Lead Pollution From Motor Vehicles 1974-1986: A select bibliography

LEAD POLLUTION FROM MOTOR VEHICLES 1974–86: A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

LEAD POLLUTION FROM MOTOR VEHICLES 1974–86: A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Compiled by PENNY FARMER M.A., M.I.Inf.Sc. Information Officer, Welsh Development Agency, Cardiff, UK

Published in association with TECHNICAL COMMUNICATIONS by ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LONDON and NEW YORK

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG11 8JU, England This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Sole Distributor in the USA and Canada ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO., INC. 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA © ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1987 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Farmer, Penny Lead pollution from motor vehicles 1974–86: a select bibliography. 1. Lead—Environmental aspects—Bibliography 2. Automobiles—Motors—Exhaust gas—Bibliography I. Title 016.3637′387 Z5862.2.L4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Farmer, Penny. Lead pollution from motor vehicles, 1974–86. Includes indexes. 1. Lead—Environmental aspects—Bibliography. 2. Automobiles—Motors—Exhaust gas—Environmental aspects— Bibliography. 3. Lead-poisoning—Bibliography. I. Title. Z5862.2.L4F37 1987 016.3637′387 86–24013 [TD196.L4] ISBN 0-203-21609-1 Master e-book ISBN

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Introduction

The first cases of lead poisoning were reported in Roman times when use of the metal achieved industrial proportions. Water transport in lead pipes, use of lead in cooking utensils and flavouring of wine with lead, all contributed to lead poisoning of the Roman aristocracy. Although lead poisoning was common in the Middle Ages, it was not until the Industrial Revolution that lead production again increased and an associated increase in lead poisoning, particularly in children, was apparent. Increased use of lead in paint in the 20th century further contributed to the problem of childhood lead poisoning. Lead pollution of the atmosphere was an inevitable byproduct of the development of the lead industry and with the advent of the motor vehicle the problem was exacerbated. In 1976 in the United States some 217 000 metric tonnes of lead were released to the atmosphere by the combustion of leaded petrol. The release of such vast amounts of lead inevitably leads to a substantial increase in air lead concentration, particularly in urban areas, where children are exposed to lead in the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the food they eat. In the past 10 years research on this problem has increased substantially, and at the same time pressure groups such as CLEAR (Campaign for Lead Free Air) in the United Kingdom have fought for legislation at national and international levels to control lead in the global environment. A particular aim of such organizations has been to draw attention to the serious effect of leaded petrol. The bibliography brings together a wide range of material on the problem of environmental lead pollution from motor vehicles published over the past 12 years. Research and surveys from a number of countries are included, and a particularly large section covers the effects of exhaust gas lead on humans, including children. Contributions from Government sources, including the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution and the Lawther

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Report, are listed alongside reports from CLEAR and other organizations, and an especially useful section is that concerning legislation and regulations, which as far as possible outlines the position of the European Economic Community on exhaust gas lead at the end of 1985. A bibliography of some 400 references cannot hope to be comprehensive, but the author hopes to have captured a representative collection which will enable the research worker, engineer or pressure group to understand the position in 1986 and to identify new areas to consider in the battle against lead in the environment. The author is grateful to the Head of the Research Library, London Residual Body (ex-GLC) for permission to use both Research Library data-bases ACOMPLINE and URBALINE in the compilation of this bibliography. P.F.

Contents

Introduction

v

Bibliography: 1.

Lead in the Environment: Policies Overview

1

2.

Motor Vehicle Exhaust as a Source of Lead Pollution

6

2.1

General studies and research

6

2.1.1

Monitoring and assessment

10

2.1.2

Sampling and analysis

16

2.1.3

Models

23

2.2

Selected national and regional surveys

26

2.2.1

United Kingdom

26

2.2.2

Europe

32

2.2.3

United States and Canada

36

2.2.4

Australia and New Zealand

40

2.2.5

Rest of the World

42

3. 3.1 3.1.1

Biological and Ecological Effects of Lead

48

Effects on humans

48

Effects on children

53

Effects on ecosystems

60

3.2.1

Effects on plant life

60

3.2.2

Effects on soils

67

3.2.3

Effects on food and crops

69

3.2

3.3 4.

Effects on animal and insect life

72

Countermeasures

75

viii

4.1

Legislation and regulations

75

4.2

Practical remedial measures

81

4.3

Economics of exhaust emission control

86

Organisations Index

88

Personal Author Index

93

1. Lead in the Environment: Policies Overview

(1) Health Effects of Environmental Pollutants. WALDBOTT, G. L.C.V.Mosby, 1973, 316 pp. An American study of the physical effects of air pollution. Describes the sources and actions of pollutants and discusses in some detail the effects of substances such as silica, iron, cobalt, lead, mercury, fluoride, cadmium, asbestos, carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide. Details of the threshold limit values of major pollutants adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists are given. (2) Lead in the Environment and its Significance to Man. Department of the Environment. HMSO, 1974, 47 pp. Argues that while lead pollution must always cause concern, present levels in the environment are not alarming. The national dispersal, usage and mobilisation of lead are considered, and the sources of lead emission identified. The place of lead in the ecological chain is also examined and its effects on man discussed. (3) Lead in the Air. MILLER, C. (GLC Research Library). GLC London Topics, No. 10, Sept. 1975, 12 pp. Review of recent literature, legislation and research on lead-based air pollution. Medical effects, monitoring of pollution and the provision of standards are commented on. (4) Pollution. JEFFRIES, M. Action Magazine, July 1976, pp. 2– 7. A general review of the evidence of heavy metal pollution in city atmospheres by lead, mercury and cadmium. (5) Lead in the Environment. BOGGESS, W.R. and WIXSON, B.G. (Colorado State University), Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1977, 271 pp. Broad review of the problems including substantial detail on lead pollution in the urban environment and the effects of lead in automotive fuels. (6) Lead Pollution. Hansard, 960(31), Dec. 1978, pp. 406–473. Discussion of lead pollution provisions in the Consolidated Fund Bill. Motion for second reading. Many sources of lead pollution are discussed, but in particular lead levels in car exhaust fumes.

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(7) Lead in the Environment. Greater London Council Public Services and Safety Committee. GLC PS225, 25 Jan. 1979. Report setting out what is known about lead pollution in London; what the Greater London Council has done and is doing about it, and making recommendations. (8) Management and Control of Heavy Metals in the Environment; International Conference, London, September 1979. Institute of Public Health Engineers, Commission of the European Communities and World Health Organisation. CEP Consultants Ltd, 1979, 664 pp. Covers pollution and pollution control of heavy metals. Looks at health hazards of cadmium and lead via water pollution, air pollution, soil contamination. Waste management, chemical analysis, sludge treatments, waste disposal of industrial waste such as zinc, arsenic, are all discussed. (9) Environmental Hazards of Heavy Metals: Summary Evaluation of Lead, Cadmium, and Mercury: a General Report. PIOTROWSKI, J.K. and CONNELL, S. Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre, MARC, 1980, 42 pp. (MARC Report No. 20). Reviews the occurrence, background levels, production, consumption, pollution levels, toxic effects and environmental standards. (10) Lawther Working Party Reports on Lead: Air Pollution Control 10. Environ. Data Serv. Rep., No. 48, Apr. 1980, pp. 10– 13. Reports criticism of the conclusions of the Dept. of Health and Social Security Working Party on Lead in the Environment, as to the effect of lead in petrol on the health of city-dwellers, and on children. (11) Lead and Health: Report of a DHSS Working Party on Lead in the Environment. Department of Health and Social Security/Working Party on Lead in the Environment. HMSO, 1980, 128 pp. Lawther Report considers lead in food and drinking water, and from sources such as paint, dust, soil, cosmetics and medicines. The uptake of lead into the human body and neurophysical effects on children are reviewed. Concludes that in comparison to the above sources airborne lead from petrol sources is only a minor contribution to the body-burden. (12) Lead in the Human Environment. National Research Council Committee on Lead in the Environment, Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1980, 525 pp. A comprehensive review of environmental issues related to the hazards and prevention of lead poisoning, including the effects of lead in exhaust emissions from motor vehicles.

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3

(13) Lead or Health. STEPHENS, R., BRYCE-SMITH, D. and FAZAKERLEY, J.A. Conservation Society, 1980, 127 pp. A review of contemporary lead pollution and a commentary on the Lawther report, ‘Lead and Health’. (14) Lead Pollution of the Global Environment: a Technical Report. SMITH, S. and O’BRIEN, B.J. Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre, MARC, 1980, 41 pp. (MARC Report No. 16). (Part of progress reports in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment; 1, Lead: MARC reports Nos. 16–18.) (15) Metals in the Environment. WALDRON, H.A. Academic Press, London, 1980, 333 pp. An assessment of the impact on the environment and on health of the use of arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel and vanadium. Examines natural and man-made sources of environmental contamination, traces how the metals reach man, what metabolism and pathological effects they have, the signs and symptoms of poisoning, methods of treatment, and ways of limiting exposure. (16) Some Comments on the 1980 Report of the United Kingdom Dept. of Health and Social Security Working Party on Lead in the Environment. DUGGAN, M.J. Sci. Total Environ. 1980, 16(3), pp. 285–291. Reviews the report ‘Lead and Health’ dealing with lead pollution from all sources and laying special emphasis on the risks to young children. Questions the validity of the report’s conclusion that petrol-derived lead does not make an important contribution to the lead body-burden of children. (17) Lead: the Debate Goes On: but not over Science. BUDIANSKY, S. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1981, 15(3), pp. 243–246. Research on the extent of lead contamination of the environment and on the health effects of low levels of lead has done much to remove scientific uncertainty and shifted the debate from the scientific to the political arena. (18) Lead Free Air…a Legacy for our Children. Campaign for Lead Free Air, CLEAR, 1981, 40 pp. Introduces the ‘Campaign for Lead Free Air’ and discusses the amount of lead in the air, and the effect this can have on people. Reflects on the response of Australia, West Germany and the United States, and in detail the attitude of the British and the EEC. (19) Lead in Man and the Environment. RATCLIFFE, J.M. Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, 1981, 240 pp. The effects of lead on children, control strategies, feasibility of removing lead from petrol, relationship between airborne lead and blood lead, and the current biological guidelines in relation to population blood lead distributions and implications for control are all discussed.

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(20) Lead Pollution: Causes and Control. HARRISON, R.M. and LAXEN, D.P.H. Chapman, 1981, 168 pp. Includes vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, lead in drinking water, soil, dust and food and in blood levels. Analytical techniques are covered. (21) Lead: a Clear Cut Issue. WILSON, D. (Campaign for Lead Free Air). Ecologist 1982, 12(3), pp. 117–124. Charts the progress of the Campaign for Lead Free Air, which is co-ordinating the lobby for the removal of lead from petrol, and considers the attitudes of the Government, the petroleum industry, and motor manufacturers. Emphasises the adverse effects of lead on health, particularly with regard to children. (22) Lead on the Brain: a Plan Guide to Britain’s No. 1 Pollutant. KOLLERSTROM, N. Wildwood House, Hounslow, Middlesex, 1982, 117 pp. (Wildwood Special). Examines the history of the attempt to regulate for reduction of lead in the atmosphere and discusses the scientific evidence for damage to children (in particular). Describes the technical problems involved in reducing lead content—e.g. in petrol, and the economic factors blocking a solution. (Graphs, tables.) (23) Lead, the Environment and Health. HEALY, M.A. (Nottinghamshire Environment Advisory Council). The Council, 1982, 32 pp. Reviews some of the data which have been used in formulating the policy of the NEAC on lead in the environment, and presents recommendations for action. Covers lead intake by man, sources of lead (including airborne lead, lead in tap water and surface water, and adventitious sources such as paint, domestic utensils and cosmetics) and health effects in general. (Illustrations, diagrams.) (24) Lead in the Environment. Government Consideration of Royal Commission Report. Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee, GLC PSFB578, 29 Apr. 1983. Report for the information of Members on the statement by the Secretary of State for the Environment to the House of Commons on the publication of a report by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. (25) Lead versus Health: Sources and Effects of Low-level Lead Exposure. RUTTER, M. and RUSSELL JONES, R. Wiley, London, 1983, 379 pp. (26) Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution: Ninth Report: Lead in the Environment. SOUTHWOOD, T.R.E. (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution). HMSO, Apr. 1983, 183 pp. (Cmnd 8852). Reviews the resources of environmental pollution and pathways to man, particularly quantitative data having a bearing on the relative significance of different sources

LEAD POLLUTION FROM MOTOR VEHICLES

5

and pathways to the body-burden in man, methods of reducing lead in the environment and human uptake, the technical and economic implications of different options for further reducing or eliminating lead from petrol and their environmental effects, and lead pollution and wildlife. (References.) (27) Lead in the Environment: the Government Response to the Ninth Report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Department of the Environment Central Directorate on Environmental Pollution. HMSO, 1983, 21 pp. (Pollution Paper No. 19). Comments on the Commission’s recommendations with regard to lead in the water supply, a programme to replace lead plumbing in private and public sector buildings, lead in petrol, paint and food and alcoholic drink, lead from industrial emissions, lead in fishing weights and gunshot, and a policy for research monitoring. (28) The Relationship between Science and Policy Making: the Case of Lead. RUTTER, M. Clean Air 1983, 13(1), pp. 17–32. Using the case of lead illustrates the issues involved in moving from scientific facts to scientific inferences to policy decisions. (29) Protecting the Polluter: a Report on Environmental Secrecy by Friends of the Earth. Campaign for Freedom of Information, CFI, 1984, 7 pp. (Secrets File No. 2.) Argues that the path to adequate environmental protection in Britain is blocked by the level of secrecy demanded by industry and protected by Government agencies. The public is unable to obtain information on what the hazards are, where located, and whether safety limits required by law are being observed. Shows how recommendations of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution on disclosure of information have been either ignored or ineffectively implemented. (30) The Evidence Incriminating Lead in Petrol and Paint. RUSSELL JONES, R. Clear (Newspaper of the Campaign for Lead Free Air) 1984, No. 6, 5 pp. (CLEAR, 2 Northdown Street, London W1 9BG). Useful review of the issue covering the key papers on the subject and presenting charts showing the relationship between lead in petrol and blood lead levels, and referring to the work of J.Clair Patterson reported in Lead versus Health, Sources and Effects of Low Level Lead Exposure, edited by M.Rutter and R.Russell Jones.

2. Motor Vehicle Exhaust as a Source of Lead Pollution

2.1 GENERAL STUDIES AND RESEARCH (1) Motor Vehicle-generated Pollution in Urban Areas. BUTLER, J. D., MACMURDO, S.D. and MIDDLETON, D.R. Municipal Publications, London, 1975, 144 pp. Reports a survey of atmospheric pollution by airborne particulate lead, nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide at the Salford Circus site which lies within the entrance/exit roundabout to the Midlands motorway in Birmingham (12 references). (In Proceedings of the Association of Public Health Inspectors Environmental Health Congress, at Torbay, 30 Sept.–4 Oct. 1974, pp. 69–77.) (2) Effects of an Urban Road System on Lead Content of an Urban Water Supply System. WILSON, S.A. et al. Water Resources Research Center, Amherst, Mass., USA, WRRC, Sept. 1976, 18 pp. Publication No. 85, Termination Report. (3) Vehicular Pollution in Car Parks. BARKER, I. and FOX, M. Royal Soc. Health J. 1976, 96(4), pp. 168–172, 192. Reports studies of pollution in car parks at a variety of sites and of widely different design. Looks mainly at carbon monoxide concentrations but also at lead in the car park atmospheres. (4) The Case against Lead in Petrol. MATHEWS, J. New Sci. 1977, 75(1064), pp. 348–350. Reviews recent research to show that the increase in the tonnage of lead added to petrol eventually forms a significant proportion of body lead burden, making the case for stricter control increasingly convincing. (5) Investigations into Lead from Motor Vehicles. CHAMBERLAIN, A.C. (UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment). UKAEA, Harwell, Nov. 1978, 151 pp. (AERER9198.) Report on lead emissions, particle sizes and air concentration. Gives results of tests on inhalation of stable and radioactive lead, injection and ingestion of radioactive lead was

LEAD POLLUTION FROM MOTOR VEHICLES 7

studied in respect of blood levels and resorption of lead from bone. (6) The Dispersion of Lead from Motor Exhausts. CHAMBERLAIN, A.C. et al. (UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment). Roy. Soc. Lond. Phil. Trans. 1979, 290(1376), pp. 577–591. Explains and discusses the particle size of lead in aerosols in urban air, lead in air near roads and variables affecting concentrations, lead in air from aerial sources, deposition of lead beside roadways, and lead in herbage. Theoretical calculations of lead concentrations in air downwind of a road are included. An appreciable, but not large, fraction of lead is deposited within 100 m of the roadway. Near towns, the contribution from a given highway merges rapidly into the background because of emissions from other roads. (32 references.) (7) Leaded Gasoline and the Environment. TURNER, D. (Associated Octel Co., Canada). Presented at Commission of European Communities et al. Heavy Metals in the Environment International Conference, London, Sept. 1979, pp. 109–112. Lead alkyl compounds are added to gasoline to improve its octane rating. After combustion the lead is emitted with exhaust gases as lead salts. Concentrations of both inorganic and organic lead compounds in urban atmospheres are surveyed. The contribution that such concentrations make to the average individual’s bodyburden of lead is determined and shown to be minimal. The use of air filtration devices to reduce the emission of lead from motor vehicles is described. (17 references.) (8) Workshop on Pollution from Road Vehicles, University of Warwick, 9–11 April 1979: Proceedings. National Society for Clean Air. The Society, 1979, various paging. Nine papers cover: Technology of controlling exhaust emissions; Legislative control of motor vehicle emissions; Effects of lead emissions; the TRRL quiet heavy vehicle project; Emissions from international combustion engines; Pollution from road vehicles; and the relative importance of motor vehicles as a source of some of the more common atmospheric pollutants. (9) Pollution from Road Vehicles. National Society for Clean Air. The Society, 1980, 64 pp. Discusses the scientific and technical aspects of the problem and includes the recommendations of the Society on what can be done to alleviate traffic pollution. Looks at the question of noise pollution as well as chemical emissions, and reviews current legislation. (10) Traffic-related Pollution in City Streets: a Literature Review. MARTIN, A. (Joint Unit for Research on the Urban Environment). University of Aston in Birmingham, Mar. 1980, 39

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pp. Research Note 4. Part of a project to determine levels of vehicle-related pollution, occurring within city streets (specifically shopping areas) in order to develop pedestrian exposure profiles. Concentrates on indicating levels of street pollution available for infiltration into adjacent buildings. (11) Water Pollution from Snow Removal Operations. PIERSTORFF, W. and BISHOP, L. (Sea Consultants, NH) (University of New Hampshire). J. Env. Eng. Div-ASCE Proc. 1980, 106(2), pp. 377–388. Snow, removed from roads, highways, and parking areas, contained high levels of total solids, suspended solids, chlorides, and lead. During a two-year period, the mean concentrations of these pollutants were 5080 mg/I, 1570 mg/I, 2470 mg/I and 3.4 mg/I respectively. The high lead concentration presumably originated from automobile exhaust. Analysis performed on sediment samples from the river into which the dumped snow is pushed indicate that the lead from the snow may become trapped in the river sediment near the dump site. (15 references.) (12) Characteristics of Motor Exhausts in an Underground Car Park: Mass Size Distribution and Concentration Levels of Particles. VAN DUC, T. and FAVEZ, C.M.P. (University of Lausanne, Switzerland). J.Environ. Sci. Health 1981, A16(6), pp. 647–660. The size distribution of car exhaust pollutants has been determined in a confined atmosphere with high-volume cascade impactor. Lead, cadmium, manganese and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collected on filters resulted in the following distribution: 60% of the Pb and Cd were found in particles of submicrometer aerodynamic diameter, whilst more than 80% of the PAH were found to be absorbed on particles smaller than 1. 1µm. (13) Lead in Petrol: Lead in the Body. EARL, V. (Greater London Council Research Library). GLC, Mar. 1981, 7 pp. (Research Document Guide No. 17.) Summarises policy, legislation and research findings on the extent of air pollution from lead in petrol, health effects and ways of reducing or omitting it as an additive. Major surveys of children in London, Birmingham, Glasgow and New York are reviewed. (28 references.) (14) Lead Pollution. RUSSELL JONES, R. Science and Public Policy, June 1981, pp. 195–202. The case for lead-free petrol is argued. (15) The Polluting Effects of Lead in Petrol: a Report for CLEAR. Coopers and Lybrand. C and L, London, 1981, 41 pp., appendices. Literature review on the health effects of lead in petrol.

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(16) Australian Road Research Board 11th Conference, Melbourne, Aug. 1982—Proceedings Vol. II Part 6: Transport. ARRB, Vermont, Vic, 1982, 273 pp. Includes pollution and energy use models, bypasses and their environmental benefits, and community perceptions of environmental impacts of road traffic. (17) Lead Pollution from Petrol. Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee, GLC PSFB407, 29 Oct. 1982. Report considering the balance of evidence on the effects of lead pollution from petrol, and recommending the Council press for the early elimination of lead in petrol. Gives a case for the removal of lead from petrol. (18) Road Traffic Pollution. Department of the Environment Library, DOE, 1982, 25 pp. (Library Bibliography 17H). Includes sections on lead emissions from vehicles, on environmental standards and controls, noise, and the effects of traffic on the natural environment. (19) Lead versus Health: Review of the Latest Evidence on Sources and Effects of Lead. RUSSELL JONES, R. Clear (Newspaper of the Campaign for Lead Free Air) 1983, No. 3, pp. 5, 11. (CLEAR, 2 Northdown Street, London W1 9BG). Comments upon NHANES II data and the response of the UK Government, British data including Harwell and Birmingham studies, the relationship between lead and intelligence. (20) Characterisation of Land Runoff in an Urban Shopping Plaza. MARSALEK, J. (Canada National Institute for Water Research). Sci. Tech. Eau 1984, 17(2), pp. 163–167. Composition of commercial land runoff has been studied by monitoring runoff from a shopping plaza in Burlington (Ontario, Canada). Observed concentrations have been processed by plotting their statistical distribution and calculating mean event concentration and annual loadings for various pollutants. The obtained annual runoff loadings indicate that commercial areas produced higher pollutant loadings, per unit area, than residential areas. This is particularly true for suspended solids, lead and zinc. These constituents come primarily from the washoff of solids accumulated on the catchment surface. (21) Contamination of Environment with Heavy Metals Emitted from Automotives. FALAHI-ARDAKANI, A. (University of Maryland). Ecotoxicol. Env. Safety 1984, 8, 1 (2), pp. 152–161. A major source of heavy metals in the environment is from the combustion of leaded petrol. Lead, nickel, zinc, and cadmium are emitted from vehicles in concentrations of environmental concern. Documentation of heavy metal contamination of roadside soils and grasses, directly attributable to vehicular emissions, is culled from

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the literature. Effects of wind, traffic volume, depth of soil profile, and distance from roads on plant accumulation and soil contamination are surveyed. Street runoff and snow dumping are major pathways for metal introduction to surface waters. (24 references.) (22) Highway Pollution: Proceedings of the International Symposium, Middlesex Polytechnic, 6–9 September 1983. HAMILTON, R.S., ELLIS, J.B. and REVITT, D.M. (Middlesex Polytechnic). Sci. Total Environ. 1984, 33, 291 pp. Includes coverage of pollution from lead in petrol, particulate emissions from diesel engines, levels of metals in road sediments, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, atmospheric dispersion and deposition, road surface sediment removal mechanism, highway runoff quality and effects, effects on water quality, etc. (Graphs, tables.) (23) The Lead Debate. ELWOOD, P.C. (Medical Research Council). Environ. Health 1984, 92(1), pp. 12–14. Critical comment on existing research on lead in air, lead in petrol, and blood lead levels, suggesting that excellence in measurement is not matched by the epidemiology of most studies. Argues that future monitoring must be based on random samples of defined communities and cover lead levels in all the environmental sources to which they are exposed. (21 references.) (24) Lead in Petrol and Vehicle Emissions. House of Lords, Select Committee on the European Communities, HMSO, London, 1985. xx + 192 pp. (1984–85, HL 96). Issued as the fifth report from the Select Committee on the European Communities, Session 1984–85. (25) The Evidence Incriminating Lead in Petrol and Paint. RUSSELL JONES, R. Clear (Newspaper) 1984, No. 6, 5 pp. Review of the key studies which provide evidence that lead additions to petrol lead to widespread environmental pollution. Papers by G.Winneke, I.H.Billick, W. Yule and M.Rabinowitz are cited. 2.1.1 Monitoring and assessment (1) Local Authorities and the Monitoring and Assessment of Air Quality. RADCLIFFE, S. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). Greater London Intelligence Quarterly Dec. 1975, 33, pp. 11– 15. Considers why local authorities should be involved in air quality monitoring and the roles that reference levels play in interpretation. Demonstrates how monitoring can indicate the need, application and effectiveness of emission control, with reference to particular monitoring programmes in the UK

LEAD POLLUTION FROM MOTOR VEHICLES 11

concerning ozone, lead in the air and smoke; defines the three types of reference levels—standards, goals and guidelines. Describes guideline concentrations that the GLC has adopted for assessing air quality. (2) Assessment of Lead Distribution Patterns in Urban and Rural Environment. KINARD, J.T., TISDALE, J. and ALEXANDER, E. J.Environ. Sci. Health, A: Environ. Sci. Eng. (USA) 1976, 11(2), pp. 153–164. Includes an assessment of vehicular emissions as a contribution to air pollution. (3) A Survey of Airborne Heavy Metals in a City Environment Using Biological Indicators. MUSKETT, C. (Islington LB, UK). Environ. Health 1976, 84(11), pp. 267–269. Describes a survey carried out by Islington LB in which atmospheric deposition of lead, copper and cadmium was monitored using inexpensive equipment. These methods open up the possibility of comprehensive heavy metal monitoring to any local authority with access to an analyst’s laboratory. (4) A Correlation Study of Vehicle-generated Air Pollutants. PERRY, R., WHITELAW, K. and HARRISON, R.M. (Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology, London). Water Air Soil Pollut. 1978, 10(1), pp. 115–128. Concentrations of lead, carbon monoxide, methane, and total hydrocarbons were measured at a roadside site and a multilevel parking garage. Average concentrations during short time periods were calculated for each pollutant, and possible correlations among the average levels of the different pollutants were assessed. Significant correlations were found at just one site. (5) Accuracy, Interpretation and Use of Results Obtained from Monitoring and Measurement of Air Pollutants. SCHWAR, M.J.R. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). (In Clean Air Conference, Scarborough, Oct. 1979, pp. 10 + figs.) Brighton, National Society for Clean Air, 1979, 199 pp. Includes monitoring of lead in the air caused by vehicular emissions. (6) The Distribution of Selected Heavy Metals in a Motorway Environment. POPE, W. et al. (Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology, London). Presented at Commission of European Communities et al. Heavy Metals in the Environment, International Conference, London, Sept. 1979, pp. 230–235. Investigates the pathways for the movement of several heavy metals in the area around a motorway. Metal concentrations for runoff, rain, and spray water are discussed. Levels of cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and chromium in the road surface water are analysed. The majority of metal that is deposited on the highway

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will be removed in the surface water, in which there is a high degree of solid-metal association. (9 references.) (7) Atmospheric Pollution from Vehicle Emissions: Measurements in Situations of Restricted Dispersion. HICKMAN, A.J. and LUNN, C. A. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Supplementary Report 609, 1980, 27 pp. Measurements of carbon monoxide and lead levels under two bridges indicated that pollution levels were comparable to those at an open site. (8) The Establishment and Interpretation of Dose-Effect Relationships for Heavy Metal: Technical Report. WHITEHEAD, J. (Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre). MARC, 1980, 44 pp. (MARC Report 18: part of progress reports in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment; 1, Lead: MARC Reports Nos. 16–18.) (9) Rain Water Leachates of Heavy Metals in Road Surface Sediments. REVITT, D.M. and ELLIS, J.B. (Urban Stormwater Pollution Research Group, UK). Water Res. 1980, 14(10), pp. 1403– 1408. Analysis was made of samples of street surface and roadside gutter sediments within a separately sewered catchment in northwest London. Particle size distributions are presented. Removal efficiencies of various street cleaning procedures are demonstrated. Laboratory sorption and desorption studies are described. Solution concentrations of lead, cadmium, and manganese are obtained. Solubility curves typically vary with time. (16 references.) (10) Exposure Commitment Assessments of Environmental Pollutants, Vol. 1, No. 1: Exposure Commitment Concepts and Application; Summary Exposure Assessments for Lead, Cadmium and Arsenic. BENNETT, B.G. (Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre). MARC, 1981, 59 pp. (MARC Report No. 23.) MARC has been developing and applying the exposure commitment method to the assessment of pollutant transport in the regional and global environment. This paper gives the definitions, notation and basic concepts of the method, and briefly discusses the application to the transfer of pollutants from sources to man. Exposure commitments give a basis for comparing contributions to exposure from various pathways and for estimating equilibrium concentrations resulting from continuing releases. (From author’s abstract.) (11) Guideline for the Assessment of Lead Pollution. Greater London Council Community Service Committee. GLC RCS221, 16 Feb. 1981. A formal guideline is proposed for the level of lead in surface dust and revision of the current guideline for lead in the air. Air pollution, lead pollution.

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(12) Measurements of Environmental Lead—the Problem of Representative Sampling. DUGGAN, M.J. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). Clean Air 1981, 11(3), pp. 87–89. Discusses the problems of air sampling for lead in the light of measurements made by the Greater London Council. Argues a case for standardisation. (13) Atmospheric Trace Elements from Natural and Industrial Sources. SERVANT, J. (Monitoring and Assessment Centre). MARC, 1982, 37 pp. (MARC Report No. 27.) (Research Memorandum.) (14) La Chimie du Plomb et du Brome Particulaire en Atmosphere Urbaine. II—Effets Locaux. DUTOT, A. Chemosphere 1982, 11(3), pp. 325–330. In an abnormal atmospheric situation, where the authors have detected an exceptional increasing of lead concentration which could have no relation to traffic modification, they have been able to detect other sources. That has been possible thanks to simultaneous studies of granulometric distribution and concentrations of lead and bromine in this atmosphere. (15) The Estimation of Air Pollution Concentrations from Road Traffic. HICKMAN, A.J. and COLWILL, D.M. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne UK, TRRL Lab Rept. 1052, 1982, 63 pp. Describes a method of estimating pollutant concentrations around highways which uses the Gaussian dispersion theory with empirical modification so that it more accurately represents the roadside situation. (16) Mutagenicity of Airborne Particles in Relation to Traffic and Air Pollution Parameters. MOLLER, M. et al. Norway Central Institute for Industrial Research. Env. Sci. Technol. 1982, 16(4), pp. 221–225. The Salmonella/microsome assay was employed to compare the mutagenicity of particulate matter gathered from street and roof levels. (26 references.) (17) Street Level versus Rooftop Sampling: Carbon Monoxide and Aerosol in New York City. BAUMAN, S.E. Atmos. Environ. 1982, 16(10), pp. 2489–2496. Investigates local variations in concentration due to choice of sampler location and height. Concentrations at street level of lead and carbon monoxide decreased with height as expected; however concentrations of particulate sulphur did not diminish with height. Results obtained from two nearby sites at street level varied significantly, thereby indicating the difficulty in obtaining representative samples. (18) Estimating Mobile Source Pollutant Emission: Methodological Comparison and Planning Implications. TSCHANGHO, J.K. and HOSKOTE, N.G. (University of Illinois,

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Urbana, IL, USA). Environ. Monitor. Assess. 1983, 3(1), pp. 1–12. The United States Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 require that all non-attainment metropolitan areas evaluate the potential of transportation controls in meeting 1982 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Many of these controls are designed to impact on mobile source emissions by altering vehicular speed. Discusses differences in results obtained by two alternative methods for estimating the same area’s mobile source emissions. The findings suggest that alternative zonal speed aggregation procedures can lead to widely diverging emission estimates. (19) Source-Receptor Reconciliation of Routine Air Monitoring Data for Trace Metals: an Emission Inventory Assisted Approach. CASS, G. R. and McRAE, G.J. (California Institute of Technology). Environ. Sci. Technol. 1983, 17(3), pp. 129–139. Describes inventory techniques for fine-particle trace metals emissions that assist aerosol source apportionment by receptor modelling. Sparse routine air monitoring data sets on a few trace elements used in chemical balance calculations—once emission inventory data have revealed a few source signatures— complete a mass balance on those measured chemical elements. A study conducted in California’s South Coast air basin revealed that over 80% of the fine lead emissions come from highway traffic. (37 references.) (20) Ambient Air Measurements of Aromatic and Halogenated Hydrocarbons at Urban, Rural and Motorway Locations. CLARK, A.I. (Imperial College Public Health and Water Resource Engineering). Sci. Total Environ. 1984, 39(3), pp. 265– 279. Describes a survey using a thermal description/gas chromatographic method analysing Tenax GC sampling tubes. Highest concentrations for benzene and toluene were measured at the urban site but the average concentration is comparable with a proposed ambient air quality standard in West Germany. Multiple regression analysis of non-methane hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide air quality data showed the importance of meteorological variables in defining measured concentrations. (47 references.) (21) An Assessment of Lead in Maltese Roadside Dust. LA FERLA, F.M.E. Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology, 1983/84 Thesis for M.Sc. in Environmental Technology. The toxic effects of lead have long been recognised. Occupational lead poisoning became a serious problem in the early 19th century, and through observations of the occurrence of lead toxicity in the offspring of workers, came the recognition of poisoning in children apparently unrelated to parental exposure. In 1904 Gibson drew attention to lead in house dust. The

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prevalence of undue lead absorption prompted intensified searching for lead sources, and airborne lead particles that settled in street dust and dirt, gained recognition. The literature in this respect is still limited and focuses entirely on the major toxic elements. (22) Feasibility of High-volume Sampling for Determination of Total Suspended Participate Matter and Trace Metals. VANDER MEULEN, A. et al. (Rijks Inst. Volksgezondhein). J. Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc. 1984, 34(2), pp. 144–151. Examines the feasibility of the high-volume sampling method in extended control networks for the routine determination of total suspended particulate matter and trace metals, particularly traffic lead. The HVS coarse particle sampling effectiveness obtained in wind tunnel studies is assumed to be indicative of the effectiveness under typical ambient meteorological conditions. For TSP, available data indicate the mass of the coarse fraction above 5 µm to range between about 10% and 90% of the total mass. (23) Lead Emission Rates from Gasoline Engines: a Legislative and In-use Emission Rate Study of the United Kingdom and United States to 1990. RICE, P. (Imperial College of Science and Technology). Transpn. Plann. Tech. 1984, 9(1), pp. 37–45. Historical trends and projections to 1990 of the present policies of the UK and US are examined in terms of a baseline passenger car lead emission rate g(Pb). km-1. Comments on the difficulties of international comparisons with particular reference to the continuing tolerance of US motorists for leaded petrol. (16 references.) (24) Air Pollution Problems in Car Parks. BARRATT, R.S. (Department of Chemistry, University of Aston, UK) Environ. Pollut. B (UK) 1985, 9(3), pp. 179–192. Some results of air quality measurements in enclosed car parks are used to illustrate certain undesirable design or operational features which can allow air quality to deteriorate to unacceptable levels. Data for carbon monoxide in several situations and gathered over several years are given, together with the results of some measurements of other pollutants. The data are compared with ambient concentrations. (Author’s abstract.) (25) Monitoring and Assessment of Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations of Aromatic and Halogenated Hydrocarbons at Urban, Rural and Motorway Locations. CLARK, A.I. et al. (Imperial College Public Health and Water Resource Engineering, London). Environ. Pollut. B, 1984, 7, pp. 141–158. Reductions in the lead content of petrol in the United Kingdom and in other European countries are predicted to change the concentrations of

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aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons (1, 2-dibromoethane and 1,2-dichloroethane) in ambient air. In order to assess possible changes in ambient air concentrations, the results of a monitoring survey of these compounds at urban, rural and motorway locations are presented. Ambient air samples were preconcentrated on Tenax GC and were analysed utilising a thermal desorption-gas chromatographic method. Highest concentration for benzene (8.81 pptm) and toluene (13.48 pptm) were recorded at the urban site and good correlations were determined at both the urban and motorway sites. Background concentrations were determined at the rural site and the importance of dispersion, vehicle numbers and operating mode at the urban and motorway sites was demonstrated. (26) Population Sampling for Studies of Long-term Residential Exposure to Air-borne Lead: Migration Problems Identified from Electoral Registrations. PHILIPP, R. et al Public Health Sept. 1985, pp. 302–306. Between 1984 and 1987 the DOE intends to monitor the blood lead levels of representative samples of inner-city residents exposed to heavy road traffic. This monitoring will be undertaken in conjunction with the planned reduction in lead content of petrol. Uses electoral registrations to show that population migration during this period is likely to be substantial, but not uniform between different inner-city areas. Such findings have implications for the design of the DOE’s monitoring studies. (References, tables.) 2.1.2 Sampling and analysis (1) Characterisation of Particulate Matter in Vehicle Exhaust. HABIBI, K. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1973, 7(3), pp. 223–237. The particulate matter emitted from present-day cars is a complex mixture of lead salts, iron as rust, base metals, soot, carbonaceous material, and tars. The sampling and analytical techniques needed to measure and characterise these particles are reviewed. (2) Air Pollution Measurement Equipment (1). ARNO, A. Pollut. Monitor, Aug./Sept. 1974, 20, pp. 16–18, 23. Reviews major pollutants and methods of measuring them. Includes volumetric absorption, gravimetric analysis, conductivity, the indicator tube, infra-red methods and gas chromatography. (3) The Analysis of Tetraalkyl Lead Compounds and their Significance as Urban Air Pollutants. HARRISON, R.M. and PERRY, R. (University of Lancaster, UK and Imperial College,

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London). Atmos. Env., 1977, 11(9), pp. 847–852. Summarises methods of analysing tetraalkyl lead in urban air. No clear consensus emerges. Doubt is cast on measurements obtained by collecting organic lead in iodine monochloride solution when followed by extraction of total lead and atomic absorption analysis. When high concentrations may be near petrol stations and cold choked vehicles, tetraalkyl lead compounds usually account for only about 1–4% of total lead in urban air. (31 references.) (4) An Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method for the Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Water. NIELD, D., RANSON, L. and COCKCROFT, A.R. (Water Research Centre). WRC, Stevenage, UK, 1977, 35 pp., tables (Technical Report TR 59). Details the requirements of the analytical method, and investigates the reagents, apparatus and technique, and the effects of varying the experimental parameters. Discusses the performance of the method in terms of calibration curves, the effect of other substances, precision, and the robustness of the method. Finally provides a recommended method for lead and cadmium. (5) An Evaluation of an Electro-thermal Device for the Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Potable Water. ORPWOOD, B. and RANSON, L. (Water Research Centre). WRC, Stevenage, UK, July 1977, 39 pp., tables (Technical Report TR 49). Gives the results of the evaluation of a graphic furnace for the determination of lead and cadmium in potable waters. (References.) (6) Chemical Element Balances and Identification of Air Pollution Sources in Washington, DC. KOWALCZYK, G.S., CROQUETTE, C.E. and GORDON, G.E. (Department of Chemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA). Atmos. Environ. 1978, 12(5), pp. 1143–1154. Air filter samples were collected at four sites in Washington, DC, USA, during the summer of 1974, and analysed for 27 elements. The average concentrations were interpreted by a chemical-element-balance method. The observed concentration pattern was resolved into six components: coal, oil and refuse combustion, marine aerosols, soil and motor vehicle emissions. Major sources of the elements indicated by the resolution included motor vehicles for lead. Despite considerable improvement of this resolution over previous attempts, several limitations of the method are noted and further refinements suggested. (7) Summary of Observations Using the Deposit Gauge and the Lead Dioxide Candle, April 1976–March 1977. Warren

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Spring Laboratory, Stevenage, UK, WSL, 1978, 38 pp. Gives data for undissolved deposit, additional analyses and lead dioxide levels for various sites in the United Kingdom. (8) Atmospheric Chemistry of Automotive Lead. BIGGINS, P. and HARRISON, R.M. (Univ. of Lancaster, UK). Environ. Sci. Technol. 1979, 13(5), pp. 558–565. Describes how, in laboratory tests to investigate the formation of lead compounds in ambient air polluted by vehicle exhaust, lead bromochloride is exposed to various gaseous and particulate pollutants. X-ray powder diffraction is used to examine the products. Coagulation with ambient aerosol and reaction of PbBrCl with neutral and acid sulphates constitute the major process affecting primary lead particulates. (43 references.) (9) Analysis of Air Samples for Lead and Manganese. COMPTON, R. D. and THOMAS, L.A. (Department of Chemistry, South West Texas State University). Texas J. Sci. (USA), 1980, 32 (4), pp. 351–362. Presents results of atomic absorption analysis of air samples for Pb and Mn in Nov. 1978 which agreed with those of the Texas Air Control Board, USA, which used X-ray fluorescence analysis of samples collected by a similar method. There was a good correlation between traffic density and Pb and Mn concentrations in air. When the 1978 data were compared with data from 1977, a decrease in Mn and an increase in Pb concentrations was observed. (10) Chemical Associations of Lead, Cadmium, Copper and Zinc in Street Dusts and Roadside Soils. HARRISON, R.M., LAXEN, D.P. H. and WILSON, S.J. (Dep. Environ. Sci., Univ. Lancaster, UK). Environ. Sci. Technol. (USA), 1981, 15(11), pp. 1378–1383. An investigation was made of chemical associations of Pb, Cd, Cu and Zn in street dusts and roadside soils, a sequential extraction procedure which yielded five fractions termed exchangeable, carbonate, Fe-Mn oxide, organic and residual. In the soils and dusts examined which covered a pH range of 6.9–8.4, only in the case of Cd was there any appreciable proportion of total metal in the exchangeable fraction. Pb and Zn were predominantly associated with carbonates and Fe-Mn oxides; Cu was largely in organic association. Results were interpreted in terms of the environmental mobility and bioavailability of the metals. (11) Detection of Leaded-gasoline Usage in Catalystequipped Vehicles: a Gamma-ray Transmission Gauge for Measuring Catalytic Converter Lead Contamination. SCHNEIDER, E.W. (General Motors Research Lab., USA). J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 1982, 32(5), pp. 521–525. Describes a gammaray transmission gauge developed for measuring the accumulation

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of lead inside the catalytic converters of vehicles operated on leaded petrol. This non-destructive inspection system relates the amount of gamma radiation passing through the catalytic converter to the mass concentration of lead contained in the catalyst bed. Based on tests with one vehicle burning 1000 litres of leaded petrol, the accumulation rate of lead on the catalytic converter was relatively constant, accounting for 45% of the total lead consumed. Subsequent usage of unleaded petrol resulted in no significant loss of lead from the catalytic converter. (12) Determination of n-Butylated Tri-alkyl Lead Compounds by Gas Chromatography with Microwave Plasma Emission Detection. ESTES, S.A., UDEN, P.C. and BARNES, R.M. (Department of Chemistry, GRC Towers, University of Massachusetts, USA). Analyt. Chem. (USA) 1982, 54(14), pp. 2402– 2405. Describes an analytical gas chromatographic procedure for the determination of trialkyl lead compounds in aqueous media. The analytical compounds were extracted into benzene from an aqueous solution saturated with NaCl. They were then quantitatively converted into n-butyltrialkyl lead derivatives by reaction with an n-butyl Grignard reagent. Precolumn Tenax trap enrichment of the derived trialkylbutyl leads enabled a determination to low ppb levels. Also investigated were extraction efficiencies and injection split ratios onto a fused silica capillary column. (13) The Efficiency of Different Methods of Extracting Lead from Street Dust. JONES, K. (University of Leeds School of Geography, UK). University of Leeds, School of Geography, May 1982, 11 pp. (Working Paper 333.) (14) Measurements of Organic Lead in Air: a Review. DE JONGHE, W.R.A. and ADAMS, F.C. (Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Belgium). Talanta (Engl.), 1982, 29(12), pp. 1057–1068. Specifically concerned with pollution from motor vehicle exhausts. (15) Determination of Lead in Roadside Dust in Lagos City, Nigeria, by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. AJAVI, A. and KAMSON, O. F. (Department of Chemistry, University of Lagos, Nigeria). Environ. Int. 1983, 9(5), pp. 397–400. Roadside dust collected from roads with high, medium and low vehicular traffic congestion in Lagos was analysed. The analysis showed that 2.35–7.25 mg Pb/g dust was present in samples from roads with high traffic congestion. (16) The Measurement and Interpretation of Bromide to Lead Ratios in Airborne Particles. HARRISON, R.M. and STURGES, W.T. (Department of Environmental Sciences,

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University of Lancaster). Atmos. Environ. UK 1983, 17(2), pp. 311– 328. The available analytical techniques for determination of Br/ Pb ratios were critically evaluated, and the reported values of Br/ Pb ratios in ambient air reviewed. The possible reasons for variability in Br/Pb ratios are discussed and recommendations made for the evaluation of Br/Pb ratio data. (17) Sampling and Measurement of Environmental Lead Present in Air, Surface Dust and Paint. SCHWAR, M.J.R. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). GLC, Summer 1983, 16 pp. (London Environ. Suppl., No. 1.) (Illustrations, diagrams.) (18) Urban Stormwater Pollutant Sources: an Analysis of Inflows and Outflows of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Lead, Zinc and Copper in Urban Areas. MALMQVIST, P. (Chalmers University of Technology) CUT, Goteborg, Sweden, 1983, 371 pp. (Illustrations, diagrams, graphs, tables.) (19) Determination of Tetra Alkyl Lead by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Inductively Coupled Plasma Detection. IBRAHIM, M., GILBERT, T.W. and CARUSO, J.A. (Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Ohio). J.Chromatog. Sci. (USA), 1984, 22(3), pp. 111–115. A study was conducted to select the mobile phase appropriate to achieve an efficient separation with HPLC and sensitive detection with ICP. UV detection was initially used to optimize the HPLC conditions. Several mixtures of water and alcohol were studied. The separation was done on reversed-phase columns at various temperatures. For ICP detection a concentric nebulizer was used. Detection limits of 42 ppb Pb for TML (2 ng with 50 µ1 injection) and 212 ppb Pb for TEL (11 ng with 50 µl injection) were achieved. Samples of regular and unleaded gasoline were analysed for their TML and TEL content and for other organolead compounds. (20) Monitoring Roadside Lead Deposition by Sampling Vegetation: Some Problems of Interpretation. RATCLIFFE, D, and BEEBY, A. N. (Botany Department, Leicester University, UK). Sci. Total Environ. (Neth.), 1984, 33, pp. 103–112. Specifically concerned with motor vehicle exhaust emissions. (21) The Chemical Composition of Highway Drainage Waters, Pt 1: Major Ions and Selected Trace Metals; Pt 2: Chemical Associations of Metals in the Suspended Sediments; Pt 3: Runoff Water Metal Speciation Characteristics. HARRISON, R.M. and WILSON, S.J. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, UK). Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 43 (1/2), pp. 63–77, 79–87, 89–102. (22) Street Dust Sampling in Glasgow, 1979–1982. HAMPTON, E. and McKIRBY, K. (Environmental Health

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Department, Glasgow City Council). Environ. Health (UK), 1985, 93 (9), pp. 267–269. Brief review of the programme which analyses samples for cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel and zinc to generate a set of norm values for Glasgow. Compares these norms with UK figures. (23) Development of a Technique for the Determination of Lead and Bromine in Atmospheric Particles by X-ray Fluorescence. STURGES, W.T. and HARRISON, R.M. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, England), DAMS, R. (Institut voor Nucleire Wetenschappen, University of Ghent). Atmospheric Environ. 1985, 19(9), pp. 1495– 1502. A methodology has been developed for determining the lead and bromine content of atmospheric particles collected on membrane filters. In a novel calibration procedure, standards were prepared by drying fine precipitates of lead molybdate and silver bromide onto filters. Such standards were evidently free from bromine loss during analysis and storage, and more accurately represent real samples than conventional solution-impregnated filters. Inhomogeneous efficiency of detection across the surface of samples was noted, and was accounted for by applying correction factors obtained from an intercomparison of XRF and atomic absorption analyses. Good comparability between Br determinations by XRF and neutron activation analysis was found. (24) Automotive Emission Factors: an Indirect Measurement Method Applied to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon and Lead Emissions. LARSSEN, S. (Norwegian Institute of Air Research, Lillestrom, Norway). In, Proc 77th Air Pollut. Control Assoc. Ann. Meet., 1985, 18 pp. (25) Bromine/Lead Ratios in Aerosols and Automobile Exhausts. BAUMANN, H. and HEUMANN, G. (Inst. Anorg. Chem., University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Fed. Rep. Ger.). Fresenius’ Z.Anal. Chem., 1985, 320(5), pp. 512–18. (In German.) (26) The Budget of Lead, Copper and Cadmium for a Major Highway. HARRISON, R.M. et al. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, UK). Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 46, pp. 137– 145. Data on deposition fluxes and concentrations of lead, cadmium and copper in road drainage water at proximate sites on the M6 motorway in northwest England have been analysed. The integration of fluxes over a year indicated that metal removal in road drainage water exceeds that deposited on the roadside verges, most markedly in the case of copper. From estimates of the source strength for lead, it is concluded that ~90% of emissions are dispersed by the atmosphere away from the immediate vicinity of the road. These findings are supported by

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estimation of integrated deposition since the opening of the road, derived from analysis of roadside soils. (Author’s abstract.) (27) Deposition Fluxes of Lead, Cadmium, Copper and Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) on the Verges of a Major Highway. HARRISON, R.M. and JOHNSTON, W.R. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK). Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 46, pp. 121–135. Deposition fluxes of Pb, Cd, Cu and a range of 11 PAH compounds have been determined at distances of 3.8–220 m from the M6 motorway in northwest England over a period of 21 months. Considerable temporal variation is seen in the deposition fluxes, but time-averaged data show that fluxes of Cd, Cu and the PAH compounds are highly elevated close to the road, decreasing to background levels within 20–40 m. Whilst lead also shows considerable roadside enhancement, its deposition continues to decline over the full 220 m measurement interval. Background deposition levels for all pollutants measured are of the same order as other reported data. Analysis of deposition samples for organic compounds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed a wide range of mainly hydrocarbon compounds. (Author’s abstract.) (28) Coarse Particles in Automotive Emissions. RAUNEMAA, T. et al. (University of Helsinki, Department of Physics, Helsinki, Finland). J.Aerosol Sci., June 1984, Aerosols in Sci., Med. and Technol., Munich, West Germany, 14–16 Sept. 1983, 15(3), pp. 329–333. Large particles from automotive emissions were investigated at idling and 30 km/h speed by elemental analysis with PIXE, and lead concentration was determined from sedimentation samples. Large particle mode and a mode of particle size less than or equal to 10 µm was observed. (29) Flame-photometric Detector for the Selective Determination of Tetraethyl Lead. ZAINULLIN, R.F. and BEREZKIN, V.G. Ind. Lab. (USSR), 1984, 50(1), pp. 27–29. Tetraethyl lead is used in large quantities as an antiknock compound for automobile and aviation gasolines. A single-channel single-flame photometric detector with selective sensitivity to sulphur was studied in order to modify it for the selective determination of TEL in ethylated automobile and aviation gasolines. For detection a method was selected based on measurement of the intensity of the thermal emission of lead in a hydrogen-air flame. (Authors’ abstract.) (30) Lead Tin Telluride Diode Laser Measurements in Exhaust Gases of Automobiles. OHI, M. (National Research

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Laboratory for Metrology, Sakura, Japan). Kogaku, 1985, 14(2), pp. 127–131. Description of exhaust gas analysis. (31) Measurements of Alkyl Lead Compounds in the Gas and Aerosol Phase in Urban and Rural Atmospheres. HARRISON, R.M., RADOJEVIC, M. and HEWITT, C.N. (University of Essex, Department of Chemistry, Colchester, England). Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 44(3), pp. 235–244. Alkyl lead compounds in the gas and aerosol phase were determined simultaneously in urban and rural atmospheres using gas chromatography-atomic absorption spectroscopy and wet chemical (iodine monochloride) methods. The difference in results between the two methods suggests the presence of vapour-phase tri- (and/or di-)alkyl lead in both urban and rural air. Tetraalkyl lead and trialkyl lead compounds were identified in atmospheric aerosols at both sites, but these were found to be present at concentrations less than 1.2% of the total gas-phase alkyl lead. (Author’s abstract.) (19 references.) 2.1.3 Models (1) Motor Vehicle Lead Emissions in the United States: an Analysis of Important Determinants, Geographic Patterns and Future Trends. PROVENZANO, G. Int. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. J. 1978, 28(12), pp. 1193–1199. Presents a simple method which utilises composite emission factors to estimate motor vehicle lead emissions for large areas. (2) Lead Modelling: a Decision-Making Tool. McEVOY, J.E. Sci. Total Environ. 1980, 16(3), pp. 231–237. The problems of policy-making on environmental pollution, where there may be little information about the potential effects of control measures, are discussed. Outlines a model representing the transport of lead within man which may be used to analyse options in terms of their effectiveness in reducing blood lead concentrations, or to select between competing strategies for the control of a population’s lead exposure. (3) The Estimation of Air Pollution Concentrations from Road Traffic. HICKMAN, A.J. and COLWILL, D.M. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, Transport and Road Research Lab. Report, 1052, 1982, 63 pp. Describes a method of estimating pollutant concentrations near highways which employs the Gaussian dispersion theory with empirical modification. Inputs for the model are confined to data that are readily available, such as traffic flow, traffic speed, and road layout. Pollutant concentrations can be calculated either for one location or for a

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grid of receptors. Ways of using the carbon monoxide value to estimate concentrations of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and lead are discussed. (References.) (4) Estimation of Pollution Concentration at Cacapava, SP, using a Three-dimensional Numerical Model. ARARI, N. and MOLION, L.C. B. (Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais, Brazil). Springfield, VA (USA), NTIS Report No. N83–12597/1, 1982, 22 pp. (In Portuguese.) Shows a three-dimensional numerical model of atmospheric dispersion used to estimate concentrations of lead particulate matter. Climatological studies for the region indicate that there is a predominance of calm winds, i.e. below the anemometer threshold (0.1 m/s), and low inversion layers. The model estimates concentrations with wind speeds lower than 0.01 m/s and varies the height of the mixing layer. Using standard meteorological data the model calculates the spatial and temporal distribution of concentration resulting from pollutants emission of a continuous point source. (5) Air Pollution Dispersion in Street Canyons—Comparisons of a Simple Model with Measured Data. Warren Spring Lab., Stevenage, UK. Springfield, VA (USA), NTIS Report No. PB83– 259044, 1983, 38 pp. A simple box model is used to describe the dispersion of gaseous pollutants at a street canyon site in Cromwell Road, Central London. The model has been used to simulate the average diurnal variation of CO and NO concentrations and to estimate annual average concentrations of CO, NO, NO2, black smoke and lead. The difficulties of applying the dispersion model to other sites are discussed, particularly the problems which can arise from the use of non site-specific emissions data. (6) Levels of Vehicle-generated Air Pollutants in a Street Canyon. HAMILTON, R.S. and DUNSBY, R. (Urban Pollution Res. Centre, Middlesex Polytechnic). Environ. Technol. Lett. 1984, 5(8), pp. 349–358. Describes how published data on atmospheric levels of lead, carbon monoxide and coronene have been analysed to give correlations applicable to a street canyon with high traffic density. When combined with a model for carbon monoxide they provide equations capable of predicting lead and coronene levels. There is reasonable agreement between the predictions of these models and the levels recorded in London. (7) Multicompartment Kinetic Models for Lead: 1: Bone Diffusion Models for Long-term Retention. MARCUS, A.H. (Washington State University). Environ. Res. 1985, 36(2), pp. 441– 458. The author extends some previous analyses into more complex models for the kinetics of lead. A model is presented for

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the diffusion of lead in bone, and the model is applied to lead retention in beagle dogs. (8) Multicompartment Kinetic Models for Lead: 2: Linear Kinetics and Variable Absorption in Humans without Excessive Lead Exposures. MARCUS, A.H. Environ. Res. 1985, 36 (2), pp. 459–472. A study into long-term lead retention in human blood, soft tissue, cortical and trabecular bone pools and facial hair is described and discussed. Though the absorption of lead from diet is changeable, there is no evidence for other variable or non-linear kinetic mechanisms of lead metabolism in humans without excessive lead exposure. (Diagrams, references, tables.) (9) Multicompartment Kinetic Models for Lead: 3: Lead in Blood Plasma and Erythrocytes. MARCUS, A.H. Environ. Res. 1985, 36(2), pp. 473–489. The multicompartment model is used to analyse data on plasma lead and blood lead concentrations. The methods and results of the study are explained and discussed. (Diagrams, references, tables.) (10) The Underdefined Nature of the Blood Lead-Air Lead Relationship from Biological and Statistical Grounds. COLOMBO, A. (Chemistry Division, Joint Research Centre, Ispra Establishment, Commission of the European Communities, 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy). Atmos. Environ. 1985, 19(9), pp. 1485–1493. Existing information on the metabolism of lead in the human body is taken as a basis for deriving a steady-state relationship between the concentrations of blood lead and air lead for healthy adults. Through the clearly defined physical meaning of its parameters, the interpretative power of the model equation can be assessed. Unavailability of thorough biological information, the complexity of the human body and consequent modelling of lead metabolism by unavoidably simplified mathematical expressions make the relationship underdefined from a quantitative standpoint. Bestfitting to existing literature data is used as a validity check for the equation. Through comparison with results of other published relationships it is shown that a linear equation, which leads to well-defined biological implications, and is a special case of the more general model developed here, can be used to fit the existing data adequately, and may be preferred on the grounds of simplicity.

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2.2 SELECTED NATIONAL AND REGIONAL SURVEYS 2.2.1 United Kingdom (1) Measurements of Particulate Lead on the M4 Motorway at Harlington. COLWILL, D.M., BEVAN, M.G. and HOGBIN, L. E. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Report 626, 1974, 11 pp. Measures the concentrations of lead in the atmosphere and surface soils on a section of the motorway used by approximately 70 000 petrol-engined vehicles per day. (2) Deposition of Lead, Copper and Cadmium over Islington. Islington LB Pollution and Research Section. London, Islington LB, Aug. 1975, 5 pp. First interim report of the Islington Heavy Metal Survey details procedures and results, concluding that heavy metal fall-out is occurring in varying degrees in the Borough, and that road traffic is the most likely source of lead, the most abundant element. (3) Joint Research into Lead Levels in Birmingham. STEPHENS, R. Munic. Eng. 1975, 152(43), pp. 2013–2014. Gives results from the testing of lead levels in dust, and in children in Birmingham, comparing them with findings from other countries. (4) Joint Working Party on Lead Pollution around Gravelly Hill— Interim Report. Department of the Environment Central Unit on Environmental Pollution. DOE, Dec. 1975, 15 pp. Findings are presented following those of the Working Party’s first report for the period to May 1973. Confirms that airborne lead concentrations both outside and within the home are the same, and establishes that blood lead concentrations of people living near the Gravelly Hill motorway interchange appear to have levelled off at values within the typical range for urban dwellers. Recommends a programme of analysis of blood samples from children aged 1–7 throughout Birmingham. (5) Atmospheric Pollution from Vehicle Emissions Measurements at Four Sites in Coventry, 1973. COLWILL, D.M., BEVAN, M.G. and HICKMAN, A. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Laboratory Report 695, 1976, 45 pp. Reports continuous measurements of atmospheric concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and particulate lead made at four sites in Coventry during November and December 1973. The pollution at these sites was shown to arise mainly from the traffic, and was at levels comparable with those reported elsewhere. Mathematical

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model relating pollution levels to wind speed and traffic flow was developed. (6) Atmospheric Lead Pollution: some Observations. POLLITT, J. G. Clean Air, 1976, 6(22), pp. 28–32. Two surveys of ambient atmospheric lead levels were carried out in the city of Salford during the latter part of 1974 and the early part of 1975. The first concerned the degree of lead pollution in the atmosphere and the second that in roadside dusts. (7) Emission and Deposition of Lead from Motor Exhausts. II: Airborne Concentration, Particle Size, and Deposition of Lead near Motorways. LITTLE, P. and WIFFEN, R.D. (UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment). Atmos. Environ. 1978, 12(6–7), pp. 1331–1341. Levels of lead beside a steeply inclined stretch of motorway in London, UK, are compared with those beside a heavily travelled section of road. Particle size is measured. Deposition is assessed by measuring uptake on trays of grass. The use of hedges or belts of trees for increasing particle deposition close to emission sources is discussed. The cost of shelter belts probably will outweigh any lead control benefits. (44 references.) (8) Lead Pollution in Birmingham. A Report of the Joint Working Party on Lead Pollution around Gravelly Hill. Department of the Environment Central Unit on Environmental Pollution. HMSO, London, 1978, 110 pp. A comprehensive record of the work on lead pollution and its implications for public health, carried out on behalf of the joint Working Party on lead pollution around Gravelly Hill. Deals therefore with a number of aspects of concern, associated primarily with airborne and deposited lead and predominantly with that from petrol-engined vehicles. (9) A Study of Rainwater Quality Collected near a Motorway. KAMLAM, T. (Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology). London University, M.Sc. in Environmental Technology, 1978/79. Precipitation and dry deposition samples were collected near a section of the southbound carriageway on the M1 motorway by using three tipping bucket raingauges positioned at various distances away from the carriageway. The samples were analysed for chemical and physical characteristics such as pH, electrical conductivity, suspended solids content, bromide, heavy metals and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. In general, higher pollutant levels were found in the samples collected nearer to the motorway. (10) Lead Pollution in Abbey Wood, Thamesmead. Greater London Council Public Services and Safety Committee. GLC PS252, 22 Mar. 1979. In September 1978 the Thamesmead Community Association asked the GLC to measure levels of

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environmental lead pollution in the Thamesmead, Abbey Wood areas surrounding the Manor Metal Works lead smelter operated by Chloride Metals Ltd. This report sets out the results of that investigation. (11) Airborne Lead Levels throughout Birmingham. BARRATT, R. S. and McCULLOCH, R.D. (City of Birmingham Environmental Health Department). Int. Environ. Saf. Oct. 1980, pp. 7–11. Outlines the work of Birmingham Environmental Health Department in measuring airborne trace concentrations between July 1975 and July 1978. Results from 15 varied sites are given. Comments on the relationship of lead to smoke, sulphur dioxide and other pollutants as well as considering two survey sites in some detail. (12) Airborne Particulate Lead Levels in Central London, 1973–79. SULLIVAN, E.J. and DORLING, T.A. (Warren Spring Laboratory). WSL, Stevenage, UK, 1980, 17 pp. Measurements of the ambient airborne particulate lead concentrations were made in Central London continuously during the period 1973–79. Results of weekly averages have been analysed and the cumulative frequency distributions for specific periods calculated. Average annual concentrations were low and within the UK Air Quality Guideline for lead, but the general trend showed a continuous slight decrease over the whole period. (13) A Comparison of the Extent of Heavy Metal Contamination of Vacant Land Sites and Background Urban Levels. Joint Unit for Research on the Urban Environment. University of Aston in Birmingham. JURUE, Jan. 1980, 11 pp. +appendices. (Research Note 11.) Reports a survey carried out for the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. (14) The Determination of Environmental Lead near Works and Roads in Conjunction with the EEC Blood Lead Survey, 1978–9. BARRETT, C.F., TURNER, A.C. and CARROLL, J.D. (Warren Spring Laboratory). WSL, Stevenage, UK, Dec. 1980, 72 pp. + appendices. (15) Lead and Local Aspects of Environmental Pollution: a Report for the Notting Hill Social Council. Notting Hill Social Council Working Party, London, 1980, 24 pp. Reviews studies of lead pollution carried out in or near Notting Hill, 1974–80. (16) Atmospheric Pollution from Vehicle Emissions: Measurements near the North Circular Road, London. HICKMAN, A.J. and LUNN, C.A. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Suppl. Rept. 660, 1981, 17 pp. Continuous measurements were made 5 m from the kerbside of the North Circular Road near the Finchley Road junction,

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London, during May 1979. This road carried an average of 3500 vehicles per hour. The concentrations of pollutants were of the same order of magnitude and similar in range to those found in other busy urban roadside environments. Pollution from this site arose mainly from the traffic, although there was some evidence of their sources contributing to the non-methane hydrocarbon acetylene, ethylene and total oxides of nitrogen concentrations. (17) European Community Screening Programme for Lead: United Kingdom Results for 1979–1980. Department of the Environment Central Directorate on Environmental Pollution. DOE, London, 1981, 11 pp. (Pollution Report No. 10.) Gives an account of the surveys of blood lead levels in the United Kingdom population, in adults and children in major urban areas and living near major roads; in children exposed to lead-using works; and in Glasgow mothers and babies. (Figures, tables.) (18) Lead Pollution. Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee. GLC PSFB 129, 20 Nov. 1981. Comments on the Government’s response to GLC representations on lead pollution and discusses the results of a study carried out by Dr Yule and Dr Lansdown, indicating those areas where the Council might accelerate its work on lead pollution. (19) Measurement of Particulate Lead on the M4 Motorway at Harlington, Essex: Third Report. COLWILL, D.M. and HICKMAN, A.J. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Laboratory Report 972, 1981, 10 pp. Measurements of lead in the atmosphere have been made in the central reservation of the motorway from 1973 to 1979. Annual average concentrations of lead are available for the period 1974– 77, when levels fell from 14.1 µg/m3 to 9.3 µg/m3. A simple relationship between traffic flow and speed, lead content of fuel and wind speed has been developed which can be used to estimate lead concentrations at similar sites. (20) A Survey of Air Pollution in the Vicinity of Heathrow Airport (London). NICHOLS, T.P. et al. (Imperial College, London). Sci. Total Environ. 1981, 19(3), pp. 285–292. In an investigation of atmospheric quality near Heathrow Airport ambient concentrations of total hydrocarbons, methane, carbon monoxide, and airborne particulate lead were monitored. No distinction could be made between the relative contributions to air pollution of airport sources and those arising from motor vehicle and industrial activity in the area. (7 references.) (21) Trace Metal Surveys of Soil as a Component of Strategic and Local Planning Policy Development. JOHNSON, M.S., BELL, R.M. and PARRY, G. Environ. Pollut. B, 1981, 2(2), pp. 97–

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108. Report of a detailed programme of soil sampling for trace metal analysis over an area of 650 km2 covering urban and rural Merseyside. The value of broadscale survey and mapping techniques as a component of database development for planning purposes is demonstrated. (22) Airborne Cadmium, Lead and Zinc at Rural and Urban Sites in Northwest England, UK. HARRISON, R.M. and WILLIAMS, C. R. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster). Atmos. Environ. (Engl.) 1982, 16(11), pp. 2669–2682. Concentrations of airborne Cd, Pb and Zn were determined at one urban roadside site and two rural sites in northwest England over 24 h and 7 day sampling periods. At all sites, Cd originated entirely from regional pollutant transport, but Pb, and to a lesser extent Zn, arose mainly from local vehicular sources at the urban site and from regional transport at the rural sites. (23) Background Levels of Heavy Metal Soil Contamination in Walsall. Joint Unit for Research on the Urban Environment, University of Aston in Birmingham. JURUE, Feb. 1982 (unpaged). An investigation and mapping was commissioned by Walsall MDC Environmental Health Department. Analysis of soil samples in 476 sites provided soil metal concentrations, average concentrations in each 1 km Ordnance Survey grid square and worst-case concentration in each square. Proportions of land in the Borough contaminated above the most stringent DOE guideline levels are given. (Graphs, maps, tables.) (24) Survey of Gaseous Air Pollutants at Selected UK Sites: VI: Data Digest for Cromwell Road, London, 1978–80. APLING, A.J. (Warren Spring Laboratory). WSL, Stevenage, UK, Feb. 1982, 65 pp. An exercise was carried out in kerbside air quality measurement, monitoring nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, total hydrocarbons, particulate lead and black smoke. Data are presented as monthly summaries giving daily arithmetic mean and maximum pollutant concentration. Traffic flow and wind speed data are also tabulated daily. (Tables.) (25) Glasgow Eastern Area Renewal: Gear Air Pollution Survey Volume II: Supporting Documents. Warren Spring Laboratory. WSL, Stevenage, UK, Feb. 1983, various pagings. Includes methodology, assessment criteria, and the consultants’ report. Methodology describes the agreed basis of the survey; assessment criteria lay down principles of assessments and details of criteria values for specific pollutants. Interpretation of the data collected is given in the consultants’ report to the

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Strathclyde Regional Council, Glasgow District Council and the Scottish Development Agency. (26) The Lead Content of Dusts in and Around Schools: a Survey for CLEAR. PRICE, B. Campaign for Lead-Free Air, Mar. 1983, 29 pp. Reports the results of a survey of lead levels in dust collected from school playgrounds and pavements from fifty urban locations in England and Wales. An account of the methods used to collect and analyse the samples is given and a discussion of the results is included. (27) Measurement of Environmental Exposure to Lead: a Case Study in West London. LITTLE, P. and HEARD, M.J. Chem. Ind. 1983, 7, pp. 264–270. Outdoor environmental exposure to lead is examined in the vicinity of three houses in an area bordered by the M41 motorway, the A40(M) and two lesser roads. Also considers the effect of other sources of exposure including scrap metal and old lead paint. The study was carried out in October/November 1978. (16 references.) (28) Deposition of Metallic and Organic Pollutants alongside the M6 Motorway, Lancaster, England, UK. JOHNSTON, W.R. and HARRISON, R.M. (Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, Lancaster). Sci. Total Environ. (Neth.), 1984, 33, pp.119–128. (29) Distance/Decline Patterns in Heavy Metal Contamination of Soils and Plants in Birmingham, England. DAVIES, B.E. and HOUGHTON, N.J. Urban Ecol. 1984, 8(4), pp. 285–294. Tests the hypothesis that heavy metal contamination in the city would extend beyond city limits to affect rural soils by testing radish plants grown along a 22 km transect from central Birmingham to the rural south-east. Distance/decline relationships were modelled using regression analysis and quadratic regressions yielded satisfactory fits. The results confirm the initial hypothesis. (6 references.) (30) Lead Levels in Exhaust Replacement Centres. CHAMBERS, D., FARRANT, G.B. and MENDHAM, J. Environmental Health Department, London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. Sci. Total Environ. (Neth.) 1984, 33, pp. 31–36. (31) Air Quality Assessment at an Airport. CLARK, A.I. (Imperial College Public Health and Water Resource Engineering). Environ. Pollut. B, 1985, 9(1), pp. 1–27. Data are presented from measurements of ambient air concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and airborne lead at five sites around Stansted Airport, and one within it. The impact is assessed of the proposed expansion of Stansted to a capacity of 15

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million passengers per annum. Concludes that all pollutants measured are low in comparison to data from other UK sites, and that development will not increase them above acceptable levels. (26 references.) (32) Lead in the School Environment: a Study of Lead Levels in the Environment of Two Schools in Exeter. BEECHING, P.E. and LOVELL, A.M. Environ. Health 1985, 93(7), pp. 174–177. Samples were collected from the two schools between May 1983 and April 1984. The methods of sampling used, and the results obtained, are described. Attention is given to lead levels in paint, water supply and air, and the authors conclude that levels of lead in the environment exceeded the guidelines accepted by the Greater London Council. Subsequent action to remedy the problem is outlined. (References, tables.) (33) Lead ‘Hot Spots’, Traffic—a Survey of Lead in Air and Dust in Roadside Areas in London. CASWELL, R. and LAXEN, D.P.H. (Environmental Sciences Division, Scientific Services Branch, Greater London Council). London, GLC Report No. DG/ SSB/ESD/R142, 1984. 2.2.2 Europe (1) Study of Gases Emitted in Automobile Traffic in Highly Industrialised Cities and Areas as Exemplified by the City of Cologne. PLASSMANN, E. Tribune du Cebedeau (Centre Belge d’Etude et de Documentation des Eaux et de l’Air) (Belgium) 1973, 26(360), pp. 418– 430. (2) Lead Residues in Plants and Soils along Austrian Motor Roads. HORAK, O., REBLER, R. and SCHMIDT, J. (Institut für Landwirtschaft des Forschungszentrum Seibersdorf). Bodenkultur 1976, 27(4), pp. 376–384. (In German.) Lead contents were determined using wet digestion and atomic absorption spectroscopy techniques. Results show that the contamination of plants by airborne lead residues from motor car exhausts depends on the density of traffic, the distance from the road, and the season. Lead levels of the vegetation began decreasing in early spring, remained fairly constant from May to July and began to increase again in August. Highest lead contents were in the plant matter collected during the winter months. (20 references.) (3) State of Atmospheric Pollution in Industrial Regions of Bulgaria during the Period 1972–1974. BALABAEVA, L., BASMADZHIEVA, K. and NIKIFOROV, V. (Cent. Hyg., Acad. Med., Sofia, Bulg.). Khigiena i Zdraveopazvane (Bulgaria) 1976, 19(3), pp.

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260–264. (In Bulgarian.) Discusses the role of motor vehicles and various industries (cement, chemical, power metallurgy, oil) in contributing to dust, S oxides, Pb, As and phenol pollution of the atmosphere in Bulgaria during 1972–74. (4) Isotope Study of Lead in Petrol. FACCHETTI, S. (Joint Research Centre-Ispra Establishment, Italy). Presented at Commission of European Communities et al. Heavy Metals in the Environment, International Conference, London, Sept. 1979, pp. 95–103. Alkyl lead was used exclusively as an antiknock additive in Italy for two years. This gave a constant source of lead with an isotopic ratio that easily distinguished it from lead from other sources. Population groups sampled, and their blood lead level variations, over the course of the study, are described. Also analysed were river sediments, vegetation, soil, and food to determine their lead content. Preliminary results indicate a difference in value of the lead-206/lead-207 ratio in atmospheric particulates sampled in rural and urban areas. Isotopic lead levels were higher in urban populations than in rural populations. Final experimental results should be available by 1980. (3 references.) (5) Lead and Lead-210 in some River Waters of the Southwestern part of France: Importance of the Atmospheric Contribution. SERVANT, J. and DELAPART, M. Phys. Aerosols Technol. 1979, 13(1), pp. 105– 107. The lead and lead-210 concentrations in the waters of three different rivers in rural southwestern France were measured for eight months. The mean levels of total lead and lead-210 are 12 mg/1 and 0.38 dpm/1 respectively, with a ten-fold variation factor. The importance of the contribution of atmospheric lead from fuel additives is discussed. Though the lead amounts from atmospheric rain leaching, or from dry deposition of roads, are considerable, they seem to be absorbed by the soils. Therefore the contribution of atmospheric lead to the river water is almost completely indirect. (22 references.) (6) Biological Surveillance of the Population in View of Danger of Lead Poisoning. Pollut. Atmos. 1981, 23(92), pp. 323– 335. (In French.) The Commission of the European Communities recommendation of 29 March 1977, concerning the biological surveillance of the population against the danger of lead poisoning, lays down that the member states should evaluate the population’s exposure to the lead-poisoning risk when not at its places of work. It defines the reference levels, expressed in leadintoxication percentages; if these are exceeded the member states should determine the source of the exposure and take appropriate measures to eliminate this danger. Studies carried out in regions

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of potential problems have confirmed that, in a certain number of cases, the reference levels have been exceeded and a health risk may therefore exist in those areas. (7) Determination of Four Trace Metals (Lead, Cadmium, Chromium and Zinc) in Atmospheric Dust in Marseille, between 1977 and 1979. VIALA, A. (Lab. Toxicol. Biotoxicol., Université d’Aix-Marseille). Pollut. Atmos. 1981, 23(91), pp. 207– 222. (In French.) The pollutants were determined in the air dust by atomic absorption spectrophotometry after mineralisation. The study establishes a relationship between metallic pollution and the traffic of motor vehicles with perceptible decrease of three metals (lead, chromium, zinc) during the investigation. Increase of cadmium concentrations might, above a certain level, become alarming, considering the noxiousness of this metal. (8) Effect of Airborne Heavy Metals on Automobile Passengers in Germany. ROHBOCK, E. (Dept. Meteorol. Geophys., Univ. Frankfurt/Main, FRG). Environ. Int. 1981, 5(3), pp. 133–140. Measurements inside different cars are performed on motorways and rural and urban roads. Analysis of the heavy metals is carried out by atomic absorption spectrometry. During urban driving, inside concentrations are in the same range as the concentrations measured on German motorways. Average concentrations of urban roads are slightly elevated. Variations of concentration inside different cars are obvious. A strong relationship of automotive lead concentrations to traffic and meteorological parameters is found. The comparison of inside concentrations to concentrations measured at a highly frequented motorway junction show that the penetration of airborne heavy metals to running cars is optimal. (9) Lead Content in an Epiphytic Lichen in the Urban Area of Kuopio, East Central Finland. TAKALA, K. and OLKKONEN, H. (Provinc. Gov. Kuopio, Hallit uskatu 12–14, SF-70100 Finland). Ann. Botanici Fennici 1981, 18(2), pp. 85–89. The epiphytic lichen, growing on birch and pine, was analysed for lead by the Pu-238 excited Si(Li) semiconductor detector X-ray fluorescence method. The lead content of the lichen correlated with the traffic density. Lead accumulation in the lichen was considered in relation to the distance from the nearest road or street, the shelter effect, the phorophyte species and the level of sulphur dioxide. (10) Some Results of Measuring Environmental Pollution in Pancevo, Yugoslavia. NIKOLIC, M. et al. (Inst. Hygiene Med. Ekol., Med. Fakultat, Univ. Beograd). Srpski Arkhiv za Tselokupno Lekarstvo (Yugoslavia) 1981, 109(9), pp. 1191–1198. (In Russian.) Systematic measurements of noise and atmospheric pollution

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were undertaken at several places in Pancevo, Yugoslavia, to obtain a real picture of the intensity of communal noise and the degree of air pollution with individual ingredients of the city atmosphere. Noise in the 11 streets studied was above the maximum allowed, as were the concentrations of Pb, CO and NO, regardless of whether the streets were in industrial or residential areas. (11) Exposure to Lead of the Belgian Population. CLAEYSTHOREAU, F. et al. (Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Ministry of Health and Environment, Belgium). Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health (West Germany), 1983, 53(2), pp. 109–118. According to the Commission of the European Communities Directive of 29 March 1977, on biological screening of the population for Pb, the blood Pb levels (PbB) were determined in samples of the Belgian population not occupationally exposed to this metal. Two campaigns of sampling were performed: the first in 1979 (1678 samples analysed) and the second in 1981 (1000 samples analysed). Sampling was done in urban and industrial zones, and in areas where Pb risk could have been present. Concerning the urban and industrial areas the results seemed to indicate that a particular Pb risk did not exist for the adult population if the reference levels of the EEC Directive were considered. The results of the second campaign of sampling showed a decreasing trend: the median PbB values dropped from 183 to 156 µg/1 in Brussels and from 192 to 139 µg/1 in Liege. This could have been partly due to the limitation of the Pb content of gasoline. (12) Monitoring of Heavy Metals in Airborne Particles by using Mosses Collected from the City of Zurich. HERTZ, J., SCHMID, I. and THOENI, L. (Inst. Inorganic Chem., Univ. Zurich, Switzerland). Int. J.Environ. Anal. Chem. 1984, 17(1), pp. 1–12. (Workshop on Carcinogenic and/or Mutagenic Metals, Geneva, Switzerland, 12 Sept. 1983). The suitability of the moss Bryum argentum as indicator plant of airborne heavy metals in urban environment has been examined. The method has been applied to determine the distribution of the respective metals in the Zurich city area. The authors have collected about 200 samples, uniformly spread over the area of Zurich, for this investigation. Results show clearly that the metals are considerably accumulated in the city compared to an uncontaminated region outside Zurich. Low correlation coefficients between metal concentrations indicate different emission sources of the various metals.

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(13) Pollution Transport from a Highway. LYGREN, E., GJESSING, E. and BERGLUND, L. (Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Norway). Sci. Total Environ. 1984, 33, pp. 147–159. Describes a 3-year monitoring programme of the generation of dust near highways and the transport of particulates from roads. Particle size distributions, heavy metal levels, and contents of organic pollutants were documented. Snow, dust, and runoff were sampled. The major fraction of pollutants from highways is deposited 5–25 m from the road. A substantial part of the pollutants was produced in snow accumulation periods and released during spring periods. (4 references.) (14) Emissions of Heavy Metals in the Air of Brno, Czechoslovakia. PETRUJOVA, T. (Cesky Hydrometeorol. Ustav Brno, Czech.). Ochr. Ovzdusi. 1985, 17(3), pp. 40–6. (In Czech.) Study of automobile exhaust and flue gases containing lead. (15) Heavy Metal Contamination near Major Highways, Industrial and Urban Areas in Belgian Grassland. ALBASEL, N. and COTTENIE, A. (Agricultural Research Organisation, Volcani Cent, Bet Dagan, Isr.). Water Air Soil Pollut. 1985, 24(1), pp. 103– 109. An investigation was made of the Zn, Cu, Mn, and Pb contents in samples of soil and grass collected along highways and in fields adjoining industrial zones in Belgium. Soil contamination by Zn and Pb was quite pronounced along highways. Contamination by these heavy metals decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the highway. High values of metal accumulation in plants located near highways were observed. The accumulation of Pb was particularly pronounced. Contamination by Pb in soils of some urban gardens was also recorded. (16) Lead and Zinc in Roadside Dust from a Suburb in Athens, Greece. RAPSOMANIKIS, S. and DONARD, O. (Department of Chemistry, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, UK). Environ. Technol. Lett. 1985, 6(4), pp. 145–148. Includes consideration of air pollution by car exhaust gases as well as car tyres. 2.2.3 United States and Canada (1) Motor Vehicle Emissions and Atmospheric Lead Concentrations in the Los Angeles Area. DAVIDSON, A. et al. (Air Pollution Control Association, US). Int. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. J. 1978, 28(12), pp. 1200–1206. Paper concerned with the effect of changes in lead consumption by motor vehicles on atmospheric lead concentrations.

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(2) Aerosol Carbon in the Denver Area, in November 1973. PIERSON, W.R. (Ford Motor Co.) arid RUSSELL, P.A. (Denver Research Institute). Atmos. Environ. 1979, 13(12), pp. 1623–1628. Aerosol samples were collected and analysed in Denver, Colo., in November 1973 to determine the cause of the Denver Brown Cloud, a visible haze appearing over the city in late autumn and winter. The amount of unextractable carbon in the samples is determined. Correlation of carbon and lead reveals that these pollutants both originate from vehicle emissions. (45 references.) (3) Determination of Resuspended Dust Emissions from Paved Roadways for the Montana Air Pollution Study (MAPS) Emission Inventory. BOHN, R. and RAISCH, R. (Midwest Research Institute and Montana Air Quality Bureau). In Proc. Inst. Environ. Sci. 25th Annual Technical Meeting, Seattle, 30 Apr.–2 May 1979, pp. 476–480. One aim of the Montana Air Pollution Study was to assess the quantity of traffic-generated dust emissions. Collection and analysis methods are described. Dust emissions are mostly coarse mineral material, but respirable particles and trace elements are present also. Resuspended particles tend to settle rapidly, but fine particles remain suspended, contributing more to air pollution. Control of resuspended dust emissions from paved roadways is necessary to attain compliance with existing and future ambient air quality standards. Routine cleaning of heavily travelled roads, especially after precipitation events, would help achieve compliance. (8 references.) (4) Ambient Lead Concentrations in New York City, USA and their Health Implications. NATHANSON, B.A. and NUDELMAN, H. (New York City Department of Environmental Protection). Bull. NY Acad. Med. USA, 1980, 56(9), pp. 866–875. Examines blood lead levels as a result of vehicle exhaust emissions. (5) Correlations between Lead and Coronene Concentrations at Urban, Suburban, and Industrial Sites in New Jersey. GREENBERG, A. et al. (Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, New Jersey Institute of Technology). Environ. Sci. Technol. 1981, 15(5), pp. 566– 570. Concentrations of lead and selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are monitored at four New Jersey sites. A correlation between lead and coronene concentrations reported for sites in Los Angeles has been investigated for the New Jersey locations. The lead-coronene correlation is verified only for a location at which motor-vehicle traffic is the overwhelming contributor to the airborne particulate load.

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(6) Lead in Albuquerque Street Dirt and the Effect of Curb Paint. FRANZ, D.A. and HADLEY, W.M. (Department of Chemistry, Lycoming College, Williamsport, PA 17701). Bull. Environ. Contam. 1981, 27(3), pp. 353–358. Many studies have demonstrated the existence of lead contamination of the roadside environment, and several have dealt specifically with urban street dirt and dust. In the case of isolated roadways, elevated soil lead concentrations were correlated directly with traffic volume and inversely with distance from the highway or depth in the soil profile. In all studies the suggested source of the lead was automotive combustion of leaded petrol. As part of a monitoring programme for lead in a semi-arid urban environment, this report gives results for lead in the street dirts of Albuquerque, New Mexico, as well as data concerning the effects of sample-sieving techniques and the observation that the erosion of curb paint can be a significant, non-vehicular source of lead in street dirts. (7) Lead and Cadmium Levels in Soil and Plants near Highways and their Correlation with Traffic Density. RODRIGUEZ-FLORES, M. and RODRIGUEZ-CASTELLON, E. (Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico). Environ. Pollut. B, Chem. Phys. 1982, 4(4), pp. 281–290. Pb and Cd pollution in zones adjacent to some roads in Puerto Rico were studied. The levels of these metals in soil and vegetation were higher than typical background concentrations. The Pb and Cd concentrations in soil and the Pb concentration in vegetation fell off rapidly with increasing distance from the roads, in agreement with previous investigations. Accumulation of Pb and Cd above background levels took place up to a distance of approx. 33 m, giving rise to the suggestion that edible crops for human or animal consumption should be restricted within strips of this width on both sides of heavily trafficked roads. (8) Relationship between Concentration of Traffic Related Pollutants and Meteorology at a Los Angeles Site. WITZ, S. et al. (South Coast Air Quality Management District). J.Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 1982, 32(6), pp. 643–645. In this publication the results of a multilinear regression analysis indicated that the monthly and seasonal variation in Pb, as well as other traffic-related pollutants observed at one of the stations in the Los Angeles Basin in 1980, were affected by four meteorological variables, namely wind direction, wind speed, early morning temperature, and frequency of surface inversions. (9) Concentration of Selected Vapor and Particulate-phase Substances in the Lincoln and Holland Tunnels. KEBBEKUS, B. (New Jersey Institute of Technology). J.Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc.

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1983, 33(4), pp. 328–329. Presents a study of airborne pollutant levels in two long tunnels, the Lincoln and Holland, which connect New Jersey with New York under the Hudson River. Pollutants examined include lead, analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry following chemical digestion, selected PAH analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) monitored at two UV wavelengths (280 nm and 365 nm), as well as fluorescence (360 nm excitation, emission >440 nm), and selected VOC analysed by high-resolution gas chromatography and periodically confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. (10) Effect of Diesel Vehicles on Visibility in California. TRIJONIS, J. (Santa Fe Research Corporation, New Mexico). Sci. Total Environ. 1984, 36, pp. 131–140. An emission budget model discloses that heavy-duty diesel trucks contributed nearly 50% of state-wide elemental C emissions in 1980, and about 5–15% of statewide light extinction. Larger extinction contributions from heavy-duty diesel trucks, about 5–25% statewide, are estimated for 1980 with a lead tracer model. Visibility in the state is predicted to decrease significantly by 1990 under a no-control scenario, due to increased diesel fuel consumption. Current California standards for light- and medium-duty vehicles should be extended to apply to heavy-duty trucks in protecting visibility. (23 references.) (11) Aerosols near Urban Street Intersections. BULLIN, J.A. et al. (Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A and M University). J.Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. (US) 1985, 35(4), pp. 355– 358. (12) Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA: the Case of the Hmong Children. MIELKE, H.W. et al. (Department of Geography, Macalester College, St. Paul, Minnesota). Environ. Res. (USA) 1984, 34(1), pp. 64–76. This study used soil Pb as a means of describing the urban Pb levels in the metropolitan area of the Twin Cities, and assessed the soil Pb levels next to homes of neighbourhoods of the metropolitan area. Many Hmong children suffered from undue Pb absorption. The homes of the Hmong children were all located in inner-city neighbourhoods. Soil around these homes was compared to soils around homes of a neighbourhood away from the inner city. The Pb sources of the inner city included house paint and leaded gasoline from vehicle traffic. Raising children in high Pb environments, as found in the Minneapolis inner city, had long-term implications because of mental and behavioural deficits known to result from chronic exposure to Pb.

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(13) National Air Pollution Surveillance: Annual Summary for 1982. Environment Canada Environmental Protection Service. EC, Ottawa, Nov. 1983, 78 pp. (Surveillance Report EPS 5EP-83-6.) (Tables.) (14) National Inventory of Sources and Emissions of Lead (1978). SHEFFIELD, A. and JAN, W. Environment Canada Environmental Protection Service. EC, Ottawa, Nov. 1983, 27 pp. (Economic and Technical Review Report EPS 3-EP-83-6.) (Tables.) (15) A Decline in Lead Transport by the Mississippi River. TREFRY, J.H. et al. Science 1985, 230(4724), pp. 439–441. Describes a study into lead levels in the Mississippi River and Delta. The results obtained show that inputs of pollutant lead to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River have declined by about 40% in the last ten years. This decrease is consistent with the trend for reduced consumption of lead in petrol in the USA after the passing of regulations limiting petrol lead additives were put into effect 10 years ago. (16) Quantitative Energy-dispersive Analysis of Lead Halide Particles from the Phoenix Urban Aerosol. POST, J.E. and BUSECK, P.R. (Arizona State University, Department of Chemistry, Tempe, AZ, USA). Environ. Sci. Technol. 1985, 19(8), pp. 682–685. Quantitative energy-dispersive spectrometry X-ray analyses were performed on approximately 300 Pb halide particles from the Phoenix aerosol. The most abundant species appears to be alpha-2PbBrClNH4Cl, comprising about one-third of the total particles. Other compounds identified are PbBrCl, (PbO)2PbBrCl, and probably 3Pb3(PO4)2PbBrCl. Particles having compositions different from previously reported atmospheric Pb halide compounds might represent mixed phases or as yet unidentified species. 2.2.4 Australia and New Zealand (1) Lead Pollution from a New Zealand Battery Factory and Smelter Compared with that from Motor-vehicle Exhaust Emissions. WARD, N.I., ROBERTS, E. and BROOKS, R.R. (Massey University, New Zealand). NZ J. Sci. 1977, 20(4), pp. 407–412. Reports a survey of a New Zealand battery factory and smelter in the industrial region of Auckland City to assess lead levels in soils and vegetation, and to compare them with lead concentrations derived from motor-vehicle emissions at a nearby suburban thoroughfare. There was widespread distribution of airborne lead from motor vehicles, the battery factory, and the smelter, but

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pollution from the industrial plant was by far the greater source within the area. (20 references.) (2) Seasonal Variation in the Lead Content of Soils and Pasture Species Adjacent to a New Zealand Highway Carrying Medium-density Traffic. WARD, N.I., ROBERTS, E. and BROOKS, R.R. (Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Massey University, Palmerston North, NZ). NZ J.Exp. Agric. 7(4), pp. 347–352. Measurements were made of the Pb content of soils and pasture species adjacent to a moderately busy highway (5000 vehicles/24 h) near Bulls. There was an exponential decrease in Pb in surface soils away from the road for distances < 30 m. Highest Pb values occurred in autumn and indicated the possibility of splash from wet roads after accumulation of Pb during the summer. (3) Heavy Metal Pollution by Traffic in Christchurch, New Zealand. Lead and Cadmium Content of Dust, Soil and Plant Samples. FERGUSSON, J.E. et al. (Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand). NZ J. Sci. 1980, 23(3), pp. 293–310. Pb and Cd in street dust and Pb in soil and plant samples were measured close to busy urban roads in Christchurch, New Zealand. Pb levels in street dust varied but in the centre of the city area a mean of 2790 µg/g (range 200–7840 µg/ g) and along Bealey Avenue a mean of 3380 µg/g (range 420–11 520 µg/g) occurred. Levels were greater than or comparable to values reported for other cities of the world. Trees and shrubs acted as efficient screens for Pb aerosol, which collected on leaves and bark. Amount collected was a function of surface area of leaves. For dust and leaves, levels of Pb reached a steady state, depending on weather. Soil fixed Pb rapidly and strongly, principally in organic-rich horizons. (4) Health and Environmental Lead in Australia. COURTICE, F. C. (Australian Academy of Science). AAS, Canberra, 1981, 143 pp. Considers the effects on the health of the general community of lead in the environment with emphasis on the influence of lead additives in petrol. (Bibliography, tables.) (5) Lead in Petrol: Where Does it Go? BELL, A. ECOS, Aug. 1981, 29, pp. 3–8. More than 7000 tonnes per year of fine lead particles are consigned to the air over Australia. Most of it comes from the exhausts of petrol-powered vehicles. Studies designed to investigate the fate of this airborne lead are discussed. Health effects of environmental lead contamination are also reviewed. (6) Heavy Metal Pollution at an Intersection Involving a Busy Urban Road in Christchurch, New Zealand. 1. Levels of Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Nickel, Copper, Zinc, Cadmium

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and Lead in Street Dust. FERGUSSON, J.E. and SIMMONDS, P.R. (Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ). NZ J. Sci. 1983, 26(2), pp. 219–228. The concentrations of eight metals were measured in street dust obtained from an intersection involving Riccarton Road, Christchurch, New Zealand. They were comparable with levels found in other cities, except that the concentration of Pb was greater than in many other cities. The concentrations of the metals were influenced by traffic density and weather conditions, in particular rain and drought. Over 8 years Pb levels had risen significantly as a consequence of an alteration in traffic control at the intersection, and latterly during a year-long drought. (7) Heavy Metal Pollution at an Intersection Involving a Busy Urban Road in Christchurch, New Zealand. 2. Aerosol Lead Levels. SIMMONDS, P.R., YONG, T.S. and FERGUSSON, J.E. (Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ). NZ J. Sci. 1983, 26(2), pp. 229–242. Aerosol Pb levels were measured at two sites along Riccarton Road, Christchurch, NZ. The Pb levels in the winter during the day (>10 or 12 h) were high at 7.1, 6.3, 7.5 and 8.0 µg/m3 for four sampling periods. During the summer the levels were lower. The difference between the winter and summer levels could be attributed to wind velocity. The concentration of Pb in the air depended on a number of factors, including position of the sampler, traffic density, mode of traffic movement, wind speed, wind direction, air temperature and rainfall. The interrelation of these factors was such that the mean Pb levels showed a peak in the early morning and a lower peak in the late afternoon. (8) Roadside Lead in New Zealand and its Significance for Human and Animal Health. COLLINS, J.A. (Department of Geography, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, NZ). NZ J. Sci. 1984, 27(1), pp. 93–98. Pb concentrations in vegetation and soil adjacent to a road carrying 23 000 vehicles/day decreased exponentially with distance from the road; from 197 and 262 µg/g at 4.2 m, to 8 and 23 µg/g for vegetation and soil, respectively, at 300 m from the roadside. The Pb concentrations were sufficiently high that if present in residential areas a health hazard for young children, particularly those with pica, might arise. 2.2.5 Rest of the World (1) The Impact of Traffic on the Quality of a Residential Environment. A Case Study of an Urban Area in Ahmedabad,

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India. DESHPANDE, S. P. and THAKKAR, S. Ind. J. Ecol. 1975, 2 (1), pp. 1–12. Includes an assessment of lead and nitrogen oxides as air pollutants which can have adverse health effects. (2) Studies of Urban Environmental Pollution by Traffic Facilities, Part 1. Survey of Lead in the Atmosphere. TAIRA, K. Nagasaki Med. J. (Jpn) 1975, 50(3), 15 pp. (3) Motor Vehicle Exhaust Pollution in 6 South African Cities. LOUW, C.W. et al. S. Afr. J. Sci. 1977, 73(1), pp. 24–25. (4) Lead Concentration in Teheran’s Atmosphere. FARSAM, H. et al. (University of Teheran, Iran). Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1978, 9(4), pp. 433–438. Aerosol lead pollution was measured at nine crossroads in the city from April to November 1976. Average values of lead in the air were similar except in the southern section of the city, where the values were higher. Lead contamination is attributed mainly to petrol consumption. (22 references.) (5) Airborne Lead at Jalan-Tuanku-Abdul Rahman, Koala Lumpur, Malaysia. LOW, K.S. et al. (Jabatan Kimia, Universiti Pertanian, Malaysia). Pertanika 1981, 4(2), pp. 193–196. (In English.) Considers the inhalation of lead polluted air from motor vehicle exhausts. (6) Concentration of Heavy Metals in Bangkok Metropolitan Area. KHAN, H.U. (Research Institute, University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia). J.Environ. Sci. Health, 1981, 16 (6), pp. 637–645. A total of 190 air samples and 270 surface dust samples were collected and analysed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The analysis shows that the maximum concentration of these metals in the air is below threshold limit values and is dependent upon parameters such as precipitation, wind speed, traffic volume, and congestion. Automobiles are found to be major sources of these pollutants. (7) Lead Contamination of Soil in Baghdad City, Iraq. KHALID, B. Y., SALIH, B.M. and ISSAC, M.W. (Department of Environmental Pollution, Biological Research Centre, Adhamiya, Iraq). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1981, 27(5), pp. 634–638. One of the important sources of lead contamination in urban areas is the combustion of leaded petrol by automobiles and the subsequent release of lead particles through exhaust. Consequently, enhancement in the levels of lead in roadside soil and vegetation have occurred. This study was undertaken to investigate and monitor lead contamination in soil samples from different parts of Baghdad City. (8) Lead and Zinc Levels and Chemical Fractionation in Roadside Soils of Caracas, Venezuela. GARCIA-MIRAGAYA, J.,

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CASTRO, S. and PAOLINI, J. (Centro de Ecologia, IVIC, Caracas). Water, Air Soil Pollut. 1981, 15(3), pp. 285–298. Twenty-five soil samples located near highways and streets in Caracas, Venezuela, were collected and analysed for heavy metals. The physical and mineralogical characteristics of the soils are described, Concentrations are indicative of strong heavy metal pollution due to transportation emissions. Chemical fractionation studies show that lead and zinc are predominantly present in non-changeable forms in the soils analysed. (46 references.) (9) Lead in Soils and Plants, its Relationship to Traffic Volume and Proximity to Highway Lalbag, Baroda City, India. AGRAWAL, Y.K., PATEL, M.P. and MERH, S.S. (University of Baroda, India). Int. J. Environ. Stud. (UK) 1981, 16(3–4), pp. 222– 224. A survey was made of the accumulation of Pb from motor vehicle exhausts on soils and trees growing along a busy thoroughfare in the Lalbag area of Baroda City. Analysis of soils and tree samples showed that the distribution of emitted Pb was influenced by the direction of the prevailing wind. Plants and soils near the roadside had a higher Pb concentration than at a distance of 4–6 m. (10) Lead in the Soil and Grasses along Roadsides of Delhi, India. DUTTA, I. and MOOKERJEE, A. (School of Environmental Science, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi). Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. B, Biol. Sci. 1981, 47(1), pp. 58–64. Estimation was made of the lead content of soil and grasses in roadsides of Delhi. A good correlation existed between traffic volume, total and extractable soil Pb, and the Pb content of roots and shoots of the grass Cynodon. There was a threshold value of soil Pb before any Pb was accumulated by grasses. (11) Atmospheric Lead in Downtown Guatemala City. DURANDO, M.L. and ARAGON, S.R. (Department of Chemistry, University of Valle, Guatemala City). Environ. Sci. Technol. 1982, 16(1), pp. 20–23. Atomic absorption analysis was employed to determine lead concentrations in aerosols collected in nucleopore filter media during the months of February and March (1980). The paper also presents a brief discussion of the lead content in Guatemalan petrol, the lead levels in street dusts, and the total suspended particulate matter in downtown Guatemala City. (12) Bromine to Lead Ratios in Suspended Air Particulate Matter in Greater Bombay, India. KHANDEKAR, R.N., KELKAR, D.N. and VOHRA, K.G. (Atomic Research Centre, Bombay). Atmos. Environ. (UK) 1982, 16(3), pp. 621–624. Concentrations of Br and Pb were determined by non-destructive neutron activation analysis and by anodic stripping voltammetry, respectively. The

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observed Br/Pb ratio for Bombay aerosols agreed with the corresponding values reported by others. The present measurements suggested that Br loss rate was little after the particles were deposited on the filter. The probable composition of Pb aerosols was discussed. (13) An Ecological Survey of Lead Contents in Roadside Dusts and Soils in Hong Kong. LAU, W.M. and WONG, M.H. (Department of Biology, Chinese University, Hong Kong). Environ. Res. (USA) 1982, 28(1), pp. 39–54. Samples of roadside dusts and soils were collected at 14 selected sites in Hong Kong. Pb and other metals in these samples had significant correlation with the annual average daily traffic (AADT). Examination of edaphic properties of soil samples indicated that the availability of Pb and some other metals may have been influenced by pH, water-soluble phosphate and the C: N ratio. The immobilisation of toxic metals in soils may be influenced by adjusting these factors. No correlation was found between metals in dust and soil samples. (14) Relationship between Ambient Lead Concentrations and Lead in Gasoline in Rio-De-Janeiro, Brazil. TRINDADE, H.A. and PFEIFFER, W.C. (Instituto de Biofisica, Federal University, Rio de Janeiro). Atmos. Environ. (UK) 1982, 16(11), pp. 2749–2752. (15) Pollution Studies on Nigerian Rivers: the Onset of Lead Pollution of Surface Waters in Ibadan. MOMBESHORA, C. et al. (Chemistry Department, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria). Environ. Int. 1983, 9(2), pp. 81–84. Lead levels in the waters and sediments were measured from October 1977 to June 1978, using the combined APDCMIBK-flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry technique. The lead levels recorded ranged from 0.2 to 46 µg/l for the aqueous phases; however, the levels in the sediments were much higher, ranging from about 18 to 85 mg/ kg (dry weight). The levels of lead in water bodies located in areas with high traffic density were consistently higher than levels for comparable waters in low traffic density areas. Similarly, lead levels were significantly higher in the fresh sediments of water bodies in areas with high traffic density, clearly indicating the onset of lead pollution for those high traffic density areas. (16) A Survey of Lead Pollution in Baghdad. HANA, A.A. and AL-BASSAM, K.S. (Iraq State Organisation for Minerals). Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1983, 19(1), pp. 3–11. A survey of lead pollution in Baghdad City pinpointed several sources of Pb, among them petrol, battery manufacturing, and printing press type. Palm leaves were collected from 25 different sites to study the distribution and relative increase of Pb deposition caused by vehicles using leaded petrol. Even though Pb pollution does exist

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in Baghdad, its scale could not be accurately determined without additional data. (14 references.) (17) Absence of Tetraalkyl Lead Vapours in the Atmosphere of Beijing, China. JIANG, S.-G. et al. (Department of Chemistry, Antwerp University, Belgium). Atmos. Environ. (UK) 1984, 18(11), pp. 2553– 2556. (18) The Contribution of City Buses to Urban Air Pollution in Jerusalem, Israel. LURIA, M., VINIG, Z. and PELEG, M. J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 1984, 34(8), pp. 828–831. A survey of the contribution of city buses to the total emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants reveals that buses are one of the main sources for nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Contribution of buses to carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels was insignificant as compared to petrol-powered private cars. Possible vehicular restrictions in downtown districts are examined. (9 references.) (19) Lead in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Urban Dust. NASRALLA, M. M. (Air Pollution Laboratory, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt). Environ. Pollut. B, Chem. Phys. 1984, 8(2), pp. 133–142. Street and playground dusts are potentially significant sources of Pb for children in urban communities. Their importance as sources of Pb intake in typical urban areas has not been sufficiently assessed. This investigation indicated that proximity to traffic played a direct role in the accumulation of high Pb concentrations in the dust of streets and playgrounds. (20) A Preliminary Analysis of the Inhalable Particulate Lead in the Ambient Atmosphere of the City of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. ELSHOBOKSKY, M.S. (Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University). Atmos. Environ. (UK) 1984, 18(10), pp. 2125–2130. The inhalable particles in the ambient atmosphere in the city of Riyadh were sampled during the working day (7.00– 16.00 h) over the test period. The average concentration of Pb during the working day was approximately twice the international standards. The concentration decreased during the weekends (Thursday and Friday) due to the reduction in traffic loads, and decreased to a minimum on Fridays when most industrial activities were stopped. More than 70% of the Pb fluxes passed by the sampler were associated with wind from east-southeast to south, which was the direction of the city centre and the industrial site of Riyadh. (21) Environmental Lead Exposure of an Urban Indian Population. KHANDEKAR, R.N. et al. (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Air Monitoring Section, Bombay, India). Sci. Total Environ.

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1984, 40, pp. 269–278. Environmental lead exposure of the Greater Bombay population has been estimated by measuring lead concentrations in air particulates, water, food and cigarette smoke. (22) Lead Pollution in the Air of an Urban Area. KOBAYASHI, Y. (Faculty of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan). Kanagawa-ken Taiki Osen Chosa Kenkyu Hokoku 1984, 26, pp. 105–112. (In Japanese.) (23) Study on Lead Pollution of Taiwan Area National Freeway. LU, S. et al. (Taiwan Provincial Bureau of Environmental Protection, Taiwan). Huan Ching Pao Hu (Taipei) 1985, 8(1), pp. 5–14. Examines soil pollution caused by lead emissions from vehicular traffic exhausts.

3. Biological and Ecological Effects of Lead

3.1 EFFECTS ON HUMANS (1) Human Health Consequences due to Lead Exposure from Automobile Emissions. United States Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1976; various pagings. Looks at environmental transport and transformation of automotive emitted lead, relationship between exposure to lead and health effects in humans, lead toxicity, and emission control devices and fuel lead additives replacements. (2) Lead Pollution—Health Effects; Proceedings of the Symposium held in London, April 1978. STEPHENS, R., WIBBERLEY, D. and DAVID, O. Conservation Society, 1978, 47 pp. Three papers cover: The total relationship between airborne lead and body lead burdens; Placental lead levels in normal and still-births; and Sub-clinical effects of lead on children. (3) Does Lead Equate to Dead? McCARTHY, M. Motor 1979, 156(4014), pp. 66–67. Professor Bryce-Smith, a leading protagonist against the use of lead in petrol, is interviewed. Current research into the effects of pollution from motor vehicles is outlined. (4) Trace Metals Exposure and Health Effects—Proceedings of the Research Seminar Held at the University of Surrey, July 1978. FERRANTE, E.D. (ed.). Pergamon, Oxford, 1979, 262 pp. Includes papers on air pollution caused by lead in exhaust emissions. (5) Analysis of the Effects of Lead in Tissue upon Human Health using Dose-Response Relationships: A Technical Report. O’BRIEN, B.J. and PIOTROWSKI, J.K. (Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre). MARC, 1980, 88 pp, MARC Report 17. (Part of progress reports in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 1: Lead: MARC Reports numbers 16–18.)

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49

(6) Low-level Lead Exposure: the Clinical Implications of Current Research. NEEDLEMAN, H.L. Raven Press, New York, 1980, 322 pp. Lead in the human environment, its impact on health and the nature and direction of appropriate remedies: sections cover population studies of low-level lead exposure; animal investigations of low-level lead exposure; and public health, economic and legislative implications of that exposure. (7) The Impact of Air Lead on Blood Lead in Man—a Critique of the Recent Literature. O’FLAHERTY, E.J., HAMMOND, P.B. and GARTSIDE, P.S. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 1981, 19, pp. 631– 638. Observed blood lead/air lead relationship is compared with the relationships predicted by applying the two kinetic models which have been proposed to describe lead disposition in man. Implications are discussed. (8) Blood Lead and Zinc Protoporphyrin Concentrations in Roadside Workers Employed in Areas of High Traffic Density. TAYLOR, A. (Robens Institute, University of Surrey). Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982, 25(4), pp. 439–442. Lead and zinc protoporphyrin concentrations have been measured in blood samples taken from local government manual employees working out of doors in areas where traffic density is high. The blood lead concentrations were not significantly different from those obtained from a control group. The distribution of blood lead concentrations met the criteria judged as acceptable for the general population by the EEC. The results indicate that continuous exposure during working hours, to airborne lead at concentrations of up to 4 µg/ m3, does not represent a hazard to the health of these particular workers. (9) Lead and Human Reproduction. WYNN, A. and WYNN, M. CLEAR, London, 1982, 26 pp. Reviews research which suggests that exposure to lead may reduce human fertility, cause miscarriage or still-birth, and cause disease or birth defects in children. Distribution of blood lead levels in the British population; the modulation of the effects of lead by use of various nutrients; the modulation of the mutagenicity of lead by calcium; and possible ways to protect human reproduction against the effects of lead are discussed. (10) Lead Levels Determined in Swedish Permanent Teeth by Particle-induced X-ray Emission. MOELLER, B. et al. (Department of Endodontology, Tandlaekarhoegskolan, Sweden). Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1982, 8(4), pp. 267–272. The determination of lead in permanent teeth is a useful measure of past exposure in early childhood, since these teeth are mineralised in early childhood. The purpose of this study, which used the PIXE

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technique, was to survey the average level of lead in the coronal dentin of permanent bicuspid teeth collected in three places representing Swedish urban and rural areas. In addition teeth from the New York City area were analysed. (11) Methodological Problems in Studying and Assessing the Effect of Environmental Pollution on the Reproductive Function of Women and Population Reproduction. GOLUBEV, I.R. et al. (A.N.Sysin Institute of General Public Hygiene, Academy of Medical Sciences, of the USSR, Moscow, USSR). Gigiena i Sanitariya (USSR) 1982, 4, pp. 74–76. (In Russian.) Changes in the reproductive function of women and deviation in the health state of newborns due to atmospheric pollution caused by emissions from a metallurgic plant were studied. The women, aged 18–35, had no history of chronic somatic diseases and did not come in contact with chemical substances but lived in the pollution zone, a large highly urbanised industrial centre, a modern industrial city and a populated rural town. In the first two cases lead pollution came from industrial and car emissions. (12) Toxicity of Ingested Lead: a Mathematical Theory. JAGASIA, M.H. and DOLLIMORE, J. Int. Environ. Safety 1982, 38, 39 pp. Proposes a logarithmic growth model for lead in the bloodstream which enables comparisons between parts per million ingested and resultant blood concentrations. Medical examinations based on the model might enable the detection of toxicity before its effects become too serious. (13) Blood Lead and the Symptoms of Lead Absorption. KING, E., WILLIAMS, M.K. and WALFORD, J. (Chloride Auto Batteries). Br. J. Ind. Med. 1983, 40(3), pp. 285–292. Report of an investigation of blood lead levels in workers employed for more than 6 months by Chloride Automotive Batteries Limited at a factory making lead acid batteries and plastics. Each man completed a modified Cornell medical index health questionnaire and blood lead and erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EPP) were measured. (14) Changes in Blood Lead Concentrations in Women in Wales, 1972– 82. ELWOOD, P.C. Br. Med. J. 1983, 286, pp. 1553– 1555. Presents methods and results of a survey of blood lead concentrations of adult women in Wales which show a fall of over 30% since 1972. During the same period the amount of lead in petrol has changed little, but general traffic flow has steadily increased. Discusses levels of lead in water and food. (15) Lead Levels in Whole Blood of an Adult Population Group from Rome. PALLOTTI, G. Sci. Total Environ. 1983, 31(1), pp. 81–87. Report on blood lead levels of 801 adult non-

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occupationally exposed subjects from Rome. The investigation was carried out according to EEC Directive No. 77/312 with acceptable quality control of analytical data. Good correlations were found between lead blood levels and age, sex and smoking habits, but no correlation was found in relation to drinking habits, residence and other variables which were examined. In the present survey all the three EEC reference levels were observed. (Author’s abstract.) (16) Lead versus Health: Sources and Effects of Low-level Lead Exposure.RUTTER, M. and RUSSELL JONES, R.Wiley, Chichester, 1983, 379 pp. Looks at the association between blood lead concentration and lead levels in petrol in the light of new research findings in the United Kingdom, United States and Europe. Discusses methodology used for measuring lead in the environment, legislation and control on an international basis, and the specific disease syndromes, both physical and psychological, associated with lead exposure in adults and children, (17) Environmental Significance of Trace Elements in Human Hair—a Case Study from Sri Lanka. DISSANAYAKE, C.B. et al. (Environmental Geochemical Research Group, Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka). Int. J. Environ. Stud. 1984, 23(1), pp. 41–48. A study of the trace element contents of human hair obtained from people from different parts of Sri Lanka indicates elemental abundance variations due to environmental factors. The 15–25-year age group had the highest trace element contents. The lead contents correlated very well with the levels of lead pollution in the ambient air, particularly in the case of people living close to highways. (18) Greater Contribution to Blood Lead from Water than from Air. ELWOOD, P.C. et al. (MRC Epidemiology Unit, Cardiff). Nature, 1984, 310(5973), pp. 138–140. In order to evaluate the contribution to blood lead by various environmental sources, the authors have conducted surveys of random samples of women in areas of Wales chosen to represent very different levels of exposure to traffic. They report here that lead in air makes a small, but significant, contribution to blood lead but there is no evidence of any contribution from dust. Although in none of the areas were high levels of lead detected in water, water emerges as an important contributor to blood lead. (19) Lead in Petrol and Levels of Lead in Blood: Scientific Evidence and Social Policy. ELWOOD, P.C. and GALLACHER, J.E.J. (MRC Epidemiology Unit, Cardiff). J.Epidemiol. Commun. Health (Engl.) 1984, 38(4), pp. 315–318. Considers two aspects of

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the recent controversy about the health consequences of Pb in petrol. The evidence was deficient, because the basic epidemiological principles of representative sampling, realistic measurement and control of confounding variables were not followed so that valid conclusions were not drawn from most of the published studies. The role of science appeared to be compromised by confusion between science per se and social policy. Relations between the two were explored, and confusing them reduced the contribution that science made to effective social policy. (20) Lead in Umbilical Blood, Indoor Air, Tap Water and Gasoline in Boston. RABINOWITZ, M. et al. Arch. Environ. Health 1984, 39(4), pp. 299–301. A study involving measurements of some 500 births per month, air quality at 12 sites per month, and tap water lead on 24 occasions per month was carried out between March 1980 and April 1981. A strong statistical correlation was found among the monthly average of lead concentrations in umbilical cord blood, indoor air and petrol lead sales. Tap water lead variations did not correlate with blood lead in the study population. (21) A Case-Control Study of Diesel Exhaust Exposure and Bladder Cancer. WYNDER, E.L. et al. (Mahoney Institute for Health Maintenance, American Health Foundation, 320 East 43rd Street, New York, New York 10017). Environ. Res. 1985, 37, pp. 475–489. The relationship between bladder cancer and employment in occupations involving exposure to diesel exhaust was examined using data from a hospital-based case-control study of men aged 20 to 80 years in 18 hospitals in six US cities, from January 1981 to May 1983. In this analysis 194 cases and 582 controls were compared according to occupation, smoking history, alcohol and coffee consumption, and various demographic variables. No difference was found in the proportion of bladder cancer cases employed in occupations with exposure to diesel exhaust compared to controls. This relationship did not change after taking smoking habits into account. (22) Specific Activity of 210-Pb and Historic Changes of Lead Levels. JAWOROWSKI, Z. et al. Atmos. Environ. 1986, 20(1), pp. 223–234. Discussion of previous papers by Russell Jones and Chamberlain’s reply in Atmospheric Environment in 1983, vol. 17. Comments on changes in bone lead with time, and global lead distribution incorporating the impact of automotive exhausts. (60 references.) (23) Modeling Population Exposures to Airborne Lead (Chemical Characterisation and Personal Exposure).

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SPENGLER, J.D. et al. (Harvard University, US). In, WHO et al., 3rd International Indoor Air Quality and Climate Conference, Stockholm, 20–24 Aug. 1984, vol. 4, pp. 87–94. A modelling exercise analysing lead blood level trends vs ambient air Pb concentrations and leaded gasoline sales suggests the importance of actual personal exposures. Modelled exposures for men in a Pb isotope experiment conducted in Turin, Italy, provide a better fit to the data than results relying only on ambient concentrations. Suggests that direct measurements of personal Pb and in-vehicle Pb concentrations are needed. The few measurements made to date indicate that in-transit exposure may be several times greater than the fixed location ambient concentrations. (23 references.) (24) Effect of Airborne Lead on Blood Lead. CHAMBERLAIN, A. C. (Environmental and Medical Sciences Division, AERE, Harwell, Didcot, Oxon, UK). Atmos. Environ. 1983, 17(4), pp. 677– 692. The relation between uptake of lead and the level in blood (PbB) is curvilinear, but it is not certain whether this is true for all levels of intake, or only when PbB exceeds some value. Volunteers have been exposed to enhanced air lead (PbA) and epidemiological studies of the relation between PbB and PbA have been made. From these, the slope of the curve of PbB vs PbA can be estimated. Tracer experiments using radioactive or stable isotopes of lead can be used to derive the contribution of PbA to PbB. Because the response is curvilinear, the fractional contribution of PbA to PbB is greater than the slope of the curve. (Author’s abstract.) 3.1.1 Effects on children (1) An Investigation into the Environment of an Urban School. ROBSON, L. Environ. Health 1977, 85(4), pp. 96–99. The methods, results and evaluation are described of a survey carried out by the City of Bristol Environmental Health Department into the effects of traffic-generated air pollution and noise on the health of primary school children. (2) Biochemistry of Lead in the Environment; Part B: Biological Effects. NRIAGU, J.O. Elsevier-North Holland Biomedical, Amsterdam, 1978, 397 pp. Examines the whole issue of lead poisoning via lead pollution in the environment. (3) The Health Effects of Lead on Children: a Review of Literature Published since 1976. Conservation Society Pollution Working Party. Conservation Society, Sept. 1978, 28 pp. A

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memorandum to the Department of the Environment proposing, among other measures, the reduction of lead levels in petrol. (4) Mental Health Effects of Lead on Children. Ambio 1978, 7 (5/6), pp. 192–203. Includes some data on the effects of the proximity of the M6 motorway interchange at Gravelly Hill in Birmingham to children. (5) Deficits in Psychologic and Classroom Performance of Children with Elevated Dentine Lead Levels. NEEDLEMAN, H.L. N.Engl. J. Med. 1979, 300(13), pp. 689–695. (6) Lead Burden of Sydney Schoolchildren. FREEMAN, P., GAMYS, V.P. and SMYTHE, L.E. Kensington, NSW: University of New South Wales, Jan. 1979, 2 vols plus Appendix 15 on microfiches. (7) Lead Concentrations in the Blood of Children in the Vicinity of a Sulfide-ore Smelting Plant; an Evaluation of the Influence of Various Sources of Lead in the Children’s Environment. REHNLUND, S. et al. (Boliden Metall AB, Sweden). Ambio 1979, 8(2–3), pp. 118–121. Lead concentrations in the whole venous blood of 55 children, aged 1–4 and 7–14 years, who live in the vicinity of a sulphide-ore smelting plant in northern Sweden were surveyed. Examinations included the relationship of blood lead concentrations to environmental factors—place of residence, proximity of residence to roads and to the smelter traffic intensity near home; PICA (the eating of dirt); orality (the children’s tendency to put things in their mouths); and the occurrence of lead at the workplaces of family members. Lead concentration in the children’s blood was low, both absolutely and comparatively. None of the environmental variables investigated appeared to have influenced the concentrations of lead in the children’s blood. (26 references.) (8) Raised Lead Levels and Impaired Cognitive/Behavioural Functioning: a Review of the Evidence. RUTTER, M. Heinemann/Spastics International Medical Publications, 1980, 26 pp. (Devel. Med. Child Neurol., 22(1), Suppl. 42.) (9) Concentrations of Lead in the Tissues of Children. BARRY, P.S. I. (Associated Octel Company Ltd.). Br. J.Indust. Med. 1981, 38(1), pp. 61–71. Study of 24 tissues from 73 children and infants, including stillbirths, indicates that there is little difference in the sensitivity of children and adults to lead. There is probably an element of placental function that reduces transfer of lead. (10) Human Exposure to Lead from Motor Vehicle Emissions. STEPHENS, R. Int. J.Environ. Stud. 1981, 17(1), pp. 78–83. Studies on the effects of exhaust emissions on lead levels in young children, pregnant women and others are reviewed.

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(11) Airborne Lead at Low Levels and the Threat to Children. RUSSELL JONES, R. (St John’s Hospital, London). Clear (Newspaper of the Campaign for Lead-Free Air) 1982/83, 1, pp. 4–6. Review of research being carried out to demonstrate the effects of lead on children’s classroom behaviour and IQ. 31 useful references from the medical, neuropharmacological and behavioural fields. (12) Blood Lead Concentrations in Pre-school Children in Birmingham. Department of the Environment/Steering Committee on Environmental Lead in Birmingham. DOE, London, 1982, 59 pp. Identifies a clear concentration of individuals with higher than usual blood lead levels among pre-school children of the Asian communities living in inner Birmingham. These levels are associated with raised dust lead concentrations in the children’s homes, possibly associated with lead in old paintwork. Confirms that children’s personal habits may determine the degree of exposure. (Graphs.) (13) A Comparison of Five Toxic Metals among Rural and Urban Children. HENNIGAN, C., FOLIO, M.R. and ERRERA, J. Environ. Pollut. A. 1982, 29(4), pp. 261–269. Levels of lead and cadmium were found to be significantly higher in the urban groups, whilst the rural groups had a higher mean arsenic level. No significant difference was found between the two groups for nickel and mercury. Sources of exposure for rural and urban groups are discussed, and it is concluded that metals can be elevated in combinations, thus possibly increasing their harmful effects. (14) The Relationship of Environmental Lead to Blood Lead Levels in Children. STARK, A.D. Environ. Res. 1982, 27(2), pp. 372–383. Multiple regression modelling indicated that the most important causes of variation in children’s blood lead levels were soil lead and exterior house paint lead. Using the best five-variable model only 11.7% of the variation could be explained, suggesting availability of lead in the residential environment did not account for most of the variation observed. (15) Urban Lead—a Study of Environmental Lead and its Significance to Schoolchildren in the Vicinity of a Major Trunk Road. MILLAR, I.B. and COONEY, P.A. (Department of Consumer Protection and Environmental Health, London Borough of Greenwich). Atmos. Environ. 1982, 16(3), pp. 615–620. Measurements of children’s blood lead levels were ascertained in relation to lead in air and lead in dust attributed to an inner London arterial highway carrying about 35 000 vehicles per day.

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The contribution of lead from deteriorating paintwork was also examined. (16) Contribution of Lead in Dust to Children’s Blood Lead. DUGGAN, M.J. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). Environ. Health Persp. 1983, 50, pp. 371–381. Proposes that ingestion of urban dust via dirty hands gives rise to a significant intake of lead during early childhood and calls for a lead-in-dust standard. (58 references.) (17) The Effects of Lead Exposure on Urban Children: the Institute of Child Health/Southampton Study. SMITH, M. (Institute of Child Health). Spastics International Medical Publications, 1983, 54 pp., diagrams, graphs, tables. (Devel Med. Child Neurol. Oct. 1983, 25(5), Suppl. 47.) (18) Functional Disturbances in Lead Exposed Children. ODENBRO, A. Ambio 1983, 12(1), pp. 40–44. Details a study to determine the relationship between blood lead levels and psychological abilities in children aged 3–6 living in poor urban areas. Using two psychological assessment methods both perceptual visual-motor performance and verbal productivity were shown to decline significantly at concentrations of 06 µmol Pb/1 and above. (21 notes and references.) (19) Lead Scandal: the Fight to Save Children from Damage by Lead in Petrol. WILSON, D. (Campaign for Lead-Free Air) Heinemann, London, 1983, 182 pp. Discusses the addition of lead to petrol to boost its octane rating, and the large accumulation of lead in the environment. Its effects as a neurotoxin are discussed and how children are much more vulnerable than adults to its health effects. Shows how the United States and Japan are trying to eliminate lead from petrol despite the opposition of the petroleum industry. (20) Low-level Lead Exposure in Childhood Influences Neuropsychological Performance. MARECEK, J. (University of Pennsylvania). Arch. Environ. Health 1983, 38(6), pp. 355–359. Cumulative lead exposure in 193 inner city black children was assessed by measuring lead concentrations in milk teeth. It was found to be comparable with that found in other studies of inner city low-income children. Neuropsychological tests showed an association between elevated lead levels and deficiencies in visualmotor functioning, perceptual integration, right-left orientation, and verbal abstraction. Possible alternative genetic and socioeconomic explanations for performance proved significant. (31 references.) (21) Blood Lead, Behaviour and Intelligence Test Performance in Preschool Children. HARVEY, P.G. Sci. Total

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Environ. 1984, 40(1), pp. 45–60. Various measures of behaviour and cognitive performance were made for a group of children and their parents, and blood samples were analysed. The relationship between blood lead and intelligence was found to be small and statistically non-significant after controlling for other factors affecting cognitive performance. (33 references.) (22) Blood Lead Levels in Schoolchildren in Relation to Industrial Emission and Automobile Exhausts. SCHUTZ, A. Ambio 1984, 13(2), pp. 115–117. Data are presented from a study of blood lead levels in groups of Swedish children living round a smelter in Landskrona, in urban districts without significant lead pollution, and in rural areas. Special attention is paid to the effects of sex, age, blood haemoglobin levels, parental occupation, hobbies possibly involving lead exposure, and time factors. (51 references.) (23) Lead and Children’s Health: Recent Research and Further Questions. HARVEY, P.G. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 1984, 25(4), pp. 517–522. Looks at recent studies concerned with the effect on children’s health of lead at body-burdens well below the accepted levels for poisoning. Generally they support the view that there is no significant relationship between the body-burden of lead and various indicators of behaviour and cognitive performance, once certain social factors are taken into account. However, there are important issues in the debate still to be resolved. (37 references.) (24) The Relationship between Air Lead and Blood Lead in Children: a Critical Review. BRUNEKREEF, B. Sci. Total Environ. 1984, 38(1), pp. 79–123. Reviews 19 studies from 10 different countries including Italy, West Germany, the Netherlands, the United States, Canada, Belgium and Czechoslovakia. Concludes that, on the basis of these results, it is not possible to make a reliable quantitative estimate of the air lead/blood lead relationship in children because of the variety of pathways through which they absorb lead. The use of multiple indicators of lead pollution is thus advisable. (145 references.) (25) The Edinburgh Lead Study: Aspects of Design and Progress. RAAB, G.M. et al. Statistician 1985, 34(1), pp, 45–57. A cross-sectional survey of schoolchildren in central Edinburgh aims to ascertain whether there is an association between exposure to low levels of environmental lead and performance on psychological tests. Includes an investigation into the children’s environmental sources of lead. This involves taking samples of water and dust from their homes and schools. The design of the

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study and progress so far, half-way through the data collection, are described. (Diagrams, references.) (26) Environmental Lead and Children’s Intelligence: a Review of Recent Epidemiological Studies. POCOCK, S.J. and ASHBY, D. Statistician 1985, 34(1), pp. 31–44. A critical review of studies published in the USA, UK and Germany, emphasising the methodological problems of such studies. Detailed further analysis of a study of tooth lead and IQ in 402 London children reinforces the conclusion that there is no evidence that moderately elevated tooth lead levels are associated with lower IQs after allowance for confounding factors. (Diagrams, references, tables.) (27) Identification of Lead in Children’s Blood Using Isotopic Analysis. TERA, O. et al. (Howard University, Washington). Arch. Environ. Health 1985, 40(2), pp. 120–123. The isotopic composition and concentrations of lead in the blood of 14 young children in Washington DC were measured using mass spectrometric analysis, and the isotopic composition of lead in ambient air was also determined for the sampling period. The results show a minimum contribution of recent petrol lead ranging from 0 to 57% of the blood-lead burden. (10 references.) (28) Lead in Water, Infant Diet and Blood: the Glasgow Duplicate Diet. LACEY, R.F. et al. Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 41(3), pp. 235– 257. Describes the Glasgow Duplicate Diet Study, which investigated the effect of lead in drinking water on the blood-lead level of Glasgow babies, and was carried out in 1979–80 on behalf of the DOE and the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. (Diagrams, references, tables.) (29) A Survey of Lead in the Primary School Environment. Avon, Gloucestershire and Somerset Environmental Monitoring Committee, 1985, 40 pp., tables. Outlines the methodology of the survey, sampling methods and analytical methods. Results obtained and conclusions drawn from tests of air, dust, water and paintwork in schools, and from road traffic flow measurements in the vicinity, are detailed. (30) Lead in Playground Dust and on the Hands of Schoolchildren. DUGGAN, M.J. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch), and others. Sci. Total Environ. 1985, 44(1), pp. 65–79. Measurements of the quantity of lead on the hands of schoolchildren and of the concentration of lead in dust from school playgrounds have been carried out; the hand-lead was collected by wiping with a moist tissue. When hand-lead and dust-lead values were averaged for each school, a statistically significant relationship between the two sets of means was obtained. Some limited measurements of size distribution of the dust particles on

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the children’s wipes were also made; these indicated that most of the particles were less than 10 µm in diameter. (31) Omaha Childhood Blood Lead and Environmental Lead: a Linear Total Exposure Model. ANGLE, C.R. et al. Environ. Res. 1984, 35, pp. 160–170. The majority of experimental and population studies of blood lead (PbB) and environmental lead, including the Omaha study, have utilised the Goldsmith-Hexter log-log or power function model. Comparison was made of the loglog model and a linear model of total exposure to describe the Omaha Study of 1074 PbBs from children aged 1–18 years as related to air (PbA), soil (PbS), and house dust (PbD) lead. The data fit of the linear model was statistically equivalent to the power model and the predicted curves were biologically more plausible. (32) Second International Conference on Prospective Studies of Lead, Cincinnati, Ohio, 9–11 April 1984. BORNSCHEIN, R.L. and RABINOWITZ, M.B. Environ. Res. 1985, 38 (1), pp. 1–210. Follow-up to the first conference in 1982 concentrating on the nature of lead’s impact on child development. Most papers focus on the interval between early stages of pregnancy and 1 year of postnatal development, and between them cover study design, influence of socioeconomic factors and environmental factors on blood lead levels, data analysis for model building, and the effects of lead exposure on outcome measures. (Several hundred references.) (33) Indicators of Exposure to Lead in the Urine of Preschool Children. CZARNOWSKI, W. et al. (Zakl. Chem. Toksykol. Akad. Med. Gdansk Pol.). Bromotol Chem. Toksykol. 1985, 18(2), pp. 121– 124. (In Polish.) Compares lead poisoning in children from high versus low traffic flows in urban areas. (34) Lead Poisoning in Children. BOECKX, R.L. (Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children’s Hospital, National Medical Center, Washington DC). Analyt. Chem. 1986, 58(2), pp. 274A– 288A (except advert pages). Broad review of the sources of lead poisoning of children and the effects on child development. Includes comment on lead used in petrol production on NHANES 11 blood lead levels. (19 references.)

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3.2 EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEMS 3.2.1 Effects on plant life (1) Lead Content of Blades of Acer platanoides as an Indicator of the Traffic-Caused Lead Pollution in the City Limits of Munich. HAMPP, R. Berichte der Bayerischen Botanischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung der Heimischen Flora (West Germany), 1974, 44, pp. 211–219. Considers effects of airborne lead on the leaves of trees and hedges in an urban environment with high traffic densities. (2) Rapid Deterioration of the Pine Forest in the Abu-Gosh Gulch: Possible Involvement of Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles. GALE, J. and EASTON, J. (Hebrew University of Jerusalem). Presented at Israel Ecological Society 6th Scientific Conference, Tel-Aviv, 4–5 June 1975, pp. 64–71. Several factors point to involvement of vehicle air pollution. The onset of the symptoms coincided with increase in traffic through the Gulch; symptoms are similar to those described in California for vehicle emission-affected pines; high altitude and clear dry air of the region result in high ultraviolet radiation, which induces formation of ozone and PbNx, the main suspect pollutants from motor exhaust gases; and conditions of hot air temperature and temperature inversion, which induce high pollution levels, are also frequent. (8 references.) (3) Lead, Sodium and Zinc Concentrations in Conifer Needles as an Indicator of Traffic-induced Environment Pollution. BRUEGGEMANN, J. and BOEHNCKE, E. Weiner Tieraerztliche Monatsschrift (Austria) 1975, 62(6–8), pp. 209–213. (4) Experimental Ecological Genetics in Plantago, Part 2: Lead Tolerance in Plantago lanceolate and Cynodon dactylon from a roadside. WU, L. and ANTONOVICS, J. Ecology 1976, 57 (1), pp. 205–208. (5) On the Influence of Traffic Emissions on Grasses. SCHAEFER, K. and WEGENER, H.-R. (Inst. Gruenlandwirtsch. Futerbau, Justus-Liebig-Univ., Giessen). Wirtschaftseigene Futter (West Germany) 1977, 23(3–4), pp. 209–216. (In German.) The influence of traffic emissions on growth and some constituents of Lolium perenne L. as affected by the distance from the road edge was studied. The yield sharply declined towards the road, reduced by increasing traffic density. On ensiling undesired types of fermentation occurred. Pb concentrations increased 3to 15-fold.

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(6) Lead Uptake by Seedlings of Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens. WARD, N.I., ROBERTS, E. and BROOKS, R.R. (Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Massey University, New Zealand). NZ J. Sci. 1977, 20(3), pp. 311–316. The effect of Pb on seedlings of perennial ryegrass and white clover was investigated by a series of pot trials using a sterile silica sand substrate with varying amounts of added Pb. In both cases, significant uptake did not occur until 12 weeks after germination. High Pb levels in the substrate reduced plant height. A content of 500 µg/g was sufficient to cause a 50% reduction in height. Germination of seeds of both species was retarded by high Pb levels in the substrate. When applied to the situation of pasture species growing adjacent to busy thoroughfares, the data indicate that ryegrass has a greater tolerance to Pb than clover. Difficulties in maintaining the clover component in pastures adjacent to busy roadways can be anticipated. (7) Effect of Air Pollution Caused by Traffic on Peroxidase Activity, on ATP Formation in Isolated Chloroplasts and on Growth of Corn. FLUECKIGER, W. et al. (Botany Institute, University of Basel, Switzerland). J.Plant Dis. Prot. (West Germany) 1978, 85(1), pp. 41–47. (In German.) Potted maize plants were exposed in the vicinity of a highway at distances of 2, 12, 42 and 186 m. Pb was collected by moss filters and subsequently analysed. There was an approximately exponential decrease of Pb in the filters with distance from the highway. At a distance of 10 m from the border, Pb content was reduced to 1/3. Peroxidase activity in plants of 2 m and 12 m distance showed a significant increase compared to the activity in plants at 42 m and 186 m distance. ATP formation in isolated chloroplasts and growth showed an increasing inhibition with decreasing distance from the highway; however, plants up to 2 m away were most inhibited. It is supposed that a gradual decrease of air pollution relative to dust and exhaust gases in the vicinity of the highway is responsible for these effects. (8) Biochemical Changes in Young Birches in the Vicinity of a Highway. FLUECKIGER, W. et al. (Botany Institute, University of Basel, Switzerland). Europ. Z.Forstpathol. (West Germany) 1978, 8 (3), pp. 154–163. (In German.) The potted trees were exposed on the border of a highway at distances of 10 and 40 m. After 3 months leaves were collected and their content of free amino acids, phenols, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, β-carotene, reducing sugars and ascorbic acid were determined. At the same time lead was collected by moss filters (Sphagnum) and subsequently analysed. The observed biochemical changes in plants suggested

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that exhaust gases exerted most influence, and that traffic wind perhaps increases the effects of gases on plants near the highway border. (9) The Contents of Lead, Cadmium and Chlorine in Needles of Picea excelsa caused by Air Pollution of Motor Vehicles in the High Tatras, Czechoslovakia. MANKOVSKA, B. (Forest Research Institute, Czechoslovakia). Biologia (Czech.) 1978, 33 (10), pp. 775–780. (In English.) Pb and Cd in the needles of Picea excelsa were determined by atomic absorption, that of Cl by the mercurometric method. The contents of Pb, which were 10–100 times, that of Cd, 11–17 times, and that of Cl, 2–6 times higher than in comparative localities without the air pollution were statistically significant at the level of 0.1% and 5%. (10) The Impact of Road Traffic on Plants: Proceedings of a Symposium, 11–13 Sept. 1978. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, UK. Crowthorne UK, TRRL SR513, 1979, 11, 127. Looks at the establishment of plants on roadside verges and embankments, the effects of pollution on vegetation and the possibilities of using plants to alleviate the effects of the motor vehicle. (11) Effect of Rain on Lead Levels in Roadside Vegetation in Hong Kong. HO, Y.B. and TAI, K.M. (University of Hong Kong). Bull. Env. Contam. Toxicol. 1979, 23(4–5), pp. 658–660. Lead contamination in roadside vegetation takes the form of deposits of lead particles on plant surfaces. A study was initiated to determine the extent to which rain affects the level of lead in roadside plants in Hong Kong, and results indicate that rain could bring about great and rapid fluctuations in lead levels. (11 references.) (12) The Deposition of Lead and Zinc from Traffic Pollution on Two Roadside Shrubs. FLANAGAN, J.T. et al. (Paisley College of Technology, Scotland). Environ. Pollut. Ser B Chem. Phys. (UK) 1980, 1(1), pp. 71–78. Bramble and rhododendron leaves and twigs were collected and washed in a variety of chemicals of which the most efficient was 2NH4 EDTA. Large amounts of Pb and Zn accumulated on the surfaces of leaves, and bramble leaves collected more than rhododendron leaves. Zn was deposited on leaves and twigs in similar quantities to Pb. (13) Age-specific Lead Distribution in Xylem Rings of Three Tree Genera in Atlanta, Georgia. BAES, C.F. and RAGSDALE, H.L. (Environmental Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory). Environ. Pollut. B. (UK) 1981, 2(1), pp. 21–35. Lead in xylem from Liriodendron tulipifera, Quercus alba, and Carya spp. trees growing near a road and in a forest was measured by atomic

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absorption graphite fluorescence techniques. Carya had the highest xylem lead and was the only species sensitive to low-level, post-1923 lead exposures. Evidence of lead movement among rings was found in Carya and Liriodendron. (14) Lead Content of an Epiphytic Lichen in the Urban Area of Kuopio, East Central Finland. TAKALA, K. and OLKKONEN, H. (Provinc. Gov. Kuopio, Hallit uskatu). Ann. Botanici Fennici 1981, 18(2), pp. 85–89. The epiphytic lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L) Nyl., growing on birch and pine, was analysed for lead by the Pu-238 excited Si(Li) semiconductor detector X-ray fluorescence method. The lead content of the lichen correlated with the traffic density. Lead accumulation in the lichen was considered in relation to the distance from the nearest road or street, the shelter effect, the phorophyte species and the level of sulphur dioxide. (15) Effect of Heavy Metal Pollution on Plants. Volume 1: Effects of Trace Metals on Plant Function. LEPP, N. Applied Science Publishers, London, 1981, 352 pp. (Pollution Monitoring Series). (16) Factors Controlling the Lead Content of a Pasture Grass. CRUMP, D.R. and BARLOW, P.J. (University of Birmingham, UK). Environ. Pollut. B 1982, 2(2), pp. 181–193. Presents a study of the mechanisms determining lead content of perennial ryegrass pasture in both a contaminated roadside environment and at a rural background site. The rate of deposition of atmospheric lead to moss bags showed a marked seasonal variation at both sites. Atmospheric lead is the major source of lead to pasture at both sites in winter. Plant growth processes determine a maximum level of lead in pasture for a given rate of deposition. (23 references.) (17) Trees Indicate Decreased Lead Pollution Along New Jersey Highways. KAZIMIR, J., CLARKE, B. and BRENNAN, E. (Rutgers State University, New Jersey). J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 1982, 32(9), pp. 957–958. In the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station laboratory there has been a continuing interest in the heavy metal content of roadside trees. In support of the hypothesis that trees might serve as an effective sink for undesirable pollutants, measurements have been made of the heavy metal content of foliage in eight tree species growing adjacent to roadways where traffic volume ranged from <25 to 60 000 vehicles/24 h. (18) Lead in Roadside Mosses: a Survey in Northern Scotland. PETERS, E.M. Clear (Newspaper of the Campaign for Lead-Free Air) 1983, 3, 10 pp. Brief but succinct paper claiming

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that lead levels in mosses in and around urban areas were found to be 9 times higher than levels in remote areas. (19) Yearly Trends in Cadmium and Lead Content of Roadside Trees in New Jersey, USA. KAZIMIR, J., CLARKE, B. and BRENNAN, E. (Rutgers State University, New Jersey). Phytopathology (USA) 1983, 73(2). See also 3.2.1(17). (20) Assessing the Impacts on Plants of Major Highway Developments. COLWILL, D.M. and THOMPSON, J.R. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). (In, Planning and Ecology, edited by R.D. and T.M.Roberts, pp. 269–279.) Chapman and Hall, London, 1984, xii + 464 pp., illustrations. Includes comment and analysis on vehicle exhaust pollution. (21) Lead Accumulation in the Needles of Taxus baccata in the Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany, Emission Area. LOTSCHERT, W. and GROSCH, S. Acta. Oecol. Plant. 1984, 5(1), pp. 39–48. (In German.) Pb contents of needles from an area with little contamination (natural yew location) were compared with those typical for Frankfurt. Accumulation of Pb was at least 10fold higher in the Frankfurt area. Analysis of the first three ageclasses of needles showed a linear accumulation of Pb. There was a slight non-linear accumulation during the first year, possibly caused by higher emission-sensibility of young needles. The amount of rainfall had a distinct influence; with increasing precipitation Pb concentration also increased. (22) Vegetation as Indicator of Environmental Pollution. COLE, M. M. and SMITH, R.F. (Brighton Polytechnic). Inst. Br. Geog. Trans. 1984, 9(4), pp. 477–493. Discusses the sources of toxic conditions in the soil, both natural and man-made, and the use of indicator plants as a means of assessing soil characteristics. Examples of communities of indicator plants occupying naturally toxic ground over recently discovered copper, lead/zinc and nickel deposits in Africa, Australia and Britain are given, and the presence of the same species over contaminated land in areas of Australia and Europe is noted. (35 references.) (23) Contamination of Roadside Vegetation with Lead, Cadmium and Zinc. FYTIANOS, K. et al (Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece). Chemosphere (Engl.), 1985, 14(3–4), pp. 271–278. (In English.) A study of leaf injury attributed to metal pollution by motor vehicles. (24) The Effect of Coating Polymers on Accumulation of Airborne Heavy Metals by Lichens. GARTY, J. et al. Environ. Pollut. A (UK) 1985, 38(3), pp. 213–220. Thalli of the fruticose lichen Ramalina duriaei Jatta, collected at a rural unpolluted

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area, were coated with synthetic coating polymers. The coated lichens were transplanted to a polluted site near a busy road intersection, for a period of 5 months. After the exposure period the content of Cu, Pb and Ni in the thalli was measured. It was found that some of the coating polymers were effective in reducing the accumulation of Cu and Ni in the lichen thallus, but could not prevent the penetration of Pb. The coating treatment reduced chlorophyll degradation which occurred in the uncoated lichens. (Abstract.) (25) The Lack of an Effect of Lead and Acidity on Leaf Decomposition in Laboratory Microcosms. CRIST, T.O. et al. (School of Forestry, Yale University). Environ. Pollut. A (UK) 1985, 38(4), pp. 295–303. Green leaves from tree species representative of the central hardwood forest of eastern North America were collected and dried. The leaf mixture was then amended with Pb over the range from 0 to 1000 µg/1 and incubated in laboratory microcosms. During the subsequent 18-week decomposition period, H2SO4 solutions (pH 3.0–5.0) were applied weekly to the leaf mixtures. The Pb and acid treatments had no effect on decomposition, as determined by weight loss at the end of the 18week period. These results indicate that there is little influence of these pollutants on the early stages of deciduous leaf decomposition. (Abstract.) (26) Root Growth of Cynodon dactylon and Eleusine indica Collected from Motorways at Different Concentrations of Lead. WONG, M.H. and LAU, W.M. (Department of Biology, Chinese University of Hong Kong). Environ. Res. 1985, 36(2), pp. 257–267. An ecological survey was conducted on the roadside vegetation at three different sites; Tai Po, a commercial and residential area, and Shek O and Wu Kai Sha, recreational areas. Cynodon dactylon and Eleusine indica were the two most dominant species recorded. The Tai Po site had higher Pb contents in both soil and plant, followed by Shek O, and then Wu Kai Sha. Tillers of C. dactylon and E. indica from the three sites were subjected to a series of concentrations of Pb(NO3)2. (27) Tree Death. Nature, 1985, 317(6039), pp. 674, 714–715. Two short articles on the potential contribution of lead additives in fuel to tree death in West Germany. The results of research in Germany are questioned by two British scientists. (References to both articles.) (28) Accumulation Patterns of Heavy Metals in Forest Mosses from the South-west Region of Nigeria. ONIANWA, P.C. et al. (University of Ibadan, Nigeria). Environ. Pollut. B 1986, 11(1), pp. 67–78. The accumulated levels of the metals, Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni,

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Zn, Mn and Fe, were determined in forest masses from south-west Nigeria. Distinct gradients were observed only with Pb and Zn, and a small zone of random contamination with Cu was identified in parts of the east and the south-east. This contamination was possibly a result of the use of copper-based fungicides and pesticides in cocoa farms in the area. The levels of the metals are compared with those in forest mosses in some other parts of the world. (Author’s abstract.) (29) Dependence of Airborne Particulate Deposition on Atmospheric Stability and Surface Conditions. ELSHOBOKSHY, M.S. (King Saud University College of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia). Atmos. Environ. 1985, 19(7), pp. 1191–1197. Investigates the deposition of airborne Pb particulates in different fields. Three fields with different surface conditions were selected for which the roughness sizes have been determined under neutral atmospheric conditions. A modified low-pressure Andersen impactor was used to determine the particle-size distribution. The flux of particulate Pb was measured on the surfaces of: alfalfa leaves, real grass and soil under stable and unstable atmospheric conditions. It is concluded that both surface roughness and atmospheric stability are the main controlling factors in particulate deposition. (30) Fluctuation of Lead Content and Some Other Metals in Needles of Picea abies Growing at Various Distances from Roads. BEDNAROVA, J. and POSPISIL, J. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Fac. Rerum Nat. 1985, 84(25), Biol. pp. 33–45. Examination of lead pollution on spruce needles by automobile exhaust gases absorption. (31) Investigation on the Accumulation of Lead and Other Metals in Plants Caused by Motor Traffic and Smelting. BACSO, J. et al. (Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary). J. Radioanalyt. Nucl. Chem. 1984, 81(1), pp. 59–66. The lead and bromine content of plants growing along roadsides and in the vicinity of a smelter in Hungary were studied. Lead concentrations in rye grass are proportional to the level of traffic on the roads. Rye grass appears to be a suitable indicator plant, due to its high lead-accumulating ability and its widespread occurrence. (10 references.) (32) A Study of the Distribution Pattern of Lead in the Leaves of Banyan Trees (Ficus benghalensis) from Different Traffic Density Regions of Calcutta. DATTA, C. and GHOSH, J. (University of Calcutta, India). Ecotoxicol. Env. Safety 1985, 9(1), pp. 101–106. Investigates the accumulation of lead from motor vehicle exhaust on banyan tree leaves growing on roadsides. In

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high and medium traffic density regions, Pb content of leaves is high and is more prominent in winter than in summer months. Such changes due to seasonal variations are not marked in low and zero traffic density areas. (30 references.) 3.2.2 Effects on soils (1) Effects of Heavy Metal Pollution on Decomposition in Forest Soils v. Motor-exhaust Lead. FOLKESON, L. (University of Lund, Sweden). National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, Report SNV PM 1180, 1979, 39 pp. Decomposition and mineralisation processes in low nutrient spruce forest litter were studied. The content of lead emitted from a highway was the major variable considered. The decomposition of soil litter was not influenced by variations in soil lead concentrations, but was enhanced by the content of mineral matter that increased towards the roadway. Phosphorus mobilisation was clearly disturbed by lead and other pollutants emitted by vehicular traffic. (In Swedish.) (29 references.) (2) Interim Report on Metal Contamination at Shipham: Soil contamination at Shipham. Sedgemoor District Council, Oct. 1979, 6 pp. Describes work carried out on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and Shipham Survey Committee. (3) Lead Pollution of London, England, UK Soils: a Potential Restriction on their Use for Growing Vegetables. DAVIES, B.E., CONWAY, D. and HOLT, S. (Department of Geography, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth). J. Agric. Sci. (Engl.) 1979, 93(3), pp. 749–752. Particularly considers vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial emissions. (4) Lead in the Soil Environment. KHAN, D.H. (Monitoring and Assessment Research). MARC, Chelsea College, 1980, 74 pp. (MARC Report No. 21.) Presents a survey of the literature on lead in soil. Discusses methods of estimation of total and available lead in soils, the relationships between soil properties and the uptake of lead by plants, and the form and distribution of lead in soil profiles. Examples of the accumulation of lead in soils from various sources are presented. (5) Soil Contamination at Shipham: Report on Studies Completed in the Village and Advice to Residents. Shipham Survey Committee. The Committee, Dec. 1980, various paging. (6) A Pilot Survey of Trace Metal Contamination in English Garden Soils. ROBERTS, N.A. and JONES, T.H. (Imperial College

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Centre for Environmental Technology). London University, M.Sc. in Environmental Technology, 1981/82. The top 10 cm of soil was sampled from ten urban garden/allotment sites in London, Stoke, Scunthorpe, Leeds and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, with two sites in each town. Contamination of garden soil with Pb, Cu, Zn and Mn was apparent at most sites, but notably in London and Newcastle. Generally there were significant differences in soil contamination between sites in the same town. (Thesis available from ICCET library on interlibrary loan.) (7) Soil Respiratory Activity in Relation to Motor Vehicle Pollution. MUSKETT, C.J. and JONES, M.P. (Greater London Council Scientific Branch). Water, Air Soil Pollut. (Neth.), 1981, 15 (3), pp. 329– 342. Soil respiratory activity was measured at various distances from two busy roadsides in south-east England, UK. Wide variation in the level of respiration between sites was observed. Measurements of soil levels of Pb, Cd, Ni and Zn were made at the same sites as those used for respiratory activity experiments. Subsequent regression analysis on these data and soil respiration failed to show any consistent relationship between the level of soil pollution and soil respiration for both sites. The findings indicted that soil type is the dominant factor influencing the general level of soil microbiological activity at these two roadsides. The evidence implicating soil heavy metal levels as agents initiating a reduction in microbiological activity was inconclusive. (8) Background Levels of Heavy Metal Soil Contamination in Walsall. Joint Unit for Research on the Urban Environment, Aston University in Birmingham. JURUE, Feb. 1982, unpaged. Reports an investigation and mapping commissioned by Walsall MDC Environmental Health Department. Analysis of soil samples in 476 sites provided soil metal concentrations, average concentrations in each 1 km Ordnance Survey grid square and worst-case concentration in each square. Proportions of land in the Borough contaminated above the most stringent DOE guideline levels are given. (Graphs, maps, tables.) (9) Effect of Decreased Use of Lead in Gasoline on the Soil of a Highway. BYRD, D.S. Environ. Sci. Tech. (USA) 1983, 17(2), pp. 121– 123. Compares lead concentrations in soils along US Interstate 20 in northern Louisiana in 1973, 1974 and 1979. Mandatory use of unleaded petrol in new cars was introduced in 1974. Results show that lead concentrations increased between 1973 and 1974 but declined between 1973 and 1979. (10) Natural Background and Pollution Levels of some Heavy Metals in Soils from the Area of Dayton, Ohio. RITTER, C.J.

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and RINEFIERD, M. (University of Dayton, Ohio). Env. Geol. 1983, 5(2), pp. 73–78. Trace amounts of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc are determined in ‘A-zone’ soils from 22 locations. Samples are collected at high-volume air monitoring sites in urban, suburban and rural areas. Positive correlations occur between each metal and particulate matter. Heavy metal contents of most soils in the area exceed background factors. High lead values are due largely to vehicular emissions and metals can also come from normal deterioration of vehicles. (7 references.) (11) Levels and Physicochemical Associations of Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Zinc in Road Sediments. HAMILTON, R.S., REVITT, D. M. and WARREN, R.S. (Urban Pollution Research Centre, Middlesex Polytechnic, UK). Sci. Total Environ. (Neth.) 1984, 33, pp. 59–74. 3.2.3 Effects on food and crops (1) Lead in Forage Grass from a Suburban Area in Northern California. GRAHAM, D.L. and KALMAN, S.M. Environ. Pollut. 1974, 7(3), pp. 209–215. Examines the food chain from grazing cattle to humans and the effects on lead ingestion from vehicle emissions. (2) Lead from Motor Vehicle Exhausts in Sweet Corn Plants and Soils along a Highway in Hawkes Bay, New Zealand. WARD, N.I., REEVES, R.D. and BROOKS, R.R. NZ J. Sci. 1975, 18(2), pp. 261–267. (3) Uptake of Lead by Corn from Roadside Soil Samples. HASSETT, J.J. and MILLER, J.E. (University of Illinois, and ANL). Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 1977, 8(1), pp. 49–54. Uptake of lead by young, greenhouse-grown corn plants was found to depend on the total amount of lead in the soil and upon the amount of lead in the soil relative to the soil’s capacity to absorb lead. Concludes that the use of crushed limestone as a road-building material, which causes high soil PH values next to the roadside, is probably responsible for the reduced plant availability of lead in the roadside soils. The use of an acidic rock source would not have this effect, and lead pollution along these roads would present a much greater problem. (15 references.) (4) Contamination of Allotment Vegetables by Lead by Urban Motorways. McCORRY, A. (Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology). London University, M.Sc. in Environmental Technology, 1978/79. Reports a survey undertaken of the dispersion pattern of lead within 100 m of a

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heavily trafficked trunk route. An assessment is made of the potential health hazard resulting from the deposition of lead on home-and allotment-grown vegetables close to such major roads. (Thesis available from ICCET Library on interlibrary loan.) (5) Contamination of Foodstuffs on External Shop Windows by Automotive Traffic. BEAUD, P., ROLLIER, H.A. and RAMUZ, A., Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der Lebensmittieluntersuchung und Hygiene (Switzerland) 1982, 73(2), pp. 196–207. (In French.) Reports a study carried out to determine the impact of automotive traffic on the Pb contamination of vegetables and fruits sold outside stores. Hourly traffic determination, micrometeorological measurements and determinations of heavy metals in respirable dust and dustfall were made during the exposure of vegetables. All samples contained a significant amount of Pb before exposure but always below the health standard of 1 ppm. A major part of exposed vegetables had Pb concentration >1 ppm. The exposed fruits had <1 ppm. Water washing to remove Pb was inadequate and only 60% of Pb was eliminated. Solutions were proposed to reduce the contamination of foodstuffs exposed outside stores. (6) Survey of Lead in Food: Second Supplementary Report: the Tenth Report of the Steering Group on Food Surveillance. Steering Group on Food Surveillance: Working Party on the Monitoring of Foodstuffs. HMSO, 1982, 59 pp. (Food Surveillance Paper No. 10.) (7) Lead in Food: a CLEAR Special Survey. DAVIES, B.E. and PETERS, E.M. (Campaign for Lead Free Air). Clear, 1983, 3, pp. 7– 10. Report on four CLEAR research projects concerned with levels of lead in city soils and vegetables in the Greater London area. Reports briefly on the problems of lead in canned food; of the introduction of lead into the food chain; and of the pollution of roadsides by exhaust emission. Concludes that the probability of finding land uncontaminated by lead decreases towards Central London, and that 40% of land in Central or Inner London is unsuitable for vegetable cultivation. (43 references.) (8) A Tentative Classification of Agricultural Foods exposed to Roadside Lead Contamination. FAVRETTO, L.G. (Ist. di Mercel., Univ. di Trieste, Italy). Zeitschrift fuer Lebensmittel-untersuchung and -Forschung (West Germany) 1984, 178(6), pp. 450– 452. A systematic study was carried out of vegetables and other agricultural products used as foods to suggest a tentative classification of products exposed to roadside Pb pollution from automobile exhausts. A hyperbolic two-parameter function was used as an empirical model to describe the decrease in Pb content with the distance from the source. Regression analysis of the

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linearised function allowed the estimation of the parameters. Polluted products were classified by cluster analysis. (9) Lead Accumulation in Edible Portions of Crops Grown Near Egyptian Traffic Roads. NASRALLA, M.M. and ALI, E.A. (Air Pollution Laboratory, National Research Centre, Egypt). Agric. Ecosyst. and Environ. 1985, 13(1), pp. 73–82. Accumulation of Pb in different parts of vegetables growing around six Egyptian traffic roads was investigated. Results of this work showed that leafy vegetables such as lettuce and cabbage accumulated lead up to 78.4 ppm in their edible portions, while the lowest Pb accumulators were carrots and radish. These findings suggest that Pb was accumulated in plants through both foliage and root systems, but lead absorption through foliage is more pronounced at locations close to the emission source of Pb vapour and fine particles. The concentration of lead in fruit was dependent on its concentration in the leaf rather than in the roots or soil. (10) Fallout of Lead and Uptake by Crops. CHAMBERLAIN, A. C. (AERE, Harwell, Oxon, UK). Atmos. Environ. 1983, 17(4), pp. 693–706. The distribution with depth of lead in cores of peat shows that the annual fallout in the UK has not changed greatly since the middle of the last century. Increased fallout of lead from vehicles has been balanced by decreases in other sources. Fallout of lead from vehicles since 1946 has contributed about 3 ppm in country districts and less than 10 ppm in towns to topsoils. This represents a small addition to the amounts naturally present or attributable to dissemination of industrial and domestic waste over the centuries. However, the current rate of fallout can be ascribed mainly to vehicle emissions. Although many surveys and experiments comparing lead in plants and soils have been done, the contribution of root uptake to lead in crops remains uncertain. Contamination of foliage with particles of soil may be more important than uptake by roots in many instances. Foliage near motorways and other sources of airborne lead shows evidence of direct contamination, and extrapolation of the results indicates that foliar uptake accounts for most of the lead in grasses and other plants having high leaf surface area per unit mass. (11) Glasshouse Experiments on the Uptake of Foliar Applied Lead. DOLLARD, G.J. (Environmental and Medical Sciences Division, AERE, Harwell, Oxon, UK). Environ. Pollut. A 1986, 40(2), pp. 109– 119. The radioactive tracer 210Pb has been used to examine the foliar uptake and redistribution of lead in three plant species grown under glasshouse conditions for periods of 8–12 weeks. In radish a small amount (0.05–0.28%) of the lead

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applied to the leaf surfaces was transported to the swollen storage organ. This movement occurred through intact and damaged cuticles, with an indication of an enhanced effect for damaged cuticles. Carrot plants absorbed and transported a fraction (0.43%) of the applied activity. By the end of the experiment this had reached the lower portion of the leaf petiole. Transport of lead to the tap root was <0.01% of that applied. In the case of dwarf French beans no movement of lead into pod or seed tissue was detected. It is estimated for radish that foliar absorption of lead and transport to the root could account for about 35% of the internal lead burden of root storage tissues. For carrot this pathway contributes about 3%. 3.3 EFFECTS ON ANIMAL AND INSECT LIFE (1) The Beetle and Spider Fauna of Meadows affected by Traffic Pollution. MAURER, R. Oecologia (Berlin) (West Germany) 1974, 14(4), pp. 327–351. (2) Effetti del Piombo nel Settore Zootecnico. BERETTA, C. (University of Milan, Italy). Paper presented at Centre Ceramico Problems of Lead and Fluorine Air Pollution from Industrial Sources. International Conference, Bologna, 26–27 Jan. 1978, pp. 81–100. Reviews clinical aspects of lead poisoning in dogs, cows, goats and horses. Lead pollution of pastures and fodder near industrial plants and major roadways is the primary cause of animal poisoning. While the average lead content in fodder produced in unpolluted areas is 0–1.5 ppm, lead content of plants near major roadways and industrial plants ranges from 100 to 700 ppm. Standards that would limit the lead content in animal foodstuffs are proposed. (In Italian.) (29 references.) (3) Metal Contamination of Feral Pigeons Columba livia from the London Area: Part 1: Tissue Accumulation of Lead, Cadmium and Zinc; Part 2: Biological Effects of Lead Exposure. GOODMAN, G.T. and HUTTON, M. Environ. Pollut. A 1980, 22(3), pp. 207–17; 22(4), pp. 281–293. The variation of lead and cadmium contamination in urban-dwelling feral pigeons was investigated. Tissue lead concentrations in three populations from London increased progressively with proximity to the city centre. It is suggested that the feral pigeon may be used both to monitor urban lead contamination, and as a model for chrome lead toxicity. (4) Lead Content of Small Mammals at a Roadside Site in Relation to the Pathways of Exposure. HARRISON, R.M. and

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CHISSIEL, K.M. Sci. Total Environ. 17, 1981, pp. 145–154. Lead concentrations were determined in three species of small mammal at roadside and control sites. Results were considered in relation to the lead content of the diet and the air, and it was concluded that diet provides by far the major pathway for lead exposure, even at the roadside site. Bone lead concentrations were found to be consistent with estimated lead exposure and metabolism. (5) Use of Blood Enzyme as an Indicator of Chronic Lead Contamination in Rainbow Trout. SANDONE, G.J. and NEY, J.J. (Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute). Virginia J. Sci. (USA) 1981, 32(3), 123 pp. Lead from vehicle exhausts was considered in the analysis. (6) Aspects of the Behavior of Lead in a Small Reservoir. McINTOSH, A. et al. Bull. NJ Acad. Sci. (USA) 1982, 27(1), 36 pp. Considers the effects on fish of lead deposited from motor vehicle exhausts. (7) The Levels of Some Heavy Metals and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Fish from the Tidal Thames. RICKARD, D.G. and DULLEY, M.E. R. Environ. Pollut. B 1983, 5(2), pp. 101–108. Reports a survey to quantify tissue levels of some persistent chemicals in fish collected over a 3-year period from the River Thames. Fish were analysed for specific pollutants including lead, and generally the levels compared favourably with other industrial estuaries and MAFF figures, with the possible exception of mercury. (8) Sources of Variability in Accumulation of Heavy Metals by Fishes in a Roadside Stream. NEY, J.J. and VAN HASSEL, J.H. (Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute). Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1983, 12(6), pp. 701–706. Interspecific variations in lead, nickel, cadmium, and zinc concentrations among six species of fish from a highwaycontaminated stream were investigated as functions of differences in habitat (sediment contact) and morphology (percentage axial muscle). The findings suggest the biological monitoring to assess chronic heavy metal pollution should focus on long-lived benthic species and be directed at tissues with demonstrated affinities for particular metals. (9) Changes in Metals Content of Roadside Stream Sediments Following the Opening of a New Highway. MUDRE, J.M. and NEY, J.J. (Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic). Virginia J. Sci. (USA) 1984, 35(2), 117 pp. Includes figures for lead. (10) Lead Concentrations in the Slug Arion rufus from Sites at Different Distances from a Tourist Road. KALINOWSKA, A.

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(Department of Ecology and Zoology, University of Warsaw, Poland). Ecol. Bull. NFR (Sweden) 1984, pp. 46–49. (11) Increased Population of the Aphid Aphis pomi at a Motorway: Part 3: The Effect of Exhaust Gases. BRAUN, S. and FLUCKIGER, W. (Botanical Institute of the University, Basle, Switzerland). Environ. Pollut. A (UK) 1985, 39(2), pp. 183–192. The effect of motorway air pollution on the infestation of Crataegus spp. by Aphis pomi was examined using chambers with ambient and filtered air. In the chamber with ambient air the aphid population increased to up to 4.4 times the aphid number in the chamber with filtered air. Analysis of a phloem exudate revealed a significant increase in glutamine relative to the sugar content in the plants grown in the polluted air. Some substantial changes in phenolic compounds were also recorded. The results indicate that air pollution around motorways can alter the host plant-parasite relationship to increase the susceptibility of the plant. (Abstract.)

4. Countermeasures

4.1 LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS (1) Air Quality Criteria for Lead. US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA, Washington DC, Dec. 1977, various pagings. (2) Control of Lead at Work. Draft Regulations and Draft Approved Code of Practice. Consultative Document. Health and Safety Commission (UK). HMSO, 1978, 35 pp. A consultative document covering all aspects of safety and lead in the workplace, including exposure to exhaust fumes. (3) An Action Level for Lead in Surface Dust. Greater London Council Public Services and Safety Committee. GLC, PS452, 20 Nov. 1980. Following consideration of a report by the GLC Medical Adviser and the Scientific Adviser, Lead in the environment, the Committee resolved to urge the Government to establish reference levels for assessment of lead in air and dust in urban areas. This report proposes an interim level pending government action. (4) Acceptable Levels of Contaminants in Soils: Redevelopment of Contaminated Land; Consultation Paper. ICRCL (Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land), 16/18 Feb. 1980, 30 pp. Based on existing guidelines and legislation, and taking account of possible uptake by food plants, ingestion and soil contamination, limits are proposed for arsenic, boron, cadmium, lead and zinc. In terms of food contamination, skin contact and phytotoxicity, remedial and ameliorative measures are reviewed. (5) Control of Lead at Work: Approved Code of Practice. Health and Safety Commission, London, UK. HMSO, 1980, 28 pp. Provides guidance on the provisions of the Control of Lead at Work Regulations 1980. (SI 1980 No. 1248.) (6) Lead: a Case Study in Inter-agency Policy Making. BILLICK, I. H. (United States Department of Housing and Urban

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Development). Environ. Health Perspect. Dec. 1981, 42, pp. 73–79. Uses efforts to reduce exposures to lead, as a case study of how federal agencies in the United States work, or do not work well, together. Blood lead levels of children in New York City as evidence of exposure to lead are cited as an example. (7) Lead Free and Leaded Gasoline Enforcement Programs, 1974/80. Environment Canada Air Pollution Control Directorate. EC, Ottawa, Oct. 1982, 15 pp. (Econ. and Tech. Rev. Rep. 3AP-82–3). Discusses measures of the Canadian Government to control lead in gasoline. (8) Lead Pollution. Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee. GLC, PSFB35, 3 July 1981. Responds to Government proposals to reduce lead pollution, summarises the work the Council is already undertaking, and seeks guidance on further action, and includes a summary of the Government’s response to the recommendations in the report of the Lawther Working Party on the Health Effects of Environmental Pollution. (9) What Future for Lead in Petrol? Environmental Data Services Report 74, June 1981, pp. 11–14. Discusses the disappointment of environmentalists at the recent Government announcement of a statutory cut in the lead content of petrol. It is feared that new uncertainties could now cause indefinite postponement to an outright ban. Evidence from West Germany shows that the reduction in lead emissions has not brought about a proportionate reduction in blood lead levels. (10) Car Exhaust Emission Control in Europe. DIWELL, A.F. and HARRISON, B. (Johnson Matthey, UK). Endeavour 1982, 6(3), pp. 135–140. Europe is following the example of the US in progressively lowering permitted emission levels of pollutants from vehicles, but it seems unlikely that lead-free petrol will be introduced in the near term. Proposed regulations seek a level of emission control which will necessitate the use of oxidation catalysts. Conventional autocatalysts used in the US are susceptible to poisoning after relatively low mileage in the presence of leaded fuel. Recent research has improved understanding of the nature and type of lead species involved. The feasibility of using lead-tolerant catalysts has been demonstrated. (15 references.) (11) Lead Pollution from Petrol. Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee. GLC PSFB407, 29 Oct. 1982. Considers the balance of evidence on the effects of lead pollution from petrol, and recommends the Greater London Council press for the early elimination of lead in petrol.

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(12) Legal Question. ADAMS, S. (Calgary, Canada). Environ. Views 1982, pp. 9–11. While the Federal Government can set emission standards for pollutants endangering human health or violating international agreements, most polluters fall outside those definitions. Two very powerful federal tools are underused: the regulation of composition of fuels for industry (similar to cutting the lead content in petrol); and the use of the persuasive power of massive spending programmes. (13) Living with Lead Legislation. COWLEY, A.C.D. J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. 1982, 65, pp. 357–364. Discusses the background to the enactment of the Control of Lead at Work Regulations 1980. Reports the results of surveys of airborne lead in the workplace and considers these in relation to the assessments required under Regulation 4. (14) Pollution Topics. Environ. Health 1982, 90(7), pp. 186– 187. Review of recent publications and changes in regulations relating to lead pollution. (15) The Effects of Relaxing Automobile Emission Standards: a Generic Analysis and an Urban Case Study. SARICKS, C.I. (Argonne National Laboratory, II. Energy and Environmental Systems Division.) ANL/ES-133, 1983, 45 pp. A powerful latent market for cost competitive vehicles with lower operating costs than comparable petrol- or diesel-powered cars but only slightly inferior performance was identified. It is shown that NOX concentrations harmful to health generally occurred only in houses with gas stoves or in the interior of vehicles in dense traffic, and that retention of the current NOX standards could produce an 18% decrease in health effects for vehicle occupants. (16) Clean Air Act Amendments of 1984. US Senate Committee for Environment and Public Works 98 Con 2, Report 98–426, 3 May 1984, 199 pp. Amendments to the Clean Air Act are proposed, including provisions for acid deposition, measures to reduce vehicle misfuelling and tampering, and adjustments in the non-attainment, visibility, prevention of significant deterioration, and motor vehicle provisions. Other provisions entail research funding, secondary ambient air quality standards, new source permits and operating permits, hazardous air pollutants, high-altitude motor vehicle emissions, and lead in petrol. (17) Control of Lead at Work: Proposed Amendment to the Approved Code of Practice made under the Control of Lead at Work Regulations, 1980. Health and Safety Commission. Health and Safety Executive, 1984, 8 pp. (HSC Consultative Document.) Amendments are proposed to comply with the Council of the

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European Communities Directive 82/605/EEC on the protection of workers from risks of exposure to lead. (18) General Engineering: Health and Safety, 1977–1982. Health and Safety Executive (UK). HMSO, 1984, 19 pp., illustrations. The National Industry Group reports on health and safety in a number of related industries manufacturing a diverse range of articles but mostly using engineering techniques. Less common hazards, such as lead in motor vehicle radiator repairing, are also dealt with. (19) Lead Emission Rates from Gasoline Engines: a Legislative and In-use Emission Rate Study of the United Kingdom and United States to 1990. RICE, P. (Imperial College of Science and Technology). Transpn. Plann. Technol. 1984, 9(1), pp. 37–45. Historical trends and projections to 1990 of the present policies of both countries are examined in terms of a baseline passenger car lead emission rate g(Pb)/km-1. Comments on the difficulties of international comparisons with particular reference to the continuing tolerance of US motorists for leaded petrol. (16 references.) (20) Legal Control of Hazardous Substances in the Environment with Particular Reference to Lead. BARRETT, B. and HOWELLS, R. J. Plann. Env. Law Nov. 1984, pp. 774–790. The hazardous effects of lead are outlined, and the statutory control of its use, product safety, environmental safety and health and safety at work, and enforcement techniques are discussed. (61 notes and references.) (21) Legal Control of Standard Lead in Petrol Gasoline. BARRETT, B. and HOWELLS, R. (School of Law, Middlesex Polytechnic, UK). Sci. Total Environ. (Neth.) 1984, 33, pp. 1–14. (22) Limits for Lead. PAGE, R.A. Environ. Health 1984, 92(7), pp. 181–182. Statutory and recommended limits for lead in air, water, food, soil and dust, paint, petrol, and blood are summarised. (23) Nitrogen Oxides from Motor Vehicles. TAYLOR, J.A., JAKEMAN, A.J. and SIMPSON, R.W. Search 1984, 15(7/8), pp. 202–207. On the basis of existing and proposed Australian Design Rules, projections of the total emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles show an almost unabated increase. It is argued that if this trend of increasing emissions is to be reversed, emissions of nitrogen oxides should not remain in their presently uncontrolled state, and/or that emissions of nitrogen oxides should be controlled further than is presently proposed for 1986. (Author’s abstract.) (3 figures, 2 photographs, 6 tables, 17 references.)

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(24) Phase-down of Lead in Gasoline. (Environmental Protection Service, Environment Canada). EC, 1984, Ontario, 10 pp. (Ref. no. EPS 2/CC/1.) After reviewing the relevant information, Health and Welfare Canada recommended that consideration be given to reducing human exposure to lead. Air emission regulations were introduced for secondary lead smelters in 1976. The concentration of lead in paint for children’s furniture and toys was regulated, lead solder in kettles was eliminated, and programmes were initiated to package baby foods in glass, or tinsoldered containers, rather than in lead-soldered cans. In addition, The Leaded Gasoline Regulations set the maximum permissible level of lead in leaded petrol at 0.77 grams per litre. This ‘cap’ was established in the belief that, in combination with the introduction of lead-free petrol, vehicle lead emissions would be significantly reduced. The Leaded Gasoline Regulations came into effect 1 January 1976. (25) Reduce Lead in Gasoline, says EPA in Proposal. J.Environ. Health 1984, 47(2), pp. 72–73. A proposed lead content standard of 0.10 gram of lead per gallon of leaded petrol effective 1 January 1986 was announced. The new standard would replace the current standard of 1.10 grams. According to EPA, the proposed rule provides two major types of health and environmental benefits—reductions in the blood lead levels of children and the resultant cases of lead toxicity diagnosed annually; and reduced damage from the emissions of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide from vehicles in which pollution control catalysts have been damaged by the misuse of leaded petrol. (26) Phasing Down Lead in Gasoline. EPA Journal May 1985, 11(4), pp. 1–26. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has decided to lower the lead content of petrol by 90%. This collection of articles considers the subject and includes: WILSON, R. EPA’s lead phasedown action, pp. 2–5 (likely effects of the decision). NICHOLS, A.L. The lead phasedown: how society gains, pp. 7–8 (cost-benefit analysis of reducing lead in petrol). GOLDSTEIN, B. Health and the lead phasedown, pp. 9–12 (evidence for the health dangers of lead in petrol). WALSH, M.P. Other nations phasing down lead in gas, pp. 13–14 (lead reductions in Europe, Australia, Canada, the USSR, Hong Kong and elsewhere). LEWIS, J. Lead poisoning: a historical perspective, pp. 15–18. (History of the effects of lead on human health.) (Illustrations, diagrams.) (27) Air Pollution: Noxious Emissions from Motor Vehicles. European Economic Commission. Bull. Eur. Commun. Commission

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1985, 18(6), pp. 58–59. Brief review with references of the stage the EEC had reached by 21 June 1985 on control of vehicle emissions and subsequent standards (1987). (28) Agreement Reached on European Exhaust Emission Controls. Clean Air 1985, 15(1), pp. 35–36. Review of progress at the Council of Environment Ministers of the EEC on emission controls at meetings on 6 December 1984, 7 and 20 March 1985. Comments on the UK proposals for ‘lean-burn’ engines and the Ministers’ demands for three-way catalytic converters. (29) Exhaust Emission from Cars in Service: Changes with Amendments to EEC Regulation 15. COLWILL, D.M., HICKMAN, A.J. and WATERFIELD, V.H. (Transport and Road Research Laboratory). Crowthorne, UK, TRRL Suppl. Rept. 840, 1985, 29 pp. Study to determine whether the downward trend in type approval limits has produced lower emissions in practice. (Graphs, tables.) (30) The ERGA 11 Report—‘Lead Free Petrol is Possible…and Quickly and Cheaply’. YEOMANS, L. Clear (Newspaper) 1984, No. 6, 2 pp. Brief review of the European Commission proposals for legislation curbing lead in petrol. Gives a substantial extract from the actual EEC proposals. (31) Lead and Benzene Content of Petrol. Cabinet Office, London (UK); Department of the Environment, London (UK). Apr. 1985, 2 pp. Explanatory Memorandum on European Community Legislation COM no. COM(85)101. (32) Lead in Petrol and Vehicle Emissions: with Minutes of Evidence. House of Lords Select Committee on the European Communities. HMSO, Feb. 1985, xx + 192 pp., graphs, tables. (Select Committee 5th Report: Session 1984–85.) (HL96.) Examines the background of earlier legislative controls of vehicle emissions, both in Europe and elsewhere, and considers the content of the current proposals. Discusses the issues arising from the directive on the lead and benzine content of petrol agreed in council, and considers the environmental need for the control of gaseous emissions from motor vehicles. (33) EEC Fails Again to Agree on Vehicle, Combustion Plant Emissions. Ends Report no. 131, Dec. 1985, pp. 20–21. Brief report on EEC Environment Ministers meeting in Brussels on 28 November 1985, which failed to settle technical details left outstanding in June 1985 when the Environment Council agreed the exhaust emission limits to be brought into force between 1988 and 1993. (Ends Report no. 126, 1985; pp. 20–22.) (34) Introduction of Unleaded Gasoline in Europe. BRONDEL, G. (Commission of the European Communities). Rev.

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Energ. 1985, 36(372), pp. 143–147. (In French.) The European Economic Community (EEC) Council of Environment Ministers, which met in Brussels on 6 December 1984, agreed that the sale of unleaded gasoline in all the countries of the Community would be obligatory beginning 1989. However, Community regulations will not lead to constraints imposed by given technologies; these regulations will only provide a general framework designed to achieve global aims. The application of these regulations will also be sufficiently progressive so as not to impose excessive technical and financial burdens on companies involved. The adopted measures will have major repercussions for the European energy market. This article analyses the extent of these measures, the schedule according to which they will be carried out and the impact they will have on the oil and car industries. (From author abstract.) (35) The Introduction of Unleaded Petrol: Implementation of EC Directive 85/210/EEC: Discussion Paper, Department of the Environment. Central Directorate of Environmental Protection, Department of the Environment, 1985, 9 pp. (36) Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives; Gasoline Lead Content. (United States Environmental Protection Agency.) United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, USA, US DC 20460 Fed. Regist. (850307), pp. 9386–99, 50 (45). Proposes standards and regulations for leaded petrol in relation to exhaust gas emissions. 4.2 PRACTICAL REMEDIAL MEASURES (1) Filtering Effect of Hedges on Traffic-induced Dust-type Air Pollution Especially due to Lead Compounds. KELLER, T. (Swiss Federal Institute for Forestry Research). Schweiz. J.Forstwesen 1974, 125(10), pp. 719–732. A literature survey of the subject is provided. Techniques to monitor such effects, experimental methods and results are detailed, and the filtration effects of different types of hedge are given. (2) Automotive Missions. DUNHAM, J.W. Pollut. Monitor 1975, 26, pp. 23–24, 40. Looks at the use of catalytic converters as a means of improving fuel efficiency, performance and environmental acceptability. The costs and benefits of this system and the development of lead-free petrol are also considered. (3) Catalytic Converters for Motor Vehicles: General Overview. HIGHTOWER, J.W. (Rice University). Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng. SYM Series, 1976, 72(156), pp. 354–368. Catalytic converters

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containing small amounts of noble metals were first introduced into exhaust systems of most US automobiles to remove pollutants in 1975. The devices have contributed to improved fuel economy and performance. While catalysts increase sulphuric acid emissions, local atmospheric concentrations will probably not become high enough to be a major concern. Catalytic systems, reactions, and compositions, thermal and catalytic reactors, lead poisoning of catalysts, particulate emissions, effect of abnormal driving modes, fuel implications of catalysts, the Nox problem, and retrofitting are discussed. (4) Roadside Coniferous Windbreaks as Sinks for Vehicular Lead Emissions. HEICHEL, G.H. and HANKIN, L. J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. (USA) 1976, 26(8), pp. 767–770. Presents an evaluation of a roadside windbreak of white pine trees in modifying the dispersion of vehicular Pb emissions. The Pb content of foliage and twigs of various ages adjacent to and far from the road was analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The Pb burden of older needles and twigs was consistently greater than that of younger organs, and was greater in samples taken adjacent to than far from the road. The Pb content of soil beneath the windbreak was compared with that of an adjacent, undisturbed field to assess whether the presence of the windbreak resulted in Pb enrichment of the underlying soil. Within the windbreak the soil contained about twice the Pb content of the soil in the open field at a similar distance from the curb. Windbreaks function as sinks for vehicular Pb emissions and thus decrease their dispersion from roads. (5) Manganese Pollution in the City Environment and its Relationship to Traffic Density. JOSELOW, M. et al. (College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey). Amer. J. Public Health 1978, 68(6), pp. 564–567. As US Federal regulations require the phasing out of lead compounds from petrol, additives with antiknock properties, particularly organic manganese compounds, are being used as substitutes. The potential effect of manganese pollution on the city environment is investigated. (6) Composition of Aerosols over Los Angeles Freeways. DZUBAY, T.G., STEVENS, R.K. and RICHARDS, L.W. (US Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, NC). Atmos. Env. 1979, 13(5), pp. 653–659. California cars equipped with catalytic converters emit little hydrocarbon and carbon dioxide pollution, but also produce more sulphuric acid emissions than cars without. In-car samples of aerosol particles, collected in October 1976, were analysed for sulphate, nitrate, and elemental composition. Neither nitrate nor

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sulphate concentrations increased significantly directly in the roadway compared with background concentrations. However, mean in-roadway lead concentrations, calculated at 10.9 mg/m3, exceeded the mean background level by a factor of more than six. (33 references.) (7) Deactivation of Three-way and Oxidation Catalyst Dual Bed Emission Control Systems Catalyst: Post Mortem Analyses from Methanol-Fueled Vehicles. GANDHI, H.S., BOMBACK, J.L. and WILLIAMSON, W.B. (Engineering and Research Staff, Ford Motor Co., Michigan, USA). Appl. Catal. 1982, 3(1), pp. 79–88. Increasing interest in the use of alcohol as an alternative fuel to petrol, either alone or in combination with petrol, prompted a study by the University of Santa Clara, California, USA, of emission and engine wear characteristics of a methanol-fueled fleet of Pinto vehicles. Post-mortem analyses were conducted on catalysts from two Pintos which showed high emissions after service in the methanol-fuelled fleet. The analyses revealed catalyst deactivation characteristics atypical of those experienced with similar petrol-fuelled vehicles. Pb poisoning also occurred despite the fact that the methanol fuel contained zero Pb. This was attributed to dissolution of Pb terne plate in the fuel tank by methanol. (8) Detection of Leaded Gasoline Usage in Catalyst Equipped Vehicles: a Gamma-ray Transmission Gauge for Measuring Catalytic Converter Lead Contamination. SCHNEIDER, E.W. (Analytical Chemistry Department, General Motors Research Laboratory). J.Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. (USA) 1982, 32(5), pp. 521– 525. Describes a γ-ray transmission gauge developed for measuring the accumulation of Pb inside the catalytic converters of vehicles operated on leaded petrol. This non-destructive inspection system related the amount of γ-radiation passing through the catalytic converter to the mass concentration of Pb contained in the catalyst bed. Field studies showed that vehicle usage of leaded petrol (0.34 g of Pb/1) could be detected at the 95% confidence level. (9) Clean Air Cars Reach a Crossroads. STANSELL, J. New Sci. 1983, 100(1385), pp. 564–567. Discusses use of catalytic converters and changes in engine design being advocated by the industry for reducing vehicle emissions. Suggests that regulatory bodies cannot lay down standards without knowing what the manufacturers can deliver, and the debate has become a fascinating mix of technology, politics and money. (10) Converting the Converters: Tampering with Cars and the ‘Clean Air Act’. FLEISCHAKER, M.L. (Arent, Fox, Kitner,

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Plotkin and Kahn, Washington DC, USA). Environment 1983, 8, pp. 33–43. According to Environmental Protection Agency the emissions control system on one out of every five cars on the road has been tampered with. Over two-thirds of these ‘tampered’ cars have had their catalysts removed or poisoned through the use of leaded petrol. As a result, these vehicles are spewing lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and a variety of noxious hydrocarbons into the air. Suggestions of how to stop this threat to air quality are presented. (11) Reduction of Lead Compounds. GREEN, R. (University of Canterbury, New Zealand). NZ Eng. 1983, 38(10), pp. 3–4. New Zealand is currently passing through a period of unparalleled activity in the energy field, involving fuel resource management, manufacturing technology, distribution and utilisation. One outcome of such increased awareness is the emergence of problems involving issues such as environmental conditions and pollution control, one being the question of lead emissions from automobiles and its effect on the environment. (12) Lead at the Olympics: Non-polluting Vans, Lugers on Fast Track. Lead 1984, 47(2), pp. 8–9. Discusses the ‘nonpolluting’ vehicles mandated by the Olympic Committee prohibition against vehicles that emit exhaust fumes that could bother the runners or even cause them physical harm. Electric vehicles (EVs) were also chosen as part of its overall decision to use the latest high technology. (13) Make Alcohol-ester Fuels from Syngas. KNIFTON, J.F., GRIGSBY, R.A., Jr. and HERBSTMAN, S. (Texaco Chemical Co., Austin, TX, USA). Hydrocarbon Process 1984, 63(1), pp. 111–115. It is estimated that 55% of the world’s petrol will be lead antiknock-free by 1990. The shift to unleaded and low-lead petrols raises clear octane requirements by about two octane numbers in the United States and Europe, and octane improvers will become an increasingly attractive alternative. The benefits of using such oxygenated compounds include: deferred capital requirements for increasing petrol octane; improved ability to cope with more severe lead restrictions; improved front-end octane performance and reduced exhaust emissions of air pollutants. (14) Use of Lead-sensitive Test Papers for Vehicle Inspections. McKEE, H.E. (City of Houston Health Department, Houston, Texas). J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 1985, 35(7), pp. 740– 743. Advances in vehicle emission control technology have reduced the effectiveness of the conventional tailpipe test used in inspection and maintenance pro grammes. In Harris County, Texas (Houston area), misfuelling is being identified by using a

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lead-sensitive test paper to detect lead deposits in the tailpipe that result from using leaded petrol. Field tests of this procedure demonstrated that it is reliable and accurate for the intended purpose. Tests are conducted on vehicles of 1980 model year and later, by approximately 1150 inspection stations throughout the county that conduct annual safety inspections. Experience with the first few months of this programme has been excellent. (Abstract.) (15) Collection Efficiencies of Filters for Lead and Bromine from Automobile Emissions. MINGAY, D.W. and STADLER, E. (Nuclear Development Corporation, SA (Pty.) Ltd. Pretoria, South Africa ZA 0001). J. Trace Microprobe Technol. 1985, 3(1/2), pp. 1– 40. System includes cellulose nitrate membranes and cellulose fibre and polycarbonate for exhaust gas sampling. (16) Combustor Study of the Deactivation of a Three-way Catalyst by Lead and Manganese. DUNCAN, J. and BRADDOCK, J.N. (Northrop Serv., Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, USA). Report no. EPA/600/D-85/006, 1985, 12 pp. (PB85–161222/ GAR.) Study of equipment for removing lead and manganese from exhaust gases. (17) Development of Fuels: Unleaded Fuels will Not be Revolutionary. BOHY, M. Actual. Chim. 1985, 7, pp. 39–51. (In French.) Looks at the effects on pollution of exhaust gas converters for internal combustion engines using lead-free petrol. (18) Mutagenicity of Automotive Particulate Exhaust: Influence of Fuel Extenders, Additives, and Aromatic Content. CLARK, C.R. et al. (Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Albuquerque, USA). Adv. Mod. Environ. Toxicol. 1984, 6, pp. 109– 122, issue No. of Appl. Toxicol. Pet. Hydrocarbons. (19) Regeneration of Catalytic Exhaust Gas Converters for Internal Combustion and Compositions for Use Therein. GROVES, J. and CAMPBELL, K. (Associated Octel Co. Ltd). Brit. UK Pat. Appl. (850619), 1985, 3 pp. Pat. No. 2149687. (20) The Truth About Catalyzers. BURCH, D. and RIEDWYL, P. Phoenix International 1985, 3(5), pp. 6–12. In March 1984 the Touring Club of Switzerland began long-term tests on two cars, a VW Golf and an Audi 80, fitted with catalysers. The authors present and discuss the tests and results. They conclude that these and other test results show that catalysers are both reliable and efficient. (21) Unleaded Carburetor Fuel and Catalytic Automobiles. PIECZONKA, W. and CREMER, G. (Gladbeck, Fed. Rep. Ger.). CLB, Chem. Labor Betr. 1985, 36(4), pp. 174–176, 181. (In German.)

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Examines control of exhaust gases from automobile engines by catalytic converters. 4.3 ECONOMICS OF EXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL (1) Cost and Effectiveness of Automobile Exhaust Emission Control Regulations. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. OECD, Paris, 1979, 94 pp. (2) Lead in the Environment. BOGGESS, W.R. and WIXSON, B. G. (National Science Foundation). Castle House Publications, 1979, 272 pp. Control of industrial and automobile emissions and economic aspects of control. (3) Lead in Petrol: an Assessment of the Feasibility and Costs of Further Action to Limit Lead Emissions from Vehicles. Department of Transport, UK. DOT, London, 1979, unpaged. (4) Lead in Petrol: Costing the Alternatives. Environmental Data Services Report no. 33, Sept. 1979, pp. 15–18. Looks at the costs and benefits associated with the major options for lead reduction. Assesses the effects on the oil industry, and the motor industry. (5) A Cost-effective Comparison of Controls on Environmental Lead: a Decision Methodology. McEVOY, J. and COLLINGRIDGE, D. Int. J.Environ. Stud. 1981, 16, pp. 139–145. Considers 89 single and multiple controls for reduction of human blood lead concentrations. The insensitivity of undominated controls to unknowns such as future crude oil prices and airborne lead fallout’s contribution to dietary lead through impaction, is surprising. The superiority of exhaust gas filters over gasoline lead reductions is revealed. (7 references.) (6) Economic and Environmental Analysis of the Current OSHA Lead Standard. Appendix H: Feasibility and Cost of Lead-in-air Controls in the Lead-acid Battery Industry. (Charles River Associates, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA). Springfield, VA (NTIS), Report No. PB83– 122556, 1982, 155 pp. (Available from National Technical Information Service.) An analysis of the feasibility and costs of reducing airborne lead to 150 and 50 µg/m3 of air in lead-acid battery plants. Specific information on emission sources, potential controls and the costs of these controls are presented in detail in the report. (7) Assessment of the Energy Balances and Economic Consequences of the Reduction and Elimination of Lead in Gasoline. Concawe, Dec. 1983, 50 pp. (Report No. 11/83R.)

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Reviews possible future implications 10 or 15 years after the introduction of unleaded gasoline, particularly the economic effects on producers and the effects on energy consumption. Computer models of refineries incorporating the latest technology to predict the optimum octane number for petrol are utilised. (Graphs, tables.) (8) Costs and Benefits of Reducing Lead in Gasoline. SCHWARTZ, J. et al. (Environmental Protection Agency, USA). EPA Report, Mar. 1984, 265 pp. Analyses the costs and benefits of reducing lead in petrol, with reference to refining costs, vehicle maintenance, vehicle emissions, and health effects. Eliminating or limiting Pb would increase the petrol manufacturing cost by 1% and excessive valve wear on some older trucks and cars may result from a Pb ban. However, vehicle maintenance requirements and emissions would be reduced by eliminating Pb in petrol. As the incidence of elevated blood Pb levels in children is expected to decline, medical costs and cognitive damage for children would decrease. The benefits exceed the costs in the two Pb restriction/ elimination scenarios considered.

Organisations Index

Air Pollution Control Association (USA), 2.1.3(1); 2.2.3(1); 4.2(4) (14) Aix-Marseille University, 2.2.2(7) Argonne National Laboratory, 4.1 (15) Arizona State University Dept. Chemistry, 2.2.3(16) Associated Octel, 2.1(7); 3.1.1(9); 4. 2(19) Atomic Research Centre, Bombay, India, 2.2.5(12) Australian Academy of Science, 2.2. 4(4) Australian Road Research Board, 2. 1(16) Avon, Gloucestershire and Somerset Environmental Monitoring Committee, 3.1.1(29)

Campaign for Lead Free Air, 1(18) (21)(30); 2.1(19)(25); 2.2.1(26); 3. 1.1(11)(19); 3.2.1(18); 4.1(30) Canada National Institute for Water Research, 2.1(20) Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden), 2.1.2(18) Charles River Associates, 4.3(6) Chelsea College Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre, See MARC Children’s Hospital, National Medical Center, Washington, 3.1. 1(34) Chinese University, Hong Kong, 2. 2.5(13); 3.2.1(26) City of Houston Health Dept., 4.2 (14) College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 4.2(5) Commission of the European Communities, 1(8); 2.1(7) Concawe, 4.3(7) Conservation Society (UK), 1(13); 3. 1(2); 3.1.1(3) Coopers and Lybrand, 2.1(15)

Belgium Ministry of Health and Environment, 2.2.2(11) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay, 2.2.5(21) Biological Research Centre, Iraq, 2. 2.5(7) Birmingham City Council Environmental Health Dept., 2.2. 1(11) Brighton Polytechnic, 3.2.1(22)

Denver Research Institute (US), 2.2. 3(2) Department of Health and Social Security Working Party on Lead in the Environment (UK), 1(10) (11)(13)(16)

California Institute of Technology, 2.1.1(19) Campaign for Freedom of Information, 1(29) 88

ORGANISATIONS INDEX 89

Department of the Environment (UK), 1(2)(27); 2.1(18); 2.2.1(4)(8) (17); 3.1.1(12); 4.1(31)(35) Department of Transport (UK), 4.3 (3) Environmental Protection Service, Environment Canada, 2.2.3(13) (14); 4.1(7)(24) European Economic Community, 4. 1(27–34) Ford Motor Co., 2.2.3(2); 4.2(7) Forest Research Institute (Czechoslovakia), 3.2.1(9) Friends of the Earth, 1(29) General Motors (US), 2.1.2(11); 4.2 (8) Glasgow City Council (UK), 2.1.2 (22) Greater London Council Community Services Committee, 2.1.1(11) Greater London Council Public Services and Fire Brigade Committee, 1(24): 2.1(17); 4.1(8) (11) Greater London Council Public Services and Safety Committee, 1 (7): 2.2.1(10)(18); 4.1(3) Greater London Council Research Library, 2.1(13) Greater London Council Scientific Branch, 2.1.1(1)(5)(12); 2.1.2 (17); 2.2.1(33): 3.1.1(16)(30); 3.2. 2(7) Greenwich London Borough, 3.1.1 (15) Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Environmental Health Department, 2.2.1(30) Harvard University (US), 3.1(23) Health and Safety Commission (UK), 4.1(2)(5)(17)

Health and Safety Executive (UK), 4.1(18) Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 3. 2.1(2) House of Lords Select Committee on the European Communities, 2. 1(24); 4.1(32) Howard University, Washington (US), 3.1.1(27) Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 3. 2.1(31) Ibadan University Department of Chemistry, 2.2.5(15) Imperial College, London (UK), 2.1. 1(23); 2.1.2(3); 2.2.1(20); 4.1(19) Imperial College Centre for Environmental Technology (UK), 2.1.1(4)(6)(21); 2.2.1(9); 3.2.2(6); 3.2.3(4) Imperial College Public Health and Water Resource Engineering, 2.1. 1(20)(25); 2.2.1(31) Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Albuquerque (US), 4.2 (18) Institute of Child Health, 3.1.1(17) Institute of Environmental Sciences (US), 2.2.3(3) Institute of Public Health Engineers (UK), 1(8) Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL), 4.1 (4) Islington London Borough, 2.1.1 (3); 2.2.1(2) Joint Research Centre, Ispra Establishment, EEC, 2.1.3(10); 2. 2.2(4) Joint Unit for Research on the Urban Environment (Aston University, UK), 2.1(10); 2.2.1(13) (23); 3.2.2(8)

90 ORGANISATIONS INDEX

King Saud University College of Engineering, 2.2.5(20); 3.2.1(29) Lawther Committee, See Department of Health and Social Security Macalester College, Minnesota (US), 2.2.3(12) Mahoney Institute for Health Maintenance, 3.1(21) Massey University, New Zealand, 2. 2.4(1)(2); 3.2.1(6) Medical Research Council (UK), 2.1 (23); 3.1(18)(19) Middlesex Polytechnic School of Law, 4.1(20)(21) Middlesex Polytechnic Urban Pollution Research Centre, 2.1 (22); 2.1.3(6) 3.2.2(11) Midwest Research Institute (US), 2. 2.3(3) Ministry of Health and Environment, Belgium, 2.2.2(11) Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre (MARC) (Chelsea College, UK) 1(9)(14);2.1. 1(8)(10)(13); 3.1(5) National Institute for Water Research (Canada), 2.1(20) National Research Centre (Egypt), 2.2.5(19); 3.2.3(9) National Research Council (USA), 1 (12) National Research Laboratory for Metrology (Japan), 2.1.2(30) National Science Foundation (US), 4.3(2) National Society for Clean Air (UK), 2.1(8)(9) National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, 3.2.2(1) Nehru University, New Delhi (India), 2.2.5(10) New Jersey Institute of Technology (US), 2.2.3(5)(9)

New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 2.2.3 (4) Norway Central Institute for Industrial Research, 2.1.1(16) Norwegian Institute of Air Research, 2.1.2(24) Netting Hill Social Council Working Party (UK), 2.2.1(15) Nottinghamshire Environment Advisory Council (UK), 1(23) Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 3.2. 1(13) Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 4. 3(1) Paisley College of Technology, 3.2.1 (12) Rice University (US), 4.2(3) Rohens Institute, See University of Surrey Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (UK), 1 (26)(27) Royal Society of Health (UK), 2.1(3) Rutgers State University, NJ (US), 3.2.1(17)(19) Sedgemoor District Council (UK), 3. 2.2(2) Shipham Survey Committee (UK), 3.2.2(5) South West Texas State University, 2.1.2(9) Swiss Federal Institute for Forestry Research, 4.2(1) Texaco Chemical Co. (US), 4.2(13) Texas A & M University (US), 2.2.3 (11) Touring Club of Switzerland, 4.2 (20) Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) (UK), 2.1.1(7)

ORGANISATIONS INDEX 91

(15); 2.1.3(3) 2.2.1(1)(5)(16)(19); 3.2.1(10)(20); 4.1(29) United Kingdom Atomic Energy Research Establishment, 2.1(5) (6); 2.2.1(7) 3.1(24); 3.2.3(10)(11) United States Department of Health Education and Welfare, 3. 1(1) United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, 4.1(6) United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 4.1(1) (25)(26)(36) 4.2(6); 4.3(8) United States National Research Council Committee on Lead in the Environment See National Research Council United States Senate Committee for the Environment and Public Works, 4.1(16) University College of Wales, 3.2.2 (3) University of Antwerp (Belgium), 2. 1.2(14); 2.2.5(17) University of Aston in Birmingham (UK), 2.1.1(24) University of Baroda (India), 2.2.5 (9) University of Basel (Switzerland), 3. 2.1(7)(8); 3.3(11) University of Birmingham (UK), 3.2. 1(16) University of Calcutta, 3.2.1(32) University of Canterbury (NZ), 2.2.4 (3)(6)(7); 4.2(11) University of Cincinnati (US), 2.1.2 (19) University of Dayton, Ohio (US), 3. 2.2(10) University of Essex, 2.1.2(31); 2.2.2 (16) University of Frankfurt/Main (W.Ger.), 2.2.2(8) University of Helsinki (Finland), 2. 1.2(28)

University of Hong Kong, 3.2.1(11) University of Ibadan (Nigeria), 3.2.1 (28) University of Illinois (US), 2.1.1(18); 3.2.3(3) University of Lagos (Nigeria), 2.1.2 (15) University of Lancaster (UK), 2.1.2 (3)(8)(10)(16)(21)(23)(26)(27); 2.2. 1(22)(28) University of Leeds (UK), 2.1.2(13) University of Leicester (UK), 2.1.2 (20) University of Maryland (US), 2.1.2 (6) University of Massachusetts (US), 2.1.2(12) University of Milan (Italy), 3.3(2) University of New South Wales (Australia), 3.1.1(6) University of Otago (NZ), 2.2.4(8) University of Pennsylvania (US), 3. 1.1(20) University of Petroleum and Minerals (Saudi Arabia), 2.2.5(6) University of Puerto Rico, 2.2.3(7) University of Surrey, Robens Institute (UK), 3.1(8) University of Teheran (Iran), 2.2.5 (4) University of Warsaw (Poland), 3.3 (10) University of Zurich (Switzerland), 2.2.2(12) Urban Stormwater Pollution Research Group, 2.1.1(9) Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences (US), 3.3(5)(8)(9) Walsall MDC Environmental Health Department (UK), 3.2.2(8) Warren Spring Laboratory (UK), 2. 1.2(7); 2.1.3(5); 2.2.1(12)(14)(24) (25)

92 ORGANISATIONS INDEX

Water Research Centre (UK), 2.1.2 (4)(5) Water Resources Research Center (US), 2.1(2) Working Party on the Monitoring of Foodstuffs, Steering Group on Food Surveillance, 3.2.3(6) World Health Organisation, 1(8) Yale University School of Forestry, 3.2.1(25)

Personal Author Index

Adams, F.C., 2.1.2(14) Adams, S., 4.1(12) Agrawal,Y. K., 2.2.5(9) Ajavi, A., 2.1.2(15) Albasel, N., 2.2.2(15) Al-Bassam, K.S., 2.2.5(16) Alexander, E., 2.1.1(2) Ali, E.A., 3.2.3(9) Angle, C.R., 3.1.1(31) Antonovics, J., 3.2.1(4) Apling, A.J., 2.2.1(24) Aragon, S.R., 2.2.5(11) Arari, N., 2.1.3(4) Arno, A., 2.1.2(2) Ashby, D., 3.1.1(26)

Bennett, B.C., 2.1.1(10) Beretta, C., 3.3(2) Berezkin, V.G., 2.1.2(29) Berglund, L., 2.2.2(13) Bevan, M.G., 2.2.1(l)(5) Biggins, P., 2.1.2(8) Billick, I.H., 4.1(6) Bishop, L., 2.1(11) Boeckx, R.L., 3.1.1(34) Boehncke, E., 3.2.1(3) Boggess, W.R., 1(5); 4.3(2) Bohn, R., 2.2.3(3) Bohy, M., 4.2(17) Bomback, J.L., 4.2(7) Bornschein, R.L., 3.1.1(32) Braddock, J.N., 4.2(16) Braun, S., 3.3(11) Brennan, E., 3.2.1(17)(19) Brondel, G., 4.1(34) Brooks, R.R., 2.2.4(1)(2); 3.2.1(6); 3. 2.3(2) Brueggemann, J., 3.2.1(3) Brunekreef, B., 3.1.1(24) Bryce-Smith, D., 1(13) Budiansky, S., 1(17) Bullin, J.A., 2.2.3(11) Burch, D., 4.2(20) Buseck, P.R., 2.2.3(16) Butler, J.D., 2.1(1) Byrd, D.S., 3.2.2(9)

Bacso, J., 3.2.1(31) Baes, C.F., 3.2.1(13) Balabaeva, L., 2.2.2(3) Barker, I., 2.1(3) Barlow, P.J., 3.2.1(16) Barnes, R.M., 2.1.2(12) Barratt, R.S., 2.1.1(24); 2.2.1(11) Barrett, B., 4.1(20)(21) Barrett, C.F., 2.2.1(14) Barry, P.S.I., 3.1.1(9) Basmadzhieva, K., 2.2.2(3) Bauman, S.E., 2.1.1(17) Baumann, H., 2.1.2(25) Beaud, P., 3.2.3(5) Bednarova, J., 3.2.1(30) Beeby, A.N., 2.1.2(20) Beeching, P.E., 2.2.1(32) Bell, A., 2.2.4(5) Bell, R.M., 2.2.1(21)

Campbell, K., 4.2(19) Carroll, J.D., 2.2.1(14) Caruso, J.A., 2.1.2(19) Cass, G.R., 2.1.1(19)

93

94 PERSONAL AUTHOR INDEX

Castro, S., 2.2.5(8) Caswell, R., 2.2.1(33) Chamberlain, A.C., 2.1(5)(6); 3.1 (24); 3.2.3(10) Chambers, D., 2.2.1(30) Chissiel, K.M., 3.3(4) Choquette, C.E., 2.1.2(6) Claeys-Thoreau, F., 2.2.2(11) Clark, A.I., 2.1.1(20)(25); 2.2.1(31) Clark, C.R., 4.2(18) Clarke, B., 3.2.1(17)(19) Cockroft, A.R., 2.1.2(4) Cole, M.M., 3.2.1(22) Collingridge, D., 4.3(5) Collins, J.A., 2.2.4(8) Colombo, A., 2.1.3(10) Colwill, D.M., 2.1.1(15); 2.1.3(3); 2. 2.1(1)(5)(19); 3.2.1(20); 4.1(29) Compton, R.D., 2.1.2(9) Connell, S., 1(9) Conway, D., 3.2.2(3) Cooney, P.A., 3.1.1(15) Cottenie, A., 2.2.2(15) Courtice, F.C, 2.2.4(4) Cowley, A.C.D., 4.1(13) Cremer, G., 4.2(21) Crist, T.O., 3.2.1(25) Crump, D.R., 3.2.1(16) Czarnowski, W., 3.1.1(33) Datta, C., 3.2.1(32) David, O., 3.1(2) Davidson, A., 2.2.3(1) Davies, B.E., 2.2.1(29); 3.2.2(3); 3. 2.3(7) De Jonghe, W.R.A., 2.1.2(14) Delapart, M., 2.2.2(5) Deshpande, S.P., 2.2.5(1) Dissanayake, C.B., 3.1(17) Diwell, A.F., 4.1(10) Dollard, G.J., 3.2.3(11) Dollimore, J., 3.1(12) Donard, O., 2.2.2(16) Dorling, T.A., 2.2.1(12) Duggan, M.J., 1(16); 2.1.1(12); 3.1. 1(16)(30) Dulley, M.E.R., 3.3(7)

Duncan, J., 4.2(16) Dunham, J.W., 4.2(2) Dunsby, R., 2.1.3(6) Durando, M.L., 2.2.5(11) Dutot, A., 2.1.1(14) Dutta, I., 2.2.5(10) Dzubay, T.G., 4.2(6) Earl, V., 2.1(13) Easton, J., 3.2.1(2) Ellis, J.B., 2.1(22); 2.1.1(9) El-Shoboksky, M.S., 2.2.5(20); 3.2. 1(29) Elwood, P.C., 2.1(23); 3.1(14)(18) (19) Errera, J., 3.1.1(13) Estes, S.A., 2.1.2(12) Facchetti, S., 2.2.2(4) Falahi-Ardakani, A., 2.1(21) Farrant, G.B., 2.2.1(30) Farsam, H., 2.2.5(4) Favez, C.M.P., 2.1(12) Favretto, L.G., 3.2.3(8) Fazakerley, J.A., 1(13) Fergusson, J.E., 2.2.4(3)(6)(7) Ferrante, E.D., 3.1(4) Flanagan, J.T., 3.2.1(12) Fleischaker, M.L., 4.2(10) Flueckiger, W., 3.2.1(7)(8); 3.3(11) Folio, M.R., 3.1.1(13) Folkeson, L., 3.2.2(1) Fox, M., 2.1(3) Franz, D.A., 2.2.3(6) Freeman, P., 3.1.1(6) Fytianos, K., 3.2.1(23) Gale, J., 3.2.1(2) Gallacher, J.E.J., 3.1(19) Gamys, V.P., 3.1.1(6) Gandhi, H.S., 4.2(7) Garcia-Miragaya, J., 2.2.5(8) Gartside, P.S., 3.1(7) Garty, J., 3.2.1(24) Ghosh, J., 3.2.1(32) Gilbert, T.W., 2.1.2(19) Gjessing, E., 2.2.2(13)

PERSONAL AUTHOR INDEX 95

Goldstein, B., 4.1(26) Golubev, I.R., 3.1(11) Goodman, G.T., 3.3(3) Gordon, G.E., 2.1.2(6) Graham, D.L., 3.2.3(1) Green, R., 4.2(11) Greenberg, A., 2.2.3(5) Grigsby, R.A., 4.2(13) Grosch, S., 3.2.1(21) Groves, J., 4.2(19) Habibi, K., 2.1.2(1) Hadley, W.M., 2.2.3(6) Hamilton, R.S., 2.1(22); 2.1.3(6); 3. 2.2(11) Hammond, P.B., 3.1(7) Hampp, R., 3.2.1(1) Hampton, E., 2.1.2(22) Hana, A.A., 2.2.5(16) Hankin, L., 4.2(4) Harrison, B., 4.1(10) Harrison, R.M., 1(20); 2.1.1(4); 2.1. 2(3)(8)(10)(16)(21)(23)(26)(27)(31) ; 2.2.1(22)(28); 3.3(4) Harvey, P.O., 3.1.1(21)(23) Hassett, J.J., 3.2.3(3) Healy, M.A., 1(23) Heard, M.J., 2.2.1(27) Heichel, G.H., 4.2(4) Hennigan, C., 3.1.1(13) Herbstman, S., 4.2(13) Hertz, J., 2.2.2(12) Heumann, G., 2.1.2(25) Hewitt, C.N., 2.1.2(31) Hickman, A.J., 2.1.1(7)(15); 2.1.3 (3); 2.2.1(5)(16)(19);4.1(29) Hightower, J.W., 4.2(3) Ho, Y.B., 3.2.1(11) Hogbin, L.E., 2.2.1(1) Holt, S., 3.2.2(3) Horak, O., 2.2.2(2) Hoskote, N.G., 2.1.1(18) Houghton, N.J., 2.2.1(29) Howells, R., 4.1(20)(21) Hutton, M., 3.3(3) Ibrahim, M., 2.1.2(19)

Isaac, M.W., 2.2.5(7) Jagasia, M.H., 3.1(12) Jakeman, A.J., 4.1(23) Jan, W., 2.2.3(14) Jaworowski, Z., 3.1(22) Jeffries, M., 1(4) Jiang, S.-G., 2.2.5(17) Johnson, M.S., 2.2.1(21) Johnston, W.R., 2.1.2(27); 2.2.1 (28) Jones, K., 2.1.2(13) Jones, M.P., 3.2.2(7) Jones, T.H., 3.2.2(6) Joselow, M., 4.2(5) Kalinowska, A., 3.3(10) Kalman, S.M., 3.2.3(1) Kam-Lam, T., 2.2.1(9) Kamson, O.F., 2.1.2(15) Kazimir, J., 3.2.1(17)(19) Kebbekus, B., 2.2.3(9) Kelkar, D.N., 2.2.5(12) Keller, T., 4.2(1) Khalid, B.Y., 2.2.5(7) Khan, D.H., 3.2.2(4) Khan, H.U., 2.2.5(6) Khandekar, R.N., 2.2.5(12)(21) Kinard, J.T., 2.1.1(2) King, E., 3.1(13) Knifton, J.F., 4.2(13) Kobayashi, Y., 2.2.5(22) Kollerstrom, N., l(22) Kowalczyk, G.S., 2.1.2(6) La Ferla, F.M.E., 2.1.1(21) Lacey, R.F., 3.1.1(28) Larssen, S., 2.1.2(24) Lau, W.M., 2.2.5(13); 3.2.1(26) Laxen, D.P.H., 1(20); 2.1.2(10) 2.2. 1(33) Lepp, N., 3.2.1(15) Lewis, J., 4.1(26) Little, P., 2.2.1(7)(27) Lotschert, W., 3.2.1(21) Louw, C.W., 2.2.5(3) Lovell, A.M., 2.2.1(32)

96 PERSONAL AUTHOR INDEX

Low, K.S., 2.2.5(5) Lu, S., 2.2.5(23) Lunn, C.A., 2.1.1(7); 2.2.1(16) Luria, M., 2.2.5(18) Lygren, E., 2.2.2(13) MacMurdo, S.D., 2.1(1) Malmqvist, S.D., 2.1.2(18) Mankovska, B., 3.2.1(9) Marcus, A.H., 2.1.3(7)(8)(9) Marecek, J., 3.1.1(20) Marsalek, J., 2.1(20) Martin, A., 2.1(10) Mathews, J., 2.1(4) Maurer, R., 3.3(1) McCarthy, M., 3.1(3) McCorry, A., 3.2.3(4) McCulloch, R.D., 2.2.1(11) McEvoy, J.E., 2.1.3(2); 4.3(5) McIntosh, A., 3.3(6) McKee, H.E., 4.2(14) McKirby, K., 2.1.2(22) McRae, G.J., 2.1.1(19) Mendham, J., 2.2.1(30) Merh, S.S., 2.2.5(9) Middleton, D.R., 2.1(1) Mielke, H.W., 2.2.3(12) Millar, I.B., 3.1.1(15) Miller, C., 1(3) Miller, J.E., 3.2.3(3) Mingay, D.W., 4.2(15) Moeller, B., 3.1(10) Molion, L.C.B., 2.1.3(4) Moller, M., 2.1.1(16) Mombeshora, C., 2.2.5(15) Mookerjee, A., 2.2.5(10) Mudre, J.M., 3.3(9) Muskett, C.J., 2.1.1(3); 3.2.2(7) Nasralla, M.M., 2.2.5(19); 3.2.3(9) Nathanson, B.A., 2.2.3(4) Needleman, H.L., 3.1(6); 3.1.1(5) Ney, J.J., 3.3(5)(8)(9) Nichols, A.L., 4.1(26) Nichols, T.P., 2.2.1(20) Nield, D., 2.1.2(4) Nikiforov, V., 2.2.2(3)

Nikolic, M., 2.2.2(10) Nriagu, J.O., 3.1.1(2) Nudelman, H., 2.2.3(4) O’Brien, B.J., 1(14); 3.1(5) Odenbro, A., 3.1.1(18) O’Flaherty, E.J., 3.1(7) Ohi, M., 2.1.2(30) Olkkonen, H., 2.2.2(9); 3.2.1(14) Onianwa, P.C., 3.2.1(28) Orpwood, B., 2.1.2(5) Page, R.A., 4.1(22) Pallotti, G., 3.1(15) Paolini, J., 2.2.5(8) Parry, G., 2.2.1(21) Patel, M.P., 2.2.5(9) Peleg, M., 2.2.5(18) Perry, R., 2.1.1(4); 2.1.2(3) Peters, E.M., 3.2.1(18); 3.2.3(7) Petrujova, T., 2.2.2(14) Pfeiffer, W.C, 2.2.5(14) Philip, R., 2.1.1(26) Pieczonka, W., 4.2(21) Pierson, W., 2.2.3(2) Pierstorff, W., 2.1(11) Piotrowski, J.K., 1(9); 3.1(5) Plassmann, E., 2.2.2(1) Pocock, S.J., 3.1.1(26) Pollitt, J.G., 2.2.1(6) Pope, W., 2.1.1(6) Pospisil, J., 3.2.1(30) Post, J.E., 2.2.3(16) Price, B., 2.2.1(26) Provenzano, G., 2.1.3(1) Raab, G.M., 3.1.1(25) Rabinowitz, M., 3.1(20); 3.1.1(32) Radcliffe, S., 2.1.1(1) Radojevic, M., 2.1.2(31) Ragsdale, H.L., 3.2.1(13) Raisch, R., 2.2.3(3) Ramuz, A., 3.2.3(5) Ranson, L., 2.1.2(4)(5) Rapsomanikis, S., 2.2.2(16) Ratcliffe, D., 2.1.2(20) Ratcliffe, J.M., 1(19)

PERSONAL AUTHOR INDEX 97

Raunemaa, T., 2.1.2(28) Rebler, R., 2.2.2(2) Reeves, R.D., 3.2.3(2) Rehnlund, S., 3.1.1(7) Revitt, D.M., 2.1(22); 2.1.1(9); 3.2.2 (11) Rice, P., 2.1.1(23); 4.1(19) Richards, L.W., 4.2(6) Rickard, D.G., 3.3(7) Riedwyl, P., 4.2(20) Rinefierd, M., 3.2.2(10) Ritter, C.J., 3.2.2(10) Roberts, E., 2.2.4(1)(2); 3.2.1(6) Roberts, N.A., 3.2.2(6) Robson, L., 3.1.1(1) Rodriguez-Castellon, E., 2.2.3(7) Rodriguez-Flores, M., 2.2.3(7) Rohbock, E., 2.2.2(8) Rollier, H.A., 3.2.3(5) Russell, P.A., 2.2.3(2) Russell Jones, R., 1(25)(30); 2.1(14) (19)(25); 3.1(16); 3.1.1(11) Rutter, M., 1(25)(28); 3.1(16); 3.1.1 (8)

Stark, A.D., 3.1.1(14) Stephens, R., 1(13); 2.2.1(3); 3.1(2); 3.1.1(10) Stevens, R.K., 4.2(6) Sturges, W.T., 2.1.2(16)(23) Sullivan, E.J., 2.2.1(12)

Salih, B.M., 2.2.5(7) Sandone, G.J., 3.3(5) Saricks, C.I., 4.1(15) Schaefer, K., 3.2.1(5) Schmid, I., 2.2.2(12) Schmidt, J., 2.2.2(2) Schneider, E.W., 2.1.2(11); 4.2(8) Schutz, A., 3.1.1(22) Schwar, M.J.R., 2.1.1(5); 2.1.2(17) Schwartz, J., 4.3(8) Servant, J., 2.1.1(13); 2.2.2(5) Sheffield, A., 2.2.3(14) Simmonds, P.R., 2.2.4(6)(7) Simpson, R.W., 4.1(23) Smith, M., 3.1.1(17) Smith, R.F., 3.2.1(22) Smith, S., 1(14) Smythe, L.E., 3.1.1(6) Southwood, T.R.E., 1(26) Spengler, J.D., 3.1(23) Stadler, E., 4.2(15) Stansell, J., 4.2(9)

Uden, P.C., 2.1.2(12)

Tai, K.M., 3.2.1(11) Taira, K., 2.2.5(2) Takala, K., 2.2.2(9); 3.2.1(14) Taylor, A., 3.1(8) Taylor, J.A., 4.1(23) Tera, O., 3.1.1(27) Thakkar, S., 2.2.5(1) Thoeni, L., 2.2.2(12) Thomas, L.A., 2.1.2(9) Thompson, J.R., 3.2.1(20) Tisdale, J., 2.1.1(2) Trefry, J.H., 2.2.3(15) Trijonis, T., 2.2.3(10) Trindale, H.A., 2.2.5(14) Tschangho, J.K., 2.1.1(18) Turner, A.C., 2.2.1(14) Turner, D., 2.1(7)

Van der Meulen, A., 2.1.1(22) Van Duc, T., 2.1(12) Van Hassel, J.H., 3.3(8) Viala, A., 2.2.2(7) Vinig, Z., 2.2.5(18) Vohra, K.G., 2.2.5(12) Waldbott, G.L., 1(1) Waldron, H.A., 1(15) Walford, J., 3.1(13) Walsh, M.P., 4.1(26) Ward, N.I., 2.2.4(1)(2); 3.2.1(6): 3.2. 3(2) Warren, R.S., 3.2.2(11) Waterfield, V.H., 4.1(29) Wegener, H.-R., 3.2.1(5) Whitehead, J., 2.1.1(8) Whitelaw, K., 2.1.1(4) Wibberley, D., 3.1(2) Wiffen, R.D., 2.2.1(7)

98 PERSONAL AUTHOR INDEX

Williams, C.R., 2.2.1(22) Williams, M.K., 3.1(13) Williamson, W.B., 4.2(7) Wilson, D., 1(21); 3.1.1(19) Wilson, R., 4.1(26) Wilson, S.A., 2.1(2) Wilson, S.J., 2.1.2(10)(21) Witz, S., 2.2.3(8) Wixson, E.G., 1(5); 4.3(2) Wong, M.H., 2.2.5(13); 3.2.1(26) Wu, L., 3.2.1(4) Wynder, E.L., 3.1(21) Wynn, A., 3.1(9) Wynn, M., 3.1(9) Yeomans, L., 4.1(30) Yong, T.S., 2.2.4(7) Zainullin, R.F., 2.1.2(29)