyond t he tech nicnl scope of the enrly illuminators, of ways to render light nnd to order !ipace continued the sumi' ntlentioll La intcnse plirticllinrity and ecce ntric perspective, so that t he eye (and COnSe(IU cntiy t he soul) has COlU,tant exc rc isl~ inside tht' picture. No heavenly repose, figured rorth as t he perfection of perspectivu l coo rdinates. as a cndence of cQtl lrapposto or a rhymi ng of folds illld limbS , 110 triumphllnt sUlllmation of the creativ(' power of reaSO n offen; a happy refuge for the eye or distllllt, promi se for the soul-such 8S we find it in Piero deJln F'rullcesea and Bottice ll i nnd Domenico Vene1. illllo. In Vall Eyck, Van dcr Weyden, and VAn der Goes we nre showlI that b('auty cannot b(' abRtract. Thl're is nothing art ca n do to fix the uni,'erse for lIli. This proviliio nul f1a"or is the fuudamcntal charncterilitic of nil Northern painting beginning with Van Eyek, und it bea rs a striking resemblance to the cha racteristics of Clllllcra art--especially movie·camera art, which Ilims to illustrate the flux of experience rathe r than eneJose one event in a ile fram e. Narrative ill t his kind of picturing is a matter of co nstall t flow, so that what is " incidental " is al .....ays the s hul'p-edged look of the world while something is hapl)C ning, not the in cident itse lf prctie rved in a fiction III completeness. The artistic form used for the kind of painting I.hnt aims to " illuminnte" in this ci nemntic way has to combine a precis ion of optieo l effect with a vast lack or fixity or closure in each shape and each spatial r('lalion. In writing of The MadotulU i ll the Ch.urch of Van Eyck (2. 1), Panofsky has dcmonst ruted t hat the image shows t he Virgin (18 the church liS well 8S ill it, her hu ge size in proportion to the interior be ing t he sign or her filling it us if it were a symbolic niche , of lhe kind eurlier painters used to house her, with the sU lli e symbolic I)Urj}ose. so that she embodies the church she inhabits. In th e raised chancel, angels say Mass before her nltar. The rllys of the sun come supernatu rally from lhf' north to st rike through the glass aud hit the floor ill patches with b reathtaking n81urolism. but defying natural law to obey symbolic law. The sunlight stands for heo\fcn ly light , here
, " d
2.1
.lAI' VAN ":Y C K .
1'h r i1l uc/olllw illl hl!Churcit
I 56
MOVINO
P I CTUR J-: S
contravening the nor mal nclion of ordinu ry light thul comes from east. or west. I t I)C llelrllleS the ch urc h without breaki ng t he gIns!;, just os the I-I oly
Ghost entered and impregnated th e intact body of the Virg in, in direct oppos it io n to the Jaws of the fl esh. T h is imuge, hell\" il)' slituruleci wilh symbolic mClI u ing, 1I(,\'c rthe less hils Ull airy. natu l"lIl we ightlessness, like n visio ll in u drf'am or II sequence in II film. The cil l hedrlli int erior is viewed Ill. Ull 8ugl(', TIl(' perspec t ive and lighting are so nahmll tlull. t he c hurch seems full of moving /lir, and t he viewer himself fee ls in motion inside it. We ft'el ill particular the steady impulse to shift It litt l(' t.o the Jefl, so Iilnt the r ight side o f th e IllWC may li Ppear, the c ross and the nltur in the sanet.lUlry may ar rive a t the center of t he framing arch, and t.he Vi rgin may s tnnd perfect.ly aligned berore it. under the npex of the frnme. Th e IlI ajl'st ic Vi l'gin is meanwhile hl"rs('lf e n routl" aCI'oss till' nave to t.nke he r place in thl' cCIl t.er, gently swaying along us s he rollow8 t he Interal direction of her own gazc, he r IIllwlle trniling behind. Her hair is tl cloud in t.he ce lcstial radiullce, wnft ed in the breeze mude by her progre~s, S hl" hll~ already passed the prese nt, ce nt.nl l axis or the frnme: we must. move quick ly lertward, to be rcndy when she tuniS to s ttlnd IIlIeI fnet' li S. Th is is not iI s tatic icon , bu t the picture of a process ill which we s luu·e. Tile solemllity of the eve nt is not fractured bu t. in fU CL specifica lly CO IIv('yed by its urgent ly lifel ike and dreamlike alnbie nc('. FOI' thi s sw{'ct.- rllc{'d a nd thin-fingercd Virgil! with hC'r IClldel'ly iuc1illed heud, whose c rown nnd ca pt> seem too big ror her, is not only walking but. g rowing ns wt' w(l tch. We only slowly I'c(l lize t.hol s he is nlready fift y ree t tall , Ilnd SOOIi will fill liIe body of t hc building with her mi rllculous prcse nce, IJlotling out the cr08S. the uitllr, 11Ild til(! c han cel wi t h her ow n body. lI er c rown will reach the roo f, s he will b('co llle Ih<.> ch urc h, and Lhen we will wnke up trunsfigured a nd bc1Il 1l~c d, bl ink ing in the COHllllon daylight. This grel.lt holy vision into which tile wllt c h('r is so towlly drawn wa s pll int ed in the lat.e 14:!0's on a pllncln lilt l<.> over twclve inches high. itself till illustrnlivc und t.rcil niclll mirllcle. S illlila r cinClllulic effects are produced in an cll ti rcly different mode by Hu go \ ' (lII del' Oo('s in the MOIl/orle Alia ,.. 1I0W ill Bed in (2.2), whic h meus· lIres roughl y five by eight fCN unci Willi pllinted ill the 1470's. Here the s plice secms to tip up in back as if t.o spi ll the figures t.oward t he \' jewer, whi l(' at tIl(' sume tillle the kings alld followers e ntr ring at right sce m to be nrri\' ing from scwral ulIgl es, cme rgillg in mid·step and lIlid ·gcs turt' to fOrlll vivid but un clear human s hupes muffled ill rich s t.uffs . Th is whole suitf' of IIlligi set' llls to bc' constantly ar r iving, Ilou r ing onto the sce lle hnph(l 7.n rdly beforc rcgroupillg for some cli'nr, stutic, elegunt pose t hut never jell s. These a r riving kings seem t.o be ill lIIotion, becnusc tlw eye IUli st kef'p
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
Th e f' jflcc lIllI Century
2,2 I-I UOO
\'A~
1)10:1(
OO t:~,
57
Jlu lI/u r/ I' Allur,C('IHra llln l ll'l
mo\'illg 0\,('1' tl\(' figur(ls to seek II hllrmony for IIII' m, 10 crt'ate.1 r hyth m thcy 8e('111 nul to ach i('\'(' for lhrlll 8cl\'{'s, Olily thr cell ll'lll figures fOrlll COII\'('nliollul illlllgl's-thl' prllying king, I lit' iconic !.;('ltled Virgill-lIm! thesc lire ~ubject to t he spill ill g-fo rwll rrlnc lioll 01' lil(' lipp('d floor, t Jr llll ovin g, lilt',\' ~l' ('111 to 100 111 liS thl',\' sit I"lJtlU'r high in Iht' fnllll£', W (, look III the knceling king sl rll ighl 011; but till' fil's l (,IIL f'rillj{ king at til£' riJ,!ht is s('t'll from below, und W(' look Ulllludl'r hi s c hin, Suddl'lI l,v WI' 111'(' kU('('li ng 011 IllIlt fl oor 0\11'srlvcs,lllongwitlt J osl'ph uml t ht' firsl killg, '1'ht, SIOlJ(', Ih(' flowers, lhe gol d gift ill Ih(' for('l!rollH d ar(' in shu rp foclls I'ij!hl 1111<.11'1' OU I' downwll l'd g'l.I7.l', l.IlId thi' SC(' I\(' SIl I'Nldi; up IIml back ill IJ sli g htly disturtcd , fmglll('lItt' d ~N of discret(' iIll Ugl·S. '1'hr Iw r fi'ct Vil'gill uml Bub,\' lII uillluin Iheir fixe d bCIl II\ ,\' ill Iltc c(' n \(' r of 0\1 1' olHiclt1 atll'lIliun-though 1I0\' s iglli fic lilltl y, ill th e cc ltl c,' of Ihi' piCIIII'(' , '1'11(-' \'isllul ph ellomelill ill\'ohd ill tltis pailllillg 1I1't--' \'el'y like what happen.!; inll clllllllif('. 'I'h(' I'(' il:l II foclIs of 1I11(-,lIlioll, lind 1I1111118t1lbl(-' sri of int pr{'ssiol1l:1 surroullding it Ihut Sl't'1ll t o claim 0111' ('ye, shoul d \\'{' 11'1 il s hift 10 tlt em: ifw(-' d on' t, th l',\' 8('(' 111 to 1110\'(' I1 t liS , to s('('k lIolic(' . I3l1t til(' <'.\'<' do<'s 1(,1Ie1 11I1I1I1'1111~f In s hift, UI1c1 it wililiutollwlicully J,!lnllc(' O\'t'r th(· SlIrrOlllld·
58
MOVINO
PI C T
RE S
ing cla ims to its attention c,'cn while concentrating, and even if Lhey don't mo\'c ut nil. Wh en lhe eye docs shi ft. it sees in perfe cl focus. There is no blurring of th e edges in this pni nting to s ugges t that an~'thing is worthie r of notice than 81lything else III nny g i n~ 1I second of scru tiny. The eye is invited to keep movi ng, al> a reflection or an echo of spi rilllll i m ovement-nOI to ca ress the beautiful, sti ll t racery o f cu n '{'s and lines, but to keep on grasp ing what keeps 0 11 happening. There is also iml)lied movement ill und out. of the fram e. lin action slIggested not only by the ongoi ng entrance of figu res bo th lll"lIr and far. but by the a rbit rariness of the (rurn e itself. The boundary is espec ia lly arbi· trary at the bottom edge, wh ich is the thr('shold of Ih e picture, the wny in for the viewer. In many Flemis h paintings and in later ones derived from them . thi s bottom edge is 1111 ambiguous barrier. It see ms to be sweeping toward t he viewer's own toes, attempting to scoop him up and engage him as the scene si multaneously slides toward him. The exact distance betwee n him and the action never seems fixed , no Illllller how fi,ti ll the netioll itself IUay be. And as he seems able to approach or retreat from ii, so 1-111 the other edges llIarking the field of vision se('1lI abh' or likely to s hift to corr('sl)oud . So also in t hi s process, the lat.eral 1.1lIgl('s. which delerllJill(, what will be cente red ill the framp and what will appC
Tlte Fiflcr,.'h Crlliliry
59
v('yt~d
by uny archa izi ng stylt·-tllP tlreel tllut ollce Illude pf'oplc call th est' works "prilllitivC'." VUII Eyck's 0",11 new met hod (or cOllvincin gly showing voltHlWI> iu space re lied 011 a IIl'W use of light t hat he combillcd wit.h t.he old fl oating look of the manusc ript seem's. H i~ r£'u lity i~ both direc t ly op t.ical a nd "l11otional becausc of its cl eve r fusion of fam ilia l' ullstable matl·l·ial wi t h HoU un fallli lia r Il('W scnse of prese nce and I.lcllI lllity. !l is works nl'e likf' old knowlI pic tu res comf' t.o unbe lif'vub le life . 011 the ot her hund Milsaccio, Van Eyck 's great F lol"(,lltinc eont.e ml)Orary, conveyed th e illusion ot"weight Hnd volume Hud p ropo rt.ionut.c dis tancf's be· twee n things in clltil"el,\' new s putial lu·rullgclllents. 1.0 which light c hi efly contribu ted as un ngc nt fO l' model ing fornl. The Ita lian s t.yle of optical real· ity was ma inly a ma tt.c r of space, illcludi ll g IU'wly ulldf'l"stundabl e relillions II ll10ng the bod ily PIlI'ls- a seHo rcit for c1l1rit ,\' nnd Ioi lubility, t.o s how how we ll urtcould rf'.. e h til!' mi nd t hrough thl' l~yC, l ll such u sc hellle, e mot ion i~ indirl"clly rtltil£'r than imHwdiat.(' ly arolll:wdj it COlllf'S frolll WOIl(\l'1" at the achi~'vcml'llt or 1I11~ al"ti s!. a SWOOII of SUblll il)s ioll to lilt' ]JOW(' r of art, n re · sponSl' bo ll l to ,'('vcall'd betl ut y itself alltl to i t ~ ubst.ract pow,'I", But. ill t il l' r'lcmish tnldil io n, t.11(' a r t ist is sWHollowed up ill t he subject as much nlicllted by the decora tive su r · face of t he pictu re, In Van Eyck, the surfnce ,'unishes, We are broug ht ins idf' t Ill' spucc, which keeps t.he l ilted floor und mnbiguou s COrne rs of the illumi na t ions, now so magn ific e ntly "reul ized" t hllt we must admit they were nai've only in t he scnse of be ing too direct ly t ruth fu l, not wroll g. In the fiftcen t.h-ce ntu ry Italia n a r t fou nded 011 t he lI('wl,\' d evc loped M i les of linear perspec thrc, optical tnl th hitS an entirely diffe rent effect-pa rtly Olll' of nove lty itsel r. The surface remll ins, but it has turned to glllss . We see into 8 framed unive rse as int.o a new heaven and a Ilew earth, 8 vision of reo ality tha t apes t he unrest. and u ncerta in ty of life only in te rms of pe r fec· tion. Not hill g 111 0ves except ill har mony ; not hi ng s iands s till l'xccpt. ill
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60
MOVIN O
PI C T U Ht-: 8
co m fo rt. Wt' s tlillci Ollt here, Iw(>ssing' our rllceH 1.0 th(' pUlle and s tul'illg'. hOIWIl'ss o f 1'1I1ry. 'I'h(> pic:huw l world rec(>df's into t he lIuattn illnblc piclo· rill i lllli ve l'sl'.• li nd 0111" fo ll ow. • 0111' desire IIIIW • Tlu"sf' SIUl H' c l1'('CI,I). 0 11 which th e power of th e c1ussicnl tradition is bllsed, II r(> whut cont illu(' to lila kc t he BII cicn l !:>tat lICS so ("scilllll illg. Bodies
lind dl'uperi('s und th eir iu tcrreill Lioll s see m r ight ruther tha n reul; they 1m\'(' u way of eludin g e motional identification. 1<'0 1' architecture lind (or all (orlll s o r desi gn , !'ightncss is wlUlt is wllIlted; but ill \'i8ioll8 of illHigined li fe, perfect l"ig iltncss, although enorll1o ll sly co mpell ing, IlIl1y s how a CC l' t ll ill • •• lII'id ity und iimitutioll. eSI)('c ill lly ill less 1111111 inspired works, nlllsplrmg lif£' it !;elf is rarrly right, IUld then only ill plltcites, Bu t clussitlllly cOll ceiwd 81·t IlI lIy II ll.tu rlllly be seen a s n corl'ectivc to life, I1l1d Ilt its great est. it. hilS hee n one-i t has t hllnged t hings. imposi ng its supe rior t ruth 011 the fuets , stulld ing firm in be hili f of 0111' limit leHs hopes. feeding' 0111' lo nging. Nevcrthele!;s it i!; the bro ken state of most. IIlI cicnt stutu(>s tiWl giv('s thclll the pathos of Ilctunl it,v !lud brings thcm nenr us, Un brokt'll Neoclussic upproximatiolls like 'I'ho rwllids(' II 's t.e nd to keep their disllllIC{" wher~lIS Michelangelo's delicilte ly ullblilunecd figures spen k directly t.o our c motio nal rcspouses, ollr aWilr('lIess of 1\11 the imbala llce ill th e a c tual (,X I)c l'i c ncc of the fl es h, EUl"Openll HI'I WIIS I.hus roughly divided UI) d u ri ng the course of the fiftee nth ce nt ul'Y betwee n thosc who foll owcd Ih,' classical aim s tllilt were 1111.('1' t.tI flower in the IIcadcmies of the next ce ntury. a nd IlImw like the Flemis h puilltc n; who cvolwd more slowly out of eU l'l ier, medi evul !Hodes and finally produced til(' triumphs of Dutc h and Span ish Ilrt i ll the seventel' nth ceutur),. In t he fifteenth e(,I1II1I'y th,' els!;siei1.i ng im pu lse was we ll in th e \'iUlguurd, su pport cd by both innovative intellec tua l thcory and intell igent patronage. At the e nd of the century a Germlln artist like Dilrer , coming with his cO lllpre hc nsi\'c a l't iKtie II mbitio ns ou t of a regional and llIediend Norl.ll c ru emft trllditioll, had no c hoice but to visit Italy lllld lay hold of the new eOlltrol of ViSlilll forlll e ngrncl{'red thc rc, At the ti llle the re cou ld be u generul in l.cl'conncctioli Ulli o ng nil ser ious urtists, SO far liS ambi t io n dictllted tllld geogral>liicullimil.utiolls permilted thelU to travel and sec one another's work ; bu t the charact er of IJatronagc kept iunovutio n to 11 m inimulIl (except fo l' the 1II0st celebrnted practitioncrs) , and that meant liD e xcessive borrowings (1'0111 heterodox traditiOIllS, Thu K the inci ividuul modes of separllt.c schools and separate studios co ntimwd to develop and re ma ill distinct. alollg wit h kuowli individ ua l hands. Fifteenth-ce ntury F le mis h, Dutc h, and German art.is ts were continuill g 011 l.lutOIl OIllOUS plltll s, dcspi te the pe n ·asivc Illid persunsive import.unce o( IIdVUlleed Ita lian t heories,
(
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7'/' " FiflcclIlII r elll ll,.!!
6I
Althouj.{h NOl,t hem artists' Inost s tllrtii nt; pa in l.f' rly lldnIll C(' was in Ihe n~ 1I11 11 01' tt' XtUI'(, ILS I'('w'ul ('ci by lighl, I.h(' ir OWII COlL lllI l'St ur SpUCl' til"
IIl linded tl vUI'i N." of pe rs pccti"c 110 less t c ll i ll~ tlnm th e fic ielllifi c, intell ectual It.uliull kim!. Not just th(' Van Eyck int('J'iol"s hilt lhf' IUlldfoiCnp(' st'll ings (01" I'(' II'II S C'III'istli s' Nllti"it ies illld De> posit iOIl S, 1'0 1' eX IlIllph·, huw' II com pl ete spllti nlH lltiH'lI licily t hat do('s not 1'C'qu il"l' nil," tOi{,I'iUlC(, rl'O IliIl S 1'01' IJ IIIl,di('\·lIll1nh·{'tc, Agu ill , il is still H mll tter or li ghting. It is 1II0st I'S Ill" cinlly ill IIl(' s(' Fl cillish puilllC'rs ' works thul th(' eO'celi"l' lig ht ing of tl1I' S('t · I illg bel! j lid 1I picl.lII·cd C\'(>ll t 01' PCl'sollage wa s fi I's t used to gi\"e a scell(' pi".\'c hologicu l d (' p th- a d('\" ic(' LlllIt hCCUIlH' stllll(hu'd ill ci u(, IIU1lic pui ntillg, us we ll liS ill Ci lH'1n1l its{df. Th l' l'e is II V('I'Y SOplLi sticll lcci 1)I'cc('(h')lt rO I' s uch (' tTec ls ill IIH' "'I!'mi s h lIulIHlscri pl i llulllintlt iOlls known a s 1hc 'l'ul'i n· M i IlllI J I OIl I'S , dat iug r1'0 111 be· r Ol'(' 1-l2f>, sO llie u ( which h1l\'(' bN'n nttrilllltcd to VUII ":yck. Ke nllelh Cla rk has cu lled llttcntion to IIU' (, lII oliolll.tl "('SPOIl Sf'lS c"cat cd by the ullprcce· dellt cd I'e nd cr illg' or ligh t Oil disllllll wall'r ill SOIl1(' of Ih('sc ill uill inat iolls IUl ('I1"eel. he all'Oo Illtri hUh~s to popu lar lu nd sca pp i mHg'(" 'Y ill thc lu \.(' nil1('\.(,I! l1th Cl' II II II'Y, und which ha s lI ulIl ifes tly CIII"I"it' d O\' ('r in to t li l' CO lli 1lll'l"ciu l pho tography Iw d CillCIlUl \.Ogl"llphy of our world. li c al so says or SOIllC of llll' I'urlier sCC' l1rs in t he VUII Eyck GIr t',.1 Aflurpier c \.hUl "lht' rr is II relllllrka hle S('lIse of oll r bei llg ;/1 the Innd scltlw-of our bpillg uhl!' to proceNI smooth ly 1'1'0111 fOI'l' ~roulld to di s tllll ce," Thi s s(' lIse is th(' direc t prod uct or t hl' light in g tha t S('I"\,('8 to ulli t e t he scc n£' with th e sctting and t.h(' vi l~ w (' r with t.h(' SC(' II(" 'I'hc ell'I'cl \\"(wks ('\'1' 11 WIIl' 1I thc lundsclI lw hils bl'Cl1 rc movcd behind II purllpct, us ill tht' ClulI1ct'l · 101' Rolin :\'Illdonllll, or whl'lI it Il pP(,ll rs tlll'OUg" II wi ndow. Th e light is IIllld l' 1.0 IILO \"C , to CO Illt' poul" i n~ dOWII f l'olll ih e sky OV('I' t.hl' d ist.n nl und ll Lf' lira I' SC(, IH.' liS well us o\'e r t he viC'wer with Ull en co ll1pnssillg 1I1111lrul islll, II bath or I"Clllitx Ihut. i ll clu d e~ the ongoi ng drulllll of life ill whi ch we, ns ordillury bc il1 gs, nrc bcnrillg II Jlurt. Ami so, throliKh its l"('u li 1. il1g age ncy. w (' Clln fe('1 prcsell lal lhe Bnptis llI of C hrist , e"e n tho ugh t he I>ictur(' or it li t the bot· tom of olle lIlanu sc ript puge is aboul six inche s wide and Ihl'('c it1e hes hi gh , The (' trccl dc pellds PlI l i" ('ly 011 II IIllllti fcst eX I)C I'i('ntilllli nk be tw('cn th e bnc kgro utld lind t lw main ucLion: the> opetwd de pths lUu st not. form II pain ted cll rta iu behind what is hnppenillg' , In the Inrge.llugllst, a mimyst('riolls Bapti sm b." Pi(,l"o dp\lll F'ran cescu, for ('x llll1pl c, probably paint ed t\ wholc gCtlcrlllioll III' tel" Van Eyck in uboul 1460 (2.;1), the itltlciscnpc ill ' clud('s th e vie we r 011 in Lc ll cctuul rllthe r tlllln ex peri e ntial term s . Thc pe r · rec i lincnr 1)(,J"speeti\'(' joius with the cxq u i~ite II bslruc t cillrily of ('neh pOSt' and figurt· - thl' c\'t'll h('mlines of t.he ilngels' dresses, t heir c r is p and level hcuds and 1('\"('1 wnistbands, the d i ~ h exuc tl,\' o\'e l" the Ce nter or Chri s t' s
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62
M OV ING
2 .3
PI C T U RE S
PIER O DE I. I. A f'KA NCt:aCA.
Tlt e Bapti'lI! oleltr",t
63 hf>ad lind dircctly IIndrl' Iht' hiN'alic don>-to de ny Ihe natural !'c"lity of till' 1>('1'(('(;1 IliudscnJl(' !H' lLiug'. The riv(lrbed upprouc hcs ou r feet. but the
sky and hills 81'('111 t'X(luisil('I~' p1J.!titr,d on II scenic elrop. Ihe distant group!; of c hllrncl.£>rs Ollll S('(IU('IIC(' of r('(!rdilll-t' scrims that might br lifted or rolled away. til(' who le perhnps easily rl·plnct.'d hy filiI gold behind the forcUlo!;! g rOllp. Tlw brf'IIIi1ll1killg hush in Ihis work is III« sudd(,11 absence of nil': we could lIot tlctulilly suryin' b('himi this picture plune. A l 'ir(Jill alld Child by CillUl d.. Coueglillllo frOIll nboul 1500. to Iltkf' a slilllal{,t'cxllmpic (2.4) , s hows 1\ wnllUlllliud IlItb." sl'a ted 011 a llIurblc bench and 8('l>nl'nl('(1 I'rom tile \ ' it,\\,f' t' hy n mal'hlp pllrll l)CI. 1'11(' distant Italinn hills wilh 10WIIS, bridg{'s. roads, ri\'{'I', and li v('!:>tock lIIighll.lS wl'Il be 1111 ex· quisil('ly 1'C'alislie 1I11>(lSI I'.\' bl'hilld her. Suffused, geul'ra liz{'d light Hnd pel" rt'Cl hllrllloll:'o' or colt)!' IIl1 itl' til(' Virgin unci Ill(' Iilllth;cnp{' ill Ollt' IhC'orrliclilly outdoor but II('\'{'rtlwl('ss IlI11UiIUl'lilisti c lind rOOllll ik£, pillCl', Wht'('l' (WIlling II UIY 1II0\,{' cUljually ill or 0111 , ron\'Hrd or blH:k, Tilt, Virgin und I h(' buckd ,'op r('r el' to IIII£' IlIIot hrr liS ou 1\ s tllj!'('-I he,\' ill terilct (:OI1C('I>'
2.-1 C UIA DA C OSt:OI.lANO, Th ,. l' irOi" tHld Child
64
M OV I NG
P I C T U R t:S
tUHlly !Iud. or COll rs€', bC'lIu t ifully, bill fhe d rum8 is ('nMeted Dilly in the fon:" ground, and only lwtw('(' u ;\I oth('r and SOil nlld viewer and pnillt('r. whose IUll nc UpJK"urs cOIU;picllous!y 011 the parapet hefoN' our eyes. Ellrl), dcsiglll'rs of slag(' se t s would similal"", l)Hint Ii sc hemuticlilly ope ncd-u p bnckdroJl (or d runlll , to sluml fol' the possi bil ity of alll' r lill t ivc IIctioli w ithout perm itting it, und 10 IDellte t he d r um s iU;elf i n II (:0 11\'<'11 tiollal conlt'x l -COll rl o r village, LOwn o r telll l}le, A system of IlpJ)llrelltly rf'cNliug painted Si reNs wus the earl iest mNhod: bu t distant I)uin led pUlchc8 of sea und ItlOllntaills or towers nncl bridges 1111\'(' sillce b('('n used for centuries in the Ih(,Hter as background sigllllis. to con\'ey the idell of the htrger setting ratlwr t lulII to pe rmit auy intt'rnctioll between it , lite pn'selll d rulllu. und tile viewer . cenic ruther th un cinematic puin t ers have long reliNI 011 similar devices. III t he lilll(' '1'li r ill- Mi lilJl lIIu nli script Bapti!w}, however (2.5) . sOIlU'thillg e lse has been S('l up. Just as ill the .1lolllorle AI/tlr. we have not only a constunt flow of air bill an ttppar(,lIt cOllstant flow of possibl(' llction bolh for liS ttnd fo r the players. Cllriststunds in 111l~ wulE'r. his h'gs and gt'nila\s bOlh conwnil'ntiy shielded by the foreground hllUk, where t. John crouclH's abO\'e him. The configurlttion of t his shore and bank is given the uatural upp('UrllllCe of a sln'lIllI with someone sh&l1ding ill it. if Ihe "iewer w('re liPp roac hill g t ile bllllk frolllil Ct~r l il i ll distnllci' . \Vc cUII'1 y('l S('E' 1111 of hi lll ; t he g rassy bli nk is ill t he wily . But 11 party of olhel' figures cOllling I.owll rd t he scene fro ln the dis lunL righl .a nd nlso lull f hidd(' 11 frOlllus by t he n('ar blluk. Cilli ol.l\'ious ly see nil of him ulreudy. We will. too, when we ge t to th<.> edge. T lu're is some pebbly bruch onto which lhr other 1)l.lrticipants unci spec lllLors will soon II r riw , lind from which Chrisl hali obviously waded 01lt; but III(' 1)H.in ter hus nol tried to show him wuding. 1'1 (' gives us everything else: benc h. baplist, Christ. Wilier. t)ky. li nd wilnet)s('s, surronndi ng landscupr . lind dis lUllt r ive r . BUI. he hut) allowed it all to nist in lhe conli ngrn l rE'al m of worl d ly eve ll ts ill p rocess . sim pl." by sct.Lili g t he !;C('lIe wilh 11 life lik(' luck of cm phnsis 01' sy mlllet ry, wh i)(' a rrangin g t he grlld uil l recession of hi ll s . buildings . lind wute r wil h 8 penopectivn l 8utho r ily con firmed by light. Theil. to show tlutl the !Scelle is in (liCt the BIlj>tislII of Christ, not u wllter gallic of SOllie sort. he suddenly I)roducrs the gold-shedding do\'(' ill mid· flight. dowllwnrd from u bCllignl." bending Ood H imself. But God is not. ill this scelle; li e is en l hrolled inside the initilil leLlerof the texlabove . This is a ve ry cinemlltic SOI'l of Hwilch. God's posture. beard , a nd robes II r(' also lifelike unci llSYIIIIII('lrica l. I-l is 1I100d attent.ive-bul H is flut gold backgrou nd shows I-I e lives ill I-: :t.crnily. und olily mukes U II nppClI rlillce hert', fixed inside t il{' s8 c rf'd lext Illat. has rcvculed H im to us. )I eanwhilr the Bapt ism goes on ill Ihr earthly sUlishillf' wht're we li'·e. Above God. ullothrr
fi :i
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r IltlU1t lUatu& Itttt ll~m"lttt ~ -tU)lttt nt lt~. C(l Jl)CtutJ 0$ mat_ gfabttUtl aautuUl
:! ,r. The Ht'lillJml of Cltrllrl , ilf'lail or illumination rrom Tit,. TurIH ·.!/,I"H lIuwrlf
sllOl rl'OIll lilt' ~11l1l(' fillII s hows 1\ flashhllck Sf'llllt'lIct' \\'lIith is 1111' ItlllilliJC)dy II f lilt' IIU 1'1'111
i, '(', I 11(' hi 1'1 II II
r s1. ,I 0 hII •Vf'll rs ht' r01'("
Ht'1 wc'(' II I IH'III lilt· It'S I ,
or \'oil.'l'·o\'l' I', CIlI1lU'cls thc' 1\\'0 ('\'(' lIls. This lLI'I'IIII~I 'I II('1I1 til' SIICI'f'd slIIJjt'cl Ilialkl' WlIS CO II\' j'llliollllll," IIs{',1 rol' 111iurpit'ct,S willi pl'{'( l t~I I IIS 1J('lflw silowi llg' 1'{'1f'\'lIl ll 111I1'I'/lli\'I' 1I1111{,I'ia l ill s !tIu ll SCI' IIt's-1hi'
('\'(' III Sill li lt' Ii r(' () r II su i III s h OWII III a 1'1 •\'1'1-<1
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11110\'1', til' Sel'llt'S frolll Chrisl's Pllssio ll hf'low III(' SC('IIl' (If I i i,.; ~lIli\'ily, 'I'lli' hi)! nltll l'pii'CC'S d('si~I1t', ll his \\'U." h1H'!'/1 t:t'n'ulOltilil (111\' 01', 11 WII~' ll r IlIukiuJ! IlHill!t·t!"('(I' I'('I IC!'S illu dil!lIifi,'d IIUUlIlc'r, d('lihc"'UIt'ly SIl~I!I' Slilll! 111lI1 111(' pic I U1'(' i I s{' I
r Wit S II Sill' I'I'lI pli b lit: )1111!('1I11 t. III{' S1111 it: p roj ('e I i011 II r It !IIys II' ry
plllY willi din'C'l'c'lIt aCls, Bill 1111' fjlllllilY of IIIl1ltiph· Sillillftlllt('llliS IIIlrrali\'(' ill II .. , Flt'misll 1IIIIIlIISCI'ipis is qllil(' difft'rt'lIt, f'S Ilt'c ililly ill thosl' ""('11
IlIclIlIlt'1I1
1111('1'
or li~hlill~ 111111 C41 1111lllSilillil achi.'\','c! ill ils first fI"arll'r. Thl',\' show 11011(' or 1111' llIlSt!','(, (It·· Ill'ullt'r 10 III(' 11Ir~(' puhlic N'lIth'l'ill)! or SlICrt, ..IIIIIIIt'rilll; I Ill',\' lin'
illiitc' CI'lItlll'.", IIfl!'r til., lI!;to\llIllill~ Irill lupll!; 111111
"HII{'
rull or printlt' illll'IISil,\', IIOW slippOrh'd
IJ~' udntllcl'd !t'l'hllilIUI',
66
M O VIN G
2.6
GE R A R D DAV I I) ,
I' I CTU K E S
Th tJ Bapl jsm o/Clrri,', eeulrsl
panel
67
Til e F ir/rell/II Cell/ury
Til l' 1;1"('1-11 ~'h' lIIi:sh 1.I1111q)i('CPlS of Ih(' latf' r flftf'l'lith cI'lllllr~' dOIl(, by Vall d('r OO('S, ~I (, lUl ing, nnd rl'lI rei D,wid Illuilltuill till' CillNlll1tic s ty l(' first d('velolwd by Van E~'ck , By 1 502~Gcl'll.rd David c9u ld pninl a Ba pl ism ex· plicitly showi ng CllI'is t wuding in II shurly woodlnl1 d spr ill g' (2,6), It is tI cool , ('11'g-iuc SCI'IIC lIllIl OSplH'I'icll lly I'IIIWIICNI by two dim fort,,,ts, 0111' "lid· 1('I'ing Iht' lI )loJo;llps f,'olll who III Ch"is l is j11u'li ng III I' i~ ht h('hilld Ilu' fo l'(,' g roun d SCNI(', u nd 1I110lil('l' slwdi ,,!! tl!f' IIII(\il')I(:(' ill tilt, h'f! distUllcl', wh(,I't' J ohn cif'l iwrs" s{'rmOIl. Da\'id WIIS It d('lib('rlltl'l~' II l'chu is l ic puint{'r: h(' had 110 difficulty d('ciliillg to cOlllbill(' llil'(,(' SC(, Il('S fl'O I1l S('Plll'utl' ti lll Ps illiO HilI' IUlldsCllpe ~w ttill g, liS lIH'di('\'li l Hl'tists hlid dOIU' , Hut hpl'('lIglli ll, IIH' IIrchllic d('vi cl~ is hi:Hlll t ingly I'l'ul i 7.('(1 ill 11101'1(>1'11 , su h jl'cliw, 1'\' (' 11 ill tl'OSI)PCli\'(' terms, as ir Dn\'id hnd dC'cided to lII11.kt:, II lII odp l'lI 1II0\'il' Ollt o r lHi ol d il lllll1 i IUlt iOII. Th e hilt:' illuminlltions I IH' lIliWlws 111'1' (,Yr ll 1II 01'C' griPI>i llJ; in I h('il' suh. jccliw !l m'or , Th l's(' millintu!'I' works IIII\'{' elm;!' llilin iti('s with thl' puill tl'!' Ilrll'r eSlahJis hiu g himse lf in Bl"Ugl's. ;\l ull ll scl'ipts WI'!'p d OIl(' ill work shops t hat ninwd to ('st.uhlis h u s tud io s lyle, no l lo c{'h'b rat(' a IL ill flividllul huncl. Indi · vidlllll Illi e nts cOlllbillf'd 10 fix til(' 1>1'f'Wli lill g chul'lICl('l' of ('lIch wOI'kshol)'8 product ; 1Ileiil'rs wou ld IJI' SlutTNI by rlllnily nU'lUUl'r'" of hoth s(' xes us well l:I. S hy em l)loyccs, lind wou ld g't'II('I'ul(' basic ltlod{'ls , from which a I!'r£'llt IlLllny s lightly \'8 ri NI illu st l'lH ('(1 hooks could b{' lI\lId,' in II cOluplll'lltin'ly s hort ti11lc' -like the old ~I G M or Purli Ul ollnl r ill 1I ll1illillllll'(' SMt of Wily, 'l'h(' Jl;luciio produ ct hnd II p l'edict:tblf' charm:: lP I',
o
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68
)IOVINO
PICTURES
ing rather llUl.1I doctrinal orthodoxy, philosophical understanding, or NjUletic harmony Ihnt. thes(' work!-; wcre specifically tailored to express a new inward. persollal, auel cmotionul rel igious lIIode thllt wns gaiuing 8trcIIgt h, and bl'ing expressNl ill IH'W d evotional books liS well as in urI. 1'11(' parlicuillrity ill tlwse Northerll pictures re flects a Northern parlieulurity of spirit.ulli desire. Their suiJj(>c liyc mood IlIuuiresls Lllut long-iug (or persoilltl npl}liclltioJl and meuni ng in C hristiunity whic h later gathered power, forced the reformation of the religiotls estubJ ishmcnL, ullci beeume the fouudulioll of Prolcstuntisnl----dclllolIstrllbly II Northerll pil e llollie non. gxcessivc p('rsonal pi l'ty l)ccmcd 11 North e rn pil e llome noll eve u ill the firte{'nth ceutury_ Thus thl' psychologicul dt'pth in t he J.'){·mi s h works had a re ligious na ture; but Ilutt SIIIII(-' look of d(-'plh, achi.'n.'d by th e cnllny manipulation o f light ali(I 11 (Iuusi-uwkwurd compositional program , also works perfectly for rf'udering tJH~ modern inJ]f'r world , 111(' spir itual realili('s 1I0W called psychologica l tnlths. Minut e s urface v€' ri simii itude t illl nl 80 serve lUi emotionni purpose ill secular image ri es, as inanimut.e things take 0 11 morlli alld psychic rather than godly meaning-as in Hi tchcock films, fol' exnmple. By the nilletcc ntll cClllury, II good dNtl of I>roteslilnt religious pi('ty hnd become trnllslllut('d into Word sworth 's Natund Piety-the sense of a cosmic IlI1'UlliliK ill IWl"'iwtl u l uffinit.y with NlltlII"'C: lind thllt in turn hilS bccolll(-' olle of the greut int('rualizcd pi eties of twcn lieth-eclltury America, where the movi es IUI\'c so brilliantly flourished. I IIIl1 sugg('sling I hilt. the perfect pictorial method for cxpres~i ng 1111 sue II pit'ti(-'s Ill rf'udy ('xisl.('(1 in Norlh Europell n uri : it. did not. Il('cd to be invented . Wh en it. was t I'allslat.ed into film , IlIo\·i('" becntllf' the true re ligiou s pllinting of th(' secuhu' mode rn world . Pllllofsky defines tllf' s('c rel of f: yc kiall pailltillg as the j uxtapos ition of the microscope and the te lescope: '; th(' simultlilleomi ,·euliznt.ioll und, in It S('lIse, reeonciliulioll of the 't.WO infiniles'-infinitl'simally s mall lind infi nit ely large ." Thi s; he !llso claims, is a s('er('l thut. el uded the Itnlilln s; nnd thnt is not sll l'l>risi ug, gillc(' their niul was pe rfect integrati on and not r{'conci liution , which r('coglli zes contJ ie!. Thi s reconciling wOI·k is exactly what film picturing is always do ing, blowing up ruiltutil.l e to hu ge size nnd s igllif· ien nct' whiJt· at thl' SlI m (' time ofTerill g visiolts of all e ndlef>sly proliferating' Beyond, in nnolher turn of t.he f> tree t, 11 room Ll'hind til(' door, It plain bel ow tlU! hill. Th e privut(' eOllll1l1lllion cnc h viewer hilS with n movi e has hl'C Il dcsc rib('d; Ilud it seems Ullctt lHlily s imilar 10 the private commun ion a si ngh' vi('wer ca n hav{' with a very smull, very real is t ic. and emo ti ollally c harged picture - 8 mic rocosmic vision that CIlIl overwhe lm . A ill rgc pllillting invites a I)ub-
(
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tarl I
Till' f' iflrl'lIllI ('r ll/lll'Y
(j
!J
•
lie IIlIdit'rlel' Ihnt is IIWiI,'(' of i' ~;I'lf as II J,!roup. likl' 11 cOII~r('g-utioll, A 1111,," piClllr(', lik(' it rllo\"ir ill /J tlark tliru H',.. ir l\"ukl'S H solita r'y pr'jva ll' cirt"1111 frolll (,l1c h sillJ,!lt' willl(,SS , TIL i!; ki lrd or t,n"~CI i:Wt'IIIS 10 haw h('f'1l whlll l ilt' ilIU lllimllo rs illlt~ l1d ('(1. Th('il' "C'lIdf' r illJ,! or distulICt' all ri PI'PSt'nc(' of II\{' l'UloCl'lIls \WI't' dorl(' for' d ii1'('n:.' lLt hoo ks by til{' SIIIIII' stu dio, I)t)ssibly l il(' SII III(' Irulld-Ilu' ~l llx imil ill l l ~ l tl Sh' r, who 11111." ill fa ct hn\'!' 1)1'('11 AI('xl.IlId{' I' B(,llillg' (2,7), t ' ll liki' I11l1l1y II't~ ;II1lL('IIIS of tlris su !Jj('ct, Ihi fo> mil' has only l irl'('{' OJ' 1'0111' ma in fiJ.! II T'('S ll!ld OUf' 01' two sllhs irlinl'Y OTH' ~, Tht' wholt'sa lf' \'iul(,II(;I' allti tlf'libf'I'IIIt' eI'Ut'II,v of Iht, sluu l,:"lIlPI' III't~ otl'(' I'{'li wilir tht~ t'COIIUIIIY of GUYlIlllld IIr.:' op licu l pl,t'cisio l1 uf it I1PWSI't'(' 1. ~o qUIIII tity of arti~tic."I,\' h'lI,t'f1 bl'l'lIstS, ciliSPNI hands, nlHl tlw tUUlultuous p ili IIi! up of bodi('l) is m'NINl to COIl\'('Y this horror: A sold i('r quickly 1'{'uciIl's Ollt to YlIlik a f('a r -st l' ickt'll \\'01111111 by hf' I' d,'('ss. b('fol'" sllf' can s lip Ollt of t hl' fr' I('gos s ll'j'lIl11illj! hlooti , A t hird \\'Olll ill l fllc('s us, s itt illj! ill tl lf' puddl(' fOI'llH'd by hi' I' ski I'!. on whic h lif's thf' bl ood.\' eor'ps(' o f /I s\\'"dd lf'd i"rlllll. I-It'r hu m l is lu'l pl pssl,v lifkc! ; li f',- jllw !l ro l)S 1I11 111h ly, It 1.111 looks likl' a II('W8PUP('I' pli ulogrll ph uf a Illud('l'lI11tl'ocity ill PI'uK "t'SS, B('hilld, l.l s impl e 10WI1SCII pe I't'CNi('s 10 JlWI'J.!t' wi t hat l'UIlC!U i I COlilltl'ysi(It', past Ollt' 01' I \\'0 sold il' rs IIIn\'ill~ ol1'lIl l1 u' Il'ft who stolid ly s{'{' k JlI'(,y ill olh(' 1' IlU l'ts of 10W II, III tlw distl:lllC(', W(' Cli ll just St'l' ~ I I1 I'Y
(
~
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tarl I
70
M OV IN G
PI C TURES
•
2. 7
T1t ~
JIIa.u acNI 0/ lite lIulDee,,'•. Illumination (rom Tlt t /latH'. of IMlbtiia CslMica
7'IIc "'illret/O, C(' IIll1ry
7I
The !\luxillliliaH Mastel' I1lso illu Sl ralf'd thf' Wny to Ca lvary twier in the lill lll(' wny. but Ollt' vl'rsiOIi is u clOS(, -IIP of IIH' oilie r . TIll' cu mel'u hil s first cuu ght th e whole procession .frolU a di stance, and liI e n zoo med in to COlieNl t rate 011 Christ's ha lf,length figure und the fu el's nearest him . Behind . the ,'e l'Y SUllie dista nt porliol! of Ihe cU\'lIlcude cun be see n, now closing its rUlIks und moving it bi t further Oil, But these two pictures, being destined for d iif('rellt books. would not hun been seen logether except by t he artist himse lf, imag ining Ih e scene wilh his ci ne matic eye . l\ l iniutllres with scculur su bj ects we re plent iful ill lutel' illumi nllt ed buoks , and in Books of I-lou rs they chiefl." illustnlted culcndars, to show ac, tivities propel' to the sellSOIlS ull d the llIonlh s. Suc h works also gllined lifeli ke a ctllnlity dUI'illJ! the cou rse of tl lC fif\.(' e llth celltll l'y. so that. the miniatures of Alexllllder BCll illg's son Simon from the first qUllrt er of the six teen th cenlu ry liN' like little dOCllmental'ielS of da ily life. un focused by tragic martyrdoms or stlCl'ed e piplu:mies , tlnd also lInenhtlll CNI by th e g rac ile, cou rtly rendering of earlier days. As always in this tradition, t he rC1l1 d ramn is in the move nU'1I1 of Jillhl lind nil'. as it gi,'cs breath ond pulse to 011 th ese Hllllleless nnd oft(,11 flJc(' less busy p('op1e shcllri llg s heep, c lJOppiu g trees, or sening' food b." lll(' fir£' 011 II wint c r's night wh ile the cut bllskioi lIearby (2. 8, 2.9). Alllh(' li\'illg fOl' IU s and titt·nc tioll. un like thos(' ill BI'Hegel's lurg'· works 011 s im ilar tliclH es . tlrc 1II1Clll phut.ic, 1Il1 rh et orica l, 1.IIld u IIstnrt li ng. Thl're is 110 irony here, 110 low cO llledy. no cOlUlUell lu .-y 011 hU1Il1l1I fo lly, The a rtist und hi s sllpe.-io l' judgll H'n t slay oul of s ight. so we 11111." nbso rb tlU' (J unlity of t hese IJIIsclfcOlI scioll S pcopl£' withollt. UbSOl'billg any edito r illl co rnmelltury. Th is also is n mod£'nl ci lwltlalic s tyle, II is the seriously l'omantic docu luen, ta ry mod(', II s£'d hy Curl Drc'ycr ill On /ct. (01' ('xnlllple. as well as Ol m i ill The T,-ee 01 Woodell Clugs. thaI slows d owlI physiclli ac t ioll so a l; to permit the expressi,'e forcf' of ligilt 10 a ct inslc'nd . to Illode l t he bodi es and faces ilnd im'esl them with II Ulcttll in g lhut seems to go beyond t heil' be llln-ior .
C pyr
te
72
M OV I NG
2.8 S IM ON 8ESINO ,
Wi Nter E L'ell iltg. II Iumin8tion from TIt~ Va COlta /lOll,.,
f'lCTU R ES
The ,.'jllccll ih COl/llry
73
THREE
The Sixteenth Century
By
TR E
END of th e nflC(, ll t h ce ntury. prin t hnd made it possi hie for illu s trnt~ d hooks t.0 luke ovc r pnrl. of th e fun cti on of public scull" ture and wall pai nting, and to begin the almost infinite mode rn ex pansion of visual liCe for ordinary peopl e. Th e way in which many people could see
the same image
WllS
individuali zed-the picture could come to the public
one pe rson at R t ime. Thi s in itself is the beg inning of cinematic ex pe ri ence, whereby llIany people may be gripped by so mething s im ullllllcollsly, and yet quite privately. Images designed [or slich a situat ion are inevitably tai· lored to suit it, as they soon wcre in the arts of t he sixteenth and seven· teenth centuries. Along with its old purpose 1:1. 8 public oratory, visual art became a word in cach private milld , a vision in each private eye. The partie· ularity of th e North ern tradition le nt. itse lf adm irably to this !leW kind of direct com munication . It has become a cl iche. that the invention of movable ty pe helped to sp read the Reformation , by its capacity to move ncw ideas- lit eracy itself among them- swiftly t hrough new levels and groups of people. Th is suggests that print is like Protest.anti sm: it aims to be generul, to break d own old hi erarchies, to offer the same thi ng private ly to many people at once, to ally itself with middle-class ideas of private commerce and private morality. An additional quality of printed pictllres is that they ca n do all this while using th e direct appeal to t he eye used in trad iti onal public art. With the ri se of printed books, not just the Reformati on-which was in fa ct more appropriately cOllveyed through the flexible medium of words than through icons , which were associated with th e old orde r-but all image-wielding enterprises cou ld address the people directly, through pi ctu res des igned to seize on th e feelings and persuade each sou l with indepeudent force. By the sixteenth cen tu ry internal developmen ts in art lent themselves to th e cause
The Si Jt ecnlh Cel/tll ry
75
of persuasIveness. Advanced realism could be used t.o editorialize with greater effec t thun cruder or more abstract med ieva l methodss a llowed . Except ill secular calendar scenes. th e psychological effects achi eved by Renai ssance illuminators were created to illustrate known texts , class ic and poe tic or sacred and Biblical : the fix ed subj ect was dee pened bu t. not advanced by the illustrati ons. The lim ited audi ence for th ese books wa s visually well educated , abl e to uppreciate t he sophisticat ion of th e pictures wh ile a lready having the text s by heart; bu tl iteraey, even among those at the vc ry highest level of society who comm issio ned t hese exquisite books , was by no means a univrrsa l habit. Each boo k wa s also uniqu e, slightly d if· fe r~n t from every other product of the snllIe workshop done from the sa me model s; bookmaking wus U custom bu si ness for 8 private c1ic ll t(' lc. BUl the emotio na l runge of illu strative method s wa s thoroughly explored, even though noth ing new wa s added to t he content. On the eve of the great public expall ssion of printed texts and of commer· cial graph ic nrt, these ndvanced illumin at ions were prophetic, from the ex· pref.isive point of view, of lIew ill ust.ra ti \'e possibi lities. Not just r ich co nnoisse urs bu t everybody could respond to the new personal direc tness of th eir vi sual rea liti ef.i, the new se nse of the pictorially poss ible t hat th ey expl ored. The lIl ost original th emutie eontribution th ey lIlade was that or the landscape subject, th e natura l sce ne voi d of sacred apparitions but frei gh ted inst.ead with psychologic al sugges t ions born of co mmon life and ordi nary light. Thi s, too, was prophetic. The early I)rin ted block books, comin g into existence in Northern Eu· rope ill t.he fourteenth aud fift eenth ce nturies at a lIlu ch low(' r soc ial an d es th etic le\'(' I, hnd had more motive power with much less emoti ve ski ll. In t hese devotional nnd didactic works, the pictures, carved on the sa me block as th e t.ext and bearing much of th e message, were direct aue mpt s to t.each or wa rn, to harrow up the soul or strike it with wonder. They did not deal with the august. sc riptural subj ects, and their st.y le was as harsh as th eir t hemes. But it. was su ch books that made :\'orth ern Europ(' the cradl e of il lustrat.ion, th{' pl ace whe re pictures were first most ilit illlntely connec ted with persolll.l l experi ence. Individual printed pictures were e\'en older than th e block books and had served simpl er purposes long before the spread or pictorial or te xtunl literacy. Playing card s, wh ich were th e fir st printed pictures in Europe, and simple devotional images were a\'ailable to t he public without having any speci al persuasive aim ill their pict.orial style. Heligious print.ssaints' images , Illudonnas, crucifixions, and th e like-were sold at shrines and fa irs and tacked up unframed on walls , or pasted inside box lids and cupboard d OOMi , with the primitive reverence now reserved for wallet photo-
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MOVIN G
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grnl)hs 01' pinups lucke d int o thl' mirro r I'rum e. E urly- firtec nth -cc nlury Netherlandi s h paillt~rs such as Van Eyck, Pel.nHi Chri s tu s, or th e Master of F IC lIla lie of te ll se lf·consc iously e mphas ized til(' braud -new rcnlis lIl of tiU'ir own tN:hniqu{' by including s uch s impl e pl'illts ill th eir panel paintings of inl{' ri or tSCCIICS, whe re tIH'Y sOIllc timr s appear la cked to t he willi of th e 1'00111 . Although t hi s !IIay d Clllons lrul e the se IHlint c n.' own se nse of superi or ity to cnHIt' 1' form s of nrl, llt th e sallie tilllc the mOlif su ggests a cer t.ain (('c ling of solidarity. nn awarenes s th at th e power of nrt itself trllll sc{' nds fnll.e bOlilldnries het ween high a nd low llim s , o r between old
themes lind
lIew
!Skills.
The tnlis lIHlllic c hanl cl('1' of the medi c\'ul reli gious prints (or indeed o r playing card s) gll\'£' tht"1II s o int imal.' un iml)()rI8n c{' in li re th ut th en' W8S no need for reuli s m in tlwi!" s ly l(' o r re nd ering. It wa s the latf'r paint.ers of sa c red subjec ts -Villi Eyck, Vun dCI' Weyd ell, Vun d er Goes-wh o added the p (' rsuasin~ el e me nt to the urtistic fOl'1I1 itsc lf, to bring the s tandurd holy images into s lulI'p "islIlIl focus. Bu t thcse new puin Lings kept the ir old IIUminous lire, e"ell whil e Ihey a cqui red lIew mllterial p rt'ciOHS!leSS and worldly rN,lit.y, Th eir new real is m could nol secu lari ze t hem. Meanwhil e, during the snllL(' p(' ri od a nd s till maillly ro r re ligi ous purposes, pictoriul jo urnalism lIlid se ns ati onal pi ctorial fi c ti on we re coming' t o lire ill No rthern gurol>e. At the tillie , print ed or IltIlld -puinted colo r was /I very e rudc ('le lll enL ill carly printed pictures ; the " grnphic" idi om pre vailed , and t he " color " o f black-ulld -whil e narrative cOJl s is tf' ntly pro\'ed th e most te lling. The bloc k books fl ou r ished in t he early fifteen t h century, sOllie in comic-book s ty le s howing speec hes written in banderol es . Th e mes in c luded e rypt o-e rotic litt le hti eli, " grnph ically" s howing th e am orou s re lution be twee n C hris t and the C hristian Soul, o r "graphic" illus trati ons for th e Song o r S ongs, 'I'll(' A rs tl/or;eml i was one of t he most popu lar of th ese bloc k books, d esc r ibing the trials bese tt ing the de parting soul aud illu strated with vivid denthbed sccll es showing th e d y ing nnm tc mptt!d by d emon s, as he li es surrounded by attendan ts bo th pernic ious und benign (3 . 1). Do mestic d eta ils- tabl es , c urtain s , ve ssels . pe ts-arc sharp ly prese nt along with th e dcvi ls. In the 1930's Pallofsky d esc ribed a link be t.ween s uch eorly graphic work!) und early s ile nt movi es , equating the exagge rated c rude lines engruved on wood with the crudit.y of silent·scr een a cting, by compari son with th e cvolved refine mc nts of stage ac t ing or of ne xib le penc il- und bnnlhwork . One llIay 1I0W go even further , s in ce film has go ne so rar, und see a comparison be tween Inter graphic works of utmost s ubtle t.y, sHc h a s t hosc of Rembrandt and Goya , with t he dramatic and psyc hological s cope or mode rn film a cting, whic h hilS departed as radically from stage a cting as
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TII r Sirlcrll ' h Cr ll/ // ry
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~=-~-- -- --3, 1 Tlt l' I mpuli" Ncl' of Ilt l' Sir/" ,lIflll. EII ~nl\'ill " rrom
" I. 'urt
UN
,lIo r j",. " (Ar, ,\lor/l' /IIII )
Hembrundt from c nldl' wood cut s. EV£' II more acuH·l y. PlUl of",ky 811.0 called attent.ion to th e " rolklori~t ic" icollography in ea rly movi es, espec ially cartoons , which is simillirly silared with thl~ j'urly bloc k books lind Ilarrali\'e Htrip prinlH: i' sadi lo;lll . pornogru l)hy. th e hum or ellgendered by both. lind moral justice , ,. ttH' primitive and inexhaust ible David lwd Goliath motif, the triumph of the seemingly weak O\'l'r the seemingly s trong," S uch thelIlatic 1Il0teriai hil S 1I0t llltt'red during till' c('lItury,)ollg hi s tory of film· making. allY more thall it ait er£'d in North ern illu s trat ive art between the Middl e Ages and the Renai ssance. What ait l' N' d in both cases was the t ec h· niqu e and it s effcc ti\'ell(·ss. The s ut is fyillg. popll iRr "folkloristic" themes relllKined intoct in bOlh . Later in the SKlIle es",oy Pall of",ky says of th£' film JlwdiulIl itse lf, "Till" probl em is to lIIau il>ulate Rlld shoot uns tylized realit y in such 8 way thlll the res ult hR s s tyle." This task is exactly WllRI thl' North ern 1)8int l'l"S of thl' early fift eenth century firlit triNl to d o with the grl'ol sacred subject s.
78
ll OVINQ
P I CTU ltf:S
Later, t he Renaissance illuminators we re able to do the same thing, imaginatively varying the sacred themes for their private viewers and adding unp recedented secula r material. But ~ or th e rl1 graphic illustrators wenl further , with a much morc flexible range o f subjects, These artists, of whom
the greatest ea rly-fifteenth-century ones were Schongauer. Master E.S., and the HOllsebook Master. wcrc able . like fi lm-makers, to use basic populal' themes with strong meaning to the public 8liarge. to com bine and updnle them ns cul ture ndvanced, lind to Illake them increasingly. suavely, and more affectingly "rea l" as tllr l('chnical ability to "shoo l Ilncl man ipulate unsty lized reali ty" grew. By 1500 publishing hnd beconlt' u big internat ionul business, lind ways had been deyised to print piClureti si mu ltaneously wit h movabl e type on the SU IIH' page. Th e appeal of pictu res stimulHted literacy, Hnd the lJumber of illustrated books of all kinds t hu s increased enormously and reached great Illllllbers o f people. The real is m ill such illustrations correspondingly un · derwell l swi fL development in a \'cry short time, especially in the North, where both prints and II "grllphie" disposition Ilbout rea lity had nlreudy hud a long early life, so t hatlhere was an u nu sually llirge public for suc h prod uct ions. By the end of the flftern th ce ntury. Italian book illustration wus also well lnullched, wiLh grnceflil editi ons of Dilu te und Petrurch as well as smltll pr in ted ed itions of S8c red p lays illustrnted with bl'illiHlltly s table , clear, and economica l little sce nes. Snvonarola 's tracls we re also publis hcd with til(' Ilddition of just such pictures; and so the pe rsuasi\'e power of the pictor ia l medium wus estnbl is hed. Scientific treati ses and books of instruct ion appeared with th e crisp and perfect sort of illus tration that only print could guarantee, free at last of any hund ·copyist's failure to understand or wi ll ingness to fudge . Drnwi ngs of bot.an ica l specimens. for exampl e, now made es pecilllly to be printed , could be precise and se nsitive realistic renderings, instead of casy·to·eopy scheuHlI ic sty l i zal ions. A nd so I h(' ge neral 101 a ndnrd fo r a rtistic real ism was everywhe re rnised, and the eyes of nil EU I'ope were ret rained . S ingle broad · sheets alld indi\'idun l prints also increased produ ction and sa les, as il1l18' trllt ed books increased the dema nd fO l' all pictu res. Th e fume of illdividuul artists was begi nning to be spread by their en· g r'tl\'ings alone, a fame that has persisted ever since. Ha rdly nnyOlle knows the great illuminators suc h as the Ben ings or Horenbout by nRIne; but ev· eryone knows Durer and Holbein , not because of tb ei r paintings but be· CtlllSe, through t hei r prints, their fam e had ulready become part of the whole flow of eulti\'ated life e\'en before thei r own deat hs. Both the literate Hnd the un lette red cou ld know them , artis ts and thei r patrons and the pub· lic all at once . The images t hey invented became synonymous with tnlthf,"
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Th e SiJ'lcelllh CCll/llry
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ltl}IH!nraIlCe, espec iHlly fo r the pOl'tl'a ilure o f th l' great; but by e xte nsion , prinhllilke rs becllllle respon s ib le for l)Ort.rait s of all r eal ity , my thic or s ctunl: C hri s t lind Hi s mother. angel s nnd de\·il s . Dealh and God th e Father a cqu irt'd thei r p rupe r loo ks Chie fl y Ihro ugh priuls. So d id pensant s and ho rscs . Apollo ulld Diana . !;oldi ,'!'!; alld d ogs , beggars a nd e mpe rors, pros lihilt'S and 1I1111S, In IlI l' s ixl ce nlh Cl" ntlll'Y, prinl Ni pic tlirpI; rf'a ll,\' estnblis lH'd the ir sway ove r Illi ViSull l ll s pect s of COlli 111 011 life , Although s illgh' -sh ee(. WOOd CUIS ha d lo ng Hill Cl" fOllnd Ilwir wily into illd iv idlllli hunds , the rcnl istie s tyle ill li lic h po pu lll!' wO l'ks hnd 1,c('n fully uc hieved olily lift e r 15 00. Muc h curly printed illustrut io n, s uc h li S t hose fo r !ht' grent. 14!:t) CO Ill I}C ndiulli o f geogrllphical uud historica l 101'(' called 7'II e Nltl'f' mberg Clt l'OlIirle, had bee n sc hc tllllticai1y oi'f£'reci wit h01l 1 Itpolo j.!'it's: OIU.' co nfigu rltt io n of Willis nlld roo fs wo uld stand for t li p pic tllr£' of any c ity, and OIlC drapf'd figure , with u few change!; of d elUil, for the pic tul'(' o r lilly suint. llut durin g the J 500's, print cd iliu li lrllli on caught lip with the ('xLrllorci illH!'Y direct paWl'r d emon s trated by th e illulllillators. Mos t o r thi s IIc hi('\"l' IlIt'lit 1!lIls t be c red ited 1.0 DOre r, s im ply bccnu se he did III Ol"e for th e prl'stige of eugrllvillK and wood cut s LIUln unyolH' be fore or s ince. DOrer WilS 1I1!;0 II r.. moll s painte r alld a fam oll s tru\,e le r, so meone burn ing to (, lIIbrll cc t he world with his f'~'(' IIlld hlilld nnd tullmt , inc luding t he wo r ld of o th er tale nt s ill o th e r p la cf' s. He moved through Europe, a nd s o d id his pic tures , On hi s j o urrw.\'s, besid es e xc hanging drawings with olh£'I' fllllIOlU. art ist.s , he was ab lf' to pay his WH y with his f'ngrovings , and so to inc l'ca se his und th e ir influ e nce un ci fume, und to ra ise th e a cknowledged vnl ue of all prillt s . DOre r is the firs t grcut figure in th e history of tha t kind o r graphic pict orial influ cnc(' thut p('J"si s l s t.oday in th e rc alm o r movi es. H is Iwilll;'; we re not ill thfln sel\"es "ci nematic" ill t he prec isc wny I urn usillg that wo rd: but hi s II SC of pictures pre figured th e power o r ci nc ma , Hi s apparent des il'c to inthll"nce and bc infhlf' nc('(i thl'oug h pic tures ha s a mode rn ell !;t. 1hat ro res hudows th e way film work s 011 mode rn consciousness. Ou(> ,'ell!;on is tl\{' £' nco mpas sin g f1 a\'or o f Gf'rman He nai s sancf' human ism ill Dllrer's whole s t~' lt' o r working nnd li\' ing. He wa s not in te res ted in a cure rlll1y buil t and gUllrded c xclu s i,rc p roduc t but rathe r in discove ry , ill ' terchnllgr , alld scope: nlld so he muint.ailled 11 rrre- whi'el illg mode of be ing ltnll rl ist l hllt ke pt hi lllllild his wOI'ks o n III£' lIIo\'e in hi s t ime, lind !lIlIdt' him au CIIOl'lllOUS s ucces s , F or n seri ous a rti SLlit t hllt time, u!;ing t he busi ness o r print ed pic tures wu s 8U o bvious new way t o become 11 powe r in the world , to get in c\'e r~·wh e re. And so in rnc i Diire r 's WII S the first lIrtis t's s ignature to be extensi" e ly forged . Dilrer was {Iuick t o mllster lind to impl'o\'l" nil the extant g raph ic tech-
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Iliqu es etching, engraving, woodcut, lind drypoinl-so as to lift t hem all at once out of t he c raft he ritage that associated them wiLh gold and si lver e ngraving or wilh th e c nldesL kind of popular picture, and t.o in s is t that black-aod -white prints must register 8 8 powerfully as paintings -more, since more peopl e, artis ts or not, could see t hem and respond. He CO linec ted th e medium not on ly with writing (hi s e ngrav ings are lik e d e nse, handwritten epics) but. more daringly with drawing, which lLlr-cady had enormous artistic prestige, especially in Italy_ He t ranslated hilS own drawings into evc nlllore dramatic prin ts, saying, " What olle artist s ketches with a qu ill in Ii day Illay outdo what another will labor over for a year. " And t hen he s howed the world how such superior labor of a day coul d also reach thousands in print form . In the mod ern world , it is the photographer or cinematographer whose one day's work can bring a world into existence inside the minds o f countless ot.hers. But the way to do it, then and now, wttS to pltty upon and expand t he exis t ing visual furniture of such another's mind . Durer's Apocal.ypse series, for example, was based on popu lar Biblical illustrations a lready familiar for centuries in block-book form, evell morc fami liar tluUl sce;nes from t.he life of Chri s t. Since t here was already a publ ic accust.omed to t he subject, Do rer 's new, daring visions of it. see med like half- familiar dreams, something frigh tening conjured frorn t he back of everyone's mind. One dazzling invention of Ditrer's that ensures the impact. of these and his other pictures, and one t hat is in fa ct acutely ci nematic, is the emotional use of back lighting. DOrer was the firsl to pul a blinding while radian ce (aclually a blank patch on the page) directly behind a darkly s haded head, for example, ill s tead of sim ply drawing lines ou tward from it, to stand for shining. l-iines t.hat g radually diffuse th e light begin only Oll the edges of the white space, produ cing the same effect as wh en we actually look at Il light source (3 .2). The model ing gives the head optical credibility, but t he white nimbu s behi nd it seems also to give it the unbearable brightness of the sun itself, and we almost can't look at it. Every thing else in the picture represents a further breaking up of that wh it.e light into t he lines that make the image we can see; and so we see m to be vouchsafed a visio n de rived from celestial light. Holbein's Dallce of I)ealk is another exa mple of how an antiquated theme, by taking on a new guise and entering the new s tream of printed materia l, could gain fresh life and imm ortali ze its nrtist. Th e med ieval image of Death se izi ng each person ind isc riminately had bee n treated in public pietorialterms early in the fiftee nth century in the forlll of large mural d ecoration for cemeteries and cloisters. S uch lifc-size works, all now \ost, were • fam ous tou rist att ractions, and the re was one in Basel, wh ere Holbei n lived
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7 ht Si.Llte"th CI'"lury T
3 .2
81
Tlt e Rf!6 wrr£cI~d CIt ';II. Woodcut (rom Tlte S'Nall Pru6io N
ALBRECHT D O RER .
in hi s you th . Th{' Duns{' ~1u c llbr(' thNlIe wus IIlso N'lld(' r('(1 in block books. in tllt~ stnrk gruphic idiom o f the time-und Lhost' works a re ulso 1I 0W forgotten , b('culuJ(' th('y losl bolh moral and visual ;' reality" during the grf'at chn nges of the sixteenth c(' nlury. K' cve rth(' less thl' oltllhellle wus treat ed us l\ cyelc or u s('(luence and concl'i\'('d illlllotioll, as n dunce, with u possible link t o s lnged r{'I)I"(' Ioi('lIlutions of OJ' uth forllullly dunc ing with hi s "ictiIll8
in all the ca refull y rallgNlle\'cls of society. Wh(,11 Holb(·in did his Renaissance "ension. he Wll S llble to r('concei"e the lIIellllillg of th e dan ce. and indeed to abllndon the forlllUl dlm c(' f>ntirely for a dYUlllllic II('W Wlly with "unstyliz('d reality" (~i.:l-a.6). These I!Ocelles are liny frltill es from a fluid drllma of co ntingency and cluUlcf' . It ff'w shots from a iarg(' r moral tal(' . The " dance" is now ollly Ih(' undisciplined stumbl e and j('rk of lIormullllotioli. with Death wriggling and cringing. stalking and prsll cing. slrt'tching and siooping in his nak('d bOIll·s. Klways K limber
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parody of the hU11H1II action thnt feels dignified by its e nc umbrances of fl esh and cloth . Glancing refe l"CIiCe is mude to cu rrent li\1ing figurcloi-the Emperor Max imi lian, King Fra ncis I-u nd mu ch more to current weaknesses in Ih e social rub ric, but all without pointed theutrical emphasis. Death (w('aks pret e ntiou s charac te rs by parts of thei r garments, discomposing tlwir
phys ica l balance and their social prrsence like some personification of
II
sudden qualm. But he cheerfully walklS off hand in hund with t he little child , who wllves insouciantly t o its helpless mothe r; he solicitolls ly guidl's tht> elbow of the aged. He interrupts practielll comme rce of all kinds, hon est und dishonest alike, and CO IlI CS betwee n t he mise r and his gold no fa ste r thall be tween the bridegroom and hi s brid e. Dl"lllh comes decked as a supplia nt., a ll attendant, 11 crass kiml of double; und so he IOW Il1I1I1 and th e c ra zed fool as he is to the fat abbo t, showing neither more mockery nor more respect to the just king than to the shifty lawyer . Th ese arc very modern pictures on II very old subject, so modern that the subject itself seems c hanged, tra nsllIuted by thp new sco pe of the med ium into so mething else. The ir a rbitrary scq uc ncl" , whe r'eby the ronks of 80ciety ore utterly d is regorded . ito; un impor·tllHt new us r~ect o f expe r ie nce not t reated ill carlie r versions. Th is se ri es was published in 1538 with a moralizing F re nch tex t Ihnt. had nothing to do with Hol bei n, who imel npparcn tly done the pictures some years earlie r to plea se him st~lf, without a commiss ion and without any text. These ti ny sce nes , about two by IWO und a hal f in ches in size. carry a great deal of incidental Ilarrati" e material pac ked in eac h frame. Most o f it is convcyed by the angle of vision, t he orgllnizutio n of spnce, and t he ruthc r casual jumbling of obj ects aud figures. Ellc h scelle seems to lea k out at the edges, to s uggest rather thun describe t.he whole mili eu in whic h Dcat h 's errand is s howl! pinpointed . Tile r£' is Due person he is senl to su mm on out or the busy squlIre, lir e cool a rcnde , the noisy wll nrf; we aCLually see only th e mome nt., but he le ts lHi infe r the s urrou nd ing c ircumstallces-t il e s tuffy convent , or t he endless fi e lds. In il s 1lI0ntagelike arra ll ge nH' lIl, it. is all o ne motion pic ture, not a set of min a tory embl ems o r a sequen ce of staged bo:<es. Holbei n was another comme reiu l s uccess like Du r er; und perllllps lit the time that wa s th e o uly kind of artist who could begin to work in t hi s modern , filml ike way, combi ning old sll re-fi re graphic tilf>lIles with a new idea o f pe rso nal life that o nly a new variety of artistic realism cou ld convey, in n medium full of stullning new tec hnica l e ffects. Hol be in had become u suc.·
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Th e Sj.J:icClith Cc"lIlry
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3 .3-6
II A N S
ilO L I) E IN . TIt ~ tl/I! ,.clta n'. rll t /)14 ('111'.' . Tlt l' PluwyllllW II. Tlt l' Cit ild. FOLlr woodeuts from Tn I' /)II/Iel' of /)ra /It
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MOVING
PI CTU RE S
cess(,ti ill ustrator before he WliS I w(' nt y, lIud Il prllc tica l lIIu ke l' of a ll kind s of art (01' all kinds of client. Th ~ rH'W pulJ lishing busillt'ss had a lo t of work (or such 0 t.n lenl, lind he did muny dccm-nti\'c bOl'de rs, fro ntis pi cc('s, und orname nts (or books besides illust rations. His impact on E I)I'OPCll lI \" i Slilll life was t hu s redoubled, li S ill t he Clt l':il' or ull grcut pllinl.Cr lS who ",CI'C al so cOllllll crc iu\ g raphi c nrtisls. Hi s g raphic WQ/'k WlIS immed iat ely copied a nd Hpproximllt cd 8l1d alluded to by hos ts of olher pl'uclitioners us ing pri nt medin , wh ilt, al.lhe SRme ti me his paintings Il nd c1rllwinglS had influ ence 011 the work of ot.her pni nlc ns at th e highest, h. , rcl. As with DUre,,, it "'li S too lut.e for him to be 11.11 illuminator of mnnusc ri p t s; in stea d he WIIS among the first to illum inate the whole wor ld t hrough print. In th(' s ix tee nth cf'lItury , pil intcrs b egun to collcct /llId copy mat e r ial from original p rints, and a lso to ha"(' t he ir paintings reprodu cNI in print rOI'lIi . Th e in t ernationul lire of urt t hus bcga n to lIIo\'e u long ill b lack-a ud whit.e terUls. In prai s ing DOre r 's or ig in al prin t s , Erlls lllU s conj ures all the fnmoll s c lass ica l pra is{'s nppl i('d to t il t" painters o f ant iquity, but he mnn'els s p ccificall y t hllt the 1II0del"l1 a rti st en n d o it 1111 ill lII olloe lll'o nl(' wit ho ut the bhllldis hlllClits or color . H e f1lrthc r rCIIHII·ks thut if colo r were added, it would illju r(" th e wOl'k- a referenc(" to the t radit ion of hand-color in g cMule woodcutli thllt had 10llg preva iled . Dii r(" r 's prillts w("rf' obviollsly illlllloth e r league, Pure blo ck-illld ·w hit c ex pre ss io n W II S thus o f'fl c illll,v runked wilh the powe r o f ptl illtillg 011 e li eilting the m ill the c reation of II new dis h . Rcully good pictu r('s could now trave l to the s tud ios of diffe /'cnt illotis ts, wllo could now leurn from t ll r ltl in privute, lrllll s lllll ti u g and modifying and ('xpe rimenting with IIllothe r 's fo rlllll i "1I1I1' r ial, working in clos{' con t nc l with a no the r urtist's ideas but witho UIII('('d ing ti ny co n t.aet. with th e man. Printed lrl)(', whic h now mude texts per fe c tly reproducibl e -ins t ead of variub le nccorciing 10 "ttriations in the skill, bruins , or de\'otioll o f gcn(,loa.. io n s of co py is ts-did Ihe sa me for European in te llt~ c tulll lifeo Bill in the wodd of lirt.. t he bla ck-und -whi te mediulU it-l>clf bCCillll{' imporl tlnt U-I> neve r be fo re, tiS it became t he universal \'Chicle of vi s ual undel's tandillg. Divis ions bct.wec ll ~ol·t. h c l"II Mid Ital ili ll vis ion I'; how up {'''{' n lIIor(' aCll l{' ly in thei r dil1"erc ll t u ses of it.
rt-d
Ie
TIl l' Si.rlrc llfh Cell/llry
The sllpprt'ssioll of color r\"(~ 11 i II pta in l ing
85
IOllg-slllllding ~orlll EuJrull Puct' lIt,'s grislIillc 1Il llll1lSCI'ipt works in WI.l S it
ropCU Il impuisl', j:{oing buck 10 th(' fOIlI'I(>('nth C(,lIll1ry lind cont illuillj! wilh th(' Ol',-,Iwillf' gro ups r(,lIci(' red by the MUI!l\('r of FI ~ lIlull(', Vun Eyck, 1Illlllh('ir follow('rs 011 t il e ext€,l'llul pUII(>1 8 of ultllrp i(>cl'S, Going bt·yollli t hi s im illitioll of colorll's8 sculptnr(> were 1I0ci urnui scenl'S ill Cl'l'tHill ,,' I{'misir IIIll11 u sc rip!s Hlld ill Ihe work o f OP(,I'tg(,1I tot Sill! .JOIIS (3. i ), 111'1'(' liI(' 11100 11 Or' SOIll('tiIlIl"S o nly lIw divine rndiun c(' of tlli' Christ Chi ld il h llll ilUlti' S tlrp If'.
86
MOVI NG
P I C T U R .~8
.j\ d"iun Stok{'s IUlij distinguisilNi th is ~orth{'rn way o f sC'f' iu g truth from til e lt al i'HI ill l('rllIS of phys icn] ut lll(Jsphl'l'j', He sp{'llks of " thf' Norllwrll day. whose t' lHplia s is is 011 Ihe tran sitory Or rhylilluic mltu r(' of li ght cf(I'd s .... Th e Nortlu!I"Il iii" is lum inous: ill t ill' SOUlh , Ih('II ;1' is c ilirid , and th e slone IU llliIlOliS. Atmosphe ric ('tree! is sol id , tonal. " Color sull'u sio n is thu s rt SOlilill' l'1I pli f' 1I0IllCnOIl; IItlll08 pll('I'e is generated Dill of ro nll , in to which the light lUI s souked. 'l'OIut! grndil liolis. so I hOl-oughly explored by Leolll1l'do cia Vinc i, IHld to 1)(' (·ntil'd.\" f'lIcompnssed by II giwn solid fOI'II1. w!l('I'CIlS NOl'l hcrll tt l'li s tlii SlIW tollnlily liS II prop!' rt." or til(- lIIobi1e . light(ill('(ll.Ii,' il se ll'. Heling upOn s ol id lIlId co lort'd obj<,cts UI'bitnlrily, TILt' li~ILt fill ed ail' o llc rntt's indf' l}e ndently o f color and (orm, and so it can Sf'c m to s tllnd for th(' soul I!loving illdel)e nd (, lItly o( c irculllstll ll ce. on ly significH nlly li nd occlls iollally stl"iking l1gl1iwst it, a s wh(,11 divinity c hooscs 10 in' hnbit mat 1.('1', In Itnly tll(' colol"('(1 objec t is stllurutrd wilh lig-hl unci g lows o f it.sel(; light , /tlld the soul. II/I\'c no indepellclelll scunn ing 11I 0\'ellle lil. En'ry thing spi ritllul is cnptured withiu the colorcd lIlass , and its o lily mO\'('lIIe nl is ils stnlggl(' out o nto the SlIl'fncc , ( 01' which it requir(' s the help of the 'I "list 's ('Ilcollraging a ud ear('ssing IUl.lld , In the ~or th til('lllIn(\ seems absenl, lind only th e eye e ngnges t he moving light ill its Ins k, Th e tillY fo rnHIt of No rth · (' I'll ill uIlIinul iO ll8 ll nd prinls suc h os Th e /)un ce of /)e(.'h uided i ll thf' t'ffeel of peep·s how re\'clat ion, tht· look iusid(' the te lescopt-', the mic roscope. the Vil'wfillde l' , Wil ell trnn s luting into bhH.:k'lIl1d·white terms , Itu lilln e llgrll\' ing (;O IlC(' IItrat N I 011 1IJ0dt'l ing, Tile mos l (tlIlI OliS gretll prnctit ioller o( modeling tlll'oug-h ('lIg ruving WU Ii Mlillt e gnll, whom Diire r eopi ('d , IIlId who WU S COlli " pllrtlbl(' to DOIUltello ill the au tho rit y of his plustie visio ll , Colol' is il"rclc· ,"ulil to bot h Ihest' artists, )!untegnu's lIlugits te riu i print s (o f which Iw Illude o ll l,\' scven) SC i, the inl el'lIRt io nnl stnnd ard fO l' Ih e forlll of t he classicnl bod y ill pi ctu res, Ih e desi ri'C1 look of s iable grllnd('ur and s('lf-contu illt' fi ('IISC whllt evc l' tht' persolla l 0 1' llIythol ogiclll co ut ex t. Th ese lIllstel'e, crisJl wOJ'ks illd('('(1 hm'c th t' look of Pl'i llt cd texts or uuthol'i lillivc blu eprillt s, ultillllltP tiiagrllms fraUl wh ich elldl('ss illlltgimltjvt' CO lis t r'uCI iOll s clIlIlJe Illude , Like Diirt.'r's, but in IInother way, th ey seem wl'i tte n , 'ilililarly, Ih e rpprodu cti\,(' {'ngra\' illgs of MlIl'cun lO ni o H.llilllo ndi trailS!!l itt N I the \'olull1clric cl'euliolls of Buph ue l lind others, H ere t he s huping IllInd of the e ngr'lI,'er mod{'led the so ft bod ies of Bilphnei's figures as if to tnlllsforlll them int o solid ScUlplllr(-', Ihe bet t('I' to pe q >ctulli e tir('1II beyond Ihpir rragil e. spollhmeous first li fe, Mal'ca nton io worked from RaplureJ's tir'uwings , Ir'lIl1sillfi ll g thei l' fr(' sh rOllndllt'ss iuto II s t ill el lll·i t.". firming lip thf' hllll'ry edg{'s of tlw cast shndows, ('xpl nining nil the mu sc les. lIsing hi s
C pyr
te
87
if it WI" ',' II poin!p" - llIId sO IlWlilllt'S adding II f pw bac kgroull d toueill'S stol f'1l f"OIIi f)On ' r,lI s i f In HUlk" II lil1lt· how to ,I ,{' II Ck IlO\d· r d g('d h i~h p l'i,'st of Ill(' J!ra\"('r'~ 111'1. ) llI rCl.tIl IOliio alld his pmplo.v('(·s 11 8('<1 light lind shull" 10 elm'if." P,'OPO'" l ion and compositio n. so Ihul 11 11 lh('iW n~ p r·odHc ' i\"t · works hun' the tllIg l'aving 100\ llS
t:lIIl lly IIiI'
of
l i h~I·lIr.v
criticis m . TI lt' oriKillll1 {{'xl is Ih(' poilll-)lIl1'clIllto lii o
is 1I0t ciui millJ! to IJ(' II I}Ot-. likP Dlln',' or J\l all l C'l!lIit-hu t thp c0I 1Sl r'Ilc t ioll put on it bl'CO II WS a vi la l pa,'l of it (" ..... \"t°l' , Uilri df'finiti\'(>ly sital){'s lilly rll h lr(' dil't'CI pf','crpliolls. Hap IH.H'l llut(\r his wily HCI'OS!'; EurolW ill 111('8(' PIIgl'H\'illf1s IIIHI into till' PYl'S IIllci llli nds of till' Ilublic for th" l'p Ct' IIIL11'it'S afl t' I'wlII'd, AI Ih(' SIt HI(' l illl l' {'Xplll ll lltOI'y rj' I)I"otiuCli\"{' 1'lIgTi"'illl! was itsf'lf sprl'lld t'w'rywhl'r(', ofl'l' r ill g e lu c idatiun I II j'\'l'ryOlIl' ill its l'lId l('ssly imitlJblr- lI~x lual lilyll', Today OIlI' I!I"{'al s la 1t~s lm~ 11 f:WZI' bnc k ul us i"1"U1II oUl' hunk1I01.(' S, II'ussNI up .111d !'xpusNI fOI"f'H'1" ill il s sa li sfying' li ssu!' of lill("S, Following U (lllrllli('1 I('x ttlu l pa th, Iin liu ll ]Jrilllt'ti book-illustnltioll sought 10 ill lt' gnlt" piCtll l'P with t(' XI 011 II 1IIII"IIIOllioll s pllJ!f', to which th e' look of Iht, {' \(' g'tlllt typt' cOlIll"ibll ll'd us much us Ih,' (' \{'Kiml 1'I~ pn'S('lItlltioll of SC('II('S, Roth sha r'NI tilt-- SII III (' hulllllc('d cllOr'('og l'u phy of CU I"\'(' and I't~ tU I'lI, t lli' diah'ct ic or hlunkllt,ss •.111(\ hlackll(·ss. lilt' (o r l/1ll1 dUIICt-' of (·x(lository l ilH~, Sill1i lar'ly, til(' la ll' Ita liall lIu Ulu st r ipl illulllillll tiollS, u n l ik l~ th e ~'lr lll ish OIIf'S, un' I"r\f' llth--ss l,\' cnllillTl.lpliic-il IIIl1 st 110t bf' i'nr-go tt PII that l his is It book. llnd we 11 1'1' IIlwlIYS l'i'IUlillg, (' \'\'11 lIS W (' admi l'i', 011 Iht' olht'I' ha ll d, lilt' blocks of lI'xl and t hl' piCllll'j'S Oil lht' (laj!f'S of NO rl h(' 1'I 1 pril1\('d books \\'('I"i' II s Ult11y cO l1cpiwd St' PIII'llI l'l)" r \'I'1I w!lt' ll l irt'Y fi IIU II y 1I PPI'l.Il'i'll I ogi' t I II' r, 111 u s I 1'1.1 t i 0 JUoi I i k(' Oil /'I' I' 's A pur'al Y 1l,"C ~w ri t'S \ \ " '1'1' int f' nci('(\ 101)(' Si'('1l wilh out li lly Il'xl visibl(' at tlrr SiHIlt' tillil' : tlr.' appl'opI'inti' Biblical pl.lssugf'S \\'('1'(' \lI'illlt·t.1 011 1II('i l' bu cks, 111 /!"!I(' I'Ullhi' I'oli' or wUI'ds in ~UI'llwl'lI illuSlratiun is mMI' likl' \'oiet'-Ow',' or silt'llt-film lith'lS, sOlllt'thing lu ht' a bsodw(\ ill a si'pal'lIle Pl'oct'ss-)J('rhaps gillll Ci' d a L th ought lIhOllt , or I"l'c ilt'd ilJ\\'lIl'l Il,v, hut IIO! ,h·lil)(,I"III('I.'" P('!'uSNI lugl' llll'l" with ih p ic tOl'iu l comp\t' IIH' 1I1. 0 11 Iht' {,(Id." O('nll/III :'Illd N'N hpl'ill lld ish p l"irrl l'Ci l}lIgl'S, l hr (',\'e is lIckllowlrdJ.;'('ti 10 bp d oi ug Iwo d ill't'n'lIt tlrillgs wllt'll it /'I'1Hls and wh("11 il looks ilt pic llll'\'S, 'I'l l£' Ill illd eoltll\'c ls ,hellL. bU l tlw 1II'!'lII lgl' lH!'''! 01l 1\U' Jla~w will d t'cli lH' to it' l lhf' I'yf'
(
~ Igt";
tar I
88
MOVIN G
PI CTU RE S
!O hnrp conlrtl s l 1.0 tlw ex plosive brill iu ll cl' of th e lilies thnt made th e pic-
th ey nppea r in books, prillts by suc h grclll illu s lratin>IIrlisls us BUI'gklllllir, HUll S Baldung-Gric n, und Lu cas van Leyden t.ell thei r' ow n tal es with great insiste nce. l~ ike movie images, t hey force their way int o th e consc ioll s ness, hcnri n g flt r mo re cO lll ph-xi ty or mea ning wit h t hf' 1II t hall th e lIurrut ive it.scl r cull lS fo r, touc h illg on irrelevant associutiolls , umludd ing ambiguous detai ls to the straightforward racts . As in Nort hern
tUI'{'J;.
WilN hc r or
110 1
PUilllillg, llud ns in film, reSOllnnt symbols sneak in ns c li s lo lllu ry phc llom{'na, a nd cliurge the lltmospiJe re.
Thi s group of ~o r t h e rn printlll ukcrs, following DOrer, establ is hed for ali timt" the' c.£pre,'>iii l'(' IJll t hor ity of blllck -und-white printed pictures, in a dec isive wny that could be ec ho~d Int er on ly by the cnment Hnd t he movie cam ern , E \"{~ n MUllt pgntl 's ovcrwhc irni ng c n g rn \'i ng~ were more expository llulII ('x p,'essi\'e, tht· ir subjects were trlld it io nul, und t heir form of monoc hromy hus little to do with th e 100\'CIl'lent or ligh t. But t he mobile a nd color less f1 ich l'ill g imug{>, wilh it s d is tillct ive messuge embod ied only in its shi rting £lu rk s aud li g ht s, wus a 1Il0d~rn CO lltribu ti OIl u nique to ~o rth e rn Rellllissallee EII,'ope; it wus made 8\'uilable by th e equa lly modern Northern I)he, nOIlH'1I0n of printin g thnt s till mo\'es illl ugery int o eve ryone 's head , TI\{' freedolll of subj ect mutler for s nch prints in the ea rly sixteenth ce nIUI'Y wus lllrl'udy ellonnous, IlIIlike thttt ror paintings; Rnd it wus IllH tched by II freed om of Il'cnlment with which ench prin lllluker could pu rsue his privutc ult i tud~s und obsess ions. Hans Bu ldung-G rien was an artist who took s ingu lnr advantage of su ch rreed om, allowing hi s imag ination to bound 11IId jigg l l~ lind swoop wit h pl' rve rsc wnywurd in vention . He is like J (>all -Luc Godard or Werner H(>rzog, or allY other id iosYll cratic mov ieIllakf'r, who reels free lo push private wh ims to extreme s, t.o be both comicnlly ill1 ( \ hor ribly concrete, to for'ce elllo ti onu lu nd erotic issues, to mystiry and di sgust , to disturb a nd enl ig hten, but never to flutter or el ucidate. St.ylist ie excess becomes purt or t.he s ubject unci propels th e narrntive. In Bal dung, ol d themes, like Delltilll lld t he Mnidell , nrc both d eepened a nd jee red nt with s harp and nasty new touches. New themes, like The Bewitched G room or Th e Wi ld Horses in a Fores t , are wrought out of d isturbing old rragm ents and forced illto inexplicable prominence. Reli gious th emes fly off t.ll(' halldll'-see the asce nding Chr ist yallked up feet firs t (3.8), or a cherub crooked ly jumming a crowli on to Ma ry's head whil e the Chri st Child climbs into her corsage. Mary Magdalene. raised nuked up to heave n. smiles while rece ivillg erot ic sti mul ation from six Or eight liule angels on her WHy up (3 .9). Mellllwhile t he Floren t ine and Umb rian pa intings of the Hi gh Renai s-
C pyr
te
89
1'hl' Si.rlccIIIl! CClllury
a .8
IIA NII FlAI. D U NO - ORIEN .
Cltri" Corned to
/lt IJI Y "
by A "gel,_ Engraving
3.9
IIA NS
BAI. D U NO - ORIKN,
Tlu f:ltt'(JlioH 01 Alary MagdalcH. Engra\'ing
'0
MOVIN O
PI C T U RI-:S
sa ll e(' WC I'P b e l\ut i fu l l~' II'ansl alf'd i nto th l' languag{' of rf'p 1-o{hl(! lin' {' II-
gravi ng' . sO tim! th l.' li llk be twl'c II U'x t and illum il1tltion wu s s moot hly Ulnilltuincd ill Cl new arrungclU(,llt: the c ngraving ci('sc r ih('d Ih .. l}/lintin~ . EmhlplI1 -hooks w(' re ull';o Illl Ita li ll ll iU\'C ll ti oJlllrisi n g frOmlhl' c la ss icll lnotiol, thai 0111.' si lilple s ia lic illUlgc cou ld fix U cOlliplex e lu sive idea.. could
sOlllc how clariry it by submitti ng it to ol'dcl']." \'isual reductio n. Evcn indi yiduu ls cOllld thus fl'c l lhI'1II8(>1\'('s "cxplnilled" by indiv iduully cO llcc iv('d persona l ('mbl cllls. ,(,hp m odern iel enl of a bslra ctioll ill il l" wns ill pnrl c rclllcd ill t his IlB lilill Bf'IIUissullce impulsf' , alld fil's l trunsmiltNI, like- ull other EUl'opelilt Ilrl ist ic idcus, through t h(' prilltcd iliing-e ry or t he sixtee nth c{'ntur,\', II ('u ter'cd titl' lIIuins treulII o f Ul't partly t h rough sitc h illustrntions as those (or Colo lll w'!; c ryptic l> hwy t he /-/YP"f'rO fol/w("hia Poliplt ili und A icittt i's Embl emlila I1 l1d its ~ tl cc essors, S uch books drllIollstl'Ul,(' how Ihe Ilulinn Re uui ssl1nc(' sea rch for nbs tnlc l bl~ IJUI.v ilt pictur('s cOllllcctcd it self 1.0 the df'si,'f' to ('III bod .\' idelt~ in hf'lI l1l iflll p" intNll llllgungc, Illld to lUukt> ilhlslrH ti\'(' p ict ur('s se('III S li k£' visibl e word s trlHlscend(' nl ly rea rrnngNI. III the fir'sl hn lf o f the sixteenth century. Ve ne tian p r ints kept pnc(' with utmosphcric Vc uC' t ian painting, abllndoning lille for d e licate stipple s hnd · ing, But the b(,lIl1ty of e h' lIr forlll rcmuill{'d the fundu me nl nl I}ri nc ipl (' of Itill in n bl;l(;k-Ul 1(I·w hi t(' urt , in originul 0 1' I't'PI-OdIlClivl' WOI'kJ; , Ambiguity ill H igh RClluisslillce Ituliall u,'t, cO I1 \'(',\'NI pH rl ly ill Shlldowy re ndering, con· Se(ILI e litl y looks likr U delib(,l'lIle ly Ilppli ed vcil, the cl.lreful obfusCllti oll 01' u clcar thought, rllth('r thull a mirror of " IIII IIHI clllotioliul IIlt1bi g uily und lI oll -resolution , !;lIch flS Nm,t hel'n uri is Itlwnys o fT(' ring, In G im'go ne' s 'I'f'm pesl", t he moist prcgll8nl llir and s t rnngr re illt io nship umo ng th c cilllrllctcrs 118\'C sli gges t N \ lIot flny underlyi ng psychologicul drulllll, bll t
(
~ Igt-.
tarl I
Th e :)iJIU'IIIII Cculury
!)1
tHodel'nil~'
of lh(' NO l,tlwrn print lII('diu llI , wh ich 1'('sidNI ill its I'OJ'c{'Tul tnlllsfiglirnlioll of c nl(h' old popuhu' 1II0d{,s, plIs lu'd 111(').;(' 1II'lists (-'\'('11 fur· the l' illio 1Ii(' ci lwlll , Ex· cppt for ti ll' ill1lminator's, tlll'sl' graphic l.lrlists W(' I'P the (irs l 10 "(' lld(-'1' SUI'· "Ollild ili gs rot, Ihpil' OWII 8nh, for' Iheir st l'III I~f' abililY 10 cu rry (f'('ling' ill sol1llioll , i'W'11 withoul th(' pr('Si'lIct' of any hU1I11111 dnmll.l to pl'(-'cipi tut(' it. 'l'h ('sl' ~ixt{'l'nth ·cpn llll'." pl'il1ll11ak(,I's \\'(' 1'(> Ihl' fi r'sl lIl'lists 10 sh ifl Iht' fin" III lllic focus to II cOlifroll llllioll IWI\\'('{' II lhl' vi('\\'l' I' and tl l(' lunciscHp(' mal tllkl' t IWIll seln's 0111 of I h(' wuy, Thi s st Ulldll l'd cillt'lllutic c!('\'iCt' for d I'awi nl! t ilt' vi l'wPI' PIl~PIJ!I'S him (,\'(,11 withollt t('lIill!! him sl ori(-'s and fills him with undefined eXpt'c tli l ioll , Urgillg hilll to fill IhC' scNlt' with Ill{' fluvol' of his own psycholo!!iclil landscnp(', 'I'll(' gl'lldtUlI r ir,) i' of s(, r ious 1"lldsc1I p(' pllilllilll! du r illg th(' t'ighlt'{'nlh ulld nillt't ('(' lIlh C(-, I1II1"i ('s has 10l1g bl~ I~ 1I cit('d 1'0 1' con lributing to tlie d(')llis(' of Ihe old lICIHI(, lII ic I'IlIIk ings for 11i(' a r listic ~(-'lIres: wir il(' lIul'nlt iw hislo l'y-pailitilig d('clill('(1 ill SIII I IIJoi II ~ II", "ighl \' (-'SSI" 01' I.hl' 1I0biest PII· dPII\'OI', pllre IlindsclI l)(-' (ulld s till·li fj', 100), with ils UiJSPIlCP or 8101'." (' to pos(' for u s ign ifi cllIIl tlliJ lpHlI , Th f' dimly l'pcNling SP"C<'S and Ill{' IImb iguolls Pl'l'SQIIUgCS htllr ill O/' IudI' 011 1 tilt, door. half rt·cogu i1.uble lind IUlif shad owcd , pOrl.ray 1101. just II I)ub lic sl rucl 11 1'1' bill It 1I101II('nl or approllch to it, filii of IIl1crl'wili lY aboul wlml is 11\('/,(-', wlu'l'c 10 J.!o, alld how to be hav(" The piCIII I'(, is II little fOC(>II(, of lit(-' vil~w(' I"S caution s visi l 10 the
(
~
rgt".
tarl I
92
M O VIN G
3 . 10
('I C T U RE S
ALHRE C IIT ALTD O It~' EIt .
Tit#! Hl' gelf sbwrg SY llfIgOgN f!.
F.lchillg
bu ildillg, 1101 it fixed " ista o r it s public lIs pect. III ubOlil 1530 Alt dorrer Mhso d id the ve ry firs t land scape et ching. a di s tant view or the Danube Vall ey; and in th e center roregroun d is 1\ lurc h tree hung wi th 1II0S8, a t ree that ha s had innume rabl e echoes in th e hi s tory or the clHot iollul ll rts (3. 11 ). Ju s t su ch a tl'ce appenrs in Ge rmall ROlU ulltic pa intillgs, ill rairy· tale illu s tra· li oll S, ill Arthur Rackham and in Wilit Dis ney: a nd it s t ill co ntinu es 1.0 spring up arres h in t he grounds of Dra culll' s ell 8tle a nd J.... ranke ns te in ·s tower. wh ere it has found th e perfect hO Ule. All other in cidellt al pro to·ci nelluH ie r£'lItur£' of six tee nt h.cen tury print.
1'11 (' Siflff'1I11! ('rllil/I'Y IIIlIking wus 111(' Cil'CIIIIISlltlL(;{, of ils l)roduClioll , Engru\'ings ulld woodcuts W('I'I' d('si~lI{'d by Ihl' urlisl. but th('~' wprl' CIII by U prort'sl;iolUll ('lIgruver ullCl prinll'd by u I}ublislil'r, Holbein's /)CIII('(! of /J(,flth wuuld lIen'r have li\'('d III nil withuul Ih.' t'Xlwrt lind SYIllPlllh(,tic work or Lut7.('lburger, the 1'IIj!ru".'r, ILlid lilt' hrolit('rS Tr('c hs(>1 or LyollS, til(' origilUll jlllblisiterlS, '0111(' IUI(' r liulhf'ill dl'si j?lIs Wt're notably hOlchl'd by illr('rior linnds, to the ('xl('1I1 111111 il is nOI ('wn Clt'llf Ihut Ilwy 1Irt' hy " oliwin, ..\ cerillin risky, col· luhorllli\'{' dimt'liS io ll IIns I.IlwllYs pre\'llil('d in III(' rt'prodllcihl(' commercial urIs. only lu{('ly ('lIIbrucinj! fillll and t('I{" 'isioll, II has U('{'II c!t'ur sinc(' Ihl' iJl'IlilLllillj! 111111 whl' r'NIS IIl1l11y hllnds Cilil 1I111k{' 111Il1l81I'rpiN!(', Ih('y CIIIIlIIlSO lIIuk(> II Im~ss, Fill S T II'iurn l)hs of ~;(,Clllll r (' 111011\'(' IIl11d8CIlI)(' pni ll tilll! OC, clI l'l'el! ill Dlil't'I"1; IlIlIdsClipt' WIlIt'I'colors, wllich SP('111 to III\\'£' bf'('11 illl l'lIdNI ollly fOl' hil; OWII I'YI'S. TheSt' h8\'e lInother t'lt~ III ('1I1 or proto·cim'llUllic IIrt. thllt or truIlSpllrt~ IL C~' . Dlll'preould 1101 try ror Ihnt in his hlllldwritlen wood· cuts III1lI po('lil.: PIlj?rllvi ll gS. wht'rt' II(' lISNI lighl iciiosYll c rllLicully, dt'sigll ' illll' hi,; own cOlllpl£'x seh('lII(,s for ('xpoundinJ.!' black·llnd·whil(' relllily. SO Ihut !WIIU' pht'llOlIIt'llIIlIr(' d('sc rilwd and others ar(' r('\'('III£'d. 1111 in the S8111(' lliClllrf' , Bill ror til(' wah'reolon; lit· look III' li~ht as 111(' illrorming sourct',
THE
:u I
AI.rIKt:CIIT AI.TI)OfU'ER.
TA r /hI/IN/U' I'flfll'!J. Et c hing
94
M OV I NO
PI CTU K ES
lil,' lump Ihut pours Ihl-oll~h /I l inlNl film to (!ri'IIt(' 1I S(:('IIt' \' ihnHillj! with 1I1most unff'lIl rlllliUl lCl' (:1, 12). T hes(' works S{,{, IU tiki' tile first {'olor lSlid('s. uillit'd III gt' III' !'lIl i lll! ci ll{' l lI lIlic powl'r ill Iht· cuplurinl,t of st ill \'i l' w s. L ik(' Caspar Duvid Frit·dr·jell's 1I1lIeh lute r, lit('se SC£' III'S S('t' lli to 11lI\'!' 1111 \t(Hlllcili ' "it'S. TIlt',\' un' 1101 clln' fully fnllupli 1 0 IlO~P'uphiclil "it''''s wilh ('()l/lis~/'$ at t'IH: h sidl' 11111\ I"rIJ/JI/.',xoir .'»'t'els in till' flll ·l'~ rnlind . '1'11 (' ,'('cOI'di ll!! f'y(> flullt s. hUrl II' up by Ill(' light thu t holds til!' world tog<'lilpr. itOi lliug ill IIO\\' 011
/I
Irl'(', IIOW 011 U hotlst', or hllCkillg oil' to S\\'('t' P til{' skylim' of
It
IOWII.
LII H'r ill III<' c('lItur", Pi{'lpr Bnteg't·1. ufll'!" It(' hud turlwd frollL ~raphic lIrl to pl:l i nt i IlK. JlUldt' U l:Ii milu r nltt'lIll)! with oil pn ililillJ,!' to c n 'lI lt' UII ill(!lIlI· dt'sCl'lIt nlti in ru:(' ill th(' sky lllltt illuruirulli'S II I(' who1{' \\'01"1<1. ltlld IIlnk('s it visi hll' liS till"Utigh u coln n ·d·gluss SC I·('I' II . III til(' F(,/I of Icurus. 111(' pai nl film is t'x ln'lllt'ly Ihillllllli frt'z.;h, so thUllht· SlIlll ighl S('('IIIS to fill Ih(' ni "118 if from IlI'hiud Ih(' pictul"t' (a. 1;1). 1'h(' SlI lI COIII('S dllzz ling towllrd us ac ross the wulI'l" "isi ug' liS WC' wut e h; t hl' shll dows ellst lIy 1ill' plow S('t'Ul 10 IllOV('.
3. 12
ALBRE C HT DURER.
TIt ~
lAke i"
llt ~
Wood.
95
Th t' SiJlrt' ,,'h ('r tl/flry
3 , 13
I'IKTKR BR U KOEL TilE ELDER ,
TIf ~ "'nll(}f lcQru
We call alll10sl s('e 111(' world turlling: BnH'grl lias givt'll the horizon a sligll t Clln'e, 1I1Id , /clIrtls is slllall, 100. much smaller t hnn Ulany oth ('r ramous Bnlegrlland· seape works , This is olle or the most lIlovielike or Bnlcgers paintings, rree or Hlly clownish specinl plending about hUllIan absurdity such as appears in the Prol'erbs or The War Between Carl/it'ut atld U~I' , Those works are cartoonlike, !lurking back , RS Bosc h did, to the bloc k-book spirit, though with much ironic delicacy or touch, But / carlt! and the other peasant landscapes -Tlte Dark DlIY, The Return of the /Jerd, and the beloved /Ju tlterl i,. the S,IOIl>--share the look or Ihe charged presence or the open air itselr, which
96
M OV INO
PI C T U RE S
emerges from the depths of the pictu re t o surround and invite us. Th e invitin g movemen t of the ai r is given pructicnl points of refe rence, just us in a Be ll ing o r H ore nbout pictu re. Th e receding proccHsion of trees Illnrking t he descent of t he ,rall ey mo\'cs in counterpoint to the untidy p rogress of men and beasts, which casually brings the viewe r into the random rhythms of th e anonymous action tluH ranges over it. '-lends a re turned va r iOIl S WHYS, 110 one is payi ng us auy attention , any of li S lIlay join these vi ll age rs as OIl C of t hem , s houting to our dog, proddi ng our cow, following the t rees 011 oll r way down t he slope (3. 14). We do not sit on a glile a nd regard t hese (" fillers as if t hey were 011 a s tage, lIl un'clillg at their (IUaintnE'ss or s hudde ring ti t. thei r gross ness. We nre th ey, vllrious lind complex as th ey are. ThE' inviting air thus a lso iuvitf's free inte rchange of feeling. 1'h('s(' works lire exercises in the realis m of se ns ib ility. where t he se nse of hUlIl or doc" creat ive work. Kare l van Mli ll dcr suid you coul dn't. look nt. BnlcgeJ" s works without laughing; and th is laugh te r is not. a tiUf' r of co ndescension or a bnl t.al gun'aw , but. a respo nse to serio us wit. The re is no visible d istlillcin g method lit. work to kee p til(' pcnsllnt remote and l)iclUrCS(lue: you have to take his ridiculous qualit ies pe rsonally. j ust as in Woody Alle ll • movies. In Icarus, as i ll The CO l/ versioll of SI. Paul, a drll lU iltic Icgelldl'lry ('vcnt is i ll progresl;; nnd the "cene is wit nf'sscd 118 if by n COllllllon s pectator-pu l'l of Puu !'s t rain , or anothe r plowman on a nea re r hi ll, or you or perhUI}1S me -w hose privutc business lind pract.icnl worri es constitut.E' the rea l dra ma of life, Wa tChing fnllen f1 ye r~ and str ic ken ~m i n ts IUIlY illdeed be intr ins ically much lelSs inte restin g t.han knowing the right way to plow or how to rich' II horse up a rocky mountai" pat h. Th e detac hed comment.ary on sacred and cla~siclll lll y t hology ill t.hese works is s ub t.le,li ke t.he use of Alp ine la ndSC8 pe: t he distance be twee n the peusa nt und the pro ph et. is bridged by the 1II0de of rc prcsentut ion, just al'i it. would be in fi lm. It is a clear case of " un stylized rea lity being III ll nipulated so thllt the resu lt. has s tyle," The compos itio n of th ese works elll phasi"zes lac k or st.ylization in nel.ioll , Mythologicl1 l eve nts lire not rendered as part. of t he dance or th e spheres, part of II cycl ic d rll llll\ with cos mic signi fi cn llce , Thnt is t.he Ital ian wily. wlw re the controlled d ispos ition of bod ily parts and gllrllLellts a ll el rhe IlrI'a ll b"'C nt ent. of legcn dar.v subject. matter cOllveys t he idea th8t.l ege nd itself has II gove rll ing power o\'e l' life, Thc s ubj ect. puts a rhyt hm into t he action and inte ractio n of charllcte rs , Ilnd of ullalte ndn nt phe nomeulI , III Bru ege l, t here is no balle tic fram ework, onl y th e d ispnrut e 1II 0tio n of c rea ted t hillgs pu rsuing their own destiny. of wh ic h lcgeudary characters lire olily ilistancP!i. Bruegel incorporated the Itul hlll "istns he S IIW 011 his travels in to thilS lSubjective scheme , deCl in ing to c laiisicize or c nlloble them
(
~ Igt";
tar I
97
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.
,
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l-
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-
3 . 14
"IETKK HIt U ~Ot; l . TIIY.
.: I. O.:K .
TIt ~ Hrl wr,.
0111,,· II rnl
uccOI'ding 10 prt'\'uilillg artistic flll'il lioli . II I' would 1101 d f'JI' jYII 1.llIything.
'l'lI cs(-' piclllr('s I..w e 1U 1O til('r un ity , II SWt'(·p lind co lwrCIl CI' of mot ion thai is lik(' the 1II00' i(' c lIlIH'ru ' s kind o f SClll L All of t hl' 1H SN' III 10 rll s h Qu llit t hei r
( 1)(' 11 bucks. unti l d is lllllt vis ibl (' obj('cts nr(' IO!O I ill lUubiguily. ('no ll oll ly to th e further I"cuclws of Ih t' P CIHilllll wt'd d ing cOll age, A str'ong c url'p ill flows fore Hlld ufl . fl oodi ng 0111 lowllnl til(' vil'w(',' IIl1d buc:: k illto t ill' dep ths, wll",'(' ICIlI'U S kicks n lin iy IIml Puul's collllps(' lUI S unkli owlIbh' co nsequen e .. s. Th aI c un'P ll1 il'; I h('ironly hUI'mony.like Iil f' cli llwru 's
rilli gill ~ . IIU(1
III £'i ,' Ollly lI11rrllti v(' d('vi c('. As ill II\(' ClIS(' or Hol bt' i,, 's /)" IICC of /)" (1111, titese myt holugicu l pnilltillgs show I.h (' "ft't'cts of 11 synl.lH' sis. rill.ing III(> ol d lilf'IIl('S of pf'i\SIlIII life IIsC'd for t hC' Books o r Hours with lht' old riltluli z('d suc rl'd sce lles , Ih('Y OlJlih'r' u( (' l h e old rorllllli ror lit(' holy s ubjt'c ts 1I11d CI'{'ul(' H mOll('I'1i su bjec t, lilt' illI('rllll liziltioll or sncred Iliell/ ('s ill cn llllll OIl ('xp('ri{,lIc{' , F ilm hn s I)('e ll tilt' ltr('111 t' lltrill(, of t.hi s prOCf'iiS ill lII ode rl/ vi s ulll uri : 11l1d in Brlwgt'l liS ill
98
MOVIN G
PI CTUIt ":S
movif's, tilt" tnH! originalit y lies inlhc c rC'lIlivc Hl odernization ofsollll'thing
very old. Bnl(!gel was populnr ill his lime llIul pilu::(', 1)lIrl ly beciluse he was Il SIICcess ful printmaker . But again. it 1m!; only bee ll ill t hi s cinematic cell iu ry tha t he hns been ncknowlcdgcd as Il great pninte r . We lire prilll('d 10 respond to those breathing landscapes lhllt ofTer th e sh ifting. subject ive ,'jew of centra l evc nts thaI only movies 1I0W employ. Th e l eal-US gives a palllling shot. of t he ind ilYercllt loca le, bcrore zooming ill to focus on the thrilshillg youth ; or perha lH. we hu\'c j ust dosely watched hi m tumble screRlUing, and
1I0W t he ca nlera retreats to show the cu llons world ICJI(ling to busillcss. II is lik(> I he hUi! shot ill Th e Clock, wlH're the ClHnerll swings up ll nd buck f,·om the I)o ignllnt. part.ing lovers to show the desolate girl merging with the I"Ushing mill ions ill New Yo rk . Bruegel died lit, forty·four lwd o nly pninted during the Ilist ten or Iwe l\"e yeu rs of his life, hsviug do lie cou nll ess d rawings fo r e ngravillg by An twerp publis hers d urillg his youth . For his prin ts, he copied the style of Bosc h ·s grotesqueries lind did many co rn ie lind Sill i ric plill es de,'o id of mnch poetry. But his sketches and drawings show the same incredi ble delicnc)' Ilnd clll r· it)', even trunspllrency of the IHtinlings : Bnlcgcl wus un artist. with both a poetic und II g ruphic tempcrnment, who clearly would hll\"e lIu.l(lc movies if he could.
not- d
Ie
I
FOUR
The Early Baroque
I 6 0 0, it wus c1('1\r Ihlll 111'1, likt> Ellropl~ it~t'lf. Inll..1 brok('11 up /Iud was .'('co mbin ing. 'I'll(' No ,'the l' ll g l'aphic Ilrtisls PllI'SIWd thrit, c ri s p. hlnck ," nd·whi le> il1uslrnlin' Plitt. III the SUII1£' timp lhul Ilw greHt V('lw lillll lla illfi'l"s W('I',' slIturnting th l'ir \'1181. myth ic SC('IH'S wil h co lor 1111(1 s h illlllJ('r. BUI Titiull IIlso designed sOllie (,IIIoP'uvillgS of e llurillOIiS size Ihllt might 11(> f/ri,l;oille Veuetillll paiulillgs. and Fit-mi sh l\Iallllel'isl paillll'rs wm'e at.· 1 (> IUJ>till~ b,'uvurll r(,lIditiullS of C l assicllllll~f lhol og'y . EI Gr('co's IlIIgt', fli ck· prill!; cpipilullies we,',' conh' mpu t'Il I'.\' with Nicholas lIill iul'd's prpcise porlru il lIIinilltures. Although su "uriaHs lind so II111iuIIU1 , IIrt WliS ull the 1II0re thoroughly int c mat io llali u 'd by thc s preud uml prpnlh'IICt> of prill teti pic turl's. tiespitt' the gulfs bctweell Cnt hulic 111111 PI'olesttlllt vil'ws of iIIlUg'(·ry. ull d Iwt.w('ell views of lIlutcriallif{' ill ubsolut(· 1lI0llar'chit,s alld ill ill cip' iellt. I·(,puhlies. TILl' printing o r pictul'cs IIlIHI (' it possibl(' 1101 just for II('W pictoriul id(,lls but for t.rudit.iouul imug('ry to I}/'ol if('ru l(' tlud mo\,{' Ihr'ough gUl'olw, wh('l''('w' IwfCU'I' it hnd Iwell s latic 1111(1 isolulNI; u nd so, J>lu'lldoxica lly, art rnOl'e ensi lyerossed nutiollill alld 1'('liJ!ious boundaries tha i had si· ltIultnneously become Shlu'p('r, Ncvcrthel('slO, 111(' Prol('stltnt NOI·tli uud the Ca thol ic South contilllH'd to dewlop (h('ir din'e l'(' llcPS ('\'('11 us l ilp,\' s hnred th('ir SO llre(,8. Til l' COUlltl'l'Reformllt ion produced Olll' kind of " reuli sm" ill ,ut IIlId ndvancl'd Prot estanti sm unot!.('!'. It oln' iously o\'('rsimplifi('s th(' ens(' 1.0 try to hep them l)olari1.ed, since so lIIuch cross· refe rence und cross·i nfluence we re I>ossi bl c; lilld yet t1ut OIlO IIiOliS traditions die hard . Th e sevcntcenth-century art of both Cnt holic tlnd Pro testant Nf'the r lunds showlS it s df'bt to the Northe rn past, delSpil(" the amount or r'espect for Frllll ce ulld Italy it lIullulged t o in· ternalize. In Itu ly, classica l ideals urticlIltltcd ill the Henn issan ce were held over' into the sC\'c ntcenth ccntury, desp ite inte rvening Manllcrist distortions or I'cl'S is tc nt influences from the No rth.
C
h
100
.loI O VINO
"' . 1
PI CTU RE S
II t: R (,U I. t:S 8 t: O IU: K 8,
TIl t! J/O¥SlI Tree. MonolYJK'
Graphic power wus now lIli ackllowledged rorce. Cou rll~' Ilncl ci,·jllls well tiS religions propagaudu was prollluignt(>d by prilltcd imagery, 111)(1 graphic artists w('re indispensable cmployees of kings llnd dukes, cn rdilluls lmel alJbots. Th e em otional leehniques (h'\'cl0l)cd by the book illulIlillllLOrs we re joilled to the rhetorical skills of public church uri unci officin l porltllillire in U CO Ulm on , fluid , graphic t"euler o f pers unsioll. a mo\·jng-picture pnlne(' wiliiOut walls. Just us ill the modem world, arti st~ could stea l frolll ull
other artists Pll Sl lllld prN>cnl, a ud fol' eX l re m(' ly vuriowl PU l'pos('s. Thl' old hermetic viewlo; of craft und urt re prt.'sc nl ed Ly Leonardo da Vinc i wert" ex1)loded. By di ssc milHtling both len rlliug Itlld illwgcry. prilll broke up thei r isolatioll-t he keeping und telldiug of s<'uets by adepllS und in iliuLelS. Being "original" cam€' La IIl<'UIl crcu ling a new source iI1 SI,(>Ild of sea rchi ng
101
out till' oldest possih ll' 011(' .•\I O\' ClllPIlI WitS fOl'\\'1I1"{1 unci outward. Art wus on ti1{' 1I\C1\' (' in scn~rlll WHy!). Th e flilmboyullt O\'Pl'sl(>ppiIlK of bouudu r i('s wus l.l Jri" IWl'ully \'isibll' lIud fH III On!) Iilclllt' ill Bu .-oqnt, Itn lillll IIr!. bll t I('ss 1I0 Iic(,lIl.Il .. kintls o f arlists \\'('re Illso goillg I)('yond old limi ts . A pri\,tltt:' artist such liS Hf' I'cui('s 'PJEh(, I's (15 !l- 16:J S) WIIS illl(,llsir~' illg hOlh the possibilities of prilllNI grllpliic ex pression HIle! tlll~ t'lI1uliOllll1 SCO I){' or
11l1I(\fSCIlIW, 1-1 (' Illude lurge pr ints in 1II01l01yP(' wh ic h COllld not i}{' "('pro· duced. ulm081 as if hI' Wf'rl' wor'king ill pain!. lI is gn.lphic works look til(' med iulil beyond lit(-' dellulllds of COIIlIII{,I'cial lOUCel'S!) into (ul,tht',,, pUI'C'ly IIr· lislie realms , sOIllf'wlml us photogruphy llils h(,(,11 t llkf'1l in this Cf'II!UI'Y, Th c' IUHllllillg u'x tur('s UlIIJ IJllllosphl'ric quulili('s S('l!hf' I's CI'l'lIl('(1 \\'(' 1'(' 1I 0t unli lublf' lo COlllll\(' rciul graphics until II hUllcirt'd and firl~' Yl'l:U'S 1111('1', wilh t.he in\'(,lItioll of li lhogl'Clphy, In OUI' prese nt clillwh' 111(' illWll l'dll (,SS of Seghe rs' illlugrs SeNtI r('llIted to 1U1Idl'rll Expl'('ssio nist goals, hut hi!S US(' 01' cnslIlll llHII('riu l subj('cl !Unt lel', su ch us books IIl1d hoats and "it'w!; ou t tltt·
4 ,i
II ER e U I. F. S S ): (I II ); R S,
IJ ;Jllfllli r i,,1/'
I/'
it h
H r fltH' " of J' j /II'
1',.,.,., )!Ollo tYIW
102
M OVINO
l' I CTU RJo:S
wi lId ow, besides unpeopl ed landlScupes or eeri e flll\, O,., cO lltri bute 10 I ht! Ci llc!Untie \·i('w o f phenomena . 1'hl'Y co nvey the ro muul ic ici(>u LIIlI t detached objects ex is t to 1)(> invested with subject in fer ling. Seghers- kind o r art, llloreO\'er, s hows itselr to be a me r(' condu it ror this process, to nllow it s fllllctiouing in the \'iewcr's eX I>Cri(> IICi!; t he Ilrtist is II Ot til(' olle whose e mot ions are bt'ing exposed. S(>ghc rs e mphasizes t his s ituation by usi ll g spe c ific but imagina ry land sca pe , as if re minding be holde rs of the ir drl'u ms, nOt describin g hi s (.1. I , -t .2). :\'Iove me nt he re is not a prope rl y o f t he sClllUlin g eye o r of the trees and wat e r th emsc lves; it is t he mo\'e IlH'n t. of inner r C!; I)onsc, IIOW tolully seculurized and illd i\·jduuli1.ed . Th e use of empty hllldsc8pe ill pllI,t icular mnrks 8 deliberate s hift away f,'O m the d CIIUllld that spi ,-itual rcs ponses be focused on th e Christian lIly th (or e\'e n on Clnsl-;iclll my th s ove rlu id by th e Ch r ist illn one) a nd toward an unmed iated d e ma nd fo r sp irituul cngngC'ntenL S uc h themes "'e l'e th orough ly ex plored by Ho mnn tie arti sts who, like li t hography, flail r ishNI two cc nt n !'ies IUI(' r. long 11 f' e r S('ghers (following' A It d o rfe r) hud enullciated the m. Hi s work re prese n ts anothe r 1Il0\'f' townrd movies, sUlull bill di stin ct. Seghcrs' urt wa s ill sy mpathy wi th allothc r prolo- Rolllil nt ic und protoc inemalic art ist of hill time, Ad a m l<;l s hei mc r (1578-1610)_ LikE' so lIlauy o thers. thi s pui llt er bccn me k nown lln d illtluc ntin l tl l!"OlI!!h C'ug'rll\'C'C1 vc r sions of his work s, oft en d one by others. III hi s pllintings he did h(' roic subject s in n s mull rormal, us if 10 use th e e molioll8 1 resources or graphic urt for painting. 11(' want.ed the illt(,lIs ity and ill t ill UICY ofp r iut s, whic h hud derived ultimale ly rrolU painted illumi llutio ll . for large th e mes t hut iuclucled 1I11my fi g ures ancl dynam ic lu ndHcapf' se ttings. H ilving rnntul'ed ill Fl'uukflll·l. E lsh('i mel' worked in :\Iu uie h, Venice . lI ud Ro me, ub!oorbing eOllt(,lIlporury influ ences from both sid elS of tll(' Alps, inc luding thai of prints from th e P8SI. H is smu ll wor ks were delicately paint ed on copper, und they huvc t he high g lossy fini s h lind meticulous nul urnlis lll perfected by the F le mis h Im inter s in the fifteen th ce ntury. But El sheimel' added the mobile co mposit ionnl e ffects and sol id , casy figure style of tilt' grellt Venet illll pa in ters such flS V(' I-O llese fi ud 1'inI ON'lIO, wllO hnd wOI·ked 011 u heroic 8c8 1('. Thc result is extraord inary, Some of El she inwr's little puintings- The Bapt ism of Christ. for eXllmple-iu'e like Tin tOI'CIIO a ll television. They nrc like ceiling-s ized V('net ilill pll intings miniHtllrizN I. transmuted into the Northern graphic eOllllllun icative mode for pi erci ng. instnnt absorptio n. Othe r wo rks. suc h liS Jupiter alld M ercu ry i" fhe /l Quse of Ballcis alld Pll i femoll, 111\\,(> 1111 e nt irely u n-It a li nn clIlo ti onal ellst c reated by t he cha rnc te ri s tic ~ ordic light ing that impol)cs imlllediate psyc hic demunds Oil the viewe r (-l_a). Th is nugus t C luss icli l my th couc hed in terms of
rt-d
Ie
Til e f:arl y lIaruqllp
4 ,3
A 0 A)I
K L S H KIM K R .
103
JUl,il er alld Mf!rcllry iI/lite /louIe of Ba lid' a lid Pll i/cmOIl
hO l'i ug !l('IIJ,;/l1I1 lil'(' is II p(' rft'cl (,Xlllllll l(' of 1'\0rllll'I'Il "(,ll lislI1 ill ils ,'r\'r lo· lor), ruthl' r IlulI1 os tl'lIsi\'(' s lyl(' , As ill V" I'IIIt'pr, Ih(' 1'00111 is \'l'ry qui£'t. TIU'rl' is 1I11110Slll0 a c tio n or reliC , tion, 110 bU SI I(', amin o Jlos('· hold inf!. AlIliI(' orall1 al ic 1Il0WIll t>1I 1 is in the flll s h or gillIlC(,S Ihlll c hllrg(' Ihl' IIiI' 1I1rputiy pri'pnrt'd by the g low or th e III Hl P to fill wit h th e IIWart' ll eS$ 01' fli,' illt~ l>I'l'SI' lI <: l', But 011 1." \\'(> can s('(> t he ulpr!. e>yps of 11If' f!Mls , silrll ily bl{'ssi ng tilt' sucl'pcl n!lic::f's 01' hospilll iity tlWI nrt' PI'tlCI'('dill g so s klwl." II lld s tirn." HI t ll (' IIgNI co uplC"J; huml s, This puilltillg, IJlt'tlsllrillg six by li llie IIIHI a hllll' illclH's, co nta ins n who le sct'lle from a 1110\'11', 1101 Ollf' hu s hrd tablellu , Til l' old \\' 01111:11 1 shakily folds bed · dillg, tlml bf' I' hu s bulld conCf' ll tratcs 011 slIr,'ly cn rryi llg II fu ll \'t'ssel: Ihei r eye I; tire down, t hc~' c rt~nk lIud s hlltll ~ n bit at Lilt'lr WOJ'k, ~ h,tin whilf' In the dim light of Ilwi r hut. ti Ll' discrt't'lulId wl1lChI'lIl god!>; 811111111111811111 bllt UII · lIoliCf'd rt'gult'lIs(' , illulllIQlic('d godly drf'SS , We> squirm, wnitillg for th(' old fo lk!; to look lip, to r('(' 1 t ill.>di\'illr IIl11'lI , 10 notice tile stnill gen('ss-bul t h e~' wou ' t , b(,llIg p rol('c lNI rrolll slic h knowledgl', tiS th e,\' lire I'rolll se lf·con·
104
M OV I NO
PI C TURES
sciOll sness. by th e ir perfect goodness. Now the gods Il nd W(' are secret ly willlf'Ssi ll g it. t.oget hcl'-l ru c vil"lllt' at work. lik(' two tiny flames ill 11 huge bplli g h t.('d 'l\'OI'ld. 0 111y lomorl'ow will CO ll I(' tile duy lighl, the c ilip ilany. l il t' ,'ccognili oll, and th e rewaro . 'I' I\(' s lrai g ht(o l'wllI'd d CIu il s ill
r~l s h cime r 's
little picture" 011 gl'Clll
thCIIH'S give t hem II cnme rnl ike fla vor thot 'r intoret.to illld " c ronesc. Rubens. C,u rtl\'uggio, unci the Ca rrllcci Ilvoided for tiw ir [u rge-scall' VC I" sions of simi lar su bjects. The V(>ry choic(' of II s lImll s iz(' for such works. th ough it may have been dicta trd by c irCullIstn ncc, s ugges ts a diffe rent goul (rom the olle purs ued by t he greul expe rt s 1I1.1)ugt'Ulilry working' lit the SllIIl(' pe riod . E lshcime r always ayoid s the d ivi llt'ly th ('u lrica l lIlf'thod in fuYo r of the cine mil lic s l y le. wh ich depcllds on th e cUlllc rll's prosilic record· ing eye ('\'CH while opli lLg for th c sweep o f mYl hic grllndeu r. I n th e cuse of sacred martyrdollls and heavellly visio ll s. he Ilc hieves t ll at hi g hly renlist.ie III IN'ulit y whic h SI)(,Cl8culllr fihlls hm'e: El s hcimer see lll s 10 ha\'e "di· rf'cted " Th e SIOllillg of 81. Stephell, 1'01' exa mple , Th e massed figures seem I'('ul Ill'op l(', th"ir bod iI's IIlId istort.ed by IlIly so\'er('ign stylistic Ill ode, only w ry IIdroitly pitlcNl ll lid ins lruc tt'd (-1 .4), C inellla CIlII lH~ve r d o what 'I'illl Ore1(O or Hu bcns did. S u ch plliulers e ,'c, nl ed figllr(' st,yles li n d paintiug techlliqu('s and CO Ul llOsi l ional ploys sO flex ih le IIlId interdepcll cif:III t hat t hey llIay belollg on ly to pllinting, a nd the hcavc llly \'is ioll s or I h(> ullegoricul ilppuril iOlls I i\'e o lll~' ill n rt iSI ic 1.(')'II1S, No photo-graphic IlIflt ('ria l CUll in trude. or tl\(' illus io n wou ld b(' lost. But EIsh(>i nH'r u ses ligh t ill the NO l,th e l'll pho lo-grllphic way. to creul.e 1111 ell rl hly a etua lity for hNn 'cnl), c ircumstu nce s. insteud of fi ll in g tlw uni\'c rs(' with pllillt.l"rly lighl. like '('i nlorcllo, whic h 11('('(110 SlI spell!;ion or d isbelief to be r igh tly 8(,('11 , H e' IIlso IllitS WOllle ll hanging up thei r lu und ry in to The Fl iylll from BI(I'"iIlY Troy. und s h ows SL !('pllf'n 's IIrlll S hanging IU'lpiessiy down, his jaw dropping in St.UII IICd, IIl1l1c r'oic style ufter the firt~t slone lIaz.; stnlck him . whili' t il e IIlIIIl behind hill! sl l'ctclH'S U]) 0 11 ti p t.oe to crush Ihe SIOII£' d ow lI again on t he blt'(~di llg Ir end, AlIl.h e figures in l hcse pain ti ngs have rreslr. naturlll -sccllli n g bodily d c portmellt, Ilnd t he Iighling hns u pcnctl'uti ll g flow l hllt is only c lIl phnsized wil ell Ei shei lll ('r SIIIlI'PCIIS it for olle o r 11is !lig ht pieceli, 1'he r{' is 11 0 insis tCli t lh('utricnii ty or ei t her light. or gest.ure; bUI there is ulso no I}oin ted (>xl. ra (lwl..' II)(1rd llcss, such as both Cllru vuggio ulld Remb ran dt e mployed, Th ese bodi('s ha\'c fam iiia r ('asp unci pro po rtion rather l.iuw any Ilrtistic·looking clnssic gracc or !lilli-cl assic c rud ity, 'I'h c~' sce m si ml}ly uli\'e. Viewers need lIot WOrk to Irllnslnlc t.he ir bod ily rOrmS i\nd a ction s out o f II poetic lUll' guug(' in to plain hUlIlun s hnpe: Eisheilllcr hilS u rrllllged it nlr('nd,v . De spit(' the lilllc he spent in Rome, E isilci me r was a tr'uP Nort hern urt-
C pyr
te
Til ,. f ;al"iy !Ja roql/"
4.4
ADA)(
F.1 .8 11 ~: IM.: N .
n ,.SIQll i"fJo! S/.S/,.,Jhl'lI
105
1 06
M OV IN G
PI C T U RE S
is!, II devoted l:'cio n of DUre r and Altdor fcr, t hough one for whom the reso ul'ees of I lilly were ellS), to al$s im ilnle rather than probl emat ic. The s l1Iali
sizl', t hl' transc(' ndcllt lISC of light, th e delicate signs of human interacti on 1111 link him with Vlln Eyck and I..hc illuminators carlier und with Vermee r 181('1" bill. also wi th the cine matic impulse altogethe r, despite hi s ca pacity t.o use VCIlClil111 schemes a nd to e nco mpnss class ical monumentality . He Ill/IllagN; to make Illliinn elements feed his German need to use the Uluudnnc as t he right fram e for unearth ly t ruths a nd s piritual expression. L"n nd scape sen 'cd hi m particu larly well for this. on Altd orfe r 's model wit h some hel p from Giorgone. There he would use separat e and speeific sources of out.door li ghting: th e mOOIl, the r efl ectio ns on water, t he searchin g beams of t he SUIl strik ing from be hind the si lhouettes of trees , bonfi res, lan terns, und lorches-or, ill th e case of St. Stephen, thc heave nly searchlight beamin g directl~' from the throne of God. He could unite the characters in his lege ndary narratives with t he fee lings suc h lighting inspires. A nigh t scene out. of doors, even morc than a n inti mate cand lel it inte r ior, IIl lly e ngage the wh ole myste ry of ea r t h' s darkness, which everyo ne expe r ienceS whe n night falls and lights arc lit to fight. it. Perhaps th e moon le nd s its far glow. a nd someti mes the stars give t.hei r d istaut reassu rances. In El s heimer' s Fliylll ililo Egypt th ese pheno me na that. evel'yone ha s WOIld cred at con tribu t.e both their ol'd inllrincss a nd thei r magic to the se nse or CO llllll on life being li"ed a nd cos mic atte ntion being puici (.... 5). Watc hed O\'{" r by the eyes of nigh t, the fugitive fUlIl ily with its one hopeful torch ltI11kes its WUj' around the moonli t la ke townrd the safe ty of a s hephe rd's bonfi re in the wood. A se nse of immediate real ity comes from th e Cact thut th e seve ra l light sources are a lso co nt ra s tin g sou rces of heat or chill : t he cold lake und llIoon contra st with the ho t fi re and torc h; ex tremes threate n on a ll s ides, protec tion is uncert ain-fa ith mus t. prevail. T his scene, like many other E lsheimer paint ings, has no d irect all tece· d(,ll ls. H is conceptions werc uniqu(' in thei r time, prophe tic well beyond any predic table d escend ullts , of whic h there were quite a Cew. Ru bens, Rem brandt , and Claude Lorra in. all unique a rtis ts, were se lf-confessedly indebted to Eisheimer, wh o died at t hirt y· two havi ng do ne on ly a few small wor·ks. Other grea t painters thus recogni zed his intimate and graphic way with great lege nds; his paill t illgs wc re kee nly if only private ly apprec iated in his day, nnd much Intc r by Romantic writc rs. Hc was clearly attem pting something not then conventiona lly e ncompassed by the establis hed rules oC pa in ting. whi le ha"ing no othe r contemporary channel but through graphic •.11'1. which h(' I1lso prllct.iccd him self. Al though hi s pai ntings glow with jewcl-lik(, hu ('s, it. wa s his graphic inte rpretcrs a nd reproducer s who made E lsheimer intelligi ble and famons, beginning with his friend Hendrick
(
~ Igt";
tar I
10 i
OOlldt. through whose engJ'llyi ngs his works were mos t widely Illude knowll, 1'11., bla ck-ul/d -whit(' medium t hllt Ill lldc so IIllllly pniut('rs 1I\'uilnble to tll (' world inl e ns ifif'd Eisheimc r 's sp('cial qualit y wi Lli pnrticular elllotionsl poigllllll ce, The Mocking 0/ Ceres, for ('xum l)l c, kllown bes t in nn f'n(~~Ta\' in~ , r eco rds un odd episode from O"id in which Ce res , overcomc with thirst and given wnte r nt n co ttage while senrc hing for her daughl('r throughout the world , is mocked by a boy for he r greedy gulping, and exaspe ratedly changes him in to a liza rd , Th£' Elsh ei me r picture shows th e gUlping nnd t he moc king, lil by torch and cli nd le outside a hut 81 night (4,6), Th(' old mist ress of the coUng£' (a r elation of Baucis, b:' h('r looks) tri es to s(lu elch th e overexcited Iiul(' boy, while s he herself sLares al the thirsly st ranger with 1I1t (,1I8(, but r(,8('1'\'cd illt (' res t b,v the light of her ca lldl(' , A dOilies tic glow comes from Ihe cOl tllge inl ('rior; II cool moo n loo ks in from the othe r corncr , Ob li"ious fnrlll people warm th emselves at a s llIall fi r e in the stabl e yard at the r enr , T he t ight Iy composed sce lle is busy, mys t er ious, faintl y menacing,
108
) I OV I SG
4 .6
A
I)".w
E
" I C TU R E S
LS I!~; I M~: ft , Tltr J/orkllly
til (',.",
(l'O P)")
Th e /:'·(I,.ly Ba,.Qque
109
und cxcitiHg, like ull suddctl inighttillle uct ivity perceived by children. El s hci mer has d eliberately chose n a subject thll.t is lImbiguous and not obvious, and he depends for the picture's effect 0 11 its interna l emot ional relationships-the close, sudden ly illum illll.ted encollnter of these three odd ly assort ed charact ers: the sta rk -naked poin ting boy, the hooded and peerin g old wOlllan pushing him back, and th e strong, beautiful draped goddf'ss, with t he li ght full on her barf' throat as s he t ips up the drink ing vessel. You can almost wntch her swnllow illg, and (eel t he boy's u ncontrollable ngitali on nt thl' sight. Who is she r What will happenr Th e scene is open·backNI, and ollce IIgain indifferen t ordinary life fl ows a round and over t he crucial episode in focus, ns if to suggest its ve ry arbitrariness . The IClb/ea,1t vi llani s tyle or dramatic rendering favo red by ClIra\'aggio is vcry difTerl' Ht. Carm'aggio tliso work ed in Rome lI.nd was E ls heimer's COli ' temporary, and the two artis ts' work has sometimes bee n associated . But Cnravaggio's scellcs take plnce well dowllstage, closed off by II backdrop, with a hidden s potligh t on the llcti on and the hOll sl'ligh ts off. Th e s peak ing illum ination ulld the 1II0llUluentuJly-sornetimes elegia cally or ecstatically - lIwkward figures have a fixed se lf·co nsciousness thnt is infin itely eO Ill pelling but never 1l1ltural. Charuct.ers orten sta re chullengingly at the audi ence or engngc one an other with a kee n llWareness of being seen. There is great light but no air ill Ca ravaggi o's paint.ed encounters; t hey ha\'e a el!lUstral , s had ow·boxy, nnd almost opprcssive IIlcaningfulness. In eaeh one, t he possi bility of alternative circumstallce has been renounced: th ey have 1l fated look, emphnsized by tire s tnsis of even the most. drllmatic corn · position s (4.7). Th eir pos ing s trengthens the erotie qua lit y of eaeh figure, even old and wrinkled ones-th ey are (ee ling t hemselves looked at, th ey know t hemsel ves transfixed by ou r gaze, forced to experience our sense of their flesh. Ca ravaggio's pailltings are somewhat like ph otographs mude to sim ulate pllintillgs, with models ca refu lly grouped and lights carefully truirred . There is no flow or life: everyon e's breath is held. including ours. There is certa ili ly all intense e"ocation or t MI th in C3ravnggio' S painting, but it is a tru th at odds with what. the subject ill\'okes. Something is being expounded about the lives of the models, 1I0t about t.he lives or the saints they play. It. is thei r own arresti ng bare soles or s houlders and e
c
""
I 10
MOVING
", . j
C ARAVAOOIO ,
PI C T UR ..;S
Th t. ,ullrlyrdomo/SI. /-,d er
is being ce\('hrated . find we are inv it ('d 10 s hare the a rt ist.'s possess ion of anoth e r by IIlCIlIlIi of t he YOrll c ious gazt', We are not invit ed to tread on holy ground . bllt 10 "isi l lhe studio 811d Slur('- lhe re is the ren\ s hrine. And we tire Il.Bowed to CO III (, a nd do it only whi lt, th e model is holding still 811d exposed, pl"e L(' ndillg to be II saint , 8n a ngel, or an :ll1cien l god. This is a thrill ing und dis turbing situation. lind it ('x(' rciscs 1111 e ntirely lI e w kind o f sexuIIlity ill art. vcry different from the i\Iull llcrist program of s urfa ce e rot· icism used by tllf' prc\tiolls gene ration . flllh e theatrical early sevent eenth ccn lury, the alternat.ive cinematic im pulse was exp ressed by Golt ziu s and Callot , Bosse, Bellauge, sud Hollar, the greut blnck-nnd -white interpreters of t he early-Bnroquc world _ They were the in\'en tors o f styl ish new public media for transmitting ideas of
111
worldly l}OwI'r, alld of tilt,
I)OWI'!"
o f art. its('lf. Cn llol ami Boss{'
II SN\ i\
fa s hioll ·plll l t> figurl' slyl<', ex tra lilll lind slim wit h nOllc hllinn t po81 11rl'.
11 was tl iliadI' Idt. o\'('r f,'olll l\Iannf'ris l ()ainlin~. hilI it wns mOSI nppro· print(· 1(1 11If' Iwrsultsin' kimi flf ~rllphi c Ill" d('\'ot('d 10 pn)lllOtiuf.! II 8 111 001h wily or loukinJ! at uctuuli l il·s. Truditiullul SllCrt·d th~lII ('s S('f'1Il SOIllC\\' lI lIl wl'ongly cast ",hPII f'IUICI('d by such 1l!tt'III1111N I Ilud dashin~ figures . as if
dt'partme lll 'lStorl' 1ll1111l1f'qui1ilS W(· /'t· twillg llloicd to dl'picl the
;\I1I11I11 Cl1:11101l .
But illustrntiolls of COll l(,IIII)OI'ary lift· tlnll lIliJZh! dt'scrihe a military
triulilph o r a locul (t'sth'llilook sl.Itisfy iuJZ and rl'assur ill" wla'l1 ("\'ell rugged so ldiel's or poor JlNISIIIIIS 1!Un' j.('ood figulx's ilud n I!rl1c(,ful, modis h s iliute ali(I wt'lir Llu·ir LulLers wiLh 1111 Ilir, Om' lisped of lIIodrrn commf'rciu l films IUl S 1)f'(,11 II simi llll' WII,\' of ell lUlltciltg' "(,lIlislI l wilh hodily fllshion, II Pllts
/I.
sexy ici llf! 011 ordi nary ('\'I'lltS, 1.0 nmkf' baJllllity IItlracl.ivf' /Iud sordid misfortull(, rOllllintic. Ooit zills' engrllvNI cinssiclli figur('s IUI\'f' II silllilu r slick look tlmt hilS b('clllul'gf'l,\' crPllt ('cI by I I\{" SlIa\·il,\' orth(' lilies Ihnl modpi and p olis h Ih(,lI1. In a kind of pop'lul tour d e forc£', he £,\'{' II Si lllU lllt{'d Ih{' look of e n grllvi ll g for SOIl1(> of his druwill~s , liS if to /'ihow off bOlh his skillul1ll the effect.iveness of II\{' co mllIc reiul grnphic II lt'd iullI it s('ll', Cu ll ol hud II. IlUlguific('ul gifl f(}l'mass in g c l'owds thnt, likl' gishrilllf'r' s, seem dirpC It'd rul l!(' I't hllll COIll I"181'II , II is hig l3ihl ictll, IlI il it tll"Y, tlnd feslin' SCf'IlCS hll"f'
II.
D(')'lilll'-likr cOllibinnlioll of hll~W StO p£, and slIIali incid£'III,
pointl'd up by the loorning t"r l)()/U1soir figlll't's ill tilt' fort'gl'Olmd, wilo IIrr linked to II\{' IIc tioH of hll"g(,1" g rOuJls ,'ccNting in to Ihe' disItUlC(" Th(' Jlf'rsOllllel of eue h of th ('sc is c ri sply d('fill('d. nnd nil lIIilliug or' IIlIlrchiug crowds a rl' 1I1'811y rlistributl'd lUnong thl' hi lls or pillills of tltt' bl'olld S('\· ting, The sharp blllck -lind-whit e medium c rf'llft·s a glittt'ring chiaroscuro sc rim that incites t he eye to mot ion and to ncl ioH. bOllll cin g it Ilround tlw sce ne , Ictt.i llg it ,'angf', 0 1' focu!;illg il 011 one or tlllot her \'igll('t l l', s lin'ilig Ihe soul with g r ll pilie s purkll' , The whule is Il('ld togt~th l' r by 1111 l'xhi lurllting t ecituicu l (' Ie gunce thllt gives ellch lillll' figure the dllsh und finish of Il movi e uctor, II 1'l olI)'wood -stylc begga r or mcrchn n t. It works simi larly to th e wuy t he brilliallce o f cincllliltography cnn hold huge crowd SCf' lles in harmollY by its owu graphic authority, w hic h forbids confusion and boredom in I he viewcl', Thcl"e ",c l'e no painters t rying to do just that at t.he time, C aravlIggio's g reat contemporaries the Ca rracci were founding ope ratic theaters rather t.han making mo\'ies, establishing a stat ely and glamorous universe wh erei n cpic pe r formances on themes of nil kinds might be repealedly Rnd s8tisf"y ingiy enacted, by UlallY diffe ren t artis t s in many "lIriatio Il S, Caravaggio' s hars h alt e rn atives wen t on lo influence th(' Dutch and
pan-
ish pun'e,v0rs of grilll stories, 1II0st of whic h see nl no less t heatrica llhan the 1I0bie fres coes of the classical s c hool. Rubl' IlS s h ared in the contf' mporfl.ry
not- d
Ie
)lOVIN G
112
I'I CTU RE S
~('IIS(,
of lhNlIer, !Jut hi ~ d('sin' for cOlltrol of Ih(' reproduction 11110 cOllse · qucllt spread or his OWII works (urnl hi s IIPI)rcciutioll or Eisheimer) siIOW him 10 be alllong thoio;(' with Ii graphic and ci ne llliltic ulId('rstlilidillg-lh e S{' II Se o r [lUll killci or grnl)hic Il lOtion which cun lIIove the public al Illrgt'. Hub('IH;' pain l in gs cO llsistClIlIy ce leb/'III(' III(' world th rough Ih~' Co.-POI'('II Ii Iy of pH ill l, Tl u' un Cll llny trllllSpH reli c,\' o r ('/1 r lier ci Ill' uulI ic pnin I illg-I hI' thill paint fillILs of Bosch und Bnlegd. t ile g lazes or Vlln E:vck-l1re II I odds with Hu b('lIs' likiug for the' ('xprt'ss tliligibilit y of pili III itself. 1-1(> lIulkes you f('l'i hi s hllnd. 'I'll{' kind of IIlllllual brilliUIlC(, pnlclic('d by Cullot or Oolly.iufol in etc lling lind eug ru\' ing relishes lilt' dillll'Clic of while ground IIl1d hlnek IIHlrks-tlw glowilll' sc ree n of lIot hillglless . lIIugicull,\' brokell lip lJy n f('w lilies und s hlldowfol into reul 'seClIlillg, g r ipping visions. The re is 110 s(}(,ciul lIl'ligh t ill 111(' III('W llllld burin , or ('\'(~ n in pell IIlId ink : d rllwings by Ca llol hll\'(' t il£' SUllie bl'(,lIll1tllkillg brll\'(' ry t hllt VUII Dyc k's und HemLJrilndt'ti s ilow, the- look o rb{'ing eonjured oul o r Iht' vo id IIl1d lit by it rrOIll behind. It is quitl' diffl'rent froUl 111(' insistent. cnlligrllph,\' of DOn'r, wlle l il{'r l'Ic lled, ('ngraved. o r druwlI .
-1 . 8
JA C QUES CA I.LOT , TIt ~ O'H'"i"(Jof'lt t HtdSf'o . Etching
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JACQUES CA I. LOT . C/lrr/li ll/l of/hI' CroSJf. Etchill)t
Tlu' :o;ubjl'cl IILull,'" ill Cullol's seC'lIic wOI'ks is Sl'lI ll1lt>ss ly
11I11Till l \ ' f'
,'at Il l'!' IhUIl IIll('cliotul. Dra ltlH i s S('('1I Its n dYIIHlllic flow, lI ul II SI" of \\'t·II·
s luqwd phnt ~;t's. 'fll r OWl/i II!} of I/l( UNI ::;1'1' lI tH.I III ,' Carryillfl of fil e C,.oss 11I1\'(' u d llz1. l i ng PHIIOl'Hl Uic il llt'I"o'ity lJi'," IIIIIIIIII Y n''1l1in~ lI h' "IS 1)( t h f' Slcll"Y.
aucl
frN'
of
11 Jlll i ll t(, I"S
11(,('(1 for s tabl!· cllI"IJl ll a l ic
Sci H' III('1)
(4 .8. ·Ul). H is
1I ..>,hud is !"('Iuted 10 Ihut of Bnu' j.t't·1, tho1lgh qu il(' (Iilr{','('n t: "dat£'d. bt" CIIIlS£' I hest' t wo artists shu l'(' ill 111(' S(,IIS('
or t hl' ki ul'lic sec'lIr Ill1cit h"
ki-
lI('tic ('.\'1' lincl so hot h IWpfij!u,'\' fi liI!: d i n" 'I'p lIl. IWea ns(' o f til(' ditre rl'lI ! .. ims lind !l1i'IIIiS that !lwcI(' 1111'111 illH:('sIOl'S of d ill't','('U I s l y!f's of fillu,
ClIlIOI wOl'k pd for' I'pi j.!uiuj.! duk('s IIml p I'illCPS
Hr tht,
C'hlll'(:h ill II p Pl' iod
wilt'li II lJsollI !t' ml{' I's. I'ugt' " 10 dp lll ulIsl/'I.I h' I h p; 1' 0\\'11 pm,'p r If) 111I' III 8eh'l's
in c08mic II'I'III S, j' mplo,YI'" al'l iS l s with II St!'OIl/.{ Ill1ciPI'sl liUdillf,! of show bu si llt'ss to 1It'I p Ih p lli tllJ it. III OI'dt' I' lu slls ill ill t il i' I'ij.!lil lIolf', II (:(','Ill ill Pllllac lll'.1\ rpsl in' SOI'I uf j' xci tpwpul wnu ld hun' In slI n'u ~w all k illds of i l ll Ilgt' I'Y, It wOllhJ IIpply 10 )'(,COI"!!; of gl'isly ('Xi'CII I ;OIlS 110 I(' ss tha ll 10 dc, sC !'i p tiolls o r SIIl!!P Pl'tldilCliOlIS. 10 )'I' l i f,!"ioIl S illll sl nlliOlI 110 !t·ss 11111 11 10 fu s ilio n Pl'ilil S anti St(' II('S u f lIIilitm'y triu m ph 0 1' Im ll llil'lIpil1(', Ew!'y kind of SC I' II(' i ll ('u llot's Of'U\' I'C s hows Cl wodd w il h 1\ s at is fy il1/.! s lII' fll CC !!Ioss 111111 flllll (' !'s till' \'il'\\'(' I', \\'1111 11'\'(' )' t h(' s uhj rc t -
fllll lf'l'S hi lll, thu t is, hy Sill-;'
I I4
M OV I~ O
J>I C T U R"~S
I!('stillg Ihnt tilt' univer!w is rc ndcrl'd c hic by hi s guzc, amJ Ihllt all reulily constantly pn'scnts it sl'l f to bc rl'li s ilNI a s II sort. of ente rta ini ng tribu te. Thi s wns a H oll ywood d evice clUJ'ill1; the g l'cut dnys of Ame rican sel fflattery , III the golden agr of H ollywood, 1101 a killg bUIll whole nal ion wus s{'l'vNI l ht' visiLIl' world on II pl a tler, as if it wcre pCI'fectl), bnked lind glu z('d , On ly the mos t becoHling d ishevel me nl graced t he hai r o f di s traught wi " (,8 and mothers; teneme n ts IUle! laundry 8S a rtfu ll y festooned as t he (!I'u pe ri l's of IIHlII SioIlS; perfec t fit wus s hnred cqually by pri so n gnrb, office w('a r, SI UlII lllld farm genr, CUIIli>US to gs, itlld evc ning d ress, a nd perfect fig1I 1'f'S by a ll tlH'ir weare l'S, It WIIS del iciously rea listic, Cu llo f s sce lles nrc lIluc h more like suc h nlO"ics t hnn n rc most o f th e Ilille tee n th -cenl u ry s pectllCulllr paint ings cc lehratillg Fren ch or British impCI'ia lislll, and t hat is becnuse o f t he affi nities be tween graphic mcdin , d es pitl' the absl' nce of co10l' ill Cli llol. Only g rllphic art can keep t hings movillg, Fritl! 's Ho i/way Statio" unci /)rrby Da y Il r(' full of precis(' colorful drwi ls und in cident s wit h a prt"cise llnecd otnl comple tene ss: Cnllot. ICLS it nil SW('CI) ncross t he plaut.' ill s treums of (' lIe rgy, w ith inc id e n t bnre ly shtclted or ski mmed, and IlI'ecision ill !l tcad a t tllched to th(' unifo rm stylishness of g,'stu re, dre ss, Ilnt! sl,tti ng. E\,('u th(' .\Ii.~e ries of \VO,," pic tures 111.1.\"(> 11 gliUf'r Il.I1d fl ieh r a ile! II. mobil€' cO lllposi li ollll1 exc il CIIl (> nl t hnt h eps t Ill' IIl l'OC ilies r" 0 111 s Il'jkill g I! OIIIl' V(' ry 10 1lIlI'ply. Til {' I' x pc ri ('11 ct' " P ill II ills sce lIic, lik(' u filIIit'd (' ngag('IIH'll t bctwe('11 In diuns lind cn\,lIl ry, In bot h. a utll(' lI lic (':(.;ile lll cll t is grJl{' rllt f' d Ly vivid use of lh{' mediullI more t htl ll by Iht' hOtTors of the battle , Thi s pilrtic uhu' kiud of gl'ilphic "rclilism" suggests t hat tll {, ff' ur and s tl' ir{' o f o th f'rs is won c!f' r ful f' llterlainmellt, but of cou rse oll ly for 8111>(" 'iOl' beings. who may \' i('w it t hrough th e lllt rncti\'e vci l (01· film ) o f It hi ghly s killed 1.(·c llllil.:al r('pr(' st~lIt a lio n, Brueg(!I , on t he other 111111£1, is like II Ellro peull fil m-milker illh' lI t 011 ,'(' ri SIII spiced wilh cynic is m, Th e wOl'ld o f powe r II.HlI pr('stig(' is 8('('11 fro m II. d istllllce und pCI'I)c lulilly a s kllllc{' , 1]("\,,'1' lllkf'ri ve ry s(' riollsly or \,{'ry p('rsonlllly. eV('1I when gr('ltt (" '{'lIts a l'e IIfool. 'I' ll(' viewer iJo; row:;ed ill his fU ll dn me nlul sYlil put hi {'Jo; and ill his S€'II S{' of hUlllor, 1I0 t soo thed in his Sf'lIse of comfortab le s upe r iority_ III t ht· ('urly SC\'l'llt el'lIth ccn tu ry, l'\'(!11 during t he full t ide o f th e Count.e r -Re forlllutioll und th e gnwd iose s(' lf-co l1 ceptio lis o f mona rc hs, o rclimu'y Sl'CUhll' subjcct. mlll\f'r hnd b('collle s tllndard f'VC II in Catho lic monnrc hies, This WIIS in part possi ble pr('c iscly becnuse of t he pene t ra tion of traditional paintill g by l hE" nfOW fo rcE" o f g raphic art, which had be E"n so pre· COciOlUS in ('X plOl' ill g seclIlnr ulld gC llre til{,lIIes and whic h had corn e to forlll a " is lIul ba ckgrou nd und represenl8tio llul stu ndurd for nil Europcll.1I life, Gt'orges d e la Tou r (1593- 1652) , like Ca llot a citize n of the Duc hy of l ..orraine, wh er{' va ri ou s r eligi ou s orders hnd powe r besides th(' I'e ig ning du ke,
C pyr
te
1 15
could p..odu c(' SC('II(':; of t'lrJ,!anl chiclIll('I'Y lIIh'i 1IIlI'oal'ious J,!;tllLbling, ~p' in! POI'll'lIi lS uf \\'!'{'tclwrllwIISlIllt:;, fl S \\'{'II tt:; ('IIIUlrllllltic Mug-liull'u!) , !:illinl ly IlIIl l'tYl'do lllS,lIUd Biblical gT OIIJ)S, Thel'e is 110 il'ony 01' Sl'llli llH'lItnlily in his \'i('w of Oil(' 01' l ilt' oth(' r kind of thr ill(': II IIllif~' illJ,! visicHl iufor-Ills hoth, us if lit' WI"'P /I II lOv il"CIlIlWI'i1 s lIhj('C I to III(' 811111(' r('gi8trlltioll of pIWIIOIJl(,III1, \\' 1I11!t-\'C'I'11I1' conti'xl. H t' doc's nOI clI l'ef-ully 118\'(' 10 paint s('culul' SC(,II{'S llS it' lilpy \\'Pt'i' tilll('I('ss, Ot' l'piiJ,! iclU!:i S(:PI1('8 as if tllp." wrl'l' clistollLary sight s, h(' CIIII St' {'\'('I'." t II i II g is t' x 11'110 r
4 , 10
GEO R GES DE I. A TO U R , Th f' .'I"gr IApfil'fir ;"g IQSI, J QII('IJIt
1 16
MOV) NO
PI CTU RE S
rary life is just 8S bizarre and mysterious as th e great sacred tales. He seems to have developed in isolation and obscurity, and only in this movie-loving century-as with Vermeer and Bruegel- has he bee n clllled great. H is vision has that same prophetic pre-cinematic look. Most of the move me nt ill his unlurbulent groups is the lIlo\'cmcnt of indoor light (usually flam e), of breath , and of thought. )<~yes slide sideways in 8n absorbed manner qu ile different from those ill Carnvaggio's scenes, quite lacking in audience awareness (4. 10). hildren have 8 bright. se lf-co ntained solem nity devoid of coyuess. The pract ical lighting effects seem reluted 1.0 Ca ravaggio's style, and De In Tour may have known engraved paintings by Dutch Cara,'aggisti s uch as I-Iontll orst and Terbnlggh en, although the re is nothing vcry Dutch about these st.rict. but. richly lit interiors. The tavern scenes have none or the raunchy giggle and bustle of DULCh cont emporary etluivalcnts, no careful grotesquerie---on ly n bemused, sou r humor and un· emphatic move nU'nts. Th e deformed Bud stupid peasants have no trace of eit.her comic swagger or inflat.ed tragic dignity. De la 'rou r makes the light. show us how to see them 1}lain-them, and nothing elsc. SUlTound illgs are usually swallowed up in darkness; the point. is the hUlIlan beings and the il· luminat ion of thei r inner lives. Nevertheless the darkness is pregnant rather than s tifling, because a eogf"nt vis ible flame is answering it bllCk, glow in g rrom a si ng le source in all directions at once; and the darkness remain s a possible world- the world of Everything El se, which is nO I. iunne· diately important beyond this moment, where life is being kindled in th e flame of what is happening. In Ca ravaggi o's spotlit sce nes, 0 11 the other hand , the su rrolluding curtain of blackness seems there to pre,·cllt spi ll and close the light in, just. as on a stuge. It is under De la Tour 's lamps, moreover, that small movements of heads and faces produce t he su dden gleam of eyes that gives these paintings thei r living, movi clike loo k, alollg with t he unpreeedented semi·lost profiles and the ingenuous. hands. De In Tonr and CaUot were compatriots and nea r contempora ri es, but they we re entirely different in th ei r nrtistic li" es and purposes, which rep· resented two different kinds or " g raphic" idea l. Call ot was an internali ollally famous artist who painted noth ing. It. was hi s mobile graphic ski ll that. kept him on the move himself, traveli ng from Lorraille to Rome, to 1o.... lor· ence, to Holland , and back to Lorra ine, where he did religious works for tile Fran ciscan Order. He worked for Louis XIII and Richelieu as well as the Floren ti ne duke and the Regen t of the Netherlan ds; he kllew Rubens and Gali leo. His IIl1l11y printed works, en tirely in black Ullci white and most of them in tiny format, had enormous effect-visual , psychological, perhaps political. By contrast, Georges de In Tou r upparently ne"er left Lorraille and produced nothing but a few paintings. He had 110 known teaeher Ilnd
c
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l'h f' Hurl y lI(l ruq'lI'
I I7
M OVINO
I' I CTU K !::S
II U ill t(, I'l1Iltiullli l COI1lIl:'CI iOIl S, although SO IIl(' local faille, iucl uding patronllJ!r 1'1'0111 th p clu kp; Hnd h(' was rpcl ll s iw lI litl cCl ll tauk('rous, Ili s direc t iuflu (' II C(' wus ft~ 1t on ly by hi s SOli, whu cu nt ill1li'd I)uin lill g ill Ih£' SIIIlL£' 8t,\'lr SO lHp lilllt, art(' r hi s fll tilrr's d(,1I11l, LIIII'I., hi s \'l'ry IJl't.is t ic ('xiste llc£' sUlik ilil o o hl i\'ioll: his pictul'cS \\'(' I'e sCH u e rl:-d llild wrollgly atll'ibulf'd . Bu t De la 'I'o ur fo llowcd th e c ine lllillic impulse ('\'CII fur l her tliull Cull ot: hi s ell/lI'gNI, inlimHl e SC(' IICS lu'e lifc -siz(', Wh cl'e CIi IIOI collcc lccl lllill c hor'cogrllph('(1 huge ntlm be rs 011 il liny scrCClI, Dc la 'I'ollr Iru ns fol'lnNI hi s pri"u li.~ SCf'IlCS of candlelit e llcount C'1' lind spil'itUiIl cr isi s iul O I!l omt' nt s of o\'(' rwhl'llll ill g impo rtunc(', with no J esuiticil l l.eulu lid no other r hetoricul eI"\'ice limn ,' nlllrge llle nt. Th('se bi~ piClU l'f'S hnn' slllull fl o uris h Lml gt'eat int(' ns it y, jusl lik(> 1II0vie close -up:;. Th (' powe r of lIIini atll"(' illu lIl inlltioll Ihul Ei sheimer had conlillu(>d to llIuk(' USf' of is hf' rc lrulIsccn df'd lit Illst, fo,' the fi rs t t ime: Int{'r ill the cf' ntury Ihe Du tch IIllI s te rs wo uld eO lilillu e t ill' en'ort. It ulmos! 8(,(, IlI S Iwtllru l t hai De la To ur had to wni t for gf'lle ral ,'ecogniti olllllltil t he ce lltury of Ihe 1II0vie sc ree n, wlwrc SlIIlI lIlIIO IlWlltS (ll'e also IImdt· g rell l by li ght IIml siz(', unci the s li lliwss is ill lIl o ti on, O lh el' Frt'llch p(lill lrr8 ortlle curl y BllrO{IUe pe riod such as S imo n Vouet C(" 'l uilily worked ln rgt', o n eil with s ilililur subject !lIutter silililarly til'rlinged: Sll crcd nnd s{'cul m' con frOllt l.ltions of solilnry cOlltf'mpl al io n, "i{'\\'NI fro m \'{'r~' closf' , Bu t fOl' tIl(' most PltI't s uch SC(,IICS lu\\'e Cu ru\,u ggio 's fl avo r o f t he {hellter (1101 (IJ(' o p(' rll stl.lg'f' 01' th e IIIl.1 sque , bUllhe s lr('ct Iht' tlt ('I' of ad hoc Iw rforman cc) or til(' posed tubleuu , "'heatriclli flav or is ce rta inly sui led to II ht!'ge painting: II highly no ticellble piet u re coneei\'cd ill s tnge styh~ IIIny politely add ress the beholder \\'ilh II p l'oper snlutntio ll, instelld of le!tillg its heroi ne j us t si t th e re Ulluwares, gazing Ilwuy in t.o th e cU lld lc flum e 01' eve n cutc hing u f1 E'a inside her opc n s moc k, forcing the \'i('w£'1' 10 feel uncom fortabl e fo r intruding (-l ,11), Pou:;si n, a ll othe r French conte mporu ry, by cont rust exempl ifi es the to tnl paint er 's view, both ullti·gruphic und anti -t hca lricnl. He re is t he ma sterly hund in lengtH! with the in tellec t , lIs ing th e se nsory powe r of color IlS U lIIe ht l)hol' und c hi e f ex pository med ium , as Cezll nne lut e r did , Th e light ill POllssin's wo rks is u \'ibrallcc indu ced by th e inte rllct ion of colors,lInd the spnCt' is created by th c IIHlIl lige mc nt 01' plnnes. ';u st as iu nbs trnct pai llting, These works , 1II0l'eOVe r, try fO l' Il bsollite beulIty, lik e those of Pi cro della Fruncese .. , An d Ihe,\' ofte n Will , Tbey IHlve Ih e S8 111e e ll chnnling I)OWe r thnt is bo th d istullci ng and e le\'ating, bccausc Ih e paint ed wor ld is complete ill itself, I)c rsuush'e only UhOlil itse lf lind the peo pl e in il. Thc wny th~'y arc is remo te f"o lll Ihe wliy things 81'C, and the wily we 11 1'(',
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F I VE
Dutch Genre
§
EVE N TEE NTH . C E N T U R Y H ol hm d mudc it se lf a d istillc t i\'c EuropNIII pow(· r. ll llli it s 1.11"1 1I18u hnd UII Il llm is tul\llbi c charae1.('1', 11 0 lo nger \"('I'Y obvio us ly trllc{,llbl (' to Curnvugg io, It al ian clnssic is m, und Munne r isrn , or evell its OW II H f'lII.li sSIlII C(, pus t. Th e sc\,c nt('c nt h·ccntury Dutc h Illod e IU&I. bee n CU Ii N I 01 1(' o f d escri p tio n ra t he r t han IUtrrutio lJ : but tl wst' wo rks some how d o Juno£" ullden iab\f' llurI'aliv(' mot io n o l ll('r than tha t
of
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Tlwir df'sc rip ti\'(' propc ,"ti es a rC' (·" idem .
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th illg is ,,1"'tlY8 huppc nillg CW II whe n llll' re is 110 ('\'('111. Tht' grea test of those Du tc h II rti SIS devoted to tllt~ sugg{'s li ve 1\cI118Iiti(,8 of l ife opell th ings to the eye and til(' ('ye to tllings ill 1I1l J) I'pc('(I f'II INi licts of n~ci proc ul re\,plut.io ll . Th ey hu\'e It truly 1II0\' ie lik p !S ly lp, nol. athl incd iI~uin 1I1ilil llu' film s o f the lal.e tW('lItie th cp llt u ry. C uru\'aggi o's t ht'lIlricnl (' Il"t'c l!« w(' r p IIIl1dp ci llf' llI a lic in H ollan d. TrUIl!«' lIIut.ed by Nor t hprn nttitudc8 ubout illulllilUili on and l' xperic ncc, C ll rtWa gg(' s{lJle scelles re nd('red by 1'e rbrugg hf' n and H Ollt horst hlln' tht.' IlllIbi en cc o f possibilit.y: s hift !; of fce ling nnd nc li on may I"f'u ll y occ Li r. li re \·isib ly occurring UI
120
M OV IN G
5. 1
('ICTU Rt-; S
HENDKI C K TIo':KIIK UOO II~ N.
wellr i ll~ e.\'e~llIsses
TI.,Culli" g o/SI. Mallll cw
und .lrlllor liS he counts hi s coins. toward th e uppre ll ens i\'(" gUild)' boys who flank )Illtlil ew. ulld straight to )llIlIlIew's g'l'im IlIId sentie nt fuce , 1-1(' hils lalrendy t is com ing III him. lind 11(' mu st makc a move, I-I t'I'(" just as ill so Ulllny J(·sus mO\' ies. the Hed('(' lIIer's power is lIIeuslI l'cd by (II(' l'(,lIC lio li S of Ih os(' willi wholll he d l'u ls, Wt' \\,ul e h thei r ruc{'s us III('.\' look III hi m, wllile lli s figurl' I'('uwins s hlld owcd olld p('rip lll'l'ul. III' n" WI' call just Sf'(' II iI'; lips OI)ClIllS he pn' pur('s to s PNtk , )1t' ullwhile II bouqu ct o f mobile IWlld s fills I he CCIII(',' o f Ilu' li g hted s pacf': Iii€' pupcrs nre ruffl('d 011 both wallund lublc . tll(' d ('coru Ii\'(' flil ps 0 11 11t{' boy!; ' slcl'wS IIrc agilliteci-soml' ullelirthly brl'e1.e is s tirriu g h.'r(', cllllsi n g u ch illlllld SOIll(' UIIl'US), m o\"e m{'III , Auolhe r fell lllr... o f tllil'; paiuling Ihut is 1I0t ShorNI by Ihe e ll l'il\Ing-gio ve rs io n is 11t(' hil)-ll'lIgth , life -s ize vi('w o f the charact e rs. Such frlllllill~ has 10llg bee II II c il1(,llll.tl ic given. l\I ostlllovie ('lIcou n ters tlrc s howlI lit leos t once rrolll j us t s uc h II distIlIl C(,. wilholtl legs lind feel but with 101'808 lind hunds for ('xpression. jUSll:lS we see l>eol>le wh('11 we CO III(' lI('a r to wnt e h llllCllis\('1I to Ih elll , Film ~ Iill i!i s howing' Iwo or t h rc(> churuct('rs ill cOIWf'rSU li oll im'IlI'i, ubly follow Ihi s Bnroquc CO II"{,lIl io ll, which WIIS by 110 IUNlnS confilled 10 H ollll lld lind uppcurs cO lIstllltLly ill Europeull 111'1 of t ll (' S('\"(,III(,Cll lh CC II -
I :! I
lUry, Th{' mort' d itS tliliCi llg fllll·leny lh "it,,,, 118('(1 ill so IIltllly of C'anl\'u!!gio's j,;'roul)s (ns OPl)()sNI to hi l; lilt£' 1)];:I,\'e rs umlg rupf' tuslt'rs), just liS ill 1I!lIIIy (rom IIH' firt('£'nth and sixl('(' ulh C f'lItllril~l; . is partly whal makf's tilf'1II su IIlII ch lik(' lli('IIIi' r , lIil)· Il'II(!liI \'j{·\\'S ar,' lik{' lift,. n,' llIor(' so, '1'1If' c1i" 'ici' WIi S II lIot ht'r IlItp·fi I'll'N11h,cI'1I1 II ry 1llllll1lSCI'ipt i1111111i IWIO" S' i11,'('11 I iOl1, II IInl h,' I' 1) 1' Ihf' ir !'lIr l ~' SII'PS luwllrcll' ll1o li oliul illlll lt'd iucy 111111 "t'I'isilll ili tut!I' ill pt'l" S01ll1l Iwrc('lltion, In liI(' Sf'WII1(,1'"l ir (:('ntury IIii' mol if S('i"Ill S to hun' ue, cOlll pulli f' d IIII'g.:', ('\'f'1I li f(',,. i7.I' forlll subj('cl. Without I('gs, IH' is se('11 to b(' hoth IlI'(,St'lIt IIlId s till, 1'001('(1 ill I Itt' lliCIUrl", wh('rf' hI' IIIU St !'i la.". lIu\'illg' 110 1I1('IIIIS of ('SCUI)t' , H (' is YOlln; for('\'('r wh ilt' you look lit hilll , All {,lItir('l,\' d ilfl'I'('1I 1 l,n'('C I is ac hit,"t'd by s hnwillJ! II SC(, I1{, ll1l1lJ11I; s",', t'rlll figllr('s Ihis WilY, ('S llI'c ililly if lhl'~' loo k III (,lIc h 01111'1' , ~ l o\,(,lIlt'lI l CII II iIlU)Ll'd illlt·!y Iw IIttl'ibuI Pd 10 Ihl' "iewel' hilllst'lf whf'1l Ih,' Iorl'OUp lOubj l'cl 's It' !!'s III'" nil CII IICl'it'U: WI' itllW apPl'oach ed closl' (, IIOtig" 10 Iltl' SCI'IIl' 1101 10 n o ti c l~ It'gs, just liS Wt' would lit II c rowdl'll illforlllill J!lIlhf'I'illg, but 10 nnt ie(' Hilly 1)(,l'solllll alld so('illil rlillsaCliollS. lllld 1I11,\' physical or sal'torinl dl,t uils thlll Im\'(' IIII'llll illg' 1'01' 1III'III- IUlI S, 1;100'f's . 1I11d OI'IIIIIIII' lIl s , hil iI', Ilf'urd s , IIlld hrl'lIs tli, f'lIrs but 1101 Jo! lu)('s, Sf'lIlillJ!; l)('oplf' at II tubh' is 1111 rXCf'\I1'1I1 picloriul (h'\' ic(' for Il l'l'ltI11,611g' 1111 inlnpl'l'su llUl silU at icHI , IlS il is ill lifl'. II fiXl'S the s ubj,'cis ('W II 1IIH1'(' fil'lIll y, 1I 0t only "l illlil llltillJ,! tlu' il'll'g's hut illllll ohil i7.i nl! Ill('i,' bodi" s, 111111'1, it Ol'tt'li k,'l'ps 1111' " il'wI'r nn his fe('! 1lI1l0l1j! 111(' 111, mo\'ill J,! loward Ihl' p"o' Iligolli s ts IIl1d look illl; dOWIi 011 tlwil'lm s illl'ss f,'oUl hi !; III)!'iJ,!h t posi tiOll , Wl' IIPP I'ouch Tt'l'brugJ,!iI{-,I I's ~lallhl'W UI; w{' IIppl'oH c h the \'illni n or IW l'o IllllY' illl; ClI l'ds ill " WI'SIl'1'l1 S" IOOII , dllrillg' thl' mOlIl{'nts wh('11 his Chlllll'IIg'1'1' I' III ('J'S allel 1II0\'('S ill 011 hillJ , W(, S('(' wh.lt's 011 th l' tubl{' ns we ll as 011 Ih.:' (IICI'S; WI' COIII(' Iwh illli 011(' or , who first I' XIIIIII(\N I t hl' t'1lI0t iOlUlI dimf'IISiulI or snc l'N I illlllloWs ill jlls t th is way. t's(wci llll." Ih ul of tl\{' )' llldollllU und Child, TIlt' bl'lIl1l il'lIl c losNI SYStl'lII of III lItf'rrull It'lIdl' rtJ('ss 11('\'(' 1' IlI ckl'd ill Iinlinli lIrt. hilI
r h
I
-.J.)
~IOVING
5.3
TIIEODOH "AS
"I C T U R E8
BA8VRES,
Tlt e Procwrl!u
5.5 S hol (ro m Thl! Breaking Poin/. 1!ISO
)I OV IN G
1 2-1
5 .6
PI CT U RE S
OIOIA-flO I)AV ID ,
7'11,. Viry i lllllll{ Child
Nortli(>rll pu iutcl's sough I n clo$;er link willi thc viewer lind his own pcrsollu l cxpcricllee. Belli ni Vil'gin s, however Il'neil' r, barriendc thclllsl'l\'(>s bcllillel purupetsj but Gerllrcl Dav id 's Virgin sits at a low tab le feedin g J esus from 1\ bowl right ill the suml' roo m with li S (5.6). Genre motifs here rc inforc(> rlltlll'r IluHI dimini s h till' supel'nnt.urnl liUI·II: lhnt is t he secret of t he ei ncmatic met hod . 1·le n' lIguin U Ilible fi xes t he aClioll, bUI makes a lillie sceue out of t hl' sti ll imnge, into which wt' feel ou rse lves drawn . The mosl sl.l'Illghtforwardly descl'ipti\!(' Dut.ch pllillt C'I'S 01' the S('\'C II1.(>(' lIth ce lltury htlve st.rong uffinities wilh lIJodt' rn 1I11illUlted Cli rLOOus, j ust. li S lIH'Y originally (lid with 111(' mora li7. ing prinl.cd picture·books of t he ir OWII lim c. Th ey also suggest the kind of l~ pl\(,lI\e rnlllnd enterta ining lu od· e rn 1lI0\'ie IIUl I creales int(, lItiollully c rll (h~ lind glossy "crsions of realistic material. II s uull y for comic ctT('c t. Oil(' v('ry cll l·toonlik(' Olll c il urlist was Ad r iuell vnn Ostnde. whose vi i· lagl'rs ali(I taverll rowdil'S S('l' lII <'Ils ily I run ~l nt.a bl<, int o l h<' Di s ney mode (5. 7). Th e s ty le- IIsf'd fO I· the IUl tllrill istic hackgroullds in cnrtoon fl'atllres of Ill{' 1930's and 19-10's s('e lU s copiNI s lr·uigh t from t il l' lightly swolle n look or Van Osttlde's d oo rs. cnpbon rd s, und lab]£' If'gs, his sqUIll, rounded. ilnd
VIlIf'1I (hu,.,
11 5
IlIt'!!II\\' slllIpt's rUr' 1111 SlIl'ls or Ihm l1,II' t1ollll'stil: Sll'lIclurl's IIlId OiJjl'C IS-
ror' humans, Thl'
J)iSllI'Y St-" 'l'lI J)""lrfs IIIHI !Iwi,' CIlItH~i' Sl'l' lI l 10 haw ht'('11 j""f'IIIt'd IIy " 1111 OSlu rlf', IILOIIKh Ihf'Y lilld tlwil' kill
alsn
i"i
AnH. t A ~; 1>:
VAS OfOTA n~:,
('"llllllr 'JOflr!Jurd
126
MOVING
I'ICT U RE S
UlIdt'r III{' cnlld l(' glow or the inco ming sun bea m eXlletly likf' Ilw gielllll on til£' polishf'rl bowl , bottle. or applf'. Th is ll rl isl aims to please: Ih e sc ruffy qlltllitif's of humble life 11I1'-e been subtly IlllHl<' npp('tizillg. without his cver act ually lying. But despite the lighting the H ollywood flavor is still Di slIf'yish, 1101 photographic; til{' compositions urf' too put for the dirrct. f'ye of tht" Cllllwra. Othl':r descriptive Dutch painters have fur more st ruigh t cinellwtic chllr · aclf'ristics. but also ill II lI ollywoodish style of realism. III tile paintings o f Jun Steen. for exnmp le . ew ryOIl(, see illS to huve the slime strongly marked fuc(' with a Slnul! s m i rk, 11 point ed c hin and nose. and s lightly I}uffy. tilted r .yE'S. 'I'his fllce is ill fact Steen's OW II , nnd it. often appenrs 0 11 the clownis h clUlI'ltctf'I' who r('semhles nncl slnllds fOi' himself in the paintings; but hc thru sts it 0 11 almost ull oC his ot hcr characters, tOO, and so he also g ives hi s SCt' lIes Il 10llch of the ca rtoon. Actio ll ill th('se works is co mic and a bit pnilltPd. tiS ill old Tec lmicolor comedies with Dori s Day. Like thcm, it takes pillee among proslH'ruus pr-oplE" whosp putt'rprises arc Illude 1.0 seem a little rid iculolls whi le th('y ar(' n('\'('rth('lc~s faithfully rellderrd ill \'isual terms. Just as ill slIc h films, tht" text.ilf's, fl esh. and furllishingl; ar(' Itclual ; but the behavior is slightly overdone. "lid some {'xcessively. gveryone !lcts tnlC to churac lt'r stereo type, and a gen('ral theine of humall cl'udity und silliness unde di es nil incidf'nt (5.8). StN-'n's pilintings wer(' linked to th e skits done ill the same spirit by the Dutch Bhet orica l Societies and. like them, to current pro,'e rbs Ilnd saws. But what makes them like fillllllud television, not like theater. is the satis· fyi ng IIl1lurul s hee n lind common c rowding toget hcr o f reol things-the se t decorat io n, where significilnt s ignilis are embedded in a random·seem ing coll ection of s tuff under the inclusive , undiscriminllting ca ll1c ril eye . Th e comic s tage of that time and place dep('nded mainly on c ha racter and props. glaborate s tage setti ngs were used only for COUl"l masques, tragedies , and operas, 8nd there wcre no reillistic OIlCS Ilt all. Steen',. packed fUlltns." scenes of domestic rumpus and popular moralistic folk lore could bring t he whole rich "i s ual aspcct of li fe to bear on familiar and simplc co mic matE-ria l, just. as m ovies did and do, and as te levis ion co medy does even lUore. Sve tllllla Alpe rs ' insistcllce 011 the absolute optical standard of mea ning for this I\rt-to be seen is to mean-is r einforced by t he ci nematic Ililture of its narrative me thod . For dressing these sets and com posing these groups, the formal language has not been taken down from classic dictation, to emp hasize and seek support from the familia r story of storytelling. In that met hod , c"el'Y object in u picture is olTered in a harmo nious forma l style that ca lls attention to its own placement in a trllditional scheme, like
(
~ Igt";
tar I
1 27
5.8
JA N
S T t~ " N. 1'Jrf' IJorlor ', I' i, il
till" wm'd s ill /I 1001111("1. Th(> \·iewl"l' knows whrr(' h(' is. a8 he " reads" the pictur('. BU I hcr~', U ~ in c in elllu , n g rclllllulIlY things nre visi ble just ill orde r 10 b(' so. nnd Dilly some IUl\'(> direct pertinence to t he theme. Th e ju mbl e of "ilelioll'H'nl:1 defi es rl'
1 28
MOVING
PI CTU R ES
tion we sec in u J erry Lewi s movie: ZUIlY or gross behavior ill cllrdully normll.llocllt ionli, which arc thell thl'owll in to disorder by t he action. The lilHlIt' idrn using dii'fer('nt tht' mcto; is ex pounded by Metsu . aud Int er by N!!lsc her and VUII Mier is. These pai lli crs a re more rOllllllltic, nlld coarse comedy is subdued in fa"o r of gentle IIlll1ls('nu~ nt and SOliit' S{·lI tiIllCn lIl.1it.v - not.hing is rnffish. everyth ing is sweetly respeetnblc, and ('veryone is very pretty. Meum oITe rs Ii grcllt !lumber of r ich possessiolls s hown to t he best udvuntage, just liS in fil m melodra mlls 8howin g Kim Novilk nnxiously ulld I>re llily betrn.vi ng her husbnud, bllt al so huppily lit cnse lind not lit ull stifled IImid t h(' satisfyi ng trllpping8 of middle-class co mfort. Met8u's nlgs und jugl> und slIl,in skirt!!>, emuroidcred slippers nnd glossy lutes ll r (' never excessivr; as in the most s uccess ful film mciod rnllllls, til('y look nitllinllb le. Sigh t is always the poiut-t o sec is lIO t 01l1y to kIlOW, bu t to possess, i\ large component ill the a ppeal of stic h paintings IUU St. t1wn lu1V(' been just thi s oppor tuu ity (or s tudyill g, SilVO I'i ug, and viSlllllly possessing lo\'ely IIlll \.('I'ia l objects, whill" being pleasantly cntcl'w ined hy subjrcLS sligh tly rig(jlH~ , s li ghtly sellt iment al , or Slightl y (1I1111Y, 'I'hp moralmcan ings about the wickedness of sloth, greed, IIlId lec hery IIl'e II CIItly folded illto a delic ious pa ckllge, just us ill .. Dn ll as" Ilnd " Dyna sty t" cons ist i ng lil rgcly of mute ria I th ill gs exquisit.cly rendered to show th llt their tnl c va luc is quitc detnc hNI frOIn tht, mona! of II ... story (5.9) , There is somcthi ng 1I0t oll ly cillcmlltic (i n t he womtlll' s-picture stylc) but positively Amer ican IIbout this pictorilll mod t'o It demonstrated the same un s table co mbinatiou of puritan is m lmel se lf-i ndulgence, of prudery an d licentiousness t htll hus s tllllll)ed muc h AIII('ricull cu lture-and t here nrc reul uffinities betweell se,'entee nt.h-centul'Y I lollund und tiS, when we nrc seei llg oll rsel\'es 1I 0t on ly us Ilrog r'essivc lind prosperous t highly morn l, li nd ruth er piollsly lIIute ri ll listic, but IIlso us silliple-heu r tcd, lIll soph isticnted, und sexIllt lly volatile-lIs ma ny of Olll' I-Iollywood fil ms have oftcn s hown liS doing. There ure CV(' II m O I'l~ , cxc ru ciuti ll g echoes . Wilh these lovesick maidens visited by pOUl pOUS doctors, or t ipsy hOllsewives a bout to wnrm lip unbecomingly to dashing cusual culiel'S, t here is Il ram il i;}r .vet uncomfortable sense of thc sex(' s, ou(' we used Lo see COII StiHllly in fi lms of t hil·ty yeurs ago ulld be fore, Thr se well-Io-do lIIiddle ·c lnss WOlliN. ha,'c the kiu d o ( freedom thnt comes wi th enl ighte ned bourgeo is leisu re 11Ild a ffluence , Ihllt permit!!> cOlll l'adeship and social purity wilh men bu t no prac tical power or active ambi l ioll. They III IlY play aroulld , lI nd also spend moncy on the msclvcs, and keep the hou se exquisite ly withou t 1I husbuud's or rUlher's superv ision; wj"es und girls hll"e greut freedo m, but no o\.hr l· wor k. Tending ulld brood in g about 10"1.' lind possessions-somet inlt's children-n r(' I,h('i r p reoccurnt ion , Th e cxp('nsh'e pros li l.u t.(', t.he chic nmtl'o ll , und the princ('sslike
C pyr
te
/) ukh (hl/rt'
I :HI
duughll'r 111' (' 1101 t'IlS~' 10 It,ll Ilplll"t-tlH'Y all \\'1'111" thl' SIIIII(' ('x pt>lI si \'I' dO lil('foi , ('X CIUl Ilg'i' I('{!t'rs wi th 10\'l'1's m lt l co nfid('ll c('s w ith s(' n 'IIIII S, look ill (1 )(' mirror. unci pntctic(' d('crpliotl itS wl- II as lII usic , .\I Nlll witile, lind mos t im porlll lllly , Ihr' ,'f' is 110 u"islOCl'ltl ic s taudllnl. TlII's(' 111'(' plain folks, ('WII if t it('y Uri ' rich, alltl tlu'rr i"i 110 traditioll uf rt~ fillr tl, illlugillu l i\'(' idlr'lIl'ss 10 iHl!ll)O!'! 11)(' 111 . I II S1(>utl. UII itll'II1 uf\'irlUOIi S s illl pl icity. intlu s tl'y.u lIll righl' ('OIlS IH'SS k('('ps l i1 (,8(, ,·icll and itll(' pf'opli' pnll'if'llt unci hypocl' il ical. lind p rod ll c{'f~ gr('ul ltI llbigu il Y ill pict oria l I'!' ndt'!'illf,;'s of COIIIIIIOIi S(:t~ II('''i , ~1t~ 1I lUI\,(> rC1l1 husill(,ss \' !h;('wltt' r (' Il llri lin' 0111," slll,\' illg Ilwhile', uuh'ss I IH'Y Il r i' just going to (l'U\'i' 01' j ust Il ITi\' illl.!- 1I11 t il ('s(' d oc lo,'s. u ' ucil('rs of music, curiNI gnllllllls. OIliCf' I'S , s oldi prs , IIl1d Ilotll l'ips. Is lill y II r IlwlII II I(' husbUlillf WOlIIl'lI llr(-' lit 11 0111(', Ofl{' 11 fi tig(' l ing, Y('I St' XIIIII N I!llIl it,\' is Stippusl'(1 to ('xis l, 111(' doOl's lind wiltflows lillll id 0IWIl, III., Sl ri' ('1 h('c kons , '1' lu'Sl' WO!ll{'U fi'('1 fl"N' lIud 11111'1',,(' 1.11 0 11(:(', Ti ll' ha ppil'st. tI ... OIlI'S WI' lik(' bps!. 111'('
130
M OV IN G
PI CTU R,,:S
those ei t ht'r deeply absorh("d in a task
OJ"
I'cally huving
(1111
wilh
tl lC
lSoldirrfS.
The Diles bein g plied with liqllOl" or doubtful proposit ions. or struggl ill g
lIlutinously with the keybourd , or disclissing a clandest ine letter with the lIlllid arc !lot much at case. h is in fact not. PCllCC but uncase informed by d ecorum lhut mnkes the
greatest of these Dutch works so compelling. The at mosphere in the pnint· iugs of Terborch, De Hooc h, 1111c1 Vermcer is somehow imme nsely freig hted , bec8us(' t hese artists, un like Metsu . Stt:'cn. Van Ostade. and DOli, ha"c d('·
liberttlely addl'l:~ ssed the probl em of ulIlhivnlen ce. In works b)p the hllter group, faci al expression is fllirly sta ndard ized. Three 0 1' fOllr conditio ns of SOU lll1'C clearly rende red: mothel's are benign , tll'chins g iggle, teachers a nd doctors look sobel' or ... ffronted. Boors in tave rn s grimace, YOll ng g ir ls are demurely lascivious, But amid the sercne appu r te nances of De Hooch's un iverse, for example. the fa ces o( mothers, chi ld ren. maids, and vis iting gcntlf'mclI are oflf'n cu rry ing so mewhllt unde fined umbiguous expressions that are anyt hing but sere ne. So, too , are t.he postures and the physic"1 re· lations among th e \'isible charneters. One device used by this group o( Delft pn illt el's is to kee p il tleast olle fig. ure with its back LUmed , o r with its fnc(' othe l'wise invisible and rendable. St('ell 's churncters hnlf tu rn to th e nllciie nce, awurc o f being see n und pluying 1.0 the gallery: ellch scelle is a prf>pal'ed com ic pi ece. and we art' fixed out frOIlt. Bu t. ill tite De Hooch nnd Ve rmee r sce lles, alleast Olle PCI" SOli is an obvious non·performer, obl iviolls to obsen'ation, absorbed , and e lllo tiolllllly Ullllllccountabl('-und sO the whole pic ture olso is. Tile I'xoct balance is not made clpar. In the greut Dt, Hooch Mother I..ac jllg lie,. Bodice (5. 10), the motlwr looks pleasontly stllp('ficd by hnsic IlIliterllll l (unction, still feeling ti ed to t he bilby, who is oll ce 1II 0rC swallowed up in its protective c rndle and mil ky dreams , Meanw hi le the three-yenr-old hns turned her bac k in the shudo",s, and slopes off qu ietly towttrd the tiOO I' . Just whnt is in her s llInll heurU Understa ndably, tiw dog is undecided whether to follow her s low shuffle out tQ the sunny yard , or stay with the satisfied pair in· doors. This is IIOt. trnnquillit.y; it is only qu iet behuvior und ordcl'ly housek('e ping, The actual emotio llal circlllllstu llce, t hl.' ;' s tory," is ullstated a nd mutable, still in progress , Hy con trast, a curtain is drawn up to revea l Gerard Dou's Jl!othe,. (5.11); she smi les bl'ight ly, t he baby g rill S, ogles, nncl fla s hes its bOllom at us , the mnid bcallls, !.he crad le y"wns in luxurious in · vitation . Th e maternnl breast shi nes en t ic ingly, and cvcl·yt.hing reeks o( Do mest ic Contc ntm ent , seef Butnol mu ch of tnltll. In the indecorous mode, Stee n's com ic visions of dnlllk elHless and license are unleavened by any principle of real joy. no r are Van Ostade's tave rn brawle rs feel ing mu ch delight. But the ncutely pcnccfu l ill teriors of the
"II
Cpyr
tel
I3I
5 . 10
I'IETER DE
1I0o e ll . M olh ,.r IA,c j ll{j llrr !Jo(/jc€
wry well b('huv("d t\l'(" 1II0CkNI by Stt'('u 's funwsy disorde rs: this is 11101'(, like what is rt'aliy goiug 011. Alld ill Ill(' 10w·kPYNI ('ucoullt('rs h(>lw"('1I ')'(>1'borc h 's and D(' Hooch 's IlIdi('s ali(I tiwil' 8en'ltnI S, c hi ldrl"lI , and ,·isit.ors , there is cOllsidt'rublr Irl1sioll, 110 mat.tt' r how smooth the curls and dust-free the windowsills. 1'h(' tidy and sunlit. sumptuollsness looks like n finn effort ilL control, UIL orray or rrnguwllts sliort'd nga inst mOI'a l r1lill. Th e theme see ms to deepen into Ihe re presclltution of llIut('riul ricil('s us one kind of sp irituill test, II thicket. of comfortuble c irc ulIlstallce t hrough which, ill which , aroullc! which th(' illmost 1';011 1 IIII1St find H way to opernte. Th e UH'WI)hor for lhl' sours now in and MOllnd Ihi ugs is ligilt; the struleg,v for gu iding it uright is pe rfectly ordered spuce. In nil th is muterial orde r unci comfo rt t here is lit tl e plensu rl1ble ph,\'sicnl casl;', s uch us Rubens or lIa lil1l1 puinters continually convey. Bodily moveme nt and pos ture is either restrnined 01' awkward , and lIIuffled by the clo thes . By contrast . slight ges-
M OVING
132
5,11
1'l C T U ItES
GERARD no u, :l/olh t' rlludChifd
tun's of l hl' IlIlIu l and s li ght faciu\ ('XIWt'ssions 111'(' th l'OWII into pl'omitH'net', ug'llin us il' to show 1)l'inttt' sp irituHI 1I1O\','II\l'llt filldillg its wuy 1lI II 0 II g the hC'IJ"Y rUl'll ilul'(' IIl1 d slin't' II('d glll'mt'lI l S, Dilly II few 1)lIill l(,I'8 1I11(,lIIpted 10 coun 'y this sttltl' or illwurd Ihings ill thllt lldvllllCNI ti nt'lIIuli..: slyh' which go('s \wyolld n'COuI'S(' to t h('ulrica l 01' eli rLoo ll-graph ic Il'ud il iO Il , tlC'yo lld T('c lillieoln l' Ii ollywoorl eO llll'd." U lid lIu,lod l'lIlJut illio Ihl' rC1I11II of s(>riollsly poet ic fH III III'1. Dl' Hooch wu s 11 COlli ' PI'('hPIlSin' Itlllstf'I' at it. H is II!oiP of c hi ldl't'!1 is ('spt'cia ll." pow('rful , ulld it is oftcli thilt SIHII\' Ihl'('('- to-fj\,p-yeH r,o ld j.!il'l who roc lI s('s 111l' illlllgt' UI)OIl flouting consciollsncss, l'uthf'I' t hull UpOIl COIIIl'oll('(1 ('Wilts , This chi ld is Ofl f'1I physicl'llIy Sf'J)lll'ntNI 1"1'0111 'ldull S, ;I ud !If'r I"ncf' IIlId hody III'{' sl ight ly illd ist i liN. Tlwl'(, II 1'(' 110 CII H' , wist ru I looks or cheeky ~ri liS to em phasi 7.(' the
• 1.11 11111 vir\\' of chi ld/"('II, justus thl~ I'(> an" no satisfyi ngly COlllpl(·I('. rOlludNi · oil' formu l arrllllgf'uu'nls in tile' DOli II UUIILe r (5. 12. 5. l j). Til l' dogs i ll De lI ooc h ilJ"(' a lso co ndu ctors or.enWl;.iQlluJ almo!:ipliCJ'('; Ih(',\' stlH1 d ami turn llu' j,. la'ads Ilttt'lIli\'('ly to look III sO lllt' t il ing lik('\Y 10 11('('(1 nllf' l l li o n .
whf'th{'r o r 1101 thf' com posi l iOIl o r t li(' I)ictllr(' indicat(>s its impOl'I Unc{''lh'"l, r('u dy to s hi rt foc li S i Il Slllll tl~·. ju s t liS w(' IIh' . 'I'11(' lilll(> gi l'l uray IIf' lu-Jpin!! wilh t i ll' IIOIl8,-'hold tllsks ill allll l H' rnpilIItie way-no CIlI f'Il(,sS hf'r(> (>i lh('r-o,' j u st wa l chi ll)! Ih(,lII. T Ilt' 8(;('11(> is eNtn in ly 1ll'IIC('u lJlf'; IIl1d y(.j III{' idt'li or illlu' !' co ndi t ions 1101 Il('Ct'ssll l'ily in
wit l, t)utwlIrd p('r(('clioll I IICl I\llI!(' S to sl lrracl' il' Ilwst' wQt'ks il llll J!i,'(' IlwllI l iI('i,' lUodl'I' 1i Ilpp('al. 11 is U IIlllI'k of this sopl1isl iclIlPd cillt'lI1utic lU('t hod tha t Ih(' IIrt isl's OW II 1'('('li ngs ill'(' mlldt, to ,'(' I I'(' at. so llwt tilos(' of liL(' hUIlI UIi suhjt'ci (' llglI l.!f' I110s(' of l ilt' \'if'wf'1' d in'cl ly. il' fllCI S{'('1Il to !t'll l> into t il{' ,'
lind t h{' w{' igll t of lilt' jU}!,
111 Dt.' I-I ooc h 's flllllil y SCC'II('S, hodily IIl0\'(' lIIt' ,,1 is lI1 i nill1 l1l : but bodi t's IH'C s lilll, nnd 111('1'('(01'(' jl('I'SOIlS look lII obi lf', h('cnIlS(, Ilw," fi ll Ilw l'lIlply SpllCt' n I'OU lid I h(>/II wit II 1Ii('i I' pussib lC' 1I(;IjOll illst (,lid of Il Si ll~ II P or w('iKh, in,:! tl own UII a ssiglwd s llil. Fll c('s ill'\' flll1 o f potl'nlin l ('xp l'(':,>s ioll , II hit blul'r t'd lind 1I'll II si l 01'.", "NICI.\' to com pOSt' i n to 1\ P1II'licIIIIlr lIIold ollly inlh e
lI('xl, 1Il1kllowubl(' 1110111(' 111. '1'11111 tll.'I'I' is 1,;'1'('111 lh'li ht' I'III('IIC'SIi ill DI' I-I ooc h 's cill(' 11l11lic IIwth od is SIII{f,:'('SINI Ly lIi s ,\I'I-d irt'CIOt"S IUl bil 01' ('(Iii , ing I'('alit.,' t o lIIah il 111 01'(' 1H11l/I'1I1. The look of rt~ portol'jal f'Xllc l illl clf' in th('sf' COUl' l YlIl'd s, kilChl'ns, /l lId linell rooln s is II lolltl ficlion ; III OSI nf 11Ii'1II UI'(' IlI IH I(' lip. SCI'!U'S ill dilT('I't'1I1 pict ul'es applIl't'lItly takp plac(' illlh(' SIIIlI(' COI'IIt' I' 01' I hI' SIlIIlf' ('OOIl!, which IICII IIIII." 1111 1'1 qu ili' din'(' n ' nt dt'laiis of SI('II C' 1111'(' und d {>cor ill t' llch UIII' . TI/C' inh'lI st'ly IIII I Urul, p(, l'ft' ctly obsl'n't'tl look of cII811al dfllllt'sl.ic 1Il0lllt'II1s hilS he(,11 d('libl'rllt{'ly CO llll'iw'd, wilh a (;(,I'C{, IIIIII OI; C('(lhll'lll'lisI I'Y·
TIlt' illlC'I'ItClioll of cO lllforl;lb lt" if sillllll(' physical ,'x islf'IIC{' wil h 111(' lUI'
(
~
Igt",
tarl I
134
M OVINO
fI . 12
I'IETlnt Ill-! !l Oo e H .
I'I C T u n ..;s
Ch ifdund ,llolh r r j " u !lf'll room
5 . 1:1 PIETER OF. lI oo e H .
T1t ~
hO ol! Player.
1 :15
5. 15
PI&T&K 0& !l ODe " . Covl, fl' i,l u Bedroom wilh a IJog
136
M OVING
PI C T U R ES
lu re of moral alld spiritual limit s is the theme or thi s ltrt-" eve ryday life" ill ils profo undes t s('llse. Persolllli and falllily ,'irtue hnd long bee n Il COli' \'cll t io nnll y prized n tlu e ill Protestllll t Holl a nd; but aft£' r tlH' cessation of hos til iti es with Spai n in th£' midd le o f the century, Il rt ist s we r'e in c reas· ingly inspil'cfi to co nce ntrate o n gem'c subj ec tli Ihut celebrated it, alld less 0 11 ta\'ern nnd gUllrdroolJl s ubjects, or those s howing the military prese nce in civil li fe, It WIlS the n that V('rlllee r a nd Dc Hooch unci Te rborc h begu n lo refille tlncl int(,lIsify t he Ihe lll c, not jus t of sec ulur nnd civil virtue bu t o f th e illwllrd ll(' S~ of pri"llte lif(" Inillf' best O£' Hooc h painti ngs the the ine is conce lilrated on the dOilies· tic un'uirs of wo me n and c hil dren. wherei n the fun dtu ne nla l lessolls aboll t t he relat ions umong l hings, pe rso ns , and fee lings a re nlways laught; lind til(' lesson he re is thai d omestic vir tue Illny tU' ise si mply out of t.he true per', ce l>lion of o rd er, The puintings t('ac h that waywurd personll l fee lings will be t.em pe red 10 IU ltll ugellb le d egrt·{' , Ilnd moral wcakn{'ss given no sco p{', if eve ryoue is ullowed the s teudy eOllu'mplalioll of e len r lilJ{'s 11 lid un c lu t1 e l'cd SpllCCS, t he touc h o f s moo th slI rfuces, lIud th e stcl.ldy brClith of c lellll , moist nir', 1'h('), nlso If'uch Ihnt life is Iw tt{'r when IICCOIHPUlliNI by little noise lind /llmos t 110 s p {'l~ch. Ins h'ad , tlU' d og's f('et click ollihe ti lel). alld hOlllclllude lllul)ic "!lIkel) bcullt y from d es igll , so thut domestic IUl. rmony hilS its outwitI'd unci aud ible 8ign . Bllt these chi ldren nc\'(' r fnll and sc remll , the dog nevel' barks, th e metnl "esse ls ne"('r c rash d own 01' tumb le together , no one jeerl) or whilles or scolds , No Oll{' eve n cOllve rSt'S w'ry mu ch. t<';vcry th ing is hushed by thf' I}f' rff'c l light ; impe r fec t ulld r('b('lIiolis Houls. unsntisructo ry s('xlUtI a nd fam iliul l'elatiolls hips nrl' 1.111 comfortab ly contn ined in its 80\,(' 1" eigll e{luilibr iulII (5 , 14). Morality hus t hus becolllt' l.l mutt er of "isulI] es th etics-a vcr." ci lle mnt ic principl{'. But slI ch Il great ilwest lllc nt. in vis ibl e ord{'rliness as u 1)llradigm o r s piritual heult h lIIell1l8 that ph,\'sienl "bnndon und ungoverned sell sua l pleus ure III lty 1I0t b{' purt of the reci pe. bllt mu s t be opposed to it-fliIlChl ' men ta lly disorderly illid des Lnlctive , 1I0 t cupuhlc of r{'fi n€' mNlt und rllti on· uli zltti oll . Sex uul be havior in Dc Hooc h's, Tr rborch 's, Slid Ve rmeer's paintings is thus always obli(IUe and alllbiguous o r pluinly c ru de, The re is 1I0lle of t lmt ex pl ici t ly erotic delicacy hu er infll scd into grnrc Hcenes by Wuu {'au lind C hurd in. In cf' rtuin Dc Hooc h wOR'ks the sex ua l the mes lire trrllt ed 118 th{'y arc in cer ltl ill lUode rll Euro)X'1t1l films, w hc re t he progrcss of sexual incident is less c nlCilil t hu n the shi ft of emotional fluvOR' ill ex is l· ing s('xuul rt'\at iollships-I,Q Nofle
C pyr
te
t
10>0 11111 POif,!IHIII C(', Iht· f,!I'{'UII'r (01' Ihe ullc{,I'laill l y about whal
is
a7
a c tuall y 0(:'
clIrring, Aguill, (a ci' s lin' \' irlUlIlIy 1IIU'('1Il1aul{', Tllt'Si' IIIlly Iw dOIlU'lil ic ('IICOllllters, bUI tIH'Y lIlight jUlitliS ('wsily b('
\ ' (,lUil :
ill {' i thl' " cns(', s{'xmdity
has 110 pl{,lIsllrahl{' l~ x\lll{'rilllc(> of i t s OWII In HSSI'I'I in IhN,t' wurkN (5,1:1) , Tt'rbol'c h is IIIl1ill ly con c(>l'IU'ci with \'('lIal 1(1\'1', lind hi s 1II110l'OliSly t'll ' gUj.{I'd chllractt'l's II r p lIslIlIll y ill ultitlu lt's alHll.:Olldilifllllo> of h('IIIUM'IIIt'lIl a lid dOli hI, 01' 111IIIdSO IlI{'
pori nlYNI
shillY ciol hc's
ill
1I101l1t'1IIli
1111(1
of sl iJ!h I bill Pl'I"\'HSiw cOlI slrui III. 'I'll"
r ich SI' IIillgS SC'('III 10 prorlu c(' III{' cOllslnlill1
ins((' ud fI( I'nhu ll cillj! (' lljO,\' III(>III-111(>Si' brOlilC'1 d rllwillj.{· rOUlIIIISS('lIlblil~ s ,
t; C{,IH'S
Inllk lik " \' iCIIWilill
wlH'ri' IWI'solllll f(,l'li l lJ,!' ili 1Ind('r strict Iwlut\'iul'1I1
slIlICliolll-; IIl1d 1'lut'I'ltl'S u nly liS UlllbigllOIiS fa c illl t'xpl'{'ssiulI or 1I1'lIrly illl '
p{' r c('pt i bh' hodil y s l i lTilll!S ,
The I('ssoll ill DUlcil
li(!' o( pil'IISI"'!' is full of cOllslullt PI'I'SSIII'i'-
<11'1 S('f'III S 10
1w Ihnt Ih('
1i 1110(\"1'11 ,\ IIl1' I'iclIlI , P I'f)I I'S'
111111 SUl't of I('ssn n ,
As Pf'h'r SIIIIOIl a l wuys ill Sis lS , slIbjl'Cliw 1101 oiJj l'cliw I'l~ alislll is liI('
5 . 16
(l ~; kAkD T~; R80K C II .
U'v mfll, I 'rrl i lfyFfI, i ,
M OV IN G
138
I' I CTU RJo;S
keynote of this I1rl, just as it is i ll fitlll, Th e pietlll'e by TE'rbol'ch of U wOlllan peeling llpples lIgliin lIIukt's t he action COlisilOt of t il e flow of thought rnth er than of beiun'iur. by Ill(' adroit placelllt'nt of liIe lilllt· c hild (5 ,16), The WO II Ulli ill this Sel'IU', presumably U ."ou llg mother. seems 10 be tile SUIlIC ItS t he 011(' cOll t(,lJIplaling lin offt'r of coins frOl Ii n soldier whom sh(' is about 1.0 ply with drink in IlIIotll('l' I)a illiing, where slu' npparcnlly plays a harlot (5,17) , The lIIate rlllll sce ne is illlense; s he p(>(' ls cllrE'fully. he r e."E'S fixed on her work; til(' boy curE's lI othing fol' thE' Iwelill g of the Hpph', but tries intently to read her filCf', What is sh(' t hillk ill g f Wiull dOPs shE' think of mE" Wi ll s he s how 111(' d b." the othe r painting, where tilf' !;1I111(' girl s tnr('S ill Ih (' 11101\('-" and the fill , \"('ath ered soldirr tries lO r('ad her facf', What is slH' lhinkinJ.!? Is it enough t Will I pns!; f Do I SCO/'(" I II hO I h, tite IW;l1 COI'n(' I'S of hl'l' mOllt II 1)('1rllY nothing; her momentary slilJlIl'~s shOWN onl-" her resislnnce to the lIIo lUel1 ttl ry pres-
5,17
OE R ARO TERBOR C II,
Soltliu umlG jrl
139
/) uleh Gellr"
."
sure, At home 01' ill the whore house, hUllIillJ lI'illisactiolls are fou uded UpOll the !SilIlle CIlIOt ionll l polit ics. 1'hc deiicatp brushwork rl'fraius from adding the kind of d l'\ ic ioll s surfaef' gloss that DOli pUI on all fllcts. ,(,11f' fainl blur on 1111 edges gi\'es perpetual mobilil,"i 101 111 c lal'il," would fix the image. H e l'c, IlS in Vermeel', the air se('ms s tirrt'd by brent hing and s light musculctr mo,·ement. in (,Hch figure. Only the s atin , wht'rf' it thick ly wils the hips ami thighs of Terborc h's dalllseis as t hey decorously shift their weight. se nds sharp answering bl'IIIl1S back to tl\(' questioning gaze, grasping att e nti on and signaling a wayward vib rnt ion und erneath th (' s il k, well Iowparllted from the impa ss i\'e face. Th e movie eil lne ra has lIludc full liSt' of such cffcc ts, and so has mode rn fushion geared to cam('ra j'xpressiou: tilc mobile, Sf'{luined flanks of su lle n-faced mov ie si rens eff('c t ivc iy belie the ir o\'('rt indifference, Th e model'll sexuill 1'0('11'." of shine and !Shadow. so thoroughly ex plor ed in th e cost umes fO I' bluck·lltld-white CilU'U ltl, hns its an cestors in t he suggestive sk i I't s of Tel'borch 's 1I.1HI Vl'rnU'cl" S w(' lI -bchuwd let H'r r('nde rs and i nstnlIIICIli. pla,yers. CUII1('ra se ns ibilit y SI'(' III S already to hun' been in operation tltnong these ob liq uely interncting I(wers; the pn intitlgs ure sect ions o f experience without lit('rary or tilNltricn l p recedent. exerc ises ill explaining new relations betw('('n thf' ey(' and til(' psyc he. The knotty quest ions about tlIea ning in Dutch genre works done after th e middle of th e ct'nLU l'y 8et'II1 mOl'" trll ctnblf' wh('tI til('Y arc viewed in cinema tic terms, wh ere by lilly d idllc tic . pro\'Crb-illllst rllling aspect s of personal si tuat ion are skillfully disguisNI, f'nfolded ill t h(' illllllediac." of con tc mpo' rory nlltllral uppearull ces lind casuil l behavio r . r Oll cun understand th em without lun' ing th clll explained ; YOH ca ll s('c thp lII without looking at them. In ElIlltlluel de Wilt P's I lIff".iorwilll WOI//(/1I at (I CIlt/'ie/LOrd, t h(,l'e is a ten sion bet weell the tlillted IIlll'rat iv(' COli tell t of I he SC('IIC il nd the dazzl iug pictor in l c lu illi S of the intf'rior setti ng. Th(' sp t (01' this shot see ms ineidentally , irre lenlllt ly, autonomously heuu l iful ; but ill file t ius bl'uu ty is puc ked with al most II1l1lot icl'll bl p contri lmtion s 10 til(' cinttlla its('\( that regis{('I' nearly sub limillull,r. ulld t\tN'prO I'{' /tit tILt, lwlt<'l' (5. 18). The wonult) ut lIll' cluvichu rd is s howing Iwithe r fllct' nor hund s Hor the title of 1hl' scor('. Thl' 1111111 in t)l'd is almost invis ib le , his clot heH dimly bundled 0 11 It cha ir. The dog lies curled in deepest obscurity 0 11 " cus hi on behi nd the door. Thc Iluilllni s lee ps ; the mun is IIwllk('; hot h nrc shie ldt'd from ou r sc rutiny, almost fro m o ur nolicc. lind from t he imp lucubly bellign s un . But undl'r it s fi('ree, bright tone h, thl' long \,is la t h rough t he rooms to th(' distant swecl)ing maid and o pell window makes a brilliallt c laim on the piclUte 's center. If we \\'{' re ullob!SC'rvltnt. or if WI.' were It s('lf-llbsorbed chil d , \\'e would 1'1111 t1l1'ollj!h Ihp sllulij!hl s Lraij!ht pns t th(, rN" scene, into thf' fur
(
~ Igt";
tar I
''0
M OVINO
a. 18
Ii:M AN U t:L Dt: WI TT':,
1> I C T U I("~ S
I lIieriQr willi \1'0 1/1(1'/1 (II
(J
C'lat'i('hord
1'00 111 , 10 ask 111(' UHlir! for II drink . But we ar'(> SIOPPl'd ut thl' Ilu'c!Sliold.
sl rlltk hy lit(' looks of Ihul beam of light s tr iking ! !I f' woma n's Iwad. H (' I' lIIil"l"OI' st't~ s il . too. And so, us wil('u II\(' 1:1.1 111(' 1'1.1 n'sls 011 t il(' bu ck of MOllicn Vitti's h£'l.I cI ill /{rr/ ! )('xr ,.f, w(' s lI ddpll ly kllOw we nrc in Ihe p r (>s('IICC of 11II IIcli n' cOliscio Il SII(,SS. we 11 1'(' looki ng nt II Il1.lII UlII \'('88('1 full of-what ' 'I'h(' \'(>s!ow\ 011 t ilt' lublf' , 1\ n ('1I1' twin to th{' preg'lUlIIl Iil ll kard so 11('t11' l il(' tnbh's ('d~(' ill t il{' fOI'('gl'oull d o f V(,I'II1('(' I,'8 set'lle wit h u ludy 1111(1 Kl'lIl h~ 1I1I1II II l1d ,\'1'1 IlIIothl' !' key board , is II rhymillg presf'llcl' (5. 19) . Il is li ke u cns tlul·looki l1 g (oreground telep hollc in a film !:iliot, wiler!' liIe CIIIIIl'rll ill"itt'S liS to watch t he I)('op lc behiud it, but. w(' nrc being instr\l ct ed th a t til(> p hol1(> will signi fica n tly ri ug or b(> lift('d. In ti\{'s(' Dutc h sc(')\{'s t il('
141
hUlklu'd fills lilt· U St'.!
to cull til('
with 1111 11\\'IlI'('I\('s8 of drillking. whl.ll no\'rlis\s or WillI', ('WII w}\('1\ 110 OIH' is lookill/! HI it or t.ouching
IltIIlOl)plU'I'('
fUIlU's
it. 11 co n t rihlllt·s to Ilml IIl1iqm· comhi lllltio ll of emmlll 1} 11t~ 1I0IlWIIII with c lllll"!.!t·d PIICQlllltt'!' tilli lmovies d('llI'lld Oil , lind that tlH' Dut ch seem to hll\,(' ;11\,(, 111 ('(1. 1,\ 111(' V('rlllrrl'. t ill' tUllkard . brimful or Iruditiol1l.l l ull'lln in g. s ilU Illy s its t ht'I'p: bil l jus t h ,\' ht·ing ill thl' 1'00 111, whe re Wl' C/lII St' C' it. forlll iug /I big: Ihi,'d wi l h till" cO llph', il COlljll l't'S 1Iil', EIIlOliollllJll ctioll ill thr 1)(' Willf' mo\'ps littPrlllly. f1ll s liil1j! 1'1'0111 right to II-ft IICI'O!iS 111(' rOl'cgrouuci rl'Olll lh£> window 10 th e h(>d. through til£' tankard
14 2
llOVI NO
PI C T U RE S
a nd t he hooded woma ll , slippin g right pnst t he bright vis ta to the s hadowy man , and back Itgain; bllt the pict.ori ailic t ion is the recess ion of SUIHi tru ck rooms. Like t he V(' rmeer , it is un Il llln zi ng ly modern , ci nematie treatment of II class ic sce ne 0 11 the ancien t, mythol ogical t heme of drink , lo\'e, an d mu sic. "' resh ly d rclssed , s he pl ays fo r him und perhaps sings; but s he a lso pl ays agai ns t him. and for herself. S he wnnts 10 wake him, and al so 1.0 tame him . Earlier, they have dnlllk together, s he se rv ing him and pl aying mu sic then, too; but s he ha s also bee n urged by him to dri nk . and more. Her early·morn ing mu sic now heal s him as if it. were s unl ight ; bu t it a lso jangles. reminds. ancl somewhat un does hi m: he res ts his head on his hand, and d oes not rise . S he, too , is hea led . und plnys for he r own com fort; bu t s he makes some mis takes, and feels foo lish. She will s hake hcr co iffed head in a minute. Meanwhi le the mni d swee ps out yes terday 's dust an d gets ready for s ta rting again . None of t hi s is explicit, none of it. is a lly thin g but. fan tasy. But. a ll known concatenations of bed s llud men and women , wi ne and song Ilnd s unl ight are nevertheless cllught. up in t his subdued, casual scene--cuught. and de· liberat.ely th rown back, Il S we a re forced 1.0 look di rectly on ly Ilt a recedin g view of so me invent ed s pac ious rooms, rather sl>arse ly occu pied in t he ea rly hours of the morning. 'I'he tec hnicuillc hieve ment -the perspect ive a nd t he 8un pat.ches-beeomes tran s parent , moreovc r, us ir th ere were no Il rti sl in the eCllUltion and only one kind of obse n 'cr, a singlc senSi l i\'e eye, effortlessly and at. once gras ping both the private situation and the neu t ral beauty of t he ind oor light. Alpers' formu lati on t hat. seei ng a nd " pictu rin g" were one acti\'ity for t he Dut.ch pain ters will work for th e movie cament , too. A sense of the un edited visible world as t he right. med illlJl of esthetic and moral t MJlh shows in t he way cinema ha s t ran s muted old s ta ge conve ntions. jus t as Vermee r and De Hooch t rans muted s t.age-sty le pictorial t hemes-Th e Mer ry Co mpany, The ?"Iu sic Lesson-into what look like caslin I occurrences in co mm on life. One I.nlth about the vis ual Ks peel of real life is that. it is always parti al. Vermee r's scenes hm'e t hll.t s pareness of mllte ria l inciden t t hut looks s ubject.ively right , so d ifferent. from Jan S t.een's interiors crammed wit h all inord inate s how of d etail. Vermee r see ms to be cxpoun d in g t he t hought t hat at KIl)' g iven moment in norm al li ving, mos t mcan ing r1l1 dctuil is in t he hend; the eye as it s trikes surrounding circum sta nce is us ulI.l1y only a rb itrari ly furni s hed wit h significun t. mll.tcl'iu l, and ofte n meagerly. III Ver meer's works, as in Relllbrandt's, what we llclUll l1 y see is quit e simpl e; whut is impl ici t is enormous. It is often made ou t or assum pt ions, coll ectious of slllltli visua l allu sions that. th e viewer is assu med 1.0 unde rSlU nd unconscioll sly. He needs only the barest hint. for the right \,isllul associations to uri se und
14 3
compose ill his hea d. ali(I in his id f'u o f whnt liI(' pict ur{' shows. Thl' I{'ss abu nd ant th c ViSll1l 1 mll tc r iu l. t he mo re cO lltri buti on t he virwcr f{'cis lik e makinJ!. Th e ligh t mea n while Stll~'!o! fluid . Ntriking with s lunnin~ ind iffl'r· (, lice; tht-" "i{'wer IUUS t liSt' it to ill t('rpl'f't I)e rsonli lly. 10 fc('1 let ill on th ings. But m llsi(! ul so fills t ht, void und adju s ts th e 1' lII otio llll l t(' r ll18, jus t liS it docs ill tht-" lIIovi('s. In tlIPs(' paintings 1H1Isie'lIl11king lind Illu s ica l ins tru me nt s nlso st!l ud ro/' NIIOlioIlU I UIO\'(,IIJ('lI t ils{' IL lik(' 111(' light.. Jnlh e lIl any Dut.eh see lit'S of IIITI1 I('111 liff' con l uining llIusic, sOllie doubtless demoll ' s t.rnte pol ite iIn/'lllon.\·. Bu t tilt-" Ve rm ('('r music sce n('s, just like the De Witt ('. see m to be us ing t he slIgj!eslioll o f sound to uuglllf' nt th e tens ion, li kf' IInderscori ng, to replace b road gest u rE> a n d poin\t'd fa cia l ('xpr('ssion or n big collect ion of "isibl(' ohjects. De H ooch 's lut e works hun' It'sS light li nd 1II 0re 1II1Is ic thlln his g reat.llnd falll ous m iddle-pe r iod ones of rooms and cOllrt.\'Il. rds, and eve n more sub tl e illl ilginilry se tt ings. TIl(' shadows Ih ickf' 1l timon!! t h{'s{' well-dressed youn g p{'op l{' as til(' IllHsic gf'ls iOlld(' r lind tilt' lund scape o f rllnlasy expll nds arOlln d t hem. r-'orllle rl,v I)e H ooc h had iuw nted m idd le·elilsts houses a n d th e ir g'll rd e lls; luter he tnrned tire ilCtlllri :'\'ew Town lI a li ill ,\mstf' rci am to his own purposes, sOIllf' limes pretl'ndi n g it WIIS II pleasure pa hlce full or !Satin-clad re\rl'lers, SO Il H! t imNI rellrl'lUi ging' it 1.0 give it a fi ct io llul t ho ugh qu ite plau si bl{' !ls pec t. e\'('11 while depictill l! it uude rgo ing the scrut iny or vi!oli tors and tourists- as if to ques tion the whole poss ibility of objec tive "is iol! . S tf'"PS ('ehoing Oil mnrbl{' floors and thf' inditstinct hUIli of voices rf" place t he Hl Ul)ic, li nd contribute 1.0 the eO'ect of suggestive funta sy, co nceived in s p('ei fi c loell l terms. In the lurge sce ll(, s howing " isi to rs to thl' Hu ll. the intent ga ze o f tht-" prillci pa l lIIu le figun' is turned upwlIl'd owr our hell d s (5.20). He see ms to be wat ehi ng' til(' hu ge cUl'la in lhlll simu lalf'S one hanging be fore t he paintillg it.self, IIOt ill it. as if h(' hnd II S(,IIS(' or oll r prese nc(' thut tht' ot hers lack. Oth er discollnet.:led groups gu ze in di ll'erf'nt direct ions. a c hild seems to look id ly toward liS, It dOl! at sOllwlh ing out o f the picture. Th e rai s('d gaze of th (' solitary UUtll hilS 11 s trllll lo;(' IlIItiJ i\'u](,11 C(" likf> so muc h behuv ior in De H ooch's work . Th(' m U ll SI'(' II1 S IIhOlitl O 10wI'r his gn u' to llIee t ours. b ll t he is too enlranced by 111(> lifting cu rtai n. Are we in filet. c haracters ill the pnintillg he will finally 1)(' nh) r to look 111 whell the curtnin is fully ti l)' Some t hing about t he IIrbitrarines s o f v is ion lind its fUll c ti on in habits thes(' Dut c h pic tures. Apart from t he gr(,lIt ge niuses o f genr e-De H ooc h, Ve rmee r . TerbOI'ch-modes t prnclit jOllers express the Slime co ncern . They s how th e odd ness o f o rd inary phenoln(, llu in s tead of th e ir b etluty and si g· nificance, and record d ull, lIuharlUon ious moments even when ostensib ly ce lebrating Iiii' pellce !lnd qu ie t o f virtllous ('xis ten ce in prosperous towns,
C :pvnot- d
Ie
144
MOVING
5.20
PIKTKK IH! 1l 00C II .
I'J CTU RI-: S
I lI/ prioro/,,, ,..\ 'c HJToU'II l/ alliH /I ,,.,lut/IIII.
putHtiw'ly 11 no ry lIIod('J o f h lll'1I10Il)o' . J acobus Vrel is !such a pninL('r. Like 1II0ti('rll towlI·dwcllers who fed that a pri\,Hl r S('I1S{' of I}sychic emptiness is sOlll{'how in l (' nsifi('d 11)0' 1}(' r fecl dOIlH'slic surroundiugs. the persoll nel ill Vrel's works IIr{' 8('('11 to be sOIll('wIUH cllllc('!ed by Ill('ir milieu .
\fi/.dow. tlH' woman's h{'ud is pllrlinlly c ut off from our "it,\\, by the window frullw, 1I1ld wIIll1.8h(' it'; doing is obscure (5.2 1). I-i (' r fa ce ulld hlillds nl"(' illv isi blr und her body ",lidded up ill her clothes: Il('r 11\'('1111 ('8 of ('xpr(:'lisio ll IIr(' blockNI. And yeL tlw 1110111('111 jl> ('x pressi\'e. It records noth ing of t.iI (' WOllllut, but rlltiler OUI" nct uf s('('i ng her Icnn out thnt Wily, tag if Wl." w('r(' (, lIl pri ll g nnd glllll cing uround !lus tily. registe r ing phenomenK without nltnching significHnce to them. but ree ling something so strongly In
trQ1I/(l1I
al
(I
145
5 .2 1 JA CO B US \ ' 8.: 1••
" '/1111(/11 ('/ (,
Il'imloll'
thll t. 1111 " irma l d(' llIil h{'tOlllt,S thll'ifipi! IIml II cqu ir,·s II fnlsi' significllllce. Th e womUII I{'u ll s OLlI ; s ilt' do('s il 1IIIIIIy lim{'s /I dllY , to I'mpl y /I jug iUl o Ih(' CUllul or lShukl' /I 11101). But tIll' piCtUI'l' ilS 1I0t s howing Ihis fa cl : il is /I see lll' not of donU'slic but of " isilal lifc. bf' ing oO'cl're! as a 11INnphor of ilillPl'i ifc, just liS it is oITl'rl'd ill film. Th i.' picIUI'l' s hows huw suc h 1111 lll'bitrllry, ill ' cOlllplf'le. lind slightly comic \' i('w of /I \\'0111<11\ ill n "oom cllil inlprillt ilSt'1f on the l')'(, lind Illilld for rell)o)OIl S OI\1('r IlllIn r('sponsl' to Ih(' su bjecl. To show how this workli , II\{' Jlllillll'r dUClS nol dw{'11 all Ih{' ill tiulllcy of the SC{, Ill',1I0r Yt'l a ll IIUlt ilitilllltCYIlS II distillu ti oll of llll."t hillgels(· . Its SP(" ci tic snlull domes tic IIwaning is in fa c t s idrsll'Plw d in favor of 1I l>I'culiar elllotional tOIl{' that S('(' III I; irrt'\(,VlIIII to 111 (' d epic l('(\ 1Il01ll('1It. Th(' big und
146
MOVINO
PICTURES
1I0ticcalM wonulIl lH'rscif is hl l'gely invi!; ible lind inCl.l lcu luble; the burdett of the picture is 011 us , 11 0t hel', The pe rspec ti\'e is II little Ullcertain, like the subject, and gi\'cS Ilmt slight sense of the ground shifting thllt OCClll'!; whell th ings arc seen while olle is wulking, o r by Il hand-he ld Ca llie I'll, The CIII Otio lln l grouud s hi fts to II llltch, Esn ius Bourssc unci fli rte r Jl1rtSS(,IIS Elingll u lso mllde pllill lilll:CS s howiug rOOm s with scntcd figures whOfSC I)CrSOIlIlI c hnrn cte r is qu e ll ed by thl' neat surroullding arrangements, illcluciillg fu ee-shroudillg helldgellr, but who nrc nevcrt hcless iutensi\'e ly seen, c\'e ll while their prinlcy stays ullviolut.ed , We dOll't cntch them I1t Illlyt.hing, bUI we are caught by them , In El ingll 's WOII/lIII Rcadi,lY, t he huge shoes in the foregrou n d lire funny unci odd, like til(' I)os iti oll of the womUlI'S chuir (5,22), She sits ill the middle of the room fneing the light. which st.rikes til(' floor ins teud of h er book; the fru it buwlphtced 011 the chiliI' sellt is II110tiLel' oddity, And ,\'l'l l his is II i$impit· l!;cene, pert'ecl ly com p rehensible ami ol'dillll r.v: tile s hoes II l'e c logs, o utd oo r foo tgear us unlly shed ill the house; the chai r is lightweight. and
5,22
PIETER JASSSENS ELoINOA ,
lI'Qm //tl
Head j"fI
147
custolllarily shift s nil IIIi' time-prrhnps shc'lI frui t bowl won't
IH ll y
put
0 11
1110\'('
it ill a
lI{,lIrb~'
the domed lid of Ilw
1II01I)("n1.
The
ches t, lind so III('
lIlaid has put it on IlIr cha ir. wh i~b · i" ,", rtlrf'ly u!it'd formlll pit·c(' o f furniture ullyWtl~· . BUI why Illi s Ihis pic tUff' bf'(,11 plIinlNU
III Iii€' C1IS(, of V('rUlN' I' lInd D(' H ooc h . IIrlists wilh plIl.(,lItly J!'rt'ul puin! c rly nmbitioll . th e IIll sw('r to tlml I1IH'S liol1 IIlUy 118111111." 1)(' Ihllt III{' piClll r{'
I'€'P"(,Sl'1I1S tli l' ('ITor'l to sol\"(' 1111 urti s l ic pro hl l" lIl . or sf'wrll l on' rlllllpiuf! OIWS a mush'r pllintl'r's ('xe r cis(' ill fU I'IIIl' r IIl1l s h' r~· . lIo('s , howl. light. und chai r wou ld be rung ill 10 s('I'n~ Illurge Ilrtist ic ~oul . to Itt-'I) Ihe painte r eX l(,lld hi s s irategirs. In this di\' isio ll o f gNlI1' .11'1, 1lie tht' UWS a l'(' co mrort· ubly limit e d : WOIll C Ii ut hOIllC, (' 1Ij!ugl'd ill mu sic, u('('(lI rwork, Ulld corr('·
s pondpll c(', flir1 nlio n, cook('ry, and cili ldclI l'C , 01' cOlll bill1l1io liS o r 1h(,l11. But Il l> ~OO Ii us II grNI1 painter Illls c hose ll li ll y 0 11(' s uc h slIbj l·CI. ('\"{' r~' th i l1g f'1 8(, CU ll hi' COIlS t l'l.l ('(llI~ II ,'ccord o r h is pl' l'somrlllrt istic j o urlley , com'f' n il'ntly Illude in
tl
rumilillr \'I' hicll-' t o ullIu zi ng III'W plncl's,
But E li ngu WliS 1I0t V('I'Y IlIlcntf'd or IImh it ious
5.23
E 8 A l AS BO V R !:IS E,
Illterior wilh
(I
/J~ 1.1
pllillt('r , H is wOl'ks
Woma" Spillll i"y
" 8
IHwr cOlIsid(,rlllJl e
MOVING 1II 0dl~Sly,
"I C T U RE S
lik(' thos(' of VI""I, who may eW'1I
hllw~
bN'n nil
ulllilleur. Y{'l their c hoice of specific view within 8. genera l subject. is just as lII'bitrllry-sl'Plnillg as De 1I 00ch 's 0" Dr Wilt e's c hoic('s. wi t hou t the sup· po .. ' of Lh('s(> IIrlisls' c ll'u rly deepl'!" "ims. BOllrsse's 11I1(>rjOl' with (I \ r OIl/(/II S ,)i" " ;II!l lllso hus curiously etTllct'd dlH ruclns, a 1111111 lIettrly Vllllis hill g out of l ilt' lert I!largin lwd Il("nriy resf'lUbliug u pi le of fold ed beddi ng 01' CUI'· tn ins, nnd II di lll, fnec lcss WOIIJl Il t. i\losl o f til(' pic LHrc is floor und window , IJnd t he muted light prllclrllting IIlId refle cti ng off tlws(' two plllllCS is one 1Iclor ill t he scelle (5.2:3). T he o the r' is Ihe viewe r who is crossing floor, hem.lillg for lilt' dislllllt room beyo nd lind hiki ng in tiLc firesi de !iN' II(' e n roule, oul of Ih e corner o r Ihe ey(' withoUI fOC li Sillg 011 it. The pic l ure rccOI'd s Ihul unfocu sed moment -lI l1 focwwd bUI lighted up. like Ihe while Willi and woodell wiud ow friu ne on the IIrighboring bu ilding seen blurri ly through lilt' gillS"', AlmO!iphere is gene rat.ed by Ihe mO\ling eye Illld mind of th e beh older, nol by ully in t erlle· liol1 bcl\\'ee ll l he Iwo illert persoll s inlhc room. Tllc cOlllpos it iolllllid the II r · rangt'nwnl of light bypass thrill, and instead ilwit.e liS, The pictu re sec ms to l1a\'(' bC('l! paintcd t o s how how, os we pli SS by tlll~ lIl , cin:: urIl sta ntial pile· nOlllellll nre im'cst.ed with mcullillg oll \y by our ('xpectnn t glance, which is ('\'(!I' opell 10 associlltiolllllld ullcollsciously clllll'ged with Jl l'ojected d rama, V,'e\ llTld BOil rsi->C do II 0t U i->(' i->t rOl1g SIlIT b('ll lTl li or ('\'C II s l rong COll I I'llst S; these g lilli pses insist on engaging t he cye 111188s lllllingly . as if ollly mnking suggestiolls. There is lIotliillg ,'cally t.here to see afte r 1111. und no b r illi ant signals IIrc lll'rllYI-'d to clllch Ill'edlt'ss II lI.ell lion, These wOl'ks lI rc l'ecOT'ds o r s ubjective visioll in the COllllllOliest usc, painted 1.0 r(,lIIind liS of how the ex· periellc(' o f sceing llIost commonly works. Dutch scenes at home or ill fi c ti oTlal palnces hllV(' u cc rtnin p hysical sua · vi ty a nd COll1rOr l, if 1101 nlental euse; mcn a nd womell lire well dressed illld 111 11 11 )' are e legllllt. Blit other SCCHes depict. t.he rougher' world of guard· rooms a nd 1l:Iproorli s filII of soldiers ill the sa lllc c hllrgcd , s ubjective way, Th e t he me iLself is ns common plnce IIl1d Ilearly liS old ns that of homc lIlusic Ilnd vinous flirtntion: soldie rs cOII\'crs illg toge th er, wh et her o n thc ('\'(' of bott.!,· 0 1" a(lel' vicLory, nre lhe Sluff or much ulICCdOlc a nd secu llir my thology. All o\'e l' e mbntt led Europe ill the first hnlf o f t he sc\'cnt.cc llt h ce lltllry, military demeanor li nd costume we re obviously u lnrge fuel of \'isun l li(c; and for Ih e first t im!' EUI'OpClln mule and femalc dress begnn 10 demon · SI rule strong elll otio liUI cont rasts, not. just. fOl'ma Hy bnlullced eli ffc renccs, S wa gge r bccllmc a IlIrgc e leme nt in mul e chic , while demurc refi nemen t and a hi g h degr('(' of stusis increased in bOlll'geois (emal e dress, Dutch ge nre scene6 s how how nowi ng hai r ulld expressive hat s a nd swecping cloaks
,'wl
C pyr
Ie
149
/)111 ('11 GCllrr
\\'('1'(, 1I1l1sculin(' privilrg('s, especiolly IlIIIOIII! soldiers, whi l{' WOIII('lI wOl'e smooth caps Ilnd 1II~llt chignon!), stiff bodic{'s with Ih ick s lcc\'es lind heavily railing gllthrre(] ski rts, ~·tf'1l st ll ck ou t the ir f' lbows at sharp ulIgI('s COliSllllllly throughout Ill(' Ci.' lItllry , to rrSl1l hand 011 n hip or sword. 10 pour II glllss; \\,Ollll'n 's dr('ss co nfined III{' lIPI)('r unus lind shoulders (Iu ilt, tight I.", so Ihat c lbows I.t·n ded to stay clOfS(, to the body, Ulld(' r Jllilitul'y illflucnc(' , the lUul f' body WIlS extelidNI b,\' big lIlobil(' culTs ll nd flups Ilnd lind tHJ)(>S lind ltilrHps or 1111 SOl'ts, so thut il look lip a \01 or 1'00111 1.1 lid IIll.ldc u lo t or m o tio llll nd lIoise, especia lly with tile addiLio l1 or sword, C..lPf' , spurs, Itlld t i IOSt~ eno rlllous bools, WOIIH'1l kept their mobile adornlllents 10 1.1 millimum-il curl or two, peurl drops ill IIII' ellrs, F'(,III11 I(' ('Iega llce appell,'ed ill u ,'e, s ll'ailled clurity o t' line alld grl'll l ,'ichness or rubric: whtlt mO\' NI WUS Ihe light
those glorious s kirt s, Scenes with soldil!rs and womell together, e~pecial l 'y Vermeer's piliI' ill th e Frick Collec tion , frankly piny lip these co nt ru~ts. wll ich w(>re )lew ('I CIllt'llt s i II I he visllul e ha I'llct ('I' or lo\'e pi ny, us I he,\' lIIust lul\'l' heen ill gl'III'I'al seXIlItIIlWlll'elLl'SS, In the Pl'ick eOllpl(', the sol , dier's big blotlike hul find big dill! ('Ibow in its loose, 810JlPY ",Iee\'(' nn~ nl 111081 lllllhni COII\'I'." hi8 s('xulI l fi ll\'OI'- bl'yond th£'111 WI' 111)\'(' oll ly his IIOS(' und a (ew blul'l'Y fing('I's, i-II'I' c risp body, head. and armIS IIrl' ill 81m!'!> COli ' trust., as cOllt nill('d li nd d ('filled und luc('111 us Ihe glass her hllnds prott'cl. 01' liS lilt' Ilutp llhow her hNld (5 ,2-1 ) , III Ih is art. SC(' IWS withou t WOIII"11 urI' qui t l' d ift'('J'1'1I1 rrolll Ihosf' with ClipS IIl1d ski rt s, ~ ta le 1J('llIwior is rull of l hl' lIulIl'riul qUlllity of ntnlt' IlCCl' S sori(·s. III(' conslnllt ~H' II S(' or killllld j!eU/,thnl Ollt' cun SI'I' illlll i li t ur.v J!roup pOl'll'aits (lS \\'{'II as gual'{iroolll pni lllillgs, E\'f'1I ci\'ilinn portroli t s s harc l ilt' hlll -lIlld-lSwcf'pillg,cloak t hel ll(' with the mi litary IILl1II, 1'11(,8e lS('wnl eell th , 011
C(>lIll1 r), lUul" bodi~'s hun~ no lin(' lind hurdl,\' 1111,'" clear shuJW, ('XCt'pl Ihal occusiollull y give II by II PU1'ti1l1 bl'(,IISlphll(' or IHlII SlIlIlIy ti~ht 8\(,(,"('s, Their e rotic ('m'ct s IIIU SIIIH\'j' lIri$;('1I oul of sarlorilllllss(,I,tion,nlso n l!l llifl'SINI in bn~gy b,'('('ciH's aile! bunc hy 8Itil,tsIN'\'('s, tllI{l ill bij: co llurs (II' I'ull's, W illl'lII Duyst(' r 's So/dic ,.,~ by {/ Fircp/arr shows II C('lItral figul'(' wil h II huge rlll'b" illl lll('d hnt , a stll!' 111110111,(' IIIf' ot her hut s 111111 fill III(' scem' w ith tlw ir loollTing Ulld lil lill /.!', '1'11 (' Cllrd galll(' 111 Ihl' back nnd Ih(' slol'y tt'lI iug II I l iIe fin' hn\'(' a Iloll chalnll c(, "1IIe1 lack of soc ial tPllsion d{' IH'IU]('1I1 011 II 110 Iict'able luck of \\,0111('11 Or drillk Or. for Ihut lIIulter, ellinger (;),25), Th('S(' 111('11 11I'e Sitiokillg lind s pNlkinf;! ill low 100I('s ill n ciliblikt~ 11111biellc('; II pUI' ~'I,\' lll11sculill(" low-keYNI i"It~ I'p l ny is in I> I'OC(,SS, T h(' glllllC(, or I hi' st nile! iug 1111\11 I a k('1S I\eu 1 r.. 1 cogll i l,;IIIC(' o r Otl I' rl'l~S{'lIc{' -'\'t' n r{' II IIIUII nlld .. 1ll£'llIb('I', 100, Chi('fly, the lSyslellllllliling Ihe pools or light also unites Illi's{' qlli('t 111(>11, nHlkillg two Jll1 lpabl(' COllllll llll it i('s within t ht· piclll r(> bill crellti llg one grnc iou s llIi lif'lI ror til(' illlf'rchalll!f' o( cu llll chnl and complex
(
~ Igt";
tar I
150
MOVING
I'ICTURf.;S
. -. ,-
•
,
•
COIIlI'ud£' ly fel!ling, Action und passion are lit II dislllllCC; so lire folly. Slllllll(', 81 riff', und brtH'lIdo, The ligh t hen ls und slis tain s , Th ese lIlen wcur shoes, 1101 boots. and their big hats have II benign prolecti"e look, Swo rds ul'e 1101 ill c\·idence. Ar£' they indeed soldiers? If so, they nrc 1101. insist.ing 011 it at this moment. The foreground boy otTers the r epou.,sQir, t.he silhou('IINI figure ugllinst whose l1WllrelleliS lhe light ed scene exists. We CIIII II Ot. s{'{' his {',ves; but hi s pal'ted lips show his absol'ptioll ill the fur-h ulled spellker's words, p('rhnps ill hi s UlIlI SlIli 1 fa ce alld dress, and the boy's sillisfllctioll lit being tlllIong these glowing bei ngs who lake'their euse und admit him to their compuuy.
J)lde" Grllrt!
5.25
WILLEM
DUY8TER,
I5I
Soldicnbyo f'irtlJla ct.
Hest nlillt. is t.he note stnlCk in this alld other Ouys ter sold ie r pictures. The "icw('r is permit ted to e nter its cOlllllluni ty IIl1d ret'! o ut its cmo lio nnl
temper by d egrees , as in fi lm scenes where the nctioll co nsists of just Lhat -the grudua l exploruti oll by the CUlllcrll of n roomfu l of men slow ly lIlIJold· iug n situation to thc viewer's co nsciousncss. It wa s done in 7'ltt Jl jgM S i ll!! and UlallY oth ers. In Terborch's I}ninting ca lled 1'II e J) jspa/ch, the net ion is Ch~llI· but th e situatio n is Ilulode muted and resonant: we nrc invited to co n· side r wlull is going O il , not told. The standing tnllnpeter a\'erts his gaze from the seated writer exnctly ns Vermee r's standing maid does from her writing mist ress in t.he Alfred Beit Coll ection painting (5.26 , 5.27).
MOVING
152
5.26
OJ-:RAR I) T):RHORCH.
PICT U RK S
O/firr rlludTrl4mpetcr(Tlte D iJlplilclt )
Lon' is !I1)PIII'Pllily the s ubjpc l o r tll('s(' I>c l'('('d8, which will be delivered by li\{'se su lJOni illlltes: but it is the psycltologicul co mplex ity of lo\"e tlmt is suggestt'd with pr('cocious lUo(h'I'nity ill such simple situations. They ore like t!lf> paintings of H oppe r, Or lik(' sce nes ill films wll('l'(, tht' canH'ra wllieilt'8 III(' 11I('III I)('r8 or u group or eOllp]I' , dwe lling nl.]ength on eneh without COIlIllI('lIt, ielling possible elI/lUges of il1wul'd stille suggest lhelll se h'cs without till' uccd 01' o\'c rl uctio ll or l'xJ)n-.ssioll, lind without s peec h. S uc h dl'umlllic d e\"ices wI'n' only gruduully approprinted for ci ncnw , after it had
lJuldr
(;"11/'1
," •
5 .2 7
J AS
V~!
R N E~; R ,
1\'/)1111111 W ri/iny 1/ I.rllrr, lI' illt It r r .1IUil/
obviollsly IrlillscPllciNllllp 11I('lIlriCIlI COII\'{,lIlilll1i~ willi which il h nd ~ lill'l l'Cl: but III('Y hnd b('(' 11 (·:duIIISli\'(' l." f'xplor<'tl Ii," \· i' I·IIlP t~ r. 1)(' 1I 0nc h . alld '1'('1" borch in l1uilll us Lhey. 100, s lNldily recasl old lirPII I!'S ill liP\\' li'I'IiIS or subject ive elqwri('lIcf'. Whih· Ihe ('yt'S or Ih('s{' wrilprs uri' liddt'd liS 111f',\' IWlld o n ' I' IiI('il' work, Iht· (',VI'S or bot h muitl lind Irllllll1t'\pr al'l~ widt' lind 1'1111 or cOllsciouS Il(,SS. Both gazl' ou l , but nol II I us. 'l'1I ('i r ulldt'rsllllltlilljl is Ih('i l' 11\\'11 , lIlId W(' CUll
ollly obs('I"\'P it. PWPlllhi zt"
II',"
10 1111(, I'I1 I'('\. Th('y could spt·crk, bUI of COIII'Sf'
1 54
M OV IS O
PI C T U RES
the.,' won't unless spoken to. Both have jobs that take them around and about alllong folk of superi or rank , wh om they may assist. a nd observe bll t. not address as equal s. They arc. however, painted as equals; our attention is drawn as much to their possible fee lings and kn owl edge as to thnt of these correspondents-as much , but not. more: these arc not romantic PH Storal scenes ele\fat.ing the lowly. The big dog in Terborch's painting. like so many Dutch dogs, is also a channel of pe rtinent feeling, more uninhibited than any hu man actor. He is the officer's dog, but he sni ffingly attends 0 11 the messenge r, whose restive attendance on his master alerts him to the emoti on al stakes. He nearly treads on th e fa ll en ace of hea rt s. In both Duyste r and Terborch, t he male world is treated with as delicate a sensibi lity as any shown by Vermee r and De Hooc h in th e readi ng of encou nte rs between the sexes or generations. These painters never leave men's exp ressive ness to t he dash of their garments, as Callot so brilliantly did. Despite th ei r emphatic clothing the Dutch men in these genre paint.ings have no systematic elega nce, no form with which they present. thei r clo thed persons and their feelings and intentions togf:"ther in a harmonious formal whole, like a mask. Th e women do. Th e men are more artless, loose. fragm cllted, and unbuttoned, li ke their clothing and hair, and so they see m more emoti onally unguarded. Th ei r reclings a re not tra nsmuted by eith er dash or decorum into suave, formally real ized modes of expression; but neither a re th ey crudely ex pressed. These men have a Gary Cooperi sh simpl icity of manner, the sort of quality originally associated with Protestantism and later with America altogether-u ncourtly, but not ungainly, Pieler Codde's You ng Ma ll with a Pipe, from about 1628, a lready shows how II stilT and fo rma l old fashion in dress may be engagi ngly mobilized in th e new masculine st.yle (5.28), H is wrink led stockings, tousled head , unfastened doublet and collar a.re new loosen ing effec ts, ;'a swee t disorder" appli ed to the same tight and Cormal ga rments that arc fami lia r from the rigid Jacobean miniatures and portrait engrtlvings of around 16 15. The light, movi ng across th e sti ll waH and catC hing all t.he bu mps, cc hoes the theme of mutability that his costume states. His sti ll posc is si milarly washed with the mo tion of hi s thoughts. He looks ve ry appea ling in his unarrogant disheve lment, a seventee nth -cen tury Ja mes Dean. We a re drawn by his solitary, ingenu oll s, and un selfconscious cha rm ; he seems to be setting tlte right masculine tone for the advancing century, Metsu's Illterior of a S mith y is an cxa mple of Du tc h malc interaction very different from Duyste r's and Terborch's medi tative g roups , or Coddc's boy. Thi s scc nc, like so ma lly of Metsu's, hns a poin t.ed , Normal! Rockwcll-l ike cast. so that it is not surpri sing to learn I hat. it was oncc thought. to represent the fleeing Charles II disco\'cred by a blacksmith
15 5
/) lIlrll (i" "r"
•
•
-
/
/ 5 .2 8
I'IET~:R C OOOE .
r UllIIy ,ll1l11 /l'ilh (1 l'i pr
156
MOVINO
5.29
P I CTU RE S
GABRIEL MET 8U,
1"lt ,.ioro/ u S", i1ltU
(5.29). It looks invent ed . artificililly reali~lic lush'ad of naturally conjurl'd, Shlgy ralhe r limn cinematic, lind in fa ct like ce rUt in sce nes from SlHgcminded lll ov ics. 'olllrllsts of cost ume , IIge, unci fn e i,,1 exp ression nre s t ressed by b('illg typified . and con t rast. of occupat ion by cnrefu l props und pos ing. '('here is 110 room for psychologicnl or (' \' e ll physical mol ion-it is it table"u . horse included . Terborch 's soldiers , like his oIli er figures , arC rCllder cd ill th e pro\,i· siolllli figure s ty le that uvoids stu nclnrd pOSCIS lind port.rn~' s CW Il the slII lI lI est (' I('ment of humun bt>hu\'ior as pCllciinj.!. so I hut it lien ",. freezes. und elll phus is is s h i rl(~d lO th e idea of process. III sti ch /I s tyle, 110 s ing h' phys icall1rrangemcllt can e\'c r !;CC IU " typ icul, " howevcr often it is rell sed , Ellch se t or cho ices see lll s arbi t rary, ('\"CII though they IIltly nil be v(' ry IUu ch nlike , 1'h(' Illuny sillli inrities are not. identities. ex cept occasiolllllly in the case or cO lll pll'te objects,l:>lIch us the ye llow-and -bla ck silk bodict' WOrn by five very
157
dilTerent WOIILl'1I ill \ 'I' I'lI1el'l"'8 Of'lI\'''(·. III V... I"IIII'{·... cnc h ..00 111 is made 10 look pui ll 8ta killgly obsPt"\wl. ami yN ellch is s lij!hlly cli ll'Pl'(.·III-illld 011(-' IIIl1st concludE> lhat. ull arr invelitl>lI. just likl~ J){' Hooch 's courtyards. III s uc h u wuy or doing Ihillgs, till' idf'1I of drtac hNl, IIl'utrlll visioll ilS ulldf' r , milled , Elich illl llgC is individlllllly "Sl'I'II " illto pX iS!('IICI', with all dctui ls precis('ly tai lorcd to tltt' 011(' rt'v('uINI vip\\", just as ilia clrculIl, or ill til(' kind or fillII 111111 ilHitll ll'lS a dl'l'lI lIl Ulld IInl II pluy, T hill Vp .. IIICl'" bodicl' r{'lwlltNI ill fh'(' din'rl"'11 1 hUI simi lar spots rllis(~s th(' {Illesiioll, Did h(' illw' lIl it! Is t his ~a"11I1'1l1 11 rl',,1 s tudio prOp, wonl by a s ... ries or IIlodt'ls I.Iml llllltlf' 10 fit ('uch by pi ctor illlilli l orill~, or dit! Verllu'er "design" il hillls('lrollly for I II{' pailil illgs ,l ik{'ull thes(' I}('..r('cllll id phlUSi · blf' rooms-ignoring what till' gil'l reall." lIad 011 so as to inlroduce Illal br ill iulIl. hluek lIlItl yellow' Or wa S it simply IIIWlIYS the sU llie moclel, we l.lring her OWII bodice owr and owr1 By 1665 it was ou 1 or rnshion und appcars 110 morc-Ve r lllct'!' m'wr igllOl'ed ras hion, whnl('\'(' !' o l her minutiae hI' trnnS I)()8ed, De H ooch hilS i l S('(III('lIce or sce ll('s s('t i n Wlllll c urso rily St~ellls the s allie rOOIll. with II Clipboard Iwd nlld 1III011l('r rOOll1 bf'yolld s howillg II gll rdf'1I t hrough lIlI Opf'1I doOJ'. They "CI'y IIIl1ch IUI\'c Ihl' f1 lwor of II I'f'curri ng dr(' III11 : t'ach "il'W or 1ht· 1"00111 is Ih(' SIIIIIt', but t'lic h set. of .1('l nil s is s lightly differ(,IIi.lllid ('ue h SN' IU S llulhOl"i tllt in!. In 011(', a c hild i!; Iwing df'lolised by hpr 1II011wr; ill llllot h e/", l lif' salUC child 1'II11 S in f,'olll the g'llrd('11 wldle thc IllO ther IIll1kt's th(' h('d , Sli llllllotlu' r shows 1I youllg cOli ph' d rrssing" b," llIe bt'd with 11 dog bUI 110 c hild . II woulll ht, r llSy to COIIStl"llct II fil mlikc mln'utive Ollt or 1111 of Ihl~ SC IlIkl' lI 101;1'tlll'r, l'S I)('c ililly sillct' Dt, H ooc h C\"l:'11 pro· vided Jill f'1'1'i(' close· up of 111f' c hild who e nt e rs r" olll th e gardl' II , ill 11 se llilrut l' p ielu rl' St'l'lIl1S by 1I zoom 1('lIs (s('(' 5, 12 Ullci !l, 13), Bull'lIch rOOIl1 , though Ilw saulf', is 1101 t lH' Sall1(', Eli c h piellll'f' is its OWII £11'1'11 11 1, its own fil m c ntir(', full of ils OW ll COlUplf'lf' slIgW'st iw 1II 0\"(, IIIt~ nts and Si tllJ:ttioIlS, Th e su bj('c l in:, eOllsciollSIlf'SS is ill\"okNI ItIH'W {'uch I iml', And ),('1 Ih is SNIUt'nl ilillook aUl(iIl~ 111(' llil intillj!s of Di' Hooch lr a 1U1I' I'nlin' Ilwnw. SCvt' lI t(,ClIlh-cc nl.llr.'" Dutch pni ll t illgs W(' I'(' ill ract ort.f'1I d Ollc in puil'l:l 01' pcndlillts , to show two llSP('ClS of 011(' lI10tiLIiS ir to poi nl out the 1I11fillished chll rne tl'!' or alleX IWrif'lIct" hoth 11I00'a l llll(l llUllt~ riCl I. T Ilf'Y aim to {· tI1pha, s ize til(> Illek of cllciellc(' puss iLI(' ill 1111.'" si lll!lf' wkl' , Dl'lIlIWlic s('(lueIlCf' is cxpressNI not ns 11 row u f Slllif'1I1 1II 01l\('lIls, but ll ti tI\(' plllY or the rt'c('plive, s('ck illg e."(' !'lllll-dllg 0\' 1' " lilt' mlltt"'inl WOI"ld, wI'IH"ing \\"I~b s or me aning <wd ree ling oul of 111(' look!> or Ihill~rs ,
C :pvnot- d
Ie
SIX
Landscape; Prints; Rembrandt
C AP E setting provid es a solution to t he problem of showing situat ions in process; nature never stands s ti ll , says Monet. Th e Dutch land scape-pai nters put that fact to use with s pec ial atten tion to the constan t movement of light and to the arb itrnry character of natural ph enomena, which Rre so d ifferen t from neal roo ms. Ae lbcrl CUYl> was a partic· ular master of rendering the llIotion inside the s till momen t in terms of lire ont or doors. He see ms especially to have add ressed the qucNtion of s howing the sun actually r isi ng and fill in g the world with vis ibil ity, 88 if t hat were the rnodcland paradigm for all action. Almost nothing else happens in his pictures, which s how moments fi ll ed only with th e passage of lime, as cows ruminate and herdsmen seem to do the sa me, anglers wai t for a bite, and horsemen sit back aud let th eir horses d rink (6. 1). Th e best of t hese paintin gs are mesmerizing for th eir expecta nt, pregnant beauty devoid of incident. Th ey are not d ocuments of rural life or harbor and rive r life, but olily of the morning passing. The cows are full of prese nce, and the ir slow responses matc h t he pace of the light's slow rise. The pa int itsel f does not move, as it seems so vigorously to do in Ru isdael's and Hobbcllla's wor ks po rtrayi ng similar scenes. There, the a rti st s tirs th e trces and the sky with hi s own brilliant talent; but Cuyp withholds that interfering kind of encouragement. He, like De Hooch, seeks to keep anything definite Crom occu r ring, so t ha t we can supply all t he possibilities. Philips Koninck illu strates an alternative ci nematic mode in Du tch landscape-paintings. Hi s flat pan oramas invite scan ning and seem themselves to be flowing past under us a8 we fly over th em (6.2) . Th ey have 110 arrangemetll, except that created by the horizon alone . The sky and earth are separate, bu t beyond that Cact everything is in flux; the eye may travel for milf'IO in a ll directions without feeling fo rced to rest on any cminence or
1,(I IIII:WlI IH':
I,,.ill ',~:
/lr /llIl,.,, 1/(11
l}rOllli nt'lIl'{', Tilt' IIWllt'/,ship illl plit'd b:,' lilt' IIcl uf IlmkillJ,! 11111101 s tay fluid lllle! kilt'P IIIcl\'illl!. Ilt'wr fixi lll! lilt' wor ld illiu II Pnl1) llI't'l lllUl ('lulld III' lubl' l,'d "pI'I'ft't:I" Of' ""t'lIl1 lifll l" or "Iypical." IIlId ISO Ill' PUl'oM':-'St'd lik(· II S I Il!fl~ h l)l, Tl ll' lIl'tisl SI'I'IIIS to iw Sllyiu j! this 10 h iIll M' If.lol): u rl islit: tJwllf' r · s hip is U S{'Hli ll illl! jl r()('l'S$, 'I'11i' f"H llIl' kt'f'ps s h iflill~, shon-i ll l! that I lu' l'l' renlly CUll be 11 0 fruIIII', 110 box ill which 10 pllcktlge lir (' vi('w, Ci ti('s in th is sc h(, IlH" IIrl' simply furth l'r co nfigurlltiolls of th l' hwd l)cll l}('; 1I1le! t OWII und CO\llllry, lik(' foreground lIlId di l)IIlIlCC, illl (' rlll ing\(' wilhout se tting th (' III' se h'('s UI} in cO II\'(, lI lio l1ul oppos it ion, The Dut ch frl'{IU{'lItly used th{' cOlllr('-j ollr Il'chni
160
M OVING
6.2
PI CTU Rt~S
PIlILII'S KONIN C K .
Vit wo/ f' itld.
classica l idea ls -the beauty of proporti onate arrllngc luenl with in fix ed boundari eK. Lighting l\ sce ne from the rcart tl s if to dU7.zlc the viewe r's eyes und UIIIIUIII hilll , s hows 811 OPI)osi lig interest ill r ecordillg IIlIlurul phenom ena for their direct emotional claim s, ex press ly to s how how ditTerclil those urc from idealizing rormulas . Thi s IUlti·clulisicai q'hCHIl'r "l( Nature, based 011 the diurnal drallla of the ri sing and selli ng 8UII , has become 8 modern clnssic source for the movies. It de rives lIl ost directly frolll t he kind of nineteenth·century Roma lltic landscape painting thaL put the sun in the cente r. imitating the way Claude Lorrain had fir8t done it. But the source for th ese tnlly goes back not through Claude, who was using the theme (or hi s own lumin O ll ~ verSion of classical harmony, but through the llIagllctie visions of Cuyp and Van der Neer: und so it de rives ul timately from the aloof gaze of the sun at the rea r
1A.I II(/S(,OIJfj
/-'ri"ls; Ucmbmmll
16 1
of Bnlcgcl's Icorus, the sa lllc relcll,t l('ss eye o r the ac tuullhllt has give n the camera its fo rce. Most seve ntee nth ·cent.u ry Dut ch arti s ts " uclutlli1.cd ·' lege ndary th emes a8 Bnl cgc l had done, instead ofclI" ting them in t he es wb li"hed stylt>of nrlist ie reality-that is, ill til(' pose" li nd proportions, til(' ca lligraphically df'siglled draperies ulld UI)pUrI Cllllll ccS that hnd so IOll g bCf'n ussoc ililcd wilh mythologica l subjects us to provide a la rge purt of thei ,·ml'l.lIIill g, Th e chts· sic method makes oh\'iouli urt out of old s tori es, r(,llcleri ng t heir harsh can· tcnt pal atab le jus t by associu till g' it with till' plC'll surc of ronnu l nrti stic order. Such a process fix es the subject into" simi)£' t·nsily contained by th(' eye and th e milICI , e"en if the fa cts aN! ull s pellkubl£', like th(' sluughter or t he innoec nt s, Th e cont rasting cinematic met.hod is to kl'ep mythic matt'rial ill unshapely Illa tion, oft(, 11 thu s mak ing it unb(,l.Irllb le bU I very immediate"g raphic," in fa ct. Emotionul co nd it ions bC'colllC' visiblc proCCSSf'S that Il r£' uncert ain of any ob80lu1.e end s or outcomcs, Bf'autiflll groupin gs cannot "graph ica lly" convey unsettl ed s tutes of li fC', lind so figures look 1I0t just awkward but even doubtfu l lIud provis ional with rcs lwct to stru cture lind posture. ~"aces mill' be qui7.7.ieul , blurry or evell in visible, The effect o f such il method is u psycilologicul recollsu'uctioll of the themat.ic material, in a style that is perfectly ramilillr to a 1Il 0vi~·goe r . Instclld o f elevating and distancillg t hc t heme by usi ng prestigious rorlllllilungullge to desc ribe ii, so thnt thc IlctiOIl ap l)Cl.lrs to lUke place ill hcavclI or n Golden Age--or in nothing but paint-the art ist makes thc ancient tu le sccllllikc II rathcr haphll 7.8rd modern P\'Cll t, frnught with t he Sll lIlC kind of confused drama that prc\'uils in p rivutc hOllies or offic es or public burs, nmOIlg' IlCquaintsilces, profcssiolllli (,Hemies, or ramily nWlllbcrs, where it is not always certain exac tly whut is lUlppc nill g--onl." the pll illter mnkes it. take placc ill fancy -dress, so thut we know th e thcllle is legendary, l.Jegcll cla ry materiul in Dut ch ur t was in fa ct ortc il tukcll from Dut eh 1)0' etie dramll , and then rendered tiS ir to record It s tnge prod uction a ll fil m. The staged effects were rc prescnted with th e disharmollious d iscrC'pnnci('s kept. intoet. Ins tead of pictorially bellutifying, digllifyi l1g, ulld rcfi nillg thc clothed figures lind the se tting, the urtist carefully s hows t he sce ne wil h the modern trumpe ry s tage a rrlln ge ments railhfully desc ribed , The girl posing 8S FUllle or Hi s tory whom Vermeer's artist is about to pn int is just such a figure, he r la urels too la rge (or mythic effect. her d rupe 1.00 s tiff, her book and trumpet too hCllvy, Vermeer thru s ts the figure of the I)uintcr bet.ween us and her, to make th e point: and we kn ow he will pllin t. her exac t looks, not all ingrutiated ve rsion, The characters in such Dutch works are often IIOt completely ttt hOllle in
C PY'
16 1
~I OVINO
PI CTU RE S
thl'ir pagclInt cos tull1es, wilen'lIs ill POll ssin's gn'ut Pl'odU Clio ll S, for CXIIIIl' pir , thr IIYlllphs or su illl S IIl1d t hei r' cOlll palli ons W('M th(, ir Ull i" (, I'Sll i dntp· (' r i('s willi ullcon scious ('use , E" (, II includillg SO IlIC Rr llllmlll dl s, DUlch Illylhic SCl'IH' S oft(>11 look It lill\(' elllbll rl'lIssillg, lllld 111'(' so met imes S lu'e illdeed iik(' th e OIl l'S used on the Dut c h Slugl' ort he lillII'; II lId Ihese , Itlthollgh liu'y w('re oft(,11 cos ily, did 11 01 aspire 1.0 th (> SUII\'(' illu s ionis m or unifil'C1 Sl.ylis lllu'ss of lh(' Fr(,lI ch lind lwli an courtly th(,lIlricn ls thlll hud c lllss iclil p ..o tol~'I)('S ill milld , Ulld t hut led c\'{, lItuull y to o pcrll , Emphll sis in t he Prol(>slll lll. mi dd l(>·cl uss ~orlh
6 ,:l
REMBRA NDT VAS
RIJS ,
JO&l!I,h A (,(,UN/ by /'oliplt ar's lI'i/1'
lAtif/sea/X! : Prillls: Hell/bra/lell
163
Europea n thenter wos all the t.ext and th €' acting, not on significa ntly harmonious \,isunl beauty- thc persolllli kiml of IIcting t.hllt led cyc ntlllllly to the movies. The props and costur'iles C81l loo k 8nY' w8Y, exce pt that rich is nat urally lll O);t f1m ; th e poin t is the drama 1l1ll0llg the charac ters. Dutch painters of the slime subjcc ts liS t hose IIsed 0 11 the stage wcr'e in fa ct d ivided bel wee n those CllIlllutillg I talinn puillterly met hods, conSonant. with R cOll rtly interest. in ideal izin g spect.nc le. and th ose showing how slich sce nes might actually look if real people dressed up Illld acted them out in a naturalistic style, The act ing in such puintings KS Hcmb rnndt 's Joseph A ccllSed by Potiphar's Wife, for example, is li ke fihtl ac ting, dependent on t he effec tive reve lation of persoll,,1 chnracter rat he r t hu n on ski ll ed projection by a performer. Alld ill much Dutch hi stor,y- pll iliting, just as in film , personal quu lity crcnt.es th e d rnllllltic illll>llCt. lIot thcntricnl groupings, gestures , or exagge rnt.ed fu cial ex press ions. The bed in thi " SC(' UC i" Illlother ci nematic touch, pl aced Ilnd lighted to sta nd 1)lain l,\' for sex, while t he actors cont inuc to C{luivocate and maneuver (6.3), Acrl de Ge lder's Wa y to Golgotha intensifies the same movie-vision oC sacred scenes first reali zed by Bruegel, and tor one of t he same subject.s (6.4). We are watching Chri st come up t.oward us over the brow ot a hill with his burden; but. the visual mat.erial that fills the frame co nsists of t he costumed watchers and marchcrs and the panoram ic setti ng, as in th e movie at Bell /J ltr. Intense pathos is foreshadowed, not direc tly dwelt on. The psychological conditions for respond ing to it are being prepa red instead of assumed. By thc time the dista nt bowed figure rcaches us, we will be ready to shed tears, because we are now bein g mude to COli sider t he long stony path he has t rod from the ste rn city gates, Ih e milling crowd of soldiers jostling him 8S they sc ramble up the rocks, the cu ri olU; onlookcrs, and the indifferen t placa rd-bearer, whose att ention is so eas ily di stracted by a disturbance off-sc reen, Faces are turned uwny. IIOt only troUl Chri st's progress but. from us, to emphasize the total lack of 8nyone's personal COllce rll in t his drama. A point is made or its slow, increasing desolation as th e scene moves out oCJ crusalem to t he bleak hillside. No angelic hope hove rs in th e busy cloudy s ky; town and cOlUltrys ide ure alike forbidd ing. Chri st si nks under it all, a lmost out of our sight. as heave n, nature, and man d esert hilll , and the camera centers on thc outline o f t he gri m and distant city wall. On a more intimate scale, The Dance of SCl lome by Jacob Hogers takes a cinematic vi ew or a muclHheat rical ized Bibl ica l scc ne (6 .5). In t he center of the painting, the huge drapery frames only a nameless courtier, who turns to look at the dancc: t.he whole view is ill th e process of shi fting away from a conventional tabl eau of the king and queen at t.able, wit.h the d rapery all the left. The camera hns backed up and mO"f'd to the righ t, so as to
c
""
)(1-1
,\1 0 \' 1
~
(l
I' 1 ( . T l ' H ..~ S
16 5
inc lude the floo r 011 which the danc(' begins, nntl hus b('gull focusing 011 thc young princess boull cing townrdl..u s £r'om the left. 0011 tll(' view will sh ift further uround, und we will hlivc;81ilome in the cent er-the ollposing tubleau , seen bet.ween the two roynl head s . this tillle with Ih(' drallery 0 11 the right. Now Salome's stiff linked leg wit h it s snndaled fOOl kicks oul, like an awkwurdly uPI)licd Cluss icu l allilsioll, Illld also likfo Ull in decent di splny 011 th e pa r t of u chi ld . It seizes thl' l'YC-Qurs ancl e\'eryulle's-llt~emlse felllille legs li re rarely seen in this III.'a\'i ly chid mili eu. Ludics hare only the bosolll; the bure leg is for mythicnl beings or p rofrssio nnl s. This stolid young girl has bee ll inveigled int o exposing herself unsuitab ly, alld her dllllcing dress has been d esigned to allow it; but he r wicked mother. so like her in fpatur(' , is unperturbed alld (! VCU cllger . Ouly th e benrdcd courtier lifts IlII ineO·ec· live ly restraining hali ci. Snloll)(,'s own hallds Imllg straight down: s hc is powe rless. But. her fHce is serClle, Hnd her s traight gU7,C at us atlirms that her OWII honor feels uucomp rolllised. ,'hi8 youllg girl 011 thl' ext.rl'lIIl' left.uud this WOIIUIIl 011 the extre me right ure the t.win focuses ofat.t.ention, ills ist('d 011 by t he lighting, bllt Lhcy arc in all uneasy e(luilibriulIl , becuus(' t he trnnsi t iollal IIrrllllgeul('llt gives the sccne a co nstantly lIIo\,ing ce ntcr. The tllbl('uu rcfIH3es to jell . The s ti lT \('g declines to mukc a graceful bend, wh ich in turn would Ilulke the costume look more bruutiflll and legelldnry, ill stcud of shocking. Thc widl'ly Sl'parated female figures a re almost. falling ouL of the fram e Hud can barrl)' hold the dramatic te llsion together. But. t he SW('(~ Jl or the d rup(' docs thut, fur· ther suggNiting t he mot.ioll of eyes nnd feelillgs, and the swing of t he cum· ern in its st eady arc around th(' ce nt.ral group. Even lulilly its tWe willl el1\'e the danci ng Sn lome und 1II0\'e ogllin t.o t he right. to stu re nl the s hi ning charger over t he queen's hend . • The costumes and props in thi s sce ne olso IU1\'e th e (I,d hoc look of ded i, cated coll ege theuter. wh ere all t.iqu e l)Omp is oftellllJillilllally conveyed but. great emotiona l intensity is ge nerated by the totul conviction of th e CIISt. A simi lar effect. occurs ill eurly hi storical films (R('noir'lS Nalla, for example) made with modest concern for sum ptuously aecurute p('dod decor bllt a gr('at deal for etTeeti\·c lightin g and brilliant movi c acting. A good example of his torical movie-making by a Dutch pain t er is Nicholas VUII Galen's J1tdamelll of COUIlt. Willialll Ih e Good (6.6). Th e scene depicted Hetllally took place in t he fourteenth century, and !!IO everyone is wea ring standa rd Hy c Olde" cost.umes: Miffs, CIlPCS, and bcret s with plumes, an agglomeration of motifs 11ctUlIlly dati ng from the s ixteenth century but which seem to hu\'e registered as " medicval " ill the 1650's, liS they still do. ']'his scene of SlIlIllllllry justice is offered. however. asn modern and
C PY'
166
MOVINO
PI C T U RE S
6.;, JA('0 6 1I00t;K R, Tiu IhlNt"rII/."inlomf
1.(11/(1,'«('(11)(;; Prill/ ,1: /lr/lll.mllldt
167
pl'rilU I)S justifiNlatroci ty, portraYI-.d as if by a qllick-willNI pholojollrllll lis!. Till' gl't'edy IJlli lilT who stOIt-'ll PPIISlIllt 's cow is IIbolit to be brutally dccnpillltl'd by Ii Coul'l Sl'n'lIl1t , rigbtJ;e.fOl'c the cyt'S of til(' l'eiJ!nillJ! COUII I anrl a fcw of hi s r"j(,lLfis, without du(' proc('ss or publ ic h'gal c(, rt' lIu)ny, The hust(' of tllis {h'cisin.' IIct iolL shows ollly ill th(' hill'sh light ing lIllIl ullcert'Illouiolls II.rrllng'I'III('nt of th (' group, The drllped dllis for the senled COUII I's throll(, is diflicuh to rend IU' sllch; t he cU8 uully grouped courtiers lire sllll1ding on Ull undefincd flool'; SOllle witnesses ' faces are as dim us those of Ih(' !linin nctors-hclldsmtln, culprit, and clel'k , Th e' slur-t he virtuous COUII I, Ihe fl'iend of defruuded pelislIlils - Ieu ll s to till' lefl IIlmosl oul of till' picture liS he 81.'(,'1118 to sp('uk SQ flQ I.'OCC
6,6
N I C If 0 I. A S V A N 0 A I. ~: N,
TI,,· Jllt/gmfll l
of COli III
\I'ill i(1II1 III,. Good
1 68
M OV IN G
PICTU RE S
to the clerk. The odd shapes taken by ordinary th ings IS how the photograp hic mode: t he wretched bailiff's feathe red hat on t he s tep, the ungraceful hanging, and t he lan ces a ll take thei r ex istence only from t he arbitrary fall of li ght, wh ich is no respec ter of intrinsic imporlan ce Or claims to ab· st ract. beauty. There is no rh etorical fu ss made here, no half-d raped personifications of justice. no wailing womcn or pi ous obse rve rs and commcnlalor8 reacti ng, only the impassive silhouetted clerk wit h his record boo k, and the bemused court ie rs watehing the t hi ef meet hi s fate with one efficicllt swing of the s word . The satin a nd plumes look grotesquely irrele"ant. Th e sccne looks as if it could be occurr ing in th is ce ntury, and it eve n rese mb les the fnmous lIewspapc r 1>l!otog ru ph fro m World War I I showing a Japanese about to behelld lUI Ame r ican knee ling before all ol)en grave. The introspective ex pressions of the onlooker s a nd the s had owed fuees of execu t ioner and condem ned man suggeslllll unauthorized view of a n exped ie nt political act., swiftly carried Oll t away from pu blic sc nHiny, or n scene from a movie about secret violence in high places. The thing will a ll be ove r in a few seconds, the mess cleaned up, the head s man paid , thc cvc nt quiet.ly e nte red in th e record ; a nd thell the feathered hats will move on out· d oors to some public fun ction, with public faces suitably adjus ted. This pa inting was mennt for llnd sti ll ha ngs ill n public pl ace, like 8 fixed histori· cal doeument.ary fi lm. It ad orns t he town hall of Hnssel l, vivid ly showin g how things we re d one unde r th e e nl ightcned despo ts of t he political pas t. It pays homage t.o nothi ng whatever of artistic or d ecorative grandeur, only to notions of eirclimstantia ll)OWe r, both visual a nd practical. 'rhe re is lUI appealing suggestion ill th esc scenes that fan cy-dress releases behavior not poss ible fo r t hese recognizably ordinllry rolks in th eir usual clothes . The turbans, pea rls, and armor are what allow Dutch girls a nd busineslitllcn, depicted us legendary pe rsons, to e uaci. scencs of rage a nd jealou sy-not ns t heatric"l I)rofessiona ls, like the ex hibitioni s t. per· formers in Ca ra\'llggio's works, but as themselvcs, here si mply inspired and dressed by mythic circumsta nce . Film actors 81so give thi s impress ion. Peter O'Toole 8S King Henry II or l...awrence of Arabia, or Charlton Heston as any kind of lege ndary hero, is always himself, r isi ng above or si nking under the force of the story in his own person , with or again s t wh ich we call iden tiCy. depend illg on the role. The more the role d emand s Caney·dress, the more uninh ibi ted can be the actor's action; bu t he is th e same as we are, only licensed by costume to take extreme paths. The pa ill te r's lI im of persotla li zitlg t he great.. Biblicallegcndli refl ected a general seve nteent h·ee ntury impul se to de-iconicize religious a rt. to lift the cu rse of idolatry from holy rep resen tations and insist olily on the pf'rsonal
, " d
[Allldscope; [ 'rill/ s: Rr mbl"(lIull
1 69
meltuings of sac red e\'ClllS, to be persollully IIpplied ill modenl lifl'. TypologicJ:1i aud embl emutic religious scenes. wilh !IUlIly atlcudll nt figures and many laye rs of mea ning, glt\'e woy to dramatica lly eoneeh'cd luomenl S ofcon frontlltioll and s uddt'n ili lier chunge. 11I tol erant Hollilud the simu lta· neous prese nce of Catholic inflne ncc Illllong Protf's tlillt and J ew is h patron· age allowed au es pec ially broad scope fo r re ligious subject nult.l.er . S imilarly, t he prf'!;f'lIce of hll uullIi st icall,v ('dllcated pnt rons permitted 1111 ad mix ture of Classiclll th(,llIes. now II lso treated with draHl lltie 1)(' rso11111 s implicit)'t illsleud of wilh th e cluborulC courL· 'lllIsqllt' · like slngi lless of t he sixteen th century. The Manneri st s tyl e of history painting. foullci('d 0 11 H(, llui sS8 l1ce models and re prese nted in Holland by Bioelllo('rl, Wtl.ewu('I, und Cam elis \'till Haurlem , following the eXlllllple of thr F'lrlili s li arti st S pru nger, had pro· duced works fill ed with vigorously twis till g or s wirling figures. It hud n('\,ertheless he ld t hese ar tists to th e old ernble llilitic method of showi ng everythi ng pertinent present Itt once. III s uch II scilelll(> nO IIcti on. howC\'(' r
6 .7
A!I H. A H A )f U LO E oM A Y. H. T . T1tt:l/a rrill!/t of I'I'/ C. WS 011(1 Thll i,l
17 0
MOVING
PI C TURE
turbulent , CRn escape t he (rame and involve the viewer. Moreover. no really s ignificant. movement. seems able to occllr amid the compel iu g eddic8 of motion-there is no room Cor lIll emotional center, alt hough th~ re may be 11 ccntra l set-pi ece (6.7). Eac h dancer or set of dUllcc rs in tlit:' mllsqu e d 2m811ds equal sta r billing, and the eye is inv ited to find the r ight rererc uccs and a.llusions, which ure rhyt hmica ll y distributed ove r t he whole s tage at once. The subject must be grudually deciphered , aud so the viewer is flattered in his ed ucated sensibi lities . Th e unifying harmony of the sce ne is conveyed ill the cxciti ug sty le of the dUllC (" s hown i ll lhe 811 111C erot.icized torsion of the figures and t heir ide nt icall y 8uggcsti\'c semi -nude limbs llnd made-up faces, not by lilly p r imnry emotional meaning' ill thc cve nt. From t hat., artistic dist.anee is c8reflJlly kept. All over Europe this program was late r uitf'red , the s tage extras ban ished , th e lighting employed on ly for centra l emotiomt.! emphas is, motion economized , und characters individualized . SOllie results were even more inte nsely theatrical, s uch as t hose or Caravugg io, as we have sec n; but othe r and mostly Dutc h pai nters took thl' opportunit y to reconceive t he whole visual domain in these new terms, Ilot jusl the act ing space. Rembrandt, VerUlcer, and Vels Z
L UlHi s(,fJlH!; P,.illt s: /(CIIIQr(lI/(JI
I7I
living' roOIUS wilh the telev ision 011 as a bac kgl'olilld, ironic or not , (or present e\'ell ts , T he Verllleer pictu res almost ncwr s how un inll ocuous s t ill, life or u dim I>ortrilit-it is lIslUl.ll y a Icg('llclary scene, 11 map or 11 mirror, or posi;ibly II. lundscapl'- thr te h'vi sioll s hows o( the ti me , showing the sUlUe world ill u differcnt represl'lItntiolllll cOliw lLti oll , relldl'red as a CO IIIIII (' I1 tary, a warning. or a joke, Ot her, less s ubtle paiut el's did Ih e Sl.IlIIf', Eglo n nm del' Necr's so her COli ' pie in Bos ton's ~ h ujc ulH of Fi lIP Arh s il I)('II('IL III 11 lush nud life ,s ize V(,llllS and Cup id , in s talled ove r their til'e place (6, 8), TIIl' ir wulls, fl oor,lIl1d tables are muc h 1II 0re sU lllptuous ly c lad t l1all tlll'y IIrc, ill thei r black gUl'lIIenls with constric ted s hou lders sct off by sti ll' whil£' linell , The big nnkcd figure directl", o\'er th ei r head s is like a cnrtoOll balloon of the ir inlllost thoughts; a nd its fmlctio n is to s how thnt suc h gCllrc sce ne s lIlId snch history puinlings hu\'e the CO IIIlllon motif of indi\'idulll imU'r ,'enlity, In the large, airy sa lo n, t his Ve llus is think ing of t hem. eV{'1l ItS they th ink or her; s hl" loo ks at Cupid lind brood s a bou t sex Itlld chi ldrell, unci 8ell ies with co mrortable nude ense into her fra nl(' o\'er tilt' malll !"!. Iliking happy responsibility for th e realm of plt'aslI re that thi s pair prf'fers to project on to Ih£'ir su rround ings, This kind of submerged emotiollul situa tio n cO!lwyed by Ull ord inary surfa ce image is C1 basic e lemrnt of 1111rralive Ii IIII urt, St>t1 ings Ilnd clot hing ha\'c significan t elllo tio nul c lul/'ge, rathe r tlulII detllchllble s~'mb oli c lIleH Il ings. and they arc alwu."s specific, The cOIll I>lete \'isual elT£'ct is etTorll ('ssly llatu ra lilHic. with 11 0 vi s ible fo rc ing of menning, Th e e motiona l mean ing is discharged a liu ll' below t ht' o ptical surface , where oll ly casua l appear' anees are deployed, just us ill Ilctullllife, i\ll.Ic l! is offe red for psyc holog ical app rehensio n, wh ile st raightforward mutter is set fO l'tll qu ite plai nly, Liter , alness and psychic complex ity coexist. Inter ior ity, t he privllte application of all genel'al mysteries, is obviously em phas ized by showing such all ar rnngclllcllt illside un urban room, Town life means living pri\'ately indoors. with a prO\'isional relation to th e out d oors and to othe r lives, Urban interiors in Dutch paintings are made to seem like inwllrd stutes Furnished with contui nc rs nnd co nduits of pri\,llte feeling, And so legends and hllldscapes a re offer ed by town,dwe ll ing painters to town-dwell in g pat rons as pertinent expansions o( silch inler' iors, lllt('rnlltivc fictiollill vis lns of the SlI IlIe p"inltc ps~'chic Ia.ndscape . Wh en the Iwo lire s how n h}getil('r lind insid{' 0 11(' 1I1101 h(,I', thc outwll rd turning but illwllrd-lookillg idcnl is just liS lIoticl'lIbll' as wh('11 lnrg£'r worlds arc s uggr-s tcd through window!>, Mo\'c lllell t be twt"e n thl'lII is illlplied in the same wny. all interaction thl'ouglt th£' dool' frnme 01' the mirror (I'ume, the window or till' I)ict ure,
C pyr
te
17 2
6 .8
M OV I NG
EOLOS \'AS
I)EH N t: KH ,
PI C T U RE S
PorirUlt %
J f ol1fJndo \\'o"lfJnlnOnl,l/f.rior
I
I.A I "d;~I' (J I.H':
I ',.illts: Hcmbrlllldl
17 3
Vermcer 's great View 01 Oelll s howti II whole c ity subject.ively, like an iUlJe r lu nciscUI)C o r u rOOIll . III t hiti pUlIorlllllU, light. llnd s putiul a rrllngcment are disposed with that slime u\lcnsive particu lar "iew insisted on ror s lIlall ind oor scenes. Thc whole cit y is OIiC roo m, or one mind. exa min ing its.1f (6.9). Another pain te r or 10WIIS, ElIlllllu e l dc Wilte, onc or whose domes tic interiors we eXlim ined curlier. lIlud£' si milarly lItm osphe r ic I)Or lrnits or the insides or churchcti and or tOWIiSCUPCti (hu t combine genre unci arc hi tectural elements . The iden th ai vision mirrors psychoiogicill 11101 iOIl appears strongly in these out.doo r shot s. where I>cople nre sc(' 1l in moment.a ry c lose up as t hey 1II0\'e along a crowded squa re s hoppiug III vcudorH ' stalls. Th e selllsc or s ignificant passage is keen . II passllgl' or glnllces IlIIeI responses ncco mpanying th e pllssnge along' lt s treet, set. olT by n pliBsing view or all ac tive, ne utral urball milieu .
., 6.9
JA N VERMEER .
Vill lV
of
Dl!lfl
M O VING
114
6 . 10
PI C T U RI-: S
EMAN U EL DE WITTJ.!, A J/ arkrl "I
Q
Pori
i,.
The vir\\' of the people in A Ml,rket l' /Jo,'( shows th em from 1h(> knees lip, inti 8lllndurclly ci nClIIlltic f e l8tiOlllo the ir frum e (6 . 10). WI.' i; (,(~ them a s
if we were llnothcr cuslomer III the fish stull , or else II camel'a moving in on them Crom II more clllcompa ssilig view-un es tablishing shOLof the harbor M moment before- to foeus the flavor of the general sce ne on th e small interc hunge among th ese three. Th e white-beard ed man s tares at th e WOlll811 'S fH ee, invis ible in its hood; the fi s h se lle r looks at him ac ross the s hillY fi s h ly ing in he r open hSl1d . Are Ih(' IwO cu s tomers li trollgers f marri ed ' fath e r lind da ughte r' cl a ndestine love rs f We lIIu st keep " 'tHchin g. At any mOllle u! the Cllllle ra may move on past th em a nd cO llcentrat e on
the two men we can see conversing jus t beyo nd; but jus t II OW the graybeard's hand see ms to rest on hi~ heart : this is 8 tellse ir fl eet ing exchange,
1i 5
TIl(' whoh' pllinting is II I"nllll£' frolll /I IIII'gol'r sIOI'Y, II film of IIl'blln lif£' ill which thl'sl' fish a nd thai tOWI'r lind Iht' ligh l 011 III(' figurt's of PHss('I'sll." pluy parIs lis druillu tic liS the ul,;.lprii', This \\'01111111 !iilows lIt'itilpr 11('1' fucI' 1101' ill'l'llIIlIli s,j ll sl likl' IJI' Wi lle's olh(' I' llidy III Ih{' k{'y!Joill'd; bUI Ihe COII 1('llt!; of her mind lire JtlI.Hlp silll ila rly 1I0licPilhl ... through 111(' hnck of 11 ... 1' IWlId, whil ... w(' wulc h all III ... 0111('1' hUllds , tht:' nlh('r rll CI'S, IIlId IIIf' ( 1)('11mouthed fish addl'(' Ss h{'r, "h{' who1{' 1Il1l'IJor is I'ngagi'd in till' cOllfronlnlion wilh Ihis ludy ul t h is 1Il0llH'nl. t\ nd so Ilw whol(' cily is now III£' c hum!Jl' I', III(' \'isualizll l iull of l iI(' illnt'I' sl'lf; lIIal yl' t nOlhillg is rt~ all y hap, pening, Onc(' a~ain it is olliy I II ... IIIO\'illj! Ilri'liS of light Ollll'lIllsilOI'Y Ihill~s (III ... slladow of Ilw pu il 011 Ihi' \,i'ln't sk irl) 1IIId Ihi' IIlrfinilihNi ,'('Iation of thrse (1II i£' 1 hl'ighl figure's 10 ('uch olh('1' lind 10 Ih('il' g,'olllld Ihlll crNII(' Ih(' $ellse or c rllcilll lH'inllt' incifiPlI1 ill l}J'oc('sS, T ill' 11101'1' d islUll lly fOCllsf'd ci ty "il'ws of B£'rckhl'yd(' ha\'!' a simila l' c illl' IIIlIlie glillt·1' IlwI k.'('jlS U 1lI'lIll'IIl fhwor frolll IWI'domi nllting, '1'11(' slIhj('cti v(> look given to O,' lft by VI'I'IIII" ' " fr(J1II his conH'lIIplalin' vi,'wpoint acrHSS till' wntl'l' is h{'n' I-!'in'n 10 Ilaurll'lII ill 'Iuitl' ullolhf'I' s l ylr (6 , 1 1), WI' ilt'('
) , +-
6.1 1
OERKI T I;It:RCKIl El'l)t: , 1'IIr.l/Ill'I.·"'p/(II'''ul llllflrl r m
176
MOVING
PICTURES
again moving acroliS the square, expecti ng a moviclikc encounte r. The city itselr is a matrix for unnameable personal drtl. Ul 8; its image is like the inside of our head. Whatever happens to us will find a reflection in its physical fcatures. By contrast, the topographical painter Van der Heyden keeps the vi ew 8. backdrop, and the flllvor pictures
atory drawings were lIlade for Dutch paintings , no careful8tud ies fo r their separate parts , wherein the artist. could .....atch himself fushioning the pieturc into its perfect stH.te, controlling lind conceiving it at every s tage. The
( "lpYriOh
Ie'" I
17 i
Dutch works wcr(' apparcntly wrought directly onto t.11(' pnilltiug surfu cr. just like the qu ick sketches these art ists a lso made, Th cs(' skl'lcil('s arc often more like distinct und separate whole vCl's ions of th(' paintings , 1101 studies, Only later, after th ey werc fiuis il ed , wcre pnintillgs engraved ulld expatiated lIpon in graphic form, often with titl es a nd captions I1dded. Origin ally, howe\'e r, they w(' r'C imrnedinte visiolls sponllltleous ly reulized. Paintings werc Illude in enormous lI umb!?rs in t he ~ e th('rlllnds at this period. It was nn industry like fi lm, umnrpportcd by academic inst.itu lions Or traditional till"ori es nbout Cll ll onieu l prllclice, but instrnd dOll£' by urtist s profiting from olle nnothe r 's pract ical ('xl.U llple, iJorrowing eneh ot he r 's themes and cn'eC IS, and collnboralillg withou t lIe('ding just.ificlltion from tlH"oretica l sources 01' ancient protolypf'S. J.ikf' movie· makers, t hese art ists sen'eel II mllrk et a nd workrci quickly along lines Ihllt had proved sllccessful. As with mov ies, muc h blld stulT WIlS producl'd . But most Dut.c h sc\,cu t.ee ul h-ccnl ury history painl ing ami lUuch genre painting ill fll c t. had tilri r SOllrcf'S in Ille cllllluintive storehollse of grnphic art. 'rh e print med ia had great scope in Hol1u nd , wiler(' bOlh Cilliiolic ilnd Protestant texts were publishl"d duriug I h{' enrlipr d ccades of religions strifc. Printed pic turrs s hared in the increasi ng powel' of p r illied lIlatcrill l nil o\'er Europe . Consequently the many Dutch scene Ii of household life d id not mind s howing thei r debl to DUlch printf'C1 illust rations from preced ing generations, es pec inlly th e Olles by Vnn de Vellne for Jacob CillS' rhymed homily called /J OIt/velyck, Or MOTriage, which wus a best-se lle r ill its time. The cOllnect ion betwec n such popular piclures and seriously t hough t-out paint.ings li ke Vcnnc('r's was easy 10 mak{' in till' N'ct he rl nllds, where pictu re-milking had no serious philosop hicnl pre tc nsions but plenty or 1II0rn i and psychologica l freigh t , just as film had in th e early days of its success. The refillcd Ilrtisl ic goals thnt Vc r rneer ilnd De Hooch Sf't for t ll('lII sel\'('s were t heir OWII bus iuess, IIlld flO doubl keellly int('res ti llg to olher nrtists; but they seem to hllve b('t~ n clelllcil l'(l from the public p rclitige of any artis t. himself. The role of the painter was el cvated, but. not a bstract and conce ptual in the modern mode. One sib'll of I his was th e vust rung£' of bot h sty le and «unlity ill the wOl'k or nUHly individuu l Du tc h Ill'lists. whose c rcnti\'c pride was not apparently bOllllciup in being poets nnd t hi nker s, who might otTer se lf-referential lllcssnges abollt pictorin llanguagf', as pocts did about. \angullgc itself, It has been suggi'st N I Ihllt t hcy werc pe r'haps lIIore like anatomists and geographers, IUl.turnl philosophers of the cye . But painters wcre 111130 like p\u ill grnp hic illu s trators sup plying an enge r, deve loping market for visuul nrl. Like ill llSlrntors 111 IIny "llOC h, Ihey were rf'spt'ct.ed fo r supe ri or s ki ll lind e rrec tin>llcss maillot for ded icilliolllo Ilrtislic princ ipl es that set th em apllrt (rom their customerS.
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
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ll OV IN G
I'I CTU UI::S
The' gr(,llt si milurity of th('lIw ill so IIIlI ell seen lnr Dutch art. it s{'lf sugges t s th(' pressurt of slI ch a llIurkN, IlS does tht Ilu'lIIlItie sim ilnrity ill the hundred s of movies Illude hefol'(' tel('visioll , and in tel('visio n drumus ever si nce. The sOlllcwhut. st.rict ciussificlltion of DU1 Ch themes sugges ts the same t hing: s till ·life, seascnpe, winter sce ne, domes tic int.er ior, Bible sto ry, a ll fu lfill ing ex pectati ons t he way Weste rn , war film , romantic comedy, caper ll1ovi(', and historicnl s peclnc lil u r do. Ii igh s tnndll rd s were dcveloped and seri ous urtists were not unapprceiuted; but no Shitrp concept.ual division IlI'ed ed to (·x is t. between t he creutiv(' aims of the pa inte r and nn effort t.o please the piclure-Iov ing public, Graphic urtis ts past and prese nt wcrc pe rceived 1.0 s hllre in those SllllI e /lims. Producing pictures meant sntisfyi ng certa in populnr requil'ement s fouuded on all the earli('r pictures t hat had renched a profitalJle market. Brenking a rtistic ground could bc aecom· plished disc rc('t ly or ind isc rcet ly within t hose limit s, But printmaki ng was now lHl e\'en bi gge r busi ness, a collecti ve en ter· prisc organized to prod uce It cO lll lllodity. As in t he modt"!rll grnp hie modes, includ ing film. diffcr'eut kinds or printed produ ct. wcrc a imed at d ifferent. consu mers, and p rices und quulity vlt ried cnorm ollsly. eerlilin painters' works ..... ere rel)rodueeo. bu t by 110 lUeallS nil, and Ullilly rcproduct ions badly debased th e pictures c,'en while they spreod th e a rtist's fam e. Such reproductive print s were ort CII cntdc wOI'ks hop nrliruels, not sensitivc Il l' ti stic renderings; Il nd t hey helped t.o create th e uneasy and s till -unresolved relation between refi ned grllp hic art and cheap cOlllmere ia l prill t ing-n reo lation that has nlways bee n co mplicllted by the s imultaneous exi s tence of bad or borill g artist ic grap hics und very good co mmercia l a rt. P ri ll tlllakiug was offi cia lly done by IIrlisa ns, and picture painting by artists. But there had alwuys been g reat printmu king painters, especially in Nort he rn Eu rope. and very sophisticated repl'oductive engravers . In the seven teenth cen tury, howcver, the expall ding print -market caused t he graph ics busi ness to fragme nt furt h<.'r. Print selli ng became 11 11 ente rpr ise scparllte from t.hose of arti sts, craft.smell, and printers , lind print coll ec ting itself becBme a new kind of prest.igiou s lind cu ltivat ed cus tom, A se paration was thu s forced between the 'excellence of a prin t's deHigH and thnt of it s execution-tl bad or Hilly picture could mak e a rare and costly print, and an exqu is ite major pa inting could be cn lde ly engraved an d cheaply sol d , a8 if it were 0 11 a par with a topic81 euricat.ure, The same work s hop might do occasional and topog raphical prints record iH g t.h c looks of cve nt s lind places (0 1' posterity, as wcll as s ua\'c and expens ive reproductive cng rllvings or debased stereotypica l reproductions and poli t ical prints-and t here would be 11 0 d ist incti on made amOll g t hese kinds of art objec t.. Se riolls pain ters obviously needed to cont rol th e repro·
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ducli on of their own wOl'ks in s uch u cl imate: nnd t heir illlpui se 10 do illd('· pendent g rnphic work of th eir own wa s, 1II0reover, encou ruged by the g-enernl increllse in di'ltltl lld , HembrHndt a nd Hubclls both orglillizNI thf'ir own prillim ukin g und picture· re produ ction wOl'kshops. Hembralld t.'s pnintillgs , wilh t he ir IIIlllly daring inllovut ions applied to standard su bj('c ls, sOllle ti mes provoked hos· ti le or Illllbivulent relict ions; but his pr int.s s llccecd ed \·e,·." wf' 1I ill t he new print.-collect ing t rend t hat hud IIffected IIrtis tic pull·O lUlgC. Pri llt s ucUutlly nillde by knowlI ilr tis ts th emselves. not. by pro ressioll ll i prillt'8hops, hud the speci8i prestige of bo th rarity lind f'x ceJlf' llce. Hem i)l'lw dt not on 1.... repro· duc{'d hi s pa intings but tra nsla ted hi s skl'1c hes into ('lch ings, thus lIluki ug IIcccptllble suillble art out of Ihem, 100. And so he pll t llll'llI int o eircululi on on hi s OWll terms , und illio Ihe general st r'elllll or \'istlul cOlllicious nf'ss-th f' new graphic world , whf'I'{' hi s pnilliings themselws could Ihell penetrate evclI Ul orc effec tively. Th is d esire. to makf' Ii poten t new /l r t th at wou ld quickly en gag(' the vi ewer s imply by drall1at icillly cllhnncing th(' fnmilinr med ium of blackand·wh ite prinl.ed I)icturcs, is u cinemutographic impulse. It suggests the wish to conce ntrat e on emotion al changt\ to persuade. to exe rt. power di· rectly o\'er t lu' mind Ihroll gh Ihe eye. li S Hitch coc k snys he WllS so pl'oud of doin g in Psycho by using th e en'ect s or " pure fiITn ." 11 demolls trnl es IIH' force or art in lire, which is ve ry di ll'e rel1t rrolll expoundillg its menning. The appeal ulld th e asse l'li on are (" Ili otio ll ai. p"yc holog ica l. nnd imaginll' tive, not ideologicnl, even ill th e pious mode. Such wOl'ks necd not mll st e!' reeling in nny spec ial po li tical or re ligioll s cau se; thei r bus iness is to s how how easi,ly s pecific llnd speeincally rendered \'isions lIIay gO\'ern the illl agi · nation, aud illu s trate th e sou r s iuncr story. In th e din'cI'C1I 1. states or Tile Entombm ent. for ('xulllplc, we CU ll w!ttch Remb ra ndt changing the light ing and pillying with the mood IIlId textu r(' of the same scene, recasti ng it agai ll und "guin , IlS ir "ecord in g on fi lm th e emot ional efrec t of deepen ing shlldow und ebbing light (6. 12, 6. J 3). Such unique drall1 l1tic scelles t hllt I{embrand t invented cou ld be publ ishNI as print.s in succt'ed illg ge nerat ions, and through their powerful use or chiMOscuro and charncteri zation. they could Il1 l1ke a direct clnim 011 public uttell' tion, and so roste r n lIew visuulund emotionu l understanding or a ll graphic possibi lities-as grtBtmovies hu,'e done ror liS. Meallwhilf' t he lurge body of other print s gave compositional arrangement s, topical materia l, ideas for costu me, set! i ng, and ges t u re to artists less privat.ely umbit ions who wcre eager to selland succeed. New reproduct ions of old pailltings did the same. Th e black·and·white printed world thus came to hold Vi81111111rt in solution . nol just in the North but allover Europc. The sense or grllphic rea lity
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18 0
M O VI NO
6 . 12
REMBRAN D T
PI C T U RE S
\ ' AS RIJ N .
Tltr f;,./ontbmr lt'.
Etch ing'. fi nn stat E'
e nlarged by 8. new genera l unders tandin g or g raph ic poet ry. ?tl ifld ful of DUrer and Holbein, Rembrancllund Rubens were acutely or t hei r OWII t ime in seizing personally on t he g raph ic medium to ensure their pe rsollal arti stic powe r- th is ens u red their immortality far more e mcielll,ly t.hall thei r pa intings a lone could have d one. Hcmbrandt 's id iosync rntie na rrnlive method s made him inte rnationa lly fam ous becau se his prints, not his paint· ings, could go eve rywhe re, includ ing in to the incalcul al.J le arti s tic r"lu re. Light an d sh ade, th e esse nt ial co m polU' ntli of photog raphic and ci nemalogr8phic art, were fi rst given thei r tnlc freed om by Re mbra nd t. th ei r de· cis i\'e e nlarge me nt in LO the imaginat ivc worl d . Mo\·ing·ca me rn poctry wus made poijijible for fu ture generat ions by him . He could not. huve done it without th e s upport of all the olhe r e nte rprisin g pr inllll il kers o f the sc\'cn· tee nth century. 1)8rtly because so muc h artistic accompli s hment W 88 mort · gaged to printmaking; a nd t he future would j ud ge works of a r t by what.ever
W8 8
I.fI/ldSCII /H': " rill ls: /{r",bNlII dl
6 , 1:1
RJ; )l URANOT VAS RIJS , E!chin~,
18 1
TJII' f;I'/Olllbllll' tll ,
(our! h stall'
III(' Slillldllrd s of gruphic Irllllsiulioll ullowed il to Iwrcein' of th em, BUI il WliS He lllb l'lI li dl who s ill~I€'·illi lld l'dly ra is('d lilt, sluk('s, lIIld s('1 III(' SWIIdard Ihe CIlIl1('1'1i wou ld h,I\'i' to 111('('(, Hubl'lIs rail II lill'~t~ oP(,nlt iOll, I I'll illing ('1I~nl \'('rs 10 producl' !Ill lid rNls of rcprodu ct iolls of his works, :\IIIIIY of Lh est~ w(, re 1I('\,er IOll ehf'd hy III{' IIlII Stel' himse lf, bU I 1111 cu rriNI his lIul hOl'it llti\'l' so lu\ iolls 10 a rlislic pl'oblclIls illto IIJ(' s l ud ios of cou II tll'fss 11 rl ist s , B II bi'liS "'liS f1('wl'lllt'll'sS 1101 II spf'cifically graphic \'i8iolllll'-" li kt:-' Bl'lILbralldl, who hpt I-es lit'ss ly lind reck lf'ss l,v cO lllbill illg ami iUVt'lll illg l l'ellllillu l~S to lIchie\'(' the dt' sirNI ('!l'('cl, ulllllilld· fill of II fllillri' lirp ror tilt'" plUti:' Hr illllllf'd illit' CO IIIIII('!'cilil SUCC('SS ror Ihl' Iwilll. Hl'llI hnllldt 111so OWII('(I 1lIllIdn"ds or prints hilll sl'lr. 111111 k('pt !'i'\\,i ll-kill~ tilt' wlI l'k of ollll' I'S ill pust ~1'lI ph ic hi story_ tiOUlt' of hi s trllll SIlIliuns ltIi~ill wi,lI CtHlH' 1111111,1' t il(' hf'adill(,! nf ci ll(,lIIl1tiZlltinn, wi l ll i.. Ihf' gl'aphic tradit ion ilst'lf. H is /luly Fall/ily lI'ilh (I CIII, rOl' rxulll pit', is fO Ulld -
18 2
MOVINO
6 . 14
REMtJR .... SDT \' .... s
6 . 15
RIJS .
F'I C TURI'; S
TIt ~ lIo1y F/ltll i/y lOjtll /l CQI . EI C h i lig
.... SDRE .... ~ASTEONA .
Tlt e Engnnoing
I'i rg i ll
of IIwmil ity.
183
cd 011 Mnll!('gllll's Virgin uf 1I1wl ility ill such Il WIly IhuI, in A, lI yulI Mayor' s words, " lilt' upwul'll look !lml MIIUl('g'1H1 uses 10 IIwe, " he re
turns into the snulll child 's familiar ity wi t h thr II ndf'rsi cies of cha irs and whl r-s, 1" 111' f ro m copying ~l!tII lr- glill 'S iUl IIg'r-, Remb rnudl dr-\'cloped ulisuspcct('d implicut io ll s in it s cunon ized t hen\(''' (6,14, 6,15), Th e impl icat ion s; arl' in tht, (>lIlotiollai capaci t ies of t he gruphic mediulll it se lf, not in th e Vi r'gin !tr-rSi·lf-how biting. inking, lI lI d printi ll g' fro lli ll pillt e Cli n be used to rscalllll~ tilt' illl ll l('d iUI(', prrsolllli p r'OI)crti es of th e hi erat ic image. and ll1ak(' us forgt'\ t.h(' "lI\\'C'sOmt'II('sS" e it he r o f artistic skill 01' o f holy p(' rSOIlS, )''Ia,yor also points ou t how RrllLb l'/llidt graduully in l(, ll si fi es lind ci nelllflti zes the old th eme o f Ch r ist P resell t NI to Ihe Peopl e , For th e fi rs t state of his e tching, he I}ut in his OWII b ril lillll i row o f the cOII\'elltiona l foreg round spectutors thnt ew ryo lle uSN I to put ill ; bUl the .. he d ecided to elimillilte t hem e ntire ly for the seventh und lus t stutc , subs ti t ut in g durk nrches thnt open into the depths of the prison (6,16), " H e sudden ly pu t s operu glasses t.o ou r eyes, pulling us into t he \'o id o\'er the twill priso n inlets to set us fn ce to race wi th Christ unci Pilate, Wc now livc in si d e the vi sio n. ohli \,ioll s to the calcu lutiolls that WClit int.o it s IH llkiug, ob li\' iolls to the twe nty yeurs needed to get. to t he bo tt om of twO Iltllu1red or three hundred words or report ing, obliviolls e\'CIi to the pape r and t hr ink," The truly cinematic art ist seems to va n ish entire ly , It' avin g us con fronting' t he scelle without help, Re mhrundt seem s 1.0 hu\'c felt no s lllu'p div id e betwcrll pl.lillting nnd graph ic urt und , indeed , 1.0 huve been convinced tlUlI both were " graphic " in Illy la rger sense , flS Ei s hrimel' sr(,IlIS /ll so to ha\'e f'e lt , Relll b l'lI n dt used paintings us ir t h ey wr-re s uper -etchings (,lUlbling hilll\o expa n d h is graph ic imaginatio n, H is combined paint e rly lind grllphie etTo rt s uggests that he neve r invested in paint fOl' it selr, like Rubells , o r ill inked lines for thelll ' se lves, IlS DO rer d id, but r/lthe r in tllllt uudien ce-in vol\'ing kiml of piet uremaking t hat transcends th e medium , und sOllll,times makes pictures u nbearab1c to loo k a t , Th e Desce,1f from th e Cross is one of these, with the 1)8 in te r ' s own fuee shown pm;:h ed lip nguinst tlw collupsing bod y's cold . flesh). s to mac h (6, 17), So is Th e 8/ ill(/illg of Sa lllso ll, wh ere lIotju s t the victim 's fists nnd fn ce but his toes are cle nc hed in agony, nnd we have to wat ch the stnke go de ft ly into the eye, t he blood spurt ; und our sickened fas eillation i!; mi r rored in t hr- fa ces of l he soldiel's and se rvant!; and in th (' hyst eri · cal Deliluh n lshi n g out. but looking hack (6, 18), The Salllsm. is u huge puinting 011 a d e liberately oven\'he h n ing subject, bu t the Uesct nt is muc h s mlllle r and cooler, and also il standllrd subject in any Passio n se ries, Rembrandt's graphic eye holds th ese di ffe ren t sorts of
IS<
6. 16
M OV I NG
RKMURASI)T \'A~
It IJS,
PI CTU RE S
Cltri,' PrncNie(1 10 lite Pt:OIJlr. Etc hinir.!lt\'C'nlhsI81f'
•
6. 1 7
R E to( IJ}( A:": IlT \ ' ASH. I J S,
Th e /)ClJrl' nl from Ih l'
CrOll1J
18 6
MOVINO
6 . 18
KK)lHRASDT VAS RIJS ,
I
6 . 19
PI C TUR~: S
TIt" Blintl iHg O/S/'''''O H
-
RIt)l8RASDT VAN RIJS ,
1\'1/~.
Etehilll{
Jo,,.Vll "lid I'ohpllor',
IAIlf/scupe; P,.iI,ls; RClllbnJlI(/f
.'
18 7
pict.ure t.o one sort. of narrative mode, which is lllso shored by the tiny etch· ing of Joseph {HId Poliplwr's Wife-another standard theme. This intimate black-and-whi te scene is no less demanding and unbearable t han the \'ast Samso" with its vivid hues and busy cast (6. 19), The woman's hunge r· ing, pigl ike body a nd Joseph's renl lsion hllve graphic cill im s equill to those of the Samsoll or the Deposit ion-there is nothing more intense in the use of one medium or the other. or large or smaIl size. Violent elash or contact, bad mome nts of nil kinds fit equn lly well int o sma ll etchings or large paint ings, and in to fast sketches, too, All are storybonrds , nothing is fixed. In the painting of Th.e Ilai.~j"g of l..AIzorlt .~, mude about 1630, nnd the etChing 0 11 the same subject from Ilbout 1632, we see one sC('lle rrom two different points of view, rendered in two different. media and lit from op· posing directions (6.20, 6.2 1). The etched version is also less than half the size of the painting, and yet the grouping and the dramtHic conception art> the same. I t is as if he did two takes wit h two cameras of the same g roup of actors, only changing the angle lind the li ght source. Wh ich is best' Both are best; we can move from onc to the other. Classicizing a rtists tended to sa\'e fluidity for skctches, and made monuments when they came to paint. The rcsult. is a world of exp ressive difference between Guercino's volatile drawings, for exampl e, lind hi s stately paintings. By con trast , those ill love with t he fe el of media,like Rubens, visibly enslaved them all to the same uniform and conspicuous ma st ery. But Rembrandt's later painted su rfaces are characteri zed by a great \'ariabili ty of texture, with thick impasto inte rspersed among lireas of smooth glaze. Paint itself is not sovereign; it s intcgrity within the pict.u re is less compelling than its flexibi lity in sen 'ing th e subject. The consistency of the scene, not of the medium or the style, must be presen'ed, however grand or mod· est the production. The invention of mezzotint in the midd le of the seven teent.h cen tury WllS a significant step in the adnmce of photo· graphic expression, This new tona l graphic met hod freed t he reproducing of paintings and drawings from the mesh of engraved or etched lines t hat had bound it fo r 80 long to a " written" style. But since it was dependent on scraping the ink off the plate in varying degrees to produce the modeling, the tcehnique used no precise lines, and it. t herefore turned ou t to be too crude for the most sub tle reproduction of complex paintings. It sen'ed best as a method for reproducing port raits, where thc tOlla l g radations of faces and garments could be particula rly effec ti\·e. and it was most extensi\'e ly used in E ngland in the eigh t.eenth and ca rly lIilleterll th cellt.u rirs. where portraiture was a (nvored genre. Rembrand t did not need to use thi s meth od; and hi s magical
, " d
188
M O V I NO
6 .20
R EMB R ANDT VAN
"I C T u nE S
RIJ N ,
TIt l' HI,iSi l1{} Of IAI Zllrlnt
I IHI
;
j
6.2 1
REMBRA ND T
VAS
R I J N,
T/H' Hui,jll(Jof IAZUriU. E IChili j!
19 0
MOV I NG
PI C T U R ES
way with etching had far lIIorc influ ence 011 later und lesser llrtisis in th e graphic tradition . Bu t alth ough mezzo tint d id not immediately become th e preferred re product ive tec hnique, 1I0r an in stantly important c reative medium like etchi ng, it represented 8 new desire- soillc ne ..... need for a black-a nd-while medium wilh certain poetical possibi liti es differen t. from engraving or e lcho ing, somethin g with un emotional overtone be.yond t he reach of the cris p methods used beforc. It is not su rprisi ng that it (ound its best s cope in Romantic times. Pu re tone, mobile and fre e of line, could suggest what the mov ing CHllI cru also C\'CIl1\1811)' offered: an aualogue to pure vis ion free of ktl owiedge, a leap frolll rending into un mediated see ing. Portrai ts were adored not only in England . In Fra nce part icularly. cn· graving tec hni(IU el!i we re perfected es pecially for portraitu re, so t hat celeb· rities and grandces and beau t.ics might all be fix ed in s lick pictures for the public. These were not just reproductions of privately com mi ssioned paint· ings , but ofte n done from drawings made especially to be cllgrnved. Van Dyck made his brilliant seque nce of a hu ndrt'd et.c hed portraits early in t he century, and his I colIQgra pky set 8 stnudard t hat lat er gene ra· tions had a hard t ime matc hing. These portraits indeed had an earlier prec· edent at. the dawll of the cenlluJ' in the work of Goltzius, IUlothe r Fleming, wh ose dazzlingly ve rsatile graphic ski lls had made him tile most influentia l North Eu ropean artist of hi s ti me (it. was his pupils who later staffed Rube ns' works hop). Among his other a mazing performances, Golt.zius made e ngraved portra its of a s tartling im mediacy t hat was c reat.ed mainly by sharp chia roscuro. Van Dyck took thi s s tyle f'u rt he r, adding a Baroqu e panache to the I>e rsollal blll.ek,ulld·whi le illlage Gollzius hud propounded . Van Dye k was a sort of double fath er of the public Iwrtrail, lhe fou nder not only of a peer less presenlational s tyle for the painled ima ges of t he great, but s lso of th e pe rfect graphic 1II0de fo r Ihe same t hing. He invent ed a way for d isti ngu ished printed picture!> of inte resting people to look that.lssted well int.o thi s century and eel'la inly influe nced the camera, both moving and st ill , in its own fu r the r explorati ons of reproducible star imagery. It did not happe n immed iately. The dashing modern look of his firs t etched portraits did not satis fy so well as t.he much sil kier e ngraved \'e r sions, more si milar to the Frenc h style, that we re subsequently done from them. But late r Roma ntic taste caught up with t he sparklin g dramatic style of his first examples. ft was in these that Van Dyck inaugurated t he me thod of defining t he face in great d etai l, a nd t hen using an inc reas ingly looser. sketc hi er techn ique for the clothing a nd hands and appurtenances as the imllge approached the edges of its frume. Th is dralllul ic sche me fo· cuses attention on t he fac e. jnst us the eye or the cumera eye does, and sug·
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Pri/lls: {(rmbrtllldl
I !l I
gests t hat the illll)recisioll o f peripheral \·ision is most su itabl e for every thing else ubout the perSOIi. Ingl·cs lat.er used th is d evice with exquisile skill in his finished port rait drawings. The effect is agnin one of emotiollairuovemcnl , fro lll the hot ce n ter to tilt' cooler edges. Through thc seductivc gruphic Illcdiu of the late r sevent ee nth centu ry, portraits entered cOlluuon visua l fantasy rlltil('r t hun staying put on priv8te walls. Portraiture took 0 11 the standardizing charnc ter that t he modern famou s phot ographs o f ccl('br ities have, tlw ir wuy of distilling pe rsonal looks so perfec tly thnt forever afterward Ihe perSOIl must rese mble the picture in order to look right. Engravi ng ('xhlnl port ra its was Il way of reproduc ing o lle kind of work of u ri among muny; but til(' Vun Oyck se r ies suggested a new genre , the p icture series of cc lebra t('d folk, int end ed t.o bring well -kn ow n persollages to visua l life for e\·e r~·o ll e-s edification. By the end of th e seventeent h centu ry, huving your portrait paint('d had beeome an o rd ina ry bourgeois thing to do, besides being a mailer between greal kings and gr('ut pa in lers; but to have you r portrl.lit clIgral;cd-a muc h mo re expensive tec hnical proceSS-III CllIlt t hat It prinlmaker lind I.l print publish er we re prf'pared to im'est in t he sa le of you r imKge. You were usually an import8ut officia l or a well-known nobh.' ln a n or SOUl(' kind of nationKI figure , eve ll 1I0torious. whom Ih(' public migh t be expected to Wllllt 1.0 ha\·e a look a l . Wheth er tnken frolll a d isli llguis lif'd pnin ling or not , suc h un eugra\·ed view w01l ld be rendert.'d in til(' same s lf'f' k graphic language in wh ich the journl.llistic CUlllcra 1I0W trall sm it s ou r Illlb lic fig-urf's , Ul1mf'diated by an assf'rtivc artistic vision: the '·nrt" lies in the edi toriailille ni. whi le til l' ··t('c hniqll"'· is 11 tec hnologica l gi\·{'II. Rcmb rll nd t naturally df'lIlo nstra{('S hi s pr{'occupntiolls ill It \"I'ry ditf{'rent kind of pOI·l. rnilll rl'. H is kind lIIakes lilt' pict lll'e of /I persoll 8('('n l lik{' II 11I0vie se('lle with olily 011(' ch llrl.lctt'r in il. ratli{'r thll11 n more capt ivut ing lIew example ill t l", IOIlI! port rail I rlld it ion. Thf' s('{ltH'lIce o f lIf'nrly a hUlldrN i pll in tNi s('l f-po rtru its shows this lIunlit y ill pllI·ticular: und the s llIull OIl(' in Bostoll showing tilt' yOllllg Re lllbrll iid t ill hi s s tudio milk/' s this poi n t especially we ll (6.12). The pic ture·" s ma ll size drnws thc \"i('\\"('r, us it .. lwllYs does: bllt the curio usly angled co mpositio n draws him further s t ill int o thi s sce llc inhabit ed by both th e s lll ull , distanl pain ter a nd h is large. nNlr NtS(' 1. 0 11 which it is strongly suggested lhat l he same sell'- ,lortrllil s tli ll d s. Thi s is n psychologically indu ced sugges li oll- th(' siz(' lind hOl'izontal frame of the invisible paint in g IlUlkt' 1\ S(, Jr-po rt rllit IIl1li kf'ly. Bllt liIe illtellse bOlld c reated betw('('n th e IIHHI B nd his CI1 I1\·IIS in this li tt le composi t ion re lates it in our minds to thllt. end l('ss li nd IIlso somehow unbea ra ble processio n o f sel f-portraits IllIIt S(,(, lll like Relllb rnndl 's aulobi-
(
~ Igt";
tar I
M OVING
192
PI C T U K.~S
I I
ogru phy, full as it is of so IIUIIlY \'ersion8 u nci guises ulld sl.'Iti ngs for ont' IIHIII 'S fuce , Elich 0 111.' of tht~se, lnrge Ulld smnl 1. is lik e II whol(' sce lle, SO Ill (, ' th ing iii goi ng 0 11 ins id(' Ihe mllll' s mind . illsid(' Ihe room, betweclI til(' mall Il ud hi s l.l1 lfli('llc(', or tltr IIIIHI nlld hi s cO lIsci(' lI c('. or It il>; UIi'llIory. or hi s Sl'lIse of humor . Or his urI. Aud so this CUll\'IIS IIlIIst bl' this "('ry pnilltiug, uud we, tht, world, ure only 11 grl'ut she('t of IIIl1 tllbll' r('(lect mg g luss. Th l' third princ ipal churac lrr in thi s Jiu l(' grollp is titl' pool of light thnt "ib rntes in 11t(' s pnce be t ",('('1\ Ihe pn int('r unci hi s clIs{'ll ik{' nn IIngelic pr('s, cnce . Th e p!l illt e r slluuls buck to ullow it roolll, his OWII ('yes in s hu do\\': Ih(' puintillg holds up its fllc l' to rcceiw it. This is not u si mple puilll('r's s('lf· portrait bul R 1110 111('111 f1111 of slIu('d CXI}('chlt io n. The door lit lh(' right is II1l0tll('r c hurllc le r , Lik{' 1111 the doors und beds u nci t(' lel)lIon('s in mo\·i('s, il is Ih('r(' to slIggl'st its possiblr us(" b('fort' or
eve n wit.hou t it.s being used. If we 1\1'(' allowed t.o watch it. like t itis, t.hat mean s tluH sooller o r IlIte r· it wi ll opt"n--or perhnps it lUll; j ust closed, o r wil l soon be knocked at. or ha stily bolted fr om the inside. At t.his in ti mate artis· tic mOllle nt , t.he door suggests int erru pt ion. The c lie nt, th e appre n tice , the wife, th e mll id, the dog-someth ing mil)' ut uny min ute d isturb this silent coll oquy between t.h e artis t, his lighl, and his su rface: his shadowed e,yes are wide ope n, pa rtly with IlPI)rphclIsion. MNlllwh iJe w(' nrc nlso frei", llnd('r the bright gaze com iug llt u s ( 1'0111 the back of th e room, to bel i('\'(' Ihut we nre s imp ly the model o urselves, syndics or burg('sses loekcd in with thili elose·kn it. tria d , wait ill g to IIwke II four th. The zoom eft'ee l in thi s painting, like t.hr on(' ill Ve ruwcr ·s Officer alld J..ollghill(} Girl, is 8 d evice for exteu d ing the li se o f s tlHidn rd l)crspec Uvn l met hod s and ill s is ting a ll optical d epth . I t keeps the Ilction from lookillg as if it were st.aged at. a fixed d is tance, and instead indicates t hat we must be included in it, by invoking th e wny our cye would grasp it i( we we re nctu· ally prese nt. Alt hough t.his pictu re is s mnll , 811d e,·c n b(>clllise it is. we are drnwn first near to it , t hen in to it: the pic tur(' "Jnne SC(>IIIS to vll nish. The Dut ch peep-boxes designed ill th e scve nlP(,ll th ce n tury h,v i-I oogstl"l.lte li oml ot hers produced the sa me ilHlruwing eiT£'ct by mechnniculmcnns, {or t he same se llse of exciting e n tl' rt niu men t that ctll"ly pee p·show mov ies ofl'e rcd. Th e ordinu ry world drops uway; olle is rapt inside the liny ilJlIsion. It is not s Ur) rising' l ililt. pornog raphy s hould be s hown thi s wny. C ine lll nilitoget her, however huge th e sc ree ll , issues this SllIlI e I)C I'soIiHI ill\·itatioll to ('Ilc h viewer, iso lates him and ca pt ures him. In Refllbrnndt's famous po rtrait Nchillg of J an Six r('uding ntll wi ndow, made tweut y years htler in Huo lllt~ ,· llU'dilllll li nd ullot l h~ r city, we get. tile same 8('11Sl' o f sce ne ruth e r tlulII sf'l ting", with light HS one of t he chorllc tcrs (S.23). "he IIIIIII' S o pen coilUl' im·itt's Ih (' ili co lll ing uir lind so uiso 8('('111 8 to invite the inwa rd fl ow of th{' dayligh t hc is scekin~ by t lU' window. W(' can sc(' thut lIo thingehw hutlighl is 01111 11('\"1'; ind OO I"'S is whrrf'ull t llt~ 1hOIl j!ht , feeling, and a c t io ll dwell. Bllt II II II'S8 li!!hl r l1t rrs, t he png!' is uni n te ll igibl r, the roo Ul is filII of IlHIIIl'I(' ss u bstllc lrs, t ht' rl'i ut iolls Hlilo ng crelltllres nre red uced lind prilll iliw'. '1'111' t'US£' of Ill,' 11111 II ' S lIt1i llldt, us h~ s lllllds e li ligh t · e n£'d in hi s wi ndow corne r shows him to l)(' I.l confid('lIt ligh t SN' k(' r. much nt home with p rin ted Illllth' r -th (' s('urc hi' lg light fillds IIno the,· Ol}(' n book lIeurby, the lIIe rf' l.oPlllost o f I( wh oh' " ih'. Bllt f'lII'licl' 1II0IIICIIl.S i ll this \"CI-y SIl IlIC SCf'lIf' W('I'C recOl'c1t'd by Belli · bra udt ill Ii s ketc h full of b ll S,\' strokrs «(i.::!.J). ) )(".(' Jail S ix is plnyillg wil h t he d og, lIIo\'i ll g g rud ll nlly buc k lip lIg'ninsl llit' window iNlg(' 10 ,·esist t he dog's happy IldvlIllces: nnd hcrt" 1i1e skrtc h shows tlmt lig ht IIIllU('rs \·rry lit.tle -t he e nCOlln t('r is sw ift, l)Hsic,l1 l1d lIlc1il(' . SOM'- how('wr, Ill(' sCI'\·nnt
C pyr
te
I 94
MOVING
6.:!:I
PI C T U RE S
It ID IH KAN I)T , t AN It IJN .
JII" Su Illluh"y. ElChiulC
calls a ll' the dog. the relieved Six sellies more comfortably all his elbow and picks up the pamph let. He begin s to cOllccntrulc, nnd Ihe ",aitillg daylight responds promptly wilh a knowi ng cu ress . Unde r tllut touch sound d ies, steps 8 11d ba rks recede, attention turns inward, and t he eye alonc moves in the room. The one picture is not Il s ketch for t he olher. but anot her frlilne from the sa me episodctjust like muny Dutch drawings relul('(110 paintings. Moreover , t he different mome nt from th e sa me event is conce iv(,d in a dif· fere nt but re lated med ium, us if to dClIlonSLrute the lIIutobili ly Ihu l is r ight for tnlc visusl na rration.
/.(IIIc/SC(Jpr: Prillts: Hrmbrlllldt
19 5
And so in Helllbrundt l)Qrlruilure becomes lIurrlltioll , just like self· portruiture, in the cinemtltic mode . In all hi s vurious Uled i" th e theme is irradiated. mobilized. and mad to share in the fluid Mild s ug~e s ti"e atmosphere of daily living and inward change. or in the hush of holy appari tions , even wh en there is nothing in the picture but a (ace. Only Rembrandt seems to have created a body o( portra its with this expectant quality. The iu dividuals painted by }-" rans Hals, for exampl e. are quite different: his works are much more like the brilliant portrait photogral}hs b.,' In'ing Penn, where the look of a single persollal instant seems eternal , caught (orever in one miraculous flash .
,
.
,
>, •
6 . 24
ItEl4HItAS[)T VAS RIJS .
Drawing
J IHt SIS'
H·i,,,
a /Jog.
7.1
J AN VKKKOLJE,
AIIElcgalllCowpl r illl1l1 / l1ierior
•
SEVEN
French Prints; lUttteau, Chardin
By
of
ing t he Sun King"s reign , llnd
('V{'II
THE lust ttUUrlcr the sC\'C IIH'c n th c(' lItury, mosl Dutch paiuters had lIlowd llWllY frolll Hf'mbl"llnd l's I1I1I11 N li»I£'(\ style toward II more suave and clegunt tOIiC. F' ,'cllcli esthetic lIlstc irradiated Europe dur-
tile puinlcrs of Hollilud w('re not. im-
mune to the impulse, Ulllil the n IlIcking in the Ncth (>rlnll ds, lO\\'lIrd academislII and the establ is hmf'lI t of niles for art. But the resu lt s of
Frellch influence among the genre pailllr-r8 werc quite hnunting and r
c
198
MOVING
PI C T U RES
Elegatlt COII,ple ill all I llterior looks likt' II Hollywood film version of a Ver-
meer or Ii Terborch (7.1). Th is pai r see t hemse lves rOlllantically ill such oldfa sh ioned te rms, while at. the sumc (.i m(> they like to e njoy the new refi nement s of upper-class life Ihllt improved 011 t he olde r s illlpl icities. She wcars a gau zy vcil around her !tend lind s hou lders, to mystify her bcu uty a nd com plicate her movemen t s with a f€'igned impedime nt to tnle per ception ; the windo ..... lu.s cirap('d cu r ta ins for t.he same purpose, to embelli s h, roman· ticize, a nd pretend to im pede the ligh1. Just us in Hollywood , the figu res of th ese two urc rendered especially attenuated and crisp: their hair is lUI attractively neatened version of t he ar tless curls ill earli er modi·s . Fashion itself, if tlrt may be the witness , was creatillg th ese \'ery refin emen ts ill lut.c-sevc nteenth-century dress- shorte ning the sl('eve, ti gittelling t he waist, editing t hf' coi ffure ror both sexes. F or me n the result would soon be the great periwig that was to put so \'ivid 8 stamp 0 11 all mu le looks for more than a hund red years. Verkolje's gentleman. brsides hi s newly neat, leg lind neat waist, has much morc beautifully a rticulated curls thall a ny s imilar gallant in Terborch's cast o( characters. Both puritanical an d military modes are out. T he new fash ions initiated at Versailles were havin g their effect on everything, and details not. only of dress but of erot.ic manners seem to have been s harpened up . As the lady picks up he r instnlment, s he momenta rily r est s her knee on the chair-a more indecorous and also more artful gesture (or legs t.luUl (ormerly. Now he actually t.akes her ha nd to make her turn he r elegant. nec k (how sedue· tively t he vei l moves) and overtly points t.o hi s viol , suggesting a-(!r, duet. These two are bot.h less sexually disc reet and less nut.urally behaved thal1 Terbore h's cou ples. They dis pose t heir legs with artificial abandon and part t.h ei r moist lips while t.hey lift t hei r eyebrows s lightly, s tudying one a nothe r 's style. As us ual , the dog feels the tension and questions t he ae· tion , here perhaps puzzled by the lack of straightforwardness. In this e n· counter, there is not much spontaneous feeling needing s triet control; the sce ne is a s tudi ed exercise ill aTllorous good form. The indication o( a carefully schooled leisure is t he right note to strik e. the flavor oC court etiqu ette governing the discovery o( love and all su bsequ ent pursuit.s of pl easu re, aud importing a modish whitT oC ra refi ed d epravit.y. Sin ce the painter uses the props and sell ing and na rrative form of ea rl ier and s impler Dutch lovers' meeti ngs-mu sical instruments fingered in a loft y duylit c hamber- we are free t.o see this as a pointed nostalgic reference, on t he part of both the director· pain ter and his actor-lovers. Ootfried Schalcke n W8 S another late-sevcnteell t h·celltury gen re painter who liked to r efer to earlier the mes in del iberately romanticized style, as i ( making a his torica l movie. [n his work the effeot is qu ite poignant, never
c
,
F ,.(' lI r /l I'r ill/ll; Walt rll ll , Chill'dill
I !) 9
stagy, only height ened , refined , and self-co nscious, In Sc halckell 's s llIall I)uin l ings. IIlId ill liI(' g (' lIr(' works of Vlln dcr WCl'n' bt'fol'c he begun 10 d o class ica l his iory- pn ililill gs, the charnClcrs oflen udopl II lIew kind of Ullltlscd nnd consciolls s mil e, wh ich is 'Illit e diO'el'c llt from Jun S trc n-s S ll laciolls grins of eurlicr days, u S wcHa s from the s trni/.tht li nd radillnt s mi lc of Vermce r's girl. III Th e Doctor's Visit, however, we hllvc ICurs, dn intily dabbed with all nprOIl (7 ,2), Schnl ckcn wns n pupil of Grl'lI l'd DOll , li S Ih e s mull formal , dcl icut c lighting, and s wee piug drup"I',V hcr(' dCllloll s trllte,
7 .2
O OTt' RIED SC IIAL C KE N,
Th t DOclQr ', r;, il
200
)tOVINO
PI CTU RE S
but mu ch more cinematically in cl ined. Th ese two figures look away (rom each other. th e slende r gi rl moving off ill distraction. the doctor cOllcen· trating on the urille in the flask. He is speaking. gr8\'ely and nlefully; she cl utche8 her bosom, her lips tremble, and her eyes fill. for all the world like Lana Turner in a 1940's wOlllan's picture, a8 she discovers she's pregnallt. Tlte J)octor's 1';.;, had been a. standard comic Rnd morulizing theme (or Dutch painters ca rli er in th~ centu ry. It was used by both DOli lwd Steen, often to poke (Ull at the pompous doctor cha rneter (who wns also II familiar stage figure) or to giggle at the signs of fema le liccntiolilSnes8 (see 5. ). Here, howeve r, we have 8 bit of authentic sentimenta l drarna with no snigge ring, a s mall midd le-cl ass tragedy actually in process. The girl is sweet, the old doctor wisc ulld sober. the si tuation very sad in th e best romull t ie style_ The frallling, groupi ng, und lighting IlIl\'e the ar bitra riness ond immediacy of film, different from Dou 's staged tnbleaux or St.ee n's bumptious furccs. The feuthe ry technique gives 8 1)luy of l)Qssible movernell t to t.he figures, the look of breathing that. DOll's s mooth paint.ings lack. Another Schalckcu, IIOW in ~"lorence, is one of seve rnl fnshionably ero tic fantasy portraits he IUlinted, t he kind o f thing no Dutch I)aillte r would luwe done in earlier years (7.3). Here is the modern sm ile that. is almost. a simper, 8 come-h ither glallce enst in a new romantic style of sex uality. a Ro. coco vision enhanced by lhe cand le flame thnt dancNI suggestively out from behind the little hand with its crooked pinky_ And yet the lighting effects, derived from Honthorst. Elsheimer, Rembrandt himself. give her real life and freshness. The "graphic" ideal is intclisified: th e calldlelight is there to reduce other colors and focus the feelings. in this casc on mystery and intimate exci tement. S he is a synthet ic vision, like a pinup, u long way from Vc rmeer's !lead of a Youllg Girl. and Illoving close r t.o commcrcial art. IlOpu!ar illustration. and the movies. III fac t , not j ust. earlier artilSt ic themes but. the influ ence of fushion urt. apparently intf' r\'e ned bel.ween Se hal cken uncI his mode l. and bet we('u Vcrkotie Rnd his lovers. II placed 1\ filter o,'er th e dire -t renderiug of hU1II1\1l si tuations thut would pernumcn t ly complicatc llud curich the ci nemat ic view of things. By t he 16 0'8. series of figuns de mode wen' u st.uudnrd feature of graphic IIrt, aud they IUUSt. have been lUi impor t"nt ele ment in l he subseque nt. sense of personal looks. Such fa shion prints are nOI 10 be confu sed with co mmercial fashion pi utes intcnded to encourage sales-these were not in existf' nce until the late eighteenth century. ~l orc import.ant, they are sets of tYI)ical figures exemplifying fashiollable dress llmong certa in groups , including fallcy-dress and theatricul cha racter d ress expressed in modish t.enns. Thf'Y ga'-e a presentatiollal s tyle to what. was already worll , rat.her than suggesting what might. be worn next (7.4-7 .6).
F rt'tlcll /,riII/3: 'fullcllIl, Clw nJiu
1 ,:.1
OO TFKI~;I) 8 C II A I.CKY.S,
20 1
l,u(/y wilh (' Candle
By t he clId o f the s(!\'entccnth Ct' lItllr~' , wilh tlie institutionalization and acltdemi zat ion of French c rll fUi , and especially wit h the rni sing of eJlgrll\'ing itself by ed ict to the rl.lllk o f li beral alld not mec hullica l a rt, th e Frenc h were by far the best designers and re prod ucers of s lic h costume prints, Not only were Fre nc h persona l luxuries tht' IH ost refilled und desil'ubl e ill Eu rope, but thei r s uperiority WII S confirm ed h.v I he supe rior }o"' rell ch version o f complete personul chic, pur\,c.\'N I ill s upe rior fushion I)rinls, portmit prillLIS, und p rints of fashiolluble lire , In the first three declldes of the se\'c lIlce nth ce ntury. Jucqll(,s Callot unci Abrahalll Bosse hlld fixed the illt.l'rnational illlng{' of el{'gllll ce liS esse nt ially French, well before IJolii s XIV insti tuted l h(' ('conomic polici('s that fixed its pructica l reali ty, By the time the elaborille r it uals of nobl e idleness had been organi zed at Venmilles. ami It II the luxury goods used there were IIHIII · ufactured ill France, nnd the uendellli cs Iwd bet'n fOllnded. I"re llc h e ngru\, · ings-which IIlso etl fll C to bc s trict ly reguhlLed li S Lo prinliJlg, publicnLioli. and sltle-Imd long since estublished LII{' ir nb~ollile authority as images or
·... -
•
Aool..'tI le/t: 7..1 J . ~ . 0 E ST · JKAN, Swit \Vor,. willt
/I
Stt-ord. Fuhion prillt. 1670'•. "~o nnal courtly eleganee. Aoot:~: 7 .5
J . O.
DE ST. - JEAN.
Lady WalkiNg ill tlte CowNlry. Jo"'•• hion prillt. 1670·s. tiff bul sprightly leisure clothing. u/I: 7.6 J . D . 1)1'; ST . ·JEAN , Gelltie" lo lI 01 Qwolit y. Fashion prin t. 1690' •. Casual Rococo style
RigJd:7 .7
JA C Q U ES CA LL QT.
tigtlrt' Or a nobleman rrom LA NobI~,,~ l or-m illt, 1624
&/oWJ: 7.8 ABRAIIAM B OS8E. Sltop, vlldullte IAIl! Covrl,.
Etching. c. 1640
204
MOVING
PI CTU RE S
sartorial elegance. No prints of mod is h life by Vall de Venne. J ost. Ammall , Caspar Luikon, Wences lllllS Hollll.r, or eve n Goltzius, cha rm ing IlIId infor· Illalive as they are, can possi bly match the brlt"ura and sUllvit.y of CaHot, Bosse, or Jacques Bella nge. All t hese reg is tel'ed in bl aek and white the French genius (or picturing fashion long before Louis XIV consolidated French power and ca used I<' rc nch fllShioll itselr to dominnte Europc (7.7, 7.8). By that tillie, a tnae fashi on art, which cu n coe rce th e perception of de· sirable clothed appearance by the s heer force of graphic authority, had a l· ready been invented in France: and the later spread of netllal ~"'reneh fa shion was undoub tedly helped by the picLOriu l sta nclnrd it hnd al rcltdy set. Not only was an elegall t French style of cllgrnvcd portrlli l.ure ready to create the world's \'ision of great people's fa ces , but an elegan t Prench cu· graved figure style 81so exi sted to crente the vis un l style of life among them . The graphic arts t hu s expanded in different directions and we re more variously influential. A new understunding of t hei r serious poetic possibili · ties, so as touud ingly opened up by Rembrandt. 1I0 W coexisted with new de· veloplllellts in reproductive tecimiquCls , butlliso with an increas ing ma rket for g lossy fns hiollllble illlllgery for it.s own sake. Thi s Jast wus so mething new, jus t ItS RClllbrllnd t 's graphic vision had been new; Itlld ha th gave the publ ic new styles in which to visualize the world and the peopJe in it- in their OW I1 s ph ere, in the wide world , or in all imaginnry universes. The way in wh ieh movies have done this in t hi s cen tury is well understood ; bu t even with much more lim ited scope, prints clea rly began 1.0 d o it in earnest in the seventeenth century. Thc imaginiltivc advances made by sHch superior a rtists as Elshe imer and Rem brandt , as well as those of Terboreh and Vel" mce r, could be transmit.ted to future a rtis ts and to their public t hrough the graphic med ia, where visual ideas mi x toget her and d o their most potent work on the imagilll:ltion a nd the COllllU on sc nse of rea lity. Pa shionahl e looks on t he French model were now added to the mixture. During thili sallie century, pictoria l journalism increased. While French fas hions in engraving and in dress spread notiolls of elega nce, the Dutch graphic artist Romeyn de Hoogh e, for cxnmple, was IIl so recordin g Loui s XIV's persecution of the Protestants in drllmalic broadsheets Ihnt show the influence of both Callot and Rembrandt. Printed brolldsheets were up· pearing on all sorts of political and moral I;ubjec ls, most of them in North· ern Europe. where the graphic impul se was so s trong and where the overJal} oC high and popular art W8!J already considerable. Film llnd television now continue whitt was begun there and then: the marketing of topical, senti· mental , comic. or sensational themes , in graphic media that frel' ly borrow
c
,
205
from the wholl' runge of previous visunlizntions-high a nd low, rough ulld sleek, ancient and recent. Suc h popula r media cr('ut(' "isun l (I SS'f1l/p l ioIiS. "ft('r o r igilwl pniult~rs or print makers hll"" c reated new "isulll idens. Th e repet it ion, rNlu ction , nnd rClIs(' for popu lar themes of borrowed origin .. 1 motifs trl.lIlSlllutl" t hem into hnbits of the eye, so till'Y COIlVl'Y tliei l' impllct u lmoSI UlllloticClibly, e\'ell s ublilll inll lly , 10 thE' pictHrE'·"iew ing public-u r lisLs iIlClu(h'd , of course, Origirurl artists of II Inti' I' day IlIl1y thE'n "'nkc un consciOIlS lise of these saul(' nss lllllptio ns, bt~sidt'S deliberutdy leal'lliug 1'1'0111 earliel' artists and con sciously in\'('nting II('W lIIolifs , 'I'lu' new IIlId exqui siu· fas hion prints of the sen'lI lccllth century con tributi'd to t ilt' figure style of s(' r ious painters, not o nly at the l illlP bUI evcllllinlly in t he eigh t('c llth century, when th e CII' 1Il1l111ti\'(' dTcct of such prin t s, good und bad, Iwd SHcc('cd cd in redes igning bo
, " d
20 6
MOVING
I'I C T
RE S
come true in terms of constant personal encounter, individual feeling, and the certaint.y of nothing but the unevcu movement of experi ence-that is, in the urban imaginative mode. They are set in the kind of outdoors dreamed up (and often arranged for) by city-dwellers to seem as much as possible like overlapping sequenccs of intimate rooms- a s uburball and not a nlra l paradise, where elegant cloth es may be worn to advantage while behavior lIlay ne,tertil eless be spontaneous . These parks are not imaginary. Th ey are probably modeled on th e grounds of the actual suburban houses of Watteau's fri ends and patrons , where iuforma l costUlllC parlies, amateur plays, and conccrts of the sort he shows did in fact take place. There people could combi ne and recombine in small groups or coupl es in a lIew style of comfortab le upper-class pleasure that was Quite refreshing, after the 10llg asceudan cy of formailmblic entertainment at Versaill es. In cities, the pursuit of personal re lations for pri· vate satisfaction llIay be the acknowledged aim of leisure, whereas at cou rt, court IJOlitics and courL etiquetle and constant visibil ity must com· bine to govern th e (onns legitimat.e recreation may take. Privacy has no priorit.y. In Pnris, but noL at V('rsaillcs. pleasurc could now be openly sought in refining new s tylelo; of intimacy; alld for rendering these persollal themes in nrt, th e Dutch mode was obviously the most sophi sticated. The ge nre mode in art had lately bee n brought to a higher pitch in Holland th8n ever in Fran ce or eh;ewhere. Thc realm of the persona l had been thoroughly explored, partly because most purcha sers of paintings were both urban and pri,'stc, neither eourtly nor ecclesiastica l. Religiou s art had acquired the samr personal , experiential style-the cinematic disposition-that Wat· teau could now exercise on his cast of city characters. Hi s sigllificant park statuary is ana logous to the significant paintings hanging on those Dutch walls, as delicately ironic comment about th e progress or personal life becamt' the right. note to strike in France. J>atronage was now often in the hands of enlightened private co nnoisseurs who followed th eir own taste, rather than an academically controlled offic ial enterprise. History painting was losing its supremscy, and withill th e Academy, ;' Poussinistes" were losing out to "Rubenistes" in the current argument about tnathful repre· sentation. "Naturalism" was again admired , and the value of emotional im· pact in works of art. " Sensibilit.y" became a virtue. H I LEth e Dutch were learning erotic and sartorial crispness and systematic ar t theory froul the French, French collectors were beginning 1.0 app reciate Dutch and ~"'Iemish art more intensively. and French ar tists to profit from studying them at first hand in private collections. Watleau be· W
( "lpYriO h
F,.('"ell P,..ints;
\r(/I/r all ,
Clw rd i ll
-,
'0 -
ca llI£' acquaiut ('(t wit h Dut c h Imint ings, print s, flud drnw iugs in his pa tron C rozllt"s collf'c lio n, hf's iclf'S bein g aIJ1(' to s tudy RulJens' i\l edic i cyc \{' in the Pni ll is d £' IJIIX £, llIh oll r~ . Th £' drlicaey of tou ch, til£' fam ous li ghl ·bf'uring bru s hwor k of III(' NorliL£'rn paint erI';, like Ihe ir s ubjf'c t lIIilttc r, WtlS b('ginniug to look b{'II £' 1' tn lilt' Fl'c llc h thull I/I £' sobc r c lurity of the Baroque cht s· s icill sc hool. Tilt' ki ml of II rl with Iw rsolllli meli ll illg begull 10 uppelll 11101'(' thull IU'l'oic lilPIIL£'s . Til £' s£'c ular iza t ioll of culture WII S au added ('1('1II(' l1t iu t his s hi fl of }o'r('ll<: h tu Sh' us th e e ig ht ce util ce ntury IldwUl c('d ; and so in Wll llt'au 's II!'!, bOl' I'O WN I fro lll til £' Prot£'s llllll Nor th, til(' I)£' rsolln l r('lI lm wa s shown ('xtPll ch·d 1I0 t by II r('i igioll s or mytholog ical d ime nsion , but by a t henlr-icul ollf'. Wlltt cau shows how th ente r ca ll be an lU1 ll logll(, for re ligion nnd myth ology, a psyc hological rather t han a s piritual d Olllain with in whic h th e melln ' ings of pe l'so lUll life Illily b(' pcrpetua lly enhanced . S uch a fun c ti on was in fa ct beillg I>artiy fulfill ed by the a ctual th eater ill Pari s a t th e t ime, prO\'id · ing H s tylistic C('lIt£>r for IIJ(' e it,v's II('W cultural life: role pluying, til e exe r · eise of wit, the purs uit of pe rsonal dr1l1ll 8. and Iht' d is play of pe rsonal atlract.ion s could all be ros ter('d in th e at.m os phere of II s tage trlldit ion newly libe rat ed for the purpose. The re wert' o nly two offic ially r('cogni zed and subsidi zed stages in !<' rance, the Ope rn and t he Comedic. These two pe rformed the clas sical rep· ert oire. But pri\'lIt e companies had long bcen ill exi s tence, appearing ill com edi es and farces both ill trave ling shows and at the t wice-yearly (ain; in Pari s fo r ext c nded nm s. Thc Ita lian comedy, wh ieh had been cxpell ed in 1697, returned in 1719; lind out. of thcse e\,c ntually came the Opera Co· miqu e. They all tended to parod~' the se rious stage , to mix s tock characte rs from the old Italian comm edia dell'arte with dis tinc tively French po pular c haracter s, and to combiuc rOllllmtie or com ic drama with dance, song, minle, and ac robatics. The world of guch a t hcat.e r became a kind of galon, a gather ing place for in te llectual s and artit;IS und for lhe fa s hi onable und inte lligent ric h, a mi· li eu wh er(' the s tnge cou ld bc lIot only wa tched bu t writt en for , designed for, and appeared Oil , where a ctors and music ians were th e valued fri ends of th eir cultivated audi ences. Pe rforme rs we re not servan ts or playthings, nor we re they remotc crcatures on ly to bc courted and ud orcd. Th c s tock charact ers oC the old sce narios were easily conceived 8S real peoplc , mo· mentarily dressed in stock costume as we see the m in Walteau-to point, up the fa ct that e\'eryolle , not jus t a ctors, may have many layers of be ing in a shifting urban world . A theat er of fashionab le everyday living was thus being foste red in Paris; bllt Walleau 's art suggests that it was per haps more like the cin ·
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208
M O VING
PICTURES
cmatizution of Icisurc, the view of life 8S a continli OliS flow of s uggcst ivc, overlapping costumed scenes, in wh ich 11 0 vulgar confrontations or d enouements disturb the sc nsc of endless possibility. All this was based 011 an iluprovisl1tory sort of thcut('r. in itse lf 8 reflec tion 011 the ullforeseellble churacter of city lire. Th e r' etets Galantelii were arranged in s uburball parks. where amateurs might part ici pate in performances and IIlso be enter ta ined by proressionals; th e ··embarkat ions." ;'pi lgrimages.·· "sac rifices ," and " promcnades" were got up to mix I>cople togcthcr and create unexpected encoun ters with umbigu ous meun ings . Fashion prints undoubted ly had a part in this scene-playing, s tyl econscious manne r of elegnntliving. Th e costume "lutes of Picart, St.-J ellll, and others had continued th e tradition of Bosse and Callot insetting II uni · formly elegant tone for sequences of very different. figures. Watteau also did two serics or them, aile or figures d e mode alld t he other of fig ures de dive rses ca,ractere& (7.9). These were theatrical or reg iona l or hUUl orous fig· ures with the same dashing style as those in the rashion p rints. All such se ri elS hud thcir ori ginu l source in the s ixtec nth ·cc ntury costume books, which s howed class or regional dilStine ti olls ror anth ropological purposes; but th e .... rcnch engravers or the seven tee nth centurj' had gone on to creat.e stylistic model IS. ~ o that th e figures' comm on sty le, und not t heir differe nt costumes, came to be t heir main theme. Th e academic, Mlle'llIaking climate of cu llllre under Louis XIV had ros· te red such an impulse, and mallY of S t. ·J ean's figures, ror exaulplc, d isplay a ce rtain formal sti ffn ess despite their elegance. But \Valleau , with the in · fluen ce of the Northern style lit his command, co ntinued th e theme with new conviction. The extremely casual figures he sketched, apart from t he ones published as prints in sequence, hnve the sallic sort of com pelliug chic as those created by modern fnshi on photographers who use the device or ca· sual and c,ren awkward Ilclion for their artificial arrangements. Th e mell ill \Vatteau 's drawings and prints have an incred ibly elegan tlc ngth of Icg and torso, 8 grace fu l gllnglineslii or pose, and a magnifice ntnonehnlance in the nice disarrangement or their clothes. It even improve8 on Cui lot ill the qual · ity of its apparently unstudied euse. Some of this Waltellu undoubted ly learned from Vall Oyck. whose drawings he copicd- aud it. was this syndiCsis of North ern realism and French stylistic clarit y that was one of "' rance's 1II0st influentia l contributions to interllatiollil l rashion; th e look or the total figure in its cloth es , rendered (in a graphic medium thllt could be reproduced and eventually popuilirized) liS both ideally elegullt und per· reetly natural atlhe samt' time. Th e f88hion camera and especially t he movie Cll lliern have crcated the ideal nnew in thi s ceutury. Ever since W"ttcnu. it has been somethi ng to
( "lpYriO h
:!O9
7 .9
ASTOISY. ""'ATTY.A U. • ' ('II jll
,vIlH
/'rofilf'. i-.:lching, IWcoml
''',,/king . SIKh'
live up to, a focus of aspiralion: it has looked I)('rfec i. hut aU(l;II(.ble. As th£' prestige of courtly fu~hioll gradually losl its importnnce, the cnpacilY of graphic medin to spread (muong oth£' r t hings) a ll llccessi lJ le-looking ideul of dressed e legllllc€' lJeclIllw obv ious. and comlH€' rciul fushioll plntt's CIIIl\(' illto exist.enc(·; b UI the visllulizlIlion of thl' figure 011 which l li ry depl'lldf'C1 had bec n invc ntcd by ce r Luin figurllti\'e gcu iuses of {'urlicr duys-Cnllot. VUII Dyck. WIlUCUU. The WO II I(' II in WII Ueau's works show a particu larly distinc t shift from those ill the fashioll prillts of a genenllioll ell rlicr (his ('l{'Jotllllt mal('s li re closer to their Protot)1)es). und one part icularly COllu{'cled 10 Dut ch a rt. H ere again lhe movement of female sexual f{'{' ling is ('xpr('ss('d through th{' excited play of light on satin skirts. through the slight tilt or d il) or stiffening of the exposed lI('ck . und through s nullI gesturt's of tiH' hailci. The fe· m81e figure is thus very eloquent whe n \'i(>wNI from Ihe buck. whcr(> all these {'Iemenls are more rrwuling without the face, wh ic h may drcri\'(', as necks Bnd moving skirts ca nnot.
:n 0
MOVINO
PI C T U Rf;S
Vermee r and Te rborch hnd worked nil t hi s OUI long berore, but it hnd m'ver been s('en in F'rl'nch art until \\flllleau rt·worked it in Hoeoco terms . Un lik(' the Dut ch painters, ami unlike H\lucns, II(' mllkes fe min ine gnrments see III to weigh \'ery littl e lind to cOllsist only of delicately bUllclH'd and wr ink led yardage-loose -sleeved alld indisl ill CI robes hitched up, pu lled togethe r, or dntwn back. allchored only to SOUle fi rm s tays uroulld the rib cage. whic h smooth it. out to produce u well·defined bodice and dc· collet.age. The waistline matters very lilliE', t h€' nac reolls bare chest. n great dt'ul. And through thl' lightweight !;kirlS pokr the kUl'es. cOll s tunl ly shift· in g I)osition to catc h the lig ht Illld callnttclI lioli to th(' Ilgita tion of hidden thighs nud hiddeu I"('spollses. People of both s('xes ure ouly p " t~cariousl y unci pro\' is ioll nlly upright ; they muy loll lind sprllwl lind h.'1111 lit IIny 111 0Ult'ul, nnd tlll'll spri ng up uga in LO dunce (7.10). The cns lialmode l for deportme nt set ill \Valleau's works IllIs hnd n lasting etTect. The ullnfTected qUlIsi-awkwnrdness of nil th ese refined mo\·c· ments g ives I.he m grellt nppelll and , IIguin , mllkes their wor ld or leisu re IIml
.,,
7 . 10
ANTOINE WATTEA U,
P~u ceful J.AJI'~
F,'r l/ell Pp'i,.t,~; lrattc(/U , Chan/ ill
2I1
pleasure see m aCCf'ssiblf'. 1'his is partly because nothing mu ch happells; 1I 0thillg is very seriou s, exci tin g, or funny_ only ve ry suggest ive an d inco n· clusive whil e seeming very huma.p..J t is i ll 1II0lioll, a realism of the feelings that. dwell s 0 11 tJ'UI1SitiOIl lind ambivlllellec just. like the one Dc Hooc h cre· ated for his lute paint.ings. WIlUeau's th eatrienl costumes, shown mingl ing with ordinnry clothes alld unaO'('cted ges tures, bring up the mode rn idNI Ihnt all cl ot hing is costume, I>t'rmilting p{'ople to funcy th(>lII selv(>s pluyin g variOlilS parts for {'lIc h other, and for thcir own pri vut.e satis faction. Scxuullife is lu'l'c visualized, as it wa s for t he Dut ch ulld as it is for liS, in term s of fa sh ion, Thi s kind of art provides a sartorial expression of physicu l plellsure that d el iberat ely str esses the lIu cf'rtnin cha ract(>r of s{'xual f('{'ling-specificlllly, its " this· moment"' charnc ter, which is li llkcd to temporary gu i se~, pass illg fnds, per· ve rse fantasies, and f'xtrf'lllf' whillls, like fashion itself. It is from thest' early days of the eighteenth century, perhaps from \Vatteau him se lf, t hat thi s idea springs-that. fn s hion is itself th e mobi le v('hi · ele of lUI equalizing erolicism , no iong('r just of class distinction. Populnr theater hf'iped t.o confirm this notion for hi m, as th(' movies havt~ confirmed it for us. It docs not mra n thut fashionable cloth es IIIl1 lS t be cOllve ntionally sexy , with II lot of fla sh Ilnd exposure ; on the contrllry, (nshions t.hemselves may be si mpl e and mut ed . But sinCl' they eo ns tantly chllnge, it is the fol · lowing of them that suggt'sts sexuulity , u subversive lo\'e for th e richness of fantasy life, and a concollli tlln t beli ef, perhlll)s in articu late or only pnrtililly conscious, ill the abiding importance of f'rotic fet~ l i llg , In seventeenth-centu ry F'rance, and in ot her absolute monarc hies. it might bc easy to see the following of fa shion uS 81101 h('r arist.ocratic pastime, a perverse sport of kings invoki ng not the c rude di s l)lay of r llnk or riches, which is ulIllecessary for rOYlllty, but of imaginnt i\'e self-defi nit.ion, like the court. masque. It might see m to be something geared to the special needs of ar is toc rats, including the (orlllal restraint. of thei r public sexual manners . The late·scvcntee nth-ce ntury fllsh ion prints hlld s uppor ted the idea , with thei r elaborate detni ls and s tiff figure·compositions. But in Holland, Vermeer Ilnd hi s coll cagues had s hown how urban fa shion in dress infus es private bourgeo is fee ling and defin es the middle·c lass sexual se lf, not j ust its social pretensio lls. 1' he specific details of fas hi on, whatever they arc, become the co nveyors of n changeable personal atmosphere, and hence of mu tab le sexual possibility. Th is has been an importan t fun ction of fa s hion ever si nce, a view pate ntly argued by the whole history of popular movies aud now by t ele\·ision, where th e dress of people whose sexual fee lings we urc meant to take seriously is a lways II perfect example of a particular fashi onable ideal. Thei r
, " d
-" 1"
MOVI NO
"I CTURt-:S
l:.e rrection is like that of 11 \Valleau sketch or fashion figure, offering 8 completely current physical ideal of form and dress, ",hale\'Cr I he socil1l or occupational sphere of the ChtU'8CU! r, conveyed in a graphic medium that can suggest ahsolute reality, not. artistic license. Clothcg liN' part of all ord i· nary sexulil dnll1l8 ill movies; aud it was \Valleau. cOI)ying Ihe Dutch. who inaugurated this Wtty of using them . \Valleau's whole career has the flavor of lInrcsoh'cd movement that cine ma promotes. His pnilltings were doue directly, without pinus or cartoons. and of len 80 hastily that the I)uint failed to ndhere lind lUaintain u surfuee; but they were also slow to de\'clop, inefficif"nLly concei\'ecl. put together with that 811.llle clulllcy method 1I0W used for film, whereby there lire lItulty takes, muc h extnl (ootage, and editing c reates the final outCOIll{,. Wntt ellu made thouS811ds o( quick sketches and t hen quickly cooked th em illi o paintings, which lIone li19le8s never seemed to get finished . I·I{' hnd begull as U hac k. co pying slIIa liDutch pKin t.ings (or the popular nutrkcl. L,uler he lived in a llIarginnl way ill the hOlls{'s o( friends or pKlrons, ulld he le(t til(' world early, having always been su rrou nded by othe r l)eol>le but remKilling quite solita ry, never settled or stab le. as if he needed 10 keep moving all to the next scene . The screen like "('il of paint ill his works is 1\ refined version of Dutch chiaroscuro, tl lIew fluid. almost moist. KtlllOsphcre where li\'illg und feeling go on.
followed up Walleau's themes ill new guises, still CO I)yi ng the Dutch and this time ,'cry openly. As a fo'reuch painter. Chardin took a risk by sticking to genre and still·life themes without any 811usi oll to lhe el8s8ica l \'ocKbulary even ironically. or through the theat.rical lIIetaphor s employed by \VaLteau. It was ne\'erthelrss Il timely move; his works slltisfied the new desire for iuformality Illid were v('ry we ll rece i"ed . Childreu Dud adolewccnh (n·tIUelllly app"ured liS c('ll t rul chllrllcte rs, lind their prese nce suggests an evel! gLronger version lillin Watteau's of I he new 1II1nrfect,ed lless IIlId mobility of physical being. t he lo"c of growth lind clulIlge, (,,'ell in a SOftp bubble . One J!lore felilu re of the late-seventeenth-century fllShioll prints tha t found its way into Illter }o" renc h llrt Will!; lIll extremely youthful facial style for both Sexes. Smooth round cheeks, small chins, wide ·open bright. eyes. short noses, and fresh ex pressions pervade the pnilltillgs of Walleau . Chllr· din. Boucher, Oreu7.e, and }o' ragollard: these are the Sllllle bllbyis h l"re nch looks that rm'ive in tht' works of Rt'noir and ult imlltely in the films of Bri· gitte Bardot. Cha rd in was prepared 10 show them IlS the properly of actual children ; but ill hislllld 80me other Frenc h pnintf"r8' works, the fa cial tmils of ext.reme youth cOllveyed 1I0t only the quality o( douce llr. the gelltie grnv·
C 11 A R DIN
Pre m'/' Pr i llls; \\'a/ll'all. ClllIrdill
ity associatf'd with unsf'lfconsciolls inllOCenCf', butll iso conveyed purf' fashion , all echo or nctul.l l rash ion IIrt. And this echo Ill so hell)S make Chnrdin 's work moving, alt hough perlillps covertly, Th e chi ldish rucilll s tyl e suppor ts u stimu lating look of chic in seem' s of emphatic bourgeois simpl icity, whill" on the s urfllcl" it on ly suggest s th e slightly consciolls artless ness for which Chnrd in's personnel are so fI.lIUOU S, llnd t hut makes them seem so hUlIlun- t he lit ti(' girl s tealing a glance in the mirror,lhe boy gazing Ilt his hnt li S it 's bru s h('d by hi s llurse. It 's 110 wonder his genre pa in tings w(' re well loved . Th ey contain II d ouble truth : th e bl.lsic one ubout color, light, and fe elin g pun'eyed by Hembrlllldl., wit h whose nnme Clrnrdin's wns immediately IIssocillted : nlld th(' ot h('r, pervasive, but oft en unllcknowl('dged one about the sllt is facti ons of beillg perrcet.ly d ressed, which mlly go eycn deeper when curried ill soluti on in II medium or unim peachllble realislll . This is a main component in popular cinemutic imagery, one of the things thut mnk e movit's so inescupab ly rivetillg in th ei r basic \'isuul qUlll ity, before th(' act illg nud direct iug, the mu sic unci the editing c\'en regist er . Every single one of Cha rdin 's charact ers has tht' strai ght., a lmost nrched back of current fus hio n, n perfect figure . und a perfeclly groomed hend, perfectly fiuillg clothes (woru with stuys e\'ell by humbl e women and girl s), and extra-long legs (7. 11 ). All are yout.hfl l1 .md I!ood -looking. wheth('r t hey are lau ndry maids and cooks or ladies or till" house and th(' ir children, whethe r well-to-do or wry mu ch less so. All deportment. is grllce ful and beco ming without except ion, lIot just deccll t uml circullI s pect: th e Judy examin ing emb roidery with her danght er crosses her high -heeled shod feet with the aplomb or th e Mal'
C pyr
te
MOVIN G
214
7 . 11
PI C T U R"' 8
J .- U .- 8 . C HARD IN .
rite HtlN"" frotH iIIa""'tI
:! I 5
1.1 2
J . ' 8 .' S . C II A R DI S .
r ite IJi/iy,,"' MQIIt"r
2I6
M OV I NG
7. J :l
PI C 'r U RF. S
J .· B . -S . C IIAR I)l N . UIIII' (;jrllCillr(lShlll('NKJ:
thaI} a brightly lit grimllee. Like Hcmhralld t's rnee in the eu rly Sell- Pori rail ill the Studio in Bosto n, il sugges ts inwardness, the subjective poi nl or view, personal II.Wlireness. CluLrdin's own lnle sc lr-portrKitli shudow the face, and finally show the elderly eye rurther brightened by sl)cetacles (7.14). The little girl tu r ns her body away from the light. alld so see ms to be movi ng across th e room rollowed by its eyc-nllltling ofT t.o 1)luy Olll or sight. and not obed ie nt ly coming toward th e wiudow, where we Illay illspcet her, All th e corseli llg and lniloring, s1I100t h skin " lid sprightly posture, t he whole fa shionable dimcilliioll in these works, gives thelllil s troug sexual UIl dertone that is well su bmerged in overt homeliness und hea rt.wu rluin g fam-
2I7
ily living. IL wa ~ IIcknow ledged , howevcr. in Ihe C\'t'rl morc cillclllllti1.cd versions of Churdin 's cinematic: paintings-the engraved rep roductions, which had rhymed caplions elabonning tllp piclllrrs ' themes. Th e verses were often ellst in umorolls terllls Ihnl l'xpre ss IIH' underlying sed uctivc ness of thcse simple scellcs (7. 15). Th is internalizution of s ty li!SllIl(,ss. th(' incoq)Qrnlioli of fashion illl.O ordinary realism so as to embody modt'rn erotic r{'alities. thlls becume a new cha racteristic of French urt. liS it has now bccollw u characteristic of the movics. It CUIlIC about ill thc l·ightccnth ccntury liS u result of fllsing exqui site French fashion prints with ex quis ite Dutch I!en rc paint ings . Each of these ea rl ie r enterprises represrn lcd II modest artistic e nd e~t\'o r opposed to the clussic und IIcademic trad ition. and were aimed at urbull Illarket s: but. th e s upremely origina l I)ailltcrly talcllla of Wu!.t ellu und Chardin, who were insl>ired to crcut e thi s II PW fusio ll , hlld 110 la ck of Ilcudcmic recogn ition or aristocrutic plltronllge. Times lIlid eyes had chungcd. Cha rdin im'cstrd hi s s till·life subjects with the slllne combination of emotional presence und individual "I(OKllller tlutt hI' cOllferred on his human groups. Personul charncter is r"C"cIiJed ill copper vessels llnd jllrs of pick les,
i . 14
,1 . · I;L · S . e llA-fUll S . .'Mf·Pflr/rtlit
2IS
M OV I NG
PI C T U R ES
i . 15 J .' H . ' S . C II A R 0 I N . Tltr OOl'r ,.",.". Eugrtwiug
rrom lh(' pailllilli!'
as it is in dead ducks and c"iscerated Rsh. Th e effect al so arises from the cinematic impulse to register the mo"emcnt of feel ing in the process o( recording motionless ph enomena. These t hings make clai ms, they don ' t just Sil there passively waiting (or human lives to gi,'e them n point. They engage with one another like fami ly members, and with liS like fellow bei ngs: This tiny onion, what il; it thinking' How docs it feel to sit alonc,
f' n! lI ch "" ill ls: U'ull ('(l u. Chlll'dill
2 19
buthed in the light or th is incalldescenl tumbl er (7. 16)' The odd choiccs and juxtaposit ion!> crent e such responses, si nce it looks lI.S ir the objects had all sec retly agreed to meet; ill'detia nce or the customary niles ror gatherings on kit chen tables. The rece ntly s hot rabbit and partridge lie toget her ill death lik(' HOllleo lIlld Jul iet. Thi s eas:-.' lise or tlie sU llie atmosphere ror dOlllcstic sce nes and illllll irnal e groups makes Chllrdin u magical painter; and tilt' sa mc <]uality lhat endea red him to t lH' prophets and arc hi tects or mode rlli sm. tlllll rorlllal neutrality t hnt first made pllinting seem to tran sce nd it s subject, is eXllc lly whal also makes him ci nematic -or modern in the Alt ernative Co nven tioll , which CUll llIythologize the whole world sim l)ly by putting II rew phenomena in the right light.
7 . 16 " .' B . - 8. e IlARDIS. Glullof WuleruIICICo/futHJI. willt Olliolll
8. 1 0 . 8 . TIEPOLO . A plIflt co,j,ol l lt~ Pi,a"i f'alllj/y
"
.
EIGHT
Tiepolo, Piranesi, Canaletto
K
NOR D E R to f'xpiol"l' th(' new (,lIlo ti onal ami formal possibilities
(o r Fr'clIch art suggested by Dutch painters of the PlI S!, Chu rdin righ t ly forsook the grnnd the mes of the Gru nd Sieclc ll nd confillcd hito pa interly universe t.o the cOlnforlub le domestic inte rior or t he art ist's studio, where he could concentrat e a ll s pecific ph cllomc nn. Hl" pursued his protocinematic exper imen ts without resor ting to the mythic subject matter most common to F'rcnch puint ers of the I>ast, or develop ing the lIlodcrulIlyths in ,'cuted by WaU elHI. BlIt ttt the 811111e mOllle llt Ilncl in the snme cinemat ic mode, the old myt hologies were bei ng reiuYcnted in Ita ly by Giovann i Bnt.l isla T icpolo, who seems t.o have 8Hs imilnted the Dutch exn mple into the Venetia n idiom. Thi s art ist is IIlloth cr, like Chardill. who wali instantly appreciated ill his OW II time aud much admired in modern t imes , with a brief ec lipse durin g t he per iod of ROlllantic Nt·oel tlssicism. Far from t he seculu r t rud itiOIl of portuble pllilltings t hat could eut.er t.he publ ic awareness in 8 personal way. th rough gallery ex hibition followed by the sale of captioned reproductions, 1'iepolo worked IlIninly in fresco on t.he walls of pa laces alld vilias, or ehw he d id uitarpi eees for churches . Such cn· deavor con tinued th e so mewhat pnsse H('nnissance t rad ition of public art, which requ ires aggrandizing t.he image of a noble, civic, or ecclesiast ical pat ron, using the whole familillr lexicon of Clussiclll, aliegoriclll , and rel igious terminology. 1'iopolo ulied only t he terminology. Hi s fo rmallungllage is resolutely linclassical. SI)ecific, und phcliomcnoiogicui. Drunlat ic imrnedillcy is guaran· teed to all t.he scenes he directs, becuuse he uses thc 01)lica1 mode, perfected by Vermeer and hi s compat.riots: Ti epolo's allegorical grOU I)S aloft in the firmame nt have th e sa me look Remb ra ndt managed, the look of miracles r ecorded by all eyewit.nf'ss; and again it'., no wonder his em pirical
c
222
)I OVINO
PI CTU RE S
age adored him , as our movie·loving age does, too. He brings fant.asies di· reetly to believab le lire. sidestepping t he most handy, old pietoriul t.ropes. Unlike Rembrand t alld Chard in, but. just like "I oge rs and e\'en \Vatteau, Tiepolo helped himself to specific theat rical usage to Illak~ his epi phan ies credible. He offcrs both old·days clothes and pageant drnl)Cries, but t hey have not been fashioned according to time·hollored (resco 11Iodes; instead, they a re painted as if they wcre painstakingly bui lt by the lailor's appren· tices to last through a long nm. Th e clothes ill Ti epolo are pa lpably made of intractabl e taffeta and brocade-heUlmed, lined , and interlined, und ob· viously quite heavy to handle whi le flying in a high divine wind or bnlillicing on one inch of lintel (8. I). S imilarly, post'S slnl ck by intertwi lled bcings perching on a tiny verti· ginous molding righ t ubove our heads have t he sc rambled loo k rcal bodies migh t have in like circumstallces. Their limbs (orm n jumble difficult to read . th eir torsos are compressed. and oflen only bilS of a person appeara shoulder and so me ha ir, a chest and u hand , most often lin isolated knee or kicking Icg. Th ei r garments also pun' out and bUlich up to form th e ludi· crous, somewhat abstract shapes loose clot h rcally lakes, wh ich a re at odds with the poetic action of rabrie so fam iliar in the clussicnl phrases refi ned
8.2
o.
8 .
TIEPOLO. La F or/IlNa (detail)
TiCPQIQ, /Jj ,ywcsi, COllo/ello
223
by Tiel>olo's pl1'dec('ssors (8. 2), Yo.u can see the air Whipping under the stuff, just us you CllII feel th e silken billow of it against. the thighs aud bellies or these actors , along with lht! moist condensation or the cloud into which the chenlb's head is plunging. Using obvious thclller I)rops and cos tumes creates Ii IlC rsoliol rapport between s ubject Bnd viewer. as the Dutch artists knew; but Tiepolo disposes these herty drapes and appurtenances in the eternal sky. still adonling fashi on-bound and mod ern-looking bodies and borne up by the only truly reali s tic clou ds ill th e his tory or cei ling art. As mu ch as the effortless perspective, Tiepolo's clouds are what make the active air and light in his fic tions so effective. Th ei r verity alone authenticat es the vis ions. in more than one way. There is always a large amount o r rormless empty s pace in Ti epolo rrescoes , just as there 80 orten is in a.ll actual cloudy sky, Water vapor takes various form s, oft('11 s('vernl Ilt once; Ilnd t.he satisfying cU llIu lo-nimbus for mations that many artists have thought bes t. able to support plump figures in fl ight are, in real s ky, often interspersed with large areaS of unint.erest· ing mis t. Sun-litruck and glitt('ring fluff must , moreove r, have a shady side, which soaks up color as it floa ts neros!) Ollr vi ew, Tiepolo see ms to tUl\'e been unique in making drtlillatic capital out. or boring meteorological fa cts , His clouds seem to be und ~rgoi llg Cotnllwllplace changes us we watch-not just moving like vehicles, but dissohring. d ispers ing, transrorming themselves in the immemorially unpredieta ble s ky style. Darkness ill t.he mature Tiepolo's works is also a matler not of the night but or moods in the daylight sky; and the ulls table arrangements or figures he puts in it have the same quality of happy s ubm iss ion to an absolutely neutral nature, over which the mythologizing artist has no control , and in which ordinary myth-sce king humans can find no message_ I t is not the portentou s Nature of significaut stormelouds nncl pointed lightning flash es , which nre caused by painters and poets to mutch myt.hical event.s. but the unantswerable nature d enoted by the dumb sky, which puts on ly it!;: OWlIlIlIlic disposition into steady play, Th ere is cOllsequ en tly something hilnriou s about Tiepolo events, The drama of Iph igellia'lj sncrifice, for example. is gh'ell a vigorous new emo· tional charge partly lIIade up of pu re laughter at the nCar apparitioll of the dee r on the cloud in [ront of the column, or at th e runny single hand that grasps anot her eol unlll hiding the rest or the figure , or at scared Agamemnon unce remoni ous ly hiding his race like a little boy. Tiepolo is here ad,'allci ng the 1Il0vie like rorm of realism. which depends on recogni zi ng the emotiollsl I>oten tia iities in all th e odd arbitrariness or visusllire (8.3). The effect is not theatrical. The theat er is by nature sacramental , even in the ex treme co mic ,'e ill, and during perronnftnee th e audience is lirst or all respectfu l or the occasion itself. But Tiepolo produ ces the responses people
M OVING
8.:1
o. a.
T I~: 1'01. 0.
PI C T u nt,; s
TIle Sacrifice o/ I Jlit iYf' 1II11 (dc-uti l)
have at thc movi es . where yOIl cun s hout nnd gutfaw simply at t he out rageous Hnd de lic iou s ('xtre lllity o f eve ry thing, t he wonderf," s l retch of belief th ey CUll make you feel, whatc\,('r is o the rwise happe ning. The extras in Tiepolo are notubl e individuals, with their postures Hlld COS t.UIlU'S somNimes like ly to IIInke lhe m ridicu lous. but with t heir fa ces full o f good will a nd t hc hones t e lforl to cnrn Iheir pny li S IIngcls or pe rso lli fied COll ti ncn h o r whlltcver, alld "h;o of a ('e rl aill Illlltlsillg ulld not ullpl('asing com place llcy. They have t he finnl effect of Illaking the event more nnd not less be li evable, evell while w(' giggle tltth em, 'I' iepo lo wos 1lI1O Iher kind of ciue Ul at ic ltrtist, 100. f\I}8rL frOIl! fhe huge mythic lind religious repertoire, he Illude IImazing little grllphic works ill blllc k and wh it.e. 1'ht"sf' are s lll ull fnntusi es dOlle in lht" etching medi um, whi ch best presc ....·cs ft'cs hness of vision, s howi ng bi zurrely enslInl groupings of symbolic or occ ult ngurcslllld things. Bu t evc lI though Ihey use the rOllian tic rh€'loriClil I raPI)ings invent ('d by S alnl.lor Rosa-skele to ns . s nakes, owls. old IlIllgicin ns , nude youths , unci te nder Illn icle ns -Ihese I}ie-
tures hun' the SIIII1(" nit clilion-ge t! illg qunl ity IIchit'\'ed b.\' Helll bru lid t. They sharc Ihnl look of bein~ sloryboards, skl"tchl's Ihlll COIl\'('_\' 1111 (,\'("111 IlIl Cl'rLain of outCOIIIC. fraughl wilh ll cit"'ye~ cuullc iat("d probl("lIls und 1101 -,,("I c hlrified IIICUllillgS (S ... . S.t,). Thc chiur08cun) is brillilllll: sunlighl SI)lIrklcs 011 till' witch('s lilld owls: all elements IUl\'e tl
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MOVI NG
I' I C T U RE
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never gasp at him, only at it. One rcoson (or Ihis is t hnt sa lllc retice nce t hut keeps muc h of th e sky blank and the slaffage economically s mall , the in -
vented views of heaven or Egypt or Tau ris rcndered wilh very few Loken props, and th e clothes right ly created accord ing 10 Ime sart ori al possibili ty. This is quite unl ike T intoretta. from whom T iepolo lea rncd so IIllich.
There seems to be no break at all in Tint.orello's lH'roie compositions. and no s pace for th e s urging figures to use-c\'cry inc h is take n up with T iulO· retto's genius. Ti epolo instead mak es II scrcc lilike IrsnSpnre nc)' predomi· nate. Like a watercoloris t leaving a lot of rooTU (or th e light of th e paper to
assert itself, he leaves the sweep of cei ling free to be a pregnllnt spnce into which we may sta re, expecting yet more gods to uppear. The result is mu ch less apparent asserti on on the artist's part and much luore 0 11 tha t. of hi s rising, looming, float ing figures-and more , in LUrn , by the vie .....er·s imngination, which leaps to people the void. On the ce il ing of th e staircase at th e
TiqJOlo, Pirulil'si.
('(111(1 /1'110
22i
Wurzhurg Residenz. Apollo olily fleetingly ilud ulliw811,Iy s h ow~ up 011 Ilu' huge sc reen. wher(> we ket'p s(,arch ing til(> dim sky for him liS Wt~ wnlk up lilt, S l (>p~. Th e persp('clinJ of Tiepolo's slIln ll ele llleilis i~ so perft'ct Ihnt it hold s tru e across empty u ir lIUpullc tullted by /lily clouds. builJillgs, or bod ies. The big flat nrens of muu\,c-Ilud-gruy fog on til(' Wurloburg s tll il'CIlSe c('ilillg relld etfortlessly liS renl places in 11](' sky, bl' ca llse II\{' ullegoriclIl groups sitti ng m iles awn." 0 11 Ih e edges IIrl' so cOlllfol'tub ly situllted in th('ir lilll.' spnces, Th ci r \'l'ry elise CrCUlf'S be li(','ubilil ,\' fOi' the spnrse and episodic action ill the skyey cellt ('r, Ti('polo marip COIIII)lel(' oil s ketches of h is ce ilings bdorl' he pllinl N \ th em-nOI drawings for IIU' se pal'at.e paris , but whol(' prelimilHtI,y "cr· sions. whic h lIIiJrht t Lln l out diffel'l' lIlly wht'll fully I't'lili lo('d ill s i /lt, wh e l'c II(' worked di I'ecll ), lind tiS if spollllllleoHsty, 1'h is ulso is IIn l ike I he pni ns tn ki ng eurlOOIl method of eXlle l prepnT'lllioll , uud 11101'(' like n DUlch pailltcr, 0 1' WUIt.('UU . or 1111 UI'I di rf'C IOr eloin!! sequc llces of COlltilluity sketcll('s, 1'11(' huphuzllrd look of 11i(> fiml l ('\' ('11 1 is sllPllOrt('d by wilo t(' -scc lI{, prcpnralioll -thc 1ll01ll{'nt is II('\'{'r s till. cuc h \'i('w of it IUlisl be II new OIU' , The IItlllospheric: pre scllc(' of arc hit ecture ill Ti e polo' s fl'(, sco('s lIl ukt'S 11 In rge COlli ribut ion to Ilwi r cinenllli ic fla\,o r. j ust BS a rch itect 11m) 11111 bit'llce III.! !'; so mu ch powe r ill fil m, It is bu ildillgs IIl1d pllrl~ of hllihlillg~ , roolUS from iusidl' und oul, sll'ee ls, stnirwn),s , IIml hallwll)'s that. fix lUo\' ies illsidc lhe soul, f1'l1' more thall d indepclldcnt llIug-ic , how('\"('r effecLive thcy mlly be for the d I'll III II , They lire ofteu udllliretl for Ihem, seh"cs, unci applauded l)('fOl'f' t he llct ion lw!!ins , BUI in lUo\' ics, only uuturat scenery Clln 11<1\'e s uch illd{'pclIcie ul c laim s und CUll sef'1Il so ul'bitral'.\· IIlId d c luchable. :\ll1u-uHlde pill ces lire illescliplibly bonded 10 Ihe hUIIUIIl feeling and Ilclion they SlIl' l'Olll1d , They share aud often creute thl" 1IIl'lIl1ce lind tell' sion, the grandeu r and ('u pho ritl, th e bawdily und slackness o f sce m's. chiefly hecuu sc we ourseh'cs lIr(' IlIWIlYS ill t hplJI ,IIong with th e sf('ffage, Slundll rd tllentl'icnl disttln c{' is illlposs ilJl e, ('X C('pl for SOllie of th e iHHlse ts and fIIoulituin s Ihlll kN' » Ih('ir dislullcl' ill life tiS well /lS urt. And sO in Ti(' · po lo , u !>1II11 11 pninted cOl'llic(' or s la il'clls(', one bit o f I'jgging, o r 011(' g roup o f COtulUlIS groullcl s th l' who le sC('lIe ill festi\' ily, IIrc hil ic solelllll ily . or • COlo Illes!>, BUI the stail's unci colum n s ill TiellQlo' s works Wl'I'e in fact not donc by hilll. They were pro\'id('d by lin eXpt' rl ill tll'chitcclu rll i illus io nis m called J I(,lIg0r. r.i-CololIlIlI, olle of IIl1l11y in II long ltuti l1l1 d l'eo l'utive tl'adilion. It WIIS thesc ul'tists o r qllll
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te
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S
M OVING
PICT U RE S
when they cove red the wa lls or ce il ings of real rooms and corr idors with in · vented architectural vistas. It was d out" not s imply to deceive th e eye or tell a story, but to set a dramatic mood by insisting on a direct emot ional cn· gage me nt. with fictive UltH erilil surroundings . Th is is the salUe thillg G riC· fith did with the fam ous set for b. tQl erallce. Architecturalmcmbers DC great size. unex pected prospects, and steeply risin g an gles pleasurably unsett le and excite the \'iewer , espec ially if every thing is in natural lighting, texture, and detail , llnd also ill perfec t lX'rspcctivc. Aglli u, as wit h sc i-fi movies or wit h the heavenly act ion stirred up by Tiel}olo. the responsr is la rgely ex hi laration til the o\ferreflchi llg nutke-belic\'e, not solcllI ll awe, even if the s tru ctures or the actioll arc sole mn und uwcsorne. The emotiollal possibilities for pictured bu il dings were first explored in t.he late Baroque period by the Bibie llu fumil y, who concentrat ed on s ta ge settings. They invented the sce ,1Q peru l/ yol o. whereby thc viewer is g iven 1111 ofT-cente r view of purt o f u pll luee. s t reet, or temple, and so invited to t hink of himself as moving toward a door or a gute or towa rd so me posfS ible molIIeli t of refSoluti oli. Asymmetry wus tl co mmon !lococo featurc, evcn for slllall decorat.ive motifs: bu t wh en it is used for archit.ec tura l imnge ry t hat. is otherwise rendered solid and ratio nal, its cllIolioliUI churgc is "cry grent. The high tenlSion between t he unstabl e angled \'iew und th e s tabl e ltut il ority of the stnlCtu re it se lf gene rutes Il llumelcslS excit.ement thut si mply wai ts for a humall situat io n to fill it with signi fictl nce. l<; ailing t hut, t he exci tement s tays ill sol ution. rendy for any of us to precipi tat.e it. Architectu ral rendering has ever si nce chosen th e view from 811 a ngle that 1ll8kes one corner loom up and declare 811 emot io na l d ime nsion to the sc hool or faet.ory it aims to se ll (8.6).
THE I TAL I A N traditioll for such pictured sceni c a rchit.ectu re did IUl\'e It di rect ci nematic descenduu t. III I 9 1 lund t hercu (ter for 8 few ycn rs, severul hi storical spectacul ar film s were mude in Italy (und exported to America) that used clear references to Bibiena inventions -but in the film medium t hey could be actll ully built sets, photogrnphed with people in them , not ill usionistic backdrops (8. i. 8.8). Quo " adis, Cabiria, Theodora, and otilen; lIIade a grea t impact, largely becau se of their substun t ial. Utlthoritalive sets , which hnve the strong opc rlltic power of th e histo ricn l Bi biena designs . They ha.d lUI influence on Griffi th, and th rough him 011 all later spectacular movie setlS thut huve depended a ll t he dep loyment of heroic, emoti onally styled IIrchiteeture. Such early movie sets were nlltura ll,v rea lized in black and white: but it is an interest ing point about actual Ba roclue shlge design l lult the selli ngs of that lime were conceived 8nd executed ill monoc hrome. Illusion was cre-
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230
M OV I NG
P I CTU RE S
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8.7 OIUSEPPE OAI, t.I · BI8IESA, iliUlilnitiou rroIllJl rcll"rI'""~ l'ro$l)€t"lY. li4 0
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Tiepolo, Pirollcsi. Calla/rllo •
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2 31
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sled by a bl end of brilliantly clear delineation a nd c hia roscuro. This was necessary becau se s tage li ghtin g WII S ac hi eved by th e gl ow of refl ec ted candle power, which effectively- ,washed out. color . S hee n and gl itter were consequently most important for costu me, as they Illte r were for film costiline; and for se ttings. dr8ma wa s focused by hlnck'l1nd-whi te arc hitectu ra l rende rings. still designed to suit th (' piece according to th e Rena issance program for comedy, lrHgedy, tlnd satire, but increasi ngly clliivc ncd by dy· namic angled \'i~w s a nd the sophi s t icuted lise of pictured li gh ting. Color could lIot curry. The black-lind-wh ite medium in which I:lrc hih~c tll nl.l movie magic was firs t p ro mulgated thus had a direct predecessor ill the Ital ian g rnphic mode for monumenta l s tage desigll . By 1700 European audi (,llces had ulready learned how the very colorlessness of great. visionary s tnlctures increases their power to CO llcclltrnte dralll il through ul"chit.i·c tu re. The d esigners of Giovalln i Pas trone's Cab iria could lise thi s mOIlOChrOtlllltie storeholl se o r BurO
0 S T advauced vi8uuI uS80cillt e o f t he grelH Rococo sce ni c d esigners was Piranesi, to wh om the modern movie-loving world so dee l>ly respond s. His eng ravings of mngllific(,llt. ru ins and imllgi nary prisons daringly olTer their lo ft y autique s tilbilit ies us ghosts and d rcurns, proj ec· tions of inner states and unspeakable fears, wit hout eve r resorting to allY s tandard fantast ic vocabulary (8. 9). Piranesi worked in the same vein us t h m~e art is ts who des igned a rchitecturu l fantasies to be inde pendent pai ntings, which migh t th ereafter al so be engraved . -'1a1lY s uch works (by Punnilli, for ex.ample) were very ell1borut.e in th e receil'ed Hoeoco manner, which lets exuberant ornamCllt s tulld for richness of im agillut ion. The ef· fect can be cha rming. Il deliberate f1irtltti on with un reality. II rare d isplay of fSll cy in flight. Bll t Pira ncsi was u pivotul fi gure. already lookiu g toward the dramat ic si mplicit ies of Neoc lassicism, and c\'e n beyo nd them to the radical temper of modern desi gn. We find his falltllsiel> all til(' more effective fo r their decorat ive rest.rai nt , wh ich lends great er force to th e play of lightnlld s hnde on prima ry Ilrchi tecturnl form . Hi s firs t prison prints s how
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thl! i nflu (, lIc(' of 'l'i(' poI0'8 strallgl' liu){' graphic works. but instNld of the ode! di sposi t ion of ambiguous cilarllc lcl"s, PirtltlCs i groups huge interior spllcrs in !11f' 811 1111.' inconclu s i\'c lind s lIggf's t ivc manner.
The effect o f
of fli cke ring 1I11l1osphere illfu sl's t hese blnck·undwhil (' wOI'ks . rlllil('1" than 01\(' of solid (Drill ral ionully illulllilU\ted IlIId 3 l' t ic· H SC:r{,(' 1I
uilltt'(1. ThE' look is not l1U11 of abstrnci paU ern 011 n surruee-. but of It pil iuled wii Iit frOIll bt'lli lid- I he sa me 1m rlld iglll of PCI'SO IIlIi co n sC iOIl S IlC'S$ t l llil
IIllIk('s t ll (' i l lll lll i l lll l l'd IIItl l lllscri p t s, WII II'I"<:oIOl'S. I.IIIfI IIIf' lIIo\' i (,8
so Ilsyclio log-icl.l lly P('II("I'uling. TIL" (,n'eel If'uds "list prf'Sf' ll c(' to spa rsf" I.... IJI'oplNI IIrt,: hit ('c tun' m al llIuk(' s u s 1lU,-' n lu lly fill it likl' II SC I'P('11 with possihh' co nfl ict /.111(\ passion 01' accid~ lIt lind inc id(,llt. all lI('bliloliS 1111(1 11111'('11
I i 7.('(1.
C AN A I~ Jo: T T 0
was t. he othl' l' ei g h tee nth·ce ntury I Lati un crc utor or
scrcenl ike scenes ndmircd in modl'l'u t imes . Thi s al'li st opernt('ci in a mode quit e different. fro m P il·nncsi's. lind his LOI)ograph icu l works held n fill' dif· fer(,111 sort. or u r t ist ic s tnllis. Pi I'IllIesi s hu red ill the i nle rnnt iOllll l, UIli\'ersll i prestig(' o f llrchit ec ture, Itrc heolog ica l s luely. and nll(-' p rin tlllak in g , all o f which s tood h iglwr than t he kind of locllI lopogrllphiclli pllinting in which
.,- '.,..,
1'1/'pfJl fJ, 1,; nfl/r ... ;, nllwl r llfl
CalUt ll'tlo SI)('ciu li1.£'d, which was chit'fly mnrk('ll"d 10 l-:nglish lourisls in Vl'nice . Pirallcsi wus 1111 IteKdl'lIlie thl"iinst. I(,Hrll('d IIlId dir£'clly illflul'lIl iulupon the Se-oclussic Ulld HomHlllic 1II0"£'lIl('nls 10 COllie, liS ,,'{,ll liS Hpoll III(' lI('xl lrends ill Iht' hislory of d('sij!ll. Cl&1lah'l!o was ollicinll." Iri\'iul. ph'using' and succNisfullJut witholltllny acknowINIg't'd iUI('IIl'ctulll or t'st llt'tic r,'SO' lHUlCt' ror thl' futurl' . And yf"l ClIliuletlo could also c rt'nt(' Ihnt IHtllI(' cint'mntic t'XPl'cttlIlC,\' Ollt of lIothing bil l III+:' fli ckerillg' light lind its 1II1sw{' rilig s hlldows 011 llUisoliry. til£' look of l.lssorl+:'d irl ll'l's plissilig who nr£' 1I£'\'ertll(" less all e{lulllly np t for drnrulltic l'llcoullh'r . Hl' rck lll'ydl' IIlId J)(. Wil ll' lind dOlle il ill 1I01l1llld firl"• •"eu rs l'lI r1il'r: hu l ('lIlIu l('IIO. lik(' V('rlll('(,I', could do it. Ollt of fl ec ks of pUilll, liS if insisti ng 111111 1111 (, 1I10Ii"f' fore£' dWl'lIs ill tile s heer opti('(llil y of visuul t'xl){'ric li ce. 1I0t ils illtt·lligib ilit,\'. Tilt, {'yf' drillks up th l' SCi'lI£' lliid IlI l' psychc IHUIlUfuClllrl'S Ill(' dl'll Ul1i 0111 of it. b('low t ilt' le,rel or cOIi SCiOU!i thou gh t . Cunuletl o did do II sl'rit·s of l1lugnific(,111 tOfJOgrllphiclll ('t(!hillgs lh lll ph& inly link him with Pirunes i's kind orsllg~estin-' grtl l}hi(! 1>Ol'l ry. which is foullded ent irel." 011 111l' silllpit' rl'ulil i('S or UII ureliil£'ctll rul lIIilil'U (S. I O), Such cltrly·eighterlllh-c('111ury cx pl orllt ions ill to Ihe pONic J>ossibilitit's of
8. 10
C ANALKTTO .
Tit .. Po"tjro lI·jllr
/I
IAllllr ,,".
Et c h i u~
234
M OVINO
PI CTU RE S
city views and those of other groups of bui ld ings large an d s mall , crum· bling or g li lter ing, presage the importance of topographical art ror Roman· ticis m, and eve ntually for mov ie romanticism-which both have t he same origins in North Europcan art. The Vermeer lIiew of Delft and the Berek· heyde views had set the sta ndard ror deliberately non·fantast ical, non· picturesque, quasi-neutral renderings of buildings that ncve rtheless inv ite subjective engagement through the use of light. The Ita lian cont ribu tion was th e elegant Bibi cna formula fo r putting classic archi tecture into dramatic motion, u s ing its elements to urge t he 1)lay of rantasy. Canal etto and other Venetian vieW-I)sinters created a syn thesis of both, wh ich culmina ted in the German Romant.ic landscape· pa int ers and the Engli s h watercolorists . These both used plain topography for an accumulation of poetic ends that have had their most recent effect ill modern film . Piranesi and Canal elto were both trai ned in set design; but both , like 'riepolo, too, turned the themes of stage setting into t hat cha rged si mulacrum of th e real envi ronment wh ich fi lm sets now ofTer. Groups of rcal nnd solid archi tectural forms, li ke thosc often actually buil t as well us pninted on bac kdrops, are tran smu ted by thcsc artists into momenta ry, s hifting, movie-camera-l ike views. Everything is clear and in perfect perspectivc, but. it only exists now, as t he sun strikes , !\nd we look and wuit to know more. in a mome nt it will d issolve, or we will move, and another will replace it; the fl ec ks on the screen are in perpetual motioll . In Canaletto's Venice, just as in Piranesi 's colorless Rome or Hoppe r's New York , t he atmosphere crackles with poss ibility. Th ere is no need fo r artful gloom, mi st, or dramatic distortion to produce it-it is in t he cr isp s had ows cast by the daylight on the cOMlice, th e window ledge, or t he angle of the balustrade. Adm irers of serious painting have tended to prefer Guardi to Canaletto. Guardi's works, many of them tiny vignettes, have a fresh pa interly econ· omy that makes them seem li ke mu ch bette r works of a rt than Cana letto's straight and thoroughgoing views . But whereas Guardi gives a good sense of the painter's mastery, wh ie h always provides a ce rtain emoti onal completeness, Calla lcllo instead givcs the perfect sense of place, which ideally remains incomplete, as: We can see that we are very much here-but now what will happe1J here1 A'S in Ti epolo's ce il ings, the d isposi tion of empt.y s pace helps give the Canal etto scenes such expectancy, es pecia lly in The Thames ulld umdoll from Richmond J/OII.J;C, and Wh itehaU alld the Privy Garde/I, which come from his ,rarious I...ondon sojou rns (8 .11 ). Th e ope n sky, the smooth water, t he emp t.y roadway draw us on , a nd cause possible mea nings to coast across their fl at expanses, gathering momentum and waiting to di scharge themselves. These and other Cana letto townscapes seen across water con tain an ec ho
, " d
TiqHJ/o, I'i/'/I/I rs i, Caml/etto
8, 1 I
C AN A I. F. TTO ,
235
Tit ,. Tlt lllll ('11 1I11d IAHHlon Inull Ilirh moml 1101411('
of a Duteh Mlisl from (,\' ell enrlirr in tilt' sC\'('lIt eenl h century than Berekhcydc lllld De WiU e. ESllius "UII de Ve ldc 's riell) of fh e Zic,.ickzee WtlS paillted ill 161 8, t hirty ."cu rs bdo rc Vermeer wus to paint Delft; but it shows t hlltthe sourcc of pure tOI)ograp hic poetry had already been tapped in Holland (8. 12), Th e Dutch ci ty. like Vcrmc(' r's Delft and Callilletto's Venice, seems already posing fo r Wordsworth . " ull bright mid glittering ill the smokeless air," with the sweC I) of bird lIud cloud relld), to move us across the vi cw, lind pull ou t of liS the surg(' of fc{'ling-"O eur God! The vcry houlies see m 118 Iee l), "
MOVINO
P I CT U R ..:S
•
- --
8 . 12
KSA'AS VAS
OS V~; LO~;,
" io ,' o!tJt, Zi, nrJ:u (
The totol tlo\'or of Ctllluletto's Q('uvre is in fuCI ulle"elllllld ulltnuilworthy. as if ench picture , instead of being u complete exumple of II puinler's general ollwnrd slnlggle for perfection-a performullce, us Guurdi's ureis rlltll('r o ne of 1111 clld ll'SS series of rt'heursuls. l'X I)erimelllu l frallles of which IIlllny come ou t brillian tly and some seem deud. A IllIlJIb('r of them a re also imuginury. 1'11(' eighteenth ·ce ntury Itnl iU Il de\,elopment. or t he IIr· c hi tecturu l capriccio. or imaginary idea l \'icw, in dicntcs IIlIew focus 011 the illdepellden t emotional fl lwor of buildings, IIpurl. from their ('lIlbe lii s hment of the luudscape, till'ir pructicil l inferest liS lanelmurks. or c"ell t he ir Inteli · t ionlll I heut riC1l.1 UI~es. By I he I illle of C1I.1l1lie ll.o lind Pi runesi , buildings had become c haractcrs-us the Dutch had scen them , lind 08 Chllrdill hod seen the objects in the kitchen. The consC
IIt>hint! Ihl' shHllt~I's liS til(' 1('tl\'PS Cilsi sllllfl nws o lllhp hvIISIIICCO('" willi, Alld ,\' ('1 Ihil) is ntoial fiClioll, 11 mo\'ie sN bu ilt Oul or th(' d('sigll(, I"S 11i'1Ir1ulld h rollj!hl 101irl' ill sJlIIl' klill~ 811 11 Shill(, oll ly 011 ('ull/ill, lto's SCI'PI'II , Th is kind of ('(lp,.;c(';Q IHll'l1ll1 l'II\' il'OIlIIIplI I II I IIl1lhorilY lllCkillg' ill Ih,' in\'(' IIIt'1I slllJ,!'(' ~i'ls Ihlll l'l1'1'",,' liS Pllillll'ti backdrops 10 lin' lIclion. or luckill!! ill UIIY th~ lilJ(' rlll('I,\' rantastical. 01'111.11(' cOllfi'Clioll Ihlll ,\'011 CUll IOllk Ill, bill 1101 hi' ill , 1I I'ri'. us ill Pil'litl,'si 's pr isons, Ill{' lic l iOllll1 buildillg' IIlIti (wopl(' ,1/'1' livillg' IOj!('l llt'r. fOl'lI lill!! nil (,lIli,'(' possih ll' wor ld, illciudillj! tilt' u ndl'rln llt's lind O\"'rlnlll's of 1I'III1S11' 1I(;1' thaI ClllI 1)(' fl' lt ill Ihl' looks of 1II1,\' rt'1I1 build illl;, f"t'slt or fudt' li. Bu ildings all e ill pi to d ('f,\' li ll H', ('(, I,tll in piCIIII'I'S o f bui lding's , hy show. ing l ilt' lighl ill Hlotiwl 011 lill'il' rac('s lind fOl' lII S, bl'illJ,!' up IhilS IISP('C I of I ltl'i,' PUI'I}OS{' , ('S llt'cillll,\' if s t I'lIcl ul'('S IH'i' s hown ill a stall' of t il'CII,\', Ti lll(, is Oftt' lI show n to Ilbl'lId{' Ih(' bodi('!» lind cini lll l h"liws of bllildil1l!'~ only alit· tlt'lrss quic kly Ihall it si'ls ils murk 0 11 hllluans, Bill ill Im c h \' i!iionary ror m, TUII.:er is n liVl' (8, I :j), Tht' tool inli' I'iol' Wlli l s
in II flN'l i ng piCI Ul'l' , HII illlllgilllll'Y hllilflillg' li\'l's r(ll'('\'('r likf. II 'I'lLI'll 01' II ~I il li derl(>y,
whe r(' groups
lIlId
c rowd .!>
1II11,\'
II lwlI,\'S 1)(' g'ulhl' ring' ill solid
IIIl1ls Ulle! I)OrticoNi I hllt 11('\'('1' W(' I'(' ,
Till' I}(·opl!.' in ('UlI/ll l'ttO'S SC(>lI('S ar l' J'{'IU!i'd 10 lhos!.' ill Pinllll'si 's, III1tI
bot h show COIIIH'CliollS wi t h Wllttt'IIU 'S PPI'SOIlIl(,1. (,SPPCililly his figurr,'>: lit
8, 1:1
C AN A I, t; TTO ,
(>III,,.'('('iQ: 1'/111/ ('1' wilif ('IQI'I.: TOI.' r r
) f OVINO
I'I C T U RE S
mode und figures dil'erses, 'J'h(' insouciant brilliancr of 1'('lld('rillg is Ihr same; a nd liO is tlu' gl'llph ic qllulity , li1e l'a:shioll '1.u'! iUlIIl Nlia cy of thl~ figIIres (8. 14), Pcasan ts and gell lr~: ill wi!!s !Ul\'(' ('(pia l plItluch e, s hllrt~d with Pirullcs i'jo) IIrchroiog'y-milldrd g1.'1I11('III('11 g'l' slic ulntiug oyc r IInellr l lH~ d s hnrd s, '1'1l r fig lU'CS in CalLnl ctt.o·s sC('lIr:; UT'(' ull (,lIrq!cticully Ilii,'(', wca rin g their "c hu racte r istic " or "'-"picnl" COS'Ullles wilh bri s k grllce, :-.1011C Il1iS 1-l ognrt l liuTI grotesllut'IIt:'SS 01' OW ,'IlUi IlI\(-",t'd pl'('tliTIt'liS, Th (>rc is no com ic ('xag~('ra l ioll, only a hil!h-comic, slightl y il'ollie charm, Like Wlltt('ClU'S glJl'dpll groups, I'](_-~' "a\,(> th(' idculllrhtlll look, ('\'CII in thl' occasio nal cou ntry- hou se s(-'tlillg: \'u ri(-'t,\' of civiliz(-'(I 1II0\'l'IIil'1I1. din-n;i l,\' of ChlSS and flll1Ctioll without UlI\\'oTI!NI ('xt.rCIlI(,S, POOl' an d rich a l'p prcse nt , hut 110 OIW is miss hapen 01' con' I'NI wi t h son"'s : 1101' is 1111."011(' on' rdressed or OVl'I'wcigh I. This mode ratioll ill Cn nni cito's vision uf poplllntioTl g in'li it it flu- gl'Pll t C)' degr{-p of oJltien l IT'lIt h Ihnn dol's IlIP kind of plillOl'lImU ins is li-nl 011 noliceab le cont rllsts: his 1t~ lllpel'ed, quasi-Dut c h npprollch to SII'N' 1 scclles echoes thp trup hllrlllon i;d ll g ac tion of till' )1('11 11';11 scn l1T1ill~ ('y£-'. A i'lll sl' "rcnlil y" of egrcg iolls skelda I b('ggnrs II TId blolltNI g-nl Tldel's (bol It of wh ich II IIdoli btI'dly pxiSlNi in eightccli th-cc li tu ry Venicc 1l1lf11.. OIlf!OIl) would in fUCI b(' lin ideal izat ion (01' idl'o\ogi 7.i T1g), II sty liZlHioTl of what is known , I'uth t' r Ihull 11 true mirror of wiull is seClI, If you look clos('ly at some of CUl lII lNlO'S pOOT', you Cilli spc Ihat th('y might be sick 01' wl,etched or crllZ)', Or thc ri(; h d epnl\'('d , if ~'O ll cou ld up· proac h Ilca r ('!lough 10 pXllmilip illdi\'idlllll s, Bill the light herc l'I'sel"\'£-'s ils OW II excitCIIU'nl. It s hi n('S ind isc ri min ately 011 hUTlllln lift' , li S if to sugf!('s t 811 ('qual d ra nullic potcllti al it,\' ill
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
NINE
Hogarth} Greuze} Goya
!Jon I tlU' sa me yetiI' as CU IIU' h'lIo. is ndOl'rd by t he Ellglis h h('clill se he SCf' IU S so f ree- o f co nlinc ll tli l inILL I A M
Ii 0 0 ART H ,
flu e nce, so d elicioll sly ind ige llolls. Til l' \"igol' Hlld bCllut)' o f his pnintiug' 8C1111111y owe mu ch to thl' F'r{,lIch Rococo lllil lillcr, bu t ee rtoiHly n otil iu g 10 lilly obsession wit II clussic grclll ness-li e pokes snl isfying ("till at Old 1\la8lers-alle! hi s illustrative lI1e thod s howlS /I l><'rrCCl B riti s h independence of the Dutc h g'(' IlI'(' 8lyle . 1-l ogl1l,t.h in fu e t "'('move" U\(' Dutc h o pticli i e le me n t (,IIL irel y frolll hi s plIillt illgS: they nrc full of obvious consc ious sUJ)(·riorilY
il nd art istic inten 'CIILioll. They ure u180 illfus(>d with the stroll g
l iter a~'
t e nor thai c hurllcll' rizcs so
milch Englis h crt!lIlivc tnle nt , ulld t hat has made the dl'ltlllRtic s tage and the lIo\'el su ch brilliant English IlIcdiu . The rc is nothing ci ne matic Ilbout 1-1 0gllrt h pictures , beclllise the re is very lill ie in his work thllt eorre.!;ponds to th e st ing of dircct vis io n. J."'or H oga rth , t.he tru th in I)ic t ures is bes t conveyed by working 011 t he vicwer ·s previously digested vis ua l llssUlnptions, a s clIrtoon urt and the sati ric s tag'C "Iwnys d o. In Hognrt h 's grap hic works th(' imagery is j lllluned wilh llIen ning li nd c rowded with incidc nt; everything is d e moll strulrd lUld cx p licuted in successive pnragrnphs of witty pictorilll prose. The s pntia l arrllngemellts a re made eS I)eeially for suc h a pu rpose. lind Iliwe t hnl s howca se, sInge-pic t ure look. the fnmiliar s hadow box ill whic h the rye is prillwd to find ChiC,!;, lugs , alld kt·ys ill lUI accustomed a r rlly. Hogllrth is mu eh prai sed a s a po rtrnyer or individuals. be ginn ing wit h h is por t rnitl'i a nd end iug with the ("IUOliS engraved scenes abou t the rnke a nd t he IIlIrlot, the app rr ntices !tnd t he ill-mntc hed spouses. Such "i" id indi,·iduals as he created , hOWe\1Cr, a re IIOt shown inside " bel ievabl e visual fi e ld . E " en the ramou s com posite port rait of h is servants shows th e r!lees ill isol!ttion, eac h a mas te rpirce with no m il ieu .
c
1I0f/(/r/lI, GrrllU, Goy"
2 -I I
WII CI'NIS the 101111 mis,~ ·e n ·scP II(· ill II 1-log'IlI'lh ellgl'lH'ing rends like spir, iled prose, the sl ight eXllggel'l.Il ioli or l'vel'y figlll'(' giws euc h I>t'rsolilige th(' sp<'cific ('n'ecl. or Il declaimcd vcrse, wh(,l'('ili pe l'line nl d eta il s, IIUlIIY or thelU stupid ulld III('SS,\', art' ti('scribNI ill c lCllr Ilnd c l{'''el' rllYIII (,s, lI ognl'tll WliS a seJr·conresscd moralist-tb" b('li"\'lIuilit,\' or his piclorill l declulIUIlion depended 011 his urillinllt liS" of pllrllhli', whl'rt~ tll(' characters art' 1111 eXllmples, H is rcncicri nlJ' e or situutiollS , ho\\'('\'e l-, does not r,"'\" , 011 l'e,'ellltOl')" " ,lOWl'l' the truth or apilurition, The mo,'('IIlCIi I of light hus vcr.... little (ol'e(' in his schemes, Th e group iug is c1ont' with contrasts or delilicUlioll-thc rat jux· tapol>ed with the thin, t he stin' willt til{' lom;(', 111 (' hidl'Olisly distorted with the pu rc and sim ph-, Fa ces 11l'C r{'duccd wl'sions of t he progl'ulII , I I oga I't h' s a pp roach to us is Illude us if to I'('ndt~rs of AI,IKlIstUIi pONry, which w ru ps und l)ilU; the brutullibsul'd ity of lir{' into stUllllill~ cou plets, l'uth (,1' Ihan to sympat hetic obsen'crs e,,"ciug the difficult world. Hogal'ih's cngrllv('d st.or ies show how tI picture cnn bt, ddt I,\' filter('d tlll'ough t he fami liar hili' guage of pr int.ed lines, the SIlIlW 011(' thul pun'C'ys morB I hiles tmd cxposi· tory ,'crses, so IHi t.o indiCllt(' by thc pic turc's \'(' I',\' r01'1II thut il.l ike t hem, is to be rC'ud through- llCl'haps aloud 01' sct to lIlusic-not grllspf'd ut 011(' gla llce, J-i ogllrth WKS n gr('at. uhsorber or EuropClI1I Ilrtistic s tyles through the med ium or cngrlwrd reproduc tion, "mill(' WliS Yl'ry good at. quoti ng t h('m, 'rh e r(>fincd hlllgllll~CS or F'h'lIc h I>ngrnv illl! hnd, 1II0r('over, becolIll' w{'11 kllOWII ill En ghllld by his l ime, 11IId I-Iognrt h himself WIIS Il fr;('l!(i or Ill{' fo--rcnch cngrll\'c r Gruyelot, who lived ror ycnrs ill Englllllci nnd had u deep {'ffcCL 011 fo::nglish gruphics , Book illusll'utioll wus II 1<'1'('lIc ll luxur,\' product. 8\'ailuble ill ElIglulld, aud ShllkespNu'e illu st l'ntioll WllS nll'cady un Ell/Zlish 81)ccia lit,}' in this French lIIeclillln; thp EugliJolh public fO l' IIl't WIIS w{>11 lICchsto mcd to bcautifully cilgrawd piCIU I't>·stol'ies. On'('I't'(1 ill II lorty liteI'M), contcxt. Hogart h 's trallsforlllution of ('xquisite c lIgr!t"illg in to Il IIwcliulII (or the kind or cmdc lII ora lity tait' fo rme rly cOllfill(>(\ to chcup brolldsides wa s thus a st roke or pub liciz ing geni us; hut it nlso kt'pt his nl\ rI'ati\'{~ imagery fi 1'111 Iy illsid~ the I>phe l'l' of Iiterllry (orlll , II WtlS oilly ill the pOl'trllit s, in cludi ng IIl11t or the lInollYTnOUS shrillip girl, thlll HOglll't h used II Inliy painterly eye, c"cn a cinellliltic onc, which sees t.he prOcess of expcrience at work, not. just the chuill or circlIlIIst.IlIlCe, Joseph H ighmore's 1)llil1 t ings thnt illustratc Hichurdsoll 's Pa ll/eio COllie much c lose r th811 Hoga rt h 's to Chardill's groups lind e,'(,11 t.o Walleltll's, and t.o Dulch genrc
rt-d
Ie
242
ll O VIN G
1' l e T
Ki-:S
s illll>lc mornl s tory. l'l igh mor("s portrnit called .lI r. Oldllalll (llId his Fr iends lUiS 1I11l0\,ie·frame look nk in to T('rbruggh(, II 's A!(lltllcw. wlier(' so me odd· loo king mell ure s hown inte racti ng umlJi guoll s ly I.I round U tab leto p, lind we fr cl druwn int.o t.hrir COllip/.Iuy Lo fiud oul who 1 1 1(~.v are und whllt's afoot n), l). The people in thi s pa inting seem IItlLurli lly funllY; Hi ghmore do('s n' t push their comic featurl's at us, we are free t.o see thew for our· se lves , und feel spolltlllleoll sly disnrmed by them. They make Hoga rth' s cOlllie turns like A MidlliylLl M odern CQ III 'Cr s(liioll s{'e m nlll h{' lUorc slugy, becau se Hogil rlh pointedly urges us 10 lungh nl his t.ol)erS llnd smokers wit h superior cietllchmc nl (9. 2). BU l Higlllll orc's group, like his P(lIn e/a. alld C/ari.wJ ser ies lind Ho· garth's oe une, mainly underscores Ihe II CW scculur unt! i llll stra li\'l:~ 1.111"11 la ken b." pninling a ltoge th er, wh ich r{'presenlS II giant s tep a long th e route of c illcmatic rep resl'nt.atioll, Recoun t ing cOIl t.e lll porury lIlora i laleR outrigh t without any Biblica l or legendnr." guises has been II pri lli li ry movie Itlsk fro Ul th e fi larl, as it W/.lS the tfls k of fiction in t he ninNee nth century; but Rim hlls been espec ially good lit work in g in the o pposit.e di rection, c relt ting' tell
{l.
!L1
JOSK PII " IG IlM O KE , Mr. Old/Will /J 1j(J lI ilf f', ir/Hi s
/lOf/flrth, Grnae. Goya
!1.2
W
ILL I A lot II 0 0 A KTil , A .II id IIiyhl J/ ol/I'rll
CIJ1I 1''' r~wl i(J II
myths Oll t or IIl'W nHlterilil lind hi~l illg ('vide lice o r old 801ll'C('S, e\'('11 whi le nlllking use or t hei r II bid iu g power, pUll orsky COIIIU'Ct ('d I his implli se of cin, e lll il with lIIedi('\'u l sl.DI'i('s ill piCIIII'(,8; bill Ihe InH' cilll"llllltic \,islllll ,¥Iylc. 1I0ll hc lIW-whic h CIlII CO II\'(',\' lh(' direct 8 1'IISC' 01' PI'I'SOIUlI r('t~ lillg (01' persomll rtlntu sy) en'lI while it illu slraH's 1111 ('dir,\'in~ 1110<1('1'11 pllrllbl(' IIl1d draws s('crelly 011 1111 ullciell! myth-was ollly ri'ally perrec tNI by t ll (' IlIl e sc\'cnl('('lIth ct' lItur), Hlltl rl'fined ill 11 /(' piJ,!'iltl'(,lIlh. 11 goes wilh II COllibinll' Lioll , npparclltly. or ItSC('llclllllt Protestalltism III1lI caJlital is m, such us prl"vi\iled ill fi('Wnleenth-ccnllll'y Holllllld , t~ ight('(,lIlh 'ct' lItll l'y Englund , unci cve ntulilly ill Aillcrica, lite nlltural hOllw or 111(' lIIo\'i('s. I n such works or a rl i II II iglllilore' s nncl Cha rd iII's I illW, I he c)('\,cr com bi, !lulion or IIl1lurIlIIlPI>l'urIlIlC(,S with figlll'C'S illspil'l'll by rllshioll IIrt gll\'c II modern interior thnt S IlIlH' look or 1I lin'd,ill drl"UlIl Ihut IHQ\'ies IIOW pun'('.\' . whi Ie t I\('y d(' l iciolls ly t I'll IISI11 it t h('i r lIIodl' rll hO Ill il iCl; or uillbit iO Il ami du ty, lo\'c und b('lrllyui (9,a). Tl lis dC'\'ic(' mllk('s Ilul'ruti\'p illto Iwo thillgS 111011(:(' , liS movies do: Olle is thl" SNtliNICl' o r ('n'IIIS. t hl" plo t: t h(' ot hC'r is the Sl"quencc or Oll r pcrsolUtl cXlwri (,lIces 1hat I1CeOll1 plllli('s til(' plOl, COIiSiSI i ng or uppal'cllII." irre le\'ullt phC'1l01Ilelln. 111(' p l't~cis(' flu\'or or pil."s icul 11111108phere. lind the engage ille nt or IlI'i\'uh' IIlNll ory lind rUIIIIlSY, III pr(,8(,1I1,dll), mode rll fi lm , liS ill 1II0d('1'II fiClioli . silch mnt(, I'iltJ IIIIlY in rilCI cOl1slillllC Ih(' whole or Ilw IIl1rrl1lin', lIIal lJ(· !Satisryill/.;' tlilli cOlllpr('it('lIsible, De Hooc h
)IOVING
I'ICTIIRt:S
9 ,:1 JOSEP H 1I1 0IlMOR~; ,
rll,. /IarlOtr,. Fam ily
hud 10ll g ngo Cf{'/J{('t! thl" snllle e!Tect ..... ith illlllgill/Jry pllluces, IIlId ..... ithou t usi!!g lilly III H'cdotul COIIIC lIl; Sc hul ckell hud bl.'ell 11101"1.' or tt storyt(' lI l.'r , Ifi g hmorf' p,'ooig-nullt middle·cluss sloriel) with ru irY· llt le on'rloue!). jusl liS Dutch ,'rl igioul) painters ill I ill' pr('\'ious c('lIlury ~II\' (' til(' I('gellds tile f!twor of lIIiddl('·clus!) co nfrolltations und dilrlllllllls , B~' 111(' ('igille(,lIlh ce ntury III(' \·iSHIiI forlll of modern IIltrrati\'{, IIltd til<' ad\,ltntage of 111(' callu'r/Jlike, subjecti\'(, exprt'ssi\'(,II(,ss thnt the DUleh hud perfec lN.i. to crl"ule direcl elllotiollal pull. But Hogarth did,,'1 lise it. His work is more likt> tilt' lIledievul ca n 'ings or Ihe enrliest do,.se macabre prints, befof'(' il olbein, ..... here til(' forlll itself luts its OWII \,igoroIl8uuthority, IIlId th e mornl 1lI('ltlljllK is thnuit hOIll(, through that. II is not. Tom Ruk(>· well's plight. bUI Hogarth 's lIIind 811d halld we urI.' foreNI to confront, alld
lIoUa r/lI, GI'I' II Zt' , Goyo
24 5
feel, und tnkl~ persona lly, "lllIos! pilysicnlly: we gel his wOlld('rful wily Wilh descripl ion, like Dil rer ' s, Hoi the sense of wil Hessing I he Ii" i ng of Tom's inc rensi ngly dp~(>erlilc lifl' , Th e (orcc'O f uri prl'\'Plits Ihe pic turc's hllrs h CO illent. f"OIlI rl'nchillg us dirf'cl iy, UlIl}I'ctenlious popular illus tm tin g'l"Ilphics w",'c nll'endy a med iulU perfected rOI' seculur thrills a ll On'I' "';uropl' by Ii ogart.h 's t ime, Along with the torture and ex('clItioll of h(' r('licJ; lind tll(' horl'ors of rf'i igious wur. brond shecls had illusl.ralNI the cxploits Illld pUl1i!$hlllt~ lJt s of th icves , kidllilPPCI'S , and IUli rcirre l'S liS s('nsnt iolllilly liS possib l(',lI nd hud recol'ded IIIIUlZ illg alld Itwful phc nolllc llll , Domest ic moral ity hnd al so IOllg bee n II th e!lll' for popula r print s, ulthougJr po plllllr pic ture s d('ult wilh 1II0rn il ife ill U lIl or(' nllegol'iC1l1 thlln pc rsonal way IIl1 ti l l h(' la ll' s(>\'(,lItC('nlh cen tury_ Beforl' tlmt , iu s teud of n 11I11' nbollt II I'NII young IIIUII , P" jll ts wou ld illust rllt.e t he rllte of lhe Prod igal on- in modern dress, I)("rhllps, Lat er 011, It lIlodcrn tale would hide t he Biblicil l 011(' IIlIdc r apl>enlillg CUrrell t de tail !Iud dnu llutic ci rClIlIl s tllltC(" By t he e ight ee nth cell tlll',\' , whell Hogllrth's gretll scell{'s were painted , ellgrllved, IIl1d publishNl , bot h til e Engli s h lind lh e ~uro l)(,1111 pub lic we re HCCIISI.OIlWd to sll'night "('flliijt ic melod ra mll II lId lII od erll a necdote. Il ppeoring ill the forlll of printed pi cttll'cs IIml he ing used flS lIIedin for gCllera l 1Il0rilitilellles Ilnd curr('nt ('\'CII1S, Da" id KUll zle has showl! how popular pictur,'-stori(,ij of tht· mid -eightee nth ce ntury bega n to cOllcentrul e 011 th e psycholog ical uuc kground of c rimes, und 11 0\ j u ~t 011 their s hoekiug d('lllils oncl gris ly pUlli s hmcnl.s, The persollul c hnract.e r of crimillHl s bl'ClIlIIl' in lt' rcst ing, lIud the rOllllllltic c rim inal cnme iu to existence-lh!' dli Shill g I>i rate ulld highwnytll lln , the jolly if larcenous WO Ill IlII of pl('usHre, nil precursors of the movie gUlislingcr, bounty hUllte r, and c rinw cznr, thl' sYlllplltil etic VIIlIIp nncl trlllllp , At the same lilll e, th e s tudy or physiognomy b('clllile 1111 ill1l)Ortllllt illflu enc(' on 'P01)ll lar picture-s tor ies. ullowing the lll to dwell on till' pI'rpetulIl eomecly of individuill looks, Ca ric.atu re d e\'(' lopcd quickly ill this lIew climut e, It was a lso ill t.he eight ee llth celllll" Y thllt empha s is in popular pic t.ul'es s hifted from a de light in horrors to Il horror of ubuses: they begall to express th e Sf'nse or c r ime /.IlId its s lIit/.lble Illllli s illuclil us It soc illl proble m, 1101 810 straight scnSlitionll l 1'Iltertainmellt, Hogarth se ized 011 a nd expoll lld('d all th esl' th ellles at once, and he lIlade money-but in th e most sophis!icnted IIrtis tic lIIed in of th e time, tho t. is, ""' rench-inspired pa int.ing ulld cllgrn"ing, H is pic turNI aI'(' not inl.l' rllaHy e ine lllotie, but he forelShadowed thnt. synthes is of high ond low uri only lat.e ly aCCOIllI}lishccl in fi lm, whe re re rere nces to lo rty I}rototypes und lowdown modes of curre nt eXI)ressioli are fused ill th e t.e lling or gripl)ing human st.ories aimed nt.ll ll c1 asses_ At the t ime, such u synth esis was newly
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poss ible in forn'srd- Iooking England. where classes were on the mo\'c, public opinion WlUi becoming II recogni zed forcc. und it become cleM that public leeling, urged by pictures, could give s uch opinion it s s hupe. With allihis, hi story pa inting wus dec lining, if not in s tatus, lit leas t ill importallce. Mode n. s ubjects became aPI)ropriat e for ser iOIiS puin tPrs. not just for I)Opnlar grllphie nrtists, in the sa llie period Illut novels were becom· ing ser ious lite rature and newspapers and journals COllllllon readill g, Indi"id unl pen;onn l fceling evolved int.o 11IIIlvowed tlu'me for serious IIl't. not a cove rt one. Grnphie ski ll s and t.ec hnilale through II porous ground of g ranulated res in. 'T he med ium was now fu r t her dcveloped to permit authent ically lonal printed pictures lind clIlmrc greatcr nat uralis lll for chiaroscu ro effects, especially when lI sed ill COlllbimnion with e tched linps, Goyu's g reat. C('JH'jchQ~', lIIudc at. t he c ud of the cc ntury . dCIilOllstrut ed the triumph of that. med ium as II mell llS of originul ex pressio n. but it Iliul CO III(> to be used in England to reproduce illus trat ive un d topognlphicnl wal('rcolors, to presen'e t hei r lltill osplic ric immediacy, The im'cntion of lit hography in 1798 by the BII\'ur illll COlll lllcrcinl lll't ist Aloys S('Ilt'felde r nlso offe red a new field for spon taneous expressio n in d irectly re produciblt' pictures. Workli with the transl>a rellcy of watercolor a nd the strong chia roscuro of ink and wash could be d irect ly cllptured und SOOIl seell by thousands . without being fi rslll{'tted in It web of lines. Orllphic a rt could be more " gruphic'" in t.he se ns(' of "tn/thflll, " less so in t he sense of "w ritt en ," News, CO IUIlI ClitilrY_ und lIurral.i\'e, both picto ria l und lit.e rary. round II ready public in England; but fo r the F rench pub lic. officiul Acudemy ex hi · bitions alld cons tllnl critical att cntion gave seriotls paintings n much greater prest ige allci Ilekllow led ged importnnce, Churdill 's paintings were sold as engrllvings only after they had been known in Acnde my ex hibitions, Ore uze (whom th(> French culled "The Jo' renc h Hogarth") owcd hi s fu niC lO Dide rot's e motion II I respo nse to his works, exp rcssed in lucid nrticics thut instructed the viewing public how to react. Th e !,"illts wel'C sold accord ingly. Hogn rth receil'ed no stich Cl'iLicnl c nlulIl ce llllmt in his OW II cou ntr),: he promoted hi s own pictu res. und his publi!sher sold them-or they sold themselves, c\'e n co mmented on th(,lIlsclves in th e comic and violent ma nner lacking in Greuze's works. B O T U GreU7.e aud Hogllrlh were populur nrtists who were essc ntil1 l1y ser ious hist.o ry-pn inters, Both cn me e\'Cll tunlly LO use their painter:s clnssi-
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2 47
cal, art -histo rical knowledg(> and trll ining for IJml erilll Ihat hnd fo rmerly only bee n vulgarly portrayed , in works that plensed the genera l public muc h bette r t.han any s trictly popular artist s had done, It W<1S It time when art-good art-be gun to penetrnte and inform life, whe n mOre peo plf' could see lwd know und IIIIVC it. a nd be chllngcd by it ulUlwnr(>s, so ns to s('e things on its term s, Mo\'ies have confirmed this process as a law of modern lite; and these two artists were am ong those who begun it, in the C(> lItll r~' of general enl ighte nmc nt . Bluck-and -white reproduc ible illlllges. need less to suy. were its c hid medium. Although Grcuzc's emc rgcllt Ncoc lnssic se llsi bilit y lIlukes his g raceful scenes of moral life vcry different from Hogll rlh 's fl erci' and chaot ic OIl('S. bo th s hare the idea of theatriclil eX ))OSi l ionl hnt appears illlll Odc I'II 1Il1is icni comedy rathe r {lum in mo\' ies. The music that st'cms to infuse all thei r scenes is expressive song, not c rnolio nlll t hemat ic bnckground sound. the underscori ng by which movies a re so well nOllJ·ishcd. III bot h a rt ist s' work. everyone scems abou t to s ing or rec itt' , lI ot to spcilk . The very ltSPf'CI th€' characters "'cur, liS we have s uggested , is cO llwycd ill se lf·evidently poetic s tyle. So is their be havior . Thl' part('d lips lind l'x tellded IlUlld of Grell zc's fraught so n or )lUrent signal the Slart of a tOllc hillg bullnel , j ust as Hogarth 's IIcn 'Oli S qUil ck or lIotl.lry S('€' 111 8 a bollt to il n a ng€' brill ili ll t rhymed couplets into a comic pat.t('r-song, 10 (' xplain hi s busi ness, his t rou bles, a nd his views . For a modern operll based 011 TILl' Roke's P rogress. Hogu rth mude a 118turlll third in the ~coc liis s i c cOlllbilll.ttioll of Ande n und Stravinsky: they, 100 , modem ized es tabl is hed modes by aduplillg th em to th e ironic vein, in s lcud of IIl llint ainillg a rCVe l'Cll t I>ostur(' towul'd the m. as Gr('uzt' kept t.rying to do (9 .4 ), Greu ze was ulready in reac ti oll to the Rococo spirit. whic h in E ng land still ensured that eve n Hoga .·th's most horrible scenes mi ght keep a light louch. Bu t Gre uze d id take up the opt ion to II SC' thi' appl'lI l of CUI're llt fll sh · ion fo r injecti ng se r ious genre subjects with 1111 illllll('(l iatt· e ro tic ism. His (aney-portrait s of mod is hly dishev{'h-'d s in ful gil'ls, s woonillg with the pleasures of re mo rse. huve Il very fllmilillr look; they rl' ~(' lllble the mode rll icons of cOlllmerc ill1 art I.hll t. d c libc rll t e l~' s how 11 0 I>t'rsollill dlllra ctc l' bu t only llll ideul fUlltli SY qUlll ily-th e t.h ousands of ind is tillgui s lulble l!loistlipped and intensely gazing fa ces selling t he erot ic f'lem c nt in all forms of goods and se rvices. ns G,'euzc's denlOis('lIcs sold se ns un lity an d mo ral ity lit o nce. Both Hoga.rth und Greu ze were movi ng. with tileirce nt ury, towllrd dellions t ra.ting th e exc ru cinting pl easurcs of strong feeling. They wi s hed to make outrage or remorse, despai r or pan ic d{'lj c joll s l ~' noficwbl e a nd perhaps even d esirable co nditions or the soul. right along with se rell it .\' uncI ('x -
(
~ Igt";
tar I
248
MOV I NG
9.4
J . - It .
PICTURI:-iS
0 K It lJ Zit.
TIl t! CItU.tiK(1 SfJn
ullution. or extrelll(, pride, bnlull lust. ulld smug cOlllplael'lIey. All IhE"se hud firsl. of all to s!tow. far more thun uny plol had to be clcur-or thlln thc rcally ambiguous tcxture of feeling liS it is experit'lu!cd hud to be dcult wit h. Hogurth , l.lnd Dillcrot 011 Grcuzc's beilu lr, ulso ud\'ocilled dcliberllt c usymmetry in eo rn pos itioll. to COllvey thc sClise of {' lI lotioll UI d rumu, but ill thcir wor ks such nrrnngclllcllts secm to stnlld for clIlotioll rutilcr t luHI gene ral.ing or r('fle ·ting uny. In the elTort 1I0t to b(' decorlltiv(' 811d frivolous, lind to insist. On tilc morul melll1ing of Ihe lOl.ul SCl'lIe, both these artists nlso forced nil inunilliutc objects to sen'c the theme. This III('IIIIS thuL thc Ihillgs in the pictures hu\'(' nont' of thul pussiOllllLC indt'l)elldl'UI cilu rllCler thnt in· \'ests Chardin 's domcstic gear . They art' all ovcrdeLermined; und so they do not crt'ate the uuru of frt'c ps~' chic mO\'ement thnt gi\'eij ilUwilllllte things in lIlo\'ies their important. power. Michael Fried strt'sses the lIim in Greuze's uri, a8 Didero t snw it unci wunted it. of IIIllking the cilurueters ignore or ('\'en s lllli Ollt lilly possible beholder: lind yet thry do seem ready. absorbed as they lIIay be. to burst into
1/09ar1 Jr , GI"I"w'. GO!l(l
249
-,
rhymed soliloquy or II solilur~' medililtin' .. rill, The illle ll se ubsoqHioll o r t.hese churaCl.er s, like the \'cllalllims of I logllrth 's IH'Oph', need ed ill filct. to be palpab ly o\'erdone so as to ent rance an aud ience, in the ancie nt stag(> trudil ioll , T he viewer is no t e ncolllillissed und drawu ill as a possible lIc lOr. as ill Ve rmeer lind in I Ill' movies , hilt left Slill'illg IIl1d trulls fi xed out s ide al II given distance. He CII Il 'l escape; ilnd so t he moral CUIl ' t csclIpe him. Bo t h these artis ts li re s p('llb inciers lind mes meri ze rs. w('m' iug a lIet o f faces ClUe! gestures d emanding the ki nd of IItlelltioll the stagl' g('ls. en t rapping allllUdi ence ill the bewitching rites of live l>cdorlilulice. The eightecllth-ce n tur.\· ill us trator wh o mo r(' closely foll owed ulong Ihe pat h that lends betwee n RClIlbrulldt lind th e movi es was the Polish·C:erlllun Ilrtist Olill ie l Chodowieck i. born lllP yeur lifter Grcllzc. He was lIotlUu ch o f a pa int er; but he , too, d id g ruphie seque llces s howing the contra s ting e f· fects of vice and virtuI' in mode nl life, besides sn tiri z ing soc iu l liud est hetic pN'teu!;ionl> nllel illustnlling works of ficl ion. H is works llrc in tillY forlllllt. late ec hoes o( the pe rsona l mode t hnt hnd been in\'(:' lIt ed (01' t.he lIIedi eva l il · lu minations a nd so strikingly promo ted ill print by Holbe ill fo r his Dunce 01 Death. Two lind a half ceilluries Inter. C hodowiec ki did hi s minillture sc(~nes as ill ustrations for printed nllllaUlleS, fo r 1\ middle·cl ass audie nce this time directly cOll ce rrwd with ",calth, sex. llud lIIo rlllit y, ruth er thnn wit h th e mellnings 01' sacrl'fllegends to II f~'Hdal hif' rnrchy. or wit h th e Itc· naiss811ce vi ew of til l old d idu ct ic forlll , But Ihe IlIlIollnt o f drama Chodo· wiccki, lih H olbe in , could stir lip in 1I tWQ·by-Iwo·llIId·lI ·half· in c h SJlucc is nstound i ng. nl though Chod owicc k i II illlsc I f Will; cO llIsciousl,v bDl' rowi ng frolll Hogarth, He was e ncouraged ill this hy the G(' r nlllll c r it ic I,lic htenberg, ill whom HOg'tlrth's wor ks e\'cnhllll l,v 1'0 uI!d tl lei r UWI! lIIosl pcnet rlltiug COlllmentn· tor u ud enthus illS t. Bu t Chodowi eck i hud H far more subj ect ive app rouch 10 Ilnrrutive pictures t han Hogllrt h. eS I)('c ililly with regnrd Lo fucial ex pres· sion , Luvnter's huge iIIus t rlltcd theory o( physiognomy. publ ished bet wec il 1775 a nd 1778 und (Iuiekl,\' trnnsilltr d. ",us c ncou raging nUIll~' art is ts to consider fu ces with new ntt c utioll; but l..I icht enbe l·g und C hodowiecki both found Lavute r's basic cOllet'pt-t illll tilt, originll l iind God·givell silup(>s of heads aud fuces arc llbsolute illdicUlors of c hnra ctc r- lo be both sup('rsti · tious lind rid iculou ~. Licht.(>llbel' ~ urged C hodowieeki 10 drllIollstrntc th e oppos illg 1Il0de ril ideu tlUlt c huruClcr grnduu lly shllJ>(')i Ihr fn c(>. Olle of his seque nces s hows the progress of depru\' ity IIlId virtuc ill the fllc e ulone , with ve ry little ot her Ilnrrlltivl' mat erial ill cilch pic ture . They cOl/sequentl,v huve a ci nc mnt ic. close-up look, ill/lllediat e IIlId perso llal (!l ,5), On tllf' oth('r hund . H ogllrlh's faces , ullu tfected by theory, lire ill hnrlll on,\' with the well· developed Englis h t lwlltriclil s l~ nsib i l i t y. and th e llI'li s lic sources a rc
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PICTU R ES
••
i,
,
"
lo"'rench Rococo ill a detached and refined tradition, Chodowi ecki 's fa ces follow a program to disprove Lavale ri but his emot ional and dramatic sou rces are in Rembrandt-t he aim is to render t he Ittl COII Sc iollS look of psychological statcs a nd inward chnnge, rnt her than the acutely commulli· cative look of conscious feelillg, Chodowieeki's faces are devoid of grimace; t he settings are simple but suggestive; the compositio n and li ghting ca rry the rea l dra ma . There is very little gratuitous riot among subsidiary cha racters and material trappings-the a rti st, like Greuze, was at work in t he Neoclassic a mbi ence of the century's second haJJ. Bu t he was also a Nort hern artist. The story of a rake's ruin or a d issol ute woman 's downfall is told in small moments aud encounters rather than scenic set-pieces, and variable ways of opening up the space in side t he little fram es g i,'e mob il ity nnd possibility to the understated ac ti on-a s treet leading back , with a ca rriage in s teep foreshorten·
/loyal'l', .
-
OpjJOJ/it,. Ubul"r:
!.I.r. oJ/. S
I ~; I.
C IiOD O W IECKI.lwopfl.gNlrrom
Tit,. ProIJrt"1I6 01 \"irtNI' llOOl'1':9.6
IHld
" irf'. 1778.
DANIIo:I.
CIiODOW 1K CK1,
Tltir.tlQr
/(Hol/'It dgc 01 tit , World, S4!rnf' from Tit , Lil" 01 11 Hu!'·,. 1714 . Higltl:9 .7 DANIEL C H ODO WIE CKI, {'SNI"
TIt ,. til" 01 aH lIIo('(/lIt"ulcd Oirl. 1780 H'/Ng',
Stf'IIt' rrolll
O"(lI U . GQ!Jl1
25 1
252
MOVINO
PI C T U R,.;S
ing, llll open door or window, and visi bl e light ill motion to give the sce ne a »syc hologiculunit y (9.6, 9.7). 'I'h(,8e printed narrative s('qu cuccs of thc eight een th cc utury wcrt' attem»ts at. rca listic storyt e lliug fraul(' by frl1l1lt', the c rea ti oll of romans I1wets. us the French culled lI ognrt h's works , to pllrulll'l the plays llnd nove ls of the sallH' l)C:riod. Graphic cX I>ressio li sui t ed 1.111' lIew st'cuhlr lIanat ive mode; it used old populn r trllditiOIl!; as 11 source for new artistic in sights and a base (or lIew artistic IIl11bit ioliS . 1'hc llles curri('d Ollt. in graphic (orm , 1I0t in paiut.ing, by a fir·st.-ra t." urli st with first-rale trHiliing, could be all the more Immllllly unive rsal withoul being religi ous. They could ulso b(' all the lIIorc lib('rutcd from th e solellln ities of officinl high art as well us frolll the perc('ived folli es nnd illlpersonlllllllloralit ies of offici,!1 d£'corati\'(' a rt.-that is. naked nymphs in thc Bouc h£'r mode. Ornphic IIrt offered n new way (or IUI8mbitious nr tist. to be seriOliS inn seculnr \'('in , uS genrc I1rt IIlId done for the DUlch ; lind Il sim iltlr wlly to be successful , in Ihe absc nce of plltroll8gc (rom nobles or an established Churc h. F'ihn art has done the sa me (or the gn"l)hic tnlcliis of t his c('nt.ury, IIHowing them to build II grcnt lIew sec ul ar mythology and Il ncw unive rse of ns rrntive vision 011 lin old populllr form , Hnd to be huge ly successfu l at it. I N MID - E IOU TEl-; N T II - C 1-; ST U R Y England . th e mos t cco1I0micnll.\' ndvunced nlltiOIl at. the tim(', slIch a eo mmerc illl turn (or art to hIke seems a suitllble sign of thosc umbitious times. In Frullce und Ger many, producing narrative material in pOJlular printed form IIIl1y rllliu'r be associated with fresh ideals of freedom, uncI o( artists as exponents o( r"ee exprcssion- personal or political-and as the only proper critics of socie ty_ [II Spain , 011 the ot her hllnd, one of the lII ost backward COUll tries in Eu rope by the end or the eighteenth cenlury , Goya neve rt.heless callie to use graph ic mcdill ill wllys that. were libe rated from reec nt formal artistic 11111guages. popular or loftY-8lthough IIOt. from pus t popular t.IJemcs . OOYlI'g graphic lIrt is emancipated but certllinly not divorced tromlrad itio nail)OplIlar subject matter; and yet ut the su me time GOYli wus a cou rt paint.er on the most t.raditional model. The re was very litt le "public" ill Spain of the sor t to which Hogll rth, G reuze, or Chodowieeki could appeal, alld Napoleon came to ecl ipse the cou r t Ooyu sen'ed . It was pcrhnps illc\'ituble thut he should g rlldualiy become a privately preoccupi ed ltrtist in the tradition of Rembrandt, with a coterie or adlllirrrs rath~r than a public. And, like Hembrandt, he eventually spoke to the whole world through the or iginality and l)Owe r of his graphic works. Fred Licht has called GO)'8 the tirst.llIodt'rn artist, s howing that his disturbing and unflattering visions of hi s royal s itters, for example, df'mon-
, " d
IhHj"r/ lt ,
(;rI'IIZI',
Goy"
...
"~,'l
!)trate lIot u curicutu red ve rsioll o r Ih('II1, which would imply 1111 ideul rrolll which they depart£'d , but u lIew ;'ul iellaINr ' "if'w that. the IIt,tist. silltl'es with his portrait subjects. Such /I "iew porI rays royal b('ings 110 longer sup· I>orl.ed by the structure of hUllllln raith ill God's will. which kt'eps thelllllnd the urti",t und thc bcholdl'r nlikt' COll\'iucl'd o f tlH'ir di vin cly ordui,\('d "'"I}£" rioril .\'. It illslC'ud "hows ('neh 011(' Lltnls l ulo ll,' ililo Ihe "oid, fucing o ll ly himsel f, Euch priHc(' 0[' duchess IIPIWlIrS 10 kllow th(' StUll£' cxist{,lltilll lolie' lil lcss tlla!.lIrtisls i,l "Ilriou s IIlI'diu hav(' since shO\\'I1 is the cOllllllonlol, UII(I thus the 1)1'01)('1' COIllIlIO!! cI{,lIomilllllor ill nll pOI't rllits-1Wlf·, royul , o r otherwise, Ooyuus art ist thus lllwurs prrSe lll1'l hi mself us felluw slIl!el'u. not ns in· teq)ret.c r j und hi s works, espccill ll~' Ihe graphic sNllle ll ees bolh enrl,\' nncl lute, bot It til(' Co In'ie/ws und lilt' /)'-,">(I .;;II' r 8 uf " '(1/' , nrc "er~' bnsic docu men Is of th e cillellmtic ideal : the nbsolule lSubj(>(:!i\'(' view. The viewer is engllged by the subject its('lf, 11('\'('r by "rl:s traditio nal vi('w o f it or by thl' artist's power over it, whic h stllnds in for God's I}ower o\'cr the ordC'ring IIlId lIIeliU ' inK of !tumlin life. It is bliSic, h('elluse Go)'n Cllnl(' more IIlId mol'(' t.o work only for hi mself a nd less for lIlI,\' co ntl'llIpo mry pUblic. so his uses of cu r · rency in visual nUlterinlltcCtlll1(! more nud more de"oted to the CU r l'('llc,\' of fantasy , ruth cr than of comlllO!! visliul fncts (!J.8). For the Cap""cJws he often used eO lUlllon fnnlilsy mnte rinl frOIll known tales a!!d plnys, bUI in p r i\'ule \'iSlIU li7.1I1ioll!;. tllld nol for the I-I ogllrth ilill killd of public COIIIIII('II' tary , which relics 011 quiek Itudiellce·recognit iOIl of "islIlIl CliP S. T h(' cues hc insl.end wnnts us 10 recognizc ll1i1,\' WE'll ht· th c wOl'lil asp('cts of the illller life , delivered in the salllC "gnt phic"-t1wt is. ullbellrilbly illl lllediutestyle of renlism in which hc record('(1 (i n nqlllll int) Ihe horro rs of the Penin· sul ar Call1paign. its inst igatioll lll ld its uftt·rmuth. or (i n puill!) the physical looks of the rOYli1 family lIud the int erior of a IIwdhotlse, Goyu was u hem ld of modernit y. liS Lich t l)ersllus il'C:, I,\' demonstratcs, bllt he docs re ly 011 ce rtain formlll precedent.s. chit-fly in Northerllllrt , that long before had staked out sOllie of the Sllml~ le rrnil! . GO,\'II wns on I,\' IlIOI'I' unre· servedly cOlllmitted tllIIlI some of hi!) contemporur ies t.o exploring furthe r thot grnphie universe of lhe IH.:"cllt~ whic h hnd nlreudy beeu occupied by Altdor fer lIud Scghers, Eis heilllc l' lind HI'mbruud l. lind tho!)e honorary Northerners , Tie polo Hud P iranesi, Si nce he WIIS 1I0t copying t he forms of po pulHr IIrt for hi s seri olls purposes, GO.VII could ket'p rele nll rssly to th e point, which WHS the p}O,Ychic illuminntiulls thnt IIrc possible to the artist who works ill light aucl shude. "In urt there is no need for color," he is
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b('I'1I IIl1ointrd ." No. 67
" Waillill y ou '\,('
or /.08 Cl1IJrir lt QI,
17!l9
iugly pOI'trays, ullI'edeemed by belid. Aud the "prilll it i"e," i( by that is mean t the most busic: psychologica l disposiliolls of the human lInilllal, is besl l"'oked in th e primitiv(' terllls of nighl IIl1d dllY. as the gretll bluc k-ulldwhite movie directors luwe con t inually evoked it. fo r us. Line as w('11 as color is drmonstrllbly irre levun t to lhe kind of ,·isioll GOYA proposes . Tll r uquut i 11 t llI('d iUlII 1hilt h(' IIs('d for the Co prichos lind the /)csoslrcs CU ll I}roduce illlagery clltir(> ly wilh tlr('as of grny, whil('. and black, defim'd without druwing th('1II ill lilll'S, which tend to dignify und tame rn'n Ih(' mosl cnlde and te rrifying subject. Goya uses lines nOI to delinellte shapes but to sc ra tch (orm s into ex istence aud then to splinter them. us n squintiug. htltf-blinded eyl' lIIighl apl}relielld them , to create th(> distorting \'isliul detritus tilat s hudd('l's urQlIlld the ceigNI of th ings seen in agonized hll str or in sl"mi·eonsciolls distructioll , in feM or selr-disgllls l. This "g raphic" kind or clarity cun be lUost shllrp whell it is most jagged. Bluke and FO ssli were co nt(>llIporCiries or 00Y8'8, and their graphic works or ext re me (1lIItIlSY show the uses to whieh eX{luisitely applied linearity lUll." be put, to keep sca ry alld sord id mate ri al rrom being overwh elmi ng
1IO(Jlrrlh , Grf'IIZI' , Goya '
2:;:;
by lodging it firmly in the sHfr citadel!) of IWlluty Hnd rhythm, GOYH IIpparen tly wanted Ihe overwhe lming 10 ove n,'helm : he shu liS th e ca ll igrap hic mode e\'en morc Ihall Hembritlldt, who hndH', Iht' r('sources of aquatint. Licht shows how much like mode rn IJ('W S photographs hi s wa r etChings arc; bUl olle could go furttH'r und sny tlH'Y ,'c('1 footng-c, li S t)I(' Capr-ic/tos are lik(' 111111 fn.llUc s. Thr /:Iar(' ill III('sl' works und til €' tHl(,IIS,\', nearly undec ipheruble surroundings gi\'{l th(' slrong SCIISC o f COlllillUOUS change and flicker , rather thlln of n burs t of l'cv('lalioll fixf'd forf'\'cr on th e retina. Reporlorial or funtastical, OO.\'II 'S fralll es, ('\'e ll those of th e portrnit s, keep us f1111 .,f dread alld the scnse of mOl'e to co me , just as much film foot · age does lUiel as the \'islU,1 l'xpl'ril' lICl' Ihut i8 undl'rgo lle in difficu lt mo· ment8 u8ually does, 100, A greul d('ul of whal cOlIIlJlollly pusses bdore our eyes is unreadable and virtuall~' IIH'un ingless, o nly laden with possible meallillg if we hnd time to SlOp IIl1d wnke it oul. Wlllit it curries ill its illur· ticulated mu.\I.\I i.\l an uppeal to our fa cu lt y of I)rojcclio n, whic h is shurllellNI unde r slight. strcss-itlld j usl such "t"fOSS , II .\Iort or dii'fus(' llgillltioll, is what pictures in the c inematic 8tyl(' ur(' IlPnt o n stirring lip, Goya follows the path of those ci nl'lIulliclilly iuc lined nrti s ts who "'»'lIt to convey thc lim ited charac t('r o f indi viduu l visioll. I-I l' is int er ested ill lit£' confusing and frugm ented wily t hllt seeing is nccomplished ill thc unce rta in lives of lIIen lind wome n, whe ll it is 110 1 being gu id ed by eXI)ectati olls made familiar in t raditiounlllrt. The 8ubj('c t, thc n bl'co uil's t ruly subj('ctive, and therefore partinl und contingcll t; 'he artist beco mes uUlloticenhle; the tw· holder therefore s('e8 aud pllrticiplltes s imply by sN'iug, Thi s llI£'titod of c reutiug tota l engage me nt sidesteps the (' Icment of co mlll e nlnr~' , which re· quires that thc artist first delllo nstrat e his {Ilm lifi cal io lls for comm(,lItillg by showi ng hi s rhe to rical skill. If, ill slead. he CIIU give a direc t se llse o f what it is like to be there 8UlOIIg th e fa ce less elle ruy. the nlllllelesfS f1~rillg monsters, th e c rushcd women IIl1d dismelllberrfl 111('11, t.o be oll(,fS(' lf n wrct ch aud a ghoullllld a punic·stricken brul e, then he also effective ly s hows t hllt tUly f11rlher comme nt would b(' mOll s trous (9,9, 9,10), These things hap· pe ned ; I WliS the re ; 80 nl'c you , So. Alld t ile no te is sImek e\'ell for the wild· est of grim fanta sies-thc COIOSSII S, tile S III.III'II . the ullconscio nubl e cr eatures in the Ca pric/LOs. The art of central Spain had had It stl'Ong' d ebt to Dutc h IIlId Flemis h art ever s ince the fifteenth ce ntury, when roynl patrolluge first fuvo red the style of Rogie r vall del' Weydl'lI ulld t he ~ln stf'r o f 1·' lc lIlallc, lind the si xteenth , whe n Ph ilip II imported Hit' rony mu s Bosc h. Oo.yu\; art contillu ed to reflecl the North bot.h direc tly und illdirectly. HembrllHdt wns hi s a c· knowl edged precursor; but so Wa S V('lIhqll(, 1. , whose OWII style of Spanish
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M OV I NG
9.9
9. 10
l'I C T U It ..;S
FRANCISCO OOYA , ·'Alilhillll.lld more." No. 22 (rom Lo. DI!I(utre. de f/J Owerm
oo v/!. , "One cII.lmol look at lhi8." No. 26 from IAJ. IJUlut rt!. de III Owerr/)
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lIuY(l,.,h, G,'r ll U' , Ga.l/II
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mastery had all illternntiollal flcl\' Ctr Illorr North Euro peull than It aliall, especiully for COlll'1 I)ot'trll it llre , Th e t'llIpIIlHSi~ 011 Iliollochromy, tht' re t rent from linc. alld the illsistt.'lIcc -oJl>aerated light as th e s ign of psychic Illo\'emen t art~ ~ o rlh l'r n qUlll it ics COIllIIIOII to tht'st· nnd other S I}lI l1i s h II rt isl Sj but by Goya's timc t he legllcy of ~or Ll lt'rll n~ nlislll ill Spain Imd l'eacJH'd a eertai ll finalit.y , H e fOll ll d('(llIo schoolalld hnd 110 pupils, und his ill!31)il'cd lIew vers ioll s or old t hemes could be undcl'stood IIlId cU I'ri cd o n oll ly "f!.l'r II big gap in arti s tic Lime a nd SIJace, H is dirt'ct heir is ~ t IlIlN, who, ill th e 1860 's, t he first decllde of th(' installtaneous cu me l'n, took up the tiU' nws of frugllIentution, OI>l. iclll tlInbiguity, and lilt, busie clllo li ollUI nUlhOl'ity or "graphic" puinl ing-lInd who al so sought 1\('lp with th('sc fl'oll1 Du tc h modelw, Fnwhi on ill dress hnd II lnrg(' pi lice ('\' e ll ill OO,\'II'S IIlosl exl re ll H.' \'jwiolls. It stood for Ull IlSpcct of I)sychoiogicu l t l'lIth, just as il litt er d id ill Mnnel und hud dOIl(, curlie r in Chal'dill and Wnlll'lIu . Th e USf' of acntf'ly cu rrf'nt ras il ion in allY reali st ic mode of 81't COII\'eys the sellsc o f currency in the wcarer a nd appea ls 10 it in t he viewer, ('sl)('cially th e "CIISt' o f sexliul immediacy. and ttl(' Picns(' or Itl(' cOUl.tu li l "CCtl/i ll('ss or 1111 runtllsy. Both movi es and television have late ly gone vpry rltr with t his poin l, l!i il ow ill g how importa nLcurrent fashioll8 ble iden l s nre for i n t(' lI si fying the nppclli o r nlly st rong or violent d e l)ic ti on o r li fe, ;'Miu lil i Vic('" is o nly o lle ill Il long sC
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te
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M OVING
9 . 11
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P I CT
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l'orlruitof lhe Murqlfe'(J(le l'ollltjos
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I/O!!",.,It, r;"fIlU. GQUa '1 "'1~',
soul to give 1I IH;ychologiclll dillleusion to til(' visib le bod."-Illllk{' it . ill fuel , into it. Visliu lizatioll of common tuntasy, II 1)l'ope r product o f the wll.ywal'd
and incalculable inner eye . lIch illlugel'Y, (he ki lId LILlll i LISis l SOIL distOI'1 iOIl illSLCtid of t {' III pel'ing it. cu ll s oul directly t.o the cOl'r('spomling rlln t nsi{'s in the cOlltrm pol'ary viewer; t he vi('wcl' fro lll anoth,·1' li lll{" !Iutlll'tilly ,' nough , ch{,I'ishing qu it<· ot her fantllsies. sees on ly the oddll(,~U;, The firt('elllh·celltury Flemish mus· tel's (liS opposed to Hllphnei lIUel LNlIlll'do) did I h(' SlIlIIt~ thing 118 OOYII ill t.h('ir pOl'traits. Tht-re. too, lire the huge !lends nncl tillY 1I1'IIIS of 111lI1 1110· ment. whe reus u hU(' r I tulillll )'hllllwrislurtist li k(' Lo r{,IIzo Lollo. com mit ted to t.he workings of funtasy in 11 11 phYlSicnl dispositions, insisted firmly on a m od is hly mon!itrous hU~I'Ilt'SS of arm Illle! torso and U cOllcomi tant ti niness of head, Ev{'n some of G oyu' s hu rshest visio lHs of WU I' coni ui" fash iOlla bh' fe lllllie !shape!s participat ing ill l'vcnls of utmosl bMitalitl', This so,·\ of grim renl· ism cuts d eclwr lind is mo t·c ullsettling Illlln the renlislIl tlml rnldes th(' modt' in dress or tries rillsdy LO universalize iI-sO unsettling Ihnl it OnNI looks like cal culated SNIsHtionulislII, The gl'aphic lII('diH ill pnrticulul', which 8 1'C so POl'OlIS lind vulnf'l'Hbl e to (:ol'l'uplioll frOIl! below , so 10 spcHk. (ace the artist with the risk of being banalulld sellli llH'ntal or lurid, Ooya, howeve r , shllres wilh the Nortllf'rn m·ti sts or the fifleellih c('ntury thc ubil · itl' to show rushionnble bodies in sitUlltiolls of fi',·ocious rxtJ"CUlity without. descending into g rat.u it ous Ihri ll ·mon g'(' ring. And so he r('doubles his ('rf.;;els by skirting thllt edge; lind W(' hold O UI' br('uth . Ol·elll fillll-lUllkf'rs IU1\'e done the sume in this century, f rOIll Orillith tu It' ritz Lllng, to C hitbrol, to Martin Scorses(' nnd B ria n de Pallna. Meanwh ile bot.h Mallet uHfI Deglls, long ufter Goyn, hnd taken tip the use of fashioll llli a good tool for c reati .. g slmrp epiphanies of th e innrr Iifr, dght in the m iddle of l lll ulle/lcd cont ext of dispassionate realism. Fas hion , especittlly extrcmt' femule fashioll. stll nd s for UlUtccounlubili t,v, If obvious current fushion is referred to in the fig-ul'(' !ityh. of u serious piclure, it au tomat.ically brillgs up the in cilicuinble side of sexuuli ty. the tinwarrunled e rotic nllvor thai IILUY inf1.l$e e\'en very s ll'Hight und sober motifs in art, just. as it ca n s uddenly cnter-unbidd ell , winged . and blind-int.o some of lifc's dul l Slid pUl'llOrl.edly pure lrnnsac tions. CllIssic lIudity ill art, by contrast, Hhows a desire to refcr 1.0 hUlluUI sexull i I1nturc dil'cctly, to seize undisguisedly 011 th e thellle of s('x liS u s('rious, I)erhups eVClI1I sac red , aspect of nature itself, But if nudi ty in serious nrl. i$ delibernlely rendered fashiol/ably, 8S in Goyu'!i N(l~·ed Mnja or in Mallct's OIYlllpi(., it becomes disturbing for its denial of allY possibili ty of innoce nce, and see ms like a betrayal.
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MOVINO
PI CTU RE S
F II"hion itself "rolllunt icizes ," b('clilise it proj!rllllllllllticnily suggests til(' for('ver unuttnilluble. tlull which always k('eps 1Il0Villg out of r(,llch, Its ;' reItlily" is ill ils IIck nowl ....dglllclil of s(>xIIll1 fUlIllISY ilS II SI('lIdy fore£', Used ill urI, it Ihcrf:'rorc WClI l lllollg wuy ill iwil)illg to c rent e thll l ROlllulitie Rf:'llli sm which WIIS so domimHlt ill mid,"illct('cllth,cclitury painting, Imel which is 1\180 the hullmurk of lill cincmn , Goyn , ill wOl'k in g wilh nnd neve r ngainst fashi on, linked hi lllse lf with tilt' Romillltic teml)er as well liS the modcrn one, lind with modern fil m as w('11 as modern urI. The /)('sa,s lrcs dela Guerra were 1I0t ('ve il publi s hed in hi s Iir('lime-he S("'IIIS tu hllve lIiuU'd them like nil arrow il1to thc (uture , And yet (-"('II Iherc. just liS ill the COj)l'ichos (which he did publish , although wilh difficult co nscquc nces) lind in th e po r traits. the women lire no\ Ilf'ulraliz('d to look us if they s tood (or E,'crywomlln ; th('y llr(' quick ly recognizllbl(' a s modish (or th('ir l ime und as all the better hUlllall eXlllllples b('cllIIse of thllt , jus t li ke Gish lind Gllrbo, HarJow Ilnd ~IOllro(' ,
( "lpYriOh
:d n te'"
I
TEN
lfiltercolor; Turner, Martin
WA S 8 ninetee nth-ce ntury Romantic Realit;t half a century before his time, but ot he r urti sls o f t he lnte eighteenth and eu rly ninetec nt h ccn t.uries, who fo llowed ll. less ecce ntric path towll rd cugll.gi ng the inner eye, began c hoosi ng to work ill landsclll>C. It WitS 11 ullturlil choice at a time whe n both secular \'isuuli zlltioll llnd psyc hologicn l cOllviction we re requirements for art. Watercolor turned ou l to be II perfect med ium (or add· ing a sense of tw lighte'm nent 1.0 these. What Canal ett o had suggested ill oils Bnd P irancsi in engruving was developed (lirth er in topogrul)ilicnl wille r color, especia lly by Engl is h urtists. during l he sUlli e I)c r iod that Goya wus ex panding IlqUlll i ut ill Spain , (or ulln logous reaso ns but wilh di ffere nt subject s. 1'opographical a rt was iu the greatest dellluud in Englund , si ncc the English we re thc celltu ry's greates t travele r!>; Slid t he Eng lis h were the most Hpprecia t.ive employers of Canalello and ad mirers of Piranesi. It WIi S likewi se in England that t he atmospheric nnd c reative Dutch topography of Vermeer, De Witte, and Berckh cydc wus most irnagilltlt ive ly developed a nd trallsmogrified . chie fl y in watercolor . England is fa mous for its eighteenth-century Gothic revival and its love ror extrem e picturesqu enes s. both kindled by English perceptions or F re nch a nd (tnl ian art ; but it wa S sti ll the beauty or red brick with pu lc Ul old iu gs thut I"Cma ined cOllstant. in th e EngliSh contribu tion to archit.ec ture, th e Wre n vision from the previous century that. owed as mu ch to Dut ch s imp licity as to Classic prototypes . Du tc h es the tic Kc hemcs wer e simi larly illhcrcnt in Engl is h portraiture, in marine a nd IUlidscllpe pai nting. and in much English popular illustration , even whi le I taliKII tast e WllS olSt.clltatiously go\'crn ing th e s tyle of
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M O VING
P1 C T U ilE S
grand ceiling rrescoes. The Dutch sense or phenomena was as co ngenial to hard -headed Englund as the ..... rench alld Ita lian s tyl es of emotional expression were attractive. Imported Dutch, Oermlln, and Flemi s h arti sts, from Holbein to Van Dyck, from Ohee raerts to Zoffany, had vir tually created Englis h personal imagery, which ",us only thereafter confirmed by native talents. England 's debt to Northern Ellrop~ for finding ways to picture the ordinary world was equlll in size to its conscious ndm irati on ror Italy and ..... rance. which contributed 80 mu ch to the more deliberate flights of Engli s h imagination. Despite English reSI)ect for Cnnaletl.o lind Piralles i, English topography was a direct legacy (rom Holland , consonant with an empirical spirit and a secular tns te. Willi am II I, after all, had bee n a Dutch English king. During the eighteen th ce ntury Engli sh tra\'eiers in Europe had crystal lized the idea oC the picturesque ill order to IIhlke alien lands int elligible and pleasing-at least to the eye. The touris t could countenance t.he rorbidding te rra in iC he S8W it co nform ing to not ions oC how picture s look, especially t hose or Salv8tor Rosll and ot her continental BIlr
Cpyr
tel
Wol pI"rolm": 1",,,",/(> /", .llarfill
di s position or the trHv(' l('r Hnd by eX\.t' nsiOIl his spirituul rendiness for the under taking" And only thell could trawl beco llle 1I l'efilH'd plea s ure, allother field for acl.ual cultivntioll lind not jus t all occasionaillud dangerous necessi ty, AIIUlU'ur SkNc hi llg a ud watrl'color pH intin g bCClllllC th e npp ropriate corollilry to IIpp rccillth"(' trll\"eling. IIOt j us t for p rod ucing correct rcco,"ds but to show how well the vicwcr hnd rcs pond('d " The prac ticul in" te rpenetration of art alld ('xpericnce s('c lIlNI all (,lUtbling cond it io ll fo'" I.h(' right exercise of tiH' senses whili' on lhe rOlld " All this is vcry fa miliur" Ech oes of t his eu rly- Holll illitic ideu continue to resonl\l.(' in modcl'll cOlll lll crcial nlld doculllt'ntary landscllJl(, photography, whic h is notably Ih(' only kind t hnt inflllt"'lIces t he cUllIern-cfllTying" truvc ler" Ever since C laude"s own binck-li nd -w hite reduct ions of his paint ings , the famou s l.1 iber Veri/u/ is, wcre rc produc('d ill 1IH'7.7.0tin t ill 1i i i and made geuerltlly uvni hlblc>. til e I'('product in' lIIedia ilil'"e !'cad ily le nt t il e ltl selv('s to sclling the right \"iew of 1I111urt' lind s howing how to gi' t it. Rf'ltde l"s of lIul.gilzillc$ alld watchc rs of h'l('v isioJ] nrc still l"cspo ll ding to pi cturesqu e id('als or iginnlly r('ulizcd by t1u' ('lIl ighlellt'd Engl is h p l e ll s l.ll"t~ s('(' k(' rs of thc eighteenth ce ntury" The I>icturesquf' iell'al is esscntially static, howeve r; it aillls to freeze and contltill . C laudc's b('ll litifully com posed scenes had be{,11 pa rt 01" the gre».1. clussic s('arch ror I)Crrec tion ill t(' rllls of vis ua l \)('ulIt y" Hf' furth cr llllnou ll ccd this uim by e mbedding It'gf'uda ry the mcs ill his cll n.!fully arranged visions of IlIltlt!"C , so liS t o associate hilS wuy of re nde r ing' it with t h(' COlliI>re h('nsi\"c myth -mak ing t hat see ks to f'1.fol d hlllilall experic nce into u coslIIological wllol('" BUl the pic turesqu e Englis h IitlldscH p('-lIIaking of the eightee nth century that. dcriwci from Ihi", iluJrusl pr('cNte nt aimed chi efly to pl(,1I8e, and so ull iulIltely to nllI.l CI' " It show('d how the lIew cons umer of Nature might triumph OVC I" thc ha ."d clwllengcs s he oll'e rs and so possess he r wholly" He could be nefi t, first. f!"om the pl ('us ltruble ('xercis(' of fOl'ci ng a gin'" vi ew into s ubmiss ion, uud tlwu fro III knowi ll g hilll sc ir to be app!"cciat iw, a lover of benuty lind th e l"l;~ fore worthy of its s urr('lIder to him " Thc sflti sfuctions of beinlr 11 sClisitiw pf' rson we rt~ hl('lIdcd with those or be ing muste,"" It thcn s('cmed 1I0t jusl pleusanl bUL prais('\\"orthy and th('re fol'e good for Ih(' se lf"es teclIl t.o tru\'('l lI llIong roc ks ami wut e rfn ll s lind ma ke aeceptnble s ke tcheiS of thc m; thc procl-'SS is now bf'ing I"I-' p etll (,( \ ('\"eryw hf're wit h the ca mero" Pict uresque landscape, old alld new, llI1.1 kes ~ature loo k attainable, alld an attlt inuble al'l look s lik(' the best 1001 for clt l)l.uring it. The uppeul is usuully to the desire to think well of ol1eself, illld 1I0t to the d esi re fo r testing Illld clutnging oneself, wh ic h tends to demand SO llie doubt und puin " 1"01' t he treatmeuL or luudscil l){' in Engli sh a rt , t he pictUl'('sqlle ideal waS
C ;pvnpt- d
Ie
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eventuully superseded by the Homan lic notion of the subli me; and the sublime hn s been t he uppropritlte mode for cine lli utic lundscupe c\'cr since. Thc philosophical und literury idea of the sub lime acquired IIlI esthe tic existence in Englund through Burke's 1756 eS8ay 011 it; und for art it WI\8 wcll suited to ht.te-eighteelith-cclItury uspirlltiolls towHrd 8 new form of expression that wou ld de monstrate a sense of ima ginuti vc freedom . The ex pun d· ing SOli I now needed expanding vistus detached from lhe old dispensations of urt and religion , both of which Inld purveyed certainty. No cOlll fortnble fixity of subject or style could properly carry lhe burden of new emotiona l nspirations, now becoming rcvolutio nury in various senses of th e term. The idea of beill g ccuselessly d ruwn by the a lways IIl1atluinable and the forever incompre hensible is what th e sublime mode in art tri ed to COII\'ey. It is 8 cinemlltic ideul , beclluse moveme nt is implici t in it-a pcq)e tualllloveme nt outwnrd und onward towurd J;ome thiug thnt will always be beyond present bOlllldurics of vision or undcrstnnd ing. In t he landscal)e pai uting that. nims to eX I>ress this idea, fruming IIlld slaffage sen'c quite dilTerent I'unctions from the ones they fulfill in picturesqu e art; the look of incom plete ness and the sense of Il personul ntte ntion ulUlccountnbly 'i n mof io ll nre morc important than balan ce aud COlltUiIlIllC Il t. A detac hed idenl of beauty no longe r governs th e IlHrmonious arrangement of foreground , middle ground , and distance . Th e aim is no lo nger to show a "prospect," with a tree or two 8S repoussoi r and II ((Ow typicul inhnbita nts farther 01T, being vi ewed at leisllre by someonc vis ibly reposing uCllrby, who stn nd s in for the vi('wer of the picturc, S uc h n figurc con telll l)lut es the scene as a whol e lind alwuys includes himself as t he key to it : perhnps he is eomposillg It. poem on it , or sketch ing it, consc iously fitting it into hi8 prior awnrcness, in some way finishing it otT so as to bc filllilly ill c harge, and thereby making us so. These nrc t he compone nt s of pictures(l'lc lundscllpe, necording to which the viewer feeds on the cooked scene, ami it becomes part of his unchanged substance. The sublime landscape, rather, lIlay see m utterly remot e from Illly humHIl consciousness, even uny artist's. By "re mole " is not. meant neees· sari ly exotic or difficult of 8cces8; t.he vj{,w Illay be of 811 ordinary shudy pool , just 8S in DOrer's watercolors. Th e remoteness lies in th e scene's visi ble retreat from allY claim to e ntire compre hension, by anyone's eye and mind , of even 8 s mall fragmcnt of the phe nomenal world . E,'en a speci fi c and illlmedillte scene is forever partial, forever escll»ing nnd spreading out beyond understanding, beyond all artist's abili ty to box it in with his skill, wilh t he force of his conte mplations, or wilh lite rary associati ons . It mily at best be only one rrarne in all open-ended, unpredictAble sequence. Painters who try fo r this effect do not seem to be eating Ilature, but showing how !la·
W(J/ crcolor; Tltnll' r. Madi"
265
ture eats them. Th ey do not. speak about the roeksi the rocks speak, like Marabar caves. and eve ryone is somehow moved alld changed forever. When the picturesque ideal governs the landscape in tlIo\·ies. us it (reqllcnLly doe~, the refiul " is ofte n jarringly unti -cinelJlatic, although pleufiiug in itsel f. Lush landscape in movies is ofte n nOIl·d ramatie, so metimes bootlegged ill as a cotn'ellicnt su bstitute for rea l drum8 , instead of inforruing the theme it~clf with a lurgcr meaning by \'isib ly enlarg ing ill;: ClllotiOllSI scope beyond pleasu re-perhaps beyond bearing. Picturesqueness remains all enemy of serious film drama; but sublime landscape call be its best sen 'ant. Th e flexible watercolor medium, which could bc thickened lind shaded and made richly rh etorical (or picturesque effects, could even better cOII\'f'y a transparency that suggests the blank infinity behind phenomena. The laudscapefi of J. R. Cozenfi and later of ThotllllS Girtin and J . S. Cotmall, (or exa mple, show how rendering the si mplest forms in the \'ery thillnest layers of unshaded paint cO llvcys the SC II SC of 811 endless light that stretches beyond all seeing. but that lit the same time precisely illum inntcs everythillg near and fami liar. Cot man , in tme Northern sty le, lIsed an arbi· trary-seeming, casua l method of framing lind choice of subject mutter, the better to gi\re the sense o( motion Ilmong endless possibilities. While the s ky shines blindingly through the taut, veil of paint that creates shmbbery or 1118sonry above, th e stollY foreg round is sweeping toward tiS across the bottom edge. But we are not waiting. We flont, forwllrd ill mid-air, advancing swiftly to merge first with the rocks und the wllter, th en with the tree, and finally the unending sky. The ncar pond r('fleets th(> high clouds. opening another gate to boundlessness right under our fee t (10.1). Cotman' s greatest pictures, like Goyo's, lit1\'(' been sef'n ns forerunners ot lIIodeM} painting, partly because of their strain toward ubstraction, to· ward 11 detachment of the forms from their subjec ts . But just as with Turner, that particu lar leap is never lIlade. Cotmlll1 has greater affinities with the romlilitie subj ecti\·ity of !Uodem film, which Clln so intensify the way things look that they also seem to strain at their self-contained exist ence, to leap at us out of their COil text lind into ours. Cotrnull sha res with film -makers al1llrtistic ideal that demands perpetual movement. !Icier this law of a rt , resolution is always artificial. "'rames call be arbitrarily frozen or the scene can be made to fude Oll t; but, t he realtnJth is continuous mo\'e· ment on .....ard into the conti nllous unknown . Girtin 's, and Cozens' watercolor subjec ts were modest by co mparison ..... ith the scope of Turner's; and Turne r in fact s('ems 1.0 have extended the domai n o( wuLereolor to SWllllow "l) that of oil painting, alld
CO T MAN 'S,
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M O V I NG
PI C T U RE S
10. 1 J O liN S F.LI. CO TMA.N .
Sltady Pool
also vice versa , 8S if refu sing to d is tingui s h between them. But th e work of allihese artis t s hlts thut engulfing effect a lso real ized 0 11 the movie sc ree n, where we are drawlI in to partieipate withou t preparation, not urged to sla nd back and gaze in a state of school ed unders tand ing. The thin air surrounds liS, conveyed in screens of paillt. that seem 1.0 float by themselves . We can feel no guiding hand ordering the direction of our eyc; wc must
lrfller-col or; T"rn er, Ma rlill
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move in to the picture to seek co mplf'tio n of th e "if'\\', it s mean ing, and its next re\'elatioll$. Co tman's pictures sugges t sere lle possi bi lit ies beyond their prese nt. s urface; 1'urll r r's s hggrsl renches fu ll of d rend . Fear WII S 1111 important element in ex periell ci ng t he s ublim e. It wns the sort. of fear that is like bo LiI awe and allxiety. and that osci ll ates between the t.wo. Th e subli me requ ired II large rath er than Ii slIlali fear, ne"er merely II sca re, wherens the picturesqu e often d enlt in the pl£'a surcs of fr ight. Greater aClllnl safety i ll late·e ight ecll t h-ce lltury travcl mude it possi ble to begin enjoying both-to fee l a pleasurabl e shudde r at th e prec ipice, but also a nameless, almos t sl>iritu al danger in a ll lIature- uncI to welcome works of nrt that deliberll l.t' ly e"ok ed t he effec t. AIIlOlIg 1lI0dt' rli movies. L 'Avve 'llI~r(' is an exce llent. exam pl r of th e met hod . Th ere t he look of barren hills and houses. illustrnting n personul douht-ridd{'n search for retrie"tl l, continuitY.llnd co mprehensio n, mnnlJges 10 pinel' the viewerut t he mercy of th e hero's anxiety, to fill th e wat Ching consciou s ness with th e Sll ine driven, uncomprehending, and hopeless hope . To be scared in this way without bei ng I>hys icnlly Ihrelltened fee ls li ke a challenge, a chance to sirellgthc li spiritnul muscles, to pit t he Li ny se lf aguins t "8St forc es, and so to f(>t' l its t ininess respond. beg in to refin e, to harden nnd sh iue with rcflecti\'c power; t hi s is one of the s trongeH! hUlll nn pleasures. It Cilli furth er leud to th e sense of being fill ('d with tnle virtue, if yOll beli('\'c thilt t he fear you arc f('(' ling is n proper ilwa relless of God 's immensity-or I1I11.ure'8. Rut her than fl attering I.lIr behold er' s "tlnity. by urg· ing him to lu ke perso nal sntis fl.l ct io ll ill cli co mplIss ing nature with the power of hi s OWII ga ze, th e art ist of t he s ublime offers him th e plellsu res of feeli ng undone and overwhelmed , rapNI ill t he high eloil Cllllse. and so per· hap!! changed or chan ging into fi lwr stuff. Th e s trongly erotic thrill of reur is included in th c best s trr nglhc ning mf' dicillc fo r t he soul , with hllldscape for the bindi ng el ixir. Turner's Illaturc works IUl\'e t he "eli se of danger in th em. They also ha\'e just as milch of the spec ific 1\S Co t.lUlln ·s, des pit f' the blur. Wh en there nrc persolls in Turner, t hey nrc not d etllched onlookers or decorations devoid of consciousness; lhey are drlllllat ica lly engugNI. even if we cun hard ly see them. We are lIIade to consider t he combined ext ernal nnd inte rna l ci rcum· stances lhaL SW8mp t.hem at u cri ticnl mome nt. Turner' s characters may be ord inary fishermen or alltiqu (> h('ro{,8. or til('), lIluy 11 01 eve n be peo plethey may be build ings, trains , or s hips apparently endowed wit h human se nsibi lity. like The Fighting Temerfl i re. But as in lll ovit,S, t hat. llIa kes 110 d ifference to t he wily ou r eye is rnlldc to con frO llt whllt is pe rpellllllly esenping, the natu ral whi rl und lurch of thc loonl phcnomeull that surround th e subjective consciousness at int ense moments.
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M O VI NG
PI CTU RE S
This same opt ica l blur, reflecting the vibration oC psychic uneuse, upholds the se nse of actuality in auy Turner pictu re, whether it shows a modern fishing boat tryi ng to operllte in a storm or Ulysses t.au nting Polyphemu s whil e escaping with his crew. Sim ilarly in cinema, real rain or fog, or perhaps only the illdistinC!lness of swiftly offered opt.ical illll>ressiolls, is made to have the sa llle effect in hist.orical mov ies as it is in fi lms of con tem· porary li fe. In movies the subjective \'iewpoin t is a lways s upported by the Turner-like universality of emotional eyesight trying to grasp th e world. Rus kin was right to say that Turner showed natu re most tnlly, if t he lIclluti (Javor of ex peri ence is the chosen theme . When t herc a re no dra mat. ic charact.ers, we are invited to be one, to scali t he el1l l){Y ocean or t.he looming fog , to let th ings take us as they flow past. Like Rembrandt, Tunler produced an uneven surface, evcn for hi s watercolors, thick and thin or rough and smoot h on different pa rts of thc S8111C pictu re. He apparen tly worked fa st , blottin g and sc rapi ng and scratchi ng at t he surface with his fingcrna il, refu sin g, also like Rembrand t, to be gov· erned by the material. Such a Ouctunt.i ng pilUle imparts an uneven motion to th e image, along with a motility to the shapes inside it. The color, too , is "im material," neve r loea l, always of the Hir, or of the light, or of the inner eye itse lf. The p r ismatic effect is 1101. directly re levant t.o these hill s or that wate r in I)articulnr. The Hecne reflect!; t he way thing!; go in und out. or focus and the eye cons ta ntly adjusts and rendjusts 8S it strugglcs for its life . Turner's form of indis tin ctness desc ribed the tnlth dwelt on by the proponents of th e sublime-the human inabil ity to fix an d wholly un dersta nd the ene rgy in th c unive rsc. Cinema is devoted to the same idea; t he psycho· logical condition that underlies the right perception of film is 1tllcertaillty, openncss to ope ning views. awareness of the incomplete. The emotional sut· isfactions mo\'ies offer are provisional-pCrhal)S that is what makes them modern . a basic necessity for twcn tieth·century romantic is m. Michael Wood has pointed Oll t that movies raise questions they don't try t.o answer, and that that is a reaSOn for liking them . We arc s tirred up; that is our pleasure; and we feel that t hat. is necessary and even enough for authentic Ilarrati\'e in th is med ium . Any path the story foll ows through a movi e bypasses the countless possib le oth ers: What huppens to the other car t hat drives off' The oth er man walking by' The rest of th e clouds' Movie scencs of resolution and denouemen t must close in, and so must close off th ose suggestions made, elsewhere in t he film, of all we were permitted to glimpse and feel but not possess-the unresolved rcsidua that hnve moved us frolll the start to keep watching, eager for reveill.tiolls and mcanings s mall or large . The fillu l fad e s hu ts them all down , also provisionally. Th ere may-must-be a sC(lIlel.
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1'urucr's lIrbun SCP1H'S und much rllrrr illll'rior5; SilUi l llrl~' pcho III{' SCIIIIning gn1.e und recepl i\'c consciolls ness ulld rClidy CIllOlioll required of the llIode rn rOllllllll.ic IUOVil"goc r (10.2). P('opl(' glilllps('d in Ihe funlasy drllw, ing·rooms of Prtworlh or on the Oxford High S treel set'lll d:rmtlllic . rendy for unkn own emotional shifts and discharges. ullforeseenble regroupings. T lIlo Wom en lIlill! It I..eller iK 1111 eXlrllordinurily c inl'uUllic \·isioll. II gCllrc scene unlikE' almost ully except ill IIIO\' ie8. yt't with Ih(' fhl\'or of H T('rborch (10,3), We se(' Dill' \\'01111111 ru ci ng' liS. he r bod.v ulmost hiddE'1l by (la' ll{'aI'cr olle. bchilld whom we nrc stllndin~. lind who hns thl' 1l'1I(,I' bl'hind her bllck. We lire very clos('; Wt' ours,'ln~ s mlly ('\'en hllVl' just seen'lly given it to II t' l' , The woman she fa Ct'S sueldenly looks pas I her s houlder llild straight III liS, witll parted lips und II I'ac(' full of possibi lity- a ll inlen' sti llg I'ace. nol preLly. No t hillg is ('xpillilled , 110 (,lIIoliolllll or SOC in I circulUstances IIrl' de· sc r ibed . We nrc being forced Lo participalC'. I>erhaps improvise ill a pressillg mo men t- the SCI'IH' will shift in a s('co nd . SOIllPOIU" will speak or laugh or so me lhing e ls(' will hapl)(,Il , H ere 'furller, who is sllid to ha\'(' b('ell no good lit figures, dOl'S sho\\' his unmistakab l(, 1I11C1('rSltlnding of fa s hion. th(' 1111(.' si~1I o f s('xual IIl1der· stnnding. The \\'01111111 with her buck 10 us shows us her e lllpll a ticlllly bur('d
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lIeck IIlId s hou lder blades under u high lOpknot trim med with II comb and flowers. lI e r neckli ne IIlId lS lN'ves sit to pe r rection. S he ilS 1I. s le('k exam ple of fa s hionable lasH' for 1835, 'l lei'l th(' rea r "j(,w or 111(' f(,lII ul(' Heck , pr ef('rably plump nbo\'c sloping shou lderlS. Wli S 1111 ill1porillllt focus of s(>xlIu l churm . Cu rls df'scf'lldt'd r ighl lind If'fl o\'c r liL(' t'ars lind 1t~lUpl('s, produc· iu g a frame for th(' fll ce ill frOll l (T n rll(' r 's olh rl' figure s hows Ihis) aud for the lIu kcd neck ill buc k. Ero ticn and fushi on pili tes of t lH' dlll(' insist 0 11 these effect!;, 1ilrllcr's '3 C(,lIe, like 1\ fillll s hot., cll ha nce'3 it!; dranHl with Ihl' extrll. sex uul freight Cll rri ed by lIIodishllrss. Th e ntmosph e ric chllrge ill thi s sCf' l1 e,lIh.o intr ll sifit'd hy plllcing thr Iwo figures OIlC behind t he otiH'r to give n Pllrticipunt's viewpoi nt , s hows t hllt. Turncr (li ke K lIlodel'll film dil'ectol', or li ke a Dutch urtist) IIl1tlerl;tood the expreslSiw power of 1II0dern dr('ssed bodies cngagi ng ill slUu ll g('s lures , bu t he was 1I0t mu ch iute l'rst ('(1 in exe rcisi ng t il(' art -hi s tor ical terminology of t he figure, Iludf' or drupt'd, as It IIUlin lura liS or ex pressio n. Gi\'e n the sexmll e nergy ill his oeuvre, and the porn ography 11f' is known to IHl\'e dOIl(' , it IlIay be thut his feeli ngs ubou t bod ies were 100 s trong 1.0 permit it. Critics have r elUu rked on the sti ffn ess of Turne r' s figll l'CS , whcn t hey lire prese nt.-II sli ffncslS wh ic h has an affin ity with thr snlllr s li ght. awkwnrd ness in both Wa Ueull 's a nd Goya 's r(, lId(' rings of bodies, 01' indeed of Rem· brandt's. TUrn(' 1' rC\'r ll ls Il disposition aga in I'clllt ed to titf' North ern tradition. C\'(,II furthl' r suggesl ill g t he s lillllllld sl igh tly tiltt'd peoplc ill Dr H ooch's works. Suc h II style of corporeal bei ng for people in pictu res see ms desiglled del iherntely to keep the fl avor of unguarded fe el iug 81 ronger t hull thnt of pleasure iu uormal physica l grace. A figure style thut dwell s on bodily coord ination makes any picln rc easy to look a t and identify wit.h in eo mfort , e\'en if the t heme is rnpe or ma ssac re; the effect of physical imbalancr make it ree l uneasy, cven if th e t hl'llle is courtly pleasurc, or hnppy lo\'e in a peuccfu l setti ng , The link bet.we('n Turner Hnd Dut c h art is conseque ntly cmotional. apart from the usual influence of Dutch sea-a nd · land scape painting on }<;nglish a rt is ts, an affinily that comp r ises ge nre and Icgcndnry t hemes besides , F'or landscnpe, Turner went beyo nd Claude in th(' samc s implifying direc tion us Cuyp a nd Phil ips Koninek, who were obvious ly pU inting the sub lime ovolIl la lelt re. Like Turner , they paint.ed as if to suggest lhut only the movement of light. weaving and cas ting its fl exible net through our space and over our world , c rellting colors and keeping us alive through our eyes, prevcnts li S from being s wallowcd up in infin it.y, These artists turn us loose in the scene to fee l the pull o( t.hat endlessness almos t as a danger, even i( the scene is calm . The light·stnlCk mis t in so ma ny Turner landscapet) flirt he r suggest.s to us not an accurnte impression llIade on the s iraight -gaziug eye, but the
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PI C T U RE S
e tTect of squ inting llgailll!lt infinite light. wh en it (and perhal)S e\'c rything elsc at th e moment) reveals lhat it is too mllc h (or us. The lOWI1 SC81)eS arc
like th e eXlleCLllnt views of Be rckheyde see n through eyes IIOW wilter ing
under grealer stregs. Meanwhile Turne r 's legendary sce nes are r"Cm ini scent or Ae r t de Oelder 'lj Way IQ Golgotha, s imilarly concei ved 0 11 a htrge screen. neross
which the act io n is moving without any eml>118Sis 011 the looks lind belul\'ior or the central characler. Th e emot ional weathe r il:l ins tead bei ng in dicnt cd by the sweep of th e te rrain , as ir to I}repare the viewe r (or 8 s ubsc{lu ent close-up of Hlllll1 ibul or Ulys ses shouting orde rs or c urses. a sce ne not yet. here but to cOllie (10.4), l<;xaclly the same effects lire sought ill Turll{' r·s ne· counts o r storm s in the mountAins or at sea , iu\'oh' ing a rcw human beings whom Ilt th e moment we Clln hardly mllk e Ollt, 8tnlgg lillg ogtlin8t huge odd.;. 'rurner orte n d id try pc rsollally to re l)rodu ce {'xt r{' fIl C c xpc ri cllccs ro r hil1l8e l r, IIlId to remember the exac t e ffec ts or 8i mila r o l1e~ thut hUPI>e ncd by chance, 80 a 8 to paint the e ffccts correc tly. Th e ree l o r th e si tllation is th e point-we are ro rced to c nler int o it. At any moment wc expect ano ther sho t o r tI s uilor or I ruvc lcr clHlgh t in th e e\"e nl . 118 Turuer l)C rhups IIl1d bee n be rore he made the pic ture ; but right now we u re ge llin g thl' i;cnse o r how it all was. Alo ng with lege ndary titlc$ empha$izing I)t"ocess-J)ido b uil di ng
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Corthage, lIo lluiba/ c ross ing .. .. Uly~!J('s d('rid ing . , .. etc. - 'I'uru('r appends Ic ngthy Lill('s 10 his mode rn XCf'IlCS. They reud like cnptions. with plenty of pr('s(>111 purl icip\es IIlld dl'f.eri pI i\'(' ph ruses nb01l1 I he nt mOf.lpheric couditions (""y phoon co ming 011:' (,I e.). or Ill'> if till',\' we r(' direc tiolls ill fl scree llphlY (I 0 .5). In nil this Turrwr, lik(> Goyn. ci llt'llIal,iclllly push('s 11t(> limits of iIl14 .~/r(l lioll by showing' one poigllllnl physiclil si luation in UII inlells(' psyc hic matrix, "hurpcni ng 111(' iUlIlIICI or Ih(' 1II0lllelll , lind wide ning the SCOI)(' of its resollance. 'I'hese nrtists oft(,1l do this by IIsiug sOIll('whnt lIIubigu ous te rllls (or the surrounding IlIlll e rilil. which cun then 1Il01,{, ellsily stulld for the vllgue forces thllt.are drivillf! the hU1Il 1i1l c irculIIslunces illlo conflict (or acco rd), lind by b('ing ubsolutely specific ubollt olle or two imliledilite fu ets. Oue figure, tower, rnee. o r ~h ip . o r u group of two or Ihret' will be emp husized in lill(> unci rorm . nnd th('11 l inlNI lighl lWei sllllde will co njul'(> the lurge r world . where wllr lind wt'lIt\\('r lire liS 1I1111CCOIHllllbic tiS d esi re. or the
mi st of feur lIlar isohHI-' Iwur vision .
2 i-l
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I' I C TURt:S
The Turner painting or II rOYIII banquel in Jo:d inburgh (10.6) could cas ily be by Goya, wilh its s tiffish , bright -eyed figures, its odd angle or prese ntation and large areas of both bright. and unclear in terior space; the 00y8 I)ainti ug called The Fire, showing part. of 1I pan ic ked crowd surgiug aW8)' from 811 undefin ed conflllgrlltion, could be olle of 1'urner's scenes from legendary or modern history-an Escape Iron. Hu rtling 1'roy or a London disaster (10.7). The ci rcumstances are inelistinct and terrifying, but what we can see of th e people is very specific, t he bodies p rovisiona l aud Ilwkwurd in a graphic scrllmble LOwll rd us across th e foreground . It has 00YU'8 warti me-newsreel look. which Turner al so sought for eve nts in peaceful England or in anli{luity. IIIu st rat.ion in thi s vein is not anecdotal but ilhiluinllli\'c, llnd 11 0 1 of II s tory but of 1I situatioil-lind thaL in cludes th e way th e lan dsclipe is affecting 8 beholder or influencing human evc nt s. It is th e sa me mode used in the old Flemish manu sc ripts, where the pictures light lip th e flow of the st.ory at inte rvals instead of telling it. Th e story is made to llppcnl in th e fo rm o f recognizable personal ex perience; and so I)syc hologieal moment s rather than obj ec tively described events are c h os~ 1l for the pict ures. In this mode there need not eve n be u s tory, only encou n ters nnd di scoveries forming' nil
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emotional sequence in wh ich we fee l ourse lves (' ngllgcd- th(' kin d of s tory we feel almost able to co mplete out of otlr OWII iltlllgiu llt iv(' s.vlll pnthy, supplyin g bnekground lind various poss iul e outcomes. Wh en there is also II known actual s tory (stich ns the co nception und bi rth of Chris t), it is told 8S if ta ngentia lly, th e wa." '1\lrner shows "I anni bal 's trip or Regulus' puni s hment: thi s is al so the way mov ies ill us trll te th e slories on which th ey a re based. In fil ms, sweepin g views of t il e battle. the ball , t he Ilatural disas ter, th e prison brea k, are int ercut wit h views of sllla ll groups aga ins t an ambi guous background , like Ooya 's Hnd Rembrand t's, or with close-ups of tete-8- tete encount ers. li ke 1\lrIu:~ r ' s two women with the letter . Incid ent. is app roached subject ively; there is 110 roolll for det.ac hed pictorial narration cas t in a uniform dec htraliv(' s ty le, s howi ng eve rythin g
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(rom the sa me fix ed distan ce, ep isode by clea r ep isode, onc tablesu after another, with the chief chllracters promincnliit. all times . Rathe r. th e pro· gressive dinl ectie of ncar and far, of inner 8uel outer, of pri\'8lc response to external circulllstance is whal mnkes the slori es in Illo\·ies do their emotiollal work. Turllcr and Goyu, like others rollowiug' the impulse truced here, struggled to make the single picture do wllal film has done since. Th e story. whatever it is, is 1I0t. "told ill pictures," like the little scenes OIl8 1)re · della or in Hogllrlh 's sequenli lll renderi ngs; it is " brought 1.0 life" 8S if it
were happening, lind not bei ng lold at nil. Turner, like many ol hcr1i, was IIlso an actual illUSlrlll.Or. ill thal he nlllde pictures express ly to be reproduced in books lind express ly to go with ce rtain poems and travel writings . He wus olle of muny to illust.rate Jumes Thomson 's SeaS()II8 , u fa\'orite with love rs of the picturesque. and later he il lustrated Scott and Byron. a lways wit.h pertinent lalldscape, instead of large figures grouped in n s ubordinlltc setling. The human beings in Turner 's illuslrlltions must of len be infe rred, us so often in his oem're, und for that very reason the hurnun situlltion is Illude morc acute because we rush to project OUrSelves int.o it. His uvulallche puinting, for example (l0.8), shows Ii cOltage being c nlsiled under un immense boulder-no
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scr ea ming or gesticulating bY8tanders, no visib le human s instruct us in how to react, us they do in De !....out h(> rbourg's vcrs ion of t he same subj ect; only 8 hapless little cat cli nging to the roo f tells us th e house is in habited, And we feel oursch'cs c r enting our OW II close·ups of the despairing fn ees inl! idt> , Th e Ctlt cJlI W S direct ly lit our hcurts IIcr088 t he dislllllce, IJike III/lily film shot.s. Ihis pictul'(' is a vivid i1l1l811'alioll of a human dramn with no I)eo· pIe in it at. the moment. In the period just b(' fore TUI'ner 's Cll rC'{'r begull . IlI lIdscU I)e renderings we re not illu s l rllli \'e ;11 al l. Th ey had become more and mOre Iransformed int o a co mmod ity in En gi1l1ld, where IUlld owllcrs liked to remi nd Ihelll' selves of t hei r own prope rl y lin d of Englund's regiollul glories, ns well as of thei r own esti lll ilble Irave ls. Th ere was l\ df'IlUlnd for picturesque topo· grapli icul views bound a8 se ts into books , uud gmce flll pictlll'es of we ll · known si tes were re l)roci uced nnd sold individutl lly as pleusi ng possessiolls for those who n('ve r lefl 1I0nll' . 1\ Il'I il'r's own illtrodllctioll to Ilrt had bee n through seei ng und copying suc h prin ts. lind beco mi ng expe r l in cu r rent techniqu es of bo th topograph icnl render iug und grltpilic J'(·produ ction . An arti st could easily make II living provid in g sll ch I)ic tures, with 110 preten. sions to imaginat.ive g rentness or e\'ocutiolls of hu mnn encoun ters with t he sub lime. Turne r cO lll ill ued 10 sen 'c thi s market for l!ilrniglil lopogruphy t hroughout hi s li fe, eve n while the te rms of hllldscape puiutillg c hunged entire ly . During 'I'll m e r's Ii feti lIle (l 77 5- 185 1), lopogrllpb ielll rellderi ng wus vir· tually transformed into art in its most st'riOlls form. ~('W not ioll s or Nature, chie fl y exp ressed in poetry , created nn enhu'ged lIl ora l and esth etic d imc n· sio n for what held bee n It lII undll ll(> and very limit.ed act ivity. It was I.he one area ill painting (a nd its co ncomitant graphic works) where the ill1agilllltioll had new territ.ory to s ubdue, wher e feding II l1d seeing' we re perpetunlly combining 1.0 new avail. The field wus being c1enred whe reon the latcr dralllus of modern puinliug would b(' e llilcted: but at t he su me ti llle th{' screcn wus bei ng set. HI) where lIlod{'rn cinematic topogruphy would Inter be projected, The existence of such un art.istic frontier ~nabled Tunl('r to cast a ll t he grea t old t hc lIlcg of hi lJlory pu inti lll;' inlo the ~lIbjec th'c mood, lii mply by invoking the new l)Ower of la ndscape 10 embody ind i,fidual pnss ioll nnd moral signiticll nce, III The Baltic of Fori Nock. Val d 'Aol/s!l', PiedmQr.t. J 796, Turue r r{'· creut.es un Alpine buttl(', UII ('p isode rrom :\nl)oleo n's invnsioll of Itnly (10.9). BUI Ihe fight iu g is c rammed Ilgllinst the left. edge of Ihe pictu re. where t he tiny oppos ill g a rm iN' ski rmis h on (l nu r row pllih and bridge. Th e call1era is Ictw illg t hem to it. mo\· illj:C huck and 1.0 Iht' r igh t so I hat. th(' screl'1l is grad ually filling with the imngc of the bi g c hnsm il1lo which nil these lit·
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tie sold ie rs are in dange r of fall ing, whut ever the ir loynlt ies. Wood ed c rags ri se a ll e ithe r s ide of the gulf-we CRn ' t set" the bo t.LOm- and the rest. of the mo untn ills s tretc h back foreve r . But Olle wretch hns already fall e n onto a narrow ledge nellr us, escaping t.h e prec ipice by inch es; he is being awk· wardly suppor ted by a woman who holds a buby o n her shou lder . A camp follower ' A localmutroll from all isolntcd cottage' A gypsy' He is our mo· mcnt.ury unknown hero, so me ordinnry man thm st. int.o extre mity by wa r i alld IIOW history is moving o n without hi m, out of the picture , Hnd he is at th e d oubtful mercy of this chan ce wo man nncl th is huge landscape , bo th so st rHnge and r1.111 or threat-What nexU Turner 's dislillcti\'c style of sublimity eould eventually find its way in boo k form into peop le's inward se llse of Inndseupe, notjllst illlO thei r pub· lie awareness of its powe r in narrative painting, He helped to change eve ry' o ne's pri\'Btc idea of how views look, und how it fe e ls to look at the m, and of what Lhcy can mean, and so to prepare th e way for th e l:tCrsonnlly illuminat· ing fun ction of modern film ·hmdscape . Besides illustrating th e Romantic
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poets, he publish ed sc\'cral sets of ordinnry English ,-jews-Harbours,
Rivers,
C8stle~.
pictorial accoll llls of journeys-which a lso show t he magi·
cal WHy !Straight lopographicall'epbrtagc was bei ng trnnsformf'd into il lu strat ive art, ill an unprecedented kind of elllol.iolll!1 colla boration between the artist unci his public. Turner's great contemporary and fellow English 111IldsclIl}('·paint.er J ohn Constable , 011 the other hand. WIIS the other sort of artist. He wt!ii elltirely nOIl·c inematic, and helped to cha nge tOI)ogruphical IIrt into transcendent pain tin g. He Illude 110 aU empt to crcatt' Ull emotiOllul ullin~rs e ill topographical terms; he was interested in t.he uni"crse of paint itself, using his beloved nlral scenery as an enabling syste m fo r testing painterly boundari es, not illustrHtivc themes. Hi s works ure tremendously exhiluruting. but never hHllllting. He did not. "delight to go buck to the first ehllos of the world, " as HIl :d illsuid of Turner, or e\'er try to s uggest. th e inwllrd side of visuall>e rc:e pti on. Constubl e's brilliant. v(>n'c rCllluins dCluchcd, Hnd keeps him ill the company of Hubens and 1'itiall , llS his great admirer Deilicroix could se('-himsel f all artist. of a simiisl' s tnmp, Ceza lllle went. on from there, Turner's J./iber Stu(/ iorultl, made in din"ct. imitati on of Clau de's se ri es and published between 1807 and 18 19 in several VOIUIlll"S, was nol a book of illust rat iOlls (or allyt hillg; it was s im ply in tended to demons t rl.1l e ill el ching 8nd mezzotint how comprehensi\'e his grasp of landscape was. Her(' Turner was muking landscape us a broad iden , nllher than ilS a small pleasure , available to people in illtense black·and-whit e imugc ry made for private viewing. The uiber nlso showed tlmt monochromy was I}erfectly congenial to Turner, since light. WillS his tnle subject. Wit h hiN superior psychological understalld ing color, Turner was \'c ry su btle in hi s use of it. After visit.ing t.h,e I~o uvre, he is alleged to 1111\'(' said , "Rubells throws his tint s aroulld like a bun ch of fl owt"rs. ,. Turner's fam ous and fe rocious indisti nctness in fact had s pecial importance in colorless works. We have seen that. th e color he u sed in painting was nc\ter ver,Y locnl---o ften not the color of pnrticulH r things but rather of the light around thelll , fragm ented into primary ye llows, I'eds, und blues. When scenes were ellgrsved or rendered in mezzotint, it was the del icat e tonaliti es, the sensitive nnd floating chia roscuro, thnt curried th e mood of the place. The psychological freight. ca rried by topogrnphicnl imHgery in monochrome was thus sh ifted from the interplay of black s hadows and light patches set. up by Pirau es i and T iepolo to the moving emanations of cloud conjured by Turner, This shift. was inclu sive: black shadows retuined their forc e. 1'urner experimented wit.h them , too , in his Inte r set of dramatic mezzotints referred to as the L·illle Ln.'ber (10.10) .
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TURSJo!H, Pat. hl.m , Mezzotillt rrolll the /Allie U/)l)r
T he mezzotint, us a med ium (or lrll llsh&ting wate rcolor into re peatab le llnd publishable black·a.lld·white images, 1I0 W pe rmitted the move me nt of light to echo the movemen t of feeli ng wilh muc h g rcaler sophistication in pictures for gene ral consumptio n. Mezzotint is a n cngra\·ing medium . Th e plate is roughened all ove r by a 81)cci81 tool to c rcate the dark areas, then sc raped and polished in varying degrees in th e arcils whe re light is required , Slid then inked and wiped wilh several rags be fore bei ng printed . A print by this method evolves (rom general darkness to illu milUllion, und may have soft , subtle, and r ich gradatio ns of lone. Mezzotint hel ped to expand the poetry of buildin gs, for eXllmple , to in clude a larger emotional ei r cumumbi cnce refl ected in the vuriable atmosphe re cloa king c rugs o r valleys where th ey might s it. the harbors or c ross roads over which th ey might preside, singly or in urban clm;ters. They could engage the viewer no t just ill i\ genera li zed s tat.e of expectancy and fanta sy. but ill a deeper condition that e mbraces nostalgia and longing. Boulders a nd build ings see med to develop strongcr pe rsonaliti cs and larger ind ivid ual soul s. to be enriched by s haring each o ther's presence in colorless overcas t. moonlight. in g ray daybrea k or rainclouds . In thi s century th e black-and-white s till camera has certainly developed these the mes. But t he movi e came ra has had t he mean s to extend the m indefinite ly , usi ng s hifting gradation s of tone for circullIstnntial e motional
Watercolor; '/'lIrllu, Martill
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effect ill outdoor se ltings. The lIIist in stalldllrd thrillers. whether the 10· calc is urbalJ or mOllntainous. the glowing smoke of battlc scenes and heavy-indu stry scellCS, the glowing dust of d ese rt scelles are all part of Turner 's legacy. They cOlltillue tlu' dramatic uses to which he put the ordinary blurring of ordina ry phenome na, Mov ies now s how, as Turner did first, how real s moke and real unxiety mny produce an equally real aud illdistinguishllble kind of blur, tHai at th e sa mc moment. Turner 's effects can right ly bt, compared to those or t he camera (in which he predictably showed much in te rest ut t he elld or his life) becau se he wu s I>recise us to space und scnle. '('h e vortex of light nnd the delOnllt ion of atmosphere never d islodge the co nvincing rocks and water. carriages and shipping. people and anima ls, cnstif'S and huts. The riggi ng is accurate. the bu ildings stund up . No libert ies are taken wit h their stnble actual ity, und so t he lum inous riot around th em gllin s cred ibi lity, ']'urner remai ns topographical, only f11rth er recordi ng the h elp l ('s~ s hudder of deNire and apprch c n ~io u at what might be gllth£' ring' s hllpe at the turn of t he road or ncross the sunny water, im pUlse uppeured tun ong ot her Engli sh artists of the samc period ill d ifferent. wuys, but. s t ill fou nded 0 11 the d csire to make pictu res conform to the ex treme cmoti ollnl I)Ossibiiiti es in ordinary visual eXI)erie llce: light and s hude had sti ll to predolllinnte, Size could add its force to t h c~c in J oh n Ward's Gore/a le SC(lr, for example, and create dread 0 11 its own. The vast chaslll , viewl'd from its floor by ti S und Olle iso· lilted bull , is oft'e r('d in s ubdu ed colons 0 11 a scult· intended to ove rwi1 l' lm liS directly with naturullllyste ry (I 0.11), Thl' painter is not s miting us with his esthetic posi tion 0 11 Nuturt'; he simply lets ttl(' dllrk rocks loom up while the black cleft draws us ill and the sky threntells. Thi s would be a haunting image ill s mall forlUlll.. blltut elen' lI by fOll rtcell feel , i11)roduces the desi re 1.0 turll IlIId Mill . Large panoramas became popuinr in Ihe Inst third of the eighteenth century. followed by di ora mas in t he ea rly ninetee nth . so tlllli painting could find yet ot lier ways of trying to cscn pe its cOllfill ing frllllle and de"our the beholder. When t he sl>ectntor looked lit II pnnorll mn painted 011 t he inside of a. cylindrical s urfacl', he created the effec t of mo\"£'ment. himsel f itS he kept turning, III 1782 De Loutherbollrg'" £'idoph,/t siliQI/ wenL furth er, offrring a continu ous picture that. nctuu lly 1lI0\'cd across 1\ prosce nium to mu sica l accompaniment, attended by s hi fting stage light s lind mudc to t ransform under the viewer's gll ze by the cleve r tl se of lighted sc ri ms. The depicted scenes included vjews of Lond on nnd s torm s at sen, wi l h appropriate sounds; but the effect seems to i!llVe rernni ned pictu resque ruther thlln su bTHE
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lime, theatricu.1 rather than cine matic, and it aroused wonder mostly "tthe technical feal. A diorama involved lighting a transparency [rom behind and showing it in a darkened room, varying the light effects rather thnn moving the picture, which would again usually be a landscape , n seascape, or a cityscape. All of these were entertainments, intended to be momentarily exciting and not deeply important. They ncverthe less s howed a Ilomunlic desire to move beyond the cOllventional theater, with its suitably adorned perform ances of texts , into u. d omain wbere the sub lime eiTects nlready u.ttained by landscape painters could be recast as show business. They aimed to let an audience feel directly involved in t he basic dramas of the physica l world, even if only in the form of tawdry illusions, in stead of watching rehearsed and dressed-up actors pretending to be so in Ihc6tricai llctioll, diction. and surroundi ngs.
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The ele ment of s how business in r('ndering th(' sublimr- was hea"ill' emphasized by the history-painter John :\lartin, who special ized in scenes of Biblical catastrophe, in cluding the Deluge and Judgment Day. and signifi. cant debac les of legendary antiquity. Mllrtin 's puintings und grnphic works became extremely successful in the earl y nineteenth century, 1I0t only ill England but in Europe und America, nnd h(' hnd II grent deul of effe ct on the public and on paint ers much bett er thl1l1 h(' wus . He is 1111 eXll lllple of the sort of artist almost en t irely confined to film ill thi s century-an in s pired special-effects 1111111 , a hr-roic produ ctioll·dr-signcr. 1-1(' was an origina l genius who affect ed the ima g in lltivc lives of thollsllllds ill his own genera· tion and long after his time; but his productions exert ed their influence in It sensational mode that was tlJ('1l regarded as artistically unaerious and was
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Bl'bltazzor', Feasl
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prollluigat.cd in popu lar mcdia. 1'he mezzotints nlld ellgnwillgs Martin Illade of his works had t.h e dist.inet ion of being instantly illl itnted, forged , and pirated; hil!! painting of Belshazzar's ~·ea .d WitS ill icit ly (and ineptly, to Martin 's fury) copied for a diorama-so immediately did he satisfy t he pUblic's lu st for t.he exact kind of ex treme imagery he invented (10. 12). Most serious art.-cr itics and acad(>mie painters at th e lillie found it. indigest· ible, irreleva nt to th e development of painting; and even his defenders in the world of a r t had t.roubl e with his t.('chnica l weaknesses. The stnlldard history of art has omitted him entirely until lntcly. 'r he cul tivated men who unrese rved ly loved Martin 's works in his OWII day were poets, novelistl!! , and litera ry critics , many of them French-th e same sorts of people wh o ill ou r time firs t desc ribed the artistic va lence of modern commerc ial movies and made th em known IlS more thnll min or cn· tertai nments. ~Iartin sat.isfi ed not just. the generu\ but the poetic thirs t, too, for an illu strative style to match the Romant.ic sense o f res tlessness, of a pull towll rd whllt is im possibl e or toward some catllclysmic rf'lease. Victor Hugo and Gaut irr admired hi m greatly; th e Brout~ s all copied his • engrav in gs. He cleverly worked on th e English passion fo r topogrnphy, then being translIluted by greater English artists, aud ex tended th e lIew emotional view or real buil dings to in clude all emotional st.yle for rantasy architecture - the same device Piranes i used fi rst, und lhe mov ies lise to seize us now. Cha rl es Lamb said of Ma rtin 's '· t.owered st.nlct.u rcs," " Th ey satisfy our most stretched and cravi llg conce ptions of the glories of t he antihaky, dependent on t rit.e con· ventions which make hi s figures look like ca rdboard characters from Pol· lock's Toy Theater. H e has nOlle of Ooya's or Turner's psyc holog ica l sympat hy, and none of Delac roix' sensuous grasp of the li\'ing body. It is clear t.hat. his fame, unlike that of the ~up e r ior pa inters in Roman tic times, could not !survive the advent of Rea li sm and the swift development of cllm· era vision thereafter . But his architectu ral imaginat ion was tnIly prophetic, and remains wi th liS in all subli me mo\·ie versions of Icge ndary structu res, incl uding not only t.h e great. Griffi th sets but those fo r Lang's Melropolis, the Noa h's Ark and 1'ower of Babel in Dino de Laurent.iis' Th e B ible, and the g reat b ridges and causeways bui lt by the Krel in Porbidde'n Pla1iel. The War Room in Dr. Strangeiove and a ll t he futurist hardware fi rst manifested in 200 1, and so mueh imitated since, are all traceable back to Martin's sets for Biblical d isasters and his illus trati ons to Parad.ise Lost (10 .13-10. 15). Hi s invented crags and plain s, sometimes flood ed. some-
( "lpYriO h
Aoot'tl alfd ngllt: 10.13, 10.14 .,lO ll S ,. ART I N, Til e Hrif/Yf' of Cltao. and Pflllf/cmo"i .. tII. Engraved illustrations ror Milton's Parudiu 1827. &loltJ: 10.15 Architectural vision rrom IAIug'l Mt lropoli" 1927 . Compare wittl the tower at the rear in 10.12.
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)t O VIS'O
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limes molten Hnd burning, sometimes celes tilllly vcrdunt . lik ewise prefig· ure the plulIet.-scnpe we find in ei n('mnt ic seie nce· romnuccs that deal ill First or Last Things . Martin was obsessed with architecture and engineering in rel1l life. He s l>ent years perfecting plum; for the reforlll of Londou 's sewers and water supp ly aud for the redesigning of its public spaces. Among t hese was 11 Thames Embankment, of which the extant section is only a poor ghost, which was in tended to stretch fo r mil ('s, 1111 the way from Greenwich to past Hammersmith Bridge. Martin Sl1t on va r ious eommittees devot.ed t.o such projects for improvement, and he publ is hed , at his own expense and with· out hopf' of recompense. mallY druwings and plans for his ideas . Although nonc of them was built, t hey were ndm ired lit th e ti me, and they all dwelt on the salllc kind of esth etic elTects I>roposed for Thebes or Gomorrllh in his spectacula r paintings-sweeping prosl>ects of Iwroic mllsonr)' lit with rows and rows of lam l>s, endless ter raced colollnades, nnd ma ssi"e towers. They were sublime d es igns for 11 wondrous mO"ie London . us re·e reated by a n art di rector of th e (ortiet h ce ntu ry. SOIllP of his practical sugges tions about sewage and water supp ly were actually put. into effect after his death; but his unrea lized arehi tec tural ren der illgs made th ei r ma rk on the d rllwing sty le of later enginee rs and u rblln phlllllers-the dishHit re latives, per· haps , of those fu tu re art dircc tor~ sti ll to be ui!cc ted by his irresililibl e • • VISion. Martin had no good sense of t he relatiw sca le govern ing t he WilY near and far figu res inhabit a scene together; th e eye is nlways struggling, for example, to fit The Bard co mfortably ill to his setting, gi ven th e distan ce he is from th e viewer and t he size of th e soldiers below him, but it. neve r works: the bard is too large or th ey a re too s mal l. In fa ct, exce pt (or Moses divid· ing the Red Seu, s t icking one or two ngitnt ed cha ractc rs on to a s tagy I)rom· ontory neur t.he front. of ltn epic scene now seem!> to fail 8S tI convincing pictorial device for a modern viewer, because the movie·calllera view of the world has cO llle to.govern so Illuch of our extreme imagin ing. Turner hnd al· ready p resciently rejec ted the motif for his bestlege ndnry paintings, 8S we have see ll , aud s tirred his Hannibnl right into t he d istant midd le of the snowst.orm. But wh ile the theat er was still se tting the s tandard for thrills, Ma rlin 's arrangement s were d oubly thrilling: t he roreground group invoked th e best se nsationn l clement s of the melod ramatic stnge. but at the sallie ti me the " iewpoint was pull ed far back, away fro m th e actors; and be· hind t he gesticulating hero, the l\lStou uded eye was forced to scan amazing vistas fro m th e secret theat er of d r eam s. Ma rtill's pailltings work better if the viewer edit.s out the nearby, elut.ed· looking eharacters ent irely. In Belshazzar's Fea-st, fo r exa mple, his gaze
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grulcfully IIc ro!;s II h·nglhy vil'w or tOI'eh-l it 1J1lllqUI'lillg tn blt·s whe re n thousand sit at diHHe r, just llS it Sttys ill th e Book of Dlllliri. The neares1, group of block -long tables is uutdoors, l'xl>osed t.o the acid glnrr rrom te n·roo t-lligh Hundwrit ing o n th£' IlIIndrl'd -root-hi ~h Wull; the rest are se t up unde r thick stOIl(> nlllits b(>lw(>1'1l r{'ceding rows or SqlUH colu llllls that finally disllppenr in darkness II milE' away. wh err they lire c rowned by two bloated skyscrapers high uud fa l beyolld 1111 hope of IUCUsur('melit. Or, in The Greal /Ja y of /J is Wrallr. hr 11111.'" s(>(' ('utir(' ci t ips scooped frolll theit, roundlltion s ilnd turned ups ide dowlI ill th e middle of a blood-red sky, the towers cnlln bl in g head first into lin OC(>1I11 su rging with drowned souls (10,16), Th e secr et wa s to be s Jlec ific-t he olher (a nd mu ch ens ier) wny of inviting the cinemutic su blime tha n Turncrs usp of luce nt blur. )1 artin was not a very good pailltrr, poorl y trained by II prov inc iul drawing-master. Wh en he submitted his grnnd machines to th e ROYIlI ACllde ruy, th ey were treated with condescension and hung in th e an t eroom-tolerated , no t muc h respected, but lo\'ed by th e pub li c, )I,a rtin cou ld 1101 hope to pit himse lr, as the AcudC"lIIy- lruillC"d '1'l1l'IIC"r did, agaillst th e great plliut e rs of the past. Instea d he well umlf'rstood and serwd thf' IOllging to have ('xtre me falltnsy brought to li(e , 1101 ill tellllwred Ilntllllus terly produ c tions but by 8HtOllishil1g lIlagic. This WIIS /I th ing 11It'1i bl'yolld till' sco p.> of tlH' stage: but it. wu s certainly poss ible ill pictures, if the urlist WIiS IlI'e pllrcd to forget abollt C laud e [~ rrn ill. One way ),Iartin (ostered the sl'IIS{, of hilllSl·1f as II wi zllrd WIIS hy printing thick booklets to go with his I}uintings, sO\l\'euir programs describing all th e archeologica l resell rch he hiad donc on Bilbylon (or TYl'e, or Ninf've h), citing exact dimensions lind proportio ns und giving II sllUl Il outl ine drawing of the picture. with eueh building precisely labell!d , It was as if to say that his own artistic ta le nt, had no th ing to do with his results: IH' had siruply taken great pnin s to filld Ollt the (IICIS and Ihrll co njured lip the city just 8S it had stood. Th en, usu8l1 y, h£' wo ul d wU\'e hi s wllnd nnd show it in the th roes of total destnlction, the grand lind hea\'y mnsonr)' IShi\'c ring illto fragm ents o r washing aW8y in a fl ood, righl be forl' your \'c r~' eyes ( 10. 17, 10. 18). In fu ct he made the c it ies up, jus t as Ill' did ) Iilton 's "Plllld(,lIloniulII." from verbal d esc riptions that left a mple scope for the elll o t ional i; tylr of \ ' jsllal invention, (or dramatic relldl' rillgs or fit'rcc light. \'a s t s pH ce. a nd g ren1 size. Muny o( the pil inti ng's we re co nce ived ill hurs h reds und blacks pierced with white lightning, lind Huskin was righl to cnll th em bo mbast ic, The real e iTectiwllCIlS o f )tarti n 's puintings s howed ill t he mezzoti llt s he made (rom th em. These wt're llIo noch rOlllUt ic \'c rsions muc h larger t llnn ordinaf')' e ngravings, ou whic h h€' wo rked ill \'al'iOll8 iu ks. IIsiug combined
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10.16
JO li N MAKTI N.
10 . 17
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t(>chniqu es with grent cure ilnd ill grcllI l e n ~th . nottnlslillg s uch work to nrlisans as IIII1Ily Illl int(>rs did . The plli ntings themselves wellt on tour like s hows, liS Illrg(> hi s tory paint· ings often did , someti mes exh ibited as pr ivute cOlllllw rcinl enterprises with tickets sold (i n his cnse along with th e explunlltory booklets) rather t han under inSlil1ltionul nu s pices, und sometimes fo r roynlty. Murtill 's lurid puinti ugs were immed inte s uccesses, but it wns his Inte r, grnphic versions thut r ightly sprend his real influence. They are mu ch bett er und more haunting: eve n when tint ed , IlS they sometimes were, the black·a nd ·white mediulll tempers the bombnst ulld reveili s t he genius . It. almost seems as if he ",us awnre Ihnt th e grnphic modt' was his t.nle elemen t , t he medium th llt would presen'e him in eclipse, und t hrough which he might move 1.0 reach lhe imagillntion of the future (10 .19). T he great past mnst ers of pni ntiug he could 1I0t hope to ril'al; but. he Counts among those who pu s hcd the grllpilic arts ahead 1.0 IIH'ir cinelnlltic destiny. At this pl~ r i od, just illS duriug t he previolls ce ntury und more. it wus cust.omury for paiut(>1"S to "publish" th eir works in grnphic form , all cl the trill'clin g exhibition of any givf'1I painting incl uded ra ising subscriptions for the promised engraving mudf' fro m it. Th e lega l und tiunnciul a s pt~ c ts of thi s reJlltion betwee n IIllllrtist uud his public vllried; but it WllS a customary lind C\'Ctl nccessary purl. or u puiutcr'lS cureel' that he Inuke money rronl reproductions or his works , as well as (rom I he sale of the originalptl intings. I( he had a serious graphic imaginatioll, like Rembrandt or 1\lrller or illdeed lik e Mn rti n, he would do the reproducing himself, if it. was nt nil possi· ble , und lIppellr bc fore t he public dircc t ly 8S 1I grnphic artist eve ll of his pa i l//illgs. His origina l graphic wOl'ks-book illustration or single sheetsmight then be nil the more percept ible llS great in t hemse lves. Other pnint.ers, with 8 purely pa inte rly gifl , may well have cared nothing Ilbout the fllw or of th e engrnvings lIlade from the ir works, and fe lt detach ed Crom th eir possib le graphic futu re in the public consciousness. Such puinters, on the other haud, oft en had n supreme tal ent for the other kind of graphic art- for drawing, which represents th e unique moment of creati on lind st resses its privacy, rllther than it s public life. Art is ts of t his kind d oubtless fe lt. the mselves artistically betrayed rather than confi rmed by reproduction , except possibly in the form of rcverellt painted copies. Such an attitude in turn helped to shape the modern vi ew of t he exclusivelIess of pa inting, aud 10 divide it. effectively from its form er audience-the ones who paid Lo see t he Marti ns. There is no rule fo r t his; but muny of the painters I have called cinematic -t.hose fl ou rishing since the Sl)read of priutcd pictures-have made no dist.inetion of va lue between painterly and graphic expression , and also
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huve bE-r' lI d(>(>ply (:O Il(:(>I'IiNI with Ihe wny Ih(>ir OWII paiutiuJ,!'s IwculII(> grnphic. They hnn' kepI n 8(>118(> of Ih(' 8{,llIllle8Sl1eSS o f I h(> piclorilli wodd, even a sense of I II(' porOIl SIH'SS of visua l IIWIII'{,lIess il se l f- t he way I h(' emo, tiollal t'ITeet of pictur(>s 1ll1I)' bl' inrlist ingllisllllhlt· f"ollL lllllt of ull otht'I' kinds of visua I ('xpt·riell c('. 1hr ki lid ill dl1yd "PIlIl1S, d ,'('II iriS, nnd dui Iy visua l life all at OIlC{,. :,\'1uny s u ch pll int('r8 s t'e lllNI to des ir't' a lUo\'illg, fl(>xibl{' fu · lure life for {iwir works bused 011 Ihlll hll'ge l' uwur('Uesl;, 1I0t just on the ('nduring virtue of the o riginal paint insidl' its ol'igi lll.ll f rnrHc ,
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•
ELEVEN
Friedrich, Schwind; Menzel and His In uence
P A I N TIN 0 he culled Peace: B urial. (II Sell, 'furne r showed while sails loo king black agll inst u glowing sky, us if they had crys· lalli7.cd out of th e black smoke from n Cilllll OIl sal utE" (11 . 1). At the time, certain of hi s c ritics obj ected ; the effect see med I)c rverse Ilnd s hoc king. The mOLif loo ks naluntl by this lime beclluse we have 8ee n so muny photo· graphic e xampl es . especially i ll til(' PCNilIiISi\'c kind of advert isi ng art Ihut. inhe r its Turner 's general ailll 1.0 evoke raw responses. Hi s puintiug was II mourning tribute to a frie nd and pat rOil, bu t. it upproach cs that subjec t so obliquely that th e chiuroscuro "ocabul ary of I)ure reel in g drowns outmos t of the dC!:Ic ripti\'c language in the pi ct ure. Th e buria l is not. d iscerniblf'we Heed t.he capt.ion to know abouL it-but th e fi('ry douds and the black sai ls above the burnis hed sea create II .litrong elegy without anecdotes. Turne r 's picture dat.es from 1842, only three years ufte r the ollicinl birth of the came rn, i\lId two yeurs dlcr the d eal h of Ilspar David Frie· drieh. But thirty·five years ctlrlie r. in hi s Cross i ll th.e .tJOIl II/(l ill S of 180 7, F'riedric h was a lreudy investiguting the pictoria l met hod Turner late r ur· rived a t. for his personal requiem, and trying to c reate a new forlll of strictly psychological rel igious imagery. He was looking for some thing that would uppeal to specifically C hri stillll s piritua l longin gs, without flllling buck on represen ting tHly trad itional C hrislinll myths or doclrill(,s. Fri edric h 's painting was 8 devo tionsl ilUnge, not jusl a re ligious pict.ure; it wa s buil t into all nltnrl>i ecc intended to inspir'€' wors hip. Bu t. he II sed the su me t('rms "lIrnc r used and movies now use t.o ('vo ke rel igious feelin g whell it is reo qu ired (or general purposeli , nol just. for el>il>hall ic e pisod es ill Bible e pics -the rad iHllt sky. with some thing significant in s harp contra st ugll ills t i l. THE
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H e re il is Ihe c ross llIl(llhl~ pi m' s, cOllflllLing IIIltll r(' IlIId n~ lil! ioli wi l h JJer'· fCCI ('u~(' ( I I.:::!), As ill S(,\'(, I'a l of F'l'iNl r ich's pai l1li llg's, Ilu' c rOSs is ollly II 10cIll. m ode I'll cnlc ifix, SOI II('t h ilig Olll' lIIi gh t Ilc tu ally 10('(' ill n1rlllllrcaS,llIu.ll lw trees nre »('rrec l ly fllllli litll', So i ~ I Ill' sky, wilh its clouds cu I by s Ullb('tilll ~, The' U\\'l' is inspired ~i lllp ly throuj!h Iht' psychic 1II0\'elll(' 1I1 ('\'oked by t he arrulIJ.!t'· 111('11 1. Tilt, soul rp('ls 1I10s1 druwlI by Iht' ordillUry 1I11l(h' transc(' nd rll l : Illill sillcl' Iht' h i j:n~t' s l /llid hi glli'si ordilllll'y obj('c t hi' I'(' is /I c m cifix, III(' soul's imlll(>(liul (' I'('SPO IISl' b('col11(' S IIssociatl'd wil h til e worship of liI(' C hri s ti llll God, ~(' i tlli'r I lit' exposit ion or dO~1I111 no r I lip IIIll'ratiOIi or myt h olo~y is II CC' CSHill'.\'; II I(' d ('li lll'lIlion or ~O lll (' PUI'(' symhol. ~ lI c h a ~ II d irl'c t .. r lld l' r i n~ o r 1\ S1Ipel'II11 tUI'II1 CI'OSS, would bt' IHt'I(' s~ by cOItlI)urisoll ,
294
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Th is shortcut to religiolls devotio n by 1111 eUlotional route ulso Icu,'cs o ut the Ilrtist 88 the inspired expliclltor of Ood's mysteries to men's eyes . It is allother cuse of the "hlludl es!oi eye," Ihe conju r ing of the vision , not its e re· ntioH. Here it is the conj uring, rather, of It situa tioll: the mysteries rClnain mysterious, and the whole relatioll between Ood lind hu mun beings (including artists) lituys uncertain und therefore exe rt s II formidllble pull. Such 1I picture s uggests t hat divine revelalion lurks in vjews of common things , especia lly in nutunti phcliomcnu-bu L it. is the reve lution of u constant process, not 811 answer or UII explicutio n. The Ilrtisl is only another seeker and partia l viewer like ourse lves. olle who puts a fra me llround some mome nts of the search alld ol>eus j) wind ow briefly. li ke Il film-maker _ Beyond th e fram e is on ly sky and landscKI)e f pe rhaps so me animals or shippi ng: it is our response, so often urged und focused by 1\ su li en t foreground icon against the distnllt light, that makes it the Beyond , the realm of the spiritually unknown.
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295
• The cnlCifix in The Cross ;11 IIle MOIt,II/t.ills i!) made ('\'(-' n more ciuema tic by being s howlI s lightly on'·celilc r lind li t Ull lin gle, like the IIrchitectural fantasies o f the Bibien8s, As wilh those h{-'Iwy pien; unci po rtn l~, Ihi" d (> li· cate vision seem s to be turnillg in 11 great arc, It makes li S wish to c ircle to mee t it. to put ourselves nt its ce nl e r . to climb s lowly upwllrd IIround the rocks, to fu ce the ri sing bea ms d i rec lly . or nutybc to face lire sc uill tlired Christ at lust, to be finall y illulII inllted wilh it ami by it. TIl(' firlll stones. the e nduring pines . the ell'n ul l c ross I1 N' 1I(',,(' rllw lcss ulIslllble, cilught in tlu~ 11l0tioll of th e earth, it H s un . IIlId Ollr lII ovi n~ Cllllle rn ('ye, b("lIcon of til(' aspiring SOli I. Relig ion in til(' lU ovit's is also II maW'r o f lIuur ipullIting the light. whatever e lse il> ill till' piclUrp- lUllurn l wonell' r!), o r tilt' inlt'ri or of a cathedral , or the d ralllutiZlltioll of 1.1 cll llonical mi rnclc (11 .3. 11 A ). F'or se\'eru l yenrs after 180 6 th e fo regrou nd objects in Fried rich 'Is works wer(' o ft("11 hU1II1l1I bei n gs see n frOIll lhp buck. und oft(-'II "I ready cr nt prrd to fa ce the mome nt truth in the sunrise. th e lIIo11lltuin rtl ngt' . or the OP)>O' site r iverbank . The ir ce ntral placement works as 11 (oclIs iug Ilgenl, not just fixing the gaze Ilud the nttention but filte rin g them und cOllde ll sing t hem into s ))i rituul e n gines . The bnckgrollud hmd scupc rnay be Ilpprehcndcd o lily s lrllighttitrough the soul o f t he HUIII or \\'0 111 1111. We IIIOVC in lik(-' u cum · e ra 011 th€' back of t he head, and o nly t he n beyond it to the sellin g, wire rl'
or
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296
M O VINO
11.4
PI CTU RE S
C . D . F RIEDRI C H ,
Tilt Cro&1 bll"u Ha/llr
the lighlllud the mist and the hill s may th cn never be viewed neutrally. The person's pr ivate " iew gelS hugely and perm8ncIltiy ill our way (11.5). Meanwh ile he docs not kn ow we look at. nil. He himse lf is not precise ly looking; often there is nothi ng LO see. But hi l!i expcri cllce-whntcvcr it is, aud it lIIust be illllc r-colors ours without his knowledge or in t.e ntion. The figure ill n picturesque la nd s(81)e, on t he olher hand , usunlly st/luds aside 8S if purpose ly appea ling' to our ga ze lind guid ing our unde rs tand ing, allowing us u s hare in hi l!l spprcciativc \'e rsioll of the view. Friedrich's figu re is lost in it, und fundam entally not inte rested in whut it looks like. ouly in what iii happe ning to him . Thi s is tUl extre me exalllple of the cinemat ic approach to laudscape. Instead of lutrsh rocks and cascades standing for hunuHl strife Ilncl risk, or brilliantly colored mead ows (or joy a nd peace, there is oftcn 8 lum inous ,'oid or a misty prospect in which a n unremarkabl e sca or field or mountain (orms a rather unfinished -looking setting. The hills and watcr and trees th emselves may form unbeaut ifu l, even awkward composi t ions. But th e
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of the rising mist Itnd spreading lighl draws 011 the lIeed for meaning Lhut burllS inside our slIIlIlI (lnc ked s kulls lind clenched henrls; and we are made to fCf'1 till' prl' Stmrf' of illlllll'nSt' d esi re for u point to things. 'ril e material in the pictllrl' may often be unexc it ing: the pic ture it · Sl'lf is ulways inl('lIIn~ . On(' source of this effec t is Fri l'drich 's working lI1e thod. H e worked Ih(' same Wtl)' Turner nnd Wutt.ellU did, s lowly building spontIUll'olls·looking paintings o ul of 11 hoard o f lIIallY incidf'll tnl sketc hes, and usiug the Slilne motif se\'crul times, This ngllin is the IIrt directo r's me thod, whereby the force of the funtllsy lIlukes the ph otogruphed result look more Illltllral.lllore tnle to whllt. we wllnt of our pitenolll(,IHI than any straight record call gin', It's 1I0t. a mutt l'r o f urtist ically rctouchi IIg or l'xlIggcrat ing II pili in \'iew. bu t of IIlllkillg tht' whol(' thing lip out of tllt~ lII os1 eiTecti\'{' SlrLull elelJlCllt8 to suit a particulllr cmotiollal ideu, and 111(>11 on'(' rillg it liS 1111 immediat.e im· press ioll . The re is u very thin pllin!. film in fri ed rich's wo rks. co m billed with UII occuHionlllullcertnillty (llbo ut feet or ('lIrs or groups of Il' II\'<'S) in 1111 otherwise precise. e\'en s trangled st yle . Tll(>sc rClIt.u res rei nforce Ih l' SClIse of mobile re sponsf'. both hi s ulld Ollrs. ins l('ilcl o f demanding IIny re\'erell ce for his visiblp cn'orts. And IIgllill tratl.'iIXlrf' "ry is 1111 ess(,lIli,, 1 part of Ih(' ('f· fe e l.. l he look of u whol e ull iw'rs(' he ld ill cxisten c l~ o nly by the tnut lind tinted screen,
298
M OV IN O
)'I C T U Ki-:S
F'ri cdrich insists on the co nccnlrntion of psyc hic utLention , 110 oth er kind. When he ehooses something objectivt"l:v spectacula r, like a chalk cliff or an ice field , its dramatic loo ks arc not emphasized by enthus ias t.ic bru s hstrokes alld II thentricnl presentation desi gned for ilnpnct; it s looks may in fact be so mewhat sobered. But he places and lights the phenomclloll for s low cOllt emplulion , often ce ntrally, so that the craggy s tone and t.he jugged ice mill' 1I0t si mply s it there and show off, but mu s t deve lop the kiml of humming, magnetic importance II(' al so givcs to naked brunches, n ruined a rch, Oat wat er, a mean s hed , or a fi shing boat. Fried r ich's basic Ils8umpti oll s wCl'e religi ous und specificall,Y Protes tant Christian, but his sense of the human pillee in th e un iverse seems larger than that. T he crosses Oil seashores and mOllutailitops , t hc loo ming bits of chu rch and abbey seem importll nt but also incidental. It. is alS if he thought Christianity was only a slUall device for organizing the huge spi ritual desi res that surge through human life, seek ing some righ t channel by ear· nes t ly co ntemplating t he often meager s um of what t here iii to sec. Friedrich is interested in the large dimens ions acquired by t he visible world when in th e presence of a large psychological eagerness. Man 's passage through his own individual li fe was an obvi ous theme for someone with su ch a questing dilSpositioll , and the sense of dea th as a fu r ther jou rney, even a desi rable one. Friedrich's works are full of such pro, gressions, or t he sugges tion of them; and th ey are rendered liS if the viewer, painter, lind subj ect were together eugaged in that same forward movement toward infillity. This is lome evc n if t he subject is not human. Th e great central tree or ship he often shows is a character, undertaking or lIudergoing some ordeal , and seemingly i'II m.otio", twisting, d r ifting, alwayg seeking; the very hillside floats up hope fully , 811 eager pilgrim following its t ide of visilant clouds. The lighting of t he A,bbey i ll lite Oal.: Wood or the Solitary Tree, IlS in many other Fri edrich landscapes, shows a foreground in shadow contrasted to a luminous d istance, no matter what else is in the pic ture-a p rocession of monks or a (amily, a s ingl e s hepherd or 8 single sail , some horses or some trees. The effect is oClight rising off the ea r t.h and drawing everything after it, whute\'er t.he t ime of night. or day (11 .6, 11.7). Friedrich represent.s th e t.ranscendental view oC the s ublime that was later to find suc h effec tive exponents in Amer ica. H e is all early example or a specific st rain in the development of Romanticism that insisted 011 the liberation of th e spiritual life from old forms of religious constriction, to can, cent rate on what Robert Rosenblum calls "the searc h Cor the sacr ed in the secu lar modern world." Rosenblum find s Friedrich '8 descendants among certain transcendental modern painters, such as Rothko. But the path Rosenblum traces leads away from the realism , even the mater ialism. that was
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M OV IN O
PI C TURES
css('ntial to Friedrich 's sty le of search. AC:luuiities recorded by t he mov ie camera, a ll th e other Imlld , cun offer n suilab le vehicl e for it. Friedric h' s s ketch es show Unit he pored on~ r the eXlle l look of a straw liulluonnet stuck 011 the end of a rai ling. or o f a wonuUl's empty houseslipper-lIot, 8S Van Gogh la ter did wilh hi s own s h(){'s, 1.0 COIIIIIH'II t. upon them in ex press ive paint. or to comment III 1l1I . but s imply to stare IlIId sta re, lUi at th e $ca or the sky. The Clllllcril, rat her than a ny Inte r school of paint ing. has s pecialized ill that spccinl kind of st.ure, which seems to can· sti t ut e a
30 1
Fried ric h ' s co nI elll l)()ra ry Ot to Hu nge, for exa m pIc, invoked I he ijU bl ime with U pUlio ply o f OVC rt symbolism . HUlIge was eagpr to delllon8t nil e both his need to brood 011 IIl1fathomkblt> multl'rs and h is ca pacity to set up II. stable visual system for doillg il . full of explicit supernal radiance und carthly wOlidrOllsllcliS, II is IIrt lUll; 110 d escl'lI (l;lIIls in C ill(~lIultograph y, only in animnted mov ies, In direct cOlltnlst 1.0 liIis, Fri edrich stic ks to e xact re· a lity for his ,'{'rsion o r thc p('rsolHll sub limc. ('yell Ihe rMlily o f boring s lid unwondrou s constal roc ks and dumb tl'('C8, Ill' refrllins frolll showillg how wonderr111 hi s urlisCs scnsibility is; his postu re is o nc of acutc humi lity, but acute attention to the bearing s u ch th ings lIl ight luwc on the meaning of
lire. This is wluH. mukes these Illlld sclipes ruth er likc the contrived movie sets of the 1930's lind 1940 ' s , t he buckgroullds for the d e libernt ely GeruuUlicrOlllantic F rU llkr llstei" und otlU'r horro r fillllS, und for ordinary melodrama. too (11.8, t 1.9), Art ifi cinl s n ow, curc full ,v wrought lind light.ed dead trees, well · madc papi er -mflc he roc ks, or cllnned moonlight 011 th e wnte r become I)a rt o f th e drllma ill s uc h films; we arc shown Ihcmll s IIspec !.s of thc hUlJlan story, evc lI if nobody is in the fram e at, th e moment. And C\'C1l if t hey look s trained , Illude up for th e occillsioll liS I" ri edrich 's trees alld nlilll; al so d o, they st ill d o th eir work : we urc ufTected in th e right way by the Iluthenlic emotional Illid p sychologicnl e nvc lope t hc," pu t arOllnd eve nts , Such mat.crial in Ill ovies hns fo~ riedr ie h 's en'Ce L of purport ing to be Il p lain record of th e surroundings , not an nrtistic visioll of the m, Movies followi ng the Expressio nis t example o f /) 1', Co/igori, on the other hand , oFtcn try to s how a d e libe rately confected ell\'irollllwnt under compl ete ttrli Slic control, with city streets und interiors overtly emo tiollul i7.ed ; but th e esse nthaI Ramll nt ic slylc of t he classic ci rJ('U111 follow s Fri t>drich 's mllch more re· strained program for Ililturc, In clllssic pOI)u lnr n'lO"i es , bare branc hes and twilight s kies nnd 8 pebbly bench with n few bro ke n boards on it u rc made to look.t.he wily they rcnlly d o look; but the intens ity of th e human si tuatio n at thc mome nt, wh cther it 's on(' pe rson ' s inlier st.ut.e or a dramlilimong gel" eral people. gives t hem a I)rcgllulil charact e r, th e look of be ing heavy with meanings proj ected int.o them by hUIIIUII fallln gics and perplexit ies, This look is direc tly convcyed flrst by their vcry ex iste nce as produc ts of m oving light (that is, as movie·comera I)hc no rue nu) bu t also by their sligh tly stiff look. which reads IIhnost as self·consciollsness, Thi s pointedly sta rk tree echoes what we fec i; but it cnll IIctuaHy d o nothing except. keep rath er awk· wardly stand ing t here with it s bran chNi slicki ng Oll t. And that' s e nough . some how-just what we wlini. This is a quality vcry different from t hnt cOIl\'cyed by an expressive ex· aggeration or form , o r by excessivc HpCClncular effects , It is al so vcry d ir·
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M O VIN O
PI C T U R ES
11.8 S till (rom t: t'O ttgt/ i ttt', 1929
11.9 Still (rom TO/It SiJM:y t ,., 1938
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ferent from the look, common in pllill l inb~, of IltrilllSlllutN! impulsc toward visua l abstraction. of the art ist showi ng what great creati ng Art can do 1.0 • 'aturc, The followc rs o f J--' riedrich trucked by Hoscnb lum into the twen· tieth cen tu ry have obcyed that impu lse; but othe r fo ll owers. doubt lcss un· conscious ones, have bel'li t il{' makers IIlId photograph(' rs of lIatu ral movie·scencry in the c1uss ic Hollywood dllY~ , l.like BnICgel, Fried rich begHn his cU l'ec r ns all nrtis t in monochrome. H is firs t successes were smu ll scpia brush drawings, lind for -"CIlI'S he stated his disti nctive tilclll{'s ill tllll! limitt'd IlwdiulU , as wclllls in chalk, ink, and pencil , before moving on to oils. Later on, ill the paintings, he con· tinued and vnri cd th c austcrity he Imd nchien'd ill his curly, colorless views, often of no thing but empty sky und slIIooth SCll with II hazy sun or moon rising, and pcrhaps one or two IUIll I)ish offshore rocks, or of UIIC\'Cllt· I'ul fields and groups of dend trees. These lIluted grul)hic works havc a flilly cx peetunt look, the air of being settings for dlltrllct ers' responses, even when t here is nobody about. und the sc('ne is very dull. Th e lighti ng is doi ng most of the work. gi\'ing these Out phenolUe liu the power to sugges t Il long ing fo r d cliverlillce in riLe same wny that clllssic movie·seenery-pertincnt settings for cinematic drama, not beautiful 10· cales photog raphed fo r t heir own sa ke-suggests a longing for resolution. 1I0t resolution ilself. The sunset into which t he 100'ers ridc, the rond down which ChHplill Bnd Goddll rd wlllk nrc poignant because t hey s how, even at the \'ery cnd. t he sa llic I)u ll towa rd the still·unknown, toward something more, that t,he Illo\' ie itseir hus bee ll exerting. F"'iedrich could do it wit h 1111 uni ntcrestillg low Willi conillining Il half·opened gatc, or with til(' bluck en· trance into a wood just. aheud on the sunny path; Hnd like Chltplill, he could do it a ll ill black and wh ite (11. 10, 11. 11 ), Hi s settings are prepnred [O r the presence of pl ain churllct.ers. persons or a person, not for that of a puinler 01' u poet-I'or us, in facl, IlS direct par· t icipan ts in an emo ti onal sequcllce (llot as possi bl e nrt ists' models . or sym· pathe tic fellow painte rs). He oftclI l)U1S him seir illto t he picture, but not as a paint.er or an art is tically detached obsen'cr; and t he ol her figures, small 88 in Turner's works, lire also dH,vdrenrning und brooding Ilnd waiting, somet imes in pairs, but newr adm iring the spcc ifie belluty of the "if'w it· self. Th ere is IIlso no p rivllte Il rtislic sl nlggling ill pub lic, s uch liS Cezan ne underta kes. F ried rich pretends 1I0t to bp a crpa tive a r tist lit II I1- not. a ma ker and changer, nol {'\'en II sharp obsen'pr, ollly a cont emplator. The painter's hard work hilS becn ullob Ln lsivcly gOIl(, through. the tec hnical mastery is swallowed li p by thf' Iltmosphere; that is the Il!'t director's de· s ired effect. Fried rich is anoth er. like Rembra ndt ilnd GOYll, for whom there WIlS no
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b(>1 W('('II sIII8 11 graphic works lIud III rg(' pu illt i ngs . Il l'. too. shows
Ihlll for liIl' subj('cliw \' isiolillry. Ii~hl is so I)ri lllllry Ihut Iht' lII('diulII is UIWllYS "grllphic:' wlwlher it is black Illid whit€' or pnill1. ('0101' is 1'1II1)lo."NI liS
n 1!l('rVulll. 1101 IIc knowledgt·d liS a 111111011' 1', und 8ubjl'Chi IIr(' !lut rIInk('d 10
fit Ull idi'll of ils stllwriority. To show that
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wily its chiluginlllllllll{' of radiallc(' 1inls I Ill' soul. ,lIlei 1101 for !hl' !lloriolls t inls it I('nds ti1f' sk.\', II lillY ))(,lIc il drnwillii will s ullicl.". )loollliJ,!il t is II (n-
\'orile subjeci pllrtly b('1.:1I118(' it \(,lIds to bl('ue h 111(' color Ollt of flllllilillr Ihll1gS j lind ils ,'Xln'lI\(> {'lIlotiOIlIlI t'lT"cts, too, III lly iw COII\'('YNI 0 1111 ;';11111 11 sClli!' lind in Ilw lI1 os 1 ltLod!'st grllpilic IIwd l11, On till' ol h{'1' hUlld, tht, hrij!ht · g rC(,1I IIwlldow s it·t' piug ill Ihe uft(> rlloon light IIltty Iw brilliull liy puillied ill alit' \'{'I'SiO Il , ulld liS hrilliallll.\' draWl! ill st'p ill ill 111101111'1'; tit!' glittt,!, 01' t ht' SII II , II 1)I't'ciolis Ilnclll'llllSil'llt bl{'ssing', is thl' Sl.U U!' ill hoth , 1'111' doubl" \'il'w of F ri(,dricll's Iwo studio windows is /I cl'uciul ci ll('lIIl1lic work, /I pri \'lIl(' (,lIrly COllllnilllwllt 10 Ih (' porlru.\'ul or ium'r PI'O CI'S:O;, Th is puir or Sl'pill druwillg's. IWo rrulll(,s rrolll Oil£' film shot. WIlS dOli!' in 1805 but 1101 tWill ror ,'x ilihiliollunlil 18 1Z ; it was as if fo'r i{'drich wl'r(' Il/lUl,dlll! 011 to Ih{,1I1 ror his OWII COIII(>lIIphltioli. Th£'.\' uri' muolljl hi s 1II0si slnrlliu!! works, ull til£' lIIort' ror b£'ing so spllrl~, Ilicking tlrci\{'s or cross!'S. 1110011 ' lighl or SUUbl'lIllIS, lIIist. rocks. or Pl'OI)h', or UII.\' hinl or OCI'III1 ulld old tr{'l's (11.12.11.1:1). Whlll w(' hll\',' illsl!'ud is H 101lg' ga?!' 0111 Ilw wiudow durill!? working'
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hOlini . Il is II record nOljus Lof the simpl e rive r "iew uud its lHlre d omes t ic fram e, but of what the ga zer. pausing al hi s labors to s tare out , had on his mind . Oncc morc th ere is no demons tration of what glories a paint er can muke out of II mere glull ce II l lhe Freuci l d oo rs , such us Mutisse repellt ed ly gives. Nor is it u lour de fo rce of illusionism, su ch us certuill Dut ch painters lIl 11de. Th i.s is, rather, un establis hing s hot for a scene of IlI'ivnte meditat ion on 11 comm on enough th e lll e-I.h ~ pnssttgc or lime, lllld Ih(' re lation it, ha s to the hurnull sense of inwurd chungc, the signifi eullt pllssuge of un inner lire umid the neutrlll flow of e"ents. How ClllI II vi cw out th e window s how all thisT It is it film-milk er's question. To it modern movie-goer, ..'"' ri edrich·s pair of fram es s ugges ts that after we look for a whil(' ul til('se t.wo uninteres ting windows, 1\ perSall , whose head w(' s hull see from the back, will enter the rrume lin d begin to pace bet.ween th em in the dim room, stnriug firs t Ollt or one and then the other at the ligh t., unci allow li S to help him walch the cli151anl boats crossing the lirnited putch or Howing water, the rar clouds. the nearby mas t of t.he
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boat thal brushes so close. And us we wlltch him wut ching Ihem, we will gradually lind semi-co lisciously st'(' tltt! single kl'Y 01111 hook in tilt' Willi, the scissors 011 the other hook, lind th e cra mped refl ection of the top of the door and the top or hi s head in the d im litt1(' mirror fll cin g li S. Then we will gel it lind rcel ii- t he large nnd skyli l Olli eI' slren Ul , the small and dim inner t r ickle, th(' desire t.o unl ock and lII('rge, lh(' r(,llr or stasis and the hope in motio n, tlw certainty of dt'ath . All cucs about such understa nding arc bu r ied in ordilltlrilll'SS und lu cidi ty, percep tible only if the moving ca mera keeps insis tin g 011 this SLC11d,v d ouble view. The pres· ellce of the implied man or woman is not c \' ell necessa ry, Fri edrich is yelallother of those url ists who li se modis h cloth in g to link the fleeting visual world with n conditio n of inlier longillg in th e ci nematic way. Almos t all his clmracters wear slUl rply co nl empora ry midd le-class tOWI1 dress, except for the odd monk or hunter, or thE' men in all egedly Old Germ an costume who huve caused so mu ch CO lUment. Their e8ps and cloaks, always seen from the back, are more lik e refer(,ll ccs to the general
308
MOVINO
PI CTUR ..;S
Romantic habit of tUlley-dress, which was U11 uspecL of (tlshion III the lillle, thall direct statements of alliance with "olden-cluys" sentiment. The garme nts a re in fa ct more li ke cOllvcnliollu l student gll. rb (crossE'd with a suggestion of a r tists' truppin g's) thnn they lire like the rcal Old Germull costumes the archaizill g NIIZllrenes took up. Fri ed r ic h sometimes wOI'e t1 cup und cape himself, just us Rembrandt d id , and p('riUtpS evell because
Rembrandt did, in sympat hy with the idea of t he solitary artist as the stand·i n for th e single consc iousness-th e respond in g MUll , IIC\'c r the shaping and mediating' God. Th e figures wearing them ill hi s paintings stand for himself and a fri end or disciple, s hown in u moment of pri vat.e receptivitYi and euc h seems much more n humbl e stud ent than Illllngisterilli artis t. Most Friedrich personnel wcar modcrn fashionable clothes, just like movie actors, so thut wc Call be sure to ide ntify with their feelings. The women es pec ially (also just us in lIIovies) wear thei r fnshionnble shapes of s ki rt and hair and ornament as imicparablc indicnt ions of the ir e motiona l selves, the signs of present desire and illstant psychologicnl reudiness. They look absurd 011 1II01ll1tnil1l0pS; but somehow right. lE D RI C Ii was fSJuoliS aud influ cntilll in his timc and lind II loug career, Ilssociuted primllrily with the city of Dresde n and its AClldcmy. In generlll he re presellts Ii Germnn way of b('illg an nrlist during the Romantic pe ri od . scn ting a midd le-cluss und iutellccllinl publ ic und leading u middleeluss towllli fe. H is trllvcls werc modest journeys to und froUl hi s c hildh ood and family homes or to !;cenic part s of GerlllnllY . He never weJlt.l.o Italy or France, or eve n 'witze rlalld , and nrt istienlly Il nd personally remu incd a loeal phenomellon. He made no artist ic pilgrilllilges to famolls ce nl ('rs of ant iqu e glory or advllllced modern "Clivily. aud c rellted all hi s innovations in the abse nce of UII artistic avall t-garde. Fri edrich was 1I0t aiming the message of his urt ut lik('-m indcd nrtists and connoisseu rs, eithc r of his t ime or in the possible flltllrl~ . oV(' r the heHds or ordinary and pre.sumab ly un cuit ivut.f'd people. li e Willi COli sc ioli sly and conscientiously se n 'ing a present pub lic, eve n whil e e mbedding privilt c fan tasies in his pn inti llgs. The public ill t ile s Jllil llllUtouomous c it ies and tow ns of not yet unifi ed Romantic Ge rmuny in fact took it s('lf se riou.sly und fostered an interest in the kind of picture t hllt did more t hltn cntertui n, Besides the acndemies of urt lind lellrn iu g in th e Jllrger c it ies, smltll civic art·socie ties collect ively commissioned works tlnd set up competitions. Th e a rts were not. t he exclusive prope rty e ither of princes in courts or of art istic eote r ic.s in a large cllpit.al; and a r t patroulIgc wns ull connected with either kin d of exclusive prestige. Art ists from elsewhere and ('\'('n various 1I 0b ie patrons cventulllly visited F R
rt-d
Ie
Fried rich , li nd li te l'u ry W'oplC' and t hi nkers from Be rlin , We illlar, und J ellu wrol e llbollt. him: bllt his pict II r{'s, I ike t hosc of 0 1 hf'r G (' 1"1111111 pai III ers, were s lraigilt fOl'WllJ'd cO lillnodi t..it's provided for cllrre nt. CIiSt Otn(','S, sO lllew hllt in the o ld Nort h Eu ropentl c rllft trad il ion wh ich hnd slipport.('d Dut c h pu intf'r8 in the SC\'f'ntee llt h cen tury-who of COllrsf' in fl uc nced these Gc r ' nUll! Ro mantics , CO ll sequ cnt ly, t iL(,LI' s t yl(' lind s ubjf'c i IIlntl.('r re mained for the IlI Os t purl II ttUIiN ll O /I g{' lwnli hourg('ois tnst{' , HlIfll C'l1(ll'd II0t 10 he ('solerie , exclusive , or fouuded 011 II classicul id eal: lind illi hul WilY, 100, mllch ROnla lltie G{,I'mnn a l't pr{'figurNl l he Cill(' lll l\. But it is the ncl u al "isllul q ual ity Llmt is si llli ln r, 1101 th (' ci rcmn slllllces. Aft e r the IIl1s terp s pit'jlllill visio ns or F'ri('(h 'ic h 1111(1 h is fri('lIds Cunls IlIId Dahl, und the mor{' ll\'OWNlly Du t.eh-i lls p il·(>(1 illtf' ri Ol'8 o f Kers t in g, clime th e 1I10re iliu sl 1'8ti\'i' wOl'ks of Schwi nd s, bUI tilul al so illcluded /1 l1ew inte rest in folk LHles alld ol d 1.'gl' lIds liS WCIiIiS ill t he ordLl1llry en' lIt s o( mode rn life , A lUo ng t llesc pili n t 1'r8, I be ill ust nIl iV(' illl pu Ise WIIS IIslmlly ell !'ried 011 till the ter lllS o f IlIl1u dalle IIll t u rllliSIH Inid d owli by Jo" 'iN !r'iclt, nu l ill Ih{' idelt l, Lzi ng and urtificially a rl less lII ode "d opted hy t ill' ~ lt1. llr(, ' H·s, who w('11 1 1.0 live in HOIt H' und co py IIlI'dit'\,ul 11 1'1. 01' ill Lit(' hi'ltV." Nj'oc lllssic s t yle proI)Otllld N I li t t lu' beginning of th e ce ll lll l'Y by Gol1li{'b c hick, Pt.' rsolHi, bu il dings , objects, a nd 1UI11II'ui plu.' no li le lUl wer(' nt...all~NI /1lld lighlcd for IIlUX imU Ill psyc hologic .. 1 ('1T{'c t- a ll {'c ho o( tht' Dut c h idl'll-IiOt 1'01' l}ic IOr illl hlll'1Il 0llY, nllel nil th emes W{,I'(> giwil t he {liwol' of mo mcntary ('''pe r ie nee. The I'f'stdt is c illellllllic ill II llIore cozy lIlollf" t lt llll tlmt 01' F' ried ric h 's exu lt ed SCe lll'S, like ord illlll'Y IlIo"i{' cO llledy 1ll1(IIIw lodrlt llla rat he rtltull inspi red horror film s all d thrill el'S. The look of havi ng been d f"ii bf' r ul(>]:\' sel lll) to look nuluru 1. olily more 50 -that s unt(' look t hlll F riedt'ich guw his gl'oups or Irees IIlId t hut inrorms so mu ch Hollywood sel d('si j!n-wus pll r l o f li lt' (' I1'('ct sough t 0," Bll'chf'lI lind also by Sc hinkel , bot h "f whmn w('r(' /l c tllill sct t11>siglli:' rs . PU ill l illgs ill fllct gu\'c th em th e CIUIII C(, to c rl'lI\(' 1I10\'il' 5 1~ t S, us it weI'(> , to li se tite charged ut lll os phe re IIIl.1t1t> possi bh' by cllIoli omti lighl ing 10 bell ('I' e ffec t than the s tnge would u llow , 10 1I1l1ke 111 01'(' (,lIguifing dl'lll/lit oul or StO IlC WlIlls, s nOW- llldl"ll pill('ii, or Gothic traCt'l'y ou tl ill('d Il ~llin S I It setli llg sun tlum could npl)eu r in llily th{'ull'r of IiiI' liJllf" (S('(' I .f;). Mea nwh ile Sc hwind's The Morl/illY lIour, (01' ('''lIlI1p lf', o fTl'rs tI s lUu ll persollil l sce lle with a mu ch 1II0 l'j' inc idl'lIllIllI lld i'lI inlly comic flit vor t l1l.l11 "~ ri ed r ich's buck \';ews , e\'CII ",hilt.' il r('l ies 011 h is 1Uf' lhods (1 1.14), The se t
rt-d
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3 10
M OV I NO
11 . 1-1
M OR ITZ
PI C T U RE S
VOS 8C IIWI S I).
TIt f' M O,.lI i ll g IlQIC,.
dressi ng in this little scene is ugnin reuler thun reu l, LOO good LO be lnle; but. it is ulso wushcd wilh lIIoving lIirllnd light und frUined as if scunned by cinenultog ruphy, not. fixed by u s ti ll shot or pa inted to s how on' u ski ll at charmi ug deta il. The efTec t is very satisfyi ng. Everything we WHllt in such a young girl's bedroom at such II momeu l is exuetly right, lind yet it see ms perfectly casual sud in a sCII~e throwli Ilway-the ca mcrn is 1II0ving' in OU her, there wi ll be a cut lO her fa ce. the sc(' ne will beg ill to develop. BUI we have absorbed her lill ie slippers and the s hoved-back covers, th e si mple sewi ng tabl e; we feel her li ttle lJare feel 011 the wooden floor, sco rning the slippers in eugeruess to Ict. in the light that s t ill pushes IIgainsl the left.hand blind. She ignores the mirror for t he window-a si mple girl, hundy with her needle, fu ll of en thusiasm , de\'oid of \'unity-we get it a lm ost without see ing il. In s t,ead we wlllch her lind feel like smi ling, lIlId applying t he adj ecti \'e "little" to e\'c ryt hing about her. Th e buck lighting in this sUlall domestic Jl1l intin g does the sllmc work it d oes in the trllnscendent ou tdoo r scenes of l<-'ricd rich. th e landscllpes of CuYP. or the interiors Dc Hooc h. What mnkcs t he picture cinematic is the psychological moveme nt set. up by Ihe light coming lowllrd us through
0'
:11 I
til l' pictul'e, druwing US towurd whut it IIIlIy lu'x t rt'\'eill. iHt('rel'itill~ us (, \ ' (,11 if tlt(' subject is si lly; IIl1d also by t lt(' rUlidolll -sct' lII ing frllnw that cu ts o tT t he chair lrack lind exposes so much ('x l rll flool', k('l' ping whllt WE' Sf'e in 1.1 st.ale of pot entia l 1Il0tion, Schwind "s picture, with its mod('st I 1H'lIl1ltic lillI bitions, its qUlllity of middle-elnss sClltinlf'llt rlltllf'r IIiun larg('I' spiri tuul strivi ng, IIC\'f'rl lwl ess shows that. high visuu! idenls muy be put 10 use for the creation of ordinary cOIllI'd~' withoutllny loss o f uuth('lItici ty, This is wlmt tll\~ b('st c lassic H ollywood llIoviE's han: done. en'n jusl pictorially. Th e !1/ornillY 11010' has lil(' IUovif'-framl' II' sand Sehwilld' s WIly of eou\"pyilll; hlllllor and SCI/ l imen\, in llIod{'rn dOIll{'Slic dralll8 is IIOt witll a glossy alTay of stagy gcstures or brolld cnricllt urillg, but only by putt ing u buckgrouud co nditio n of delicious popular (!lutusy into 1\ vc ry sl'riou s ~orlllerll rcndering of IIlltural app('arances, the kind thut IIl1tk cs tht' pnil1ler se(' m to disappear, 'I'll(' faint blurring o f edges lu'r(' ngu ilt indica ll'S II\(' nutllrnl movelll('nt of brcath, the fli cke r of I.lctualey('s. The girl's l)c rfcCI figure. pel'fect IlIIir, und pt'rfccl lredroom ill the Schwi nd a re ('choed ill SC~II('S from movies like JAIII'l" for eXMlllple , where Gene 'I'ierllcy's perfect huil', figul'(" lind bedl'oom are phologrnphcd in li\'c motion, so wc eMil sec t he.'" nre IIctuol, ('\"CI\ while we kilO\\" Ihey urf' drt'lI lII ' fa ctory products, 1111 nrt di rector's e!lreful work. We know it. but w(' d on' t see il; what. we see is Laura s peaking ilnd moving; her pel'fectiolls, Il rrnnged and lighted to bc SC('II by Ihal 1Il0\'illg cillllern, make her bOlh alive and II dream , Schwi nd sets up his IIlliid eli ill the slime Wily. In the first half of the Ilinel l'enth cenl ul')' t he Germans wel'e lrt:'st at thi8 kind of thing in pa int ing, beclluse they hlld the mosl dil'ect IIccess to the old Nort hel'n tradition. HOIlUlJllicislll eould OPC I'lIt(' ill gelll'e tCI'IIlS, notjusl 1"01" the forlllu iliti on of hcroic or exutic new visio ns such liS Dc lllcroix ""liS crellting ill }o""rI.lnce, 1'he GCI'UlIlli ROIIIIUlt ic emphllsis on fo lk t.ll ies liS II fOll ndation for se rious IIrt gave lIlo\'ielike scope to s imple stories, Ilud I's)>ecia lly to fragm e nts of possible stories not fully told. Genre themes wer(' giv(,11 II lightly fairy-tllic c haracter, that flllltliSY fllI\"or which lJIu kes lIIo\' ies so compell ing, For subj ect lUitll er, a whole world of nillicled or frustraled lo\'crs, highwllyme n, ghostly appcarIlIlC('S, poor s illdelit s. wicked ILlIlLtslllen , lionest woodclltters , mysterious monks , lind she lt ered princesscs could be set
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3 I2
ll QV I NG
"I CTU R ES
fortll,nrl'll llged, Hlld rClirranged in Illltu ril listic t.eI'lIlS , without I'efe re nce to s pec ific lil('rllrY SO llrce~, Tlles(' ;'dr('tl Ill S o f II p eopl e," 8S Novn li l; (:11 11(' d thc m, Wcre,llS th(~ movics IIIH'e bN?1I fo r u s, the condui ts of th e irrill iollu l, o f uncon sciolls wi sh, T o fll1l Clio ll liS slIch, they did not hnve to mllke lise of Dllnte or S hllkcsp cnre or Kellt s Or ')'(,IIUYSO II, liS so lIH1 ch Englis h ROlll lllltic ilrt. did , III O errnull Ro· II1l1lltic pil intilil-t, fa llhlsY' lI
til(' Bll roquc. aga in such as Delneroix used, C amern nnrrntive, in illustrat· ing fairy tn lrs likf' Stllgecoll clt or 1/ Camr fro m Ollirr po et, must ulso be g rolilldcci in the IIc tia ll o f light , thc recol'd of its movc me nt through s plI ce , Schwi ll d WIIS lin ebulli(,l1 t, wich·· ral1ging Ilrtis t (he wus Illso Il violini st) lind hI-' did IIIUII," sor ts o f fnnt.llsy pic tlll'j' , so me o f them cltrtoan like, SOUle ,'cry clussicil l and hcroic ill s tyl(' with pl(,llty of RCUIl i8sIl ilce references 1.0 bo th ))[II'(, I'u l1d Haphll('l.ll nd (, llIi rt'l y 1101 a.(!i ne mnl ic, But hi s A pWlritioll ill a Forest. for ('xample, cou ld again be It frame frOIll a film - ull the more fo r bt'ing 11 rCll listic, quit(, ccon olll icll l , ."f'l. m),st cl'iou s illlllgC Ihllt. s ugges ts a story without tc lling il (11 , 15) , It cou ld ulmosl be Plu't of the sllme film of which Dcptlrillrf ;11 tile E'{frly M ornillg is ullo th er frullIe , Thert' t he young lru\'(' I(' I'lcll\'cs tht' 1I0il sc bl' fore dll\\'lI , t he 1110011 s ti llu l>, tht' old house durk
1 1.1:.
M ORI T Z
VOS
SC HWI N D , APPfll'i/ioll i ll/' 1'0,.""
11.16
)4 0 MIT7. VON
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'"I' Early .VQrltilfO
and silent 8S he creaks opell the little door und CMSIS buck II hlt!!t look; lat er, in the woods, the moon is lower lind redn('ss colors lilt' ('nslns II IUlllillOIiS lady in white drll l)ery sudden ly uppeurll to lelld him deeper, fnrtht'r, to some wonder rulalld unfon'seeab le d{> nou PIIU'IiI . 110 purt of his phm (11 . 16). The "olden·dllyti' flavor of the uppurition picture (\0('8 not inform the style in wh ic h it is dOlle. olily the subject. The 8tyh' co nill ilis 110 colorrullll(,' dieval limitations, 110 references to stain('d glnss or ulltiqut' !>nlle!. The lady's hair il'l bushy and ordinnry, not sinuouli und decorativc . her body is palpable and also ordinary, her dress has rCli l weighl aud le:
:11 ..
MO\'INO
I' I C T U KE S
Th(' 8C('II(' il) r(,lIulrlwb ly Cil8UH I ill composition. to kC'('J) th(' r('('li ll g o r 1111 certain (-'xpt'ri(,lIc(-' IIltachNI to Iii£' til(' m(-' or IU llgic -as ill th e lIIovi(-'s . Alrl'{'d Hf'lhel. who elll ll(' rroUl t hl' Hh illl~ l llnd nnd b(' glln hi!! slndil''> 111 the ra tl!rr sober Dusse ldorr Aca d('my, was 1\ \' (-'~' dilTer(,llt sort or Ol'rlllall Hrtist rrom til(' light -heurted Vit'lI l1CIiC Schwiud . His rellct io llury politica l "iews did 1I0t prc\'cllt him , how{'wr, rro m de\'eloping II fon\'llrd-Iookillg style of rculi slU, C\ ' j' ll for hell"y historical works celebrat ing th{-' g lori('s o f th e H oi,\' HOIIUIII Empire . T he oil sketc h for o ne pnllel ill his I}rojt'cted lIIural se ries about thr life o f Chllrl elllugue is lIl10thrr 1II01I\('l1t rrolll a historic81 film, qu ite ditTereut ill toll(, rrom thr operll tic 8ty]e usultlly used ror solemn 11111 rill subj t~c ts . The i 'i.,;, of 0"0 III 10 'h e Crypl CO IllIll('mornt cH II p ilg r imugt' lo the £'mbulllIed body o r Charl(, lllllgne by 011(' or his successors ( 1 1. 17). The grellt elllperol' WtlS blll'ied s iltillg uprigh t.a lld we see the sCll rY,l11lCIi'rgrouud cu\,it." ill\·IHIl.'d by Indder II lid torchlight liS the eage r yOllllg killg s('eks illSpil'lI tion ou his knecs bdore t he vciled d end figure . H is foll owers nre cuutious and terrified . he is cu lm und r('\'r ren t; lind the tension o f the scene is well crell.t('d by the ar rll.nge llU'nt of the torc hl ig ht that hilioes th(' young king's head , thl' column cu t t ing off our view or 011(' retainer's face, the desce nding leg or ullol her cOll1ing into sight on the IlIdder. T hi lS scelle is " histOl'ically IIccu rat(' '': medie\'al costunl(' is thorough ly in ' sisted Oil, li nd dend Cha rle magne weill'S his rll11l0llS CI'OWII, BUI til(' lingle at
11. 17
AI . ..· HEO RgT II Kt. .
TIt ~ I'i,itoIOtto lll to tlttCrJl,)1
F ri['(iI';c/r, 8('1",. ;,,(/: J/rlf zr/ lind
II j~·
/1'1111"11('(>
l1.lfl KARL !!I' IT1.W": O, Th ,. \ridQII'f'r
whic h we 8(1(' t ll(, scelle loo ks arbitrary, as RNnbrandl ofl (,11 set it up, as if W~ were II camera moving in on it li nd IIble III any second to shift thc poi lll of view, or Ii c landcstiuc persoll co min g IIClJrc r 10 c ro uch be hind th e col umn nnd wat ch. Thi s is HOlllllntic RculislU al il s most ncule beforf' the movies, here bringing history alive liS they were to do, rathe r thlln nrnlllgin g a hi storical tableau . Once again, t he medium is nea rly lII onochrome . and on ly the light illg makes the (,Illotionn l terms. Rel he l pre fe rred to d eal with matters of !Illliolllll importance , IIccol'd ing to hi s own ('ollsen'alive views; Ka r l S pit1.weg. an oth er Southe ruf' r like Schwind, specia lized in cute bourgeois \·ignettes. He, too, worked lIl) a relll· islic slylt> de pt>ndenl o n tO I)(', and then used it in a Technicolor sort of way, spreading n delicious Illu ll icolored gla ze ove r Il is c ll ioroscuro cOlllpos itions . Th e s ty le of low· comic fllntasy exaggerati on in S pi tzweg's work'S is lIfrec· tioll8t e, quit.e unl ike the hars h sati r ical t.one adopted by his conte mporary DaullIi er . He neve r sac r ifi ced an ove rall su rfa ce c hllrm and comel iness, even for red -fa ced old sold iers and aged hermits; the Indy grot('sque did
316
MOVIN O
I'I CTUR':S
not appeal to him. as it did to DUlImi cr und beCOI'c that to Hoga rt h. As li re· suit, Spit zweg's viguet lcs do ha"e a Hollywood flavor; bllt hi s rClll successor is Norman Rockwell, not the movies (11. 1S). Spitzweg, j ust like Rockwell, has nOlle of Schwind's 1Il1dt'rstnuding of the pregnant, passing silUll.tion: the frames a rc illways of fixed pictures , not whole scenes. Nothing leaks out at the sides, or toward liS to draw us und mnk(' us doubtful. We arc Ol1st as amused obse rvers and the artist is fundam ent.ally a performer, a cartoonist and nol an illustrlltor, despite the wash of color lind the multiple details. Th e e mphu s is i ll Germany on slories , howeve r, along with a long trad ition of graphic lule nt. did make a graph ic illust.rato r out of almost c\'ery artist. Franz Pforr did DUrer imitntiolls, Rethe l d id Holbeill imi tat.ions, Richter did Van Ostade imitations; but IIlUUY painters invented their own new way either of illustrating books or of doing graphic se ries to be publi shed on their own. The greatest of ihesc was undoubtedly Adolph Menzel , whose monumeuta l set of ill ustrations for II lire of l<'rederick thl' Grent, published between 1840 and 18 .. 2, is a graph ic masterpiece with n [urreach ing influence. Me nzel hi mse lf ack nowledged the influence of Chodowiecki on the style of this leng thy historical scquence, and quite suitably, s ince Chodowiecki was }<'rederick's contemporary nnd Menze l mellnt to get the eighteenth-ccutury detail" exactly right. But although th e sophist icntion and psychological penetration of Chodowieeki's graphic art were probably im llOrtant for Menzel, he fnr surpassed Chodowiecki , and e ntirely avoided lilly flavor o[ the eighteent h-cent.u ry IIrtist iu his actual drawing. Th erc is something startl ingly eamtlra like ill the vari ety of vi ewpoint, the economy unci vitality, the sheer dramatic verity of his hundreds of little pictures for this royal biography. They loo k jus t like storyboards fo r a. historical movie, wit h a vcry cine nu&tic use of depth lind angle and lighting for the shots, comb ined with a sustained ability to keep the period costumes, illterio~s, and military gear (to SIlY nothing of famolls historical persollnges) totally actual-seeming, as if filmed from \'n r ious points of view on the spot, with no recourse to copying bits of specific eigh teenth-century pictures, which would hllve made it. all so mu ch ellsier (11.19- 1 1.23). Each oue of these sce nes is visual ized as part of an e\'ent, not as a pictUre at all. We see it ill progress, some times fro lll II distUIlC(" so metimes from behind the door or th rough the window, someti mes from two feet away-and we see only a part, we must keep waiting for the rest, anoUler pa rt. The re llIay be several figures in t.he scene. II crowd, or only one person, who may not be F'rederick but a bored sentry or a wnite r. Or we Illay see Frederick Ilnd one ot her ill conversatiou, only they are a hundred fee t away,
F ,.ir d,.jr h, :)r hw jllfi: .Ilrllul (lild /l is I njll/ r llrf
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11.1 9 (101' "fl) Frederick by .. nn' r ill eOlllml ta l ion Mbollt i"' llro\,~lIlrll lli . 11.tO (11lIJ riyltl) FrNlenck ..... ith hii! minilltt'r Cot.'eeji. 11.2 1 (ubt.JI'f' ll'fl) Armed r,,""rnJ. II .:!:! (11001'(' rigJtt) Fredenck oblit'T'\'(,1 t h(' ('" r illY position ", Kollhl rrom 1111 \lplilain ..... illllo~" 11 .2a (rigltl) Frf>de ric k rxrreilif's hili troop" in till' rMin .
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18
MOVIN O
PI C T U RES
Rnd we nr(> observi ng the willcis welH pln ill on which they sta nd . Thi s kind of dpvic(' is IIlIolhe r relllinder of Ac rl de Ge lder's cinematic view of C hri s t's progress to Golgo tha . which P Il SU ,'CS ou r sytnptlt hy for distnn t, ullse lfcon' sc iolls aCt.ors by putting them in to n large. inimicnl, or simply imperso nal sC lling. Menze l' s acilic\'e nU'll t W;lS unprecedcnted lit its date except in Dutch art, und qu ite new in its prope rly reseurched historicnl details re nde rcd not inn d rawing s tyle that nlso sugges ted th eir d ale, but ill the Dut ch Way, US if t hey were eurrent. phenomc na . Rcth el had doue it. for his llIural c ryp t sce ne, too. The Dutc h themselvcs, llS wc have seclI. tHl(l Ti cpolo later on, had reo li ed On th enlrieul trlldition fol' their "old·duys" eft'cct s in orde r to make them seem imlllf'dill te, 80 t hat e\'e rybody wou ld have 8 presen t-day look, except go t up in fan ey·dress . Me nzel WliS a ble 10 dress up his charac ters in auth euti c eightee nth-eclltul'y mil ita ry unifor llls, hoops, and powde red wigs lind then set t hem int o be licvable hi s toriClll motion in hel ie\'nhle hi storical sett ings. The ,;iSIIOl iwlio ll is th e great fent: to be Ilhle to see the pe riod figures se pllrllled f,'o m th eir us ual s tyle of r endering, a nd the n to drltw the m without retl'ans laling thelll into a conve nti onal 1840's figure sty le. T hey in faellook s ke tched to resemble th e effects of eine malog raphy , 1I0l druwll, as if Me nzel had invented the movie camera. t hen designed these sce nes for it - 1 \ grll phic breaklhrollgh . well before the prilc ticil l c\·(' nl. Me nzel , too, had begull life liS IJ graphic Ilrlist, und had 110 othe r sort oC training. His betd pUintings , d one in the 1840 's, are ve ry graphic in flavor and mostly of gcnr(' su bject s with no historicnl cOllten!. A few of lh('se al so have no figu res eithe r , sueh as the fa molls Room Givi,.g 0 11 (t Balcon y, a nd yet manage to be packed with hUUHlII I)reseuce. Whe u there are people in them. s uc h as in A Room. willt Ihe A. rtist's Sisler or The Inlerrllplioll, th ey ure captured in th(' full flu x of their Ii\!es, during' the cOUl'se of not e nti rely clea r incidents that see m to be part s of eonve rsHliollS, co nfrontations, s llla ll crises with no obvious resoluti ons (11 .24, 11.25). Lat er Menze l pe rsist.cntly recorded imper ia l life ill Berl in, nlld the c har· aelel' of his pniutillgs been me more d iffuse, less intense, more public, but less ci nematic. With some exceptions (1 1.26, 11 .2 7), t.h e large paint.ings he lat e r made from sOllie of his ..... rede rick t he Great drawings arc Ullconvincing by comparison with the tiny originals . During his entire life, howeve r, his drawings kept tltCi r irnmf'dia cy and SOIlIC of t he intensity of F r iedrich, especially for subj ects s uch li S newel post s , rooftops, fl ig hts of s tairs, vi ews inlo rooms, and ot he r odd corncr·of·t he·eye sights which he treat ed as subj ects for contemplntion ill th e true ci nematic s ty le. The F'rede rick th e Great illustrations had a direct influe nce on English illu strators of th e 1860's, mOSt s pecifically on Cha r les Kee ne. to whom
( "lpYriOh
te'" I
F/'ird/'idl. Sdlll'illd: Mr Il Zc/ (III/I lI is l ujl l/ rller
11.24
AD O I. PI!
ME NZEL .
A
R oo m
a19
wit" IIrfJArlist '.Si.l r, r
Menzel sent a packet of his graphic work in response to receiving some of Keene's by way of tribute. Keene was wholly s graphic artist. not a I)sinter, The Pre- Raphnelite painters, although they did many illustratio ns, were Ilaturally disaffec ted from Menzel's modern Rea list aims and style, since they were intcrcsted in pretending to approach nature as if chastely, from early- Renaissance artistic I)rinciplcs, and conscclucntly to be dcliberately pure-minded abollt art and avoid current wlgarity at all costs . For hi s own illustrations Rosse tti preferred th e surrnce effects of black and while. using it for its decorative authority rather thall for any erode re-
320
M OV I NG
PI C T U RE S
ulislll suitable to po lit ical cartOOIi S and jOllrmtlistic reportugc. RosiSctt i hud 11 stak e iu link ing t he whol e fht\' or of his work s to literaturc, Il nd kec ping hi s
blu ck-und-white illustrations grllphic in the scnse of having been d elil/ ca /ed , or "w ritt('n out" us d rnwill gs-ulld ct:' rtuill iy of hU\fillg bee n derivcd from morc uugust prcc ursors thull Menzel. l-I olmlll1 !-Iun t nutl)' dcni(!d being influenced by Me nze l; but it. would be hard to b('li('ve t hat Millil is wus noL, given the unu suully mod('rn drlllllllLic quali ty of his graphic work .
11.26
AI)OL I'II M~: NZEI.,
f ' rc(i crirl.:fl l l/ orJt l.: i r l.'
11.27 Still from Tit ,. I/or!;" Solt/i,.", 19ri!)
M O V I N O
PI C T U RE S
Mill ais. u!th ough he Wit S one o f the founders of thc ori ginal Pre·Hapha· elite Broth erhood , wos also 0 fri end of Lt'cch a nd of Dick(, lI s. clearly more interes ted than Rosse tti WlI S in the vis ua l desi res of th e genera l public.itlld certainly not ufraid to be grlll)hic ill the grippillg vulga r mod e (11 .28). H is illus t rati ons tuwe a cinemat ic loo k, alth ough he WitS never 8S good 8 8 Men· zel , chiefl y becilu se his sc nse of hUlIlor wa s less delicate. One of th e s trongest ele ment s in Menze r s F' red er ic k se ri es is its co mic flilvor. wh ich is 8 matt er of cons iderable subtlety. d esigned to hUlIlani ze t he grellt man withou t detracting from his greatness. Humor see ms to ari se s pontaneous ly from all sorts of s lightly absurd humall CirCliln s t8 11ces 8S t hey a re Ilaturll lly revea led by chalice, rather thall rro m allY emphus is sly ly inserted by t he brilliant hand of t he art ist, th e way it is in the work or Daumier, Wi lhelm Busch, Rockwell, S pilzweg, s nd many oth ers-th e "laugh he,.c" effect. Keene was I)rimarily u mildly humorous illustrator, and perhups that is why Menzel impressed him so. He was also alleged ly impressed by Chodo-
-
111.28
JO H N BVB R BTT MILLA 18 . Af!f!f!plt d . Sepia
F ,.;u/,.it'It , 05"''''';/111; ,1/"lIZr/llllr/ /l is / 1I /ll1 r ll (,f'
11.29 C IIAK I.Y.8 KF..:S t: , " Ii SNI I.;'II'II:' lIIu lllr8Iioll ill /'1/ 1f,,1t 'j I II III/Ilf/'('I.' , 1869
I
J
-
.-
,. .,
11. 30 Still rrom Il/(lrll/ , 1955
•
I
32 4
)IOVINO
PI CT U R J.: S
wiecki, to whom Mellzel was much indebted for his superb comic d isc relion. Keelle witS 1I s trllightfonVllrd IUllguzine a rtist with nOlle of th e high pa interly lIspiratiolls motivat ing th!' Pre- Raphaelite group, and 110 high aims for his graphic work (11 .29, 11.30). H is pictur('s appcared in PUI/ch and Ollce (I Week for IIUIIlY YCllrs, lind bCllr U rcsemblance not only to those or I,eech Dnd Milluis but to the ones or lat('r ill uslrllto.-s such us Du Mauricr and Sidney Paget-all th ese, li ke IlI/Hly ot.her illustrators concerned primarily with drlllllUtic prcsenttltioll . relldy to silc rifice d econllive refi nernenl and abstrac t hll rmollY for the sake of the illll)uct of the depict ed moment. S uch nil impllct , Ilntll rally, required perrec t IIHlsh' ry or pertinent nUlteriul detail , with nothillg ex trn to interfer(' but nothing illlportunt left out, und It perrect grasp of dramatic light and cOlnposit io n. The gllglish mid-century ilhlst rlltors produced ll lloth('r II ('W development: Dickens and Thucke rny und other lIovelists began to work ill close collaboration with them for the first time. Th e success of a novel as it was seritl lized ill 1.1 magn zi ne cU me to depend Inrgely 011 the success of its pictures, and illuJoitrllto.-s begu n to hnve 1111 effe ct 011 the IIctuul writing of the story. Thackeray did his OWII; Dickens had the hell) of a whole se ri es of IIrtist s to portray his work us he went ulong. to who m he hnd to give suitub ly vivid descriptive mntcrilll episode by cllisod(' . so t hat writ('r und illustrat or could both meet. prinll' rt" dcndlincs. On occasio n, th e picture was done first and th e Huthor wrote th e sc:elle llfterwnrd 1.0 fit it. The l)I"ocess of fictiolllli visua lization wns well Inu ll ched, nnd th c movies w('re cl cnriy becom ing II dce p ir unll rt icu latcd necess ity. 'I'urner, wh o died ill 1851. had Illude illustrations (or lrllvel writings 011 the s pot, but did so for p(}('tic fictions on ly llt.U cons iderabl e remo,·e- cott and Byron, to suy noth ing or !-I omer und Virgil , had written t he poems long before his pictu res cume into being. It wus the GermtHI Roman t ic habit of illustrati ng present fu ntasi('s as they IIrose, pt~ rhl1ps, lhut creuted tl prccedf'nl and a bnckground ror t he rise or ElIgli s h illus trution nt mid -ce ntury -a ri se that was rollowed by a filII lit its cnd , but tllHt ill turn inspired turll -or-lhe-ccn tury tnlenl8 across the Atlnnl ic_ Th e idcll. Ihut 8 s tory nccds co nstullt "hmnli 1.lItioll-tlult it might cven consist or nothing bu t "is ll ll. lizlltion-wns Ilo t new, bllt anci enti but the lIew possibili ties for dramat ic renlislll in art were grow ing beyond any thing comp rehcns iblf' to anciellt (')'('10. III the IMe lIinetecllth c('u tury. moreove r. cspecilllly ill England lind AIll('ricu. print Ill('dia Wf're reudy to pu n ·ey illustrHtioll1o> to 8 vllst public in books, news papers , and maga zines, not just for fict ion but ror the drll1ll8t iziltioll or cuncnt c\·ents und hi storiClll moments . Be fore the cumern itself could get Ilroulld to it, th e compreh ens ive piclllr iug of bo t h reallllld imagined lire was welluuder wily.
rt-d
Ie
TWELVE
English Art and Illustration; Whistler
A
S T RON 0 il lllsll'lIli,,(' trudil.ioll in f';nglllnd lI ud flourished long bf"rorl-' Mpn;.:crs works W('rp pub lislH'd. lIud it had C l'Plltcd 1\ public to support t he new su rgl" of both book illuslrnl io ll and iIl1l8Irllli\'(' pa in ting. Hogurlh wus the g reat IUlli\'(' f or('rulIllcr: nlld most English artists r(81)01lsible fo r the lIew flood of works continued to d Clllo ll s trall', us h(' lmel done , II power ful co ml ~c(ioll to th e stage. Writers of fic t ioll d id t he slImc. As Martill Meisel hlls showlI. lIowl s and Slo r il~S cou ld be dramal ized for stag{' prod uction ill terms of their cOllcur rt'lit ly IJI'illt ed illu SlrHt ion s, o r illu strnt.cd in tenns of th eir co ncu r re nt drlllllllliziltioll, or somct illlPs wriltplI on purpose to provide suitnbl c Illlll {'rilli for both pictol'ia l und theall·icu l tableuux. Prnctilioners in n il th(,,8(' mcdill wo rkNl lllorf' or I N~S si mu lta neously, 10 se rve a public IIIl.t II ra ll y {'lIgi'l' ror slIch a I hrill ing overlap in Ilvl1illlble cuter· tailllHcnl8. Stor ies ItPI)eIIN'd weekly (with ill ustrlltions), no\'els were se r iulizf'd mOllt hly (wi t h illu Sl l'utions ill ea ch inSlnllllJell t), and plays bust'll On them were illJ llleclillt('ly writH' 1I unci mOllll l('(1 wil h nllu sio ll s to known illll s, trill ions in I he Hell ing IIIlJ blocking. l-li "l ory pain t ing, N'vived Itud 1I0W mo re litcrury t hun ('\'er (wi l h lIIorc rerer{'lIces 10 K('llts lind '1\' III1Y80n than to H ome r unci the Bibl('), joi ned ill the SUIlit> nllinl1ce, es pccinlly illiheir ell' gruved lind l>llb lished version". F a mous sccnes rrolll t helltricnllite rntllre w('re dC I)icted by pain ters , nud t he paintings w('r(' subs('quc lltly eugra\,('d; bUI in ndd ition, rOllllllltic situalioll s ill modern lire we re in \'(,lI led especia lly ror t h(,llt ric.u l rendering in pai l'll. liS ir t hey were sce lles rrom Shllk('s l)(>lI rc. Abruhllm Solomon's Wait· j!lf} for tlu: V",.dicl. ror eXlIlllpl .. , 1\ lIurl'uliw picture bllsed 0 11 11 0 knowll st.OI'Y, had more thull olle pIny writt('11 ('sp('cill11y 10 go with it (12.1). In s u ch
c
326
M O VIN G
12 . 1
I' I C T U R ES
A8 H AIIAM 80 L O )l ON,
I\'ai/ ilfy/or lhr
I'c r el ir!
plays . pr('violl s SC£'IH!S led 1I1) 10 the drallltttic grouping arranged by the arl · ist IIl1d IIlItdr fll1l10llS by the e ngraved vcrs ion of the painling; and so the picture tnnw 10 lIew life on th e sluge. BUI its initinluppcul was 88 tl s t ill illlllge, not liS II frllglll (,lIt of drll1ll81ic Ilclion ill process. S hlikeS I)CarCnn mome nt s del)icted in popuinr l)lIint illgs were likewi sl' rendered as still tablellux whe n they we rl' referred to ill pro· ducti on, with the IIClioli Illome ntnrily frozen so Ihut e"eryone could recog· nize the source and e njoy th e s kill in it s rea lizlltio ll ; it was tl mome nt for apphw se. Engrllvillgs might. also b(' publ ished s howing moments from s tage produ ct io lls Ihat hnd 11 0 pi<: toriul pl'ccedents , but were now being made ilil o pictures. It lIluy have Illude littl e difference to the public whether n pitture or II s tage production or u s tory hlld corne firs t. Observing from a iut e r t ime, we CUll sec llult th e ltluck·lllld·white illus trati ons done direc tly for fi ct ion, Ilnd in clol;e collaborntion with its writer, were the Vicloriun pic· tures most free of old painte rly and theat rical associations, most forward looking liS cillcllIlllic prol>il ec,v, Illid mos t linked to the Northern graphic tradition including Bnlegelllnd Goyu liS wcllus Menzel.
f:IIU1ish A rl (/lid JlllI sfm/io ll; Wh isNer
Th e sillunion with respect to painting was SOIlH' thill g or II c losed system. based 011 thc much older cOllllcc tioll betw('c li picture und stugl' picture which had it s origin in the RCIl8isStlnce link bNween art I.llld s pecttl de. It uliall R e lHlissallc4~ COllrt theu ter hnd invc nted th e rrllmed \'isioll , wi th remote and 1I1ll8zing illu sions aehie\"(~d illsidf' it, which coexisted with tI tradi tion or pnintillg committed to Ihe SIlIl1(' t.hillg'. 011 the court. Sltlgc, th e illus ion was IIOt. permitt ed to ('merge ("0111 the rrllllle. ami it WtlS com posed or shirt.ing spectacles accompa nied by IIlli s ic, poetry. ali(I singiug. All rcu listic acting in snc h It productio n t.ook pluee in rrolll or the cUl'tuin nceo,xiiug to n different t illle sc hf'lIIe. liS il Sepl.lrllle kind o r enlertn illlnc nt re
(
~ Igt";
tar I
•
1:'! .2 II . K. "ItOWSI': . ·')lr. I'illc hi"8wll zrdby lUi uuexl>t"(!lffi apl>3rilioll," Illustration ror Dickens' .l'arli,. Chzzltwil
12.3
WILLIAM "OWKI. L ~RITII.
" Thl' Arrel' ," No. :l trom Tit,. Rood 10 Rlli ... Etehillk by l..wpold Flameng rrom the 1878 pailliing
Ella/ish Art am/lllltstra tioll; U'hisller
329
H. K. Browne's Dickens illustrations or Milln is' und Keellc's pictures ror stories ill lIlagazines. Browne'li li tt le black·und·white pictures IIIMe dose ly rese mble Sc h..... ind 's or Menzel's Dutch·style genre paintings than English pa int.ings of the dute, which .....er(' still bound to th e old Italiull idell that crcating alighted tableau (cven on Frith 's lurge scnle) Willi Ih e right wily to offer dramn inside a frnme (i 2.2. 12.3). Such 8 lighted t.ableau .....ou ld a lso huv(> painterly antecedents-in Tin· toreLlo and Veronese, or Haphaeiaud Gu ido Rcui-to s uppo rt the uuthen· ticity of the arti s t's wlcnt and the high le\'e! of hi s training. Thes(' would register with th e picture·vi ewing public alld furt her ce rt iry the scene in t he picture us worthy or portrnyul. As "mod('rn li rc" illcrellsi ngly beclllllc It prope r subject (or Engii!o;h pllintings, not j us I for graphic reportuge and magaz ine illustruti on, Victorian pllinters had to kce p t heir etl'orts distinct rroUl cruder pictoriul associations, es pcc iully when d('ul ing se riously with such flaming subjec t-s as aduit.(,[,y und prost itution Or gros!; satinl inju stice. If a I)ainting s lllllckcd 1.00 much of sc nSlllionnl jOllrnllli~1Il or ciJ('up por· nography in its very forlll , th(> subj!'ct, could see m debused, not illuminated . A t.awdry modern seduction painted with Titianc!;qllc ricilllcss. the sorry modern poor made to rescmble Murill o's beggars , or th!' lUoderll rakc and gambler rendered in the HognrthiulIlIllillner Illude Ihe painter see m rree of prurience 8S he present ed such topics dressed in their art.istic best for public gaze, Before about 1880, the t'(!SIlIt wus a S('(III('nce of unredecmably "arti s tic" paintings of ordinury lire, d eliberat ely made more relUllrkable and at the same time more emotionally Ili'utru l by th eir allusions 10 th e lllost august t.raditions of art. Black·and-whit.l' ('- Itgravings made from Ihem naturally had a somew hat cincmut ic character, with a larger ca pacity to in· sist only 0 11 the subject lmd engage directly with the \'iewer's reelings, rather than arousing his Ildmiration. Undoubtedly some of tlw t heatrical renditions or thCIll did , too, In the t.heater there wer(' ortell tcch nicn ll y arrnllgcd ocea n WII\'eS, lightning fla s hes, or riscs Ilild coll apses of structurcs ill th e J oh n .:'IIartin s ty le to enlivcn Ktagc pageant ry. and cutoutK of horses Ihal cou ld be mllde to race in the distance. or of t ra ins. ca r ril1ges, und s hi ps thnt could move 011 and off the stage, just ali they aPJl('srcd to do ill thl' pilint ings (rom which the set. had derived. Such arrangcmcnts ga\'c ullimutiolilO pictorial stage seltings, but they also helped to gi\'(' the illu sion of life thaI was lucking iu the puilltings themseh'es, It is ill part thllt very luck t hnt Iny behiud the need to write plays " lead ing up" to the pictures; the public liked thc pain tings better after they IUld been given the rough immediucy lllld ps,\'choiogicli l und('rpinnings of a stage \'e rsion, howc"er optically awkwnrd or slightly inaccu·
c
,
330
lt O VING
PI C T U R ..;S
rate it 1118), have been-perhaps even because of th e IIwkwurdncss, which is more like rcul life. The Pre- RHphaclites, lUi their ntun e s ha wd, were tryin g to get away from the lighted -stage-wit h-w8,xwork·figures school of history painting, or its equivale nt in the pa inting of mode rn lifc . They favored some recognition in painting of the actual s tream of experie nce, rathe r thull th(' image of II t er rific moment, fix ed for n spectator's pleasure. And they mude great, strides toward 8 liberated and cincHilltic rcucier ing of bodi es und fucitli expres· sions. because they were working not just in imitation of very early Renai ssance models in preference to High Renaissance staginess, but in repudiation of th e curren t theatrien lized taste ill urI. Millais was the mos t cinematic painter among the Pre-Raphae lites, partly because his renlis lIl has so me of the contingent flavor of the enrly Flemish pa intings. His methods contra st with the Wtly IWsseu i, Holmun Hunt , and Sume-J ones tended to imitate t he harmoni ous lincur beml ly and theatrical compositions of Ital ian art. Millais was conce rned with the power of color, like all th e Prc- Raphaelites, but it is the li ght ill Autumn Lea ves or in his late r version of Kents' Eve of SI. Agnes, for exampl e. th at makes the picture haunting. Millais also used individulil llIodels without reducing them to one type, lind so his best puintings s till breat he and move, while Rossetti's and BurIlP-J oncs' look embulmed in th eir idi om. Arthur Hugh es made si milarly mobile and 1Il0\'in g picturc8 in fused with light and feeling- both he and Millli is had all exeellellt grip 0 11 how to rende r the progress of personal drama cOllv illci ngly. rat her than how to freeze symbolic acti on (12 .4). The problem with lIIost Pre- Ruphael itc pain t.ing was in the esthetic us well as practical moral imperative beh ind it a ll. Ideology ruins these works in so me way, as it also makes them fas cinating to present-day eyes. Be cause Pre- Raphaelite artists wis hed to avoid the cheap impact sought. by the labl enu -mongers of th e date, they unFortulUlt ely nl so sac rificed certllin basic pic torial virtues. 'rhe mHin good thipg 1.0 go was bcli c\'llble lighting, which was considered suspect, Illnnipulative. and s tab~' _ As n result, PreRaphaelite paintings llsuully ha\'e 11 uniform colored surface, with delicate mode ling 8nd no c hiaroscuro, th e look of many fn lits presen 'cd in aspic, or of a nlg or mosaic, This quality lIIay proudly refer 1.0 honest medieval practice before t he late- Re na issunce inst.i tut ion of coercive dralllatic devices , and it certnilily keeps the pic tures well away from the look of tableaux viva.lli s and populur stage effec ts; but it also keeps them from looking c red ible. Again, it keeps th em very obvious ly ar/istic. In many pHintings by Mi llais and Hol man HUllt and }"'ord ~lad o x Brown, lhe bodi es and faces the m-
( "lpYriOh
Ie'" I
12...1
AHTII U ft II U(l II
t:s.
rh l' f;'·l'oIS/ .fl yll r~
selw's do have II r("freshingly gaugly and lI11tllmllook. eS IH'cially when t hf' faces arc intf'nded to cxpr('ss n stal f' of cOlltilluing cllUnge rlltliel' Ihan o ne straight reaction . 811d the limbs nre gi\,f'lIthe slightly j umbl ed qUlllit,\' thnt no rmally info rms mHch inwn I'd IIWllreIlC!jS o f Ihe physiclli s(' If III cnICinl mo·
ments. Th e Pre · Raphllelite painters studied tht' FI(>lIIish pninl(>rs of Ihe fif· teenth ccn lury as wcHus tllf' i talilllls, Il lld Ilpp r('citllNlllw f'XI)l'('ssi\'c \'llhu' of bodily disequilibrium ill pictul'es. But th e despcrllte nced for Ihl' pninler 10 ilppl'ar as n lurg(' aclor ill ('vcry
painting is fntailo their effect. We g'e1.1I0 dirl'cl access 10 the (,Wilt. sHeh liS Vermee r lets us han'; thl' Ilrlis l insisls 011 exp laining IIle poilll of the pic· ture while we look III it. lind so w(' Cllllllot tnkP possession of wlull is Imp· pening ourscl\'CJi. Like us 1I 0t. Ihe thill~ hus ('''ell been enciosl'd ill II didactic, morlll·looking fram e with It SIIIWl'scription. II d('\'ic(' r('semb ling t he enlrullce to
II
privlltf' insli tlil ioll with I'('iigiolls nfli liut iolls, where we
ca liliot visil without n guide. P l!.intings such as 1,"ork. fo r ('xlH llpl('. or Tlt e I,(, .~I of Ellglul/d. o r Th e /l ire·
litlg S hepherd, or Th e Siladoll) of Dwlh nr(' nppnl'l'ntly 1101 r<'lilly made for seeing, despite the increclihl(' effort ut getting th(' righl cloLlI(,S for Biblicnl c hurllct('rs , I he right Ill'bbh's, IIII' r ight cnbbul!l' s. I ht· corn'CI angle of I he elbow, Or thp Inlthflll wrinkl£' in Ill(' shirt. th(' clu'(' ful jlerf('ctioll of all I he
)IOVINO
PI C T t: RES
thollSftud detailH I hal rorc(' lIH to kIIow we ar(' lIot ill a I helll('r ( 12.5). They 3r(, IIlltdc (or sillt/y. Too mUlly pt'rft'ct iris nlld loosf'strife . too untlly jlCrfect crllcks ill the pillllking, too II1lUlY hairs 011 the lamb or the dog in fU CI kee l) Ihe piclure wellllwllY from th e truth of the living eye und qu es tiug 80111, in· slead of appealing 10 them . These paillit'd thillb"S nre s lan'ed for light. for breath and "I)ace, und for the illu&gilluti\'e work we should be allo ..... ed to do ourtiel\,es. The very validity of the hUIIIUII postures und fac es makes the I)ichire into all even lII ore stifling imposition and l:.f rverse falsehood , Thf' pressllrf' to creute the new synthetic nrt of lIu· movies, which would eve ntually be horn ill Frallce Hlld America nlthe tUrll of Ill(' ce ntury. Cil il retrosj)Cctively SeNti to ha\'(' bct'li acute in Victorilln urt , with its links to Briti8h traditions of live ly show business, se ri OUl!i fi ctiou. sociltl conscious· ncss , nnd gruphic expression . Bllt in England thf' pressurt' of IUllgllage was keener; ali(I Dickens' hllcr no\'c1s, for eXHlllple , showed themselvcs morc nllcl 1II0re indcpendcnt of illustrntioll , IlS Dickens himself took 011 the job of VisUlllizatioll. lie had been prim ed and tuught by his carly collnborutors in th e graphic Hrts. but later he was abl e to do il himself with word s. All novel· isIS evcntulllly took 011 this respollsibility: lind il1ustratioll (or fi ction with · erNI and died a8 fi ction illustrated itselr, until it Clllll(' to life agHin 8S cinema-although 1I0t in England . The British stage grnduully reaffirmed
t~ . 5
WILLIA"
H OI.MAS H UST.
7'lle Jil N!l,"g~lt e plttNi
Ellylish Arl alld /IIll l/ lmt io/!; WlI.i.<:lIer
33 3
its depcndcllce on brilliant. langunge ilnd ac ting; the power of the eye seemed r ightly di sco nnected from t llese, 1I11d subLly iufe rior- j ust. as the earnest P re-Haphueiites secll1 ed to believe it lII11st be, when they wo\'e so mu ch implicit co mme nta ry illto t he c hroma tic tex ture of the ir pic tures. The produc tions 1Il01l1l1.l'd in IJondon by I-Il'nry Irving du rillg t he last quarte r of the century represe nt n final fl ower ing of th e pic toria l stage. Ilnd a real advance toward SOHlf't hing Hew. lI!th ough I ..ving ulso seemed to fe ci the Ileed t.ojustify hi!) lise of spec tacle by ill\'oking Ili gh Art . Irvillg a imed at u whole work of stage urt in somet hing of the same wily that Wugne r did , wi t h carefulalt cnti oll to creating uunifi ed etTec tat all t.imes: and t his aspiration is in itlSclf a new departu re in tilt' cine mat.ic d irec ti on. In Irving's productions the IIction wns a r ran ged to tuke pluce entirely illside the proscen iulll frllme, and urchitcctural settings werc dcsigned to p rese rve th e pe rrect illusion tiultlletion WUS occurring inside Il real church or palacc, not in front of a pic ture of it. IJighting tec hniques were imp ro\'ed : lind perspectil'al illusion il;m wns greutly promoted by th eir c le\'cr usc. The idea that a sccne must ha\'e 11 sillgle tlm'or govc rned Irving's \lSl' of pictoria l mat.er ial ; und agnin, his method s were evcllt.uully carri cd on in Hollywood . He would arrange u see nl' to s uggesta n entire historica l period by muking very gell{'ralized r{'fC I'CIH!CI; 10 illu s lrllt io ns thllt did the same , rather than rcfe rring to ully sillglf' kllOWIl picture. The audience would get the gene ral idea of sixteenth-century Ge rnullIY in hi s produc tion of Fallst, for example. becllllse he would ge t his s celle painters to th row t.ogethe r a lot or material not.just from DOrer and Holbei n but. from It mixture or more or less mode rn ill ustrations rc rerring to DUrer uud Holbein. and from pre· vious stage sett ings using the slime t he me. The costu mes wou ld be done the same way, and t he tot.al visuill effcc t would produce II ne bu lolls scnse of rec· ognition in thc speclllt.or. As in Hollywood , t.he overriding flavor would be one of ric hness and splendor, of moncy spe nt. lllld etTort lIlade; lind t he re would a lways be lUallY ex tras nil doing olle thing- marching, or p rostrat.· ing th emlSeh'ct; , or gesticulat ing- at; latcr in mO\lies they would s tream across the desert on horseback or t hrough vi ll age s treets wi t h torches. What a lso makcs t he met hod moviel ikc is the wis h for lin effect t hat looks r ight rather than is r ight, so t hat. pas t art can be indi scrim inate ly raided (or somet.hing that will st.rike the right emotional note , evcn if the details a re historically not. quite correct. The result. will draw on the speclator's generalized s tore house of vi s ual me mory gleaned from reproductions a nd illustrat ions, old t heatrical expe r iences, and old assoc iations , and so please and e ntice him like 8 daydream , instead of challe nging him or taxing him with what he ought to know nbollt , like a school exercise. Whi le he catered shamele!lsly to this kind of ordinary pleas ure. Irvi ng W8 S quick
c
""
33 -1
MOVING
P I CTU RE S
to try to elevat e the public tone or his efforts, and he made a great publicity feature Oll t or th e (amous pai nters who assisted him with his scenic designs. He cou ld t hus be artistic and respectable, and keep his productions apparently at a g reat remove from se nsat ional melodramas, even though he helped himself to nllmy of t hei r visual effects alollg wit,h those of sc holarly paint ers like Alma-Tadema and Lord Leighton . The set nnd costume designers or the great Hollywood days certainly made lise or th e sa me method ror hi storical themes, and also Illude mu ch, ill publicity releases, of the hi storica l rcsca rch and artistic advice that had gone into t.heir producti ons, all or which was ignored if the result failed to sat.isfy. It is clear t.hat the desire to go still rurther with the possibi lities of spectacle, to get beyond the co nfines or stages s nch as Irv in g's, is behind th e great scts built for Griffith Ilnd Ei senst ei n in th e cinema's early da.ys-they arc attempts to overrcac h the theater. But In'ing's achievement had a more lasting influence on the stage it self thall on the movies , especially the operatic stage. His mtses-e '.~sce n e were fundamentally pictorial, in that they were composed t.o Slay inside the frame and kcep the spectator breathl ess outside it, not to enclose him in it.s living mouth . Irving produced great class ical pla.ys, or mod ern ones made in imitati on or them, a!:i if they were operas; and his owu acting style was decidedly operatic--outward and rhetoricnl , not revclntory of iuward statcs. The Engl ish pa inters of historical s pec tucle such as Lord Leighton were engaged in t.he same sort or operut ie ("ffort at, the sllme t ime , and the reul progress he and th ey made was toward creat ing a new se nse of co ntin uous action rather than th e rormation of tableaux. They were try ing to make the t hea1('r and theatrical pa inting aspir(> t.o the conditi on or music in a way that. Wagner's productions, with the admntage of his new Ilnd conti nu ous nctlla l mu sic. in fact IIthi eved . All exce pt ion to t he II rl.·hi s torieall y Ihcll tricul sty h' used ill Jo~ llg l11lld for legendary IIln teri lll WIlS th e work of Lnwrenc(' AlrnH ·'i'ndema. AlnHI ·'I'a delllll was a Icgi t ill Ui te la'i.' to t he Norlhern traditioll. havi ng been borll ill Hoi· lund and traincd in Belgium; und he tra ns lat ed his efforL s s uccess fully into English without reCOurse to Italian Hena issa nce models. He was able to produce II blend of the H igh Victorian au itudes towa rd anti
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i I
12.1i
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AI. MA · TAIH: "'A ,
Sappho
callt'd 1111 infhH 'ncl' 011 IIlm'it' S, /lurl ful' mucil lI'cllllic1I1 IIHlll'l'iul IIr lI clllully WlIS
(I :l.6),
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t ht'rr is 110 psycl!(Ilogiclll 1II01ioll ill his paintill!:s, 110 t£'II' 8ioll /Iud 110 possibility, tIl's))il£' tl'" ChUlltillJ! t hrtHtg's , tht' coy ,::irls, tilt' po· ~Iry b('ing I'('citrd, til(' pillyill!: fOUll illill8 , Tll r figlll'(' s 111'(' 1II0drls, and ulllikl' CUI'!l\'ilggio, AIIIUI ·'i'lIci('1l1U St'(, III S 10 IUI\'(' carl'll lilll(' aboui 111£'111, ~obody is il li\'ing, f('('lilll! l>('rSOIl, ('ilh£'r ill till' IlSSIIIII('d ull l iqu(' 1'01(' IlIuOlIg III€' IIInrl)l(' s lnh.s 01' in th(' IIIo d('rll 0 11(' 011 th(' st ud io 1>('(II'slnl; ilud so W(' CltIlIIOI ClIl'r milch /lb01l1 t ll('111 ('i l hl'l', und find IIII'm flll1o;(' ulld s illy, Bu t All1l1l·Taclt' lILa lIad III1UIg'lIific('lIt pow('r of\'islIlll izlltioll qllit{' free of s1nJ!{' Iwhits; III1fI his arrall(!rllLC'Hts for rrllllliug his :lucienl scr ll{,S IUl\'(' r{,111 1Il0\'j(' ·calll('ril fr~l'llolll, which is wdl (,1I1111T1C('d by his 8kill in Ihr rrlHi(,l'ing of slIl'fIlC('s-ful', wrl 1I1 0Sllic. sunlit W/I\('I', Ulle! mil('s of IIIl1l'bl(', 11 (' Pili 1o;ucll CI1\'irollllll'lItS illto 1II0tion, ('\'(,11 if ht' had 11 0 8(,IIS(' o f how to lIlobili?l' a hUIlIHn si t uation, And II(' WIIS II d('\'ot('d l.lntiqllllriu ll bt·sidt·s. so IIUlt tl1 (' "('Il'rcls" h r produc('(1 Wf'I'(> th~' I'Nml 1 1101 or scramhlNI hisl.OI',\' wOl'king 011 the beho l d~r's fu 7. zy pictol'iul 1IIf'IlI01'y but or 1'l'111Iighl , ui r , and ulIg\('s of vision IlIIilllllt iug' pt'l'f('ct 1'('conSll'lIctiollS, I n ' jng (, lIlpio,\'NI him, bil l Oftf'1I ignored him, TIl(> IIItllt'rili l in his pa intings, with all its op licil l uuthcnlicit,\', now look1o; wond€'I'ful ill Ih(' 1II0\'if'8 , wherr il is tempting to think II(' nwunt il 10 go , It was largely ulilisabl(' 011 th(' SIUgl' und has 1101 tasted in art; but ill films, l'n\'ironm f' lIts such as Il(' crf'UINI CUll b(' brollj!'ht (0 wondrolls life by C harlt 01l 11('stoll /llid AIlIl(' Bllxtel' instead or b('ing inhllbilNI by borNI and bo r i1lg'IHnnteurs,
336
M OV I NG
f'I CTU RE S
Mcauwhile staged and painterly I)ainl ings or legend suc h a8 those of Lord Leighton were giving way to the undramatic alld unspecific dr8ped visions or Albert Moore and to the tn81lllered lind s trallb"'C concoc tioll s of the later Burne-Joncs; and rull ·8cale realistically concei\'cd legendary \'i· sion in Engli sh art c\'entliaHy ceased altogether, leaving the field to the kind of treatment given it by Redoll and other Fren ch and Belgitlll Symbol· ists, English straight. drtulla abandoned spectacular kinds or detailed and elaborate his lOricalsctting in ravor or simplicity and suggest ion, the better to emphasize the l)Ower or the word . Bu t. the opera, in Englund and c\'er)'wh ere else, conti nued and continues Lo usc them to this day a8 a filLing lICcornpauimentLo the most ext reme projects or music's em l}ire. Victorian illustrators. on the other hand , had all along been making so me effort to visualize realistic fi ction in the cine mntic lind not the puinterly or stugclikc style, Illust rators had to show a story in progress ill such a way that the plot WllS never givellaway in advance by too much visual inrormation , but al!;o see to il that lhe characters, along wilh their interaction and ilS surroundings, were given looks ill kec ping with t he nuthor's style and plan , even when he had not specified them. The matter or molioll, im· possib le to the thenter-the important sense IIOt only or the scene's action but of the viewe r 's particil)atory approaches and retreats and shirts or atte ntion and IlSsoeiation-wllS well COllsideN'd by Browne tind his laler colleagues. jusla8 it was gradually becoming a more potent element in fiction itsc lr-the effect or montage. Instead or the arbitrary rnune thal cine matic painters knew how to apply but thal theatrical pa inters avoided, the greut British illustratorti, like Menzel, often went further and used no rrllme at nIl-a device lhat keeps the action rrom rreezillg. Thei r scenes Ooat on the printed page in a void, ill which the viewer also f1 0IltS, eit he r close at hand or nt a fly,oll·the·wnl! point or vantage that. literar); fi ction itsclr was now Illuking possib le, ""or the S he r lock Hol mes s tories, ror eXlIrn ple, Sid ney Paget.'i:! t.urn-or-t.hece ntury illustratiolls s how their debt 10 Browne alld Mi lh,is (12. 7). The pic· tures a re dralllntica))y lighted and rl l11 or enough nctioll to c reate suspense rath er lh811 reveal solution!;. Paget provides ee rtain details specified by the author and invents olhe rs to ha rmonize wilh th em, und cach picture is given a8 olle rrame rrolll a conti nuou s nurruti\,c viewed rrom different angles and disL8l1ces, The rralUe is someli mes absent or more orten I)arliul, leaving olle side or th(' bottom edge OI)Cn to suggest fluid mo\'elnent ill and out or the del)icted moment. In this illustrati\'e tradition eve n the most. SUllIlltuouS setlings are or· fered in lermli or 8uggelitioll. a mailer or utmoSI}here, a8 in Turner aud Goya, except (or what is immediately pertinent, Menzel waS the first to use
1 ~" 7
8 I D S !.!Y I'A OV.T , " I(t' ully , li ir , t h ili ili li ' "t'r)'
t'x tnto rd ill8 ry tlU Nll io ll ."' Ill u s t r ll t ioll fo r ('0111111
l)oyh' lI Tit ,. IIQfwd /.If lit ,. 1I(l81;,. r l' ''''''II, 1!)O:!
this pic tor ial d e\" ice ro r s t rll ight biogra l)hy. 10 illu s lrll lP U Il(' ro's his tory di rectly , as if it werc 1\ SN o f ('\'('lI ls pC' rsollully I)(' rce pt ihl(' to unyOIl(' in te rms of ordi mu"y expe ri ellce, Ilnd rrep I'rOIll rt' rPI'('nc(' to old he roic d e pic tio ns , even t he re fe rc nce illl pl it-d Ity e llc los in g ('nch pie tu rp ill fo ur s ides , S ueh freed om. liS Ih(' lIIo\' ie cUllle ra hns Iw e ll s howi ll J! all th is l illie si nce, is alwllYs u mutter of esellpt' frolll th l' fix ed frulliing IIlid s tnge li g h tin g Ihnt mos t 1)a.il1te rs Ulld lIe lOn. lIsN I to ugr{'(' lool\('d ri ght. Bul it is lli so n IIHIU (' r of eSC8pc fro m eo nvcnlio nn l u rl is lic pl'e,~/i!J('. l iI p II IICil' IIt Ileed to refer to Ve ronesc and company. Hefel'l'lIces in s tea d ilre Obliqu e ly lIlad e 10 the mu ch less color flll No r thern puillt r rly IIlId grup hic tra di t io ns. lhose or Hem .. b randt and co mpn uy, whic h had d cnlt ill SlIbj CC l i\' ity li nd ha d g i\fen up public heroim, in ravor o f s howillg how t hin gs mu st have scemed to illd ividual s a t t he t ime. S Ollie Brit ish pa illlers took up tiL is ditTere nt c hnll ellJ!c ill the late nine tecll th ce ntury. c hie fl y for d ea ling with lIIod(' rli lir(' rnlll ('r thlln s luged history or legend , The Grapll i c, fou nded ill 1869, Wtl S II IIUl gU 7. illl' s pr c inli7. in g ill c urr('111 aIT8irs co mple te with ilccompllllyi llj:C pic tures, IIlId 100111(' o r til r bluck .. a lld .. white u rt is ts working for il Intl'r Illude pa int ings buspd 011 Itw ir III llgu zi ne illu s tratio ns , S uch fI proc('ss. t hl' r('w rslil o f t h(' uSllul urrllllgclIIPlI 1 t hul
338
MOVING
PICTURES
caused original paintings to be rep roduced in black and while, is signifi caul. "Rell.lism'· wus 8 new goul for paiuting, alrcudy in full pursuit by French painte rs like Com-bet, and generally del}Cndcllt on the old associa· tion of harsh subject Illaller with the SUPI)ressioli of color. B('fore Tlte Graphic, the re had been a grcaL dea l of topicili English journalism illustrated with grim or comic black-nod-white pictures: unci engravings wc rc generally bel ieved to convey prob lematic subject!; with grellter ease than paintings. But even morc significantly, the cumern was in existe nce by thi s lime, making its inexorable aud colorless point about light and optical reality. Photography, unredeemably "graphic" in its bas ic character as recorder and reproducer of ph enomella, could not hell) contributing to all pa inters' sense of truth-tell ing, even if they ignored it s d irect, influence . It also r{'\'ital ized the sense of possibility in graphic and "graphic" art, to remind artists of the colorless chiaroscuro ellll>loyed ill the inler{'st of realism by some of thei r greatest painterly forerunners. And so the gr immer th e nSI)ects or "modern life" that British I>ai llters were willing to t.ackle dS the CClltliry ndvanced, the mOre they depended on monoc hrome graphic rather than colorful paillterly convent.ions ror muking them effective, kcel>ing thcm from bei ng beautiful and insis ting on their truth . Meise l lidS eompdred Waiting lor lite Vuclict, pnillted in 185i, with anothe r prison picture Newgale: Committed lor Trial of 1878, paillted by Frank Holi. who was one or th e illustrators for 7'he Graphic (12.8) . 'r his later image of u povert.y-ridden family split apart by the law and thc police has none of the high-minded SInged pathos of the first. lind likewise nonc of its allusions to Poussin . Twen ty yeans ha\'c chnnged the forllllli r('fe rence to t.hat of a photo-graphic und grllpliic lIIode of presenting hursh fll Ct8, with refe re nces to Goyu and the possible future of the camera instead of to Ihe classic tragedians of painting. Not just the lighting and uneasy framing but t.he umbiguity of the content, the IIl1 ce rtain fac es lind pos tures an d relationships or th e l>el"8ollnel, show th e artist's aim to find a new right s tyle for rendering a specific but t.liNicult s ituation. someth in g messy and full of unclear co nflict at 8 moment of IUux immn difficulty. It has a news-phot.o look . with nothillg harmoni zed accord ing to ciassicili priHci pl es. cven thc hUlllali relations. The painting ulso looks buck to ?..tfmzel's proph etic illtHiors or the mid1840's, despite t.h e great diffe rence ill the pictured milieu. Wh eth er the scene is middle-class and co mforutblc or working-c lass Ilnd mise rable, the imagery of tellse I;ubjecti\'e attention hilS the 8nme fla\'or. T Ill' Holl l>ai l1 t· ing a lso resembles J."'rallk Bramley's A Hopeless DawlI, with its mueh lIIore explicit and intimate drama (12.9); Caillebol.le's Floor 'crapers with its
, " d
1 2.8
,.· R .... NK II O I. L .
,\'(,It'gate: COII/"" tI('d for Tril"
se ns it.i" e refere nce to mode rn labor without uny olhe r tnle to tell (1 2. 10): and Lovis Cor inth 's Salome (12 .11 ), it s hockingly graphic GcrnUilllllls wcr to the elegant English sc hool of mythic rend iti on. Whe ther the theme is modern genre, the l)redic8l11cllts of the urbllllllnd nlrul poor, 01' an cif'lIt leg· elld , the cinematic eye regurds it. willi Iltlellti oll to the lII o,'elUeli t of ('motin' poss ibility, the s hifting as pec t of things thut co nj u res associntions ttlld II s hifl o( (ec ling, th e strange s ha~s reali ty Lukes under the light. P ictures in th is vein ill th c la te lIille teenth ce ntury s hure a n eru ot io llul cas t , IHI appeil ito e mpttlhy, UII elllotioliul proj ecti on conjured lIIuin ly by th e sovereignt y o( light ove r design lind th e (,0 1l8C(llIelll pull 011 th e feelings. The momentary g lillll)SC o( UII eve nt, lrivilll Or 1I0t, that hil S unkllowllunt e· cede nts alld unknownble results is Ull old t heme in ur i: bu t Ihe the me becomes purl o( n mo\'i elike effec t in s lic h 11 pietur{' , tJeeuuse it seems to contain nol just events we cannot know ubout. bUI l)re"ioliS or rutur{' e motional slates we eUliliol kn ow about eithe r, ll cont inuum not just of {'xt erna l action but or living that seellls to includl' lUi.
340
M OVINO
12 .9
12 . 10
,,' RASK
PI C T U RES
8RAMLEY, A 1/0pt.fUS IJIItOIl
GUSTAV ": C AI I. I. EH O TT":,
Tlt l' f "/oor-Sl'r"II/HrS
12 . 11
I.OVI8 C ORISTII, Sa lom"
All sor ts or s mull yisllul de tu il bt'colIIl' CIUII'gNI with I}()lt'ntill l meaning, 8S they UIWllYS d o ill utten tive fIIom ents. so thc rc is 110 need to give rxtrn noticenbility Lo Ilnythillg burdelled wilh obv ious signi ficllllce. On the CO il ' Irllry. the irreie\'lInt object takes it on. Cai ll ebott(, 's fl oor sc rnpers 1111\'(' no anecdotal c1uims to onr sympathy, unlike l'loll' s ca st of chllrllcl.ers; but t he paint ing, with it s light ed patch of em pty floor lind it s unselfcO Il!lciolis stnaggling figures , hus tltl' ~m lU c Ilb ilit y to ,vi(' ld pillhos withou t set'mi nK to try; and part of the pnlh os conll'S from t he s hllrp t ra ce ry of th e ironwork in th e window, which IU\f; nothing to do with IIl1y th ilig excep t our eyes, lind with our present ilUl\giliutioll ubou t life lin d wor k und Ih(' beuuly of fl oors and rai lings. The associntioll s urc oursj th e pllinlcr docs 1I0t point to them. The emotionul churge of ordi ll il ry phcnom clHl hnd b('cn a conce rn or Turner 's in the first I)Ur\. of the century, Ilnci Ilit er En gli s h pllinters "gain took up th e theme ill terms of Inndscnpe itself. Th e lIew grll l)h ic rC'u lis lII of feeli ng demunded more ntt ellt ioll ill art Lhall just what could be given to
I
342
M OV I NG
I' I C T U R ES
modern hu mun situa tions, wret ched or privileged. Th e sInge of life hns many kinels of peop le Oil it; but the sc reen of life has much mOre tilan peo· pie. BOlh 1\lrner and F riedrich hnd long before es tablished 8 \Oocabulary of light und motion ill pa in t to deul with the woy e"erythi ng e lse all the sc reen besides hUlnul11i CUll seem to fill with hU lIIll n s ig nificallce, even i f it Iuts nOne itsel f. Th e lIew C811lCrn gave urtis ts 1I1 0rc scope lind 8 new vocnbul a ry fo r t he same kind of in vestigat ion illto wllys of c renting drUlllu without a necdote, declamation, or pnnlomirne. To do t hi s it WIIS IIccessury at the time, howeVcr, to be a paiul er ruth er tlum a photographer; unless. llS history has revealed, one could have been a cinematographer. Atkinson Grims haw 's noctul'llul urban \'iews s how no fe\'erish desire to render hig h life or low life in any particular light, on ly the life of streets at night glis tening with po· te ntial event. The potentiality, rhe look of things happen ing even when nothing is happening, was st ill impossible to photogl'aphy, but easy (or painters with a long pictorial tradil.ion to draw on for doing jus t that, even if it was photography lhat. was currently inspiring them. Grimshaw's View o/ IA'verpoo/ Quay by t1/oo1l/;ighl of 1887 shows a n om·
12 . 12
ATKINSON GR I M S HAW ,
Vitw 01 'Jit,t rpool Qway by Mooll/igitl
E II(j/i.~1r
Ad
(/ 11 (/
lilli S/i'll / ion; WJr isller
nibu s coach with a gree n rear light. pausing on the damp cobbles to pick up 3 woman , lind sevenll illd ist illctly idelltifi ed pnssers by 0 11 the sidew81ks lighted by shopwindows (1 2. 12). The moonlight of til(' titl(> is ollly II remo te glow filtered through smoke und fog, but the s tree tlights ure like jewels, the jewels in the shops are like flames, and the words 011 the billboards lind shop signs glow with all the thrilling nOIl -significllllee that fills the urbnll night. We arc looking 8t a prosnic corllcr of 8 pro\·ill ci81 city, but tilt' sce ne is laden with a beaut y thllt sceUls, li kf. so much i ll ciu(' ms_ t.o be IMlly in the eye of the beholde r- t he moving eye of t he ClllHcru that invest IS so much in so little. The 1}ie/llre il\ not. so bellutifl d; it. is th e crum my s trcct itself that is made to twinkle and gl imm er with ollr expec tations. In a monwnt u pale gentlcmall played by Stewn rt G rtlllger will emerge from the jewele r's s hop, look both wayts, and stride nonchalantly across the wet st reet, bent on si n· is ter busi ness among the low life on the docks. Grimshaw did UlallY pll intings of s uch city st rce ts lind wat erfronts. lIlost of them not in Londou, noue of them cOlllmenting 011 th e s pec ific evils of the metropolis. dwelling i1usteud without COllllllcnt on the way light int er· acts with towns so t hot reflec t ing surfn ces mock ench othe r and themselves, and th e streellaml> co mmcntts unwittingly 011 the moon. City livin g looks hot or cold depending oil ly 011 which wny you foce urld how fust ,vou move; windows glare like ice or g low lik(' conls in wnrt' hous(>H and s hacks and brick mansions; wet pavemen t IIlId ri\'er wllt er lire grim or golden depend ing on which light is s trikillg lit the time. It is II lIew view, a way to be dra· matic and s ubj ecti \'ely poetic siml}ly by being kinet ic and opt iclI\. • Wh istler was 8 rri end and nd llli rer or Grimshaw, liS he was of many ot her paint.ers 0 11 both sides of the Chllllllcl and th e At illutic. Grimshaw even gll\'c him some help with perSI)cet ivcj but in ot her respec ts Whistler rclt himself to be n Illu ch Inrger figure with fnr lorti er nrtist ic ambitions. Whi stler's s hower of rockets, however, could be bursting ove r a Grims how ci ty, and his views of til(' Thames by night have a si milnr suggestiveness, the quality of being setti ngs viewed as if in 1lI0tion towa rd something more (12. 13). Whi stler fOllnd it necessu ry to rel h!lll so rur from Il necd ote that he insisted on using mus ical termi llology for hi s titles; but th at hobit also reveals t he kinet ic impu lse behind them, and withdraws not at all into an objective att itude towa rd the sce ne itself--quite t he re\'erse. Whistler ere· ated many pictures that. have both abstract.-sounding titl es alld very strong emotional prese nce. In 1:1.11 effor t to elevat e art and himself along with it , to asse rt his own independence and the sovereignt y of the artist, he preached loudly about. how pictures should be recogni zed to cOlisist only of colors and shapes and tonali ti es, lIot the "claptrap" of charncte rs and props; and
c
,
344
MOVING
l:!. l:l
J.
A.
)t e N .
PI C TURE~
WIIISTLEIt . '\'fX'tIU'"
j"
Bluck IIIHI Gold: TIl FlllliHg Hockd
yet his White Girl aud the l)Ortrnit of his mother IUl\'e been loved for generatiolls bec~l.\lI;e of the WOIiWIl in thenl lind th eir necessories, 1I0t. for the beauty of their co mposition. Whist ler must lut\'c illtended it so. III elllpluu.i zi llg (in hi s flall1boyant speech 811d writings) the el clIIl'lItn ry cOlllponcllts of u painting, especially its tonlll componf'111 S, he wns in fnet degcribing the sources of mood and atmosphere in nny picture Ihnt hus a recoglli1.uble subject; Illid to co nsider the power of atmosphere means to acknowledge the cOlltributiol1 of the beholder's fund of personal fUlIlnsy to the picture's etTect, in ruet to depelld upon it. The "Mlory" or the "drama" is just ns gripping 118 in the anecdotal mode: but it is something tualf created by the viewer out or the expectations the painter rais('s and the I)sychic wcather he whips up. And so, while defining out loud his artistic aims 8S detllched from any catering to ordinary sentiment, Whistler wus nc\'ertheJess also defining wlutl largely creates that \'cry sentiment: tlnd he Illade good use or it in his art, which remained
•
li e s .
WIiI S T L~: K .
SllI l/Y;/I n l'sh 1'0111'11 II ml /JIll r £': ['orlm i l of 1'h rO(/Qrl' lhtrrl
12 . 14
J .
A.
346
MOVINO
PI C TURES
committed to realistic subjt"cts laden with 8uggcstion lUld potential mcan· ing-real bridges 8nd real people-rather than t.o neutral props such 8S Moore 's girls from never·never land. And so he cou ld have it both ways. When Whistler painted his portrait oC Theodore Durct in 1883, he called it Stltd.y i" Flesh TOil es U11d Black, as if to nlb it in that a piet.nre is on ly an arrangement (12.14). But thc subject (created, oC course, by the arrangement but by no mcans identical with it) is what makcs the I)icture vital. dramatic, heavy with potentia' "story," a shot. from II film. The IIllln in black evcn ing dress emb races his wife's clinging, rosy cloak as if it were her body and gril)8 her red fan ill his gloved lumd a8 if it were a dagger. J-I is feet are braced, his face is purpling, llnd the frown is beginning on his s hiny brow , The moment is both poised and turbulent: we are waiting. And nlthough they are flot the whole sto ry. the volatil e purpl e, pink , and red alld the stiff, dim black are largely responsible for how we understand what is happening. Wi t h his title, more than clai ming the picture as nothing but tl group of cont rasting tones, Whi stler was distillguishing what has since been recognized to create feeling and meaning through pictures by our mo\'ie-going age, and what once did so in the Romalltic age of Turner. But he wHllted to kpep it (or perilal)S, for the first time, make it) exc lu sive, 8 property of High Art, an esthetic I)rincipie at. odds with \'Ulgar apprecia· tion . And 80 the title ulso wants to kccp ou r empathy lit. bay, rcsist our lu st tor anecdote, and maintain the picture str~c tl y in th e artist's keeping, not ours. He did the same with the Black alld Gray mother. Whis tler has beell fsmous as a herald of modernity in painting, 8n apos· ti c of F renc h artistic gospcl to the benighted Victorians; and yet it iii clear that he was also another apostle of the cinematic method before movies ex· isted. He was known to have learlled abstraction from the Japanese and ad· vanced modes or artistic Realism from the F rench, already allegedly free Crom illustration and stagi ness; but he was also a truc Romantic, although he did not wish to appear 1i0. That is perhaps because he was 8n AItlt"riCIJ Il on foreign soil, aud his Ilativo.aptitucle to r serioll s romanticis m wa s all cm· barrassment. t.o him. He had to keep talking t.o disguise it; and thus he for· mulatcd a number of modernist principles, almost. out. of whal seems like pri"8te defiance rather than principled conviction. negas once said to him. "You behave as if you ha\'e no talent." Among the other signs of Whistler's cinematic sensibility was his great graphic talent, which he again exe rcised with as much flair and delicacy a8 he used ror paint, with similar tonal concerns and emotional results. Hi t;: 1860 etch ing enti tled Rolherhithe and his pllin t ing called U'appillg 011 Thames have the sa me sort of cinematic d isposition, Each shows a free· fl oating view of a scene with some people, rather like De Witte's flsh-
HllfJ/ish .-1,.1
(lilt!
IIfII Slm/ioll; lrhi,d ll'r
HJ
monger see ne rrolll Iwo hundred y('ars ea rlie r, hl'N' wilh the bOllts lind wllter Illid the shnded fu ces making an ambiguous lIIt'etilig out of an ordilIary if unstnble nrrnngl'mcnt (12. 15. 12. 16). Sincr the p(lopJe are s itting. it is clearly the eye that is moving. scanning both the riv('r and the gathering for some rlllUrE' comprehension of its OWI1_ Whislh'r WIIS IIOt 1111 1!1I1)ressionisl "1Ie1 "Iso IIOt n Symbulisl: his affillities in F'ntnee were cliieOy with Degas. who also lutd nn illteN'st in the dralIIlIl ic l)Ossibilities generated by overall tonality. mobility. nnd ambiguity. and 110 desire 10 abllndoll the actual. Bul in England Whi stler was a snob and 11 detl'nniu{'d est lll'te. Ilnd did C\'enillan" Ilblllldoll till' work or consid• ering how COlll nl on lire looks IIl1d fl'cls. He refused to bc ('\'CIIIIS lIluch of lUI illustrator as hi s Ilaturnl girts usuall,\' made hilll . Bt' did not rno\'(' in III{' direction of Ilbstrnetion, which WIIS 1I 0t yN quit(' u\'uilnble to him , or or Ihe Call1('rll . which II(' wOli ld have scorned to use. but towa rd ever 11101'(' t{,l1uously suggest ive \'is lns and glimpses, For 1111 th ei r \'Ilpor. lhes(' IlIck thc
12 . 15
J .
A.
M es .
WIiI STLER.
Etching, 1860
Hotlttrltitltt,
)IOVINO
12 . 16 .J .
A.
)lcS .
PI C T U H~:S
W!lISTI. Y. R .
WClJiJill'lUOH 7'hum rlf
COllvillced , questl ik(' I h nl st of I'll rller 's IIlI e works ; Wh iSller WlIJoi in ret relit, not. seurching fu rther, Aft.er his dealh , " pictorin!" ' photography in the fir8t. decade of this eenlury seems to hllve been trying 1.0 s how Wh istler what he might. have do lie with lhe call1ert!, II10ug til(" snllle VapOl'01l8 pnth . But. the movie cnmern , which he might. well hll\'e ndopted with e"e n better results , WllS not. lIvllilnble eit her. Ami he would huve $corned thll t, too. He IIlwllYS rcfll!wd , sOIlll'how, 10 bt" the AllIericnll nrti s t. he IIclually WIIS .
•
THIRTEEN
America
rornanticism is always rcnlis t ic. Amcr icn n Homan· tic ntt hus ble nded poetic nspirutioll with grelll r ('s pect for the specific. II co ntinuous hard ·headcdncss wedded to 11 lIot a lways cohere ll t s piritual desire. Thi s is IJIl esthetic clulrl.tct(' r IIlItl stull ei:' Ihnt c lln cllsi ly see m ridiculous. cspccilllly when it is exp ressed in works of uri Ihllt urc less t hnn excellcul. or ill works of cOllllllercial und populnr art. SL'llt imcll tulity and bombnst li(' ill wait to take o\'(' r the s ty listic government, howcycr Cll rllest the basic ai ms. ir th ose fOl' allY f'Xpl'('ssi\'c unil y it hus achi('\'Nl, and Ih(' slru gg!(' hilS sliow('d , b('co ming PHI'I of Ih(' cxp l'css ioll IIl1d 1'111'1 of l il . , uchirw'lIIr ll l. In lIIal lY HIOVi('s lind ill SOUlI' n ll r l!oricnJ ~m hj('cts 11'('111 ('(1 by AIlI('ricn ll folk a rt ists 01' pOI'tnti ts by lHI!lItOrf'd linll ll'rs, I l l\' ,'('suits \\'('1'(' ridiculolls ind{'j'd, 11II\('IIIPt>,'{'d by irony ot' IItn higui ty, hu t oftt'll lIPI>('lIl in j! ro,' t heir wry 1I11wi(' ldi llf'SS, E\'(,11 ill hlld Il olI,\'wood 1Il0\'i,'s 1111 apPNd is g('TJ('I'lItNI by the very ract that the hard-hcaded Cil me ra is recordi llg eve ry melodramatic moment, eve ry poet ic visliu l effo rt . evcry thrilling en'eel . even wh ell it fails , The Ils piring e hnruclcr re mn ins in the vcry look of the th ing, t hl' tlll\'or 01' ill l iu \'j llci bl(' pictorial ro lllll ll licislI1 (' \ '(' 11 ill 11il' cynica l pro, duct ions or a mass f' n te r tn inlll('llt hus ill{,ss. nft'(,I,,'d witholl l prt't(,lls io n s t o h i~h art. Vlllglll'il~' allei tt'(l iotls lU'ss 01' th(' ,"(" d il'('C lio ll , nlld acti ng Cll ll b{' r N I{,{,IllNI by p llr{' clllII{'rlllllllg ie. (,\'{' II t h{' killd t llll i IIliS IWelll/lICOlI '
A
MERI C AN
c
350
)IOVINO
PI C T U RE S
seio\l s ly cl"entcd , ill a wtly im l)Ossible for RUlIlogous lapses 011 the li,·c stage. The llIo\'ies ill America were carrying on un AJne rican tradition of style in visual art that had begun long before. Ame rica n pa inting in the early ninetee nl h century, and even ill the e ighteen t h. had some of the same flavor of roma ntic aspi rRtion co mbincd with lite ra lness, the same des ire thllt a work of art shou ld be both wondrous and hones t, both blunt and transcen· dcnt without compromise e ither way, so t hat the result is often sligh tly overwrought, weird. often est hetically insecure, but co mpelling for tha t very reasoll. J ohn Singleton Co pley set t he tone for t he Amer ican arts in his Watson alld Ihe Shark, n picture tha t offers n heroic and erotic vision of a frigh te ning eon te mporary in cident and a docu mentary record of it at the stl me time (1 3. 1). It is an example oC how rea lism in a r t may be romantic wit hout t he classical vocabulary for a rtistic excit.ement, the Baroque lunges a nd fl ou r· ishes and attendant sa rtoria l nUlI.cr perfected by Rubens and ot hent, but by using t he direct pictorial drtlm8 best ellll)loyed by t he F le mi s h, t he Dutc h, and later t he Spanish: light and s hadc, natura listically uns table phys ical action, psychologically accurate facial expression. a nd rightly COlls t nlcted rea l clot hes, whether they nrc costumes or not. Copley ag reed to re ndc r 8 modern cvcut (or wh ich he could Pllt the people in mode rn dress and th en juxtapose t hem to a !laked figure in ext rem· itl', a de\,ice of muc h greater dramatic power than showing a nude among d ra l)ed or costu med figures. And although t he real istic me thod he per· fected was drawn from Nort hern 1Il0
( '1pVrlOh
te'" I
..Im erica
1:1. 1 JOliN S IN O LETON CO I' I. Y.Y .
:lS I
\\IlI /SQ II amI lit e Slt arl.·
threat ens more than it uc tuully s hows . Til l' 1II 01io n ill it is unaccountable, l)Ushing out of the fram e und Ollt at u s, borne by water and (right. Copley did the oth er kind of work . lOO, in wh ic h e" c llts are portrayed in The Grand Malllle r; but those WCN' I)rodu cts of his lute r yenr!; in Ellglund . Like Whistle r. he evenluully found hi s llrti s tie 11mbilio ns co mpromi sed by America und so ught a more lofty esth etic llre na for thc m. But Wat so ll wus prophe t ie, not just. of Ame r icun PII int ing bu t of AllICriClI1I mov ie!;. It. hliS the openness to its llud ie nce, thc engulfing c fTect of c inc lIlll , nlld it s hows 8 willingnes s to be extre me, to s kUIC neur th e cdge o f bUllulit y und sCll sllt io n· alism ; ut the same tillie th e subj ect is presented without a rti s tic fu ss, in documenta ry terms ItS if a cnme ra hlld bee n turned o n it. It has un ull self· conscious sc ri ous ness, and an a i r of I hrilling eXI}Cctut ion built. on the fresh
3S2
MOVING
PI CTU RE S
idea that t.he recording of facts can be used as a romuntic artistic dcvice. As film has later shown, the final effect is all in the ed iting. America n vision in the first half of the ninetee nth century cont inually enlarged. to fill the endl essness of the West.ern expa nses. Landscape could eve ntually become the proper America n religions art, suitable to th e idea that God had give n this land to thi s nation, alld then come to dwell in it. Himself as the localabidillg Soul of Nature-a pure Sl)irit. democrat ic und non-denominational . The group of America n landscape-painters IIOW cal led Lumini st.s did not always work in a large format, but the limitl ess expansion of vision they reg istered in their works took that same path explored by Friedrich at about the sallie period. th e path lhat. keeps mov illg strll ight at the unknown . End lessness cun be addressed ill a smull frame. It Cll ll become t he s tuff of pure s ubj ectivity so that th e urt ist disKppears. ollly t hc \·iSlil ex ists for the viewer, ilnd he seems to lIlerge with it as in Emerson's fil lUOliS eyebull. Cinema invites us to be just s uch an eyeball; and in Americu, long beforc the camera, as in Germany ami before that in Hollnnd , the way to co nvey the ideu lay in painti ng the light. beyond the horizon (c\'cn indoors) as if it were 8 forc e com ing to claim the beholdcr-not just his eyes, but his soul through his eyes. Th e light is also co nside red as it s trikes objecls; and they nre prcsented as if ir radiatcd , "i lhl st rated" by light rather than merely lit. Again t ransparency is stressed, the white radiance that. is sta ined by the world 's life, t he white screen against which the pictures are projected. The light in such works of art s uggests cille ma., because it seeUlS to mnke the objects in the world important cven if they are slack and dull in thcnl' selves. I.. ike F riedrich, I.. uminist painters such us i\1 . J . B eade mi ght show uneve ntful and boring st retchcs of lIIarsh a.nd bea.ch t rans muted simply by the staring a.nd hungry eye , which sumlllons the light and endows it with a power that stays in mol ion when ollce cull ed up (13.2). This state of pictorial t hings was natura l to Romantic America , and it was essentially North European in origin. In America , howeve r. it was combined with th e lIly thmaking impulse that wi s hed to le8\'e I.rudil ional Eu ropea n re ligious and cultural assumptions behind und make up something new. Barbara Novak has suggested that t he power of LUlllini st composition comes in part from its cOllneetion to a trad it ion of fo lk art-which is also what may have s upported it in Germany tiS practiced by Friedric h, CaniS, and Dahl- the slightly primitive cast the pictures have, KII IIl1modulat.ed look. Before the Civil War, Amcrican pa inl ers WCre l ry ing to cstabli s h alialive art that would have a power and bcauty worthy of God 's p rimitive American wilderness, but 81 so of American enterprise, unatTected zca l, and practica l intelligence---qu8lit ies t.hilt can 81so have an honorable primitive
c
,
A III C" it' lI
1:3,2 M,
1 3 ,!l
~' ITZ
J ,
II
II U {lH
I!:
353
Ao I!: , S Utlri l "Otl / li t Jl/ a r shf!1
I. A S K,
B ra ct ', /(o d ', IJ rfl('t' " COl't
flavor without borrowillg refi ncments to tone th em d own or work thcm up, The need was for sO llieth ing fo rt hright and lIIys ticallll the SIIIIl C timc, but somethin g well !IIlldt' I1l1d tec lln ica lly rt'spec tllble, too . Cnl(l ity was not an ingredi ent in Am(' r ictlll Homunt ic idl'uli s m, I1I1Y more thun delicucy; material expressi on had to lu1\'c th e fini s h und solidit y of in s pirl'ci work s that for m new trud il ions (13,:3).
354
M OV I NG
PI C T U RE S
Bes ides the aus t.ere pnillt.ers of the Luminist so rt , there were a mbit ious visionaries wh o plunged straigh t ah ead to tack le both the immensity of the land and the need to people it with so mc ve rsion of humou glory-pcr haps the sense that merely the right response to virgin waterfall s and ancient fo rests might constit.ute the better part. of Am erican virtue. Thollias Cole was an immigrant from England , but hi s ca reer t.ook 0 11 an en tirely Ameri can style, combining serious ideal is m with a steady desire to get uhead. 1'0 do that , Cole helped himse lf to a mixture of Claudian and Salvntoran eonventions fo r landscape, in an eft'or t to su bdu e the unta med America n scene to a visually acceptable condition of ideal lSubli mity. He was alllong the first to paint the gian t-sized landscnpcs that later became t he speciality of Church and Bie rs tad t i bu t t he works thllt made him rUIII Oll8 were his two series about. human and national dest iny, The Course 01 E'mp ire and Th e Voyage of liile. Th ese t wo cycles were done after his visit to Eu rope beginning in 1829, but before he went he had already pa inted the wonderfully cinematic Ex· pulsiQn from lite Garden 01 Edell . This work looks like one of the set s from the ori g inal K illg KOtlg, an imaginary lundscape full of moral import but also real istically ove rwhel ming, despite its obviously designed s nd constnicLed look (1 3.4). 'I'he angelic li ght bursting th rough the urch, forcing the tillY fleeing puir ucross th e dUllS In as if it were 11 wind, gives a fo rce to t he papi er-mAche rocks thaI is simi lnr to the excite ment ge nerated in that movie by the fake primeval ln nd scn pe populated by cOllstnl cted dinosaurs. The vision of ..... irst Things conceived in g rand and terrible te rms is ROIIIUIltic illiln American way, diffcrent from J ohn Martin's architectural versions of extreme moments. Here it is the /olldsco pe thnt has been worked tip to t he right cmotiollnl pitch to seize lmd swa mp the viewer, expressly to ill uminate the moment wh en Man 's F'all is brou gh t home to him , not j ust to invoke the abstract landscape sub lime. It. gives the impress ion that. America is too mu ch for its inhabi tant s; th e ga rden is not II ga rden but pnrt or an overmaste ring wilderness, of which even th e peacer1l1 reaches are vast and junglYi the outer world is rucked by s torms_ Wltut strengt h is re
AlJJcr·jcu
13.4
TIiOlfAS COLE.
Tlte t:zpllll joti/rotti/lte Gorden o/ Edl:ll
a cataclys m, !lot u world crcntcd for n "S tar Trek" episode, E\'ell John Martin 's extreme rocks for his S(u/a/.- ill Scarch of Ih e Waters of Db/ irion lire kept at an artistic dishm ce , like a puintcd backdrop; they hnw less cille· matic im mediacy than these loollling mon s ters. which Coif' hilS 1II1lcif' to seem alive, By contra st, The Voyage of Life, howevcr fumous, is lIIore IllllllSillg thnn thrilling; the boat 011 its river is fun 1.0 follow, but the elelilent of the specific is missing, from both protagon ist am! surroundings, so it has nOlle of the power either of the Biblical ErplIlsioli nnd H'atl' r s Heced i"" or of Copley's fnctua! Wat so ll to compel reu! dr{'ud lind {,llIpnt hy, TIl(' pnint ings might as wcllnot be reulist ica lly done, but rende red in the st yle of tenth· century mosaic or th e crudest. Expressionist termi; : the renlislll diminishes rath er than contributes to th e effecti\'e ness of the lh(' IUC, beculise Colc hns gone overboard with the conception Ilt the expense of beli evabili ty, Th e Course of Empire is allother llIutter. 1·lert> Cole. s howing his protocinelllatic soul again, makes landscupe und urchit.l'cture interact in wholly
35 6
MOVINO
PI C T U RJo;S
I
t 3 .5
T If O)U 8 C O L E.
TIt IJ WaIn', Hultli"y A/ It ,. Ilt ll Dd .,gt
sati s ractory wllys liS metaph ors ror s piritual stri\'ing. o\,crrcuching unci ruil· ure. As hi s rake·ancient and imaginary ch·ili zRt ion rises Ilnd d estroys it selr. the wilderness is nc,'er sacrificcd . As we shirl Our vicw. 810wly circl ing IIround th em to wutch th e rerment. or cOll81nlclioll and deHtrllclioll , the lIIolllllu in und t.he hnrbor keep their lIuturll l uuthorily. emblems of 1I11111'S wi ld persis t('nl sou l Ihul leuds him lO such ('xce8S('8. Alld the ('xc('ss('s uri' absolutely s pecific, ilS th ey are in Martin's work and 8$ th ey nrc ill 1I1 0vies, improving on the ruel s by the er(-'lIlioll or beller rllels. ruth er Ihllll by using rllllci es s pec iul to Ilrl. The wilderness ug-uiu is invented ItS well liS t he colonIIsdes Ilnd ships; Cole prererred to cOIIIJlOse 8 lIatural puradi s(' ill hi s own culti\'ltl ed idi om ralher tilnn to muke IJOe t'"" out or it.s 8Ctlllllt Oligh prose. Ttl(' t' f1'ec t or Ilcluality wa s sought by Albert Bif' t'8tadt in th f' lI('x t ge ner· ation, lifter the sellrch ror un American form or s ublim ity wus Ull IIcknowl· edged su ccess. and the 8i b~ifi cant betHlti es of the continent were everybody's assumption. Claude and Sulw'lor no longer needed 10 be SUIIl'
•
ilmeril'O
35 7
mOllcd to provc thell1 ; allel so the f'Xtreme romu lltieis m or Bie rs tadt 's land· scnpes is ills tend found('cl firmly 011 the doculllelltnry id ell , which is t.he same idea behin d the Inoderll movie vi ew of sce nery , The arlislnccd s only to ren'a ] mounta in s in the s unset or II wllt('rfali nt dawlI, lind w{' are pro· voked both to gasp and to think or th e powe r ill the uni vl'rse IIlld our own insignifican ce; a lso to congrutulate ours('lves 011 Oll r dominion over these wonders. Tlu' com posi t ion is left llSYllllHctrical and full of possibility, rathe r tlu\II (estoo liNI in Cl llUdili1l hunllollY; ulid the appi iention or paiut. is al most undetec tl1ble. Th e pain ter docs 1I0t intl'ude upon oll r communion with these IlIl1 rvcl s. Th e lUorlilmessage is !Jett.e r conveyed ill tt'rlllS of a di · rect demand ; What can you do to mensure upT Bie rs tadt echo('s Ih e Ameri· call rorlll of rOIlHlIICC, t he stri" ing to ket'l) pllce with o\'erwhel llling racts , to enlnrge to mee t them . Bi ers tndt nctuulIy took a 101 or libel'ti c!; wilh the facts, but not in th e form oC visibl e poeticizing' in the old Europeu ll 1I1111111er. By the tillle he be· ca me well known in the mid dle or the ct' ntur.", liI e C8 111e rn wus wcll establi shed as the pun'eyol' orvisuul fa ct ; IIlId arti s ts we re resorling to il a11110l>t as Ii mall er or course, Il ilhough with u great vurilltion in lIu ilude toward its s pecific use!;. For hlIId sclipc II r t in trndi ng to suggest the topogrllphicill trl1· dition, It photograph WillS no d isgrace us an obvious help, runct ioning 8!; onc kind of !S ket.c h. Bie rstadt too k llIu ny phot ographs himself on his West ern trips; a nd hi s two brothe rs srt up n photograph:' bu s inc!;s Inte r in New York , partly stocked by Albel't 's Westcrn \'iews. Colc 's AllIe ricll had la in rast or the ~ I iss i ssipp i. 'I'hl' " phot o'graphic" look wus more acceptllbh· thll n th e Cllludinn lIIod('1 ror t he grent Alilericlin Wes t , which Jacked a hi s tor." of li teral'." drscripti on and cele!Jrut ion und had to owe its fa me to its very aCluali ty, its IIma zing qUll li ty of being The re. But at that t im!' the Cl1 l11e rn WIIS less satisrllctory I'or recOI'ding th€' overall beauty of uny big londscU I)e thall 1'0 1' I'('cording detuils. MUll)' or Bie rshldt' s bett er photogrllphs Ilre of I .. dinlls und the ir gear, ullimals, otll('r membe rs of t he wllgon t rain, and ,·tll'ioIi S vigne ttes or the s urround illgs, rather than of g rent VistllS. Th (' s tagg('ri ng viShiS \\'(' 1'(' cook£'d up later in the s tudio , out or skc t.che" lind partial Clllllt!ra vjj'W8: li nd it would be corl'eC I 10 suy thut Inter I)hotography 01' the W{'Sl. es pecially the ill\' iling kiml that found its way OlltO t he grcat blow·ups in Grund Cenlrn l S tntion or onlO cou lltless calendars, and t he n into t he cille nllltography of countless Weste r ns, owes its ori gi ns to the inve nt ions of Bit'rstlld t , who showed whllt it ou ght t.o d o. The libe rties he took with facl arc \'il'tllally invisi ble. Alth oug h he offe red vi ews that si mply cunnol. be correc tly ident ified, becnusi' he cOlil billed them out of disparnte s tud ies, the Iluthe nt ici ty or th eir gene rnl look is UII(lues· tiolluble; he seems to hllve Illude up views God ought to hn\'e arrllllgcd . They
(
~ Igt";
tar I
:l58
)cI OV I NG
PICTURES
create, with their combination of the factualaud the awe·inspiring, a lIew mythology of the wilderness that g()('s far beyond old Eu ropean idea ls of th e literary subl ime and s traight into the roman t ic poetics of documentary ci nema that inform twelltieth·century hllldscnpe illlllgery. Bi ershldt lell rlled his craft ill Germany. and was himself n nati\'c of DOs· se ldorf. where he later went back as a student afte r his fami ly hnd settled in the United States when he was a bab,\'. The Du sseldorr Academy was rKII1 01lS ror its d own·to·earth npproach to representatioll. alld UlMIl.\' AUleri · ClUJ art·s tudent s went there berore the Civi l War to gai n some trainill g ill nil elllpiricn i style or pn inting slire to bc accep table ill America. with it s well ·known lo\'c of the palpable. But th e Northern s t.\' le of rea lism inclu ded. evc n in prosaic J)O sseid orr, fhll t dependence on light thut CIiSts it s own spe ll on th e I)syc he a nd Creutes rOlllUllce out or pla in fUCIS. The Americnn cloud·capped mountains lind sparkling IlIkes in Bier· l!Iladt'1i work s owe lUuch of th eir magic to their Dutch picl.orin l heritage. presen'ed well into the mid· nineteenth ce ll l.u ry in Gerllltlny. unci e\'en more
13.6
ALB E R T
RIEK STADT • .\IQII"t AfiaHlJ.
U'ad",.ytolt
:159
..Im r,.jra
s moothly portable onl o I Ill' Amer iclln Wl'Slern 8(:('1)(' Ihlllltll(' (' Iegll lll C lau · diall arrallgemellts Ihllt had bt-'('II fill£' N'd t hrough E ngland fiMit Ilncl used by Co le ami hi s collengucs fu r EalSlet'lI vi('wS ( 13,6), Some of till' IJuminisl painte rs also owed their gr(>lIll'sl dl'llt 10 sim l>le Ho llund , only in the ir mod· est works it wus mu ch lUo r{' nOl ic{'uble; Bi{,l"Sw d t w('111 ill for grllllclcu r, Hi s lurges! pninling wns 1101 II strnight lundscllpe but till imagina ry
Lallding of Columbus llIeasu r in~ nille hy sC\'('llteen fl'ct: but t his prodigy has bee n d estroyed , A close second is 7'h e Domps of 1/,(, }'osf Pllile. which is roughly nine un d a huH by fifteen r£'e t ill s izl', und IIOW llHlIgs in til £' Ath enaeum ill Sl. .J oh nsbury, Vt~ rrll on1. while 7'Iu Hod'!! tl/oltlliaills ill t he Me tropolitllll Mu seulII is 1I11l('r t:' six by It'll (1:1 ,7), Tllt're is SOIlll'l ili ll g both hiil.ll'iOllli and lnugll ificl'II' ubout s uch " 'ul'ks, TIlt',\' 1111\'('11" III{' l)IIi ll u-' rly 8uuvity of C hurc h 's s imila rly grund perforlllllllces: bllt th('y hil\'e u IIlIH'velous o\'c rreach ing churllcter, lind ulwlIYs lIIu ell 1II0l'e mobi lity t hu n ullything by Church, whose Coiop(ui, for 1111 its finis hed exol icism , is les8 dYJllllllic thlln 811y one of Bic rslildt 's Yosclll iu' vi(' ws, ('\'('11 the lilt li' OIl('S, Th e bigges t
1:1.7
ALK V. H. T K l t-: k S T AIl T ,
TII ( /(ol'l..y
I/tHOI/{/ ul ~
360
MOVING
PI CTU KE S
ones lry the iml)()Ssible, bursting out of thei r frnmes in all attempt to emu · late the vistas they represent, to make whal movies evclIllially lIlade out of scenic raw maleria l, a cont.est with cxtr('mencss. An cssential poillt about them is thtltlhey look accessible IIOt lO eX I)loratioll or LOurism but to visioll itself, again because or the Dutch·realistic , ca mera l ike tec hnique. In CO il · trast, the drea my veil o\'er mu ch standard Romantic landscape keeps it re· mote , eve n the work of the Hudson Hive r-school pninters who rollowed Cole's example. Although it may !:iceUl quite real, you do IIOt seem to be there yourself: the eX I)erience hns bee n had ror you by the a rtist. Bicrstadt was in essencc an illustrator, like so lUauy or the bcst Amer i· call artists . Topography itse lr is a p"r(' rorm or illu s tration , a mode of r('u · dering that illlllllilliUCS Il phytiical si tuation with out olTeri ng It ditTereut artistic s tory ulong with it; lind inspired topogrllphy cau be It tnle ill itsel r, in wh ic h th e viewer 10\'c8 the ri sk of sharing without prior clu es. Bu t illu s· lrution had acquired a bad IIU llle by the end or the ce ntury, Ilnd Bierstadt's I)()puillrity had walled well before th e tillle or his desth in 1902. He WttS IIC' cused or being Germsnic in t he worst Wttys, hea\')' Slid overdetai led, ttnd he someti mes dese rved it; but such judgments could not fllil to be made ill the new cli mate or rCS I)ect ror F'rellchlless. Jllu 8lrlllioll. however, was the n811m!.i well SI)r ing or lUuch grellt nine· tcc llth,c('lItUry urt. perhalHI e8pecia lly ill AmericH. Hlld it provi ch'd 11 wily to 1Il8ke pictures thllt ce rtainly proved enabling rllther than cril)pling in th e careers of Horner and Eakins and even lually of Sargeut Illld Hoppe r. HOUl('r's (,8 rly caf'('{'r 8S a popular graph ic artist h(' lped 10 rorm whlll can be
13 .8
WI NSLOW H O liER,
U'r d Poi"t. Proll.t',Nulr
Awe,.,ira
:16 1
called his cinematic turn of mind. The art istic cou rse of his life exemp lified t he way illus tration could eventually be turned ill to movies. th e way th e il · luminative fUli cti on. which had g radually become th e properly of cheal) magaz ines, could be redee med to se rve everyone in a trflll scend ent lIew mode, IlS cell turies before illulllillntcd lIuulU se ripts had !Sc rvcd their limi ted public. Th e shift in Homer's career ha!i neve r bee n described like Ihul, however, but ra lher as 11 risc out of co mmercia l banalit.y into the free reac hes of high art. He gn\'e up illust rnting for magazines I1l1d went to li\'e as Il rcclu se in Maine to pa int the sea. But he was a great success besides, with a thorough ly professional vicw of his own ma rketab ility and no high-m inded a rtistic posi ng. ?o'i ost of t he sca pain t ings could be film shots, rcndel'cd as they arc in t lutt cinematic mode t hat is both neutral and impass ioned , both documentary and roma ntic (13. 8). The most interestin g pa r t. of hi s career is the middle onc, where t he illustrlltions and the paintings overlap. It was then that H omer a llowed hi s il lustrations to become " monumen tal" and irradiated with atmosphere without all owing thei r s tra ightrorward currency or subj ect to become dif· fuse or besidc t he poi nt. Th ey rellluil! ill us tralions beetlUse they keep thei r air or personal drama, which iii if anyt hi ng magnified by a lise of su n inter s persed with black s hadow t hat makes t hese pai ntings " graphic" in both senses. In 1866 he pain ted ladies outdoors exactly as Monet did- t he same s kirts , grass, and half·glimpsed races (13.9, 13. 10). But in Mone t 's works nothing is happening except in paint; t he whole thing appeals as a lIew wuy of see ing, breathtaking and crack ling with light and quite voi d of drama other than the oue pl ayed out by t he glitte r itselr; t he women relinqu ish all personal importance in its favor. (Th e ra molls \VQme',. i 'l the Ga.,.,de'1I is only one of several li ke this from the late 1860's.) In Homer 's paintings on t his theme, of which the re are also sevcral , the personal ities retain their i nd ivid· ual mystery, aud the constant possibil ity of hidden conflict and all iance. signal and response, drenches the painting along with the niti less sunl igh t. They play croquet instead of gathering bouquets, but t hat is not what generates th e tens ion; t he activities cou ld be interc hanged and not change the difference between the two. Speaking entirely about fo rm. Novak remarks that HOlller's girls re spoud to gravit.ational pull , whereas Monet's float. in a new pictorial uni · verse on the su rface of the canvas . And that pull or gravity includes the weight of feeling a nd human connec tion , the pal pab le d rag of living. It is ma rkedly poiguant wh en he uses young and pretty women, 8S he so often does. H e puts the m into very sligh tly uneasy situations t hat he does not. ex · plain , so that they seem somehow compromised in their chi gnons a nd s hoe buttons, subtly unprepared and off· balance (13 .11 ).
c
""
362
M O VIN G
13.9
13.10
PI C TURES
WI NSLO W 1I 0)IE R.
C LA U DE M ONET.
Tlt e Croqutl Game
lVom,.II
jll
lite Garde"
America
13.11
WINSLOW 1I0ll.: II. ,
a63
CroquetPiaypr
III the wood engravings fo r I/arpcr's Weekly. the same f1U\'or is COIJ\'('YNI in 1>laill blilck lind white lind smu ll size. oll ly there is IJSllllily II title lind It recognizable AllIeric
364
M OV I NO
13. 12- 15
!' ! C TU R ES
WIN S L O W H O MER ,
ma ga zi ll~ illu 8 l r8t iolls
1:1.12 " W in ter-A Skating Sce ne," Harpu's Wu kly. 1868
•
13.13 "Ollr National Winter Exercise-Skating," lIarlH: r'. Wu /dy , 1866
;!me,.i('(1
••
365
-
.
- ,
~ -,
'-
.,
"11>' • .>, tl \.'
•
J
13. 14 "She Ilimeci h"r
13.15 " WI'''I')'
r"Cf'
10 Ihe wiudow," Tit ,. Galluy, 1868
"II~I d ilj;t~"lillfll'd
wilh Tilt GaluIY. 1869
('\"{· rYlhiu~."
!
MOV I NO
366
13. 16
P I C T U RES
WIN SLO W II OM ER . H6Yf .It
II
Pal lun
nut(!e or the 8111001h re"tures , or th(',Y carry the suggestive bttggtlge of a "108t profile:' like the ones in the works of Georges de la Tour (13 . J 6). Hotner docs this by pure "graphic" mealls. using light and durk to illumi· lIut(' the WHy lifc movcs, but with specit&l IIttentioll neither to its delliched visllal pleasures liar to its gripping incidents , but to the latent emotional eurN'lIt in it. which can nudgr dralllll into all)1h ing if it is put in 8 certain light. Wllell he paint ed The I~ile Line ill 1884 and U"d erlolU ill 1886, Homer used the same sea h(' later painted for itsclf; here these reseues of half· d rowned wO lllen float across the churning water like se{luences in 1I la rge r movie we can never see all or. o.lId t he ocean t hunders eve rywhere. lurge r s til l. There is a li har p erotic flavor in t hese sceneS of he iplesii female bodies be in g wrested out of t he su rge by impersono. l· looking men, skirtli shoved lip o.nd breulltll molded by weI. clothes , beautiful faces sti ll and lita rk; but not h· ing is mude of it. The illustrnt i\'e function hus to work by itse lf wi thout a pri or na r rative. We are forced to make t he story up. There nrc no extras in the pictu re to suggest more of the plot; we are faced only with a cold set of moments thnt will soon be O\'er, Jea\'illg the wo.ter empty once moN' nud the sense of dread spreading (13. I i, J 3. 18). The graphic skillthallllilde Homer 11 living' for yearli kec))s his shots full of similo.r intensity. e\'CIl if the ocean is tile only character. and makes vital scenes instead of decorative clusters out of I!lIl1all groups of people seen frolll a distance. I II tht Moulltai"s can in no way be seen as a neutral, de· tac hed vi ew of climbing women, mere ly all interesting patte rn of light and line; it is an iIlustratioll with plen lYof Ilarrati,'c suggestion. ulmost. like one
II lIu' rir(l
1:1.17
13. 18
..... I NS I. O W II O M E K . U,,(lrrlow
..... I N81.0 ..... II OMER . T" ~ U/~ Ullt
:167
36 8
MOVINO
I~I C T U R~~S
of several in a magazine story; but it hus been trtlllsfigured on a big screen and left hungillg ill mid ·uir with 110 text. The s harp black shadows do it , they are what proj ect each W01l1llll 'S introspec t ive cnpacity and keep the picture fostering our senl;e tlU&t somet hing is happening to them, inward ly us well I&S outwardly: the lack of pict uresqueness does this, too, the topo· graphical si mplicity of th eir sloping path: lIeither we nor they are simply admiring th e view . A simi lar sce ne rendered ill t he frncL lIred light of 1m· pressionism would keep liS happy to s tay at a distance from the women and instead to cnter the privileged universe of pa inting iUicl f, where thei r fa te has no mea ning and we have 110 res ponsibilities. Homer seems to ha" e created a new seriousness for genre a rt, as movies were later to do again. He did it lI sin g old cOllvent ions of commerc ial ill ust ration (as cincmu al so did), not pus hing th e boundaries of painterly discovery (as t he Impressionists did). Th e l l11pre!;siolli s ts were able to redeem genre art from sent illleutal ity by recHsting' it in ltlliluthori tlitivc ncw lIrti s· tic language that fll!ied uature, hUlllans, Huel Hrt ifHets together into one hur· mon ious syn tax . Horner did C(luivalent redelll l>ti"e work on genre subjects in the opposing cinellllltic wny-deepening th eir gra l}hic potential and th ei r openness 1.0 dissonance. Therr is 110 peace created by I)aint ill Homer's groups of girls on grass or boys in fields. Conflict and disharmony arc invoked by Ihnt rmlll e block gliu(>r wI' hove co me to kllOw und love in movies, a d rama that leaps Oll t of t.he sc reell from Ihe perpetual collision of brilliance and pitch black, whatevcr th e color of thc elothes, trees, or teaeup$, and that keeps things moving, suggesting what we haven't yet seen. Homer was all early glorifier of the American G irl. that same Girl who was so prominent ill Jumes novels as tl foil to guropeall sexual assumpt.ions and who later was the hero ine of so many movies proceeding rrom the new American sexual assumptions that. Jumes helped defin e. Her own conseiolilmess is the focal point or th e story, not her effeet on male sensibility; her moral bein g is the bat tlegrollnd , her sense or her own poss ible changes, her su ccesses and fni lures; and we lire wntch ing. Luter she becamc the characters played by Katharine Hepburn , Ginger Rogers, and Dori s Day in t.he virtuous mode, by J oan Crnwrord und Barbarn Sta nwyck in the wicked one, by Bette Davis in hoth , sti ll later by Nutalie Wood and Angi e DickinSOli- ali Americilll girls t rying to keep t hei r persona l hOllor wlultever the sexual Iitakcli , half·consciously struggling with th e probl ematic meanillb"8 att.ached to the beautiful clothes their OWII beau ty has demanded fro m the production desi gller, illsisting 011 independence or s pirit even while ma intaining pcrrect grooming, active and pass ive at ouce, rcallllld unrenl. w!l lk· ing cout radictions. There are many such girls ill Horner's art., gi rls eX(lui sitely and conti-
c
,
Amc";(,(1
:169
den til' dressed btl t broodi Ui;' or btl rst i II i;' wi t h i mperf('C I I hought llnd fe c i iug at odds wit.h th ei r se lec t filler.\". Wh en HOllier s hows such 11 girl I1l0ne, 11 story seellls to r ise uroulld her; she rCrlIS('S to be purt or Ihe pleus in g lund· scape, as s he is in pa in tiugs by Will ililtl Merritt Clw se , for extlltlple . 'iUli· lurly, th ese girls nrc emplw licuHy
1:1. 19 JAMKS TI SSOT , Por/rll i' of Miu Mayd
370
)1 0VINO
1:1.20
.,IA31E S T1 880T,
PI C T U RJo:S
TIt ~
Gallery o/ lI.lll.S, "C/J /c NII/J "
Butll Home r-like sort of girl wus u ci nclllatic given for sC\'erul Americun movie generulions-th e perfcc t-looking Girl, cas t and presented in th e same visual style, wh ether s he wus pillyilig U ma rine biologist or an international spy. II sour-minded poor man 's duughter or II burdened s uburblln housewife, u spunky librnriun or II honky-tonk duuce r. She was someone with ISlrong feelings and un uclive parL to play ill the drama, someone whose thought s unci netions IlHlltcred wh ell you couldn 't actulIlIy sce her; but she wus hou sed in incongru ollsly passi,'e-sec ming fu s hion- lIIodel looks . And just us in Homcr, th esc vcry looks were th emselves illlporlnnt in the Americall romantic sche me, some ill\'ocuti ollto the comme rcial muse in lhe midst of th e mos t seriou s rOlllontic- rClllis lic projectio ns. so me daring connec tion made between the indepcndeut s pirit or American wOlllen and their skillss eOIlSUlllers. Henry JlIl1Ies ha s an older lady in Da isy Millu. so meone wh o lives in ~;uro pe , say first or Da isy, "or course she is preUy. But s he is vcry common:' And t hen liller, unbeli evi ngly, " She has that chnrllling look Lhey allluwe. I can 't think wh ere they pick it up; and s he dresses in perfection-no, you don't know how well s he dresses. I can 't think where th ey get their taste." James only developed the Americall Girl j Homer had invented her. Her " taste" was so me s troke of New World genius, th e sounding of a new creative femal e note_ Homer's Ilear contemporary Thomas Eakins had a different but no less
Alii e,. ie'(I
;17\
acut e emotiona l vjew of wO lll e n '~ lruppings . Inlinc wi t h his dc\'otion to thc meu ning i ll what th e ellllleril revclll s, his urdCli t religion of HculislII, Eakills s t rcsses the wrinkles and dis l}lucelllellt s of the perfect femin ine costu lIle ralh er than it s firs t fres h und idea l momen t. He dwell s On how it looks ill wea r rather than when put 011 before the mil'ror, nncl espec ially how it looks in weu r under spi ritual or phys ical s t l'eBS , Th e b(>st exn rnples of th is are ill the two pictures of womell singing, The CQ I/cerf Singcr and Tllc Pathetic SOllY, painted abollt ten yea rs npn rl, (1 3.2 1. 13.22), In cnch of thes(' tht" singing lady's d ress is complet cly dctu iled , without gNlcrulizations thut might suggest the unimportullce of fin ery t o the ~eri o us performance of music. Like other ci nematic artis ts, Eak ins does not re treat from unders tanding the millutille of fli Shioll. res pccl illg them as carri ers of the Silme emotional current borne by mu sic itse lf, Wi t h 811 hi s in teres l in thc actuu l, he never s licers at niching, Hi s si ngel's produ ce Mendelssohn from within their trimmed aud stilTeued taffeta liS lU\lul'lllly liS they might speak or s igh at some point.ed moment; the SCIIIlIS lind fr ills al'C a little displaced by the acti on of breathing, Ilnd s how the slight st.ress uuder the light; nnd t he earnest fa ces arc suppor ted rath er thull mocked by the eu rnest elaborateness of the dresses. In cac h picture the music, with its powt"r over evc ryone's sou l, pours th rough the lady und through t he pott ed pa lin, through the setting lind the supporting pillyers, th rough th e s hiny fa bric und its tnil orillg, Keeping to the tona l ce nter, g akin s' n'lliism is 1I0t t he sort that scorns elegance as if it were falsi ty. He turn s th e salli e intent eyc 0 11 the bl oodied hand of the surgeon as he docs on the fashionab le si nge r. nnd neither loses to the other as each performs with 11 wholly America n se ri ousness. The women in hi s I}Ortra its wcal' fin ery or nudit y with t he salllC ellrllcstlless, shared in turn wilh that of men ill offic ial robes or dusty jackets or naked· ness as requi red, What makes Eakins einemlltic is his insistence ou the music of the persoll a s the chanllel of drama
M O VIN G
I> I C T U H"~S
1:1.2 1 TItOWA S EAKINS . TIl e CO NCtr' SiN{If!r
Amr rj('(/
13.22
THOMA S
EA KI NS, rite Palltdic SONg
)IOVINO
PI CTU RE S
Eak ins doesn't go ill for detnchcd pictoriol clllrit,Y or dozz le; nnd the suppression of color is one of Ihe signals of his insistence on engagement. J l doesn't mean Ihat only the grim a nd ugly fa cts of living arc truthful , th e ones without the ca ress of chromatic bcnut.y, but thal light suffices to conce ntrate th e curiou s mobi lity of emotional tnnh, alld th at color, which deals in pleasure, is some thing of an irrelC\'allcy. There is no fun in Eak ins' work; he never ha s a good lime, pleasure is strangled; but there is movement, the hauntin g fl ow of ullspeci fied fee ling, and consequently the hope s nd possi· bility of eventual fulfillm elltand future pleasure , perhaps not now bu t SOOIl or sometime. H is pictures are dim but. neve r gloomy, only provisionally at rest in so me e\'sded cadence before the nexl phrase or after th e la st tonic resol uti on. They, too, p8rtieip8te in t he Alueric8n romunce of perpetual uspirllt ion couc hed in d oc umentary terms. 'rhe emnera wus a COlls tanl presence in Eakins' urtistic life, und it is clear that it. sen 'ed him as a man'elous new med iulll for emot ion rather thall any sort of di stanci ng mec han ism . HE" knew the fn lUous ~I\1 y bridge motion studies, and ullI.de 1I11111y of his ow n; for him photography WIlS II key to mIlking things mo\'e, not n way of holding them still. Eakin s wns able to truns-
13.23
TIIOMAS EAKISS,
Portrait of ,I/rl. EaJ.:i",
Amf rjru •
late CHme ra habits in to pnint (us D e ~as wns a lso nbl e to do) so liS 10 record not me rely th e ri ght looks of legs or wll eets in mol ioll but th e I)e rsiste nt move ment beh ind s till fa ces und motionless figu res. c\'(In be hind quiet spaces lwd still objects. Thus he could s how the influ ence of tilos(" inward tides for which music so often s tands, and which it so ofIe II accompuni es in movies the mselves, The move me nt of e roticism in Eakin s' work is nil the more \'olat ile fOl' bein g somewhlll submerged. compn'ssed into the inten s ifying channel of homoero ticism. and keeping clenr of un,\' expression of s impl e pleasure. There is no simplicity in the world of Eakin s. Everyone lind c"erything is compl icated-as in t he work of Henry Jilmes, whose nO\'e!s are full of pri · ,'ate moment.s like t hose beillg lived through by Eil kins' pellsivc subjects. Thcy gaze out of the frum e, wonder ing llbout their feelings nnd othe rs', about t he difficulties and distort ions Ilmt llccom»nny the Ilppropl'iate UIIIIl · ugement of th e more IIwkwUJ·d J>lIssions . ~1rs . Eak in s ill pllrtic ular looks like someone exercising huge pnticlice. burcicn('d with llllderslHndiug (13 .23), Th e listening t ilt of these heads is to Illal il1lil'r mll sic, which it is n bl esl!ling not. everyone CUll henr , Eakins' ungain ly naked ,Yolll hs ill wa ter and sun light lire clot hed in swirls of complex feeling-partly theirs , purtly ours, and partly the puintc r 's, everyone's unfixed und ull s imple , caught in a sequt'nce ruther th an n cOlllposi ti oll, The thick emoli ollul text ure o f Th.e Swiltl III jllg lIol e WIIS built up by Eak ins through v3 riolls kinds of s tudy fo r it , which included photogruphs, mode ls in WIIX , IIlId oil skl'lc hes , n whol e IIl'ra)' of pos s ible ap· p roac hes to t hese boys he tinnily swims townrd . ou t of the brown cornc r into wh ic h he has pninled hi mself (13 .24 ). Thf' rf'strll. ill(·d deli cHc~' of feci· iu g with which he approac hed femal e nudity IIlso hus a .Jamesiun rcs pf'ct for WOlllell in it , n cn uti oll s, umbi\'ll ient , and \'(' ry Ame ricun mindfuilless of II femu le strength or mind und pl'rc(' pt ion thut is POWl'I'cd rather 1111111 opposed by thf' force of sex. Ea kins' hUldscal}CS shnre with Homer's lh e fltwo r of being setti ngs. They have the sllbj(~C li ve look of personal almosphere. wlwlh er people lire neulItlly present in t hem or not. When they II rc present , 1II0rf'O\'l'r, th ey ure often seen from a ce rtllin distllnce with tlwir fll ccs ill s hadow. as th c,\' ure in Homer, inviting our e mpathy. dl'awing us by the unfocHi:wd . sel f-nbsorbed pos tures of their bod ies. Starlill g Out Afrel' Hail ilud Sai/illg are two frames from the sUllie s hot; and bot h cou ld llimost bc by Homer , using the cncompassing sea to cradle th e actionl ess scenc in lotnl motion (13.25. 13.26). In the second ve rs ion, SailillY, t he horizoll iul formll! is Ul ore cine mllticn lly su ceessfu l and permits the bronde nillg of t he wllt er , Ihe raising o f the horiZOIl, and t he cropping or t he ~ail. devices thaI sugges t we a rl' floating to-
C pyr
te
)10VINO
13 .2 4
PI C T U RE S
T II OXAS t: AKINS .
ThSlCillllll ing l/ol l!
wurc! the Ulcn in the boatns they movc slowly out of rellch , while the seu t hat floods both sides of thc frume su rrounds liS along with them on their quiet ,'enture. It has that .."' ri edrich look of investigation, of a search with lIll outward excuse und an unformed illw/lrd goal. So do ullth e Homcrs. Th e third in t hi s grou p of Jtllucsiun. pro to-cinclJl ulic American painters is Sa rgent. I-It·, too, was It solitllry inward stn lgg l~ r. a charlltle r like th e ~ponymous hero of JUllles' ·'The Pupil" with exputriatcd lI ollladic parcnts, OIlC who lellmed cu rly, for rensoru. quite difTerent fro m those of Homer und Eakins. to fortify himself inside a citadel even whi le Il al)pily movi ng llUlong rich and soci ull)Coplc. You CU ll see it in his self'portmit , t he lifted chin and distan ci ng guze that correspond to Eukin s' stiff ti lt in hi s (13.2 7, 13.28). Both thes£' pninters leurned portra iturc from the Dutch aud paniards, evc n though bot h studied art in France; and the lesson of com bining in wardness with a strict rendering of phenomena was well absorbed by each
A ",rrir(l
-
1 ~L:~5
•
13 .26
T II O )lA S EAKIN S, SUi/llfY
•
TfiOKAS EAKINS, Slarii"fJ ONIAllu Hail
a77
:J7 8
13. 27
MOVING
TIIOa.AS KAKINS.
SlI/' PQrtra it
PI C T U Rt-;S
13 .28
JO li N SINOKR SARO KST . '~I/. Porlralt
-the way to show a face as ir it were the scene or pri\'ate activity intuitively l>ercei\'cd. 1I0t a stage 011 which private feelings are skillfully lirranbr-ed ill a bouquet prepared for our detached appreciation . Sargent's affinity with Eakins and Homer shows up in his works thaL dcal with children , notably in the great Dal«yhters of Edward Boil and in such public-seeming portraits as Mrs. Davis aud lIer 011 Liv;t.gstOt. lind Mrs. Carl Meyer alld IJer Children (see 13.32). James lurks ill these works, too, a!! he doc!! in the Eakins scenes with one or two or t.hree I)eopl e, whether Or not. th ey are fSlllily portraits (13.29, 13.30). Th ere is a s trong resonance in Eakins' IJome Scene, showing t.wo sisters. one an adult Imd one a child. that resembles that in Sargent's Bait lind Meyer paintings, done morc thlin t.wenty yea rs later but following a similar track, a track lhal sta rts in the se\'enteenth century (13.3 1). The looks of children, presented as a reminder of free and unlim ited responses to life aud consequently a8 a foil to the compromised feelings and limiting pretensions of adults, is a strong theme in art. IL seems 10 have begun with Veltilquez. The great Dutch painters. especially De Hooch, separately de\'eloped the theme a generation later, incorporating it. into a gen eral view or the ir urban. Protestant milieu. where family intimacy W88
..Imt ,.ira
3 79
prized in 8 way now fsmilillr 10 miclclh· ·clnss vjf'wf'rs IICclistollled to beli('v. ing in the feelings of childrcll. Childrcll in HCliaissunce arl have the look of
half·formed adulls, l;olllelimcl; of mnlform{'d oll(,lJ.ll ud tlll'\'• rarel"• seem in· dependently conscious. BUI by the 16:30's Velazquez \\'IlS ab le to present the royal children of 8n llusLcre, Catholic, lind almost feudlll courl in tile same psychologically telling lIsl>ect nrri\'{'d lit only hiler in the celltur.v by De Hooch in vislial art, and oll ly in the nill('(ccnth c{, lltury by writers of fiction . Vchi7.quez, espccially in t he irresistiblt· ,..os .lIn/il/os, rendered the roynl offspring as true centers of sensibili ty. both their OWII. which radiat{'s from them, nnd the se nsi bil ity so immens('ly projected onto thelll by IItt('nti\'(~ adults. H e thus provided II p('rfec l mode l for II painter like Sargent. who scr'\'cd both real and pseudo aristocrats. und who could find in Vrhil:que1. It key La making his cli,'l\ls lllid thl' ir childrell look bot h imposing lind Ulllu·
13.29
JOIIS 8 1S0ER 8AROES T,
Th e lJaug'"er. of Erilt'/'rri80il
MOVINO
3 80
13. 30
PICTURES
JOliN S IN OE R SAROENT,
M"... Daui6 Ud
1I~ ,.So"
iAVi"Y6/0"
.4ml! riel/
13.31
TII O MA S EAK I NS,
a8 1
/l om £ $ Cf! IIf!
ral , refi ned and d irect. possessed flot only of ric hes nnd stntns but or imll.gi· Ilntiol1 and personal fee ling, like the cha racters in James' fiction. C('rta in ly in James, fic tion caught up with Vel<\zquez ilt Inst, ilnd Sa rgent was nble to ma.ke the connection IIll1nirest. Ellkins and Homer iuvelStigated t he intensifying "alue of children in lIll allalogoulS way without Il('cding quasi-ro,val pomp. Their pictorial method has more of the Du tch stnlllp----lhc look of light rendered alS II psychoiogiclil ambience that lea ks into eve ry corner of li fe with th e same eq uali zing insis·
:182
ll OV I NG
J:J.32
PI CTU RES
JOIIS S l l'IOE R SAROENT .
Mr,. Car' Meyer (1I1d lIer Cllildrtm
tcucc, whatc"cr gcnerations are rcprcsc lltcd; relations among chi ldren and their elders shure in t he atmosphere tlUH givcs rise to I>oignllnt suggestion; Ilnd det!l il s are s harpellcd into mClluing by its effcets, uot by !lUY specia l pleading they do on their OWII. Sargent instead uses the cxample of Velazquez. 10 create the individual glitter s httrply worked up agll inst !l dim inte rior Ihat lIlade th e Spanish painter's grandees sce m to shi nc with my rilld fleeting psychic refl ec tions , 1I 0t just silver braid und cos metics. Vehizquez' serious child ren espeeially
Ame'·;c(I
asa
I(' nd t hemselves 10 Sa rgent's emulation (13.33). Th e s tiffly clad royal infant s with their ~ t('ad y gazes and well- bnlshed li LLie scalps resurface in the Boit fron t hall , the Meyer drawing room, and the Sears parlor, where tli(' samt' ambiguou s murk threat('lIs to swa ll ow them up . Th e)" too , hold gal · lnntly s t ill, fighting back with their own concentrated light all th e complex forces of parf'lItal pride. Homer, Eakins. and Sargent s lulJ"e 1I cOllfrontlltional ern olionul style, lIll illustrati\·(' mode that is very AmericlIn, deS I)it e lhe differences lItllOllg tlH'ir lives, their subject s, a nd thei r sources, a s tyl(' linked 10 the mov ies of the future even more t hnll to the puintings of the past. It is vc ry in sis tent in the :\·Ieyer portra it, fo r example, composed us if the lady wcre being loomcd OY('r by a viewer, a !>aillter, a movie camera (13 .32). As we come nea r and look d own at her, we see her (Iu iekly enfold her son's fingers in her own , so thnt the book drops. and he cannot get aWIl,Yi we see how hi s sist.er hold s him, too, 8S she peers from behind . Her (uee is full of acce ptance and so me ruthless ness, his of doubt and some (ear. :\Iother's (ace is tense and cordial at oll ce; s he looks as if s he were in tllf' middle o( s pea king-sh e would like the children to come aroulld and put in 11 proper appcnrllllce next to her (or the picture, but o( course without loll ing and cnls hing her perfect s kirt. All three exude eonsciolls b eallt~' in thc ir sum ptuous clothes aud brunette looks; but we are mov in g ill on t his fa mily group bcfore it is quitt' ready for senltiny. It is a sce lle-as Las Mell il/us is and as J ames said the Boit paint· ing is; but it is an evc n morc lUo\'ielik e alld less painterl)' sce ne than either o( thosc, since th e action seems to be thl! process or preparation (or acti on, In a lII oment, tilt' book will b(' put a\\'8Y, t he kids suitably settled , and Mother si lting buck with her (acc. ski rt , and fan composed ; and th en the paint er will be nll owed to back up und begill. VelAzquez could II Ot approach his li able si tt ers (rom above like t his, or appea r to l1Io\'e toward them as th('~' Ilrranged t he lli selvcs. Bllkins al so takes great libert ies, so that we ('veil see th e baby on the flagston es as if \\'e had crawled on our s tomachs 1.0 get a "iew o( her, and we seem ncurer to his (emale subj ects than they ought to let us corne, a8 if we were 1\ movie calll' era spying on their stat e o( mind . Homer keeps it phys ica l dista nce, but he also vi ews his charactt' rs (rom unexpected points of vantage, showing t hem in the middle o( somet hing without waiting for their permission to s ta r t. In twent ie th-century American pain ting these cinematic ways or using old t hemes were conlinu Nt in t he wor k of artists like Edward Hopper, who werc unquest ionably influenced by eillema itsel (, Hoppe r is the heir o( Homer and Eakins, and more ind irectly of Sargent, whose wat ercolors resemble both Homer's and Hopper's: thc same white light, sha rp tona lity. and odd viewpoint s are there, and in works with vi sible characters, the
( "lpYriO h
:18 ..
.\I OVIN {l
13.33
PI C T U RE S
DIEOO \' ELAzQ U RZ,
uuiVt " i " tu
sum£, movi{'l ik{' S{,II S{' of psyc holog icul IIctioll, Hut ill Hop per tlrl' also t he mod{' rll c lot h{'s ami roo n.s /Iud corul'rs of bu ild i ngs onc(' urI Jt'ss ly appnn'lll ill film s of thr 1930's alld 1940\11 , Ihl' offices and hOlrl rooms Illlcllu lICh coun ters Ihat formed th e sNti llgs of lIluch Ullprt' trlltiolls fi lm . Only ill the lasl d('clld,' luu,; Ihis kind of rlUtl{'rili l ill 1I 0ppe r bl'ell re' trieved und rl' procl'sscd ill Cllrt'l' lI l fil ms. liS if 10 ('1('\'ul(' Ilwllll hroHj.!h MiSOciU tiOIl wilh Fine Ar t. like refen'llcl's to Hogarth lind Brurgel. In I'act Hopper m lld{' tire ref{'!'eIlC{'S himse lf ill the first pi llce . delibe rllt ely disp lllYiug hi s sym pathy for l ile (,lIIotional pOlcn tinl of t hl' ordinury film-set (1:1,3-1 ), I-Il' did it en.'11 1110rt' ill his IHlIgli Zillt' illustr'utiolls, IlIlhe pnintings Ilnd illus lrnl iolls, Iht' Hollywood ·s ty le Imir, s ho('s, IIlId mnkt'up rl' iuforc(' tht' impressioll lh nt we li re wUlchillg SOIll{' iucolIS{'(llIl'litilll fra lll{,s b{'IWl~ 1'1I IIction sho ls illull old GCOI'gl' Ru ftllJo\'ie, th ose PIII'IS of tlli' S('tlll l'II C(' whic h forge 1111 e nduring "isuul fUlltllS), ubout urbllll locult'slIpll rl from UIIY tllllgl{' ill l\rl' pl ot, nnd which linger ill t ire IIWIlIO!,y after thl' s tory is forgott en , At tilt' 8UIII(' t illlt' lilcs{' works looks like r('f{' r('UCl'S 10 1-1 0111('1', wi th Iri s silllilllr se ns(' of lhl' nelltrlll bUI c hnrged sctti ng in its rUI'Ill fOl'III, SO li I(' of
13,a4 ED ..... ARD n OP PER , Room ill Nrlfl l'ork
386
MOVINO
PI C T U RE S
Hoppe r 's nre also in country surrollndings: the two wome n 011 th e upstuirs porch of u white hOllse , seen frorn 11 distunce, are like Homer's milkma ids, schoolteachers, or hikers, visibly partaking in some private course of life as we stare al th em (rom way over here (13.35). Their inwardness regi sters all the be tter across distance and with min imal facial dewi l. Th e graphic works of Hopper are espec iully Ame rica n despite a ll Hopper's f<' rench affiliations , and lillked 1.0 the Northern tradition. 'uch images as Night Sha,dows und Til e 8U/rQIIY IIIny owe IIIl1c h to Dc-glls lind perhaps to Ca illebolte alld Charles Meryon; but Hopper ndmired the di· rec tness of Dutch graphic art, llnd the gruphic c huractc r of these Iwo pic· lures is more illustrative lind cillclllutic. more cngllged, like Hc mbrand t , thall detached in the usual French s tyl e (13.36). Since Hopper. li ke Homer, had bee n a co mmercial illustrutor, his hiler career is si milu rly viewed U~ un escupe from a ll that. Bu t agnin t he uppelll of his late r works lies in un e motionsl flavor IhaL seelll!j to have seeped iUlo them ill s pite of his desi re for neutrality and retice nce . Th e forc e of dnllna thnl s ts itse lf into the picture without a text or 8. product to sell . Th e drll llUHic c hnracter of phenome na
13.as
ED ..... ARD HOI'PER .
StcolI(l Slory SUliliglt l
Amr rjr(J
la .a6
K I)WAKD H OPPER ,
38 7
.\ ';9"' Sll ll d Q••·• . ..:,cI.illjl
thf'lHs('lws, ('sp\~C iully hUIIIUII OIl('S, rorc('s Ih,' illlll,,(' ililo till illus l rillin' SIUlp(, us if il wt'rt' II lIIovj(' frulII" . H opp('r's graphic work for lIIu,,(1 Jl ollwr (d . 1910), Ellkills (d. 19 16. the S3111e y('ur liS II rllry JUlIIl'S), und ' IIrgl'ul (d. 1925). Oail Levin has shown that li1('y ar(' e lf'arty cOIIIl(' clNI bo t h to his own later etchillgs and puinl ings and 10/1 "ivid t rlldil ioll of lIulgll zin(' I1 rt (13.37, l:j.38). This wus ulr('ud.,· ill pitI C" ill I-I OIIII'I"S YUli t h ill tlll~ I rl6U's ill E nghwd Dnd A lIU' r icll (wit It prect'r\rll ls i II )'1(,lIz('I's GI'rlllllll,\' ill I hC' I S-I O's) Il nd Willi ilself All {'\,{'u lun l sourel' for cim'u ili. lI oppt' r is 1II11I1'l is lie figll rf' in who m Irndiliollul EUrOpf'1I11 puin t ing, lIIoci(, I'U F "Pllch pllilll ill", p"plI ll.l r il· lust ration , lInd 1H0d(' ,'n AIII('riclllllllo\'il's 1I,,,itilllllli'ly II H't't . Il is 1·(' fl'I·\' IICf'S . ec hoes. I1 l1d Ulllll.iolls to a ll of t hpill CUIlip f,'UIII rlil'pc t ('XIlPl'i('IICl' , sYlltllr · s ized by llu ll iquely A lI l('riclllI l'Oll llllll ie tl'lIllwr. sOIlie th illK pU l'itllllicllllllld self·test ing IIlId u,,;pirillg. Although his Slrt)lIgt~S I :\t'W YUI·k h 'lu:ll('r WIIS Robert H (,lIri, tlI<'S(' th r('(' l'urlier AIII(' ricIIIIS- lI olll('I', Ellkills . 1111(1 Sur. gelll-wer(' 11I1(III('st ionably his fOrl'nlllll('rs, wit h Ih('ir s il1lilur COlli bill II· lio lls of solilury indep('lId('llt €'fTort. pri"lIt€' wily with Europelill cOl1wUliollS,lIl1d ill s till ct i\'(' illustruliw' g'('Ili Uii IhlltlllO"l'S tuwllrd th e !lUlS' terpieces o f CiUl'IIUI rlltlwr thun IIlon~ Ih{' pnll! 10 nbstruc tio ll . pust Or r1lture . Sargent did se"erl:tl strept SCI.' IICS I:tlld interiors in Ven ic£' ill the 1 arte r he had visiled Spain and absorbpeJ th €' V(>hizqu {'1. \'i{'\\'point (13.39).
:1 88
)IOVINO
P I C T U RE S
" ~
---
-.-~
.
--
•
.\ I l a .a ;
~
..... ... ~
~DWARl) 1I 0 1'1't':K , " 1-1 1' did il j UlIi OIlI) ul'pOlIf' t o
rrightell IIIC " ," lIIu81nuioll ill Fan,,!',.. Wi/e, MII N!h 19 19
13.38
Kl)WAKl) 1I 0 l'PKR , SWmm6,. E I:6NillY. 1947
:18 9
A IIII' ,.jr a
13 .:19
J O II S S IN O Io:K 8 AK O .:ST .
,'nlr l it" l 8 ('(ul Slrill gr rs
T hese sha re in the same Am er ictlll a bilit y to IIdlipt Du tc h lind S pllnish ways of llI allllging color und IIsing light 10 e rent.' ft' e liJl~ o ul o f Il o th i l\~. j us t a s movies d o, rllthe r than us ing it c hie fl y for wide ning p
MOVINO
13 .4 0
PI C T U RB S
~: AST M AN JO II NSON ,
Nol ul l/ o", ,.
rCllIol c door nlld invis ibl e windows, ill hubil cd by inexpl icab le 11 nd 1rllnsient characters. He IIlso did sections or slreetS ,'ery like Hopper' s pregnant urban glances Ihllt echo Berekheyde and De Witte even while they see m to fit into filllls. Somc recent heirs to the Alllcrica n psychological style nre Richard Diebenkorll and .."'a irfiel d Port er and lately Eric Fischl , all three or whom, like Eakins Knd Homer, show their closer links to t.he North EuropeKIl and cine· matic idea or d rama than to France or to Vcli\z«uez (13.4 I). Fisch l, how· ever, s hows how Veli\zquez dwarrs lind idiots , stuek in the ir court ly garb Bud role, lIlay be trllll siated across ti me and society into mode rn ci ti zens stuck ill modern lire, grinning alld fumbling and hopelcssly distorted liS they appear to take their ease and enjoy thei r privileges (13.42), In keeping
A meri('(/
39 1
with current fashioll s ill fee ling, Fi schl IIlso IIdju s ts his psychologiclIl registe r to the ve ry young , uS De Hooc h ulld VCh\.Z(llH·Z both kll('w how to do. lind 8S Homer so often did; but ror Fischl it is a device to kecp t h('- f'rotic und emotions I pitch up wi t hout ,-csort ill g to cllcopholLY of the Express ioll ist kind . In sO llie ha rmony with Ellkills. he ul 80 8hows til(' debt slic h \'isioll pays to the old North Europell ll urtistie sympathy with what is scxunl1y quest ionable, groteS(lue, or ridiculolls . IIch symput hy operutl'S in cout ras t to the clllss ic81 horror tlUlI re(lu ires 1111 {'xnggt'rlltedly Iheatrical alld therefore subtly 8meli orllt iw rendering. Porter lind Dicbcllkorn fo llow HOUll' r, Sargent, und Hopper, howe\,l'r, and keep things nice ly Illllbiguous instead
13.4 1
FA I R"' IELD P O R TER, A Short WillI.-
M O VIN O
1:J.4 2
P I CTU Rt:S
K KI C FI S C III., /)addy'. O iri
o r s tru igh l rOn\'l,rdly unbearable , F ischl's di \'e rgen t s ty le mil." I'C I)reSeut Ihe di ffere nce. inc rea s ingly vi\'id . between film and th e c nlde r l'Cal ist ic roo OIantic is m or televis ion. It iii notewo rthy thllt Veli\zquez becttllle 8 ravoritc wi th n ineteent h· ce ntury pa inte rs 011 both s ides o r th e Atla n tic und \)oth sides o r t he Chull ' ne l. His peerl en t ec hnique, origina l vi s ion. and absolut e un bombast ic co nfid ence gave mod ern pa inl ers renewed beli e r in Ihe 1tulOno my 8nd sove reignty o r art ilseJr. Ir puint ing ror it s own sake could so obviously transcend th e grilll d e lllullds o r 1111 ttrehllic S pulli s h courl 0 11/\ cllpl ive uri · ist. it mi ght we ll be tnH.ted to prcvlIilllguin s t mod ern rorces-soc ill l, commerc ia l, o r arl is lic-lIud , espec ia lly, tec hnologicnl. Th e CfHuern hnullt ed nil re81is t ic 8rt arter the lIli d dl(' o r the uine tee nth century; it wu s necesSary Lo figh t or fl ee. or cO llie to te rm s. Th e g lor ious pu in ter ly uscs to wh ic h Velt\T. · (Iuez put hi s lU,ked c,ve and non·cluss ic s pirit , heroicully rorlllillg hi s un iqu e s ly le o r reali s m a gains t a fix ed rel igious a nd a ri s loe ra tic b8c kgrou nd, gave n ine teen t h-ce ntury pai n ters rres h hope . Ve lazquez ce rt8 inly provided t he hi s to ric p roo r Iha l UII,\' pu illt er may ree l s uper ior to soeielY: but he ulso s howed IHlinters how they migh t ree l su per ior to t he ca mera. withou t havi ng to rorsake the cndl css t rea SlI re-house o f 1Ilitu ru i 81)I)Ca rnnces t hilt hen rll ess a nd vulga r photog rn phy see med to be s wall owing u p.
• •
FOURTEEN
France in the Nineteenth Century
painte rs litucii('(1 i ll Gcr'u ulIIY d u r ing til(' firs t half of th e ninC'lc('lIth cPlllllr.\'. bu t by t he secund hilif they hud to go to F' rllllce. Homer, Eakins . Sargcllt, Ilnd Ii oppr l' all had dist inct uffini ties with the Nort h EUI'opclllllrndition , bU I t h('y ull \\'('111 to Pu r is for (ruining. TIH'Y 11180 wcnt the re pe rhnps for' dl'cp{'r ratifictltioll of t heir c hoice of profession than p r ivute cOllviction could susllli n, because only ill Puris wns painl ill g t hen taken as se r iolls ly liS UII il sp ir'i ng ltall' lIl could wish. liS 1\ IItllu rat mNin I'or a
A M E R I C AN
•
serlOIi S IlUlI l.
The pre,c lll int'licc of .... ranee us u trailliug' grollnd for IIrt ists was dm' to cellt uries o f }o.... rt"lIch officia l IIc kuowl{'dguu' u t tital urI hnd primary im por· tan cp, Ilnd lh ul Wit' lI l und origillulity hud pl' illl nry importllnc(' fO l' lHI. By the lI inctecn t h ccntury, tht' rc "'us II Ot only II stllte ·s upported AcadelllYStich il thing ('xill t ed f' lsew herf'-bu t u lso II govel'lIllH'n l pl'epllrf'U 10 SIIPI}I ," men l allcl l'VCIl oppose its OW II Acadc my in o rell' r to s uppo rt 1IIl(1 exhib il di\'f'rgl"ll unci elin'rsc IIrtistic cll'ortj alld tlt('rc was 11 11 rstab lishcd prof('s· sioll of a rt c l'iticislII , to keep I he r('a d ing public awak ,· and enga j!ed by the cllterpri sc, nil e! t o 1)I'oelue!;' a ll illtc lieclUlrimili cll for IIrti!:>t.s tilCIIISCJV<'S, All thi s wl.l s tnH~ during a cl'lIlu ry of polilicnJ upitl'{l\"u J w it "11 rl' puhl ics, tII0lUlr, cities, and cllI pirt's follo\\'('e! 011(' Il IlOliL(, I" duri ng which til(' ci ty o f Paris was I rnllsforl ll('d , Th e cOl ldit iOIl of pu i 11t ing WIIS II Cloucil'd 111 irror o f sue ll I II rbu · ICIICC, sinc(', w \l llt(','c r I he reg- illl" llI ld I \It' cO ll dit ion of socie l," , Frellcll a r t was COllstll ll ll." IIcknow ledgNI to be illll)OrWllt to Fr(,lIc lt life nlld nntiolllli IIwnreness, und control or it muttcl'ed ('norlllous ly, Studcnts a nd pal l'o lls from ot h,' " places hlld to CO Illf' II l1d Io)Cf' il t o bf'lil'\'c it. Th c s pirit of re\'olt wus bui ll into l h{' ielenls of F"'('llcit 1II'III(1"I'th(' Hevo·
39 '
MOVING
PI C T U RE S
lulion, the idea that e nlightened French civilization would a lways stand for Liberte, Egnlite, and Jo"'nlternile in it.s cultural endeavors, howc\'cr these might be interpreted. The drama of French art in the last ce ntury has ill consequence been perceived in this one as th e perpetual t riumph or freedom o\'cr tyranny. partly because lhe style of French self·pe rception seemed to demand it. Alter the triumph of classic s implicity over Rococo fri voli ty came the triu mph of Romantic painters like Dcla croix ove r the chilly rigidities of Neoclassici8m, th en thnt. of carlhy Realis ts like Cou rbet over t he high-flown nonse nse of Romanticism, th en the triumph of Impressionism over the litera l-minded and sent imental purveyors of conve ntional subj ect maUer, and finall y the triumph of form over content and the alleged liberalion of painting from th e ancicnt grip of natural appearances . On ly in France did so mu ch es thetic battle seem to be tak ing place and such co ntinuous revolution in process. Recent study of ninetee nth-cen tury art. has resulted in a morc complicated account of French artis tic circumstances during the period, but their general commitment to mobili ty is uurnislakable. tas is was neve r t he prevailing disposition. Throughout the century, as bri s k new styles and flavors emerged. the I)reslige of the Academic gradually d eclined , and dissatisfaction grew with th e educational aims lIlId me th ods of the Ecole des BeauxArts. These institutions, found ed in th e seve nteenth and eighteenth centu ri es under the terllls of absolute monarc hy, had undergone consider able laler modification without ever going out of exi s tence . By the middle of the ninetee nth ce ntury, however, the Future of pa inters trained in the strict met hods of the E cole was no longer secure in view of c hanges in public taste, wh ic h were being fos te red by some of t he same institu tions t hat supported the continuation of the old sehcmc. Te nsion and conflict were in evitable in such a complex administrative tangle, sinee th e future of !<' rene h art was see n by eve ryone as an important itisue, and lack of originality was generslly deplored , even while the acade mic education of painte rs virtually ensured it. In this creative tension and confl ict, independent a rtists steadily flour ished. Ther e was a publ ic for them and a market as well , and state com mi ss ions to be had thai did no t necessarily go to Aeade mi e- trained painters . The state-supported Salon was ope n to all a rtists. aud seen by thousands of viewers daily, although the decisions and indeed the composi tion of its jury and hanging committec were always mnttc rs of d ispute. As ill Rlly sit.uation where 8 great deal of I1rt is produced , mos t or what wa s done was bad . and much of what was bad was popular and sold well; so the question of what the Salon jury rejec ted or rewarded was fra,ught. The idea of I1rt 8S public entertainment was also entrenched . a nd soon became part of the general
Cpyr
tel
3 95
expans ion of Parisian life. contributing 1.0 the Sl' lIse so well expounded by T, J, Clark Lhut t he c itY-lhul France a ltogether-lwei HII llllllge, lind needed to h8ve one, Th e imllge it IUid by th e middle of the centu ry WllS fluid , diverse, and (ust becollling 1IlicOIltrollable-the image of n mixed, cornlptib le, and unaccouutable socil'ty. It. was also 8 rOllulIltic image, The blulIl Healist \'isioll of Cou rhet and Manet no less t hun the smoothe r olle of Fautin·LlIlour lind Degus has the flavor of II sellrch and II qu est, especililly II senrc h illwnrd . n long ing 10 go beyond the boundaries no t olily of (orllll'r II rt ist ic prac lic(' but of I('gil imate subjects for the attention of urI. to find th(' key to th e movi ng modern soul. Mell ns for real izing such rOlllantic a ims inu rt nntllrally lay ill the possibi li· tics of rl'·\'is ioll , of finding II wuy to overstep the bounduries of fUllchllnen· tal visunl custom ill urt , ill order to illllstrule appropriate ly the lIew escape from the old H ie rarchy of the Genres and th e Iyrunny of pict.oriul "finish" cstnblis hed in ~tll>o l (!o lli c lim~s , Not jus t stl.lrlling llll'mes unci II mobi le surfnce rendering, but. flexibl ~ wnys of rrilmiug IIlId co mposing the eOn· te nts of pictures were ,'etlui red , to lIIutch the COIISlnllt rl'orgun ization of C(' ality that wus going 011 in j<'run cc ul the lI1iddh' of t i l(' C('lItur)" Mode rn Life had to yield up its own rOllll.l lllic COI'{'; Ihe esse nce of In od ern longing had to be found und represented ill new visllal t.e nll S, The powerfu l rOllllllllicis m of t he Re\'olutio nary period, eo nce i\'ed in Ncoclllssie yislIlll syntax , hnd lost iUi fo rce , The vigo rou s beullty of J)C'lacroix' work, with its ,'efl'rCli ce to the painte r ly fr{'ed o m of the Bllroqllc. hud II IIIO\'('lII ent IInrl'lated 10 th e harsh t hnlst of later davs, "' Ever since th e sevent ecllth eClltury, F'rellc h visliul c us tOHl for ser ious hi story pa int ings had been founded on hnlian princip les, AntilllH' refer · cnces had "ellHtilled approprinte (01' figures nll d drapcl'YI su pple mented by moderll references deri\'('d frolll till uCI'ny of He nuisSlIllce IlUlste rs , UllcI Clnll d ia u aud POllss inesque lIrrnngelllellts of spgullce of pre· ReVOlutio nary styles seemed 10 d(>bllse them, and Ilt th(> smne t illw eon·
C pyr
te
~IO"INO
!'I CTU RE S
dcmnf'd their North Europenn reliance on ac tuality, on the flow of ligh t und air that suggests the free plilY of private feel illg nnd an indi vidual viewpoillt. Ever sincf' the founding of the F' rench Fine Arts Acndemy ill ROlllc during the I'eign of Louis XIV, suecessfullSllldents in thc acadcmic system in Paris mi ght will th.:' co\'('(.e
ceillury ill the officiolly IIckuowledged \'olue of tlJ(> 8POlltUIICOliS oil sketch, and a corresponding decline in t.he pres tige of highly finish ed academic works nncl of acnd(>lIlic truining. A significant c hnnge was 1I iso occurring in the medium us{'d for Heademic life-drawing itself: fillt~ pt'llcil wus bein g repluced by 80ft. c1utrcoul , the better to eruphu!$i1.c brond 10l1nl ntiucs rnther than sha.rp outlillcs shuded with pn ins lliking cross-Iwt.ehillg. Amu r. ingly in formal , '; Impressio lli st" wOl'ks s lI'''"i\'e by 1IU1I1Y ncudem ic pain te rs who would 1I0t. hu\'{' considered th elll fit to show" despit(, Ihe I'ye , vern' " nnd invention they displny" Atthr Slllll(, I iIIit'. c ritics und lilt' public wel'e admir" illg independen t puint t'rs" works , ('xhibit('(1 us finishcd. whic h by strict acade mic standnrds could oll ly b(' call('d prepllrlttory sketcht's.1'his voluti le situntion wus ulrendy in place IOllg before tlw Impressionists" gl'ent re\'olt. initiated by Iheir first exhibit in 18 74 " At I('ast II gellC'rlition befort' LiUH, the desire for II more UllllU'diated Jlllintl'rly vision Wli S r('plncing th e old res pec t (or the maint enance of nobl e standards. The public needed H shiftier imuge , one wilh more mO\'('Inent, more ulll bigni t;r, und lIIore rlln gc, }<....or sOllie iudepc ndeHt pnillt crs during til t' ('uriy ninctct'llth c(, lItliry. such 8S those of the Bnrbizoll schoolllild Corot. hil idscupe lind oft'('rcd nn excellenl way ou t. of Ihe Ilcadcmic mold. and for the BHrbiwII pl.lillters the Dutch models might be I('urllcd from wit h IwoHI. The Impress ioni s t!) latt'r look the sume path. For the m, IUllcisCUI)C s tood for th e lI o ll "i ll ustruti\"(~ aspects of painling, for pure IIctualily without IIl1ecdote, for pun' movenrent-nlltllrc keeps II10\,lllg, Iight is Ilever st ill. color vi brllles-lInd fo r I he limitless possibi lities of pure pnint , in dil'('c t opposi tion to til t' history" bound scope of the ciassicul figu re. Landscape hnd long been n soul"Ce of paillterly exercise. offering a way to traill in cOlllfortoutdoors. to s lre t.ch the urli s tic muscles during the long, confining Ius k of crenting historical works ill l ir e studio. Whnt more radical way to ele\rate pure painting than 10 glorify such fl mda nu'nlal IIlKteriKI , such a b3sic rclntion between t.11(' IIrti!;t f\nd his art' Well be fore Impression is m, t.he great Dutch IUlId scupe·painlers of the pllslaud th e grea t Eng" l i~h artists in the genre were being honored by }<.... rt' llch landscupe- pilinters. It was aPl)Urcnt tlmt French Jand scnpe-url migh t. str~' ngt h e ll iHiclf by ('II compassing the vital art of other modern Ilulions. with no apologies to ancien t Greece lind Rome, Landscu pes ure a lso easy to like lind CllSY to s('lIj they can provide pleusnrc without HUlking d('nlllllds. Throughout the ccntury. landscapes did well lit the Saloll and umong deiliers . But landscape in ninctct'llth"century r. . rIIll cc WIIS incrclls ingly IInliROlll3l1tic, morc a.nd more com mitt ed to detnchmen l and withdrnwlII into neutral painterly territory, to (I search in the opposite dir('cl iOIl. It could not satisfy the desire for illustrative imagery, fan cifu l or reul, that n
rt-d
Ie
39 8
1I0VINO
PI CTU RE S
pa int er like Delaroche had su pplied nt th e Salon, or tl cli rLOonist like Daumier in the news paper . It had no power to slake the thirst for mirrors. Delaroche, whose Execll1ioll 01 /..ady Jall ~ Grey and Prillces i,. /lte Tower remuin th rilling to thi s day, ulld later his pupil Gerome, with his Oricntal slavc·markctK and Classica l incidents. were adept at. maintnining nil 0l)erethli ike pictorial tone for historical genre, sOlllcthiug entertaining and SUIIlI)tuous, someth ing exot ic and remote, something provisionally serious bu t a lso gUK runtced Lo be qu ite ulld is turbing, and something at the StHIle time fi rm ly artis/ie, com fortabl y in line with aClldemic assumptions . But. Th onH!.S Couture, anoth er pupil of Deluroche wh o been me n lion· academ ic painter and t.eacher. mude a great s plas h il l 1847 wit h his Ro'molls ol /h ~ Dccade 'l c~. He favored a rough-surfaced , harsh ly light.ed style that s uggest('d a.l1 uncomJortable 1II0derllity, a rtlati on betw('en his illicient revelers llnd modern living people-t he pain ti ng makes it easy to believe that he was MUllet's teacher 0 ... . 1). Couture' s personnel were still firmly ancient, howc\,('r, in t ruppings and utt ribu tcs; and it was not unti l Mallet presented his Olympia ill 1865 that Purisitills were brought fuce to [ace with themselves minu s all d isguises,a lld Dclnroche's legacy announced itself as virtually s pent. During the 1860's Manet, F'snt in, Whi stler. and Dcgtls were see king other resources. For rcprcs(, ll ti ng modern hum llll life ill n lIew vislInl style, old and rich sources could be tal)ped , lind known themes revived . Once fre e of the domi · nance of cltlssiclll forms, French modem painters looked with fre sh eyes not only 011 thei r own Rococo predecessors but 011 still ea rlier models in Dutch art. The development of the ca mera and the reviva l of interest in Vermee r and hi s colleagues see m t o go together us avenues or d iseo\rery for Parisian a rtists in t he 1860·s. Optical real ity wns an appropritl te metaphor for the lIew soc ial reality; and Dutch bourgeo is imtlge ry, rendered in terms of light , Icnt itsel f admirably to the new ""' rench bou rgeois world in its !leW Ville de LUllli ere. The newest mirror o f the newest mode of livillg was the city itself. the lIletrol)olitan mirror of un ive rsal life. The vil lage Wtl S no longer the world , as it might seem Lo bE" when Courbet painted Burial 01 OrlUlliS in 185 0; it wasll't a rtificial enough , ephemera l enough. variable enough , deceptive enough . The new Hauss mullu ized Paris of t he 1860'H-with it,s old qlmrtiers destroyed , al ong with their old social and cOIllllle rcinl nrran gelllents, lind a new public st reet life created , mixing all e1asses, especially ror enter· tn inmcnts -wllS a new mctnphor for the punorarJIll of hUlllanity. As s lIch, Paris far outclassed even a busy Dutch towl1scape; but th e point could be made by usi ng ot her old artistic material, es pecially t.he graphic re nde rin~'"S of s pec ial ized m eJi~ rs and jiO Il,res di lJerses that had had a vogu e in t he chic
Cpyr
tel
399
14 . 1
TIIO)tA S C OII T U R~~,
U OtlW III
of/ lt e /jr radl' lI rt (dl' l si l)
urban life of th e e ighteenth century-s illgl('-slw{'l prints of kitc h(,11 maid s ,
hut ,'cndors , scissors g rinders. und th e like. These were taken up lind mod i· fi ed by mid -ce ntu ry a rt ist s , lind t hey s tand b(' hillci Dcg ns' la undrest>es and Malle t's ragpicke rs, a nd cW'll tually behi nd 1.Jllu l rec·s prost itu tes a nd e ntcrlH inc rs. S u c h IJ{'W u rbn n pll i li li ll g S fOll11ded 0 11 old pr ill I S rC\'{,1l1 the pa inte rs ' knowledge tha t cOlll mercial g ra phic art, which is de\'o lec! Lo meaning rather tha n benu t)' und is lI illll'd III ('\'crybody. hilS c urre nt impo rtuncc to a ny ci ty's image. T he new Fre nc h pa in ting t hat dea lt with the new world of t he city had to luke ll CCQUnt of g ra phic tradit ion . espt'c iu Jly in its popular mode, whf' r(' i mll~:W s gil l he r lind d is l)('r'sr , co nI(' li nd go, form li nd re- for m in comic, muwkish , or s turk vis io ns in II co nt inuum of bla ck and white, O('sp itc its a pl)Ca l. t he c ri s p l~' polyc hrom('d Il nd s ta gy loo k of pa in t ings o n t hc Neoc!llssic for mula, ('\'Cll when it was uscd fo r co ntc mpo ra ry gc nrc Ihc l11cs, could not s ufficc for t he rc prcse ntutio n of mixf'd ci ty fe el ings: sOlll e kind of grap hic projec tio n, somr kind of mixturr of Ihc \'ul gllr ulld t he hope fu l, SO IllC fu s io n of th e ironic a nd the rOIlHlntic, some kind of ci l/ema was culled for to c reate th e Pai nting of 1\lode l'lI Life, T he ser ious s ta gc \\'U S no t n pro per mode l fo r this, and pnill tillg t hat s ug, ges ted it d irec t ly fu iled o f ils evc ntu al r ffrc t. What worked wonderfu lly
400
1i OV INO
PI CTU RE S
was the otite r kind of show busil1(,ss, til e enlde Ilnd sexy. the wordlessly rolIlantic or sa tiric, ulicI th e lrad itionnlly popular-nllything that cOllveyed the idea or seriOlHitlC88 l)Ortrnyed ill cphc llwrnl te rlllS. S uggesti ons of th e caba ret stugc, t he opera ballet. and t he st reet performer th erefore abound in the works or ~Iall e t and Dcglls, Slid t hey did in those of Daulllier, nn artist who a lso used t he graphic med iuUl to silt irize se rioll s, lite rary th eate r wh ile crenting his own form of dru(tslIlunly s how business, nile\\, co mic theater of the world . Baudela ire's essay all Constan t in Guys, " Th e Pl:I.inl e r of Modern Life," was written at th e beginning of the 1860's 8S if 10 a rtic ulate the need for someone to trulIscclld Duum i{'r, to do th(' su me t hing, only to lake I he Ih eme of modern ab!:ill rdi Iy beyo' ld jou rlutl isl ic sati ret to iliusl rllte the new life of Pa ris-alld th erefore of tht' world--C\'en more accurately. lind bring it hOlll e nt Ill(' high est le"e l. Maneland Degas bOlh answered th is nt-'cci; lind One lIleUisure of their success is how mu ch a.buse was helipNI on thei r efforts between lhe 1860's und
1-1 .2
BDOA Ii 1)I';OA8,
A!JIu'II,d
!VI'I I/WII
,II,. Uy'"
l rol/;uy. Srrn
I-' n lllt'l'
1-1 ,:1
~: IHIAH
ill
fill'
.\';I/I'/Ci'I/'" Centll ry
/)~: OAM ,
401
JJiJ/t""~ f '/twlitltf} II ,l;/lItr
the ItiHO'lS, Th(>y W('r,' Ir:vin~ lu du wlUll (jllY~ ami DlllJltli,'r IIl1tl dOIlf', Oldy lhf'~' Wf'I'(' doill~ it in the I>pil<'I't' of M'l'i oliS I)a i lltill~, us CtH.It"lI!t,I'Jo; wi th Da vid II IIIJ III ~C'I't·Jo; ill tllt'lIM' of rl'slWdi'd Pl'i.lttll yP('S, Hullo t ill il til "." IlIIti lo US(' II bl'01ld('r r;1II~(> o f PI'Ololn}('S. l'iIitl i ll~ II\(' works of GO,\'ll alltl , '('llIz, (IU("Z ;llld Ih,--' lIoll ·ellls:-.iCII I DUIl"illt. "\' lId,"' III,' "urlt! <11'1'\\ . When it wus in fnel "{,lIde rt'd by Iht'III, it WIiS illil iully IInr('cOI!l1izuble. psrtly perhaps beCllIIS(' it was rellder{'d in 1)lIill t. till' cusl olHllry IHNliulII of idealization , m Ill e r' Iholl in popuill " grllphic IUf'diu , J)lI1l1 l1 ier 's ri dicuh' had mel-no rcs istll llCt', But "'.Ull'''S OIYllliJj(l lind J)<'glls' Inll'r bench sc("'l('s IlncI hmndrywo lII(,ll, his oblique nlHl ironic vi('WS of SIIIg<' perfOrllJlllICC, were rai led at for th ei r gl'ubbiut'ss , the hurs t. dirt y look 1101 of IIIf' dcpic(l'd 111 £' tier but. of til e ur tis t's 1111'11118, 111(' dnrk s hud ows ulld dim plollPs ill which urllll; lind fnces we re mnd(' Olll, tilt, lI lIpit·l.lsilig forf' silortt' ll ill g nnd s llludgi , ncss of t.he figures-t he kind of eO're l lhat lite lII od ('I'1i CIHn{'ru , s t ill und moving. has so well (,IICOIllPIISSpd unl! ("1{'va INI (14 ,2, 14,:1), Th e twenlit'lh ,ce lllu ry world , acclI810 lttN IIO lIIod(, 1'I1 pll int ing I hilt C(,\(,· bru tes d e la c hl~d pa interl), COIIC(,I'1I8, has found thest' pll il1ll'rS bO l h pro· phe t ic Ilnd Ilcut.ely of Ihei r tilll('; but. Ihl.ll is also largE' l,\' becnust' it hils absorbed the Il'IInsc(' nd l' 111 gruphic IUN lilllll or cill('mu, nlld CU ll s('(' Ilws{' wlls herwOlll clI lind prosl illl tNi !Iud d el'\'l icts , Ih('8(, rl.l c('{rHck pHtro"s IIlId cufe 8itL('rs
4 02
M OVINO
P I C T U R ES
"Open here I flunK the S hutler ," Illustration ror IJoe'. Tlte Ro t'#!"
14.4
KDO U AKD lIAS E T ,
painting but 8 new kind of graphic-culII -plli nterly represen tntion, un exa ltedly reali s tic. mobile "grll.phic" art. Both Degas and Manet used actunl gra l)hic ex pression to kee l) the ir eyes and thoughts afl oat, exper imenting with extnnt techniques, someti mes with u st raight illu8trllti\,c purpose such liS Manel's lithogrltph8 for Poe's R Ol'e lf , so metimes for privat e effort such liS DegalS' lII onolypelS of whorelS ofl'-duty (14.4). Degas indeed used his OWl! lUollot)l}eS 88 fOtludatioll s for pas tels or oils, in that sa me undiffere nt iated lI8e of d ifferent. med ia that began with Rembrandt. And Degas, inevitably, expe rimented with the canl ent, too. In the work of Manet and Degas, t he 8uperimposition of th e graphic and th e painterly was u 8tamp of their new "is ion, something Daumie r could not yet s chie"e. Daumier's paintings tended to depart from graphic SI)eed and optical irrevere nce, and partake more purely of paint· erly hi s tory. It was, moreove r, a program different from the one the Im p ressio ni s ts wish ed to es tablish , through which I)aillt could leave the graphic fi elclallogether, and cease to act as a mirror for th e viewer.
..
The famous Degas IlIleri01' {I 868-9) has d('fi('d ilttempt s to auach it 1.0 a s peci fi c sce ne ill a specific piny or lI o\'c l, u!th ough il l!its "lilhc UIICUIIIIY in· stantaneous look o f a yery particular mOlllcnt (1 ·1.5). But it might w('11 1)(, fronl Zola"s Therese Naquill or aTly of the ot he r novels thill have bl'(,11 P'"o" posed , evc n if it does not mutc h the writt.t'n d esc ript io ns , beclluse il represents a new kind of illu 8trillioll--()r, "li the .', 1111 old/new kind, dl' riv('d frOIl! Dutch art und prcfigUl'ing the movies, Thf' scelH" is no\. mnde to delineate iI written passuge, By 1I0W, illustrntors \\'('I"C 110 longer ill s uch n bus iness . supplyi ng a visual lillc- for-linf' Ilcco mpllnillH'lI t to fi clion to fill it out. Write rs we re suppl ying t lw ir own \"isuu l dl!tuils j 1101 on ly Dickclls bUI t he GOllcollrt brothers und Zola were uln'udy writillg the equ ivuient of sc rl'enpluys. Illu strators had n m' w fre ed om to fa s tf'1I 011 psyc hological ten s ion. suggestion, atmos phere, Ulld vis ual detail s of (1)('il" OW II c hoosi llg Ihnt emphusi zed such ele me nts, liS Mell zel illtd proph eticll lly done fo r till' F rede I'" ic k biography Ilnd as th e English W(' ."(' do ing in maga zines. De j.%lI s knew a nd admired l\1 enze)"s work allci copied one of hi s teeming gen re pnilllings-tlw
14 ,5
): OOAft I)K O A 8.
I lIlrriQr(l.1' I"iul )
404
MOVING
PI CT U RE S
two artists shared t he ci nematic eye. I.. ike a film -maker, Degas ha s reconstnlCted II whole scetlc from scrntch for Illterior. inulgining it completely us ir he were milking a movie or a novel and adjusting it t.o suit his own lIIedium . It may well "cprescnt u sccne from T" A r~se; but it is his O WII l'he r~se . Zola on ly wrote the story; Deglls shot 1he seCIII:' . Degas nrri" cd at sllch au aet i"ily by singes , ha"ing begun by creuting strllight old- fa s hioned history-pliinting (Jephthah 's Daughter lind Semiramis Fou llclillY a Town) lind then moving furth er into modern term s by painting th eatrica l representntioll s of legendary scenes (Mlle. F jocre ill . . . "La Source" ), and then ending with present history itself, modern drilUUl in the manner of the rea listic 1I0ve l.1'h c earl ier works 011 ancient topics-the sort of th eme Gleyre or GerOme might have chosen- hll\'e an unco mfortable look, as if the pllinter could not fit these hars h human moments into the correctly distnneed anecd otal s tyle. 1'hey look like blurred photographs or posed models dressed to act the parts, and the surroundings fail to jell into so met hing cOllvincing, ngnill us if Oegns could 11 01. bcl ievc in th e pl.linterly reality of medieval Orl eans or lln cic nt Spu rtll. But the modern sce ne hllS total convict ion. partly because it has 110 anecdote . The paint er has round thc confrontat ional mode that rel\lIy suits him ; but in so doillg. he has kept fll ithfully to the solid principles of drllwillg he adm ired in In gres, refu si ng to ubnndoll pas t realilies but in sistillg 0 11 cxpnndi ll g them, so IlS to be i:l t nler mirror of th e way life really is. Composed, like sOllie of his early his torical pictures, wilh the pro\'okingly vulnerable femal e 011 t he left. and th e anxiou sly cmbnttled IlIllle 0 11 the right, the Iliterior nevertheless ehnllges the unwi el dy elements of the history paintings into new hnrmony and renl mystery. Degas fLxes t he bond between t he man and woman with II hu npl it room that is itself a ehnra cte r ill t.he scene, Ii room jammed with I>oignant gl inting s urfaces and breath ing shadow. This room hus bee n curcrully bu ilt to s how thllt modeI'll drRmu is never n Ileat fab le; it is Il COllstallt flow or interlocking perSonal experiences, 8S Zola was showing it in his Rougou·Macquart. series of interlocking novels. In a picture sui ted to it, tnle modern drallla is s hown to dwell in eu8uaHy grouped components sec il liS if by clulIIce nlld stirr('d iut.o un ('moti onnl Iltlllos phere created by light. We sce eve rythillg flnd ident iry installtly with th is fraught. sexuul moment, and yet we cun actually know nothing until th e n~xt thing hnppens, someone Inov('s or sO lll eo n~ s peaks. We arc urged to proj ect whnt we kllOw of mell, women , und erwea r, nnd b(~d rooms, whnt we feci about such j uxtapositions, into this incomplete visual situati on. 1'IU' scene is like II movie frullle j it is also like the Verm ee r and De Witte harpsichord scenes. with si mil ar relillllce on lighted interior splle(' and arresting domestic obj ects to s(': t. lll) emotiona l terms.
C pyr
te
405
Another scene much like it but. withou t. n sexual co mponent. is th e MiIIiIIer's S hop. with the mu le s tanding mirror blocking our view of the mule stand ing s hopgirl, while at t he sallJe time refl ecting the florid custo mer wit.h its s urface turned from li S, so thut th e mirror's responses ure just as hid den as the girl's (14.6), Th is ngnin is 1111 exa mp!(' of sl)ecifieally ci nematic drama, not derived (rom the s tuge or the hi s tory of anecdotal paint · ing. The ca ll1era is, as it were, in 1lI0t io n uround t he gl'oup. oil'ering th is passi ng "iew as itself in tegral 1.0 the sillialion 111111 co nnects t hese two women, this mi r ror, and these hats , Again attempts han' been made to CO Ilnectlh e painting to a Zola no\'e l. Th e na rrnti\'e fhwor is nil the s tl'onge r fo r the absence of old narrati" e methods. IlII(I for its fl1int look of current IIlIlg8zinc illustration, wh ich the I llterior also ha s-the hllter could be a ;\l illa is, if it were 8 wood engraving. By th e tim e the Milli'ller's Shop was painted ill I h(> 188 0's Degns ha d long abandoned Cull -sca le genre painting; I nteriQr wus the only one or its kind . Instead he had become the cru isi ng seeke r of framtlble fn oment s in a floating world , in places wh ere repetition is a co nstant t heme: th e laulld ry,
''' .6
KI>OA K I>EOAS ,
Th t. Mill iller's Shop
406
ltt O VIN O
PI C T U RE S
where the 1II0st ephemcral of ordinary tasks is done and done again and again, as it is in th e ba ll et and as it is in the whorehouse. He se ized on bathing, too. that act wh ich is repeated and repeat ed , never fin ished ror good. He seems to have been obsessed with mutable female living, its endless pulse that continu es whether anyone is watching or not. Vermeer had painted WOmen in a similar way, as conductors or change and flow, ba lan ce rs or scalcs , pou rers or milk, players of music, readers I:tud writers of letters, containers or recurrCnt ambiguit.y. Oth cr Dut ch artists had done the same; the theme included prost itution, as it d id ror both Manet and Degas, in that same selr-abso rbed mode that makcs th e Dutch harlots and the Dega s bath ers, who are probably ""' rench harlots , and Manet 's OIYlupia see m cntirely to trnn scclld the role or convcntional pleasure·machine. Each is shown primarily as I:t private persoll , whatever she does ; the subjective mode, th e theme of personal experience. connec ts all these works . In Mallet and Degas, it sets in mot ion the qu es t ror a new illu s tration that would su it modern (antasy, and produce a roman ce of th e aClual , th e optical, the personal , Hud eventually of the repeatable. The new romanticism was: concerned with the psyche. not wilh expressive overflow: recurrence is one of its essential t hemes. The camera entered the s t ream of artist ic conscious ness fnirl y early in th e century, huving been invented in the late 1820's und patented in 1839. Photogrl:tphy was at the ou lset yet anot her in terest ing graph ic tcchn iqu e, and quickly recogni zed ror it s capacities to reproduce pictures along with other phenomena. By the cnlcial 1860's, photogrnph s of paintings lind graphic works were available to the public and to artis ts, a nd the proce ss or perceiving art was undergoi ng radica l change through the eanH'rll 's capacity to offer direct vi ews unmediated by engraving sty les. At that same time, shutler Sl)eed becamc almos t instantaneous, and often produced odd \,isions of people and obj ec ts in 1Il0tion , figures with strangely bent legs or cabs vl:tn ishing ou t o( t he fram e, so that artists saw a new way to rendcr vi· sual ract, and new reasons to reconsider the old ways. Soon informal portra iture was taken over by t he camerll, t he miniature portrai t pRinters were driven out of bu si ness, and portraitists began to rely 0 11 ph otographs for preliminary s t.udies. Paint.ers ulljo hired photographers to record their works. to provide pictures that migh t offer basic ml:tterial , and to provide reprodu ctions of others' works . Many creative and advanced ninctee nth-century arti s t.s did their own photography, sometimes pa inting right over the res ults, or jus t 1)lain s tealing froUl them. I n general, Impressionistl)8int ers were not interested in th e caTllera , but th ose devoted t.o drama and atmosph ere were-beginning wi th Delaeroix ,
( "lpYriOh
te'" I
the great Romantic, who mnde wide use of photographs nenr t he beginning or their history, modifyiug their elements when he pa inted from th{,lII . Turner, that ot her grcat Roma nt ic, wns also entranced by t.he possibilities of IUlIl inoll sllcSS he saw ill la ndscape photographs du r ing the lut.e 18-10's. Before photography became a grent commcrcial venture, before it seemed to rorfeit its clnilll 011 t he imaginu tion . it gn\'e to tlu'se disce rning eyes IIll idea or its scope. Later paiu ters, who had to IIbll ndon hllllllln si tuations t.ainted by s("ntilllr nt. or e mbalmed ill forlnu lns ill favo r of situati ons b"e ner ' ated only by color nud s hupe, 01' ones who wished to cr{'ute worlds far from ours, like Puvis de Cha\'ll lilleS, were not prepnrcd to part icipnte ill the Sf' r i· ous roman ticism of the futurf', the romanticis m of the call1era that would depend on reu1mell and WOlllen, moving through the here and now to create t.heir myths. But the came ra wus nheud of it s time ulld did lIot b('(:ollle a rouUllltie 1001 ill Frllnce until this cl'utu ry. It W/IS used rar lIIore pocticllJly in England and Scotlnnd during its firsl two decades , whel'e more purely ~Orlll('rll sensibiliti es could perhnps make belter use of il thl\lI hard·h ellded ~' re n ch art islllls, It. WIlS t h~ Fre nch pninl crs IIl1d graphic arlists, howevel'. who lrllllsmuted Cil llle ril vis ion into romantic te rms, llsing the odd allgles und cut·ofT shapes IlS wellns Ih e strllllge blurry ilud ullrecogllizable forlll things took-t he clothes OVf'rhead in a Df'gas laund ry, (or exa mple-and th e hnrsh darks and li ghts in which they wert'mnde to app('ar, In omf' r to make a vital new illu strat i,'c nrt for ~'rllllce, howcn-r, it wus necessa ry lIot. just to COllY Dutc h pictures lind old prints , or 10 copy pho tograph s , a lthough these were recei"ing close at.lelltion , but to lise the m as startin g points. Frenc h nilleteenth·century artists wcre ill fnet. dcv('lopillg the poe try of other grllphic techniques ut lhe snllle t.ime tlUlt photography was bt'coming an established fac t of a rt istic life. Man{'t and Degas, Wh istler and F'antiu creatrd sha rp ly dramntic blnck-and·white ima gery. oflen suggest ivc both or Re mbrllndt or Ooys und of film. 1111(1 quite unli ke old ·flls hioncd steel ('n· gra\'ings . Deglls' smudgy whorehouse lU ollolypt'S IIrc emp hllt icll lly movie like, flickering wilh subfusc reilli ty alld Inotioll; so lire )lall(>{'s crisp lithogrllp hs (14 ,7- 14.9), A rC" ived udllliratioll fo r PirlilleKi occu r red lit abollt. the same period; t he new romnnee of ch illl'oscliro W/IS glltilering mo· menLum. EtChing was undertnken with new e nthusillSlll by paillters nnd written about by cr it ics; and th e graphic artist Cha rles l\'l eryon hlld II hril· liant im pllcl with Il rch iteclu ral fantllsies thut dcr ived fronl Dutch prints but d is played a wholly modern preOCCUI)ation with ci ty dNIIOIIS , a tnlly fil m lIoir t.e mperamen t. Meryoll had a sho rlCaref'r, and his bcst work was done in the 1850's, bu t
C pyr
te
40 8
MOVINO
PI C TURE S
ull: 14 .7
EOOAR DEGA S ,
HU li,.g 0" lite &d. MOllolype. &IDMJ: 14 .8
EDOAR DEOAS,
Gt:/t i,.u OKI 01 lite &IIt . MOllolype.
OppDlite:
14 . 9
EOOAR DEGA S,
Tilt! Ca r'tl i ..ai Si,ler, Talki"u 1o /l(/rn jrer, . Monotype, illu Slration (or a novel by Ha l "y
I
,J
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F,.(I/Ice i" 1I1e Ni"cfN',,11J Cenlu ry
40 9
he did more thUlIllIIY oL!\(' r lI ilJel{'(' lIlh-ce lllllry IIrlist 10 sugges t the romuntic dread thnt cun bt· generated in modern cily iuulg('ry s illiply by recording ill black and white th e way the buildings look . Hi s was H rNlli~H ie romanti · cism, achieving kee n e mot io llul effects without 1lll1ll11rllctilr ing I1rt ifi ciully s ini ster gloo m. Facts in c nlde light Me si ni s ter €, lI o ll~h . III the trudition or Piranes i. his views nrc both perreet ly strnight IIlId obliquely suggest i,,€,. They have 1111 individuul pe rso llillit.\' that seems purtl.\' projected int.o them by our respollses to th eir flu vor. It is II lso brought llhollt by slIla ll dellliis lhll t pose 1I1iSty qu est ions und set up truiHs of lInensy thoughl. a nd octnsionally by whut appear to he drellm phe nomena . also offen'd wi t hout funfure. Hi s Puris sce ues hn\"(' th" loo k of nill€,t cclllh·cc ntury photographic t.0lw gruphy . which wus II th riving business by th e 1850·s. pu s hed sen'rnl steps furth e r towurd c inemal o~rllphi c express ion. One reason ror Ihis is lhul Me ryo n WII S color·b lind: he W8~ rorced in to blllck unci wh it.e. Hi s I' tcilillgs do 1101 IIIWi' the qlllllity or II lIIillor nrt pur-
4 I0
M OVINO
!'l e T
14. 10 C IIARL K8 Mio;RV ON,
R ~ S
TIt ~ MQ rg N l . Etchi ng, 1854
F rtllI CI) ill Ihe Nil/elccllih Cf' lItltl'Y
'"
sued occasionally by a majo r painter in 8 11 im'cst igat i\'e s pirit, or of 8 minor a rt I)Ursued hy a modest ta le nt, bu t of fierce ly condensed high arti st ic effort. Hf' had t he kind of \'i s i(jh~,~ll~t'overl oa ds Iht- black·and-wh ile med iulll so as to wrench u nforeseen color ou t o f it, in ferocio us des pite of th e ord inary s pect rum . Such u qU ill it)' is whnt mak es t he grt' ut. black-u nd-whit e movies so compe ll ing, especially t he olles with urball setti ngs. Both the drama and l he visllal c harm of s uc h fi lm s a re forced in lo a 10lla l vocabulary; they show 8 universe of chromat ic d ive rsi ty c hn nneled s ha rp ly ill lO a colorlessness lha t never t heless scems co mple te. Th e colors are the re; we can almost see the m, because of th e illtcli se I)ressure on t he mediu m t.o be universal. Baudelaire adm ired Me ryo n' s etc hings un ci wrote eloque ntly a bou t th ei r mod ern rOJlHlII t ic mode l hnt. nmde use of scaffolding a nd s moke as we ll as anciellt monumcnt,s, t heir pa radoxical bitt e r beauty t hat matched th e modem city. Meryon s howed a Pari s not. yet t ra ns rormed, s t.i11 punctua ted by its Got hic bu ild ings aud s lIIall s tree ls , not yet defin ed by t he huge boul evard s a nd brond spaces thal were SOO Ii to comej bu t he mukes no effort III pict.u resquc ness. Thi s Pnri s is current; and so nrc the flyi ng monst ers in t he sky , th e allthropomorj)hic clouds, th e mystcriously d rowning man , t he ba ll oon , th e t hreat.e ning birds. These a re modern fan tasies , si milnr to Ooya's, d evoid of forma l reference to storybook horrors of th e Goth ic kind, vis ions alm ost unnoticea ble but s pinc-chilling. Meryol1 's mOl'guc is a lI1 i1ucr -o f-filCI stMlcture, wi th 8 pla in mode rll ehinllwy a nd drai npipe, a nd wHs hing 0 11 II li ne alongs ide it ; the te nsio n of the scene in whic h it. figurcs is creatcd by the hars h shapes or pl ai n bu ild ings in a fla t light t hat cast.s blnck s hadows (14. 10) . For a moment t hese a re all you sec. Then the sense of hor ror is red 8S you g rudually notice the s mall agitated crowd, t.he me n ca rryin g the corpst' whil e the woman and child lament a nd the police d irect p roceed ings. T he persoll alit y is e ntirely or t.he scene, not t.he a rt ist; we a rc drawn to it, not, his vision or it. The gra phic hand has been withheld, a nd t he glaring light , the a llxious eye, and the infinite city ha ve cons pired to produce thi s momenta ry s hud der . Someth ing s imilar might. be said of Degas' b rothcl scenes wit h sc ratc hing women un modified by graphic elegancc. Degas, too, like Meryon and 1\Ianet., kept. ou t of the way to let, the view s peak and move if it would. Death and imm inc nt death certui Jl!y cOIll Pcl a ttention, und 8 lIew corpse or a drown ing man is a natura l excitement; but wh at. a bout t.he mons ter s in the sky ove r the Minis try of Marine (14 . 11 )T Again the scene is topogra phi· cal , and t he a rmed flying fi sh a re offer ed a8 phe nome na j ust like the building; it looks like d ocumen tary-sty le footage from 8 science -fic tion fil m. The curiously movi elike quali ty of Meryon's Pari s is confirmed by a look at. hi s
, " d
ll OVI N O
" 1 :!
PI CTU RE S
•
,
•
,
.,.
,-
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14 . 11
C IIAkl. t;fJ )I); kYO S.
Tlt t .lIIllIlI"'YO/.IIIl,...,u. Etchill~
FraliN'
ill Ill,. Xilld crl/th CCII/'IYY
bizarre working met hods. The etching or t he POlit-Olt-Challge went through eleven stutes, und each hils a d i fft~rellt sky. us ir u movie Cllllleru had been trained Oil tlU' view while the balloon roSf' und VU ll i.l>hcd, the clouds shi rt ed and re -rormed int.o fig ures. nnd the horrible Hi tchcock birds swept ill and (tway 88 the 1110011 e me rged-ull while lht.' wretc hed HUlII fl oundered in the waler, and thos(' in the boat fa il('d to resclI(' hilll, lind the c rowd mill ed on the bridge. Each rel)ealed take is s light ly different (14. 12-14. 15). Meryoll worked from Clime l'U views. like so IIll1lly of his painter rontemporaries. He clea r ly saw what the Camer a could do with urbnn s it('s if it had the means to move; and as a graphic artist, he did not need to fil ter such insight through pain te rly cOllvent ions established by Veh'tzquez or Vermeer. Me ryon WCllt beyolld paint ing and into graphic motion; he had the topographical past with which to make cinemutic poel ry Ollt of modern Paris. a Paris pncked with drulllas, both inward nnd ('xlernul, none of which st.ops or lIlay be stopped for . Degas and Wh is t ler. orri\'illg on the grllphic scene about a decad(' later, lendNI to "ely on Rembrandt for their (>tchi ng style. and to keep graphic mcdiK ull ied to the pllillterly frl.llne of mind: they had a disposition to use drawing un d e tching or lu o not~rpe llud lithograph us if they were kinds of paint. and puinl 11 killel of graph ic mater ial. But t.he se nse of city livi ng is the sallie, and the l1im 1.0 illulIl iuu te it in t he hllrsh new kind of romantic idiom in which recurrence plnys n purt. Whi stle r. hav ing been ahead of Degas in illu strat ing mod ern living in a modern way early in til(' 18 60's, ga\'e it up for art's sake, moved to Ell gland , and large ly wit hdrew from IIny dramutic s ituations that might occur inside pictures . His fam ous confrontation with Ruskin ill 1877 st ill reverbe rateli in this cen tu ry as the moment. whf'1! subject lIlatt('r censed 1.0 be illl portant for st'riolls art a nd nil who cn red aboul it ill the Ellglish-spenking world_ Whi stler did mu ch in l hllt world to separute the illu strative impul sl' Crom the proper sphere of painting, und t.hus to focus later attention on the formal quali ties of pust IIrl. espccia lly in E nglall d und consequent ly in America. In both natiolls he fignrl's tlS t he spokesman of I"re neh theories of 1lI0de rn paillting, making' them comprelu' lI sible IIl1d demonslrlll ing their importunce. At the same ti me. he helped to discredit til(' ('ff('cl.ivcness of illustration and ally d irect pl ay on e motionnl respOllSC8 t hrough conventiollltl subject matter . COIISe(IU cntly, purl ly beclluse of Wh istle r's influ ellce, t he camera and all ca reflli painting that might suggest its more rigid or banal form s of realism were usually lined lip ill opposition to high est het ic considerlltions. The narrutive cllpltcities thai. might be released by the ctlllle ra stnycd obscure, the property of painte rs and graphic HrtislS who e mbrllc('d a sort of under ground romanticism wailing for it s day. ~ I eu n whil(' Whi stler helped
( "lpYriO h
MOVINO
PI C T U R ..:S
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H . I :! e ll '" K L t; 8
,\I
E KY O N , Thl " olll-a N-Clwllfjf .
"; h~ hiI1K,
fin h tl latt'
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e ll '" K I. E 8 M E H YO N . TIl ,. Ponl-a N·CJw nfle. E lc h illg.
MI" 'Plit h
II lall'
people in this century 10 find Impressionis t Pllintings bellul irlli . to see a lIew chlssicif.un ill them, 8 new unr'OnuIl1t ic ulli,·ersalit." Ihllt. rorc\ter cnnceled the Opill io ll Ho r th eir own time, whell they hnd see med in coherellt. di s· cordullt , lind ugly. Port rniWre remained in t he s phere or pnillting, des pit e th e com mercia l product ion or carte de I:j.jte I)hotographs both publ ic and do mest ic. and of portra it. I)hotography. But portraitu re, too. became a rorm or illu strnl ion in the hand Mor Degas und Fnntin and others arter the 1860·s. breaking bound s. co ming close r to genre painting. making gestures toward cinema.
FrlIll f e ill til e Jr illctcclf llt Century
" 15
•
14.14
C IIAR I. F. 8 .\IERY ON.
Tll r l~o,,/-aN - (,1I(1II91· . ~:I c h ing. l t'n l h li l a H,'
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1" . 15
C II A R I.. ~; 8 M~; R YON.
Tlt l' I~ml/-
I' 1I~\' (' III II
li lal t'
Whil e the stiff s ty le of camera portrllitur(' eo ntinuf'd , til£' animated sort of pa inted portrai t. thllt. is itse lf a \\'hol{' scellC' been!)\(' possi bl e. W(' ha\'c seen how Sargent managed it. using "l' fer('ll CeS to Veh\ zquez ; bllt wh ell he was still ill Paris, his Ma dam e X hnd a lready gone well L)(~yolld old limit s into unchnrt.ed visual t.e rri t.ory, hnd become illllstratiw lind photographic in unheard-of ways (sec 1.8)_ Madame X has the look of a Degas or II )18I1el , the air of unmediated confrontation withou t auy so ftening drawn from familia r anecdotC' or classical sources. It is n Illodt' rn Pnris illll pict.u re, fill erot.ic Viliio ll impossible in
4I6
"lOVIN G
PI C T
RE S
England or AlIlericn at the moment, bu t very si milar to MUllet"s I)iclurcs of womell-lIot exact ly portraits- rendi ng jou rnilis or silting in cures nnd cOll servllla ries, wcnring cos me tics nud chic frills III thl' neck, conscious or sexuality and reflecting its pulse and fl ow. breathing fast('r as they sit (14. 16). Or Mndllme X might be the girl ill / illerior at a lat.er s tn ge in her CIl· reer, once agaill looking (l.wny. The urlll bent buck on t he liule tub Ie, th e tilted body alld turncd !lend, th e grlll>hic blnck and white-ull these ell'... ments set the image in mOlion, so Ihlll it seems part of 1111 encounter, a scene i ll a storYi t he audllc iolls ly vulval pillk ellr and the s tark lack of gloves or jewel ry especia lly make the woman look undressed, eve ll though he r s houlder strap is 1I0W back in pill ee . With it fallen, she mu st Imve looked much more like 3 later ve rsion of Degas' s mock·clad , bare-shouldered gi rl. The came ra lurks in this picture, I.IS it. d o('s in Degas' h8Ulltillg' por trait of H enri De GliS 811d his liule ni ece (14. 17). or in F'lIl1lin's porl rll it. of his t,wo sist.ers in bluck dresses; bu t it is the Cllmera of th e future rllthe r than th e mome nt, the romantic nurralin' camera of t he next centu ry (1 ... . 18). By
F nw('(' ill IIr (' Si"drr"I" C,,,/lIry
4 17
durk wonJ('1I s it ill Iheir frallH'S with till tlllcit'l\! pllinterly confidellcl'. fret· ofullliUl(' nllll 1I111110WIIU'1I1. pnr'l icipliting ill al'! "lone, 1111 ' ticip8ting olily furtil('r d('l!rl'cs of ubMrllclioll II~ II I)Ossiblt' fall' , Cil illcboll l' is Il (:OIl1I)cl l iug pH i ul l'r of ti ll('mllL ic rOlluml icislIl, jut udm i rer of Impressionis t th eml'S and achil'vl'llIenlS wh o n('wrt ill' icS8 rcmained firmly withill tite world of cO lltill~(' n cy ltlld f('('ling, Kirk Vnrll(,cioe IUlS COIll I)a red him to Ellkin s for the co ntemplut in' look of his indoor figurt's, whose thic k t llought s ure wllshNI by th ill c ity light us they sla nd 111111(' willd ow, But Cuill('botl(', IIlIlike gukills, did lIot tl',\' for th (' distill ct i\'(, ruru l note; th e ci ty Illude II lIew lHl tur(' for hi s (',W . rnlik,' Dt~glls , he W
COlllnlsl , Cor o l 's
41 8
MOVING
H . IH
PI C T U R!O; S
II Y-S RI ~· A ST I S · LATOI ' k .
1'1" T II'O SU/fr.
in R minute. or might just think of walking. to im'ite the unforeseen nnd ~o defy the limits o f the (rame und the old d('m8uds of cOlllposition. Ca ill eootlc inhe rited Me ryon ' s Pari s, now c:hollged out of nil recognit ion from u town of IIl1cYH and steeples into 8 city of HU'cl bridges unci "llst pl87.88, but sti ll decepti\,e alld expectant, bright, graphic, and c nici. Th e
curners again
100111 8
large in his scenes, showi ng how creative
per~pecli\'e
m ight be IlIn naged 011 its lIew terllls . Th is mode rn pllinlcr could lI SC the distortions ofte n c ilut~e d by the cumerll to suggest th e shirt of th e eye ull d the move me nt of both thought and tlCl, could redeem t hem from looking like technica l faults i ll the dis tribution or lines and volumes. Th e instability that looked uncomrortable iu still phologrttphs or stree ts wus made into 8 ,·irtue. a flavor or th e unaccountable kind o r drnmllt ic IMlth thut lIIovieK deal with (14 .1 9). Cnillebotte is another pa int er who seized on the ca rne ru's ci nematic destiny ins tead or automatically subordi nating' photography to the future or painting; lllld he had a monochromat ic sensibility, too , a sense or the human lIIagic to be made with the si mplest 1Il0tion or light, and mystery with Il scree n rull on ly or shift in g known qU8l1tilies. In The IAl.llcJteoll. the light rrom th e window 8t the back-that old Dutch
.. I f)
14 . )9
GUS TAVK C AII. I• •: !t O TTK .
l'tl riKSfrrrl : Hlliny I\'rtl l,lr pr
device-is brokell as it npproachcs us by Ihe lerrifyillg troop of glass vessels on Ih c tuble (1-1 .20). Tht'!M' nre IlUlrshlil NI betwN'n t il l' ]>('opl(', wllose rathe r lIllcerluill edges are outl ined by u fur lII o,'e tl'lIt aliw cures s of the stune light. We CUll sec thul il is glllss Ihut COUlll s 0 111 loud . t!JIII C'lIdlll'('S and s tands up ill Ih(' SUII . thllt Clli s Ih e lIir.wilh cil'c isi oll Ilnd bl'ighl ordl'r , Hurnulls arc fragil l' crulllhlillg mult e r. d is lillglli s l ll~d ollly b.,' u hidd('11 Sl'lIli enee (s harp as gloss) tlUlI li~hl IIIl1sl crl'l'p lind prol)(' 10 find . This table s celle mokes u wonc!r rfl d conlrast to Th e Floor S(' I'(lPl!I's. purt ly beculI se , ulthollgh Ihe bnre (\001' lIlId lulif-lllIk ed workmen ditTer gross ly front the o,'c rdl'cs sed Iu IIclH'l's nt t he iI' o\'I' l'd rrsscd lubl e. I he picto· ria l romanticis m is Ih e S llIlI e. The urtist luts I)t'rsullull ~' withdrawn froll! ed itorial commentary , so us to nllow Ihe sce lle to l)eelU cO lljurr d by c ha nce und to make it s own demond 01 1 Ih e vi ewe r, 011(' Ihttl hoo ks him altd en gages him in U Qu csti on, a line of thought , a si tuation. wilholll IlCllIl.llly telling him 8nything. III both pllililings Ihe Ulul('d color. till' IIbnlpl perSI)Ccth"(' , th e back lighting, und Ih e poiglllllli juxtnposi tion of IIss('rti\'c inc rl things und Ulodes l li"ing fl esh nrc the slInte. ulld d o tlie SllIlle kind of e mol iontli wOl·k. In both . the Dutc h Irlldit io l1 is liS s t ro n~ 11 prl~ S (, II Ce liS th e Cllllle rli . es pe·
MOVIN G
4 20
14 .20
PI C T U RE S
OUSTAVE C AI L LE80TTK .
TIl t 1. IHl cAcon
cially the trad itioH of reticent ul'tist !; such li S JlllIssell s Elinga. Boursse, und Vrel , who so 1I1U1sslimingly offered their vislllli sympllthy to I)Cople mo\'ing through rOQms IIlId things. 01' s treets Hlld light. Nothing is stuted in the lu nch pa inting about th e you ng mUll who du cks his heHd to cuI. hi s lIIelll, IImllhe old wOlllon bei ng senoed by the old bUller, or a bout us sitt ing ill our place Ilnd fee ling all the obsc ure violence or quiet fami ly meal s. But j us t as in movies . th e shot begins to tell the story while the peopl e in it und those wntehing urc sti llllnnware there is one. The laden but austere bluck tuble, the bright duylight kept ut bill' by curta in s alld the r ituuls or rood, th e rew s ilent dim pe rso ns. nlld the elOCllient company or s hiny objec ts lire being discovered to hllve meall in g as we wllt ch, neit her III'rlluged LO fiL nil idell nor nHowed to nH'lIn nothing. The 8wkwu rd perspective. he re used indoors inst eHd or in t he s treet, further s hows how Cni ll ebo t.te brought phenomena created by the camera to bear directly on the crellti on of IIllllospitere. T he opticu l imblllllnce thnt feed s the mood or fumily ttnxiety und snd ness in this picture is like the kind late r produced by CII llIerll lIl ot io n for the sallie pllrJ>ose-the distant Indy
F rallce ill Ihe Nil/(Irrl/ l h Ct!flill ry
42 1
seems to pull farth er bnek. till' e r,Ystnl 1.0 'UllI'e h forwnrd lind keep us from he r, the ca rafe to ~w r ll as it gua rd s til(' nea r by yout h from ou r inte r fer ing inte rest.. It is like n sce ne frolll ll Be rgnulII lIlo\' ie. The s tre tch of 0 001' to t he r ight s hows th e puth th e hll t le r a lways tllkes; th cre is Hone 0 11 th e left, and so we know he will not walk around that wily. Th ere is a certll ill I; l ifl'n ess und s impl ic ity in Cuillebolt e's pninti ng tech· nique tha t keeps him well IIwny frolll th e brill iant s ke tc hiness of t he 1m· pression is t s unci from t he visibly brushed s truct u re" of CezHIlIIC . He goe~ agllins t t he Ili od eruit,Y of T h(' S ke tch liS the new co nveyor of puinte riy gelli lls, in whic h t he pll int s hows ils so\'c reigIIl Y. Th e I)a inte rly melllHi by wh ic h t he image has taken s hape ha"c bl'en talll('d li nd fl a tt ened . subdu ed KS if th e arti s t ke pt. fl'O lll s howing off wi th eithe r l.lI l old· fll s hioned high " fini s h " or a mod ish brus hy s ty le. Cnill cbott l' ill s is ts 0 11 keepi llg the plli nt itself neutra l and me rely 1Ise fu l for fi lt e ring tht' precis,' qua lil y of t ht> image he wan ts 1.0 s ummOll , T his met hod gi,'cs his work the uneven tex tul'e so C01ll1ll0n iu muny cine· lIltltic pll illtillgS, us if t he " rt ist igll orNI t il l' d CllulII ds o f lite s Ul'fuce s o us to plunge s t raigh t pa s t it. Degus d id the sUllie t hin g, using u vuric ty of medin that a ll produce fl Ucllmt io ns of the rough and s moo th ac ros s t he pictu re, whic h in t urn is held toget he r onl,Y by tile exuct mugic of it s frllgme nled a nd tantali zi ng s ubjec t. F alltin , anotll(' r Cll nwrll -s t Mic k puiute r, adopl ed /I g reul modesty of surface for his fl owe r pnin lill gs and portrnit s , in bot h of whic h he ma llag-ed a t ra nscenden t ci ll(, lIl atognl pllic p resc llce-lhe flowers visi bly breath e and wilt , t he people brood and wai t (1 4.2 1-14.23). "'or his Wuguer ian (untasies . howeve r , ,,-'un t iu d id tuke u p I II{' pain te rly s ketc h, s lllying Otl th e su r fuce ull d qu it e II bundoll ing t he de pt hs of t h(' mirror. T hese " illu strati on s" th erefore /If'(' I'U I' less ill us lrllt i,'C thlln the portru it s turd
s till - l i rc ~.
We call see how cine mul ie pai nte rs by the late 18 70'13 ill ,,-' ,'a nee hud finally come und er t he ill flu e nce of aclllul photog ra phy, besides lea rn ing (rom Goyu a nd Ve rmee r and Clul rd in, Til l')' had begull 10 (orl's hudow fil m ex pl icit ly by muk l UK use of reso urces l he Ca ll1l' l'll had I'cwal('(lt hat we re not of " nlue I 0 I he lIew prac t it iollcrs o f cOlll lllt"'rcilll port m it u re II lid t Ol)ography , and thllt we re also not int creli ting to thc F reuc!l Ilrch itcc ts of modern pninti ng: Monet a nd Re no ir, Va n Gogh . GllUgu in. lind C(' za nne. Unlike t hese uri isI s. th e." we re ea rly I)iollcc rs of an illus trnt ive form Yf't to COUll'. wh ic h wou ld hang 0 11 the uIIl>llintcl'ly modernity of t.he cnure rll , th e 11i1IIdiess eye. T he roma nt ic ques t. fO l' somc ulllltt ainll bly tnll' mi r rol' of common fan tasy could be full y slltis fi cd oll ly lifte r Ilct unl ciuelllu had pn ssed t hrough its int rodue tory s tag('s lind mani fes ted ils visuli l powe r over mod ern li fe,
rt-d •
'.
Ie
" 1•• oJ ••
14 . 2 1
M OV IN O
II Y-S ltl FANT I N - I. ATO PIl ,
J>ICTUR"~S
" ortrllit 1ll lI r.llIld l/ rll . f:I/"'''' f :dWl/ rdll
O"ly the n might the works of MUllct, I)egus, und Cuilleboll{' retrospectively look like feul und lIullIrul visions of Pari si8 11 life . fecoglliz8bly c harged with ambiguous modern lIarruth-c, ilillstr81ioll8 of tile highest order. Thei r strHugeness in their own limt', which C8111(, (rom th eir unlikeness to familiar painting, has now been washed away by our inrorlll€'d movie-vision. as well 3S by a schooled tllldel"'8tnndillg of lIIodern tl rt Unit hus
also taught us to view them
8S
eXaJllI)les of detached painterly nchic\'cmcnl.
Far to the 1I0rlh, the lise of light cha racter istic of traditional :\forlhern painting had continued in the work of nineteenlh-celllil ry cllIH_linllyinn
Frallce ill Ih e XiI/ciccI/II, Ce ntury
1-1 .22
II~!S R I
~' A:-;' Tl l'o·· I . ATOI · R .
f'/ Oll'rJ"$.
14 .23
Applf'lf (Jlld
II ENR I F·ANT I N · I.... T O U R .
S,m ' /lY
pr(l1'~
S/ ;fl l~ j/f'.
(;/,,/I,.rIlI Ol ,. Tabl,.
-12 3
ll OV IN O
PI C T U RE S
pa inte rs . several of whom produced sturtlingly c ine ma tic images witlJOut benefit of thl" ParisiaH milieu und its crit ics or its scu rch for II CW ill ulIliuu lions. These Scandinavian urtists have bee I! judged accord ing LO Ilw ir prox imity to Imprcss ionism , Sym bolism, or EXI)ress ionislIl , si nce they cou ld not claim It cc ntral co nt ribut ion 1.0 nineteenth-century illlugery, and IIHlIIy of them did Irlwel ali(I study in olher parts of Europc; but one Or Iwo seellled to lea p effortlessly int o the modern movie mode on t hei r own . Among these, the Dani s h ur lils l Vilhe lm i-Iamlllers iLoi, who WitS u stude nt at the Cope nhagen AClldc my. just IlS Friedrich had bcen u ce ntu ry cl1rlier , seems to have swallow('d whole th e German Romantic aims of 1800, lind translated them direct ly into without consc iousness of illte rve lling Itrtistie Shtges. His views of Sl)ure interior spaces with 1111 oCCIIS iOllll1 fe mu le figure scen from the buc k SIHtrply rccull s im iht r Fried ric h themes-too sharply, perhaps; they look quite con trived in their s lud ied meluncholy (14 .24). Th ey luc k the diurnal quulity of the snduess ill F'iIltt ill or Cui lI ebotte. or illdeed in Friedric h; but they do seem to roreshadow the Nordic ci nc mll , with its siow-mo\·ing reve lations of exis tenliill de8lmir. illlillirly,
mill
14 .2 4
VILHEL)I HAMMER S HO I , hlf"rio r 'OIlh
Sra /cd
W OW /III
Fnll",r ill IlI r .\'it/rirellill C'rll/",.y
14 .2:i
\'11.1l~~ L)I
HAMMEk S II O I ,
425
Fi r''' P() rl rj, j/s
the hug€' F"r'e Por/ rails with ils grim groUI) of IlIl'II aroulld a clilldielil Il.lble resembles not hing ill lIrt so IIIl1ch liS it looks l.lh clld t o murky rooms ill Dr(',Y('r filIUs (14.25) .• candinaviall lIIo\' i('); cOlllillll(, IIllotlwr Ih(,llH' I'Xplored by th l' pllinl('rs of IhNif' rf'gi olls , Ihut of lII ovi llg wllt('r . ~I IlIlY Clln\'ases ('olllu in nothing but th(' III(,SIIWI'izillg rippl('s of II s tream or fj ord . oCCliSiOlUilly int('rrup! ('d by OIl(' stOIlf' or thin branch . II surging fl ood r('udy to drown us if Wt' WIIIIt. The SCl.lndinuvili ll nilU't('('lIth-c(,lItury rt'ulist pni nlrrS IIl1v(' had to wilil for Scanc\ illU\·illll ci lH' IIl1l10 cillillllhclII and ~j:('1 Ilwlli illlllolio n. 10 s how the world whltl they could 11I1\' e dOlle if filrn -lIIltkilig hlld 1>('('11 01'('11 to IIt('III. 10 I)UI t hem 011 Ihe ill!ernUlio lllllllrli s lic nmp. Til l' 1)lIirl t illJ,!s Ihe nu;el\'es ure Ofl(,11 purl"'" deprl.'ssing. unlil by IIny hop" of futur it y dN'pi ll' 1111 tit{"ir 1111 cll rthly wint('r light.
FIFTEEN
Twentieth-Century Graphics; Movies
M0 V I E S
begu ll nearly s illlul lll llcously ill several COUIltries during the last. decade of tlit· nindee nth cen tu ry. Their abrup t. rise
sugges ts that. the need to invent them was universally Celt at. t he same momen t, and it is no t hard to see why. Betwee n t he 1840' s and the 18 !lO's,
while two generations of the public had been ge tting used to camera visioll ,
they werc also getting used to greater natu rali sm and more sensation in stage productiolls, aud to 8 fre sh abundance of printed illustrative materiaL Thi s was a lso increas in gly reali s tic and increasingly dependent on camera cOIH'cntions for real ity, es pecia lly in America. Longing for the nex t step was inevit.able, the desi re to see illuminated by ca mera magic what now appeared on the s tage or the page, to see rOlllallticized e\'en fu r ther both th e new documentary mode in pictures and the new drama of visual Cantasy. In Europe, the decline of romanticism in a rt increased the need to find uew media Cor a rell lis m suitabl e to ambiguous modern feelings. In I<' ran ce, long before pain te rs like Degas Look on photography's chal lenges and appeared to move in ci nematic directions, early connections were made between the camera, the stage, and traditi onal Romantic painting. These links, too, suggest an emergent necd Cor cinema- which, like the camera, was officially born in Frknce, although it s early liCe occu rred ill several places. The ca rly impulse to invent movies is embodied in the pe rson of Dagucrre, one of the invcntors of photography during the late 1820's and 1830's, who was CaUlous not only a8 a ROlliantic landscapepainter bu t 8S a stage designer 811d as th e creator, ill 1822, of the celebrated di orama. This last wa s the same one that appeared a year later in
c
, .J ,, ~
Londoll, pirllting th e works of J o hn
~hl rlill
ulld cil usillg II grNll s(, lIsation
with its " d issolvillg' views." Dag'ul'rrr was c\ ('ariy intrreslcd in ilarnessillg the emo tional impact of light in 80111(' WHy beyond th e r{,
those of Sc hin kP l and ol her Orl'lnans . wilh lowers sil hou{'11NI ngninsl moonlight and IIlll ll y {'(· r ic· s hud ow",,: hut he' 8('('IIIS to lUl\'l' nt'('ded newul iI· luminutioll-rt"'111 li i!ht. first IU lulUfnc tured on t he s tage o r ill Ih{' diorama. and fillu lly srizpd f rOIll I h{' slIn itsf'lfhy t ilt' cnnH'ra. ExcPpl for Ih(' shifting SC(' I H~S of tile d i oru liUl . IICIIlIlI IU On' II H' 111 WIIS bcyoml hi s r('ltc h: he hud to
sell I£' fo r t ill' lIl otion Ihal t hC' clevcr lISl' of ligh t (!UII sri IIp ill till' viewer's rei;pOIlSi>S (15. 1). Ai lihis "(' P" NH'II IS /I "Oll1l1l1lic so,·! orw is h Illul CiIH'IltU mighl f'xist . when it wu s st ill only being I.IPPl'oxilllllled ill pictu res 01' stlllo!e pictu res, III lite field or lIim'{('l'lIlh -ct' III UI-y F,'e llc h I)OplI lll r gl'l.Ipliics, t il l' figlll'{' lIIost I.ISS0ciated wilh cim'lUlilic rlllllnS,\' i!S GlIst m 'f' Don". who \\'IIS horn nn('r Ou-
guerl'(,'!s illwutioll or ! li f' eurl y HOlllu ll l ic Ci.llllt' l'n , alld so al'-l'udy s('wral
428
M OV IN G
PI C T U RE S
s tCI)S nea rer to the realizations movies cou ld offe r. Although it. was Me ryon who grasped what cinema might be like, in hi s peculiar graphic renderings or ordinary urban atmosphere, Dore invented an everyday b rand or rantasy 8S effective ali Disney·s. and rather si milar . Hts contribution lay in the realm o( book illustrati on ; and by the time he died in the 1880's he had produced a whole storehouse or imagery ror the later cinema to tap. H is ,·jsualizatious or rairy-lale characters, of Don Quixote, the Ancient Mariner. and scenes rrom 1\lilton and Dante a re still relied on by production designers, although his a rtistic ta le nt is usually held in rather low estee m. His paint. ing!; arc unintercsting; but he had a magnificent girt ror se nsatio nal com positio n in black and white, ba sed 0 11 Sl)alial depth a nd light rathe r than on de tai l and lille or abst ract surrace interest, as ir he were co nceivi ng film rrames. And li ke the old illuminations, Dore's picturt's we re otTered in books, personally "imed Ilt eneh viewer. What t hey lllck in nclioll Ihey muke lip (or in sat.isfying stolid rea lism-v isions und monsters look reusib le, as ir des igned so thai a s tudio workshop could IHllld le th em (15.2, 15.:1).
15 . 2
0 LIS T A V K D O R t..
"Tht' Gnarled ll ()n5\t'r."
Illustration for Tiu u9f!Nd 01 Croqllt:milaiNt
-t29
I S.a
GUSTAVI': OOIt~ , " "Ill' FilII or 81111111."
181i6. IlIlI s trlltioli fo r )lilluu'"
DOrt~
1 ·(Jradi.~i' I-tJllf
was grelltly lowe! !"or gf'uerntions- peopl e felt comfortabl e visual · izing rantas t ic t hi ngs ill his ('ss(,lIlill lly 1Ilidislu rb in g s ly l£'. II was family c li tertai lllllClI1; Hlld Dart'> c£'rluinly nutde 1111 illlporlillll nnd liberal ing co n· tribution to the movi es of Int e r days, includi ng Il ll illlltt.ed cnrl oO lls. Hi s other inte res ting in fl u c ll cc WIIS upo n Vlln Gogh, u Northcrll graphic gen iu s who cou ld grllsp l it c Int e COI'(' of fe('ling in Do rc ' s scenes of l ite Lo ndon poor , They, too, are cine lll iitic, rely ill!; 0 11 chiaroscuro for Clll otiomai effec t and otherwise lI!lowing sober !'uct Lo s peak for iLsel!'. OOI'C cauliOt. quali fy us a grcltt nrtist, but he ws s l.I Jo"'rCl1 ch proto-fiIm -lIIllkt'r, II prole pt ic genius who could s u gges t the right graphic futurc fo l' Ho mllntic art. Th e very ellrli es t F' rench cxpc rillle lll s with Iicl.ulI l cine nlll were fa r fro m rOlllan tic. Th e l.Jumi i're brOlhf'Ni, tnking 00' fl"O III Edison's inve ntio ns o f II few years be fore, in\'ent ed t he Ci nc lllllt.ogrllph (' inl he mid· 18 90' s , it sort o f CHmerU und projec l or in one. NO llllw illg u lly thing to d o with urt 01' I hcOlI' r, lhey made short films of ordinury (,,'e lliS and show('(1 t hem in t.hellters as II nove lt y. to increasi ngly III rgr Hud icnces. Th e i r grellt ('sl COlli ribut.ion was ill di s lribut ing kllowledg(' Hlld t~xl)(' ri e l1 cc o f ti1('ir c lIlC'l"prise 10 t he g Clle rnl publ ic, nOl just in Puris but in muny COlilltl"i('s. C reutivt, drunm u nd fll lll-llS'
4 30
M O V ING
PI C T U R t;S
t ic imagery were firs t undertaken only II yell r or two Inte r by Georges M e lii~ s , who made co mic fict ions ba sf'd on ent irely inven ted see llery and Ij it.uat ions celebrat.ing t he ca pl.lcit irs of ci nema to do the im possible nnd be li ke d reams . Usi ng pa int.ed [alltllsy se ts llnd tric k photogrllphy, ~I c li es bega n the deliberate control of the photograph ed em'i ronment th at. Wl1S later developed in Ger many for The CabilleJ 01 Dr. Caligari and oth er film s, a movemen t t hat paralleled t he Surrenl ist nnd Express ionist. impu lses arising in oth er European vi sunl nrt, more and more at od ds wit.h s traightforwa rd natu ral ism and old-fa s hioned rOlllllll t.icis lll . Ea rly Eu ropean fi lm cont inued to be IItti ed to movements in ur t more than any American produ ct ions were. ~.,o tl owing the exam ple of Europeall avant-garde theater and pa in t in g, fil m-mak ing first. appealed li S a new est hetic departu re in the ge neral modern trad ition of innovation, as phot.ography had done d ceades before, and appcnl ed to ed ucated tlud iences. But since American movie·making began fi r mly us tl pa rt or t he populurentert.ainment bu siness , it. righ t ly continued to rely on ol d success ful rormu las draw n from theate r a nd ill us tration ruther t ha n joi ning t he Eu ropean pictoria l avant-garde. Dil ly so mew hat lat er, after Grilli th had demons trated how ord inary popula r melod rama cou ld be made into grellt romantic art t hrough t he alc hemy of cinema, could European movies return to rea li s m fo r expressive purposes, lind F' re neh film begi n to reCO\'cr the roman t ic s piri t of Dagu errc and Dore. Sim ila rly, a fte r cer'tlli n Illllbil iOliS European movieli appeared in t hi s cou ntry, American movies began to ex· pand th eir vi13u nl and emot ionlll flu\'ors. But. Amcricnn movies were ronumtie to begi n with , although the earliest. film s were also essentially docum entaries: short record s of arrivi ng boats or departing train s dern ons trllting t he magie of the lnoving pic tu re in e,,-eryday tenns. Th e romance of the ordinary wa s bu ilt into the American pa interly tradi t.ion l.llread.y, and illl.O its pictori al fanlasy, so much of which had co me into exis t ence via th e empirical Germnll brtl nd of Rom an ticis m. Th e earl iest American film lIarratives were also natu ra lis tic episodes. cO lll ie Or thrill ing or sent.inwntal , enhan ci ng the doennwntary st,yle with fict iona l excess. 1'lI c fa nlous G" w l 7'raill Robbery or 190a was the firs t ill u st ill -endless seri es rounded on ama zing adventures lhut. enlp t. in baunl a lld boring s urround ings . Western s are only Olle vltriulion of t he t heme; it is a constant in American fiction and ce rta in ly in such American paint.ings as Homer" s Th e Ule Lille, Cor exampl e, In American movies, essentially un interes ting urbnn and Mlral life has been the bnckgrolilld fo r violent dra mns of crime and d isaster, and of bot h comic and tragic madness; ci nema became th e best vehicle for s uch fictions, sin ce it could carry ordina ry vis ual realis m so
( "lpYriOh
Ie'" I
T u;ell l ielh ,Cf III Il ry G rQ ph ics; iI/(JI'ies
43 1
much furth er than stage designers. Or the most skillful illustrator of the eve ryday-further than anyone, thal is, exce pt a great pa int er . But. the example set by plI inters could be followed only much later in the history oC American fi lm , an el' lesso ns ill psyc hologicul atmosphere had bf'en leamed from more sophi s ticnt.ed film ·mllkers in }<:;u rope, Hussia , Ilnd Japllll, and aCter American geniuses with the stature of Griffith (Orson Welles be ing the prime example) had helped t.o push the cinematic medi um itselr toward grcnlncss nl ong Alllerica n pnths. Plli ntin gs. thc "ci nenilltic" kind that I hn\'c bcpn trncking, w{' rc nlrendy 1I source for illus trnto rs; bu t only wh ell Amcricu ll mO\'ies bcga ll to outstrip illust.rlltion did tht'y find t hemselves right. back in paint erly t errit ory. confronting the SlI llIe problems of how to render co ntinuing dnmlll inside a framc ill term s or immediate phenomena. Such a simila rity between pliin tcrs'lI lid fi lm ·ma kers· problems was not rccogniza ble , ho\\,ever, in the co nt ext of American popular show bu siness. The movies were neve rthe less bound to be an AmeriCU Il s pec ialty because or the very nature of Americun romantic visuali ziltion, not jus t. becau se of the American talent for commercia l product io n and di st.ribution or the America n need for wid es pread populul' cll te rlninment. At the turn of th e cc ntury, David Bel asco had done in the United States wilat.ir\' ing had been doing in llondon, crenting sensati onull y dew iled and thrilling s tage presentations at \'ast expc nsc. wit h s trong reliance 011 ku own illustrative IlIlllerial. But his th emes, in the American mode. inc luded 1Il0dern situat ions and Illundanp sett in gs , wate rfronts and mine shaft.s, slenzy slrcetcorners and saloolls, besides legenda ry templ es und medieva l tombs. And he set u standard for stage renlis m ill Americli thut WIlS \"(' ry hllrd 1.0 IIl£'et for t he trave ling compani('s that Sl)('c iuli zcd in bringing realistic melodrama to provi ncial COtlllllllnit i('s-th(' SOI'l of group ror which Griffith hnd originally worked. A. Nicholas Vardac has described how mun,\' E"laborate producti onR, made fnlUolis in cities. werc seve rely reduced lind muti lntcd by t he limitations of provincial s t.nges, where old-fashioned sus pension of disbelief WIlS st ill required . What. could not be done in the wily of seusat iolllli illusion by a theatrical road com pany could be done in a movie, however; and the film cou ld offer an e\'en betler version of the mill(' , th e sa loon , the wind swept cliff, the daring rescue. It is easy to see how movics followed neatly in the foot st eps or popular thea t.er all over the country. It is Icss ensy, perhaps. to see their visuallllltecedellts ill t he sorts or illu strntion thllt were inspiring the stage, and which could in SI)irc film c\'en more, cve ntually Icad ing it fu rther into th e doma in of painting t han th e stage could ever go. The very rea lism or lIluch pictorial mat('rial in turn-of-t he-ce ntury Amer-
(
~ Igt";
tar I
M O VING
::'Wt'~ j
•
J-
PI C T U RE S
,
15.4 K ES \' OS co x . " '...odgers in II. crowded Ba~'a rd Stl'('i"t tpnClllf'lIl· ... in Cpn ls II. Spot:" 1889. Illus trat ion in Scn'brler'. ,llorl lltill ,vag/wile. aJtt"r II. photograph (rom J acob Riia' IIOID au Ol lt er 111111 Litot6,
ica n I)ape rs and lUaga z ines lIIakes it seelll lln rf'lI ll1 rka bl e. It lld nol eS I)('cia li,\' painterl,\', It looks mo re like railed pholography. e\'e n thoug h th e bas ic me thod s der i" e rro m Nor the rn " pho to- graphic" (m int ing. Illus t rat ions were I)rinted in c:onjull ctioll with ac tua l pho tograph s a nd with th e sa me re produc t ive tec hn iques; 811d Uluny dOCulllc lIlnry drnwings wcre nutde di rec tly rrOIll ph otograph s , usi ng th eir casunl groul)ings alld lightiug ( 15..t). BUL I\t the sume li ll ie the illustrations o r Charles DIlIU!. Gibso n IIl1d Howllrd C hnndle r Chri s t.v , ror exampl e, see m like IIl1 inmt ed S argeltt. portruit s, s tili carry ing hi s debt. to Ve l8ztlll ez tllld ~It\n et Il.IId II ltimll t('\y to Re mbrand t's drullltlt ic c h iarOSCli ro (15.5). The plaCC lllc llt o r figll res , IIlItII,\' see n rrom th e back, and t.he lighl source inside thl." compos it io n s hure with the Page t " S herl oc k Holmes" illu s trutiOIlS 8 rcscmbhll1cc to ~t e m~e r s ..... rederic k se ri es rro m firt y ~' ('ars bdore, wh ic h in turn d~ r i,,~ 1Iltilllat ~ly rrom Re mbrandt c" c n wh ile th ey rese mbl e s to ry boards , or rnllnes rronl rn o" ie me lodrallla (1 5. 6, 15, 7). Th e debt owed to se ri ous painting by popular illu s tra t io n, a nd b.,· the film thal s te lllllled rrom it , is in ract hard to see at firs t glll.nce. because the c hiarot;curo mod e o r 1't'1I.I islll modern izes a s it goes alo ng. The SlimE" ulmosphe r ic, f' lIlotioll8larrs lI ge me nts crea ted by light Slid s hade 811d deep rocus
will re nder up-lo-date. curl-eht dress and dcti.lil HS I'eali sticn lly uS Bib lical o r medieval costume lItul ci rcurn s tlillce (15.8). The styll' of
ItI OIIH~ lIt,
llnd so
the Slylf' itsf'l f is not fOl'mally arcilaiz('d 01' clnssicizeci. 1'I""'rfol'(' a Illllgl1zinc ad or a film frumc res('mblillg 1\ Re lllbrlllldt lIlay s il ow II hO I('l lobby ill 1924, with no rcf('rcnces to lite srn'lllee llth ce ll I III',\', just as ~ I ellzr r s illustrlltions for Fred{' rick'!j life lIlake 110 effort to sUKgest l·ighte('lllh-cell t liry Rococo urt and ulso resemble HClIlbl'lllldl. Alld Rembrandt. for his purl, Illude Biblical costume lIlkt> tll(' sUllie 8i1I1P{,S und fil l lip s l>uce tlt{' Stllll{' way ilS lIis m od e rll dress, just liS t ll(' movie cn nH'rli dO(,8.
Til e ull.erlllltive decol'ative nnd cnlligraphic IlIod(' ill illus t l'lltioll, the onc thut. dCl'in.'s from Bottic{'lI i, Grt'ek \'lIS(,S, lind ot hel' exquisit{' linear models, did IIppI'ar in ('quit! profu sio n ill udvertisillg I.lml postrr UI'I a t th e turn of Ihe ce ntury, wroughl into the fusiliollllb\t· Al't ~ou\'Cuu fonlllS tlutl were e\'e n more Ctlrrt'llt ill EII,·ope. '1'lIi!'; illllsll'lll in > s l yi(' 1'('li('s 011 cluss iciziug und archaizillg, lind 011 th(' lIS(' of ,..lyli,,· lir· allusioll to pust art. In mugllzille nrt, sllch u sty ll' WliS rurl'ly u SNi for ficiiolllllld slitirt', which de-
lIullIded the rNllislU of tht' illllll('t\illt(' 1I101ll('lIt
1'lItlt~r
1111111 u precise mo-
dishness of shupe Ullel lilll'. Pictures lhut told u stOI'Y or' Sll~l!('sted n lense or comic situtllioll held lO tllr chilll'oscliro 1I 1{' Ihod of 1'('lIdt'rilig alld to
(Ii('
deep·focus Dutc h style of cO IllPosition. tlftl'lI cOlllp l(,lt' with the Willdow,
15 .5 1I0WAKD C IlASIlL~~K C IIKISTY . " (I "r hUl!lhand IlIld Ilurll{';I 011 her logelher. " IlllISlrll.liOIl itl Sc. ribm; r '&.IloutJt/y .III1Y(IZillf' , 1li.'CI' rul}fr 1900
434
15 .6
MOVIN G
C HAR LK8 DANA Ol lJ 80N.
PI C T U RE S
"SttlKe·Stnlek:' lIIuSlrttl iOIi ill Cvfl iu',
Wttkfy, Ma reh 1905
•
-.
•
...
15.7 Still from
r ON
Ulld JIlt, 1938
T/I'r", i r /II -('r 1111/ ry G r(1ph ics: ,1/QI'iI'S
15.8 J .
II ~~ SH Y .
" YOI I IU'I"\'Y li l lli' d('\'i l , you!"
IIlu!itrat i()1I for Edu» F(' rl}('r's Fllli ny /l rrs"!, 19 1 j
the lUb lc. the clUlrllc ter set' ll rrom Ih£' rcar, 111(' drllll1 lll ic r"polIssoir. IIlId the pillY o r light 0 11 mobil e rabric, Aud
4 36
MOVIN G
PI C T U Rt:S
admired in art·consc ious f<:urope ror t he wuy they looked, mu ch more tll811 they were resl)ectcd illthc lIitcd 'HUCK: alld America n rn ovie -g()(! rs , thinking or roreign films 8S artiKtic und their own 8S purely com mercia l, never got to see the huge alllOlint of bad com rnerciu l ci llemu turned ou l in oth er count ries in imitation of Ollrs und not export ed. Ii indsight has I ttte l~' reca l)tured the Hollywood corpus und IIOW lK' rm its us to makc eve ry kind of distinction Rlllong its works: and to compare them Ilppropriutely with foreign 'nat er iul. old and lIew. It wus in ract the es thetically a ler t French who first com'illcingly poin ted out to Amer icuns t hat thei r popular film s could be se ri olls ly cons idered 8S works or uri, thu t they were poetic and s ugg('s t ivc , with mythic in their own stylized fo rlll llt, which hnd an und eniuble ove rtones com'eyed • • grllphic uuth eillicity: American fi lm tlQir is, IIrter nil, II F' rl'lIch invel1tioll of th e eco nd World Wnr . Oll ly since then hu s Th e Whole Art or Filln, de filled by 11 lIew criticis m Ihol sub mits mo\,ics 10 one co mprehensive 8e l or s tan dllrds, co me g rllduu lly in to existence. We are, ill fa ct, returning 1.0 the very earli est l&nd tndy internatiollul cond it ions of film-making, Against the present background of enlarged 8WlI.reness. we CUll sec t he purely pictorial sources of Amer ica n Hollywood lIIovies, alollg wilh th ose
15 .9 rRE 0 8 RI C R 8M I N 0 TO N, "Long sat waiting fo r 811 "1I.w~r . " I'hologra\'Ur'e from. l1lon~hromf' pailliing. 1892. Illustration for Lollgfellow's Tlte SONg of llilucallto
.J 3i
muc h In ore o\'crtly ulLd conscious ly 1;lpped by film-makP!"S in ol. llI'!' COUll' trif'S, who felt IlI ore uil iNI wilh 1lI'Iislic ui ms, 011(' iIII PO l'llI II I SOlll'CC for Weste rn s, for cxnrnp l{', hils bet"TI I hr pn i III ings , bpCll tl st' IIC'\\' prOcesses made n prinled und 1'('lwo· e1uced photoj!l'IIph look W!'y IIl lic h li kr- II prilll('(1 and rcp!'C!(luced IXlilifillg Ilu:H had bN'1I sp('c iltlly dou(' to look lik('u photoj!'rllph , Til{' tl'chlJo]ogics of 1'('I)J'otilu.:l ioll lllltd(' pailltillj.! lIIal pholol!rllphy ill ln a sillj!'lp ilillst l'lllin-' t~ II' t{'l'Il1'ist' ( 15_ !), 15, 10), The Cil lt l('!'11 II lId h('colII(' tilt' lles irahll' \'('hie)(' nr 1!'lIlh hy 1880 ; 1111 prin ted illuSll'llliolls p r(> l(>ru lillg 10 s how whllt 1I11."t hill':;- wus r('ally likl'wh et h(> I' imClgoi n('d hist oriclI] lUolllell ls or 4;li nC1l1 ('\'('11 ts-cou III b(' cOII\'ilic' ing only if Lllt'y uPPPIIl'('(1 ill t he SOI't of ,'pll(leriuj!' IIIn l "('i ill Itltllloch l 'ulIW to h('gill wilh, to aid IIH' l 'i'llI'ndllcjll~ 11l'I)Ct'SS, SOl lit' til' II is illlill,,dllt'd 1'(' lldpl'iul!S of nll'iolls CII!'!'I'1I1 P\'('IIIS, sudl us TNltly Hom;P\'t'\t's l:UlILPll ij!'IIS ill C"bll, W(' /'t' pl'inl(,t1 s id ,' by s i{h' wilh plHHo' g'I'a ph s: It II tI 0 lit' c/.t II St't' II lit' WWI) 1'1 d 0 r docUI Jlt'IIIl1I'Y' rflll III II I ic \' iS111.1 Ii 1,111iOIl
C pyr
te
15. 10 PREDERI C RY.MINOTON . ·· Brandinga Calr." Procesa·engnl\'illg from all ink drawing based 011 8 photograph by Th eodo~ Roolievell. lIIu&lration in Celtlwry t1/uglJzilfc. Al}n l 1888
15.11
FREDERI C REMINOTON .
Tit e Selttincl
'/'u'f' Jl/ iell" CCllflII"Y GraIJ/t ics: .I/ol'ies
15. 12
II O WAK!> I'l'Lf; ,
" I II til l' P rf'i! f'HCI'
4 39
or W ,hi l li Hj:I OH ."
Ilh llUrlil ioll ill Cl' II/ lIry ,1II1YII Zi" t . April 189 i
g radu ll lly tak illg' l:dlUlW ill AIIll'I'i(:ttli popu lllr lII a gil z illl'S. du ri ng th e SUint> d('cll<1r-s whl'1l lII o\' i('s U('I,!IIII ( 15, II ). l.· acial types . bodi ly att itudj·s, groupings. a nd lightill~ might thu s be cre· ated by IIIl , who would IUl\'t> absorbed th e lesso ns o r Geromc and Meissoni('r as we ll li S those or Ve ll\7.que1. and GOYIl , and trall s lttted th em in to til e new, popullir ~ruphi e CUlIll' rll hlllguage to tuul c h r e al pho tographs (15. 12).
4< 0
MOVIN G
!'ICTURES
Glossy, decornti"t' illllst riltioll wus II sOlllcwhnt different matter, mOre self·ev idently cOll nected to nrlisLic sourc(>s; but whell relit ism wus the mode. us with Gibson or Christy or JIlIIICS Montgome ry "' Ingg, the eff ect was similar. Cinema simply look over the conventions and set them in Ill Otioll. This couldn't h8\'e been done with dir('ct re rerences to Vcnnccr or 00)'0, because such allusions would ei ther not registe r or seem ludic rOlls; but. indirectly. the basic ways t.o fill a frume wiLh action and (eeling cu me (rom such ell rly inventors or the ci nematic me thod, filtered through their interpreters iu the iIIustrnlion business. It is vcry important to 1I0te thlli durillg these sallle decudes the great and not-so-great art of the past also came to be generally available through ph.otographic reprod uct.ion, T hcrefOl'C it, too, ent e red the gellerill pictorial theater of popu lar life in the same phot o· graphic mediulII that was slowly taking over the rep rescntl.ltion of ordinary reality. The history of I1rt evc n· tusHy "got iu to t.hc movies" bccuusc tlte reproductivc still ea lllcrn e ncompassed it first, forcing past. art to shlH'e in the doculllentllrY spirit. of the new phot.ographic rornllllticislll. I nst('ud of being reproduced in the form of engraved ';fine prints," of which the t.ec hnien l finish could be admired for itself and form a medillt illg ,'cil bctween thc ol'igillnl picture lind the COli lIoisseur. pnintings ca mc straight IIttll(" ordinar.Y ,·iewcr from thc pages of a book or magaz ine a8 if unt.ranslated . Tht'y wert', of coursE', r('dIlCt'd in scale , cut down to size, forced in to submi ssion ill 11 diifE'rent WHy; but that put. them in to new competition wilh Ctllllcru ·based populnr graphics: and it put. those popuhlr grnphics iuto COIIII)etition with them, Pil intings were also Illllllrully otTered in black lind while, likc so lIIu ch othe r illustrative material, and thus joined with thc rest of it to creat.e the visual matrix for the cinema. They helped to set th e sta ndard for how to show II cavillry charge, how to dress 1\ Byzlllltinc empress, or how 1.0 deco· rat e the interior of an eighteenth -centu ry boudoir, how to show t.error and pity or spirituul aspiration with gesture and facial exprcssioll-ull without color. Conscious borrowing st raigh t from th eat r ical cOllvent ioll for many such eleme nts wus clellrly necessary to the success of curly movies, since they arose ill comp('tition with the stnge: but the resourccs of the camera soon mude unconscious borrowings from art cvell more ncccssury. as fi lm morc and more trllllscended 1111 stuge "isualizaliolls CJcepl for ttwir color, And the ca mera , IIOW rendering pust, urt into terms of modern black-lind· white graphic tcc hn ology, WilS 80011 mnking it 8"uila ble to fUl'ther grnphic dC\'eloplllelil in movie terms-the lerlllS of purc ligh t und shade. Thus 11 resemblance bet.wee n tI f!'ume from till ordinary com mercia l Ame rica n film Slid it Vermeer muy be unde rs tood neither us n coi ncidellce 1101' as a cO ll se ioll s im itation. bu t as un exa mple of cultural conti nu ity. of
( "lpYriOh
Ie'" I
44 1
l'wr lll irl ll ·Cf'IIIHry Om/}II ies: .I/ QI';"S
HU :I St ill rNlm TIr" Milt. II'lr o ('fII"" 10
Ili""""
1941
-•
,. • - .
• f"I..,
.t:::;. :.:: ~
15. 14 JAN vltRMERH- , O!Jice rrHfdLawglt i"gGi rl
442
MOVINO
PI C T U RES
IS. 15 Still rrom Tit,. Oms/llit!, 1941
1 :1.16
JAN V ~~ R M F. E R .
TIll' JAJI'rlell tr (dNai))
Twelll ielh -C(, III It ry G rtf ph ics.- M Ol' ies
pictorial tradition becoming internalized and naturalized, as it always has, only this time by mcans of the great leaps made by phototechllo!ogy at the turn of the century, Such ' 8, correspondf'nce b e t~j een a mode rn film-frame and an old painting might be ca ll ed an indirect quote, an unconscious allusion like a Latin lag or a ShakelSpcarcan ph rase, It would arise from the effect on visual co nsciousness of mallY photographic reproduct ions of Vermeer, ove rlaid and confirmed by reproductions of works by all artists influenced by him , So that n view of n tnilll and woman at a table by a window, racing t he woman from behind the man-s shou lder, would seem like the most nalural, the most effect i\'c, the most " realistic" representational device to use in a movic, chiefly bcenuse it wou ld have t.he s upport of such mingled generations or illustrative genius bchind it-not j ust curren t illustrations, but all their grent sources (15. 13-15. 16). T he specific tradition behind it 1111 wns th e North Europeun one, dcvoted to the eas ua l fnll of light on phenomena and the apparently IIrtless dip into the flow of passing expe ri ence, mt her thnn to the visibly composed , controll ed rende ring of groups in sign ifictt nt poses , harmonized by n unifying style, Dramatic and unstable angles from which to see lhings, with loomiug figures in front partially blotting the source of light , or lighted distant views through doors and windows of a mbigu ous action at odds with the d im foreground, or sce nes observed ns if from the vi('wpoin t of It marginal by· Slander-all these effects had b{'en dcveloped by Northern artis ts of the past aud confirmed by popula r modern illustrators under their influence; and they Iny al hund for movie-makers. ns soon ns t.he cn mcra itself could lIIove unci th e shot bcca lue the unit of film IUl.rrati\,c. Howll rd Pyle's well known picture of J('ffer!;OIl writillg the Declarat ion of Independencc, ror examp le, derives directly from Hont horst.. with its light ed tabletop and figure seen frolll the knees up: bul, it could wcll be n fram e from a ve ry recent historical fi lm, wi th cllreful period d etnil!; well subdued to the general atmosphere (15.17,15.1 8). Th e pernicious sp lit between "artist" and "i llustrator" seems to havr become most pronoun ced in AlI1ericn, us opposed to Frllllcc, aud to have been linked with the disseminat ion of thc camern-bound IIlIlt.erial in magazines. The widespread use for illustration of photography and pseudo photogra phy und doctored photography put real art ill another category, even when llIany fine illu strators did have highly d eveloped I)crsonai s tyles. ' ...or a ce ntury we have illlSist.ed on u gllif between urt int ended for com mercial reproduction and any other kind; unci movies, b{'ing ill the former camp. were not considered to have any connectio n with wha t. real arti st s had ever done. Both Homcr and Hoppe r, ror example, apparently fclt that their popular illu s trations and their pa intings were incompatible, and they had to
H'
15. 17
MOVING
HOWARD P\' I. K.
TIIom/l . JI'I!r rl.OH (dt>tail)
PICTUR}o~S
15. 18
O£R RIT VAS IIONTIIOKST .
('Arid "'fort' III I' IIlyh Prln '
desert the olle for the other. Art. once c mbrlt ccd, l>r('cludNI illll8t rnli oll. When the curr €'11 1 Wyet h is dispnruged, Itl' is cu lled l&ll illustrator . PrintUlaking, o n the other hund, became a lII orc lind more " I('vntcd und presti·
gious brallch of fioe urt separate from cO llllllcrciul grnphies, und it still is. 1' he more pholomechuuical rl'productioll was perft"'cl.cd, Ih e less prestige Ilt.lll chcd to the ctl mt'ra lUi Uti esthetic mediulll . lind the rnOl'l' it wus pUl'ely Kssocialed wilh dOClllllcn ttlry illustration. Movies I hus nl"OS(' i II I his COUll t ry just when the CH lllerli itself had become soml'wlutl deblls('d, ('\,(' 11 though certain successrul ill uSl rntors were gr('ully ndmired . eriolls artistic photography Will) OhiO pushed into (1n embult led position IlS UI1 Ilvalll -garde mode of Ilrt. ca refully at. odds with ba8tard cOllllllerciul productions. In Eurol){' during til(' surne period lht' camera rernuined a legitilllllt(' esthetic medium. lWei so did commercial gral)hic urt; wilh 11)(' r('sulL thul Europe811 posters Bnd postage stamps 8ud advert isemcnts displu,\'ed U high, 8d,'ullced standurd or pure design. and so did Europetm movies when the." firSt appenred . But narrative, cl'('utin> ones tended nol 10 b(' docum elltllry
in s pirit ,ulld hlld lIluch less "Cllson to StllY with ro}lIIlT1t ic 1'('ulislIl, Abs trllct , d Cfii gn und forlllll i in novution were fur ilion' fl11itfi ll fields, u nd so ",f' l'e ('x' pc rimc n ts in psyc hologicnl fll,\'or s uc h a s Symbolis t painters wel'{' uUt~ mp ti n g,
W hnt AIIlf'riCIlII (j Im 1Illlll1lgcd WilS to myt ho logize the old, reali!!itic modes o f a rt without appcnrilll! to do so, and 10 allow t hem to penetrate t he who le co nsciousness of l he nlilion throngh tilt' in tj'ns,'ly I'o lll llntic mediu m of film, The Onrbo spell. fOl' cX llmple . is II 1I1II1I(' r of Ii/.:hl li nd s ha d r Cl'cul, i ng un emot io na lut 1lI0SphCI'C ill Ul logolls lot hc s pc II of Ve rmerr 's WOIIICII , 1111 lIllCUIlII)' C\'oCll ti on of f{'mule inwurdm' ss cOl\veyed ill 1.1 picture tlml see ms to s how n sequence of impol'lunt. 1II01n(' lL l!; without fi how ing lilly nct ioll, A fa s hio nab ly d ressed WOUlttll is ill II 1'001ll-WC sc" h('r from the k llet' s up , Per hllps n mall hils just. I('ft, or is j us t co ming, or is 011 t. he othel' s idc o r thc world, S he is uwarc uud full of fecling, bu t h('r fncc is s till and he r hands qu iet. S he ho ld s 80 111('l.hill g', II n'ssel o r II hll irbnlsh, U 1('lt ('1' 0 1' tilt' wiudow fru me; Illeullwh ile we look ut h('r nnd re('1 thut the SCC II(' is 1II0lllCIlLOu 8, she is heurt breaking, t 11(' imnge is 1111 forgcu II hie , 0 il rho cou ld 11('\'(, 1' CI'(,II I e !!iuc h effec ts 011 1.1 tileutricully light cd s tagc; Ulld it WUSll' t IIcting', Shl' (u nd we) need('d the " reu listic" fil m ,l ighti n g, t ht, film se tting, and the c rcnt i\'(' cu m era "loving" her as it lIIo\'cd in t.o r('gctl'd hcl', jusl as V,'rlllccr se('m s 1.0 hll \'t~ " loved" t he llidy witli t llf' scale, the glass, 01' the guitlll', IlI slelld of becom ing ou t llloded, 11S it wns rust doi ng in EurOI)e , I-cnl islll was first Cll l'ricd (ul't hc l' herc by pnil1lcrs s uc h liS I l ome r and Hopper , then s hifted (pu r tly with t heir he lp) in to thc 1'('lIlm of populi .., d oculllenta ry graph ics, and fina lly rf'COlI stitlli.f'd lind irl'ndint cd on the sc ree n , T he film lIoir is a n eXll lllpl e of this e\'Cl1tlllll rOlllllnticizutiol1 of d ocu lUclltllry rcu lis m; and as n gCllr(', it d(,lIlollstl'alf's how the old :\ol'thcrn pictorial me thods werc needed rOl' th(' l)roc(,8s, Oer llulII imm igra llt di l,('ctors such liS }<' rit z Lung COli lei i lis t incti \'(' I)' follow old Ge rmu ll art ist ic Imbi t S 01' 1I1 I1I1il)Ulating light lIud s hnde fo r rmo ti onul (>" rl)08CS , just lIS F I'i('dl' ic h und 10llg be fore him Altdor fcr had dOlle. aud liS Rcmbra ndl did, T hey al so cmployed the Northcru n e llui 8Sttl1C(, trick of lIs ill g old my t hs in new, f('ul is t ic g ui se. In fillII. folklorl' und CO ll n~ nti Ol\ul lto mulltic tlwlI1es glli ll power whel1 lieI'll a s a c tua lit ies, Movies IlI1Iy indced hll\'e owed a ItICliSlII'C o f t hri r powerrul c lTcct. t.o tlleil' pa rt ici pat.ioll ill t he Silt isfyin g ol d t mdi1.ion of H"mhrn nd t; btl t first , ci lIell1 11 hnd 10 d c\'c lop its method. And cwn tht'r{' Ihr tE'c hn iq u('s o r 1II0n tngc und cross-eu ltil1g, of cloiSe-u p 1I11d IO l1 g s hot, t rllck ing, di880I\'(,-1I1 1 the wuys of using t he m ovi ng pict nrr to IUO\'f' t he feelings-we re fo unded 0 11 (,Hrlie r me t hods for doing til(' SlIlU(' th ing with s till pietlll'cs, Tile more refined ci ne , 1Il8t ie meth od s bcc.u lle, the nCU l'cr they 1l J)J)I'OIlChcd whut c(' rt.a il1 ('lIrlie r
C pyr
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44 6
M OV IN O
PI C T U RE S
painters suggested, European film -frames finally began to rese mble Degas paintings or Ooya lithographs or Dutch genre works, rath er than blea ched stage productions, when the camera began to move and the close-up began to record the new art of film act.ing- t hi s was well on in the thi rd decnde of film his tory, Between about 1910 and 1920, the sc reen picture really came to life, a8 much life as still pictures long since had. At that time film wa s sti ll tm ly intenultiollal, because it. had no audible dialogue. I'-~ ihn captions could be translated in to any langunge illld run with the action so as LO be perreclly convin cing to nalive s peake rs, withou t the incongruities or dubbed speech or incomplete and intru s ive subtitl ing. Film -makers pooled their visua l resources very (Iuickl),. borrowing each other's effects and tapping pict.orial sources. knowingly or not, that became common to all movies within a very few yean; . The wordlessll ess of ci nema was essential to its speedy sta rt. as a vis ual medium and its use of painterly precedents: captions were already familiar in illus trations and reprodu ctions since the Renaissance. nl ike the stage, where convincing drama de· pends on language, th e rea lis tic and roman tic screen began with pure picture·making, to wh ich utterance was an appendage, S ituations and sce· nic effects resembl ed t hose in known pictures in order to deliver thei r message inside the fam iliar frame. National chara cteri s t ics affec ted th e early movie style in Europc. as they had informed the flavor of artistic tradition, and th e early s tyle o f film acti ng, too. Early Danish and Swedish films were atmos pheric and s ubt.1y acted rather than spectacular, following th e North European ta lent for using light and fa cial expression to com'ey meaning and importance, as in Scandinavian painting or th e preceding period . The Italians t.ended towtlrd stylish li ne and shape and strong archi tectura l settings, using c1ussieal ma.terial-Troy and Ca rt hage, or sLOri es in Dante and Ta sso, the stuff of the classical ope ra rather than political or psychological themes. But what united all movi es was the romanticis m or their med ium , its commitm ent not just to reeling but to th e emot ionul foundll t ions of livi ng -unconscious fantasy and wish, the desi re fo r something beyond immed iate knowledge even if the content os tensibly made all appeal to the intellect. Thi s wus the point first grasped and made use of by Eise nstei n and the other Ru ssians. Th e ve ry use of light to make eac h picture, combined with th e illustrative purpose to make all the pictures carry a narrative directly by emotional means, relying only on fragmenta ry ca ptions, prevents any d etachment on the viewer's part. His contribution is ensured , his own psyc hologica l hi st.ory engaged. Film shots took 0 11 the emotional freight borne by ram ily s naps hots, ror example, which in the yea rs between 1890 and 19 10 had a great po ignancy unmatched by th e usual posed studio
c
,
1'11:('1/1 irll! -C('1//1I,.y Gr(J pI! it'S: M0/' i ('.~
447
portraits or landscape studies. The look of people cllught on'-gua rd ulld in Il lotion, or posed I.Igainst their will in thl' full grip of so me intrnctable mood -the artless drama of life relenllessly illumillatl'rl by III(' came/'a-Ic nd s a prophetic, movielike look to suc h I'lIrly Illllatl'lIr pic llires (15.19). Th ey muy hllvc scemcd ulipicLurcsque ttt til{' tilllt'; bUlliOW Ihl'Y s how what Ihe camera was thcli already able to do with raw hUlIlIHI material. Cle\'('r Illovi('-rnakrrs took it up; and th(,11 til(' editoriu l ski lllhllt IlII1k€'S 011(' pnrl icu hu' imllge ~HlC ceed another became thc lIew IIrt of thl' cin('ma romanticist, who could string together stich gripping visions, intPrspt'I'sl' them with stirring SI}CCtacle and excruciating dNail. add music, lind so wea\,(' a tull' guuruntel'd 1.0 keep a tolal hold on lUlyom"s (,1II01iolll.l l l.ltt(,lll ioli. Like I)u inl ing' in the North('rn trudilioll . Ih(' fillll !lim is ulIlIINlinted vision; lind olle of its strongl'st assistu llts IUlS ulwllYs h('ell music. the sort of sound thll.t re(lu ires no uctuu llulIguugc, IIl1d fo rms II touchstolle for ronulIIlic exprcssion. It wns n fundalllcliial nilieleelllh-ceut.ury Romalllic id<,H. lhat mu sic is Ihe ultilllllie urt , the purest \'(Isse i; lind UiO\'ies werc 1I<" 'cr s ilent, in thal they wer(' alwlI,Ys ulld crscol't~d, some times wilh claborlltc Orchest.ral arrnngenll'nls. Origillllll.r Ihis WliS li,'c mll sic, lind it was indis l)CIlSllblc for cnrrying tile l'icquC'IIC(' of visions ulong on a wlive Ihut swept th(' spectat.or into the rcnlm of associntioll and f
•
-. 15.19
FlIlI1il~'
phologMlrh , c. 1905
44 8
MOVING
'> I C T U RE S
In so me WBy the music stood for the kind of pictures In ov ies were, lind iudicated the right. way to lake them. In the ol d Dutc h pnilll.illgs, music is often nUiCle ill t he picture 1.0 give the same message. Pe rpelllnily under scored , early ci nema thus displayed th e affin ity of fillll not. with plays but with opera . In opera, nar rative proceed s inn 8Crc hellsibl e when il. is of· fer ed und received 0 11 mus ic's termS . Anal ogously in fillII , the impact of a dramatic moment is mude by its ent.ire ,·isual (rame and ground and its score, too, not jus t by the situution. It is u feuture of SOIn f movi es that their visual flav or see ms ilt odds with t he fl avor of thei r SlOry. that beu uti fu l ci nematography and seu illgs lIluy be cOllveyillg 8 chilling tate otherwise reHdered with grent d etach ment. In a bad movi e, ove rdress ing a mod est story c reates n si lly imbalallce; but in the haud s of a ser ious movie· make r likt' Stunley Kubrick, for exalllp le with Barry LYI/doll, the t.clIsioll between t he benigll bcnut.y of its ei ghteent h. cent.ury mise·e n·scene and it~ harsh s tory of spiritual pove rty fun ctions as a sor t of COIlSlanl ironic pedal·poin t, g iving t he mov ie its unforge ttnble bite. The rather formul, tragic sound of the eightee nth·ce ntury mu sic in the score intc nsifie!; thp effect. As ill it Mozart. ope ra, t he story is hI li of humili· utiOlI . roily. and callous betrayu l, but the lIIusic is rllvisilillg j and the totul ('ff("ct is til(" r('sull or their ill te rpit1'y IIlId illterde pendell ce. Suc h un effect. is difficult to ach ieve; t he connection mu s t 1I0t break be· tween the style and meaning of the mov ing picture. If ci ne matic beauty is d evcloped indel)endent ly of the poin t being' mnde by the nction, the movie is prelly but cri pp led , nnd the 8udiellce is beiug seduced by a lovely (lice so it WOII · " notice l he limp. Bad operu s at one time we re put toget her in the same way , with no cOllllectioll be twee n the narrative theme and the mu sic, so that the public would applaud the stars llnd the beauty of the arill S !tlld 1I0t care what they meunt. ]n the case of both opera lIud cinema, the power or t he medium is so strong, its d ircct e n'ecl on t he feeli ngs so intense, that co ntrolled artistry is not at al l necessary for cnlde sll ccess .
Cpyr
tel
Two., ielli -Crlliu ry G rfJ ph ieli: .IJol'il's
Bec8use of how mu ch ps),chologieltillulteriallouds each filII! shot, much of it e licited from the viewer, they are hcl:I.vy with sugges ti on, indi r('ct reference, Illultip le possibilities for 'meaning depending on till' next s hot, and the next. A grent dea l of visulllnUltler is thrown nWIlY, iuwiug rllised expectl:l.tiolls it ellll llot meet ill the Hcxt and next , becllus(' o f whal the di l'cctor' wants and (h(' ('dilor do('s, Somc of this ('xc('ss COll te nt. mill' be so (hu:zlill(!, ho ..... e"er, 80 full of IIl1di ff('rent illt('(1 elliot iOllal power. t hat it flUlC t ions Iike a compelliug melody, defining t he dUlI'ucter of the IlIo\,i(' (,,'e n if it makes 110 inllnediate sense, If it makes no !';ellse {','(' r, the movie CUll still uppenl 811d make monel'; but it will be a fa ilure , Best is if sllch visual dazzle c r ell i es til(' fi lm's se nse , how('v('r, and IIlU lI ages to carry nil other IIIcallillgs, IlS in most. o f Kubrick 's 1Il0\'il'S, Tlw \' isual glamour and clnrity of th e boo t-camp sC'
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4 50
M OVINO
PI CTU R ES
III this way n lot of visual movie lIlateria l ha s bee n swall owed wh ole, see n without being remarked, res ponded to withou t co nsciousness. Ma ny visual movie myths ha\'e seeped ulllloticed into the cu lture and lodged there, alollg wilh the stori es lllld situat ions and fam ous flices t hat. make up t he known legend . Camera angles, splltill l relulious, relations of lighting and texture have lIIade up more of it than huve the d etuils of material life, which tend to catch the co nscious eyc. And jus t th ese basic ele men ts, the back· ground· musica l ones, are th e uncielltlegncy of th e cinematic paillters. Such pa interly en'eeLs hnd mucic th eir murk on the public eye long before, mostly through being reproduced; and ill their cmot ional , mu sica l, unnoticeable way had long si nce prepurcd the mode rn eye for filln language. 0 V I E s ' debt to pa inting has oft.en bee I! left· lulIIdedl y ac· knowl edged du ri ng Iheir his tory, wilh 111IIIIy url·historical quotatio ns occa· sionally pUlictunting the flow of historicul films. The m o~ sophi s ticnt ed t he lighting in modern movi es, as I ha\'e s ugges ted, the bcllcr this works; but it was nlready be ing mnnuged ill blnck·llnd ·white movi es fairly eu rly, especially when gruph ic urtists were be ing quoted . Two German fi lm s ubout Fred erick th e Great, one silent in 192 1 und one with s poken dilliogue in 193 1, made ample use of Mcnzel' s f"IlIOll.!!: illus trat.ions, as if to s how what those had bee n intended for. Simila rly unci eve n more IIcutely, Alex· ander Korda 's bi ogrnphiclli Rembralldt of 1936 emulat es Rembrandt etc h· ings Ilnd chiaroscu ro Bibl ical scenes with great success, even though so me THE
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15.20 Still frolll Ht lllbr(lluli. 1936
TlVenlielll -Cel//ury Grupllics: Movjes
15 .2 1
I'IETER S A£SREDAM ,
-1 5 1
Th ,. Old Towll llallof
A",sl,.rd" ",
of tht" costume details arr slight ly wrOllg. Thl' 1Il0\'i(' ofTer'S II Dutch world t II rough t.h e ('Yl'S of Rembrand I' s contclIl porll rirs liS well ; Steell itlld Sacnredam supply th e neutral interiors and ex teriors, as if we were seeing liCe through th e ord iuary represe ntati onul convenl io ns of Rcmb randt's mili eu , and on ly perceiving private emotional moment.s in his d is tinctive mode (15.20, 15.21). At the very end of the film. as old. dying Rembrandt. guzes at his mirror and prepares his 11181 sel f-portrait all th e ease l, the camera stops contemplating him and rises to seek th e un i"erss l sou rce . the ineollling light. Korda seellls to have got the point about Hembrandt . despite the oversimplified view the film gives of hi s li fe. Carl Dreyer ine"itably used Dutch art ill 19-13 for Day 01 Wrath , set in seventee nth -century Denmark (15.22, 15.23). A pre ponderance of stitT blaek clothing with white ncckwcllr !;ct against dimly lit and austerely furnish ed inte riors makes the moments Ceaturing flum es or outdoor sunlight all the more sta rtling, and the texture of skin almost unbearably te ll ing, as they are in t he Northern paiuting tradition . Th e theme of this grim tal e is God 's mysteri ous will , visually conveyed as His conquering way with light , whether crnel and lurid or tender and comforting. It s penetrat ing force is unrelieved by color or pleasant su rfaces, its ultimate reach is unaffected by men's zealous wish for Illastery, Fire and s un outwi t th e slllalhwss of windows, the dimness of garments. and s how til) the blackness of souls .
.. 52
~t OV I NO
I a.~~
~Iill (nil ..
PI CTU RE S
/Jlly of WrIlllr. 1!) ..
a
TWClitictlt -Cl' lI t.uy Gra lJhicif: .1JOl' jrs
15.24 St ill from
TIt ~
4 53
Frrml P,IY", HI:I1 . DUlch lu yle in lJIod(>n l drf'Ss
Quoting from th e mu lticolorcd work s of th e Prr -Hnplutc lite sc hool has become morc a cc urut ~ s in ce thl' control o f lighl hil s increuscd for film make rs us in g color . The pal c flalll' uiug of th e d l'tl.lil ed illluge ry hilS been succes s full y imitated for Englis h hi s tor icnithe lll es during the las t twe nty years, ill sh a rp cOlltrns t 10 th e ells ic r dee p c hiaroscuro c ffcct s nchi e\'cd lUuch earlier in blllc k a nd wh it(', Pr('-Rapluwlit c imitatio ns, notubly in To ny Ri chardson's The Clwrge of Ih e l"if/h1 Brigade (1 968), ulld more recently The Fre/l ch IAClllcl/(l/Il's Womall ( 198 1), for ('xlllllpl e, lire dc liberllt c \'i sH"1 embod iment s of mid· nine teenth-ce ntury ullitudes , high ly sui tllbl e to th e film s ' s ubjects and recognizablr 10 ltudi(,lI cr s li S charac tc ri s t ic pa ill i erl y visUl.lli ztltions of th e pe r iod , So IlI'C n UllI.\ ' of Kord ll 's in IlcW b"(t lll/f , Bu l lIlIlike t hose cllrly hluc k-und-whit " 0 1\(' 1; , whic h tllP til(' gruphic element s ill Dutc h pllinting, Pre· Ruphu e lit(· re fe rc nces are to un cx trellle l~' s tnt ic. lio nc ine mat ic kind of art; nlld so they Ill'e II sl'c1 10 poi nt up the d ifference bctween fi lm llnd paint ing, no1. to d elll ollstrlll.(' th l' cont inu ity bc tw('e n 1111.'111 , They are pointed quotes, not assim ilnt ions. Int e rwove n with til(' texture of th e cine mlll.Ography, Ihey Illllurillly enric h th e film s e normo us ly, as sc nsi tive pcriod s lngl' d es ign s based on pllint ing enr ic h plnys and o perlls j but they lire nol eXllml}les of t he co nnectio n I uln Iryi ng 10 mllk e. prec isely becnu se su ch {Ill ut ing is co nfined to " period " movies , 10 Ilwke lhe " pe ri od "
M OV I NO
PICT U RE S
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15 .25 J A CQU -.: seA I. LOT , COtllb1J1 wilh Su..W(/I. El chillg, 1632
AI,..ralH/c rN~ t·8J,:y,
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15.26 S lill (rolll
•
19:18
T wc/lt jcth-Ce/lt ll ry
Gra phjcsj
Movies
4 5;;
poin t. Rembralldt and Da y uf lYrath . on the other hand, seam lessly look both period nnd modern, since t he chillroscuro mode fits both (15.24). Occasionally even more *JLbsnte spot-quotqil will occ ur in a movie about a pa int.er, like the li" ing Toulolls(" -I.Jautrecs momentari ly imposed on the otherwise vcry un-l.Jau trec-like color ci llemntogrnphy of Moul ill Ro1tge, for example, or Van Gogh's Crows in the Wh eatfi el d sudde nly attacking Ki rk Douglas in Lust. fo r Life, or the hil a ri ous Creat ioll of·Aduln cloud for· mations inspi ring Cha rlton Heston in Th e ilgo"y alld lite Ecsta sy. That last. movie wns otherwise film ed as if il werc a Western, in the s tyle which t urns out to be the mos t genera lly s uit.able for any " peri od" materin l, nfter all, sin ce it was invented for such a favorite " period " ge nre: Port.er and Grif· fit.h started it, 811 d no amou nt of quo tntions fro m paintings can kee p historical movies from quoting themse lves to mu ch greatcr advantage. Bu t when they do it, they are also unwittingly qu otin g not only Hemin gton bu tCallot , with his s trealll S of extras pouring over the hills , no l.H utte r what. arti st. the mO\'ie may be about (15.25-15.28). One excellent s mall examp le in rece nt t ilnes of the perfect ly int.egrated Rembrandt kind of film abou t tUI nrtist wns a s hort fil m made fo r Brit ish Le ft' anu story entit.led ' ;Schllic ken." The story is television of the a Homantic tale pub lished in 185 1, full of t he s upernatural effect s charac· teri s tic of t he Irish author; but t he subj ect was the rellilute·sevenleenth · century Dutch painter, wh o specilllizcd in nmbigu ously erot.ic scenes usually lighted with a si ngle candle . Th e mO\'ie succel movie accounts fo r both pn ill tc r and writer, g iving thc Dut.ch d etail s an Engli s h 4
c
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456
M OV I NO
15.2 7
J A C Q U K 8 C AL LOT ,
!'ICTU RE S
" Th E' COII\'t'rsioll or St. Ilaul," (rom rite j\ 'ClC
Tu lulll f' II' . Publ isht'd poslhumously. 1635
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15.28 Still (rom Slagccoocli. 1939
T 1/:(' III ieill - C~ I//I/ ry G r(l pI! i cs; _11Q" i (> ~
4 5i
Romanti c cnst, eVl'n fhwo l'iug the girrs s('\'enteell th -ceutury COlStumes with ninetee uth-ee lltur_y details, The light ing rollows both Schnlcken aud certa in Ro mantic gesture" seen ill 'Dlijlli:,"~:- Wilk ie, lllld early Windu s-tllt' Quaint s upe rnuturnl cusl or the story p recludes r{'rerring to Turner , but I)e rm its allusion to Englis h genre artists o r the first hllir or t he CCIIIU r)', who orW II lItied historic dress lind st~ttillg, This slllull ('!fort is 8n eXlimple or what cn ll be dOlle in his tor icnl mo\'ies if th(' right ullde rstanciiug is reached about th ei r relation to hi storical pniutings lind hisloriclIilales. Twentieth -celllul'Y c inematic rOlllallticism wa s pUI tn thc v{'r~' bes t c relltin~ use in thi s nent slllull s,Ynt.h rs is or Ilin{'teenth -c('ntury ElIglish (nctuully Irish) lind sc\'entcenth -ce ntury Dut ch fi ctions. The essen tially romantic cim ra c1.rr or the film llIf'd iu lIl makes u('utral hist.oricn l chroniclc almost. impossi bl e ill movie rorlll . No mutter how !11l1c h research is done 011 pots IIl1d PIIIIS , 011 pri\'lIte mot ivulioll and socinl forces, on dia lect. or CUS t.OIll , nnd how mu ch hi!;tOl'iclIl expertise is brought to benr even 011 the actuill shooting, II 1II0vie like TILe Rclu r ll 0/ Mortill Gil erre ends up a poetic rollllluce , EITort s to rt'prod uce Bruegel puillt ings ruil or thei r e ffect , s ince Bnl cgc l hirnse lr was It highly (lI:·tll ch('(l, "modern" sort or puintcr-although highl y ci nclllul ie ill hi s cOlllpositiollUI met hod H. III his t.reat.ment o r subject lIIuUer, he WitS ltll il'OlIic. 1I 0t II rOIlUllltic renlist. He wo n' t. transilite very well illto the rOllluntic terms or 11 film like this, which builds a ruoderll rollltllltic Frenc h story 011 Ull ol'igilllli renl -life romantic plo t rrolll soulhern Re nuissllllce Prunce-which wns indeed an original ho me of literary ROllmllce. Bnlegel, with hi s sl ightly gl'otesque Northern style, cou ld only be s tuck onto the s llrrace of .110 rI ill Gll erre a s IIl1eC('8SIl~r nllllsion, to make II flll t.leri ng rcrcrellce to whllt Wt' li re ull supposed to know fro m him about the look o( EuropcilH nmlilire in lil(-' sixteenth centu ry _ It might hll\'e b('en beUer to lise the lUunllscript ill um illltlio ns (or the ROIIl/IIltic epic poems rrolll sixteen t h-ce nt ury Frllll ce itself, wh ic h hewe the right e motiona l flil\'or e\'en ir they IIII\,en't, as 1I!1111y well-knowlI picturesque peils· ants. An avowedly rOlllalltic film -lIl liker like Visconti CUll "cry smoolhly trllnslate hiJoll.Oric paint iug illl.o h is tor icn l fi 1111 by udal)! i ng only works of iI rt that depelld , like hi lS ClI lIIcra , olllhe rOlllllnlic II !S(' of lighl to CO live:' romllnlic themes; and so he can muke thc pasl com(' nlh'c in Th e Leopard, for example, 8S it. rail s 10 do in Marlill Gllcrre. The " iSHil l SC(IU ellCCS ill thai mo\'ic cn rry II IlH'SsllgC 1I0t 80 lIluch o r six teenth-cent.ury Mlral lire llS or the romant ic com'clltiolls of twentiethcentu ry Prench fill11-milking, ill thl' rnmil illr styl(-' or the !>oig-mUlt bitlersweet. lo\'e storieI-> o r the 1940's. The hi storicll i films of thlltl>criod. s uch as us En/allts dll Paral/ iN und us Visile'llrNdll Soir, used to huve prrrectly acceptab le sOIlU'w hnt il/con'pcl period COSt.UIIU'S, 1.0 SUppOI't the nhistoricnl.
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M O VINO
PI C T U Rt;S
romantic spirit of the films. No pointed references to paintings were at· templed; it WilS pure Prench movie"making, melodrama made trnnscc ndcnl by the chiaroscuro mode in Illot.ion. Martill Glterre is ItctulIlIy ,'cry simi lar, and all the expensive historical accurliCY is wasted and irrelevant. The stars' amorous relation is the real subject of th e movie, und the grcat('sl care and finesse are expended 011 th e modern clIlotiollulllccurncy of the se · quences depicting it-not 0 11 a t.nle renderiug' of ""' rench Renaissance peas· ant life. By contrast , th e quality of hnlian peasant existence-i ts tedium, its weight; the way delicate fee lings seek expression ill obscure physical terms; how relationships become muffl ed by circum sta nce lind vulnerabl(l to cnlde chance-all this itself cOllstitutes the rOlllllllCC ill Olmi'f; 1'h.e Tree of Woode'l Clogs. That film is altogether tl good example of documentary pictorial romanticism. Emotional respon se to its situations is drawn from the viewer directly by the muted color, the COllll>osition, lightiug, Illid editing of th e action that renders it apparently artless-ju st as in t he ci nematic Real ist paintings of peasants by Courbet and Millet (or agaill by Hembrandt)and not by rendering " moving" sce nes wit.h tlHl.Utrical poi ntcdness, or by giving youthful characters an attractive gloss-us in Mortill Guerre, or in the se ntimenta l Realist peasant. pailltings by Jul es Breton. It should be mentioned here that th e Jllpliliese movi e- milking enterpri se ha8 naturally had the advantage of (he extrllordinary trad itiolls of Japanese graphic art, both in ink alld bnU;h and ill prints. A graphic hi s tory of surpassing sophi sticat ion fIIay well hove pul. Japanese film -making ah cad of the West in finding ways to s how experi ence 8S part of a " floating world " that can on ly be IIIade even more explici t in movies. The influence of the West on Japanese film was large and deep; bUL the fundam ental einematic narrative conceptions explored 8nd abstracted by Harunobu and Hiroshige, who were inevitab ly admired by cinematic painters like Degas, s how a comparat.ively advanced understanding (or their time. Such a pa sl. hus undoubted ly gi\'en Ja.panese 1lI0vie- mukers something of till edge, eve n wh en they tire not treating historical materia l in hist orica.l ways . Quotat.ion in movies from movie hi story itself htls become th e true s ign that film has allied itself with the othe r arts that have buil t on the ir own past, form ing t raditious bused on what has work ed , making a community of fellow strugglers out of th e roster of past practitioners, raiding t he entire callon, as Shakespeare and everybody else has done, for whatever earli er discoveries will best serve the turn of present talent. Only the temporary power of rigid academies, rigid regimes, or both , has eve r stopped this natural artistic process, aud only the failure of prese nt18lcnt has evcr madc it dangerous or reprehensible.
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When American movies were supposed 1.0 be not nrt but. entertai nment, crit ica l disapprobation used to b(' eX I)r('ssed of movi es that quoted other movies, as if to say that perfol1llerl'l shou ld ncver hope to slIcce('(1 by stenl· ing tricks from their predeccsson;-<w('Il, or I)erhnps cspeciully. if it pays off. More recelllly such obvious lise of Pllst IP'cut llcss wns culled " hollutge" to whoever did it first; and most recently it is perct'ived as right and ellS' lomary, appreciated if a relll tulent like Woody All ell plainly builds 011 the aceo mpl isluucnts of the cinematic I>ast, and censured oll ly if he and his as· sociates s teal for lack of lutturul gifts or good ideas. By eneompllssing its own histOl'Y, film hns thu s openly lIcknowledged and encompassed the whole history of visunl art: just us Mllnel stole from both Goya and Velazquez, so a mov ie- makcr CUll s tf'al from both Manet and H itchcock. The future of cillcmu CUll oll ly be richer if such acknowletiglllellt. is more thoroughly internali zed Ilnd at the sUllie t illlc morc co nsciously understood. Although th eater, opera, and
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tel
Copyrighted materia
SOURCES FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES
INDEX
Copyrighted materia
SOURCES FOR ILLUSTRATIO N S
1 MOVING PI C T URES
1.1 Jan Venneer ,
Wo,~all
Poltnng A/i/k. Amsterdam , RijkgrnuseulII. llarburg/Art
Resource. 1.2 Rembrandt vIln Rijll , Tltt Conspiracy of Glavdi""
Civilis. Stoc kholm,
~8ti oI181 ·
museum. Marburg/Art RCM otirce. 1.3 Rembrandt vall Rijll, Tlt e Adora/ioll of tltl! Sltcplterds. Munich, Aile PinakOlhek .
Giraudon/Art Resource. 1.4 Sandro Botticelli. Th e Birth of l'e"N". Flof'Cnce, Uffizi . Alinari/Art Resource. 1.5 Hendrick Coltziu!!. l 'lte f'arlll!se IItrcll/u. Engraving. New York , The ltetropolitan Museum or Art. 1.6 Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Goth ic Cullw lrai by a Hiver. Berlin . Nalionalgalerie. Marburg/Art Resource. 1.7 Edouard Manet, Olympia . Parill, Musle d 'OMIay. 1.8 John S inger Sargent. Madame X . New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1.9 Edouard Manet, Aw. Paradi•. I~i thograph . Philadell>hia Museum or Art. 1.10 William Cameron Men ~ ie8 , continuity sketch ror GontJ WitA tAe Wind , 1939. 1.11 Anthouie van Dyck, Cit,;. , Carrying Tile Crnlll. Sketch. Bremen , Kunsthalle. 1.1 2 Sidney Paget, " His t'yes (ellupou the stick in Hol mes' hand:' Illustration (or Conan Doyle's TIt,tJ I/ound of tits Ha sktJr,·ille,. TlttJ SINlIld iJlaga:i"e, August 190 1, 1.13 ti'rancisco Ooya, .vala Noelt e. Aquatint (rom w. Capric/un, 1799.
2 THE FIFTEENTH CEN T U RY
2.1 Jan van Eyck. TAtl ,uodo"'lfJ i,. tlt tl CItNrclt.. Berl in, Museum Dah lem. 2.2 Hugo \'an df'r Gocs, Aton/orie Allar, cent ral panel. Be rlin, :'tili seum Dahlem . Marburg/Art Resource. 2.3 Piero della ,"'ra ncesca. Tits Bopli,m. of CIt,;, I. London, The Nat ional Gallery. 2.4 Cima da Conegliano, Tlt.s Virgin and Child. London , The National Gallery. 2.5 TIl t! Bapti8m 0/ Cltri.t. Detail of illumination from Tit s Turin ·Milan 1I0Nr•. Turin, Musco Civico. Marburg/Art Resource. 2.6 Gerard David. TIte Bal1/i",. 0/ Clt,;". central panel. Bruges Mu seum. Marburg/Art Resource.
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464
2 .7 Tlte Ma.rsac rt! 01 lite I nnoce Nti. Illumination. Soulh ~ e th erlandll ; folio 146\' from Tlt e Bool.: ol l/ou.rl ol l JaMlla Ca t6lica. The Cle\'ehtnd Museum of Ar t . 2.8 S imon Bening. W" lter E t.v.m ing. Illu minat ion from Tlt e Da Coda /lOllrl. New York, Morgan Library, 2.9 Simon Bening, JIII~. Detached le.ll.r, Munich, Bayerische S tlllltsbibl iothek .
3
T H E SIXTEENT H CENTURY
3.1 Tlte Impatience 0/ lit e Sick Man . Engraving from " L'art all Morier" (A n ,lloriendi). 3.2 Albreeht Durer, Tlte RenrTected CltriJt. Woodcut from Tlte S mail PcuJion. Marbu rg/ A rt He,ouree. 3 .3·6 Hans Holbein, Tlte Mercltallt , Tlt e Dlldielll, TIl e PlolIgltman , TA lI Child. Four wood· cuUJ from 1'he Dance 01 Dealh. 3.7 Geertgen tot S int JailS, Tlte Nativity at Night. London, The National Gallery. 3.8 HailS Balduug·Griell, ChriJI Carried to /lea ven by AngeIJ . Engra,·jng. Karl'ruhe. Staatliche KUIIsthalle . 3.9 HailS Baldung·Grien. TIl e El et.'fJ./ioll 01 Mary Jllagdalt ll . Engraving. Basel, KunSlmuseulII . 3. 10 Albrecht Altdorfer , The RegeJublirg SYllayogll6. Etching. New York , The l letropoli· tan Museu m or Art. 3. 11 Albrecht Altdorfer. Tlte DanlllM Valley . Etching. The Art Inst itute of C hicago. 3.12 Albrecht Durer, Tlte Lake in lite Woods. London, Britis h M.useum . Bridgeman/Art Resource. 3.1 3 Piete r Bnlegel the Elder, Tlte Fall ol lca na. BnlslSellS, Musee delS Beaux Arta. Scala/Art Reilource. 3 .14 P iNer Bruegel the Elde r, TIt~ He/llrll ol /lte lIertf. Vicuna. KUlIs thilllorilSches Mu · seum . Marburg/Art Resource .
4 T H E EA R LY B A ROQUE
4 .1 Hercules Seghers, Tlt e MOl s y Trce, Monotype. Amsterdam. Rijksmuseulll, 4.2 I-Ierclilell Seghel'lJ, Dis/alit Vie-w witit Branch 01 Pi ,le- Tree. l\Ionotype. Amllterdam , Rijksmuseu m. 4 .3 Adlun Eis hei mer , Jllpiter altd Mcrcwry ill the. /lottie 01 Ballci!f alld PltilemOrl . D~II ' dell , Gemilidegillerie. Ma rburg/Art Resource. 4.4 Adam Elshe imer, Tlte. Stolli llg 01 S t. S tephen. Edinburgh , National Gallery of Scotland. 4.5 Adam E isheimer, TAe Pligltt illto Egypt . Munich , Aile Piuakolhek. 4.6 Adalll E isheimer, Tlte. MockiNg 01 Cere' (copy). Madrid , P rlldo. 4.7 Ca ra\'aggio, Tlte Martyrdom 01 S t. Peter. Rome, StB. Maria d el Popolo. 4.8 Jacques Callot, Tlte O~"i"g 01 lite Red Sea. Etching, t 629 . 4.9 Jacques CallOl , Carryi Ng 01 lite Crou. Etching, c. 1620. 4.10 Georges d e la Tou r , The. Angel Am>ea ri ng to S t. Jo,tlplt . Nantes, MUllee deli Beaux Arta. Ma rbu.rg/Art Resource. 4. 11 Georges de la Tour, A Woman Searcltil1g lo r Plea'. Nancy. ?Iusee His torique de Lorraine. Gir ... udon/Arl Reilource.
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5
D U T c n GEN R E
5 . 1 H endrick Te rb rngghen, Tltt! Calling af SI. ,11I1IIltt!WJ. Utrecht, Celltrll.1I.1 :\luseulII .
5.2 Still from Perfect UIl (/ugtalldillg , 19:1:1. 5.3 Theodor Villi Babul"tll . Th e Procure", Museum o f F ille Arts. Bos toll , 5 .4 Georges de la Tou r, Tltt! Paymu lt of /J u.n. 1."'0 \' , Museum . 5 .5 Shot rrom TIl t! Breaking Point, 19 50. 5.6 Gerard David, Tlt t! I' irgill alld CAild. Brussels, Mu see des Beaux Art s. G iraudolll A.rt Resource. 5 .7 Adriaen v8n Ostade, Collagt: Doorya rd. Was hillgton, D.C.. ~lIt i onal Gallery or Art . W idener Collect ion. 5. 8 Jail Stee n, Th e /)oclor'I Vi,i(. Philadclphia Museum or Art. 5.9 Gabriel Met811 , Th" MU lical Party. New York, The Melropol illl.lJ ~l l1setlm of Art. 5 .10 Pieter d e Hooeh, Motlter Lae ill g Iler Bodiu. Berlin . :\Iuseum Dahlem. Marburgl Art Resource. 5. 11 Gerard Dou , Mo/lter ami Child. Berlin, Museum Dahlelli. 5. 12 P ieler dc Hooch, Child alld MOlh er i ll a Ikel room . WHs hingloli . D.C.. ~a t i oll81 Gallery of Art, Widene r Collection. 5. 13 Pie ter de Hooch, Th e Kolf Player,. :-iHtiol181 T rns t, Polesden Lacey. 5. 14 P ieter de Hooeh, J/olh" r Delouli ng a Clt i lll . Allltil erdalO, Rijks museum. Al inari! Art Resource. 5. 15 Ilieter de H ooe h, Co uple ill a 8r.droo m with a /)ag. New Yurk , The Met ropolitan Museum or Art. 5. 16 Gerard Terborch. WOlnal! Petli,IY F ru it. Vie nna, Kilils thistorisches ~1\lse ulll . Bridgeman/Art Resource. 5 . 17 Gerard Terborch, Soldier a 11 (1 Girl. Paris, LOIl\'rc. Alillari/Art Resollrct' . 5 . 18 Emanuel de Wille. I llten or ,villt Woma n al a Cla vichord. $ ta te·o ....'lIed Art Collec· tiolls. The lllt.gue. Museum 8oYlllanll- \'811 Beulliugell . Rolte rdam . 5 . 19 J an Vermeer. A Jlall Gild WOllla'l II I Ih ll \' irgi ,w f.s. 1.IOl)do li . Collectioll of Her Majellty Queen tWubet h II. Marbu rg/Art Re!;ouree. 5.20 Pieter d e Hooeh , lI,ten or of tlte New TowlI lIall in Amslerdam . Lugallo, ThYI>8en· Bornemisza Col lection . 5.2 1 Jacobull Vrcl, Womall al a Wi lldow. Vie nna. KUIl8\hill torischt'1> Museum . 5.22 Pieler Jalll.!>ell8 Elillga. WOII'aN !leadi ng. Mun ich, Alte P inllkothek. Marbll rg!Arl Resource. 5.23 Esaiall BouMll>e. lI,terior wilh a Woma,1 Sp ill ll illg. Amslt' rdalll . Rijk8Il1I1SCUIll . 5.24 Jan Venneer, ODieu alld iAlIIgltillg Girl. l\"e ..... York. The Frick Collectioll . 5 .25 Willem DU.V8Ier, Soldier. by a F ire,,{a ce. Philadel ph ia Milselllll or Art. 5.26 Genlrd TcrlJoreh . O/fieu fin d Trumptl fJ r (TAr Oi"Hl tclt). Philudt'lphia :\11I8eUIII or Art . 5. 27 Jail Vennt'er. WOltlU1I Wril illg a 1A!lIu, with hu Ma i d . Bl t'1l8 illgt on . Ireland , Alfred Beit Collect ion . Gi raudOli/Art Il.f!sourec. 5.28 P i e l~ r Codde, YQW,lg :IIa n wilh II Pi/~. I..illt'. MU 8ct' des S CHUlt Arts. 5.29 Gab riel Metsll , IIderior of a S m ilhy . Londou , T he NHl iollHl Gallery.
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466
6
/II lj s/ratiol' s
LANDSCAPE ; PRINTS ; REMBRA NDT
6. \ Aelbert CuYP. Ca valieri Wat eri ng Th lli ,. lIorses. Amsterdam, RijkKllluseum. 6.2 Philipli Koninck, View of Field•. Alllsterdam, Rijksmuscum. 6.3 Remhrandt Villi Rijll, JOllepA A cculu l by Pot/pita,.', Wife. Wash ington. D.C., National Gallery or Ar t, Andre ..... W. Mellon Collect ion. 6.4 Aert de Gelder, Th e Way /0 Golgotha. llunich, Galerie AschafTellbu rg. 6.5 Jacob Hogel"ll, Tlt e Dance of Sa/atIlt). Amsterdam, Rijksmuseulll . 6.6 Nicholas \'8 11 Galen, Tlte Jwdgmcltl 0/ Cown' Wil/ iam lite Good. Has sell , I'rovincc or O"erij8sel, Town Hall. 6.7 Abraham Blocmaert. Tlte Morn'oge of PeiCItS ami Tlu/ i" Munich, Ail e P inakothek. 6.8 Eglon \ '11.11 der Nee r, Portrait of a Man and a \Vomo/. i,1 un I nterior. Seth K. Sweetser Fund. Courtesy Museum of Fine Art ll, Boslon. 6.9 Jan Vemleer, Vit!w 0/ /Jel/t. The Hague, Maurilshuis. GirRudon/Art Resource. 6. tO Emanuel de Wilte , A Marktl ill a Pori. Moscow, Pu shkin Museum of Fine Arts. 6.11 Gerri t Bertkheyde, Tltt Marktlplace at Hoar/em. l..ondon, T he Xational Gallery. 6.12 Rembrandt \'all Ri,jn, Th e £"/ol'llbmenl. E tc hing. first sta te. 6.13 Rembrandt vall Rijll. Tlte £"/ombmenl. Etching, fou rth state. 6.14 Rembrandt vall RUII, TAe Holy Fa mily wi/lt a Ca l. Etchi ng. 6.15 Andrea Mantegna , Tlt t! Virgin 0/ Jlwm ility. Engravi ng. 6.16 Rembrandt VtUl Riju, Cltrisl Prtlt nled. 10 tltt! Pt ople, Etching, seventh state. 6.17 Rembrand t vIIn Rijn . Tlt e DtlCe'II' from flte Cra ... Munich, Alte Pinakothek. GirRudon/Art Resource . 6.1 S Rembrand t van Rijn, Tiu Blillding of SUI'IISO II . F' rallkfurt . St il.delsches KUlllltinstitut . Marbu rg/Art Resource. 6.19 Rembrandt \'all Rijn, J oseph (ud POlipltar's Wife. Etch ing. 6.20 Rembrandt van Rijn, Tlte Rai, ing of Latarll.,. 1.08 Angeles Coun ty :\luseum. Oi ra udon,'Art Resourte. 6.2 1 Rembrandt van Hijn . Th e Raisillg of La.zants. Etching. Oiraudon/Art Rellource. 6.22 Rembrandt \'an Rijn, Tiu Arlil t in IIi, StNd io . Zoe Oliver Sherman Collection. Given in menlory of Lillie Oliver Poor. CourtellY MuseullJ of Fine ArlS, Boston. 6.23 Rembrandt van Rijn, Jail Six Readi"o. )o:;tching. 6.24 Rembrandt van Rijll, Jan Six wi/lt a DO{). Drawing. Amsterda m, Six Collection.
7
FREN C U PRINT S ; WATTEAU , C HARDIN
7.1 Jan Ve rkolje. An Elegallt Covpi e ill an I I/ fen·or. Pri\'llte collection. 7.2 Ootfried SchaJcken, Tlt.e Docto,.', Vil it. Private collection. 7.30otfried chalcken, Lady wi/A a Clllldle. Florence, Pia L Giraudon/Art Resource. 7.4 J . D. d e St.·J ean, SNit Worll wilA II Sword . Fashion print , 1670·s. 7.5 J . D. d e St.·J ean, Lady lValkiPig ill tlte CONlltry. Fashion pr int , 1670' s. 7.6 J . O. de St.-J ean, Gentlemall of Qwa/ i/ll. FSll hioll prillt, 1690's. 7.7 JaC(IUeS Cal lot, figure or a noblcman from La Noblt.,,~ lorrairte, 162 4. 7.8 Abraham Boase, SAops WIlder tlt~ La w CONr" . Etching. c. 16<10. 7.9 Antoine Watteau . ,\lall lValkill g. SUI. ill Profilt.. Etching. second state. Paris, Bibliothe(IUe Nalionsle.
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for III l1s/ra/joll s
467
7. 10 Antoine Watteau. PeacefNI WI-V:. Ber lin. Schloss Char]ottcnbu rg. Ma rbu rglA rt Resource. 7. 11 J .· B.· . Chardi n, Tlte ReitH'" from Market. Paris, Lou\·re. Alinari/Art Resource. 7. 12 J .· B.-S. Chardin, Tlte Di/igtm/ ~/otlte r . Pa.rili. Lou\'re. Oinl.udonJArt Ueliollree. 7. 13 J .-B.-S. Chardin, Little Girl wi/It a ShttlccQCk. f'lorellce , Uffizi. OiraudOll/A rt ReIJource. 7. 14 J .- B.-S. Chardi n, Self-Porlrait. Pa ris. Lou\,rt. Oi raudon/Art Rello urce. 7. 15 J .- 8 .-S. Cha rdin, Tlte GOtJtrM". E ngra\'ing rrolll t he painting. I)aris. Bibliotheque Nationale. Giraudon/Art Resource. 7. 16 J .- 8.·S. Chardill, Giall of Water Ulld Co/feel)(J/. Ivilh OrliOlfJI. The Carnegie Museum or Art, P iUsburgh. Howard A. Noble Collection, I !l66. 8 T J E P O L O , P I H AN E S ) , CANA L ETTO
8. 1 O. B. Tiepolo. Apotlteollis of lite Pisani Fa,ni/!!. Stra. Villa I)illani . Alinllri/Art Resou rce. 8.2 G . B. Tiepolo. IA f'orlNrw (deta il). Venice, I'alano Labia. Alinari/Art Resource. 8.a O. B. Tiepolo, Tlt e Sacrifice of Ipltige",·a. Vicem:a , Villa ValmartHia. 8.4 G . B. Tiepolo. Deatit Gictl Alldillncll. Etching. 8.5 O. B. Tiepolo. Two ~/ayicialt. willt PtUlcltin elio. E tching. 8.6 Oiu sepl)e Oalli· Bibiena , .cello per olluo/o (or a Th eatrwm Sacrw lrl. 8.7 Giuseppe Ga ll i-Bibiena . ilhlslrat ion (rom ArcltileltN rt e Prospclt i 'l~, 1740. 8 .8 Still (rom l...eopoldo Carlucci's TeOOora . 1!l 19. 8.9 O. B. Pi ranesi, prison " iew. No. 15 (rom Careen d ' III Vt llZiollt , 174 5. 8. 10 Canaletto, The Portico wilit a 1.AlIi/ern. Etching. 8. 11 Calls let to, Tlte Tltarn e. a'td l.orlllO'1 from Riclt "IOrid /ION$(. Ooo
H OGA R T H , O R EUZE , OO VA
9. 1 J oseph H ighmore. Mr. Oldhalll and /I i. F rilllllb. London, Tate Oallery. 9.2 Will iam Hogarth . A Midnigltt :IIoc/erlt Colt versuliOIl. New Ha\·e n. Yale Center (or Brililih Art. 9.a Joseph H ighmore. Tlte /lorlowe Family. New Haven. Yale Center (or British A rt. 9.4 J .- B.Greuze , Th e Cltasli$ed SO'I . Pa r ill. J.iOU\'re. Alillari/Arl Rellouree. 9.5 Da niel C hodowiecki, two pages rrom Th e ProgrtU of " jrlull arid Vice, 1778. 9.6 Daniel Chodowiecki, Third for K,wwle(/ue of Iltll World. Scene (rom Tlt e Liffl of a Rake, 1 i74. 9.7 Daniel Chodowiecki , U'N.al Refllge, Scene (rom 1'h., Mfll of arl lIl -cdllcaled Girl, 1780. 9 .8 }i' rancilico Ooya, " Wai t till you 've bee ll 8noillted. " No. 67 or W. Capriclw •• 1799 . 9 .9 }o"'rancilJCO Goya, "All this and more." No. 22 (rom IAJII !Ju(III/"t$ (it! la Gu.trra.
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SQurces lor /IIu stratiolls
46 8
9.10 "~ ralle i sco Goya. "One call1lot look at this," No. 26 rrom Los DUIJI/rtl de to GNt r-ro. 9.11 F ranciseo Goya, I'Qrlrait of tltt; Marflw esa de. Pon/ejo" Was hington. D.C.. Niltiolial Gallery or Art, Andrew W. MeHoll Collection.
10
WA TE R C OLO R ; T U R N ER , MARTIN
10. 1 J ohn Sell Cotlllan. S hady Pool. Ed inburgh, Nat ional Gallery or Scotland. 10.2 J . M. W. Tu nlcr. I n/t rior at Pdu:f) rllt. 'h udon, British Museum. 10.3 J . M. W. Tunler. T wo Womt 1l willt a [.liter, i..ondon, Tate Gallery. 10.4 J . M. W. 'runler, Ilannibal Crouing tile Al pr. London, Tale Oalle!,)', 10.5 J . M. W. Tumer. Menuti" iu Voyagelu'" on Tlm r RdwM1 fro m Ita ly (pa r la Diligertet) in a SnoW} DnI' "pon Mown' Tarra r-!J2,.d of J o n"ory, 1829. Reproduced by CourteBY o( the Trustees of the British Museum, London. 10.6 J . M. W. Turner, G~o~ IV at tlt~ Protxnt'6 Banqlul. London, Tate Gallery. 10.7 Francisco Goya, Tlte Firt. San Sebastian . Collection Jose Bart.t. 10.8 J . M. W. Turner, A vclaJtC"~ i n t"~ Oriw n6. London. Tate Gallery. 10.9 J . M. W. Turner, T"~ Battl~ 0/ Fori Rock, Vol d'A o W 61~, P;~d mo nt, 1796. London, Tate Gallery. 10.10 J. M. W. Turner, Pa~d wm . Mezzot int from the /.ittie LitH r. New Ha\'en, Yale Center for Brit illh Art. 10.11 J ohn Ward . Go Nlal~ Sca r. iJOndon, Tat e Ga llery. 10. 12 J ohn Martin, B~l.Iltatzar'6 Peast. New Haven, Yale Center for British Art. 10. 13· ]4 John Martin . T"~ B ridge of CAa06 alld Pilltde l1lQnil(rll. Engra\'ed i1Justl'8tiollS ( 01' Mil lon's Pa ro(Jiu 182 7. 10. 15 Arthitectu ral vision fro m lAng'" Metropoli" 19 27. 10.16 J ohn .Ma rtin, Tlte Great Day of Ui, Wra llt. London, Tate Gallery. 10. 17 J ohn Martin, TIt ~ Dednt.clion of 7'yre. The Toledo MU licum o( Art . Gift of Edwa.rd Onlllllllolld Libbey. 10. 18 Shot from Sam,o n and Ddilalt . 194 7. 10. 19 J ohn Martin, Tlt e Fall of NinelJ(lt . Tinted mezzotin t. lJOndon, Victoria and Albert MUleum . Bridgeman/Art ReKource.
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FRIEDRI C H , SC HWIND ; ME NZEl" AND H IS I NFL U EN C E
11 .1 J . M. W. Turner, Peace: Bw nal at &0. JA ndon, Tate Gallery. 11.2 C. O. F riedrich, Tlte Croll ill lite l1iowlllflin6. Drellden, ~eue Meister Gemaldega lerie . Mlllrburg/Art Resource. 11.3 St ill (rom JttlU Chri&t SW IH:,.&tar, 1973. 11.4 C, 1>. Fried rich. TIt ~ Croll by lite Hallie. Cologlle, WlIl1l'8ff·Ricliarlr. ~l l1 seu m . 11. 5 C. D. F'ried rich, TI(,'O Mell al Moo "n6~ by 11t~ Sea. Chalk and sepia dl"llwing. Moscow, Muscum o f Pine Art . 11.6 C, D. Fried rich. Tlt e Salila'1l Tree. Berlin, Nat iolllligalerie. 11 .7 C. D. Fried ric h, Cowple /AJOkitly al tlte M OO /I . Berl in, Nationalgalerie. 11.8 S till frolll Et'O nyelille, 1929. 11.9 Still (rolll T Otti &lIlye r, 1938. 1 1.10 C. D. Fried rich, Earl y SIIOW; E /ltra"c~ i llto a Wood. Hamburg, K II Il Bthlllle. Marburg/Art Reilou rce.
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11.11 S t ill (rom J/O(/l' rPl Tim tl, 19a6. 11.1 2 C. 0 . Friedric h . Vitlw from th e SlNdio Willf/ow, Itlft. Sepia. Vie nna. KUlls thi¥tUri8C tU.'" M IUiCUIll . 11.1 3 C. D. JO' riedric h, View fro m til t! Stlt.(/io Wi ,.dou:. n·yllt . Sepi.ll . Viclllla , KUllsthis to rischea MUSCUIil. 1 1.14 Mo r in . \'011 , c hwilld , TIl ,. MonlillO lIoNr. llullie h, Sc hackgalerie. Marburg/Art Re s()u~ e.
11 . 1 fi Morit r. \ ' 0 11 Schwind , Apparitioll ill II F or n I. Mllllic h, Sehllekgalerie. 1 1.16 :\l o r il1. \' 0 11 Sc h"' illd, OqHlrl llre i ,l til e f:arly Mort/;'I g. Be r li n , N8Iiolllllg81l'ne, :\18 rburg/ Art n eNou~e , 1 1.17 AlrN'd Rt'111I'1. Th ,. r isi t of Oltu 111 10 Ih l' Cr!lPI . OOsII'e!dorr, KUllliltllllU';t'lI m, 1 1.1 8 K.IIrl S pit7.w"g. Th t! Wiliou.oe r . Munich, Neue Pinllkothe k. Mtlrlmrg/.\ rt H4'lIolirce. Adolph Menzel, IICCIIt'1I rrom Th e I:i/t of f'rr d prick tn l' O~at: 11 . 19 F rede r ick by a ri" c r ill cOllsultatioll soout illljl rQ\'e mt'llt8. 11 .20 Frede ric k with his mini ster Cotc..-ji. 11. 2 1 Anned rarmens. 11.22 Prede r ick obliel'"\'ea the e nem y positioll Ilt Kollill (rom.llll ups t8irs window. 1 1.23 Frederic k exertises h is tn)(lPS in the rain. 1 1.24 Adolph :\It' n ze l, II /loom with O,t A rtis / 'If Silltr. :\Iunich. Bnye r ische S I.II818· gelll.li.lde58.llIll1iu ngen, M8. rtm r~/Art Heso u ree. 1 1.25 Adolph Me ll7.e l. 1'lte / lItfrrllpt iO II . Karli1nlhe. St8.sllic he KUIl &thalle, 1 1. 26 Adolph Mf' Il1.e 1. F ree/frick at lIochki rk . Be rl in, ~iltioIl8 I gMleri e, 1 1.27 lill (rom Th e Jlor se SoldicrI, 1959. 11.28 John Everett )l ill8i8, A cce pted . Sepia. New H a\'en, Yale Ce:nter (o r Bril iah Art. 11 ,29 C hll r leil KN~ ll e. " li ard l~ i lleK ." 1II1I81r8t ion in PI/tl ch '. Alma/lOrl.. , 1869 . 11 ,30 S lill (rom Alarty, 1955. 12
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"~SG LI S H
ART AND ILL US TRATION ; WHI S TLER
12. 1 Abrahtlm .'010111011, 1\'a i/illg for Ih:e l'erdil'l. Lo ndon, Brit ish Museum , Bridgeman! Art Hesource. 12.2 H . K. Browne, " Mr. '>[lIch is amued by 811 ImeX I)(!ct ed Hpparil io n." Ill ustration ror J)iek£-ns' Marti" Chuu l l'wil, 1843, 12.3 W ill iam P owe ll Frith, "The Arres t." No.3 (rom TIl ,. H(Hld 10 Hili" . Etehi ng by Leopold PI8111eng rrom the 18 78 painting. 12.4 Arlhur Hughes. Th c f;"e of St. Agile•. 1.. o"dOIl, THtt' Gallery. 12.5 Will i8 111 H o lmllll IIl1l1 t, Th e IIr'rrl ing Shepherd. MUllc hest e r C ity Art Gallery. 12.6 1..3t1N'IICf> Ahu3·TadeIH8, SU /JI)ho. 8311illlon ', The W81ters Art Gtillery. 12 .i Sidney Page t. " Really, liIi r . tl liK iii a ve ry ext ra ordinary (111t·Slioll. " IIlulHratioll (or COIlMI1 Doyle'a Th t 11011 IIlI o/ Ih t HaJ/.;en:illu, f ro m Tlt t Sl rlHld MOgUli llt , Janua ry 1902 . 12 .8 F' r811k H olI, NeN--gute: CQIII1II ;1I( 1 for 1'rial. F;gh8111. S urrey, Royal H ollowtly College. Bridgen ulIllJ\rt Hellourcc>. 12 .9 F' r3uk Bra mley, A Jlupeltu DIINJ/I. lAnd o n , T a te Ollllery. 12. 10 GII8ta \'~ CRi llebolte, Th e f'/oor Sc rllfJf!rI . PHri" MUIi~e d·Ors8)'. G iralldon/ Art Hesoll ree. 12. II 1.o\'ilS Cor illth , Salo mI'. l..eip7.ig, Museum d e r B ildf'nden KUIiJit , )tarburg/ Art HellOuree. 12. 12 A tk inNon Grimshaw. Vii) 1IJ of l. iverpool Q/l.ay by :l/rxM /iyht. lAudon , Tate Gallery.
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'ource, l or IU llstratiO/IS
] 2. 13 J . A. MeN. Wh islier, Noc"u"" e i,. Black " " d Gold: TIt~ FallillY R()Ckd. Det roit Institute of the Arts. Marburg/Art Resource. 12.14 J . A. MeN. Whistler , S tvdy iN n ell!. TON~' and Black: POrlrait of Tluoclore, DI(rel. 12. 15 J . A. MeN. Wh istler, Hotlt u ltitJUJ. Etching, 1860. 12. 16 J . A. Me N. Whistler, Wap/)irlY o rl TJwm tl. Pri\'ste colleelioll. 13
AMER I C A
13.1 J ohn Singleloll Copley, Wat.roll and lite Sltark. Gift of Mrs. George "Oil Lengerke Meyer. Court.esy Museum of f'ine Artil, Boston. 13.2 M. J . Hesde, SauH11e all Ote Mar.ltu. Michigan. "-'Iint In stitu te of the Arts. ] 3.3 Pitz Hugh Lane, Bracc', Rock. Brace', COI.'« . T he lAM Collection. 13.4 Thomas Cole, Tlte Bxpv/'ioN from (/t il Garden 0/ f.'den _Oift of Mrs. Maxilll Karolik for the KKrolik Collection of American Paintings, 18 l a-186S. Courtesy Museulll of Fine Arts, Bost.on. 13.5 Thomas Cole, Tlt l Wilier' Reeel/ illg Aller lite Deluge, Wlishington, D.C., National Mu&eulIl of American Art, Smithsonian Insti tu tion. Gift of Mrs. Katie Dean, in memory of Millnibel S. and J a mes WIlI Ia.ce Dean, and Museum Purchase through Major ACCIUisi· tions Fund, Smithsonian Ins titu tion. 13.6 Albert Biersladl, MOtud Adam", Wa"ltinyloN. The Art Museum, I)rinceton Unh'ersi ty. Gift of Mrs. J acob N. Beam. 13.7 Albert Bierstadt. Tlte Hock y Moamlairu. New York, The Metropolitan ,\Iuseulll of Art . 13.8 Winslow Homer , We.fl Poin/, Prowl'" j\·cck. Williamstown , :\la8& .. S terl ing and Francine Clark Art Ins titu te. 1:1.9 Winillow HOIllf'r. Tlt e Croqllel Game. 1866. Priends or American Ar t Collection. The Art hllititu te of Ch icago. 13. 10 Claude Monet, Women in tlte Garden. Parill. llusee d'Orsay. GiraudonlArt Resource. 13. 11 Willldow Homer, Croqltd Player. New York, Nat ional Academy or Design. 13. 12-1 5 Win.slow Homer. magazine illustrat ions. F rom lIar-pu'" UTeeHy: 13.12 ' ;Winte r-A Skat ing Scene," 1868. 13. 13 "Our National Winter Exercille - S kating," 18 66. F'rom The Gala.r,y: 13. 14 ;'She tur ned her race to the window," 1868. 13.15 " Weary and dissatisfied with everything," 18 69 . 13. 16 Winslow Homer. Hoy" in a Past wrt, The Uaydon Collection. Cou rtesy Museum of Fi ne Arts, Boston. 13.17 Winslow Homer, Un dertow. Williamstown, Mass .. Sterling and Francine Clark ,\ rl Ins titute. 13.18 Winslo ..... Homer, TIt ~ Li/~ Line. Ph iladel phia ){useum or Art. 13.19 James Tissot. Portrait 01 Miu Lloyd. London, Tate Gallery. 13.20 Jalllu Tissot, Tlt t Gall~ ry 01 II.M.S. ;'CalcwUa," London, Tate Gallery. 13.2 1 Thomas Eakins, Th~ Concert Singer. Philadelphia Museum of Art. 13.22 Thomas Eakins, Tlte Pathetic SoP/g, Washington . D.C., The Corcoran Gallery of Art. 13.23 Thom8.11 Eakins, Portrait 01 JUrI. f..'aki"". Washington, D.C., Hirshhonl Museum and Sculpture Garden , Smithsonian Ins titu tion. Gi ft of Joseph H. Hirshhorn. 1966. 13.24 Thomaa Eakins, The Swimming lIole. Collection Modern MuseUm o r Fort Worth. Purchased by the Priends or Art.
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13.25 'rhollla~ ElI.killli. Saifillg. Philadelphia Museum of Art. 13.26 Thomali Eakius. tartillY Ovl Al iI''' liail. The Haydon Collection . Courtesy
MuseulII of Fine ,\rI S, UQliloll. 13.27 Tholluu. Ellkius. Sd/-Po,.jmil. New York , ~tlt i o ml.l Academy of Design. 13.28 ,101m Singl'f Sl!.rgellt. Sei/-PorINt i' . Floreuce, urn!.i. 13.29 J ohn Singer Sargent. TIl e DOUghier, of f~'dward Hoi/. Gift o f ~hlrY I..oUi611. Boil , Jane Hubbard Boit. and Jut ill O\'e ring Boit, ill memory of their fat her, Ed ..... ard Darley Boit. Courtl'sy MU8Pum of FilIP ArtN, Bostoll . 13.30 J ohn Singer Sargent. Porlrait 01 J!rll. f..'dHXlrd I~. l>ul'ill a/Hiller SOli Dill illgslo,. Du vi" ).A>S Angeles County MUI~eulII or Art. 13.31 Thomas Eakins, J/amil Scene. T he Brooklyn Museum . Girt or George A. I-learn. JO'rederick l..oeser Art Ptllld, Dick S. Hamsay ""tllul. Girt or Charlcs A. Schieren, 13.32 Diego VelA.tltllc7.. Ul$ Me-Nilla". l\hulrid . rrado. 13.33 John Singer Sa rgent, M r". Ca rl Meyer a"d /ler Chi/drc". Burringdale. Berkshire. Sir AIIIIIOII), l\j(>ycr. Marlmrg/Ar t Heilource . 13.34 Edward HOPl)('r, /loom iN New York. Unh'e nlit~, of Nehraska II.t l.illl:ol\!. S heldon Me morial Art Gllliery. 13.35 Edward Hopper, SeeO/lll S iory Sunliyh/ . Nl'w York, Collection Whit ney l\luseum of AIIII'ricall Art . 13.36 Edward H OPIX·r. Niglt/ Sh adoles. Et chi ng. Xcw York , Collec tion Whitncy MuseullI of Ame ricalL Art. 13.37 Edward H opper, " H e did il j U1S1 011 purposi' to frightell IIIi' ... " Illustral iOIl ilL Fanller', lVifc. March 19 19. 13.:IS Edwltrd HOI'I)N. Summer f;"ell il/g, 1947. I)ri"al.e collecl iOIl . 13.39 J ohn S inge r Sltrgellt, "I'lietial! Bead Sfrillgers. Buffalo. N.Y.. Albright· Knox Art Gltllery. 13.40 Baslman Johllson , No/ af /lfJm e. The Brooklyn :'Ituse um . Gift or :'Ili*,s Gwendolyn O. L. Conk liHg. 13.41 Fairfield Porlt' r, A Sil or/ Walk . 13 .42 Eric F'ilSc hl . Oaddy's Gil'/. I.Olldoll . Baatch i Collectioll. 14
FRANCE IN THE NINETEENT H CENTURY
14 . 1 Tholllas Couture. ROlllallit of lite Decadenel' (detai l). 1)11ri8, :'Ilu sl!e d·Onllty. A lilian! Art Resolln:t'. 14.2 Edgar Degas. lVoma/1 I roning. SUII Against tile Ligll/. \\'lIlI hington. D.C., ;\'8t iollal Gallf'ry of Art. 14 .3 Edgar Dt>gas, D(IIICl'rlf Climbill(J a Stair. Paris, :'I11I1It'f' d'Orsay. Giraudon!Art Relloun:e. 14.4 l<; doultrd ManN , "OIH'1l lU'rp I flung t ht> Shutli'r." Illu st ration for 1~(W';o Th ~ RU I't Ii . Alirmri/Arl Itesou rce. 14 .5 Edgar Degas, h l/erior (/~ Viol) . Philadelphia. Maci lhelillY Collect ion. 14 .6 Edgar Di'ga8, TIl e Milli,ler'lf Sil op. Nt>"" York, The :'ott"tropolilll.U :'IllIlSeu m or Art . 14 .7 Edgar DegaK. RI'!lliug 0 11 1 1t~ Bed. Monot ype. Paris, :'I tadame Le Garrel' Collection . 14.8 "~dgar Df'glllS. Gel/i"y Oul of th~ Balh. MOlLotyP'!. Paris. Bihliot hc
472
SOlu'ces for IIllt slraliOll s
14 .11 Charlell .Meryoll, Tlte Mill iJlry 0/ Manml. Et ching. Philadelph ia :\tIl IlCUIII or Art. 14. 12 Charles Me ryolI, Tlte POIII-(Ju·Cltullye, Etching, fifth s tate. The Sa int I..ouis Art Museum.
14.13 Charles Meryoll , Tltt. Pont-aIi,·Cltangt. Etching, sc\'e nlh stale. New York, The Me tropolitan Museum or Art . 14.14 Charlea Mel'),on, Tlt t. Pont-a .... Cltanyt . Ete hing,tenth stale. Minneapolis Institu te of Arts . 14.15 Charles Meryon, Tlte PQnto(J ...·Cltange. Etching, eie\'enth state. Philadelphia Museum of Art. 14.16 Edouard Manet, Reading "l'llllUtn, " c. 1878-79. Mr. and Mrs. Lewis Larned Coburn Memorial Collect ion, The Art Institute of Chicago. 14.17 Edgar Degas, HM"; De Gru and IliJ Niece, Lilcie De Oru. 1875-18. Mr. lind MM!. Lewiil Lamed Cobu rn Memorial Collection, The Art Ins titut e o( Chicago. 14.18 Henri Pautin·Latou r, TA.t Two Sister', 1859. The Saint l.iOu is Art Museum. 14.19 GUllhl.ve Caillebol.te , Pari, Stred; Rainy Weather. 18 76-71 . Charlell H. lind Mary F'. S. Worcellter Punt!. The Art Illstitute o( Chicago. All Rights Reserved. 14.20 Gustave Caillebotte, The Lvncheon. Pari&, private eolleetion. 14.2 1 Henri Pantin· Latour, Porlrail of Mr. and Mr,. t 'dwin Ed ward•. London, Tate Gallery. 14.22 Henri Pantin-Latour, Spring Flo lOf!r., Appiu alld Pear•. New York., The Metropolitan Museum o( Art.. 14.23 Henri Fantin· Latour, SltlllAfe, Conter of the TaWe, 18 73. Ada Turnbull Uertle Fund. The Art Institute of Chieago. 14.24 Vilhelm Hammershoi, Illterior witlt Seated lVQmOII . Aarhus Kunstmuseum. 14.25 ViI helm Hammershoi, Pi ~ Porlraitr. S tockholm, Thielska Oalleriet. 15 TWENTIETH- C ENTURY GRAPH I CS; MOVIES
15.1 Louil Daguerre, Tlu Rlli", of Holyrood Clto~l. Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery. 15.2 GUltave Dore, " The Gnarled Monste r." Illustration for Tlte ugend of Croqvemitai1le. 15.3 Gustave Dore., " The Fall of Salall," 18 66. IIlustratioli for "1i!ton's !'armJi,e Lo,t. 15.4 Kenyon Cox, ··Lodgers ill a c rowded Bayard Street tellement-Five Cents a Spot ," 1889. Illustration in Sc ribner ', Jliontltly Mo gazi'lt, after a photograph (rom Jacob Riis' flow tlte Otlter lIolf IALoe,. 15.5 Howard Chandler Ch risty, " Her husband and I turned on her together." illustration in Scribner', MantAly Magazine, December 1900. 15.6 Charles Dana Gibson, ··Stage-Struek." Illustration in Collier', Weekl y, March 1905. 15.7 Still (rom Yov and ,Ve, 1938. 15.8 J . Henry, " You nervy little devil, your ' lIIust ration (or Edna F erber's Fanny Her.elf. 1917. 15.9 Frederic Remington. ·' IA ng lIat waiting (or an answer." I~hotogra\t\lre rrom a monochrome painting, 18 92. Illustration (or IAllg(ellow· .. Tile Song of lIiolOOiJta. 15.10 Frederic: Remingt-on, The Sentillel. All Rights Resen 'ed _ Courtesy Frederic Remington Art MUlleum, Ogdenlburg, N.Y. 15.11 I"rederic: Remington , "B randing a Calf ." Procell-engraving (rom lin ink drawing
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SQIlI'ees for lIIu~/rali()I1!J
47 3
based on a photogra ph by T heodore Roosevelt. Illust ration in C~ "tury Ma"azi"~, April 1888. 15.12 Howard Pyle, " In the Prt8enee or Washington." Illust ration ill C~"tury Magari"" April 1897. 15. 13 Still rrom Tlt e MaN WJto Ca me to Dil1"er, 194 1. 15. 14 Jan Vermeer, Officer and Laughing Girl. New York , The Frick Collection. 15. 15 Still rrom Tlt e Greal Li~, 194 1. J 5.16 Jan Venneer, Tlte I...ot:~ldte r (detail). Amsterdam , Rijksmuseum. 15.17 Howard Pyle, TltonifU Je/ferlon (detail). 15. 18 Gerrit van Honthorat , Cltri,t Mfore tlte lIigh Priu l. lA ndon, The Nat ional Gallery. 15. 19 Fam ily photograph, e. 1905. 15.20 S till (rom RembraNdt, 1936. 15.2 1 Pieter Saeuredalll, Tlt e Old To wm J/all of A m, tlJ rdam . AlIllderdanl , Rijk8l1luseunl. 15.22 S till rrom Day of Wrath, 1937 . 15.23 Rembra ud t, SYNdic. of th e Dra per.' Guild. Am8lerdam, Rijksllluseum. Marburgl Art Resource. 15.24 Still rrom Tlt e Fro,,' Page. 1931. 15.25 Jacques Callo!., Co mbGl wilh SlI)Ord,. E tching, 1632. 15.26 S!.ill rrolll A luandllr Nee.kll, 1938. 15.27 Jacques Callol , " The Com'ersioll or S t. Palll ." rrolll TM N~ w Ta tomenl. Publillhed posthunlouKly, 1635. 15.28 S till from StagUMd! , 1939.
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Copyrighted materia
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES
PAINTING
Alpers, S\'ctiana. Tlte Art of Ducribi ng. Chicago. 198 3. Andrews. Keith. Adam Elsluimt r. New York, 1977. Banks. Qlh'cr. Wolteolt alld tAt Norllt: Sh,die. ill lilt Dlllclt. and n emi, ,, I,."ltt "ct 0" F~rtClt Rocooo Painting. New York, 1977. Benesch, OUo. Tlte Art 0/ lite Rt Miuonce i" Norlh ern Eltrope: It, Relation 10 lite COlltt m-
porary Spirit"al and /n ltlltchud Motltrnt ll" , Cambridge, 1947. Bicknell. Peter. Rf!O Kty, Ilorror and Imrnt " .i' !!: Piclllre.qN t IAmd$car~ ill Britai,, _ 1750- 1850 (catalogue). f~i tlwi1liam Museum, Cambridge, 198 1. Blanker'l, Albert, et al. Goo.., Saint. alld Ht-roe,: Dlllclt Painting in lite Age of Rembrandt (catalogue). Washington. D.C., 1980. Boime. Albert. Tlte Acodt rny and Frcnd, Pailltillg ill tlte 19t1t Celllwry. New Ha\'c n. 1986. BOrscb·Supan, H ~ lmut. Caspu Dal,';d Fri~driclt. (trans. Sarah Twohig). New York. 1974 . Boyle. Richard J . Amen'ca l! Imp re8lionism . Boston. 1974. Brett, Bernard . A lIiltory of IValt rcolor. New York. 1984. Brion. Mareel. Art of tlte Ro,,,alltic Era . New York. 1966. Brown. Jonathan . "el.izqlU'z. Pa inter alld Cqlu1ier. New Ha\'cn a1ld 1,o1ld01l. 1986. Clarke. Kenneth, Lalld6Ca~ into Art (1949). Boaton . 1961 . ___ . Tltt Rqman,ic Rtbtllion . New York, 1973. Clark, T. J . TIt~ Ablolvle Botl.r~ois. London, 19 73. ___ . Tltt Pa inting of IlIadt ", Lift . Princeton, 1984. DeWinter , Pat-rick M. " A Book or Houra or Queen Isabel La Cat6Iica." TIt~ Bulldill of 1M Cl~ L'f!land MllIettm 01 Arl, Vol. 67. No. 10, December 1981. Foucart, Bruno. Covrbtt. New York. 1977. Fried, Michael. AblOrptitln and T"~atrica li'y; Painting and Beltoldu in ''' ~ Age 01 Did~rol. Berkeley and Loa Angeles, 1980. ___ . "Manel's SoUfee8; Aspects of hia Art., 1859-1865." ArlForum , Alareh 1969 , ___ . " Thomas Couture and the Theatricalization of Action in 19th·Century French Painting." ArlForum, June 1970, pp. 42-46. Fromelltin, Eugene. Th e Ma l ter, of Pal l Time (1 8 76). Oxford. 1948. Puchs. R. H. Dlllclt Painting. Ntw York and Londoll, 1978. ___ . Rembrandt in Ams terdam , New York Oraphic Socie ty. 1969. O.llier. Pieron. Oaya; A IVit~u alllis Time. Pribourg, 1983.
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416
Select Bibliography allli Noles
Genon, HOMlt . lUmb"mdt Pa i"ti"DI, Amsterdam, 1968. Oombrich. E. H . .4rl alld Ilhuicm. Princeton, 1960. _ _ _ . "Moment and Movement in Art :' JOIlMNJI butilwte,. No. 27 (1964), pp. 293-306.
0/
tlte lVorbw:'V alld CowrlfJII/d
of AptUu. Onord. 1976. Goodrich, Lloyd. EdlDGrd Hopper. New York, 1976. Gowing, Lawrence. 7\eMttr, imagiJWJtio,. f".d Reality. New York , 1966.
_ _ . Tle
Ht.';ta~
_ _ . Ver'rIUer (1952). New York, 1970. Hanllon, Anne Cortin. MONet aM the Mode,.,. TraditioN_ New Haven and London , 1977.
Hendricks, Gordon. Alberl Bien/adt. New York, 1974 . ___ . 77te tAle Gnd Work 01 TAorna, Eaki ,... New York, 1974 . H ofmann , Werner . Arl in tlte Ni"eteerdlt Ce"ttlry. London, 1960. Honour, Hugh . Roma,.licism. London. 1979. James, lIen ry. "The Painter', Eye," in John C. S,,'ecncy (cd .), Notel ami f:u ays 0 11 tltt Pictorial Arll. Cambridge, 1956. Jell un. Jell' Ch rinian. Adolplt Menzd. Cologne, 1982 . Johnllone, Chriltopher. JoAn Manill. London, 1974 . Krell, Thomas, ed. Renai"anc~ Painting in Ma,nu cri/>f•. New York, 1983. Levey, Michael. PaililillY in XVIII Centwry Venice. London, 1959. Licht, Fred . Goya: Tlt e Drigi,u of tlte Mode,.11 Temper ill Art. Ne'" York, 1979. MUI, J eremy. Victon'att Paintllrl. New York, 19 67 , MeilJei. Marlin. Rtalizalioft.&: NarTUti(..'I!, Picton'al O1ld TlteatriC(Jl Art. in nittt leelltit ce,dltty Ellyland. Princeton, 1983. McShine, Kynaaton, ed. Tltll Nalkrat Paradi'll (u"YI by Barbara NO\'ak, Robut RolJenblum, and J ohn Wilmerding). New Yorlt, 1976, Noehlin , Linda. Rtalilm. New York, 1971. ___ . " The RuH. t Criminal and the Abltract Law." Art in Jimll rica , StptemberOctober 1973 . No\'ak. Barbara. American Paili/iPig of llu 19th. Cenlwry. New York, 1969 . ___ . "Landselpe Permuted: From Painting to P hotography." AnFon"n , October 197 5. ___ . Natkrt and Cltllltrt. New York, 1980. 011011, S tanley. Jolin Sinye,. Sar-gen/, Ili. Portrait Ne'" York, 1986. Panof,ky. Erwin. f:arly Ndltuiandi.1t Pa intiny. Cambridge, 1953 . Paul80n, Ronald. Hogartlt , IIi, Life. Art and Tim e,. New Haven, 1974 . Halcli rr, Carte r . JoAn Sinye,. Sargent. Ne ..... York , 19 82. Theodore. Deg"': Tlte Arti,,'. Mind. New York, 197 6. ___ . Ma rui: Olympia . New York, 1977 . Rei"" Stephen. AdbIJ rl Cltyp. Bollon, 1975. Rewald, J ohn . /lutory of Impr-tuioNi. m (fourth rev. ed.). :-O:e'" York, 1913. Reynolds, Graham . A Con~ i~e /liltory of Watercolo,.,. London , 1971. Rosell. Charlu, and HenM Zenll~r. Ro1tI(JNticum lind Rea/i. m. New York, 1984. Rose.nberg, P ie rre, and Margaret Morgan Grauelli. Cltardi N (catalogue). Cleveland. 1919. ___ . Wallt alt (catalogue). Washington, D.C. , 1984 . Ro8enblum, Robert. ,Yode,..,. Pa iNting and tlte Norlltt rn Rom(J,die Traditimt . New York. 1975 . ___ , and H . W. JIU18on. 19111 Cc'n lltry Arl. New York, 1984 .
Re".
Select /JibliuyralJlty (lml Noles
"i 7
Schapiro, Meyer . " Courbet and Popular Imagery" (194 1) and " The Introduction or Modern Art in America : The Armory S how" (1952), both reprinted in Modern Art. New York, 1978. Sc hiff, Oerl, et al. Oeollan J1!aller, of /lt e Nindellll /it Celtlury (cataloKUe). New York .
198 1. Sc hiff, Richard. " The End or Irnpretltlioni8m ." Art Quarterly , Vol. 1, No. 4 . Autumn 1978. Schwartz . Oary. Rembrandl.· J/i, I.ife. W, Pai"tinos. New York. 1985 . S ewcll. Darrel. Thoma' Eakin". A r/",,/ of PltilullfJl"ltia. P hihtdelphia. 1982 . Seznec. Jean. Jolt" Morti" 1!11 Fro/Ice. London, 1964. S lakes , Adriau . Pailltillg a tld Ih e bltler World (196:1) aud Th e /lwi/a/ il'" i" Art (I 965}. both in Vol. :l; Tlt e Qlulllro Ce"to (1 9 32). in Vol. 2 o f Th e Critical Wri/i llYs of Adrian Stoke" (,.olldoll , 1978. Strong, Roy. "Arid whert did yow lall .ee your {llilt er!" London, 1978. Sutton, Pctcr. l'1der de llooch. Oxford , 1980 . ___ , et al. Masler. of Set.~ lI/ce nllt Cell/wry I)w/cil. Gertre Pa inting (cat,alogne). Phila· delphia. 1984. S ..... aIl801l. Verll G . Alma·TI.del/lII . New York, 1977. TCIl-Does8chale Chu , Petra . f·rt';rtcJl. Rl:.o/ i,.m IlrId Olt: Dutclt Malller,. Utrecht. 1974. Varnedoe, Kirk. "Caillebotte: An E\'oh'ing I~e rspect i vc . " in O..,IO L'e Coil/t oolle, a Reh'o,,~cIiL'f! E.xIt ibitioll (catalogue). Houliton, 1976. _ __ . OU/alle Caillcbolle. Ne",' H,welillond 1.J()IIdoll, 1987. Vaughan , William . O, ollall Homillltic p(.ill/ing. New J-Ia\·erl . 1980 . Waterhouse, Ellis. Pailliing j" Brila ill , 1530-1'190 (fourth cd .). New York. 197 8. Wcelcn, OU)'. TlIrlier . New York . 19 82. Weisberg. Gabriel P. TIt~ Rt ali, t TraditiO'I: Frt:'lch l-'a;lI/illg alld IJru willg, 1830- 1900 (clltaloKUe). Clevclllnd , 1980 . Wilmerding, J ohn . Amen'Call 'Agkl: Th e I,umitl isl Mot.'e1llell1 1850- 1875 (calalogue). Wash ingt on, D.C., t 980 . Wilton, And rew, J. M. nr. TMrll t r: /Jis Art aNd LAf' , Fribourg, 1979. ___ . TMrllU ulld /he S Nbl imt. Chicago, 19 80 . Wind, Edgar. '''rhe Rc\'olutiou or Hiijtory I)aint ing." Tlt t: JouJ't1/J1 of tltt: WllrbNrg I IIsl itu/e. Vol. 2 (1938-39), p. 116. GRAP H I C ART
Adhemllr, JCIIIl , 811d Frall~oi se Caehin. DeguA: Tlt t Compltle Etclt illY', LitltogJ'lI/)lts olld MOll otYIH!'. I~aris . 1973. Boon , K. O. RetrlbNl',lit: TIt , Complett 1~·Ic1t i ll g,. New York . l1 .d . Burkc, Jallics Il Chanu ,uer'JIQlI Pn' lIb olld /Jra will g, (c8t~logu e). New Haven. 1974. Clsrk, Jamell M.• ed . /JOlict of I)eo/It by /Jat" /JolI~ ill . Oxford , 1947. Dalliel, Howard. Callo/', E/chillgs: 338 1-'ril1b. ~ ew York, 1974. Dav1s, Nsta lie Zema n. " Printing Bnd the Peoplc: ' in Soc iety ulld CNltW N! i ll f: arty :1Iod· eTII Frallct. I~al o Alto, 1975. Eil>ellsteill, Eliubct,h L. Tlte Prilltillg PreIS as a ll Ayt"ffl of CJUllIge, Cambridgc, Eng., 1979. Harer. Philip. ed. TIt~ Di, aJler, o! War, PrallciJeo Goya. Milleola. N.Y., 1967. ___ . ed . 1.0 J Capriciro.,. FJ'lHlcisco Goyo . Mineola. N.Y.. 1969.
C pyr
te
4i8
Select Bibl.ioyraphy
0.//(/
Notes
hins, William M. 1I0w Print, Look. Boston, 1943. ___ . Notet on Prillt! (1930). New York, 1967 . ___ . Print, all d Vi.va l Cottlmltnication. Cambridge, 1953. Jusa!m, Estelle, Vi, ltul Commltllicatioll dlld lite Grall/tic A rl,. New York, 1974. Kunde, David. TAt Early Co mic Strip. Be rkeley, 1973. Marrow, James H., and Alan S helltack, eds. lIall' Baldlwg Grie", Prinb alld Dra willg, (catalogue). New Haven, 198 1. Mayor, A. Hyatt . Prillt. and People. Princeton, 1971Mc Luhan, Marshall. Tlt e Gltienberg GalazlI. Toronto, 1962. Melot, Mic hel, et al. Print.: l/istory of all Arl. New York, 198 1. Panorsky, Erwin . Albrecht Darer (third cd.). Princeton , 1948. Rowlands, J ohn. lIercv.lu Sege r•. New York, 1979. Wilton· E ly, John . Tlte Jrilld and Art of Giot'{J llll i Batti,ta Pirallesi. London, 1978. Zigro88er. Earl. Pn·nt, and ThtJir Creator, (1937). New York. 1979. ILL U STRAT I ON
Beam, Philip. Winslow Homer'. Magazine Engra vings. New York, J 979. Benesch, Ouo. Artillic and I ntdlectltal Trend., from HltbellS to Dallmier as ShoWII i" Book /lh.,tratiotl. New York, 1969. F inley, Gerald . /...and,cape. of Memory: Turner a. /lIlllirator to Scott. Be rkeley and l.os Angeles. 1980. Gosling, Nigel. Gustat'fl Dori:, New York, 1974. Harvey, J ohn . Victorian NOt'tii,/. and Th eir /lilll/rators. New York, 1971 . Hunllisett.. Basi l. Steel Engra ved Book /llu ,trati(1II ill Ellglalld. Boston, J 980. Larkin, Oli\'e r. Art and Life in A,lttJn·ca. New York, 1949. Levin, Gail. Ed ward I/ol>pe r as /llv, trator. New York, 19i9. ___ , Edu.VJrd Hopper: Tlt e Complde Pri'lts. New York, 1979. Reid, ~"o rre8l-. IIhutrator, of tlu Eigltteetl-liztie. (1 9 28). Mineola. N. Y., 1975. PHOTOGRAPHY
Coke, Van Deren. TIt~ Paitlter alld lite Photograpit. Albuquerq ue, N.M .• J 964 . Qalassi , Peter . Before Photography; Pailltillg a"d tlte I nt'tllliioll of Photography. New York, 198 1. Gernsheim, Helmut. A COllcise Hillory of Photography (third re\'. ed.). New York , 1986. Gosling, Nigel. Nadar. New York, 1976. h 'inl , William M. "Photography and the Modern Poi nt of View; A Specu lation in t he History of Taste." Md ropolilall Mvsevm SIvdie., Vol. 1 (1928-29). pp. 16-24. Maleolm, Janet. DiaM and Nita". Boston, 1980. Needham, Gerald . " Manet. Olym pia and Pornographic Photography," ill Thomas Hess and Linda Noehlin (edll.), Woman as Su: Object. New York, 1972. Newhall, Beaumont. H istory of Photog raphy (1949). New York, 1964. Seharr, Aaron. An alld Photography , London, 1968 . • ___ . " Pa inting, Pltotogravlty alld Ihe Image of l1fo~en t. " Bur/i llgtoll Maga zi lie, May 1962, pp. 186-95. Sontag, Susan. 011 Photography. New York, 1977. TerrB.lllle, Antoine. Degas d la pltotograpitie. Parilll, J 983. Thomas, Alan. Time ill a Fram e. New York, 1977.
c
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479
M OVIES
Andrew, Dudley. Concept. i,l Film TJtt:ory . Oxford. 1984. ___ . Tlte " Iajor Pi/m n £oriel, Oxford , I !J76. Anlheim . Hlldo\(. Fillll (J.f Art. Berkr \l'Y Bud lAS Angeles, 1957. Barsacq, l..eon. Caligafl" Cabillf!1 (HId Olltrr Graml /III/. , ion,: A /l is/Dry 0/ F ilm /1e.ig,l. &8(011,
1975.
Bazin. Andre. Whll. Cinema!' Berkt'\e),. 1967. Braudy, (,.eo. Tlt e World in a Prame. Nl'w York, J 976. Cavell. Stanley. Tlte World I/iewed . Xew York, 1971. Corliss, Mary. 811d Ca rlos Clll reu8. " Designed ror )O'jlm : The Hollywood Art Director," FiltH Comme nt, May-June 1978. Eisner. (..otte. I~ 'ECNItI dtm ottiaqur. Pa ris. 1965. Gambill , Norman . " 1-l ll rry Horne r'lI Dellign l~rogr8111 for Tlte /leinl', -, Art JOlI.rllO/ , Vol. 43. No. :t, Fall 1983. Harbison, Robe rt. f."cc,. ntric S , HlN'I, New York. 1977. Jacobs, Lewis, TIt ~ f." Pf6 rUf)llC~ of F i/", A rl (anthology), Ne ..... York, 1069. Krakauer, Siegrrit'd. Tlt eory of Film: Tlt e HedemplioPi of Pltysical Heality. Oxford, 1960. MaIlt , Gerald . A SAo r/lIis/ory of tltl! MOI'its (rourth I'd .). NI' ..... York, 1986. ___ , and Ma rshall Cohen. Pi/", Tlt eory alld Criticism (speolid cd .; anthology). Nel" York , 1979. Ross, T . J , Fi/", and /It ~ Liberal Arls (anthology), New York. 1970, Sarris, Andre ...... TIt ~ Am ~ rico n Ci II l! ' IIIJ. Ne ..... York, 1968. Sehickel, Richard. IJ. lV. GrilJitlt, All America " Dife. Ne ..... York. 1984. Sc hrad.. r, Paul. Th e TrtJtlilcC1l d~ ,dal Sl y/~ iPi Fi rm: OZIl, BrUSO ,I. Dr~ Yl!r. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1972. Truff'aut, FnUl\,ois. lIitelteock. ~I'''''' York, 1985. Tyler, Parker. Clonic, of tlt ~ F o r eigll Film. N('w York , 1962 . Vardac, A. ~ ico l a8. Stage /0 Sene ,,: Th eatrical Method fro m Garrick ta Griffith . Camb ridge, 194 9. SOC IETY , HI S TORY , AND ART
Baudelaire, C harlu. Tlt e Painll!r of Mode rPi L ife and Olht.r E lSays (I railS. and ed. J OII' athall Mayue). l..olldon , 19 64. Becker , George J., and Edit h Philip!;, trans . and ed s. Paris and 11t~ Arls, 185 1- 1896: P rom l/t tl GO Ill!Ollrl J o wf md. IthaCII , N.Y., 197 1. Berger, J ohn, Wa ys of Se~i ng. l.IOndon , 1972. Burke , Peter. Poplliar Cllftllr~ ill f :arly Moda'" E:kro~. N('w York, 1978. Cardillal, Roge r. Gcrn.aN Romall/ie. ill Co,du:l. London, 1975. Focilloll, Henri. Tlt e 1./ife 0/ Fo,..m~ ill Arl (19 36). Second English ed., New York, 194 8. Gay, Peter . Arl (ud Act: 011 Call6U in /li' /ory- Marld, Gropilll, M OI. driati. New York, 1976 . Holl, Elizabeth G ., ed . TIt ~ T rillmplt of Arl for /It ~ Pwblie: Tlt e Emerging Ro/~ of Erltibi· liolls and Cri/ie•. New York, 1979. Klillgender , Fra ncis O. Arl alld lit e JlI{ilutriol Ret-'OiN lio" (ed. Arthur Elton) . New York, 1968.
c
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.. 80
Select BiblioyrtJpky alld Noles
Kuble r, George. Tit, Slta ~ 0/ Time: Remarb Oil tltll lIi.,ory 0/ Tiling•. New Ha"en, 1982. Podro, Mi ~ hael. Titl en'tical lJidon'an, 0/ Arl. New Haven, 1982. Schalllll. imOIl. " The Unruly Realm: Appetite and Restraint," DawaltAI, Vol. 10 , No. ;) (1971 1. pp. 103-23. ___ . " Wi,'u and Wantons; Versions of Womanhood ," Oz/ord Art JotAnwl, April 1980, I)P. 5-13. Willialll il, Raymond. " Ad,'e rlisillg; The Magi~ System," in Probitm. iN MatInal O.d/IIN!. London, 1980. ' ...·ind, Edgar. Art alld AnarcAy. New York. 1964.
NOTES ON SOURCES
O ~'
Q UO TAT I ONS IN TilE TEXT
ptlfIIJ 15 "s hsndlelll eye"; Foeillon. p. 73. 5 1 "integral ... Iw.ing": Pried, Ab.rorplioPf, p. 91.
6 1 " ... ill the landscape": Clark, lAHttUCUIH, p. 17. 68 ". " infinitely large": Panofllky, Early Ndit£rlalldi6lt Pain/illg, p. 3. 77 ;'lIadi8111 ... seemingly strong" 811d " ulllltylized reality": P811orsky, " Style and Medium." ill Mast and Cohen, p. 263. 86 "t he Northenl day": Stokes, Wril i"gl. Vol. I , p. 39. 183 "the upward look": Mayor, p. -190. "H e tmddl'lIly pUla ... ": Mayor. p. 48 9. 253 " ... 110 need for color ... " : Goya quoted in Hofer, /)i,a,tl r., p. 20. 262 " Nature wallts cooking": Varley quoted ill Reynolds, p. 102. 279 " the 8",1 chaos": Hazlitt. quoted in Stokes, Writ ingl. Vol. 3, p. 251. 28-1 "towered IItructures": Lamb quoted ill Johllstolle, p. 16 298 " the search ... ": Rosellblum. Mod~ ,.,. Painting, p. 218. 346 " You behave ... ": Refl'. Dey"" p. 18 370 "She hu ... ": .. DaillY Miller." lIeliry Janu.I &luud Slton Stone" I~enguin Mode rn Classic., p. 14 3. 37 1 " whal o'eloek": EakiufI quoted in Sewell, p. 15.
INDEX Note:
I~.gl'
lI umllf'nI ill i'alit:, rerer 10 illuCiraliolill.
Abbe-y in lite Oak Wood (J.... ried rieh), 29..8 abst ract film . :I.!l ahstraction, 30, 49 , 9 1, 11 8, 265,303, 445; beginuillga or, 90, 91, 346 , 341; modeMI formal . LB A ccepted (Millaill). :122 . 322 acting. film , ,&46 ad hoc pe rformallce. i l l Adoraliall o/ II' I! SltepJter(/Jr. Tit,. (Hembraudt), 23, 2.J.. adultery, ill ad venture films , 47, :I!l: advertisi ng art, ~ lli tu n l·o(·t he·ct'utury, 43:1, 444-5; ue also commercial art advertising photoJrnl phy. !l Agallle llillon. 22:1 A yo ll Y " 'id Ilt6 Eclllally. Tlt e (film ), :IMi Ald,Hi, AlIdrt'8. 9..0. Afe.r.alldn' Nt ':' '''' /I (film), .till (rom , 454,
ill alia pnmu style. 9..5. allt'goriclli pai II t ill I( , ('i gh I('ellt h-ce II til l') ' Italiall , 221-8 Allen, Woody. ~ i l l
"A ll thill and more," No. 22 (rom IA$ I)esa sl~$ de 1(1 auel'r" (0 0;\'8), 255, 256
Ahlla·Tade ma, I.awrence. 28, :I:J4-6 Al pers. S"~~ tlaIl8. 126. H 2, 11.6 a ltarpieces: e ight ce li th-c~' lIlury Ital iall , 22 1; and flft centh-cclltury Flemish illu minatiolls . compared. 65- 7 1. 85: Germall Romantic. 292-4 ; IN! al lfo religious art Altdor(e r, Albrech t, 90, 9 1-2. 102 . 106,
253 , 300. i l l Altt' rllalivt' COII\'f'n lioll , !..i.lli ambiguity. 7. ~ 16 , 2 1-2. 28 , 3 7. 82. 9 1.
25 7, :t38: i ll Dutch B.rt . 17. 126 . 1:16-7,142-8,156-8, lS I, 170, 200: in ftrtt'cnth· c('utur)' !':ort t1l'n l lI.n. 5:1-9 ; ill 1II0 ViNi , L!L 29 . :iO, 88. 97. 127 . 14:l-4. 265. :J15 Am('riCIl, 27, 28:1. ill Ameriellll 8rt, 324 , 41 3; ci n('IIUll ic lIlod e in, 35 1-92, 430-5. 44 0-58 ; eighte(,ll th'ce lltllry, 350- 1; (ashion i ll , 363. 368 , 370,37 1, 4 :'2-:l: folk a rt, 34 9; iIIulllration 11.11(1 printNI gntphic8. 360- 8, 385 , 386-7, 431-5 , 4 37-9 , 44 ;)-4; light in. 352-1 . 36 1, :I66, a6S, a 71 , 3 74 ; Luminist, 39. 352-1; llIod('rJl , 298; mora l Ih(,lIIell , a54. :1[,7, 37 1, :iN , 4:12 ; nillct.ecll tiHcntu r)'. 39 . 298. 324 , 349-83 , :J 89-90, 393, 4:17; ~o rtl lNII F~ lIrtlpea n illfhu.'necii Oil. :l9, :1:;0, 352. :1[,8-60, 38 1, :J86, :l89, :190 , a91, 393 , 4-4 3, 4 50-1; photography, :J57. :174-5, 3 92 1 432 1 4:n , 44 0 , 44 3-1; I)Or · tnt.iture , 3 76 . ;)78-84; ps)'cholofi( ica l experience in . 349, 350-92. 430-58: Hea lis m, 349-92 , 426, 4-:l1 -2. -H 5: religiolill tht'lIU'Ji, 352-5; ltoll1a lltic. !L :!2.: 300, :149-92. 430-1. -H O; lIt'xuality ill. 366. 368-7 1. 3 75 , :19 1; theater, 01 3 1; tl"HlI~C~'l1d(·l1tAI. :t9, 298, aoo, :J6 1j t ..... (' I\· tiet h·cen tll r:t', 383-92. 4:10-5 , 4:10_[,8 American Civi l War. :152, 358 . :V19 AmeriClln cultu re Ilnd 1I('\'(' ntee nth· et'lIlury Dut ch a rt, com port-d, 128-30, 1:17 , l1i.:l Arnt'rican G irl, :168-70 AmericAII Indians. 3..5.1 Alllt'rican lIIo\'ieti, 4 :JO- 5, 401 0-58; t'!l rl y. 430-1, -H5-6; If'f (lf6Q 1II000if'lI: ,,,,,("ilk
films
c
." I
American Protestantism. 137. 154. ill American Welt , nineteenth-century art 0(, 357_60 Amman . J Ollt, 2O:l Amsterdam. 14 3, i l l A,.gel App€un"g to SI. Jo,eplt, TA e (La Tour,. 1 H . ll..6 animated movies. 301i cartoons, 124-6. 132.4 29; and Dutch art. compared, 124-6, 1.32 Anuuuciation. ill A"",,"ciatiol1 (Van Eyck), 5.9. anonymou8 shrimp girl W oprth), i l l antiquity, 14. 52, 8 4, 3:14 ; French reyint.l 0(, 395-ft 404 ; sculpture of, ~ 396; .ee abo C lastical tradition in /I..rt : Greece; Rome Antonioni, Michelangelo, i!l Antwerp publishers. 9.8 ApoculYp$tJ t"'ow (tH m), 4..8. ApacalllJUe aeries (Dorer), 80, 81 Apol lo, 79 , 227 Apollteo,i, 01 lite Piaa,.i Familll (Tiepolo), 220,222 Appa ntioll i,. a Forut (Schwind), 3 12, 3 12 , 3l:{-J4 aquatint, 246: Goya'il USf' of, 253 . 254. 255. 26..1 arehaeologicailltudy, eighteen th·century. 23 1. 232. i l l arehitecture. 60 j in American art.• 3M. 356; in Britillh Art. 26 1. 280. 284- 90; capriccio, 236-7; in Dutch art, 173, 176; ill eighteenth-century Italian art, 22 7-9; (antasy. 22 7-.'11. 284-7. 295. 333. 40 7. 409-11i in French art, 407. 409- 15. 4 18i in mezzotint, 280; in mO\'ielf, 176.22 7. 228-3 1. 284-6, 4 11 : in photograph y, 23l Arcltitethtrt e Pro'pettit.'t, illustration from (Bibie na). 228. 230 AmlOry Show (1913), fill: Amolfini lIIarriage portrait (Van Eyck), !L~5.9
a
"The Arreat," No. from Tlte Hoad to Rwi,. (Frith), 328. 3.2.9. A n Monendi (fifteenth·c entury block book engra\'ing), 1§.. ZZ
a.rt dil't"ction . 21. s rti8snll, printmaking. 178-8 1 Ar/i8t ill Ilia Shu/ io, TIt ~ (Hcmbrsndt), 19 ! - 2. 1,92, i l l " The Artist' ll Hand" (Poeillou). lfi Art Nou\'pau, ill art patronagc, J(;~ patrolUlge, art Art tudents League (New York) . ill Astsire. Fred, ;) asymmctry, 295 , 357; Roeo<:o, 228, 248 Athenat' ulIl (St. J ohnsbury, Vermont), 3.5.9 atlllollpliere in Ital ian and Nortlit'nl art, CQIlIp8rt.>d, 86 1 901 95--6, 1.09 Auden. W. H .• 241 Augustan pof'try. ill All Pa rodi. (Mallet). 44, !l.5. authenticity. a rtistic, 10- 11 AvtWIII I' uat.'f!s (Millais), :laO A valancAe in lite Griso,.. ('fUMier). 276, 276, 1.77
avant.·garde lIloviell, 4 9, 4 30
Avmnltvra , L' (tHm), 2.61 Baburen , Theodor \'8n, 121 Ballyloll, 187 back light ing, 39; in nineteen th·century F'rench art. 41 9-20; NorlhCMl European Ulle of. 80,160, 3 10; .ee al..o light bad art, high and low Ilrt Balcony. TA e (Hopper), a..B.ti. Baldung·Orien t l-laulI, 88, !to. Bapli.". 01 CA rist. TA e (David). 66, .61 Bapti,,,. QI CArial, TA e (Elsheilller). 1ft2 Baplitm 01 CAri81, rite (Piero d ella Frallcellca). 61. 62. Hflpli"n 01 CArial, Th e ( ruran-Milan Hours illuminat ion), 6'1 . ~ fill Barbi WIl School , l l i Bard, Tlt e. 2.8.6. ') 1' " :':' Baf"(1ot, B rlgltle. BarQ(lue a.rt . 18; early, 99- 1 18; stage dellign, 228-31 ; &ee also scventeenth· century 8rt Harry L'Y lldo,. (film). i l l Basel , 8.0 Battle 01 Porl Hack, Val d 'A Olt.te. Pit dlllolil. 1796 (Turner), 277-8, 278
,u
( .;pyng, Id
te JI
4 83
J"dex Baudelai~.
C harlea
Pie r~ ,
35 , 39, •400 .
ill Baxter, Anne, 3:\5 beauty: il\ classic art , L 58, 11 8.263; in films. 448 . i l l Beit Collectioll (Alrred), lli2 Belasco. David. ill Be lgian Symbolists, 3.3.6 Belgium. 334 Bellange, Jacques. 110, 2.O:l Bellini. I..2J. BeldlQzzar 's Peast (Martin), 283, 284, 286-1 Blm lIv.r (film ). l...fi3. Bening. Alexander, 67, 69, 70. 71 , 78, a..6. Bplling, Simon, !!.. 18 Berckheyde, Gei"rit , ;!Q, 115-6,233 , 234, 235 , 261. 272. 3..9..0 Bergman. Ingmar, i l l Berlin, 56. 309, 318 Bibiena architectural rantatiies , 228, 231 ,234 , 29 5 Bib/~. Tlt e (film), 284, ill Biblical a.r t. He Chris t; religious .art Bic nillildt, Albert, !!.. 3M , 356_60 Birds, Tltt (film). !l.S BiMIt 01 Ve"WJ', Tlt t (Bo1ticelli), 25. 2.Ji. Black and Gray mother (Whisllcr), 346 black and white: in architectural ranllUIY, 228. 23 1-4 ; \ ' 10 . color , meaning in. 33-5, 31-9. 46-50. 84-5, 253-4, 338. 314.453-5; eighteenth-century uac or, 205-12, 224-6 , 228, 231-3, 245-60, 263. 316; urisaille lIlanullc ripts, 85; immediacy of, 34; moviell. 3a. 34 , 35. 39,41. 43. 46-7. 49. 139. 228, 2:Jl. 254 ,280, 41 1. 440. 450. 453-5; narrative, 33. 34-5, 43-6; nineteenth· century use of, 279-80, 283-90, 303-5, 315, 319-20,325-9,337-8, 346-8, 363-5, 402, 401- 15. 437.440: Northern \ ' 11 . Italian use or, 84-90; paintings reproduced in, 31-3, 3&-7, :!1. 46, 84. 102. 106-7. 178-95,205. 211.290-1 . 32&-6.440; photography, 33. 34. 3&-7. 43 . 46. 280; sevent eenth· cen tury use of. 11 0-14. 11 6. 176-95, 200-6, 208; s ixteenth·century use or.
84-93. 98; teIC\'iaioll. 46; truthfulnesll or. 34. 37. 85-6 ; 't~ also printed graphic art: tone B1a.kp, Will ialll , 2.5i Blechcn , Karl, 3.0.9 B/j,,(/illg 01 S II/nN II, Tlt e (Rembr8ndt). 183, 186, l.81 block books, early. 75-7. 80. 8 1. 9.5 Blocm8ert, Abraham. 169. 170 blur in laudscapt' art and mO\'iell, comparl'd , 267. 268. 273, 279. 280, 2.Bl Boime, Albert , 396-7 Bonnard , Pipr .... , 3.1 book illumination , ICI) illuminated manusc ript " book illustration: block bookfil, 75-7, 80. ~ ~ British. 216-9. 325-9. 332-3. 3:16-8; rOllrtef'n t h-firtf'enth Cf'ntllry, 33,52=4 . fiFl-71, 7fJ-81. 85, 87; French, 241. 402, 428-9; Gt'nuBII , 3J6-18, :124; Italian , 78. 87-8 . 90; nineteenth-century, 276-9, 316-18,
322. 324-9, 332-:1 , 336-8. 387, 402, 408. 426, 428; Northen! European \ '11 . Italian atylcs or, 84-90: sf'vent pellt h-cf'lltllry , 124, 177; lIix teent h-celllury, 71 -5. 78-8:1, 98. 20S; II'~ 0180 illum inated manu scripts; illustrat ion: I)rinted graphic art Book or HOllrl!. 53, l.L 91 Book oI l/our' 01 Isabel 10 Cal6lico. TIt ~} illum ination rrom, 69, za Bosch, Uierollymus, 95 , 98. 112, ?55 Bosse , Ahr8luUIl, 110. ) I I! 20 1, 204! 1,08
BOlLtOIl, 191. 21 6 Bostoll MUlLeum of Fine Arts, W Botticf'lli , Sandro. !1 18, 2.ft. 2a. Bouchf'r , )o~ rall coi s , 212, 252 BOllcicaut ~lallrl e r , 5..a
aa. 5J.
m
BouNl&e , Ellaiall, 146, 148.389. Boy' i" a Pas/un (Homer), 366 , H£ BraCfl's Rock , Brace', C OI'f! (Lane), 353, ill Bramley, Jo"' rBllk. 3:J8 " Branding a Calr," iIlulltrat ioli ill Century ," aga zi",' (Remington). 438, 4 39
Breaking Poi/d, Tlt e (film ). 121, i l l
( ,;pyng, Id
te II
4 84
Breton , Jules, ill Bridgt. 01 Cltao, aNd Pa"dt.rltOllillllt, Tlte, engra\'ed illu8tration8 for Millon's Parndi,t. Loll (Mart in), 284, ~85, 2Bl British art : eighteenth ·century, 187, 240-55 . 21'",7. 26 1-5; illustrative and graphic tradition, 240-1. 24:>-7. 252-5, 261 , 263, 273-80, 283-90. 31S=29. 332-3. 3:]6-8. 346-8. 387. 41 3; landscape, 261-92, 34 1. 397: light in, 27 1- 2 . 279, 281. 327 , 329. 330. 339-42; and literature, links between, 240, 241, 252, 276 , 278, 320. 324-9 , 332-3 , 336; mof'll! themes. 241-52,277,329 , 330-2,338-40; 8nd movin, compared, 240-.52. 265_92, 324-48, 453,457; nineteenth.century, 114 , 187, 261-92 ,3 18-48, 387. 403 , 4 13,455,4 57: Northem European influencea on. 26 1- 2, 271 - 2. 3 18. 320. 326.33 1. 337, 350, 455; photography. 407: portraiture. 187 , 190.240,241, 261,344- 6: Pre· Ra phaeli te, l.ft.. 29. 3 19-22.324 . 330-3 , 4 53; psychologica l uperience in, 247-8, 252, 26 1. 265-92,327, 329-48; realilnn ill, 245 . 322,3 24 .330, 336-41 ; ro manticisnl in, ~ 234 . 312,346; and theater. lin ks between, 325-36. 337: topographical, 26 1-2. 265-8. 277-80, 28 3 - 9 2 Broadsheelli. printed, 204 , 2.!l.5 Bronte sisters, 284 Brown. Ford !ttadox, 330 Browne, H. K .. 329, 3.3.6 Bruegel the Elder, Pieter, 7 1, 94-8, l..li. 11 3,1 14 , 11 6, 161, 163 . 303.326, 385, 4 57 Bruge8, 61 Burgkmair. Hans, 88. Burgundy, 5.2 Hllrial at Ontan, (Couroet), 398 Burke, Edmund, 2fi:l Bume·J ones, Edward, 330, :t36 Busch, Wilhe lm, 34. 43 . 322 Byron , George Gordon. Lord. 2 76 , 3..2!t cabaret Ktage. ninetee nth·century, 4 00 Cobind 01 /) r. Co/jga";, TIt~ (film) , 30 1, :l.3O
m
Cabi ria (film). ill C"iIlebolte, Gusta\·e. 13, J 6, 338, 34 J , 386.4 17-21,422,424 calendars, early illustrated , 71. Zfl calligraph ic cartoon art, 3.! Calling 01 SI. "Iattltt.w, TAt. Cl'e rbnlgghen), 11 9.120, 12 1. 24 2 Callat, Jacques , 11 0. J I I. 11 2- J 8. 154 , 204, 208,209. 4.5..5 ca mera, 13, 20; im'ellt.ioll 0(, 30-2; itS neutral observer, ] 5; ,~. al,o movies; photography Canaietlo. 232- 9, 240. 26 1, ?o6'! caper movies , u.s capitalism, 2.:l3 eapriccio. 236_ 7 CO /)riccio: Palace witlt Clock T OIt.'M (Canaletto). 236-7. 2,Y7 Copn'ello" Lo, (Ooya) . 45, 4.1... 246, 253,
254. 254, 255, 260 captions, fu film, ill Cara\'aggio, Michelangelo da, 3B, 39,
104, 109- 10,11 1, ]]6. 168. 335; theatrical eft'ects in. 109-10, 11 8, 11 9-20, llO. CardillO/ Si, Ier, Talking /0 Admirers, Tlu , illustration for a no\'cl by Hale\')' (Degas), 407. 409 caricature. eighteenth·cen tury. 2.i.5. Carlucci. Leopoldo, 228, 2.30 Caroline court maS{llIe, 32 7 Carracci, the, 104 , i l l Carrying 01 tltt. Crou (Cal lot). 1 13, ill carlt. cle l;i,ile portraits , ~ 4 14 cartoon art. 34, 77. 240, 3 16; and Dutch art , compo.red, 124-6, 132; lefl 01,0 animated cartoons Ca rus, Carl Ousto\, . 309, 359 Catholicilnn, 99. 114 . 169.1.11 Cats. Jacob, i l l CaL'Iliiul Watering Their Jior't!' (Cu),p ), 158. ll!l. Ca\'ell . S tanley, 20. ano ce lebrity I>ortraits. lill cemetery mural decorat ion, fifteenth.ce nlury, 80- 1 centered images. 39
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485 CMIIlry M agazilltJ ilhuHnltion (p~' le) , 439. 4.J!l Celllllry MagazillfJ illustration
(He mingtoll), 4:18. i l l Ce ru. 1.01 Cezilllne, Paul, 11 8,279, aoa, 42) Chabrol , Claude, 259 Chaplin, Cha rl ie, :..J.Q;l Chard in, J . B , 5 ,. !.:L ~ 1:16 , 205 .
212-19.22 1,222.236.241, 24:1, 246 . 248 , 257,395, i l l CltargfJ of Ill e L,igitl Hrigadc. TIl t. (fHlll), 45:1 C ha r ll'magnc. 3..l!l. C harles II. King. 1...5..6. Chast, William Merritt , 369 Chaaaeriau, Theodore, 3.!l..6. Cllaflifed SOli, TIl e (Greuze), 247, 2.18 chiaroscuro. 16, 20,26, 33-4 , I II, 2:\1 ; in grttphic Itrt, 34. 35, 4 6, 49, 179, 190. 225 , 246 , 407, 4 32, 433: in movie!!, 46, 49, 453. 455. 458; in :\'orthenl European art, !..Q. 179. 190,
ill Cltild, TII fJ (Holbein), 8 1-2, B.3.. Cllild alld Mollter ill (J Bedroom (De l-l ooeh), 133. 1M , 1.5l children , 378; in eight een th-century l<~ relleh ttrl , 2 12-16; ilillinetccnth· cen tu ry AmeriCl1.ll arl , :178-8:1: in seventeenth ·century Dutch art . I :l2- 6, 157, 378-9: in sevcnteent h.centu ry Spanish a rt, 378-82 children'l! books, 9: Chodowieeki. Daniel, 24 9-52. :11 6, :122_ :124 Ch n 8l , 57, 61. 64 , 65, 76 , SO, 83, 2 75 , 318; ill mo\'ies, 120: in nineteenthcentury a rt, 292-:': in printed graphic art , 76, 79, 80, 85, 88. 183; ill sevent eent h-centu rya rl , 11 9-20, 12) , 124, 163, 183-7; 6ee also Madollllll. and child; religiou s art CIIMf l before 1116 lIiglt Prit.1 (Holl tho nlt).
44 3, i l l Cltn'6l Corri~d 10 lI~aL't N by AIIOcls (Baldullg·Grien). 88, B.!l. Cllnfl Corryillg lJu Cran (Van Dyck), 45,
4J
Chnstian mythology. 102. 292.293 Clt ri!1 Prt'f:ll l~(lio IIIfJ PeolHr (He m brandt), 183 , lIM. Chri 8tu~, r elnls, 61, 1fi Chri51.~' . lI oward Chandler, 432 . .14 0 Church, f' rt'derick Edwin, 11 39, a54 , 359 Cilua do Coueglilillo, fi3 "Cinderella, " i l cinematic mode ill art; American, 35 1- 92. 4 30-5, 44 0-.,)8; British, 240-52, 265-92 . 324-48 , 4 53, 457: Dut ch, l.:L 16- 2:1, 28 . ) 19- 206, 240. 24:1, :l00, :127, 44 0-3, 445 , 450-3 . 455; Flemish, 14, 16- 17,2 1, 22,27 . 53-73 ,94-8; French . 11 2- 18 . 208-9, 24:1 . 24 7-9. 399-122, 426-:iO . 436; Germftll . 102-8, 294- :124 , 3a9, " ao; Ital ian, 22 1-39 , 2 6 1-2. 446, 458; :O-;orthcrn Eurol~tlll , 4-i, 14 , )6--25. 27 . 28 . :l6, 54- 7:1. 82. 88 . 9 1-8, 101-14. 119-206, 240 ,24 3.300.327, 440-2. -14 5. 450--:1, 4 55; Spanh.h. 255-60 , 273-6 : ,~e also moviell Cin(>lIlftlogrllphr , .&?9 c inematography, 20- 1, 2 7. 50. 61, 111, 44 9 j latp-eightet'llth,centu ry aUlicipl:ltion ur. :10--1; .ce al,o movies Clari/Ua series (H ighmore). 2 .&2 C hl.rk , Kenneth. 14. 6J C lar k. T. J .. lli Classical mythology. 99, ) 02-9 . 1Ii I , 334-6; see abo mythology Classical t radition iUllrt, t I... 14 , :l9 1; eighteenth-eentury, 207. 212, 221, 395; fift eenth·century. 52, 59-64 ; French, 395-8, 404 ; idealism in . L 14 , 18, 52,58. 59-60: Italian. H . 17- 18, 29,52,58 , 59-60, 90, 96,99 , 109, Ill, !..ll. 119-20, 162. 221, :195; psychologiclI.l expericllce ill. 18, 22. 25.29,59-62, 90. 109.160; seven teenth-century, 119-20. 162. 169, 20.1 Cl aude,6ct l...orf1l.in, Claude Cl f!opal ra (film), i l l Clock, Tltt! (film). as cloillter mUnll decoration, fi ft eenth-century. 80_ 1
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' SG
Jllde.z:
eiCUle'UI)N. Rill!. 445, ii.fi. clothing. let COlillllne; 'aghiol1
clouds, ill ei ght eenth·century Italian art,
223, 221 C<M.ldf', Pielf'r. 15..:1 ole, ThoIllBS, :'M-6. :157, 359 . 3.6fi collaborative errort, ill reproductive art,
!ill. i l l Collier', Weekly iJlutitralioll (Gibson), 4 32, 4..l4. Colonna, !l.Q color, 46-50; \'8. black 8nd white, meaning in, 34-5. 37-9. 46-50. 84-5. 25:l-4, 338, 374, 4 53-5; in early religious print8. 76. 84 ; etrect 011 scnses, 34; Impressionist. 37; Italian \'8. Norlhenl use or, S:.-6. 88; jmd light, 16, ) 7,20,86.118; lI1o\-ies, 20, 46-50. 453-5; photographic reproductiou, 48-9; P re· Raphaelit e, 330. 453; and rnlilllll. 46-50; Ilnd RomanticislIl . 49; lIuppreslled in NorthCMl European art, 85--6, 88, 253; symbolic meaning in, 48; and I Olle, relatiO)INiLip in painting, 37-9j in twt'nt.ieth·et'ntury 8rt., 4.8 colorized 1II0" ;eli. 016_7 Combat w itll SM:Oro. (Callot). 4501. 4 55 ComMie (French theater). 901 eOIll~dy, :14. 4:J j in British art, 24 2; eighteenth·century, 223. 224. 242; in Italiall art , 207, 223 , 224; mo\'ira. ~ 28, 47 , 49, 126. 127-8. 178; musical, 47, 247; in nineteenth-cen tury illustration, 322 , 324; ill seventeenth· century Dutch art, 124--3 1, 141i, 200; tele\'isioll, 12 6: theater, 207. 23..l cOllllllereial arl , 35, 200, 368; eighteen th·century, 200, 208- 12; (ashion, lQ. 200. 204, 208-9, 217; photography, ~ 31. :Iii , 36, 6 1. 263, 40 7; se\'enteenth-cent ury, 200; IU alII) illustration; p rin ted graphic a rt composition, ~ 4 5: a rbit rary, li. 2 1-2, 28. 53-9,9 1. 109, 127 (.lee abl) Ilmbiguity); hip-length views, 120- 1; Rocoeo asymmetry, 228. 2;L8 Cl)l1 ce rt Sir/gu, Tlte (Eakin s), 37 1. 372
Cmt,pirucy of ClaudilU Civi/i,. TllfJ (Rembrandt), 23, 2J Constable. J ohn, 2.1.9 cont inuity sketcht's, 43-6 , 225, 227. 3 16. 4:12; ror GOrll! With the Wiltd, 44. :l5. cl)ntrfJ·jo wr tech nique for landscape lighting, l..5..9. COIII,'f! rsiOll of St. PaN /, TIM (Bnl cgel), 9..6. " T he COlwersioll of St, Paul. " from Tlte New Testament (C.llol), 4 55, 4.jJi Cooper , Gary, ) 54 Copenhagen Academy, 41.4 Coplry, J ohn Si ngleton, 350-1. ;)55 copper, paiutings on, 1.02 Corinth, lAvis, 3..3.!! Corot , J eall Baptiste Camille, 397. i l l CQlltlllUe: books, sixt~enth-celltury, 208; Dutch plates, 200-2; eighteenthccntury Italian, 222-4, 23 1; film, 28, 231 ; French plates, 20 I , 203-4 : Ie~ also fash ion Colman, J ohn Sell , 265, 267 C%po.Li (Chu rch), a.5..9. CQtt(l~ I)ooryard (Va n Ostade). 124-5 .
m to w/iueI/, 94, 1...5..9 Coun te r-RefQnuation, 99, i l l Cowple iN a &droo,n witlt a Dog (De Hooch), /35, 1.31 COMpit l..ooking al Iltt Moon (Friedrich), 298. i l l Cou rbet, Guslave, 30, 338 , :)94. 396 , 398. 458 Cowr.J« of f..'mp irt, TII « (Colt). 354, 355=-6
court masques, 126, 169, 32l court t heater, Italiall, 327 Couture , Tholllas, 3..9.B Cox, Kenyon, 4.32 Cozens, J , R " 2.6..5 C rawronJ, J oan, 368 cr ime: eighteenth-century dc pictions of, 245,255; movies, 47, 49, 4 30 e ritiCII, art , 27. 284. 292; nineteenthcentury French, a!l3 • critics. literary', 2&l CroqMtl Game, Tlt e (H omer), 36 1. 3.Ji2. CroqMd Player (Home r), 36 1. 36,1
Index Crou by lite HaU it! , Tlt e (Fried rich), 29[" 296 Crou ill lite 11I0II:1I10ill' . Tlt e (Fried rich), 292, 293, 294 , 394, 295 Crozat collection , 2.0.1 Currier and ("es. i l Cuyp, Aelbert . 158. 160, 27 1, 3 10
JJo Coda /JOI~r', Tlt e. illuminat iOlls (rom (Bening), 71 . 7 2_ 't Daddy', Girl (Pischl), 390, ill Daguerre, Louis, 426-7 , 430 Dahl. Hans, 309, S1i2. })ai,y Miller (Jomes:), 310 " Dallall" (TV IIhow), l2.8 Dallee 01 Deallt. Tlt e (H ol bein), 8 1- 2, 83, 86, 9 3, 97,249 }J a llct) 01 Sa/OIl1t , TILt) (Hogl'n), 163. 165, J66
I)(lIIcer, Climbi ,.y 0 S tair (Degas), 401 .
Day, of IIeatlcrt (film), is Deall. Jalllt'8, 15:1
Death Git.'f!' Awdiellce (Tiepolo), 225, i l l detlt h theme, ill liixteentlH:en tllry prill ts.
:w. 80--2. ft§.. 8B.
d ecorll.ti\,c bordenl, in early printed books . 8..:1 Degas. E dgar. l a, 15, 16 , 22,37,259,
4 87
346, :147, 37f), 386 , 389 , 395 , :198, 399, 400,401, 403- 6, 411,414,416 , 4 17,421.422, 426,446, 458; bathenl, 406. 408 ; g ra phic .....ork, 402, 407-9, 41 :lj hist oriea l paint ings. :l..llit De Gelder, Aert , 163, 272, 3.l.8. De l-l ooch, P ieter, ill. 130. 131, 132-6. 142. 143, 147. 148, 153, 154. lSi , 158, 176, 177, 197, 2 11, 243--4, 271, 310, 363, 378, :179, ill De H ooghe, Romeyn. 20:! Oelacroix, EugPIit', 29. 279. 28 4. 3 11. 312.394, a95, :196 , 406_ 7 De l..ai resse. Gerard. l.!l1 Delll.rochc. I' a ul, 28. :196-8 Of' Is TOllr. George8, 22 . 114- 18, 121 , 3 66
De Laul"enti ili, D ino, 284, aM. Del rt, 173.234, 235 Deluge t ht' lIu'. 283 De Mille, Ceci l Jj . , I I I Denmark, ill De PHlma, Brian , i l l IJepurlHre ill lite E llrly Mar" illY (Schwi nd), :112-1:1 , 3..1..1 Deposi tioll , ill I)erby Da y (Frit h). 114,321 f)rsuJJtre/l de 10 Gwerra . 1M (Goya). 253 , 254, 255, 25~ 2fiO lJe,eCI. t frolll tlu: CroUt Tlte (Rc mbrand t), 183. l.B..5. Delltrwcliort al Tyrt. Th t (lhutill). 287, 2f1f1
dC\'iceli of motion , in pain ting, 20_5 Dl' W ill e . EllutlHl el, 30, i :]9-4 J , 14 3, 148 , 17:1-5 , )76,233 ,235.26 1. :!46.
'90. ill
d iKgrallLii. b hlCk Ilild wi li \t'. a.a D iH lla, 1.9 Dic kt' ns. Charle8. 322. :124 , 328. 3:12, <03 D ickf'lili illuMlrat iolls ( B row ne), 328, a2!t DickiulIQII, Angij', 3..6..8. Didi'rot, ))('lIiil , 5 1, 246, 24 8 DielH' nkorlJ, Rieiuml, 390, 3.!.U Di/igtml Motlter. Tlt t (Cha rdill), 2 13, 2..1!i.
d iorHlIlas, (,arly.n incteenth-ccntury. 28 1- 2,284, 426- i
~
( ,;pyng. Id
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I IId,..L
48 8 Di,a81~r$
0/ War. Tlte (Ooya), 25:1. 2501. 255.256. 260 Disney, Wait, ~ 42 8; llolul Dutc h art, compared, 12 4 . 125 , ill
Disney Seven Dwa rrs, l..2..5. Dj. patch. The (Tc rborch), 15 1-2. 152, 153-4
Distant I' iew with BrancA of Pille Tnu (Segile rs). 10 1, 102, ana Doctor', Vi.i/, rhe (Schal eken). 199. / 99, 2llil Doctor', Viiil, Tlt e (Steen). l...2..§.. 127, 2.0:!1
documentary graphicw, popular, 4?6-4 5 d ocume ntary movies. 4 8-9.
ill
documentary painting. nine teenth-centu ry American . 356·61. 371 -5 documentary photography, 27, !M.. 255, 440
d ogs. in Dutch art. 133. 154. 193- 5 . l..9..S Oomu of tlte YOlemittJ, Tlt e (Biersladt), 359
Donatello, 8.6 Oore. OUlita\·e. 427-9 . i3.Q Don . Gerard. ~ 125-6, 130. 133. 139,
199. 200,455 Douglas, Kirk. !l55 Doyle, Sir Arthur COIiBII, 46 , 3.3.1 Dracula, 92 drawings, 2 8. 34 , 43 , 80. 18 7.290; e ighlccnlh--ecnlury, 227, 2 53-5; immcdiacy 0 (. a:L (or movies. illus trations, and paint ings , compared , 43-5.227; nineteenth.ce.ntury. 290. 297.300. 303-7. 3 1 8.3 96-7.~ relating to Dutch painting, 177-8 . 194. 227; sevcnteenth ·century, 11 2, 187, 193-4; 8 i xte e nth ·centu~', 78. 80 ; Ice abo line; sketches Dresden. 3.OB Dresden Acade my, 3.OB Dreyer , Carl , 71, 42:;. 4:;1 Dr. Strangelo~ (film) . 2.&l dry point, s ixtee nth·century, 8.0 Duccio, 5.2 Dud.eu, Tlt e (Holbein woodcut) , 81-2, B..3. Du Maurin. George, 3.2.4 Dorer, Albrecht , 60. 78 , 88 , 106. 245 . 253. 3 16. 333; graphic work,
au.
79_81. 82, 84 , 86. 87, 90, 93. 112. 180. 183; watercolol'8, 93-4 , 2.ful Duret , Theodore, i l l Di:J.sse ldorr. 358. 3lill Dl1sseldorr Academy. 3 14 , a58 Dutch art , 52, 87. :t50. a76; alllbiguity in, !L 127. 1:i6-7. 14 2-8. 156-8, 16 1. 170. 200: American art influenced by, 850,352, 858-60,38 1, 886, 389. 390. 39 1. 393. 443. 450-1; and AmcriC.Il1l culture, compa red. 124-6, 128-30, 137, 154: cinematic mode in, l.!. 16-23. ~ ;u,. 119-206, 240, 243, 300.32 7.440-3. 445. 450-:S. 455; comedy in, 124-31, 14 5. 200; dOlle in pail'8, l..!i1; drawings relating to paint ings, 177-8, 194, 227; ralilasy in, 176. 191 , 197; rashion in , 148-57. 167. 168, 198,200-2.208.21 1, 2 12 ; fl fteenth·centu ry. 60; French influenced by. 205-19 , 221, 39fi. 398 . 401. 403, 407. 41 8-20; French influence on. 197. 198. 20 1-5: gen re seenes, 124=5 7. 170- 1. 191-202.206 . 217 , 241,252,271, 446: Oermallart influenced by. 300, 309, 3 16. 3 18; graph ie , 124, 154, 116- 95,200-2.204 , 386 . 450: high \'s . low, 111-8 ; hi p-length \'iews in , 120-1 : history painting. 161 - 71. 177-8. 198-9. illler ior scenell , 13 1-57 , 111 ; landlleape. 158-6 1, 171, 173-6. 2:14. 235 , 261-2 ,2 71 ,300,397; late· se\,ent eenth·eentury refinement 197-206; ligh t in, 1ft 19.22-5. 28, frl... 116. 119-20,1 3 1,1 33,139-60,1 68. 119- 98, 24 1, 271, 327, 44 3; mannerism, 169-70; mllsic scenes, 14 3,19 8, 448; myth ie themes, 16 1-9 , 1 70, 171; realis lIl in, 126. 137-8. 161, 17 6. 208. 25 7. 3 12. 350; and role of the painter. 177-8; rolllanticis m in, 198. 200; sacred scenes. 119-24 , t 63 , 169-10.177.1 83- 7.244 ; se\'enteenth·century. ~ 17. 28, 60. 111, 116. 11 8. 11 9-206. 300. 309. 3 7S-9, 386. 440-3. 4fiO. 4fi5 ; sexual ity in, 128-30, 136-4 2 . 148-9. 154, 163.
or.
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48 9 17 1, 198, 200, 455; sixteent h'century, 90i soldier sce ne!!, 148-57; Spa nish a rt influenced by. 253, 255, 257; t hutrica l effectll in, 159-65, 170. 176, 207; topographical, In-6. 234.
26 1-2, 21l Outch n hetoMcal Societieti. 1.26 Ouysler. WilIeRl, 14 9- 5 1, ill " Dynasty" (TV sho ..... ). 1.28
Eakins , Thomas, ;u. aB... 360. 370-6, 378, 38 1,383,387,390, 39 1, 393 Early Snow; ErttNJI.ce into a Wood (Friedrich), 303. 304 Ecli'le, L' (film), i.9. Ecole des Beaux·Arts, 394, 3.!l.6 Edin burgh, i l l Edison, Thomas, i l l editing, fi lm, 20-1, ~;!Q, 2 12, 352. i l l Eidopltwliko rt (De Loutherbourg), 2.8.1 e ighteent h·century art, 28, 29; American, a50- 1; architectu ral .. \:ene .. , 227-:19 ; Brit ish, 18 7,240-52,254-5,257, 26 1-5; Ii'rench. 205-19 , 239, 240-3. 246- 9,252,257, 261-2, 394-5, :198, 399;-0('rlllan . 249-50; graphic,
205-12, 217, 224- 6, 23 1-3, 240, 245-60, 263, 3 16,398-9; hilltorical painting, 206, 246-7 : Italian, 221-39, 261 -2; landscape, 9 1, 232-9, 261-5 j late, photographic effects anticipalt'd in , 30-1; moral themes, 241 -52; narrativl', 28, 29, 24 3-52, 273-4 ; religious, 22 1-8; !fecu lar, 205- 19, 22 1, 228-6 1; Spanish, 252-60, 273-6; and theater, links be tween, 207-8, 210, 211 , 2 12. 22 1-4.227- 3 1, 234 , 236 . 247, 249,28 1- 2. 318 Eisenlltein, Sergei. 334, 44 6 Elegant Couple in an Interior, An (Verkolje), 196, 197-8 Elt:llOtion o/ Mary Magdaltn, Tlt e (Baldung·Grien). 88, Btl Elings, Pieter Janssens, 146-8,420 El8heimer, Adam, 102-9, III , 112, 1 IS, 183,200,204,253 Emblern ata (Alciat i), !ill.
emble m· books, 33, !l.O. emotional dfectli in arl. IU pliycho!ogical . expenence endielililielili, in movie .. , 2..Ii Enfants dv Parodil , U I (film ), 457 England , !L 18 7, l..9..Q English art , lee Bri tish s rt engraving'lI . :.!.. l!, 3 1, aft. I.fi.. 406; Amer ican , 363-:), a86-7; British, 240-1, 245-7 . 277-80, 283-90, :125-9 . 332- :1 .34 6-7; c ightee nt h·century, 205- 12, 217, 224-6.231-3. 24 :1-60. 263; French, 20 1- 12.2 17.241, 246- 7, 252, 399-400, 402, 407; Italiau, 86-90. ~ nine teenth·cen tury, 263, 276-80, 283-90, 3 14- 15. 325-6, 338, 346, 363-5, 38 7, 402, 407, 437-4 0, 443-5; Northern European. 78-9, 80. 86, 93. ~ 102, 11 6, 1M.. 177- 95, 200- 2. 204,450; portraiture, 190-5; seventeenth·ce ntury, 99, 102. 106- 14, 11 6, 154, 177- 95 , 200-6 , 208, 450i sixteenth·ce ntu ry, 78-9. 80, 86, 93; l ee allo m eu:o t illt ~ printed graphic a rt engulfing effect: of ci nematic art, 16-17, 19- 23, 28- 9. §!. 96- 7. 266-7 , 351; of mOl'ies, 15-16, 20-1, 28-9, ~ 97 , 266-7,3.5.l En tombmerd, Tlte, Hrst .state (Rembrandt). 179 , lBJl Entombment, Tlt e, fou rth s tate (Rembrandt ), 179. 1B1 ~~r8smus,
8..i eroticislII. see sexuality E. S., Mas ter. 18 Elcape from Hllrni,.g Troy, ill etching, 34 , 35; eighteenth'century, 224-6, 232-3, 246; nineteenth·century Brit ish. 279-80, 283-4 , 287-90, 346- 7; nineteenth·century Jo" rench. 407-15; seventeenth·century, 11 2-13 . 179-95 , 450; liixteellt h·celltury, 80, ~ twent ieth·century, 387; see al.&o printed graphic art E"'(J rtueli,.e (Hi m), .still '1'9111, 301. 302 Eve 0/ St. A gnu, Tlte (Hughes), 330, i l l !~ve 0/ St. Agnt'l, Tlt e (Millais). 3..3.Q
( ,;pyng, Id
te JI
490
I ndo;
E.u clltioll 0/ Lady Jall e Grey (Delaroelu"). 398 Expressionism. 34, 3 7, 48. 101. !J01. 355. 391, 424 , :l3D
ELI,w1,ion/rollllJtf' Gonlen 0/ Brie,., Tlte (Cole) , 354, 355 " .1.i.1 E yck, J an \'an, §., Ii..!i. 16.17. 18. 21, 30, 54, 58-9 . 6 1. 67. 76, 85. 106,112 (ade-out-H, 2.6 Faed. J ohn. 2..8. (airy, tale illustration, 92: Gernlll.ll Romantic. 125 . 309 . 3 11 - 14; nineteenth-century F rench, i l l Pall o/ Icarwll. rite (Bruegcl), 94-5. 2:1.
96-8. l.fi.1 Fall 0/ NiNevelt , rite (Ma rtin). 289. 290 " T he Fall or Satan," illustration (or Milto ll 's Paradi,e lAst (Dore). 428. 4.2..!J. rame, artistic, increased by ea rly pnnted graphic art, 78--9. 84, lB..O. (amily photographs. 446-7 , 447 raucy-dress. 308. ill (antasy. 27 . 176. 297; in American a rt , 34!J; architectu ra l. 227-31. 284--7. 29 5, 333 , 407, 409- ll i ill Duteh art, 176, 19 1, 197; in ei ght eenth-ce ntury Italian a rt . 227~U; in eighteenthcentury Span ish art. 253. 255. 259-60; in Oerman Romantic art, 309-16, :\24; and lIlo\·ies. 446; in nilletl"enth -celltury French art . 409- 11. 427-:10 Falllin-Latour. H enri, 395 . 398. 407. 4 14, 416, 42 1-3, 42j Panller', Wi/e. illustration in ( B op~r). 387. 988 Po rne,e /lerew/e" TIl e (Oolttius), a5, H (8.Ilhioll, 10. 139, 432-3; ill American art, 363. 368,370, 371, 432-3; in BritiHh arlo 269-1 1; in Dutch a rt , 148-.'}7, 167, 168, 198.200--2 . 208 , 2 11, 212; eighteenth·century. 205-13, 217 . 2~9 , 257-60; (ancy·dress, 308. 3 18i ill F re nch art. 20 1-1 3. 217. 239 , 241, 243 , 247 , 259,398-9; in Germall Romant ic art, 307--8, 3 16, 3 18; and movies, 28. 2~ 1, 257, 308 ; in
ninetunt h-cl"lltury art , 10. 259. 269-7 1, 432-5; photography. 208: se,,('nteellth,ccll tu ry . 111, 11 3, 148-5 7. 16 7. 168.198.200--6. 208- 10, 21 I, 2 12; and sexuality, 2 11 -2 1, 247, 257, 259-60,269; ill Span itlilart.• 257-60; aud tele\'iHion. 257; in turn -of-t he-ceutury illustra tion, 4:J2- fli IeI' alsQ costume Falal AUracljoll (film ), !l8 Fatlterly Adl'ice (Te roorch), 3.3 Faw,t (lilage production), 3.3.3 Fl"irrer, Ju le,. !l3 fift eenlh-cf'lItllry art , 121, 255; book ilhilit ra tiou. 6 1, 64-7 1. 75-8. 80-1, 85,8 7; Dutch, 60; F lcmillh . 52-11 , 76, )02, 259; Germall. 60; illUllionillm in. 52-68; Italian , 52. 54 . 59-64. 68. R7; Northc nl European. 16.!.L 2 1. 52-71, 75- 8. 80-1. 85, 8 7. !IO. 102,259: printed graphic. :L ~ 7a-S . 80-1. 85; I)sychological eXJ>("rience in. 56-7 1, 7:..=6
Fighting Tl!ml!ruirr. 7'1tt!. 267 figurative stift'lI('ss ill British, Dut ch. and S panish IIrt , compared. 27 1.lli figure or a nobleman rrom La Noble"tJ lorraine (Ca llot), 203, 2.O.:l figHre, de dil 'flrlff! '
caract~re',
208- 10.
239, :lilll fiOHre, de mode, 200--2, 208-10, 237 , 2 :19
film lIoir. 39, 407. 436. 445
Fire. Tltl! (Ooya), 274. ill F ischl, Ene. :190_2 ,"'il'tl PQrtrajt, (H alllmershoi), 425 , 425 Flagg. James Montgomery, :HO Fllunellg. 11C01)()ld. 32.8 FI ~ lIl alle . Muter 0(, 76. 85. i l l Flemillh art . 52, 87, 190, :130. 350: ambiguity in, 58, 59. 9 7; cinclJlat ic mode ill , 14. 16-11. 21, 22. 2 7. 53-73, 94-8; firtecnt,h-cf" utury. 52-11, 1..6.. 102. 259; ill uminated manulle ripts, 53. 58-6 1, 64- 71 , 85, !IT., 214 : illusionist ic render ing o( su rface. 17. 2 1.22. 52.53-9 , 61; light in, 16-17, 2 1, 22, 53-6. ru!.. ~ 61)-8. lL 85.
c
49 1 94- 5, a27; llIannerism, 99, 169; nineteent h·cent ury, 334-6; Pre· Raphaelites iufluenced by, :Jao, 331; religious eXI>cricnce in, 53, 54, 56, 67-8: seventeenth·ce ntury, 99, 206: sixteenth·centu ry. 90, 94-8: Spsnish art. influenced by. 255 , 257, 259
FUgitt from Hurt,,',,!! Troy, Tlt e (Elshei mcr). l..M FUgitt i,.to Egypt, f lu (Elshei nwr). 106, 1O?
Floor Scra lHl r. , Tlte (CailleboUt"), 338-9. 340. 341 , 419 Florence. 35, 59, 116, 200 F lorentine painting. 59, 88, an Jo' ocillon . Hen ri. 1.5 (olk art. Amcriclln. ;{4(1 (olklorilltic iconogra phy in early prints Bnd mo\·ies. comparl'd. 76-8. 124_30 (olk tales, German ROlJJllntic interellt in, 125,309,:U 1_14 Forbidde" Pla)ltt (film), 284 Forge of Vwlca", Tlte (Vehb;que7.), 1.6 (orgeries o( artist s' s ignatures, 7.9. Forl,,,,a, La (Tiepoio). 222. 222- 3 (ourteenth·eentury, 52, 165; book iIIulitration . 52, ()3, 59 . 75. 85, 81 F ragonard, J ean HOllore, 28, i l l France. aD, 52. 53 , 99, 332. 39:1: IU. a/'o Louis XI V, King; Paris Franccsca. P ie ro d ella, au Piero d ella Jo" l'ftnctsca Franciscan Orde r. ll1i Francis I, King, 82 Frankenstein, !l2 Frallkell"teitl (film ), 3.Ql Frank fur t, lil2 Frederick at lIocM.-irk (Menzc l), 31 8. 3.21 Frederick the Great, 450 F rederick the Great biography (Men7.el), 3 16-18,322,403, 43 2, 433, 450 fre eze·(rames, 2.6 French Academy, 206. 246, 393 .394, 396 Frenc h art; academic training (or, 393, 394 , 396, 397; and cinematic tradit ion, 11 2-18.208-9.243,247-9,399-422. 426-30, 436; Dutch a rt influenced by.
1!17. 198. 20 1-5; Dut ch influence on , 205-19,22 1,395 , 398, 401 , 403, 407, 4 18-20; eightef'llth,cf'lllury, 205- 19, • , 2 .'. 0 , w ;,'-,l 1- "" "_ 46-""", "_ "'. ,2 • 2""• • 23' 26 1- 2. :194-5, :19 8, 399: (ashion ill, 20 1- 13. 2 17,2 39,24 1,243.247 ,259, 398-9; (ourt et'nth ·cenHlry, 52 , 5:J; gen re the mes, 205- 19, 246-9, 395, 396. 398, 399, 404, 405, 414 ; g ra phic. 201 - 12, 2 17, 241,246-7,252, 399-400,402-3, 406-1 5. 426-9,443; landscapt', :197-8, 409- 15 i light in. tI 6, 11 8. 361.41 8. 419. 427 ; Neochu;sicis m, 39f.-8, 404; nirwteeuth·cent_u ry. 18, 30, 37 , 259, 347, :168. :169-70. 389. 393-422, '1 26-:10; Pa risia ll center on. 205-6. a 9a-5, 398=400; photography. 407, 409, 41 3, 426-7; portraiture, 190, 201, 204, 247 , 395, 414-1 8. 421 ; POlltRe\'olutionary s tylill tic changes , :J93-8; psychological I'xperience in, 207- 19, 247-9. 339, :141 . 403-22; realillm in , ao, 114, 2 10. 2 13.2 17,338, 346, 394, 395. 409. 458; lIe\'enteent h· century, 112- 18, 162, 197 , 201 -6, 211,394, 395; sexuality in, 209-1 1, 2 16- 17. 24 7, 404 , 41 5-16; symbolism. 336; and theater, links between. 207-8,210.21 1, 212 . 399-401. 426-7 : you thf" l facial style iu , 2 12_ 16 French Finc Arts Academy (HOllie). :lllfi F~ " clr LietA lellllllt'. W Or/lUtl , Tlte (fi lm),
ill F rench 1II0\'iell, 457-8; early, 426_30 F rench Re\'olut ion, 393-4 , 395 rrescoes. ~ 10, Ill ; eighteeuth.century Italian , 221-4, 227 , 231 Frick Collect ion, thc , Ll9 Fried . Michael. 5 1, lli r"ried rich, Caspar David, 39, 21292-309, 3 10,342,352, 376,424 , 44 5; graphic .....ork, 303-7 Frith , Will iam Powell , 28, 39, 114, 327, 3 29
frontispiece!!, in early printed bookll, 8! Fron t Pag8, TIM (film), still rrom , 453,
ill
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FwtJ ,lIdnl J/J ck~1 (film). 4..:l9. Fflaali. J ohann Heinrich. 2A:l Oainliborough. Thoma". 25 7 GalllSsi. Peter. 30. G(lia.ry. Th e, HOlller' lI illustrations (or. 363, l&5 Galen, Nichola. \'all . 165. 167, l.6.8 Galileo. 11.6 Gallery o/ II.M.S. " Colcwlln." Tlt e (Tis&Ot), 369 , 3W gambl ing scene', i l l Garbo. Greta, 260. i l l Oauguin, Paul , 4.2.l. Oautie r, Theophile. 284 genre art , 10. 3li ; distinction" between high Ilnd low, l.Q.ll.; eighteenth. ccntury French, 205-19, 246-9, 395; Gennan, 125.309, 3 11 - 14,3 18, 3 19; and hilltorica l scenea. linked, 170-1 ; Im prCBsionislll &.II , 368; nine teenth· century American, 368. 389; nineleellth-ctlltul'Y f'~ lI c h, 395, 396. 398. 399. 404 , 405 , 414; lIe\te nteenthcentury Dutch, 124-57. 170-7. 197-202.206.217. 27 1. 446 Gt llllernall 0/ Qlfalil lJ (De St..J ean), 200 .
mm
202
George I V alllte PrQt'O,,,, Ballqwd
(Tunler), 274. 2:ll. German art. ~ 87 . 354; cinematic mode in, 102- 8.294-324 . 339.340; Dutch influence Oil, 300. 309. 3 16, 3 18; eigh teenth·century . 249-50; flfteenth·century. ~ genre IIcenea, 125,309.3 11-14. :11 8. 329; iIIuatrath·e. 125,309, 311 - 24 , 387; light ill, 106,297-8,303, 305, 309-11, 3 15; ninetee nth-century, 39, 40. tl.. ~ 234 . 292-324. 329. 339. aS8, 387. 424 ; Realialll, ;!.!!. ii. 160, 260, 284, 29 8,300, 301.314- 24; Romantic, 8. 39 . 40. !U. 92. 234. 292- 3 15. 424. 430; 8eventccnl h· century, 102- 8 : aixteenlh·century, 79-84. 86. 87. to.. 93-4 Gen nan movies, 3..9.. 430, 44 5. 4!ill Gennan Renaissance humanism, 79-80
German I,ypt':, 81 Genna ny, 39, tl.. 308, 358, 393 Gerilllle, J ell" l..wn , 28, 398, 404 , .aa9 Gelling 0111 oflhe Hallt (Degas), 407. 41lB. Gheeraer tll. 261) Gltetll Altarpiece (Van Eyck). Ii. 61 Ohent iIIum inatiolls, 61 GibllOll. Cllarlel! Dalla. 432. 440 G ilpin. Will ia m, 262 Giorgione, 18.90, lO..6 Girtin, Tholllall, 2fi.5 Gish, l~iII i. n , ? 60 Glau 0/ \faltr alld Coffcepol, willt Ollio tl~
(Cha rdin), 2 19. 2 1 9 Gleyre, Charles Gabriel . 404 " The Gnarled :'ot onllte r," ill .. al rtttioll for Tlte l..cgeHd 0/ Croqll,rmila ille (l)o re). 428 , 4.2.8. Goda rd , J ean·!Jllc• .!l.9 Goea. Hugo \'an der. 21. 54, M. ~ !i1. !Ii gold ellgra\'illg, 8.Q GOIt Zillll. Hend rick, 35.1 10. III, 11 2, 190, ?OJ GOlllbrich, E. 1-1 ., is Goncourt hrolheMl, ;l(l.3 GOlle Willt tile Wiltd eontilluity IIketch ()Iell ziea), tf. !.5 good and bad art, 'te high and low art Gorda/e &or (Ward), 281, 282 Oolitic CaOtedrol by a Rit'tr (Schinkel),
3..9..fQ.3..09. Gothic Nl\·j\'al. eight eenth-eentury British, 2.6l Gothic acript. S1 Gondt, Hendrick, 106_7 GOl.'Ull ell, Th e (Chardin), 2 11, 2 1B Gowing. Law~ ll ce, 28 Goy. , }"rauci.co. t l.i. lL 2.l. 25. :l4. ~:!2, 69, !!. 252-&0, 261, 265 . 271. 273-4.275. 276. 284,303 , 326, 336, 338,401.407. 411 . 421 , 4 39,440, 446. 4:)9; gnphie work , ~ 246. 252-6,2.6Jl Grllnd Manne r, The, 35.l Grand Sitcle, 221 Grtlllger, S tewart. 3.!l3 Grapu 0/ Wratlt (fllm). 4.1.
I mitu grllphic, d efinil iolllJ 0(, :l3 Grapltic, Tlt e, 337_8 graphic a.rt . set printed graphic art G ra\'elot, Hubert. Frllll\,ois. ill Greal Day al lli' Wrallt . Tlt e (Mart in). 28 7, 288 Grcal Die, TIl e (fil m), still from . 412. i l l Grtal Traill Robbery (film) . ill Greco. EI . 9.9. Greece. 334. 3.Jl1. Greek tragedies, 2Ji G reek vastll. ill Greuze, J , B .• 28. 212. 246-9 , 250. 2ii2 G riffith, D. W., 228. 259, 284, :1:14. :t49, 430 , 'rB. 455 Grim8haw, Atkinson , 342-3 gnMJillt; early lIIalluscripts, 85 ; Venc tian painting, 2!! Guardi, Francesco, 234, 23..6 Guercino, l81 guilds. carly book illustration, 67, 6!) , 1..5 Guys. Constantin. 400 . ill Haa rlem, )75_6 H aarlem, Cornelius \'sn, 1.6.9. H ague, The , 3.L 389 H alevy. Degas illus trat ion ror. 407. l!l!1. Hs la, F'rans, 3 1. i l l I-I lllllmershoi, Vii helm , 4 2 4_ 5 " handless eye," 15, 1.1 1/01111;001 Crossing lite A.lps (Tu n le r), 272 . ~72, 273 " Hard Lines," ilIu8tration in PWIICIt '. Almanaek (Keene), 323. 3.2:1 Harlow, J ean, 2..6..0 lIarlol(.'t Family, Tlt e (H ighmore), 243.
244 lIar/Hr ', Wed:/y. Homer', illustrations (or , 363. i l l H anlllobu, 458 B usch, l6.8 Hadill , Will iam, 27 9 Heade, M , J .• 3.5.2 /lead 01 a YOIlIIg Gir/ (Vermeer), 200 " He d id it just on purpose to frighten me,. ," illustration in FarmM', Wil e (Hopper), 387. 3.BB. /I~irt ... T1t ~ (film). ill
493
"I ('nri, Robt'rt. 387 /lenri Of! Go , and /I i, Nitc~ (Degas), 416,417 H enry, J " i l l H epburn, Katharine, 3..6i! heretics, 2..:1.5. " H er husband and I turned on her together," illustration ill Scribner', Maga zinf! (Christy), 432, i l l hproic depictions. n illctef'nth-century Britis h. :134-7 H erzog, Werner, 8.8. H eston , Charlt Oll , 168, 3:15, i l l H eyden, JIlII \'an del', l1fi high Ilnd low art : d is tinctions betwecn, 10-11. 27, 3 1-2 , 43, 1ft. 448; Dutch, 177-8; e ightecnth-cenlury Brit is h, 245-6; movies, ~ 10- 11. 245, ill H ighmore, Joseph , 241--4 H igh Rena issallce, 88 , 90. 3.30. H illiard, Nicholas, !l.9 hip-length " iews; ill fifteent.h-century art, 12 1; ill se\·cntf'f' nth·ccnlul'Y art, 1?O- l lIirt/illY Sltt pJu rd, Tlt e (I-IUllt), 331, 332, 3J2 H iroshige. :l.5..8. H irschfeld, AI, 3..i " H is eyes fell U(>OII the stick in Holmes' hand ," illustrat ion (or Th t How.nd 01 lltt BasJ.~t rlJillt:' (Paget). 45, lli. historical art , 2 7-8, 35 , 91. 453- 7: eightef'lIlh-centul')', 206 , 246-7; and gen re scenes, linked . 170-1; 811d historical film , compared. 453-8; lite rs~' ground in. 29; nineteenthcen tury, 277::80. 283-90, 314-22. 324, 325. 330, :133 , 334-6, :137. :195-8, 404 , 457: seventeenth-century Dutch, 161_71, 177-8, 198_9 h is loricalmo\'iell, 27-8. 35. 47, J 65, 178. 257.268,275, 334.450. 453-8; black,a nd·while \ ' S , color, 453-7; early Italian, 228-3 1; and his torical a rt, compared. 45:1-8; literary ground of, 21 Hitchcock, Alfred, 45 , 68. 179, 41 3, i.5.9. H obbema, Meinde rt, l58 Hoga rth, Willism . 239, 240-52. 253,
276, 32" 329, :lB!>
( ,;pyng. Id
te II
/ ildu
494
Hogers. Jacob, 163. 165.2.2.2 Holbein, Hans. 78. 97. 244. 249, 262. 3 16. 33:1; graphic work, 8 1-1 . 9a. 1.80 Holl . Frank , 3:18. i l l Holland . 14. 116, 169.262,334, 359; Itt) allo Dutch Itrt Hollar, Wenceslall>; , 110,204 Hollywood, 27. 114. 126. 198,303.333, 334. 435-6; IU allO movies 1I0l y Family witlt a Cat, Th ~ (Rembrandt ), 18 1, 182, l..8a Holy Roman Empire , :t u Homer, :124. 3.25 Homer, Winslow. 37. 360-70, :n5, 376 . 378. 38 1.883,385-6 ,38 7,390,3 91 , 393. 430. 443. 4A5 /lome Sce,. ~ (Eakins), 378. 3B.1 l-l ont hol'St, Gerrit \'an, 11 6. 119. 200, 44:1 Hoogstra ten, Samuel \'Sn . l.!l3 /loIM/~" Do w" , ~l (B ramley), 338. :M!l. Hopper, Edward, ;!§... ift.. 152, 234,360. 383-9, :190. :19:1, 443 . 44 5 Aorenbout, Oe rard, 78. 9..6. H OMier, H 8r~' , i l l horror mo\'iI'S. :LB 1/01'16 Soldier" Th e (fi lm), st ill from, :U 8 , 32 1 How,ld. of tAe Busken:illts, TA e (Conan Doyle), Paget illu8tration for. 45. 336,337 Hou8ebook Master . 18 H OII) tAll OtAu lIalf Livu (Riia), Cox illus tration after . 432. 4 32 Hudson River-school painters. 3.6.0 Hughes , Arthur. 330 Hugo. vietor. 284 humanism, German Renaissance, 79-80 Hunt , William Holman, 320, 330 111111ler$ in tAe S'IOW (Bruegel). 9..5. HYPPIerotomacAia Polipitili (Colonna), 9.0
a
/co"ograplty series (Van Dyck), 190_1 illuminated malluscripts , Q.2... 1.2.. 84. 232 , 249 , 361. 457: fi fteenth-century, 61. 64-71. 75-8. 6..Q.. ~ 121 ; Flemish, 58_61, 64-7 1, 6..Q.. ~ guilds. g 69, 75; influence on Northenl
m
a
Europea n painting, 53-1 . 58-75, 85-6 . 9;; . ) 02. 121; int imac), of, 68-7 1. 74 ; h alian, 8 7; 8 ixlec n t h ·ce lltu~' . 11-5 : spatial perspective in, 59 . 6 1, 64-71
illuliioniSffi. 11. 2 1; fl N!hitectura l. 227-31. 234 . 236. 2:\7. 284- 7, 295 . 333; in fifteenth-cent ury arl. 52-68; ill Italian art. 59- 64, 68, 104, 223, 227-31 , 2:14 , 327: in Northern painting. 17, 21, 52-9, 61-8 . lJ!;}. 306; in thrater, 64. 227-:U. a2 7. 333 illustration, +-5; Ameriean , :)60-8, 385, 387,431-5, 437-9 , 44 3-1; comic, :l22, 324; and car ly photograph y, 8 1-2, 338, 406- 7.41 3-14 . 421, 432. 437-40. 443-5; early religious. 52-1 . 58, 59. ~ 64-84. 88; eightecnth-centu ry, 205- 12, 231-3 , 245-52, 263, 316. 398-9; fa iry-tale, 92, 125.309,3 11-14, 428; French, 201- 12,217,239.241, 246-7. 252, 399--&00, 402-3 , 407-8 , 4 I 3, 414- 15, 42 1-2_ 426_ 428-9, 44 :i: Ital ian, 78. 86-90; movies linked 10. !!.. 30. 50. 76-7 . 36 1. 43 1. 440, 44 :1- 6, 450, 458; nineteenth-ct' lltu ry British, 24 I . 245-6 , 252.261.263 . 273_80.
283-90. 318-29. 332-3. 336-8. 346-8. 38 7, 41 a; nineteenth·century German, 125.309,3 11 - 24 , 387; Nort hern European, 52-71, 74-8. 80-1. 85-93, ~ 99- 102. 106-9. 17 6-95, 200.204 . 3 16. 326. 433; painting accessible through. i. ~!i. 3 1. 35. 84. 102. 106-7. 178-95.205, 217, 290- 1, 32 5-6 .440, 44 3; reprod uced 8S pain tings. :!37-8; se\'entee lllh·ce nlury. 99-102 .106-14 .116 . 124.176-95. 200-6, 208; t.unl-or·t he-cl'lltury styles , 432-5, HO: twt'1l1iet it·ct'lItu ry. 252. 385, 386-7, 432-5; I CIl also book illust ration , maga7.ine illus tration ; printed g raphic art 1mlHltienct of tAe Sick ,Van, Tlt e (AI'S Mon e"di engraving), 76. ZZ Imperialism, i l l Impressionism, 18, 30, 37, 347,368.
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I"dc.£ a94 . :H)7. 402. 406-7 , 414 , 411. 421 , 424; fil'8t C'xhibition (1 8 74), 391; IUS genre a rt, :168; light and color iD I.31. 3Ji1 Incarnation theme, 8.5. Ingrt'll, J eall Augustt' Domini(IUe, 191 , 257, i.O..l ink and wash . :14. 45. 112,246 I" tenor (IA. riol) (Degas), 40:1. 403, 404 . 405, 416 I"terior al PdwlQrlh ('['unler), 269. 269 t"terior of a Smithy C\feI8u). 154 , 156, U6
IIlterior of t"e New TowI' 11(111 ill Aml /orda'" (De Hooch), 14 3, i l l intenor S CClleil , Dut ch. 131 -5 7, ill I"terior with a 1V0man S,Jillll illU (UOllrsse), 147, 148
b ,tu 'ior wit" Selltcd WOIIIII', (1h.lIlIlU!rshoi), 4 24. :l.2!t I,,'en'or with lrO//I(lI' al a Cla vic" orcl (De Witte), 139-40, /40. ill b ,' ernt.plioll , TltfJ (Mentel), :11 8, s.iQ In the IUOImt/l in' (H omer). :Jfifi. 36B "In the PrelJence o r Wa!:!hingloll," illustration in CCldury Maga:illfJ (Pyle), 439. L1!l 1"loIerallctJ (film), 22.8. Iphigen ia . 223 Irving, Henry, 333-4 . :135. i l l Italian IIrl , !1 :1 7; IIbs tl'llct beauty in , 90; classical tl'llditioll , 14, 17-Hl. 52. 58. 59-60. llli.. ~ ~ 109, 111. 118 , I 19-20, 162, 221, 395; eH rl y book ilhllHration. 7B. 87- 90; eigh tee II t h'e!!n t ury. ei nelllat ie t' Ie men t in. 221-39. 261-2; fiftee nth·celltury, 52, 54, 59-64, 68. 8 7; French Qrl influenced by. a9fi-8; graphic, 1iL 86-90,99; High Renaissance, S8 , 90; ilhl8io1li8nl ill , 59-64, 68. 104, 22:1, 221-31. 234, 327; landscape , 232-9, 261; light in, 1JL @" 61-4, 86-7, ~ 104, 109 , 116 , 119,223 . 225.226, 23 1.233 , 234,239; literature linked to, 18.86-7, 90; mannerism , 99, 110. 119, 259 ; 1II0tion in, 22 , 86, ~ 1m!. 223 , 227; mythic. 221-8; and Northern
495
Europeall tl'lldilion, compared, lfi- 18. 21, ~ !l9-7 1. 80-2, 84-90, 96-7, 99-111. 11 8. 119-23. 162-3, 1i0. 183. :1:17; PN'· Hllphllcl;t e8 influe nced by, 330, 33 1; psychological experience in, I S. 22. 25. 29, 59-62, 90. 109. 221-:19; realhun in. 59-64, 68, 99, lillL 223; se\,ellteenth·centu ry, 99. 101. 102.104 , 106,109-1 I. 11 6, 11 8 . 124, ]:1 1, 162 , :l12. 327, 334. :19fij siXlepnth·cenhll')', 78 , 86-90, ~ lind theater, links between, !L 14.25,29 , 63-1.109-11, 11 8-20, 170,207. 22 1-4,227-31,327,329,330, 446 I ialilill comedy , 207 It.lilill movies, lL 228, 2a l. 446. i l l Italy , 52 , SO, 99 . 228. 217 II f rom Ollter Space (film ), 3.l2 h 'in", William M.. 3ti
etm.,
"Jack Iht' Giant Killer," i.9. JacobeHII court mlisque, :127 Jalllt's. 1-1 1'111')', a68, :170, 375 , 376 , 378. :UH, 381 Jal. Sir Ht adillO (Rembrandt). 193-4.
ill Jail Sir willt a /Jog (Rembrand t), 193=4 . ill. JKpanesc a rt , 346, i l l JapallPsP 1II0\'il's, 4 31,:l1i8 J etrcn;oll , Thollla!!, H3 Jellhlha"'s Dali.g"ler (Degas), 404 J erusalem, 1.63 Je,." Cltri" Silperslar (film), s till rrom, 295,2.2,j J e ..... !:!. J..6.9 J ohnson. Eastman, 389-90 Jose,)" Accltsed by Palipltar', Wife (Remb randt), 162. 1.6.3 Jo,cp" al.d Polipltar ', Wife (Rembrandt), }86, 1.81. jOllrnalislll, Ilictor ial : eightcenth-eentury, 245-6; lat e ·se\'cn teent h ·cen t u ry, 204-5j nineteell th·centlu ) '. 329. 3.3.8 Judgment Day, 2H3 Jli.dgm enl of COIlIII William Ihe Good. Tltt (Van Ga len), 165. 16i. 167, l.6.8. July Monarchy, 3.9.6.
( ,;pyng
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496
IlI(lc.£
(Bening illumination from TIM Da Cos/a lIonl). 71. '13 JIlp it6r al1d /lIt rcvry ill tlte liou&t of Baltcil alld PhilemON (Elslieimcr) , 102-3. lll3. JU88im , Estelle. i l l Jw.n~
Kalf, Willem. 6 Keatll, John, i. 312. 325, Kee ne. Charlell, 31S- J9, 322-1 , 399 Kersting, Georg I"' riedrieh, 3Q9 Ki ng Kong (film). 3M Koll Player-" Tlt e (De Hooch), 13:1. 1.'14. ill Koninck, Philips, 158-9 . 21l Korda. Alexander, 450, 4 51. i l l Kubrick. Stanley, 44 8 . i l l Knnde. David, i l l
aan
Lady lVa/ki" g ill tlte COIUltry (De
St.-Jean), 200, 2!l2. LAH/y witl! a Can(lle (Sclulilckt'u), 200, 2111 1.A' kt. j" Ih e Wood" Th e (Dorer) . 94, !l:t Lamb, Charlelli, 2B.J. LalldiNg of COfUlllbNlf (Bierstad t). 3.5.!1 landscape art, 9 1-6. 397: American, 39, 352-60,3 75-7; British, 26 1- 92. i l l 397; Dutch . l aS-flI. 171. 173-6 , 234, 235.261-2 . 271, aoo. 397; early book illustnalion, 75, 9 1-4: effeets on travel, 262-3, 278-9; t'igh l('ellth'cent ury, 9 1, 232-9, 26 1-5, 277. 28 1. 395; Frt'nch, 39 7-8. 409- 15: German Romantic, aJ!.. 40. ~ 92. 234 . 292-:n ;). 480; Ita lian, 232-9, 26 1; light in, 159-6 1, 265, 27 1-2. 279-80, 298; LuminisllI, 39, :152-4 ; nineteenth·century , !l2.. §.L 9 1. 26 1-:1 16.341. 352-60, :175--7, 397. 409- 15; Northern Europt'81l t radi tioll of, §.L!i.!!.. IQ. 9 1-8, 102, 106,1 58-61, 171. 17:1-6 . 2:15 , 26 1-2 , 265.27 1-2, 300; pict uresque ideal, 262-5, 277. 296: seventeeuth·century. 10 1- 2 , 106. 158-6 1, 17 1, 173-6,235,300; sixl eclllh'ecntury, 9 1-8 ; .U' al lff) lopographieal art.
landscape ill movies, 264-5, 277, 278, 301, 303. 3..51 landscape p hotography, 263 , ~ Lane, }o~itz Hugh, 3..5.3 Lang, Pritz, 35. 259. 284. 4:!b Last of EIlglalld, Til e (painting), 3.3.l Laura (film), 3.ll I~a\'ater, J ohann Kaspar, 24 9, 2.5.0 La wrenCf! of Arabia (fi lm), l.fi8 Leech. John, 322, ill I~e Fallu . S heridan , 455 ugelld of Croquelflila ine. Tlt e, Dore illus tration (or, 428. Ul1 Leighton. Lord, 28, 334 , 3 3 6 I~eo llardo da Vinci, 22, 86. 100.2.5..9 I~opard, Th e (Rim), 4 57 Le\'in , Gail, aft1 Lewis, Jerry, l2.8 Leyden. Lucas \'sn. 8B !.i~r ShuliorwPII (Turner), ill L'i~r I'eritali, (Claude), '>63 Licht, Fl"('d . 252 , 253, 2.5..5. L ichtenberg, Georg Chris toph , ill Ufe Li"e, rite (H ollll'r), 366. 3 67, 430 I. ife of all lIl-edMcated Girl, Tlt e, SCene from (Chodowiecki), 25 1. i l l Life of (J Ital.:e, Tlte. scene from (Chodowiecki) , 251. 252 IAfe of Frederick the Great, Tlt e (Menzel). ilhullraliolls (rom, a16, 3 17, 3 18, 322. 403, 4:12, 43 3, 450 light and lighting. §. 1:l- 2!l. 3 6 . 38. 39. 4 5; ill AmericslI Romantic art, 3!l2-4, 361, :166, !J6R, 371 , :114 : in British art, 27 1-2,279, 281. 327. 329, 330 , 3:19-42: and color. lti... 11. 2!!. 8..6.. 118: in Dutch art, 16, !J!. 22, 23-5, 28, 61, 119-20, 131. 133, 13 9-60, 168, 179-93,241. 27 1. 327. 443 ; ill French art, 116.118, 36 1. 4 18, 419. 4 27: in German 8.rt, 106, 2 97-8, :103, 305 , SO!)- I I, 315; Impressionist, 37, 36 1; in Italilln art , 16. 59 , 61-4, R6-7, 90, 10·1, 109, 116 , 119, 223, 225, 226. 23 1, 233 , 234 , 239; landscape, J:,9-61. 2 6;;, 27 1-2, 279-80, 298; in IIll.wiea, 15-16. 18-2 1, :19-40, 160, J 80, 29!l, 301. 427, 44 0, 450, 4 5:1; in
( .;pyng, Id
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497 Northern Europellllllrl, !!.. ~ 15-25 . 28,39,53-9, 61, 65-8,80,85-6, [!. 9:1-6. 102-9, 11 9-20, 13 1, 133, 1:)9-60. 119-95,310-1 1, :)21, -1 22. 44 3; set also back lighting: chiarollcuro; llloonlight Limbourg brothe"" 5.!1 line: eightec nth'(:('lItu ry us(> or, 254-5; Italian VII. Nurthern European , 81-8; set also drawing; ske tchell linear perilpecti\·c. 14; Rrteenth ·cen lu ry Italian . 59_64 literacy. early, 14. 75. 18 literature, 7. ~ fr. ll.i alld Drilill h art, 240. 241. 2f12. 276. 278. :120. 324-9 . 8:12-3.336; eighteenth-ccntuI'Y. 240, 241. 24 6; and historical IIrt, link!! between, 2.1.... 29; and Italian book illlllltMl.tion , 78, 86-7, 90; modern, 243; ninet eenth-century, 242. 2 78-9, 320, 322-9. 336. 370. :n5. 316. 319. :181. 400. 403,404; Romantic. 106. 278-9 . 284; tnavel, 276, 324 lithography, 34 . 35 . 45 . 102; il1\'enlion o f, 101. 246; niIlPteenth·celltul')' "'rench, 402, 407. 4 13 hittle Girl with a S/tutfltcocl.. (Chardin), 213 , 216.216 L ittle Dibu ('I\lrller), 279, 2BfJ "Lodgers in a crowded Bayard Street lenemenl.- ' Jo'iv(' entll a Spot:" illustration ill Scribner', MOllthly Maga.lillfJ (Cox), 432 . 432 London. 2:14 . 2:19. 274 . 281. 281i. 333 . 34:J. 427 . 429.:l.3..l Longfellow, Hellry Wadswort h, "a6 "Long sat waiting rol' all answer," illustration for Th t Song of lIi(JwatJlO (Remington). 436, 4 3 7 long shot8, film , ;H5 Lorraill, Claude, 106. 160.262 , 263. 271. 279, 28 7. 354. 356. 35 7. 359. ill l..ornaille, 114. i l l Lotto, Lorenzo, 2.5..9 Louis XIII . King of France, i l l I~o\li" XIV, King or F rllnc('. 197,201 , 204. 205. 20~ , 3..9.6
iAlithprbou rg, Ph ilippt' JaC(lut'8 de, 277.
ill Louvre, 21!l. u mt-fcflcr, TIl e (Verlllf'er), 442. 44 3 Lo..... COlill trieii , frJ Lubeck, 6!! Luikoll, Cmmnr, 2.(11. Lumie re brothf'rw, :l.2.9 Lum inillt painterw. 39 . 35? 1 LWIICll co'l, Til t (Cllilleoottc), 41 8-19, 420. 420,!l.2..l LWlIcilCon i'l tlt e StNdio ()Ianet), 3.0 LWII for lAft (film), .a1i5. Lllt7.clburgcr the engra\'er. 9.3 Lyons, !ll
"I fbi 6
Mlldoll1l8 find child : ill Itillifln art, 63, 64, 121. 124 , 18:1; in Northern European art , 54, :i!i.ll69. 1L 12 1. 124 . 18 1-3 Madolllw in tlt e Ch urch, Tlt e (V811 Eyck), 54. 55, 56, 6!! Mad rid, 1..6 magazirw illustration, Q., ~ 4 3-6; nilleteellth-ct'nlury. 324, :125, 329 , 3:17-8.360-8,387, 399, 403,42 6, 4 37-40 , 4 43-5 ; t .....entieth·century AllleriCHu, 3Aa , :187 . 4 32-5 , 4-1 3; see also ill ustration; prilltt'd graphic a rt Mala Nod e, tl(luatint rrom Lo, Caprichol ((;oya). ifi. U Ma ll (Iud \ramall at lite I'irgi,wls, A (Vermeer), 14 0 , 141. 141 , l..:l.2 Mande r, Kart'l \'all. 9.6 Ma net , Edollfl,rd , ~ l a , 13, l!i , 11.30, .31.. :LQ.. il. 45. 4 6, ~ 257. 259, 395, :198 , :199 ,4 00,4 01, .f06. 407, 411. 416. 422, 4 32, 459 ; grnphic work,
aa.
40 ')
Manne riSln, I II; Dutch, 169-70; Flemish, 99 , 169; Ital ia n. 99, 110, 119. 25.9 MSlllegn8, Andrea. 86. A7, 8..8. 183 lIulliuscripls, illuminat.ed , BCt illuminatpd mall usc riphl
c
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4 98
l"deL
Ma n 1Valkiny, Seen in Profile (Watteau). 208. 2i1!l Man Who CamtJ IQ D"",,6,., Tlte (fi lm). still (rom, 441 . 443
maps, black·and ·white, 33 Marcalltonio, Ra imondi . 86_ 7 Market in a Port, A (De Witte), 174. 174. ill Marketplace 01 /laariem, Th e (8 erckheyde), 175, 115, i l l Marriage (Cats), 111
Marriage of Pelew4 " lid Th etis, Tlte (Bloemaert). 169, 110
Ma rtiu. J ohn , 283-90, 329, 354 , 355, 356, i l l Marli" Cltltuiewit ill u8tration (Browne), .128. 3.2.9 Marl y (film ), s till (rom , 323, ill Marlyrd01n of St. Peter, Th e (Cal'll\'aggio).
109, un Mary llagdaiene, 8.8 mSS(lue, 118. 126. 1611 , 3.21 Ma888ccio, :ill M assacre of lit e J,I/IOCIJnts, Tlt e
(illumination (rom Tlt e I/our, o/ I,abel la Co/Mic"), 69 , za Mat illKe. H enri. 38. 3.0.6 Maximilian, Emperor. 82 Maxim ilian Mallter, 59, 70j ICe al$o Belling, Alex.llde r Mayo r, A. I-Iyall . ill Medici cycle (Rube ns), 207 med ieva l illumimitiOIiS. Itt illuminated mllnuseripts medieval " naivete, " 59, 6.1 Meisel. Marlin . 325. 33S Meis8onit'r. J ean l.ouis EMlest. 28, 29 , 4 39
Melieli. George8. ilO me lodrama. 334; fi lm. !!. 28. 47. 4 9.1 28. 170. 430, 4 32; nineteenth·centu ry s la gt'. 257, 286, ill Mem ling, Ha ns. 61 memory, fi men: ill eighteent h·cen tu ry F ~ n ch art, 208, 209; ill se\'ellleen th·century Dutch a rt. 148-57, l.9B Meligoui·Cololllla. 227. 2.3..l
M eni ll(JI. JA4 (VeIA7,(IUez). 16. 379. 383.
384. 389 Menzel , Adolph, ;u. :109, 3 16-20, 322. 324 ,325,326 , 329.336-7.338. 38 7. 403, 432, 433, 450
MCI17, ies. Will iam Ca meron . i!l Alercltullt, Tlte (H olbei n .....ood cut). 8 1-2.
...
Mer-yo n. Cluules. 386, 407, 409-1 3. 41 8 . 4 28 M eui cltr' Ie' VoyageNr,
0 11
Th ei r Ri!l Nrll
from lIaly (par la Diligellce) ill a S/IOW U rift Itpoll Mmmt Tarrar-22ml of JIIIIN a ry . 1829 (Turncr). 273 . 273 Mcl ropoli. (fi lm), 284; arc hitectura l " illion rrolll . 285
Metropolitan M lIlU! UIII, 359 Metsll, Gab n el, 28, 128 , 130, 154 , l..5.6 lIIt'uotinl, 263; lIilll'tel'lIth,c4'ntliry 1I 1It' of, 27!l-80. 283-4 . 28 7; seventecnth· ccn tury u !ie of, 187, l!lfl ;'Miami Vice" (TV "i1ow). Michel angelo, ;L. fr. 35 , 6.0. Jl/ id"iyll ' Mode I'II CO ll vt r$llfiQII , A (Hogarth), 24 2, 24S Mienll, F' rall8 van , 28, 128 Milla is, J ohn E\'t"retl, 320. 322, 324 , 329, 330, 336, illii MillN , J ean Fram;oill, Mi8 MiIli"er ', SltOl}, Tlt o (Degas), 40r. , 4Jlj Milton. J ohn , 284 , 28 7, 4 28, i l l mill ilHIlrf! pai lltinglJ. 406; sc\'enH..'enth· ce nlUry Northern EuroptRn. 99. 102-4 , l.ft:l Mi,.i,' ry 0/ Mari ne, Th e (Meryon) , 41 1, 412. 413 M jm c ~/OIu Dra ft 0/ F i, lIe' (Raphael), 3.5D Mi,er ie8 of lVar picturl'lJ (Callo!) , i l l ,ulft. Pi ocf't ill .,. " fA SON rce" (D t'gas).
?n
404
Muck; ng of Cere~, Til t (EI!.heimcr), 107, 108, lO!I: lIlodel ing, in Italia n c ng rlwi ng. 8f_7 1JJ(H:h'nI lIrt !!. !:L. 1fI, 27. 43. 4 9. 50, 98, 422; begillllingJol 0(, 30, :12. 40-1. !)I j mo\'ies d isconnected rrolll, 27, 43. 49, 50 ; t rsu!icendell tal , 298; ICC al80 Ilhst r8ct ion; tw('nt i4'! h,c4'nt ur)' IIrt
(
ng
od
499 modem litennure, 2.i.3 Modtrn Timt' (film), still rrom, 303, 31l5. Modigliani. Amedeo, 3.8. Mona Li$(J (da Vinci), 32 Monet , Claude, 37,158 , 36 1. i l l MOltlorie Altar (llan der Ooc.), M.
u..
57-8. fii monochrome art, .tt black-and-white mOIlQtypes: nineteenth-century Frellth, 402 , 407-9, 41 3; se\'enteellth-cen tury, 10 1_2
Monroe. Marilyn, 2.6.0 montage, ~ 26, 82; in fi lms, 445 : in Ilineteellth-century British art, 336 moonlight : in British painting, 343: in Gennan painting, 106, 305 Moore, Albe rt, 336, :H6 lIIoralthemelJ: in American art, 354. 357, 371. 374 , 432; in eighteenth-century Britis h art, 214-5 2; ill eighteenthcentury """rench art. 247- 9; ill nineteenth·century Briti8 h art. 211 . 329. 330-2. 33HO; ill se\'enteellth· cent.ury Dutch art , 13 1-42. 177, 200.
2M Morgwe. Th e (Meryon) , 41 0, i l l Mo,.ning [{ON,., Tlt e (Schwi nd), :109-10. 310, i l l Moses, 986 Mouy T,.ee, Tlt e (Seghers). 100, 101. 102.
300 Motlte,. on(1 Cltild ( 1)011) , 130, 1.1J..2 Mothl r lJelow.ing a Clli/d (De Hooch), 135. 1.3.6 .V oth er Lacing lIer Bodiu (De Hooch), ) 30. ill motion : in British illulJtrativc art, 336 . 341; devicell, ill paiuting, 2o.-f!: film \'s. theate r , 50-1; in Italian art, 22. 86. 96. 109. 223 , 227; Muybridge studiell, 374 , 4:17: in Northern Eurol)can a rt , 20-5 . 53.56-9, 96-7 . 102, 11 9-5 7. un Alowlin RONgt (fU m ), 4 55 MOa/ l1t Adam" Wa shing/Oil ( Bierstad t). 3'8, 3.5.9 lIIo\'iu, 13-15: about art ists, " 50-7; ad\'ellture . :il. !!t ambiguity ill, 1.. 8 .
u..
29. 50.88.97,127. 14 3-4.265,31 5; and AmeriCan Homalltic art, compared, 35 1-92, 4 30-1; animated, 124-6 , 132, 30 1; archi tecture ill, 176, 227 . 228-31 . 284--6. "II ; artistic thiel'ery in, 11 - 12, 458-9; a\'allt ,garde, 4 9, 430; beauty in, 44 B, 44 9; black,and·white, 33, 34 , 35 . 39, 41, 43, 4 6-7, 49 . 139,228,231, 254.280. 411, 440, 450. 453-5; a nd British art, compared, 240, 24 1. 242-52. 265-92 . 324-48, 4 53,457 : chiaroscuro eft'ectll in, 4 6, 4 9, 453, 455, 4 58; cinematic methods, 44 5-50; as collaborative errort , 93; color, 20. 4 6-50, 453-5 ; colorizell, 46-7 ; comedies, 6. 28, 47. 49 ,1 26 . 12 7-8,178 ; continui l), s ketches ror , 4:"'- 6, 225. 227. 3 16, 432; cri me, i1.. 49, 4 30; definition of, I ll; documentary, 48-9, 430: early, 50- I, ~ 334. 126-3 1. 4 35. 4'15-6; editing, 20- 1, 2.§.. ~ 212, 352, 449 ; lind eight eenth.centu ry French ar t, , compared. 11 2- 18, 208-19.243 , 2i1- 9; and eighteenth-celltul'Y Italian art, compared, 221-39: lind eighteenth·century Spanish art, compared , 255-60. 213-6; endurance of, 3=:4: engulfing effcct.ll of, 15-16. 20-1, 28- 9, fiL tl.. 266-7, 351; European, carly, 426-30. 446; and fllshion . 2:1 1. 2[,7, 308, :t34 ; fillll noi,., 39, 407. 436 , '*i5; roreign \'8. American, \'alue of, 4:15-6: French, 4!l7-B; future or, 459; German , 4 30, 44 5, 150; and German art, compared . 102-8.294-324. 339. 4 30; u high \'8 , low art. 6. 10- 11. 245. 448; historical , 27-8, 3 a, 47 , 165, 178 . 251.268,275. 334 , 4 50, 459-8 ; illus t ration linked to. ~!ill. [ill. 76- 7, 36 1. 43 1, 440, 44 :1-6, 150. 4 58; indtll;try 0 (. 27, 178; int imacy of, 5-6, 9-10. 68; inve ntion or, 332; Italiall , 2L 228, 231, 446 , 4 58; Japallf'Se, 431. 458; illlld t$cape in, 264--5, 277 , 278, :101, 30:l, an1; ligh t in, 15-16 , 18-2 1. 39-40, 160.1 80. 295, 301. 427 . 440, 4 50 . 453; literature
m
(,upvnol-
te
500 mo\'iu (coal,)
linked to, 27 i melodramu, §., 28 ... 7. 49, 128, 170, 430. 432; modem, 24 3; modern painting diseoullccted (rom. ~ ill.. i!!.. QQ; snd m",ie. 8-9, 143, 247 , 375, 447-50; narrat ive ill, 25- 32,
i!. 48-5 1.
17 1, 243, 252. 275-6, 300,
3 12. 430; and nineteenth.century ""rench art. compa.red. 399-4 22. 426-
30i Northern European art linked to. +=7.!..!. 16-25 , ~ ~ li. 54-73, ~ ~ 9 1-8. 101- 14. 11 9-206. 240.243.
300, 32 7. 440-2 , 445. 450-3. 455j peep.shov.', 193; period. 453-1; power or. 3-4, 27. !i 2. 44 5, 44 9; psychological experience i ll , 5-9, 12, 18-2 1. 25-7 , ~ 46-50, 76- 7. )7 1. 176. 179, 2 13,
232, 242-3.268, 275- 6,300,301. 339, 44 6-58; and realism. 46-50, ) 16, 2 13, 430,4 3 1. 44 5, 458; religious. §.ft. ) 20, 292, 295; romantie eha racler 0[, 7-8, iQ. ~ 234, 265, 300. 301,
349-50. 389. 430- ) , 44 5-7. 457-8; Scandin8\·i8n. 424, 425, 44 6, 4 5 1; aci·ft. 228; set design ror. 228-3 1, 303 . 309: 334; and sexua lity in, il... i l l 136. 139; si lent, 76. 87 . 446; surrealiatic. 4 9; and Iheat.e r. com pared. 50-1. 334. 440 . 4-4 6, 44 8i time flow in, 25-6; transcendental impullj:e in, 300; twenlielh·«ntury, 435-58; and twentieth~ntury Ameriean art, compared. 383-92. 430-5 . 44 0-58; war, 178, 44 9; Wes terns. !1..!ft. ~ 178, :157, 4 30, 437-9 , 4 55 movie·ata r image, origin in painting, !l..1 Mr. Oldltam arid JIi. F riend. (Highmore),
242, :n " Mr. P inch is amued by 8n unexpected apparition," illustralion ror Dickens'. IVanin Cbuluoil (Browne), JIB, 3.29. Mr•. CarlllJeyer and Her Cltildru (Sargent), 3 78 . 382, 3..8..3. ,Vr•. Da lli. alld lIer SOli iAL'i"U.'orl (Sargent), 378 . 380 Munich, 23, lll2 mural painting, German Romantic, l l i Murillo. Bartolome Esteban. 35, 3.2.9
Muaeo dC'l "raclo. l.fi. museums, ~ ~ 1..6 IIIlIlIic, 375; movie. 8-9, 47. 14 3.24 7. 375, 44 7-50 ; scenes, ill Americlln nilieteenlh,cf'lIll1ry a rl , 37 1-3 ; IIcerl('a. in scventet'lIth·cenl ury DUICh Itrl. 14 3, 198, ill MN.ical Pa ny, Tlte (Melau), 128, mllaic video, 9. Mllybridge motion s tudies, 374. i l l mythology, 35, 161, 44 5; in Briliah art, 263, 268 , 272-6 , 283, 334-6, 339; Chriatian , 102, 292, 293; Clallilieal. 99. 102-9. 161; ill Du tch a rl , 16 1-9. 170. 171 : ill ""Jemish art. 96-8; in French art. 2:! 1, 398, 404; in Italian art, 22 1-8; 1II0rll, 252; in lIe\'emeemh· century art. 99, 102-9. 16 1-9. 170,
m
m
Naked JII fJja (Ooya). 2.5..9. Nana (RIm), ill Napoleon Bonaparle. 252, 277 , 3illi narrative, 10 . 27- 30. ia. tl;. in eighteemh·cenlury Bril i&h a rt . 243-52. 273-4 : in ei((,htf'enth.cenlury .... re nch a rt, 205- 19 , 24 3-52i in German art , 125, 309-24; K",phic tradition, :ill. ;!;!. 34-5, 4 3-6: modenl , 243; in movie•• 25-32, 4 6. 48-9. 171. 24:1.252. 2 75-6.300,3 12, 430i in nilleteellth~enlury Ameritan art, 356=-83; in ninetetnth·century Brit ish art. 272- 90, 324 , 325-34 , 336-40j ill lIineteenlh·ct'lilury Prellch art , 405, 420, 4 22; in Northern E uropealJ art, Qi. §.§.. 64-71 ,!!!. ~ 11 9-206, 243-4 : ill se,'enteenl h-eenlury Dutch arl . 11 9-206. 24 3-4 . i l l Nativily "I Nipltl. Tlte (Ourtgen tOt Sint JailS), 85, 8.1 naturalilm, 206 . 4 26; Oen nan n omanlic. S09, ill Nltll rsl P ielY (nineteenth cent ury), fiB nature movies, 471 48-9. Nuarenel, 3.illl Neer. "~Igoll \'an del', 160. i l l Nwcl ... iC!ilm. 60, 23 1, 233. 24 7. 250.
."
50 1
Jllde:r 309, 3..9..i. 399: F'M'lIch. 394 . 395-8; Ro manl-ic, 22.l Neoplatonism , Helillissance. 5.2 Netherlands, 53 , 87. 99, 11 6, 177. i l l Netsche r, Caspa r, 28, L28 Newgale.' COlll lllillt:(l lor Tria l (lI olI), 338,
ill newspapers, !!. t 35; nineteenth·century iIIuatrsti\'e, 3 ;)4 Net#! Te,lam c,.l, Tlte. Callol illuill r&l ioll or, 455. 416 New Town lIall (Amsterdam). 143. lli. New York, 176,234,35 7,4 :17 Nigltl Shadowl (HoPI>er). :186, 387 nineteenth·century art. 10, 28, :13. 39. 114; American, :-19 . 298, 324, 349-83, 389-90,393,437; Brit il!lh, 114, 18 7. 261-92, :UH8. 387. 403. 4J:" 455. 457; early movies, 426, 429-30; rashion in, 10, 259. 269- 71 ; French, It 114. 259. 347,368, 369-70, 389, 393-422, 426-30; German, 39 . '10. ~ 92. 234. 292-324. 329. 3:19. 358. :'187. 424 . 430; historical, 277-80, 283-90, 3 12-22 . 324. 325, 330, 333. 334-6, 337. 395-8. 404. 457; illustrat ion and printed graphiclI, 30, 263, 276-80, 283-90, 303-5. 3 14-29. 332_3. 336-8, 346-8, 360-8. 387. 399, 402-3. 406-1:'. 426-9 , 437-;0.443-5; landscape, ~!L li: ~ 160, 261-:1 16, 341 . 352-60, 375-7 , 397; Northern European, 3:14-6, 422-5; photogra phy and painting, linked . 13-14, 1:1, 30-2, 257,338,342, 347-8, 357.392. 402-7, 4 13,421 .4 26-7 . 437-40, 443~ realislll, 30-40. 49, 160. 260,284 , 298,300.301,314-24,330. 336-8, 349-83,392, 394.395.409,4 13, 422-6. 445; romanticillm ill, 39,!2..
:.m.;n,
160.260 , 292-:115, 346, 349-8:1, :194 ,
395.406-22. 426.429.4:17 .440,447. 455-7; Scandinaviall, 422_5 Nine\'eh, 2.8.1 Noah 's Ark, 2M Nocho'f!4 in Black and Gold: TIt ~ F alling Rockel (Whistler), 343, l l i
Northen l European a rt, !.. !!. 1; ambiguity in, L ~ 2 1-2 , 28. 53-9, 8 2, 88 , 91 . 2L 109, 127, 136-7, 142-=4, 156-8, 161. 265, 3 15; American a rt influenced by, 39, 350, 352, 358-60, 38 1. 386, 389,390,39 1. 393. 44 3, " 50- I; British lirt influenced by, 261-2. 271 -2. 3 18. 320, :126. 33 1, 33 7. 350. 455; chiBl'Ol;cul'O in, 16. 179, 190.2 12; cinematic element in, 4-7 , 14. 16-25. gft., ll... 54-73. fig. §..!!. 91 -8. 10 1- 14. 119- 206, 240, 243 , 300,327, 440-2. 445. 450-.1, 455; color 8upprelliled in, 85-6, 88 , 253; flftee nth·century, l.§.. 17. 2 1, 52-7 1. 15-8. 80- 1. ~ ~ ~ 102, 259; graphic tradit ion ill. 4-5,!L 52-71 , 74-8. 80-1, 84-9:1. ~ 99-102, 106-9 , 176-95.200,204,3 16. 326. 43!J; hip·length views in, 120-1; iIIuliionism in, 17. 21. 52-9, 6 1-8 , 19:1, 306; influence or medieval illu mination Oil, 53-4 , 58-75. 85-6. 95.102.12 1; and Italian t raditioll, compared . 16-1 8, 21 .52.59-71. 80-2, 84-90, 96-7.99-111 . 11 8, 119-=23, 162-:t 170. 18:1, 3:17; la nd scapt' tradit ion, ~ 63, 75 , 9 1-8, 102, 106, 158-61. 171, 173-6.235, 26 1-2,265, 271-2,300; light in. 6. ~ 15-25. 28, ~ 53-6, !!2. ~ 65-8. M.. 85-6. ~ 9:1-6. 102-9 ,11 9-20.1 31, 1:l3, 139- 60, 179-95, 310- 11 , 327, 422.443; nineteenth .cent.u ry. 334-6. 422-5; psychological expe rience in, 4-7, 17-25, 56-71.1fr. 80-2 , ~§..!!. 91 -lt 101-9 . 120-95. 249-50. :100. :127; real ism in, 56-64, 68, 76. 78-82, ~ 103-6. 126, 137-8. 161, 176. 208. 257, a 12. 350, 422-5; religious experience in, 54-71 . 75-8, 80-1, 8..5... a1;. rootll or Homantieis m in, .3.2.. l..O2.. 160-1, 234 , 300; se"cllteent h,centu r),. 99-109.1 19-206.243.386. 440-3. 450; sixteenth ·century, 74-98; pall ish a rt influenced by, 253, 255, 257.259; lee al ,o Dutch art; ~~ I emillh art : Gennan a rt; SC8ndin8\'ian art
no
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." I
502 Norlhen l European movies, 424 . 425. 446, iOll Not at /lome (Johntlon), 389, S9Q Notl~, L4 (tHIII), 49, l.3..6 Novak, Barbara, 352, 3..6..l Novak, Kim. 1.29 No,'aJis, 3.l2 nudity in art, 41 . 4 6. 259 ; .ee al.a
SE'xu8lity /" Nrembuu Chronicle.
TIt~. 19
Officer alld JAJwglt ing Girt (Vermeer), 149, 150, 193, 44/. i l l O!Jicer ami Tnunpder (Tlt e /)i.pa lclt) (Terborch), 15 1-2 . Hi. 15 :1-4
Old TOMln lIoll of Amsterdam, Tlt e (Saenredam), 45 1, Li1 Olmi ,
7 1, 4 58 Olympia (Manet), 40, i.!.. 4' J, 46, 259, 398,40 1. 406 Once a Wuk, 3.2i "One ealluot look at. this," No. 2fi from Lo. De.a,/re. de 10 Owerra (Goya), 255. EMIIBIIIlO.
2$6
';Open here I flung the Shutter, " illustration for Poe's Tlte Ra l.'t rt (Ma llet), 402, 4Jl2 DIM Pl i ng of lite Red Sea, Tlte (Callot), 112.
ll3 opera, 162.207. 247.334.336, 398,4 59; bad. 448; , British, 334 , 336; F'?ellch. 207 . 398. 400; ltaliall. 446; and mO\'ies, compared, ~ 44 6, 448, 449; se\,entf'enth-century t heaters. III, 11 8, l.2..6 Opira Comique, 207 ornaments. in early printed books. 8..4 Ostade. Adriaf'.n \'an. 124-3, 130, 3J..6 O-Toole. Peter. l..6..8 " Our NatiOllal Winter ExerciseSkating." lIa rptr', iVu ldy (H omer),
363, ill Ovid. l.O1
Paellwm. mezzotint from the Lillie Liber (Turner), 279,
280
Paget.• Sidney. 4 3. 45. 324. 336, i.3.2 " The Painter of Moden l Life" (OUYII).
,urn painting, 1!.; bad. 10--11 . 177; color and tOllal relatiollRhip in, 37-9; de\'iceR of motion in, 20-5; and early photography, linked. 13-14, 15, 30--2, 338, 34 2, 347-8,357. 392. 406-7. 41 3, 42 1, 426- 7. 4:17-40, 443-5; endurance of. a-4 j gra phic reproduction of, 4-6, 9-10 , 3 1-3, 35-7. 4 3,46, 48 , 84, 102,106-7, 17S-95 , 205, 217, 290-1, 325-6 , 406, 440. 443; made from print!!, 337-8; lee also lpecific cOlmfrit,,' period,: .fyltl Palace witlt Clock Tower (Canalelto), 236-7 , 237 Palais de Luxembourg, 2.Ol Pamela (Richardson). ill Pamtla aeries (H ighmore), 241, i l l Pannini, Oiovanni Paolo. i l l Panofsky, Erwin, 52. 54, 68, 76-7 , :u3 pauoram&8, late-eightee nth-century, 281 _2
Paradiu W I t (Milton) : Dor~' 8 ill 1l8traliOllll for , 428, 4J9j Martin' s: illustrations for , 284, J8~, 286, 287 Paris, 52 . 389. 429; academic training in, 393, 394, 396, 397; eighteenthcentury. 205-6, 207; n ineteenthcen tury, 393, 395 . 398-400,
409-1 5 . 41 8. 42.2 Paris Academy , 206 , 246. 393. 394, 3.9.6 Paris Strut; Rainy Weather (Caillebotte),
41 8. U9. parks. eighteent h-century ""rench . 206,
2lll! parody, eighteenth-cen tury, 20.1 Parrish, Mufield , i1 Pas,ir:1n (fllm), iD Pltstrtlne , Oio\'allni, 23.1 PaOletic Song. Tlt e (Eakins), 3 71, J.Z3 patronage, art : eighteen th-century, 206- 7. 217, 252 ; fiftee nth-century, 60. 255; ninetee nth-eent ury. 308; in Romant ic Oermany , 308; royal, 19 1, 206 . 252-3, 255, 308; seventeenthcentury. 179.206--7
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503 Payml'"t of OWl'" The (Dl' III Tou r). 121.
p h~'siogllom~'.
Prure: B urial at Spa (1'u rllc r). 292. 293
245. 249_ 50 I>icarl , Bernard , 2.Q8 pielurl'lillue idetl1. ill hUldsC8 i>j' II r t,
Prucefwl 1-0"" (W'III<'II.II). 210 . ?/O peepboxetl. tlf'\,cnleenth,cf'lilury Dutch,
2 62-5. 277,2!W piCI u re'!>1ories, eigh (('en t Ii-cenl u ry,
ill
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ill pef'p-show mo\' it'l;, 1.!l.3 l't'lI illl;u lllr CIlIIII>l!.i!!lI, ? :,3 Pellll, I rv illg, i l l Perfect Umienlall(litly (film), lItiit
P irr(l de l ta F rn llcf'lIcn,
54 . !iL 63.
ill (ro m ,
12" 1.2..2. period movies. 45;1_ 7 penpec l iv(': Dutc h , 193; ill ilu1iHn
painting, 22. 59- 6-1 . 22:1. 227-:1 1. 2:14; IIIcdie\'1l1. 59 , 61; ill Nor t hern }';urol'wlln art. 52-9, 61. 64-8, i l l Petrureil, 18 1'£01'1', Frllllz. ill I)hiiip II , King o( S pa in. 2..5..5. phologrliphy, 16, 101. Hi8. 180, 19L 338; Amf'ric!l II , 357 , :174-!i. :\92. 4:i2 . 4:17. 440, 44 3-4 ; lirchitt"clurul, 2:11; black-and-while, 3:1 . 3 4 . :1:;-7. 43. 46.
280; color, 48-9; cOllllUrn:ilil. a.:.lL 35.36. frL 26:t 407; do<:ulllrllta~', 27, :1-1 . 255. 263 . 440: early de\'r io pmcnt of, 30-2. 257 . 292. 338. :142. :J·n -8, 406. 4 2fi: carly port railurr, 406 , 4 14- 15; ('li rly IOpogru l>ilic, 409; fa mily IilUtplihots. 446-7; fatlhiMl, 208i F rench. 407. 409. 4 ):1, 426-7: as high n , low a rt, 27. :11 - 2; IIlId illustration. linked. :11 -2. :13 8. 406- 7, 4 1:1- 14. 421 . 4:12, 4 :n--40. 44:l-5 ; landsclI.l>e. 26:\ ,407; Muybridgf' motion IIludiell, :.174 . 4a 7: nineteellth·cenlury, 30-2, 36-7 , 257 , 292, :1:18 . 3 42. 347-8, 357. 374-5, 392, 402, 406-7 , 409 , .1\ :I-Fl. 421, 426- 7, 4a7. 440. 443-5; tllJd pain ting, linked , la-I4 . 15, :10-2. 257. 338. 3.J2, :1 47-8. 3:i7. 392 . .J 06-7, 41 :1 , 421. 4 26-7, 4 ~n --40 , H :I-:I: plissivityor, 15; fo r reproduction or arl. 3 1-2, 35-7, U i.!i...:Ui. 406. 440, 44 :J; romlililicil!lIl in, 406-7 . .J2 7j as III I'p to rn ovit'li. 1f1, :12; tW{'ll tiethcf' ll tu ry. '1:12, H3 pholojourna lilllll. modern, 27 . .:lJ
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Pi rllllt' Ki, G , 8. , ;H. :19 . 231-2 , 233. 234, 2:16, 2:17 , 2:19, 253, 261. 262. 279.
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407 , tor ies. !' igh I N!II I h · centurv , ' 2 45_6 J}o rllog raph~',
!l... HI:I, 2 71. a2!!
Po r ter, Fairfit'ld, :J!)O. i l l Portico with a La ll lerll, The (Calilitetto),
2aa,213 Porlmil of fl MUll ancl II 1\'01l/al/ ill all / II/I'rior (V8 11 de l' :o.1eer), 17 1, i l l Porlrait of Miss Lloyd ('I'ilillot), a69. ~ Porlruit of .lt r
Mrs. Edwill f;dwards (F'ltlltill· JJlI.lOu rJ, 421, i l l !'orlmil of M rs. 6'flhll/i (Eak i n~), 37-1. fHld
m Port rail of /lt e '''(IN/Utla (/~ POllt,jQ,
(Ooya), 2!U, 2 i B portra.illll'(', :18; AlJlrrica ll , :171;. :128-84; British. 187. 190. 240. 241. 261, aii-6; Dulc h, 190- 5. 200, 376. :J]8: elirly photogra l>hic. 406, .J 14 - 15: F lemillh. 259; F N'IICh, 190. 20 1, 204, 247. :195. 414- 18 , 42 1; ItS lIille tt'enth·
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504
l"de:r
portraiture (eo"" ) etntury illu.tration, 414- 18, 421 ; print., ll. 18 7. 190-5; royal eighteenth·eentury, 252-3, 257-60; &e\·ellt.eenth-century, ~ 100. 154. 187. .190-5. 200. 378; Spanish, 252-3. 255. 257-60, 379-82; Uf. 0 110 stlr·portraitu re pol ter art, tunl ·o f, thf'·~e ntury, 433. 444-5
Poull in, Nicol .. , 38, 11 8. 162,206. 338.
ill power or movies, 3-4, 27, a2 Poynter, Edwllrd John, 28 "The I)relude" (Wordlworth), 262 Pre· Raphltelite Brotherhood . 32.2. Pre, RaphKelitel, 18. 29, 3 19-22, 324, 330-3.m Pri,"(J ~ nJ (BoUicell i). 1.8 PriKCtl j " tltt! TO k~ r (Delaroche), 3.28 printed graphic art, 4-5, :!: ~ 3 1, 45; Ame rican , 360-8, 385 , 386-7, 43 1, 432-5. 437-9, 444; artistic fame increased by, 78-9, 84, 180; and arlillie thievery, 11 - 12. lI6-7, 100. 406, 458-9; Brit ish, 240-1, 245-6. 252, 254-5, 263, 276-80, 283-90. 3 18-29 . 332-3. 336-8,346-8, 41 3; chillroll~ uro ill, 34. 35, 46, 49, 179, 190,225,246, 407.4 32, 433 ; all collaborative drort, 93, 178; color, 48-9; ~ollli~, 34, 43; Dutch, 124, 154, 177-95,200-2.204 . 386. 450; early combinations or printed type and pi~turel, 3S, 65, 74-8, 84. 86-7; early landscape, 92. 10 1-2; and early photography, linked, 3 1-2, 338, 406-7. 41 3-14, 432, 437-40, 44 5; eighleenth-eelltury, 205- 12. 2 17, 224- 6. 23 1-3 , 240, 245--60,263, 3 16. 398-9; fa.hi on, 201-6. 208-9, 2 17, 239: flft eentlHelltury. :!.. ~ 75-8. 80-1, ~ ""rench, 201-12, 2 17, 241. 246-7.252.399-4 00. 402-3. 406-15, 426-9. <14 3; high va, low quality. 178; immediacy of, 34 j industry of, 178-8 1; intimacy o r, 5-6. 9-10. 74. 76, 102; Italian, 78, 86-90, 99j Japaneae, 458;
and mo\'ie8, linked , ~ :10, 33. 34. Sa. a2.. ':U.. !!!.. 46-50, 76-7 , 361 . 431. 44 0, 44 3-6, 450 , 458; narrative tradition in, 30-5, 43-6; nineteenth-unlury. 263, 27HO. 283-90. 3 1+=29. 332-3. 336-8. 346-8 • 360-8,387. 402-3. 406-15, 426-9. 437-40. 443-5; Northe" 1 Eu ropean. 52-71. 74-8. 80-1. 85-93, ~ 99-102. 106-9. 176-95. 200,20"' , 3 16.326. 433, 450; paintings reproduced 88, 4-6, 9-10, 3 1-3, 35-7. !!!.. H. ~ 6.i. 1Q2. 106- 7. 178-95. 205, 2 17.290-- 1. 325-6. 106, 44 0, 443; popular documenta.ry, 426-45; portraiture, 79 , 187, 190--5; pilychological experience iu, 4- 9. l.2... 32-7, 43, 74-93,179-95; Helllbr16udt'iI effet:t on. 179-95, 204; reproduced 118 paintings. 337-8i 8e\'ent eenth-eentury. 99-102, 106-1 4, 124, 154. 177-95, 200-6, 208, 450: aixteenth-eentury, 33. 74-5, 78-93, ~ 208; S paniah, 252-60; topogn.ph ical ~ lIderi llg , 277-9, 324, 360; twent ieth·century, 252, 385, 386- 7, 432-5; UtI allO aquatint ; black and ..... hite; dra .....ings; drypoillt ; engraving"; etc hing; illulHration: lithography: magatine ilIuatration; mezzot int ; monotypell: lIewl papeMl; photography: Woodcutl printed type. !!.!!. 34; invention or, 31 i ill Italian VII, Northern iIlu. trat ioll, 86-90: and picture •• ea.rly combinationl or. 33 , 65, 74-8, 84,
an.
m
86_7
pM.OIl picllirell: eightu nt h-eelltury.
23 1-2j nineteenth-eentury, 3.3.8 prison view, No. l..5. rrom C(Jrcui d '/ " "~ ,, zi(,"~ (Piraue.i), 231-2, W Prix de Romt . 3llii Proc'H'tU. Tlte (Va .. Baburen), 121 ,122 Prog ~., o/ l{irh ~ a"d Vice, rite, two pagel rrom (Chodo.....itcki), 249 . 250, 2M1 pros titution, 128, 245. 329 . 40 1, 402. 406,!Ill1
505 Proteltant.iam, 68, 74, 154, 162.204, 243; American, 137, 154, 243; Y8 . . Cat holic imagery, 99, Dutch, 1.36, 169, 177.207, :178; Oerman. 298 Proverb, (Bnlegel), !!5 P8YClt.fJ (film). i l l psychological experie nce, 5-9; in American art, 349, 350-92, 430-58; or black·a nd·white \'8. color imagcs. :13-5, 3 7-9, 46-50, 84-5, 25:l-4 , :J38, :P4, 453- 5; in British art, 247-9, 252. 26 1. 26&-92,327,329-48; in Dutch a.rt , !!. 16-23 . 28,:u. 119- 206, 243, 327 , 44 3; in ..... reneh art, 207- 19, 247-9, 339, 341. 40:1-22; in Genllan Ro mantic a rt, 292-31 5, 339; ill Italian art , 18 , gg. ~ g,t 59-62. ~ 109. 22 1-3 9; or light, 16-25, 39-43, 53-4 , ~ 61-4 , 80,85-6 , 106. 159- 60, 339 ; iIlIllO\'ies, 5-9. !!. 18-2 1. 2&-7,;!,g. 46-50. 76-7. 171. 176. 179, 2 1:1 , 2:12 . 242-3. 268. 275-6.300,301. 339. 446-58; ill Northerll Europeall art , 4=7. 17-25. 56-71 ,15.. 80-2. B..5.. 8..8.. 9 1-8 , 101 -9, 120-95, 249-52, 300, 327; in reproductive a rt , 4-9, 12,32-7, 4:1. 74-93. 179-95; in S panish a rt, 253-60, 273_6 publiahel'8, early, !l.:l PuceUe, J ean. 52, B.5 Pt4 nclt , 3.2..!l P,mclt', Almanack illustration (Keene), 3,20',
ill
" The Pupil" (Jamea), 316 Puyis de Chavaullc8. Pierre, 407 Pyle, Howard . 439. 44 3 q"adroh.ro . 227_8 Q lIO Vadi, (fi lm), '1?8
Rackh81l1, Art hur, 9.2 Raft , George. 3..81i Railway StatiOlt (Frith), l.ll Ra i, ing o/ IAzaMII, The (Rembrandt etching), 187 , .LB.!1 Ra i,ing o/ LAzaMU, Th~ (Hembralldt paillting), 187 , 1.8B Rah'. l'rogreu, Tlu , 247
Rallhacl. ~ 35, 38, M. 86 , 8 7, 259. 312, 329 ,:l.'iJl TIt~ HaL'fm (Poe), Manet illustration for, 402.4.fJ2. Head in g ' ;/ ' lIl1ulrt" (Mallet). 41 6, i l l realilHlI, 43; Amer ican. 349-92, 426, 4:11-2, 445 , Britiah, 245, 322, 324, 330,336-8; Slid color , 46-50; French, ;ill. 114, 2.1Q. 2 13, 217, ~ 346, 394, 395. 409, 458; Gennan, 39 , 49. 160, 260. 298. 300,301. 3 14- 24; Italian, 59-64,68, 99. 109. 223; and moviea, 46-50. 176. 21 :1. 430. 43 t. 44 5. 458; nineteenlh·cenlu ry, 30, 35-40, 49, 160. 260. 284,2 98 . 300.30 1, 314- 24 , 330, :J36-8, 349-83, 392, 394, 395, 409 , 41 3. 422-6, 445; Northem European, 56-64 , 68, 76, 78-82, ~ 103-6, 126 , 137-8. 161, 176, 208, 257 , 3 12,350,4 22-5; Romantic, 89, ift.. 160,260. 284, 298,300, 3 15, 349-92, 409, 44 5, 458; Scand iuaviall , 422- 5; in S panish, 253 . 259-60. 350, 392; twentiet h·century, 383-92 . 431-2, !Hi) ·'Rl'ally. sir, t hili i8 a \'ery extraord ina ry question," illus tration for TIt ~ lIollnd 0/ tlt e Ba ,kcn!1'lfcs (Paget), 336, 337 Red I)c. erl (fi lm), 136, 1.411 Redon , Odilon, 33.6 Reformation, 68, l i Rcgen, bvrg SYl1agog1l6, Th e (Altdoder), 91 -2, .22 rf'ligiou8 a rt , !. fu Cat holic vs. I'rotestan t \'iews, 99; early pri nted illustrat ion. 52-4 , 58. 59, §l. 64-84, 86. 88; early subject ivity in, 54 , 67, 8 6, 96-8; eighteent lJtCenlury Italian, 221-8: fi(teenth·centu ry Nort hern European, 54- 71, 75-8 , 80-1. 85; light in, 18-19, 2 1.295; lIIoviell, 68, 292. 295; nineteenth·century, 283, 284 , 286-7 . 292- 5. 33 I, 352-5: seventeenth· cenlUry, 99- 112, 114- 15, 11 8 , IJ9-24. 163, 16!l- 70, 17 7, 183-1, 206, 244. 450; ,ee a/, a altarpieces, Christ; Madouna and child; mythology; lr8nlicendenlal 8.rt
506
/,I(/ez
Rembrandt (film) , 450, 'lSI , 453, 455; still from, 4 50 Rembrand t \'an Rijn, !!.!!. 15, 17,22, 23-5, 28, 33, 34. 35, 38 , 43 . 48, 49.
76- 7.104 , 106,112. 14 2. 162. 163, 170, 197. 200. 2 13.216,221.222 , 225. 249,250,252,253,268,271, 275. 290,303,308,315,337,386,402, 407,432 . 4:\:1.445.4 50-1; gr¥llhie work, 179-95, 204. 255, 413 , 450; painted lur(aces of, 18 7; portraits, 19J_!i ReminglOll , F'rfl:derie. 437-9. 4.5..5. Renaissance, !!.. L 10, 37. 79, 88. 90; ,ce al,o ,pecific celltwries; COI",trill' Relli. Ouido, 35, 39, 3.2.9. Rcnoir, J ean, l..6..5 Renoir, Pierre Auguste, 37, 212, ill repou4l0irefTeeu , 94. I l l , 150, ~ reproduetiv(' art, let! printed grap hic a rt Ru ling on lite Bed (Degas) , 407. 4J1iJ. Ht.w.rrtcted Cltn'31, Tlt e (DOrer woodcut (rom Tlu S mall PanioN), 80. 8 1.3 00
Rethel, AIrred . 309 , 3 14-15, :U 6. i l l RelitI'll/rom jUarkd, Tlte (Chardin), 213, 2 14
Rehml
0/ Marli" Gwer",
Tltll (film ), 457.
"""
R ehtrn 0/ Ih e lJerd, Tlt e (Brnegel), 95. 96 . iZ Reynoldl, Sir Joshua, a5, 2..51 Rhineland, 3 J 4 Richardson, S Mmuel. i l l Richardson, T ony, i5.a Richelieu, Cardinal. i l l
Richter, Ludwig, 309, 3.l..6. Right Slltlf, Tltll (fUm), ill Riis, Jacob, ill Road to Ru i n, Tlte, "The Arrest," (rom (Fri th), 328.
~o .
3
3.2.9:
Rockwell, Non nan, 134,3 16. 3.2.2 1Wcky J1/()lt nla irtl, Th e (Bieratadt), 359 , .I5!l Rococo art, !.§.. 200. 210. 228, 240. 247; scenic design, 227-32, 234, 236, 237: ,~~ al.Q eighteenth·centu ry an Rogers, Ginger, i.. 368 roman' mltt b, 2li2.
Romall$ 0/ tlt~ 3.9.9 Romantic art,
J)ccadelli:~
(CoutUrfI:, 398,
~
18.39. 232. 234. 263; Americall, Ii. 39 , :100, :149-92. 4:10-1. 440j Brit ish, !!, 23 4, 3 12. 346; Mild color, 49; Dutch, 198, 200; early photography, 406-7, 427; f'rench, 394, 395, 40&-22, 426, 429; GcrmallH, 39. 40.91 , 92,234 ,292-315, 424, 'l aO; landHcape, a9. 40, 2L 92, 102. 160, 234, 292- 3 15. 352- 60, 375-7; llIo\'ieH as, 7-8, 49, 50. 234 . 265, 300, 301, 349-50. 389, 430-1. 44;r7, 457-8; nincteellth-century, :i9, 49,160. 260, 284.292- 3 15.346,349- 83.394, 395, 406-22 , 426, 429,43 7. 440,447. 455-7; Northern EUI'OIIe8 n roolJi 0(, :19, 102. 160- 1, 234. 300; Realislll, 39, 49, 160,260.284, 298, :100 . 315, 349-92, 409, 445, 458j lie\'en tet' nlhcentury , 102, lOB. 128. 198, 200; twentieth-century, 383-92, 4:m-1, 44;)-7 . 4!i7-8 Romalltic cOIllPdies, 118 ROlllan tic literature. 106.278_9. 2.8..i Romantic NeoclHKsicislll, :!2..l Home, 35,102.104,109. 116, 176, 234, a 09, 334 , :196, :191 Room G ivin g 0 11 a SalcOllY (Men:r:el). R oom ill New l'ork (H opper), 385 , lB5 Room wit. tlte Artist'. Sisill r, A (Men:r:e1).
:ua
3 18, .l1!l Roolle\'eil, Theodore. 4 37 Hosa, SaJvMtor, 224. 262, 354, 356 Rosenblum . Roberl, 298 . 3..0..3 ROIISf}tti, Dante Gabriel, 319-20. :122.
R()tlterlti/lte (Wbiltler), 346- 7. HZ Hothko. Mark, 2.8.1 Royal Academy (Englsnd), 2.8l royal portrai ture, eighteenth·centu ry,
252-3. 257_60 Ru bens, I)eter PHul . 22, 28, 39, 104, 106. 111-12. 116, 13 1, 206,207 ,2 10, 25 7. 279.350, a96; graphic work 0(, 179. 180, 18 1, 183, 187, Uill R uin. 0/ Holyrood C"a~/, Tlte (Daguerre), 426, 427 . 427
5 07
/lui e.r
Ruisdael. Jacob, L5B Itunge, Otto, 3.Ol Ruskin, John , 287; Whililier con rron tat ion (1 8 77), and influence 0 11 pa inting, 413_14 Russian fillll , 334. lli tlae red art, 6e6 religious art Sacrifice o/ i pltigfJ ll ia, TIle (Tiepolo), 223. 224
Sadak in St arclt o/ Ilte Walt I" o/Ob/i l:ioN (Marti n). 355 Sacnredam. Pieter, i l l Sa i/i llY (Ea kins), 375-6, 177 St.·J ean , J . D. d e, 202. 20..8 Salome (Corint h), aa9 • .lJ..1 Salon , F'rench, 394, 396 , :197, ill Sa"" o/l a" tI I)cli/ah (film), shOI from , 287, 289 SaPllho (Alma·Tadema), 335, .t3.j, Sargent, John S inger, :18, 40, iL 360, 376-8:1, :lS7. 389-90, 3!1l. :19:1, 41 5-16, :ta2 sat ire, 433; s tage, 2:11, 240, JOO Savonaroht. Girolamo. 18 8 calldina\'iltn movieH, 4 24. 425. 44 6. ill Scandinavia", pain ling, 37; nillt'wt>lIth· centu ry reali!ll, 422-5, 446
, cella pu allOolo, 228-:jJ .cella per allgolo for a Tlt ealn4111 S OCNtIll (Bibiena). 228. 29 9 scenic design, Rococo, 227-:12, 234 , 236,
237 . chadow, J ohann Gottfried , 3.0.9: " 8chalcken" (film). 4 55. 45 7 Schllicken, Gotfried . 198-200. 205, 244 , 311 , 4 55, 457 Schltpiro, Meyer, 50 Schick. G ottlieb, 30.9. Scbinkel, Ka rl Friedrich, :19, :J09, 491 Schongauer, Martin. 18 Schulz, CharleH. ,;L3 Schwind , Moritz \'0 11, 125. 309- 14.3 16.
:l2a llCience: earl y illustrated treatises , 1fu n ineteenth·century advances in , 30 sci-6 mo\'ies, 2?8 Seol"8ese, Martin , 2.5.9.
Scotland . 2fl. ~ Scott. Wa lter. 29 . 276. 3'24 Sc rib ll ~r 'Jl
MOlltMy A/aga:",/(; illu8t ral iollH,
4J11-3
sculpl.ure. 86: Clltssical. 60. 396; fourt eenth-century . 52: graphic I'l'p ro
ill self·port raiture: American, :176; Dut ch, 191-:1. I!H'k 2 16; "'rench. 2 16_1 7 S"mirn "l il F Oltlldirlg 0 TowlI (Degas), 404
Sent>relrler, Aloys . 2!6 Sent inel, Tlte (Remington). 437. 4 38 st'p ia dl'1i..... ings. G.-rmall Romantic, 3Q3. 305_7
set d es ign . 309; ei gh teenth·cent u ry Italian, 227-32, 234 , 236. 2a7; movie. 228-;1 1, ;103, :J09. 3:14; nillt,tf'ellth· century Britis h t hea ler, aaad seventeenth.century a.rt. f!. 14. H . 378: classica l trad ition , 119-20. 162. 169. 207; Dutch. §. LL 2ft.!i!!. 1 I I. 116;
ll6. 119- 206, 300, :109, 378-9, 386 , 44 0-:1, i aa. 4an; fa shion, 11. 11 :1 , 200-6. 208-10. 211. 2 I 2; French, 112-1 8. 162.1 97 , 20 1-6.2 11. :194. 395; German, 102-8; g ra phic, 99- 102, 106-14 . J 16, 124 . 154. 176-95. 200-6,208. 450; Ita lian , 99, 10 1. 1M. 104.106,109-1), 11 6 . 11 8. 124 . 131. 162. 3 12, 327 . 334.395; landscape, 1QJ-2. 106, 158-61, 171. 17:1-6. 235. 26 1-2.27 1. 300; ~o rth e nJ Europea n. 99-109, 119-206.235, 243,261-2, 271. 3QO. 386. 4i 0-3, 450; polit ies in rut. I QQ. 11 3-1 5. 167- 8. 204. 206. 211 ; Spanish, fi!!.. 11 1. 170. 378-8 3. 392; lind lhellter. linkli between,
50S levenleenth-century a rt (~,,'.) 109- 14, lI S, 120. l1fi.. 127. 132. 14 2, ] 59-63, 170. 207, 210. 321 sexuality, 40. 88; in American eu lture and Dutch art. compared. 128-30, 137; in American Romantic art, 366, 368-7 1, 375, 391 j in early I)rillted illustration. 77, 12; and 'Bahion, 2 11 - 12.2.&7,25 7,259-60.269; in Frtnch art, 209- 11, 216- 17. 247, 404 . 41 5-16; in mO\'iu. !L 111 . 136, 139; in nineteen th-eenlury realilm, 40- 1j pornography, !!. 193, 27 1. 329; in Ire"en teenlh'centllry Dutch art. 128-30. 136-42. 148-9. 154, 163. 171. 198. 200. 455; in seven teenth· century Italian a rt. ill SltadokJ 0/ Deallt, rJt ~ (paint ing), lli Sltady Pool (Cotman), 265, 21i.6. Shakespeare, William, 25. 3 12. 3.2.5. Shakespeare illustration, 241. 3.2..6 SilaNe (fUm), !l.9 "Sherlock Holme," illullrKl iona ( Paget) , 11.!..§.. 336, 337. ill "She turned her (ace to the wiud()w," The Oo.JuII (Homer). 36:1. l l i SltoPl IUlder lite La w Cow rl , (BoIIse), ~03, 2iliI Sltorl Walk. A (Porter), 390, W aide lighting. 159:60 Siena. 52 Iilent filml, 76 . 87. i l l Iilver engraving. 8.0 Sint J ans, Geertgen tot, 8..5: Sistine Chapel, 3 sixteenth·century art. 33,1 2 1, 165.1 69. 1 57; Dutch. 90; Flemish. 90. 94-8; Oenuall, 79-84 , ~ 8.L fill. 93-4 ; graphic, 33, 7 1-5. 18-93, ~ 208; illuminated manuscript •. 1 1-5; Italian. 78. 86-90, 96; landsupe, 91 -8: r\o rthem E uropean, 14-98 ; p aychological uperience in, 74- 98 Ska ti Ng iN Celttral Park (H ome r). 31i3 skeletous, 224 . i l l . kelchel, 45. 181, 4 2 1; Americall, 3 75; Dutc h. 177. 193-4 . 227; fo' M' nc h. 396-1 , 421 : Gennan, 297, 300, 303-7,
3 18; Italian. 221; (or moviel, ilIu8tratimls, and paintings. compared. 43-6. 227; ninetl"ellth~elltu ry. 315, 42 1; travel, 263j I€e 0./'0 drawing slide lecture., 8 slides, color. 9..!l Small Pa.,iolt , Tite (Do rer woodcuts), 80, 81 Soldier aNd Girl (Terhorch), 138, ill Soldier. by a F irt-plau (Duyster). 149-5 1, W aoldier scenea, seve nteenth ~e ntury. 14 8--57
Sol i'ary Tru, Tlt e (F riedrich), 29
, 299
S0101ll01l. Abraham, 325, 321 Scmg 01 Jliau.'(J /lw, Tlt e (l..ollgfellow), Remington illu8trll.l ioll for, 4.16, i l l Song of Songll, 71i Spain , l.n. 252. 387 Spanish a rt, 350, 316; American art influenced by, 318-83. 389. 390, 39 1, 392; and ci nematie mode, 255-60. 273-6; eighteeuth·celltury . 252-60. 273-76; graphic, 252-60; light in, 16; Northern Europeall influellce Oil , 253 . 255.257,259; portraiture. 252- 3. 255, 251-60, 319-82; psychological uperience ill, 253-60. 273-6 ; realillm in, 253, 259-60, 350, 392; ae\'enteenth ~en tur)'. 60, I l l. 170, 378-83, 392 SpiN ,.~r', TIt~ (VelAzquez), lfi. Spitz.....eg. Karl, 315--16, 322 Spra nger. Bartholomeul, l.fill Sprino f'l(Jw~ r', Appltl and Ptar. (Fantin. Latou r), 42 1. 42J. Stagecoach (fUm) , 3 12; s till rrom. 455 , 4 56
stage design, eighleellt.h-eentu ry Italian. 221-32 . 234,236 , 231 lIage melodrama. nille t etn th~e llttlry . 257 , 2Rfi "Stage·Struck," illustration ill Collier', lVeekly (G ihBon), 432. I...U. Stanwyck, BllriJa ra, 3.6.8 Slarling Owl Alter Rail (Eakins). 37fi,
3?Z "Star Trtk " (TV s how), 355
r hI
509
Steen. Jan, 28.126-8. }:!0-1. 142. 199 . 200. W SHII Life, Corner I)f lite Table (F'llntin· Latour), 421. 42.J. 8till· lire painting, 9 1. 179; eighteenth· century French. 212, 2 17-19; nineteenth-century French, 42 1, !l23 It ill photogn!.phy, 13. 18,25, fi Ji early, 13-14; as high \'8 . low arl , 27 , 3 1-2; 811 IItep to moviel, 15; lee allo photography Stockholm, 2.3 Stokes, Adrian, 86, 20 Sioni ng of SI. StepJten. Tlt e (F.hlheimer), 104, JOj, 1.llii
storyboards, lee continuity sketches Stra nd Magazine, Tlt t , i.l Stra\·insky, Igor. 247 street theater, 118 Siudy ill Plu lt Tuntl and Black: Purl rail of Tlt cooore /Jw ret (Whistler). 345, 346 subjecth·i ty, in early religious art , 54. !IT.. 86, 96-8 sublime art, 264-8; American. 352-4, 356-8; German. 292-3 14; nineteenth· century British landscape. 264-8, 278, 2 8 1_92 Swil Worn willt a S U.:()rd (Dc S t.·J ean),
200,= Summer f.' IJf:H ing (Hopper). 38 7. a.B.8. Sutltmit of JUl. WCllltingtotl , Tlte (HOllier),
"'"'
sunlight , 1!. 54 , 158, l.6D S Wll ri'e on lite Marslte. (Heade), 352. 113 surrealism , 4:10; films , ;l9 S utton. Peter, 137 . 116 S wedis h movies. 44 6 Swimmi ng I/ole. Tlt e (Eakins), 37!'i. 3..Zli. Symbolism, 30, 347 . 424 , 44 5; Bt igillll , 336; French. 336; Pre· Raphael ite, 330 S ynd ics of lite IJral)trs ' Guild (Rembrandt), 45 1. 4.£2.
style , 109. 330 tav~rll scenes. tlevE'nteellth·celltury. 116, 124. 136 , ill
tablta ..
l;i ll(J.l.t
television , ft. 2. 126, 128. 171 . 178, 204, 21 I , 263; black·and·white, 46, a8 collaborKt ive effort , 93; comedy, 126; aud fa shion, 2..5.1 Temp€sla (Giorgione), 18, 90 Tennyson, Alfred, lA rd, :1 12. 3.25 Terboreh, Gerard, :13, l aO, 13 1, 136. 13 7-9. 14a. 151 -4, 156-7 , 198. 204 , 2 10, ?6 9 Terbnlgghell. Hendrick, 116. 119-20. 12 1. 2!2 textu re, in Nort hern European paint ing, 17, 21. 53- 9, 6.1 Thackeray, Willialll, a ~ 4 Tltam tl and umdoll from Rieltmo"d lIollle. Th e (Canaletto), 234. 215 Tltllllle, E mOOllkmellt (London), 286 theater. :1-4 . ~ 1.. §. !1 ~ 50, fii. 76, 78. 104,459; and British art, links be twe~n , 325-36, 3:17; dioramas, ~ 28 1-2,284. 426-7; eightee nth·centu ry, 207-8, 210,211. 212, 221-4, 227- 3 1, 234,23 6, 247, 249,28 1- 2,31 8; and Freneh art.. links between, 207-8. 210, 2 11 ,2 12,399-401, 426-7; illusionism ill. 6..i. 227-3 1, 327, 333; Italian. 207 , 327, 44 6; and Italia n art, links bctwcen , ~ 14,25, 29. 6:l-4 , 109-11 , 11 8- 20, 162- :1. 170,22 1-4, 227-3 1, 327, 329,3 30; Mnd mO\'iell. compared, 50-I, 334 , 440, 44 6, 448j nineteenth·century. 257, 281-3. 286, 287,325-6,337 , 399-400, 426-7. 429; Northenl \ ' S. classical t radit ion in. 162-3; Rococo ",cenic elfects, 227-32 , 234,2 36,237; seventeenth·century, 109- 14, 118, 120, 126, 127 ,1 32, 14 2. 159-63, 170, 207 ,2 10,327; street. 118; lIubl ime. attemphl at, 28 1-3, 286. 287: twen tieth·centu ry, 4:m, i l l Theater of Nature, l.6O Tll ta /MlnI Sue r .. ". , ,ee Ha per /J.llyolo ror 11 (Bibicna). 228 , 2.2.9 Tlteodora (film) , 228. 230 Tlr.e r~.e Haqwill (Zola). 403 , iIli t hi('\'pry, artislic, 11- 12,86-7.100, 406, 4:'18-9; in movies, 11 - 12, 458-9
51 0
I lidez
Tltir" lor Know:ledge 01 th. ~ World, Bcene (rom TIt~ Di/e 01 a Rake (Chodowiecki), 251 . 2.12 Tit ania, Jelfcrloll (Pyle), 44 3, u.!l. Thomson, James, i l l Thorwaldllen. Bertel , 60 Tiepolo. Gio\'llIllli Batt ista, 22 1-8, 231 ,
232 .234,253,279,3lH Tie rney, Gene. :lll time flow , in mO\'ies. 25-6 Tinloretto, 102. 104 , 226, 329 , 3.9..6 Tislol, Jamell. 369_70 Titian, 29, 99. 279, 3.22 Tom Sawyer (film). 8ti11 from, 301, 3.a2. tone, 4 11: cinematic qualities of, 38-41 , 280. "11 ; Blld color, relationship in painting. 37-9. 86 : ill eighteenth. eentury )i' rellch painting. 2 13; ill Italiall VIlI . Northern F~urore811 art, in late-nineteenth-cen tury pllinting, 343--7; ,fe al,o black lind white Topographies]srt , 26 1; early photographic. 409; eighteenth-centu ry Ital ian, 232-9 . 26 1-2; 811 illustl'8ti\'e repor tage, 262-3. 277-9 , 324; nineteenth-century American, 357- 60; nineteenth -centu ry British. 26 1-80, 2 83-92; ninctet'nth-century French , 409-15, 42 1; se\'enteenth-cen tury Dutch, 173-6,234 , 26 1- 2, 2 71 ; watercolor, 26 1-2 , 26ft-B , lli Toulouse- Lautrec, Hellri, 399, i l l Tower of Babel, 284 tragedies, t heatrical, 126, 23..l transcendental art: Americall, 39, 298, 300,36 1; Gennan Romantic, 298; modem . 298; movies. 3.O.Q transpart'lIcy, 93; in American ROlll8nt ic 8.rt, 352: dioramas, 28 1-2 : in eighteenlh-ccnlur)' art, 226-7, 24 6, 265; in German Romant ic art , 297; in s ixteenth·century art, 93-5, 112; I€~ al.IO watercolor travel ; effects of landscape painting on . 262- 3, 278-9; late-e ighteenlh-century, 262-3 , 265; nineteenth-centu ry, 279 , 324; writings, 276, l l i Trechsel brothers of Lyon s. 93
Tru of WoodsN Clog" rite (film). 71 , 4 58 tnlthfulne88, in black·and-white art . 34 , 37. 85_6 Turan-Milan Hours iIluminatiolls. 61, 64 , 6tJ, 6.5 TiJnler, Joseph MalloNI William, :!. 14 , ~;!Q. 26ft-8 1, 284 , 290, 292 , 297, 303. 336.341 .342.348, 4 57; flgurati\te work, 267, 269-71. 274 : illustrations, 276-80, 324; legendary scenes, 2 72-8. 286; watercolors. 265-6. 268 'I1Jnler, l~an8 , 2.0.0 twentieth-centu ry art, 10, 39, 48, 68, 252, 268 , 300, 303, American , cineml:ltic t rad ition in, 383-92. 430-5, 44 0-58: illustration 8nd graphics, 252. 385, 38&-7, 4:12-5; mOl'ies, 435-58; photography. 432, 44:1 Two Ma yicio,., willt i'llItc/ti,.dlo (Ticpoio). 225, 226 Two Men al il!oo"ri.lle by Ihe Sea (Friedrich), 296, 297 TWQ Si.llters, The ( F'antiJl - I~3t.our). 4 16, U8 200 1 (film),
lli
TlCo WOrNen with a
I~tte r
(Tul'ller), 269,
270, 21.l type, .te printed type
ly8ses. 272, 213 Umbrian paint ing, ~ no unce rtainty, 88 cinemat ic condition, 2 6 8 ullcollscious, use in cinematic art, ~ L ~
il2 Un(ieriow (Homer), 366, 367 U.ltal Refuge. scene rmm Th e I.lfe of an lIl~dl«!ated Girl (Chodowiecki), 25 1, ill Vall d e Velde, Esaias, 231i V8n d e Venue, Adriaen, I 77 , 2.O.J. Van Dyck . Anthonie , 38, 45 , 11 2,190--1 , 208, 209, 2..6.2 Van Gogh, Vincent, 37 , 300, 421 . 4 29,
4fo5 Vardac. A. Nicholas , ill
'" Varley, J ohn, 262 Vanledoe, Kirk , i l l vaudeville, 5..0 Velbquez, Diego, ~ 14. 16,38,39. 170.
255. 257. 378-83. 387. 389. 390. 39 1. 392, 40 1, 41 5, 4 32, 439, iftll Ve net ian lirt : eighteen th·ce nt ury, 22 1-8, 232-9; seventeenth'cen lury, 99, 102, 106; sixteenth·cen tury, 9.0 Vendian B~ad Stringer' (Sargent), 387,
389 , 389, 390 Veneziallo, Domenieo, 5.;l Veniee, 102,233. 234,235, 239,38 7 Verdict, Tlt e (film ), 3.B Ve rkolje, Jan, 197-8, 200, 20.5 Ve rmeer, J an, Q.. ~ ~ 10 , 16, 19-20, 28.
31.;!,g. ~;!Q.. i t M!.. 103. 106. 116, 130. 136. 139. 140-3.1 47 , 149 , 152- :-1. 154.1 57. 161. 173 . 17:). 176 , 177,193 , 198. 199, 200,204 ,2 10. 3 11. 2 11, 22 1. 23;$. 234 , 235, 249. 33 1.398. 404.406 , 4 2 1. 440-3. 44 5;
m
genre and hil!ltory scenes linked in,
170-1 Veronese. Paolo, 102, 104,329 . :t37 VerlHlilleH, 198. 201, 205. 206 videos . 5-6. !l View from /lI e Stll.dio Window (Pried ric h. Iwo sepia d rawings), 305, 306, 306. 307.3flZ Vi!!w of Detfl (Vermeer), 173. 173, 234 View of Pields (Koninckl, 158-9, l/ill View 01 Liverpool Quay by Moon/iglt/ (Grimshaw), 34 2, 342, :l1J View of lite Bacillo witlt lite Hn cilltoro Arn'lIi,lg (Csllaletto), 2 .18, 2..3.!1 View of tit , 7,i, richer (Vall d .. V.. lde), 235, 236 Vigee· Lebnm, Marie, 257 Ville de Lumiere, 3.9..8 Virgil , 3M Virgin, lee Madonna alld child Virgin and Child, Th e (Cima da COllegliallo), 63, 63, fu1 l'irgill and Cltild, The (Gerard Da \'id), 124, l2.l. Virgin of Ihtltlility, Tlt e (Mantegna), 182.
ill
Visconti, Luchino, i l l Vi, iteWr, dw Soir, u, (film), ill Vi8il of 0110 III to tltt Crypt, The (Hethel), 3 14 . 3 14, 3 15 Vouel.• Si mon, ll.8 Voya gr. 01 Lile, Tlte (Cole), 354, lli Vrel . Jacobus, 144-5, 148 , 389, 4 20 Vu illard, J ean Edotla rd, 31 Wagne r, Richard, ~ 333, 334, :U.9 Wa ilillg IQr tlt e Verdict (Solomon) , 325-6,
326, 327, 3.3.8 "Wait till you've been allointed," No. 61 or Los Capn'clt08 (Goya), 25:1, 254 11'a,'pillg Q/I Tlt altl~' (Whistler), 346-7, 31il War Br.hcte t/ Cart/ ivai arid l..tnt, Tlte ( Bnlegel), 9.5 Ward , John , i l l war movil'8. 178, i l l Washington, D.C., 5.9 watercolors, 226. Z:l2 j American HOlllantic. 38:1. 385; British, 234, 246, 261. 26fl- S. 279; Dutch, 9:1-4: topographical, 26 1-2. 2 fHi-8, i l l Waters Heced ing alt,r tlt e Del wge, The (Colc), 354-5, 3.5Ji Watsoll alld tlt e Sltark (Co pley), 350- 1, 35 1, a55 Watteau, Antoine, 136, 20[,- 12, 213,
217. 22 1, 222, 227 , 237. 239 , 241, 257. 27 1. i l l WAX models, l l i Way to Golgotha. Tlt e (De Gelder), 163 . 164, 272 " Weary Klld dissatisfied wilh e\'erything," Tlte Galaxy (H omer), 363, i!5fj
W.. imar. 3!l9 WeIlcs. Oraon, i l l Wcrft', Adriaell van der, i l l Western movies, 47 , 48, 49. 178,35 7, 4 30, 455; pictorialsourees or, 43 7_9 West Point, Protl.t', Neck (Homer), 960.
:lJil Weyden, Rogier van d er, 54, 76. 2.5.5. Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 343-8, 351. 398. 40 7; graphic work, 346-8,
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W histler, James Abbott McNeill (COllt.) 4 13; Ruskin confrontation (18 77), and influ ence on painting, 4 J 3_ J 4 Wh itt! Girl (Whilitler), 344 Whitehall a lld tlt e Privy Gardt!1I (Canaiclto), 2.3..:l WidoN.l6r, Tlt t! (Spitz'o\'cg) , 31' , i l l Wild Hurses in s Forest, The, R8 Wilkie. DS\'id, 2B William III , King of E:ngland , lli " Winter- A S kating Scene," /larpu', Weekly (Homer), 363, 3..6.l. lYinter E IJe"ing (Bening illu minatio n from Tit!! Da COIla /lolf r,), 71, Z2 Woman at a Window (Vrel), 144-5, 145,
ill Woman l ro"i,% Seen Agaillst the Light (Degas), 4 00, i l l WOrMn PeeliNg F1'If i t (Terbo rch). /3 7,
laB Womall Pcrw rillg Milk ( Vermee r), 19.1!l Womall Rcadillg (Elinga), 14 6, 14 6, ill Woman St'arcitillg for Fleas, A (Dc la Tou r), 11 7, ll8 Woman Writ illg Q utter, IOitlt /ler Maid (Vermeer), 152 . 15:1. 15.'t, i l l 'o\'OIlU'IJ; in American culture and Dutch art, compared , 126--30; in eighteen th century to"'rellch art , 209- 10; in nineteenth -century American a rt, 361 _ 36 3-6,366--7 1; in nineteen th-century
French a rt , 405, 406, 415-16; ill seventeenth-eelltury Outch a rt, 126--57, 198 ,200, i l l Womtn in tltt! Gardell (MOllet), 361, 362 Wood, Michael, 2.6i! Wood, Natalie, :lfiB woodcuts, ~ 75, 77 ; sixteenth-centu ry,
!2... 80-3 , 9.3 wood eng","illg$, 40 5; n ineteenth-ccntury America n, 363-5 word, printed , '~41 printed type Word sworth, Willism. 6 8 , 2 35. ? 6? Wor4' (paint ing), 3.3..l workshopa, se,·enteclllh·celltll ry prillt. 176--8 1, l.9.O World War II , 168, i l l Wttewael , J oachim, Ui!l Wurzbu rg ReHidcllz, 221 Wyeth. N. C .. 47, 444 Wyler. Willi"III, Uti Y"le Art school, :131 l'o/.! and M~ (fi lm), s till fr(l rn, 432, 4.3..l "You nervy little d c,'il, you!" illust ration for Edna F erber's Pa nny /llnelf (Hen ry), 433, 435 l'ON Ng .1/011 willt a Pipe (Codde). 154, l.1j Zof'fany, J ohan n , 2.6.2 Zola, Emile, 403, 404 , iO..li zoom effect, ill Du tc h pilinlillg, l..9..3.
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An ne Hollande r W81; horn ill CIf'vf'lund und edllellt ed at Ba rrul rd College ill New York C it.y, An Ilrt h illtoriall wi th It spec iul inte rest ill the representation of d ress in art , she iii t he a u tllo r or Sn;i llY Throllgh Clolnell (1978) Ilnd hus frNllI en tly cOll t r ib llt ed to Th ,. Tjm ell /~jter(Jry 8UI>I)/(,IIICII/, Tlte Nell) " ork Revie lfJ 0/ 8 00b, 1'he New r Ol'k Time. MlIYIlli " e, Tn t S CIe Repll bl ic, a lld othe r Illllg'a1.i lleS, She lives ill N'-"w York C ity,
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Here. too. mov ies ha\'e inhe Tited Knd the n pe q >ctuatt!ti 8. great \'i(;ual and po pu lllr t radit iOll , M Oiling Picturel , like the author 's pre\'ious wo rk , of· fers a strik ingly origina l a nd po we rful new way of as· sessing the artistie. ClIlot iOlla! , and psychological power of I)aintiugs and pictu res- a nd of unde rstanding our own d eepet.it res ponse.. to them .
is Mil a rt histo ri a n who hlUl U4ught and leet u red lit u II i \'co>it icg l:t nd IIHISC UIIIK A F ell ow of the New Yo r k Inst itute fo r the HUIIlKnities. she is 8 contribut.or to llllill )' 11K t ionKI !Uaga"i neg and t.he author of Kwide ly Kccl Kimcd book o n tll c re prese ntal iun of the human im age in Wef;te r n Krt , Su i llg t h ro ll yh Cloth el . A NN E II 0 I. LAN
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Praise for Anne Hollande r 's Seeing through Clothes " ~"rching
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.. 1101 hllldcr 's hUigUllb'1! is ri ch. C\'ocat i ,'C, and beauti fully crafted ... Il er style, with its periodicswingg int o rKI)ture. rt."'CKlifi the greltt trKliition or KrH:rilical ellloti onKlism tlutl st retc h(.>tJ l)Hck lO Huskin KIIlI Diderot. The sdjt'Cti\'etl atre 8til.eiled into Ilhtcc with th€' pN.."CilJion Mud d elicacy of a lace trimming; the book tUi a whol e iii lilructun."tl wilh lhe ro rnutl MAAurIlIlC€' or K~trll c l Krchitecture. " - I) A \ . II) KilN Z I. Jo: . Uui\'€'rsity or Caliro rnisl:tt (At) Allgel ~
.. Tlt e book on Krl ror Ih is year . . . a mint· or ideM Klld obscr"Ktioli on the (:o m· plex heritage or W("Ktern pictoria l art ItS it is j)rt.'HCllt in the clothed Ilnd nude hUIIUUl imKge. .. - CllOice
ISBN 0 - 394-57400-1
