Protecting the Gulf's Marine Ecosystems from Pollution

UNESCO DOHA OFFICE

NCWCD

Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada Hans-Jörg Barth Friedhelm Krupp Benno Böer Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam Editors

Birkhäuser Basel · Boston · Berlin

Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada Khaled Bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation P.O. Box 69428 Riyadh 11547 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Friedhelm Krupp Senckenberg Research Institute and National History Museum Senckenberganlage 25 60325 Frankfurt a.M. Germany Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam Marine Environment Research Centre Environmental Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) P.O. Box 45553 Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates

Hans-Jörg Barth Department of Geography Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg Im Neuenheimer Feld 348 69120 Heidelberg Germany Benno Böer UNESCO Doha 66 Lusail Street – West Bay P.O. Box 3945 Doha, Qatar

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e-ISBN 978-3-7643-7947-6

987654321

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Contents

List of contributors……………………………………………………

VII

Editorial……………………………………………………………….

IX

Preface by H.R.H. Prince Turki Bin Naser Bin Abdulaziz ...…………

XI

Foreword by Walter Erdelen, UNESCO ……………………………...

XIII

Foreword by Yousef Omair bin Yousef, CEO, ADNOC…………………

XV

H.-J. Barth and N.Y. Khan Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf ...…………………………………

1

G. Brown, B. Böer, S. Sakkir The coastal vegetation of the western and southern Gulf characterisation and conservation aspects ..……………………….….

23

F. Krupp and A.H. Abuzinada Impact of oil pollution and increased sea surface temperatures on marine ecosystems and biota in the Gulf ……………………………..

45

N.Y. Khan Integrated management of pollution stress in the Gulf ……………….

57

H.N. El-Habr and M. Hutchinson Efforts of regional and international organisations in reducing levels of pollution in the Gulf …………………………………………

93

A.M.M. Al-Janahi Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area …………………

107

R.A. Loughland and B. Saji Remote Sensing: A tool for managing marine pollution in the Gulf …………………………………….………………….……

131

VI

Contents

K. Zainal, H. Al-Sayed and I. Al-Madany Coastal pollution in Bahrain and its management ……………………..

147

R. Facey Pollution from sea based sources ……………………………….……..

163

S. Lattemann and T. Höpner Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine environment of the Gulf .………………………………………………

191

F. Al-Yamani Importance of the freshwater influx from the Shatt-Al-Arab River on the Arabian Gulf marine environment .……………………...

207

S.M. Al-Ghais and W.H. Pearson The compensation schedule approach for the assessment of oil spill damages to marine resources of the RSA .…………………………….

223

D.A. Jones, M. Hayes, F. Krupp, G. Sabatini, I. Watt and L. Weishar The impact of the Gulf War (1990 – 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery ….

237

H.-J. Barth Rapid assessment indicators of oil spill recovery in salt marsh ecosystems ………………………………………………….…............

255

T. Höpner and K.A. Al-Shaikh Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill ………….

265

L. Weishar, I. Watt, D.A. Jones and D. Aubrey Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques ………………….

273

Abbreviations ………………………………………………………….

281

Index …………………………………………………………………..

283

List of contributors

Abuzinada, Abdulaziz H., Board Member - Special Advisor, Khaled Bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation, P.O. Box 69428, Riyadh 11547, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; e-mail: [email protected] Al Abdessalaam, Thabit Zahran, Director, Marine Environment Research Centre, Environmental Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD), P.O. Box 45553, United Arab Emirates. Al-Ghais, Saif M., Biology Department, Faculty of Science, UAE University, AlAin, P.O. Box 17551, United Arab Emirates; e-mail: [email protected] Al-Janahi, Abdul Munem Mohamed, Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), P.O. Box 10112, Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected] Al-Madany, Ismail, Public Commission for the Protection of Marine Resources, Environment and Wildlife, P.O. Box 32657, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected] Al-Sayed, Hashim, Biology Department, University of Bahrain, P.O. Box 32038, Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected] Al-Shaikh, Khalid Ali, Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), P.O. Box 61681, Riyadh 11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Al-Yamani, Faiza, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 1638, Salmiyah-22017, Kuwait; e-mail: [email protected] Aubrey, David, Woods Hole Group, 81 Technology Park Drive, East Falmouth, MA 02536, USA Barth, Hans-Jörg, Department of Geography, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, D-69120, Germany; e-mail: [email protected] Böer, Benno, UNESCO, Doha, 66 Lusail Street - West Bay, P.O. Box 3945, Doha, Qatar; e-mail: [email protected] Brown, Gary, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, AAD, P.O. Box 24885, Safat 13109, Kuwait; e-mail: [email protected] El-Habr, Habib N., Director and Regional Representative UNEP Regional Office for West Asia, P.O. Box 10880, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected] Facey, Roy, Port Development Adviser, Yemen Gulf of Aden Ports Corporation, Aden, Republic of Yemen, e-mail: [email protected]

VIII

List of contributors

Hayes, Miles, Panion Ltd, 1119 Park Street, Columbia, Sc. 29202; e.mail: [email protected] Höpner, Thomas, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet Oldenburg, Carl-von-OssietzkyStr. 9-11, P.O. Box 2503, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany; e-mail: [email protected] Hutchinson, Melanie, Associate Programme Officer, UNEP Regional Office for West Asia, P.O. Box 10880, Manama, Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected] Jones, David Alan, P.O. Box No: 443, Ctra. Cabo La Nao (Pla) 124-6, 03730 Javea, Alicante, Spain; e.mail: [email protected] Khan, Nuzrat Yar, Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan, e-mail: [email protected] Krupp, Friedhelm, Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt a.M., Germany; e-mail: [email protected] Lattemann, Sabine, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet Oldenburg, Carl-vonOssietzky-Str. 9-11, P.O. Box 2503, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany; e-mail: [email protected] Loughland, Ronald, A., Centre of Environmental Research, Emirates Heritage Club, P.O. Box 108444, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; e-mail: [email protected] Pearson, Walter, Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, (formerly ERWDA), United Arab Emirates Sabatini, Gino, GS Consultants, 7054 D´Ibervillle,Montreal,Canada H2E 2Y4; e-mail: [email protected] Saji, Baby, Wataniya Environmental Services Co., Dar Al-Awadi Complex, Sharq, P.O. Box 27781 safat, 13135 Kuwait; e-mail: [email protected] Sakkir, Sabitha, Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Watt, Iain, IOMEC, Nelson Road, Grand Gaube, Mauritius; e-mail: [email protected] Weishar, Lee, Woods Hole Group, 81 Technology Park Drive, East Falmouth, MA 02536, USA; [email protected] Zainal, Khadija, University of Bahrain, Biology Department, P.O. Box 32038, Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected]

Editorial

In recent decades, and especially during the last few years, coastal development in the Gulf countries accelerated tremendously due to significant increase in oil related income and economic diversification strategies. Rapid expansion of industrial complexes, exceptional increase in private real estate investment, tourism and service industries, high birth rates and influx of foreign labour, accompanied by prospering economies, resulted in an enormous human population growth in the Gulf’s coastal areas. This development does much to further the well-being of the people and it also leaves severe impacts on the terrestrial, coastal and marine environment. These have changed - and not always for the better. Large areas of the coastal zone including important marine habitats are currently threatened by increasing stress on the Gulf ecosystem, and pollution plays a major role. However, it is exactly this ecosystem that people depend upon directly and indirectly. It serves as resources for fishing, recreation, urban development and probably most importantly, as a major source of freshwater via desalination plants. Although public awareness of environmental issues has grown significantly during the last few years, the scientific information base currently available is inadequate. Informed decision making on resource use, regional planning and adequate environmental impact assessment procedures need scientific documentation and analysis of the different types of pollution and their effects on the coastal and marine environment. It is essential to generate knowledge and technologies on how to prevent and minimize adverse impacts based on the different types of pollution. The first comprehensive monograph, which addressed the ecosystem health and sustainability of the Gulf (Khan et al. 2002), was sponsored by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) and published by the Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management Society (AEHMS) in 2002. Following this landmark publication, several international workshops were held in 2005 in Abu Dhabi and Dubai to look into issues of coastal zone management. In a next step the United Arab Emirates University together with AEHMS organized the first international conference on “The State of the Gulf Ecosystem: Future and Threats”, which was held in Al Ain in March 2006 and focused on the problems confronting the Gulf ecosystem and environmental management. The growing attention of the scientific community towards the coastal and marine resources of the Gulf is reflected by the participation of leading environmental experts from 29 countries. A selection of the papers presented at this conference has recently been published in “Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management“.

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Editorial

Apart from these efforts, a shared vision of a healthy and sustainably managed Gulf ecosystem is still lacking in most of the coastal states. Since both pollution and biota transcend political boundaries, an integrated management of pollution stress on a Gulf-wide basis is an imperative for the Gulf nations. This is a very difficult task which lies ahead of us and with this in mind, UNESCO decided to produce this science-based book on pollution management in the Gulf. The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) generously sponsored this project which was carried out in cooperation with the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The contributions of 28 authors aim at locating the gaps and obstacles, which are currently preventing an effective, transboundary management of the marine and coastal resources and present recommendations of how to improve the situation. This multidisciplinary book on pollution and its mitigation in the Gulf could not have been completed, without the enthusiastic participation of the experts authoring the various chapters. We therefore offer our sincere thanks to all the ladies and gentlemen, listed as authors of this book. We wish to express our gratitude to the referees who, with their expertise helped to improve the manuscripts. We also thank the Birkhäuser Verlag for their support, flexibility and professional way of handling the publishing process. Special thanks are due to Dr. Hans Detlef Klüber and Karin Neidhart. Finally it gives us great pleasure to express our thanks to ADNOC for their partnership, essential for the publication of this book. We trust that this volume will prove useful to scientists, students, environmental managers and decision makers in understanding the urgent need of “Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution”.

The Editors

Preface

The countries of the Arabian Peninsula have undergone a remarkable process of development and social transformation. This has led to increased rates of transport, industrial development, and consumption of water, food, and goods, which in turn, led to significantly increased rates of environmental pollution. Regional conflicts have also taken their toll and contributed to environmental pollution. For example, the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, the biggest known marine pollution event in human history, has occurred in the waters of the Gulf. Moreover, the Gulf is the busiest area in the world in view of maritime oil shipment, and one of the undesired consequences are frequently occurring oil spills, and their impacts on the marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as on the fishing and tourism industry. Wind often blows land-based rubbish towards the sea, and it normally accumulates in the inter-tidal zone; driftwood on the ocean’s surface, as well as all floating trash also eventually accumulates in the coastal zone. This has led for some beaches in the Gulf to be heavily polluted with garbage. Such a development is not only unsightly, but also prevents certain marine organisms, such as turtles, for example, from landing on the beach. It also contributes for waterfowl and other creatures to get entangled in plastic snares and ropes, and exposes them to a slow and painful death: starvation. The situation under the water surface is not much better: environmentally concerned divers routinely clean the sea-bottom from rubbish and ghost-nets, often with dead marine organisms entangled in them, such as dugong, dolphin, whale, turtle and fish. Since decades the environmental groups are organising beach clean up campaigns, as well as dive-clean-up campaigns. Then there is chemical pollution affecting salt marshes and mangroves, coral reef and seagrass-beds as well as other ecosystems. The waters adjacent to the numerous desalinisation plants are exposed to thermal pollution and an increase in seawater salinity levels, even if locally confined. Additionally there is obvious air pollution, and a number of different other types of pollution. Even nuclear pollution of marine sediments has been reported. The people of Arabia depend on and care for the coastal and marine ecosystems, as an integral part of their heritage, and it is also an important source of fish, and seafood. Seawater as an absolutely essential raw material for human living, since it provides most of the region’s drinking and industrial water via desalinization plants. It cannot be underlined enough just how important the marine ecosystems are in view of freshwater security, food security, transport and

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Preface

recreation, and that we have got to manage them at the highest possible professional level, and keep them intact. Due to the wisdom of several of the region’s political leaders, environmental research, education, legislation, and conservation bodies were established in the region, in order to combat adverse environmental impacts, and to try and guarantee the conservation and sustainable development of the country's natural heritage. However, the current rate of pollution seems to be a challenge. A concerted cross-border action is required, together with the necessary legislation, and an implementation strategy. It is UNESCO who has initiated a process of bringing together the riparian countries in the Gulf in order to jointly address and discuss cross-border environmental coastal and marine issues. The process is being supported by UNEP and ROPME, and it is slow but steady ongoing, and it will include dealing with pollution. This volume is a comprehensive introduction towards the understanding of coastal and marine pollution in the Gulf. It will inspire the reader, whether on the researcher level, the layman level, the level of the decision maker and politician, or the level of the industrial developer, towards the initiation and the enhancement of ecosystem management practices in view of pollution. We are certain that this scholarly work is a meaningful contribution documenting the numerous pollutionrelated problems, and that it offers guidance on how to minimize adverse impacts and how to keep our environments clean. We also hope that environmental managers will be inspired and keep working even harder to combating coastal and marine pollution in the best interest of the people living in the Gulf. We thank the UNESCO Doha Office in Qatar for their initiative, we thank the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company ADNOC in the United Arab Emirates for their commitment and support, and we also thank the Saudi Arabian National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development for their leading role in producing this publication. Furthermore we convey our sincere respects and thanks to the editor’s and the experts for their enthusiastic and professional work that led to the production of this highly valuable contribution, which we warmly welcome.

HRH Prince Turki Bin Naser Bin Abdulaziz, President, PME Chairman, Council of the Arab Ministers of Environment

Foreword

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution has been produced in cooperation between the National Commission of Wildlife Conservation and Development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and UNESCO, with support from the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company. Sustainable living in the Gulf is dependent upon resources provided by the sea. Marine and coastal ecosystems are essential for the continuous supply of freshwater, seafood and for other ecosystem services. However, some of the world’s largest landfill and dredging projects are found in the coastal areas of the Gulf, and the open sea contains the world’s main crude oil shipping routes. Marine pollution, therefore, is one of the undesired factors that accompanies this development. A variety of human impacts are contributing to marine pollution, such as oil, sediments, waste, thermal, chemical, noise, and other forms of pollution. Oil spills are of major concern, and more recently, as mentioned, coastal dredging and landfill. In the long term, systems that provide primary productivity, such as seagrass beds, macro-algal reefs, phytoplankton communities, mangrove forests, salt marshes, cyanobacterial mats, and coral reef communities are crucial for the functioning of the marine ecosystems in the Gulf. Even more important, the seawater is of direct concern for freshwater security, because most of the drinking water for people comes from the sea, in an area with the highest density of desalinization plants in the world. Scientific research into the natural ecosystems will be very important in order to have the necessary knowledge base to enable us to carry out coastal and marine engineering projects with limited adverse environmental impacts. It will also be particularly useful in decision-making for addressing any form of marine pollution, with a special view to food and water security. Even though the regional organizations ROPME and MEMAC, intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO, UNEP, and IMO, national environmental agencies, ministries, authorities, universities, a number of NGOs, as well as health, safety, and environment departments of private sector companies, are dealing with the subject of combating marine pollution, the science-based management of ecosystems and the maintenance of intact ecosystems and clean water are very difficult tasks that lie ahead. It is with this in mind that UNESCO decided to pursue the request of the National Commissions for Education, Science, and Culture of the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the

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Foreword

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, to produce a sciencebased book on pollution management. I express my sincere thanks to the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company for their generous sponsorship, and to the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development in Saudi Arabia for their cooperation. I congratulate the authors and editors of this new scientific volume for their important contribution to combating marine pollution, which I am sure will be warmly welcomed. Walter Erdelen Assistant Director-General, Natural Sciences Sector, UNESCO

Foreword

It is my honor to present to you the new science-based publication “Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution”, coordinated by the National Commission of Wildlife Conservation and Development NCWCD, Riyadh, in conjunction with UNESCO, supported by the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company ADNOC. The project was initiated by UNESCO Doha, based on suggestions from the UNESCO National Commissions in the Gulf. The coastal areas in the Gulf are rapidly developing, with some major coastal engineering projects emerging. The development has positive, and also negative aspects, and marine pollution is one of them. Sustainable human development depends on the efficiency and ability to provide reliable information, based on environmental data and human activities. Therefore it is advisable to keep abreast of progress in environmental sciences, environmental education, and social transformation. It is essential to scientifically document and analyse the different types of pollution and their effects on the environment, and to generate knowledge and technologies on how to prevent and minimize adverse impacts based on pollution. The marine and coastal zones are an integral part of the natural and cultural heritage of the maritime countries in the Gulf. Extensive inter tidal and marine ecosystems exist here, with a broad variety of habitats and biological diversity. In the past, today, and in the future, the people here depend on the marine and coastal resources. In a functionary sense the ecosystems via desalinization plants, provide drinking water for the local inhabitants, and as well serve as areas for recreation, fishing, urban development, and transport. These resources are essential for the continuous supply of freshwater, fish, crustaceans, for marine primary productivity, and for ecosystem functioning. Therefore, the marine and coastal resources have to be dealt with the greatest care and sensitivity. Together we have to try and continuously guarantee maximum benefit for the human population, based on intact and healthy environment. The benefits include the protection of the human population from environmentally caused diseases, as well as the development of environment-based jobs and income. ADNOC is fully aware of the importance of the ecosystems biotic and abiotic components, and it is with this in mind that ADNOC decided to support this book publication “Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution”. The reader will learn from the articles in this publication, about the existing threats of pollution that exist in the region, and methods of pollution management. Improving the knowledge of environmental managers, researchers, administrators,

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Foreword

and decision makers, will contribute towards improvement of environmental management in the Gulf. We congratulate the authors for their excellent work, and we hope it will inspire the environmental agencies and stakeholders in the region to continuously work together towards professional environmental management. Finally we thank the NCWCD and the UNESCO Regional Office in the Arab States of the Gulf for initiating this activity, and for their professional partnership, and we thank the Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi, the University of Heidelberg and the Senckenberg Research Institute for logistic support, and last not least the authors for their excellent contributions. Yousef Omair bin Yousef Secretary General of the Supreme Petroleum Council Chief Executive Officer of Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC).

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf Hans-Jörg Barth1 and Nuzrat Yar Khan2 1 2

Department of Geography, Heidelberg University, Germany Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan

The Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea (total area 240,000 km2) situated in the subtropical high-pressure-zone and thus characterized by low precipitation and high aridity, resulting in evaporation rates above 2000 mm yr-1 (Barth 1998). It is a shallow sedimentary basin, about 1000 km long and between 200 and 330 km wide. The average depth is presently 35 m with a generally eastward dipping seafloor. The deepest areas are in front of the Iranian coast, reaching from 60 m to about 100 m at the entrance to the Strait of Hormuz. Thus, the whole Gulf lies within the photic zone. The shoreline at the Arabian side displays a gradual slope with a wide intertidal zone, compared to the steep and narrow shoreline at the Iranian side where the Zagros mountains rise more than 2000 m. As a consequence of the gradual topography and of the favourable environment to carbonate producing biota, the Gulf is a strongly sedimentary province with a dominating soft substrate benthos. Sediments of biogenic carbonates - mostly foraminifera - exist over much of the Gulf floor (Sheppard et al. 1992). Highest carbonate concentrations are to be found in the shallow waters of the western and southern Gulf (Fig. 1). Within a depositional setting along the southern Gulf coast the offshore bank is progressively extending (Kendall et al. 2002). Terrestrial sediments are limited to the northwest where the waterway of the Shatt al Arab discharges into the Gulf, and the eastern Iranian shoreline where terrestrial fluvial sediments from the Zagros mountains occasionally are accumulated in the nearshore region. Offshore, underlying salt domes have forced upwards numerous islands and banks of hard substrate which are now colonized by corals.

2

Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

Figure 1. Carbonate content of surface sediments in the Gulf (modified after Sheppard et al. 1992).

Geology of the Gulf region The geologic situation of the Gulf region is basically the result of continuous sediment accumulation since Paleozoic times. The present structure was established during major tectonic processes in the Tertiary period. The Arabian Peninsula originally was attached to the African (Nubian) Shield. At the beginning of the Cambrian to the north and the east of the Arabian Peninsula a great sedimentary basin (Tethys) had developed. Throughout the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and early Cenozoic times sediments accumulated in this slowly sinking trough. In the wide epicontinental seas between the Tethys and the Arabian Peninsula, a relatively thin succession of almost flat lying Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and early Cenozoic strata was deposited (Chapman 1978). These strata spread widely over the eastern Arabian Peninsula. In the late Cretaceous, orogenic movements constituted the first stage of the Alpine orogeny. The second stage began in the late Tertiary, when the deformed rocks of the geosyncline started to rise, leading to the formation of the Taurus, the Zagros mountains, and the Oman mountains. The Arabian Peninsula itself was little affected by this uplift except for being tilted towards the eastern Gulf region. There subsidence continued. In the middle Tertiary (25 Ma ago), when these events were at progress, the Arabian plate started to split away from the African Shield along the large rift system

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

3

which extends from the Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead sea rift in the north to the Afar triangle in Ethiopia. There it diverges through the Gulf of Aden into the Arabian Sea and down the African mainland as the large African Rift Valley System in the south. The separated Arabian plate started moving northeastward with a slight counter-clockwise turn, sliding beneath the great Asian plate in Iran. The tensional forces along the rift lead to the formation of a graben structure (Red Sea depression) with a pronounced relief between the plateau and the floor of the rift. Magma rising up the faults covered large parts of the eastern Arabian Shield. This development continues until the present. The current Red Sea rift is estimated to be between 2 and 3 cm each year (Stanley 1994). Thus the Arabian Peninsula can be divided into two structural provinces. The Arabian Shield in the west is part of the Precambrian crustal plate, generally exposed except the parts which are covered by tertiary volcanic rock. The second structural province is the Arabian Shelf in the east which consists of the sedimentary sequences covering the plate.

The Arabian Shelf The Arabian Shelf lies to the east of the shield where it forms two thirds of the peninsula. Its foundation consists of the same Precambrian plate that makes up the shield. On top of this basement a series of continental and shallow water marine sediments accumulated, ranging from Cambrian to Pliocene age. These layers dip gently away from the shield into a number of deep basins (Chapman 1978). Thus the thickness of the sediment strata increases gradually from the west to the east where in the coastal lowlands 11,000 m are reached (Alsharhan and Nairn 1997). Beside the main Zagros Reverse Fault even 18,000 m of sediment has accumulated (Edgell 1996). Erosion exposed most of the sediments, forming a series of parallel strike escarpments facing westward, each capped with resistant limestone. These cuestas are exposed in a great curved belt along the eastern margin of the shield, reflecting the gently arched surface of the buried basement. Large parts of the basins in the southeast (Rub’al Khali), east (Gulf), and northeast (Nefud) are covered by quaternary sandy sediments. The Persian Gulf Basin is the largest basin with active salt tectonism in the world. The more than 900 km long Gulf is the present-day geosynclinal expression of the 2600 km long Persian Gulf Basin. The Persian Gulf Basin consists of a number of NW-SE trending, geotectonic units such as the Arabian Plattform and the zone of marginal troughs, including the Zagros Fold Belt, limited on the northeast by the Main Zagros Reverse Fault (Edgell 1996). The Basin is crossed by several N-S structures, expressed by the major Qatar-Kazerun lineament (Qatar Arch). These rejuvenated uplifts have existed for 650 Ma. The Halokinesis in the Gulf originates where major intersecting basement faults (e.g. the Qatar-Kazerun lineament) cut the buoyant salt beds of the different formations (Edgell 1996). Diapiric oil fields as a result of salt tectonism account for 60% of the recoverable oil reserves of the Persian Gulf Basin (Edgell 1996).

Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

4

3.2 cm/year

ARABIAN GULF 2 cm/year

RED SEA Quarternary

Rub’ al Khali

Tertiary volcanic rocks Miocene and Pliocene

Oligocene Palaeocene /Eocene Cretaceous Jurassic

2 cm/year

Triassic Palaeozoic Precambrian Precambrium

Figure 2. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula and tectonic movements (after Chapman 1978 and Johnson 1998).

The southern part of the Mesopotamian depression includes the Gulf and a narrow coastal strip of the Arabian Peninsula. This coastal strip is the Gulf coastal region. The elevation of the coastal region rises gradually inland at a rate of about one metre per kilometre. The coastline is irregular, low, and sandy and the water has many shoals, so that tidal changes cause the waterfront to shift back and forth up to several kilometres. Sabkhat (salt flats) are common all along the coast from Kuwait to the southern end of the Gulf (Barth 2002). On the Iranian side steep shores formed by the anticlinal fold structure from the foothills of the Zagros mountains are dominant, together with narrow bands of alluvial coastal lowlands.

Sea level changes Considerably lower sea levels and even complete evaporation of the Gulf occurred in the Pleistocene. The period between 110 ka BP and 30 ka BP was characterised by considerable sea level fluctuations within the range of 30 and 60 m below present sea level (Sheppard et al. 1992). These sea levels correspond to

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

5

the depths of major wadis, especially at the Read Sea coast. After 30 ka BP the sea level fell rapidly to a minimum at about 17 ka BP. The values provided by various authors range between 120 and 150 m below present sea level. This implies that the Gulf was completely dry during that period. At about 15 ka BP global surface temperatures increased, which lead to the Holocene transgression. The rise in sea level commenced about 14 ka BP and proceeded rapidly to near present levels at about 6.0 ka BP. This transgression was especially pronounced during periods at 12 ka, 11 ka, 9.5 ka, 8.5 ka, and 7.0 ka BP (Teller et al. 2000, Glennie 1998) (Fig. 3). The average horizontal transgression between 13 ka and 6.0 ka must have been 140 m yr-1, but during periods of intense sea level rise this distance increased to more than 1000 m (Teller et al. 2000). The transgression reached its maximum at about 6.0 ka BP. At that time the sea level was between 2.5 (Felber et al. 1978) and 3.5 m (Lambeck 1996) above the actual level.

Figure 3. Palaeogeographic map showing the Gulf during the post-glacial transgression (source: Barth 2001, Uchupi et al. 1999, Glennie 1998, Felber et al. 1978).

About the succeeding development there are different opinions. Felber et al. (1978) and Evans et al. (1969) state that the maximum sea level situation persisted for about 2,000 years before regression started gradually. Kassler (1973) and AlAsfour (1978) assert a considerable regression to two meters below the present sea level at 5,000 yr BP and a following transgression back to the 6,000 yr BPlevel at 4,000 yr BP. The later development was characterised by alternation of trans- and regression (Fig. 3). Evans et al. (1969), Felber (1978), and Hötzl et al.

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(1984) as well as more recent studies (Alsharhan et al. 1995) promote the idea of a more gradual regression starting at 4,000 yr BP and reaching today’s level at about 1,000 yr BP (Fig. 4).

5

0 years B.P. in 1000

0

present sea level

8

6

4

2

sea level in m

-5 -10 -15 -20 -25

Kassler, 1973 Al-Asfour, 1978 Felber et al., 1978

-30

Figure 4. Sea level changes of the Gulf during the last 8000 years (based on 14C-dates of calcareous shells)(Barth 2001).

But even later than 1,000 yr BP the coastal geography at the western and southern Gulf coast experienced significant changes. Seaward progradation of carbonate intertidal flats in the UAE amounts up to seven kilometres during the last 4,000 years (Kinsman 1964). Coastal marine sediments, found in a distance of more than two kilometres from the present intertidal zone north of Jubail (Saudi Arabia), provided 14C dates (of cyanobacteria) of 700 yr BP. This implies an average progradation of more than 3 m/year (Barth 2001). 14C dates of cyanobacteria by Evans et al. (1969) in the Abu Dhabi sabkha indicate an average progradation rate of one metre per year for the last 1,000 years. Evans (2002) points out that the recent cyanobacterial mats lie slightly higher than the remains of older mats further inland. This may be due to local tectonics or some change in coastal morphology and the rate of supply of sediment, but there is also the possibility that it reflects a slight sea level rise (Evans 2002). Studies carried out by Al-Mansi (1992) may indicate a minimal rise of sea level in the Gulf of 2-3.8 cm between Ras Tanura and Saffaniya in the time period from 1980 to 1991.

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General climate pattern The climate of the Gulf region is a typical desert and semi-desert climate, characterized by high summer temperatures and aridity throughout the year, due to its geographical situation within the subtropical high pressure belt. Descending air is adiabatically warmed as it looses altitude and consequently dries. This leads to an almost complete dispersal of cloud and an absence of rain, except when this pattern is disturbed by incursions from outside. These occur in the winter months between October and April. Thus, in the northern parts of the Gulf, rain is almost exclusively confined to this period. In the summer season the “Trade Winds”, which are generally north-easterlies, become north to northwest winds as a result of locally dominant pressure patterns over the Gulf and the Asian land mass to the east. The surface circulation in the summer months is influenced by two pressure zones. First, the eastern north-African high pressure centre, which - because of its clockwise turn - leads to northern currents over the Gulf region. Second, the thermal continental low pressure cell over the Asian land mass that reaches from the Indian subcontinent into the Gulf. It provides - because of its anti-clockwise turn - a northerly current on its western flank (Fig. 5 a). The southernmost area of the Gulf as well as the Gulf of Oman may then receive precipitation from monsoonal currents originating in the Asian low pressure cell which attracts tropical air masses. Due to the southward shift of the global pressure belts in the winter months, atlantic cyclones breaking free from the sub-polar low pressure belt move eastward across the Mediterranean Sea and pass across the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula. These depressions are gradually dissipated as they move east or southeast across Arabia, and the probability of rain thus decreases to the southeast. South-eastern winds are the result of currents on the south-western flank of the continental Asian high pressure cell (Fig. 5 b). Precipitation in the northern Gulf region in not exclusively due to the influence of Mediterranean depressions. Recent studies by Barth and Steinkohl (2004) demonstrate that the formation of new low pressure centres in Iraq, west to the Zagros mountains is equally important. Thermal convection, as well as the influence of currents from Sudan and Ethiopia, are other significant precipitation sources.

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A Europe

India

Africa Arabia

Indian Ocean

B Europe

Africa

India

Arabia

Africa

Arabia

India

Indian Ocean

Figure 5. Pressure zones influencing the Arabian Peninsula in July (A) and January (B) after Breed et al. (1979). The low pressure trough above the Gulf in summer leads to strong northern and northwestern currents of the Shamal.

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

9

Hydrographical influences The marine environment of the Gulf along the Saudi Arabian shores is a unique ecosystem among the world’s oceans. Primary determining factors are its restricted water exchange with the Arabian Sea, its high evaporation and low fresh water input, and its isolation (Hunter 1983).

Salinity and circulation Due to the high evaporation rates (more than 2,000 mm yr-1) there is a net loss of water in the Gulf. This creates a density dependent estuarine reverse flow (Reynolds 2002, Meshal and Hassan 1986). Fresh sea water (from the Indian Ocean) enters the Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz at a salinity of 36.5-37 ppt and circulates in a general counter-clockwise direction with northward currents along the Iranian shores and southward currents along the Saudi Arabian shores. With increasing distance from the Strait of Hormuz there is a general decrease in nutrients and increase in salinity because of excess of evaporation over fresh sea water input (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Salinity of the Gulf surface water (in ppt) and general surface water circulation pattern.

The velocity of this current along the Iranian coast is the highest but gradually decreases towards the northern part of the Gulf and becomes rather sluggish along

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the western and southern coasts. Because of its relative consistency, this density driven current probably plays an important role in sediment dispersion, sediment deposition, and pollutant removal out of the Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz. The northern part of the Gulf represents a low energy zone and the circulation in this part of the Gulf is largely wind driven in the south-easterly direction on both the Iranian and Arabian sides (Elshorbagy et al. 2006, Swift and Bower 2003, Johns et al. 2003, Reynolds 2002, 1993). In the northern Gulf the diluting influence of the Shatt al Arab at the northwest corner of the Gulf is evident throughout the year, but especially in winter when flow is greater (Sheppard et al. 1992). The dense saline water of the western Gulf (now 40 ppt) sinks towards the trough along the Iranian coast and is returned southward in greater depths. It exits the Gulf via the Strait of Hormuz as a deep water current, providing the driving force for the renewal of the Gulf water. In winter, temperature gradients increase the density flow, since water retained in the south cools more than the inflowing water. The total exchange rate of the Gulf water is estimated from 3-5 years (Sheppard et al. 1992). Going southward along the coast of Saudi Arabia, the salinity increases dramatically south from Al-Khobar where restricted water exchange in the Gulf of Salwah, due to the Peninsula of Qatar, promotes highly saline conditions (Fig. 6). Salinities range between 38-42 ppt in the region north of Al-Khobar and 52-59 ppt in the open waters of the Gulf of Salwah (KFUPM/RI 1988). Because salinity is a controlling factor for occurrence and abundance of organisms, the waters south of Al-Khobar display a less diverse plant and animal life (Coles and McCain 1989). Studies carried out by the KFUPM/RI (1988) showed, that salinity is the physical variable most highly correlated with changes in plankton abundance. Reef corals and many other major taxonomic groups are not found south of Tarut Bay, and the number of species and individuals of benthic infaunal organisms and zooplankton decrease significantly with increasing salinity (Cole and McCain 1989).

Tidal pattern In the Gulf, the tidal pattern is complex and does not correlate with the tides of the Indian Ocean, although they are driven to some extent by the tidal forces propagating through the Strait of Hormuz. There are two amphidromic points where tidal range is zero (and around which tidal waves rotate). One is off the northern Saudi Arabian coast and the second off the UAE coast. The tidal regime in the central part is complex and basically semi diurnal (tidal cycle over 12 hours so that, on successive days, high and low tides occur approximately one hour later). However, in some areas of the Gulf there is only one daily, or diurnal, tide (Fig. 7). Over most of the Gulf away from shore, tidal range is <0.6 m, but it rises to 12 m near land (Sheppard et al. 1992). Off Kuwait at the northern tip of the Gulf, spring tidal range reaches two metres in the south and four metres in the north (Jones 1986). Because of the barrier effect from a shallow reef complex between

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

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Qatar and Bahrain, the water in the Gulf of Salwah is more restricted than the width of its entrance suggests. Tidal ranges, which are about 1.2 m at the northern shores of Bahrain, are reduced to 0.5 m in the south of the Gulf of Salwah and its phase lags considerably (Sheppard et al. 1992).

Figure 7. Tides in the Gulf. Note the two amphidromic points around which the tidal wave rotates and where tidal amplitude is zero (data: Jones 1986).

Temperature The high temperature amplitudes are another controlling factor regarding the distribution of fauna and flora in the Gulf. Particularly at nearshore areas, where annual fluctuations of temperature exceed 20°C (16-36°C; compared to 17-34°C in open Gulf waters) (KFUPM/RI 1988), marine communities must withstand environmental conditions typical for tropical as well as for temperate regions. Thus, the species diversity is low. However, in shallow inshore areas with restricted circulation like Dawhat ad-Dafi (Saudi Arabia), summer water temperatures can exceed 36°C and winter values may fall below 15°C (Jones et al. 1994). There is a general gradient from the northern towards the southern Gulf (Fig. 8). The gradient is highest in winter when the difference between the open Gulf waters of Kuwait and the UAE is 8°C (Fig. 8, January situation). Towards summer this gradient decreases to less than 2°C. In October, when the lower

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temperatures in the north are reflected in the sea surface temperature, the gradient increases again.

Figure 8. Sea surface temperatures of the Gulf in January (source: FNMOC OTIS).

Chemistry The chemical environment in the Gulf is characterized by relatively low concentrations of nutrients (compared to other oceans), utilized in primary production by marine algae and higher plants. Because there is evidence of nutrient limitation, the true pelagic productivity in the Gulf is reduced. Thus, the Gulf can be considered to be one of the most productive bodies of water in the world regarding benthic production (Sheppard et al. 1992). In general, the concentrations of nutrients correlate negatively with the salinity. Phosphate, one of the most important nutrients, decreases rapidly south of Al-Khobar and with proximity to the shoreline (Cole and McCain 1989, Fig. 9 a). This suggests rapid utilisation of phosphate and that it may be limiting to primary production. Silicate though -important as a structural component of phytoplanctonic diatoms and silicio-flagellates- generally shows high concentrations in the Gulf and significantly increasing values at the southern Saudi Arabian shores (Fig. 9 b). According to Cole and McCain (1989), ammonia, turbidity, and suspended solids follow a similar pattern like silicate with values increasing with proximity to the shoreline and into the Gulf of Salwah. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations show no clear spatial distribution.

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

A

13

B

Figure 9. A: Concentrations of anorganic phosphate in μg/l at a selected location (source: KFUPM/RI 1988). B: Concentrations of silicate in μg/l (source: KFUPM/RI 1988).

Recent reviews (Elshorbagy et al. 2006, Swift and Bower 2003, Johns et al. 2003, Reynolds 2002, 1993, Lardner et al. 1993) have identified a number of critical gaps in knowledge of the physical oceanography of the Gulf. In particular, these reviews have emphasized the need to more accurately determine: 1) the water exchange rate at the Strait of Hormuz by direct measurements, 2) circulation in the northern Gulf for different winds and seasons, 3) over- the-water stress and energy fluxes, 4) accurate evaporation rates through direct measurements, and 5) a better understanding of the circulations in the Gulf of Oman, their seasonal and spatial variations, and the exchange of water with the strait of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea. These data are necessary for the prediction and validation of sediment and pollutant budgets, pollutant dispersion, and residence times in the ROPME sea area (Reynolds 2002).

Habitats Because of the relative shallowness and water clarity of the coastal areas, the coastal sediments in the Gulf support highly productive habitats, such as extensive intertidal mudflats, seagrass and algal beds, mangroves, and coral reefs (Jones et al. 2002, Sheppard et al. 1992). The productivity in the Gulf is, therefore, largely sediment-based. According to one estimate the productivity of the benthic system is 1,820 g C m-2 yr-1 as opposed to the 200 g C m-2 yr-1 for the water column (McGlade and Price 1993). These productive habitats are limited to waters less

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than 10-12 m deep which are closest to the anthropogenic activities and are, as such, vulnerable to the adverse effects of pollutants deposited in sediments. Some of these habitats are critical for endangered species such as the green turtles and serve as nursery grounds for shrimp and a number of other commercial species. Although the biodiversity in the Gulf is relatively impoverished as compared to the Indian Ocean, the taxonomic work done in the last 20 years has revealed that the Gulf biota is far richer than previously thought (Jones et al. 2002, Price et al. 2002). However, the role of different biotopes in the trophic dynamics of the Gulf is poorly understood and needs to be investigated.

Major coastal ecosystem types The main coastal ecosystem types are differentiated on the dominant substrate and vegetation type. The coastal wetlands include salt marshes, mangroves, sabkha, sandy, and rocky beaches. Generally the muddy shores at the Gulf coast have a highly abundant intertidal community. Abundances of organisms larger than 0.2 mm in size reach up to 600,000 individuals per square metre, substantially greater than values previously reported for various areas elsewhere in the world (Cole and McCain 1989). Species diversity though is within the average of the range of world values. Abundance and diversity are controlled by the tidal level, salinity, and petroleum hydrocarbon concentration of the sediment substratum as well as the sediment characteristics. Generally, the greatest diversity and abundance occurs in the lower eulittoral of muddy shores (Jones et al. 1994). Elevated salinity favours the increase in a restricted number of salt tolerant species, resulting in a significant lower species diversity with still high abundances (Cole and McCain 1989). The diversity of fauna generally decreases with the depth (Basson et al. 1981). This reflects a shortage of oxygen in the sediment, which is also displayed in a greyish or black colour of the substrate due to free sulphides. It results from the action of bacteria on organic matter in the absence of oxygen and indicates the presence of excess organic matter in the sediment as well as anaerobic conditions (Basson et al. 1981). This grey layer may occur between 1 cm (e.g. in tidal channels or pools) and 30 cm (e.g. within sandy substrate) below the sediment surface. The tidal flats which can be muddy, sandy, rocky, or mixed forms are the dominant intertidal environment along the southern, western and northern Gulf coast. Salt marshes The salt marshes and adjacent muddy tidal flats are the most important type of intertidal environment along the Saudi Gulf coast. Salt marshes occur in bays and other sheltered locations where wave energy is low. Thus, the substrate mostly consists of mud or very fine sand. Due to the high productivity of the mudflats, excess organic matter is accumulated and trapped in the sediment. Degradation by bacteria provides an energy source for burrowing animals, especially meiofauna. Due to the slow oxygen flow into the interstitial spaces of the fine grained substrate, the organic matter can only partly be oxidized. This leads to a mostly

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

15

anaerobic environment only a few centimetres below the surface, which is characterized by free sulphides - obvious because of the rotten egg smell of hydrogen sulphide. Tidal mudflats are mostly characterized by a series of well defined zones, each occupied by a different community of organisms. Typical for salt marshes is the presence of halophytic plants in the upper eulittoral zone and additionally some flowering herbs and grasses, fringing the coast above the littoral fringe. Such salt marsh halophytes are prevalent along the Gulf coast and often forms the only coastal vegetation. Members of the Zygophyllaceae and Chenopodiaceae are the dominant salt marsh families. The typical vegetation zones (Fig. 10) - controlled by tidal inundation, soil and groundwater salinity - are the cyanobacteria zone, the Salicornia zone, Arthrocnemum zone, Halocnemum zone, and landward of the littoral fringe follows the Limonium – Suaeda – Seidlitzia – Halopeplis zone (for more detailed information see Brown et al. 2008, this volume).

Figure 10. Schematic profile of a salt marsh at the Gulf coast.

The most common invertebrates of the salt marshes include the crab Nasima dotilliformis dominant in the upper eulittoral. This crab excavates burrows in the mud (up to 50 cm deep), and piles up the excavated material around the entrance, thus forming a distinctive mound or turret. These burrows occur at high densities of up to 40/m². Another crab that occurs virtually in all intertidal zones, Metopograbsus messor, is less abundant, does not build burrows, but seeks shelter in open burrows of other crabs. Cyanobacteria is distributed almost everywhere below the high water spring line, where bioturbation by crabs is limited. A variety of microscopic animals inhabit the cyanobacterial mats including gastropods, ostracods, nematodes, flatworms, copepods, and oligochaete worms. Larger animal life is usually absent where cyanobacterial mats are well established. Normal populations of the crab Macrophthalmus depressus and gastropods such as Cerithium scabridum and Pirinella conica keep the substrate constantly bioturbated and the mud surface churned up, preventing the cyanobacteria from forming a mat. Where a mat is established, crabs may have difficulties in tunnelling there and fail to become established. In the lower mid eulittoral and lower eulittoral zone, usually a zone of wet liquid mud is prominent. The upper portion of this region is occupied by a community dominated by several species of burrowing deposit feeding crabs. The most abundant of these is Macrophthalmus

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depressus. Densities may exceed 50 adults/m² (Basson et al. 1981). The lower eulittoral is dominated by the gastropod Cerithidea cingulata which may reach abundances of more than 2000/m². Salt marshes can be found almost continuously along the lowlands of the Gulf coast. Mangroves Mangroves, which are represented by a single species, Avicennia marina, are salt tolerant trees found from the mean high tide level down to the mid eulittoral. Often they occur in association with salt marsh halophytes, mainly Arthrocnemum macrostachyum and Salicornia europaea. The mangroves in the Gulf are poorly developed compared to their counterpart at the Red Sea because of the cold winter temperatures. They provide food and shelter to many small invertebrates, including commercially important shrimp and act as a nursery for many species of young fish. The mangrove stands occur only patchy at sheltered sites on waterlogged, soft anaerobic mud. The mangrove roots are only able to survive by means of pneumatophores which project above the ground and conduct oxygen to the buried portions of the root system. The species assemblages supported by mangroves are not very different from those of intertidal mudflats in salt marsh ecosystems. Nevertheless, they are considered as a separate ecosystem type, since the mangrove trees form a biotope that is very distinctive with special local cultural and ecological value (Fig. 11).

Figure 11. Schematic profile of a mangrove habitat at the Gulf coast.

The most conspicuous invertebrates are again crabs whose burrows form a characteristic feature around mangroves and intertidal flats. Other common invertebrates associated with mangroves include barnacles (e.g. Balanus and Euraphia) on pneumatophores, various gastropods (Cerithidae cingulata and Pirinella conica), hermit crabs, and bivalves. Mangroves are of limited occurrence and can be only found on restricted small stands. The most northerly occurrence is around Jubail (Saudi Arabia). These stands belong to the most northern mangrove occurrences in the world. There is only one site at the Egypt Red Sea coast which is still further to the north.

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

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Sabkha shores Sabkha shores occur adjacent to sabkhat (low, evaporitic supratidal flats) without higher vegetation. High salt concentrations render the habitat unsuitable for growth of halophyte plants. Since coastal sabkhat are a common geomorphological feature along the Saudi Gulf coast, there are frequently intertidal areas which turn into sabkha on their landward side. Such intertidal areas are composed either of sandy or muddy substrate. They are not significantly different compared to the intertidal zone at sandy shores or salt marshes. Sandy shores Sand beaches begin in the supratidal zone which is composed of beach dunes mostly vegetated by Halophytes such as Suaeda maritima or Seidlitzia rosmarinus and the beachgrass Halophyrum mucronatum. At higher energy sand shores, the ocypodid ghost crab, Ocypode rodundata, occurs frequently near the littoral fringe. It is especially conspicuous because of the large (up to 30 cm high) conical towers built by male crabs in the breeding season (mainly in spring). Lower down the beach in the eulittoral, there are few signs of visible life. But beneath the sand, over 200 species of macroscopic animals have been recorded. On mixed sandrock or sand-mudflats this number is even higher. Marine snails are the dominant group with 48 recorded species (Basson et al. 1981). Secondary with more than 20 species there are pelecypods (clams and cockles), polychaete worms, peracaridans (isopods and amphipods such as sandhoppers), and decapod Crustacea. Sand flats are prevalent in areas where wave or tidal energies are higher than those associated with mudflats. Outcrops of rock - mainly beachrock - may sometimes be found in the vicinity of sand flats. The small deposit-feeding crab, Scopimera crabicauda, particularly its burrows (often greater than 100/m² with typical feeding trench and piles of sand pellets), is a conspicuous feature on the sand flats (MEPA 1992). Gastropods commonly found on sand flats include: Cerithium scabridum, Cerithidea cingulata, Mitrella blanda, and Nassarius plicatus. Other important invertebrates are polychaetae that occur beneath the intertidal sand. The lower tidal level is characterised by polychaetes and shells. Encrusting mats by cyanobacteria and diatoms are generally not well developed on sand flats. Sandy shores are very common along the Saudi Gulf coast. Rocky shores This shore type consists principally of flat beachrock in sheets, often with a thin veneer (1-10 cm) of sand or sandy mud. On the landward side there may be a narrow sand beach or rock platforms building small cliffs between a few centimetres until nearly 20 m. The rocky shores at the Gulf are not as productive as the other ecosystem types. The main reason is the heat and desiccation during low tide in summer which limits the growth of algae. Therefore the fauna is limited to animals which inhabit crevices, rock pools, holes, and the underside of boulders, or else are mobile forms capable of retreating to suitable shelter when tide is low (Basson et al. 1981). Permanently attached, sessile animals such as the barnacles (e.g. Euraphia sp., Balanus amphitrite), tube dwelling serpulid

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polychaetes (e.g. Pomatoleios kraussii) and bivalves (e.g. Isogomon legumen, Brachidontes sp.) mostly are plankton feeders and occur along the Saudi Arabian rocky shores, usually in crevices and on the underside of pieces of rock. They are either cemented to the rock, attached by a bundle of threads, or they live wedged into crevices in the rock. Some mussels even bore into the rock (e.g. Lithophaga). Tube worms and barnacles are usually found in dense clusters covering large parts of the rock where conditions are favourable. In contrast to the sessile forms are vagile animals, able to move about freely on the rock surface. The most important group in this category are the gastropods or snails (Basson et al. 1981). A majority of them are herbivorous and graze on algae and cyanobacteria. The dark or black colour, typical for intertidal rocks along the Gulf coast, is mostly due to the presence of cyanobacteria. Important grazing gastropods are Nodolittorina subnodosa, Planaxis sulcatus, Cerithium scabridum, Mitrella blanda, and the top shell Trochus erythraeus. A few common snails are carnivorous like Thais sp., feeding on sessile animals. Crabs are also an important group at rocky shores. The ubiquitous Metopograpsus messor is mostly herbivorous. Others such as Thalamita admente are predatory. Because rock beaches are highly stressed environments the structure and behaviour of their inhabitants are merked by traits enabling them to avoid or withstand the adverse conditions. Compared to other coastal biotopes, the exposed beaches are poor in both quantity and diversity of life (Basson et al. 1981). Subtidal habitats Limited studies dedicated to mapping the coastal habitats of the Gulf (IUCN/MEPA 1987, Kwarteng and Al-Ajmi 1997, Vousden 1988) suggest that the subtidal areas of the Gulf are generally characterized by extensive sand and mud substrates. The seagrass beds, reef corals and rocky habitats are few and apparently do not constitute more than 2% of Gulf’s subtidal habitat (Jones et al. 2002). Sand substrates are limited to high energy areas and mud substrates are generally associated with low energy areas (Basson et al. 1977). Both these substrates support rich benthic fauna, which suggests high primary productivity by diatoms and cyanophyta (Jones et al. 2002). Although six (see Brown et al. 2008, this volume) species of seagrasses have been reported from the Gulf, the seagrass assemblages are generally dominated by Halodule univervis (Price and Coles 1992). Seagrass habitats are highly productive ecosystems and are of critical importance, both directly and indirectly, to the marine fauna. This applies in particular to flagship conservation species, foremost dugong (world’s second largest population) and marine turtles, as well as numerous fish and species of commercial interest, such as shrimps (e.g. Penaeus semisulcatus). Subtidal rock substrates are limited and are often covered with calcareous sand (Vousden 1988). Coral reefs in the Gulf are not well developed as a result of extreme environmental conditions (Sheppard et al 1992) and are represented by only 62 coral species (Sheppard 1998). Along the coast where temperature and salinity variations are highest only poorly developed fringing reefs occur, displaying a drastically reduced number of species (Vogt 1996). Dominant reef

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

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builders here are usually Porites compressa. The best developed and most diverse reefs in the Gulf are located around some offshore islands (i.e. Jana, Kurain, Karan in Saudi Arabia), dominated by Acropora clathrata. The high diversity of the coral reefs provides a wide range of habitats for other reef species and fish which occupy a wide variety of ecological niches within the reef community.

References Al-Asfour, T. 1978. The marine terraces of the Bay of Kuwait. In: Birce, W.C. (ed.), The environmental history of Near and Middle East since the last Ice Age. London, New York, San Francisco, pp. 245-251. Al-Mansi, A.M.A. 1992. Sea level changes in the Arabian Gulf, unpublished NCWCD Report. Alsharhan, A.S., Kendall, C.G.St.C. and G.L.Whittle. 1995. Holocene carbonate evaporites of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates-field trip guidebook. IGCP-349, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain. 46 pp. Alsharhan, A.S. and Nairn, A.E.M. 1997. Sedimentary basins and petroleum geology of the Middle East. Amsterdam, 978 pp. Barth, H.-J. 1998. Sebkhas als Ausdruck von Landschaftsdegradation im zentralen Küstentiefland der Ostprovinz Saudi-Arabiens. Regensburger Geographische Schriften, Bd. 29, Regensburg, 279 pp. Barth, H.-J. 2001. Understanding of coastal fluctuation at the Arabian Gulf leading to the “lost city of Gerrha”? Palaeoecology of Africa, 27: 291-303. Barth, H.-J. 2002. The Sabkhat of Saudi Arabia - an introduction. In: Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds), Sabkha ecosystems, vol. 1: The Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 37-50. Barth, H.-J. and Steinkohl, F. 2004. Origin of winter precipitation in the central coastal lowlands of Saudi Arabia. Journal of arid environments, 57: 101-115. Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E. Hardy, J.H. and Price, A.R.G. 1981. Biotopes of the western Arabian Gulf. Dhahran, ARAMCO, 2nd edition. Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E., Hardy, J.T. Price, A.R.G. 1977. Biotopes of the western Arabian Gulf: marine life and environments of Saudi Arabia. Aramco Ltd., Dhahran. 284 pp. Breed, C.S., Fryberger, S.G., Andrews, S., McCauley, C., Lennartz, F., Gebel, D. and Horstman, K. 1979. Regional studies of sand seas using Landsat (ERTS) imagery. In: McKee, E.D. (ed.), A study of global sand seas. USGS Professional Paper 1052: 305381. Brown et al. 2008. The coastal vegetation of the western and southern Gulf characterisation and conservation aspects. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 23-44. Chapman, R.W. 1978. Geology and Geomorphology. In: Al-Sayari, S.S. and Zötl, J. (eds), Quaternari period in Saudi Arabia, Vol. , Springer, New York, pp. 4-30. Coles, S.L. and McCain J.C. 1989. The marine environment of the Arabian Gulf – Baseline information and management considerations. Proc. of workshop I on: The ecological imperatives for sustainable development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. NCWCD, Riyadh.

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Edgell, H.S. 1996. Salt tectonism in the Persian Gulf Basin. In: Alsop, G.I., Blundell, D.J. and Davison, I. (eds), Salt tectonics. Geological Society Special Publication, 100: 129-151. Elshorbagy, W., M.H. Azam and K. Taguchi. 2006. Hydrodynamic Characterization and Modeling of the Arabian Gulf. J. Waterway, Port, Coast and Ocean Engineering, 132: 47-56. Evans, G., Schmidt, V., Bush, P. and H. Nelson 1969. Stratigraphy and geologic history of the sabkha, Abu Dhabi, Persian Gulf. Sedimentology, 12: 145-159. Evans, G. and Kirkham, A. 2002. The Abu Dhabi Sabkha. In: Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds), Sabkha Ecosystems. Volume 1: The Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries. Kluwer, Dordrecht. pp. 7-20. Felber, H., Hötzl, H., Maurin, V., Moser, H., Rauert, W. and Zötl, J.G. 1978. Sea level fluctuations during the Quaternary period. In: Al-Sayari, S.S. and Zötl, J.G. (eds), Quaternary Period in Saudi Arabia. Springer, Wien, New York. pp. 50-57. Hunter, J.R. 1983. A review of the residual circulation and mixing processes in the Kuwait Action Plan Region, with references to applicable modeling techniques. Proc. Symp. Workshop on Oceanographic Modelling of the Kuwait Action Plan, Dhahran, pp. 3745. IUCN/MEPA (Meteorology and Environmental Protection Authority). 1987. Arabian Gulf. Saudi Arabia: an assessment of biotopes and coastal zone management requirements for the Arabian Gulf. MEPA Coastal and Marine Management Series, Report No. 5. IUCN, Gland. Johns, W.E.F., Yao, D.B. Olson, S.A. Josey, J.P. Grist and D.A. Smeed. 2003. Observations of Seasonal Exchange through the Straits of Hormuz and the Inferred Heat and Freshwater Budgets of the Persian Gulf. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (C12), 3391, doi:10.1029/2003JC001881. Jones, D.A., Price, A.R.G., Al-Yamani, F., and Al-Zaidan, A. 2002. Coastal and Marine Ecology. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers. Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 65-103. Jones, D.A. 1986. A filed guide to the sea shores of Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf. University of Kuwait, Blandford Press, U.K., 160 pp. Jones, D.A., Watt, I. and Woodhouse, T.D. 1994. Surveys and management of the intertidal habitat. In: Feltkamp, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Establishment of a marine habitat and wildlife sanctuary for the Gulf Region, Final report for phase 2, Jubail, Frankfurt, pp. 374-405. Johnson, P.R. 1998. Tectonic map of Saudi Arabia and adjacent areas (Technical Report USGS-TR-98-3 (IR-948). Jeddah: Deputy for Mineral Resources. Kassler, P. 1973. The structural and geomorphic evolution of the Persian Gulf. In: Purser, B.H. (ed.), The Persian Gulf. Springer, Berlin, New York, pp. 11-32. Kendall, C.G.St.C., Alsharhan, A.S. and Cohen, A. 2002. The Holocene tidal flat complex of the Arabian Gulf coast of Abu Dhabi. In: Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds), Sabkha Ecosystems. Volume 1: The Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 21-35. KFUPM/RI 1988. Final report. Marine monitoring and baseline survey. Vol. 1-6. Prepared for the Australian Trade Commission by the Water Resources and Environmental Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. Dhahran. Kwarteng, A.Y. and Al-Ajmi, D. 1997. Satellite remote sensing applications in the State of Kuwait. Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research, Kuwait. Lambeck, K. 1996. Shoreline reconstructions for the Persian Gulf since the last glacial maximum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142: 43-57.

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Lardner, R.W., A.H. Al-Rabeh, N. Gunat, M. Hossain, R.M. Reynolds, and W.J. Lehr. 1993. Computation of the residual flow in the Gulf using the Mt. Mitchell data and the KFUPM/RI hydrodynamical models. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 61-70. McGlade, J.M. and Price, A.R.G. 1993. Multidisciplinary modelling: an overview and practical implications for the governance of the Gulf Region. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 361-376. MEPA 1992. An assessment of Biotopes and coastal zone management requirements for the Arabian Gulf. MEPA Coastal and Marine Management Series, Riyadh. Meshal, A.H. and H.M. Hassan. 1986. Evaporation from the coastal waters of the central part of the Gulf. Arab Journal of Scientific Research, 4: 649-655. Price, A.R.G., D.A. Jones, F. Krupp. 2002. Biodiversity. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 105-123. Price, A.R.G., and Coles, S.L. 1992. Aspects of seagrass ecology along the Western Arabian Gulf. Hydrobiol. 234: 129-141. Reynolds, R.M. 2002. Oceanography. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers. Leiden, pp. 53-64. Sheppard, C., Price, A. and Roberts, C. 1992. Marine ecology of the Arabian region. Academic Press, London, 360 pp. Sheppard, C.R.C. 1998. Biodiversity patterns in Indian Ocean corals, and effects of taxonomic error in data. Biod. and Conserv, 7: 847-808. Swift, S.A. and A.S. Bower. 2003. Formation and circulation of dense water in the Persian/Arabian Gulf. J. Geophys. Res. 108(C1), 3004, doi:10.1029/2002JC001360. Teller, J.T., Glennie, K.W., Lancaster, N. and Singhvi, A.K. 2000. Calcareous dunes of the United Arab Emirates and Noah’s Flood: the postglacial reflooding of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf. Quaternary International, 68-71: 297-308. Uchupi, E. Swift, S.A., and Ross, D.A. 1999. Late Quarternary stratigraphy, paleoclimate and neotectonism oft the Persian (Arabian) Gulf. Marine Geology, 160: 1-23. Vogt, H. 1996. Investigations on coral reefs in the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary using under water video recordings and digital image analysis. In: Krupp, F. Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf, Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, NCWD Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 302-326. Vousden, D.H.O. 1988. The Bahrain marine habitat survey. Vol 2. The habitat maps. Report to ROPME, Kuwait.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

The coastal vegetation of the western and southern Gulf – characterisation and conservation aspects 2

Gary Brown1, Benno Böer and Sabitha Sakkir

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1

Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait UNESCO, Doha, Qatar 3 Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. 2

Abstract: Although we have a superficial overview of the main plant communities of coastal areas of the western and southern Gulf, in-depth studies are generally lacking, with a few notable exceptions. Coastal vegetation in the region is often equated solely to halophytic communities growing under the direct influence of salt-water, in extreme cases only to mangroves, the latter which in fact account for only a very small percentage of the total coastal vegetation. This narrow perspective has important conservation repercussions, especially given the current mass destruction of many parts of the Gulf coastline. Important speciesrich communities (flora and fauna) are being destroyed at an alarming rate without any mitigation measures, and even high-profile ecosystems, such as mangroves, are by no means immune from the on-going development frenzy. An important step towards the protection and sustainable use of environmental resources is their detailed characterisation and inventory, as well as elucidating their spatial distribution. The aims of this contribution are therefore three-fold: 1) to give an overview of the coastal vegetation of the area (Gulf coastline of the GCC countries), examining both halophytic and non-halophytic communities; 2) to highlight the most critical issues affecting coastal vegetation; and 3) to suggest conservation priorities and associated research projects. It is clear that much more detailed work is required to identify and assess remaining intact stretches of the coastline regarding their vegetation, flora and fauna.

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Introduction The aims of this contribution are three-fold: 1) to give an introduction to the coastal vegetation (vascular plants) of the western and southern Gulf (Gulf coastline of the GCC countries); 2) to highlight the most critical issues affecting coastal vegetation; and 3) to suggest conservation priorities and associated research projects. An important step towards the protection and sustainable use of environmental resources is their detailed characterisation and inventory, as well as elucidating their spatial distribution. In this context, Zohary (1973) wrote “we are especially ignorant of the vegetation in the Arabian Peninsula” and indicated that only few investigations of the coastal halophytic vegetation had been carried out. Despite a wealth of more recent studies, these assertions still apply to some extent, although in the meantime we have an overview of the main plant communities. Unfortunately, due to the breathtaking speed of current infrastructure development and accompanying large-scale habitat destruction, as well as the scarcity of experienced vegetation ecologists and taxonomists in the region, we are likely to remain forever ignorant of many of the more specific details of the true nature of coastal vegetation and associated conservation issues throughout the area. This is not just because many natural stretches of the coastline have or will have disappeared before they have been rigorously studied, but also because taxonomic confusion still surrounds important genera such as Cyperus, Salsola, Tamarix, Zygophyllum and others. A further problem is that in many cases, coastal vegetation is equated simply to mangroves, and other vegetation types are largely or completely ignored (as in the relevant chapters in Loughland et al. 2004), even though mangroves occupy only a very small total area of the Gulf coastline. The geographical coverage area of this contribution is from Kuwait in the north, on the western Gulf coast, to the Straits of Hormuz (Musandam, Sultanate of Oman, at the eastern end of the southern Gulf coast. The general climate of the western and southern Gulf coast is of a bi-seasonal Mediterranean type, characterised by high summer temperatures and low annual rainfall. Potential evaporation far exceeds precipitation, probably by a factor in excess of 10 (Deil and Müller-Hohenstein 1996), indicating the high degree of stress to which coastal vegetation is exposed. The main abiotic factors controlling community composition in coastal habitats are salinity of the water and/or substrate, frequency and extent of inundation and the water-holding capacity of the substrate (see also introductory chapters for more details of climate and other abiotic factors).

Major habitat types and their vegetation A broad overview of marine and coastal habitats is given by Basson et al. (1977) and Jones et al. (2002) from the perspective of marine ecologists. Brown and Böer (2004) have provided an interpretation manual of the major terrestrial natural and semi-natural habitat types of Abu Dhabi Emirate, which also outlines major

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coastal habitats from the viewpoint of terrestrial ecologists. The relevant parts of this document have been modified and expanded to cover most major coastal habitats along much of the western and southern Gulf coastline, and this is presented below. Both approaches complement each other remarkably well where they overlap at the interface between the marine and terrestrial ecosystems, namely in the intertidal zone. When compared to many terrestrial habitats, the coastal vegetation of the region is extremely productive. Although some communities can be often quite species-rich (most notably the non-halophytic ones), a striking feature of the halophytic vegetation is that the individual stands tend to be species-poor or even monospecific, i.e. one species can occupy large patches. Furthermore, coastal vegetation is often arranged into distinct belts which run more-or-less parallel to the coast, indicating the overriding significance of the sea in affecting species composition, and its diminished influence away from the coast. Within these belts, abrupt changes in key abiotic factors are reflected in corresponding changes in the vegetation cover. This can lead locally to the development of specialised habitats and the formation of small-scale vegetation mosaics. By summarising the results of studies from individual countries, Deil (1998, 1999, 2000) has provided a general overview of the coastal vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula, concentrating on the halophytic communities. However, due to the relatively small number of locations available for this work, and the superficial nature of some of the studies it is based on, it cannot give a detailed insight into the variation of coastal vegetation types. Furthermore, it should be underlined that the vegetation of many parts of the western and southern Gulf coastline have not been studied in any detail. For instance, except for fleeting observations and a few general studies (e.g. Western 1983, Brown 2006), there is very little detailed information on the vegetation of the entire stretch of coastline from southern Qatar to Abu Dhabi (ca. 350 km), which is remarkably varied in terms of its geomorphology.

Coastal vegetation types Sea-grass beds Sheppard et al. (1992) report four sea-grass species from the Gulf, namely Halodule uninervis, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila ovalis and Syringodium isoetifolium, although most authors (including Basson et al. 1977) mention only the first three. Apart from the four species listed above, Mandaville (1990) also mentions the occurrences of Ruppia maritima, albeit very locally, from the Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia, and Syringodium. Syringodium appears currently not to be known from Saudi Gulf waters, but it has been collected from the immediately adjacent areas of Bahrain. Mandaville (1990), citing other authors, also points to the possibility of Halodule wrightii occurring locally in the Gulf near Bahrain. It can therefore be assumed that five sea-grass species definitely occur along the coastline of the western and southern Gulf, possibly six (Halodule wrightii). Halodule uninervis, Halophila stipulacea and H. ovalis appear to be the most widespread, with H. uninervis the most common (Jones et al. 2002). In the Gulf,

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with its extreme summer temperatures, all species grow predominantly in the subtidal zone, i.e. are permanently submerged, although Halodule can tolerate very brief exposure, as long as it does not become desiccated. Three main factors control the occurrence of sea-grass beds, namely water depth, physical nature of the bottom substrate and the extent of water movement by wave action or tidal effects (Sheppard et al. 1992). Phillips et al. (2004) report that in the coastal waters of Abu Dhabi Emirate, sea-grasses grow to a depth of 15 m below sea level. All species in the Gulf are known to be highly tolerant of environmental extremes, in particular of variations in salinity. Sea-grass beds are highly productive ecosystems, and are of critical importance, both directly and indirectly, to the marine fauna. This applies in particular to flagship conservation species, foremost dugong and marine turtles, as well as numerous fish and species of commercial interest, such as shrimps (e.g. Penaeus semisulcatus). Even the litter of sea-grass, which is often washed up in large quantities in the intertidal zone forming a characteristic banding, provides important microhabitats for numerous coastal organisms. Furthermore, it also contributes to the soil development (Phillips 2002), and through nutrient enrichment of coastal substrates, this litter also probably influences local species composition and abundance of vascular plants. Mangroves Walsh (1974) defines mangroves as a woodland formation below the high-tide mark. In the Gulf region, mangroves occupy the transition zone between the open sea and the often rather sparsely vegetated coastal plains and dunes, and as such they are highly prominent, albeit localised elements of the landscape. They are usually found growing on fine-grained alluvial substrates and shores without pronounced tidal activity to prevent the seedlings from being carried away by the current. Mangroves are typical of tropical areas where summer temperatures are not too extreme. However, due to the harsh summer climate along the western and southern Gulf shores, only one species of mangrove, Avicennia marina, is able to thrive naturally, although there is speculation (e.g. Saenger et al. 2004) that in historical times, a second species, Rhizophora mucronata, once occurred in some areas. Mangroves are found along the southern Gulf coast mainly east of Jebel Dhanna (Böer and Aspinall 2005, Saenger et al. 2004). They are particularly welldeveloped in the vicinity of Abu Dhabi island and Umm Al-Quwain, continuing north-eastwards into Ra's Al-Khaimah, but they are apparently absent from the Musandam due to the steep rocky shoreline. Along the western Gulf coast, mangroves have been described from Qatar (Batanouny 1981, Babikir and Kürschner 1992), where they are restricted to the north-east of the country around Dakhira and Al-Khawr. Furthermore, they are known from Bahrain, where extensive stands previously occurred in the north-east near Manama (Abbas 2002a, b), and they continue northwards up the western Gulf coast into northern Saudi Arabia near Jubail (ca. 27 °N), where the loose stands were investigated by Böer and Warnken (1996). Speculation that they once occurred in Kuwait, where the cold winter temperatures (close to, and even below 0oC at times) probably

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prevent their natural occurrence, is disputed by older people from the area (AlHajraf, pers. comm.). However, Avicennia marina has been introduced into Kuwait Bay by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, where a minute population now exists. Due to the extreme climatic conditions and the high salinity of the Gulf waters (Saenger et al. 2004), the mangrove trees rarely exceed 3 to 4 m in height. However, the stands are much denser than virtually all terrestrial vegetation types in the region, and are extremely important habitats for marine life and many species of bird. Saltmarsh vegetation (including mudflats) Some authors, for instance Halwagy and Halwagy (1977), adopt a broad approach to coastal saltmarsh vegetation and include formations or communities which are only rarely inundated. The vegetation of saline flats, or sabkha, which is a highly characteristic feature of the Gulf coastline, is treated separately here, although the distinction between the two ecosystems is frequently blurred. Saltmarsh vegetation and sabkha often intergrade on the very low relief which is typical of much of the Gulf coastline, where sometimes even a few centimetres difference in height can have a profound effect on species composition, even determining whether halophytic or non-halophytic vegetation is developed. Certain saltmarsh species (see below) also form extensive stands on sabkha, which usually does not support any vegetative cover, presumably depending on the precise nature of the sabkha substrate (i.e. fraction of sand) and frequency of inundation. Deil (1998, 1999, 2000) summarises general zonation patterns and provides a very useful phytosociological treatment of the saltmarsh vegetation from the western and southern Gulf coasts based on the observational studies of a variety of authors, but, as mentioned above, from a rather limited number of locations. One of the most detailed and rigorous ecological investigations of saltmarsh vegetation was undertaken by Halwagy and Halwagy (1977) in Kuwait Bay, and this study is also highly relevant to other parts of the western Gulf coastline. As indicated by the overviews provided by Deil (1998), zonation patterns of saltmarsh vegetation show broad similarities throughout much of the region. Kuwait and the northern part of Saudi Arabia are slight exceptions due to the cold winters there. Saltmarsh vegetation is characterised floristically to a large extent by chenopods, and most species, especially the dominants, are perennial dwarf shrubs. Notable exceptions include the annual chenopods Salicornia europaea, Bienertia cycloptera and Suaeda aegyptiaca. The overview of the main saltmarsh vegetation types given below follows the zonation pattern from the most littoral belt of saltmarsh vegetation landwards. Salicornia europaea develops pure stands on mudbanks which are frequently inundated, especially along the edges of creeks. At high tide, the plants are completely submerged. The community is found predominantly on the western Gulf coastline where it has been recorded from northern Kuwait (Bubiyan Island, Kuwait Bay) south to northern Qatar. It appears to be absent from the southern Gulf coastline, but, interestingly, reappears on the eastern coast of Oman (Arabian Sea) at Barr Al Hikman (Brown, pers. observation).

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In Kuwait, Halocnemum strobilaceum occupies the most littoral belt of the saltmarsh (Halwagy and Halwagy, 1977), apart from the localised occurrences of Salicornia, as it does in many parts of Saudi Arabia (Mandaville 1990). The seaward side of this community is inundated up to 440 times a year (Halwagy and Halwagy 1977). Halocnemum forms extensive, monospecific stands with cover values up to 65%. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum is absent from this northern area, but further south (south of Jubail, ca. 27 oN), it can replace Halocnemum strobilaceum at the water's edge (Warnken 1996), especially on muddy substrates where there is little wave impact, and it often covers large expanses of intertidal flats. Arthrocnemum is frequently associated with Avicennia marina, and in fact its distributional range matches that of Avicennia along the Gulf coast. Creeks and drainage channels can be a conspicuous feature of both Arthrocnemum macrostachyum and Halocnemum strobilaceum communities. Both species are widely distributed along the Gulf coast, and where the two species co-exist, Halocnemum tends to occupy the slightly more elevated ground which is less often inundated, as noted by Babikir and Kürschner (1992) for north-eastern Qatar. Sand, which is locally deposited in discrete locations in the saltmarsh, either as small berms or as flat “islands”, enables a number of additional species to become established which do not tolerate frequent inundation, such as Zygophyllum qatarense, Suaeda vermiculata or Halopeplis perfoliata, indicating a floristic affiliation with coastal plains (see below). In the far west of the UAE, near Sila'a, Salsola drummondii is frequent in moist depressions close to the sea-shore, apart from growing on elevated, drier ground (Brown, pers. observations). On the coastline in sheltered locations, gelatinous cyanobacterial mats form biological crusts and can dominate over wide areas. These mats, which overlie a sandy-sabkha-like substrate, are up to several centimetres thick and have a warty surface. Apart from being associated with saltmarsh vegetation, often on the border with sabkha, they also commonly occur in conjunction with mangrove ecosystems, and are sometimes developed on the seaward side of them (see Basson et al. 1977). A veneer of aeolian sand accumulates on the surface of these mats locally, and higher plants such as Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Halopeplis perfoliata are then able to colonise them. In scattered locations along both the western and southern Gulf coasts, possibly under the influence of freshwater, Juncus rigidus forms dense, monospecific stands in association with the Halocnemum strobilaceum / Arthrocnemum macrostachyum vegetation (either on the landward or seaward side). Reedbeds dominated by Phragmites australis occur in stagnant, usually nutrient-enriched water by the coastline, as found in the vicinity of sewage outfalls and along ditches. They are therefore generally associated with some form of human modification of the landscape. Associated with these reedbeds, species such as Aeluropus lagopoides, Polypogon monspeliensis and Sporobolus spicatus may also thrive on marshy ground that occasionally dries out. Limonium axillare is a coastal saltmarsh species which is usually found on flat, somewhat drier ground that is rarely inundated, including on the edges of

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sabkha or on sand-covered sabkha. It predominates in species-poor stands (Limonium axillare community) which sometimes cover extensive areas. Furthermore, this halophyte is an occasional associate in the Zygophyllum community on both sandy and stony substrates (see below), presumably where salt exerts a certain influence. Sabkha The coastal sabkha is a major landscape feature along many parts of the Gulf coast, and occasionally extends far inland (over 20 km), where it can intergrade with inland sabkha. Although sabkha is known from deserts throughout the world, Goudie (2002) describes the coastal sabkha of Abu Dhabi Emirate as the best example of this landform type to be found anywhere, deserving of World Heritage status. The coastal sabkha lies close to the high intertidal, usually less than a few metres above the high-tide level. After heavy rainfall, parts of the sabkha may become immersed for up to several weeks. Even after the flooding has receded, the surface usually remains slightly moist due to several factors, most importantly the capillary action from the underlying water table and the highly hygroscopic nature of the salt rich surface crust which attracts water from the air, even at very low relative humidity. Sabkha proper is typically devoid of vascular plant species, and plant life is mainly restricted to the margins, with halophytes predominating. Some plants are able to germinate on the sabkha surface after heavy rainfall, because this leads to a temporary reduction in salt concentrations. For instance, the moderately salttolerant Zygophyllum qatarense can germinate under such conditions, and once the plants have established a foothold, they can probably survive for years in a state of dormancy by discarding their succulent leaves when salt concentrations rise above a certain threshold level. After further heavy downpours, they are able to develop new leaves and resume growth for limited periods of time (Brown 2007). Where there is a thin veneer of sand overlying the sabkha surface, and depending on the frequency of inundation, species such as Aeluropus lagopoides, Atriplex leucoclada, Cressa cretica, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halopeplis perfoliata, Limonium axillare and even Sporobolus iocladus can colonise these areas, sometimes forming extensive stands. Where the sand becomes even deeper, Zygophyllum qatarense is often the characteristic species (Brown 2006), indicating a floristic transition to coastal plain vegetation (see below). The small halophytic mat-forming grass, Aeluropus lagopoides, is associated with a variety of highly saline environments, especially with coastal sabkha where it can cover large areas and develop dense swards on somewhat sandy substrates. It grows best in situations which are only rarely inundated. On extreme substrates, it also grows on characteristic mounds up to 1 m in height, surrounded by barren ground. Furthermore, it is characteristic of moist depressions where it forms prostrate mats. Aeluropus littoralis appears to occur in similar situations, but more studies are needed to differentiate the habitat requirements of these two similar species.

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The small perennial bindweed Cressa cretica also grows in similar situations to Aeluropus lagopoides, forming low prostrate mats or occurring as scattered individuals on the sabkha surface. Frankenia pulverulenta and Zygophyllum simplex are two prostrate annuals which form a distinct ephemeral community around the perimeters of sabkha, especially in depressions in which sand has accumulated. Whereas the former is widely distributed along the western and southern Gulf coasts, Zygophyllum simplex occurs mainly in the south. Based on the vegetation classification scheme of Braun-Blanquet (see Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974), Deil (1999) refers to this characteristic assemblage as the “Frankenio pulverulentae-Zygophylletum simplicis”. The annual halophytic grass Sphenopus divaricatus is also occasionally present in this community. Open shrublands of varying extent in which Tamarix ssp. (e.g. Tamarix aucheriana, Tamarix passerinoides) are the physiognomically dominant species, occur along the western Gulf coast, especially in the north. Due to taxonomic uncertainty, the precise species of Tamarix is unclear, and also as to whether one or several species are involved. Associates are usually lacking due to the high salt content of the substrate, but in more favourable conditions, Aeluropus lagopoides, Cressa cretica and various chenopods are able to thrive. Nitraria retusa is a shrub which is found in coastal situations in the northern part of the Gulf, in particular Kuwait, and very locally in the adjacent parts of Saudi Arabia. Around Kuwait Bay, it occupies a distinctive zone, roughly between 4 and 6 m above mean sea level. The community is therefore rarely inundated, but water moving up through the substrate creates saline soil conditions in the surface layers. As a consequence, the saline substrate, usually of a sabkha type, is largely devoid of accompanying vegetation, although Cressa cretica and Aeluropus lagopoides can form patches of low vegetation, and some chenopods (e.g. Atriplex leucoclada, Bienertia cycloptera) may be present. The Nitraria shrubs themselves often develop distinct nebkhas around their base, i.e. large mounds of sand, and these non-saline microhabitats can be colonised by a number of non-halophytic species, in particular annuals. Furthermore, where thin sheets of sand cover the saline flats, a relatively lush vegetation may occur, dominated by Zygophyllum qatarense or Cyperus conglomeratus, and sometimes accompanied by carpets of desert annuals in the winter. Chenopods typically found on the edges of sabkha include Atriplex leucoclada, Bienertia cycloptera, Halopeplis perfoliata, Salsola imbricata and Seidlitzia rosmarinus, species which are characteristic of saltmarsh vegetation. Halopeplis perfoliata is probably the most salt-tolerant of all the halophytes, and it is invariably associated with coastal sabkha, as well as on slightly raised sandberms just above the high tide level. It is mainly found on the southern Gulf coast where it can be extremely common, and extends northwards up the western Gulf coast to just north of Dhahran. Although the species is extremely tolerant of salt, the sites it inhabits are rarely inundated with sea water. The chenopod Anabasis setifera is a characteristic pioneer species of reclaimed sabkha in coastal areas, especially along the southern Gulf coast. In

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such situations near Abu Dhabi island, it develops extensive stands together with Salsola drummondii. A characteristic feature of many areas of coastal sabkha, especially along the southern Gulf coast, but also in Qatar and along parts of the Saudi coast, are low rocky hills of Tertiary age (“jebels”) which relieve the monotony of the landscape. Depending on the influence of salt-laden dust, these rock exposures are colonised by a mix of halophytic and non-halophytic species (Brown 2007). Detailed overviews of various aspects of sabkha ecology in the Gulf region are contained in Barth and Böer (2002) and Khan et al. (2006). Beaches and coastal cliffs i) Sandy beaches and storm beach ridges Sandy beaches that are frequently inundated usually do not have any vegetation cover, but just above the high tide mark, individual plants begin appearing. On more saline sands, chenopods such as Bienertia cycloptera and Salsola imbricata occur. At somewhat higher elevations, on less saline sands, Halopyrum mucronatum forms a more dense vegetation cover. This perennial grass is found scattered along many sections of the Gulf coastline (Basson et al. 1977, Brown, 2007, Mandaville 1990). However, it is absent from the far north (i.e. Kuwait) and possibly from the western part of the mainland UAE. In the UAE, the Caryophyllaceae Sphaerocoma aucheri also grows in such situations, albeit infrequently, and indicates the transition to the “coastal white sand vegetation” described below. Such vegetated beaches are extremely important sites for nesting turtles, as underlined by Miller et al. (2004). Above the high-tide mark along very flat sections of the coastline, one to several low storm beach ridges may be present, rising just a few centimetres or decimetres above the surrounding coastal flats and running parallel to the coast. They consist of shelly sand and are subject to occasional inundation. Depending on the locality and the precise environmental conditions, Atriplex leucoclada, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halopeplis perfoliata or Suaeda vermiculata may form monospecific, sometimes quite dense stands on such ridges. ii) Rocky beaches, coastal cliffs Low rocky beaches are found along sections of the Gulf coastline. John and George (2004) give an overview of the characteristic zonation of marine life found in such habitats. Vascular plant species are lacking, and even marine algae are poorly represented due to the harsh climatic conditions (Basson et al. 1977). Lichens are very locally present on rocks away from the direct influence of seawater, such as on the Sila'a Peninsula in the western UAE (Brown and Schultz, unpublished). Due to the arid climate and flat coastline, beachrock or 'fasht' is constantly forming in the intertidal region in suitable locations, occasionally covering large expanses, but it is devoid of vascular plant cover. Low to medium-sized coastal cliffs (up to ca. 12 m) and rocky slopes, both of which are invariably derived from Tertiary “jebels” or mesas, can be encountered along certain sections of the coastline (especially south of Qatar and the adjacent sections of the coast eastwards into Abu Dhabi Emirate), and also on a number of

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offshore islands (e.g. Hawar Island). Zygophyllum qatarense, Z. simplex, Salsola imbricata and other chenopods are commonly found on the slopes, which often bear a similar vegetation to that of coastal plains (see below). The coastline of Musandam is characterised primarily by tall cliffs (in excess of 12 m) and steep rocky slopes, which fall abruptly down to sea-level, and give a fjord-like appearance. In Musandam, where there is very little wave action to cause salt spray, trees characteristic of the mountains and gravel plains, e.g. Acacia tortilis and Moringa peregrina, thrive down to immediately just above the high-tide mark, the latter species with its branches partly drooping in water. Distinctive coastal vegetation is lacking in such situations. Coastal plains on well-drained ground The general definition of a coastal plain is an area of flat, low-lying land adjacent to the coast and separated from the interior by some other prominent geomorphological feature (e.g. mountains). In view of the low-relief of much of the Gulf coastline, this definition is difficult to apply, so that the transition between coastal and inland terrestrial ecosystems remains blurred. In this contribution, coastal plain vegetation is located well above the high-tide mark, and it is therefore virtually never flooded. It may extend up to several kilometres inland and can be poor in halophytic species. In fact it is often characterised by certain glycophytes, although halophytes appear regularly in suitable microhabitats (e.g. depressions). Species composition of the vascular flora is therefore used as the main criterion for determining coastal plain vegetation. In many areas, the maritime influence is also visible by the presence and local abundance of saxicolous lichens, which are absent further inland in most, if not all regions of the western and southern Gulf coastline, except in sheltered locations such as wadis. A further distinction made in this contribution, but which is somewhat artificial, is that between coastal plains and coastal sand sheets / low dunes. The latter is characterised by deep sandy deposits, and which are often undulating, whereas sandy coastal plains are generally flat and have a thin covering of sand (just several centimetres at most) overlying a firmer substrate. Again, species composition of the vascular flora is a useful distinguishing feature in most cases. However, degradation of coastal sand sheets can lead to the loss of surface sand layers to such an extent, that the underlying firmer substrate lies close to the surface, thus obscuring the distinction. Coastal dunes are composed mainly of carbonate sands derived from marine organisms, and are therefore usually white. The sands of the plains may be of aeolian or marine origin. i) Coastal plains on well-drained sandy ground The low relief is a prominent feature of the Gulf coastline, and with increasing distance from the shore, the surface may become more permanently covered with sand as the ground gradually rises. Zygophyllum qatarense is the dominant species on silt-sandy plains, presumably where there is still a slight influence of salt, and it attains cover values in excess of 75% in favourable situations. The Zygophyllum qatarense community is probably the most widespread vegetation type along the

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Gulf coastline, but it is often heavily impacted by human activities. Halwagy and Halwagy (1977) regard this community as representing the landward edge of saltmarsh vegetation which is not inundated and characterised by a slightly saline, coarse-textured sandy soil, with more luxuriant growth occurring on accumulations of drifted sand. In the often broad transition zone between halophytic and non-halophytic plant communities, Zygophyllum qatarense is accompanied by a range of chenopods, some of which may attain dominance (e.g. Bienertia cycloptera, Salsola imbricata). For instance, Halwagy and Halwagy (1977) briefly describe a Seidlitzia rosmarinus community from northern Kuwait on slightly undulating ground on the edge of saltmarsh. This community also occupies large areas of land in southern Kuwait on silty coastal white sand on the edge of, or in a mosaic with sabkha (Brown, unpublished), presumably where salt has an elevated influence. Seidlitzia is accompanied by a range of halophytic species, including Aeluropus lagopoides, Atriplex leucoclada, Halothamnus iraqensis, Salsola cyclophylla, Salsola imbricata, Suaeda aegyptiaca, Traganum nudatum (rare) and Zygophyllum qatarense, as well as glycophytes such as Atractylis carduus, Gypsophila capillaris, Heliotropium kotschyi, Ifloga spicata, Launaea mucronata, Pennisetum divisum, Schismus barbatus and Stipagrostis plumosa. Nitraria retusa is also scattered throughout the stands on small nebkhas. In the far west of the UAE, a similar community colonises sandy plains close to the coast, in which Suaeda vermiculata, Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Salsola cf. arabica and Zygophyllum qatarense co-dominate (Brown, unpublished). On presumably less saline sandy substrates, the sedge Cyperus conglomeratus can predominate, where it forms a distinct community. Cyperus itself is a very variable species, and a number of infraspecific taxa have been described, but the precise taxonomy of this species aggregate remains unclear. The sedge forms extensive stands on consolidated sands, and due to its long rhizomes, it is a very important sand-binder. It can occur on raised areas of sand very close to the beach, as long as it remains outside the direct influence of sea water. The perennial grass Dichanthium foveolatum is a frequent companion both in the Cyperus and Zygophyllum communities in Qatar, and the species probably also occurs in similar situations in the adjacent areas of Saudi Arabia. ii) Coastal plains on well-drained rocky terrain (gravel) Apart from being developed on slightly saline, sandy plains, Zygophyllum qatarense forms a distinct community on rather firm, coarse-textured, stony substrates. These stones and small rocks are embedded in a sandy-silty matrix, or lie strewn across the surface. The saline influence is noticeable locally, where a thin white veil of salt is developed between the stones. However, the overall influence of salinity is too low to justify considering the stands as true halophytic vegetation. As indicated by Halwagy and Halwagy (1977), these stands often represent the transition from halophytic to non-halophytic plant communities. Depending on the broader geographical location, the Zygophyllum community on gravel substrates varies from species-poor (many parts of the UAE coastline) to

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floristically very rich (e.g. Qatar), and locally it contains species which are characteristic of very different habitats elsewhere (e.g. Cymbopogon commutatus). Babikir and Kürschner (1992) provide a brief description of relatively intact Zygophyllum qatarense vegetation from Al-Dakirah in north-eastern Qatar. The following account of the Zygophyllum qatarense community in north-eastern Qatar is based on fieldwork by the senior author of this contribution (previously unpublished) from Ra's Laffan Industrial City in the vicinity of Al-Dakirah. In Ra's Laffan, large tracts of coastal vegetation have so far been effectively protected from detrimental activities, offering a unique opportunity to study this ecosystem, which is highly threatened throughout the region. Zygophyllum attains cover values of about 2 to 5%, and is accompanied by several other perennials, including the dwarf shrubs Echiochilon jugatum (scattered), Helianthemum lippii (widespread), Heliotropium kotschyi (widespread) and Scrophularia deserti (locally common), as well as the grasses Dichanthium foveolatum and Sporobolus iocladus. This latter grass can be codominant or even replace Zygophyllum in some situations. Teucrium polium is commonly found in slight depressions in which water accumulates, where it is accompanied by Cymbopogon commutatus, Cyperus conglomeratus, Limonium axillare, Lycium shawii and Sporobolus iocladus. Apart from thriving on sandy sabkha-like substrates, Salsola cyclophylla is locally very common in the transition zone with glycophytic plant communities, as also noted by Babikir and Kürschner (1992) for Al-Dakirah and observed by Brown (unpubl. results) from Kuwait Bay. Lycium shawii is the most common shrub in the Zygophyllum community, and is scattered throughout. Tamarix sp. is generally absent, but when present, it is restricted to distinctly saline patches. A further noteworthy feature of this community on Qatar, which was also highlighted by Babikir and Kürschner (1992), is the occurrence of lichens on small rock fragments. Apart from the foliose Ramalina maciformis, which was mentioned by these authors (but as R. lacera), and which is locally abundant at Ra's Laffan, a number of crustose, saxicolous species colonise the small rocks, including Buellia subalbula, Caloplaca cf. saxicola, Lecania subcaesia and Verrucaria sp. The lush growth of these lichens, and in particular, the presence of Ramalina, is a good indicator of frequent fog or high levels of humidity over extended periods of the year. However, the lichens, in particular Ramalina, are very susceptible to activities such as off-road driving, and have therefore become rare outside of protected areas. R. maciformis has also been found in similar situations on Marawah Island (UAE) (Brown and Schultz, unpublished results). Coastal sand sheets and low dunes Vesey-Fitzgerald (1957) coined the term “coastal white-sand associations” to describe the vegetation of the predominantly calcareous sands that run parallel to much of the western and southern Gulf coastline. These sands differ in their composition and form from inland desert sands which are of different origin (Feulner 2005). Coastal sands are derived almost exclusively from marine organisms and carbonate sediments, and consist to a large extent of CaCO3. In contrast, the inland desert sands are composed predominantly of quartz grains,

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and they may appear distinctly red when the grains are coated with haematite (an iron oxide). They are also largely lacking any significant CaCO3 content. An important characteristic of the coastal white sands is the virtual lack of any direct influence of salt, despite the sometimes immediate proximity to the coastline (in some cases within as little as 10 metres). This is only possible where the land lies well above the high-tide mark (at least 2 to 3 m). The vegetation is therefore characterised almost exclusively by glycophytes, except for distinct subunits in which certain moderately halophytic species play a role. The vegetation of the coastal white sands is characterised physiognomically by a sparse cover of perennial dwarf shrubs and grasses. Vegetation cover of the perennials can reach about 5 to 10% in the north-western Gulf, but rarely exceeds 3% along the southern Gulf coast. Of particular importance throughout the region is the tussock-forming grass Panicum turgidum, which despite considerable degradation and destruction to its habitat, still persists locally, and is the dominant constituent of coastal white sands in many areas (Kürschner 1998). Mandaville (1990) refers to this vegetation type in Saudi Arabia as the Panicetum turgidi (Thumam grass-shrubland), underlining the predominant role of the grass. In Kuwait, i.e. in the far north, this species is the most conspicuous perennial (Halwagy and Halwagy 1974), but further south into Saudi Arabia, Calligonum comosum and Leptadenia pyrotechnica are common associates, at least locally (Böer and Warnken 1996, Mandaville 1990). Other perennials along the western Gulf coast include Convolvulus cephalopodus, Helianthemum lippii, Pennisetum divisum and, very locally (southern Kuwait, presumably also northern Saudi Arabia), Halothamnus iraqensis. The shrub Lycium shawii is also a regular associate in many areas. In winters with good rainfall, desert annuals form dense carpets in favourable locations, and percentage cover of these annuals can reach 20%, although coverage values between 5 and 10% are more typical. As a broad generalisation, the density and diversity of annuals on the western Gulf coast appear to decrease from Kuwait in the north to Qatar in the south, corresponding with a decrease in winter rainfall. Density and diversity (i.e. species number) of annuals remain low along the southern Gulf coast eastwards up to Abu Dhabi island, where, as the coastline then trends in a north-easterly direction, these parameters begin increasing (Brown et al. 2007), and in Ra's Al-Khaimah, they probably reach similar values to Kuwait. Along the western Gulf coastline, especially in the north, regular annuals include Arnebia decumbens, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Astragalus annularis, Filago pyramidata, Ifloga spicata, Launaea mucronata, Lotus halophilus, Ononis serrata, Plantago ovata, Reichardia tingitana, Roemeria hybrida, Senecio glaucus, Silena arabica and Trigonella stellata. Cutandia dichotoma is locally abundant on coastal white sands in the far north (Kuwait), and also probably in adjacent areas of Saudi Arabia. This species, not otherwise known from the other GCC countries, has recently been found near Umm Al-Quwain on the southern Gulf coast (Brown et al. 2006a). On the southern Gulf coast, mainly east of Abu Dhabi island (but also probably in fragments further to the west), the coastal white sand vegetation contains a number of highly characteristic perennials, apart from Panicum

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turgidum. Based on studies from Jebel Ali, near Dubai, Deil and MüllerHohenstein (1996) assigned the stands to the Cornulaco monacanthaeSphaerocometum aucheri, and these authors also described a number of distinctive subassociations. Brown et al. (2007) have recently given a detailed overview of the coastal white sand vegetation east of Abu Dhabi island. Characteristic species of the association are the dwarf shrubs Sphaerocoma aucheri and Cornulaca monacantha. Other dwarf shrubs which are regular associates include Helianthemum lippii and Heliotropium kotschyi. The most widespread perennial grass is Coelachyrum piercii, which along the Gulf coast of the UAE appears to be restricted to the stretch between Taweela (north-east of Abu Dhabi) and Ra's Al-Khaimah. It is highly characteristic of the coastal white sands, but in the northeast of the UAE, it also occurs on red sands near the coast. The sedge Cyperus arenarius is usually widespread and abundant. Panicum turgidum is a regular associate and locally common, but not dominant as in Kuwait. The tussock grass Pennisetum divisum is also occasionally present. The slightly to moderately salttolerant Sporobolus iocladus is locally common and widespread in this association, as is Zygophyllum qatarense. In the far north-east of the UAE, especially in Ra's Al-Khaimah, Prosopis cineraria is found on the low dunes very close up to the coastline. This tree is dependent on non-saline or only slightly saline ground water stored in the sand. These and other perennials are accompanied by a profusion of annuals, particularly in wet years. In the western part of the range (i.e. between Abu Dhabi and Dubai) of the Cornulaco-Sphaerocometum, the more regular species, i.e. ones which also occur in drier years, include Arnebia hispidissima, Herniaria hemistemon, Hippocrepis areolata, Launaea capitata, Launaea mucronata, Lotus halophilus and Oligomeris linifolia. Some annual species, such as the grasses Cutandia memphitica, Rostraria pumila and Schismus barbatus as well as Eremobium aegyptiacum, Ifloga spicata, Paronychia arabica and Savignya parviflora are noticeably rarer and virtually absent in drier years. Further northeast, the annual flora becomes more diverse, with species such as Astragalus annularis, Ononis serrata, Plantago boissieri, Reichardia tingitana and Silene villosa common or even abundant. Locally, the halophytes Halopyrum mucronatum and Salsola drummondii are conspicuous elements of the vegetation of the coastal white sands, along with other perennials mentioned above (Brown et al. 2007). Such stands have been described by Deil and Müller-Hohenstein (1996) as the subassociation “halopyretosum mucronati” of the Cornulaco monacanthae-Sphaerocometum aucheri, and they appear to be developed in response to a slight increase in soil salinity, usually, but not exclusively, in close proximity to the shoreline. Where the influence of salt becomes overwhelming, such as in depressions in the sand, the halophytic dwarf shrub Limonium axillare is often the dominant species, with accompanying annuals virtually absent.

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Anthropogenic impacts With the advent of the oil era, the marine and coastal environment of the Gulf has been subjected to a massive increase in human-related impacts over the past decades. Anthropogenic impacts can be conveniently divided into two broad categories: 1) human-derived stressors and 2) habitat degradation and destruction. The first category encompasses pollution directly and indirectly resulting from the oil and petroleum industry, other industrial impacts, municipal wastewater, solid waste disposal and discharges (chlorine, hypersaline water etc.) from desalination plants. Human-derived stressors in the Gulf ecosystem have been reviewed extensively (e.g. Khan et al. 2002, Sheppard et al. 1992). The second category contains factors such as dredging, coastal development (for urban, industrial and tourism development), recreational activities and overgrazing. Although the impact of human-derived stressors should not be underestimated for the Gulf ecosystem as a whole, the most serious problems afflicting coastal vegetation are habitat degradation and coastal reclamation, which along some stretches of the coastline have reached catastrophic proportions. This was also underlined by Linden et al. (1990), Sheppard et al. (1992) and Böer (1999), yet it seems that very little action has been undertaken to improve the situation. To give an idea of the magnitude of the problem, Sheppard et al. (1992) report that by ca. 1990, about 40% of the coastline of Saudi Arabia, a country with a low population density, had already been developed or seriously impacted.

Human-derived stressors The high concentration of oil and petrochemical industries along the shores of the Gulf greatly increase the risk of serious pollution to the marine environment. Perhaps the most drastic factor affecting the coastal vegetation are large oil spills. This is somewhat in contrast with the marine ecosystems, in which the gradual increase in oil pollution from less visible, chronic sources, such as discharges of oil pollutants from petrochemical industries, municipal wastewater, contaminated ballast water from oil tankers etc., is probably having an equally, if not more devastating impact. Litherathy et al. (2002) give a comprehensive outline of all facets of oil pollution in the Gulf. Regarding the potential impacts of oil pollution on the natural vegetation of the coastline, it is clear that intertidal communities (mangroves, saltmarsh vegetation) are most susceptible to large scale contamination (Böer 1996, Warnken 1996). Sea-grass beds are also potentially prone to oil pollution, especially where they are growing in very shallow waters. According to Racine (1994), areas affected by oil contamination are extremely hostile to plant growth because of possible toxic substances present in the oil, anaerobic conditions created by extensive oil pollution, and lack of water. However, it seems as if toxic compounds in the oil are rarely problematic. For instance, photosynthetic and respiratory responses of the three sea-grass species present in the northern Gulf (Halophila ovalis, H. stipulacea and Halodule

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uninervis) were not affected by exposure to seawater treatments containing a water-soluble fraction of Kuwait crude oil compared to control treatments without oil (Durako et al. 1993). This supports field observations on sea-grasses from the northern Gulf, which showed no apparent detrimental effects of oil on the plants, one year after the Gulf War oil spill (Kenworthy et al. 1993). The main deleterious effects of oil pollution are due to the smothering of the plants with oil, depriving them of their ability to carry out gas exchange and uptake water, rather than to any direct toxic effects. This seems to be generally the case with sea-grasses (Zieman et al. 1984), as well as with intertidal and terrestrial vegetation (Böer 1996, Warnken 1996). For instance, Böer and Aspinall (2005) noted that Avicennia marina will normally survive even quite serious oil contamination as long as the pneumatophores are not fully smeared. In a similar vein, Brown and Porembski (2000) suggest that it is anaerobic conditions created by oil and tarcrete crusts that prevent re-colonisation of oil-ravaged, terrestrial desert areas, rather than any toxic effects of the oil itself. Regarding the effects of oil spills on the coastal vegetation, therefore, the potential for damage is generally highest in the intertidal zone and falls off sharply with increasing depth of the water (Durako et al. 1993, Zieman et al. 1984). Techniques for treating and restoring oil-contaminated vegetation in the intertidal zone are dealt with in Weishar et al. (2008) this volume. Regarding terrestrial vegetation, it is usually advisable to restrict clean-up measures to a minimum. Based on observations of natural recovery of such sites, various authors (e.g. Brown and Porembski 2000, Hegazy 1995, 1997) recommend simply mixing oil-contaminated substrates with clean sand, especially when semi-solid crusts have developed, rather than costly and often environmentally equally devastating measures such as the complete removal of the material. The role of the indigenous oil-degrading microflora in the bioremediation of oiled substrates was recommended by Radwan et al. (1996). However, due to the severe climatic conditions prevalent throughout the region, it is clear that a natural microbial bioremediation of the contaminated soils must be regarded as a very long-term prospect and subsidiary to physical weathering, as numerous observations from the Burgan oil field and elsewhere in Kuwait show, 16 years after the inflicted damage (Brown, unpublished results). The discharge of poorly treated sewage water affects intertidal vegetation to a certain extent, in that it can dramatically affect species composition locally, although the effects have not been investigated in any great detail. Highly eutrophic sites are often colonised by dense reedbeds (Phragmites australis), as long as they are not subjected to strong water movement. Despite their anthropogenic nature, these reedbeds may be of great ecological importance, for instance for the avifauna, apart from going some way to filtering the highly polluted water. However, in many cases, reedbeds are absent, and it is conceivable that large amounts of untreated sewage can locally cause die-off of the natural saltmarsh vegetation. Piles of unsightly rubbish are often washed up on the shoreline of the Gulf coast, a topic that has been highlighted by Khordagui and Abu Hilal (1994) and Böer (1999).

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Habitat degradation and destruction Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems have long been recognised as severe problems throughout much of the coastal region of the Gulf (Linden et al. 1990). Destruction of natural habitats is being carried out for urban, industrial and tourism development (Krupp et al. 2006), locally also for agriculture and forestry. Whole stretches of coastal habitat has been swallowed up for private chalets and beach resorts, such as in the south of Kuwait, where it is now very difficult to gain access to the coastline. Large parts of the shoreline in countries such as Kuwait and Bahrain are, in any case, artificial, modified through dredging, coastal landfill and other development measures (Sheppard et al. 1992). Much of the natural coastline between Abu Dhabi island and Musandam will also soon have disappeared, mainly due to urban and tourist development. Development often results in the destruction and degradation of high-profile habitats, including mangroves. On the north-eastern coast of Bahrain, mangroves have largely been decimated (Abbas 2002b). Massive coastal development currently underway on Abu Dhabi island will greatly impact mangrove ecosystems, both directly and indirectly, as has happened in other parts of the UAE (e.g. Ra's Al-Khaimah). Wanton destruction of valuable habitats, often under the guise of environmental protection, is unfortunately the norm in the region. Mitigation measures, such as mangrove planting in sites where they did not formerly occur, appear to be little more than a cosmetic exercise than any credible attempt to offset the impacts of the current construction frenzy. Given the damage that has been and is being done even to such keystone communities, it is hardly surprising that the degradation caused to other less highprofile, but often ecologically equally important habitats rarely merits any concern whatsoever from the relevant authorities. Dredging has caused substantial direct and indirect damage to coastal ecosystems (Al-Ghadban and Price 2002). Apart from directly destroying subtidal habitats, including sea-grass beds, the dredged material is then often used for coastal reclamation, thus destroying the natural coastline. Furthermore, this landfill increases marine sedimentation processes in the vicinity, smothering marine life such as corals and sea-grasses (Sheppard et al. 1992). Changes in the hydrological regime due to dredging can also have detrimental impacts on mangrove and saltmarsh communities. Heavy soil compaction is often a characteristic feature of in-filled coastlines. Because few plant species are able to tolerate such conditions, the areas are barren in extreme cases, and at best dominated by rather monotonous stands of the annual Salsola imbricata or other species (usually chenopods), depending on the precise nature of the substrate. Off-road driving has become a ubiquitous activity throughout the region, resulting in the direct destruction of the vegetation cover, soil degradation and soil compaction. Apart from coastal development, this is probably the most serious factor affecting coastal vegetation. Coastal habitats have not been immune from the massive overgrazing which is prevalent throughout much of the Gulf region, and which is generally regarded as

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one of the main causes of desertification (e.g. Brown et al. 2006b). Key features of this phenomenon relevant to coastal ecosystems are a loss of vegetation cover / productivity, and an associated reduction in biodiversity (both fauna and flora), including the reduced number of palatable species. Overgrazing has also led to a massive expansion of the spiny chenopod Cornulaca aucheri, particularly in the northern coastal region. As personal experience has repeatedly shown, when environmental impact assessments are required to evaluate serious impacts to the landscape, they are frequently carried out by persons with no or little experience, either of the region or the subject matter, and often at great expense. The lack of suitably experienced or qualified staff in the relevant government institutions confounds the problem. Despite a slightly elevated awareness of environmental issues in recent times, given the poor quality of suitable courses offered by universities and research institutes in the region, it is difficult to see where the next generation of ecologists and environmental experts will be recruited from. In summary, therefore, the lack of any effective coastal planning, poor enforcement of existing regulations, lack of awareness and often complete disregard for conservation matters are serious issues which require urgent attention.

Conservation issues, research priorities In view of the current pace of coastal development, urgent measures are required to protect remaining areas of high conservation value, and simultaneous action is needed on several fronts. Rather than devising new plans and strategies, more attention should be directed to implementing existing ones. In the context of this contribution with its focus on natural habitats, the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, an integral part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, provides a suitable framework. Sadly, none of the GCC countries appears to be even close to meeting any of the objectives or goals of the Global Strategy. Furthermore, Krupp (2002) gives a detailed overview of potential, proposed and existing Marine Protected Areas in the entire Gulf region, along with the constraints and problems in establishing them. As indicated above, the vegetation of coastal habitats appears to have been somewhat neglected by ecologists because a. these habitats lie at the interface between true marine and terrestrial ecosystems and b. the plant species involved are regarded as “difficult”. A major initiative should therefore be launched to carry out an inventory of remaining coastal habitats in the region, based primarily on field work, and not solely relying on remote sensing which cannot be expected to give detailed enough information (for instance, coastal white sand vegetation of high conservation value is not discernible from satellite imagery). To facilitate this undertaking, a taskforce should be created comprising a small core team of highly-qualified vegetation experts, working together with local specialists and other ecologists. The team should also propose a network of coastal protected

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areas to conserve typical habitats, not necessarily ones that will always contain high-profile flagship species. Such an inventory needs to be based on a unified methodological approach. The “Habitats Manual” produced by Brown and Böer (2004) could serve as a suitable basis, especially as it follows closely the approach adopted by the countries of the European Union aimed at describing and protecting important habitats. The task should be completed within three years, and it needs to be coordinated by an international body, without, however, being bogged down by the bureaucracy inherent in such institutions. Strong cooperation with industry and government institutions (including military) is highly desirable, as these stakeholders are often responsible for large tracts of land which is off-limits to the general public and which is therefore effectively protected. It goes without saying that strong national and international cooperation is a prerequisite for the success of any such undertaking.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dr. Peter Cowan (Scotland) and Simon Aspinall (Abu Dhabi) for comments on the manuscript, as well as Dr. Jim Bishop (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research) for providing literature.

References Abbas, J.A. 2002a. Coastal vegetation of Bahrain island. - Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research 20: 87-91. Abbas, J.A. 2002b. Plant communities bordering the sabkhat of Bahrain island. In: Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds), Sabkha Ecosystems. Volume I. The Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 51-62. Al-Ghadban, A.N. and Price, A.R.G. 2002. Dredging and infilling. In: Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. - Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. pp. 207-217. Babikir, A.A.A. and Kürschner, H. 1992. Vegetational patterns within a coastal saline of NE-Qatar. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 10: 61-75. Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds) 2002. Sabkha Ecosystems Volume 1: Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. 368 pp. Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E., Hardy, J.T. and Price, A.R.G. 1977. Biotopes of the Western Gulf. Marine Life and Environments of Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO Ltd, Dhahran. Batanouny, K.H. 1981. Ecology and Flora of Qatar. University of Qatar, Doha. 245 pp. Böer, B. 1996. Trial planting of mangroves (Avicennia marina) and saltmarsh plants (Salicornia europaea) in the oil-impacted soil in the Jubail area, Saudi Arabia. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt a.M. pp. 186192.

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Böer, B. 1999. Ecosystems, anthropogenic impacts and habitat management techniques in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Paderborner Geographische Studien 12, 141pp. Böer, B. and Warnken, J. 1996. Flora of the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Saudi Arabia. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt a.M. pp. 290-295. Böer, B. and Aspinall, S. 2005. Life in the mangroves. In: Hellyer, P. and Aspinall, S. (eds), The Emirates, A Natural History. Trident, London. pp. 132-137. Brown, G. 2006. The sabkha vegetation of the United Arab Emirates. In: Khan, M.A., Böer, B., Kust, G. and Barth, H.-J. (eds), Sabkha Ecosystems Volume II: West and Central Asia. Springer, Berlin. pp. 37-51. Brown, G. 2007. Flora and vegetation of Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Perry, R.J. (ed.), Terrestrial Environment of Abu Dhabi Emirate. In press. Brown, G. and Böer, B. 2004. Interpretation Manual of Major Terrestrial and Semi-Natural Habitat Types of Abu Dhabi Emirate. Research Report, Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Abu Dhabi. September 2004, 62 pp. Brown, G. and Porembski, S. 2000. Phytogenic hillocks and blow-outs as ‘safe sites’ for plants in an oil-contaminated area of northern Kuwait. Environmental Conservation 27: 242–249. Brown, G. Aspinall, S. and Gardner, D. 2006a. Cutandia dichotoma (Forssk.) Trabut, a remarkable new species of annual grass for the UAE. Tribulus, 16: 30-31. Brown, G., Peacock, J., Loughland, R. and Alhadrami, G.A. 2006b. Coastal and terrestrial ecosystem management requirements in the Arabian Peninsula. In: Amer K.M., Böer, B., Brook, M.C., Adeel, Z., Clüsener-Godt, M. and Saleh, W. (eds), Policy Perspectives for Ecosystem and Water Management in the Arabian Peninsula. United Nations University, Ontario, Canada. pp. 89-104. Brown, G. Aspinall, S. and Sakkir, S. 2007. The vegetation of the coastal white sands at Taweela (Abu Dhabi Emirate). Tribulus (accepted). Deil, U. 1998. Coastal and sabkha vegetation. In: Ghazanfar, S.A. and Fisher, M. (eds), Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 209-228. Deil, U. 1999. Halophytenvegetation an den Küsten der Arabischen Halbinsel kleinräumige edaphische Zonierung und grossräumig klimabedingte Differenzierung. In: Brandes, D. (ed.), Vegetation salzbeeinflußter Habitate im Binnenland. Tagungsbericht des Braunschweiger Kolloquiums vom 27.-29. Nov. 1998. Braunschweig. pp. 119-147. Deil, U. 2000. Halophytic vegetation along the Arabian coast - azonal or linked to climatic zones? Phytocoenologia, 30: 591-611. Deil, U. and Müller-Hohenstein, K. 1996. An outline of the vegetation of Dubai (UAE). Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie, 35: 77-95. Durako, M.J., Kenworthy, W.J., Fatemy, S.M.R., Valavi, H. and Thayer, G.W. 1993. Assessment of the toxicity of Kuwait crude oil on the photosynthesis and respiration of sea-grasses of the northern Gulf. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 223-227. Feulner, G. 2005. Geological overview. In: Hellyer, P. and Aspinall, S. (eds), The Emirates, A Natural History. Trident, London. pp. 41-64. Goudie, A.S. 2002. Great Warm Deserts of the World - Landscapes and Evolution. Oxford University Press. 444 pp. Halwagy, R. and Halwagy, M. 1974. Ecological studies on the desert of Kuwait. II - The vegetation. Journal of the University of Kuwait (Science) 1: 87-95.

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Halwagy R. and Halwagy, M. 1977. Ecological studies on the desert of Kuwait. III. The vegetation of the coastal salt marshes. Journal of the University of Kuwait 4: 33-74. Hegazy, A.K. 1995. Phytomonitoring and management of tar piles on the Qatari coastal marshes, Gulf. Environmental Pollution, 90: 187-190. Hegazy, A.K. 1997. Plant succession and its optimization on tar polluted coasts in the Gulf region. Environmental Conservation, 24: 149–158. John, D.M. and George, J.D. 2004. Intertidal and subtidal benthic communities in Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Almehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds), Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi. pp. 94-123. Jones, D.A., Price, A.R.G., Yamani, F. and Al-Zaidan, A. 2002. Coastal and marine ecology. In: Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds). The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. pp. 65-103. Kenworthy, W.J., Durako, M.J., Fatemy, S.M.R., Valavi, H. and Thayer, G.W. 1993. Ecology of sea-grasses in northeastern Saudi Arabia one year after the Gulf war oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 213-222. Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds) 2002. The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 509 pp. Khan, M.A., Böer, B., Kust, G. and Barth, H.-J. (eds) 2006. Sabkha Ecosystems Volume II: West and Central Asia. Springer, Berlin. 263 pp. Khordagui, H.K. and Abu Hilal, A.H. 1994. Man-made litter on the shores of the United Arab Emirates on the Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 76: 343352. Krupp, F. 2002. Marine protected areas. In: Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. pp. 447-473. Krupp, F., Al-Muftah, A., Jones, D.A. and Hoolihan, J. 2006. Marine and coastal ecosystem management requirements in the Arabian Peninsula with special regard to water resources. In: Amer K.M., Böer, B., Brook, M.C., Adeel, Z., Clüsener-Godt, M. and Saleh, W. (eds), Policy Perspectives for Ecosystem and Water Management in the Arabian Peninsula. United Nations University, Ontario, Canada. pp. 73-87. Kürschner, H. 1998. Biogeography and introduction to the vegetation. In: Ghazanfar S.A. and Fisher M. (eds), Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 63-98. Linden. O., Abdulraheem, M.Y., Gerges, M.A., Alam, I., Behbehani, M., Borhan, M.A. and Al-Kassab, L.F. 1990. State of the Marine Environment in the ROPME Sea Area. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 112, Rev. 1: 1–34. Litherathy, P., Khan, N.Y. and Linden, O. 2002. Oil and petroleum industry. In: Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. pp. 127-156. Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Almehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds) 2004. Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi. 277 pp. Mandaville, J.P. 1990. Flora of Eastern Saudi Arabia. Kegan Paul International, London. 482 pp. Miller, J.D., Preen, A., Loughland, R.A., Youssef, A.M. and Darwisch, A.M. 2004. Marine turtles and sea snakes of Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Almehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds), Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi. pp.184-201. Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. Wiley, New York. 547 pp.

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Phillips, R.C. 2002. A short review on seagrasses of the Arabian Peninsula region with particular reference to mineralisation in sabkhat. In: Barth, H.-J. and Böer, B. (eds), Sabkha Ecosystems. Volume 1. The Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 299-302. Phillips, R.C., Loughland, R.A. and Youssef, A.M. 2004. Marine turtles and sea snakes of Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Almehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds), Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi. pp. 184-201. Racine, C.H. 1994. Long-term recovery of vegetation on two experimental crude oil spills in interior Alaska black spruce taiga. Canadian Journal of Botany, 72: 1171-1177. Radwan, S.S., Sorkhoh, N.A., El-Desouky, A.F. and El-Nemr, I. 1996. Enrichment of Kuwaiti desert samples with hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms during a simulated oil spill. In: Al-Awadhi, N., Balba, M.T. and Kamizawa, C. (eds), Restoration and Rehabilitation of the Desert Environment. Elsevier, Amsterdam. pp. 49-55. Saenger, P., Blasco, F., Auda, Y., Aizpuru, M., Youssef, A.M. and Loughland, R.A. 2004. Mangroves of the United Arab Emirates. In: Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Almehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds), Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi. pp. 56-93. Sheppard, C.R.C., Price, A.R.G. and Roberts, C.M. 1992, Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region: Patterns and Processes in Extreme Tropical Environments. Academic Press, London. 359 pp. Vesey-Fitzgerald, D.F. 1957. The vegetation of central and eastern Arabia. Journal of Ecology, 45: 779-798. Walsh, G.E. 1974. Mangroves; a review. In Reimold, R.J. and Queen, W.H. (eds), Ecology of Halophytes. Academic Press, New York. pp. 51-174. Warnken, J. 1996. Salt-marshes and intertidal habitats of the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary: extent of oil-impacted areas and estimated losses of above-ground plant biomass following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt a.M. pp. 177-185. Weishar, L., Watt, I., Jones, D.A. and Aubrey, D. 2008. Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 273-280. Western, R.A. 1983. Vegetation of the Gulf coast of the UAE. ENHG Bulletin, 21: 2-11. Zieman, J.C., Orth, R., Phillips, R.C., Thayer, G.W. and Thorhaug, A. 1984. The effects of oil on sea-grass ecosystems. In: Cairns, J. and Buikema, A. (eds), Restoration of Habitats Affected by Oil Spills. Butterworth, Stoneham. pp. 37-64. Zohary, M. 1973. Geobotanical Foundations of the Middle East. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 739 pp.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Impact of oil pollution and increased sea surface temperatures on marine ecosystems and biota in the Gulf Friedhelm Krupp1 and Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada2 1

Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt, Germany 2 Khaled Bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Preventing oil pollution is considered the major environmental challenge in the Gulf region. The effects of petroleum oil on key ecosystems and biota are reviewed, mainly based on research activities following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. While the effects of oiling on birds were severe, with species losing up to an estimated 50% of their populations in the oiled areas, and the breeding success of other species severely reduced for several years following the spill, effects on sea turtles and marine mammals were minor. Planktonic fish eggs and larvae at or near the water surface were killed by oil slicks, resulting in lower levels of recruitment in 1992 and 1993. By 1994, fish population densities were back to pre-war levels. Subtidal biotopes, including coral reefs, escaped oil contamination and showed no adverse impacts from the oil spill. They were, however, severely effected by three major bleaching events in 1996, 1998 and 2002, with most inshore and shallow water offshore corals dying and hardly any signs of recovery until 2007. Thus far oil pollution has been perceived as the greatest single threat to marine ecosystems and wildlife. However, it is argued in this chapter that the long-term impacts of climate change are more severe. The coral bleaching events and the resulting ecological and socio-economic consequences triggered the development of a Regional Action Plan for Coral Reef Conservation, which takes an integrated remediation approach, addressing multiple stressors. It is suggested that this plan be embedded in a broader strategy of regional environmental management, by conducting a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and developing a Strategic Action Programme for the Gulf. There is an urgent need to develop national and regional oiled wildlife response plans throughout the Gulf region.

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Introduction The Gulf is characterised by naturally stressful environmental conditions for tropical marine biota and many species inhabiting this shallow, epicontinental sea live close to their physical limits. They are particularly sensitive to humaninduced and natural stressors. The Gulf has always been subjected to oil pollution, both natural and human-induced, but the magnitude of the 1991 Gulf War oil spill was unprecedented, triggering new research programmes and providing us with a deeper insight into the effects of oil pollution on marine ecosystems and wildlife (Krupp and Jones 1993, Abuzinada and Krupp 1994, Jones et al. 2007, this volume). Oil affects wildlife through physical contact, inhalation, ingestion and transcutaneous absorption. It smothers hairs and feathers and damages vital organ systems. In all Gulf states oil pollution is considered the greatest threat to coastal and marine ecosystems and resources. However, in 1996, 1998 and again in 2002 unprecedented and almost simultaneous coral bleaching and mortality occurred in all oceans, associated with unusually high sea surface temperatures caused by severe El Niño and La Niña events, with a strong correlation between the degree of bleaching and the amount of temperature rise. Reefs in the Gulf were largely exterminated during the combination of the major bleaching in 1996 followed by an even more severe event of 1998 (Wilkinson et al. 1999, Wilkinson 2005). Here below, the impacts of oil pollution and increased sea surface temperatures on selected biota, such as seabirds, turtles, marine mammals, and the coral reef ecosystem in the Gulf are briefly reviewed.

Impacts of oil pollution on key vertebrates Sea birds Leighton (1991), and Burger and Gochfeld (2002) summarised the impacts of petroleum oil on birds. Oil-fouled plumage is the primary cause of stress and mortality in birds. Oiled feathers lose their ability to regulate body temperature. Waterlogging and loss of buoyancy increase stress and can lead to drowning. Birds, particularly scavengers, are likely to feed on oiled carcasses and oiled birds try to clean their plumage ingesting oil, resulting in toxic effects, which vary in extant due to the variability in the chemical composition of oil. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are particularly toxic to birds. They may result in irritation and bleeding of intestinal tracts, disruption of uptake of water, nutrients and electrolytes through gut membranes, destruction of red blood cells, disruption of osmoregulation, necrosis of kidney tissue, and degeneration of liver tissues. Long-term effects of sublethal doses of oil may include delayed maturation of ovaries, altered hormone levels, thinning of eggshells, reduced survival and growth of embryos and chicks, suppressed resistance to disease, and mutagenic effects. These long-term impacts are difficult to detect and monitor because many birds nest far away from the areas where they became exposed to oils spills.

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The intertidal zone of the Gulf is one of the most important stop-over and feeding areas for migrant waders on the West Asian Flyway. Millions of shorebirds feed on intertidal invertebrates during short periods in the spring and autumn in order to build up the fat reserves needed as energy for the long flights between their arctic breeding grounds and tropical wintering areas. They were the first obvious victims of the Gulf War oil spill. Due to the oil pollution and subsequent loss of food the numbers of waders along the oiled coastline north of Jubail, Saudi Arabia decreased by up to 98% of the estimated pre-war levels during the first year following the spill (Krupp and Symens 1994). Symens and Suhaibani (1994) reported more than 10,000 dead birds from 82 sites between Jubail and Khafji. An estimated 30,000 birds died as a direct result of oil-fouling. Of some species more than 50% of the wintering populations north of Abu Ali may have been killed. Before autumn 1992, no aggregations of waders were observed on the oilimpacted coastline. By the winter 1992/93, however, about 70% of the waders were back to the area (Symens and Suhaibani 1994). Greth et al. (1995) performed 317 postmortems on four bird species to study the pathological effects of oil on seabirds during the Gulf War oil spill. They found stomach impaction with compact balls of feathers, oil and sand; hemorrhages in the intestines; liver abnormalities and fluid in the lungs in grebe species; and hemorrhages in the small intestine, helminthiasis and dehydration in cormorants. About 1300 birds, mainly cormorants, which had been contaminated with oil were cleaned, rehabilitated and then released. The mortality rate was about 75%, which is within the expected range. The Gulf offshore islands are important breeding sites for several species of terns. In 1991, there was no significant impact of the oil spill on the terns or their breeding activities, because the birds had not yet returned to their breeding grounds when the oil spill occurred. By the time they arrived (end of April to early May 1991), there was no more oil floating on the water surface and the sandy beaches of Karan had been cleaned. Hence they escaped contamination during the spill and their breeding success was normal in 1991. In 1992 and 1993, however, the situation was different: The breeding success of the white-cheeked tern failed completely, because swift terns preyed upon their chicks. The breeding success of other species declined by more than 50%. Many incubating terns abandoned their nests before the eggs hatched. The growth rate of chicks was much lower than in 1991, resulting in a higher chick mortality. There was an important increase in aggression and kleptoparasitism (steeling of food items) between birds returning with fish to feed their chicks. These phenomena may be attributed to a shortage of young pelagic fish on which the terns feed. Late effects of the oil spill, a temporary drop in sea surface temperatures caused by the smoke of the Kuwait oil well fires, failure in fish stock recruitment during the extremely cold winter of 1991-92, and above all the extinction of fish eggs and larvae by the oil slick (McCain and Hassan 1993, see below) have contributed to this situation. In 1993 the growth rate of the tern chicks was back to normal, indicating that fish were again abundant. By 1994 the breeding success was also back to pre-spill levels, but chronic oil pollution continues to pose a threat to the bird populations (Symens and Alsuhaibany 1996).

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Turtles and marine mammals Comparatively little is known about the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on turtles. However, they should be similar to those on mammals (see below) and include congestion or damage to the respiratory system, and even death by breathing in droplets of oil, or oil fumes. The Gulf offshore islands are important nesting sites of green and hawksbill turtles. Since 1991 the biology of these two species has been studied by Saudi Arabia’s National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). The 1991 oil spill contaminated the nesting sites, but by the time the females came ashore, the oil had been removed from the beaches. Marine turtles continue to nest in apparently normal numbers with normal hatching success after the 1991 spill (Al-Merghani et al. 1996). Four species of baleen whales, 10 species of toothed whales and one species of dugong have been recorded from the Gulf, the common dolphin, the bottlenose dolphin and the Indo-Pacific humped-back dolphin being the most commonly seen species (Carpenter et al. 1997). Potential interactions between oil and marine mammals include physical contact at the surface, inhalation of volatile compounds above the surface, accumulation of oil in the organism, and ingestion of contaminated food (Neff 1990). Using vision and perhaps echolocation, cetaceans may detect and avoid oil slicks. They may occasionally enter oiled areas without damaging effects, because oil has no tendency to adhere to their hairless skin and the cetacean epidermis is nearly impermeable to the noxious substances in the oil. Cetaceans do not drink large volumes of sea water and will not accumulate large amounts of oil from solution and dispersion. They are active predators that would not normally eat fishes killed by oil. For these reasons, a spill at sea usually affects only few animals (Geraci 1990). However, species with a limited home range and frequenting restricted areas, such as bays, are more vulnerable than those living in open waters (Würsig 1990). Robineau and Fiquet (1994), who studied marine mammals in the affected area one year after the Gulf War, did not find any abnormal cetacean mortality. Densities of cetaceans were within the expected range. They concluded that most of the dolphins living in highly impacted areas were able to swim away and escape the effects of oil. They also speculated that dolphins living in the Gulf have encountered oil spills often enough to avoid contact with oil slicks.

Impact of oil pollution on inshore habitats and living marine resources Most of the inshore subtidal areas of the Gulf are very shallow, resulting in extreme fluctuations of temperatures and high salinities, which place considerable environmental stress on biota. Major habitats and benthic communities are plain sand bottom, macroalgae-dominated rockflats, highly productive seagrass beds, whip coral areas and nearshore coral patch and fringing reefs (Basson et al. 1977, Krupp and Anegay 1993). In these areas the 1991 Gulf War oil slick floated on

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the water surface until it was washed ashore. After the spill, inshore subtidal habitats were in reasonably healthy condition with no visible signs of damage from oil pollution, despite the close proximity to massive surface oiling. Only a few, small, weathered tar balls were found on seagrass beds. Plant and animal species diversities in these areas were similar to pre-oil spill conditions (Richmond 1994, 1996). During the 1991 oil spill only very localised demersal and pelagic fish mortalities were observed. The largest one occurred near Qurma, where about one to two dead fish were found per square metre of beach. Bottom, midwater and surface feeders were among the dead fish and their sizes ranged from one centimetre to one metre. Saudi Arabian fisheries were heavily affected by the war. The war zone was closed to fishery for almost one year. Test fishing in inshore areas that were covered with oil for up to three months revealed apparently healthy, edible fish with no petroleum taste (Carpenter 1992). While the oil spill had a limited effect on finfish stocks, prawn landings in Saudi Arabia fell markedly in 1991 and 1992, with a very low proportion of sexually mature specimens. According to Mathews et al. (1993), a human-induced recruitment collapse had occurred. Recovery started in 1993.

Impact of oil pollution and coral bleaching on coral reefs and reef-associated fishes Coral reefs are amongst the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on earth. They are a critical habitat for numerous plant and animal species, which are part of this complex and highly dynamic ecosystem. Corals form the largest colonies within the animal kingdom and they are able to do so, because they derive energy and nourishment from symbiotic zooxanthellae, microscopic algae, which inhabit their tissue. Due to their photosynthetic activity, these zooxanthellae provide the bulk of the corals’ energy requirements. They also support the corals in generating their limestone skeletons, which are the framework structure of the reef. Since this process is light and temperature dependent, hermatypic (reef-building) corals are largely restricted to tropical seas, where they are important ecological indicators: Due to their sensitivity towards temperature changes they are among the first systems to respond to global warming. When corals are stressed, the delicate balance that maintains the symbiotic relationship between the zooxanthellae and their coral hosts is at risk. The algae are lost from the corals or die in their tissues. The polyp turns transparent and the white skeleton becomes visible. This process is called “bleaching”. Causes of bleaching include low or high temperature and/or salinity, elevated levels of solar radiation, exposure to air during extremely low tides, siltation and pollution (Krupp 1998, Wilkinson et al. 1999). An overview of coral reef community structure and ecology in the Gulf may be found in Sheppard and Sheppard (1991) and Sheppard et al. (1992). Compared with other regions, coral diversity is rather low as a consequence of the environmental extremes, such as an extreme range in water temperatures. Low

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water temperatures have often resulted in coral mortality in shallow waters (Fadlallah et al. 1995). High salinities, turbidity and limited availability of suitable hard substrate further limit coral reef development. The effects of oil on coral reefs are largely determined by the proportion of toxic components, the duration of oil exposure and the degree of other stresses. They vary in severity with the specific conditions at a given spill, including oil type and quantity, coral species composition, with branching corals being more sensitive to oil impacts than are massive or plate-like colonies. Depending on species and exposure, oil can be lethal for corals and chronic oil contamination may impede coral growth and reproduction. Oil slicks may kill coral eggs and larvae near the water surface (NOAA 2001). Vogt (1994, 1996) studied the effects of the Gulf war oil spill on inshore and offshore coral reefs north of Abu Ali Island, Saudi Arabia. He showed that live coral coverage was stable, without any signs of decline or other detectable immediate or lasting effects. He concluded that no signs of damage that may be attributed to the oil spill were observed in any part of the reef. The reefs had survived the largest oil spill in history remarkably unscathed. However, in 1996 and 1998 these reefs were severely impacted by coral bleaching. Vogt and Al-Shaikh (2005) re-surveyed the same coral reef sites that had escaped oil contamination after the Gulf War. The results differed greatly. At deeper reefs near Karan Island, live coral cover had declined from 33% to 31%, which is insignificant. However, in a shallow lagoon at Karan (< 2 m deep) live coral cover had decreased from 23% to less than 1% during the same period. Similarly, at inshore reefs near Abu Ali Island more than 99% of the coral colonies were dead, with only small pockets of surviving coral tissue of the previously dominant reef builder Porites compressa. During earlier surveys extensive communities of staghorn corals (Acropora) were recorded at the eastern tip of the peninsula. However, in 1999 not a single colony was found alive. Thus far there are no signs of recovery. Riegl (2003) reported high-frequency recurrences of temperature-related bleaching in 1996, 1998, and 2002 in the United Arab Emirates. First evidence, however, suggested that bleaching patterns in corals changed due to phenotypic adaptation after strong bleaching events in rapid succession, because Acropora, which during the 1996 and 1998 events always bleached first and suffered heaviest mortality, bleached less than other corals in 2002 at Sir Abu Nuair and recovered at Jebel Ali and Ras Hasyan. This would be a very interesting sign of adaptation of corals to climate change. George and John (2005) studied extensive areas of subtidal rocky platforms along the coast of Abu Dhabi, which were, until 1966, dominated by corals, particularly Acropora. Most of these colonies died following prolonged high seawater temperatures in 1996. Their branches subsequently disintegrated, due primarily to boring organisms, such as sponges and bivalves and to grazing by sea urchins. Most other corals present remained relatively healthy during the 1996 high temperature episode, but by October 1998 many were bleached or dead and overgrown by algae. Massive coral bleaching had started in Bahrain, in August 1998 with water temperatures at 34°C to 37°C for several weeks. There was almost 100%

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bleaching of inshore reefs from southern Kuwait to the Strait of Hormuz with coral mortality of at least 90% (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Healthy Pocillopora-reef at Karan Island, Saudi Arabia, before the 1996 bleaching event (Foto F. Krupp).

Figure 2. Pocillopora-reef shown in Fig. 1 photographed in 2003 after the third bleaching event; all corals are dead (Foto F. Krupp).

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Some deeper reefs suffered lesser bleaching (Wilkinson 2005). On the Iranian side of the Gulf, Bousjein et al. (2005) recorded damage, such as bleaching as a result of natural and human-induced impacts. Destruction of corals, especially of branching colonies around the perimeter of Kish Island, was attributed to a severe storm in 1996. Corals usually recover from short-term bleaching, but if temperature stress prevails over prolonged periods of time, it causes irreversible damage and eventually mortality. Recovery through larval settlement and new growth will only occur, if the environment is free from chronic stress. This process requires a considerable amount of time, possibly several decades. During the recovery phase the reef is particularly sensitive to all forms of human-induced and natural stresses (Krupp 1998, Wilkinson et al. 1999). Krupp and Müller (1994), and Krupp and Almarri (1996, 2004) studied reef fish assemblages along the same transects used by Vogt (1994, 1996), and Vogt and Al-Shaikh (2005). Between 1992 and 2003, reef fish populations at inshore and offshore reefs north of Abu Ali Island were surveyed along permanent transect lines by visual censuses. Average fish species richness and population densities per transect decreased in 1992 and 1993, which was attributed to a decline in planktonic eggs and larvae caused by the oil slick (McCain and Hassan 1993) and resulted in lower levels of recruitment onto the reef. Reef fish assemblages recovered by 1994. The 1996 and 1998 coral bleaching events, resulted in the die-off of most inshore and many offshore coral reefs, with hardly any signs of recovery by 2007. Fish populations on healthy reefs remained stable, while a shift in species composition and population sizes of several species was observed on dead reefs, with strictly coral associated species disappearing, while grazers (surgeonfish Acanthuridae, rabbitfish Siganidae) increased in relative abundance. At least one formerly common reef fish species, the Arabian butterfly fish Chaetodon melapterus (Chaetodontidae), has disappeared completely from dead reefs. In conclusion, while coral reefs and fishes have either escaped oil contamination or recovered from the effects of the largest oil spill in history within two years, it becomes obvious that climate change and subsequent coral bleaching have much more severe effects on marine ecosystems and species assemblages, with hardly any signs of recovery more than 10 years after the first bleaching event.

Mitigation and remediation approaches Natural recovery of coral reefs, wherever it occurs, must be supported by resource management. In response to threats posed by increasing human and natural impacts, ranging from uncontrolled coastal development, various forms of pollution, impacts from shipping, destructive fishing methods, over-fishing, to disturbances associated with climate change, the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), in conjunction with the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea

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and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) and NCWCD developed a “Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Coral Reefs”. The Plan’s overall goal is the conservation and sustainable use of the region’s coral reef ecosystems in order to maintain their intrinsic biodiversity, ecological, economic, aesthetic and other values. To this end, the Plan defines six areas of priority actions: (1) Integrated coastal management, (2) education and awareness, (3) establishment of marine protected areas, (4) ecologically sustainable reef fisheries, (5) reduction of impacts from shipping and marine pollution, and (6) research, monitoring and economic valuation. For each of these areas, regional and national activities have been identified, expected results, desired outcomes and time frames defined, and performance indicators and methods of quality assurance outlined. The designation of a level of urgency to each specific priority action allows a phased approach to implementation. At the regional level implementation will be coordinated by ROPME and at the national and local levels through integrated networks of working groups composed of government agencies, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector and other stakeholders. The Regional Action Plan for Coral Reef Conservation responds adequately to multiple stressors. It addresses complex patterns of natural and human-induced impacts on the marine environment, aggravated by inadequate institutional frameworks and insufficient coordination of environmental legislation, resulting in fragmented management with actions usually focusing on removing the symptoms of environmental degradation rather than addressing the root causes. However, it has to be embedded into a broader strategic approach towards marine environmental conservation and management in a regionally integrated framework, focusing on transboundary issues. A Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) has been initiated by UNESCO’s Regional Office in the Arab States of the Gulf, jointly with ROPME, the United Nations Environment Programme’s Regional Office for Western Asia (UNEP-ROWA) and the countries of the region. The TDA is an objective, scientific and technical assessment, through which water-related environmental issues are identified and quantified, their causes analysed and their impacts assessed. A preliminary list of threats to the region’s coastal and marine ecosystems, their scale, immediate causes and root causes has been compiled, based on best available information. A thorough analysis of these data will result in the identification and prioritisation of a set of preventive and curative measures, addressing these threats in a coordinated manner. The TDA, which is a first step towards a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) will provide, on the basis of a non-negotiated assessment, structured information relating to the changing state and degradation of the region’s marine environment. Even though the TDA and SAP focus on preventing oil spills, there is still a need for preparedness to protect, rescue and rehabilitate wildlife, if spills do occur. These are very complex tasks requiring an interdisciplinary approach, as experienced by the NCWCD, which established and operated an Oiled Wildlife Rescue Centre in Jubail in 1991, following the Gulf War oil spill (Abuzinada 1993). The Gulf War experience underlined the importance of scientific research for the development of effective species-specific response strategies. Personnel

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involved in rescue operations and rehabilitation measures must be trained adequately. A large number of biologists, veterinarians and volunteers from all sectors of society worked hand in hand in the aftermaths of the largest oil spill in history. Since it is not predictable where oil spills occur, mobile rescue units are most efficient. There is an urgent need to develop national and regional oiled wildlife response plans throughout the Gulf region, which should be incorporated into oil spill response and contingency plans. Oiled wildlife response plans must have clear task assignments and require the cooperation between government agencies, research institutions and the private sector, particularly the oil industry. Given the connectedness in the marine environment, coordination at the regional level is of pivotal importance. Rescue and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife need to be incorporated into a broader wildlife conservation and sustainable management strategy, with marine protected areas playing a key role.

References Abuzinada, A.H. 1993. An overview of the ornithology programme of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development. Sandgrouse 15(1-2): 3-5. Abuzinada, A.H. and Krupp, F. 1994. The Arabian Gulf environment and the consequences of the 1991 oil spill. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 166: 3-10. Al-Merghani, M., Miller, J.D., Al-Mansi, A. Khushaim, O. and Pilcher, N.J. 1996. The marine turtles of the Arabian Gulf. NCWCD studies 1991-1994. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Riyadh and Frankfurt, pp. 351-359. Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E., Hardy, J.T. and Price, A.R.G. 1977. Biotopes of the Western Arabian Gulf. ARAMCO, Dhahran, 284 pp. Bousjein, M.R.S., Haeri-Ardakani, O., Sharifi, A., Abdoullahi, P. and Nazarian M. 2005. Status of coral reefs around Kish Island in the Iranian Persian Gulf. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Joubert, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region. Riyadh (5 to 9 February 2000), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). Riyadh, pp. 236-248. Burger, J. and Gochfeld, M. 2002. Effects of chemicals and pollution on seabirds. In: Schreiber, E.A. and Burger, J. (eds), Biology of Marine Birds. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 485-525. Carpenter, K.E. 1992. Preliminary observations on the effects of the 1991 Gulf War on fisheries. Marine Pollution Bulletin 24: 273-275. Carpenter, K., Krupp, F., Jones, D.J. and Zajonz, U. 1997. FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes. The Living Marine Resources of Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. FAO, Rome, 311 pp. Fadllalah, Y.H., Allen, K.W. and Estudillo, R.A. 1995. Damage to shallow reef corals in the Gulf caused by periodic exposure to air during extreme low tides and low water temperatures (Tarut Bay, eastern Saudi Arabia). In: Ginsburg, R.N. (ed.), Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs, Health, and History 1993. Miami, University of Miami, Rosensteil School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, pp. 371-377.

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George, J.D. and John D.M. 2005. The status of coral reefs and associated macroalgae in Abu Dhabi (UAE) after recent coral bleaching events. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Joubert, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region. Riyadh (5 to 9 February 2000), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). Riyadh, pp. 184-200. Geraci, J.R. 1990. Physiologic and toxic effects on cetaceans. In: Geraci, J.R. and St. Aubin, D.J. (eds), Sea mammals and oil. San Diego, Academic Press, pp. 167-197. Greth, A., Rester, C., Gerlach, G., Riekerk, F. and Robinson, I. 1995. Pathological effects of oil on seabirds during the Arabian Gulf oil spill. In: Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Effects of Oil on Wildlife, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. January 1993, pp. 134-141. Jones, D.A., Hayes, M., Krupp, F., Sabatini, G., Watt, I. and Weishar L. 2008. The impact of the Gulf War (1990 - 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution. Birkhäuser Verlag, Switzerland, pp. 237-254. Krupp, F. 1998. Coral reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden threatened by bleaching and mortality. Al-Sambouk, 8: 9-11. Krupp, F. and Almarri, M. 1996. Fishes and fish assemblages of the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Riyadh and Frankfurt, pp. 339-350. Krupp, F. and Almarri, M. 2004. Changes in reef fish assemblages in the Saudi Arabian sector of the Gulf, following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill and the 1998 coral bleaching event. 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, Okinawa, Japan. Abstract. Krupp, F. and Anegay, K. 1993. Habitats and species composition in subtidal areas north of Abu Ali, Saudi Arabia. Final Report of the Scientific Workshop on Results of the R/V Mt. Mitchell Cruise in the ROPME Sea Area, Kuwait 1993 (2): 174-184. Krupp, F. and Jones, D.A. 1993. The creation of a marine sanctuary after the Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 315-324. Krupp, F. and Müller, T. 1994. The status of fish populations in the northern Arabian Gulf two years after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 166: 67-75. Krupp, F. and Symens, P. 1994. Gulf Sanctuary. Arabian Wildlife, 1 (1): 18-20. Leighton, F.A. 1991. The toxicity of petroleum oils on birds, an overview. In: White, J. and Frink, L. (eds), The effects of oil on wildlife: Research, rehabilitation and general concerns. IWRC, CA, pp. 43-57. Mathews, C.P., Kedidi, S., Fita, N.I., Al-Yahya, A. and Al-Rasheed, K. 1993. Preliminary assessment of the effects of the 1991 Gulf War on Saudi Arabian prawn stocks. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 251-271. McCain, J.C. and Hassan, M. 1993. Assessment of ichthyoplankton in Saudi Arabian Gulf waters before and after the 1991 Gulf oil spill. The Arabian Journal of Science and Engeneering, 18 (2): 269-291. Neff, J.M. 1990. Composition and fate of petroleum and spill-treating agents in the marine environment. In: Geraci, J.R. and St. Aubin, D.J. (eds), Sea mammals and oil. San Diego, Academic Press, pp. 1-33. NOAA 2001. Oil Spills in Coral Reefs - Planning, Response, Considerations. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Ocean Service. Office of Response and Restoration, 80 pp.

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Richmond, M. 1994. Ecological status of the marine subtidal habitats and the effects of the 1991 Gulf War oil spill, with special reference to soft-substrata communities. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 166: 55-60. Richmond, M. 1996. Status of subtidal biotopes in the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, with special reference to soft-substrata communities. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Riyadh and Frankfurt, pp. 159-176. Riegl, B. 2003. Climate change and coral reefs: different effects in two high-latitude areas (Arabian Gulf, South Africa). Coral Reefs, 22: 433–446 Robineau, D. and Fiquet, P. 1994. Cetaceans of Dawhat ad-Dafi and Dawhat alMusallamiya (Saudi Arabia) one year after the Gulf War oil spill. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 166: 76-80. Sheppard, C.R.C. and Sheppard, A.L.S. 1991. Corals and coral communities of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 12: 3-170. Sheppard, C.R.C., Price, A. and Roberts, C. 1992. Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region. London, Academic Press, 347 pp. Symens, P. and Alsuhaibany, A.H. 1996. Status of the breeding populations of terns (Sternidae) along the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia following the 1991 Gulf War. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Riyadh and Frankfurt, pp. 302-326. Symens, P. and Suhaibani, A. 1994. The Impact of the 1991 Gulf War oil spill on bird populations in the northern Arabian Gulf - a review. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 166: 47-54. Vogt, H. 1994. Status of coral reefs after the Gulf War. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 166: 61-66. Vogt, H. 1996. Investigations on coral reefs in the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary using underwater video recordings and digital image analysis. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. F. Riyadh and Frankfurt, pp. 302-326. Vogt, H.P. and Al-Shaikh, Kh. 2005. Status of Saudi Arabian reefs in the ROPME Sea area following coral bleaching in 1997/98. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Joubert, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region. Riyadh (5 to 9 February 2000), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). Riyadh, pp. 201-208. Wilkinson, C.R. 2005. Global perspective on the extent and impact of bleaching on coral reefs. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Joubert, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region. Riyadh (5 to 9 February 2000), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). Riyadh, pp. 1-7. Wilkinson, C., Lindén, O., Hodgson, H., Cesar, J., Rubens J. and Strong, A. 1999. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of 1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: an ENSO (El Niño/Southern Oscillation) impact and a warning of future change? Ambio 28:188-196. Würsig, B. 1990. Cetaceans and oil. In: Geraci, J.R. and St. Aubin, D.J. (eds): Sea mammals and oil. San Diego, Academic Press, pp. 129-165.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Integrated management of pollution stress in the Gulf Nuzrat Yar Khan Habitat Management and Sustainable Development Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ottawa, Canada Present address: Sustainable Development Study Centre Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract: Rapid coastal development in the Gulf countries has caused considerable ecological stress and many coastal habitats have begun to show symptoms of ecological imbalance associated with multiple stressors caused by pollution and habitat destruction. Major sources of pollution in the Gulf include oil production, exploration, and transportation; and municipal and petrochemical industry effluents. Oil pollution, however, remains the major environmental issue in the Gulf. Reliable data on the distribution and background levels of pollutants in the Gulf are generally lacking and are patchy at best. Available information suggests that levels of hydrocarbons and heavy metal in the offshore areas are generally not alarming, but levels of pollutants in inshore areas have a number of “hot spots” associated with urban centres and industrial complexes. Although little information is available with respect to the levels of nutrients in the Gulf, there is some evidence of eutrophication in coastal areas where untreated or partially treated sewage is discharged. Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are generally low, but show a decreasing north-south spatial trend. Being a low-energy, semi-enclosed sea with limited water exchange with the Indian Ocean, the Gulf ecosystem provides ideal conditions for particulate and pollutant deposition. However, precise prediction and validation of sediment and pollutant budgets, and pollutant transport is not possible because of a lack of reliable data on 1) the distribution of pollutants in various compartments of the Gulf ecosystem, 2) circulation in the northern Gulf for different winds and seasons, 3) over- the-water stress and energy fluxes, 4) accurate evaporation rates through direct measurements, and 5) a better understanding of the circulations in the Gulf

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of Oman, their seasonal and spatial variations, and the exchange of water with the strait of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea. In view of the complex, dynamic, and semienclosed nature of the Gulf ecosystem where ecological boundaries transcend arbitrary political boundaries, we conclude that an integrated ecosystem approach to managing the Gulf is an imperative for the Gulf nations. Its adoption in the true spirit of the Kuwait Convention would foster a common understanding of regional issues and a shared vision of the strategic importance of Gulf’s resources by the Gulf nations. This paper discusses the opportunities that need to be seized and the constraints that need to be dealt with in the application of the ecosystem approach on a Gulf-wide basis.

Introduction In recent decades, rapid coastal development and an exceptionally high growth of population in the Gulf as a result of the oil boom has caused considerable ecological stress on the Gulf ecosystem (Khan 2002). Coastal pollution is rampant and coastal habitats of the Gulf have begun to show symptoms of ecological imbalance typically associated with multiple stressors caused by coastal pollution and habitat degradation. The present state of the Gulf environment reflects the constraints inherently associated with fragmented jurisdictions in the management of coastal areas at both national and regional levels. Since the Gulf ecosystem is shared by eight countries (Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Oman) with often different socio-economic and political agendas, its management is largely driven by management frameworks representing arbitrary jurisdictions of political units rather than a shared vision of the health and sustainability of the Gulf as an ecosystem. Since both pollution and biota transcend political boundaries, an integrated management of pollution stress on a Gulf-wide basis is an imperative of the Gulf nations. The integrated management of environmental stressors is particularly important because of Gulf’s semi-enclosed nature, limited water exchange with the Indian Ocean, a lack of continental shelf edge, shallow depths, high salinity, and relatively low biodiversity (Price and Khan 2002, Price et al. 2002). Indeed, the physical characteristics associated with the Gulf’s semi-enclosed nature provide ideal conditions for particulate and pollutant deposition and the entire Gulf may be considered as a “pollutant trap” as is common in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas (Khan et al. 2002, Al-Ghadban 2002, Healey and Harada, 1991). This paper provides an overview of the status of pollution and its abatement in the bio-geophysical and socioeconomic context of the Gulf, and discusses the imperatives of an integrated, interdisciplinary, and regionally cooperative approach to ensuring the sustainable management of the Gulf ecosystem. It argues that the primary objective of such an approach should be to foster a joint enquiry of interdependencies and trade-offs between ecological, economic, and social variables and a shared vision of values relating to the sustainable management of the entire Gulf as an ecosystem (a regional commons).

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Status of pollution in the Gulf Sources of pollution The Gulf has many and varied sources of pollution that are associated with both land-based and offshore activities. Most sources of pollution (with the exception of oil transportation by tankers and pipelines, offshore oil exploration and development, and recreation) are essentially land-based (Tab. 1). The land-based sources of pollution include oil exploration and production, effluents and emissions from petrochemical industries, power and desalination plants spillage at oil loading terminals, municipal discharges, agricultural and maricultural development, and residential and commercial development (Price 1993). Input of pollutants from natural seepage of oil, riverine discharges, and atmospheric and aeolian transportation of contaminants are also important sources of pollution in the Gulf. In addition, regional wars have caused considerable pollution (e.g. massive oil spills and oil-well fires, and sunken and leaking vessels) of the Gulf (Khan et al. 2002). Oil exploration and production Oil pollution remains the major environmental issue in the Gulf. Floating oil, beached oil, and tar balls are ubiquitous in the Gulf and the Gulf of Oman (i.e. ROPME Sea Area). The Gulf is known as one of the most oiled areas of the world (GESAMP 1993). The estimated oil pollution in the Gulf is about 3% of the global total or nearly fifty times the average for a marine environment of its size (Golob and Bruss 1984). The main source of oil appears to be spills at oil terminals and discharge of ballast water from over 25,000 tankers, which carry crude oil out of the Gulf to different parts of the world (Literathy et al. 2002). Oil input from tanker and ship traffic and discharge of ballast water alone has been estimated to be between 400,000 and 750,000 t in 1986 (Hayes and Gundlach 1987). Based essentially on the available records from the 1980s, UNEP (1999) estimated that oil inputs from industrial waste discharges amounts to about 102,000 tons yr-1. Liquid industrial wastes from oil refineries and petrochemical industries are estimated at 47% of the total liquid industrial wastes entering the Gulf (ROPME 2000). The input of oil from natural seepage has been estimated to contribute about 10% of the overall chronic input of oil in the Gulf (Al-Harmi 1988). All these estimates, however, have not taken into account the input of oil and oil-related chemicals from the discharges of the Shatt Al-Arab River. A preliminary estimate by Douabul and Saad (1985), however, estimated that the Shatt Al-Arab transports about 48 tons of oil into the Gulf annually.

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60 Table 1. Major sources of pollution in the Gulf.

Sources of Pollution Offshore sources - Oil transportation by tankers and pipelines - Offshore oil exploration and development - Recreation - Natural seepage of oil Land-based sources - Oil exploration and production - Petrochemical industries, refineries - Power and desalination plants - Municipal discharges - Spillage at oil loading terminals - Agricultural and maricultural development - Residential and commercial development. - River discharges

- Atmospheric Emissions (e.g. flaring, venting, and purging gases; combustion processes; fugitive gases; particulate from burning sources; pesticide ) - Aeolian transportation of contaminants

Examples of Pollutants - Oil, bilge cleaning agents, sewage, antifouling agents from ship paints - Oil, drilling muds containing antiscalants, antifouling agents - Litter, sewage - Oil and gas

- Oil and gas, drilling muds, heavy metals - Oil, combustion products such as PAHs, PCBs, COD, BOD - Chlorine, brine, halomethanes, heavy metals - Waste water, trash - Sediments, oil and its combustion products, crank oil - Pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, nutrients - Sedimentation, erosion, turbidity, heavy metals - Sewage and sewage-related contaminants, hydrocarbons, nutrients, pesticides, sediments - CO2, CO, methane,volatile organic carbons, nitrogen oxide, SO2, H2S, pesticides, PAHs

Municipal effluents In the Gulf, municipal effluents (sewage outfalls and storm drains) are major sources of pollution in coastal areas. Although tertiary treatment facilities are not uncommon in most Gulf countries, raw sewage and partially treated sewage is discharged into the Gulf by a number of coastal communities. In Saudi Arabia, townships of Al-Khobar, Al-Hasa, and Al-Qatif, the daily discharge of raw sewage may be as high as 40,000 m3 (Price 1993). ROPME (1999) estimated that the total amount of domestic liquid wastes entering the Gulf is about 940x103 t y-1. Abu-Garrah and Abdulraheem (1999) estimated that the combined capacity of

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sewage treatment in the Gulf is more than 2 M m3 d-1 and the volume of treated effluent amounts to only 35% of the total sewage discharge. The quality of sewage effluents depends on the level of treatment, but they are usually complex mixtures of metals, oil and grease, persistent organic chemicals such as PAHs and organochlorine insecticides, nutrients, viral and bacterial pathogens, plastics and floatables, solids, and BOD-causing suspended and dissolved substances (UNEP 1999, Qureshi and Qureshi 1990, ROPME 1986). Pollution problems associated with municipal effluents are particularly acute in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, UAE, and Oman where 63% to 94% of the population is concentrated on the coast (Khan 2002). Adverse ecological effects associated with sewage pollution (hypoxia, depleted oxygen, eutrophication, toxic algal blooms, and fish kills) have been observed in several areas of the Gulf (Al-Muzaini and Beg 2002, Khan 1999). Power and desalination plants Gulf countries rely heavily on desalinated water for their needs. Most of these plants use the distillation process to structure their plants for the generation of electricity. Power and desalination plant effluents constitute about 48% of the wastewater discharged into the Gulf (ROPME 2000). As of 1992, a total of 45 desalination plants were operating in the GCC countries comprising about 50% of global desalination capacity (Khordagui 2002, Wagnick 1996). Power and desalination plants produce thermal effluents generally 5o C higher than the receiving water and contain residual chlorine used as antifouling agent. The fate and effects of the residual chlorine in seawater is largely unknown. According to Khordagui (2002) “the discharge of residual chlorine oxidants either in open or enclosed seawaters will be very detrimental to aquatic life in the nearshore marine environment. Except in the immediate vicinity of the brine water point of discharge, it is very unlikely that the concentrations of trihalomethanes are significant enough to pose any ecological threat”. He further points out that “in thermal power-desalination cogeneration plants, it is plausible to find corrosion products in brine waters resulting from the effects of water flow, dissolved gases, and treatment chemicals on the alloys utilized in the construction of desalination pipes, conduits and equipment. However, most of the reported data indicates that the levels of heavy metals associated with brine water disposal are minimal and often below the detection limits of the standard analytical procedures”. More detailed information on the impact of desalination plants is presented by Lattemann and Höpner (2008, this volume). Riverine discharges The Shatt Al-Arab River (formed by the confluence of Tigris, Euphrates and Karun River) is the main source of freshwater (estimated at 1.1 x 102 km3 yr-1) entering the Gulf (Al-Ghadban 2002, Reynolds 1993). Reynolds (1993) also provides estimates of freshwater input from the three minor Iranian rivers (Hendijan, 203 m3 s-1; Hilleh, 444 m3 s-1; Mand 1387 m3 s-1). Annual sediment input from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is estimated at 57.6x106 t and 4.8x106 t sediment respectively (Reynolds 1993, see also Al-Yamani and Khan 2002 and

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Al-Yamani in this volume for more details). These sediments introduce a variety of pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, and organochlorine pesticides, into the Gulf (Al-Yamani this volume). For example, Shatt Al-Arab and northern Gulf sediments are reported to be contaminated (0.4 to 44.0 μg g-1) by petroleum hydrocarbons (Douabul et al. 1984) and suspended sediments are reported to contain a variety of organochlorine compounds such as lindane, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, and DDT isomers in the low μg kg-1 (Douabul et al. 1988). Analyses done on bottom sediments near Bubiyan Island in Kuwait’s territorial waters, however, showed DDT and PCBs residues in pg g-1 or low ng g-1 (ROPME 1996). Since the Shatt Al-Arab River drains a large agricultural area of Iraq into the Gulf, it carries a significant amount of nutrient-rich water into the Gulf (Hadi et al. 1984). These waters are known to contain 0.18 to o.70 μg-at l-1 of phosphate, 26.12 to 52.39 μg-at l-1 of nitrate, and 0.53 to 0.70 μg-at l-1 nitrite (Abaychi et al. 1988). Al-Saadi et al. (1989) have estimated that annual nutrient input into the Gulf from the Shatt Al-Arab estuary to be as follows: 0.8x1010 mg PO4-P; 0.22x1010 mg NO2-N; 13.2x1010 mg NO3-N, and 184.7x1010 mg SiO3-Si. In the last three decades, the upstream damming of rivers in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran has caused desiccation of about 90% of the Mesopotamian marshes with disastrous ecological and social impacts in the area (Richardson et al. 2005 Al-Yamani and Khan 2002). The extent of restoration of the marshes as a result of the reflooding of about 20% of the desiccated area in 2004 has yet to be determined. The effects of these hydrological manipulations in the marsh areas on the water quality and ecology of the Shatt Al-Arab waterway and the northwestern Gulf are sparsely reported. Based on preliminary studies conducted in the northwestern Gulf, Al-Yamani and Khan (2002) reported significant changes in water quality after the construction of the “Third River” in Iraq: decrease in salinity, increase in nitrate concentration, an increase in sedimentation in the vicinity of the direct river flow, and an overall reduction in Shatt Al-Arab’s flow into the Gulf. Recent surveys conducted by Richardson et al. (2005) observed depleted dissolved oxygen in Shatt Al-Arab in areas where untreated wastewater is being released from urban centres including the city of Basra. Atmospheric and eolean transport In the Gulf, major sources of atmospheric pollution and atmospheric fallout are emissions from oil and gas production, oil refining, and thermal electricity generation. The principal gases in these emissions are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, volatile organic carbons, and nitrogen oxide (UNEP 1999). However, sulphur dioxides and hydrogen sulphide can also be emitted depending upon the sulphur content of the hydrocarbon and diesel fuel, particularly when used as a power source (UNEP 1999). Preliminary assessments by Husain and Memon (2002) suggest that the fallout from emissions in the Gulf is significant. The eolian sediment transport is much greater in the Gulf than in other marine systems of the world (Foda et al. 1985). According to one estimate, one third of the Arabian Gulf sediments are of eolian origin (Khalaf and Ala, 1980). Estimates by ROPME (1987) suggest that the average monthly dust deposition at various

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sites in the northwestern part of the region can range from 10 to 100 g/m2. However, a maximum deposition of 600 tons/km2 has been recorded in some areas, which is among the highest in the world (Linden et al. 1990). For example, the dust fallout in Kuwait is estimated to be 1 mm yr-1 (Khalaf and Al-Ajmi 1993), which is several orders of magnitude higher than the eolian deposition (between 10-3 and 10-4 yr-1) reported from other marine areas of the world (Foda et al. 1985). Dust storms in the summer (June-July) due to strong northwesterly winds over southern Iraq can deposit finer particulate matter many kilometers out to sea. Analyses of bottom sediment have suggested substantial quantities of eolian deposits into the northern Arabian Gulf (Emery 1956, Kukal and Sadallah 1973). The eolian particulate deposits are known to carry a variety of pollutants such as hydrocarbons (Al-Mudaffar et al. 1990, ROPME 1987) and metals (Behairy et al. 1985) with them. Thus the eolian particulate transport into the Arabian Gulf could be a significant source of sediment contamination. Non-point source pollution Atmospheric fallout and eolian dust (see above), storm sewers and runoff from agricultural lands are among the non-point sources of pollution in the Gulf. However, there is a general lack of information on the contribution of the nonpoint sources of pollution in the Gulf. Storm sewer outfalls draining residential and commercial areas are known to carry a variety of contaminants including oil and grease, hydrocarbons, nutrients and pesticides in Kuwait (Khan 1999). Runoff from the expanding agricultural activity (Fowler 2002) in countries such as Saudi Arabia, and mariculture development (Bishop 2002) in many countries of the Gulf could be locally significant.

Pollutant levels in the Gulf Oil and oil-related chemicals Reliable data on the distribution and background levels of oil and oil-related chemicals is sparse. Despite the initiatives of ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment) under KAP (Kuwait Action Plan) to establish background levels of oil and oil related compounds, the available information is patchy at best. Analyses of sediment cores from the 1992 Mount Mitchell cruise (Massousd et al. 1998, Massoud et al. 1996, Al-Abdali 1996, AlGhadban 1996) and the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru cruises Otsuki et al. 1998), however, have provided valuable and a somewhat synoptic picture of the historical (3-15 cm of the cores) and present day (1-2 cm of the cores) levels of total petroleum hydrocarbons (Tab. 2). Chronic (earlier deposits of some 50 yrs) pollution by total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) was identified in seven areas of the Gulf and ranged from moderately polluted (50-200 μg g-1) to heavily polluted (>200 μg g-1). The sources of this chronic pollution was variously attributed by the authors to the proximity to the onshore and offshore oil fields, historical spills,

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accidental damage to pipelines, tanker de-ballasting, and natural seepage specific to those areas (Massoud et al. 1996). Table 2. Locations of heavy (more than 200 μg g-1) and moderate (50-200 μg g-1) TPH (total petroleum hydrocarbons) contamination of chronically (deposits of 50 yrs in the 3-15 cm of core) polluted sediments in the Gulf and probable sources of pollution (Adapted from Massoud et al. 1996).

Location

Level of TPH

Probable sources of pollution

Northeastern Gulf on the Mesopotamian Shallow Shelf, probably extending to Iranian Coastline

Heavily polluted

8 onshore oil fields in Kuzestan, navigation routes, pipeline from Nowruz oil field to the shore

Offshore Western Basin

Heavily to moderately polluted

The southerly directed 1983-84 Nowruz oil slick, nearby offshore oil production, accidentally damaged pipelines, accidental spillage from tankers

Offshore Central Basin in southern part of the Gulf, eastern flank of the basin close to Iranian Coast

Heavily polluted

Industrial effluents from onshore industries

Offshore United Arab Emirates near offshore oil production facilities

Heavily polluted

Offshore oil production

Strait of Hormuz

Moderately polluted

Tanker de-ballasting and local oil spills

Information on petroleum hydrocarbon residues in Gulf’s biota is limited. Bivalves have been extensively used for the assessment of petroleum hydrocarbons and other contaminants (de Mora et al. 2005, de Mora et al. 2004, de Mora et al. 2003, Fowler et al. 1993) in the Gulf. The residues of petroleum hydrocarbons in bivalves could be as high as 348 μg g-1 in pearl oyster (Anderlini et al. 1981) and 683 μg g-1 in clams (Literathy et al. 1986). The information on residues of petroleum hydrocarbons in fish is particularly sparse. In a post-Gulf war survey, Fowler et al (1993) reported that levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in livers (10.20-31.16 μg g-1) of pig-face bream, Lethrinus nebulosus, were significantly higher than in muscles (2.37-5.27 μg g-1). Traces (low ng g-1 wet wt) of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aliphatic hydrocarbons have also been reported in catfish, Arius bilineatus (Al-Hassan et al (2001) and PAHs (low μg g-1 wet wt) in various species of sharks (Al-Hassan et al. 2000). Higher levels of residues in sharks are not surprising because of these fish being top carnivores.

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Heavy metals The sources of heavy metals in the Gulf are many and varied (UNEP 1999) and include industrial processes, agriculture and livestock production, food manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, petrochemical industries, and metal and non-metal industries, ship ballast water, automobile service stations, seaport activity, and desalination plants. A number of sediment surveys in the Gulf and the Gulf of Oman generally suggest that metal concentrations are within the acceptable natural background levels (de Moro et al. 2004, Al-Abdali et al. 1996, Fowler et al. 1993, Bsaham and Al-Lihaibi 1993, Sadiq and Zaidi 1985). Localized “hot spots” have been reported in Bahrain for Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn, and on the east coast of the UAE for As, Co, Cr, and Ni (de Moro et al. 2004). In a survey of Gulf sediments, Sadiq and Zaidi (1985) reported levels of Cd and Ni higher than the values reported from other parts of the world. De Moro et al. (2004) have reported high levels (up to 195 μg g-1) of Cd in the liver of some fish from southern Oman but attributed them to be the result of biomagnification of elevated Cd levels brought into the productive surface waters by upwelling in the region. They also reported very high as levels (up to 156 μg g-1) in certain species of bivalves from an area near Qatar, but believed that they were derived from natural sources rather than the result of contamination by human activities. In an earlier study, Attar et al. (1992) reported high levels of As in bottom dwelling fish (for example 73.7 μg g-1 in Acanthpagrus bifaciatus) from the Gulf and in the absence of any apparent anthropogenic source of As contamination, attributed it to natural levels in bottom sediments. These levels of As in fish and bivalves exceed the acceptable levels in the United States (i.e. 0.5 μg g-1 wet wt) and other countries and need to be further investigated for their sources in those areas. Hg levels in sediments reported in various surveys (de Moro et al. 2004, Butayban and Preston 2004, Al-Madfa et al. 1994, Fowler et al. 1993) are generally low and not remarkable. De Moro et al. (2004) reported that the Hg levels even in the top predator fish were < 0.5 μg g-1. Hasan and Juma (1992) reported elevated levels (352-1330 ng g-1) tributyltin (TBT) in coastal sediments of Bahrain and attributed them to ship repairing and antifouling paints on ships. Khan et al. (2002) suggested that similar concentrations of TBT could be expected in other coastal areas of the Gulf with heavy ship traffic. Watanabe et al. (1994) reported TBT levels (up to 25 μg g-1) in some fish (Selar crumenophthalamus, Pomodysys stridens, and Arius thalassinus) caught in the offshore waters of the Gulf. TBT levels in fish from nearshore waters are not available but could be expected to be even higher than in the offshore fish, especially in fish near ports subjected to heavy tanker traffic. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) The sources of POPs in the Gulf are essentially of anthropogenic origin, associated with manufacturing and use of certain organic chemicals, certain melting and refining processes, leaks, spills and dumping of these materials, combustion of both fuels and wastes, chlorine-based manufacturing of pulp and

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paper, and application of organochlorine pesticides. Precise information on the inputs POPs in the Gulf is lacking (UNEP 1999). The available information on the levels of POPs (e.g. organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, and combustion by-products such as PAHs, chlorinated dioxins and furans) in the Gulf is patchy and does not permit an adequate assessment of their spatial and temporal distribution in the Gulf (de Moro et al. 2005, Fowler 2002, Khan et al. 2002, ROPME 2000, ROPME 1999, UNEP 1999). Majority of the available data suggest that levels of PCBs and metals are similar or lower than levels in other regional seas (de Moro et al. 2005, Fowler 2002, Linden et al. 1990, Literathy et al. 1986). In a 1986 survey, concentrations of aldrin, dieldrin, lindane and DDT in sediments of northwestern Gulf were reported to be below 1 mg g-1 (Literathy et al. 1986). Limited trends data suggest PCB levels are constant over the last 18 years (de Moro et al. 2005). Levels of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides such as DDT (Fig. 1) are generally higher in sediments of northwestern Gulf and Shatt Al-Arab than in more southern sediments of Saudi Arabia, Qatar and UAE, suggesting influence of Shatt Al-Arab discharges into the Gulf (Fowler 2002). North-South Trend in DDT Sediment Residues (pg g -1 dry) Along the Iranian Coast of Gulf 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Abadan

Bushehr

Mond

Horm uz

Figure 1. General north-south trend in decrease of ¦DDT residues in sediments along the Iranian coast from Abadan on the Shatt Al-Arab to the Strait of Hormuz (Adapted from Fowler 2002).

Nutrients and eutrophication Although little scientific data are available with respect to coastal eutrophication in the Gulf, there is strong visual evidence in some areas that localized problems exist. For example, dense algal mats on the northern coast of Bahrain may be associated with the nutrient discharges from a methanol/ammonia plant, an oil refinery, slaughter house and livestock industry, and sewage treatment plants. Increased growth of benthic algae near the Shatt Al-Arab discharges and Kuwait Bay may be associated with the vast agricultural areas in Iraq being drained through the Shatt Al-Arab (Linden et al. 1990). As noted in the section on

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Riverine Discharges, the Shatt Al-Arab waterway is a significant source of nutrients into the Gulf. Pelagic algal blooms in the offshore waters and red tides have also been observed which may be the signs of eutrophication. Gilbert et al (2002) while investigating a fish kill of massive proportion in Kuwait Bay (a semienclosed embayment of the Gulf in Kuwait’s territorial waters) hypothesized that many factors including eutrophication of Kuwait Bay contributed to the initial outbreak of the bacterial disease. Both organic and inorganic nutrient concentrations were attributed to sewage outfalls, and aquaculture operations. Similarly Heil et al. (2001) investigating a fishkill in the same bay reported that “maximum cell concentrations of Gymnodinium sp (> 6x106 cells l-1) were immediately preceded by a more than 20-fold increase in mean inorganic concentrations (up to 60 μM) and elevated inorganic phosphate concentrations. Kuwait Bay is notorious for the raw sewage discharges from inadequate sewage pumping stations. Sewage outfalls and storm water culverts are known to continuously deposit high levels of nutrients (phosphates 2.4 mg l-1 and nitrates 1.8 mg l-1) into Kuwait Bay (KISR 1985). Deteriorated conditions unfit for fish life have often been reported in receiving waters near emergency sewage outfalls (Khan 1999). For example, the reported levels of ammonia (5.6 to 11 mg l-1) near an emergency sewage outfall in Kuwait Bay far exceed the lethal concentrations for fish (0.2 to 2.0 mg l-1). Similarly, depleted dissolved oxygen (< 1 mg/l) and high concentrations of suspended solids (> 3,000 mg l-1) have been reported near sewage outfalls in Kuwait Bay which can be acutely toxic to fish.

Pollution control and prevention The main mode of abating pollution is “command-and-control” through national laws and end-of-pipe regulations in most countries of the Gulf. Enforcement of regulations, however, remains a generic problem in these countries (UNEP 1999). The inadequacy of the command-and-control approach to pollution is reflected in the continuing coastal pollution in the vicinity of industrial complexes, such as the Bahrain Island Industrial Estate; Shatt Al-Arab; Iraq, Bandar Imam Industrial Zone, Iran; Al-Shuaiba Industrial Area, Kuwait; Mina Al-Fahl and Al-Ghurba, Oman; Umm Said and Dkhan, Qatar; Al-Khobar, Tarut Bay including Ras Tanura and Jubail, Saudi Arabia; and Ruwais Industrial Complex and Jabal Ali in Dubai, U.A.E. (UNEP 1999). The alternative to command-and-control approach i.e. pollution prevention, remains largely untried in the Gulf. The concept of pollution prevention (or P2 for short) has become a focus of environmental management in the western world though its prominence in regulatory initiatives such as the 1990 Pollution Prevention Act in the United States and the 1999 Canadian Environmental Protection Act in Canada. Pollution prevention (P2) essentially refers to a series of techniques that could be used to reduce the amount of pollution generated at the source. It is, therefore, in direct contrast to the pollution control strategies which seek to manage a pollutant and reduce its impact upon the environment. As such,

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the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, which reduces the amount of pollution generated by the process. Pollution prevention strategies may also include recycling or reuse. It is generally accepted that pollution prevention strategies almost invariably lead to profitability, because the pollution prevention technologies are more efficient in production, energy and water use, and in the use of raw materials in production. Thus, it would be in the interest of all the Gulf countries to adopt an integrated pollution prevention strategy based on the following four principles as stated in the U.S. National Pollution Prevention Policy: - Pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible, - Pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner whenever feasible, - Pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner whenever feasible, and - Disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner. The implementation of pollution prevention is, however, not without challenges. It requires innovative thinking, and often involves a team approach to follow a pollution prevention planning process, which may include analysis of the waste, its source, total cost accounting and other tools for identifying options (for details see: http://www.zerowastenetwork.org/P2Options/index.cfm) for reducing pollution. Since regional and sectoral cooperation is of essence in pollution prevention plans, the establishment of an on-going Pollution Prevention Roundtable under the umbrella of Kuwait Convention, would strengthen partnerships, encourage innovation, and facilitate application of precautionary principle and region-wide collective action to protect the Gulf ecosystem from pollution. At the regional level, the Kuwait Convention and its four protocols provide the basis for an integrated regional response to combating pollution in the Gulf. As described below, these agreements represent a comprehensive regional framework to regulate the obligations of the contracting parties in combating pollution in the Gulf (see also Al-Janahi 2008, this volume). 1.

Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances (1978). This protocol was essentially intended to ensure regional cooperation in dealing with spills or other emergency situations. As such, in accordance with Article III of this protocol, a Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) was established in 1982 in Bahrain, whose primary function is to facilitate cooperation among contacting parties in the event of a spill or emergency relating to oil or other harmful substances. The significance of this protocol cannot be overestimated given the frequency of oil tanker accidents in the Gulf. For example, in 1994 alone about 15 collisions involving oil tankers were reported near UAE shores (Mahmoudi 1997).

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2.

Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf (1989). Article 208 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention formed the basis for this protocol (Mahmoudi 1997). The emphasis is on the use of best available and economically feasible technology for offshore oil exploration and production. As such, permits could only be issued if the proponent satisfies this criterion. It also requires a full environmental assessment of pollution risks associated with the proposed project. The protocol also prohibits ocean dumping of sewage, litter etc from the offshore installation.

3.

Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-based Sources (1990). In accordance with Article IV of the Kuwait Convention, and based on Articles 207, 212 and 213 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, this protocol regulates airborne, waterborne, or direct discharges from the coast into the Protocol area through pipelines, watercourses, or offshore installations serving purposes other than exploration and exploitation of the seabed (Mahmoudi 1997). Contracting states are required to conduct Environmental Impact Assessments and monitoring relating to selected development projects. In areas of shared jurisdictions (e.g. Shatt Al-Arab waterway) countries are called upon to cooperate in the application of the protocol. Three annexes to the Protocol deal with various measures to abate pollution at source (Annex I), effluent treatment (Annex II), and regulations for the release of wastes (Annex III). Annex I, therefore is proactive as it emphasizes the importance of and need for pollution prevention to manage pollution in the Gulf.

4.

Protocol on the Control of Marine Trans-boundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (1998). The main objectives of the Protocol are to protect the marine environment of the Protocol Area from detrimental effects of hazardous wastes and other wastes, to assist Contracting States in environmentally sound management of wastes they generate and to enhance cooperation and coordination on a regional basis aimed at controlling the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and other wastes. This protocol, therefore, covers the transboundary movements of wastes, the dumping of wastes at sea, the ballast water of oil tankers, and the wastes of commercial ships. The protocol also promotes regional cooperation for the establishment and management of reception facilities for the treatment of ballast water and other wastes from ships, as well as the development of an effective monitoring and surveillance system to detect and control dumping of wastes at sea.

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Although these agreements do not adequately deal with the important questions concerning civil liabilities and compensation (Al-Janahi 2008, this volume, ROPME 2000, Mahmoudi 1997), they do nevertheless provide an important basis for regional cooperation in combating pollution in the Gulf.

Integrated management of pollution in the Gulf As a semi-enclosed sea, the Gulf represents a complex and dynamic ecosystem where ecological boundaries transcend national boundaries and, as such, local actions can have far reaching regional implications. It was this realization that prompted in 1978 the Regional Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Areas of Bahrain, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. This Conference adopted an Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Areas, the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, and the first Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency. Three other protocols concerning pollution control and abatement were adopted in subsequent years. An integrated ecosystem approach to the management of the Gulf ecosystem is implicit in these agreements. As such, the Gulf countries are expected to perceive the Gulf ecosystem as a regional “commons” and approach the management of pollution and other anthropogenic stressors in the Gulf from a holistic and ecosystem perspective. Such an integrated approach to environmental management is commonly known as the “ecosystem approach” or “ecosystembased approach”. Its adoption by the Gulf nations in the true spirit of Kuwait Convention would foster a common understanding of regional issues and a shared vision of the strategic importance of Gulf's resources by the Gulf nations. The ecosystem approach has been adopted in policies and strategies of many nations and in international agreements (e.g. AID Environment et al. 2004), and has been widely applied with success (Hartig and Vallentyne 1989, Slocombe 1993).

The ecosystem approach The ecosystem approach to environmental management is essentially integrative. As such, it is holistic, interdisciplinary, and collaborative, and recognizes that man is part of the ecosystem and not separate from it. The approach is, therefore, based on the principles of sustainable development and acknowledges that society, economics, and the environment are mutually supportive and should be considered essential elements of the ecosystem at present and in the future (Khan 1997). As such, the principles of ecosystem approach are similar to the principles underlying other management concepts that have evolved since the 1972 World

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Summit in Rio, such as “sustainable development”, “environmental impact assessment”, and “integrated coastal zone management”. These approaches by their very nature and definition are integrative and holistic, and aim at reconciling conflicting and diverging interests into a cohesive, but dynamic, system to direct human affairs (Khan 1997). The Ecological Society of America has identified eight essential elements of the ecosystem approach to environmental management (Christensen et al. 1996), which deserve a brief discussion in order to elucidate the principles underlying the approach (see Box 1). Box 1 Elements of Ecosystem Approach (Ecological Society of America) 1. Sustainability. Ecosystem Management does not focus primarily on "deliverables" but rather regards intergenerational sustainability as a precondition. 2. Goals. Ecosystem Management establishes measurable goals that specify future processes and outcomes necessary for sustainability. 3. Sound ecological models and understanding. Ecosystem Management relies on research performed at all levels of ecological organization. 4. Complexity and connectedness. Ecosystem Management recognizes that biological diversity and structural complexity strengthen ecosystems against disturbance and supply the genetic resources necessary to adapt to long-term change. 5. The dynamic character of ecosystems. Recognizing that change and evolution are inherent in ecosystem sustainability, Ecosystem Management avoids attempts to "freeze" ecosystems in a particular state or configuration. 6. Context and scale. Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and their behavior at any given location is greatly affected by surrounding systems. Thus, there is no single appropriate scale or timeframe for management. 7. Humans as ecosystem components. Ecosystem Management values the active role of humans in achieving sustainable management goals. 8. Adaptability and accountability. Ecosystem Management acknowledges that current knowledge and paradigms of ecosystem function are provisional, incomplete, and subject to change. Management approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by research and monitoring programs. For the successful application of the ecosystem management of pollution and other stressors these principles need to be strictly adhered to and none can be compromised.

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Principle 1: Sustainability Long-term or intergenerational sustainability of ecosystem goods and services is a precondition for environmental management and, in effect, an imperative of the ecosystem approach. An oversimplified depiction of sustainability can be found in the ecological concept of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) in fisheries management (Fig. 2), which contains two key elements of sustainable development: a) it is focused on the needs of people, and b) it recognizes the limitations of biophysical capacity (carrying capacity) of ecosystems. The MSY concept essentially maintains that we should manage the ecosystem in such a way that we are able to continue to obtain the goods (e.g. fish) and services (e.g. water and recreational opportunities) it offers in perpetuity. If the consumption of natural resources (natural capital) is based on sustainable yield then the use is sustainable, otherwise not. The MSY can be, therefore, perceived as an indicator of sustainability in that it measures whether the resource is utilized in a sustainable way. However, in practice, the MSY is not an entirely holistic indicator of sustainability because it relies on single-species models of population dynamics and “ignores a broad suite of interactions among exploited species and between exploited species and other members of their communities” (Zabel et al. 2003). As such fishery managers and scientist are striving to agree on a standardized approach to ecosystem-based fishery management (Babock and Pikitch 2004, Mace 2001).

Natural Capital vs Human Demand Sustainable Use (Consumption of Sustainable Yield)

Human Demand Natural Capital

Unsustainable use Max. Sustainable Yield

(Consumption of Natural Capital)

Figure 2. The relationship between natural capital and human demand. In general, limiting human demand to ‘maximum sustainable yield’ represents sustainable use.

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Conceptually, sustainability could be described by a simple and generic “supply and demand model” in which human needs represent the “demand” side of the model and environmental resources represent the “supply” side (Fig. 3).

Ecosphere

Serves Demand

HumanActivity (Demand) Health Effects Impact

Transformation Processes

Environment (Supply) Impact

Serves Demand

Figure 3. Supply and demand model depicting interaction between human activity (demand) and environment (supply) and the related impacts on the environment and human health through transformation processes. The interaction of the two through the transformation processes resulting from human activity constitutes an “ecosystem” or an “ecosphere” in which man's activities is the cause of environmental change (Manning et al. 1990). The model implicitly maintains that economic system is embedded in the ecosystem, not outside it (Landner 1994). Thus, the biophysical resources (energy, materials, ecological processes) flow from the ecosystem into the economy, and the degraded or non-useful by-products (i.e. pollution) flow back to the ecosystem. The model, therefore, assists us in analyzing and assessing the relationship between anthropogenic stressors on the ecosystem and the measures which should be taken to maintain the sustainability and integrity of the ecosystem by drawing our attention to issues that are central to the implementation of the ecosystem approach, such as: a) modifying human demands on the environment by altering attitudes and expectations, b) managing the structural and functional diversity of the environment supply (i.e. goods such as food, water, oil and minerals, and services such as recreation and cleansing of pollutants), and c) managing the effects of the transformation processes triggered by human activity. Thus, the model implies that the ultimate goal of the ecosystem approach to environmental management is to restore, enhance, and protect ecosystem integrity by achieving societal benefits of natural resources while concurrently limiting environmental degradation. As such, the ecosystem approach advocates

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management strategies based on limiting inputs from human activities (input management), and those based on management responses to resource condition or ecosystem health (output management) as illustrated in figure four (Montgomery, 1995). The input management is proactive and deals with the impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical processes in the ecosystem with an aim to minimizing the potential impacts. The output management, in contrast, deals with ecosystem restoration and minimization of further degradation, and provides a feed back mechanism to limit human inputs. The concurrent use of these two management practices is an imperative of the ecosystem approach and provides the foundation for the achievement of the goals of sustainable development.

Input-Output Management

Input Management

Human Activity

Ecological Processes

Output Management

Ecosystem Health

Figure 4. Conceptual diagram of input-output management interaction between human activity and ecological processes.

Principle 2: Goals Ecosystem approach is goal-seeking and adaptive. The goals should be crossjurisdictional through formal agreements and mechanisms reflecting interagency management al all levels, as opposed to focusing on specific jurisdictions within an ecosystem (such as parks, refuges, and sanctuaries). The goals should be explicitly stated in terms that can be measured and monitored, so that feed-backs could be obtained for adaptive management. Principle 3: Sound ecological models and understanding Scientific knowledge about the structure and functioning of ecosystems is the mainstay of environmental management. Thus ecosystem approach demands a sound understanding of ecological processes governing ecological functions. Although ecological science has significantly contributed to the understanding of the functioning of ecosystems and how they respond to human activities, there is still a lot to be learnt. For example, our knowledge is limited with respect to the key interactions among species within an ecosystem that are essential to maintain ecosystem services, the thresholds of ecosystem resilience, and ecosystem responses to multiple anthropogenic stressors.

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Principle 4: Complexity and connectedness Ecosystems are highly interactive and strongly linked (Peterson 1993). As such, the ecosystem approach recognizes the importance of complexity and the interconnections underlying the ecosystem functions. Biological diversity and structural complexity of ecosystems are critical to the sustenance of ecosystem integrity, because they are essential for sustaining processes such as primary production and nutrient cycling, providing resistance to and resilience from disturbance, and maintaining genetic resources necessary to adapt to long-term changes (Christensen et al. 1996). The ecosystem-based approach to environmental management also recognizes a variety of connections between: 1) ecosystem structure, functioning, and services; 2) land and sea; 3) marine habitats; 4) species; and 5) diverse stressors (for a detailed review of these connections see Guerry 2005). From a perspective of managing pollution in the Gulf, it is important to recognize that no stressors in nature operate in isolation. Recent researches have shown synergistic and additive effects between several stressors occurring simultaneously. For example, significant increase in cumulative mortality of juvenile salmon exposed to various contaminants was observed after they were exposed to the pathogen Vibrio anguillarum. (Arkoosh et al. 1998). Similarly, nutrient-trace element interactions were observed in reduced phytoplankton production (Breitburg et al. 1999). For a detailed review of multiple stressor effects on marine biota see Breitburg and Riedel (2005). Principle 5: Dynamic character of ecosystems The ecosystems approach recognizes that ecosystems are not static and are in a state of dynamic equilibrium governed by processes subject to change in space and time. In fact, “change and evolution are inherent characteristics of ecosystems, and attempts to “freeze” ecosystems in a particular state or configuration are generally futile in the short term and certainly doomed to failure in the long-term” (Christensen 1996). From a management perspective, therefore, it is critical that we understand the dynamic nature of ecosystems over time, and design our management programs based upon this understanding. Our investigations need to focus on processes operating at all levels of biological organization: lower levels (e.g. physiology or reproductive biology in the populations of species at risk) as well as at higher levels (e.g. populations and landscapes or watersheds) within which within which the ecological processes operate. Principle 6: Context and scale Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and their behaviour at any given location is very much affected by the status and behaviour of the ecosystems or landscapes that surround them. The ecosystem approach conceives ecosystems as places of various sizes nested but functional within one another in a hierarchy, where changes brought about by human activities at each level can impact the other levels (Fig. 5). A

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complete functional isolation of an ecosystem from the hierarchy is neither necessary nor feasible for the application of the ecosystem approach to environmental management. Thus, as shown in figure 5 the ecosystem approach to environmental management demands institutional linkages and cooperation among various levels of this hierarchy of ecosystems i.e. from local to global scales.

Nested Hierarchy of Ecosystems and Integrated Management for Sustainability

Global Regional National Local Institutional Linkages and Cooperation

Figure 5. Conceptual diagram of the functional hierarchy of ecosystems, from local to global, and critical need for institutional linkages and cooperation.

The following definition of an ecosystem proposed by Gonzalez (1996) captures this view fairly well in the context of the Gulf: “an ecosystem is a volume of land, air, and water with natural boundaries, delineated primarily by landscape features and climatic factors, and encompassing a set of natural ecological processes, organisms, and anthropogenic processes which function within a nested hierarchy of volumes”. The definition, therefore, allows us to manage ecosystems holistically which is the basis of the ecosystem approach. Principle 7: Humans as ecosystem components Ecosystem approach considers humans as an integral part of ecosystems, not only as the cause of ecological imbalances, but also an integral part of the ecosystem by playing its role in the achievement of the sustainable development goals (McDonnell and Pickett 1993, Peterson 1993). As such, human activities within the ecosystem need to be seen as those placing pressure on ecosystem or “distress” as well as those enhancing ecosystems or “eustress” (Rapport and Singh 2006). It is, therefore, important that ecosystem management frameworks engage all stakeholders in the development of management plans to ensure that they understand the dual role of human societies in sustainable development.

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Principle 8: Adaptability and accountability Since our knowledge about the structural and functional aspects ecosystems is continuously advancing, the ecosystem approach recognizes that the current paradigms are provisional at best and are subject to change. Thus, management strategies should be considered as hypotheses which need to be tested through research and monitoring. It is, therefore, important that management plans are adapted in light of the new insights provided by new researches and monitoring data. Adaptive management and accountability are key elements of the ecosystem approach.

Implementation of ecosystem approach: Constraints and opportunities Since the ecosystem approach must deal with the complex variety of interdependencies and trade-offs between economic, social, and ecological variables, its adoption and implementation is not without challenges. The biggest constraint in applying the ecosystem approach to environmental management lies in the sectorally oriented culture that prevails in our societies. For example, government business is conducted through agencies or ministries representing sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, health, and commerce whose interests are often conflicting. Similarly, sciences are practiced by disciplines such as molecular biology, physiology, mathematics, social sciences and economics. It is not the intent of ecosystem approach to dismantle this sectorally organized institutional structure, instead it advocates development of enabling mechanisms to foster a common understanding of issues at various spatial scales such as local, national, regional and global. The implementation of ecosystem approach is particularly challenging in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, such as the Gulf, that are shared by a number of nations and where ecological boundaries transcend political divides. Thus, one of the primary objectives of the ecosystem approach should be to foster a shared vision of the strategic importance of Gulfs resources and the principles and values relating to its sustainable management among all stakeholders. The following discussion pertains to the various constraints and opportunities in the implementation of an integrated ecosystem approach and the ways to overcome these obstacles.

Fragmented jurisdictions One of the foremost issues in coastal zone management is that the administrative and legal institutions are fragmented and are based on sectoral economic interests. Nationally, it is not uncommon to find a dozen or more agencies representing various sectors such as oil and gas exploration and development, industrial and urban development, fisheries and mariculture, marine transportation, recreation

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and tourism, and for some other aspects of a coastal area. Because of these conflicting interests in coastal resources, sectoral agencies are often not motivated and reluctant to cooperate in integrated and coordinated management planning. The situation becomes further complicated at the regional scale because the Gulf ecosystem is shared by eight littoral nations with often different political and socio-economic agendas and, as such, states are reluctant to compromise national interests in integrated regional planning. The main causes of this behavior and conflicts are self-interest, mistrust, and variable perception of resource amenities among individuals, communities, and nations utilizing the resource (Crance and Draper 1996). Thus, a rationalization and coordination of conflicting interests and responsibilities need to be established at both the national and regional levels by examining factors that both facilitate and inhibit collaboration with the aim to foster a shared vision of the strategic value of Gulfs coastal and marine resources (Selin and Chavez 1995). Experience in other areas of the world, such as the Laurentian Great Lakes, and the Mediterranean strongly suggests that conflicting interests in integrated resource management can be overcome by exploiting the motivating factors and building partnerships among resource users through joint strategic planning, sharing knowledge, and effective communication. At the national level, sectoral participation could be facilitated by the establishment of a coastal planning and decision-making body or an inter-agency coordinating body which would ensure protection of legitimate sectoral interests through dialogue and negotiated settlements (Dahl 1993). From a regional perspective, the UNEP-initiated Kuwait Action Plan (KAP) and its coordinating institution, the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) provide a comprehensive management and institutional framework for regional cooperation needed for ensuring the sustainable management of the Gulf. However, ROPME need to assume a more active role to motivate Gulf States in realizing the strategic importance of Gulfs resources and the need for an appreciative regional planning for the long-term sustenance of the Gulf ecosystem which should be sought by: - Ensuring that ROPME Secretariat and implementation programs have equitable and strong public ownership by the contracting parties - Preparing strategic action plans by special task forces involving all contracting parties as well as relevant international organizations and national institutions.

National policies on sustainable development One of the foremost difficulties at the national level is the lack of national environmental policies based on the principles of sustainable development or, where these policies exist, alack of their comprehensive implementation. The experiences in other parts of the world, such as the experience under UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan, strongly suggest that the fundamental causes of

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marine environmental problems and environmental degradation are associated with the lack of such policies which result in poor planning and management of development (Jeftic 1992). Thus, the national policies should be guided by the following basic principles which have emerged since UNCED (1993) and have been globally recognized (Khan 1997, Lawrence 1997). - While economic development is necessary to satisfy basic human needs, its impact on resources should be equitable and should be maintained within the limits of ecological carrying capacity. - Equity must be applied in the per capita use of resources between generations. - Public participation in decision making is necessary for promoting ecologically sound behavior. - Resource management approaches and strategies must be interactive by promoting interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral collaboration and must be continually reviewed and adjusted to address present and future needs. The adoption of sustainability principles in the formulation of national environmental policies and strategies in the Arabian Gulf region will help realize a common management perspective among the Gulf States and will also help in fostering the necessary co-operation in pollution abatement and resource conservation programs for the sustenance and integrity of the Gulf’s unique ecosystem.

Legal and institutional frameworks While there have been national initiatives to introduce regulatory instruments and programs for environmental protection, environmental assessments, and integrated coastal zone management, they generally lack a regional perspective and the progress in their implementation has been generally slow. The environmental protection laws and administrative mechanisms in the Gulf were initiated as early as 1964 when Kuwait enacted a Marine Pollution Control Law. The eight states sharing the Gulf ecosystem have varying degrees of administrative and legal mechanisms for the protection and management of their territorial waters. However, the institutions suffer from a lack of adequate manpower and expertise, and often the power to implement the nationwide policies (Mahmoudi 1997). Regionally, the Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait Convention) and its Action Plan for the Development and Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Areas (Kuwait Action Plan or KAP) to which all nations of the Gulf are signatories provide the basis for recognizing the Gulf as an integrated and dynamic system and to develop a cooperative strategy for its sustainable management. The Kuwait Action Plan, as part of UNEP' s Regional Seas Program, attempts to provide a regional perspective to the protection and management of the Gulf ecosystem and the Regional Organization for the

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Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) established under its mandate provides the necessary focal point for regional cooperation required to carry out its objectives. The objectives of KAP (UNEP 1983) as listed below provide a rather comprehensive mandate for ROPME to coordinate and address both the management-oriented and science-oriented environmental issues of the Arabian Gulf. “The Action Plan aims at achieving the following: - Assessment of the state of the environment including socio-economic development activities related to environmental quality and of the needs of the Region in order to assist Governments to cope properly with environmental problems, particularly those concerning the marine environment; - Development of guidelines for the management of those activities which have an impact on environmental quality or on the protection and use of renewable marine resources on a sustainable basis; - Development of legal instruments providing the legal basis for co-operative efforts to protect and develop the Region on a sustainable basis; - Supporting measures including national and regional institutional mechanisms and structure needed for the successful implementation of the Action Plan.”

The Kuwait Convention has been supplemented by the following three protocols: - Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances (1978). - Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf (1989). - Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-based Sources (1990). - Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (1998). - Protocol Concerning the Conservation of Biological Diversity and the Establishment of Protected Areas (not signed at the time of writing this paper).

In addition, a Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) was established in Bahrain in 1982 to facilitate cooperation for combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of marine emergencies (see Al-Janahi 2008, this volume). The Kuwait Convention is a rather comprehensive legal and administrative instrument for regional cooperation. It is also progressive in the sense that it is among one of the first in the world to introduce the concept of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). In addition, while it recognizes the protection of the marine environment as the first priority, it also stresses that measures for marine

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and coastal environmental protection and development should lead to the promotion of human health and well-being which is the ultimate goal of the Action Plan. Thus, the Kuwait Convention and the Kuwait Action Plan together with its coordinating institution, the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), provides a comprehensive set-up for regional cooperation to promote sustainable management of the Gulf ecosystem. However, KAP suffers from a lack of motivated participation by the contracting parties and, as a consequence, the Gulf ecosystem suffers from a lack of integrated and appreciative planning. There are several other regional organizations and agreements (such as the Arab Declaration on Environment and Development, the Gulf Cooperative Council, and Gulf Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization) in the region which could be highly instrumental in achieving the overall objectives of the Convention and in the development of an integrated strategy for the sustainable management of the Gulf ecosystem and the funding of an Integrated Gulf Research Program to support the implementation of the Strategy. Recently, in recognition of the continuing environmental degradation in the Gulf region and the rest of the Arab world, the environment ministers from 19 Arab countries endorsed a wide-ranging set of commitments to ensure that the economic development in their countries is not at the expense of the environment. This joint declaration issued by the Arab ministers on 3 February 2001 (popularly known as the “Abu Dhabi Declaration”) includes a commitment to implement over the next two decades the programs and projects addressing the deterioration of coastal and marine areas. However, these commitments have yet to be translated into realistic and implementable strategies with well-defined goals to cope with the continuing environmental degradation of the Gulf. Internationally, the Gulf states have obligations and opportunities to ensure protection of Gulf’s marine environment under a variety of international treaties and conventions, which have been variously signed by Gulf countries (Tab. 3). For a detailed discussion of the response of Gulf countries to international conventions see Al-Janahi (2008, this volume), Khan and Price (2002) and Mahmoudi (1997). As observed by Khan and Price (2002), “there seems to be a general apathy in the Gulf countries towards international treaties and conventions. It is especially surprising because several international treaties offer significant legal protection to the Gulf from oil and other kinds of marine pollution. Upholding regional and international agreements is particularly important in enclosed seas like the Gulf, whose trans-boundary resources constitute valuable “commons” shared by eight countries and utilized by many more. Hence, Gulf States are very much part of the “global alliance” striving to balance the needs of conservation with the needs of development, but also recognizing that the two are interconnected”.

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Table 3. Some selected regional and international agreements adopted by the Gulf States (from Price 1996, ROPME 1999, ROPME 2000 and updated information). Agreement

Iran Iraq Kuwait Saudi Bahrain Arabia

London Ocean Dumping Convention (1972)

++

+

Fund Convention (1971 amended in 1976 and 1984

++

Civil Liability Convention(1969 as amended by protocol in 1976, 1984, and 1992)

++

Intervention Convention (1969)

++

++

++

Biological Diversity (CBD)

++

++

++ +

Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++ +

++

++

Convention on International ++ Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) ++

++

+

Bonn Convention (migratory ++ species)

Ramsar Convention (Wetlands)

++ ++

++

International Convention on ++ Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (1990) World Heritage Convention

Qatar UAE Oman

+

++

++

++

?

++

++

++

++

++

++

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)

++ ++

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

+

++

++

++

++

+

+

++

Regional Convention (Gulf)a

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

+ States that have signed, but not ratified, accepted, or approved. ++ States that have signed, ratified, accepted, approved, or acceded. aKuwait Regional Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution and associated Kuwait Action Plan (KAP)

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Environmental Impact Assessment process in environmental planning There is a general lack of a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process in the national environmental laws of the Gulf countries. Indeed, much of the unsustainable coastal development in the Gulf is the direct result of an absence of the EIA process in national legislations or, where it exists, an inadequate implementation of its provisions. The entrenchment of a comprehensive, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process into law and its effective implementation is an imperative which cannot be ignored. This initiative would, no doubt assist in translating the principles of sustainable development into a strategic and management framework and would also facilitate resolution of conflicting interests in coastal planning and management. However, as originally intended, EIA should be seen as a strategic governmental process which is applied to assess the biophysical and socio economic impacts of not only the development proposals but also the programs and policies (Caldwell 1982, Gibson 1993, Clark 1992, Sadler 1994). This broad scope of EIA is known as the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The EIA process, therefore, constitutes a hierarchy of planning phases which can be visualized as a pyramid with the policy at the top and progressing downwards through programs to specific projects which form the base (Fig. 4).

Retrospective Environmental Impact Assessment of development Clearly, not all the coastal development in the Arabian Gulf was subjected to rigorous EIA and the developments for which EIAs were conducted, their predictions were not validated through effects monitoring. Thus, in the national and regional planning of the Arabian Gulf coast, it is important that a comprehensive understanding of the spatial and temporal impacts of the past development be developed using the currently available methodologies. In the assessment of any planned development, therefore, consideration needs to be given to the current environmental realities.

Integrated information base and commitment to support scientific research The lack of integrated information necessary for developing a comprehensive and synoptic view of the Gulf ecosystem is a major constraint in coastal area management both at national and regional scales. A comprehensive understanding of Gulfs ecosystemic complexity is important through the development of an integrated information base through national participation and collaboration. It would involve both an integration of existing information and generation of new information. It could be initiated under ROPME's mandate by establishing a pool

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of resources from national and international donor organizations such as the Gulf Cooperative Council, Gulf Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization, and Islamic Development Bank.

Linkage between science and policy Isolation of science from policy is one of the key causes of delayed and often inappropriate management decisions. Thus, it is important to realize that science could not be seen as existing and working in a vacuum. It serves a purpose which relates to policy and decision-making and, as such, scientific investigations should be “inextricably” linked to policy and decision-making process. In the past couple of decades, marine environmental issues have not changed, but the perceptions relating to actual environmental problems and the means to address them have indeed changed on the basis of the scientific knowledge generated over this period. The scientific investigations conducted under UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan are a good example to illustrate the role science can play in promoting a better understanding of environmental issues and influencing policy to address them (Jeftic 1992). Thus, it is of utmost importance that the environmental management frameworks in the Gulf, both at the national and regional levels provide a linkage between policy and scientific investigation. In order to ensure this, Gulf scientists need to play an active role in communicating their research and influencing policy and decision-making processes. Palmer et al. (2005) suggest that in order to accomplish this linkage, scientists need to forge partnerships and alliances which would enable: “1) a research initiative to enhance research project development, facilitate large-scale experiments and data collection, and link science to solutions; 2) procedures that will improve interactions among researchers, managers, and decision makers: and 3) efforts to build public understanding of the links between ecosystem services and humans”.

Interdisciplinary science Management of marine and coastal areas involves many disciplines of science in both physical and socioeconomic disciplines. An integration of these disciplines is essential in addressing environmental issues in complex coastal and marine ecosystems, which cut across both physical and socioeconomic systems. Integration of these disciplines requires an “interdisciplinary” approach as opposed to the “multidisciplinary” approach to addressing environmental problems. As O’Riordan (1995) has explained, “while the interdisciplinary approach draws upon common themes that embrace both physical and socioeconomic systems, the multidisciplinary approach draws upon various disciplines for information, analysis and insight but does not seek to create a common understanding of environmental issues and options for their resolution”. Thus, interdisciplinary approach provides a negotiated science to policy and

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decision-making, and its principal aim is to foster a common understanding of environmental issues surrounding the sustainable management of marine and coastal ecosystems among all competing interests.

Summary and conclusions Rapid and largely unchecked coastal development in the Gulf countries as a result of the oil boom has caused considerable ecological stress in the Gulf ecosystem. Coastal habitats have begun to show symptoms of ecological imbalance generally associated with multiple stressors caused by pollution and habitat destruction. The present state of the Gulf ecosystem reflects the constraints inherently associated with fragmented jurisdictions in the management of coastal areas at both national and regional levels. Its management, therefore, is driven by management frameworks representing arbitrary jurisdictions of political units (i.e. the eight countries sharing it) rather than a shared vision of the health and sustainability of the Gulf ecosystem. Being a low-energy, semi-enclosed sea with limited water exchange with the Indian Ocean, the Gulf ecosystem provides ideal conditions for particulate and pollutant deposition. However, precise prediction and validation of sediment and pollutant budgets, and pollutant transport is not possible because of some serious gaps in knowledge. In particular, there is a need to more accurately determine: 1) the water exchange rate at the Strait of Hormuz by direct measurements, 2) circulation in the northern Gulf for different winds and seasons, 3) over- the-water stress and energy fluxes, 4) accurate evaporation rates through direct measurements, and 5) a better understanding of the circulations in the Gulf of Oman, their seasonal and spatial variations, and the exchange of water with the strait of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea. The principal sources of pollution in the Gulf include: oil exploration, production and transportation; effluents and emissions from petrochemical industries, power and desalination plants, municipal discharges, spillage at oil loading terminals; agricultural and maricultural development; riverine discharges; and atmospheric transportation of contaminants. Oil pollution remains the major environmental issue in the Gulf, which has the reputation of being one of the most oiled marine areas of the world. Reliable data on the distribution and background levels of pollutants in the Gulf are generally lacking and are patchy at best. The available information, however, suggests that levels of hydrocarbons and heavy metal in the offshore areas are generally not alarming, but levels of pollutants in inshore areas tell a different story with a number of “hot spots” associated with urban centres and industrial complexes. Although little information is available with respect to the levels of nutrients in the Gulf, there is some evidence of eutrophication in coastal areas where untreated or partially treated sewage is discharged. The available information suggests that levels of persistent organic pollutanats (POPs) are generally low, but show a decreasing north-south spatial trend.

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The main mode of abating pollution in the Gulf countries is “command-andcontrol” through national laws and end-of-pipe regulations with weak enforcement plans. The alterative to command-and-control approach i.e. pollution prevention at source appears largely untried in the Gulf countries. At the regional level, the Kuwait Convention and the Kuwait Action Plan (KAP) with its four protocols provide the basis for an integrated Gulf-wide response to combating pollution. However, KAP suffers from a lack of motivated participation by the Gulf countries and, as such an integrated and appreciative planning for combating pollution is wanting. Similarly, there appears to be a general apathy in the Gulf countries towards seizing the opportunities for the protection of the Gulf from pollution under various international agreements and protocols such as MARPOL 73/78. In view of the complex, dynamic, and semi-enclosed nature of the Gulf ecosystem, where ecological boundaries transcend arbitrary political boundaries, we conclude that an integrated ecosystem approach to managing the Gulf is an imperative for the Gulf nations. Its adoption in the true spirit of the Kuwait Convention would foster a common understanding of regional issues and a shared vision of the strategic importance of Gulf’s resources by the Gulf nations. Opportunities that need to be seized and the constraints that need to be dealt with in the application of the ecosystem approach on a Gulf-wide basis are discussed.

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Khalaf, F. and D. Al-Ajmi. 1993. Aeolian processes and sand encroachment problems in Kuwait. Geomorphology. 6:111-134. Khalaf, F. and M. Ala. 1980. Mineralogy of the recent intertidal muddy sediments of Kuwait-Arabian Gulf. Marine Geology. 35:331-342. Khan, N.Y. 2002. Physical and Human Geography. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 3-21. Khan, N.Y. and A.R.G. Price. 2002. Legal and Institutional Frameworks. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 399-424. Khan, N.Y., A.R.G. Price and M. Munawar. 2002. Environmental Trends and Integrated Management of the Gulf. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 483-494. Khan, N.Y. 2002. Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Constraints and Opportunities for the Arabian Gulf Countries (pp IV. 40-55). In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Coastal Zone Management and Development. 18-20 March, 2002. State of Kuwait. Khan, N.Y. 1999. Fish as indicators of ecosystem health at contaminated sites in Kuwait. Phase 1. Fish population responses to environmental Stress. Final Report. KISR 5746. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research. Kuwait. Khan, N.Y. 1999. Assessment of sediment quality in Kuwait’s territorial waters. Phase 1. Kuwait Bay. Final Report. KISR 5651. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research. Kuwait. Khan, N.Y. and D. Al-Ajmi. 1998. Post-war imperatives for the sustainable management of the Gulf ecosystem. Environment International. 24: 239-248. Khan, N.Y. 1997. Role of Environmental Impact Assessment in Integrated Coastal Zone Management. In: B.U. Haq, S.M. Haq, G. Kullenberg, H. Stel (eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dodrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 99-110. Khordagui, H. 2002. Power and desalination plants. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 173-191. Kirklin, J. 1995. Protecting species and ecosystems within planning process. Environmental Planning, 12: 6-13. KISR (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research). 1985. A preliminary assessment of the environmental impact of development projects in and around Sulaibikhat Bay. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research. Final Report No. EES-44 Vol (Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment). Kukal, Z. and A. Sadallah. 1973. Eolian admixture in the sediment of the northern Persian Gulf. In: B.H. Purser (ed.). The Persian Gulf, Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 115122. Lardner, R.W., A.H. Al-Rabeh, N. Gunat, M. Hossain, R.M. Reynolds, and W.J. Lehr. 1993. Computation of the residual flow in the Gulf using the Mt. Mitchell data and the KFUPM/RI hydrodynamical models. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 61-70. Lawrence, D. 1997. Integrating sustainability and environmental impact assessment. Environmental Management, 21: 23-42. Linden, O., Abdulraheem, M.Y., Gerges, M.A., Alam, I., Behbehani, M., Borhan, M.A. and Al-Kassab, L.F. 1990. State of the marine environment in the ROPME Sea Area. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 112, Rev. 1, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Literathy, P., N.Y. Khan, and O. Linden. 2002. Petroleum and Oil Industry. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 127-156. McDonnell, M.J. and S.T.A. Pickett. 1993. Human as components of ecosystems: the ecology of subtle human effects and populated areas. Springer Verlag, New York.

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Mace, P.M. 2001. A new role for MSY in single-species and ecosystem approaches to fisheries stock assessment and management. Fish and Fisheries, 2: 2-32. Mahmoudi, S. 1997. Legal protection of the Persian Gulf's marine environment. Marine Policy. 21: 53-62. Manning, E.W., B. Rizzo, and E. Wiken. 1990. Conservation strategies, sustainable development and climate change. In: G. Wall and M. Sanderson (eds), Climate change, implications for water and ecological resources. Proceedings of an international symposium/workshop. Occasional Paper No. 11. University of Waterloo, Department of Geography. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, pp. 229-310. Massoud, M.S., F. Al-Abdali, A.N. Al-Ghadban. 1998. The status of oil pollution in the Arabian Gulf by the end of 1993. Environment International. 24: 11-22. Massoud, M.S., Al-Abdali, F., Al-Ghadban, A.N. and Al-Sarawi, M. 1996. Bottom sediments of the Arabian Gulf – II. TPH and TOC contents as indicators of oil pollution and implications for the effect and fate of the Kuwait oil slick. Environmental Pollution, 93: 271-284. McGlade, J.M. and A.R.G. Price. 1993. Multi-disciplinary modeling: An overview and practical implications for the governance of the Gulf region. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 361-377. Meshal, A.H. and H.M. Hassan. 1986. Evaporation from the coastal waters of the central part of the Gulf. Arab J. Sci. Res. 4: 649-655. Montgomery, D.R. 1995. Input- and output-oriented approaches to implementing ecosystem management. Environmental Management. 19: 183-188. O’Riordan, T. (ed). 1995. Environmental science for environmental management. Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex, U.K. 369 pp. Palmer, M.A. and 19 other authors. 2005. Ecological science and sustainability for the 21st century. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3: 4-11. Peterson, C.H. 1993. Improvement of environmental impact analysis by application of principles derived from manipulative ecology: lessons from coastal marine case histories. Australian Journal of Ecology. 18: 21-52. Price, A.R.G. and N.Y. Khan. 2002. Integrated Coastal Zone Management . In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 425-446. Price, A.R.G., D.A. Jones, F. Krupp. 2002. Biodiversity. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 105-123. Price, A.R.G. 1996. The scientific and human sides of coastal governance: Regional profile of Wets Asia/North Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 32: 838-845. Price, A.R.G. 1993. The Gulf: Human Impacts and management initiatives. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 17-27. Purser, B.H. and E. Siebold. 1973. The principal environmental factors influencing Holocene sedimentation and diagenesis in the Persian Gulf. In: Purser, B.H. (ed.), The Persian Gulf, Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 1-9. Qureshi, M.A. and A.A. Qureshi. 1990. Efficiency of removal of coliform, faecal coliform and coliphages in the Tubli sewage treatment plant. Water Resources, 24: 1459-1461. Randolph, J. and M. Bauer. 1999. Improving environmental decision-making through collaborative methods. Policy Studies Review, 16: 169-191. Rapport, D.J. and A. Singh. 2006. An EcoHealth-based framework for state of Environment Reporting. Ecological Indicators, 6: 409-428. Reynolds, R.M. 2002. Oceanography. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 53-64.

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Reynolds,, R.M. 1993. Physical Oceanography of the Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman - Results from the Mt. Mitchell Expedition. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 35-59. Richardson, C.J., P. Reiss, A., N.A. Hussain, A. J. Alwash, and D. J. Pool. 2005. The Restoration Potential of the Mesopotamian Marshes of Iraq. Science, 307: 1307-131. ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment). 2000. Regional Report of the State of the Marine Environment 2000. ROPME/GC10/001/1. Kuwait. ROPME. 1999. Regional Report of the State of the Marine Environment. ROPME/GC9/002. Kuwait. ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment). 1996. State of the Environment Report (draft). ROPME. 1987. Dust fallout in the northern part of the ROPME sea area. Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment. GC-5/005. Kuwait. ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment). 1986. Evaluation of present situation on land based sources of pollution within KAP member states. ROPME, Kuwait. Sadiq, M. and T.H. Zaidi. 1985. Metal concentrations in the sediment from the Arabian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 34: 565-571. Selin, S. and D. Chavez. 1995. Developing a collaborative model for environmental planning and management. Environmental Management. 19: 189-195. Sadler, B. 1994. Environmental assessment and development policy-making. In: Environmental Assessment and Development. R. Goodland and V. Edmundson (eds), The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Seibold, E., L. Diester, D. Futterer, H. Lange, P. Muller, and F. Werner. 1973. Holocene sediments and sedimentary processes in the Iranian part of the Persian Gulf. In: Purser, B.H. (ed.), The Persian Gulf. Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 57-80. Slocombe, D.S. 1993. Environmental planning, ecosystem science, and ecosystem approaches for integrating environment and development. Environmental Management, 17: 289-303. Swift, S.A. and A.S. Bower. 2003. Formation and circulation of dense water in the Persian/Arabian Gulf. J. Geophy. Res. 108(C1), 3004, doi:10.1029/2002JC001360. UNEP. 1999. Overview on Land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the ROPME Sea Area. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 168. UNEP, 1983. Action Plan of the marine environment and the coastal areas of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 35. Wagnick, K. 1996. Desalinating plants inventory. Report No. 14, International Desalination Association, U.S.A. Watanabe, M., S. Hashimoto, K. Fujita, and A. Otsuki. 1996. Organotin compounds in fish in ROPME Sea Area. Abstract. Report of ROPME/UNEP/IOC(UNESCO) International Symposium on the Status of the Marine Environment in the ROPME Sea Area After the 1990-91 Environmental Crisis with Special Emphasis to UmitakaMaru Cruises Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Kuwait. (ROPME/GC-8/1). Zabel, R.W., C.H. Harvey, S.L. Katz, T.P. Good, and P.S. Levin. 2003. Ecologically sustainable yield. American Scientist (online). 9: 150-158.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Efforts of regional and international organisations in reducing levels of pollution in the Gulf Habib N. El-Habr and Melanie Hutchinson UNEP Regional Office for West Asia, Manama, Bahrain

Abstract: There is a wide recognition throughout the region, as well as globally, of the importance of the Gulf in terms of its natural resources, including its diversity in plant and animal life. There is also recognition of the challenges that it faces in terms of the pressures placed on it by the extraction, processing and transport of oil and related products around and across its waters as well as other development activities taking place in the region’s coastal areas. To respond to these challenges, a number of international and regional organisations work within the Gulf to protect its waters and conserve its environment. The following chapter will focus on some of these, addressing the activities that they undertake within the region. The organisations included are the International Maritime Organisation, the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) and its Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), each of which has its own set of activities as well as a number of partnership activities throughout the region. Such partnerships can be further strengthened, providing a unified approach by the involved organisations, further encouraging the governments of the region, already doing much to tackle the needs of the coastal and marine environment, to focus their efforts in this regard. We already rely greatly on the wealth of the Gulf and its biodiversity and it is up to all of its users to ensure that this is preserved for future generations.

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Introduction The Gulf is endowed with valuable natural resources and a great biodiversity of plant and animal species. Its wetlands, waterfowl, mangroves, fish, marine mammals, turtles, corals and other forms of life are the great treasures of the region. Its dugong population is second in global importance only to Australia's (UNEP 2005). There are twenty species of dolphin and whale, all the five subtropical species of turtles, and more than a thousand species of fish, most of which have a high commercial value (UNEP 2005). The countries surrounding the Gulf face a number of environmental challenges, and featuring high among these is that of the degradation of the marine and coastal environment, upon which many of their activities depend. Some of the statistics concerning the Gulf are indeed alarming; the operation of over 800 producing offshore oil wells in the Gulf Area and the related maritime transport of oil and oil-related products (Al-Majed et al. 2000). Approximately 25,000 tankers navigate through the Straits of Hormuz on an annual basis, carrying about 60% of the total oil exports to the world, and it is estimated that 1.2 million barrels of oil are spilled in the Gulf each year (ROPME/IMO 1996) from the routine discharge of dirty ballast water. Added to this is the impact of accidental spills, and as can be seen there is a great deal of pollution pressure in a relatively small marine area. The recognition of the degradation taking place within the Gulf (and other regional seas) has been highlighted in the Sustainable Development Initiative for the Arab Region (SDIAR) presented by the League of Arab States to the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, stating: “Calling upon the international community to support the efforts of the Arab countries to implement the strategies of the integrated management of coastal zones, putting into consideration population concentration in coastal areas in the Arab region and the importance of the regional implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities and other programmes within regional seas regions for the protection and conservation of the quality of the marine environment and biodiversity.” (League of Arab States 2002) This call within the SDIAR has provided the regional and international organisations working in and around the Gulf with a mandate to protect and conserve the quality of the marine and coastal environment. Indeed there are a number of organisations involved in marine related activities in the region, including a number of United Nations agencies (IMO, UNEP, UNESCO, UNDP), as well as the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment, whose mandate covers the Gulf and with whom the UN agencies work closely in their activities.

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A number of other organisations also work within the Gulf, including national organisations which have an interest in the marine environment off their own coasts. This includes a number of Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organisations. Through its work with Major Groups and Stakeholders, UNEP maintains close contacts with a number of these organisations, providing them with technical support wherever possible, for example, the Emirates Diving Association of Dubai, who are UNEP’s partners in the YouthXchange Programme working with youth in the region to promote sustainable consumption. The focus of the following chapter is on the efforts being made the regional and international organisations working in the Gulf to reduce levels of pollution. These efforts take a variety of forms and in many cases include a variety of partners in their implementation, demonstrating the widespread commitment of such organisations to protect the coastal and marine environment.

Abbreviations used in this chapter ALECSO – Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation GEF – Global Environment Facility GEO – Global Environment Outlook GPA – Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment ICZM – Integrated Coastal Zone Management IMO – International Maritime Organisation IUCN – the World Conservation Union MARPOL 73/78 – The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 MEMAC – Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre ROPME – Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment SDIAR – Sustainable Development Initiative for the Arab Region SOMER – State of the Marine Environment Report TDA – Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis UAE – United Arab Emirates UN – United Nations UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme UNEP/ROWA – United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for West Asia UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

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Activities undertaken by regional and international organizations The International Maritime Organization (IMO) The IMO, through its international mandate “to provide machinery for cooperation among Governments in the field of governmental regulation and practices relating to technical matters of all kinds affecting shipping engaged in international trade; to encourage and facilitate the general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning maritime safety, efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of marine pollution from ships" provides the countries of the Gulf with an overarching legal framework for shipping in their territorial waters. The focus of the IMO has often been seen as that of safety in shipping, and although this remains IMO's most important responsibility, a new problem emerged in the late 1960’s - pollution. The rapid growth in the amount of oil being transported by sea and in the size of oil tankers was of particular concern, and in 1967 disaster struck when the supertanker Torrey Canyon, carrying 120,000 tons of oil, struck rocks of the British coast and leaked much of its cargo into the sea, killing most of the marine life it touched. Following this, the IMO introduced a series of measures designed to prevent such accidents and minimise their consequences, alongside measures relating to routine operations, such as the cleaning of oil cargo tanks and the disposal of engine room wastes, which pose a bigger threat than accidental pollution. The most important of all these measures was MARPOL 73/78, covering not only accidental and operational oil pollution but also pollution by chemicals, goods in packaged form, sewage, solid waste and air pollution. The Gulf has been designated as a Special Area for the purpose of Annex I (relating to oil) of MARPOL 73/78. As such, ROPME Member States have established a network of reception facilities for oily waste and other wastes in accordance with the Special Area provisions. The GloBallast Programme The Global Ballast Water Management Programme (GloBallast) was developed in response to the recognition of the impact of invasive organisms introduced through ballast water, including severe environmental, economic and public health impacts. Indeed, the introduction of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens via ship’s ballast water has been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans (Clarke 2003). This was highlighted at the Rio Earth Summit and was included in Agenda 21, section 17.30. It works to reduce the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ships' ballast water and to implement the IMO ballast water Guidelines (Resolution A.868, 1997). It has also spearheaded the development of the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments, which was adopted by

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consensus at a Diplomatic Conference at IMO in London on Friday 13 February 2004. A project entitled “Removal of Barriers to the Effective Implementation of Ballast Water Control and Management Measures in Developing Countries” has also been implemented through a partnership between GEF/UNDP/IMO, The pilot phase of the programme has been implemented in the Gulf, with a pilot project taking place at the Port of Khark Island, in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The experience and lessons learned from this pilot project are being replicated in other countries of the region. The project involved a risk assessment for Khark Island to provide an understanding of the nature of the problem faced, such as volumes and frequency of ballast water discharge, where it comes from (imports) and where uptake ballast water is going to (exports) (Ballast Water news 2003), using IMO Ballast Water Reporting Forms. This assessment identified the highest risk source ports to Khark Island, which include other ports within the Gulf as well as Okinawa in the Pacific and Sabine in Texas, amongst others. The project lasted 13 months during the period 2002-2003, with the final report published in 2003 (Clarke et al. 2003, http://globallast.imo.org/index.asp?page=monograph. htm). In response to the project, a Regional Strategic Action Plan was developed by GloBallast and ROPME to coordinate future activities and to replicate the work of the project throughout the Gulf. The project also provided a series of recommendations, including highlighting the need for species surveys in the ROPME Sea Area and a mechanism for exchanging information on species surveys carried out by stakeholders in the region.

The Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) ROPME is the regional seas organisation for the Gulf, and is part of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme. It was borne of the Kuwait Regional Convention in 1979 to implement the Kuwait Action Plan as well as the Kuwait Regional Convention and its Protocols. Its objective is to coordinate its Member States1 efforts towards the protection of the water quality in the Gulf and to protect the environmental systems and marine biodiversity and also to abate pollution caused by development activities of the Member States. ROPME plays an essential role to unify the efforts of its Member States towards protection of the marine environment and to follow up the procedures of each of them (more detailed information on ROPME are presented by Al-Janahi 2008, this volume). ROPME, based in Kuwait has a dedicated team of international professional officers with advanced degrees in a variety of relevant disciplines, including oceanography, biology, chemistry and remote sensing. Its officers undertake a scientific cruise every two years, taking a variety of samples to assess the marine environment. 1

ROPME Member States: Bahrain, I.R. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E.

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Kuwait Regional Convention The Kuwait Regional Convention (1978) is the basic legal instrument binding the eight Member States to coordinate their activities towards protection of their common marine environment. The Convention was adopted with the objective of ensuring that development projects and other human activities do not in any way cause damage to the marine environment, jeopardise its living resources or create hazards to human health. Another objective of the Convention was the development of an integrated management approach to the use of the marine environment and the coastal areas in a sustainable way which will allow the achievement of environmental and developmental goals in a harmonious manner. The Convention imposes a number of responsibilities on the Contracting States, including taking all measures at national and regional levels to protect the marine environment from various sources of pollution, such as ships, land-based sources, exploration and exploitation of the bed of the territorial seas and from other human activities. It also promotes co-operation in dealing with pollution emergencies. The Convention has a number of Protocols, developed with a view to strengthening governance in the region. These Protocols include: -

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Protocol concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1978), from which MEMAC, based in Bahrain, receives its mandate 2 Protocol concerning Marine Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf (1989) Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1990) Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (1998) Protocol concerning the conservation of biological diversity and the establishment of protected areas (in the final stages of development, with final lists being sought from member states and translation of the Protocol currently taking place).

These Protocols have made the mandate of the Kuwait Regional Convention more specific and have had an important role in harmonising the policies of Contracting States concerning protection of the environment under the national jurisdiction of each State and that of the Region. Meetings of regional/international experts are convened regularly to examine the status of implementation of various programmes in order to ensure that the provisions of the Protocols are complied with. 2

MEMAC’s mandate includes strengthening the capacities of the Contracting States, facilitating cooperation among them to combat pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of marine emergencies, assisting Contracting States to develop their own national capabilities to combat pollution, to co-ordinate and facilitate information exchange, technological co-operation and training.

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Kuwait Action Plan The Kuwait Action Plan (1978) was developed to meet the environmental needs and enhance the environmental capabilities of its Member States and is aimed primarily towards implementation by way of coordinated national and regional programmes. The Action Plan consists of four main components: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Environmental Assessment Environmental Management Legal Component Institutional and Financial Arrangements.

The Action Plan aims to provide an assessment of the state of the marine environment, including socio-economic development activities, and of the needs of the region in order to assist Governments to cope adequately marine-related issues of concern. It has involved the development of guidelines for the management of those activities which have an impact on environmental quality and also for the sustainable use of marine resources. It has also involved the development of legal instruments providing the legal basis for cooperative efforts to protect and develop the Gulf on a sustainable basis. The Action Plan has recognised the need to provide supporting measures, including national and regional institutional mechanisms and structures, for its successful implementation of the Action Plan and therefore provides Member States with such support. State of Marine Environment Report ROPME regularly publishes its SOMER, providing an overview of the state of the marine environment, including environmental characteristics, marine and coastal resources, socio-economic activities affecting the marine environment, major contaminants and their effects, accidents and emergencies, marine pollution control and strategies for sustainable development. The last SOMER was published in 2003, and ROPME is currently working with UNEP/ROWA to prepare guidelines for an updated version of the report, using a methodology which is harmonised with the UNEP methodology for Integrated Environmental Assessment. Remote sensing of the marine environment ROPME has an active Remote Sensing Laboratory, which has been active in acquiring aerospace remote sensing materials and preparing satellite thematic mapping and habitat characterisation and distribution in the region for over a decade. ROPME has also installed a receiving station to provide further coverage of the Gulf. Work is also ongoing on the establishment of a digital database system. This system will integrate data on the state of the marine environment, geographical information of the coastal and marine environment and the remotely sensed data derived on environmental conditions and trends.

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Capacity building activities ROPME also undertakes, with relevant partners in the region, a wide range of capacity building and training courses on marine and coastal related issues, including on coral reef monitoring and management.

ROPME Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre The ROPME Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (ROPME/MEMAC), based in Bahrain, was established in accordance with Article III of the Protocol to Kuwait Convention (1978). It is responsible for coordinating the response to emergencies within the ROPME Sea Area. It aims to cooperate in taking measures to protect the coastlines and related interest of the Member States, as well as to promote the Contingency Plans and means of combating marine pollution. MEMAC collects and develops information systems regarding laws, regulations and techniques, and exchanges that information through a liaison with regional and international organizations (see also Al-Janahi 2008, this volume). This is done through a coordinated approach, fully supported by all the member states, and by which all countries are on standby to facilitate the transboundary movement of equipment and personnel within the framework of universally endorsed guidelines. An example of such successful cooperation was in 2003, when an oil spill off Bahrain required containments and a large oil boom was transferred from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to Bahrain within seven hours. In another example, on March 22nd 2004, a Korean-flagged fishing boat Chun Ying collided with the oil tanker Everton fifty nautical miles off Ras Madrakah, Oman. Everton, which carried over 80,000 tones of crude oil, was estimated to have lost 200 tons due to the crash. Its 25 multinational crew members abandoned the tanker after a fire ignited on board and were transferred to a vessel which came to the rescue after receiving a distress call on VHF radio while on route from Jeddah to Dubai. In addition, a US warship nearby responded to an SOS call from the tanker. Omani environmental authorities worked in coordination with MEMAC to manage the oil spill and control the blaze. The Superintendent General of Pollution Control and Commander of Task Force decided to do on location repairs to the tanker to avoid risk of further spillage. The Managing Director of the salvage company involved highlighted that the actions taken “shows what can be accomplished through close co-operation between salvo, governments, and national response agencies.” The Royal Air Force of Oman, Royal Navy of Oman, Royal Oman Police, Coast Guard, and Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources were among the relevant government agencies that worked jointly with MEMAC in response to the incident. (AMPA 2004, MEMAC 2005). All such incidents are verified by MEMAC, with complete data collected and notifications made to the relevant local, regional and international agencies. Updated information on the status of such incidents is provided to Member States, alongside legal and technical advice. Such updated information is then compiled and used to provide lessons for the future (Al-Janahi 2006).

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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) UNEP, the environmental arm of the UN, has as its mission to “provide a leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations“. UNEP has six Regional Offices serving the specific needs of the regions, with the Regional Office for West Asia working closely with the League of Arab States to assist countries3 in policy development, providing technology support and capacity building on a wide range of issues. Regional Seas Programme ROPME is a member of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme. The Regional Seas Programme aims to address the accelerating degradation of the world’s oceans and coastal areas through the sustainable management and use of the marine and coastal environment, by engaging neighbouring countries in comprehensive and specific actions to protect their shared marine environment. Today, more than 140 countries participate in 13 Regional Seas Programmes established under the auspices of UNEP. Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment The GPA, which is based on the Washington Declaration (1995), addresses the protection of the marine environment from land-based sources of pollution. It is a global initiative, with headquarters in The Hague, The Netherlands, and is being implemented on a regional level to take account of regional disparities, and as such is making use of the already established Regional Seas Programmes to provide geographic coverage of each region and to utilise the experience and expertise. Within the Gulf, it is recognised that municipal sewage and industrial effluents from such industries as petroleum refineries, power, desalination and petrochemical plants are major contributors to pollution loads. The overall objective of the implementation of the project in West Asia is therefore to assist member states in enhancing the protection and sustainable development of their coastal and marine environment, by facilitating concrete action to address human activities based on land. Accordingly, UNEP/ROWA is working closely with the GPA Secretariat in facilitating the work with the Regional Seas Programmes in the region, including ROPME. Another activity included in the GPA is the development of pilot projects for innovative municipal wastewater management. A number of potential sites have been identified in the region, and at present donors are being sought for the implementation of the pilot projects. The GPA Secretariat has also developed a Clearing House Mechanism to disseminate the products of the GPA and to act as a forum for further development and capacity building in municipal wastewater 3

UNEP/ROWA member states: Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, U.A.E., Yemen

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management. The work of the GPA is closely related to the Kuwait Regional Convention’s Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1990), which addresses the prevention, abatement and combating of pollution by discharges from land reaching the sea whether water-borne, air-borne, or directly from the coast including outfalls and pipelines. Annex III to the Protocol addresses regional guidelines, regulations and permits for the release of wastes. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ICZM is a focus of UNEP, and was highlighted in particular in 2004 when the theme of World Environment Day (annually on 5 June) focussed on the marine environment, with the slogan “Wanted: Seas and Oceans, Dead or Alive”. UNEP/ROWA is currently working with partners (the Regional Seas Programmes and ALECSO) to develop ICZM strategies and programmes for the region, recognising the pressures placed on the coastal zone by rapid urbanisation and waste management issues. Dredging and reclamation activities are also a permanent feature in many coastal areas with tremendous damaging effects on the marine environment. A meeting held with relevant regional partners to develop a region-wide programme focussing on ICZM made the following recommendations: -

-

Encourage the countries of the region to follow the concept of ICZM and promote the concept of pollution loads. Encourage the countries of the region to develop a data base related to the management of coastal areas and link it electronically to promote information exchange Encourage the development and exchange of environmental emergency plans related to coastal zone management Continue the work on regional indicators for ICZM Organise capacity building training workshops on ICZM and the use of new technologies such as GIS and others UNEP/ROWA to develop a data base for experts in ICZM Organise public awareness workshops for information/technology transfer in relation to ICZM

Global Environment Outlook (GEO) One of the most important activities in protecting the environment is that of raising awareness and providing pertinent information to decision makers. UNEP’s GEO process aims to do just that, and was initiated in response to the environmental reporting requirements of Agenda 21 and to a UNEP Governing Council decision of May 1995 which requested the production of a new comprehensive global state of the environment report. The 4th GEO report is currently being prepared, and for the West Asia region as a whole, UNEP/ROWA is focusing on the degradation of the marine environment as one of five key areas for study.

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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UNESCO’s Regional Office in the Arab States of the Gulf, based in Doha, works with governments in the Gulf cluster4, providing, in addition to the education, culture, and communication and information programmes, UNESCO's natural sciences programme for the Arab States in the Gulf, and the ecological sciences programme for all Arab countries. It initiates activities designed to meet the needs of the region in providing solutions to existing problems and in strengthening the capabilities and capacities of member states, national institutions, NGOs and individual experts. Biosphere Reserves Biosphere Reserves are sites recognised under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme which innovate and demonstrate approaches to conservation and sustainable development. They are national sites, but share their experience and ideas nationally, regionally and internationally within the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. There are 482 sites worldwide in 102 countries. Biosphere Reserves have three inter-connected functions: -

Conservation: landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation Development: economic and human and culturally adapted Logistic support: research, monitoring, environmental education and training

UNESCO has worked with a number of countries of the region towards the identification and establishment of Biosphere Reserves, many of which include coastal and marine areas and all of which include pollution management as one aspect of Biosphere Reserve management. At the present time, these potential sites in the Gulf are at various stages in the process of application to be recognised as Biosphere Reserves, e.g. Reem Reserve in Qatar, Merawa in the UAE, Jebel Samhan in Oman and the Hawar Islands of Bahrain. The Hawar Islands in Bahrain were surveyed by experts in marine, coastal and terrestrial ecology and archaeology in 2003 as part of the recommendation process. The survey covered an area of 58,100 hectares, including 52,900 hectares of marine areas. The Hawar Islands are an archipelago of 36 small desert islands, with Hawar, the largest island, covering an area of 4,100 hectares. The islands are surrounded by the shallow waters of the Gulf of Salwah. The area is an important dugong habitat, with up to 200 dugongs recorded and 400 to 500 individuals said to exist locally in three to four herds. Hawksbill, leatherback and loggerhead turtles are also reported (Zainal et al. 2008, this volume).

4

UNESCO member states: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE

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World Heritage and World Natural Heritage Sites UNESCO, as part of its mandate, seeks to encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity. This is embodied in the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 1972. The mission of UNESCO’s World Heritage is to encourage countries to sign the Convention and to ensure the protection of their natural and cultural heritage; to encourage countries to nominate sites for inclusion on the World Heritage List; to encourage countries to establish management plans and set up reporting systems on the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites; to help safeguard World Heritage properties by providing technical assistance and professional training; to provide emergency assistance for World Heritage sites in immediate danger; to support public awareness-building activities for World Heritage conservation; to encourage participation of the local population in the preservation of their cultural and natural heritage; and to encourage international cooperation in the conservation of our world's cultural and natural heritage. Within the Gulf, UNESCO has assisted efforts to prepare nomination files for the establishment of World Heritage Sites in Bahrain (Hawar Islands), Qatar (Khor al Udayd) and a number of sites in Oman, with the Oryx Reserve to be visited in 2007 by a team from UNESCO and IUCN to further the country’s application for recognition as a World Natural Heritage Site. UNESCO also organised a sub-regional workshop in Sharjah on “The Application of the World Heritage Convention” with Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE participating. UNESCO Doha pays special attention to World Natural Heritage Sites, recognising their unique biodiversity, land- and sea-scapes, ecological processes etc. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Coastal and Marine Environmental Issues (TDA) Work is ongoing as part of a partnership between UNESCO, UNEP and ROPME to carry out TDA of coastal and marine environmental issues in the Gulf. This will include the consideration of a number of major perceived problems of environmental degradation in the Gulf (to be agreed by relevant stakeholders). It will examine the transboundary elements of these problems (elements shared by two or more countries) and relate them to their major underlying root causes (which could be institutional or societal). In areas where such a TDA has already been carried out, (e.g. the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea) it was found that in all cases, the root causes are common to a large number of environmental problems and require changes in the role given to environmental issues within the priorities of governments and the public in general. Once such conclusions are reached, it is then possible to tackle the necessary changes, and this will form part of the work of the partnership within the Gulf.

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Conclusion The countries and agencies working in coastal and marine issues in the Gulf region have all recognised that there are a number of challenges faced in protecting and conserving the quality of the coastal and marine environment. In the past few years there has been a decrease in the number of oil spill incidences, which can be attributed to ROPME/MEMAC, the Member States and the organizations working in the region to raise awareness of the issues. MEMAC, for its part, has undertaken comprehensive investigations and monitoring procedures that have worked to improve the protection of the marine environment, highlighting the valuable lessons learned from incidents such as the Everton cited above. Through a wide range of activities that are taking place this recognition is being translated into action. The work of ROPME, and its partnership with the relevant UN agencies and other national and regional organisations, presents a good example of the type of cooperative activities that will assist in achieving the sustainable development of the coastal and marine environment of the Gulf.

Needs for future action The region is already witnessing a culture of partnership in addressing coastal and marine issues, but such partnerships can be further strengthened, providing a unified approach by the involved organisations. Such an approach would further encourage the governments of the region, already doing much to tackle the needs of the coastal and marine environment, to focus their efforts in this regard, particularly in terms of compliance with and enforcement of regional and international conventions. In the region there is a great reliance on the wealth of the Gulf and its biodiversity and it is up to all of its users to ensure that this is preserved for future generations.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Dr. Hassan Mohammadi of ROPME for his clarifications concerning the Kuwait Convention, Captain Abdul Munem AlJanahi of ROPME/MEMAC for taking the time to provide an excellent overview of the work of MEMAC in protecting the Gulf, Dr. Benno Boer, Ecological Sciences Advisor of UNESCO, Doha for his assistance in preparing this chapter, providing a valuable insight into the current activities of his office and Ms. Dana Al-Khalifa for her work on the literature review.

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References Al-Janahi, A.M.M. 2008. Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 107-130. Al-Majed, N., Mohammadi, H., Al-Ghadban, A., 2000. State of the marine environment Report, ROPME. Clarke, C., Hayes, T., Hilliard, R., Kayvanrad, N., Taymourtash, H., Parhzi, A., Yavari, V. and Raaymakers, S. 2003. Ballast water risk assessment, Port of Khark Island, Islamic Republic of Iran, August 2003, Final Report, GloBallast Monograph Series No. 8, IMO, London. Hinrichsen, D. 1996. Living on the edge: Coasts in Crisis, Island Press. International Maritime Organisation 2003. Risk assessment for I.R. Iran. Ballast Water News, Issue 14, July-September 2003, pp. 4-5. League of Arab States 2002. Arab initiative on sustainable development. League of Arab States. Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre 2005. Biennial Report, 2003-2005, MEMAC. ROPME/IMO 1996. The effect of oil on the marine environment - an overview, ROPME/IMO, Symposium on MARPOL 73/78, Kuwait. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992. Agenda 21. Zainal, K., Al-Sayed, H. and Al-Madany, I. 2008. Coastal Pollution in Bahrain an its Management. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 147-162.

Internet Sources: Australian Marine Pilots Association (AMPA) 2004. Everton Update, http://www.ampa.asn.au/Members/GetFile.aspx?File=members/news/article2300.html Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry, www.maweb.org/documents/PrivateSectorFinal.pdf United Nations Environment Programme 2005. Regional Seas Programme Website, http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/Programmes/NonUNEP_administered_Programmes /ROPME_Sea_Area/default.asp United Nations Environment Programme, (undated) Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis, Programme Coordinating Unit, Global Environmental Facility Black Sea Environmental Programme, http://www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/tda/main.htm

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area Abdul Munem Mohamed Al-Janahi Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), Bahrain

Abstract: ROPME/MEMAC comprises the eight member states Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and UAE. These countries share the ROPME Sea Area (RSA) and its rich marine resources. The Convention for the establishment of ROPME is the Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment (1979) and it’s Protocol which resulted in the establishment of MEMAC in 1982. The main objectives of MEMAC are: formation of the Regional Contingency Plan, provision of technical assistance to contracting states, report of marine pollution incidents, damage assessment and compensation action, transboundary movement of personnel equipment and materials in case of marine emergencies, exchange of technical information with the member states, assistance in laws and regulations and different international conventions, surveillance of ROPME Sea Area for marine pollution, trajectory modelling and training of national cadres of its member states as well as publication of relevant materials i.e. the “Marine Environment Protection Legislation” which provides legal information of its Member States.

Introduction The eight Gulf countries, namely the Kingdom of Bahrain, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, State of Kuwait, Sultanate of Oman, State of Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates are located around the Gulf. Thus these countries share the sea area and its rich marine resources as well as the permanent threat of environmental pollution.

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The ROPME Sea Area (RSA) is divided into the inner RSA, the middle RSA and the outer RSA (Somer 2000). The inner RSA covers the region of the Gulf Northwest of the Strait of Hormuz. The middle RSA comprises the Gulf of Oman. On the Iranian side it extends from the Strait of Hormuz to Chah Bahar at the Pakistani border. The outer RSA exceeds from Ras Al-Hadad to the southern border of Oman (Fig. 1). The RSA forms a unique ecosystem in which fish, birds, mammals and many different types of plants interact for their existence. The region, with its natural resources, is considered to be on of the richest in the world. On the other hand the Gulf and its adjacent countries supply a significant portion of the world’s energy (about 46% of the total world consumption in 2005 of oil and gas (OPEC)). This fact has caused a heavy shipping traffic served by 42 ports and terminals in the region where 26 loading points of these are specialized for tanker loading (see also Facey 2008, this volume). Besides the tanker traffic, the offshore oil and gas fields spread widely in the region, thus presenting a high potential for accidents which threaten all the states surrounding the RSA. Since marine pollution has no movement restrictions towards any state boundaries precaution efforts can only be successful when the different states co-operate.

Figure 1. The ROPME Sea Area (OrbView-2/SeaWiFS Satellite image provided by NASA).

Following the general overview there is a list of the current status (regulations and legislation) regarding each of the Gulf countries in the appendix of this chapter.

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Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution and its Protocol With the arising awareness that pollution of the marine environment by oil and other harmful or noxious materials, arising from human activities on land or at sea, presents a growing threat to marine life, fisheries, human health, recreational uses of beaches and other amenities, the states in the Gulf region realized the importance of co-operation on a regional basis with the aim of protecting the marine environment for the benefit of all concerned, including future generations. Several meetings took place in co-operation with the United Nations Environment Programme between 1974 and 1977. These meetings resulted in the “Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency” in 1978. On the 23rd April 1978, The Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Areas adopted the “Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution”, which was signed by all eight contracting states (download under: http://www.memacrsa.org/protocol.htm).

Objectives of the Action Plan The Action Plan (Kuwait Action Plan) is intended to meet the environmental needs and enhance the environmental capabilities of ROPME member states and is aimed primarily towards implementation by way of coordinated national and regional programmes. The Action Plan consists of four main components which are: environmental assessment, environmental management, legal component and institutional and financial arrangements. Since protection of the marine environment is considered as the first priority with a view to promotion of human health and well-being as the ultimate goal, the Kuwait Action Plan aims to achieve, inter-alia, the following: a) Assessment of the state environment including socio-economic development activities related to environmental quality and of the needs of the region in order to assist governments to cope properly with environmental problems, particularly those concerning the marine environment, b) Development of guidelines for the management of those activities which have an impact on environmental quality or on the protection and use of renewable marine resources on a sustainable basis, c) Development of legal instruments providing the legal basis for cooperative efforts to protect and develop the region on a sustainable basis, d) Supporting measures including national and regional institutional mechanisms and structure needed for the successful implementation of the Action Plan.

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Objectives of the Kuwait Regional Convention Several articles of the convention imposed the responsibilities on the contracting states to take all measures at national and regional levels to protect the marine environment from various sources of pollution (such as pollution from ships, from land based sources, from oil and gas exploration and exploitation, from other human activities) and to co-operate in dealing with pollution emergencies (articles IV-IX).

Objectives of the Marine Emergency Protocol The principal objective of the protocol concerning regional cooperation in combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of emergencies is that the contracting states shall co-operate in taking the necessary measures to protect the coastline from pollution.

Table 1. Status of the Kuwait Convention and its Protocols.

State

Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution and its Protocol (1978)

Protocol concerning Marine Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf (March 1989)

Date of Signature

Date of Signature

Date of Ratification

Date of Ratification

Bahrain

24.4.1978

1.4.1979

29.3.1989

14.8.1990

Iran I.R.

24.4.1978

3.3.1980

29.3.1989

30.6.1992

Iraq

24.4.1978

4.2.1979

29.3.1989

17.2.1990

Kuwait

24.4.1978

7.11.1978

29.3.1989

17.2.1990

Oman

24.4.1978

20.3.1979

26.4.1989

17.2.1990

Qatar Saudi Arabia UAE

24.4.1978

4.1.1979

29.3.1989

17.2.1990

24.4.1978

26.12.1981

29.3.1989

17.2.1990

24.4.1978

1.12.1979

29.3.1989

16.7.1990

(to be continued on next page)

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Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (February 1990)

Protocol on the control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (March 1998)

Date of Signature

Date of Ratification

Date of Signature

Date of Ratification

Bahrain

21.2.1990

2.1.1993

17.3.1998

11.7.2001

Iran I.R.

21.2.1990

12.9.1993

17.03.1998

21.8.2001

Iraq

-

-

-

-

Kuwait

21.2.1993

2.1.1993

17.03.1998

22.2.2000

2.1.1993

17.03.1998

-

21.2.1990

2.1.1993

17.03.1998

28.7.1998

21.2.1990

2.1.1993

--

30.1.2000

17.03.1998

-

Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia UAE

21.2.1990

Establishment of the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) In order to implement the Kuwait Action Plan and the Kuwait Regional Convention and its Protocol, the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) as stated in article XVI of the Convention, was established on 1st of July 1979 upon deposit of instruments of ratification by five contracting states. An interim secretariat was established in Geneva in August 1979, which was later moved to Kuwait (January 1980) and officially inaugurated on the 8th of July 1980. The programmes and activities of ROPME were carried out by the UNEP interim secretariat until the establishment of the ROPME secretariat on the 1st of January 1982 as per agreement between ROPME and the Government of Kuwait (17 November 1981).

Establishment of the Marine Emergency and Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) In conformity with provisions of the Protocol of the Kuwait Regional Convention, the Council of ROPME at its first meeting in April 1981 decided to establish the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) in Bahrain. Accordingly an agreement was signed on 4th of August 1982 between the host government of the State of Bahrain and ROPME. MEMAC was established in August 1982 and

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started functioning in March 1983 to implement the objectives as stated in the Kuwait Regional Convention Protocol.

Objectives of MEMAC The main objectives of MEMAC are as follows: - To strengthen the capacities of the contracting states and to facilitate cooperation among them in order to combat pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of marine emergencies. - To assist contracting states in the development of their own national capabilities to combat pollution and to coordinate and facilitate information exchange, technological cooperation and training. - The possibility of initiating operations to combat pollution at the regional level. This will be subject to approval by the Council after evaluating the results of previous objectives and in the light of financial resources which could be made available for these purposes. Each of the Member States were covering the combating operation within their territories. Further MEMAC had co-ordinate some joint operation where two and three of Member States collectively carried out the oil spill combating operation. Later in 24th April 2006, ROPME Council had decided to carry out a detailed study for establishing a three Regional centre dedicated for oil spill, chemical spill and salvage. The project is known as an Oil Spill Response and Salvage Coordination Unit (ORCU), which aims to raise the preparedness level of the Region. The ORCU centres will be located in the northern, centre and southern part of the ROPME Sea Area to serve all of the Member States and its sea areas. The operation is carried out by the private sector through a tender participation which is announced in 2008 by MEMAC. All of the three centres will be operated under MEMAC direct control in consultation with the Member States.

The Regional Contingency Plan Heavy shipping activities along with the offshore exploitation of oil and gas on a confined sea, causes a critical situation towards the safety of its sensitive environment. Based on this fact, a regional contingency plan (based on national contingency plans) has become vital for the region. But because of the absence of national contingency plans for currently four of the states in the region, the regional contingency plan has become a difficult task to execute. This does not imply that these states are not having any tools or means towards combating incidents. In fact all the oil companies, whether they are state owned or private sectors, have their own contingency plans for their facilities along with their own equipment. There are also contingency plans for desalination plants and some sea ports available. It therefore is a matter of collecting and coordinating the existing

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elements of contingency plans in order to have comprehensive national plan. The efforts towards executing National Plans are under the process within three of the remaining ROMPE member states for some time, but the level of execution varies considerably. Iraq remains far from this process due to its special situation for the last two decades. Therefore currently a regional strategy setup and a major action plan have been adopted. This major action plan will be activated whenever the region faces any emergency cases. For this purpose each member state has nominated a response officer. The response officers gather annually to revise their task and assure the progress towards the National Contingency Plan and the Regional Contingency Plan elements. Generally the response officers’ role is to ensure the full regional cooperation with respect to prompt flow and exchange of information pertaining to the response as well as the sharing of resources. The response officers remain to be called at any time by MEMAC or by any state enquiry for extraordinary emergency meetings. This task was executed during the 1991 Gulf War. Besides this system the Regional Contingency Plan task is kept in progress and tackled step by step along with the update of the existing National Contingency Plans as well as the progress of establishing national plans for the states which still do not have such a plan. Administration MEMAC had formed a model for the Regional Contingency Plan and started tackling the model elements item by item in cooperation with the member states through different projects assigned to MEMAC by ROPME council. But many of these elements have still to be achieved. Legislative framework The basic legislative framework is the Kuwait Convention (Article 3-5) and its Protocol. Additionally the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Part XII) are taken in to consideration (which has been signed by all member states, but only been ratified by some of them) Governing principles, guidelines and recommendations Most important is the nomination of an agency in each contracting state, which shall have the authority to agree and decide to include various provisions into the Regional Contingency Plan. At present, each state has an organisation known as National Focal Point to ROPME/MEMAC, beside the nomination of the Response Officers to act during any emergency. Geographic description of response regions The geographical element has been identified clearly according to the Kuwait Convention (Article II) which declares that the Sea Area in the Region is bounded in the south by the following rhumb lines: From Ras Dharbat Ali (16°39’N 53°3’30’’E) to a position at 16°00’N/53°25’E, thence through the positions at 17°00’N/56°30’E and 20°30’N/60°00’E to Ras Al-Fasteh (25°04’N/61°25’E).

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Cooperation and liaison Recommended procedures and guidelines have been established recently to serve the joint combating operation as well as to be followed in order to give further definition to the Regional Contingency Plan whenever it’s executed in full, to ensure the input and deliberation of the necessary or interested parties from each Contracting State. It is also necessary to establish the means through which the various representatives of Contracting States will interact with respect to the development and maintenance of the Regional Contingency Plan, and during the implementation of its various provisions. An auditing project for the response equipment regionally has been established by the Response Officers, which would compile all the region stockpile and revise the routine maintenance strategy and storage. Financial issues Allocating an emergency fund in the region is still under Member States’ progress. Nevertheless, MEMAC exercises some cases in utilizing regional private sector contractors in combating. Compensation is paid by the fund, as the Contracting States are members to the fund, when an incident occurs. In some cases direct payment is undertaken by the polluter. Reporting of marine pollution incidents Typically, initial confusion surrounding a pollution incident builds in a delay in obtaining exact information as to the size and location of a spill. Delay in reporting limits the ability to mobilize a rapid regional response operation. It was agreed to report any spillage over 50 barrels to MEMAC, which immediately transmits the information to all National Focal Points in the Member States as a first alert until the second report clarifies the situation. Damage assessment and compensation action This function is incorporated into the basic structure of the Regional Contingency Plan. This will provide a consistent damage assessment method which leads to uniform and defensible Regional Compensation actions. These have been found essential to the task of protection and restoration of the marine environment and resources of the region. This issue is divided into two parts which are the damage assessment reference (still under revision by MEMAC and the Member States) and the Claim Manuals (in cooperation with the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund) which are already in use. Transboundary movement of personnel equipment and material in case of a marine emergency In accordance to the Kuwait Convention (Article IX a) and to the Protocol (Article III, XI and XII), guidelines and mechanisms have been laid in form of a reference guide for the Contracting States beside a memorandum of understanding for the states’ consideration, where it is signed if it is deemed necessary.

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Surveillance of ROPME Sea Area for marine pollution Each of the Contracting States has its own monitoring system over its jurisdiction for marine pollution, via Coast Guard, Navy or Ports Authorities. MEMAC receives reporting from Contracting States as well as from shipping traffic transiting the region. Besides, ROPME completed in 2003 the Establishment of its own satellite receiving station used for monitoring and research purposes. Trajectory modelling A Trajectory model for the Region has been formed in cooperation with NOAA. The model is in use since the end of 1999 in order to provide advice to the Contracting States. This model has been tested in several (also practical) occasions and approved itself as a practical tool for prediction. It is in use by all Member States. Training Training is one of the most important areas for personnel capacity building and updating knowledge as well as identifying the weaknesses of the existing plan. The MEMAC Regional Training Centre has continuously trained many candidates from the Contracting States, who could be utilized in cases of emergency. Besides the Member States have their own methods of training and exercise locally, regionally and in co-operation with other international companies, organisations, universities or research centers. A routine Regional Oil Spill Drill Exercise is normally conducted every two years, exercising Member States’ National Contingency Plan and regional co-operation. The exercise is followed by a recommendation to Member States industries and ROPME/MEMAC in order to update the necessary.

Marine Environment Protection Legislation This legislation sector provides legal information and ready source of reference on the legal aspects of marine environment protection and pollution prevention in the ROPME Member States. Therefore it intends to illustrate laws and regulations as well as international conventions pertaining to marine environment protection in the ROPME Member States. Also, it provides an introduction and basic information on regional arrangements made so far to enhance the co-operation among the ROPME Member States. The Kuwait Convention and its various protocols adopted by ROPME are the most important legal technical instruments to deal with marine pollution on the regional level. It does not intend, however, to provide an analytical view of each country with respect to their policies, laws etc. and neither it intends to provide any legal advice on any of the aspects of marine environment protection or pollution prevention in the states. The national status list in the Appendix provides general information on the laws and regulations of each Member State (including reference to the international conventions / agreements to which a Member State is a party to), whereas the summary is presented in table two.

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Table 2. Primary Legislation enforced in the ROPME Member States.

State

Law and regulation on environment

Bahrain

- Legislative Decree No. 16 of 1993 with respect to amending certain provisions of Law No. (3) of 1975 with respect to public health - Legislative Decree No. (8) of 1993 with respect to the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone of the State of Bahrain. - Law Decree No. 21 of 1996 on environment.

Iran

- Act concerning protection of sea and frontier rivers against pollution by oil - 3rd February, 1976. - Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act of 1974.

Iraq

- Regulation No. (25) of 1967 on Protection of Rivers and General Water sources from Pollution. - Law No. (76) on Protection and Improvement of the Environment

Kuwait

- Law No. (12) of 1964 regarding Protection of Navigable Waters from Oil Pollution

Oman

- Sultani Decree No. (34) of 1974 on the Law regarding Marine Pollution Control. - The law of the Conservation of Environment and Prevention of Pollution No. 10/82.

Qatar

- Law No. (4) of 1983 on the Exploitation and Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources. - Law Decree No. (4) of 1977 pertaining to the preservation of petroleum resources. - Law Decr. No. (19) of 1966 on the organization of the Doha Marine Port.

Saudi Arabia

- Seaports, Harbors and Light Houses Rule of 1975 Chapter (2)

U.A.E.

The Federal Law for the Protection and Development of the Environment No. 24 - 1999. - Abu Dhabi 1978 Law No. (8) concerned with the Preservation of Petroleum Resources. - Dubai Local Order No. (61) of 1991 (Regulation (2) on marine pollution). - Federal Law No. 24 of 1999 for Protection and Development of the Environment.

General aspects regarding the present status - All the Member States of RSA, had established own national laws regulating the protection on the environment except Iraq as a special case, noting that several amendments carried out these legislation, but still some remain old and not compatible with the new developments in the field of protection of the

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marine environment (Tab. 2). The exception is the UAE legislation, which is a new Federal law for the protection and development of the environment (Federal Law No. 24 of 1999). It is considered the first comprehensive environmental Federal Law. It deals with issues related to the marine environment as well as other environmental aspects. - Among the relevant States, there are some States which have not ratified significant international conventions in respect of the protection of the marine environment and pollution prevention (Tabs. 3 and 4). - There is no national legislation enacted so far to deal solely with the question of civil liability and compensation. This subject has been regulated by secondary legislation in some countries, by general principles of civil law in the others, or by international conventions to which the state in question is a party to. - Naturally all ROPME member states adhere to the ROPME regional legal instruments, some of which contain very general provisions on the question of civil liability and compensation. Table 1 illustrates the status of ROPME with regard to its conventions and various protocols. - Except for Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia, the other states have no oil spill contingency plans. However, in the UAE, there are oil contingency plans for most of the Emirates, while national oil contingency plans are drafted and already submitted to the cabinet for approval. - All ROPME Member States are party to MARPOL 73/78, while a request for a special area status had been forwarded to the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) within the International Maritime Organization (IMO). - All ROPME Member States, except Iran and Iraq, are parties to 1969 Civil Liability Convention (CLC), whereas Saudi Arabia is a party to CLC but not to the fund. This has caused inconsistency towards the unification of the international standards in the matters pertaining to the system of civil liability and compensation for oil pollution damage (Tab. 5). - Most of the ports and oil loading terminals in the ROPME member states have their own rules or instructions which regulate the “conduct” of the vessels within the port area i.e. the current edition of the Saudi Aramco Rules, which was issued on 1st January 1997.

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Table 3. Status of international conventions to which the ROPME Member States are a Party to (as on May 01st 2007). International Conventions 1954 OIL POL (Amended 1962 1969) 1971 (Great Barrier Reef) 1971 (Tanks) 1973 MARPOL as modified by 1978 Protocol 1969 Intervention Convention 1973 Intervention Protocol 1972 London Convention on Dumping 1969 Civil Liability 1976 Civil Liability Protocol 1992 Civil Liability Protocol 1971 Fund 1976 Fund Protocol 1992 Fund Protocol UNCLOS 1982 RAMSAR Convention Convention on Biological Diversity Basel Convention

Bahrain Iran

2007

Iraq

2005

Kuwait Oman Qatar Saudi U.A.E. Arabia Nov. Jan. Dec. Dec. 1961 1980 1971 1983

**2007 1984

April 1981

2006

Sept. 1975 Sept. 1975

Dec. 1983 Dec. 1983

2006

** 2007

April 1985

Dec. 1983

April 1985 April 1984 August 1996 August 1996 May 1997 August 1996 August 1996 May 1997 Feb. 1997 Feb. 1997 August 1996 Dec. 1992

July 1985

August 1975

July 1981 Sept. 1981

April 1985 April 1985

July 1981

5.6. 1994* Aug. Aug. 1985 1988

May 1996 May 1986

Oct. 1993

Aug. 1988 Aug. 1988

July 1993 July 1993

March 1984 March 1984 Nov. 1998 March 1994

Nov. 2002 Aug. 1989

April 1996

Feb. 1995

Aug. 1996

Feb. 1995

Aug. 1995

March 1990

** Kuwait and UAE just forward their instrument for the ratification * under accession

Nov. 1992

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Table 4. The status of ROPME Member States with regard to the civil liability (CLC) and fund (FND) conventions and the Protocols 2007. States

69 CLC

Bahrain 01.08.96 I.R.Iran Iraq Kuwait 01.07.81 Oman 24.04.85 Qatar 31.08.88 Saudi 14.07.93 Arabia UAE 14.03.84 Total 6 * Under Process

76 CLC PROT 01.08.96 29.09.81 24.04.85 31.08.88 14.07.93

92 CLC PROT 30.05.97 30.05.96 -

71 FND PROT 01.08.96 01.07.81 08.08.85 31.08.88 -

76 FND PROT 01.08.96 -

92 FND PROT 03.05.97 * 30.05.96 20.11.02 -

12.06.84 6

2

14.03.94 5

1

3

Table 5. Status of MEMAC/ROPME with regard to International Conventions on Marine Environmental Protection, as on May 2007. International Bahrain Iran Iraq Kuwait Oman Qatar Saudi U.A.E Conventions Arabia Law of the Sea-1982 X X X X * * * (Part XII) Prevention of X X X X X Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL1954) as amended IMO Convention 48 X X X X X X X X IMO amendments 93 X X X X X X X SOLAS Conv. 74 X X X X X X X X SOLAS Protocol 78 X X X X SOLAS Protocol 88 X LOADLINE X X X X X X X Convention 66 TONNAGE X X X X X X X X Convention 69 COLREG Conv. 72 X X X X X X X STCW Conv. 78 X X X X X X SAR Convention 79 X X X INMARSAT X X X X X X X X Convention 76 INMARSAT OA 76 X X X X X X X X INMARSAT X X X X X amendments 94 Facilitation X X Committee 65 (to be continued on next page)

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International Bahrain Iran Conventions MARPOL 73/78 X X (Annex I/II) MARPOL 73/78 X (Annex III) MARPOL 73/78 X (Annex IV) MARPOL 73/78 X X (Annex V) MARPOL Protocol 97 (Annex VI) London Conv. 72 X INTERVENTIN X Convention 69 INTERVENTION X Protocol 73 CLC Convention 69 D Prevention of Marine X Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (LC-1972) as amended Intervention on the X High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Causalities -1969-as amended FUND Conv. 71 D Civil Liability for Oil X Pollution Damage(CLC 1969) as amended FUND Protocol 92 X SALVAGE X Convention 89 Establishment of X International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (Fund-1971) as amended * X U D

Iraq

Signed but not ratified. Signed and ratified X Under final process Deposit (deposit but not finalized)

Kuwait Oman Qatar

Saudi U.A.E Arabia X U

U

X

X

U

X

X

X

U

U

X

X

X

U

U

X

X

X

U

X

X X

X

X X

X X X

D X

X X

X X

X

X

D

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

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Conclusion Taking into consideration that the highly sensitive RSA provides more than 50% of the world’s energy and that any damage to this semi-closed sea is very difficult to cover and attain its rehabilitation, MEMAC spares no effort to study each and every pollution incident occurring in the Region, viewing the future expectations of the marine traffic which will undoubtedly increase due to population growth and expansion of development projects. For this reason, ROPME/MEMAC is now preparing for future strategies and policies which aim to protect the Region's marine environment and its rich resources from any kind of pollution. The protection of the ROPME Sea Area is the responsibility of the Member States, the citizens and all the users of the regional resources in order to keep them available for future generations.

Appendix Kingdom of Bahrain Bahrain has enacted a new law in July 1996 on Environment. This law which has been promulgated by Law Decree No. 21 (Law No. 21), generally addresses environment in the broad sense. It neither regulates specifically marine pollution nor the issues pertaining to civil liability and compensation for oil pollution damage. Nonetheless, Article (13) of Law No. 21 prohibits the discharging or dumping of substances, residues and conducting any activity, which might adversely affect or deteriorate the marine environment. Furthermore, in case of any infringement of the provisions of the law no. (21), Article (29) of the said law imposes two types of penalties: one is imprisonment and the other is a fine. In addition to these penalties the same article gives the court discretion to impose tougher penalties on the infringed including recovery of the residual cost of pollution as well as the compensation for damage. Apart from this main Legislative Act, solely concerned with environment, there is another piece of legislation, which is more clearly dealing with oil pollution in Bahrain. The Legislative Decree No. (16) of 1993 amending certain provision of Law No. (3) of 1975 Public Health Act (Legislative Decree No. 16) prohibits the pollution of the territorial sea of the State of Bahrain including any sea port, by way of unloading or spillage of oil, or any other liquid which contains oil from any ship, or from any place onshore from any device intended for storage or transport of oil from one place to another onboard the ship or onshore (Article 63-a). It also prohibits the dumping at any seaport or in the territorial sea of State of Bahrain by any person whether natural or corporate, certain types of materials which might cause pollution of the water or which is hazardous to navigation or to life (Article 64).

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It further imposes certain penalties on any person who violates the provisions of Articles (63), (64) and (65) (ranging between BD 10,000 to BD 50,000). It goes on to impose upon the person responsible for the pollution the removal of the pollutants and to reinstate the polluted area during a determined period. It also makes the owner or master of the ship responsible (liable) if the pollution occurs from the ship. (Article 36-b). New Article No. (70) authorizes the Ministry of Health to order the placing of an attachment (arrest) over any ship which causes the pollution as provided in Article (63) of this law pending the completion of proceedings for the trial of the person responsible for the pollution. Certain defences are available to consider the pollution not an offence, such as the prevention of a threat to safety of life. It is appropriate here to indicate that by virtue of the provision of the newly enacted law on the Environment (Law No. 21), the Environmental Body, the authority empowered with environmental affairs at the Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment and not the Ministry of Health undertakes to issue resolution and instructions in all matters relating to the environment and is empowered to execute its powers and sovereignty in respect to various duties and powers enlisted under Article 3 of the mentioned law. List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Law Decree No. 21 of 1996 on environment. - Legislative Decree No. 16 of 1993 with respect to amending certain provisions of Law No. (3) of 1975 with respect to public health. - Legislative Decree No. (8)of 1993 with respect to the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone of the State of Bahrain. - The Ministerial order No. (1) of 1995 concerning the banning of landfilling and construction in Tubli Bay. - The Prime Minister edict No. (16) of 1996 and the Ministerial order No. (6) of 1996 concerning the protection of Hawar Island and territorial waters. - The Ministerial order No. (1) of 1995 concerning the EIA for new projects.

Islamic Republic of Iran So far, the main national legislation dealing with oil pollution is the Iranian Law Concerning Protection of the Sea and Frontier Rivers of February 1976 (1976 Law). According to section two of the 1976 law, any discharge of oil or oily mixtures, in the Iranian waters (international waters, frontier rivers, territorial sea and the contiguous zone), is prohibited. This ban applies not only to all Iranian and foreign ships, but also to any fixed or floating offshore or onshore units. The provisions of the 1976 Law are applicable in regard to pollution of the sea (up to the outer limits of the Iranian continental shelf) and the Arab Sea (Sea of Oman up to 50 miles from the baseline of the Iranian territorial sea).

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According to section two of the 1976 Law, a criminal offence is committed when pollution results either from intentional discharge or negligence by the accused polluter. A deliberate discharge of oil or oily mixture is punishable by imprisonment for a period that may range from six months to two years, or by a fine between one million and ten million Iranian Riyals. The penalty for negligent pollution consists of only a fine not to exceed one million Riyals. As a defence, criminal liability contemplated under the 1976 law does not arise under certain specific conditions, for example, pollution resulting from unavoidable salvage and rescue operations or from certain other unexpected events including force majored (Article 6). In order to compensate any potential loss or damage to the marine environment, Article (10) of the said law requires ships to which the law applies (a tanker of gross tonnage of 150 or more and vessels other than tankers with a gross tonnage of 500 or more) to carry an insurance policy or indemnity letter against marine pollution damages when entering Iranian territorial sea. List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Act concerning protection of sea and frontier rivers against pollution by oil – 3rd February, 1976. - Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act of 1974.

Republic of Iraq The latest legislation which deals generally with environment in Iraq, is the 1986 Act on the Protection and Enhancement of the Environment (1986 Act). According to Article (16) of the 1986 Act, anyone breaching the measures and instructions issued by the Environment Protection Council will be punished either by imprisonment for a period of not less than six months, or a fine not exceeding Five Hundred Iraqi Dinars. In addition, Article (17) provides for compensation for damages caused to the environment by any activity and includes the costs of pollution recovery and its effects. Another source of law, which deals with the protection of environment in Iraq, is Law No. 229 of 1970, relating to the preservation of oil and natural gas resources. This law contains certain provisions aimed at the protection of the marine environment. This Iraqi law requires that “… the operator shall also take every reasonable precaution to prevent pollution of air, surface and underground waters”. The law provides for a fine of up to 50,000 Iraqi Dinars for any breach but the fine will be doubled in each case of repeated offences in addition to the civil liability to compensate for any loss incurred as a direct result of oil pollution.

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List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Regulation No. (25) of 1967 on Protection of Rivers and General Water sources from Pollution. - Law No. (76) on Protection and Improvement of the Environment. - Law No. (89) of 1981 on public health.

State of Kuwait Kuwait played a leading role in enacting legislation concerned with marine pollution in the ROPME Sea Area. On February 26th, 1964, Kuwait enacted Law No. 12 regarding Prevention of Pollution of Navigable Waters by Oil as a result of ratifying the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL 54). Under provision of OILPOL 54 a state party to the convention shall undertake to promulgate laws/regulations which might be necessary to give the convention full and complete effect. Law No. 12 was promulgated by Kuwait to fulfil this mandate. Law No. 12 applies to Kuwaiti and non-Kuwaiti ships, which cause pollution while in the internal and territorial sea of Kuwait. It further bans the discharge of oil or any mixture containing oil in certain areas of Maritime Zones of the State of Kuwait. Fines were specified for breaches of Law No. 12, which were amended in 1968 and re-amended in 1976 to increase the amounts. In case of breach of the provisions of Law No. 12 by the owner or master of the ship, the occupier or tenant of the place on land and the owner, user or possessor of the equipment, fines of up to KD 40,000 but not less than KD 1,500 can be imposed upon the polluter. The minimum amount of the penalty can be doubled in case of repeated offences if committed within a year from the first penalty. The vessel can be detained by the order of the competent Minister, or on his behalf, until the interim court passes the sentence approving the action of the Minister to detain the vessel. Such approval shall take place within 24 hours of the time of detention (the Minister’s decision according to Article 6). In addition to the above mentioned penalties the Minister is empowered to ask for all cleaning costs (Article 4.2). List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Law No. (12) of 1964 regarding Protection of Navigable Waters from Oil Pollution. - Law No. (19) of 1973 regarding Conservation of Oil Sources. - Decree Law No. (62) of 1980 regarding Protection of the Environment. - Ministerial Decision No. 389 of 1980 on Establishment of the Environmental Protection Administration.

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- Municipal Regulation regarding Cleanliness; Occupation of Public Roads, Public Squares and Pavements; Sewages; Industrial Wastes and Public Places, 1977.

Sultanate of Oman The Marine Pollution Control Law of 1974 came into force in January 1975 (Law of 1974) and being the basic legislation in Oman, it deals with pollution and the liability for damages caused to the environment. For the purpose of enforcing this law, the Government has been strict by imposing financial penalties (up to 25,000 Omani Riyals) as well as imprisonment, license withdrawal, vessel detention and seizure. Such penalties would be imposed not only on the vessels registered in Oman, but also on foreign vessels and can be enforced against any person or owner of the vessel or owner or operator of a place on land or oil transmission apparatus, whether he is an Omani national or a foreigner. Such penalties imposed to ensure compliance with all the duties stipulated in the second, fourth and sixth chapters of the Law of 1974. This law is relatively comprehensive compared to the Kuwaiti Law and includes provisions concerning the civil liability for expenses and damages. In this respect, Article (6.1) imposes liability on the party causing pollution in the pollution-free zone (upto 50 nautical miles), regardless of whether or not there is a finding of culpability or negligence, for: - the costs incurred by the Government of the Sultanate or any other person in preventing, stopping, reducing or eliminating the pollution from the waters of the pollution free zone (up to 50 N.M.) and in restoring the ecology of the area to the condition existing prior to the discharge; and - the damages suffered by the Government of the Sultanate or any other person as a result of the discharge, in addition to the cost referred to in sub-paragraph (a) of this Article. Furthermore, for the purpose of covering such expenses and the indemnity guarantee Article 4.6 requires the owner of any Omani registered vessel or/and any non-Omani vessel which carries a pollutant in bulk (the quantity is not specified) to or from any Omani port, to submit to the Minster, subject to any regulations promulgated by the latter, evidence of financial responsibility in the form of insurance or an indemnity bond or any other evidence of financial responsibility satisfactory to the Minister. Although this Article does not reproduce the rules of the CLC and the Fund Convention, it reflects a basic principle of the two Conventions namely, indemnity for and coverage of the loss and damages due to oil spills including the cost of removing the pollution.

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List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Sultani Decree No. (34) of 1974 on the Law regarding Marine Pollution Control. - The law of the Conservation of Environment and Prevention of Pollution No. 10/82. - Ministerial decision No. 7/84 concerning the discharge of liquid matters in marine environment. - Ministerial decision No. 20/90 concerning the rules determining the set back lines. - Ministerial decision No. 120/93 regarding the prevention of digging or sand mining from the beaches, coasts or wadis.

State of Qatar Qatar has no legislation directly dealing with the marine environment and the question of pollution and compensation. Indeed, there is some secondary legislation regulating some aspects of the environment. Under Law No. (4) of 1983 on the exploitation and conservation of Living Aquatic Resources (Law of 1983). It is unlawful for any person or company to pollute the sea area in a way, which would or may cause harm to living aquatic resources. Any one who violates article (17) of the said law shall be punishable by a fine in the amount of 1,000 (One Thousand) Qatari Riyals. Law Decree No. (4) of 1977 pertaining to the preservation of petroleum resources, (Law No. 4) contains general obligations imposed upon the operator of petroleum activities to take appropriate precautions to avoid pollution of the air, surface, and subsurface waters (Article 4). In case of any breach, administrative penalties are imposed upon the offender. Fees not exceeding 500,000 (Five Hundred Thousand) Qatari Riyals will be imposed and in case of repeated breaches within three years from the first infringement, the fines will be doubled. Law Decree No. (19) of 1966, on the Organization of the Doha Marine Port, contains provision by which certain items / substances cannot be dumped within the port area. Article (17) of the said law imposes bans on dumping the following within the port area: 1. Ballast, unless it is clean water 2. Dirty water 3. Oil of any type 4. Garbage. In addition, Article (22/b) imposes a responsibility on the master, or the owner of the ship, when in port not to allow any disposal or dumping of any items into the sea or on the shore.

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Penalties for infringement are contained in Chapter Seven, Articles (59) and (60), and range between 2,000 and 5,000 Qatari Riyals. List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Law No. (4) of 1983 on the Exploitation and Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources. - Law No. (8) of 1974 regarding Public Cleanliness. - Law Decree No. (4) of 1977 pertaining to the preservation of petroleum resources. - Law Decree No. (19) of 1966 on the organization of the Doha Marine Port. - Law No. (4) of 1981 regarding Establishment of the Permanent Environment Protection Committee (Amendment of 1994 is attached).

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia The main national legislation dealing with marine pollution in Saudi Arabia is the Seaports, Harbours and Lighthouses Rule of 1975 (SHLR-75). This Rule in Chapter 12 incorporates the provisions of OILPOL-54 as amended in 1962, and imposes upon Saudi ships, as well as to foreign ships when they are in Saudi waters, to comply with its requirements. Like Kuwait Law No. 12, this Rule imposes upon all tankers, whether Saudi or foreign of 150 gross tonnage or more and all other ships of 500 gross tonnage or more prohibitions against discharging oil or oily mixture within a distance of 100 nautical miles from the Kingdom’s coasts. Depositing any rubbish, garbage or waste matter by any ship within the port limits of navigable channels and territorial waters of Saudi Arabia is forbidden. It is also forbidden for Saudi ships to dispose garbage or waste matter in the sea within 12 nautical miles from the coasts. Chapter 15 deals with punishments and contains penalty provisions for any act not in conformity with the rules or any omission to act mandated by its provisions. The master of the ship and thus the owner bear responsibility for any breaches. The penalties differ and range between fines and imprisonment depending upon the nature of the infringement. Detention of the ship charged of offences is also possible and can be enforced until the payment of fines is settled. Claims for compensation for oil pollution damage to property other than port premises is not governed by any statutory provisions under Saudi Law. It is governed under the broad and main principle of Islamic Sharia’a. List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Seaports, Harbours and Light Houses Rule of 1975 Chapter (2)

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United Arab Emirates A Federal Law Concerning Protection and Development of the Environment was established in UAE in 1999 (Law No. 24) and has been implemented since February 2000. The Law has the following objectives: 1.Protection and conservation of the quality and natural balance of the environment. 2.Control of all forms of pollution and avoidance of any immediate or long-term harmful effects resulting from economic, agricultural, industrial development or other programmes aiming at improving life standards and co-ordination among the Federal Environmental Agency, competent authorities and parties concerned with the protection of the environment and conservation of the quality, balance and consolidation of environmental awareness and principles of pollution control. 3.Development of natural resources and conservation of biological diversity in the regions of the State and the exploitation of such resources with consideration of present and future generations. 4.Protection of the society, human health and the health of other living creatures from activities and acts which are environmentally harmful or impede authorized use of the environmental setting. 5.Protection of the State environment from the harmful effects of activities undertaken outside the region of the State. 6.Compliance with international and regional conventions ratified or approved by the State regarding environmental protection, control of pollution and conservation of natural resources. Chapter II of this Law specifies the standards and regulations in accordance with regional and international conventions for the Protection of the marine environment regardless of the source (chemical, oil, wastes, etc) from marine means or establishments near the coastline. It also deals with the protection of drinking water and ground water. The Abu-Dhabi 1978 Law No. (8) concerned with the Preservation of Petroleum Resources. Under Article (56) of the Law No. (8), the operator should take all required precautions to prevent air pollution, the pollution of subsurface and surface waters, as well as the territorial and continental shelf waters, the beaches and all islands located in the territorial waters and the waters of the continental shelves. If pollution takes place, the person or the party involved should take the initiative to promptly remove the pollution consequences, pursuant to Article (56) of Law No. (8). Article (59) of the Law No. (8) punishes anyone not complying with the provisions of the said law or with any further order implementing the provisions of this law by fines ranging between 10,000 Dirhams to 500,000 Dirhans. The fine will be doubled in case of repeated infringement.

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Dubai has also enacted legislation dealing with various sources of pollution. The Local Order No. (61) of 1991 (Order No. 61) consists of different regulations, each of which deals with a specific type or source of pollution. Regulation (2) is devoted only to marine pollution which aims at protecting Dubai’s internal and territorial waters from any disposal and dumping of any industrial liquid or hard substances, urban sewage directly or indirectly without permission. It imposes certain bans on some activities, which might harm marine environment. It further keeps the infringed bodies under legal obligation to remove the cause of pollution, or else the municipality can take the action on their behalf and charge the cost to the person having caused pollution. A Federal Environmental Agency has been constituted under Federal Law No. (7) of 1993, as an independent specialised firm dealing with the Environmental issue for the State. List of laws and regulations applicable to marine environment protection and pollution prevention - Federal Law No. 7 Concerning the Establishment of Federal Environmental Agency, 1993. - Federal Law No. (19) Concerning Marine Areas in UAE, 1993. - Federal Law No. 23 Concerning the Exploitation, Conservation and Development of Living Aquatic Resources, 1999. - Federal Law No. 24 Concerning the Protection and Development of the Environment, 1999. - Cabinet of Ministers Decree No. (37) Concerning the Executive Order of Law No. 24 for the Protection and Development of the Environment, 2001.

Incidents within the ROPME Region between 1965 and 2006 Through the day by day trace to each and every incident, the incident data record is given in this section. As a normal practice each and every incident has been studied and accordingly action has been taken. This action could be taken by the State of Jurisdiction or jointly through the ROPME and MEMAC organizations. This action towards the protection of the marine environment is reflected by different programmes or rules and regulations executed by each Member State. We are illustrating this sector for easy reference and without giving a historic long story for each case. In general, most of the incidents are similar to the incidents round the globe. In every incident there will be an investigation while for major incidents there will be a study by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) where recommendations, legislation and comments will follow to correct the situation as an action to avoid the repetition of such incidents. Further information on oil spills in the ROPME Region is presented by Facey (2008, this volume).

Abdul Munem Mohamed Al-Janahi

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25 20 15 10 5

2005

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

1989

1987

1985

1983

1981

1979

1977

1975

1973

1971

1969

1967

1965

0

year

Figure 2. Number of oil spills within the RSA per year (MEMAC).

References Facey, R. 2008. Pollution from sea based sources. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 163-189.

Internet sources MEMAC http://www.memac-rsa.org/

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Remote Sensing: A tool for managing marine pollution in the Gulf Ronald A. Loughland1 and Baby Saji2 1

Centre of Environmental Research, Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates 2 Wataniya Environmental Services, Kuwait

Abstract: Increasing concern about levels of pollution in the marine environment has led to the adoption of a number of preventative measures to assist in maintaining the quality of the world’s oceans. Remote sensing technology is useful for detecting and monitoring marine based pollution, and the recent development of new sensors and software applications have transformed remote sensing into a powerful tool for use in monitoring marine water quality. This chapter identifies the application of remote sensing in detecting and monitoring marine pollution and discusses the different sensors, particularly those applicable to oil related pollution and other important water quality parameters in the Gulf’s marine environment.

Introduction For thousands of years humans have viewed oceans as a sink and have dumped vast amounts of waste material into the marine environment. The ocean has not only been used for solid and liquid waste disposal, but also has become the major sink for man’s carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Pollutants that are considered the main issue in the Gulf are oil and other hydrocarbons (Loughland 2006) and other pollutants such as domestic and industrial sewage, solid waste, toxic chemicals, radioactive waste, and thermal pollution are other types of

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pollution that also impact on the Gulf’s ecosystem. Many of these pollutants can be detected, mapped and monitored by using remote sensing techniques. It is now also possible to extend pollution prevention to remote areas of the Gulf through observing and monitoring pollution infringements. Aerial and satellite remote sensing reconnaissance has become important for effective identification and mapping of pollutants spilled at sea, and assists in monitoring the fate of a spill through time and space. Remote sensing also aids in the investigation of the frequency of violations, and is useful in gathering evidence against offenders. Remote sensing can also assist in planning and improving clean-up operations. Oil pollution in the Gulf results in hydrocarbons reaching most parts of the marine ecosystem. Water soluble hydrocarbons are toxic to marine organisms, particularly fish (Branko et al. 1990) and have a potential to cause significant environmental impact. In order to manage a marine based pollutant, it is important to understand the Gulf’s dynamic nature and monitor parameters such as current strength and direction, speed and direction of surface winds, sea surface temperature, turbidity, and the relationship and influences between the ocean and the atmosphere (Pearce and Pattiaratchi 1997). Remote sensing provides a number of different methods for acquiring information on the Gulf’s waters and coastal region. Scatterometers collect wind speed and direction information, altimeters measure wave height and identify wind speed. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is sensitive to spatially varying surface roughness patterns caused by the interaction of the upper ocean with the atmosphere at the marine boundary layer, and scanning radiometers and microwave sounders collect sea surface temperature data. Buoy-collected information can also be combined with remote sensing data to produce image maps displaying events such as storms, with annotated wind direction and strength, and wave height data being displayed. The Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) was the first satellite sensor specially designed to sense water bodies. The Sea-Viewing Wide-Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) was the successor to CZCS. Presently, remote sensing of the marine environment is available through a number of satellites such as Landsat TM, SPOT, NOAA AVHRR, MODIS, and IRS-P4, which are equipped with spectral bands sensitive to marine pollutants and ocean parameters.

Sensors for marine pollution studies Different types of remote sensing sensors are used for detecting and mapping pollutants and the marine water parameters which govern the distribution of pollutants. These sensors can be divided into two types: aerial and satellite/space sensors.

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Aerial sensors For detection of pollution, and particularly oil spills, the following aerial sensors have been used: (i) Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) (ii) Infra-red/ultraviolet line scan (IR/UVLS) (iii) Microwave radiometry (MWR), and (iv) Laser fluorosensor (LF)

Satellite/spaceborne sensors Satellite sensors collect data on primary productivity, chlorophyll variability and sea surface temperature using advanced algorithms. Their spectral channels are designed to optimize target reflectance and support quantitative measurements of specific biophysical properties. Important sensors of use for measuring and mapping marine components are: (i) CZCS (Coastal Zone Colour Scanner) (ii) MOS (Modular Optoelectronic Scanner) (iii) MOS (Marine Observation Satellite) (iv) SeaWiFS (Sea-viewing Wide-Field-of View Sensor) (v) AVHRR (Very High Resolution Radiometer) (vi) MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) (vii) GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) (viii) Landsat (ix) SPOT (Système Pour l’Observation de la Terre) (x) IRS-P4 (Indian Remote Sensing) (xi) GLI (Global Imager) (xii) MERIS, and (xiii) QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer)

Monitoring of marine water quality The interpretation of pollutants in terms of amount and type can be undertaken using remote sensing techniques. There has been a significant increase in the types of oceanographic optical, chemical and acoustical sensors used within the past few years. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of oceanographic variables, such as sea surface temperature, chlorophyll-a, suspended matter, vertical attenuation coefficients and colour dissolved organic matter (CDOM) also referred to as aquatic humus, yellow substances, Gelbstoff or gilvin can now also be derived from remote sensing imagery (Al-Yamani et al. 2004). Satellite sensors now provide an opportunity to view the ocean in unprecedented temporal and

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spatial scales. Ocean colour sensors such as the SeaWiFS and MODIS provide information on the abundance of phytoplankton and the concentration of dissolved and particulate material in surface ocean waters while several satellites including MODIS provide sea surface temperature (SST) with a great deal of accuracy. The other advantage of remotely sensed data is that it can provide the necessary spatial perspective of the entire Gulf, collecting information about its waters on a regional scale. Optical sensors can detect detail such as suspended sediments, dissolved organic matter, and discern between algal blooms and oil slicks. Remote sensing provides a near-surface view of the ocean, but is limited in the amount of information it can derive from the water column. Remote sensing also has the advantage of being able to monitor events in remote and often inaccessible areas. For example, oil spills from ruptured marine pipelines may go unchecked for a period of time because of uncertainty of the exact location of the spill, and limited knowledge on the extent of the spill. In such cases remote sensing can provide an advantage through early detection and a rapid cleanup response. Remote sensing also plays an important role with the sensitivity mapping of vulnerable locations in the marine environment or along the coastline. Remote sensing has been successfully used for undertaking sensitivity mapping exercises for oil pollution in some locations of the Gulf, for example in Abu Dhabi Emirate (ERWDA 2000). In general sensitivity mapping identifies: - biological resources including marine and shoreline habitats and wildlife; - human usage patterns and man-made structures; - logistical features which could assist responders in a clean-up; and - coastal features that are important for planning clean-up strategies and techniques. A Sensitivity Index (SI) can be developed for each habitat or location in the marine or coastal area and therefore serve as a quick reference for response teams in the event of a sudden pollution event (e.g. oil spills).

Application of remote sensing for monitoring marine pollution The reflectance of Electro Magnetic Radiation (EMR) from water is affected by a number of variables such as suspended particles, floating materials and water depth. Relative speaking, water gives low reflectance in visible bands and almost no reflectance in near infrared bands. The transmission of EMR through water is important when information is needed on conditions or phenomena below the surface. Transmission however is essentially limited to the visible spectrum and is greatest at the blue and green wavelengths (Fig. 1). There is greater transmittance

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through clear water than through turbid water (Fig. 2). It is perhaps less obvious that the peak transmittance shifts to slightly longer wavelengths as the water becomes more turbid. Transmittance can be altered by certain dissolved organic materials, both natural and man-made.

Figure 1. Light absorption by 10 m of pure water as a function of wavelength. (Butler et al. 1988).

Figure 2. Variation of light transmission as a function of depth for various sea waters. (Butler et al. 1988).

Monitoring water quality is considerably complex because the signal from the water body is composed of many components. The primary signal that is indicative of water quality is the volume reflectance or backscattered energy

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of correlation with suspended sediment concentrations, because they reflect so strongly over a wide range of wavelengths. However, high sediment concentrations can interfere with or prevent chlorophyll measurements (Butler et al. 1988). Non transmitted EMR incident energy is absorbed, and the energy is usually re-emitted usually as heat. The amount of energy which is emitted is a function of the temperature and emissivity of the material. Since the earth emits in the thermal infrared region and the emissivity of water is essentially constant within this range, infrared measurements can be used to determine surface water temperatures with a reasonable degree of accuracy. It should be noted that energy is only emitted from the surface and that subsurface conditions may be quite different. For example, a film of oil on the surface of water will appear to be cooler than oilfree water at the same temperature since oil has a lower emissivity. This characteristic can be utilized to detect spills or to direct cleanup operations. There is another type of emission called fluorescence in which absorbed radiation is re-emitted at a longer wavelength without first being converted into thermal energy. For marine applications fluorescence may be used to identify chlorophyll, algae and some types of pollutants. In order to detect fluorescence it is necessary to have a sensor with sufficiently fine spectral resolution.

Marine monitoring Oil spill detection When oil is discharged into marine water, it is subject to several processes including spreading, drifting, evaporation, dissolution, photolysis, biodegradation and formation of both oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions (Daling et al. 1990). Spilled oil also undergoes weathering and aging. Fluorescence characteristics of oils weathered on sea water can be assessed by multispectral satellite images including assessing the level of weathering of the oil. Owing to the complex behaviour of oil on water, its susceptibility to transport and modification forces, and the physiochemical anomalies associated with its presence, both aerial and surface-based sensors are necessary components of a complete and effective monitoring system. Ultraviolet, thermal infrared, and microwave sensors all exhibit capabilities for oil detection. For marine oil spills, remote sensing data can provide information on the rate and direction of oil movement through multi-temporal imaging, and input to drift prediction modelling that may facilitate targeting clean-up and control efforts. Remote sensing devices used include the use of infrared video and photography from airborne platforms, thermal infrared imaging, airborne laser fluourosensors, airborne and space-borne optical sensors, as well as airborne and space borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR). It has been demonstrated that side-looking airborne radar can provide initial detection of oil-like targets from a range of 15 km; the presence of oil can then be confirmed by investigation at close range with a combined infrared~ultraviolet line scanner (Hurford and Tookey 1987).

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Laser fluorosensors are considered the best sensors for oil spill detection, and have the capability of identifying oil on shores and determining what type of oil has been spilled. Laser fluorosensors also requires relatively cloud free conditions to detect the oil spill and this makes their application in the Gulf particularly suitable because most days are cloud free. Detection of an oil spill is strongly dependent upon the wind speed, and at wind speeds greater than 10 m/s, the slick will often be broken up and dispersed making it difficult to detect. Since no sensor can as yet provide accurate information on the thickness of an oil spill, complementary data must be collected using surface-based mechanisms. Radiometric, meteorological, and oceanographic information are all essential for a valid interpretation of remotely sensed data and a more complete analysis of the oil spill situation (John and Leslie 1972).

Marine water colour and turbidity as an indication of marine pollution Remote sensing provides synoptic observations of marine water colour which indicates the variability of optical properties in the water. Turbidity is the inverse of transparency, and turbidity variability and its relationship with phytoplankton in the marine environment is often examined. Passive radiometry in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum has been utilized in the remote assessment of ocean surface optical properties. These properties, commonly grouped under the term “ocean colour” depend on the concentration and distribution of the dissolved and suspended materials in the water. In general, phytoplankton and its derivative products, plus inorganic sediments and “yellow substance” (material originated by degradation of terrestrial and marine organic remains) control the fate of visible light as it penetrates downward from surface waters. The most important factor that influences the colour of marine water is phytoplankton. Although microscopic, phytoplankton can bloom in such large numbers that they can change the colour of the water to such a degree that they can be detected from space. The basic principle behind the remote sensing of marine water colour from space is that the more phytoplankton in the water, the greener the water, and the less phytoplankton, the bluer the water appears. In coastal areas, runoff from rivers, re-suspension of sand and silt by tides, waves and storms and human activities can also change the colour of the near-shore waters. The ability to map the spatial and temporal patterns of marine water colour over regional and global scales has provided important insights into the fundamental properties and processes of the marine environment. Mapping and understanding changes in ocean colour assists in monitoring water quality and allows for the identification of water pollution such as oil or even harmful algal blooms. Suspended sediments discharged by rivers are particularly good reflectors and figure four illustrates Kuwait's northern marine area which is considered to be the receiving basin for the influx of sediments and associated pollutants from the

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Shatt Al-Arab estuary (see also Al-Yamani 2008, this volume). This discharge significantly increases the rate of sedimentation and changes the hydrodynamic regime of the northern Gulf. Mapping these sediment plumes is a good method of studying water mixing and circulation patterns. Measurements in the 0.6 and 0.7ȝm band indicate a high degree of correlation with suspended sediment concentrations, because these reflect strongly over a wide range of wavelengths. High sediment concentrations in marine water will however impede or prevent chlorophyll measurements.

Figure 4. Shortwave infrared composite (7, 4, 2) for northern area of Kuwait (March 2003). Note the grey areas which indicate the high sediment and chlorophyll influx by the Shatt Al-Arab river (source: Saji 2004).

Figure four represents a shortwave infrared composite (7, 4, 2) projected through red, green and blue filters, and was generated from Landsat 7 images collected on March 6, 2003. Theoretically, the light grey water (compared to black) could be due to shallow waters, turbidity/sediments, chlorophyll, or a combination of all these factors. Figure four indicates that information acquired by sensors can therefore be influenced by spectral characteristics, topography, bathymetry, temperature and chlorophyll.

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turbidity, and chlorophyll-a. The shallow waters of Kuwait Bay with a muddy appearance are actually an indicator of an abundance of phytoplankton. The soft muddy intertidal flats north of the Bay also have high green algae content. Sargassum is the most abundant benthic vegetation in Kuwait’s shallow waters and appears as dark patches or shadows on the bottom of the Gulf. Figure five indicates more detailed local depth variations, and this is obvious in the relative shallow areas in Kuwait Bay, and around Failaka Island.

Ocean parameters Other parameters such as sea surface temperature and wind plays a significant role in determining physical, chemical and biological changes occurring in marine waters. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Satellite remote sensing is commonly used to obtain detailed data on SST, because large areas can be sampled, all at the same time and the satellites therefore provide an efficient way of obtaining accurate estimates of SST. Another advantage is that satellites although covering vast areas also retain small-scale features with large numbers of data points, so finer-scale details can also be discriminated. Furthermore, as the satellites are in continual orbit, the remotely sensed data are available regularly, which provides useful information on changing water parameters. The use of remote sensing for measuring SST is therefore more economical and practically feasible than more traditional surface based survey. SST have been widely used for the derivation of circulation patterns, structure of oceanic thermal fronts, behaviour of eddies/meanders and the location of upwelling zones which all have influence in the dispersion of pollutants. SST can also be of benefit for monitoring discharges of heated water or to assist in studies concerning massive fish kills related to water temperature. For example, SST images have provided information on environmental conditions favourable for the blooming of toxic marine phytoplankton “Red Tide” which can be tracked from SST imagery, allowing for more effective prediction of the outbreaks. SST is also important for biophysical studies of marine environments including salinity, partial pressure of CO2 in ocean water (pCO2), and primary productivity (Boutin et al. 1999, Loukos et al. 2000, Lee et al. 1998, and Sheppard 1999). The retrieval of SST data from AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) is reported in McClain et al. (1985) and Walton (1988). Methods for obtaining the SSTs and processing AVHRR data is documented in Andrew and Nerem (1997) and Rayner et al. (2003). The SST derived from the moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments aboard the NASA Terra satellite represents high sensitivity thermal infrared remote sensing, and in the Gulf pockets of cold and warm water have been detected. Monitoring the movement of these pockets, can indicate how

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the Gulf’s waters are moving at any moment in time. The differences in day and night-time SST images from the Gulf are illustrated in figure six.

Figure 6. Sea Surface Temperature for Kuwait (MODIS-data, podac.jpl.nasa.gov/ poet, processing by Saji). Note the darker areas displayed by the night-time image to the right, which indicate 2-4° higher temperature at the uppermost 1-2 cm of the Gulf water.

The SST (Fig. 6) and ocean wind vector map (Fig. 7) for Kuwait is a subset derived from a weekly average for each month. This data is available for the entire Gulf region. On a global scale the Gulf has the highest annual SST values of any ocean body and there is a clear link between air temperatures and SST (Sheppard and Loughland 2002, Sheppard and Rayner 2002). Ocean wind speed The sea wind instrument on the QuickSCAT satellite is a specialized radar that measures near-surface wind speed and direction at a 25 km resolution. This instrument has been measuring winds over approximately 90% of the ice-free ocean on a daily basis since July 1999. An ocean wind vector map (Fig. 7) for wind parameters in Kuwait from OuickSCAT was downloaded for April 2003 (AM and PM).

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Figure 7. Ocean wind vector for Kuwait (AM and PM, podac.jpl.nasa.gov/poet, processing by Saji). Note the darker areas in the upper right part of the subset for the PM-image (right side), indicating about 2-3 m/s higher wind speeds, than earlier at the same day (left side).

Conclusion Remote sensing provides a near-surface view of the ocean and currently mapping pollution in marine ecosystems is largely confined to the identification of pollutants. The main types of pollutants that can be detected and monitored in the Gulf using remote sensing are oil and other hydrocarbons, sewage, solid waste, chemicals spills, thermal pollution, and eutrophication. There are however technical difficulties in identifying pollutants and this is due mainly to attenuation of radiance through the water column and an incomplete understanding of the specific spectral features of marine pollution. In spite of these limitations, remote sensing offers the advantage of being able to observe pollution events in remote areas of the Gulf’s marine environment. Presently remote sensing of the Gulf’s marine waters is available through a number of satellites and sensors such as CZCS, SeaWiFS, Landsat TM, SPOT, NOAA AVHRR, MODIS, and IRSP4 equipped with spectral bands sensitive to marine pollutants and other ocean parameters. Remote sensors that are used for physical oceanography studies also help in monitoring the status of the sea surface and therefore the distribution of pollutants. These sensors are scatter meters (collecting wind speed and wind direction data), altimeters (measuring wave height, and identifying wind speed), synthetic aperture radar (measuring the

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roughness of the sea), and scanning radiometers and microwave sounders (collecting sea surface temperature data). Many applications of remote sensing such as ocean colour, and sea surface temperature are still in their infancy, and with the development of more advanced sensors, the scope for marine pollution monitoring should improve substantially.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank: Jorge Vazquez, Data Scientist, User Services Office Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Centre (PODAAC), Pasadena, USA; NASA, the source of remote sensing data for the analysis of SST and Wind vectors; and Dr. Mohamed Al Ghali, Department of Environmental Research, Emirates Heritage Club, who assisted with editing.

References Al-Yamani, F.Y., Bishop, J., Ramadhan, E., Al-Husaini, M. and Al-Ghadban, A.B. 2004. Oceanographic atlas of Kuwait’s water. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, 203 pp. Al-Yamani, F.Y. 2008. Importance of the freshwater influx from the Shatt-Al-Arab River on the Gulf marine environment. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 207-222. Andrew, D. and Nerem, R.S. 1997. Sea surface temperature measurement with the AVHRR. Remote Sensing from Space. University of Texas, Austin, ASE. 389 pp. Barale, V. 1987. Remote observations of the marine environment: Spatial Heterogeneity of the Mesoscale Ocean Colour Field in CZCS Imagery of California Near-Coastal Waters. Remote Sensing of Environment 22: 173-186. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017. Boutin, J., Etcheto, J., Dandonneau, Y., Bakker, D.C.E., Feely, R.A., Inoue, H.Y., Ishii, M., Ling, R.D., Nightingale, P.D., Metzl, N., and Wanninkhof, R. 1999. Satellite sea surface temperature: a powerful tool for interpreting in situ pCO2 measurements in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Tellus, 51(2): 490-508. Branko, G., Mladen, T., and Ivan, K. 1990. The effects of the water soluble fraction of Iraq crude oil on eggs, larvae and post larvae of Gilthead Sea Bream, Sparus aurata Linnaeus 1758. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 7: 283-298. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England. Butler, M. J. A., Mouchot, M.C., Barale, V. and LeBlanc, C. 1988. The application of remote sensing technology to marine fisheries: an introductory manual. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, M-40 ISBN 92-5- 102694-7 Daling, P. S., Brandvik, P. J., Mackay, D. and Johansen. O. 1990. Characterization of crude oils for environmental purposes. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 7: 199-224. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England. ERWDA. 2000. Natural environmental resources and their oil spills protection priorities for the coastline of Abu Dhabi Emirate, UAE. Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Abu Dhabi, 45 pp.

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Gupta, R.K., Swamy, R.K., Vijayan, D. and Badarinath, K.V.S. 1995. Physics of Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Effects and Remote Sensing Sensors. Remote Sensing for Earth Resources. Association of Exploration Geophysicists, Hyderabad, pp. 19 - 53. Hurford, N. and Tookey, D. 1987. Use of Airborne Remote Sensing Equipment for Detecting Discharges of Oil from Offshore Installations. Oil & Chemical Pollution 6: 69-80. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England. John, E. E. and Leslie, W. S. 1972. The Multispectral Concept as Applied to Marine Oil Spills. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2: 141-163. American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc. Kwarteng, A.Y. and Al-Ajmi, D. 1997. Satellite Remote Sensing Application in the State of Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, 101 pp. Lee, K., Wanninkhof, R., Takahashi, T., Doney, S.C. and Feely, R.A. 1998. Low interannual variability in recent oceanic uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nature, 396: 155–159. Loughland, R.A. 2006. Towards the sustainable management of Abu Dhabi’s coastal and marine resources. Southern Cross University, Australia. 340 pp. Loukos, H., Vivier, F., Murphy, P.P., Harrison, D.E. and Le Quere, C. 2000. Interannual variability of equatorial Pacific CO2 fluxes estimated from temperature and salinity data. Geophysical Research Letters, 27(12): 1735-1738. McClain, E.P., Pichel, G.W and Walton, C.C. 1985. Comparative performance of AVHRR based multichannel Sea Surface Temperature. Journal of Geophysics Research. 90: 587- 601. Pearce, A. F. and Pattiaratchi, C. 1997. Application of satellite remote sensing to the marine environment in Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 80:1-14. Rayner, N.A., Parker, D.E., Horton, E.B., Folland, C.K., Alexander, L.V., Rowell, D.P., Kent, E.C. and Kaplan, A. 2003. Global analyses of SST, sea ice and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth Century. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 108: 4407. Sabins, F.F. Jr. 1978. Remote sensing principles and interpretations. San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 426 pp. Saji, B. 2004. Kuwait from Space. Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). Color composite image is developed at scale 1:2, 50000 using bands 2, 4 and 7. Image recorded during April-May 2003. KISR, Kuwait. (1000 Nos. Printed Copies). Sheppard, C. 1999. Coral decline and weather patterns over 20 years in the Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean. Ambio, 28(6): 472-478. Sheppard C. and Loughland R. 2002. Coral mortality and recovery in response to increasing temperature in the southern Arabian Gulf. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, 5 (4): 1-8. Sheppard, C. and Rayner, N.A. 2002. Utility of the Hadley Centre sea ice and sea surface temperature data set (HadISSTI) in two widely contrasting coral reef areas. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 303-308. Walton, C.C. 1988. Satellite Measurement of Sea Surface Temperature in the presence of volcanic aerosol. Journal of Climatology and Applied Meteorology, 24: 501-507.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Coastal pollution in Bahrain and its management Khadija Zainal, Hashim Al-Sayed and Ismail Al-Madany University of Bahrain, Biology Department, P.O. Box 32038, Manama, Bahrain

Abstract: The coastline and the marine environment of Bahrain are important and unexpendable to the Bahraini people. In addition to supporting the country’s economy as most developments lie along the coastal areas, it supports a range of marine organisms that are important components of a wider ecosystem. This contribution highlights the major sources of marine pollution along the coast of Bahrain as well as the current pollution control measures. Oil pollution, apart from industrial activities, has also been related to transportation and military action in the Gulf during the hostilities of 1983, 1991 and 2003. Laws and regulations do exist in order to protect the environment but they need to be further developed and strengthened. Pollution monitoring and control are currently inadequate in the rapidly developing Kingdom. Contingency plans to prevent, remedy and ameliorate negative impact from oil spills are available but they need to be improved. Generally future activities in the Kingdom of Bahrain have to focus on the establishment of an integrated coastal zone management plan.

Introduction The total coastline of Bahrain and its 40 small islands covers around 590 km (Fig. 1). The total area of land and sea combined is around 8,997 km2. The Kingdom of Bahrain is therefore one of the worlds’ small island countries with its highest point 134 m above the sea level. Therefore the coastal and marine environment belong to the countries’ most important natural resources.

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Figure 1. Location of major industrial and development activities.

According to the census of 2004, the population of Bahrain was 707.2 thousand and a current annual increase rate of 2.7%. The population density is 950 individuals per km2 but only 18% of the total area of Bahrain is actually being populated (Abdul-Ghaffar 2004). Since most of Bahrain’s development is concentrated along the coastline there are frequent resource use conflicts. The diverse habitats around Bahrain and its islands shelter a variety of unique communities. Dugong, Green turtle, Dolphin, Socotra cormorant are only a few of the endangered and important species found in this environment, which is more and more impacted by urban and industrial development.

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Although, far from complete, a considerable amount of information about the levels of contamination of the seawater by hydrocarbons or other pollutants have been accumulating in recent years. The majority of these studies have taken place following the Gulf war of 1991 (Price and Robinson 1993, Burns et al. 1993, Michel et al. 1993, Hayes et al. 1993, Krahn et al. 1993, Al-Yakoob et al. 1993, Mahaseneh and Al-Sayed 1994, Madany et al. 1994). In addition, few studies that specifically targeted the impact of oil pollution have been conducted in Bahrain since the eighties, such as the monitoring programme for the environmental impact of BAPCO refinery (Linden et al. 1988, Linden and Larsson 1986). These surveys are being conducted every five years and data has been available for the last 21 years (Linden and Larsson 1997, 2002). This programme is, however, based on self-assessment. In this chapter we present general pollution sources including oil pollution in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Pollution prevention measures as well as regulations along with emergency policies adopted in Bahrain are discussed.

Sources of pollution and impacts on the coastal and marine environment Point sources of industrial and domestic effluents and non-point sources often negatively affect the coastal ecosystems. Non-point sources include agricultural runoff or precipitation from different sources such as emissions from car exhausts on coastal highways and factories. Currently there are at least ten different industrial areas in the Kingdom of Bahrain, most of which are located on the northern and north-eastern part of the country (Fig. 1).

Petrochemical industry The petrochemical industry such as the refineries of Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) and associated industries like the Gulf Petrochemical Industry Company (GPIC) belongs to the most important industrial developments in Bahrain. Generally the effluent quality of the petrochemical plants has significantly improved since the1970's (Tab. 1). Studies conducted on the concentrations of petroleum aromatic hydrocarbons PAH's, along Bahrain coastal areas have indicated significant geographical differences. The level of contaminations was higher around the industrial coastal areas (north-eastern Bahrain) as compared to other areas (Al-Madany 1994, Madany et al. 1998). The average concentration for example, was 16 μgl-1 in offshore areas compared to those around industrial areas (89 μgl-1), 52 μgl-1 near ports and 28 μgl-1 around beaches. Al-Madany (1994) estimated the total average land-based oil input into Bahrain’s coastal waters to be around 31 metric tons per year.

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Table 1. Effluent quality from different sources in mg per liter. *Suspended solids, + biological oxygen demand, #chemical oxygen demand. Source: Al-Madany and Al-Sayed 2000. Al- smelter Aluminium coating year 1988 2000 pH 6 11,3 7,3 Temperature (oC) 31 35,5 25

Petrochemical 1988 2000 8,1 7,9 35,1 32,5

Suspended solids* BOD+ COD# Oil CH (Petroleum) Phenol Ammonia Nitrate Total phosphorous Aluminium

Parameter

0,62

13390

18

6,5

1,6

10 168 0,75

31,7 158,3

13 105

10,8 58,1

10 84 0,02

< 0.1 0,8 0,04 0,28

0,8 4,7 0,3 1,6

< 0.01 1,3 8,4 0,02

0 0,04 0,01 0,7

< 0.1 0,07 0,6 0

1762

0,08

Refinery 1985 2000

3,1 19,5

<5 11

1,62 0,12 0,79

0,18 < 0.1 < 0.1

Desalination plants Currently in the Kingdom of Bahrain there are four major desalination plants producing fresh water and energy. Al-Door and Abu-Jarjoor plants apply reverse osmosis whereas Sitra plant and Al-Hidd use multistage flash technology. Table 2. Water quality of desalination effluent. *Units other than mentioned are in mg per liter. Source: Al-Madany and Al-Sayed 2000. Parameter Vol./m3/h pH Temperature Salinity* Suspended solids Sulphate Sulphide Calcium Magnesium Potassium Strontium

Sitra 66000 8.4 32.5 54000 20.5 4042 1300 7995 500 51

Abu Jarjoor 1134 6.7 33 38720 1872 7.8 2140 909 420 -

Al Door 3750 7.2 33.5 61346 4001 938 2283 -

Al Hidd 8000 7.9 38 67150 23 4769 2000 9500 960 -

The impact of desalination plants (Tab. 2), especially on shallow water ecosystems is described in detail by Lattemann and Höpner (2008, this volume).

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Land reclamation activities Geographically, Bahrain suffers from the limitation of land availability relative to increasing population density and economic development. In order to accommodate the vast and diverse development programmes, land reclamation through dredging the seabed has been one of the major problem-solving processes over the past years. The total land area of Bahrain has changed from 661,88 km2 in 1968 to 733.2 km2 (Tab. 3) in 2007. The island of Muharraq for example, had an increase of 155.8% over the past 34 years. Here the land is basically needed for industrial purposes. Tubli Bay is another example. Here the size of the bay has been reduced from originally 24 km2 to presently 10 km2. In the process most of the mangroves northwest of the bay disappeared. Other recent major land reclamation sites are Al-Lulu island, Durat Bahrain, Tourism Village, Financial Harbour and Bander Al-Seef. The most obvious impacts of these measures are: a sharp decline of mangrove trees and sea-grass beds; significant reduction of the fishermen’s income; reduced primary production due to increased turbidity and lower visibility; loss of habitats for migratory and local birds; loss of amenity and aesthetic quality of the coastline and the loss of historical and archaeological sites that once existed along the coastal areas. Table 3. Increase of area due to land reclamation in km². Sources: Al-Madany and AlSayed 2000 and GEOMATEC 2007.

year area

1975 1981 1983 1986 1988 1990 1992 1995 2000 2007 662 669 685 691 693 694 695 703 710 733

Sewage effluents Presently there are three sewage treatment plants in Bahrain. The largest is located at Tubli Bay. The volume of the effluent released is between 80 - 90,000 m3 per day. The effluent here is mainly characterised by high-suspended solids reaching up to 225 mg l l- (Tab. 4). The other two treatment plants release together about 12,000 m3 effluents per day. These effluents have a characteristically high concentration of ammonia and reddish colouration because of the presence of large amounts of sulphur bacteria and many other pathogens. The chemical constituents of the effluents are displayed in table four. The most common bioindicators of pollution are total and faecal coliforms. Tubli Bay displays significantly increased levels of these bacteria (Qureshi et al. 1993). The urgency to improve the wastewater treatment prior to its disposal into the sea has already been emphasized in 1993 by the authors of this study and the problem is still of major concern.

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Table 4. Effluent quality from major sewage treatment plants. Units other than mentioned are in mg per liter. Source: Al-Madany and Al-Sayed 2000.

Parameters Volume (m3 d-1) pH Salinity TSS BOD COD Ammonia Nitrate Total phosphorous Silver Copper Lead Zinc Nickel Cadmium Chromium

Tubli

Nuwaidrat

Sitra

90000 7.2 5500 225 9 46 0.5 2.1 4.3 0.03 0.02 0.17 0.18 0.09 0.01 0.50

6500 6.6 14500 82 21 15 1.4 3.0 0.08 0.03 0.15 0.45 0.12 0.01 0.40

6000 7.1 1920 46 8.1 6.2 3.0 2.9 0.02 0.03 0.14 0.18 0.08 0.01 0

Agricultural effluent The length of the main agricultural canals has been estimated to be around 135 km most of which are located in the north-west and south-west of Bahrain. There are also around 92 main agricultural drains and about 114 secondary drains of a total length of 114 km. The volume of agricultural runoff, which reaches the sea has been estimated to be 20 million m3 y-1 (Madany and Raveendran 1991). Apart from nitrate and some organic components resulting from fertilizers no major impacts have been recorded.

Solid waste disposal There are a number of sources of solid wastes disposed into the marine environment and along the coastline affecting not only its aesthetic natural beauty but also the water quality. Building and demolishing materials are used for infilling the shallow coastal areas such as Tubli Bay. On the other hand, waste disposed by individuals or industries on the shores are carried away by water currents, polluting other places. The waste dumped at sea will eventually deposit at the bottom, affecting bottom communities and related wildlife. A comprehensive survey of the sea bottom in the Bahraini territorial waters and the segregation of solid waste has been carried out by Zainal et al. (2004). The debris found at the bottom of the sea included a variety of domestic, clinical, demolition and military refuse. Human population increase and the amount of waste

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generated relative to the size of the land availability for disposal is currently one of the major environmental issues.

Impacts of aluminium and iron industries The Bahrain Aluminium Factory (ALBA) was established in 1971. The factory's aluminium production has increased from 120,000 ton y-1 to 500,000 ton y-1 in 2000. The resulting effluents are treated in a special sewage treatment plant preventing negative impacts on the coastal environment. Aluminium coating by electrolysis needs a large amount of sulphuric acid. The volume of the resulting liquid effluents released to the costal environment is around 350 m3 per day. The main pollutants resulting from this activity is aluminium hydroxide and heavy metals such as chromium. The level of pollutants however varies considerably between 1988 and 2000. Table one displays some of major pollutants discharged into the environment from the aluminium industry among other industrial developments in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The effluent is released mainly in the intertidal zone, which is the main productive area of the marine coastal zone. In addition, some of the effluents cause thermal stress generating even harsher conditions for the marine organisms which are already exposed naturally to high temperatures.

Distribution of heavy metals in the coastal environment The concentration of heavy metals in the national waters of Bahrain and in its biota from different sources is displayed in table five. The data has been presented with reference to the Pearl Oyster Pinctada radiata, which is commonly found in the shallow waters of Bahrain (Madany et al. 1996, Mahaseneh and Al-Sayed 1994, Al-Sayed et al. 1996); to fishes such as Epinephelus coioides; shellfishes such as shrimps and other marine organisms of commercial values. The concentration of heavy metals in Pearl Oysters, P. radiata was higher (lead: 7.64 ȝg g-1 and Cadmium: 2.4 ȝg g-1) than that in seawater and exceeded the limits by World Health Organisation. This was related to the feeding habit of these organisms as filter feeders accumulate pollutants (Al-Sayed et al. 1994). Marcia flammea and Protopes spp. were reported by Dairi et al. (1998) to have an elevated concentration of lead. Turbo coronata obtained from different locations around the coastal areas in Bahrain showed increased levels of Ni, Mn, Pb, Cu and Cd which could be attributed to frequent offshore oil spills (Al-Sayed and Dairi 2006). Higher concentrations of lead, cadmium and arsenic in shellfish and crustaceans compared to those found in fishes were reported. Shellfish and crustaceans are able to accumulate pollutants in their bodies more than fishes (AlSayed et al. 1996). Arsenic concentration in 13 types of fishes in the Gulf range between 0.16-32.3 μg g-1 in fish muscles. These levels are among the highest recorded in the literature (Fowler et al. 1993). Arsenic in prawns, crabs and

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lobster display mean values of 15.8, 6.28 and 12.7 μg g-1 (Attar et al. 1992). In clams concentrations between 19-156 μg g-1 have been reported in samples obtained from the Gulf and around Bahrain. This range is significantly higher than the national average recorded in oysters and mussels for USA (11.1+3.4 μg g-1) obtained by the National Status and Trends Mussel Watch Project (Valette-Silver et al. 1999 cited ROPME 2003). Lead, nickel, vanadium and mercury measured in 22 different types of fishes show concentrations between 0.02-0.17 μgg-1 Pb, 0.85-1.92 μgg-1 Ni, 1.96- 8.05 μgg-1 V and 0.38-1.63 μgg-1 Hg. In Bahrain’s coastal waters i.e. the mercury levels were between 0.073-3.923 μgg-1 (Madany et al. 1996). 20.6% of the samples displayed mercury levels exceeding the WHO limits of 0.5 μgg-1. Abdulridha (2006) states generally higher cadmium and copper levels from fish samples obtained in Bahrain’s coastal waters than from other Gulf Countries. Table 5. Average concentration of some heavy metals in the seawater and fish and shellfish Pearl Oyster.

Pollutant Sea water (μg l-1)

Cu 0.20

Zn Pb Cd Ni As 0.84 0.16 0.11 0.31 -

Hg -

Fe -

Pinctada radiate (μg g1)

1.6

8.7

5.9

Epinephelus coioides (μg g-1) Other fishes (μg g-1)

3.9

499

10.8 1.2

-

-

Shellfishes (μg g ) Epinephelus coioides (mg kg-1) (2006)source2 Local seafood (molluscs and crustaceans) (mg kg1 )(2006) source2 Shrimps (mg kg-1) (2006)source2 Snails (Turbo coronatus)source3 (μg g-1) Portunus pelagicus (males) (mg/ 100g) source4 WHO limits (μg g-1)

-1

0.9

3.7

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.13 0.03 -

1.7

0.08 -

0.51

0.15 0.05 6.35 0.21 0.02 -

3.6 -

0.04 0.07 -

7.57

21.5 0.11 0.53 -

-

0.04 -

4.06

3.5

-

0.02 -

32.4

35.2 2.24 0.94 1.51 -

-

0.6

2.6

10

1000 2

0.03 0.03 -

0.4

935

0.02 -

-

0.04 0.35

2

-

-

-

0.1

-

-

WHO limits (μg kg-1 10 consumption per kg. body weight. Source1 AlMadany and AlSayed (2000); Source2: Abdulridha, H. (2006); source 4 Musaiger and Al-Rumaidh (2005). Dairi (2006);

source3

AlSayed and

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Concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead, copper and mercury in the bottom sediment along the coast of Bahrain range between 1-110 mg kg-1 Zn, 0.09-0.22 mg kg-1 Cd, 1-627 mg kg-1 Pb, 1.3-76 mg kg-1 Cu and 0.005-0.54 mg kg-1. Table six indicates that Pb and Cu concentrations may exceed the thresholds by EPAUS- and Canadian guidelines. Table 6. Trace metal concentration recorded for Bahrain compared to international guidelines.

Bahrain (mg kg-1) Zn Cd Pb Cu

1 - 110 0.09 - 0.22 1 - 627 1.3 - 76

Canadian guidelines (mg kg-1) 124 0.7 30.2 18.7

EPA-US guidelines (mg kg-1) 760 31 132 136

ROPME Sea Area (mg kg-1) 0.70 - 410.3 0.01 - 4.5 0.20 - 64.3 1.30 -142

But it has to be mentioned that the highest concentrations were in all cases recorded in sediments close to industrial areas such as Sitra Power Plant or the BAPCO oil refinery (ROPME 2003, Khamdan and Juma 2004). Heavy metals and tar particulate levels in atmospheric aerosol over Bahrain are significantly higher in industrial areas (such as Maamir) compared to both rural (Hamalah) and urban areas (Manama). The mean levels are 0.64 ppm Zn, 9.18 ppm Fe, 22.18 ppm Al, and 502.85 ppm Si (Mayoof 2006).

Status of pollution control in Bahrain Generally the applied measures already taken in order to reduce the degradation and pollution of the coastal ecosystems are far beyond the necessary actions. The impact of the oil refinery has not changed much since 1988. The problems arising from increased seawater desalination (see Lattemann and Höpner 2008, this volume) are still waiting for a solution. Land reclamation and dredging presently are one of the major threats to most coastal ecosystems. Sewage treatment is not adequate at present because a considerable percentage of untreated sewage (or at a secondary level) is released directly into the sea. Waste management is not sufficient because of the lack of adequate recycling projects. This indicates that a major change in the current pollution control policy of the Kingdom of Bahrain is needed, especially with regard to the rapid population increase and development of the country. The existing laws and regulations and oil spill contingency policy is shortly outlined below.

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Oil pollution contingency policy in Bahrain Accident prevention in Bahrain, especially oil slicks, has been a complicated issue for many years. The Environmental Affairs Directorate (EAD) however, has adopted a national strategy for the prevention and protection of the environment from oil slicks. The plan directs the organisations involved in implementing the policy. Procedures and duties in response to an oil spill on land, in coastal areas and offshore waters are agreed upon. It also identifies the role of EAD as a lead agency for responding to such events, and monitoring the implementation of the policy according to the ROPME protocols (Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment). The president of the EAD (now the General Commission for the Protection of Marine Resources, Environment and Wildlife), has the authority to re-direct resource allocations to assist in surveillance and monitoring activities whenever and wherever required. On the other hand, Bahrain Defence Force (BDF) is responsible for continuous surveillance while on routine flying duties and reporting to the On-Scene Commander. Several governmental departments such as the Interior Ministry, the Ministry of Works and Housing and the Ministry of Finance and National Economy are all involved in the case of an oil spill emergency. They provide security, control, offshore corralling, collection and commercial services respectively. The Ministry for Information represented by a member on the Oil Spill Technical Advisory Committee is responsible for press releases. The Ministry is also responsible for providing weather reports, routine air surveillance and prediction of oil slick movement in the case of an episode. Other organisations such as Wildlife and the Youth Council take the role of rehabilitation and cleaning actions. BAPCO receives the recovered oil, which is not mixed with debris, at their slop. Analysis and identification are then carried out on the recovered oil which is finally to be recycled. Finally, oil mixed with debris is incinerated in their oil field sumps. The adopted policy covers the following points: - Identifying the most sensitive areas and priority of actions necessary to implement the policy; - Adoption of a computerised mathematical model to monitor oil slick movement; formation of a technical committee to follow up Bahrain's commitment and participation in international agreements such as MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) of 1973/78; - Adoption of an Information Exchange programme in particular with MEMAC (Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre) - A management system of lending and transportation of equipments. In the event of a spill on land, the command, control and response to the spill will be the responsibility of the Directorate of Civil Defence with EAD involvement. Both organisations have to initiate a programme called Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL, Fig. 2). This programme

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formulates a plan to protect the public against industrial accidents. APELL would also be activated during an oil spill. The incident command structure is as follows: Command section (On-scene Commander) Command Staff Deputy On-Scene Commander Oil Spill technical advisory Officer Safety Officer

Operations Section Chief

Planning Section Chief

Logistics Section Chief

Finance Section Chief

Wildlife

Surveillance

Administration and Finance

Rescue

(Resource Assessment) Site assessment Documentation

Material distribution Construction

Protection Booming Beach Cleaning Oil collection Oil debris disposal

Volunteers Medical Communication

Figure 2. Incident command structure of the APELL programme.

Laws, regulations and legislations Bahrain has signed and ratified a number of international conventions such as the Biodiversity Convention of 1992, the Wet Land Agreement RAMSAR 1971, and the Basal Agreement of 1998 for controlling dangerous waste traffic across the boarder and its disposal. The National Commission for the Protection of Marine Resources, Environment and Wildlife is the principal body responsible for environmental monitoring and planning in Bahrain. It issues legislations, environmental monitoring and assessment, and executes programmes of action in collaboration with national and international organisations. In accordance with the Environmental Law number 21 (1996), dealing with the issue of waste control, the Environmental Affairs Directorate prepares a strategic plan for a comprehensive management of waste based on the principles of Clean Technology. All proposed projects should obtain permission based on submission of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Environmental Statement (ES) reports.

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Introducing the Fishery Law of 1981 has been one of the major steps taken to control fishing activities. Infrastructure of ports and harbour’s operation improvement are currently underway and there has been a considerable collaboration with other sectors to achieve satisfactory options with the aim of controlling pollution. Decree number 21 of 1996 formulated roles and responsibilities to achieve a sustainable development. Other Decisions and orders issued during 1998 dealt mainly with fees, fines and permissions. The current emerging policy however stresses three principles: prevention of pollution; polluters fine cooperation and participation. In 2000, a governmental conference was held with respect to the Artificial Reef and Fishery Resources in Bahrain waters. The government has emphasised a priority of action needed for the assessment and protection of several areas known for the abundance of coral reefs such as Fasht Al-Adhum, Fasht Jarim, and Qittaat Jaradah. Whilst Decision no. 21 of 2001 concerned with environmental inspection and the employment of personnel to do the environmental work, a scientific committee has also been established for the protection of Huwar islands and territorial waters. Decision number 4 for the year 2002 established a follow-up committee at ministerial level for sustainable development. Legislation number 5 of 1981 regulates fishing, Article 14, paragraph 2, states, “it is prohibited to carry out dredging or demolition in the fishing zones”. The decision number 66 of 1992, issued by the Ministry of Work and Housing as amended in Article 3, Decision 302 of 1988 lays down some conditions for landuse and planning. Article 1, paragraph D states the conditions related to permits issued with regards to the submerged marine areas. The decision imposes the type of materials that are permitted in private-owner land reclamation process. Planning regulation of the year 1994 also confirmed the importance of these environmental considerations. In addition, the Environment Law has emphasized the importance of EIA as a prerequisite to permit-giving for dredging and land reclamation. The law however, must be further improved to deal with all environmental issues in an integrated manner. Considering dredging and land reclamation as an example, the difficulties in implementation of such legislations becomes obvious when the interests of different sectors of the society are involved. Additionally the regulation does not clearly specify the processes of dredging and the materials to be used in the reclamation process. The Kingdom of Bahrain has been proactive in learning from other countries experiences in coastal zone management policy and marine protection. In order to protect the environment, laws and regulations do exist but must be further developed and strengthened. The Strategy for the Environment which was recently endorsed (Ministerial Decision no: 1902-2, October 2006) has been prepared in collaboration with the UNDP agreement no: 004/01/BAH of May 2002 between the General Commission for the Protection of the Marine Resources, Environment and the Wildlife. Local experts from governmental, non-governmental organisations and the academia have actively participated in this preparation. The strategy covers many environmental issues such as air, water, land use, coastal and marine environment, health, oil industry and energy, environmental

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awareness, tourism and biological diversity. The strategy is based on the precautionary approach, polluters pay and participatory principles. It emphasises the need for adequate implementation of decisions including institutional capacity building and legislation. Oil and energy industries have been identified as one of the biggest producers of wastewater and gas emission in Bahrain. Although, the environmental body has adopted the above mentioned principle of Polluters Pay, a large number of polluters can get away unnoticed because of inadequacy of monitoring and inspection programmes. On the other hand, efforts have been made in combating pollution from many sources through cooperation and participation of a variety of sectors such as the Directorate of Fisheries, Coastal Guards and the Media. Training of personnel, capacity building, system improvement and appropriate management are some of the current debated issues following the last oil slick event during 2003. Following this latter event, subsequent investigations for six months were conducted in order to follow up a possible natural recovery of the intertidal macrobenthos animals (Zainal unpublished data). Research studies however, are fragmentary depending on both the availability of funding and technical support. Although considered as minor incident, the oil spill had some political consequences because of the system failure to notify the right people at the right time in order to avoid damages caused to the shoreline and important amenities.

Conclusion A coastal zone where land and sea meet is considered one of the most complex and diverse habitats. Mangrove trees, coral reefs and wetlands are well known for their role in the development of fishery resources in Bahrain. In addition, human population density is higher along the coast. The increase in anthropogenic activities along the coastal zones led to the emergence of a variety of environmental, social, economic and political problems. The main causes of the above mentioned problems is the lack of appropriate and adequate planning, inadequate pollution control, the lack of national monitoring quality standards for seawater and biota and the implementation and enforcement of the existing legislations. An integrated coastal zone management strategy seems to be the only way to successfully deal with the ongoing destruction of the ecosystems of the coastal waters of Bahrain as well as the Gulf.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management An integrated coastal zone management has been already proposed (Al-Madany and Al-Sayed 2000). Some of the challenges that have been emerging recently are the limited resources allocated to deal with environmental affairs. These include budget limitation, the lack of qualified personnel and the lack of information centres for dissemination of appropriate information at the right time between

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different sectors. Additionally there is a large deficit in coordination between governmental organisations as well as a poor environmental awareness of top managers and decision makers as well as the broad population. A number of definitions have been used to explain the integrated coastal zone management. Some of these define it as being a preventive, continuous and dynamic process for decision making and managing natural resources aiming towards a sustainable development of coastal zones. Coastal zone management also studies the impact of each sector's activities on the environment, tries to put forward proactive preventive measures and considers alternative actions to reduce their negative impacts. In short, Coastal Zone Management requires dealing with multidimensional conflicting demands. Integration means that it requires dealing with all the interconnected problems and meeting the various demands from concerned sectors in the development of coastal zones. It also means the provision of an intermediate action for these requirements to achieve an acceptable balance. Integrated Management requires a holistic approach in many fields including inter- and intra- sectoral and inter-governmental integration. Spatial integration is important between offshore and inshore activities. Scientific and other expertise must be integrated. Finally, regional and international integration and cooperation are important to protect Bahrain's coastal areas. The interconnectivity of habitats and ecosystems urges us to adopt an approach that takes all the different environmental factors into consideration. Thus, a new policy which is comprehensive, integrated, holistic, interactive and preventative is urgently needed in the Kingdom of Bahrain at national and on regional level in order to meet the challenges and give each sector its rights, needs and requirements.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Tawona and Tarneem for reading the manuscript for linguistic check.

References AbdulGaffar, A. 2004. Environmental problems and sustainability in Bahrain. National Democratic Action Society Publication, The Kingdom of Bahrain. Abdulridha, H. 2006. Assessment of heavy metals in locally caught and imported seafood during the period 1997-2003. MSc. Thesis, the University of Bahrain, 92 pp. Al-Madany, I and Al-Sayed, H. 2000. Bahrain Marine Environment. Book series on Wildlife No. 7. The National Commission for Wildlife Protection. 189 pp. Al-Madani I. 1994. Industrial effluents and Bahrain coastal pollution by oil hydrocarbons, Industrial Cooperation, 15: 41-52. Al-Sayed, H., Mahasneh, A., and Al-Saad, J. 1994. Variations in trace metal concentrations in seawater and Pearl Oyster Pinctada radiata from Bahrain (Arabian Gulf). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 28: 370-374.

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Al-Sayed, H., Al-Saad, J., Madany, I., and Al-Hooti, D. 1996. Heavy metals in the Grouper fish Epinephelus coioides from the coast of Bahrain: An Assessment of monthly and spatial trends. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 50: 237246. Al-Sayed, H., Ghanem, E.H. and Saleh, K. M. 2005. Bacterial community and some physico-chemical characteristics in a subtropical mangrove environ-ment in Bahrain. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50: 147-155. Al-Sayed, H. and Dairi, M. 2006. Metal accumulation in the edible marine snail Turbo coronatus (Gmelin) from different locations in Bahrain. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research, 24 (2): 48-57. Al-Yakoob, S., Saeeed, T. and Al-Hashash, H. 1993. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in edible tissue of fish from the Gulf after the 1991 Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 297-301. Attar, K., El-Faer, Z., Rawdah, T and Tawabini, B. 1992. Levels of arsenic in fish from Arabian Gulf. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24: 94-97. Burns, K.A., Ehrhardt, M.G., Howes, B.L. and Taylor, C.D. 1993. Subtidal Benthic respiration and production near the heavily oiled Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 199-205. Dairi, M., Al-Alawi, S.M., and Al-Sayed, H. 1998. Study of heavy metals in the gills of two edible clam species (Marcia flammea and protopes sp.) in Bahrain. Regional Conference on Marine Environment. Gulf, Doha, Qatar, (Abstract). Fowler S., Readman J., Oregioni B., Villeneuve J. and McKay K. 1993. Petroleum hydrocarbons and trace metals in near shore Gulf sediments and biota before and after the 1991 war: An assessment of temporal and spatial trends. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 171–182. Hayes, M, O., Michel, J., Montello, T.M., Aurand, D.V., Al-Mansi, A.M., Al-Moamen, A., Sauer, T.C. and Thayer, G.W. 1993. Distribution and weathering of shoreline oil one year after the Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 135-142. Khamdan, S. and Juma, H. 2004. Challenges on new horizon towards managing the global environment and water resources. The joint Kingdom of Bahrain - Japan Symposium. January 18 -20 2004. Krahn, M., Ylitalo, G.M., Buzitis, J., Bolton, J.L., Wigren, C.A., Chan, Sin-Lam and Varanasi. U. 1993. Analyses of petroleum-related contaminants in marine fish and sediments following the Gulf Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 285-292. Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. 2008. Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine environment of the Gulf. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 191-205. Linden, O., Larsson, U. 1986. Study of the marine environment in the area of the BAPCO refinery. Swedish Environmental ResearchGroup. 23 pp. Linden, O., Larsson, U. and Al-Alawai, Z. 1988. Effect of chronic oil pollution in a shallow sub-tropical marine environment. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 5: 65-79. Linden, O. and Larsson, U. 1997. Marine environment assessment of the BAPCO Refinery. Swedish Environmental Research Group. 28 pp. Linden, O. and Larsson, U. 2002. Marine environment assessment off the BAPCO refinery. Swedish Environmental Research Group. 43 pp. Madany, I and Raveendran, E. 1991. Characteristics of agricultural drainage water in Bahrain. The Science of the Total Environment, 104: 239-247. Madany, I., Wagab, A. and Al-Alawi, Z. 1996. Trace metals concentrations in marine organisms from the coastal areas of Bahrain, Arabian Gulf. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 91: 233-248.

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Mahaseneh, A.M. and Al-Sayed, H. 1994. Levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons, total polychlorinated biphenyls and total hydrocarbons in the Pearl Osyter Pinctada radiata from Bahrain (Arabian Gulf). Marine Research, 3 (2): 15-25. Madany, I.M., Al- Haddad, A., Jaffar, A. and Al-Shirbini, E.S. 1994. Spatial and temporal distributions of aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons in the coastal waters of Bahrain. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, 26: 185-190. Madany, I.M., Al- Haddad, A., Jaffar, A. and Al-Shirbini, E.S. 1998. Variations in the concentration of aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons in Bahraini coastal waters during the period October 1993 to December 1995. Environment International, 24 (1/2): 6166. Mayoof, W. 2006. Air quality and chemistry of airborne particulates’ (determination of inorganic particulates in the atmosphere of the industrial, urban and rural areas in Bahrain and their correlation with meteorological conditions. MSc. Thesis, The University of Bahrain, 74 pp. Michel, J., Hayes, M, O., Keenan, R.S., Sauer, T.C., Thayer, G.W., Jensen, J. R., Jensen, J.R. and Narumalani, S. 1993. Contamination of nearshore subtidal sediments of Saudi Arabia from the Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 109-116. Price, A.R.G. and Robinson, J.H. (eds) 1993. The 1991 Gulf War: Coastal and marine environmental consequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 27, Pergamon Press. Qureshi, A., Mahaseneh, A., Al-Sayed, H., Al-Buflasa, A and Al-Shuaibi, M. 1993. Feacal pollution of Pearl Oyster (Pinctada radiata). Water Science Technology, 27: 35-39. ROPME 2003. State of the marine environment report. Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Kuwait. Zainal, K., Al-Madany, I., and Zainal, W. 2004. Quantity and composition of marine debris at the bottom of the sea in the Kingdom of Bahrain, Arabian Gulf. Abstract. The 4th International Conference on Marine Pollution and Ecotoxicology, May 2004. HongKong, China.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Pollution from sea based sources Roy Facey Port Development Adviser, Yemen Gulf of Aden Ports Corporation, Aden, Republic of Yemen

Abstract: The body of water referred to as the Gulf, with its surrounding land mass, is widely regarded as the pre-eminent world source of the energy supplied in the form of oil and gas, 90% of which is transported by sea. In this capacity, it stands at risk of being seriously damaged as a result of the activities of ships and of onshore and offshore oil, gas and chemical processing and loading facilities. As a unique semi-enclosed body of shallow water surrounded by some of the most intense industrial and developmental activity in the world, it is inevitably at great risk from both land-based and sea-based impacts. This chapter gives an overview of the marine activities most often considered to be responsible for pollution in the Gulf, and at the instruments available, through the International Maritime Organization, in particular, to reduce the potential impact of marine pollution on Gulf waters.

Introduction Whenever sources of marine pollution are discussed the main focus is on the oil that enters the world’s oceans from shipping activities. A major oil spill anywhere in the world will attract a great deal of media coverage, with viewers and listeners often given the impression that oil spills occur with more frequency than is supported by the facts. Nevertheless, oil spills are rightly of major concern to all those connected with the sea and with the protection of the marine environment. For this reason several papers in this publication consider the impact of oil spills on the environment of the Gulf.

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But there are other very significant sources of pollution that should be considered and need further close investigation. One to be examined is the impact of ballast water transfers into the waters of the Gulf from tankers and other vessels carrying sea water as ballast from other parts of the world and discharging this into Gulf waters before loading their cargoes. The movement by sea of liquefied gas and chemicals from the Gulf to other parts of the world and the impact of these on the marine environment also have the potential to cause damage. The Kuwait Convention and its protocol, both signed in 1978, deal with marine pollution i) from ships, both accidental and deliberate, ii) by dumping from ships and aircraft, iii) from land-based sources, iv) from exploration and exploitation of the sea bed in the area covered by the Convention, and v) from other human activities, such as dredging and land reclamation. Dumping of garbage from ships comes under Item ii) above and will also be considered in this chapter.

Oil and gas transport – a brief overview Over the past 80 years oil production in various countries around the world has grown to massive proportions. The importance of the countries of the Gulf in generating such high levels of production is well known. In 2006 the states bordering the Gulf, i.e. Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia and the UAE, produced 18.41 million barrels of oil per day (BPD) out of a total OPEC production of 34.20 million BPD, and a total world production of 81.66 million BPD1. The states bordering the Gulf therefore currently produce around 22.54% of total world production. A production rate of 18.41 million BPD equates to around 1180 million tonnes of oil per year, or around 3.24 million tonnes of oil per day 2. Total exports from the Middle East as a whole, as either crude or as refined oil are just over 1,000 million tonnes/year 3, and 977 million tonnes/year leaves from terminals in the Gulf and, in the case of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, from terminals on the west coast of KSA, in the Red Sea 4. If the average large tanker lifting oil in the Gulf is assumed to load around 250,000 tonnes, then about 10 large tankers will enter the Gulf in ballast, and leave the Gulf loaded, each day. The majority of the oil produced in the Gulf is carried by sea on oil tankers and output from the Gulf is taken to consumers in all parts of the world. Figure one shows routes normally taken by these vessels as they sail east, west and south 1

2

3 4

See http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/, Statistical Review of World Energy pdf. These countries hold over 60% of proven world oil reserves and over 40% of proven world gas reserves. One barrel of oil contains 42 US gallons. One US gallon equals 3.79 litres. There are 159.18 litres to a barrel, or 6.28 barrels to a cubic metre. Conversion to tonnes depends on the specific gravity of the oil and is approximately 7 barrels to one metric ton. See http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/, Statistical Review of World Energy pdf. See http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/, Statistical Review of World Energy pdf, page 21 for trade flows worldwide in millions of tonnes.

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to destinations in Africa, the Americas, Europe, the Indian sub-Continent, Australia and the Far East. A significant proportion of this traffic passes through the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea en route for the Suez Canal and/or the SUMED Pipeline Terminal at Ain Sukhna in Egypt. The pipeline allows ships too large to transit the Canal to either discharge their oil and return to the Gulf for the next cargo, or to partially discharge their cargo, transit the Canal and reload their cargo on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt at Sidi Kirir for onward carriage, generally to northern Europe or the Americas.

Figure 1. Main tanker routes from the Gulf to other parts of the world. Source: ITOPF technical presentation.

Similarly, the states bordering the Gulf are also important players in world gas production. Out of a total world production of 2865.3 billion cubic metres in 2006 these states accounted for 324.7 billion cubic metres, or just over 11% of world production. Gas reserves in Iran and Qatar alone are estimated to be just below 30% of total world reserves. Relatively recent exploitation of gas reserves in Qatar and construction of the largest LNG plants in the world at Ras Laffan, Qatar, has changed the situation within the Gulf 5. Qatar’s recoverable reserves are estimated by some to have a life expectancy of 600 years at current rates of production. The volume of LNG exported from these countries equates to around 302 million tonnes of oil equivalent, or very roughly one third of the tonnage of oil 5

See http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/, Statistical Review of World Energy pdf.

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exported from terminals in the Gulf, adding significantly to the number of ships entering and leaving the Gulf that are dedicated to the carriage of oil and gas products.

Trends in oil spills The total annual amount of oil entering the world’s marine environment is put at around 2.35 million tonnes/year, or approximately 73% of one day’s output from the Gulf States. Oil spills due to marine activities are a significant contributor to marine pollution, but it is important to appreciate that oil enters the marine environment from other sources. These include land-based sources 50% (1.175 million tonnes/year), air pollution 13%, natural sources 11%, offshore production 2%, and inputs due to transport 25%, or 560,000 tonnes/year, where the majority of this input is from maritime transport (see Fig. 2). It has been estimated that 99.999% of the oil carried by sea now arrives at its destination without incident. It is the 0.001% entering the marine environment from significant oil spills from ships, in particular, that causes the often dramatic headlines in the world’s press.

Figure 2. Overview of oil inputs to the marine environment. Source: GESAMP 1990 and IMO estimates 6.

Of the 24% of total oil entering the marine environment that is due mainly to maritime transport, the three main contributions to the pollution come from bilges and fuel oil, tanker operations and tanker accidents. Other causes such as 6

A GESAMP report has produced revised figures based on the latest available information for the period 1988-1997, with roughly similar results, but presented in a different format. See http://gesamp.net/documentextern/rs75e.pdf, GESAMP Report and Studies No 75, Page 61.

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operations at marine terminals, ship scrapping, non-tanker accidents and drydocking are relatively minor (Fig. 2). As shown in figure three, the percentages vary depending on the size of the spill. The causes in the case of large and intermediate spills are dominated by groundings and collisions. As the size of the spill decreases, incidents occurring during loading and discharging operations provide an increasing percentage of the number of spills recorded.

Figure 3. Causes of Tanker Spills 1974-2000. Source: ITOPF 2006 (http://www.itopf.com/stats.html).

Since the 1970’s, when a sudden quadrupling of the price of oil increased international awareness of the critical nature of this commodity to the world’s economy, the average annual volume of oil spilled has generally fallen around the world. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) is a primary source of data on oil spills. The ITOPF database contains information on around 10,000 oil spills from various ship types, including tankers, combination carriers and barges. Spills are divided by ITOPF into three categories, large spills (>700 tonnes), intermediate spills (between 7 and 700 tonnes) and small spills (<7 tonnes)7. The number of large spills during the 1990’s has been less than a third of the number recorded in the 1970’s. The average number of oil spills fell from 25.2 spills per year in the 1970’s to 9.3 spills/year in the 1980’s, 7.8 spills/year in the 1990’s and 3.7 spills/year since 2000 8. This has been due to the combined efforts of the tanker industry and of governments, acting largely through the International Maritime Organization (IMO), to improve safety and prevent pollution. An 7

8

See ITOPF Handbook 2006/2007. The latest edition of the handbook contains similar information to that shown in figure three, but giving it in a different format. See http://www.itopf.com/stats.html and ITOPF Handbook 2006/2007

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additional factor in achieving such a dramatic improvement in recent years may be commercial pressures on operators due to the current high cost of oil and its products, and pressure from their insurers 9. While most spills resulting from shipping operations are relatively small, very large spills not only make headlines but also dramatically increase the total spilled in the year that they occur, as shown in figure four. Names of ships involved in such spills become household names around the world.

Figure 4. Quantities of oil spilled between 1970 and 2005 (ITOPF Handbook 2006/2007). Tonnages spilled by individual ships, in grey, are added to the tonnages of other spills recorded during the year in which the major spill occurred.

Within the Gulf, the number of spills recorded has shown a rather different pattern from the one found in figure four. During the 1970’s the number of spills averaged one per year. There were the around 80 spills in the 1980’s, a dramatic increase to reach an average of eight spills per year, caused largely by conflict in the region, as shown in figure five. In 1990/91 alone 23 spills were recorded, with a total of 38 during the 1990’s overall, or 3.8 per year. Since 2000 the total number of spills recorded up to the end of 2006 is 36, or 5.1 per year. However, the volume of oil spilled has decreased dramatically, with the large volumes of the 1980’s and 1991 falling to relatively negligible levels since 2000, as shown in figure five.

9

Dumping cargo over the side as a means of lightening and thus attempting to save a ship has been known since the earliest days of shipping. One ship’s officer recalled that, in the 1960’s, ships off the coast of Africa encountering heavy weather would sometimes pump oil cargo over the side to lighten a tanker (personal discussion).

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number of spills

169

volume (10 mill US gallons)

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

20 03 20 05

19 81 19 83 19 85 19 87 19 89 19 91 19 93 19 95 19 97 19 99 20 01

19 79

0

Figure 5. Number of oil spills in the Gulf (grey bars) and volume of oil spilled (black bars) (ROPME, MEMAC).

In fact the Gulf has been particularly fortunate to have avoided any major spills due to shipping accidents; so far. The only major spill that has occurred in ‘the Gulfs’ region, that appears as No. 8 in the ‘top 20’ oil spill incidents recorded on the ITOPF database, is the 115,000 tonnes of oil lost from the ‘Sea Star’ in 1967. This occurred outside the Strait of Hormuz in the Gulf of Oman. As shown in figure three, the other important factor relating to oil spills from shipping operations is the cause of the spill. Causes are analysed by ITOPF for spills world wide, and by ROPME for spills in the Gulf. Figure three illustrate the causes of large spills and intermediate spills world wide between 1974 and 2005. It shows the importance of preventing collisions between ships and groundings of ships. Collisions and groundings account for 28.3% and 34.4% of large spills respectively, and 25% and 19% of intermediate spills; i.e. for about 53% of significant oil spills around the world. The other 47% of spills in the two classes are caused by hull failures, fire and explosion, loading and discharging operations, bunkering, other operations (unspecified), and other/unknown causes. For large spills hull failure accounts for 12.5% of the total, and for intermediate spills loading/discharging operations account for 28% of the total number. For the Gulf, the ROPME MEMAC has analysed the causes of spills since 1965, but does not divide the spills by size. Details of these spills have been recorded since 1981. The categories are similar to those used by ITOPF, but have some important differences. The ITOPF breakdown into different types of shipboard operation are not used, while other categories not used by ITOPF are recorded by ROPME, including mechanical failure, sinking, military action,

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intentional discharge, leakage, human error and unspecified causes. Table one shows the numbers of oil spills entering the waters of the Gulf, from shipping and land-based incidents, between 1981 and 2005. Table 1. Numbers of oil spills in the Gulf, 1981-2005 (ROPME MEMAC), by cause.

Tankers

Barges

Other V/L’s

Total

2

Other Incidents 0

Groundings

4

0

Collisions

4

2

3

4

13

Explosions and Fires Structural Failure Mechanical Failure Sinking

4

0

0

1

5

1

0

0

0

1

3

0

0

0

3

3

1

5

0

9

Military action Intentional discharge Leakage

40

0

4

20

64

2

0

1

0

3

2

0

0

3

5

Human Error

0

0

0

0

0

Unspecified

5

4

3

14

26

Unknown

5

0

0

1

6

6

By far the largest volume spilled in the Gulf was resulted from military action in 1991, recorded in the table above by ROPME as 430 million US gallons of oil, or over 1.7 million tonnes. As has been widely recorded, military action in the Gulf between 1982 and 1991 resulted in massive oil spills, in the northern part of the Gulf particularly. It is believed that military action accounted for a total of 1.67 million tonnes out of the total quantity of oil spilled of 2.5 million tonnes. The implication of this is that without military actions the total spilled in the Gulf during the period 1981 to 2005 would have been reduced to a far more modest 0.83 million tonnes.

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MARPOL 73/78 – Annex I10 In determining the volume of oil entering the Gulf from various causes, it is evident that oil losses due to tanker operations feature prominently in the number of incidents recorded in table one. The work of IMO through its main instrument for the control of marine pollution by oil, the ‘International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978’, frequently referred to as MARPOL 73/78, has been critically important in reducing oil losses due to the operations of tankers, and of other ships. The criteria for discharge of cargo oil by tankers, as stated in Annex I of this Convention are displayed in table two. Table 2. Criteria for the discharge of cargo oil by tankers, from Annex I of MARPOL 73/78.

Sea Area Within 50 nautical miles from land Outside special areas more than 50 nautical miles from land

Within a special area

Discharge Criteria No discharge except the discharge of clean or segregated ballast No discharge except either: - Clean or segregated ballast or when: - Tanker is en route; and - Rate does not exceed 30 litres per nautical mile - Quantity does not exceed 1/30,000 of total quantity of cargo carried on the previous voyage; and The tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system and slop tank arrangement (Annex 1 Reg. 9(1)(a) and Reg. 15) No discharge except clean or segregated ballast Regs.1(16) 10 (2), 10(3) (a)

It is important to note that the whole of the Gulf was designated as a special area under MARPOL Regulation 10 (1) e) in 1973. The definition covers not only the waters inside the Strait of Hormuz, but also a large area outside in the Gulf of Oman and Oman Basin, as follows: “The Gulfs area means the sea area located north west of the rhumb line between Ras al Hadd (22° 30’N, 59° 48’E) and Ras al Fasteh (25° 04’N, 61° 25’E)”.

Similarly, under Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, severe restrictions are placed on the discharge of any machinery space oil or oily mixtures from any ship, including tankers11.

10

11

Full details of the MARPOL Annexes are contained in the MARPOL 73/78 Consolidated Edition 2002. See MARPOL 73/78 Consolidated Edition 2002, Regulation 9. MARPOL may formally be referred to as ‘The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto’.

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While the Gulfs area was designated as a special area in 1973, bringing its special area status into practical effect has had to wait for adequate reception and treatment facilities for oil and garbage to be provided at various ports, terminals and ship repair yards in the area. ROPME was able to report to the 56th session of IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) in July 2007 that this had been achieved. MEPC then adopted a resolution setting a date of 01 August 2008 for the discharge requirements in the Gulfs area relating to a special area to take effect12.

Terminals, tanker traffic and oil movement in the Gulf Examination of a navigation chart of the Gulf reveals that much of the sea area between the Strait of Hormuz and the northern boundary of the Gulf is crisscrossed by oil and gas pipelines that extend from offshore terminals, offshore oil and gas fields to the shore. On the eastern side of the Gulf there are 7 oil and gas loading terminals off the coast of Iran. On the western side there are a further 10 terminals on the coasts of Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. Tankers entering the Gulf at the Strait of Hormuz have to contend with relatively shallow water, restricted areas around oil fields and loading terminals and environmentally sensitive areas that must be avoided, and follow the strict regulations issued by the terminals on the route they must follow in order to approach their loading terminal. To assist ship masters operating in the Gulf and to protect sensitive areas, a number of ship routeing measures, including Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS), have been introduced. The most easterly of these is in the Strait of Hormuz, designed to separate inbound Gulf traffic from outbound traffic. A separation zone between the two flows of traffic, around 2 nautical miles wide, is shown on charts of Hormuz. Traffic operating between the western and northern parts of the Gulf and Hormuz may then use a second scheme around 60 miles west of Hormuz13. In view of the significant percentage of large oil spills caused by collisions between ships, separation schemes are an important means of reducing the number of collisions. They can also help to reduce the incidence of another major cause of oil spills world wide, ship groundings. Several of the main terminals in the Gulf use separation schemes to separate traffic approaching them from traffic leaving them, and to guide the ships away from shallow water. The majority of these schemes have been in operation for many years, but recently new schemes 12 13

See IMO Briefing No. 28/2007 dated 12 September 2007 It would be very useful to determine the numbers and types of ships passing through the Strait of Hormuz and to monitor these on an annual basis. Traffic in the Red Sea is known, to some extent, through the Yearly Reports of the Suez Canal Authority, but no such data is currently available for Hormuz. An estimate of around 50,000 ships in passage through Hormuz each year may be reasonable. Current traffic volume in the Suez Canal is around 20,000 ships annually.

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have been introduced at the mature terminal of Ras a1 Khafji, on the Saudi/Kuwait border, where there are four loading buoys, and in the approaches to the ports and terminals off the coast of ~ u w a i t 'In ~ .practice the number of ships calling at these terminals is very low. For example, at Ras A1 Khafji the number of large tankers calling at the terminal in 2003 was around 12 per month, so the risk of a collision with another large tanker is very low. However, other craft use the port and operate in that area en route for other ports and terminals, so the existence of a TSS in the approaches of Ras Al Khafji also helps to prevent collisions with these. Similar arguments apply to other terminals where TSS's have been introduced.

Figure 7. Comparison of a scction of thc formcr routc to thc anchoragc arca (the two-way routc markcd in black in this figure) and the ncw routcing mcasurc with inbound and outbound channels shown in grcy in thc Approaches to Ras al Khatji - Courtesy of Gardlinc Survcys, UK. Thc bluc linc marks thc boundary of thc area survcycd in 2001.

While the number of ships calling at and leaving oil and gas terminals is relatively low, in the Gulf as a whole the picture with respect to the volume of ship traffic is quite different. The popularity of Port Rashid and Jebel Ali, in particular, has 14

Thc arca in which the Ras A1 Khafji schemc is situated was fully rc-survcycd in 2001. The scheme was adopted by IMO in 2003 and came into force for use by international shipping on I" June 2005 after new navigation buoys were installed. It replaced a more complex approach to the terminal that involved four changes of course to avoid several shoal patches that exist along the former route.

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increased traffic dramatically. The number of ships calling at these two ports is now around 16,000 per year, resulting in a total of 90 movements into and out of the ports each day15. Many of the ships are high speed container vessels that operate at speeds of 20-26 knots in open waters. The majority of these ships calling Port Rashid/Jebel Ali will pass through the Strait of Hormuz, where they will meet tankers entering and leaving the Gulf, as well as much slower traffic such as tug and barge combinations used extensively in the Gulf for the transport of bulk cargo, containers and oil. The dangers resulting from high speed container ships under instruction from their owners to maintain tight schedules and operating at speeds which may be considered too high in areas of restricted manoeuvrability or visibility (such as waters of the Gulf) has been highlighted in a number of publications. The number of collisions and groundings that involved UK ships of over 100 GT given in the 2005 annual report of the UK’s Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) showed a significant rise over the 2000-2004 average16. The 26 collisions and 21 groundings recorded in the 2006 MAIB report for UK Registered ships of over 100 GT are lower than in 2005, but still 50% and 60% respectively above the average for the period 2000-2004. Other Ship Routeing Measures are intended to reduce the impact of marine pollution. These include ‘Areas to be avoided’, which are designated areas that are not to be entered by certain ships. For example, UK Admiralty Chart No. 2847, Qatar to Shatt al ‘Arab, carries a note stating: “In the vicinity of Fasht Buldani (28° 05’N, 49° 07’E) there are important seagrass banks and breeding grounds for prawns. In order to reduce the risk of pollution and damage to the environment an IMO-adopted ‘Area to be avoided’ has been established. All tankers, gas carriers and chemical tankers carrying noxious substances and all vessels over 50,000 grt should avoid the area indicated.” As noted above, 28% of intermediate spills occur when a tanker is engaged in loading or discharging operations. Many voyages carried out by tankers of around 270,000 TDW will involve two loading operations in the Gulf. The first, when the ship is in ballast, will be to load, for example, 180,000 tonnes of oil at one of the shallower terminals. After loading her oil cargo and at the same time discharging the segregated ballast tanks, the ship will very often proceed to an offshore terminal where water depths are greater in order to ‘top off’ the tanks by loading a further 90,000 tonnes of cargo and reach her maximum draught. The terminals may be operated by the same country or, on occasions, in different countries, such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia17. Thus two operations are very often required when 15 16

17

See http://www.dpa.co.ae/dpaperformance/Update_Nov05.xls See MAIB Annual Report 2005, page 21: http://www.maib.dft.gov.uk/cms_resources/Annual%20Report%202005.pdf In some cases tankers may load at a terminal in The Gulfs and then proceed to a terminal outside the region, such as the terminal at Ash Shihr in Yemen, to load the balance of the full cargo.

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picking up one full cargo, with a short sea passage in between, doubling the chance that a pollution incident could happen.

Operations in adjacent waters and sub-standard shipping There is also, very often, a third operation during such a voyage, as a ship may require to take on board lubricating oil in bulk and to discharge slops after the loading operation. As bulk lubricating oil is not generally available at terminals in the Gulf, various companies have established lube oil supply businesses at anchorages off the ports of Fujirah and Khor Fakkan. This has resulted in around 500 ships per month using the designated anchorages established at Khor Fakkan and Fujirah where various operations including bunkering, disposal of oily slops, in-water repair, crew changing and taking on stores take place. As noted above, these specialized anchorage areas are located in the IMO-designated Special Area referred to in MARPOL 73/78 as ‘the Gulfs’. A 270,000 TDW tanker may carry on board 35,000 litres of general engine lubricating oil, 70,000 litres of cylinder lubricating oil, 11,000 litres of oil for the turbo generator, diesel generators, hydraulic systems etc., as well as greases and specialized chemicals for use with the engines, for cleaning purposes etc.. The majority of tankers will need to anchor off the coast of the UAE outside the Strait of Hormuz in order to load these oils and chemicals and, in the case of older tankers particularly, to discharge oily/water slops from the slop tank or bilges to a small tanker or barge that takes the slops for treatment ashore 18. Ship bunkering supplies are a major business activity at these anchorages, with around 9 million tonnes of fuel oil being supplied annually to ships. As a tanker loads and discharges its cargo it must maintain a certain minimum draught and control the trim of the vessel. This is achieved by loading and discharging ballast water as the cargo is taken on board, or discharged. Various methods of doing this without polluting the sea have been devised over the past 50 years, including tank washing with cold and hot water, tank washing with the cargo (Crude Oil Washing), using Clean Ballast Tanks which have been cleaned before ballast is taken on board, and, for the past 20 years, using Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT), where cargo is never loaded in tanks that are designated exclusively as ballast tanks. This last method has proved to be most effective in reducing oil pollution and has, for example, largely eliminated the incidence of tar balls observed along the coast of Yemen since 1997 19. So far the focus has been on large oil tankers operated by companies with a reputation to protect and serious financial and public relations consequences if 18

19

One company operating off the UAE Coast charges ships $2/tonne to receive slops on oil quantities up to 50 tonnes. Where the quantity of oil in the mix is higher than 50 tonnes the company receiving the slops will pay the shipowner $2/tonne. Personal communication with tanker captain. Personal communication with NEXEN petroleum terminal at Ash Shihr near Mukalla, Yemen.

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their ships are involved in an oil spill. However, a significant number of smaller spills in the Gulf have been caused by substandard ships operated by individuals or companies that are not greatly concerned with such issues. The MEMAC in Bahrain has recorded these incidents, including cases where bulk oil has been carried in dry cargo ships and in barges without the operators having any regard for international conventions and regulations governing the carriage of oil. Such irresponsible activities have a lot of potential for environmental damage and the Authorities in the Gulf are endeavouring to reduce or eliminate such practices. Ships in many of the Gulf States are now inspected by Port State Inspectors and a Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control of shipping operating in the waters of the Gulf and Oman has been signed by these States20.

Liquified natural gas movement in the Gulf As noted above, the states bordering the Gulf are important players in world gas production and are likely to remain so for possibly centuries into the future. Iran and Qatar between them are currently estimated to hold around 30% of total world reserves. Pollution from gas tankers has not yet been a significant cause for concern in the Gulf, nor world wide, and has not featured to any degree in reports on pollution prepared by ROPME and the MEMAC in the Gulf 21. However, the potential for pollution due to a collision between a large gas carrier and another ship, or the grounding of a gas carrier, or other serious incident involving a gas carrier cannot be ignored, and measures to monitor and improve the operational safety of gas carriers is an ongoing requirement for owners and operators, for the terminals handling these vessels in the region, and for the regional authorities responsible for controlling their operations.

Movement of chemicals in the Gulf The availability of vast quantities of oil and gas in the Gulf has led to the establishment of petrol-chemical complexes and to the production of a range of chemical products as the countries of the region seek to reduce their dependence on oil and gas exports alone by adding value to the products they are able to export. While petrochemicals are produced in other places, the main centre for exports of chemicals from the Gulf at present is the King Fahd Industrial Port at 20

21

Three ships owned by a Dubai registered company sank within 3 months in mid-2006, and the 4th was stopped from trading due to withdrawal of insurance cover. On one ship 6 crew members lost their lives when she foundered. The fact that such ships are able to operate in the Gulf raises questions on the effectiveness of Port State Control inspections and Classification Society certification. Applied Science Associates, Inc, (www.appsci.com), who specialize in modeling spills of oil, LNG and chemicals, stated in late 2006 that there had not yet been a release of LNG into the marine environment from a ship. Personal communication.

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Jubail on the coast of Saudi Arabia. Jubail’s second industrial park, Jubail II, is under development and is forecast to attract investments of around SR130 billion as Saudi east coast petrochemical production expands over the coming 25-30 years. Jubail has been able to attract 50% of total inward investment to the Kingdom in recent years and is already considered to be the world’s largest petrochemical complex, estimated to account for seven per cent of the world’s petrochemical output 22. Some chemical products are also imported. In 2006, 31 chemical tankers called at Jubail to discharge 300,000 tonnes of chemicals, while 565 chemical tankers called to load 11.7 million tonnes of bulk liquid chemicals. In addition 175 ships called to load 5.3 million tonnes of dry bulk cargo, mainly solid petrochemicals23. Jubail reports that a total of 16.1 million tonnes of petrochemicals were exported to other parts of the Kingdom and all parts of the world in 2006. This tonnage has increased in recent years and can be expected to grow in the coming decades. Supplies of ethane, propane, butane and natural gas are being committed to the industrial complex at Jubail to support industrial growth. Commodities exported include vinyl ethylene vinegar, methyl methacrylates, poly methyl methacrylates, acrylonitrile, poly acrylonitrile, carbon fibers, sodium cyanide, poly propylene and high density polyethylene. In addition to bulk chemicals exported from production centres such as Jubail, large quantities of chemicals are now carried in containers, either in tank containers or in drums and other smaller units inside 20 and 40 foot standard ISO containers. In some parts of the world there have been cases where these have been lost over the side in heavy weather or as a result of fire and explosions on board the ship24. The number of incidents involving chemical carriers in various parts of the world, which has included in some cases the sinking of chemical carriers, has so far been small. However, because many millions of tonnes of chemicals are carried in bulk or on container vessels and cargo ships in this region, this indicates strongly that the probability of an incident occurring that could or would cause damage to the marine environment of the Gulf is relatively high25. With increasing volumes of LNG being discovered and extracted from the Gulf and the countries bordering it, new petrochemical complexes are being established in Qatar and in other parts of the region, leading to a further rise in the tonnages of chemicals that will transit the waters of the Gulf. 22

23 24

25

See http://saudinf.com/main/a86.htm. The major objective of the massive investment in the industrial cities of Jubail, and on the west coast Yanbu, is a reduction in the Kingdom's dependence on oil revenues by gaining access to the world's petrochemical markets. www.ports.gov.sa For example, during the fire on board the Hyundai Fortune in the Gulf of Aden in 2006 containers carrying a wide range of commodities, including chemicals, were destroyed by fire or lost over the side. On 20 June 2007 the tanker Alexandra C foundered after her engineroom flooded in heavy weather. She was some 70 miles NE of Socotra Island, close to the boundary of the ROPME sea area, and sank with 10,000 tonnes of Urea on board in 3,000 metres of water.

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MARPOL 73/78 – Annexes II-VI26 Annexes II and III of MARPOL 73/78 govern the regulations applying to the carriage of chemicals in bulk and in packaged form. Annexes IV, V and VI apply to ship’s sewage, garbage and air pollution. The provisions of these annexes are briefly addressed in this section. Annex II, ‘Control of Pollution by noxious liquid substances’ applies to the carriage in bulk of all noxious liquid substances in bulk, except oil. It therefore covers the carriage of chemicals in bulk, which have been divided into Categories X, Y and Z in the Convention. Under MARPOL 73/78 parties to the Convention automatically accept the conditions that apply under Annexes I and II. Annexes III to VI on the other hand are ‘voluntary’ and states can decide whether or not they wish to be parties to these optional annexes. Responsibility for the safe carriage of the bulk chemicals covered by Annex II lies with various parties; namely the producers of the commodity, the shippers, the ship owners and operators, the ports and the national maritime administrations. The regulations governing their carriage are both complex and stringent, and are governed by various instruments that include MARPOL 73/78, the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Goods in Bulk (the IBC Code). The carriage of such substances is only permitted in ships certified as chemical carriers, except that offshore supply vessels, many of which operate in the Gulf, are also permitted to carry certain chemicals required for the support of offshore drilling operations. Annex III of MARPOL 73/78, ‘Prevention of pollution by harmful substances in packaged form’, applies to harmful substances transported in packaged form. These substances are identified in the IMO International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (the IMDG Code) and Annex III prohibits carriage of these substances except in accordance with the requirements of the Annex. Requirements cover packaging, marking, labeling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations and exceptions that relate to the safety of the ship and the saving of life. Regulation 1.1.3 of the IMDG Code links Annex III to the code through the definition of ‘packaged form’. The Code consists of schedules under each class of substance and dangerous goods, as marine pollutants, are clearly identified in the schedules. Shippers must therefore declare the shipment as a pollutant, comply with the IMDG Code as far as the type of packaging is concerned, and arrange for the packaging to be marked in a specific manner. All dangerous goods must be declared on a separate list carried by the ship, which states where the goods are stowed on board. Ports normally require the list of dangerous goods carried on board to be submitted as part of the ship’s documentation on arrival. Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78, ‘Prevention of pollution by sewage from ships’, is a voluntary annex that entered into force on 27 September 2003. This Annex restricts the discharge of sewage from ships, depending on the distance of the ship from the land, whether or not it has an approved sewage treatment plant 26

For full details of these Annexes see MARPOL 73/78 Consolidated Edition 2002.

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on board, whether it has facilities for comminuting and disinfecting the sewage, and, when more than 12 miles from land, the speed at which the ship is moving. Ports are required to provide adequate reception facilities for ships that are not equipped with sewage treatment plants. Annex V of MARPOL 73/78, ‘Prevention of pollution by garbage from ships’ is also a voluntary annex that applies to all ships of any size. Any and all types of plastic cannot be disposed of at sea and must be sent ashore for disposal. Dunnage and packaging materials that float can only be put over the side when the ship is more than 25 miles from land. Ground up food waste and other waste, if less than 25mm diameter, can be disposed of when more than three miles from land. Noncomminuted food waste and other waste above this size must be disposed of only when 12 miles from land. In special areas, such as the Gulfs area, only food waste can be disposed of at sea, and then only when the ship is more than 12 miles from land. Under this Annex, all ships must have a garbage management plan, crews must be trained in the application of requirements, and ports must provide adequate reception facilities for garbage. Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78, ‘Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships’ was adopted by IMO in September 1997 and entered into force on 19 May 2005. It addresses the problems of the release of ozone depleting substances by ships and air pollution by ships. It is designed to control the emission of nitrous oxides (NOX) and sulfur oxides (SOX) from ship exhausts, and volatile organic compounds in ports and oil terminals. It contains provisions for the establishment of SOX emission control areas, where emissions must not exceed 1.5% m/m, and requires these to be limited to 4.5% m/m elsewhere. It provides for the use of shipboard incinerators, and for shore-based reception facilities for ozone depleting substances such as halons and chlorinated hydrocarbons carried on board ship27. Until recently the only state in the Gulf to ratify MARPOL 73/78 was Oman. Over the past four years all other States in the Gulf except Iraq have ratified this hugely important Convention. Bahrain and Iran have ratified Annexes 1, II and V, Oman, Qatar and the UAE have ratified Annexes 1-V, and Saudi Arabia and Kuwait Annexes I-VI. In view of the rapidly increasing numbers of ships entering the Gulf, MARPOL 73/78 and its annexes will become increasingly important to this region28. 27

28

See MARPOL 73/78 Consolidated Edition 2002. In some parts of the world new bunkering facilities have been established to supply ships with fuel that enables them to meet the requirements of Annex VI. The port of Falmouth in Cornwall (UK) is providing such services because of restrictions on the types of bunker fuel that can be used in European waters. Almost all EU countries are parties to Annex VI. For example Dubai Ports World (DPW), operating the twin ports of Port Rashid and Jebel Ali, now receive around 18,000 ship calls annually. DPW handled 8.92 million containers (TEU’s) in 2006. If forecast growth rates of 8-9% compound prove to be correct, the number of containers handled at these two ports alone will rise to 55 million TEU’s by 2030. DPW is therefore expanding its capacity to match projected growth. Other ports around the Gulf are also expanding their facilities to cater for larger numbers of ships and equipping them for the larger container ships now entering service.

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Status of nautical charting in the Gulf The safety of shipping depends very largely on the accuracy of the data given to ship’s officers by the navigational charts, pilot books and other nautical publications on which they depend. Charts of the region are continually being updated by the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO), which carries primary responsibility for the production, and quality, of charts of the Gulf region. National hydrographic offices, such as Oman, also produce their own charts, or provide data to UKHO to enable charts and other publications covering the region to be updated. UKHO re-schemed the complete folio of charts of the Gulf in 2006 to improve the coverage provided by these charts. However, an examination of the ‘source diagrams’ on charts covering the waters of the Gulf shows that the survey data on which the charts depend is often less than ideal. Before the 1950’s, when echo sounders came into general use on ships, hydrographic surveys of the Gulf and other parts of the world were conducted by surveyors in ships or boats, using sextants, hand lead lines in shallow waters and deep sea lead lines in deep waters. While the results of these surveys have often been shown by modern surveys to be remarkably accurate, the fact remains that the soundings obtained related only to isolated depths taken at specific points, and were unable to provide data on the spaces between the soundings. Source diagrams on many of the Gulf charts refer to surveys conducted in the 1920’s and 1930’s, and further confirm that extensive areas in the Gulf have never been surveyed. The charts in this case are built up on the basis of ‘passage soundings’ taken by ships, and ‘miscellaneous data’. Side scan sonar systems, able to look either side of the course followed by the ship have been available for over 20 years and have greatly increased the volume of data available when hydrographic surveys are conducted to modern standards. Multi-beam echo sounders that can provide a remarkable picture of the sea bed on either side of the survey ship course line have been available for around 10 years, and have been refined and improved in this century to offer hydrographic surveyors highly accurate and comprehensive tools. The 2001 survey of the approaches to Ras al Khafji was completed using a multi-beam echo sounder. With survey costs of around $1,900 per km² 29 there is clearly a great deal of costly work to be done in order to re-survey large areas of the Gulf and generate the data needed to provide accurate electronic, and paper, charts for ships. Many of the States in the Gulf are aware of this need, and Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and recently Qatar have carried out extensive surveys already. Surveys in the approaches to Iraqi ports were also conducted during 2005 and the charts updated. But securing funds for this work from Governments is not an easy task when many demands on available resources are being made. Chapter 5 of the IMO ‘Safety of Life at Sea Convention 1974’ (SOLAS 74), a Convention that all the Gulf states are parties to, requires in Regulation 9, titled ‘Hydrographic Services’, that ‘Contracting Governments undertake to arrange for the collection and 29

This figure includes set-up or mobilization costs and will be lower when larger areas are surveyed

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compilation of hydrogaphic data and the publication, dissemination and keeping up to date of all nautical information necessary for safe navigation’. Other paragraphs in this Regulation require Contracting Governments to cooperate in providing hydrographic services so as to aid navigation, to conduct adequate hydrographic surveys, prepare and issue nautical charts and other navigational information, ensure the greatest possible uniformity in charts and nautical publications and cooperate in making hydrographic and nautical information available on a world-wide scale in as timely a manner as possible30. The advantages of completing hydrographic surveys to international standards include a) giving the States the required knowledge of their own sea areas to enable them to control these more effectively, b) enabling definition of their own EEZ’s to be achieved where needed (for Oman in particular), c) removal of doubt over the safety of approaches to their many important ports, including offshore approaches that have not been surveyed since pre-Sidescan Sonar days, d) making available data in electronic format that can be used to produce Electronic Navigation Charts (ENC’s) that are increasingly being used by modern ships, particularly tankers and container ships, e) providing the opportunity to set up a baseline survey to confirm the current state of the sea bed and water columns in case of compensation claims following any marine accident in the region, f) the provision of opportunities for training national staff who can contribute to the production of national charts in future, and g) raising the status of these countries in the eyes of the international maritime community through responsible charting activities. Accurate hydrographic surveys and charts will also assist with the definition of maritime boundaries between countries in the Gulf 31.

Invasive aquatic species in ships’ ballast water and the IMO Ballast Water Convention Until almost the end of the 20th Century the primary focus with respect to marine pollution was on the carriage by sea of oil and, to a lesser extent, liquefied gases and chemicals. The falling incidence of oil spills and the lower volumes entering the marine environment due to the successes achieved in improving tanker safety have been very encouraging. But it is now increasingly being realized that the carriage of ballast water by ships can potentially cause even greater harm to a marine environment than a major oil spill. While MARPOL Annex I prohibits the discharge of any oil within a Special Area, Regulations 1(16), 10 (2) and 10 (3) a), for example, are conspicuous in that they allow clean or segregated ballast water to be discharged in a Special Area such as the Gulf. The movement of aquatic species from one part of the world to another on the hulls of ships has existed ever since sailors started to explore the world. In recent years this become an issue that is recognized as potentially more 30 31

See SOLAS Consolidated Edition 2004, Chapter 5 An important new survey of the waters of the UAE, in cooperation with the UKHO, is currently being planned.

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harmful than the oil spills that have damaged the marine environment in many parts of the world since large oil tankers came into service in world trade in the 1960’s. These tankers carry not only oil cargoes, but up to 120,000 tonnes of sea water ballast from one part of the world to another when on ballast voyages. And while the impact of a massive oil spill on the environment can eventually diminish to zero over time, the impact of invasive aquatic species (IAS) on a local environment can increase over time as the species spreads in a region. Examples of the damage caused by such invasions by, for example, zebra mussels blocking the power station cooling water intakes in the Great Lakes of America and Canada, starfish affecting ports and harbours in Australia, ‘ghost crabs’ impacting fisheries developments in Scotland, and other damaging movements of IAS, have been widely recorded and reported 32. In some cases the costs of dealing with IAS damage can exceed the costs of cleaning up a large oil spill. It is now realized that the costs of removing the invasive species are likely to recur over time unless drastic action is taken, and is successful. Stopping the invasion through such action can normally only be achieved when a small area is affected that can somehow be effectively contained. Typically the impact of IAS will adversely affect fisheries, the coastal infrastructure and port operations, and the effects are likely to alter the environment forever. While the main focus is on the transfer of species from one part of the world to another, the transfer of pathogens is another important issue. Cholera can, for example, be moved from one country to another by ship and has, in South America, been demonstrated to be the cause of deaths within a coastal population. While all ship types require to carry and to manage ballast water at various times, the main ship types of concern in the waters of the Gulf are oil tankers which, since the early 1980’s, have been required to carry their ballast in segregated tanks. Segregated Ballast Tanks (or SBT) have been regarded as the environmentally responsible way to carry ballast on tankers, as the ballast water should not, under normal circumstances, become contaminated by oil and therefore this can be discharged overboard without being treated for oil content. The heightened awareness over the past ten years regarding the transfer of IAS in ballast water has caused the whole question of ballast water in tankers to be revisited. Similarly, ballast water carried in dry bulk carriers, which has not previously been regarded as a problem for the ports where ballast has to be discharged before or during the loading of dry bulk cargoes has now become a matter of considerable concern to port and environmental authorities. Dry bulk carriers calling ports in the Gulf often discharge their cargoes of bulk wheat etc., but as stated above, bulk carriers arrive at ports such as Jubail to load dry bulk cargoes and, before or during loading, discharge their ballast water into the sea or into harbour waters. In the early 1990’s, because the movement of IAS had adversely affected its waters, Australia brought this problem to the attention of the International Maritime Organization. Persistent lobbying led to the establishment of the Global 32

‘Ballast Water News’ published and circulated by the Globallast Programme Phase I until 2004 contained many articles on areas affected and general information on IAS.

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Ballast Water Programme (GloBallast), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), implemented by IMO and supported by UNDP. The Pilot Phase, GloBallast Phase I, lasted from 01 March 2000 to 31 December 2004. For the Pilot Phase six areas were selected around the world, including Iran as a focal point within the Gulf. Various activities were conducted in these test areas through technical cooperation, including capacity building and institutional strengthening. It was possible to establish port biological baseline conditions in some of the ports, to monitor the movement of ships’ ballast water from one area of the world to another and to support the search for technological solutions to the problem through research and development. Global and national task forces on ballast water management were established in the test areas. The Globallast Programme referred to above was evaluated and considered to be highly successful in the areas that it addressed. A Globallast Project Phase II has now been prepared, termed Globallast Partnerships (GBP). Finance has been provided to develop a Project Document for GBP, to identify strategic partners and co-financing opportunities. The planned duration of GloBallast Phase II is from late 2007 to 2011.

Figure 8. The Globallast Project. Pilot Phase Centres, 2000 to 2004. The black lines around the coastlines show the ‘areas of concern’ to each of the pilot phase centres, but do not mean that work relating to ballast water control was done over the areas covered by the lines.

During the Pilot Phase Guidelines giving ships’ officers advice on handling ballast water, as described in IMO Resolution 868(20) of 1997, were prepared. This identifies the exchange of ballast water at sea as one possible method of trying to address the problem of IAS transfers. As part of the work undertaken during the pilot phase, IMO prepared and circulated posters to inform the

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maritime and port community, in particular, on the dangers of ‘unwanted stowaways’. One such poster illustrated over 30 places in various parts of the world that have suffered from the impact of IAS. In February 2004, following a diplomatic conference in London, IMO adopted a new Convention, the “International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments”, which is the international convention dealing specifically with the control and management of ships’ ballast water and of the sediments that result from the carriage of this water. Awareness of the importance of this Convention is gradually increasing. By the end of September 2007 ten countries had become parties to the Convention 33, up from six countries up to July 2006. The Convention will enter into force 12 months after 30 States with 35% of the world’s gross tonnage have ratified or acceded to it. The objective of the Convention is to prevent, minimise and ultimately eliminate the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens through the control and management of ships’ ballast water and sediments. It allows parties to the Convention to impose more stringent measures than those described in the Convention, requires reception facilities to be provided for sediments from ballast tanks, and provides for the survey, certification and inspection of ships carrying ballast water. A BBC documentary on the IAS problems experienced by different countries has been prepared, with filming taking place in many parts of the world. This film is now available on DVD as a very useful tool to bring the realities of the problems that IAS have caused into sharper focus 34. It is evident that Gulf States, working closely with IMO and the GloBallast Programme, are in a strong position to provide solutions to the problem of ballast water control and management within the region. An excellent start has been made through the work carried out in and by Iran, but the Gulf States need to maintain a momentum in the coming years, take steps to monitor the importation of ballast water on ships into the region and move towards ratification of or accession to the new Convention so that it will enter into force and can be applied to international shipping. Due to the huge volume of ballast water carried in tankers, and to a lesser extent by other ships, the confined waters of the Gulf are particularly at risk from IAS. This is especially true when the ballast has been loaded in an area where sea water characteristics are similar to those prevailing in the Gulf, and where the local species are already stressed due to other pressures on the region, as many of the papers in this publication explain. Various methods have and are being explored to deal with the problem of the movement of IAS in ships, all of them in relation to the IAS carried in ballast tanks. Ships may exchange ballast at sea, i.e. pump out the ballast loaded at the 33

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Barbados, Egypt, Kiribati, Maldive Islands, Nigeria, Norway, St Kitts and Nevis, Spain, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tuvalu. VELA, an oil tanker company based in Saudi Arabia, has been an important private sector contributor to the costs of making this documentary, and has also supported research into a system for continuous ballast water exchange at sea. Details of the documentary are available from the Globallast team at IMO Headquarters, London.

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start of the voyage and exchange this for water from the deep ocean while they are on passage. This is based on the concept that coastal species are less likely to survive in deep ocean waters. But various practical problems regarding the safety of the ship are associated with this method. Another method is to continuously exchange the ballast while on passage by drawing in fresh ballast to the tanks while at the same time discharging the ballast already in them. Various ballast water treatment technologies are being investigated, including heating the water, treating it with chemicals and disinfectants, treating it with ultra-violet light or ultrasound, filtering it, and others. None of these has yet proved to be completely satisfactory. A further option is to discharge ballast into shore tanks on arrival, where it can be held before being treated and released into the waters of the local port. In view of the huge volumes that can be involved, this may require a massive provision of storage capacity. A further concept is to ballast tankers with fresh water for their return voyages to the Gulf, water that could be used for irrigation or other purposes. An acceptable treatment technology for ballast water may become available by 2009, but at present there is no one technology that solves the problems of the carriage of IAS in ballast water. And no one technology is likely to fit all types of ships, as they vary widely in the amount of ballast carried, its distribution on board and the method of using it while on passage and in port to keep the ship upright and on an even keel, to deepen it, lighten it etc.. A number of precautions may be taken when loading ballast water, such as avoiding loading in ‘high risk’ areas, loading by day rather than night, and avoiding loading in shallow water and thus lifting bottom sediments with the ballast water. One immediate requirement, as recommended by the Globallast Programme and the IMO Convention, and that can be implemented relatively easily, is for ships carrying ballast water to maintain a ‘ballast water record book’ similar to the Oil Record Book, and for ports and terminals to maintain records of ships arriving with ballast water and discharging it in waters nearby 35.

The London Dumping Convention Another important IMO convention that can contribute to the control of pollution of the marine environment is the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter, 1972, often referred to as the London Dumping Convention 36. Under the Convention and its protocols, the illegal dumping of waste materials at sea is prohibited. “Dumping” has been 35

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Terminals may monitor the discharge of ballast water as a matter of good practice, but in general they are checking that there is no oil being discharged with the ballast that may be seen as a film forming on the sea surface. They are not, at the present time, normally concerned with the contents of the sea water ballast, such as IAS, which cannot be seen as the water is discharged from the ship’s side. For details of the London Dumping Convention see www.imo.org, Conventions.

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defined as the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures, as well as the deliberate disposal of these vessels or platforms themselves. Contracting Parties undertake to designate an authority to deal with permits, keep records, and monitor the condition of the sea, while other articles are designed to promote regional cooperation, particularly in the fields of monitoring and scientific research. The 1996 Protocol to the 1972 Convention represents a major change of approach to the question of how to regulate the use of the sea as a depository for waste materials37. It is ‘free standing’ and is intended to replace the 1972 Convention. Therefore states do not have to be party to the 1972 Convention in order to be party to the 1996 Protocol. The 1996 Protocol also introduces the ‘precautionary principle’ in relation to dumping at sea. It also emphasizes that Contracting Parties should ensure that the Protocol should not simply result in pollution being transferred from one part of the environment to another. The Protocol, which entered into force on 24 March 2006, is also far more restrictive than the 1972 Convention. Within the Gulf Iran, Oman and the UAE are parties to the London Dumping Convention 1972, but not the 1996 Protocol. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a party to the 1996 Protocol but not the 1972 Convention. The remaining states in the region have not yet become parties to the 1972 Convention or its Protocol. In view of the significance of the 1996 Protocol as an instrument to prevent illegal dumping, and the articles promoting regional cooperation that could be effective in helping to prevent pollution of the Gulf by toxic materials, it is important that other states in the region should become parties to this key Convention, and particularly through ratification of or accession to the 1996 Protocol 38.

Conclusions The Gulf is one of the most important sea areas in the world, providing the energy that drives industries and opportunities for trade in all other countries. As such, it is under stress due to the impact of maritime transport and, of course, the intense industrial and economic development that is seen on shore close to the coastline, in coastal waters and far out into its sea areas. Until now the Gulf has been fortunate, indeed very fortunate, in being spared the consequences of a major marine oil or chemical pollution incident due to shipping activities. There have been many relatively minor incidents which have 37

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IMO is responsible for Secretariat duties relating to the 1972 Convention and is the depository for the 1996 Protocol. The 1996 Protocol is also being used to combat global warming by allowing the storage of CO2 in the seabed. Contracting Parties to the London Protocol, at their first meeting held in London from 30 October to 3 November 2006 adopted amendments (to the 1996 Protocol). The amendments regulate the sequestration of CO2 streams from CO2 capture processes in sub-seabed geological formations. See IMO Briefing No. 43/2006 dated 08 November 2006.

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affected its waters, but in recent years the volume of oil spilled in the Gulf has decreased. However, many threats remain, and action should be taken to address these as indicated in the following recommendations.

Recommendations - A means of monitoring the traffic passing through the Strait of Hormuz could usefully be established so that greater understanding of the pressures on and potential hazards to this vital maritime artery can be gained. Some of the statistical tables found in the Yearly Reports of the Suez Canal Authority could provide a useful basis for the format and extent of such information. - ROPME/MEMAC could usefully improve the analysis of oil spill incidents to give information on the size of the spill and other data. Information available from casualty reports, similar to those published online by the MAIB, would reinforce the ability of the maritime industry in the region to learn the lessons of these incidents. Statistics could be recorded using the format used by ITOPF in terms of size of spill, number of incidents annually etc., and a map produced showing the location of the spills to establish whether patterns exist and which parts of the Gulf are particularly liable to suffer from spills. MEMAC should obtain information from ports and maritime authorities in the region in order to bring together the data required for this purpose. - An updated Code for Marine Accident Investigations is being developed by IMO. When this Code is published, MEMAC should assist ROPME member states in the investigation of marine accidents by arranging for training of accident investigators working in the region to be conducted. - The status of hydrographic surveying in this region leaves much to be desired and the base of skills available within the region to undertake such surveys is very limited. ROPME/MEMAC should take every opportunity of securing support for hydrographic survey work in the region, in cooperation with the International Hydrographic Organization, the UK Hydrographic Office and other organizations that may be able to offer assistance. The need to re-survey regional waters to modern international standards in order to accurately define coastlines and provided data for up-to-date charts is a task that will demand a large investment of resources, but can provide significant rewards for the region. - The conduct of hydrographic surveys to modern standards in the region gives the opportunity for new routeing measures to be introduced that would be of benefit to the rapidly increasing volume of international shipping calling at ports in the region and help to reduce the number of collisions and groundings that occur. ROPME should consider carrying out an evaluation of current routes and a study of where new routeing measures could usefully be introduced or current routes improved. - All states in the region should be made aware of the important provisions contained in the 1996 Protocol to the IMO Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter, 1972. Support

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should be provided for the establishment of the necessary legal structures and the competent authorities in member states, who should be encouraged to become parties to the 1996 Protocol. ROPME/MEMAC should develop a mechanism for regional cooperation on the prevention of illegal dumping in the waters of the Gulfs area, seeking technical assistance from IMO as appropriate and necessary. Port State Control in the region should be strengthened and training provided for inspectors and administration staff as necessary so that the standards of shipping operating in the Gulf are improved. Knowledge on how to control the movement of invasive aquatic species carried in ballast water within the region needs to be further improved. ROPME/ MEMAC should liaise closely with IMO and the GloBallast team in order to benefit from developments in this important field. Port biological baseline surveys of harbour and coastal waters have only been carried out in a few parts of the region so far, and risk assessments for all major ports are needed. The BBC film on invasive species should be distributed to all port authorities and other key organizations in the region. Ships calling at ports should be encouraged to maintain a ‘ballast water record book’, similar to the Oil Record Book, so that the origins and destinations of ballast water can be tracked. Ports and terminals should also be encouraged to maintain records of ships arriving with ballast water and discharging it at the port or in waters nearby. ROPME/MEMAC should also provide appropriate assistance to member states wishing to become parties to the IMO International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments. Rising sea levels in the Gulf could have serious consequences for many areas near the coast and for man-made structures, including ports and artificial islands. ROPME should carry out a study of the Gulf coastline to determine the likely impact of a rise of say, 80 cm, on coastal areas and resources. It should also take every opportunity to support the establishment of new tide gauges within the region and should express its concern over rising sea levels at regional and international fora. ROPME/MEMAC should promote and support attempts by Gulf States to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases as a contribution to combating global climate change and as part of its attempt to conserve the marine environment for future generations. It should encourage regional states to accede to Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank sincerely the following individuals for their kind contributions to this paper: Nigel Hoy and Stan Rogers of the UKHO Chart Production Team 4, CPT4, and Cathy Partridge and her staff in Data Management Team 4, DMT4, for their inputs to charting in the Gulf, and responses to enquiries on charting and other

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matters. Mr John Holland, Terminal Manager, Canadian Nexen Petroleum Yemen for information on oil pollution combating and ballast water practices in the Gulf of Aden. Adnan Awad, IMO Consultant on Ballast Water Matters, for reviewing materials on ballast water issues. Michael Julian, IMO Consultant on MARPOL 73/78, for reviewing materials on the MARPOL 73/78 Convention. Captain Rami Latsh, Master with Kuwait Oil Tanker Company, for providing details of tanker operations in the Gulf.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine environment of the Gulf Sabine Lattemann and Thomas Höpner Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM) Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany

Abstract: Many coastal areas in the Gulf experience a rapid industrial and urban growth. This development is sustained by an increasing number of seawater desalination plants in the region which satisfy the growing demand for fresh water. The combined seawater desalination capacity in the Gulf countries exceeds 11 million cubic metres per day and accounts for 45% of the total world capacity. The predominating process is multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), whereas only a minor amount of the drinking water is produced by reverse osmosis (RO) plants and other processes (together < 15%). Due to their waste water discharges to the sea, desalination plants - and especially MSF plants - must be considered a main source of pollution in the Gulf. It is estimated that the combined discharge of all MSF plants in the Gulf amounts to a waste water flow of about 1,000 m3 per second - which is the equivalent of a major river. This waste water is characterised by increased salinity and elevated temperature. It additionally contains substantial amounts of chemical pollutants, such as chlorine (which is used for biofouling control in the plants), antiscalants (which are used for scale inhibition) and heavy metals (which are present due to corrosion). This paper gives an overview on the waste water characteristics of the two main desalination processes (MSF, RO), presents estimates of total chemical discharges to the Gulf for two selected pollutants (chlorine, copper) and discusses the potential impacts of seawater desalination activity on the Gulf’s marine environment.

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Introduction Worldwide, the demand for freshwater is rising rapidly, especially in coastal areas where nearly three quarters of the world population is expected to live by 2020. It is therefore not surprising that desalination of seawater is gaining in importance. Seawater is a seemingly unlimited resource, and many coastal states and islands have no other option than to exploit it for drinking water production. Desalination is a highly beneficial technology, but like many technologies, it may have adverse impacts on the environment that need to be investigated and managed. Similar to the worldwide trend, coastal areas in the Gulf experience a tremendous industrial and urban growth. The Gulf harbours three strategic fluids for this rapid development: oil, gas and desalinated water. Regarding seawater desalination, the situation in the Gulf still remains unrivalled to date, although capacities in other parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean, are increasing rapidly. The Gulf, with an installed seawater desalination capacity of about 11 mill. m3/day, presently accounts for almost half the world’s capacity of 24 mill. m3/day (IDA 2006) (Fig. 1). Most of the plants are situated along the shallow southern shoreline of the Gulf (Fig. 1), i.e. in Kuwait (1.7 mill. m³/day), Saudi Arabia (2.3 mill. m³/day), Bahrain (0.4 mill. m³/day), Qatar (0.9 mill. m³/day), and the United Arab Emirates (5.7 mill. m³/day), whereas only few can be found on the northern Iranian coast (0.1 mill. m³/day). The list of potential environmental impacts of desalination plants is long and in some aspects, such as land use, energy consumption and air pollution, similar to other development projects. Effects more specific to desalination plants can be attributed to the intake of large quantities of seawater: the impingement of larger organisms such as fish and turtles on intake screens and the entrainment of smaller organisms into the plant. Both are often fatal for the organisms and may affect population and ecosystem dynamics (Khordagui 2002). A key concern of desalination plants, however, are the impacts of the highly saline waste stream on the marine environment. Depending on the technical process, this waste stream may also be increased in temperature, contain residual chemicals, heavy metals from corrosion, or intermittently used cleaning agents. Emission of this multicomponent waste into the sea might have adverse effects on water and sediment quality, impair marine life or the functioning and intactness of coastal ecosystems. Due to their waste discharges, desalination plants were identified as a main source of land-based marine pollution in the Gulf (UNEP 1999). For illustration, the installed capacity of multi-stage flash distillation plants in the Gulf - about 9.7 mill. m3/day - roughly corresponds to a freshwater production of 115 m3/sec and a waste water flow rate of more than 1000 m3/sec, which is a substantial volume of water compared for example to the river runoff into the Gulf. The Shatt AlArab river, which is a main freshwater source and has a major influence on Gulf seawater properties, has an average annual flow of only 1,456 m3/sec (UNEP 1999).

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Figure 1. Seawater desalination capacity of MSF and MED plants (above) and RO plants (below) in the Gulf (Lattemann and Höpner 2007; raw data based on IDA 2006). Included are all plants that are presumed online or in construction, with capacities > 1,000 m3/d. The total capacity of each riparian state is given, as is the installed capacity in the sea region.

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Desalination technology In the Gulf region, water and electricity are usually produced by large cogeneration plants. The lower temperature steam from the low pressure end of the turbine is used as heat source for desalination, after much of the steam’s energy has been used to generate electricity (Buros 1999). Thermal desalination processes therefore predominate in the Gulf region. Most of the water is produced by the process of multi-stage flash distillation (MSF, 88%), and only a minor amount by reverse osmosis (RO, 5%) and multi-effect distillation (MED, 6%) (IDA 2006). All modern desalination plants operate by a complex process that maximizes plant efficiency. In essence, distillation plants consist of a large number of successive vessels (stages) that operate at gradually changing temperature and pressure values to induce boiling in each vessel without adding extra heat. The seawater flows from stage to stage, where part of the water evaporates, while the seawater increases in salt content and gradually turns into brine. Distillation plants have lower recovery rates than RO plants and require water for cooling. The seawater flow rate therefore has to be 3-4 times higher than the feed to RO plants for the same amount of product water extraction (Morton et al. 1996). Reverse osmosis is a membrane separation process that uses semi-permeable, synthetic membranes and pumping pressure of the feedwater to separate freshwater from saltwater. Water molecules readily diffuse through the membranes, but salts and larger molecular weight compounds are rejected, so that the salt content of the seawater gradually increases.

Environmental impacts The impacts of a desalination plant on the marine environment depend on the hydrographical and biological features of the receiving environment. Enclosed and shallow sites with abundant marine life can generally be assumed to be more sensitive to desalination plant discharges than exposed, high energy, open-sea locations (Höpner and Windelberg 1996). Equally relevant are the physical and chemical properties of the desalination plant reject streams. These are partly different for distillation and RO plants due to different process designs and pretreatment systems for the incoming seawater (Tab. 1). This section focuses on MSF and RO as the two main processes in the Gulf. To assess the impacts of their reject streams on the marine environment, information on the individual constituents of the discharge as well as the sensitivity of the accepting ecosystem is required. One approach is the evaluation of chemical concentrations in the reject stream with regard to toxicity to marine organisms. Another is to estimate total discharge volumes and loads with regard to the carrying capacity of the coastal ecosystem in terms of dilution and degradation. Salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen are environmental factors controlling the distribution of marine species. These normally occur where favourable environmental conditions exist. Most species can adapt to minor

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deviations from optimal conditions, and might even tolerate extreme situations temporarily. The long-term exposure to warm, saline effluents with low oxygen content, however, can be harmful to marine life and can cause a lasting change in community structure. For example, observations in the Gulf show that benthic communities in naturally saline environments, such as the Gulf of Salwah, lack many species of corals, molluscs and echinoderms. Lower species abundance and diversity is generally observed for salinities above 45, which stresses the importance of this factor even for the “hardy marine species” in the Gulf (Coles and McCain 1990). Table 1. Typical effluent properties of RO and MSF plants. Effluent parameter

RO

MSF

Salinity

typically 60 – 70 psu

around 50 psu

Temperature

ambient seawater temperature

+ 5 – 15 °C above ambient

Plume density

negatively buoyant

positively, neutrally or negatively buoyant

Oxygen

decreased as a side-effect of chlorine neutralization (using sodium bisulphite)

very low by physical deaeration and use of oxygen scavengers

Chlorine

neutralized

approx. 10 – 25 % of dosage

Halogenated organics

varying composition and concentrations

Coagulants 3+ 3+ (Fe , Al )

1 – 30 ppm

not used

Coagulant aids (e.g. polyacrylamide)

0.2 – 4 ppm

not used

Antiscalants (e.g. polymaleic acid)

1 – 2 ppm

1 – 2 ppm

Acid (H2SO4)

pH 6 – 7

pH 6 – 7

Antifoaming agents (e.g. polyglycol)

not used

0.1 ppm

Heavy metals (in varying concentrations)

iron, chromium, nickel, molybdenum (from stainless steel)

copper, nickel (from heat exchangers)

Cleaning chemicals

alkaline (pH 11-12) or acidic (pH 2-3) solutions containing detergents (e.g. dodecylsulphate), complexing agents (e.g. EDTA), oxidants (e.g. sodium perborate) and biocides (e.g. formaldehyde)

acidic (pH 2) solution containing corrosion inhibitors such as benzotriazole derivates

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RO reject streams, which have a higher density than seawater, will sink to the bottom and spread over the sea floor in shallow coastal waters. Here, they may affect benthic communities as a consequence of high salt concentrations and residual chemicals. In contrast, reject streams of distillation plants, which are typically positively or neutrally buoyant, will more likely affect the pelagic community. However, it must be pointed out that mixing and dispersal of a discharge plume is to a large extent controlled by site-specific oceanographic conditions, such as currents, tides, water depth, bottom and shoreline topography.

Physical properties of reject streams Salinity and temperature of the reject stream are the most prominent parameters in studies concerned with the environmental impacts of desalination plants. Both parameters depend on the desalination process used and ambient seawater properties. They influence the density of the reject stream, which affects spreading of the plume in the discharge site and therefore the dispersal range and dilution rate of chemical constituents in the reject streams. Salinity RO plant reject streams usually have a salinity of 60-70 psu, depending on feedwater salinity and the concentrating effect of the process. The brine blowdown of distillation plants may also have a salinity of around 70 psu, but it is diluted with a threefold amount of cooling water to a value of around 50 psu before discharge. Dilution with cooling water in thermal plants results in a salt concentration that is rarely more than 15% higher than ambient seawater salinity (Mickley 1995), whereas the RO brine may contain twice the seawater concentration. Temperature Thermal discharges are produced by distillation plants only, where both brine and cooling water are increased in temperature. Differences of 5-15 °C above ambient seawater temperature are common, whereas the temperature of the RO concentrate is close to ambient. Density Reject streams of RO plants have a higher density than seawater due to high salt concentrations. The discharge plume will therefore sink to the bottom and spread over the sea floor in shallow waters unless it is dissipated by a diffuser system. For MSF plants, the influence of temperature on density must further be considered. As both parameters have contrary effects on density, the distillation discharge may either be positively, neutrally or negatively buoyant depending on ambient density stratification, but will in most cases be neutrally or positively buoyant due to the higher effect of temperature.

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Dissolved oxygen Oxygen becomes less soluble in seawater with increasing temperature and salinity levels. The desalination process may therefore affect dissolved oxygen levels in seawater. However, the main influence on oxygen levels in thermal plants will be due to deaeration and dosing of oxygen scavengers like sodium bisulfite (SBS) to inhibit corrosion. SBS is also commonly used for removal of residual chlorine from the RO feedwater to prevent membrane damage. This may deplete oxygen as a side-effect, especially when overdosing occurs.

Pre-treatment and chemical properties of reject streams Chemical pre-treatment of the intake water is a necessity in most desalination plants to improve plant performance and to increase intervals between shutdowns for cleaning or replacement of components. In thermal plants, the heat exchanger systems in contact with seawater and brine are particularly prone to biological fouling, scaling and corrosion. In RO plants, the most vulnerable point of the system is the membrane, which is permeable to water but not to most dissolved and suspended compounds that may accumulate on the membrane and cause “fouling” by micro-organisms, suspended matter or scale deposits. Conventional pre-treatment steps in both types of plants include scale and biofouling control. Basic differences are the removal of suspended material in RO plants, and the control of corrosion and foaming in distillation plants. The residuals and byproducts of pre-treatment and cleaning chemicals are often discharged along with the concentrate to the marine environment. Composition of the concentrate mainly depends on the quality of the intake seawater at the location of the plant, the desalination process and the pre-treatment and cleaning scheme. Chlorine Chlorine is usually injected either as chlorine gas or added as hypochlorite at the plant’s intake. Typical chlorine doses range between 0.5-2 mg/l in desalination plants, which is comparable to the treatment often applied for power plant cooling waters. Most oxidative capacity is lost during the desalination process due to selfdecomposition and the oxidant demand of the intake seawater. As most RO plants operate on polyamide membranes, which are sensitive to oxidizing chemicals, residual oxidative capacity is typically neutralized, usually with sodium bisulfite, before the feedwater enters the RO units to avoid membrane damage. Consequently, most RO discharges are characterized by very low to non-detectable levels of residual oxidants. However, it is possible that nonoxidizing biocides are used and discharged along with the brine. Residual chlorine levels are a major concern of distillation plant reject streams, as removal is usually not required in these plants unless environmental standards demand so. Approximately two thirds of the intake water is used for the purpose of cooling in thermal plants, while only one third serves as feedwater for desalination. In the Gulf, where large thermal plants predominate, both cooling water and desalination

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feedwater are treated with chlorine. Discharge levels of residual oxidants range between 0.2-0.5 mg/l (Lattemann and Höpner 2003). A disadvantage of chlorination is the need for intermittent shock treatment. Chlorine decomposes organic material into smaller fragments, which provides nutrients to surviving micro-organisms and often causes heavy re-growth. To control re-growth, chlorine concentrations are increased on a periodic basis, which can be as often as once or several times per day, with chlorine doses ranging between 6-8 mg/l in distillation plants (Lattemann and Höpner 2003). Due to environmental problems caused by residual chlorine and disinfection by-products, several neutralisation and alternative pre-treatment methods have been considered. Different chemicals can be used for neutralisation, of which sodium bisulfite is most commonly used in RO plants. Alternatives like sulphur dioxide and hydrogen peroxide have been suggested to treat thermal plant reject streams (Shams El Din and Mohammed 1998, Khordagui 1992). Heavy metals Metals may pass into the reject streams as a result of corrosion inside the plants. Copper-nickel alloys are common materials for heat exchanger surfaces in distillation plants, and brine contamination with copper is a problem frequently encountered in thermal desalination processes. Non-metal equipment and stainless steels prevail in RO desalination plants. The RO brine may thus contain traces of iron, nickel, chromium and molybdenum, but contamination with metals is generally below a critical level in plants that mainly use stainless steels. Antiscalants Antiscalants are added to the feedwater in both thermal and RO plants to prevent scale formation on heat exchanger surfaces, inside tubes, or on RO membranes. The term refers to polymeric substances with different chemical structures, in particular polyphosphates, phosphonates, polymaleic acids and polyacrylic acids. Polyphosphates and also sulphuric acid are still in use, though at a limited scale and predominantly in RO plants. The toxicity of all antiscalants to aquatic life is relatively low. Only problems of eutrophication have been observed near the outlets of desalination plants in the Gulf where polyphosphates were in use. Coagulants and coagulant aids (RO plants) Coagulants like ferric- or aluminium chloride are added to improve the filtration of suspended material from the RO feedwater. To enhance coagulation, coagulant aids (i.e. organic substances with high molecular masses like polyacrylamide) may be used, and pH of the feedwater is typically controlled with sulphuric acid. Coagulants and coagulant aids have a very low toxic potential. However, the discharge of solid material may cause a coloration of the reject stream if ferric salts are used (“red brines”), increase turbidity that could reduce light penetration and thus primary production, or could bury sessile benthic organisms.

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Antifoaming agents (thermal plants) To reduce foaming in thermal plants, antifoaming agents like polyethylene and polypropylene glycol are typically added to the feedwater. Polyglycols are not toxic, but may be rather persistent in the environment due to a poor biodegradability. Adverse environmental effects are not to be expected with regard to generally low dosage levels and sufficient dilution following discharge. Cleaning chemicals (RO plants) RO cleaning intervals are typically three to six months depending on the quality of the intake water and the efficiency of the pre-treatment scheme. The cleaning procedure depends on the type of membrane fouling. Alkaline solutions (pH 11 - 12) are used to remove silt deposits and biofilms from membranes, while acidic solutions (pH 2 - 3) are applied to dissolve metal oxides or scales. Cleaning solutions often contain additional chemicals to improve membrane cleaning, such as detergents (e.g. dodecylsulphate, dodecylbenzene sulphonate) or oxidants (e.g. sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite), which may be harmful to aquatic life if discharged without treatment. After cleaning or prior to storage, membranes are typically disinfected. For this purpose, either oxidizing biocides such as chlorine and hydrogen peroxide or non-oxidizing biocides like formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde or isothiozole can be applied to the membrane. All biocides are highly effective substances and hazardous to aquatic life if discharged to the marine environment. Cleaning chemicals (thermal plants) To remove alkaline scales from heat exchanger surfaces, distillation plants are typically washed with warm acidic seawater. Chemical inhibitors (e.g. benzotriazole derivates) are often added to protect the plant from corrosion. As dosage of inhibitors is low, acutely toxic effects are unlikely to occur, but biotic and abiotic degradation of this substance is relatively slow.

Impacts on the Gulf Although most of the chemical constituents of desalination plant reject streams may have adverse effects on the marine environment, some compounds are of particular concern for marine organisms, such as biocides or heavy metals. The focus of this section will be on chlorine and copper discharges by MSF distillation plants. Estimates of total discharge loads are presented for the entire Gulf. As the geographical distribution of desalination plants defines the pattern of chemical discharges, the highest inputs occur in the shallow southern areas of the Gulf. To calculate chemical loads, information on effluent concentrations and effluent volumes of desalination plants is required. Typical effluent concentrations of chlorine and copper were derived from a literature review, while effluent volumes depend on the product water recovery rate and the amount of freshwater produced. It is assumed that capacities equal one tenth of the intake seawater in

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MSF plants. As the combined intake (cooling water and desalination feedwater) is usually chlorinated, residual chlorine levels are present in the cooling water and brine discharge. The estimated chlorine load is therefore based on a product to effluent ratio of 1:9. In contrast, a product to brine ratio of 1:2 is assumed for copper. Copper concentrations found in literature usually refer to the brine blowdown only, whereas copper concentrations in cooling water discharges of desalination plants could not be obtained. Chlorine loads A typical chlorine level in the MSF discharge is 0.25 mg/l, although higher levels were occasionally reported (Lattemann and Höpner 2003). Assuming that the trend is towards low chlorine doses for economic and ecological reasons, the estimate of chlorine loads will be based on an effluent concentration of 0.25 mg/l. With a product to effluent ratio of 1:9, a fixed ratio of 2.25 kg chlorine per day per 1,000 m3/day can be established between product capacity and chlorine load (Höpner and Lattemann 2002). With regard to the installed MSF capacity of 9.7 mill. m3/day, chlorine discharges into the Gulf may amount to 21.9 tons per day. Copper loads Copper concentrations in the brine of MSF plants were reviewed by Oldfield and Todd (1996), who pointed out that levels will be less than 100 μg/l in modern plants with good corrosion control. The lowest reported value was 15 μg/l in the MSF plant in Al Jubail, Saudi Arabia (Mannaa 1994). Based on a level of 15 μg/l and a product to brine ratio of 1:2, the standard ratio between product capacity and chemical load is 30 g copper per day per 1,000 m3/day (Höpner and Lattemann 2002). Projected to the installed MSF capacity in the Gulf, the daily discharge load is approximately 292 kg of copper. With regard to the unknown contribution of MSF plant cooling water and possibly higher effluent concentrations, the value should be understood as a conservative estimate. Environmental fate and impacts of chlorine Following discharge, chlorine levels are rapidly reduced by dilution and selfdegradation. Shams El Din et al. (2000) reported a high decomposition up to 90 % in direct sunlight and warm seawater within 45 minutes. Assuming a discharge level of 0.25 mg/l, of which 90 % are decomposed, the environmental chlorine concentration near the outlet could be around 25 μg/l. For comparison, Ali and Riley (1986) observed levels of 30-100 μg/l in the discharge site of a desalination plant, and Abdel-Jawad and Al-Tabtabaei (1999) estimated a level of 50 μg/l in 1 km distance from the outlet, both referring to the coastal waters of Kuwait. Several toxicological studies have shown that chlorine is highly toxic to many aquatic species, even at low concentrations in the range of 100 μg/l or less. Chlorine must therefore be classified as a major pollutant of desalination plant reject streams, for which concentration limits should be established to maintain water quality and to avoid toxic conditions to marine life. Based on toxicological data from a wide spectrum of marine species, the U.S. EPA recommends a long-

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term water quality criterion for chlorine in seawater of 7.5 μg/l and a short-term criterion of 13 μg/l (EPA 2006). The environmental risk assessment of the EU for hypochlorite has determined a PNEC (predicted no effect concentration) for saltwater species of 0.04 ȝg/l free available chlorine (ECB 2005). Besides toxic effects, a major drawback of chlorination is the formation of halogenated organic by-products. In seawater, chlorine oxidises naturally present bromide ions to bromine, and both halogens react with organic seawater constituents. As only a few percent of the total added chlorine will be recovered as by-products, and by-product diversity is high, the environmental level of each substance is comparatively low. However, halogenated organics, in particular trihalomethanes such as bromoform, can clearly be detected in the vicinity of distillation plants in the Gulf (Ali and Riley 1986, Saeed et al. 1999). Although concentrations are probably below acutely toxic levels, the substances are still potentially harmful to marine life. Sufficient evidence exists that some have carcinogenic properties or may cause chronic effects during long-term exposure. Environmental fate and impacts of copper The presence of copper does not necessarily mean that it will adversely affect the environment. Natural concentrations range from 0.1 μg/l in oceanic environments to 100 μg/l in estuaries (Kennish 1997). In the Gulf, elevated copper levels were reported for coastal areas close to ports and heavy industry but decreased further offshore. For example, a gradual decline from 3.4 μg/l to 0.6 μg/l was observed on a transect from Doha, Qatar, to open Gulf water (Abdel-Moati and Kureishy 1997), while levels up to 25 μg/l were observed near Doha, Kuwait (Bou-Hamad et al. 1997). It is generally difficult to distinguish between natural copper levels and anthropogenic effects caused by industrial outfalls, offshore oil exploitation or the Gulf War oil spills (UNEP 1999). The reported discharge concentrations of desalination plants, however, are well within the range that could increase coastal copper concentrations. As copper is an essential micro-nutrient for most organisms, it might only become toxic if excess amounts become biologically available. Low brine contamination levels of 15 μg/l or less and dispersion following discharge reduce the risk of toxic conditions for aquatic life. Copper is - like most metal ions removed from the water column by transport into sediments. The accumulation in sediments, however, is a major concern of point discharges containing heavy metals, as sediment concentration could be significantly increased in the long term. From sediments, metals could be re-mobilized after a sudden change in environmental conditions, e.g. from aerobic to anaerobic, or could be assimilated by benthic organisms, which often form the basis of the marine food chain.

Conclusion High concern must be expressed over the chemical discharges, in particular of chlorine and copper, into the Gulf’s marine environment. This concern is based on the high toxicity of chlorine and the risks associated with copper accumulation in

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sediments. Besides the concern over single pollutants, it should be kept in mind that desalination plant effluents are multi-component wastes. The different waste components may have strengthening effects on each other, i.e. marine organisms may be affected by different toxic pollutants and may also be under stress from elevated salinity and temperature levels. However, little is known about the additive effects of high salinity, temperature and/or chemical residues on marine species, or about secondary (indirect) effects of the discharges on coastal ecosystems. A holistic study that investigates the impacts of desalination plants on the Gulf’s marine environment is still lacking. An in-depth study becomes even more pressing as desalination capacities continue to increase and the total discharge volume of plants reaches an order of magnitude that is comparable to fluvial runoff into the Gulf. Considering this dimension, it is not surprising that desalination plants were classified as a main source of land-based pollution in the Gulf (UNEP 1999). It must be assumed that desalination plant effluents affect seawater properties, though effects will in most cases be limited to the vicinity of outfalls. The dispersal range of many chemicals is limited by processes such as degradation (e.g. chlorine) or transport into sediments (e.g. copper). A daily discharge of 21.9 tons of chlorine and 292 kg of copper will therefore not produce measurable changes to the Gulf as a whole, but local pollution will certainly have a significant effect on coastal ecosystems in the near range of the discharge site, e.g. by causing increased mortality through toxic pollutant concentrations, or by increasing pollutant concentrations in marine biota (bio-accumulation) and in the food web (bio-magnification). This is especially true for the shallow areas along the Arabian shoreline, where capacities are high and desalination plants adjoin like pearls on a string. These areas also accommodate important ecosystems, such as algal mats, seagrass beds, coral reefs, saltmarshes and mangroves, which are particularly prone to desalination plant discharges due to their physical and ecological features (Höpner and Windelberg 1996). On the one hand, they are characterized by reduced water exchange and sediment mobility, which increases the residence time of pollutants, and on the other hand they are highly productive and diverse habitats that play an important role in the food web of the Gulf. In essence, they are key ecosystems of the Gulf’s marine environment that should be preserved and degradation by human activity, including desalination, avoided. In the Bay of Kuwait, for example, effluents with high concentrations of chlorine have been reported to affect Sulaibekhat and Dawhat Kazima mud flats (Scott 1995). The intertidal flats are known to be highly productive ecosystems that sustain numerous migratory birds as well as commercial fish and shrimp species. The chlorine pollution is probably attributed to the outfall site of Doha West power and desalination plant, which is located in the intertidal area of Sulaibekhat Bay. The plant has a seawater intake of about 10 mill. m3/day and effluent levels of chlorine may reach a maximum of 500 μg/l (Abdel-Jawad and Al-Tabtabaei 1999). The total daily chlorine load may amount to 4,500 kg. Considerable plume spreading has to be expected as most areas are shallower than 2 m with a maximum water depth of 5 m where the inlet opens into Kuwait Bay.

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In contrast, signals of copper contamination in water, sediment and organisms attributed to desalination activity are so far missing. Copper levels along the Saudi Arabian coastline, for example, are comparable to elsewhere in the Gulf and show no correlation to plant locations, but to organic-rich, fine-grained particles and are therefore higher in seagrass beds (Coles and McCain 1990).

What can be done to mitigate impacts? The impacts of a desalination plant on the marine environment depend on various factors of influences. This includes project specifics (e.g. plant size, type of process, use of chemicals, etc.) as well as the hydrographical and ecological characteristics of the site. It is therefore difficult to offer ready-made solutions for mitigating the environmental impacts of desalination plants. In general, discharges of pollutants should be minimized by avoiding and substituting harmful substances (such as chlorine) and by treating or disposing wastes adequately (e.g. cleaning chemicals). The hydrographical conditions in the discharge site should be able to dilute and disperse the salt and heat input, and to dilute, disperse and degrade any residual pollutants. The load and transport capacity of a site will primarily depend on water circulation and exchange rate as a function of currents, tides and surf, water depth, bottom and shoreline morphology. In general, exposed rocky or sandy shorelines with strong currents and surf may be preferred over shallow, sheltered sites with little water exchange. Water exchange will determine the ecosystem‘s time of exposure to pollutants. Sites of biological importance should also be avoided, for example natural habitats that are unique within a region (e.g. riffs on an otherwise sandy shoreline), that are worth protecting on a global scale (e.g. coral reefs, mangroves), that are important in terms of productivity or biodiversity, that are inhabited by protected, endangered or rare species, that are important feeding grounds or reproductive areas for a larger number of species or certain key species within a region, or that are important fishing or marine harvesting grounds. In order to identify all potential impacts of a project, it is recommendable to conduct a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study for every major desalination project. The main objective of an EIA is to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development through the identification of appropriate alternatives and mitigation measures in order to avoid, minimize, remediate or compensate for any adverse impact resulting directly or indirectly from a project. An EIA usually adopts a broad definition of “environment”, including also socioeconomic and environmental health effects as an integral part of the process. The World Health Organization and its Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO) are in the process of preparing a guidance document on “Desalination for Safe Water Supply”, which offers guidance on the health aspects of desalination and the requirements of EIA studies for desalination plants.

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Acknowledgements This paper presents the final step in a series of projects and publications we were involved in, including the publication of the book “Seawater Desalination, Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharges on the Marine Environment” (Desalination Publications, L'Aquila, Italy), the preparation of a Guidance Document for the “Environmentally Sound Management of Seawater Desalination Plants in the Mediterranean” (In: MAP Technical Reports Series No. 139, UNEP/MAP/MEDPOL, Athens, Greece), the participation in the research project “Assessment of the Composition of Desalination Plant Disposal Brines” funded by the Middle East Desalination Research Center (MEDRC, Muscat, Oman), and finally the contribution to the World Health Organization (WHO/EMRO) project “Desalination for Safe Water Supply”. We gratefully acknowledge the support we received from the before mentioned organizations. The findings and conclusions of this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of the supporting organizations.

References Abdel-Jawad, M. and Al-Tabtabaei, M. 1999. Impact of current power generation and water desalination activities on Kuwaiti marine environment. Proceedings of IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, San Diego, September 1999, 3: 231-240. Abdel-Moati, M. and Kureishy, T. 1997. Dissolved copper, cadmium and lead in the coastal waters of Qatar, Arabian Gulf. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 26: 143149. Ali, M. and Riley, J. 1986. The distribution of halomethanes in the coastal waters of Kuwait. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 17: 409-414. Bou-Hamad, S., Abdel-Jawad, M., Ebrahim, S., Al-Mansour, M. and Al-Hijji, A. 1997. Performance evaluation of three different pretreatment systems for seawater reverse osmosis technique. Desalination, 110: 85-92. Buros O. 1999. The ABCs of desalting, 2nd edition. FMC Corporation, published by the International Desalination Association (IDA), Topsfield, Massachusetts, USA and sponsored by the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC). Coles, S. and McCain, J. 1990. Environmental factors affecting benthic infaunal communities of the western Arabian Gulf. Marine Environmental Research, 29: 289315. EPA 1998. National recommended water quality criteria. U.S. EPA, National Center for Environmental Publications and Information, 11029 Kenwood Road, Cincinnati, Ohio 45242, USA, http://www.epa.gov/ost. Höpner, T. and Lattemann, S. 2002. Chemical impacts from seawater desalination plants a case study of the northern Red Sea. Desalination, 152: 133-140. Höpner, T. and Windelberg, J. 1996. Elements of environmental impact studies on coastal desalination plants. Desalination, 108: 11-18. IDA 2006. IDA Worldwide Desalting Plant Inventory, No. 19 in MS Excel format, Media Analytics Ltd., Oxford, UK.

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Kennish, M. 1997. Practical handbook of estuarine and marine pollution, 2nd edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 524 pp. Khordagui, H. 1992. Conceptual approach to selection of a control measure for residual chlorine discharge in Kuwait Bay. Environmental Management 16, 3: 309-316. Khordagui, H. 2002. Environmental impacts of power-desalination on the gulf marine ecosystem. In: Khan et al. (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp. 173-191. Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. 2003. Seawater Desalination - Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharges on the Marine Environment, Desalination Publications, L'Aquila, Italy, 142 pp. Mannaa, A. 1994. Environmental impacts of dual purpose plants. Desalination and Water Reuse, 41: 46-49. Mickley, M. 1995. Environmental Considerations for the Disposal of Desalination Concentrates, Desalination and Water Reuse, 54: 56-61. Morton, A., Callister, I. and Wade, N. 1996. Environmental impacts of seawater distillation and reverse osmosis processes. Desalination, 108: 1-10. Oldfield, J. and Todd, B. 1996. Environmental aspects of corrosion in MSF and RO desalination plants. Desalination, 108: 27-36. Saeed, T., Khordagui, H. and Al-Hashash, H. 1999. Contribution of power/desalination plants to the levels of halogenated volatile liquid hydrocarbons in the coastal areas of Kuwait. Desalination, 121: 49-63. Scott, D. 1995. A directory of wetlands in the Middle East. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and IWRB, Slimbridge, U.K., 560 pp. Shams El Din, A. and Mohammed, R. 1998. Kinetics of reaction between hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorite. Desalination, 115: 145-153. Shams El Din, A., Arain, R. and Hammoud, A. 2000. On the chlorination of seawater. Desalination, 129: 53-62. Shriadah, M.M.A. 1999. Heavy metals in mangrove sediments of the United Arab Emirates shoreline (Arabian Gulf). Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 116: 523-534. UNEP 1999. Overview on land-based sources and activities affecting the marine environment in the ROPME sea area, UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 168. UNEP/ GPA Coordination Office, P.O. Box 16227 2500 BE The Hague, The Netherlands and Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), Box 26388, Safat 13124, Kuwait, 127 pp.

Internet Sources ECB (2006): Risk Assessment Report for Sodium Hypochlorite, DRAFT of November 2005, European Chemicals Bureau (ECB) http://ecb.jrc.it/existing-chemicals/ EPA (2006): National Recommended Water Quality Criteria, http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nrwqc-2006.pdf

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Importance of the freshwater influx from the Shatt-AlArab River on the Gulf marine environment Faiza Al-Yamani Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait

Abstract: In the northern Gulf, the main source of freshwater is the Shatt AlArab River, which is formed by the confluence of Euphrates, Tigris and Karun Rivers. The river and its associated marshes present potential sources of nutrients, organics and pollutants (e.g., hydrocarbons, trace elements, and pesticides) to the Gulf. The importance of the Shatt Al-Arab on the northern Gulf ecosystem is undisputed. This chapter outlines the significance of the freshwater influx to the health of the Gulf ecosystem. However, ongoing and planned river basin modifications in upstream countries will have adverse impacts on the coastal marine environments. Since reliable recent discharge data are not available it is essential to establish immediately a monitoring system (for measuring river discharge and water quality) and in order to assess the current situation as well as expected future impacts on the aquatic environments. The environmental issues of the region have to be discussed and resolved at local, regional and international levels.

Introduction The Gulf has been the subject of increased interest and research studies since the 1991 oil spill incident in the Gulf, with emphasis on hydrodynamic modelling and circulation patterns, heat exchange, studies of pollutants, sediment transport and accumulation, nutrient chemistry and biodiversity. Among other variables the freshwater influx into the Gulf plays an important role regarding the dynamic of different marine ecosystems (Al-Yamani et al. 2007 a,b).

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The total average river runoff into the Gulf ranges from 1,456 m3/s (Reynolds 1993) to 1,750 m3/s (Al-Hassan 1999). The Zagros (in Iran) and Taurus (in Turkey) mountains serve as the main originating freshwater supply for the rivers running into the Gulf (Fig. 1). Major rivers that discharge into the Gulf are the Mand (annual mean discharge of 1,387 m3/s), the Hilleh (444 m3/s), the Hendijan (203 m3/s), the Karun (748 m3/s), and the Shatt Al-Arab (1,456 m3/s) (Reynolds 1993). However, Shatt Al-Arab, which is formed by the confluence of the Euphrates-Tigris-Karun Rivers, is the main source of freshwater to the northern Gulf. The flow of Shatt Al-Arab into the Gulf supports the surface water flow direction towards southwest where the northern shores of Saudi Arabia are located (Nadim et al. 2003).

Figure 1. Location of freshwater influx sources into the Gulf and estimated average discharge.

The Shatt Al-Arab River (Arabic: “Stream of the Arabs”) is the major source of fresh water to the northern Gulf. It has a length of 195 km and an average width of 500 m with a depth that varies from 8 - 15 m downstream to Basrah (Al-

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Ramadhan and Pastour 1987). The Shatt Al-Arab passes two major industrial agglomerations, the Iraqi port of Basrah and the Iranian port of Abadan before emptying into the Gulf.

Hydrological characteristics of the Shatt Al-Arab River There are no recent monthly discharge data available for the Shatt Al-Arab. Previous estimates of the annual-mean discharge varied from 35 km3/yr (Saad, 1978a, Johns et al. 2003), being equivalent to 0.15 m/yr when being evenly distributed over the surface of the Gulf, to 45 km3/yr (0.19 m/yr) (Wright 1974, Reynolds 1993). However, these values are likely an overestimate of current river discharge rates, which have been reduced to an unknown extent by dams that were built on the upstream rivers by Iran, Iraq, and Syria (Kamp and Sadrinasab 2006). Therefore, water removal and diversion, as well as natural seasonal and multi-annual variations affect the total volume of freshwater discharge into the Gulf. Local seasonal rainfall during winter generally causes an increase in flow in January, February, and sometimes March. In April, the melting snow of the Armenian mountains causes another increase in discharge rates that reaches its peak flow in May and June (Al-Hassan 1999). Minimum discharge rates occur in the hot summer season (July-September) as well as fall (October-November). The velocity of the river current (downstream) varies depending on its water level. During the flood season (January to June) the current reaches 4 knots (P.G.P. 1967), while during the dry season (July to December) the velocity drops down to 2-3 knots (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985). The total catchment area of the Shatt Al-Arab River is 35,200 km2 (Ali 2005).

Tides The Shatt Al-Arab delta as well as its ecological properties are influenced by the tides of the northern Gulf. The dominant tide is of a semi-diurnal type with two high and two low waters occurring daily (see Gulf chapter of this book), with inequalities in heights and time of occurrence (Al-Ramadhan and Pastour 1987). The tidal range near the mouth is between two and three metres and decreases to 0.5 m at Basrah (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985).

Temperature and salinity Shatt Al-Arab waters have a wide seasonal temperature ranging between 10 ºC in winter and 30 ºC in summer (Abaychi and Mustafa 1988). The salinity of the upper Shatt Al-Arab is below 2.0 psu, though recent reports indicate a rise in salinity of its waters due to irrigation activities. At Basrah the salinity is influenced by tidal levels and wind direction and ranges between 1.5-2.0 psu

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(ppt), but could reach 6-7 psu under conditions of low river water volumes. In the lower reaches of the river higher salinity levels are found due to the intrusion of the marine waters. The annual mean of the surface water salinity in the estuary varies from about 5 psu near the river mouth (Darmoin and Lindqvist 1988) to >30 psu in the open waters of the northern Gulf. The River waters are well-mixed, with limited vertical stratification of temperature (Saad and Kell 1975) and salinity (Haq et al. 1978).

Dissolved oxygen The waters of the Shatt Al-Arab River are well oxygenated (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985). The oxygen concentrations in surface water are usually 50% of saturation (Maulood et al. 1979), and generally, there are no differences with depth.

Nutrients The waters of the Shatt Al-Arab River are a source of nutrients and particulate organic matter to the northwestern region of the Gulf (Talling 1980, Saad 1982, Abaychi et al. 1988). The concentrations of phosphate range between 0.18 to 0.70 μg-at P-PO4/l (μM/l), the range of nitrate is 26.12 to 52.39 μg-at N-NO3/l, and of nitrite is from 0.53 to 0.70 μg-at N-NO2/l (Abaychi et al. 1988). Recent published nutrient levels for the river are unfortunately not available.

Transparency and suspended sediments During the flood period, transparency of Shatt Al-Arab waters ranges from about 50-70 cm (Secchi disc depth in April 1974) (Saad and Kell 1975), suggesting a considerable shedding of sediment from more turbid waters upstream (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985). Only 10% of the sediment deposited in the Shatt Al-Arab River is brought by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, while 90% is carried to the Shatt Al-Arab by the Karun River (Cressey 1958). Transparency values greater than 1 m are reported seasonally from Shatt Al-Arab at Basrah (Arndt and AlSaadi 1975, Saad 1978a), which indicate reduction in the sediment load during low river flows (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985). The average suspended matter load was estimated to reach about 125 mg/l (Hartmann et al. 1971). The river has a total sediment transport rate of 4,700-7,000 kg/sec at Fao, of which about 30 kg/sec of the sediment load is transported to the Gulf according to Bagnold (1966), while the remaining load is suggested to be deposited in-situ. Sedimentation rate at the mouth of the Shatt Al-Arab is about 0.05 m/year and the net annual sediment discharge entering the Gulf is estimated to be about 0.93 million tons (Karim and Salman 1987). A more detailed knowledge regarding

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sediment accumulation and sediment transport would be useful since fine sediments may act as traps for hydrocarbons and other organic matter particularly in the estuarine and coastal environments.

Pollutants in Shatt Al-Arab waters Several grey literature reports indicate that the City of Basrah is a major source of a cocktail of pollutants from power stations, paper industry, oil refineries, petrochemical industry, chemical fertilizer companies and the sewerage system, which eventually discharge into the Shatt Al-Arab waterway. Trace metal pollutants (Abaychi and Mustafa 1988), hydrocarbon (Douabul and Al-Saad 1985, Bedair and Al-Saad 1992), and pesticides (DouAbul et al. 1987, DouAbul et al. 1988) were encountered in the waters of Shatt Al-Arab. Al-Imarah et al. (2003) reported the following mean concentrations for pollutants in surface sediments of the Shatt Al-Arab in October 1995: 2.63 - 15.39 μg/g for total petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs), 53.52 - 81.6 μg/g for Nickel, and 32.6 - 62.04 μg/g for Vanadium. Al-Timari et al. (2003) measured the total petroleum hydrocarbon concentration in dissolved and suspended matter in Shatt Al-Arab and Khor AlZubair waters. They reported a range of 0.91 μg/l (at Al-Zubair bridge region) to 80 μg/l (in Al-Amique port) of dissolved matter for petroleum hydrocarbons and a range of 0.8 μg/g (Al-Zubair bridge and Khor Al-Zubair port regions) to 33.4 μg/g (in Khor Abdulla) of suspended matter for petroleum hydrocarbons.

Effects of river discharge on the Gulf ecosystem The waters from Shatt Al-Arab and its associated marshes generally carry lower salinity and nutrient-rich turbid waters into the northwestern Gulf. In addition, river-borne pollutants such as hydrocarbons, trace elements and pesticides are transported by the river to the northern Gulf waters. In the following sections, the effects of the river discharge are presented in detail.

Hydrodynamics The Shatt Al-Arab runoff in the northwest of the Gulf supports the counterclockwise circulation of the Gulf. The river discharge leads to the formation of a classical river plume of a width of 30–40 km depending on tides and amount of inflow. Usually, as a plume moves away from its source it widens because of entrainment of the surrounding fluid at its edges. Tidal mixing dissolves the river plume with ambient marine waters along the coast of Saudi Arabia. Local tidal mixing zones are also evident along the Iranian coastline. Being surrounded by surface waters of lower salinity, a largely stagnant region establishes in the centre of the northwestern part of the Gulf (Reynolds 1993).

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Temperature and salinity The mean annual temperature of the northern waters of Kuwait including Sabiya, off Bubiyan and Failaka Islands is 22.2 ºC ± 0.58, which is slightly lower than the southern offshore waters (24.6 ºC ± 0.50) off Kubbar Island (Al-Yamani et al. 2004). There is a predictable summer-winter difference in seawater temperature with the highest mean temperature recorded in July and August (30.5 ºC) and lowest mean temperature recorded in January and February (14.0 ºC). Seasonal fresh water supply from the Shatt Al-Arab has local effects on the salinity of the northern Gulf marine environment. A horizontal salinity gradient exists in the Gulf, with lowest salinities occurring in the Shatt Al-Arab estuary, Khor AlZubair estuary, Khor Al-Sabiya, and Khor Abdulla waters. A clear spatial distribution trend of salinity is evident in Kuwait’s waters, with lowest mean salinities occurring in its northern waters (33.82 psu ± 0.44) due to the diluting influence of the fresh water inflow from Shatt Al-Arab, and relatively higher mean salinities (40.36 psu ± 0.09) occurring in Kuwait Bay and the southern waters of Kuwait (Al-Yamani et al. 2004). These average values are modified by an annual cycle depending on the amount of freshwater input from Shatt Al-Arab. For example during spring floods, the effect of the Shatt Al-Arab water extends five kilometers inside the Gulf (Saad 1978a,b) including Kuwait Bay (Brewer et al. 1978) and reaching to the southern and offshore waters of Kuwait. Current annual and monthly discharge rates for Shatt Al-Arab River are not available. A detailed hydrodynamic study for the northern Gulf waters is needed, which has to include discharge rates as well as accompanying meteorological conditions.

Transparency, turbidity and suspended sediments As the principal fluvial input to the Gulf, the river discharges a large quantity of suspended sediments into the northern Gulf, hence affecting the transparency of its waters. Transparency (based on Secchi disk depth) of Kuwait’s waters increases from the northern waters of Khor Al-Sabiya (annual mean of 0.42 ± 0.05 m; range of 0.03-1.00 m) to the southern offshore waters (annual mean of 6.73 ± 0.56 m; range of 2.00-18.10 m) (Al-Yamani et al. 2004). There is a northsouth gradient in the turbidity levels of Kuwait’s Gulf waters. The mean turbidity value is 25.07 ± 1.75 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit), with a minimum recorded value of 0.10 NTU in the southern offshore waters to a maximum value of 413.20 NTU in the northern waters of Khor Al-Sabiya. The high turbidity in Khor Al-Sabiya waters is due to discharges from the rivers, the shallowness of the Khor, nature of the seabed, and effect of wind and tidal currents (Al-Ghadban and Salman 1993). Such highly turbid waters cause light limitation and thus a reduced plankton biomass (Al-Yamani et al. 2004, 2007a,b). The fluvial loads of the Shatt Al-Arab and sand and dust from north-westerly storm winds (Shamal) are the main sources for the detrital sediments accumulating in the northwestern Gulf (Aqrawi 1994). Saleh et al. (1999) reported that the Bahra Sabkha in the northeastern coast of Kuwait Bay is dominated by detrital carbonate grains of

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mixed fluvial deltaic and aeolian origin. A recent study by Al-Ghadban et al. (1999) found a north-south change in bathymetry in Kuwait’s waters influenced by the turbid discharge of the Shatt Al-Arab River. This study also revealed a significant recent deposition of sediments in the northern territorial waters of Kuwait, which they attributed to the draining of marshes in southern Iraq. Hence, Kuwait’s northern marine environment is considered the receiving basin for the influx of river sediments and associated pollutants from the Shatt Al-Arab estuary (Al-Ghadban and El-Sammak 2005).

Nutrient levels Hadi et al. (1984) reported that the Shatt Al-Arab estuary pours a volume of about 2 x 1010 m3 nutrient-rich water into the Gulf each year. A significant inverse correlation was found between nitrate and salinity, which indicates that the main source of nitrate in the studied area originates from terrestrial drainage via the Shatt Al-Arab River (Abaychi et al. 1988). Annual mean concentration of nitrates in Kuwait’s waters during 2003-2006 was 3.70 ± 0.34 μg-at N-NO3/l with a range of < 0.1-111.27 μg-at N-NO3/l. Nitrate levels are higher in the northern waters of Kuwait (11.39 ± 2.00 μg-at N-NO3/l) and levels gradually decrease southward with increasing distance to the freshwater influx (2.27 ± 0.46 μg-at N-NO3/l). The current nitrate levels reported for northern Kuwait’s waters are higher than those reported by Abaychi et al. (1988), who provided an estimate of 0.42 μg-at NNO3/l for the northern Gulf marine waters, while their estimate for the lower Shatt Al-Arab River was 29 μg-at N-NO3/l. The recent increase in nitrate levels in the northern Gulf waters might be attributed to the discharge of untreated sewage and agricultural wastewater into the Shatt Al-Arab River. The mean concentration of dissolved orthophosphate in the lower reaches of Shatt Al-Arab River is 0.57 μg-at P-PO4/l, which increases southward to 1.32 μgat P-PO4/l in the Shatt Al-Arab estuary and reaches a maximum of 1.44 μg-at PPO4/l in the marine waters of the Gulf within the immediate vicinity of the discharge (Abaychi et al. 1988). Higher contents of phosphorus are usually adsorbed to suspended fine particles (which compromise the bulk of sediment transported by the Shatt Al-Arab River) (Purser and Seibold 1973), which are released at higher salinity levels in the Gulf, thus increasing the concentration there. The current annual mean concentration of phosphates in the northern waters of Kuwait is 0.44 ± 0.45 μg-at P-PO4/l (range of < 0.01- 4.61 μg-at P-PO4/l), which decreases southward to 0.28 ± 0.26 μg-at P-PO4/l (Al-Yamani et al. 2007 a,b). The annual maximum (4.61 μg-at P-PO4/l in the waters above northwestern Failaka Island and off southern Bubiyan Island) occurs in the spring period, when the river discharge is at its high levels. Silicate concentration exhibits a decreasing trend in a southerly direction. Silicate levels in the northern waters of Kuwait are higher (31.25 ± 14.67 μg-at Si-SiO3/l) than in its southern waters (6.35 ± 4.17 μgat Si-SiO3/l) (Al-Yamani et al. 2007 a,b). Owing to dilution, the impact of the Shatt Al-Arab River as a source of nutrients seems to be confined to the NW region of the Gulf.

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Total organic carbon The distribution of nutrients and organic matter in the NW Gulf appears to be mainly determined by the Shatt Al-Arab discharge. The determination of total organic carbon is an essential part of any site characterization or ecological assessment. According to the Practical Handbook of Marine Science (1994), the range of total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations in rivers is 15-10 mg/l, for estuaries 1-10 mg/l and for coastal waters is 1-6 mg/l. Kuwait’s northern waters generally have higher TOC concentration (annual mean of 2.04 ± 0.11 mg/l; range of 1.12-3.01 mg/l) than its southern waters (annual mean of 1.67 ± 0.08 mg/l; range of 1.06-2.47 mg/l). This means that the TOC levels are well within the tolerable range. Moreover, total organic carbon estimates provide a measure of how much organic matter occurs in sediments. TOC content in surface sediments of the Shatt Al-Arab River (based on the method of El Wakeel and Riley 1957), was found to vary between 0.14% of sediment and 0.96% (Abaychi et al. 1988), which are rather low values, probably due to dilution by dust fallout. In general, the TOC content of open water sediments average 0.8% while average for tidal creek habitats is 1.2% (Hyland et al. 2000).

Plankton communities The ecologic productivity in the northern waters of the Gulf is highly variable and closely limited to the nutrient distribution in these waters (Al-Hassan and Hussain 1985, Grasshoff 1976, Al-Yamani et al. 2004). Primary production seems to be affected by turbidity levels and nutrient enrichment, partly due to the fresh water inputs from the north. Chlorophyll concentration shows a strong gradient from north to south in Kuwait's waters. Phytoplankton biomass and primary production are significantly lower in the southern waters (biomass of 1.5 μg/l; primary productivity of 42.2 μg C/l/d), compared to the northern waters off Kuwait influenced by the river influx (biomass of 4.4 μg/l; productivity of 453.4 μg C/l/d) (Al-Yamani et al. 2006). Sporadic algal blooms contribute to high levels of chlorophyll-a, reaching up to 1212 μg/l (density of 42 x 106 cell/l) at times, was recorded in July 2002 during a Nitzschia sp. bloom in Khor Al-Sabiya waters (AlYamani et al. 2006). Such high values of phytoplankton biomass and density correlate with high nutrient concentrations and lower turbidity. Intensive algal blooms have severe impacts on the ecosystem, e.g., in summer 1999, an algal bloom of Karenia selliforme (Heil et al. 2001) and Prorocentrum rhathymum (AlYamani et al. 2004) in Kuwait’s northern waters caused a massive fish kill. However, more detailed studies are needed to link river discharge with harmful bloom formation in the northern Gulf as the sole cause. Phytoplankton species composition also affects the distribution of herbivorous zooplankton communities (Al-Yamani et al. 2004), which are thus influenced by the river influx into the Gulf.

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Fisheries Grabe and Lees (1992) indicated that Khor Al-Sabiya might serve as a nursery habitat for the two penaeids Metapenaeus affinis and Penaeus semisulcatus. Many of the commercially important species (shrimp Metapenaeus affinis, pomfret /zobaidy Pampus argenteus, shad/suboor Tenualosa ilisha, yellow-fin seabream /sheim Acanthopagrus latus and others) are directly dependent on the Shatt AlArab River as well as the marsh and estuarine areas for spawning, feeding and as a nursery habitat. Therefore, any changes in the volume or characteristics of the fresh water regime could have devastating effects on the distribution and abundance of the above species. The loss of the Iraqi marshes has caused significant declines in coastal fisheries (e.g. shad and pomfret), likely due to the loss of spawning areas and nursery grounds, as well as to increased pollution. In general, since 1995, Kuwait's commercial landings of suboor and zobaidy have been decreasing annually (KISR unpublished data). The penaeid shrimp, Metapenaeus affinis, is reported to have drastically declined, affecting the area's lucrative shrimping business. There is a major concern that the recent and planned river basin modifications in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq will drastically reduce Shatt Al-Arab River discharge into the Gulf and permanently remove seasonal flooding. Such modifications of the river regime will have impacts on the northern Gulf's ecosystems with serious implications for fisheries.

Indicator species of river influence Several marine and estuarine species such as migratory fish (Pampus argenteus, Tenualosa ilisha) could be used as excellent indicators to assess the level of pollution in the river and the northern Gulf marine environment, which is influenced by the river system. Moreover, the estuarine copepods Acartia (Acartiella) faoensis, Pseudodiaptomus arabicus and Bestiolina arabica could serve as indicators of the extent of freshwater inflow into the Gulf.

Major pollutants of the Shatt Al-Arab River There is a lack of current data and information regarding the transfer of pollutants (such as PAHs, and PCBs) via river waters into the Gulf. This situation makes it difficult to provide a detailed assessment of the intra-regional transport pathways and impacts on the aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, the description of the situation regarding transboundary transfer of pollutants via rivers in the region is based on a few earlier studies, some of which are more than a decade old. The recent wars in the northern Gulf region prevented collaborative studies and rendered the northern Gulf region inaccessible for pollution studies concerning marine-riverine interactions. The author hopes that this paper may encourage scientists from the Gulf Region as well as from abroad to collaborate and to fill this gap in knowledge.

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Hydrocarbon (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/PAHs) Douabul and Al-Saad (1985) estimated that Shatt Al-Arab River transports about 48 tons of oil residues to the Gulf annually. The sediment of the Shatt Al-Arab and immediate offshore environment of the northern Gulf displays a wide range of concentrations between 0.4 to 44.0 μg/g petroleum hydrocarbons (expressed as Kuwait crude oil equivalents) (DouAbul et al. 1988). Hydrocarbons may enter the river system at low levels from domestic and industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, navigation and transportation, and also from atmospheric fall-out (AlMudaffar et al. 1990). ROPME (1987) estimated dust fallout over the southern parts of Iraq to amount to 6.90 g/m2 annually. Khalaf and Al-Hashash (1983) reported an average deposition rate of aeolian dust in the NW Gulf to amount to one mm/per year. A few studies were conducted on the distribution of petroleum residues and PAHs in the sediments of the Shatt Al-Arab River and the NW Gulf (e.g. DouAbul et al. 1984, Zarba et al. 1985, Al-Hashimi and Salman 1985, Karim and Salman 1987). These studies indicate elevated levels of PAHs in the surficial sediments of the Shatt Al-Arab River and in the northern Gulf due to oil refinery activities in Iraq, port facilities, shipping operations and dredging of navigational channels. DouAbul et al. (1984) reported mean petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations (> 20 μg/g), near port areas (Basrah, Abadan and Fao) and in the Iraqi side of Khor Abdulla (mean of 22 μg/g Kuwait crude oil equivalents).

Trace elements Rivers contribute substantially to the total input of trace metals to the sea (Windom 1981). Several agricultural and industrial developments and facilities exist along the Shatt A-Arab river banks (Abaychi and DouAbul 1985). Their waste waters are a source of metal pollution. Trace metals are also contributed to the river through aeolian dust. There are diverse views on the level of pollution in the Shatt Al-Arab sediments ranging from none (Abaychi and DouAbul 1985) to elevated (Al-Shahristani and Al-Attiya 1978). Abaychi and Al-Saad (1988) measured trace elements in sediment and migratory fish from the Gulf and the Shatt Al-Arab River. Their results indicated that the concentrations of trace elements are within the acceptable range.

Pesticides (organochlorine pesticides) Organochlorine pesticides enter the Shatt Al-Arab River through drainage from farmed lands of the Tigris and Euphrates basin, either adsorbed onto particulate matters or dissolved. Eventually, most contaminated particles settle to the Shatt Al-Arab sediments and only minor amounts are transported to the Gulf. DouAbul et al. (1987) reported that Hor Al-Hammar Lake and associated marshes in southern Iraq was sprayed with DDT and Aldrin-Dieldrin during 1950 and 1976.

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In their study, they observed high concentrations of ™DDT residues, Endrin and Dieldrin in the Indian shad (Tenualosa ilisha) muscles collected from the Shatt Al-Arab Estuary. Indian shad is a migratory fish species with high fat content, which migrates between the northern Gulf waters and Iraq’s marshes and river system for breeding and spawning. Anderlini et al. (1981) confirmed that residues of DDT were found in the oyster, Pinctada magratifera, which were collected from the coast of Kuwait and attributed that to the input from the Shatt Al-Arab River. Some recently analyzed sediment samples from areas near Bubiyan Island in northern Kuwait’s waters have also reported organochlorines, including Lindane, DDT and PCBs in ρg/g quantities (ROPME 1996, 2003), therefore indicating their presence in the environment, possibly influenced by river discharges. The Gulf countries, namely, Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have completely banned the use, import and export of DDT and Diledrin.

Conclusion The presence of the Shatt Al-Arab River and its associated marshes influence the hydrodynamics, water quality and the biological productivity of the northern Gulf and provide good spawning and nursery grounds for several commercial fish and shrimp species. The unavailability of the Shatt Al-Arab river discharge data is the single biggest drawback to understanding the long-term driving forces for the northern Gulf marine environment. If there is a drastic reduction of freshwater flow from the Shatt Al-Arab due to the recent damming and diversion projects, there will be an intrusion of seawater into the River, and an absence of seasonal flooding, which will cause an increase in salinity of the northwestern Gulf. This will affect the structure of the plankton communities and their density distributions as well as fish species and their relative abundances. The changes in river outflow and the coastal pollution caused by upstream agricultural, urban and industrial developments have the potential to impact the Gulf ecosystem with far reaching ecological and socioeconomic consequences. Because the Shatt Al-Arab drainage system is a potential source of large-scale introduction of agrochemicals and several other industrial and urban contaminants to the Gulf, it is vital that this area is screened for Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and the other contaminants originating from land-based sources. Hence, water quality and pollution monitoring programs (water, sediment and biota) and hydrographic/oceanographic as well as fisheries surveys are needed for the Shatt Al-Arab and its associated marshes, as well as for the northern Gulf in order to be able to asses the possible impacts due to alterations in the river regime.

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Need for further action There is a large deficit in the general information on the dynamics and the relationships between Shatt Al-Arab and the Gulf ecosystem. Monthly discharge rates for the Shatt Al-Arab have not been available to the concerned scientific community for the past three decades. Urgent action is required in order to provide regular information on the water discharge and water chemistry as well. Because adequate knowledge on the ecology of the southern Iraqi marshes is lacking, the biology and spawning behaviour of some of the migratory species or shared stocks (e.g. shrimps, suboor, zobaidy, sheim) need to be studied. Hence, joint research programs are needed involving scientists from all concerned countries (e.g., Iraq, Iran and Kuwait). The following actions are recommended to be undertaken in the near future: 1.

2.

A rigorous environmental impact assessment study to be conducted prior to the completion of the civil and construction works (upstream) related to the rivers and associated marshes in order to evaluate the potential impact on the marine environment of the northern Gulf. The establishment under ROPME of a regional database for the exchange of information and data regarding Shatt Al-Arab and Shatt Al-Basrah/Khor AlZubair flow rates, as well as information on any new river-related developments. The following studies are recommended: a. A comprehensive description of the current oceanographic, hydrological, and ecological conditions in Iraq, Iran and Kuwait, prior to any major upcoming changes in hydrological or environmental character. Systematic environmental monitoring and satellite imagery as well as GIS technologies need to be incorporated. b. An assessment of the potential impact of flow reduction on the northern waters of the Gulf as a result of the Southeast Anatolia Project and other damming projects. c. Formulation of an environmental policy to conserve and rehabilitate the impacted environments of Shatt Al-Arab and its associated marshes as well as the northern Gulf in relevance to river diversion and damming activities.

Acknowledgements Sincere thanks to Mrs. Hannan Al-Dahmi, the chief librarian at the Mariculture and Fisheries Department at Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research for her assistance with the literature search and to Mrs. Kholood Al-Rifaie for summarizing the recent oceanographic data for Kuwait’s waters.

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Haq, M.F., Al-Saadi, H.A. and Hameed, H.A. 1978. Phytoplankton ecology of Shatt AlArab River at Basrah, Iraq. Verhandlungen Internationale Vereinigung für Limnologie, 20: 1552-1556. Hartmann, M., Lang, H., Seibold, E. and Walger, E. 1971. Oberflächensedimente im Persischen Golf und Golf von Oman. I. Gelogisch-hydrologischer Rahmen und erste sedimentologische Ergebnisse. (Surface sedimentation in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. I. Geological-hydrological conditions and preliminary sedimentological results). Meteor-Forschungsergebn. C4, 181-194. Hyland J., Karakassis, I., Magni, P, Petrov, A. and Shine J. 2000. Summary Report: Results of initial planning meeting of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Benthic Indicator Group. 70p. Heil, C.A., Glibert, P.M., Al-Sarawi, M.A., Faraj, M., Behbehani, M. and Husain, M. 2001. First record of a fish-killing Gymnodinium sp. bloom in Kuwait Bay, Arabian Sea: chronology and potential causes. Marine Ecology Progress Series Marine Ecology Progress Service, 214: 15-23. Johns, W.E., Yao, F., Olson, D.B., Josey, S.A., Grist, J.P. and Smeed, D.A. 2003. Observations of seasonal exchange through the Straits of Hormuz and the inferred freshwater budgets of the Persian Gulf. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (C12), 3391. Kamp, J. and Sadrinasab, M. 2006. The circulation of the Persian Gulf: a numerical study. Ocean Science, 2: 27-41. Karim, H.H. and Salman, H.H. 1987. Estimation of sediment rate and the fate of hydrocarbon residues of Shatt Al-Arab River sediments, Northwest Arabian Gulf. Marina Mesopotamica, 2: 103-115. Khalaf, F. and Al-Hashash, M. 1983. Aeolian sedimentation in the northwestern part of the Arabian Gulf. Journal of Arid Environments, 6: 319-332. Maulood, B.K., Hinton G.C.F., Kamees, H.S., Saleh, F.A.K., Shaban, A.A. and AlShahwani, S.M.H. 1979. An ecological study of some aquatic ecosystems in southern Iraq. Tropical Ecology, 20 (1): 27-40. Mohammad, M.B.M. 1975. Further observations on some environmental conditions of Shatt Al-Arab. Bulletin of Biological Research Centre, Baghdad 7: 71-79. Nadim, F., Iranmahboob, J., Hoag, G., Perkins, C. and Dahmani, A. 2003. The effect of regional conflicts and political rivalries on the release of petroleum hydrocarbons to the environment, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. 10th Annual International Petroleum Environmental Conference November 10-14 2003, Oklahoma, USA. P.G.P. 1967. Hydrography of the navy. Ref. In: a desk study of Shatt Al-Arab estuary (Ed.). L.A. Mohammed (1982), a thesis presented to the University of Strathclyde Glasgow (U.K.). pp. 180. Practical Handbook of Marine Science. 1994. Michael J. Kennish (Editor), 580 pages; Publisher: CRC-Press; Second Edition. London. Purser, B.H. and Seibold, E. 1973. The principal environmental factors influencing Holocene sedimentation and diaogenesis in the Persian Gulf. In: Purser, B.H. (ed.), The Persian Gulf: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 1-9. Reynolds, M. 1993. Physical oceanography of the Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman: Results from the Mt. Mitchell Expedition. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 3559. ROPME. 1987. Dust fallout in the northern part of the ROPME Sea Area. ROPME/GC5/005. Kuwait. ROPME. 2003. State of the marine environment report 2003. ROPME/GC-11/003, Kuwait. pp. 217.

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ROPME. 1996. Report of the 10th task team meeting on marine monitoring and research programs. Available from ROPME (Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Kuwait, pp. 1-30. Saad, M.A.H. and Kell, V. 1975. Observations on some environmental conditions as well as phytoplankton blooms in the lower reaches of Tigris and Euphrates. Wiss. Z. University Rostock, Reihe Mathematik, 24: 781-787. Saad, M.A.H. 1978a: Seasonal variations of some physiochemical condition of Shatt-alArab estuary, Iraq, Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 6: 503–513. Saad, M.A.H. 1978b. Some limnological studies on the lower reaches of Tigris and Euphrates, Iraq. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica, 6 (6): 529-539. Saad, M.A.H. 1982. Distribution of nutrient salts in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, Iraq. Water Supply and Management, 6 (5): 443-453. Saleh, A., Al-Ruwaih, F., Al-Reda, A. and Gunatilaka, A. 1999. A reconnaissance study of a clastic coastal sabkha in Northern Kuwait, Arabian Gulf. Journal of Arid Environments, 43: 1–19. Talling, J.F. 1980. Water characteristics. In: Rzoska, J. (ed.), Euphrates and Tigris: Mesopotamian Ecology and Destiny. Monographiae Bilogicae, 38: 63-86. Windom, H.L. 1981. Comparison of atmospheric and riverine transport of trace elements to the continental shelf environment. In River Inputs to the Ocean Systems. UNEP, Switzerland. Wright, J.L. 1974. A hydrographic and acoustic survey of the Persian Gulf, MSc Thesis, Nav. Postgrad. Sch., Monterey, California, USA. Zarba, M.A., Mohammad, O.S., Anderlini, V.C., Literathy, P. and Shunbo, F. 1985. Petroleum residues in surface sediments of Kuwait. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 16 (5): 209-211.

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Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

The compensation schedule approach for the assessment of oil spill damages to marine resources of the RSA Saif M. Al-Ghais1 and Walter H. Pearson2 1

2

Biology Department, Faculty of Science, U.A.E. University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Abstract: Several oil spills have occurred in UAE waters, but the assessment of oil spill damages has proved as problematic here as elsewhere. We offer a compensation schedule approach to overcome potential difficulties in damages assessment and examine several scenarios in which the schedule approach might be useful. An oil spill damages assessment generally has four steps: 1) identify the resources at risk, 2) demonstrate injury to resources, 3) determine the extent of any injury in space and time, and 4) estimate the economic value or damages associated with the injury. There are technical and other difficulties at each stage. Compensation schedules have been developed to address translation of oil contamination and resource exposure and injuries into economic damages when information is incomplete or can not be obtained without inordinate effort. Information on the amount and type of oil spilled, the amount of oil recovered, the season, the habitats oiled, the resources exposed, and the value and sensitivity of the resources is used in the schedule to establish the economic value losses associated with the spill. We believe that an oil spill compensation schedule developed in more detail for the ROPME Sea Area would enable rapid calculation of damages without large or time-consuming studies. A developed schedule is more likely to be used, and its more frequent and widespread use would enhance its value as a deterrent to less than full attention to oil spill prevention.

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Introduction Historically, about half the oil transported through the global marine environment has come through the ROPME Sea Area (RSA), and the annual input of oil to the area’s marine environment is skewed toward sources connected to marine transport (Shepard et al. 1992). At the same time, the coastal waters of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) contain several important marine habitats, e.g., coral areas and sea grass beds, and globally important populations of endangered marine species, e.g., sea turtles and dugong. Several oil spills have occurred in UAE waters, but the assessment of oil spill damages has proved as problematic here as elsewhere. This paper reviews the difficulties in oil spill damages assessment and offers a compensation schedule approach to overcome the potential difficulties. We explain how the schedule works and examine several scenarios in which the schedule approach might be useful in the RSA. Last, we discuss the advantages and issues associated with the schedule approach. We harbour no illusions that the approach we offer is either complete or without problems. However, the journey to arrive at an effective procedure to estimate damages to the marine environment, habitats, and wildlife needs to begin.

Oil spill damages assessment An oil spill damages assessment is the application of a set of legal and scientific procedures to determine the damages to natural resources from an oil spill. The procedures apply scientific principles and knowledge to address three questions: 1.

Did oil injure a marine resource?

2.

What was the extent in space and time of the injury?

3.

What was the monetary value associated with the injury?

A discussion of damages assessment needs to distinguish the terms, “injury” and “damages.” An injury is a change in the resource that is measurable and adverse. The change must clearly be attributable to the oil spill and usually involves a loss of services or value in the resource. Damages represent the monetary value of the loss in service or value from the injury or the cost of restoring the injured resource. The damages are the amount money to be compensated to the trustee or owner of the resources. An oil spill damages assessment generally has four steps: 1.

The pre-assessment phase identifies the resources at risk and other problems.

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2.

The assessment phase demonstrates that a resource has, in fact, sustained an injury.

3.

The quantification phase determines the extent of the injury in space and time.

4.

The damages determination phase establishes the monetary value of the injury.

In the Assessment Phase there is usually both an Exposure Assessment and an Injury Assessment. The Exposure Assessment demonstrates that the resource was actually exposed to the oil spilled in the particular accident in question. A successful Exposure Assessment demonstrates both the pathway by which the oil reached the resource and the amount of oil reaching the resource. An effective Quantitative Phase indicates not only the area or size of the resource affected but also the time taken for the resource to recover. The Damages Determination Phase translates the resource injuries demonstrated to derive from the spill into a monetary value.

Difficulties in damages assessment Technical difficulties occur at each stage, and the uncertainties increase with each succeeding step. In the first step, the amount of oil and type of oil spilled needs to be determined and the resources at risk need to be identified. The latter task is especially difficult if a basic resource inventory is lacking. In the second step, not only effects but also contaminant exposure must be proved, and alternative hypotheses for the observed effects need to be examined and eliminated. In the face of natural variability and the multiple factors affecting ecological processes, demonstrating that the effect is due to the spill and not a natural cause can be quite difficult. In the third step, the extent of the injury and the time course over which the resource recovers is assessed. After demonstration of injury, this second step can be straightforward but is usually expensive and time-consuming. In the fourth step, the extent of resource injury needs to be translated into a monetary value that can be paid as compensation to the injured party or resource trustee. This fourth step can be the most difficult, especially for environmental components, e.g., seagrass beds and coral, that have no obvious commercial value. If the cost to restore the resource is taken as the damages, the process fails if restoring the resource is not technically feasible.

The schedule approach Compensation schedules have been developed in the United States and Europe to address translation of oil contamination and resource exposure and injuries into economic damages when information is incomplete or can not be obtained without

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inordinate effort (Geselbracht and Logan 1993). Information on the amount and type of oil spilled, the amount of oil recovered, the season, the habitats oiled, the resources exposed, and the value and sensitivity of the resources are used in the schedule to establish the economic value losses associated with the environmental contamination and resource injuries. Essentially, multiplying the amount of oil spilled times a factor (with units of US dollars per gallon of oil) establishes the damages. General and specific information is used to derive multipliers for the habitats and each resource exposed. The damages are calculated by summing the products of these multipliers and the amount of oil spilled (less any oil recovered). Responsible actions by the spiller, i.e. recovering oil, reduces the amount of damages. Should an endangered species be among the resources exposed, another multiplier is used to increase the amount of damages calculated.

How the schedule approach works The compensation schedule approach offered here is modeled after that for the State of Washington described by Geselbracht and Logan (1992). Following Pearson et al. (1996, 1998) we have modified the schedule for the environmental situations in the UAE. More modification to make the schedule specific to the RSA is needed. In this section we describe the process and present an example. The schedule approach requires considerably less information than that needed for a full assessment with extensive scientific studies. The data needed for the schedule include the following: -

The date of spill (season) The type of oil or oil product The aromatic content of the oil The API Gravity The amounts of oil spilled and recovered The locations of oil contamination The habitats and resources exposed The exposure of any endangered species or critical habitats.

These data are used in different components of the schedule. These components include: - Oil effects scores for: - Acute toxicity - Mechanical injury - Persistence - Resource vulnerability scores for: - Habitat and critical habitat - Resource species and endangered species - Recreation - Damages determination

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The oil effects scores (Tab. 1) range from one to five (most adverse) and depend on the characteristics of the oil or oil product spilled. The Acute Toxicity Rank (OILat) derives from the composition of the oil, especially the percentage comprised by the toxic aromatic hydrocarbons. The Mechanical Injury Rank (OILmi) is based on the ability of the oil to coat or smother marine organisms. This ability is related to the oil’s density, which can be calculated from the API gravity. The API gravity is known for most types of oils and oil products. The Persistence Rank (OILper) is based on how long the oil is retained in the environment (Tab. 2). Habitat vulnerability scores are developed for acute toxicity (HVat), mechanical injury (HVmi), and persistence (HVper) for each habitat exposed to oil. For each habitat, these three scores are calculated by multiplying the magnitude or value of the habitat (on a 1 to 5 scale) times the sensitivity of the habitat to the particular oil effect. The RSA has several special or critical marine habitats (table 3). If such special habitats receive oil, then the schedule multiplies the HV scores for that habitat by 1.5. A composite habitat score for each oil effect is then calculated as a weighted average of the HV scores. The weighting is based on the percentage of the total amount of oil that reached each habitat. Table 1. The oil effects scores in the schedule approach (from Geselbracht and Logan 1992). Crude oil or oil product

API Gravity

Mechanical injury rank (OILmi)

Prudhoe Bay crude oil

27,8

3,6

0,9

5,0

Bunker C

13,0

5,0

2,3

5,0

No. 2 fuel oil

31,6

3,2

2,3

2,0

Gasoline

41,5

2,4

5,0

1,0

Kerosene

62,4

1,0

1,4

1,0

35.8 to 56.7

2,4

1,4

1,0

Jet fuel

Acute toxicity Persistence rank (OILat) rank (OILper)

Table 2. The basis for the relative persistence ranks (from Geselbracht and Logan 1992). Expected oil retention time

Relative persistence rank

5 to 10 years or more

5

2 to 5 years

4

1 to 2 years

3

1 month to 1 year

2

days to weeks

1

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Saif M. Al-Ghais and Walter H. Pearson

Table 3. Critical coastal habitats in the Arabian Gulf (expanded from Price et al. 1993 and Pearson et al. 1998). Habitats

Importance and Comments

Mangroves

Nursery area for fish and shellfish Nesting and feeding areas for birds

Seagrasses

Direct food for dugong, sea turtles, some urchins and fish Indirect food for many other marine species Nursery areas for fish and shellfish, especially shrimp

Coral areas

Principally patch reefs; True coral cays around offshore islands Food and shelter for resources supporting artisanal/commercial fisheries Feeding area for Hawksbill turtles

Tidal flats Tidal flats with algal mats Rocky reefs Carbonate rock platforms with macroalgae

Because of their large extent a major energy and nutrient input to marine system Habitat with most injury from 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill (Hayes et al. 1993) Food and shelter for resources supporting artisanal/commercial fisheries Nursery areas for shrimp and pearl oyster spat

Resource vulnerability scores are developed for each resource species exposed to the oil. Geselbracht and Logan (1993) provide more detail on the procedures, and Pearson et al. (1996) describe how the procedures were modified to derive scores for the Seki Oil Spill in Fujairah, UAE. Resource Vulnerability Scores can be developed for marine birds, marine turtles, marine mammals, commercial fishes, commercial shellfish, and marine or shoreline based recreation. For the examples used here, we based the scores on whether the scenario of interest had no, low, moderate, or high impact on particular resources. In the damages determination, the habitat and resource vulnerability scores from above are added together to provide a spill vulnerability score (SVS) for each of the three oil effects. A damage multiplier is then calculated according to the following formula: Damage multiplier = [0.1] x { [OILat x SVSat] + [OILmi x SVSmi] + [OILper x SVSper] } The resulting multiplier has units of US dollars per gallon of oil. The damages in US dollars are then the product of the damages multiplier times the number of gallons spilled (less the number of gallons recovered). Tables four to nine provide a spreadsheet in which the procedures are worked for a scenario in which barge spills releases 2,500 metric tons of diesel fuel. The scenario assumes that oil reaches all the habitats equally and that the resources are moderately exposed.

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Table 4. The oil amount and characteristics for the barge spill example. Oil Amount Amount spilled Amount recovered Amount spilled less recovered Oil characteristics Oil or product type

Amount (US Gallons) 773.430 0 773.430 Value Diesel

API gravity

31,6

Specific gravity

0,868

Examples To assess how the schedule might be applied to the RSA, we examined a series of scenarios. The first models a collision at sea similar in magnitude and resource exposure to that in the Seki Oil Spill to which Pearson et al. (1996) provided an earlier version of the schedule. Also, we modeled four barge spills, all assuming that 2,500 metric ton of diesel were spilled and that no oil was recovered. These four barge spill scenarios vary in the extent to which special habitats and endangered species are exposed. For comparison, we modeled an oil spill of the size of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill with the offered schedule. The results of applying the schedule to the scenarios appear in table 10. The estimated damages for the scenario for a collision at sea in which we assumed 16,000 metric tons of light crude were released were about 178 million dirhams, almost the same as the estimates found earlier by Pearson et al. (1996). In the barge spill scenarios, the estimated damages ranged from 14 million dirhams to 73 million dirhams. The lowest barge spill damages were associated with a scenario in which no special habitat or endangered species were involved. The highest barge spill damages were associated with a quite plausible scenario in which there was high exposure to dugong, an endangered marine mammal, and moderate exposure to marine turtles, another threatened species, and marine fisheries species. For comparison, the Exxon Valdez scenario resulted in damages on the order of 5.4 billion dirhams or 1.5 billion US dollars (Tab. 10). In the settlement with the resource trustees, Exxon paid compensation for damaged resources of 1.9 billion US dollars. The high damages estimated for this scenario derive from high persistence scores, heavy impacts on birds and marine mammals, and the presence of threatened species.

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Table 5. The habitat vulnerability scores for the barge spill example. Habitat vulnerability scores (HVS)

% of oil reaching habitat

Habitat resource ranking

MechSpecial anical Persis- habitat HVS injury tence multiplier HVS at HVS mi per

Acute toxicity

Intertidal

50,0

Sandy beach Sandy and gravelly beach Sandy with bedrock

12,5

2

2,9

1,3

1,8

1

0,725

0,325

0,450

12,5

2,5

3,2

3,2

3,2

1

1,000

1,000

1,000

12,5

2,5

3,3

3,8

2,7

1

1,031

1,188

0,844

Rocky

12,5

3

3

3,5

3

1

1,125

1,313

1,125

Tidal flats Tidal Flats with Algal Mats Intertidal Seagrasses

12,5

3

3,8

2,7

4,3

1

1,425

1,013

1,613

12,5

4

3,8

2,7

4,3

1,5

2,850

2,025

3,225

12,5

5

3,8

2,7

4,3

1,5

3,563

2,531

4,031

Mangroves

12,5

5

3,8

2,7

4,3

3,563

2,531

4,031

Subtidal

50,0

1,5 Intertidal Subtotal

7,641

5,963

8,159

Open Water

50,0

2

5

3,2

3,2

1

5,000

3,200

3,200

7,1

3

3,6

3,6

3,6

2

1,543

1,543

1,543

7,1

3

1,5

2,2

2,2

1

0,321

0,471

0,471

Sandy Bottom Gravelly Bottom Rocky Bottom Subtidal Seagrasses

7,1

3

3,7

3,7

3,1

1

0,793

0,793

0,664

7,1

5

3,7

3,7

3,7

1,5

1,982

1,982

1,982

Rocky Reefs

7,1

4

3,7

3,7

3,7

1,5

1,586

1,586

1,586

Coral Areas Carbonate Platforms w/ Algae

7,1

5

3,7

3,7

3,7

1,5

1,982

1,982

1,982

7,1

4

3,7

3,7

3,7

1,5 Subtidal Subtotal

1,586

1,586

1,586

7,396

6,571

6,507

Total HVS

15,037 12,534 14,667

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231

Table 6. The low resource vulnerability scores for the barge spill scenario.

Resource vulnerability scores

Initial score

Endangered species multiplier

Final score

BVS

marine bird

1

1

1

TVS

marine turtle

1

1

1

MMVS marine mammal

1

1

1

MFVS marine fisheries

1

1

1

SFVS

marine shellfish

1

1

1

RVS

recreation

1

1

1

Table 7. The spill vulnerability scores and oil effects scores for the barge spill example. Score category

Score

Spill vulnerability scores SVSat acute toxicity

21,037

SVSmi mechanical injury

18,534

SVSper persistence

20,667

Oil effects ranking OILat acute toxicity

2,30

OILmi mechanical injury

2,90

OILper persistence

2,00

Table 8. Calculation of the damages multiplier in the barge spill example. Scaler x

[ OILat x SVSat +

OILmi x SVSmi +

OILper x SVSper ] =

Mulitplier

0,1

48,385

53,678

41,333

14,340

Table 9. Calculation of damages in the barge spill example. Amount spilled less recovered (US Gallons)

Multipler ($ per US Gallon)

Damages in US Dollars

Damages in UAE Dirhams

773.430

14,340

$11.090.729

AED 40.813.883

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Table 10. The results of various scenarios in which the schedule approach is applied.

Scenario

Amount Amount % of oil Estimated spilled recovered % of oil % of oil in damages (million (million % of oil in in open in special Resource (million Oil Type USGal) USGal) intertidal water subtidal habitats exposure US$)

Exxon Valdez Spill

North Slope Crude

Collision at sea

Light Iranian Crude

4.950

214.936

75,0

10,0

Diesel

0.773

0

50,0

Diesel

0.773

0

Diesel

0.773

0

10.900 1.526.000

49,0

45,9

5,1

moderate to heavy, many 0,2 species 1.475,828

15,0

moderate, several 7,5 species

48,.329

25,0

25,0

33,0 moderate

11,091

34,0

33,0

33,0

0,0

none

3,799

90,0

4,0

6,0

86,0

none

16,780

Barge spills with equal cover among habitats and low resource exposure with no special habitat and no resource exposure with heavy mangrove and seagrass exposure and no resource exposure with heavy dugong exposure and moderate turtle and fisheries exposure with heavy turtle exposure

Diesel

0,773

0

40,0

24,0

36,0

heavy on one species, moderate 64,0 on others

Diesel

0,773

0

40,0

24,0

36,0

64,0

heavy

19,819 18,150

Discussion The scenario results clearly indicate that the schedule calculates increasingly higher damages as the exposed resource or habitat increases in value or sensitivity. This complements spill response strategies that allocate the protective or cleanup capability to the valuable and sensitive resources and habitats as a first priority. Further thought needs to be given to how the schedule approach and spill response strategies can provide a coordinated effort. A good oil spill sensitivity map would, in our opinion, provide the basis for both spill response and damages assessment. To improve the compensation schedule approach, we recommend that

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the coastal habitats be classified and mapped in detail. The emerging Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are ideal in such a task. From their studies of the Seki oil spill, Pearson et al. (1992) drew some lessons for both science and policy concerning oil spill damage assessments. The first is that although the assessment was hampered by incomplete data, the compensation schedule did, in fact, produce estimated damages that were judged to be reasonable from the resource trustee perspective. The second lesson was that some study was still needed. Although the collision and the widespread contamination were obvious, the fisheries effects required detailed analysis of the data to discern their occurrence. Advanced chemical analytical and fingerprinting techniques proved necessary to demonstrate the contamination of the marine environment by Seki oil and exposure of demersal fish. The fisheries data provided strong evidence for the occurrence of effects but, while adequate for the management purposes for which the fisheries data are routinely collected, the data did not enable estimating the full spatial or temporal extent of fisheries effects. The third lesson was the difficulty encountered in linking the fisheries effects to their economic damages. Such linkage could probably not have been made without the schedule approach taken. Similarly, the linkage of contamination of the coastal habitats to economic damages could not have been possible without the compensation schedule approach.

Advantages Beyond the ability of the schedule to provide damages determinations without the inordinate time or cost of major studies, there are several other advantages to the schedule approach. First, the schedule provides certainty to all the parties involved: the spiller, the responder, the resource trustee, and the insurer. Second, the approach is systematic and based on scientific knowledge and principles concerning the fate and effects of oil in the marine environment. The development of details of such an approach requires the synthesis of the available information on oil effects, habitats, and resources for a local area. Third, the specification of a schedule for a given region then shifts the technical studies from the chaotic situation found during spills to the routine situation of well-planned and managed projects. Lastly, the schedule approach also could be used effectively in contingency planning. More frequent damages determinations using the schedule are of major advantage. In the State of Washington before implementation of the schedule, damages were not received on over 1000 spills in a 21-month period because the necessary studies could not be done (Geselbracht and Logan 1993). We believe that an oil spill compensation schedule developed in more detail for the Gulf would enable rapid calculation of damages without large or time-consuming studies. Such a schedule is more likely to be used, and its more frequent and widespread use would enhance its value as a deterrent to less than full attention to oil spill prevention.

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Issues The schedule approach does have issues requiring attention. First, the use of the multipliers for the endangered species and special habitat may yield damages than may be regarded as punitive rather than compensatory. Legal study is needed on this issue. Second, to some the schedule approach may appear more speculative than science based. However, as noted above, the schedule employs knowledge and principles about the fate and effects of oil gained in spill research over the past 30 years. We acknowledge the need for additional work to make the schedule more specific to the Gulf. Third, the approach models the effects rather than directly measures them. However, field observations and sampling for laboratory analysis are used in the exposure assessment. Fourth, the schedule is not based on restoration costs as a way to value the environmental components of interest. Restoration may not be possible or economically feasible in many cases. The schedule offers a way to still arrive at damages when restoration is not possible. Moreover, restoration is not always as complete as one would like. Placing an emphasis on prevention is a good strategy to avoid restoration.

Conclusion The schedule approach is one way among several for assessing oil spill damages. We strongly recommend an early beginning to developing damages assessment methods that are specific to the Gulf. The schedule approach gives an answer in spite of uncertainties and may prove an effective tool in contingency planning. The legal questions appear to be whether some elements of the schedule are punitive rather than compensatory and whether all elements of the schedule meets legal requirements for injury. Both science and the law need to come together in developing effective damages assessment techniques. Implicit in such development is the recognition that the marine environment and its resources are capital and need to be treated as an asset by society.

Acknowledgements For the opportunity to prepare this analysis and their generous support, we give sincere thanks to H.H. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and President of the ERWDA Governing Board, and to H.H. Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Vice President of the ERWDA Governing Board. We offer sincere appreciation to Mr. Mohammed Al Bowardi, the Managing Director of ERWDA, for his tireless efforts on behalf of ERWDA and the UAE environment. We acknowledge that support of the Government of Fujairah for the authors’ earlier studies of the Seki Oil Spill. In that earlier effort, the aid of the staff of the Port of Fujairah, led by Captain Mousa Murad, was greatly appreciated.

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References Geselbracht, L., and Logan, R. 1993. Washington’s marine oil spill compensation schedule - Simplified resource damage assessment. In: Proceedings, 1993 International Oil Spill Conference. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., pp. 705-709 Hayes, M.O., Michel, J., Montello, T.M., Aurand, D.V., Al-Mansi, A.M., Al-Moamen, A.H., Sauer, T.C., and Thayer, G.W. 1993. Distribution and weathering of shoreline oil one year after the Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 135-142. Pearson, W.H., Neff, J.M., Brandt, C.J., Wellman, K., and Al-Ghais, S. 1996. Damage to commercial fisheries and marine environments of Fujairah, United Arab Emirates, Resulting from the Seki Crude Oil Spill of 30 March 1994. Final Report prepared for the Government of Fujairah by Battelle Memorial Institute, Publication PNWD-2365 of the Battelle Pacific Northwest Division, Richland, Washington. In two Volumes, 101 pp. + appendices. Pearson, W.H., Al-Ghais, S. Neff, J.M., Brandt, C.J., Wellman, K. and Green, T. 1998. Assessment of damage to commercial fisheries and marine environments of Fujairah, United Arab Emirates, Resulting from the Seki Oil Spill of March 1994: A Case Study. Bulletin Series of Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 103: 407-428. Price, A.R.G., Sheppard, C.R.C., and Roberts, C.M. 1993. The Gulf: Its Biological Setting. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 9-16. Sheppard, C., Price, A. and Roberts, C. 1992. Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region. Patterns and Processes in Extreme Tropical Environments. London, Academic Press, 359 pp.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

The impact of the Gulf War (1990 - 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery David Alan Jones1, Miles Hayes2, Friedhelm Krupp3, Gino Sabatini4, Iain Watt5 and Lee Weishar6 1

School of Ocean Sciences, University of Wales Bangor, UK Research Planning Inc., Columbia, USA 3 Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt a.M. Germany 4 D´Iberville, Montreal, Quebec, Canada 5 IOMEC. Grand Gaube, Mauritius 6 Woods Hole Group, East Falmouth, USA 2

Abstract: The 1991 Gulf War oil release was over three times greater than any other oil spill in the world and left an estimated 0.9-1.9 million barrels of oil deposited intertidally on Saudi Arabian shores. Surveys conducted by Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME, former MEPA) and other scientific groups confirmed that all intertidal habitats were impacted, with those on the high shore particularly effected, as the oil came ashore on equinoctial spring tides. However, despite predictions of total community collapse, individual habitats could still be recognised on the basis of surviving biota. Long term monitoring of biotic recovery (1991 - 95) based on 10 transects predicted recovery times to be similar to those reported for oil spills elsewhere in the world. However, further extensive surveys in 2002-2003 found large volumes of buried oil trapped under sand on beaches and under microbial mats in salt marshes together with tarcrete pavements. These surveys revealed that 64% of mangroves, 70% of salt marshes, 88% of tidal flats, 90% of sand beaches and 90% of rocky shores remained impacted with lower diversity than that found on none oil polluted control shores. As a result predicted recovery times were revised and extended to over a century for habitats such as marshes without tidal flushing. In 2005 funding was awarded for remediation by the United Nations Compensation Commission.

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Initial remediation trials in 1991-1993 demonstrated that most approaches were ineffective other than flushing of oil from mangroves and beaches and physical removal of contaminated sediments. Later trials in 2003 confirmed that removal of oil and channel construction to renew tidal flushing are the most effective strategies. Once oil toxicity is removed there is strong evidence that full recolonisation of shore habitats will occur within a few years.

Introduction As a direct result of the invasion of Kuwait an estimated 1 to 1.7 million metric tons of oil was released into the marine environment, with the largest release from Mina Al-Ahmadi (Kuwait) occurring in January 1991 (Linden and Husain 2002). Most of this spill came ashore on the coastline of Saudi Arabia at the end of January and early February coinciding with the highest annual tides (Tawfig and Olsen 1993). As a result the oil penetrated into lagoons and even beyond the saltmarsh into the sabkha. Initial reports indicated that the whole of the shore area between the tide marks in sheltered bays such as Dawhat ad-Dafi and Dawhat alMussallamiya (Fig. 1) was impacted and the biota destroyed (Greenpeace 1992, Höpner 1991). A wide spread national and international response was launched and the various organizations involved and their activities are detailed by Alam (1996). As part of the international response the European Union (EU), in conjunction with the Saudi Arabian authorities, founded an environmental response plan to undertake impact assessment, remediation, habitat protection and wildlife rehabilitation. This project known as the “Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf” was centered on the impacted area between Ras az-Zawr and Abu Ali (Fig. 1), but also included the offshore islands of Harqus, Karan, Kuyran, Jana and Jurayd (Krupp and Jones 1993). Over 70 international scientists drawn from six EU countries joined with the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development Saudi Arabia (NCWCD) to assess the oil impact in the region in November 1991. Similar groups of international scientists joined with other Saudi Arabian organizations such as the Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA now Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, PME), universities and the Regional Organisation of the Marine Environment (ROPME) to study wider issues resulting from the spill. This chapter reviews the initial distribution of the oil release on the Saudi Arabian coastline as described by MEPA (1991) and others (Gundlach et al. 1993) and impact upon macrobiota measured using Rapid Assessment Survey (RAS) methodology (Jones et al. 1996). Results of a long term recovery monitoring programme (1991-95) (Jones et al. 1998) are discussed in conjunction with early attempts at remediation (Watt et al. 1996). Funding provided by the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) allowed a more recent extensive Oiled Shoreline Survey to be conducted along the impacted coast of Saudi Arabia (PME 2003a). This survey revealed that 64% of mangroves, 78% of salt marshes, 88% of tidal flats and 90% of sand and rock beaches remained impacted by oil

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after 12 years. These findings are discussed in relation to previously estimated habitat recovery times which are revised. Finally results of previous habitat remediation approaches are discussed and compared with new methodologies tested in 2003.

Figure 1. Dawhat ad-Dafi bay area and its coastal ecosystem types. Numbers indicate the location of the permanent transect lines (PTL) (modified after Jones et al. 1996 and Barth et al. 1996).

Original oil impact and distribution Oil release from Kuwait commenced in January 1991 and continued until June with approximately 11 million barrels forming a slick of approximately 200 km2 at times. Despite intensive efforts to contain and remove oil virtually all of the coastline between Kuwait and Abu Ali (Saudi Arabia) was impacted and MEPA (1991a-c) surveys confirmed the impact, estimating that 34 km2 of intertidal zone contained between 0.9 and 1.9 million barrels of oil. Exposed sand beaches formed the most extensive habitat impacted with 292 km, followed by sheltered tidal flats, salt marshes, rocky shores and fine sand beaches and mangroves (MEPA 1991a). Due to the high tides salt marshes were particularly heavily impacted. In October 1991 the European Union joined with NCWCD to determine the impact of the oil on marine biota within the Ras azZaur to Abu Ali area of the coast (Fig. 1). This was partially due to reports of

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large-scale extinction of marine life and negative views on the recovery of intertidal biota (Höpner 1991, Greenpeace 1992). The main objective was to provide a quantitative baseline so that recovery could be monitored for the first time in the Gulf region. A Rapid Assessment Survey (RAS) (Price 1990) was conducted at 35 sites, both within the impacted area, and south of Abu Ali at control sites, not reached by the oil release. Results based on physiochemical and biological RAS revealed that a full range of intertidal habitats are present in the survey area and that these could still be classified based on surviving macrofauna alone (Jones and Richmond 1992, Watt et al. 1993). Hence earlier estimates of total species mortality were unfounded. However, some key species, typical of Gulf shores, such as talitrid amphipods, Tylos (isopod), littorinid gastropods and the crabs Nasima and Scopimera were missing from most impacted shores. Using habitats identified during the RAS 10 permanent transect lines (PTL) were established in the Dawhat ad-Dafi and Dawhat al-Mussallamiya bay area for the major habitats impacted by the oil release (Jones et al. 1996). These included sheltered and exposed sand beaches, rocky shores, salt marshes, mangroves and tidal flats with mixed habitats (Fig. 1). These were monitored quantitatively at three month intervals from 1991 to 1995 together with similar, but unimpacted, control habitats south of Abu Ali. At the same time the various shore clean up methodologies employed were also monitored to assess their effectiveness (Watt et al. 1993, Watt 1996). Parallel research initiatives into the impact of the oil release are to be found in Price and Robinson (1993). It includes Hayes et al. (1993) studying the distribution and weathering of oil along the Saudi coast line, Böer (1993) reporting on changes in mangroves, and Gerges (1993) who summarizes the environmental impacts. Most early research again concentrated on the Ras Az Zaur - Abu Ali coastline.

Long term monitoring of recovery Detailed results from the long term quantitative monitoring programme of the 10 PTLS are given for 1991 to 1995 in Jones et al. (1998). For all soft substrate shores, they describe an initial rapid expansion of algal/microbial mats towards low tide across the surface of oiled sediment (Tab. 1). Both the underlying oil and mats gradually eroded over time, although in 1995 there was still oil or tarcrete present at the high tide level of most shores (Jones et al. 1998). This was particularly evident on back of bay tidal flats and salt marshes (PTL 3, 6, 7, 8) where wave action is virtually absent. For exposed rock shores thin tar layers peeled off naturally within three years (PTL 5) but were still present in patches after four years on sheltered rocky shores (PTL 4). The first phase of biotic recovery was the expansion of the microbial mats across the surface of oiled sediments, once these were covered with a thin layer of sediment (Tab. 1). Hofmann (1996) documents their structure and likely cause of growth due to the presence of a stable substrate produced by the oil, and absence of a grazing community eliminated by oil toxicity.

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Table 1. Horizontal extent of oil and microbial mat on permanent transect lines over 19911995 period. *liquid oil present, 1removal of tar in 1992 released more oil and new mat formed, still present 2003. NS = not sampled.

Oil Horizontal extent (m) PTL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1991 50* 20* 75* 20 15 97* 100* 200* 20* 20*

1992 12 10 NS 10 5 NS 80 80 18 10

1993 18 5 40 NS 1 NS 60 60 NS 5

1994 18 NS 24 5 NS NS 34 20 NS NS

Microbial mat Horizontal extent (m) 1995 6 2 23 1 1 10 40 10 0 2

1991 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0

1992 12 20 NS 10 5 NS 60 80 15 18

1993 0 10 26 5 4 NS 60 80 NS 10

1994 101 3 18 3 0 43 45 50 0 4

1995 7 2 11 1 0 22 40 5 0 2

The retreat of the mats back to their normal high shore position appears to be due to the return of grazers such as Potamides (Pirinella) conicus and Cerithidea cingulata. Recent investigations in Kuwait using stable isotope tracers have revealed microbial mats to be the base of most mud flat food chains (Al-Zaidan et al. 2006). On natural unoiled shores microbial mats are restricted to a narrow zone on the upper shore where desiccation prevents their consumption by grazers. In salt marshes, percolated by water channels and burrows created by crabs, microbial mats also form a major food source and are consumed as rapidly as they grow (Al-Zaidan et al. 2006). In impacted marshes in the absence of the crabs (Nasima) microbial mat rapidly covered the salt marshes sealing in liquid oil which penetrated deep into the crab burrow system. The second phase of biotic recovery was due to tidal and wave action which, together with high ambient temperatures and sunlight, physically eroded and degraded surface oil which dried and was photo-oxidized. On the lower shore mats cracked and peeled and dispersed into the sea together with oiled sediment. As toxic polyaromatic hydrocarbon levels (PAHs) in surface sediment layers dropped, macrofauna re-colonized shores. This pattern of macrobiotic recovery was monitored by regular quantitative surveys of 10 PTLs from 1991 to 1995 and results are given in Jones et al. (1996) and Jones et al. (1998). Table two summarizes the natural macrobiotic diversity and abundance found on typical none oiled Gulf shore habitats over the same period, this data provides a reference against which impacted shore recovery can be measured.

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Table 2. Mean species diversity and abundance together with ranges for control unoiled habitats south of Abu Ali over the period 1992-1995. * Lower eulittoral mixed sand and rock. Shore level Habitat Rock C4 Sand C3 Mang C1 Mud C2

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

Littoral fringe Diver Abun. -sity m-2

Upper eulittoral DiverAbun. sity m-2

Mid eulittoral Lower eulittoral Diver Abun. m-2 Diver Abun. -sity -sity m-2

5.75 5-6 4.75 4-5 8.5 8-9 5.25 5-6

24 20-28 6 3-9 15.5 12-20 11.5 11-12

34 30.38 12.75 10-17 11.5 11-12 13.5 12-18

1300 900-1800 45 30-50 350 200-400 373.7 150-600

425 200-800 100 50-200 747.5 420-1100 1495 400-3232

400 200-500 1005 400-1900 317.5 175-500 1081 150-2677

10.5 10-11 16.5 11-25 11.5 8-13 14.5 14-15

450 * 400-500 442 400-500 567.5 220-800 575 2001100

Rocky shores Details of the recovery of all 10 PTLs are given in Jones et al. (1998), recovery on the semi exposed rocky shore PTL5 occurred rapidly and within three years normal Gulf biodiversity had returned to this shore at all levels. Although totally covered originally, the oil layer was thin and this peeled off within two years. Abundances of individual species showed typical high fluctuations initially as opportunistic species utilized ecological gaps in the damaged communities. However, by 1995 only the top shore gastropods Nodolittorina, Planaxis and barnacles had not regained normal population densities. More heavily oiled sheltered rocky shores (PTL4) showed slower recovery with both biodiversity and abundances below control shore levels after four years (Jones et al. 1998). Sand beaches On the medium exposed sand beach PTL3 oil remained buried in sediment at the top of the shore throughout the survey period and the return of biodiversity at this shore level only occurred in 1995 with the deposition of clean sand on top of the oiled layer. On more sheltered sand flats (PTL1) attempts to excavate oiled sediment in 1992 resulted in release of liquid oil with further mortality on the lower shore (Jones et al. 1998). On wide sheltered flats there is insufficient wave action to rebury oil so that littoral fringe biodiversity was still below that of control beaches by 1995. Mangroves and salt marshes In contrast mangrove habitats (PTL2, 10) which were heavily oiled showed return of biodiversity, with the exception of the upper eulittoral within four years, although abundances were still undergoing wide fluctuations (Jones et al. 1998). All the mangrove sites studied were on the banks of deep channels and hence were regularly flushed, so that toxic PAH levels rapidly diminished. The only salt marsh surveyed was PTL8 where the transect line was positioned at the seaward edge of the marsh. recovery of biodiversity was much slower in this habitat,

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particularly at the higher shore levels due to the persistence of the microbial mat layer which still sealed in liquid oil after four years. Although the mat was eroding at the seaward edge, allowing flushing of oil and return of key species such as Nasima and Perinereis, this process was slow in this low energy back of bay habitat. Based on these findings and those reported for similar habitats elsewhere (Sell et al. 1995) Jones et al. (1998) presented a recovery sequence and predicted recovery times scales for Saudi Arabian impacted shores. For regularly tidally inundated shores these were 3-5 years, but for soft substrate habitats, such as salt marshes reached only by spring tides, predictions were tentative.

Recent assessment In 2001 the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) made funding available for assessment of the environmental damage caused by the oil released by Iraq. An Initial Shoreline Survey was conducted by EESAL and PME personnel in 2002 to establish methodologies and procedures prior to commissioning a full scale Oiled Shoreline Survey. The initial survey revisited the original MEPA sites (MEPA 1991 b) to perform a preliminary chemical and biological inventory of the shoreline habitats between the Kuwait border and Abu Ali to assess the current level of contamination and impact prior to the full scale survey. The original RAS methodology was modified to a Rapid Shore Assessment (RSA) by using key species for each habitat. The shore zones surveyed were the supralittoral (zone reached by spring and equinoctial high tides) and the upper shore (eulittoral) reached by normal daily high tides as most of the original oil was deposited on the top of the shore (Jones et al. 1998). A total of 128 of the original 147 MEPA sites were visited in 2002 and 77% of the sampled transects were found to be still oiled after 11 years (PME 2002). Oil was present visually either as a surface tarmat or as a subsurface stained band on soft sediments. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) ranged from 10 to 68,000 mg kg-1 with oil becoming visible at about the 1000 mg kg-1 level. At control unoiled sites TPH levels ranged from 0 to 25 mg kg-1. The RSA biological survey results are summarized in table three. This shows that still in 2002 71% of impacted sand beaches had a macrobiota diversity below that found on none-oiled beaches in the supralittoral zone, and 57% had a lower diversity on the upper shore. Species commonly missing include talitrid amphipods, isopods and the crab Scopimera. Low energy back of bay tidal flats and salt marshes showed even greater macrobiotic impoverishment with rocky shores displaying greatest recovery (Tab. 3). In view of this lack of recovery after 11 years, some of the original PTL habitats were resurveyed. Both the rocky shores, PTL4 and PTL5, were found to have recovered containing similar diversities to unoiled controls, as has the supralittoral fringe of the mangrove on Qurma Island. However, tar and buried oil were still present on the upper shore preventing the return of a typical macrobiotic community.

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Table 3. Percentage of habitats with a loss of diversity in comparison with control sites in 2002.

Habitats

No. of sites excluding controls

Mean diversity controls littoral fringe

upper eulittoral

Impacted sites diversity littoral fringe

upper eulittoral

% with lower diversity littoral fringe

upper eulittoral

Sand beaches

7

5

5

3

3.2

71

57

Mixed tidal flats

19

5

12

2.7

5

85

80

Saltmarshes

12

6

10

3

4.4

77

84

Mangroves

3

8

12

9

11

0

50

Rock

4

6

24

4

5

25

25

The sand beach (PTL3) still contains buried oil, and the sand flat (PTL1) remains covered by microbial mat on the upper shore indicating toxic sediment. Worst affected was the salt marsh at PTL8 where the gradual erosion - allowing release of oil - followed by re-colonization sequence of recovery at the seaward edge has stopped. In the absence of the burrowing crab (Nasima) the salt marsh channel system had collapsed infilling the seaward edge and preventing tidal flushing of the upper marsh. Thick microbial mats covered the whole marsh rendering underlying sediments, which still contained liquid oil, anoxic. Hence predictions of recovery rates, based on just 10 monitoring sites and experience elsewhere in the world, in 1998, requires drastic revision. A further Oiled Shoreline Survey (OSS) (PME 2003a) was conducted from September 2002 until March 2003. Teams surveyed transects at 250 m intervals along the whole Saudi coast line affected by the oil release, in addition they surveyed some 30 control sites south of Abu Ali. This survey, directed by one of the authors (MH), completed over 3,000 transects using the RSA methodology to assess biological recovery, and collected 26,158 samples for TPH and 2,802 for PAH. Close agreement was found between two different methods of estimating volumes of visible and none-visible oil resulting in estimates of over nine million cubic metres of oiled sediment. Heavily oiled sediment with an average TPH of 41,000 mg kg-1 formed a third of the total volume, moderate oiling (TPH 20,000 mg kg-1) 41% and light oiling (TPH 5,500 10 mg kg-1) 25%. Forty five percent of oiled sediments occurred on sheltered muddy tidal flats, 23% salt marshes, 23% on sandy tidal flats and 11% on beaches. Thirteen percent of exposed rocky shores were still oiled, with shores north of Ras az-Zawr covered with tar up to 20 cm thick. Essentially the location of visible oiling measured in 2002-2003 is similar in distribution to that seen by satellite in 1991.

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Figure 2. Visible oiling as detected by Landsat in 1991.

These RSA results support the prior findings and demonstrated that in 2003 64% of mangroves, 78% of salt marshes, 88% of tidal flats, 90% of sand beaches and 90% of rocky shores remained impacted with lower diversity than that found on comparative control shores (PME 2003a). Although most oil was weathered residual PAH levels exceed previously accepted toxic levels in some 60% of samples, and possibly all samples (Peterson et al. 2003). In addition hardened tarcrete now provides a physical barrier to recolonisation and thick microbial mat continues to seal in liquid oil and block tidal channels to salt marshes (see also Barth 2008, this volume). The Oiled Shoreline Survey reports a range of ecological conditions from no recovery, to perturbated with opportunistic species rather than typical key species, to fully recovered. In all cases sheltered shores receiving little tidal or wave action remain worse affected demonstrating that natural attenuation has not been effective. Following the UNCC oral hearings in 2003, 2004, awards were made for remediation of damage to coastal resources in Saudi Arabia. Further surveys as part of trials to test effectiveness of remediation techniques revealed that sheltered habitats still remain impacted even 15 years after the initial impact (Weishar et al. 2006). For many salt marshes and areas such as Bryce Lagoon now sealed off from the open sea recovery if at all, will take several more decades.

Remediation approaches Intertidal cleaning operations to remediate the impact of oil were initiated in 1991 and carried on until the end of May 1992 with further work in January 1993. These operations were implemented and supervised by MEPA and the IMO (International Maritime Organisation), and are reviewed by Watt et al. (1993) and Watt (1996). The methodologies employed were a jet washer for oiled rocky shore, and mechanical removal of oiled sand on Karan Island. For mangroves (Qurma Island, PTL10) a sprinkler/flusher system was used and for mudflats dry tilling/cultivating was utilized. On sheltered tidal flats tiller-flushing and auto-

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where species diversity is normal, abundances were either significantly low or there were high abundances of opportunistic species such as nereid polychaetes. (PME/REMTECH /2002-166/REP 2003b). The remediation trials described by Weishar et al. (2006) were initiated in October 2003 and resurveyed in December of that year. Further surveys in 2005 reveal some promising indications. Where new channels were dug through impacted salt marsh and microbial mat, together with oiled sediment removal, high abundances of polychaetes were found and the return of salt marsh annual plants was observed (see Weishar et al. 2008, this volume). Similarly at Bryce Lagoon where mat and oiled layer were excavated, nereid polychaetes and gastropods returned together with a new fine growth of microbial mat. With the removal of oiled sand from a semi exposed beach rapid recolonisation was seen by Scopimera, Cerithidea and polychaetes. Similarly removal of muddy sand oiled sediments from a tidal flat left pools quickly recolonised by small fish. The thick tar layer coating the upper rocky shore north of Abu Ali was removed, either together with the rock, or the rock surface broken up and allowed to remain on the shore as boulders. Both methods appear to be successful with species diversity and abundances rapidly reaching comparable levels to local control areas of unoiled rock. At all sites there appeared to be little further impact on the lower shore from the remediation technologies employed. Recommendations arising from these trials are given in Weishar et al. (2006).

Future prospects for Saudi Arabian shores The release of oil in 1991 was four times greater than any previous spill in the Gulf and over three times greater than any other spill world wide, with most coming ashore on the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast. Although earliest predictions of large scale or total extinction of intertidal communities were unfounded, recent surveys now demonstrate that ecological damage is far more long term than previously expected (Jones et al. 1998). While some tidally flushed wave exposed shores have returned to pre 1991 levels of diversity and abundance, the enormous volume of oil has ensured that buried oil still remains on most beaches and still lies undisturbed in high shore habitats such as salt marshes. Table four presents the latest estimates for natural recovery times for Saudi Arabian Gulf shores based on the 2002-2005 surveys. These are compared to typical recovery times based on previous literature (Sell et al. 1995, Kennish 2001). Recently a review of the longterm ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Peterson et al. 2003) has also shown that not only can oil remain relatively undegraded over periods of up to 14 years and longer, but also PAH´s may be toxic at levels as low as 1 ppb. Hence even the revised recovery times given in table 4 may be very conservative.

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Table 4. Revised predictions of natural recovery times for Saudi Arabian habitats impacted by the 1991 oil release. *Adapted from Sell et al. (1995), Kennish (2001) and Peterson et al. (2003).

Habitat

Impact

Salt marsh

Extinction most biota over growth microbial mats sealing in oil, collapse of channels Extinction most biota oil sealed in by tar pavement and microbial mats Extinction most biota visible buried oil layer; unstable communities Surface tar mat up to 25cm; extinction most biota

Tidal flats

Sand beaches

Rock

* Typical recovery time (years) 5-12

Estimated recovery time for Saudi Arabia 50-100+

5-10

>12 (unpaved areas) 50+ (paved areas)

5-14+

>12-20

3-14+

>30 (thick tar mat)

Salt marshes For salt marshes the collapse of the seaward edge of the marsh in the absence of burrowing crabs together with growth of microbial mats, has led to blockage of the marsh channel system. In the absence of tidal flushing the main marsh remains dead except for continual overgrowth by microbial mats. These are up to 2 cm thick and seal liquid oil in an anoxic environment preventing biodegradation (Höpner et al. 1996, Barth 2003). Initially erosion of the seaward edge of the mat and release of oil, leading to recolonisation by crabs, progressed at a rate of some 25 m per year (Tab. 1). Surveys in 2002/3 reveal that this process has virtually ceased on most marshes due to the collapse of tidal channels. Back and mid marsh are now becoming infilled with desert sand so that the recovery time of 100 years may even be optimistic. The OSS found 74% of supralittoral and 88% of upper shore salt marsh communities non-recovered in 2003. Tidal flats Tidal flats, up to two kilometres in width, represent another low energy environment without wave or tidal action to disperse tarcrete or mats covering oiled sediment, especially where these occur at the higher shore levels. Both mat and tarcrete zones are now so consolidated that it is possible to walk or even drive over the surface. Hence revised recovery times are extended (Tab. 4). The OSS found 55% of the upper shore communities on tidal flats non-recovered.

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Sand beaches Perhaps most surprisingly are the slow recovery times found for sand beaches as many of these are relatively high energy shores exposed to wave action. However, on the exposed north eastern tip of Abu Ali Hayes et al. (1993) reported asphalt pavements present from the Nowruz oil spill in 1983. These tar sheets were still present in 2003, some 20 years later, together with more recent 1991 oil buried in the sand. Macrobiota such as macroalgae are now attached to the Nowruz tar demonstrating that this is now non-toxic to most marine life and acting as an artificial rocky shore. However, macrobiota are absent in the vicinity of the 1991 oil showing that toxicity is lost at some point between 12 and 20 years (table 4). The OSS found 50% of the supralittoral and 25% of the upper shore on sand beaches non-recovered. While rock lightly coated with oil loses its contamination within 2-3 years (Tab. 1) through natural abrasion and peeling, when the oil layer is up to 20 cm thick it is persistent. Watt (1996) showed that temperatures on exposed tar were 10-15ºC higher than on clean rock surfaces and in summer thick tar layers were observed to remelt even after 12 years of weathering (PME 2002). As the high surface temperature prevents resettlement a predicted time for erosion may be in excess of 30 years (Tab. 4). Seventy five per cent of the supralittoral and 40% of the upper shore of rocky shores were found to be non-recovered in 2003. Need for remediation Revised estimates, as a result of the OSS, indicate that some 73 km2 of oiled sediment remains with a volume of eight million cubic metres 12 years after the initial impact. In view of this, revised extended recovery times and new evidence on toxicity of PAH´s (Peterson et al. 2003), remediation is now urgently required. Hinchee (2003) outlined the PME remediation proposals, which included natural attenuation for non-visibly oiled habitats. Active remediation was proposed for visibly oiled sediments by their removal and bioremediation of underlying contaminated sediments. This approach is now even more urgent in view of long term foodweb damage implications arising from the Exxon Valdez spill (Peterson et al. 2003). The bioremediation methodology selected was injection of nutrients and oxidizing agents to enhance naturally occurring degradation of any remaining oil. Alternatives to removal of visibly oiled sediment were considered such as removal of microbial mat and tilling to breakup and disperse the weathered oil and to enhance biodegradation. These were rejected as they had proved ineffective with fresh oil (IMO 1993) and had the potential to release further oil onto recovering lower shore habitats (Peterson et al. 2003). It was also proposed that a restoration phase will be implemented with replenishment of excavated sediment and, for salt marshes, reconstruction of channels and correct elevations together with replanting of halophytes. Table 5 shows that this has been accomplished successfully elsewhere and similar techniques could be used in Saudi Arabia.

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Table 5. Examples of saltmarsh restoration projects following oil spills.

Spill

Restoration activity

Results

Amoco Cadiz 1998

Heavily oiled Grande Marsh was excavated to 50 cm and replanted with marsh grass

Seneca and Broome 1882, Baca et al. 1987, Broome et al. 1988

Lajas Creek Marsh, Puerto Rico 1998

Marsh, havily oiled, was treated by excavation and replanting with marsh grass Marsh, heavily oiled, was excavated, backfilled and replanted Following crude oil spill, compensatory restoration involved constructing marsh on dredged material plots As compensation for oiling 122 acres of salt marsh, 21.7 new salt marsh were constructed on dredged material deposited on tidal land

Restoration was successful at tidal elevations of normal grass growth. Grasses did not grow at lower elevations, which eroded Replanted marsh had recovered after 2 years

Grasses planted at the correct tidal elevation survived, replanted marsh recovered in 2 seasons

Krebs and Tanner 1981

New marsh created successfully

Lorenz et al. 2001, Penn and Tomasi 2002

Marsh construction was successful

NOAA, DARP website 2003

Potomic R., USA, marsh 1978

Lake Barre, LA, USA, 1997

Timbalier Bay, LA, USA, 1992

Reference

Zengel et al. 2001

Although technologies such as tilling and microbial mat removal were rejected they were included in the remediation field trials (Weishar et al. 2006, 2008, this volume). By 2005 only removal of visibly oiled sediment and re-channeling of salt marsh has led to significant macrobiotic recovery. These trials are reexamined at intervals to ensure the correct remediation technologies are selected. It is now becoming clear that new standards for oil clean-up will have to be recognized, measuring PAH´s in ppb rather than ppm. Present signs of recovery suggest that recovery times for impacted habitats (Tab. 4) may be reduced with appropriate remediation. Evidence that rapid recolonisation by Gulf macrobiota on artificially created sheltered beaches and in lagoon habitats occurs, confirms this approach (Al-Jamali et al. 2006). However, it is also essential that Risk Assessment be used to ensure that recovering habitats are not subjected to further impact (Peterson et al. 2003).

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In Kuwait UNCC sponsored investigations were also conducted to assess the impact of the 1991 oil release on intertidal communities. These took the form of long term (2002 to 2005) monitoring studies of impacted habitats using both RSA and quantitative sampling of macro and meio infauna. Levels of TPH, PAH, heavy metals and other pollutants were also measured in intertidal sediments. Results revealed far lower levels and areas of oil impact compared with Saudi Arabia, so that by 2005 only a few sites showed values of over 100 ppm TPH. Nevertheless southern Kuwait beaches and some mud flat areas still showed unstable community structure in 2005 related to exposure of buried oil during equinoctial spring tides. These studies, which include some 1600 RSA sites and circa 800 quantitative seasonal samples over four years, provide an excellent baseline data base for the northern Gulf. Recent studies in artificially created desert waterways in Kuwait confirm that, providing sediments are uncontaminated, a full open sea biodiversity may be attained within three years (Jones et al. 2007).

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the following for funding and technical assistance, both in the field and laboratory: European Commission, Brussels; National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development, Riyadh; Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt a. M.; Research Planning Inc. Columbia, USA; Ecology and Environment of Saudi Arabia Ltd; Woods Hole Group, Middle East, Riyadh. Finally the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, Jeddah who directed and commissioned these projects and gave permission for publication.

References Alam, I. 1996. The 1991 Gulf War environmental crisis: a review of initial research activities. In: F. Krupp, A.H. Abuzinada, L.A. Nada (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf, Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 7-16. Al-Jamali, F.H. 2006. Colonisation and succession patterns of macrobenthos in sterilized sediment of an artificial lagoon in Qatar, Arabian Gulf. The First Internat. Conf. on The State of the Gulf Ecosystem: Future and Threats. U.A.E. University, Al-Ain, p 33. Abstract. Al-Zaidan, A.S.Y., Kennedy, H., Jones, D.A., Al-Mohanna, S.Y. 2006. Role of microbial mats in Sulaibikhat Bay (Kuwait) mudflat food webs: evidence from 613C analysis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 308, 27-36. Baca, B.J. Lankford, T.E., Grundlach, E.R. 1987. Recovery of Brittany coastal marshes in the eight years following the Amoco Cadiz incident. Proc. 1987 Internat. Oil Spill Conf. American Pet. Inst. Washington, D.C. pp. 459-464.

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Barth, H.-J. 2003. The influence of cyanobacteria on oil polluted intertidal soils at the Saudi Arabian Gulf shores. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46 (10): 1245-1252. Barth, H.-J. 2008. Indicators for rapid oil spill regeneration assessment in salt marsh ecosystems In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 255-264. Böer, B. 1996. Trial planting of mangroves (Avicennia marina) and saltmarsh plants (Salicornia europea) in oil-impacted soil in the Jubail area, Saudi Arabia, In: F. Krupp, A.H. Abuzinada, Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf, Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 186-192. Greenpeace 1992. The Environmental Legacy of the Gulf War a Greenpeace Report. Amsterdam, Greenpeace International, p. 41. Gerges, M.A. 1993. On the Impacts of the 1991 Gulf War on the Environment of the Region: General Observations. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 305-314. Gundlach, E.R., McCain, J.C., Fadlallah, Y.H. 1993. Distribution of oil along the Saudi Arabian Coastline (May/June 1991) as a Result of the Gulf War Oil Spills. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 93-96. Hayes, M.O., Michel, J., Montello, T.M., Aurand, D., Al-Mansi, A.M., Al-Moamen, A.H., Sauer, T., Thayer, G.W. 1993. Distribution and weathering of shoreline oil one year after the Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 135-142. Hinchee, R. 2003. Proposed remediation plan for the Saudi Arabian coastline. The Oral Submissions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the State of Kuwait to the F4 Panel of Commissioners 25 March 2003, Geneva, pp. 1-6. Hoffman, L. 1996. Recolonisation of the intertidal flats by microbial mats after the Gulf War oil spill. In: F. Krupp, A.H. Abuzinada, L. A. Nada (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 96-115. Höpner, T. 1991. The oil disaster in the Gulf: Interim balance, status, measures, prognoses. Umweltwissenschaften und Schadstoff Forschung, 3: 254-361. Höpner, T., Yousef, M., Berthe-Corti, L., Felzmann, H., Struck, H. and Al-Thukair, A. 1996. Cyanobacterial mats on oil-polluted sediments – start of a promising selfremediation process? In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), 1996. A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf, pp. 85-95. IMO 1993. Final Report of the Persian Gulf Oil Pollution Disaster Fund. International Maritime Organisation. London, p. 74. Jones, D.A., Ealey, T., Baca, B., Livesey, S. and Al-Jamali, F. 2007. Gulf desert developments encompassing a marine environment, a compensatory solution to the loss of coastal habitats by infill and reclamation: The case of Pearl City Al-Khiran, Kuwait. Aquatic Ecosyst. Health and Management, 10:3, 268-276. Jones, D.A. Plaza, J., Watt, I., Al-Sanei, M. 1998. Long-term (1991 - 1995) Monitoring of the Intertidal Biota of Saudi Arabia after the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 36: 472-489. Jones, D.A., Watt, I, Plaza, J., Woodhouse, T.D., Al-Sanei, M. 1996. Natural recovery of the intertidal biota within the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary after the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf, Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, NCWD Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 138-158.

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Jones, D.A. and Richmond, M.D. 1992. Intertidal and subtidal marine habitat surveys. In: Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region, Final Report for Phase 1, Jubail and Frankfurt, CEC/NCWCD, pp. 134-160. Kennish, M.J. 2001 (ed.). Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Third Edition, C.R.C. Press, Washington D.C., pp. 621-836. Krebs, C.T., Tanner, C.E. 1981. Restoration of oiled marshes through sediment stripping and Spartina propagation. Proc. 1981 Internat. Oil Conf. American Pet. Inst. Washington, D.C., pp. 375-390. Krupp, F., Jones, D.A. 1993. The Creation of a Marine Sanctuary after the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 315-324. Linden, O., Husain, T. 2002. Impact of wars: The Gulf War 1990-91. In: N.Y. Khan, M. M;unwar, A.R.G. Price (eds), The Gulf Ecosystem: Health and Sustainability, Backhuys Pub. Linden, pp. 279-290. Lorenz, W.P., Hall, J., Kern, K., Finley, H., Hanfen, J. Goatcher, B., Hamilton, D., Pace, L., Markarian, R., Penn, T., Pichler, C. 2001. The Lake Barre oil spill NRDA: from response to restoration. Proc 2001. Internat. Oil Spill Conf. American Pet. Inst. Washington D.C., pp. 667-670. MEPA 1991a. Coastal Survey Summary Report Gulf Oil Spill. Unpub. Report. MEPA 1991b. Interim Pit Survey Report. Unpub. Report. MEPA 1991c. Gulf Oil Spill Shoreline Cleanup Plan. 3 volumes. Penn, T., Tomasi, T. 2002. Calculating resource restoration for an oil discharge in Lake Barre, Louisiana, USA. Environmental Management, 29: 691-702. PME 2002. Initial Shoreline Survey: Final. Report, August 2002. Unpublished. PME 2003a. Oiled Shoreline Survey in support of the Marine and Coastal Damage Assessment. Unpublished. PME 2003b. REMTECH/2002 116/REP, 01801. Unpublished. Peterson, C.H., Rice, S.D., Short, J.W., Esler, D., Bodkin, J.L., Ballachey, B.E., Irons, D.B. 2003. Long-Term Ecosystem Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Science, 302: 2082-2086. Price, A.R.G 1990. Rapid assessment of coastal management requirements: a case study from the Arabian Gulf. Ocean and Shoreline Management, 13: 1-19. Price, A.R.G., Robinson, J.H. 1993. (eds), The 1991 Gulf War: Coastal and Marine Environmental Consequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27, 380 pp. Sell, D., Conway, L., Clark, T., Picken, G.B., Beker, J.M., Dunnet, G.M., McIntyre, A.D., Clark, R.B. 1995. Scientific criteria to optimize oil spill clean up. Proc. 1995 Oil Spill Conf. American Pet. Inst. Washington D.C., pp. 595-611. Seneca, E.D., Broome, S.W. 1982. Restoration of marsh vegetation impacted by the Amoco Cadiz oil spill and subsequent clean up operations at Lle Grande France. In: Ecological Studies of the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. Report of the NOAA-CNEXO joint Scientific Commission, CNEXO, Paris., pp. 363-419. Tawfig, N.I., Olsen, D.A. 1993 Saudi Arabia´s Response to the 1991 Gulf Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 333-348. Watt, I., Woodhouse, T., Jones, D.A. 1993. Intertidal Clean up Activities and Natural Regeneration on the Gulf Coast of Saudi Arabia from 1991 to 1992 after the 1991 Gulf Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 325-332. Watt, I. 1996. A summary of the clean-up techniques used in the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary after the Gulf War Oil Spill and an assessment of their benifit to intertidal recovery. In: F. Krupp, A.H. Abuzinada, Nader, I.A. (eds), NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 116-127.

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Weishar, L., Aubrey, D., Watt, I., Jones, D.A. 2006. Restoration of oil degraded salt marsh and sand beach environments within Saudi Arabia. The First Internat. Conf. on the State of the Gulf Ecosystem: Future and Threats. U.A.E. University, Al-Ain, Abstract., p. 93. Weishar, L., Watt, I., Jones, D.A. and Aubrey, D. 2008. Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 273-280. Zengel, S., Hayes, M.O., Benggio, B., Lopez, F. 2001. Oil penetration and vegetation recovery in Lajas Creek marsh, Puerto Rico. Proc. 2001 Internat. Oil Conf. American Pet. Inst. Washington, D.C., pp. 545-549.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Rapid assessment indicators of oil spill recovery in salt marsh ecosystems Hans-Jörg Barth Department of Geography, Ruprecht-Karls-University, Heidelberg, Germany

Abstract: The second Gulf War (1991) led to the largest oil spill in human history. Over 770 km of coastline from southern Kuwait to Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia) were smothered with oil and tar, erasing most of the local plant and animal communities. Salt marshes were most severely hit of the different coastal ecosystem types along the Saudi Arabian coast and are far from being completely restored fifteen years later. Continuous monitoring from 1996 until 2006 by the author as well as Höpner, Jones, Weishar (2008, all this volume) and several others in the period before (Krupp et al. 1996), revealed the dominant processes of natural regeneration which are characterized by different types of indicators. These are 1) the composition of hydrocarbon compounds remaining in the soil, 2) the hardness of the soil surface, 3) microclimate 4) the abundance of laminated cyanobacteria mats, 5) the abundance and diversity of macrofauna, and 6) vegetation. These indicators are briefly presented, as well as some consequences considering future oil spill events and salt marsh restoration.

Introduction The Saudi Arabian shoreline of the Gulf consists of several different coastal types according to their physical characteristics. Sand banks and extensive mudflats are the dominant features. The coastal ecosystem types comprise salt marshes (mudand sand-mud shores), sabkha (mudflats without higher vegetation), sand beaches (high- and low-energy sandy shores, sand flats), rocky shores (cliff, rock boulder

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and rock flats) and mangrove. Basson et al. (1977) and Jones (1986) emphasized that the types of Gulf shores are in some cases mixed, and thus it is possible to obtain a range of intertidal habitats on the same shore. Salt marshes, which are the most abundant ecosystem type, are prominent on more than 50% of the Saudi Gulf shores (MEPA 1987). The dynamics of tidal fluctuations were responsible for the transport and accumulation of the oil in the intertidal zone during the 1991 Gulf War. The oil came ashore during high tides and was deposited between the levels of high water springs (HWS) and high water neaps (HWN) on almost all coasts from Kuwait to Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia) with devastating effects to the fauna and flora of the ecosystems. A review of the following research activities is presented by Jones et al. 2008, this volume). This chapter summarizes the degree of restoration in different salt marsh zones which were affected by the oil spill as well as the key processes of recovery and their indicators.

Indicators For the rapid assessment of the “health of an ecosystem” we usually have certain indicators which allow for a quick estimate. Since the soil is an integral part of the environmental conditions of a certain location, it is probably the most useful indicator. But soil assessment requires laboratory work to some extent. The vegetation which is usually characteristic for certain soil conditions is thus the easiest indicator to assess (indicator species). But in the affected salt marshes most plant individuals disappeared and they did not yet return in most cases. For this reason a rapid assessment requires other indicators. The most important ones are listed below.

Hydrocarbons For quantitative results of hydrocarbon status and distribution laboratory work is inevitable. But for a rapid assessment and for education purposes the “rapid oil print” method is a useful tool (see Box 1). At severely affected salt marshes generally some improvement is obvious after the first 10 years, especially within the lower and middle intertidal zone. The upper middle and the upper intertidal still remain in a seriously disturbed condition (Barth 2003, Jones et al. 2008, this volume, Höpner and Al-Shaikh 2008, this volume). Generally it is hard to compare the present oil load with early values resulting from studies in 1991-1994 (Smith 1996) because the oil deposition was not homogenous within the sediment. Variations are therefore high. But trends are clearly obvious if sufficiently large samples are homogenized and the mean values calculated. General trends assessed between 2001 and 2006 display a restriction of the oiled substrate to the zone between the HWS (high water spring) and HWN (high water neap) with maximum oiling always near the mean high water mark. Temporarily desiccation, due to less inundation near the

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HWS, break the newly established bacterial mats and allow for a better oxygen supply of the surface near substrate (Höpner et al. 1996). Thus oil degradation is more advanced there and the absolute concentrations decreased compared to 1992 (see Fig. 1 for a summary of these processes). Therefore, compared to the initial distribution (1992) the maximum hydrocarbon contamination shifted horizontally from the high water spring towards the mean high water mark. Vertically, there is a general increase of hydrocarbon concentrations in deeper soil layers and a significant decrease in the upper layers. Reduction values in the top soil sediments vary from 60-90% whereas the increase between 10 and 20 cm depth the increase may amount to 300% (Barth 2006). The same pattern is displayed by oil related trace metal concentrations (i.e. Ni, V, Cu) of analyzed salt marsh soil samples, indicating the percolation with time of the oil associated trace metals in deeper soil layers (Barth 2006). Further seaward, regular inundation by sea water provided nutrients and oxygen, contributing to a rapid biodegradation of the oil which is reflected by the virtual absence of hydrocarbons within this salt marsh zone.

Box 1 Rapid assessment by paper oil prints Apart from laboratory work, the degeneration status of oiled soils can be assessed by an easy field test: the “paper oil print”. For this test about 5 g of soil sample are mixed with 50 ml of water and transferred into a 50 ml jar. Part of the hydrocarbons present in the soil will float to the water surface. Here a paper (hydrophobic synthetic material or ordinary) removes the hydrocarbons. According to the oil degeneration status the oil print on the paper is intense and dark or rather light and only spotty. Oil which does not present any danger to the ecosystem does not produce a visible print (although there may still be plenty of hydrocarbons in the soil - but to a large degree biodegraded). This test is very useful for environmental education purposes because it can be carried out even in primary school levels.

46,7 g/kg 15,0 g/kg low degradation status (still harmful for the environment)

44,4 g/kg 17,8 g/kg well biodegraded (no danger for living organisms)

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Sediment compaction by oil residues Most of the sediments between the high water neap (HWN) and the high water spring (HWS) that were soaked with oil and later exposed to sunlight changed their structure during the following years. The upper centimetres became more compact and harder and displayed a large granular structure more than a decade after the initial deposition. Such sediments which were hardened by hydrocarbon residues present a physical barrier for burrowing animals such as crabs (Fig. 1). The penetration resistance as well as shear force (by Eijkelkamp vane tester) of oiled soils always displays maximum values directly at the surface and decreasing values with increasing soil depth (Barth 2006).

Figure 1. Oil conservation and degradation processes at the Gulf shores determined by the three main controlling parameters: sun, cyanobacteria, and physical erosion by water.

Microclimate The albedo characteristics of the soil surface changed significantly due to oil contamination (Böer 1996). Structural changes caused less water content due to reduced pore volume. As a result the specific heat of the surface material as well as cooling by evaporation has been reduced. Additionally the albedo also

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decreased due to the darker surface and changed surface roughness. Consequently the temperature amplitude increased, which means lower temperatures at night and higher temperatures during daytime close to the soil surface. Still, in 2001 between 2-5° increased temperatures were recorded, compared to un-oiled surfaces (three years after the impact up to 11° increase were registered at the same locations (Böer 1996 and pers. observation). Mahmoud et al. (1983) and McMillan (1971) show that high temperatures significantly affect the germination success of salt marsh plants. As temperatures in summer are already extreme (up to 55°C surface temperature and 48°C in 5 cm soil depth), and the salt marsh vegetation is surviving close to its maximum temperature range, the up to 10° elevated temperatures are critical to both, the surviving plants and the germination of young individuals. This means that the increased temperatures, especially during the first two years after the oil spill, most probably contributed to the loss of the remaining surviving individuals of Halocnemum strobilaceum and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum until 1994 (Böer 1996). In the following years germination has been prevented by the compact surfaces and probably also due to still increased temperatures.

Abundance of laminated cyanobacteria mats At locations between the upper eulittoral and the littoral fringe the deposition of fine substrate and the absence of burrowing organisms after the oil spill favoured the development of flat laminated cyanobacterial mats (Höpner et al. 1993, Höpner 1996 and Höpner 2008, this volume). Spring or storm tides provide sediments which settle on top of the cyanobacteria (about 1-3 mm). Afterwards the filamentous bacteria grow and cover the new sediment again. This repeated process leads to the annual formation of one layer of sediment and cyanobacteria (Barth 2003). The occurrence of these leather like laminated cyanobacterial mats correlates with the highest absolute hydrocarbon concentrations and the least biodegraded hydrocarbons within the sediments below. All transects without laminated cyanobacterial mats display significantly lower hydrocarbon concentrations and much more degradation progress. The initial extensive growth of these cyanobacteria after the oil impact, especially on sites where they did not occur before the oil spill (e.g. crab colonies of Nasima dotilliformis, indicate that their growth was favoured by the absence of bioturbation of the sediment (Höpner et al. 1993). In undisturbed salt marshes bioturbation activities destabilise the sediment surface, and - together with grazing pressure by benthic animals (e.g. Pirinella conica) - prevent the establishment of the cyanobacteria. After the oil polluted the shores and destroyed most of the crab colonies in the mudflats, the bioturbation processes as well as grazing by gastropods stopped instantly. After the deposition of a thin layer of fresh sediment, the extensive growth of cyanobacteria started. At favourable places (usually near the mean high water mark) cyanobacteria established dense laminated mats. Beneath the uppermost layers of cyanobacteria intensive decomposition of organic matter leads to the removal of oxygen forming an

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anaerobic milieu (Höpner 1996). The main processes of hydrocarbon degradation occur through oxidative abiotic chemical reactions and enzyme controlled reactions by a variety of organisms (Atlas 1981). Anaerobic hydrocarbon biodegradation in the environment is either undetectable, or orders of magnitude lower than aerobic biodegradation (Ward and Brock 1978, Delaune et al. 1980, Baker et al. 1993, Radwan and Al-Hasan 2002). Thus, petroleum which is trapped below laminated cyanobacterial mats will be preserved until bioturbation by benthic infauna aerates the substrate which at some places may never happen. The numbers of polychaetes in the salt marsh environment are generally low due to the high density and the fine grain size of the substrate, which inhibits penetration and building of burrows naturally. Therefore crabs play the major role in bioturbation of the salt marsh environment along the Gulf coast and in consequence, this mechanical action is the key process controlling restoration of the salt marsh ecosystems (Fig. 1).

Macrofauna The most typical and also most affected part of the fauna were the brachyuran Crustacea. The oil killed almost all animals living in the upper intertidal soil to the lower mid eulittoral. At these locations in 2001 recolonization by crabs was barely detectable, in 2006 only at selected places (Höpner 2008, this volume). Observations show that the most important key species for the upper eulittoral is the crab Nasima dotilliformis. This crab excavates burrows in the mud (up to 50 cm deep), and piles up the excavated material around the entrance, thus forming a distinctive mound or turret. These burrows occur at high densities between 20 and 40 m-2 in undisturbed ecosystems (Apel 1994). A second important crab species abundant in the lower zone of the upper eulittoral is Macrophthalmus depressus with up to 50 m-2. It was generally observed that crabs colonize oil affected zones some years before macrophytes (Höpner 2008, this volume). This is the result of the establishment of cyanobacterial mats or the presence of hard surface crusts which prevent the germination of Arthrocnemum or Halocnemum. The only organisms effectively able to remove the crusts as well as the cyanobacteria are crabs, mainly Nasima dotilliformis and Macrophthalmus depressus. Colonization by crabs is hindered by a heavy oil load (low degree of decomposition) within the top soil sediments and by a substrate too hard for burrowing activities. Penetration resistance and shear force of sediments proved to be very useful in determining limiting factors for crab burrowing activities (Barth 2006). Numbers of crab burrows reveal useful information about the state of recolonisation by crabs. The total number of individuals per m-2 is probably higher, since juveniles are often found associated with adult burrows (Apel 1994). Active crab burrows are generally observed near and seaward of the HWN and along tidal channels. Tidal channels are the initial paths of recolonization by crabs. Because of clean sediments within the channel, these areas are well populated with crabs. Soft sediments at the edge of the channels can be entered by crabs,

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which try to break through the hardened surface substrate at different places and sometimes succeed. If burrows are formed, then oxygen can penetrate the oiled sediment below the tar, and oil degradation is accelerated. Following this pattern the crabs successively penetrate the sediments on both sides of the channel. How fast this “subsurface-breaking-through” technique succeeds depends on the hardness of the surface material or cyanobacterial mat, as well as on the amount of badly weathered oil within the substrate (Barth 2007). Areas with a dense network of channels are generally in an advanced state of regeneration compared to salt marshes with less or without tidal channels. The latter are the slowest to become resettled by crabs. The assumption that increased bioturbation by crabs significantly accelerates the biodegradation process of the hydrocarbon residues (Fig. 1) is supported by the results of Weishar et al. (2008, this volume), who report that artificial channels initiate the recolonization by crabs after only three months and the subsequent rapid biodegradation of the oil residues.

Conclusion The regeneration of salt marsh ecosystems at the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast depends on the interaction between cyanobacteria, soil compaction, crab populations and the degree of hydrocarbon degradation. With this knowledge the state of salt marsh ecosystems can be rapidly assessed by using the above mentioned indicators. It turned out that the resettlement of crabs is the key process initiating a fast and effective biodegradation of the oil residues in the intertidal soils. Because dense laminated cyanobacterial mats and tar covered surface substrates often hamper the resettlement of crabs - even 15 years after the impact tidal channels are the initial paths of recolonization. Therefore it must be recommended that if any restoration measures are to be undertaken, it would be most effective to (carefully) trench a network of artificial channels into the salt marshes in order to bring the pioneer species into the most badly affected ecosystems (see Weishar 2008, this volume). But it must be mentioned that only areas which were previously occupied by crab colonies (which display certain sediment characteristics favourable for burrowing crabs) are likely to be recolonized again (Höpner, pers. com.).

Recommendations Due to the number of oil installations, the petrochemical industry, and associated shipping, there is a reasonable probability of future oil accidents and oil spills along the Gulf coast. Most of these oil spills will be minor ones and therefore affect only short stretches of coastline, but they may still destroy a valuable habitat. Therefore it is essential not only to develop contingency plans and facilitate transboundary action (see Janahi, Khan, Facey 2008, all this volume), but also to develop new methods in dealing with spilled oil in the shallow waters of the Gulf and to implement a working and efficient information network.

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Regarding the fact that most of the northern, western and southern and some eastern Gulf shores are low energy shores which need significantly more time for recovery than 10 years, and the low efficiency of cleanup operations, the only consequence is, that oil must be prevented from drifting ashore. Therefore, the future research effort must in the first place focus on the problem, how to prevent oil from settling within the upper intertidal zone. One aspect is a higher security standard regarding oil exploitation and transportation (Facey 2008, this volume). Another is the question “What can be done in order to prevent oiling of the shallow shores in the case of an oil spill?” and “What should we do if oil reached the shore?” The following recommendations try to answer these questions though they are far from being complete. - All coastal ecosystems along the shores of the Gulf should be assessed in order to define environmentally sensitive areas which have to be treated as priority areas in case of an oil spill. Such projects have already been carried out at selected areas (i.e. for the Abu Dhabi Emirate, ERWDA 2000) and must be considered for the whole Gulf coastline. - The collected information should be stored in a geographical information system (GIS). This information is to be combined with the coastal topography (an other GIS layer) in order to find out suitable locations for the establishment of booms and skimmers, in order to divert oil away and thus protect suitable locations (e.g. Qurmah island, Saudi Arabia, as suggested by Plaza et al. 1995). The GIS should be accessible for all Gulf states. - Another important field of research is the computing of efficient hydrodynamic models which are able to simulate the movement of oil slicks under different weather conditions. These models (which are available for large scales) must also be adjusted for regional and subregional scale such as the coastal embayment systems. Effective prediction of currents allows for efficient action of the various pollution combat units. - In case of an oil spill at low energy shores, clean up activities should only be concentrated on the mangrove ecosystems using sprinkler techniques to clean the pneumatopores of the Avicennia trees. - For the rest of the salt marsh area no cleanup operations are recommended. - Even the establishment of an artificial channel network (as suggested by Weishar et al. (2008, this volume) must be generally questioned. Such actions present a significant impact into the system which has already suffered from the oil in the past. The question is, if these measures are worth the financial input for something we currently do not know the outcome. Although some sites may not recover at all, these spots are now the habitat of new communities which may even be protected instead of being destroyed in the course of artificial restoration measures.

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Acknowledgements The countless fieldwork could not have been done without the continuous support of Prof. Dr. Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada. Furthermore, I have to thank the German Research Foundation (DFG) for financially supporting the Project (Project No. BA 1917-3-1). Many special thanks are due to the staff at the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary Centre, particularly Mr. Khalid Al-Shaikh and Mr. Ahmad Salah.

References Al-Janahi, A.M.M. 2008. Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 107-130. Apel, M. 1994. Biology, ecology and taxonomy of Brachyuran and Paguridean Crustacea. In: Feltkamp, E. and Krupp, F. (eds), Establishment of a Marina Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Final report of phase II. Jubail, Frankfurt a.M. pp. 406-437. Atlas, R.M. 1981. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons: an environmental perspective. Microbiological Reviews, 45: 180-209. Baker, J.M., Guzman, L.M., Bartlett, P.D., Little, D.I. and Wilson, C.M. 1993. Long term fate and effects of untreated thick oil deposits on salt marshes. Proc. of int. oil spill conf., Florida 1993, 395-399. Barth, H.-J. 2007. Crab induced salt marsh regeneration after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management Society, 10 (3): 327-334. Barth, H.-J. 2006. Die Bedeutung der Krabben (Brachyura) bei der Regeneration von kohlenwasserstoffkontaminierten subtropischen Flachküsten am Beispiel des Arabisch Persischen Golfes. UWSF, Z. Umweltchem Ökotox, 18: 242-247. Barth, H.-J. 2003. The influence of cyanobacteria on oil polluted intertidal soils at the Saudi Arabian Gulf shores. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46: 1245-1252. Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E., Hardy, J.H. and Price, A.R.G. 1977. Biotopes of the western Arabian Gulf. Dhahran, ARAMCO, 284 pp. Böer, B. 1996. Increased soil temperatures in salt marshes and mangroves after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 5: 442-447. Delaune, R.D., Hambrick, G.A. and Patrick, W.H. 1980. Degradation of hydrocarbons in oxidized and reduced sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 11: 103-106. ERWDA 2000. Abu Dhabi coastline oil spill protection priorities. Atlas 48 maps, Abu Dhabi. Facey, R. 2008. Pollution from sea based sources. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 163-189. Höpner, T. 2008. Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 265-272.

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Höpner, T., Yousef, M., Berthe-Corti, L., Felzmann, H., Struck, H. and Al-Thukair, A. 1996. Cyanobacterial mats on oil polluted sediments - start of a promising selfremediation process? In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H., Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental Research and Conservation Following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt, pp. 85-95. Höpner, T., Felzmann, H. and Struck, H. 1993. The nature and extent of oil contamination on Saudi Arabian Gulf beaches. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 18(2): 243-255. Jones, D.A., Hayes, M., Krupp, F., Sabatini, G., Watt, I., and Weishar, L. 2008. The impact of the Gulf War (1990 - 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 237-254. Jones, D.A. 1986. A filed guide to the sea shores of Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf. University of Kuwait, Blandford Press, U.K., 160 pp. Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds) 1996. A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. EU/NCWCD/Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg. Riyadh, Frankfurt. Law, R.J., Fileman, T.W. and Portman, J.E. 1988. Methods of analysis of hydrocarbons in marine and other samples (Report No. 2). Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft, UK, 25 pp. Mahmoud, A., El-Sheikh, A.M. and Baset, S.A. 1983. Germination of two halophytes: Halopeplis perfoliata and Limonium axillare from Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments, 6: 87-98. McMillan, C. 1971. Environmental factors affectiong seedling establishment of the black mangrove on the central Texas coast. Ecology, 52: 927-930. MEPA 1987. Arabian Gulf: An assessment of biotopes and coastal zone management requirements for the Arabian Gulf. MEPA Coastal and Marine Management Series, Riyadh. Radwan, S.S. and Al-Hasan, R.H. 2002. Oil pollution and cyanobacteria. In: Whitton, B.A., Potts, M. (eds), The ecology of cyanobacteria - Their diversity in space and time, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 307-319. Ward, D.M., Brock, T.D. 1978. Anaerobic metabolism of hexadecane in sediments. Geomicrobiology Journal, 1: 1-9. Weishar, L., Watt, I., Jones, D.A. and Aubrey, D. 2008. Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 273-279.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill Thomas Höpner1 and Khalid Ali Al-Shaikh2 1

Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM) Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany 2 Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Abstract: In June 1991, after the Gulf War oil spill of February/March 1991, a long-term study was initiated to observe the shoreline remediation. This chapter summarizes the development of 22 locations within the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary (Saudi Arabia) until 2007. At that time only six stations displayed complete remediation. At two stations the condition was as desperate as in 1991, the other ones had reached an intermediate state of a remediation. Some stations run for a limited time through a cyanobacteria-dominated intermediate state, and in one case a return from a cyanobacteria- to a crab-dominated one started only between 2001 and 2007. Regarding the whole study area, even after fifteen years the remediation was by no means complete.

Introduction Fifteen years ago, between January 19 and mid of March, 1991, the northern half of the Gulf was hit by the heaviest oil spill in history. About 1,700,000 million cubic meters of light Kuwait oil were intentionally released. Of this amount, 40% were assumed to have evaporated and 10% to have been dissolved in the seawater body. About 185,000 cubic meters were recovered by Saudi Arabian forces, and the focus of this report- estimated 400,000 cubic meters polluted about 700 km of

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Saudi Arabian´s coastline from south of Kafji to Abu Ali island north of Jubail Industrial City (see also Jones et al. 2008, this volume). Clean-up activities were restricted to a small list of local, in part experimental, measures (data from Tawfiq and Olsen 1993). Considering the so far un-experienced size of the catastrophe, the restriction to these modest projects was at first a sign of resignation, later on a common conviction. Very early, in February 1991, the reputable journal NATURE focused the just starting discussion: “Big Test for Remediation”, supposing that “time and action of oil-feeding bacteria will be the only healers for the western Gulf coast ecosystem now threatened by the largest oil slick in history, and most marine pollution experts agree” (Aldhous 1991). Finally it was a conscious decision to leave the situation to remediation instead of designing and performing a technical clean-up. The following aspects led to this conclusion: - The catastrophe exceeded all experiences and all technical and financial means. - Technical clean-up required heavy collection, loading and transporting equipment, transport routes through coastal nature areas, temporary or even permanent, ecologically safe dumping places. - Industry-like reworking capacities for the collected polluted sediments had to be erected, operated and finally removed. - The large-scale removal of even only some few centimetres of tidal sediments meant an additional severe and probably permanent impact on the sensitive tidal ecosystem. A “Test for Remediation” required a long-term observation to be of practical and scientific value. Already in March 1991 long term observation area was selected by the author. This area was most severely hit by the oil spill and was at the same time a part of the area which an international group of scientists (supported by the European Union and the Saudi Arabian National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development, NCWCD) had selected for the establishment of a marine wildlife sanctuary (Krupp et al. 1996). This fact provided a frame in which the long-term remediation observation could be included in a strong cooperation with the Centre of the sanctuary.

Results of the observation period until 2007 Simply, bioremediation means to leave harmed nature areas untouched and to let bio-processes happen without influence. But when is a bioremediation successful? The experience, e. g. the results of this study, teach us that the re-attainment of the situation of before the impact is not a suitable goal since different (but equally valuable) situations can be attained. To wait for the re-appearance of the conditions which allow the resettlement of system-typical organisms is not enough since the observation teaches that just these organisms take part in the remediation. Whatsoever, an observation program cannot only consist in a (naturally limited) number of measured analytical data, it must include a thorough

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assessment of the ecological situation. It has to consider the differences between different locations. In June 1991, 22 sites (Fig. 1) were selected. They included the ten permanent transect lines (PTL) of the Wildlife Sanctuary team. The sites represented the coastal-ecological diversity of the study area. Exposed (5, 8, 14, 18, 19, 22) as well as sheltered (3, 9, 10, 21) and rocky (1, 12, 13) beaches were represented, marshland (2, 6, 11, 15, 16) as well as mangrove (4, 7), a sabkha open to the sea (17), and a temporarily inundated tidal pool (20). In 1991/1992 it was still possible to characterize the ecological features of before the pollution since the typical surface morphology as well as plant residues could be identified. However, there was one exception: In cyanobacteria-dominated cases it could not always be clearly decided whether cyanobacterial mats had been present even before the pollution. In June 1991, and in January/February 1992, the initial status of the sites have been recorded (Höpner et al. 1993). The sites were visited nearly annually in March or October between 1991 and 2001 and 11 sites (2, 6-11, 1417) in January 2007.

Figure 1. Locations of the 22 long term observation sites within the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary.

Naturally, there were some few influences on the fate of the pollutant common among all stations, e. g. the power of hydrodynamic forces and the duration of the presence of such forces. Beyond such general aspects, the time needed for a substantial progress was extremely different, so that, after fourteen years, some cases of full remediation (sites 2, 4, 6, 7, and 11) were found, where “full

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remediation” does not mean that the final status was identical with that of before 1991, but that the biocoenoses typical for the location were again present in reasonable proportions. It does also not mean that oil residues could not longer be found, but were restricted to small areas and did not longer exert ecotoxically. In other cases there was essentially no improvement (sites 14 and 17). Between these extreme cases, many intermediate stages of progress were observed (the rocky sites 1, 12, and 13 omitted; sites 12 and 13 were temporarily not accessible, and site 5 was influenced by construction measures). The first site which could be considered as restored as early as 1996 was No. 6, a sheltered saltmarsh dominated by colonies of the digging crab Nasima dotilliforme and the halotolerant shrubs Halocnemum strobilaceum and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum. A typical feature was a fine-grained greygreenish soft sediment and the occasional tidal flooding. In 1991, the crabs were extinct but the crab-typical soil morphology was still present, and a minority of the shrubs had survived the moderate oil pollution. In the meantime, adjacent cyanobacterial mats spread out into this area, but the recolonization by the crabs was faster, and since at least 2001 the status seems to be nearly identical with that of before 1991. The nearby site 7, characterized by scattered mangrove trees, seemed also to be recovered in 2001. Sites 11 and 16 shared the sedimentological and hydrodynamical properties of site 6 but suffered from a more severe oil burden. In the course of the years site 16 was covered by a thick and uniform cyanobacterial mat which caught and kept much of the grey-greenish sediment. In this case a permanent change into a new biotope was assumed by us over many years, until in 2007 spots of recolonization by crabs were visible. Site 11 behaved similarly, but the crabs returned even five years earlier, and in 2007 this station could be declared as restored regarding the crabs, but not the plants. Cyanobacteria showed different colours and shapes of the mats and puzzled the observers: Site 22, the small tidal seawater pool, 1991 filled with oil, had in spring 1992 a stable yellow cyanobacterial cover which disappeared completely until 1993. A beneficial effect could not be seen. Site 9 showed in 1992 a black polygonally teared stable cyanobacterial cover on top of the oiled sediment which, in contrast to site 20, was present unchanged until 2007, and also here a beneficial effect could not be seen. The only convincing feature was that cyanobacteria were rather insensitive to or even favoured by the oil. A further site restored in 2007 is No. 2. It bears a sediment of sandy clay which tends to solidification when dry. The degree of shelter is similar to sites 6, 11 and 16 but the sizes ob crab colonies were smaller. In the course of the years it could nicely be observed how already recolonized parts of the colonies advanced into the old and dead ones until in 2007 a state of full restoration was achieved. Former crab colonies were also found at site 15 and the upper part of site 14. Here, however, the recolonization is very slow. There are two reasons: rare inundation and solidified clay sediments. For the mangrove area No. 4 (Böer 1996), even in the presence of some solid and liquid oil residues at least of the mangrove areas could be declared restored in 2001. The common feature of the oil affected sand beaches No. 3, 18, and 19 were scattered oily patches. They were slowly recolonized by macrofaunal organisms

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apart from these patches of which the size decreased in the course of the time. A substantial contribution by the fauna to the remediation was obvious even in these cases. But there is also a group of sites where physical forces predominated (8, 10, 14, and 22) or where biological activities were absent (17). At No. 22, the relatively small amount of oil-soaked sand was removed by the waves very early so that this site was abolished. No. 10 suffered from a sediment-oil layer which was about 20 cm thick at the high water line, becoming thinner towards the sea. This layer was hard like asphalt und could not be attacked biologically. On the other hand, hydrodynamic energy is so low that the tracks of a mechanical ploughing experiment of 1992 (Watt 1996) were still visible in 2007. At site 14, occasional flooding and slow acting aeolian power cause an extremely slow degradation of very hard oil crusts. At site 8, the about 30 cm thick pack of a coarse sediment, soaked with oil, is being removed at high spring tides by the waves with a velocity of about one meter per year, leaving behind a several meters wide zone to be reworked in the future. And at No. 17, where the high spring tides of 1991 had shifted the oil extremely far into a sea-open sabkha and where the oil has been reached by the seawater only some few times until 2007, neither a biological nor a physical force is present to clean the area. The only changes are occasional deposits and removals of thin layers of clean sediments. Naturally, this is a simplified list, but even if some conclusions are questionable, the result is that the remediation is proceeding very differently and that many different conditions were present even in 2001 and 2007.

Conclusion Today we believe that the decrease of the damages follows rather a logarithmical than a linear function. If we rank the remediation progress found at the 22 sites, we get a very disperse result. It shows that the bioremediation process after these sixteen years was by no means complete, and this is really the only conclusion which is valid for the whole study area. Obviously, this is a contrast to a comparable situation in temperate climate such as e. g. in the intertidal zone of the North Sea. There, the mechanical energy input (wind, waves, currents, vertical and horizontal mixing) is much more intense. A second disadvantageous feature of the arid Gulf ecosystem is that temperature and insolation conducted a rapid conversion of the liquid hydrocarbons to solid tar and asphalt masses which are much more resistant to biological attacks than the original liquid pollutants. One of the main conclusions is to stress the meaning of the hydrodynamic energy input for the direction and the velocity of the remediation. The differences in restoration progress may be explained by assuming a competition between biological and geophysical forces. “Biological” means bacterial decomposition, bioturbation as the means of oxygen support and vertical sediment mixing. “Geophysical” means evaporation of volatile hydrocarbons, insolation-supported polymerization, solidification (also by producing hydrocarbon-sediment-mixtures), but also hydrodynamical and aeolian crushing

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and transports (Berthe-Corti and Höpner 2005). Within the study area the geophysical forces act generally slower than the biological ones. The remediation progress at a selected site depends on the ratio between the geophysical and biological forces. The diverse development of the remediation had not really been expected since the study area is of limited size and was hit by a synchronous oil spill. Since the ecological differences within the studied area are relatively little, but existing, the necessary conclusion is that the existing differences are sufficient to govern the remediation rate and direction individually and that the differences in amount and distribution of the pollutant play a rather important role. This means, it is rather illegitimate to characterize the state of a recovering area in overall terms as long as the process has not reached its end. Concerning the frequently damaged marshlands, a question exciting the observers was whether plants or animals will return first. The fundamental solution of the question was that the crabs returned first. This was an early common conclusion among long-term observers which has been emphasized recently by Barth (2006). The crabs provide the access of oxygen into the depth by bioturbation, and this is the precondition for the biological oil degradation as well as for the re-settlement by plants. The first plant species appearing soon after the re-appearance of the crabs was (the annual) Salicornia europaea, followed by perennial and lignified species such as Arthrocnemum macrostachyum and Halocnemum strobilaceum. The re-appearance of crabs frequently occurred so that a resettled front slowly (a meter per year) moved forward into a devastated area. The role of cyanobacteria for the remediation is very ambiguous. A general and confirmed conclusion is that cyanobacteria are unexpectedly insensitive to oil and oil-soaked sediments, and that they settle immediately on oiled surfaces at a time when there is neither a competitor nor a predator. After that first step, the development seemed to branch (Höpner et al. 1996, Barth 2003): cyanobacterial mats may seal oiled surfaces and may prevent faunal and floral settlement. On the other hand, cyanobacterial mats may serve as a nutrient basis (e. g. for burrowing crabs) and may support faunal settlement. In the cases of sites 11 and 16 this was a time consuming detour. Cyanobacterial mats may dry, tear to scales and may be detached from the sediment surface, removing a part of the oil. At the 22 sites we found examples for all of these three alternatives. The early question whether cyanobacteria introduce a way of biological decomposition (Sorkhoh et at. 1992) has clearly to be answered with “no”. Regarding the question of possible future technical clean-up activities of polluted coastal areas, we doubt their efficiency. Even if only small areas will be selected for purification, the expense of removal, transport, storage and treatment will be huge. Furthermore, the removal of even only some few centimetres of polluted sediment is a severe impact regarding the flatness of the coast. At most sites the acute ecotoxic impacts are not existent any more and the still existing relatively inert residues may be tolerated by the ecosystem and its users. Regarding the scarcity of long-term observations, especially in a dry hot climate, the present results are valuable since they show that under such conditions the

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remediation is slower than under temperate environments. Since the remediation on the Gulf shoreline is far away from any final success, the observation should continue. The present results show that the process slowed down within the study period. In future, observation intervals of five years seem to be sufficient.

Acknowledgements We appreciate very much the friendly and scientific hospitality of the staff of the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary Center in Jubail. During all the years, it has been a pleasure to work with and talk to the staff. It was valuable to use the facilities in the laboratories and we are especially grateful for the 4-WD-cars and for those who joined us for the field work. Special thanks is due to NCWCD for providing the necessary visa.

References Aldhous, P. 1991. Big test for bioremediation. Nature, 349: 447. Barth, H.-J. 2003. The influence of cyanobacteria on oil polluted intertidal soils at the Saudi Arabian Gulf shores. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46: 1245-1252. Barth, H.-J. 2006. Die Bedeutung der Krabben (Brachyura) bei der Regeneration von kohlenwasserstoffkontaminierten subtropischen Flachküsten am Beispiel des Arabisch Persischen Golfes. UWSF, Z. Umweltchem Ökotox, 18: 242-247. Berthe-Corti, L. and Höpner, T. 2005. Geo-biological aspects of coastal oil pollution. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 219: 171-189. Böer, B. 1996. Trial planting of mangroves (Avicennia marina) and salt-marsh plants (Salicornia europaea) in oil-impacted soil in the Jubail area, Saudi Arabia. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H., and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf - Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development/Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt, pp. 186-192. Höpner, T., Felzmann H., and Struck, H. 1993. The nature and extent of oil pollutions on Saudi-Arabian beaches. The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering (AJSE) 18: 243-255. Höpner, T., Yousef, M., Berthe-Corti, L., Felzmann, H., Struck, H. and Al-Thukair, A. 1996. Cyanobacterial mats on oil polluted sediments - start of a promising selfremediation process? In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H., and Nader, I.A., (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf – Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development/Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt, pp. 85-95. Jones, D.A., Hayes, M., Krupp, F., Sabatini, G., Watt, I., and Weishar, L. 2008. The impact of the Gulf War (1990 - 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 237-254.

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Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds) 1996. A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf – environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development/Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt. Sorkhoh, N., Al-Hasan, R., Radvan S. and Höpner, T. 1992. Self cleaning of the Gulf. Nature, 359: 109. Tawfiq N.I. and Olsen, D. A. 1993. Saudi Arabia´s response to the 1991 Gulf Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27: 333-345. Watt, I. 1996. A summary of the clean-up techniques used in the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary after the Gulf War Oil Spill and an assessment of their benefit to intertidal recovery. In: Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H., and Nader, I.A. (eds), A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf – Environmental Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development/Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt, pp. 116-127.

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Abdessalaam © 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques Lee Weishar1, Ian Watt2, David A. Jones3 and David Aubrey4 1

Woods Hole Group, East Falmouth, MA, USA IOMEC Grand Gaube, Mauritius 3 School of Ocean Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, UK 4 Woods Hole Group, East Falmouth, MA, USA 2

Abstract: The 1991 Gulf War resulted in the deliberate release of unprecedented quantities of oil into the Gulf. The degradation of over 750 km of shoreline and adjacent wetlands within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was the consequence. The beaches, tide flats, lagoons, rocky shores, and salt marshes along the Kingdom’s Gulf shoreline remain severely more than a decade after the oil release. As part of the Remediation Technology Assessment Project (RTA) (Weishar et al. 2004) the applicability of various remediation technologies on salt marsh ecosystems was evaluated. A demonstration restoration project was designed to restore an arid salt marsh after collecting and assessing baseline biological, chemical, and sediment data. The most effective restoration included removal of surface tarcrete/oil impregnated microbial mats, construction of new tidal channels, and transplantation of native species.

Introduction During the 1991 Gulf War between 1 and 1.7 million metric tons of oil were deliberately released into the Gulf. Much of this oil came ashore in the following months and destroyed most of the coastal habitats between Kuwait and Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia). The initial ecological impacts of this oil spill have been widely documented (Price and Robinson 1993, Abuzinada and Krupp 1994,

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Krupp et al. 1996, Al-Muzaini and Beg 1998). Although the world scientific literature on ecosystem recovery (reviewed by Sell et al. 1995) provides plenty of data, there was none which could be applied for arid salt marsh ecosystems such as at the western Gulf shores. Recovery as defined by Sell et al. (1995) “Where a natural biota has been established and is within the range of dominance, diversity, abundance, and zonation expected for that habitat” averages between 3 and 20 years for impacted salt marshes in temperate and humid environments (Sell et al. 1995). Because salt marshes are the most prominent as the most severely hit ecosystem along the Gulf coast, the focus of restoration trials was concentrated there. The impact as well as natural biodegradation processes are reviewed by Jones et al. (2008, this volume), Höpner (2008, this volume) and Barth (2008, this volume). All these studies conclude that salt marsh shores were the most heavily impacted habitat because this ecosystem typically occurs within low energy shores of sheltered embayments. As a result, recovery of the salt marsh has been slow because the oiled layer remained and either solidified forming an asphaltic layer on the marsh plain or remained as liquid oil prevented from weathering by an overlaying layer of microbial mat. Jones et al. (2008, this volume) report that the collapse of the seaward edge of marshes in the absence of burrowing crabs, together with the growth of microbial mats, has led to the blockage of channels preventing tidal flow to the marsh. The absence of tidal flushing and the elimination of tidal channels have inhibited recovery, resulting in large tracks of marsh plain totally devoid of vegetation. Wind blown desert sand is now accumulating on the surface of the dry marshes which are in danger of extinction. The aeolian process has adversely altered the topography and the ability of the marsh sediment to retain water further reducing the possibility of natural recovery in these habitats. The remediation tests presented in this chapter are part of a study carried out for PME, funded by the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC). They were carried out for all major coastal ecosystem types in 2003. Due to its dominance and the severe impacts this chapter focuses only on salt marsh ecosystem remediation.

Applied remediation technology The harshness of the Gulf environment places severe constraints on the utility of various remediation alternatives. High temperatures over much of the year, combined with low precipitation, create conditions which are not amenable to some successful remediation options which have been used elsewhere. The Remediation Technology Assessment (RTA) was designed to follow a logical, sequential series of steps representing international protocol for conducting remediation technology evaluations, relying on approaches developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). The major concern put forth through the UNCC process was that any remediation effort might have a detrimental affect on the low shore benthic community and therefore, leaving the site alone may be more appropriate. Any

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potential impact of the remediation technology on the ecosystem had to be assessed through Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including a baseline ecological survey which was conducted at each of the five remediation test sites and at the control sites. The test area is located on the lee-shore of the Manifa peninsula, approximately 70 km south of the Kuwait border. The sheltered location of these marshes has inhibited the natural recovery observed in other areas. Oil reaching the upland extent of the marsh was either sealed in by microbial mats or, where exposed, turning into a asphaltic/tar surface. The loss of vegetation and the infilling of tidal channels resulted in a marsh plain almost totally devoid of topography and vegetation. The test site (49°30’33’’N / 27°14’05’’E) was located adjacent to a major tidal creek which remained open and could provide source waters for reconstructed tidal channels. It was sub-sectioned with approximately 21 acres (8.5 ha) devoted to the marsh restoration project. The marsh plain prior to restoration was partly covered with a tar surface layer. This surface layer was extremely hard and had oil concentration of approximately 2,500 mg/kg. Large areas of the selected marsh plain were characterized by abandoned oiled crab holes providing an indication of the pre-spill conditions that occurred at this site. The underlying five centimetres of sediment had oil contaminant concentrations of approximately 100 mg/kg. The detailed methods of the pre-baseline-sampling is described by Weishar et al. (2004). The developed restoration plan included control(s), marsh plain perforations, micro-topography (no nutrients added), removal of microbial mat (no nutrients added), removal of microbial mat and planting (nutrients added), micro-topography and planting (no nutrients added), micro-topography and planting (nutrients added), micro-topography over perforated microbial mat and planting (no nutrients added), micro-topography over perforated microbial mat and planting (nutrients added), and microbial mat removal (Fig. 1). A series of fifteen plots were established to evaluate the restoration methodologies described above. Each test plot was a 20 x 10m plot with a 5m space between each plot with the exception of plots B1 and F2, which are directly connected to plots A1 and A2 respectively (Fig. 1). The artificial channels were constructed (manually) to improve tidal flow within the test area and provide clean, oxygenated water to the existing anoxic sediment. Constructed channels and associated micro-topography were both designed and constructed to reflect the meandering nature of natural tidal channels and associated topography of healthy mature salt marshes. The design specified that new channels meandered through each test plot to provide the test plots with maximum tidal inundation from the main channel. The excavated material was redistributed and used to create micro-topography within the test plots. Dichotomous branching of the artificial channel system was an important design component aimed at increasing the surface area affected by the channels. Gradients were established to ensure flushing through the channel and thereby encourage water circulation in the system. A network of tributaries and small channels were established with an average width of 0.6 m and a depth of 0.2 m within each test plot to ensure maximum

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circulation within each test plot through the connection to the new arterial channel with a width of 1.0 m and depth of 0.4 m.

Figure 1. Design of the remediation test plots and remediation technologies demonstrated at the salt marsh test site (Manifa Bay).

The construction of micro-topography and channels attempted to reconstruct the natural relief of a typical salt marsh by placing small mounds of sediment and constructing shallow channels within the selected test plots. This is an important

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physical feature of the local salt marsh habitats providing physical diversity to the existing site conditions (i.e. inundation frequency and duration). Two of the principle halophyte species found in the region are Salicornia europaea and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum were selected for re-vegetation tests. Proper elevation for re-vegetation as well as for determining the top of the microtopography (and channel depth) were selected due to a prior on-site tidal elevation assessment. Table 1. Distribution of planting at the test plots (see Fig. 1 for location).

Plot Species Arthrocnemon macrostachyum Salicornia europaea

D1

D2

11plants 12 plants

F1

F2

E1

E2

21 plants

10 plants

10 plants

10 plants

20 spikes 6 blocks

30 spikes

2 blocks 40 spikes 7 blocks

Short term results Between two and three months after the remediation the quantitative survey showed a remarkable development. In September, before remediation activities commenced, the trial site was devoid of biota except for a thick cover algal mat covering 98% of the marsh plain. In November just 2 months after the channels were constructed and the various treatments were implemented (Fig. 1) a diversity of nine species with a mean abundance of 255 individuals per square metre could be recorded. Although algal mat had re-grown in some areas, overall cover was reduced to 54%, transplanted Arthrocnemon survived, but the Salicornia (annual) was dead. Trial plot D3 (algal mat removal) closest to the main arterial channel and adjacent to a newly excavated channel, had the highest diversity with 4 species including key species Potamides conicus and Nasima dotilliformis. In addition, over 400 m-2 capitellid polychaetes occurred in the base of new channel. Controls A1 and A2 at the top of the shore were still covered in algal mat but the new channel bringing tidal waters to the top of the shore contained polychaetes (genus of Melinna and Capitella). Treatments F1 and outside controls had a species diversity of 2-3 and the other treatment plots showed no sign of life other than algal mat. Table two compares these results with a survey of an unoiled control marsh (described by Jones et al. 1998). Mean abundances are given for species over the period 1992-1995. The expected species diversity is 15 with a mean abundance of 988 m-2 for a natural Gulf marsh.

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Table 2. Quantitative results of macrofauna before and three months after the remediation trials at the salt marsh test site compared to unoiled control sites.

Species Values per sq. m Algal Mat with Oil (%) Arthrocnemon (%) Salicornia Suaeda P.conicus Littoral Fringe

Nasima Tylodiplax Nereis Melinna palmata Lumbrinereis Insecta Polychaete sp. 1 Ikeda Nasima

Amphieteis Upper Nereis Mid Eulittoral Dosinia Capitellid sp. Total Abundance Total Species

2002 September 2003 November 2003 Remediation Area Remediation Site C5 Control Site Prior to Trials 2 Months After Mean SD Mean SD Mean Abundance 98 54.8 24.0 <20 0 0 1.0 2.2 <10 0 0 0.0 0.0 40.5 0 0 0.0 0.0 37.1 0 0 0.4 0.6 21.3 0 0 0.2 0.5 0.0 0 0 0.2 0.5 0.0 0 0 21.3 37.0 5.3 0 0 5.3 9.2 0.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 5.3 0 0 21.3 18.5 10.6 0 0 0.0 0.0 69.3 0 0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0 0 1.0 2.2 30.4 0 0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 15.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 46.7 0 0 200.0 150.0 700.0 0 0 254.8 988.7 1 9.0 15.0

1992-1995 C2 Control Marshes SD

16.3 23.3 24.4 0.0 0.0 9.2 0.0 9.2 9.2 40.3 x x x x x x x

x - Data means 1992 - 1995 (Jones et al , 1995)

It is expected that the full remediation effects of the demonstration of remediation would continue to take place over several years so that present results after only three months are encouraging. In a marsh devoid of life except for oiled algal mat some 12 years after impact, it has been possible to create conditions obviously favourable for recolonization by nine species, including the key species P. conicus and N. dotilliformis. It is remarkable that the only treatments which appear to be beneficial are the removal of oiled algal mat layer and channelization. Even the former appears to be ineffective unless there is access to tidal flushing. The effectiveness of other techniques (i.e. microtopography, addition of nutrients, and perforation of the algal mat) do not show improvement after the short period of time.

Conclusion Remediation appears to be occurring from the main tidal channels into the adjacent oil affected salt marsh areas. This may explain why the establishment of an artificial channel network seems to be the only beneficial treatment of salt marsh restoration. Therefore, with access to regular tidal inundation and more time such efforts may contribute to an accelerated recovery at sites which otherwise are likely to remain devoid of the original biota (due to the collapse of

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the microtopography and the associated raise of the overall surface level leading to elimination or reduction of tidal flushing). But is also has to be considered that large or small scale remediation always present an environmental impact. The results of the remediation trials are encouraging and must be viewed as preliminary and as long as no long term results of these trials are available the potential environmental impacts of any remediation action should be carefully considered. In the past the most successful restoration in most cases proved to have happened by nature itself (though it may have taken a longer time) however, preliminary data suggests that even after 12 years remediation efforts can be successful if they are designed to work in conjunction with the natural remediation process. It is thus very important to clarify if the financial input and effort are in any relation to the expected outcome of such measures in the large scale.

References Abuzinada, A. H. and Krupp, F. (eds) 1994. The status of coastal and marine habitats two years after the Gulf War oil spill. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 166, 80 pp. Al Muzaini, A. H., N. Beg and Moghissi, A.A. (eds) 1998. The long-term environmental effects of the Gulf War oil spill. Environment International, 24 (1-2): 1. Barth, H.-J. 2008. Indicators for rapid oil spill regeneration assessment in salt marsh ecosystems In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 255-264. Höpner, T. 2008. Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Abdelsalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 265-272. Jones, D.A., Hayes, M., Krupp, F., Sabatini, G., Watt, I., and Weishar, L. 2008. The impact of the Gulf War (1990-91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery. In: Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds), Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution. Birkhäuser, Switzerland, pp. 237-254. Jones, D.A. , J. Plaza, I. Watt, and Al-Sanei, M. 1998. Long-term (1991-1995) monitoring of the intertidal biota of Saudi Arabia after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 36 (6): 472-489. Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds) 1996. A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf – environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development /Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt. Price, A. R. and Robinson, J.H. 1993 (eds). The 1991 Gulf War: Coastal and marine environmental consequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 27, 1-380. Sell, D., L. Conway, T. Clark, G. B. Picken, J. M. Baker, G. M. Dunnet, A. D. McIntyre, and Clark, R.B. 1995. Scientific criteria to optimize oil spill cleanup. Proceedings of the 1995 Oil Spill Conference, pp. 595-611. American Petroleum Institute. Weishar, L., D. G. Aubrey and Watt, I. 2004. Final Report - Design Considerations for Remediation and Restoration of Marine and Coastal and Terrestrial Resources of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Woods Hole Group.

Abbreviations

ALECSO - Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation APELL - Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level AVHRR - Very High Resolution Radiometer CZCS - Coastal Zone Colour Scanner EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment EMR - Electro Magnetic Radiation GEF - Global Environment Facility GEO - Global Environment Outlook GIS - Geographical Information System GPA - Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite IAS - Invasive Aquatic Species ICZM - Integrated Coastal Zone Management IMO - International Maritime Organisation IUCN - the World Conservation Union KAP - Kuwait Action Plan LNG - Liquified Natural Gas MARPOL 73/78 - the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 MEMAC - Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre MODIS - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MSF - multi-stage flash distillation NCWCD - National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development ORCU - Oil Spill Response and Salvage Co-ordination Unit PAH - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PERSGA - Regional Organisation for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden POPs - persistent organic pollutants PTL - Permanent transect line RO - reverse osmosis ROPME - Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment RSA - ROPME Sea Area SAP - Strategic Action Programme SAR - Synthetic aperture radar SBS - sodium bisulfite SBT - Segregated Ballast Tanks

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Abbreviations

SDIAR - Sustainable Development Initiative for the Arab Region SeaWiFS - Sea-Viewing Wide-Field-of-View Sensor SOMER - State of the Marine Environment Report SPOT - Système Pour l’Observation de la Terre SST - sea surface temperature TBT- tributyltin TDA - Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis TOC - Total Organic Carbon TPH - Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon UAE - United Arab Emirates UKHO - United Kingdom Hydrographic Office UN - United Nations UNCC - United Nations Compensation Commission UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme UNEP/ROWA - United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for West Asia UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Index

Abu Ali Island 52 Acropora clathrata 19, 50 amphidromic point antiscalants 198 APELL 157 Arabian shelf 3 Arabian shield 3 Arthrocnemum macrostachyum 28, 260, 277 atlantic cyclones 7 atmospheric pollution 62 Avicennia marina 16, 26 AVHRR 141

desalination 192 desalination effluents 150, 196 diversity 35, 242 dust storm 63

ballast water 181 beachrock 17 benthic fauna 18 bioturbation 260 breeding success 47

fisheries 215

carbonate 2 Cerithium scabridum 15 chlorine 197, 200 circulation pattern 9 civil liability 119 coagulants 198 conflicting interests 78 conservation issues 40 contingency 156 copper 200 coral bleaching 49 coral reef 18, 49 cyanobacteria 259, 268

ecosystem 73 ecosystem approach 70 effluents 150 EIA 83, 203 eulittoral 15 eutrophication 66 Exxon Valdez 247

geology 2 GIS 233, 262 GloBallast Programme 96, 183 Gulf War oil spill 53, 233, 265 Halocnemum strobilaceum 28, 260 Halodule univervis 18, 25 halophytes 17, 31 heavy metals 65, 153, 198 Holocene transgression 5 ICZM 102, 159 IMO 96, 188 integrated pollution management 70 international agreements 82, 108 invasive aquatic species 181

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Kuwait Action Plan (KAP) 109 Kuwait Regional Convention 97, 109 land reclamation 151 legal frameworks 79 legislation 116, 157 liquified natural gas 173 London dumping convention 185 macroalgae 48 Macrophthalmus depressus 15, 26 mangroves 16, 26, 242 marine biota 46 marine mammals 48 MARPOL 73/78 86, 171, 188 mediterranean depression 7 MEMAC 111, 188 Metopograbsus messor 15 microbial mat 241, 259, 268 monitoring 133, 240, 266 mortality 51 multi-stage flash 195 municipal effluents 60 Nasima dotilliformis 15, 241, 260, 268, 278 nautical charting 180 NCWCD 48, 233 Nodolittorina subnodosa 18 nutrients 12, 66, 210, 213 off-road-driving 39 oil degradation processes 258 oil impact 239 oil spill damage assessment 224 oil spills (numbers of) 130, 169 oil spills (trends) 166 overgrazing 37 PAH 217

Index

permanent transect lines 52, 240 PERSGA 53 pesticides 217 petrochemical industry 149 phosphate 12 Pirinella conica 15 plankton 214 Pocillopora reef 51 pollution sources 60 POP's 65 Porites compressa 19 poylchaetes 18 precipitation 7 productivity 13 recovery time 248 remediation 52, 270, 273 remediation 245, 250 remote sensing 132 reverse osmosis 195 riverine discharges 61 rocky shores 17, 31, 242 ROPME 52, 97, 100, 111, 188 RSA 108, 223

sabkha 29 sabkha shores 17 Salicornia europaea 27 salinity 9, 209, 212 salt marshes 14, 27, 247, 256, 273 saltmarsh zonation 27 sand sheet 34 sandy shores 17, 29, 242, 249 satellite sensors 133 schedule approach 225 SDIAR 94 sea birds 46 sea level changes 4,6 sea surface temperature 11, 12, 141, 209

Index seagrass 18, 25 seagrass beds 26 sediment compaction 258 sewage effluents 151 Shamal 8 Shatt Al-Arab 209 silicate 13 soil compaction 39, 258 solid waste 152 species diversity 14 spectral reflectance 136 subtidal habitats 49 sustainability 72 tanker routes 165 tanker traffic 172 thermal convection 7 tidal pattern 10 tidal range 10 tides 209 TOC 213 tourism development 39 TPH 64, 243, 256 trade winds 7 Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis 53, 104 transport (oil) 164 turbidity 138, 210 turtles 48 UNCC 273 UNEP 101 UNESCO 103 whales 48 Zagros fold belt 3 Zygophyllum qatarense 32

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