Stephen C. Russell Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature
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Stephen C. Russell Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Herausgegeben von John Barton · Reinhard G. Kratz Choon-Leong Seow · Markus Witte
Band 403
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
Stephen C. Russell
Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature Cisjordan-Israelite, Transjordan-Israelite, and Judahite Portrayals
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI 앪 to ensure permanence and durability.
ISBN 978-3-11-022171-8 ISSN 0934-2575 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 쑔 Copyright 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in Germany Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Laufen
for Nadia
Acknowledgments This book is a revised version of my 2008 New York University doc‐ toral dissertation, supervised by Mark S. Smith. The project had its immediate genesis in a paper written for a reading course on penta‐ teuchal criticism that I took with Mark in the spring of 2005. That paper surveyed biblical references to the exodus that could arguably date to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. Its central intuition was the possibil‐ ity that at least part of the biblical exodus tradition may have had its roots in the withdrawal of Egypt from Syria‐Palestine at the end of the Late Bronze Age, a suggestion that I soon discovered had been made by several scholars. Mark thought that the central ideas of the paper were worth exploring, and his contributions have been invaluable at every stage of the project. I am particularly thankful for his extensive written comments, and for the energy he continued to devote to the project even while he was away on sabbatical. One of the precursors to the dissertation had been research done on the portrayal of the exodus in the eighth‐century prophets for a seminar on Hosea and Amos taught by Daniel E. Fleming. Dan was second on my committee, and several aspects of this book grew out of many conversations that we had about the ancient Israelite tribal collective. His encouragement during my years as a doctoral student was very much appreciated, and his influ‐ ence is particularly felt in the sensitivity to the Israelite and Judahite perspectives reflected in the texts discussed here. Lawrence H. Schiff‐ man, the third member of my committee, also provided helpful com‐ ments and suggestions. I am particularly thankful for his extremely effective problem solving at several key junctures of my graduate ca‐ reer. This revised version of the thesis benefited from comments offered by Frank Peters and Ogden Goelet at the dissertation defense. Several colleagues and friends read and commented on one or more chapters: Nadia Ellis, Erica Gilles, Ronald Hendel, Dave Lamb, Cory Peacock, and Rebecca Rainoff. Sections of the project were also pre‐ sented at a symposium on the golden calf stories hosted by the De‐ partment of Hebrew and Judaic Studies at New York University, and to the Near Eastern Studies Department at Johns Hopkins University. I am thankful for the resulting questions and suggestions that came from Brendon Benz, Miryam Brand, Sarah Millstein, Lauren Monroe, and Michael Pregill at NYU; and Richard Jasnow, Ted Lewis, P. Kyle McCarter, Glenn Schwartz, and Raymond Westbrook at Hopkins. I am
viii
Acknowledgments
also grateful for the comments and questions that resulted from the presentation of material from Chapter 4 at the Society of Biblical Litera‐ ture’s 2008 Annual Meeting in Boston. At that meeting, I also enjoyed discussing some of the central theses of the book with Jeremy Hutton. Especially where colleagues disagreed with my work, they pushed me to re‐examine the evidence and helped me to make a better case for a regional approach to the biblical traditions about Egypt. During my years at NYU, I was supported by a Henry M. Mac‐ Cracken Fellowship. I am thankful to my departmental administrators, Diane Leon‐Ferdico, who efficiently processed the disbursement of funds related to several research trips, and Shayne Leslie Figueroa, who surpasses even Google. Much of the preliminary research for this study was undertaken during the 2005–2006 academic year, when I was a visiting research student at the Oxford Center for Hebrew and Jewish Studies. The year was made possible by the generous financial support of the OCHJS, and supplemental funds from the NYU Ancient Studies Ranieri Travel Fund and from the NYU Skirball Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies. The staff of the OCHJS, especially Sue Forteath, Lynne Sheffield, and Martine Smith‐Huvers, helped to make my year there a productive one. The final year of work on the dissertation un‐ derlying this book was made possible by a grant from the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture. Revision of the thesis was undertaken during the 2008–2009 aca‐ demic year, while I was a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Near Eastern Studies at the University of California, Berkeley. I am grateful to the faculty for their warm welcome into such a stimulating academic environment, especially Bob Alter, Ronald Hendel, and Niek Veldhuis. Administrators in various university offices were helpful at every turn, especially Sam Castaneda, Midge Fox, Teresa Harlan, Shorena Kurtsikidze, Pat Manley, Sharlene Mulder, Erik Nelson, Ron Reeves, Betsy Stern, and Toni Whittle‐Ciprazo. I had the pleasure of discussing this project with Yair Zakovitch, who was at Cal in spring 2009. Adjacent to Cal is the Graduate Theological Union, whose library I often utilized. For their welcome and collegial discussions I would like to thank my GTU colleagues Aaron Brody, Bob Coote, Steed Davidson, John Endres and Garrett Galvin. I am grateful to the editors of BZAW for including this work in the series, chiefly to Leong Seow and Albrecht Döhnert. Their comments toward revision were particularly helpful, and they pointed me toward recent German scholarship relevant to the arguments developed here. Walter de Gruyter’s Sabina Dabrowski offered considerable help in
Acknowledgments
ix
matters of production. Freelancers Karen Stough and Janet Russell as‐ sisted with copyediting and tabulating the indices, respectively. As this book is the first published result of a much longer process of academic training, I would like to thank those who fostered my intel‐ lectual growth as a graduate student. In New York, between 2002 and 2005, in addition to Dan and Mark, whom I have already mentioned, I was privileged to have been taught by Moshe Bernstein, Liz Bloch‐ Smith, David M. Carr, Robert Chazan, Stephen Geller, Rob Kawashima, and Ron Wallenfelds. For two of those years, I enjoyed being a part of a monthly interdisciplinary discussion group that was chaired by Catha‐ rine Stimpson. At Oxford, during the 2000–2001 academic year, I en‐ joyed the tutorship of John Elwolde, Martin Goodman, Anselm Hage‐ dorn, Alison Salvesen, Jeremy Schonfield, Norman Solomon, and Jonathan Webber. All of these scholars have helped to shape my inter‐ ests and perspectives and have given me the tools to explore a lifetime of questions. I would also like to thank my friends at NYU, Princeton, and Berke‐ ley, and my longtime friends from Jamaica, all of whom helped to make my graduate and postdoctoral years enjoyable. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Gordon and Grace, and my brothers, Andrew and Joseph, who helped me to believe I could do whatever I wanted; and Nadia, to whom this book is dedicated, and with whom I took the intellectual journey represented here. Stephen C. Russell Oakland, California August 2009
Contents Acknowledgments ....................................................................................... vii Abbreviations ............................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study ............................................. 2 1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm ......................................................... 14 1.4 Recovering Early Biblical Traditions ............................................. 22 Chapter 2: Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt ................ 24 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 24 2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 ....................... 24 2.3 The Eighth‐Century Prophets Hosea and Amos ......................... 55 2.4 Military Israel: The Song of Deborah, Judg 5 ............................... 63 2.5 The Exodus Narrative ...................................................................... 69 2.6 The Joseph Story ............................................................................... 71 2.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 75 Chapter 3: Early Transjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt ............ 78 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 78 3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9 .................................. 78 3.3 The Exodus Narrative ................................................................... 119 3.4 Moses ............................................................................................... 124 3.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 125 Chapter 4: Early Judahite Traditions about Egypt ............................... 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18 ............................................ 4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32 .............................. 4.4 Solomon’s Marriage Alliance with Egypt, 1 Kgs 3:1 ................ 4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................
127 127 127 176 185 193
Chapter 5: Summary and Implications .................................................. 194 5.1 Summary ......................................................................................... 194 5.2 A Historical Exodus? ..................................................................... 195
xii
Contents
5.3 Israelite Origins .............................................................................. 196 5.4 The Pentateuchal Traditions ........................................................ 198 Bibliography .............................................................................................. 201 Index of Texts ............................................................................................. 242 Index of Authors ....................................................................................... 260 Index of Subjects ........................................................................................ 271
Abbreviations ÄAT AB ABD ABS AcBib AfO AfOB ÄgAbh AgrH AJSL AJT AnBib ANVAO.HF AOAT AOS ArOr ATANT ATD ATM BA BASOR BDB BETL Bib BibInt BibWor BIS BJS BKAT BRev BRS BS
Ägypten und Altes Testament Anchor Bible Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992 Archaeology and Biblical Studies Academia Biblica Archiv für Orientforschung Archiv für Orientforschung: Beiheft Ägyptologische Abhandlungen Agricultural History American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures American Journal of Theology Analecta biblica Avhandlinger i norske videnskaps‐akademi i Oslo, II Historisk‐filosofisk klasse Alter Orient und Altes Testament American Oriental Series Archiv Orientální Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments Das Alte Testament Deutsch Altes Testament und Moderne Biblical Archaeologist Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907 Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Biblica Biblical Interpretation The Bible in Its World Biblical Interpretation Series Brown Judaic Studies Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament. Edited by M. Noth and H. W. Wolff Bible Review Biblical Resource Series The Biblical Seminar
xiv BSDiss BWA(N)T BZ BZAW CAD CBC CBET CBOT CBQ CBW CHANE CollBCOT ConBib ConBOT COS CT CTH CTM DAPT DMOA DNWSI DUL
EA
EAEHL ÉBib EdF ÉHPhR EHS.T ErIsr ETCSL
Abbreviations
Bibliotheca Salmanticensis Dissertationes Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Tes‐ tament Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wis‐ senschaft The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the Uni‐ versity of Chicago. Chicago, 1956– Cambridge Bible Commentary Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology Clarendon Bible Old Testament Catholic Biblical Quarterly Cities of the Biblical World Culture and History of the Ancient Near East Collegeville Bible Commentary Old Testament Connaissance de la Bible Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series The Context of Scripture. Edited by W. W. Hallo. 3 vols. Leiden, 1997– Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Mu‐ seum Catalogue des textes hittites Concordia Theological Monthly Deir ‘Alla Plaster Texts Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui Dictionary of the North‐West Semitic Inscriptions. J. Hofti‐ jzer and K. Jongeling. 2 vols. Leiden, 1995 A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition. Edited by G. del Olmo Lete and J. Sanmartín. Edited and translated by W. G. E. Watson. Leiden, 2004 El‐Amarna tablets. According to the edition of J. A. Knudtzon. Die el‐Amarna‐Tafeln. Leipzig, 1908–1915. Reprint, Aalen, 1964. Continued in A. F. Rainey, El‐ Amarna Tablets, 359–379. 2d revised ed. Kevelaer, 1978 Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Edited by M. Avi‐Yonah. 4 vols. Jerusalem, 1975 Études bibliques Erträge der Forschung Études d’Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses Europäische Hochschulschriften Reihe 23, Theologie Eretz‐Israel Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
ETL ÉTR EvT Exp FAT FOTL FRLANT FTS GKC GTS GTW HALOT
HAT HAW HCOT Heb Hermeneia HKAT HO HSAT HSM HSoed HTR HUCA HUL IBC IBHS ICC IEJ Int IRT ISBL ITL JANES
Abbreviations
xv
Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses Études théologiques et religieuses Evangelische Theologie The Expositor Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forms of the Old Testament Literature Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Frankfurter theologische Studien Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch. Translated by A. E. Cowley. 2d. ed. Oxford, 1910 Gettysburg Theological Studies Grundriss der theologischen Wissenschaften Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. L. Koehler and Walter Baumgartner. Revised by W. Baumgartner and J. J. Stamm. Translated by M. E. J. Richardson. 5 vols. Leiden, 1995. Handbuch zum Alten Testament Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft Historical Commentary on the Old Testament Hebraica Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible Handkommentar zum Alten Testament Handbuch der Orientalistik Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testamentes Harvard Semitic Monographs Horae Soederblomianae Harvard Theological Review Hebrew Union College Annual Hutchinson’s University Library Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. B. K. Waltke and M. O’Connor. Winona Lake, 1990 International Critical Commentary Israel Exploration Journal Interpretation Issues in Religion and Theology Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature International Theological Library Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society
xvi JAOS JBL JBS JEOL JFA JHebS JJS JNES JNSL Joüon
JPSTC JQR JSem JSOT JSOTSup JSS JSSSup JTC JTS KAI KAR KGAO KGAW KHC KTU
KUB LAI Lat LHB/OTS LIAJSBUST MdB MLBS NAC
Abbreviations
Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Biblical Literature Jerusalem Biblical Studies Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch‐Egyptisch Genootschap Ex oriente lux Jewish Folklore and Anthropology Journal of Hebrew Scriptures Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Near Eastern Studies Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages Joüon, P. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Translated and revised by T. Muraoka. 2 vols. Subsidia biblica 14/1–2. Rome: 1991 Jewish Publication Society Torah Commentary Jewish Quarterly Review Journal for Semitics Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Semitic Studies Supplements Journal of Theology and Church Journal of Theological Studies Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften. H. Donner and W. Röllig. 2d ed. Wiesbaden, 1966–1969 Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiösen Inhalts. Edited by E. Ebeling. Leipzig, 1919–1923 Kulturgeschichte des alten Orients Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt 64 Kurzer Hand‐Commentar zum Alten Testament Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit. Edited by M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín. AOAT 24/1. Neukirchen‐Vluyn, 1976 Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi Library of Ancient Israel Lateranum Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies Philip W. Lown Institute of Advanced Judaic Studies, Brandeis University: Studies and Texts Le Monde de la Bible Mercer Library of Biblical Studies New American Commentary
NCB NCBC NEA NRTh NTT NW OBL OBO OBS OBT OLA Or OTL OTS OtSt OTWSA PÄ PAPS PEQ PHBB RA RB RBL RGRW RHR RIMA RIMB RIME SAACT SANT SAT SB SBLABS SBLDS SBLMS SBLSBL
Abbreviations
xvii
New Century Bible New Cambridge Bible Commentary Near Eastern Archaeology La nouvelle revue théologique Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift New World: A Quarterly Review of Religion, Ethics and Theology Orientalia et Biblical Lovaniensia Orbis biblicus et orientalis Oxford Bible Series Overtures to Biblical Theology Orientalia lovaniensia analecta Orientalia (NS) Old Testament Library Old Testament Studies Oudtestamentische Studiën Ou‐Testamentiese Werkgemeenskap in Suid‐Afrika Probleme der Ägyptologie Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Palestine Exploration Quarterly Prentice‐Hall Backgrounds to the Bible Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale Revue biblique Review of Biblical Literature Religions in the Graeco‐Roman World Revue de l’histoire des religions The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Peri‐ ods The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Babylonian Periods The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early Periods State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts Studien zum Alten und Neuen Testament Die Schriften des Alten Testaments Sources bibliques Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Society of Biblical Literature Studies in Biblical Litera‐ ture
xviii SBLSCS SBLSP SBLSymS SBLWAW SBTS SémBib SFSHJ SGKAO SHCANE Shnaton SIDA SJOT SOTSMS SSN ST StBL StT SWBA TDOT
ThT TSJTSA TTL TZ UAC UF UMM VT VTSup VWGT WC WesBC WMANT
Abbreviations
Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Ancient World Sources for Biblical and Theological Study Sémiotique et Bible South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des Alten Orients Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East שנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום (Shnaton: An An‐ nual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies) Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Society for Old Testament Studies Monograph Series Studia semitica neerlandica Studia theologica Studies in Biblical Literature (Peter Lang) Studi e testi Social World of Biblical Antiquity Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Translated by J. T. Willis, G. W. Bromiley, and D. E. Green. 15 vols. Grand Rapids, 1974– Theologisch tijdschrift Texts and Studies of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America Theological Translation Library Theologische Zeitschrift Understanding Ancient Civilizations Ugarit‐Forschungen University Museum Monograph Vetus Testamentum Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie Westminster Commentaries Westminster Bible Companion Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament
WTJ ZA
Abbreviations
xix
Westminster Theological Journal Zeitschrift für Assyriologie ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction According to one of the Bible’s best‐known narratives, the Israelites miraculously escaped from slavery in Egypt, they witnessed the drowning of the Egyptian forces in the Reed Sea, and they journeyed to the land that had been promised to their ancestors. The story’s basic sequence of oppression and liberation has made it pliable in the hands of artists as diverse as Bob Marley and Cecile B. DeMille. Nor is the exodus’s popularity limited to the modern age. Scattered throughout the many layers of the Hebrew Bible itself are some hundred and sixty references to the exodus tradition, which commonly take the form of short clauses following relatively fixed patterns.1 The ubiquity of these formulae suggests that the exodus was not celebrated only within one circle in ancient Israel and Judah; rather, it held significance in several settings. The themes of journey to and from Egypt, enslavement by and lib‐ eration from Egypt, and victory over Egypt at the Reed Sea are woven together in the exodus narrative and are often considered as forming its core, however fanciful the narrative elaborations of these themes might have been. Reading the fissures, absences, and excesses of the biblical memories of Egypt, however, suggests that the exodus themes devel‐ oped along a variety of paths. The majority of scholars treat the biblical 1
Ronald Hendel points out that the only significant portion of the Bible that does not contain allusions to the exodus event is Wisdom literature (“The Exodus in Biblical Memory,” JBL 120 [2001]: 601). Compare also Yair Zakovitch, “And You Shall Tell Your Son . . .”: The Concept of the Exodus in the Bible (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1991), 9. In his analysis of the formulas, J. N. M. Wijngaards finds 83 references to the exodus using the Hiphil of יצא and 41 using the Hiphil of עלה (“הוציא and העלה: A Two‐ fold Approach to the Exodus,” VT 15 [1965]: 91–102). My own count is in one sense more maximalist than that of Wijngaards, since I have included occurrences in the Qal and have also counted separately occurrences in parallel accounts in Kings and Chronicles. At the same time, I have not counted texts that do not explicitly mention Egypt or its equivalent. By my count there are 44 occurrences that use עלה, 110 that use יצא, and 6 that use other verbal roots. These formulae will be discussed in Chap‐ ters 2 and 3.
2
Introduction
traditions about Egypt as monolithic and as being formulated from the start in terms of the exodus event. A nuanced reading of the biblical text, however, suggests that different regional communities within preexilic Israel and Judah varied in their conception and commemora‐ tion of the exodus and Egypt. Ancient Cisjordanian Israelites, Transjor‐ danian Israelites and Judahites all remembered Egypt, and partly de‐ fined themselves in relation to it, but not in precisely the same way. This regional variation becomes evident in texts that reflect tradi‐ tions dating from the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. Among the many hundred biblical references to the exodus and Egypt, only a few argua‐ bly date this early. The most important of these are the golden calf sto‐ ries in 1 Kgs 12:25–33 and Exod 32, together with related material in Hosea and Amos, the Balaam oracles in Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9, and the Song of the Sea in Exod 15:1b–18. Classifying these texts geographically produces a picture of the different memories of Egypt and the exodus in Cisjordan Israel, Transjordan Israel, and Judah. These regional memories of Egypt relate to the wider framework of Egyptian and Syro‐Palestinian history as it is otherwise known. Many now regard the biblical traditions about Egypt as the inventions of the exilic or postexilic periods, a mere response to the experience of the Babylonian exile. Admittedly, the exile had a profoundly transforma‐ tive effect on the biblical traditions about Egypt. The regional biblical memories of Egypt discussed here, however, relate to the preexilic his‐ tory of Israel and Judah and are not merely the literary creations of a later period.
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study The voluminous scholarship on the exodus reflects the central place that the tradition occupies in the Bible. Rather than offering an exhaus‐ tive survey of previous work on the exodus itself, or an overview of major developments in pentateuchal criticism more broadly, I will briefly illustrate here two trends that provide a context for the major arguments developed in this study.2 First, scholars who utilize diverse 2
For a 177‐page survey of scholarship from 1849 through the 1970s on the question of Israel’s ancestors in Egypt, see Helmut Engel, Die Vorfahren Israels in Ägypten: For‐ schungsgeschichtlicher Überblick über die Darstellungen seit Reichard Lepsius (1849) (FTS 27; Frankfurt am Main: Knecht, 1979). For histories of pentateuchal criticism, see Al‐ bert de Pury and Thomas Römer, “Le Pentateuque en question: Position du pro‐ blème et brève histoire de la recherche,” in Le Pentateuque en question: Les origines et la
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
3
methods and who hold opposing views about the exodus have, to vary‐ ing degrees, treated the core of the biblical portrayal of Egypt as though it were monolithic. Second, recent examinations of the biblical narra‐ tives about the exodus and Egypt have tended to focus on the postexilic form of the pentateuchal text and have eschewed investigation of the preexilic traditions about Egypt. These trends form the background to my own treatment of the Egypt traditions as regionally diverse, and as originating in the preexilic history of Israel and Judah. The nineteenth‐century Documentarians recognized the complexity of the present form of the text of the Hexateuch, but they regarded the oldest narrative that it contained as already combining the major bibli‐ cal themes about Egypt. Julius Wellhausen considered the Hexateuch as being composed of three major literary sources: the non‐Priestly ma‐ terial (his Jehovist, JE), the Priestly material (his Priestly Code, RQ), and Deuteronomy.3 For Wellhausen, the oldest of these was JE, which in turn showed traces of containing both a J and an E strand. In his view, the JE narrative already contained the descent and enslavement of the Israelites, the birth and call of Moses, the exodus from Egypt in order to celebrate the Passover sacrifice, and the events at the Reed Sea.4 His reconstruction of the history of early Israel followed the broad sweep of this non‐Priestly narrative: Israelite pastoralists descended to Egypt, were later enslaved there, left under the leadership of Moses during a time of scourge upon Egypt, and were pursued by the Egyptians until a final conflict at the Reed Sea. 5 Here, Wellhausen treated the non‐ Priestly narratives about Egypt as though they reflected a single his‐ torical core. Furthermore, Wellhausen did not fully address the gap between the written text and the events it purports to portray, a gap that would be taken up by a number of German and Scandinavian scholars in the twentieth century. The Dutch scholar Abraham Kuenen foreshadowed them. Like Wellhausen, he regarded JE (his “prophetic” elements) as the oldest
3 4 5
composition des cinq premiers livres de la Bible à la lumière des recherches récentes (ed. Al‐ bert de Pury; MdB 19; Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1989), 9–80; and Jean‐Louis Ska, Intro‐ duction to Reading the Pentateuch (trans. Pascale Dominique; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2006), 96–164. Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel (repr., New York: Me‐ ridian Books, 1957), 1–13. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, 351–52. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, 429–30.
4
Introduction
block of material in the Hexateuch,6 but his starting point for treating the early history of Israel was the material contained in the eighth‐ century prophets.7 He noted that they “start from the supposition that none of their contemporaries disagree with them as to the deliverance out of Egypt.”8 Therefore, he regarded their testimony as pointing to the historical veracity of the exodus. One can see here a precursor to the early twentieth‐century concern for the function of the narratives within the community. From the testimony of the prophets, Kuenen turned to the story in the book of Exodus in order to mine certain de‐ tails: the date of the exodus and the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt. Although he was hesitant to comment on much of the specific narrative detail, he saw the main sweep of the plot as historical: de‐ scent, enslavement, liberation and departure, and final victory at the sea. Here, Kuenen made a leap: he assumed that the eighth‐century prophets conceived of the exodus as it was portrayed in the book of Exodus. But there is no solid basis for such an assumption. Early in the twentieth century, Hugo Gressmann, building on the form‐critical method pioneered by Hermann Gunkel in his work on Genesis,9 sought to penetrate the written form of Exodus‐Numbers to the oral material that lay behind it.10 Gressmann isolated twenty‐nine independent sagas that, in his view, were combined to make the story of Moses in Exodus‐Numbers. Despite this splicing of the text, how‐ ever, his reconstruction of the early history of Israel followed closely the broad sweep of the pentateuchal narrative: the Israelites were de‐ scended from Aramaean pastoralists who settled in the Negev region in the fourteenth century B.C.E.; in time of famine some of them descended to Egypt and some fifty or so years later fled under the leadership of Moses; they were overtaken by Pharaoh at the Gulf of Aqaba, where a volcanic eruption from Mount Sinai resulted in a tidal wave that de‐ stroyed the Egyptian army; some of them penetrated into Judah, while others entered Canaan from the east.11 One can again see in this recon‐ 6
Abraham Kuenen, An Historico‐Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the Hexateuch (Pentateuch and Book of Joshua) (trans. Philip H. Wicksteed; London: Mac‐ millan, 1886), 165, 248. 7 Abraham Kuenen, The Religion of Israel to the Fall of the Jewish State (trans. Alfred Heath May; 3 vols.; London: Williams and Norgate, 1874), 1:101–59. 8 Kuenen, Religion of Israel, 117. 9 Hermann Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis (trans. W. H. Carruth; Chicago: Open Court, 1901). 10 Hugo Gressmann, Mose und seine Zeit: Ein Kommentar zu den Mose‐Sagen (FRLANT 2/1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1913). 11 Gressmann, Mose und seine Zeit, 393–424.
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
5
struction an assumption that the bearers of the central biblical tradi‐ tions about Egypt belonged to one and the same group, an assumption that this study questions. Johannes Pedersen emphasized the connection between the narra‐ tives in the book of Exodus and the double festival of Passover‐Massot, a connection already hinted at by Gunkel.12 Pedersen found in these festivals a plausible Sitz im Leben for the exodus legend contained in Exod 1–15.13 It did not seem to him, however, that the exodus legend was a purely literary creation; rather, it must have been founded on certain historical facts that were later taken up in the cultic life of Is‐ rael.14 Pedersen was reluctant to speculate about precise historical de‐ tails,15 but he cautiously suggested that the old pastoral and agricul‐ tural festivals became associated with the exodus because of historical coincidence; after all, the exodus legend presents the Passover as the occasion of the exodus from Egypt.16 Pedersen’s work assumes that the Passover festival and the legend accompanying it were the same throughout Israel and Judah. Martin Noth, building on the work of Gerhard von Rad, who had extended form criticism’s notion of genre to the plot of the Pentateuch as a whole, 17 envisioned the Pentateuch as taking shape in the pre‐ literary stages via the development of five major themes.18 Noth ob‐ served the ubiquity of the references to the exodus event and the re‐ markable fact that God is always regarded as the grammatical or logical subject of the exodus formulae. From these observations he reasoned that the theme of the “guidance out of Egypt” was a “primary confession of Israel, one that is expressed rather strictly in hymnic form [i.e., in the frequent exodus formulae], and at the same time with the kernel of the whole subsequent Pentateuchal tradition.”19 He regarded the exodus tradi‐ tions in the Bible as authentic premonarchic memories of Israelite en‐ 12 Johannes Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture: III–IV (repr., London: Oxford Univer‐ sity Press, 1947), 385–412, 728–37; Hermann Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis (trans. W. H. Carruth; Chicago: Open Court, 1901), 33. 13 Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 402–6. 14 Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 406–7. 15 Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 407–8. 16 Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 401. 17 Gerhard von Rad, “The Form‐Critical Problem of the Hexateuch,” in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (trans. E. W. Trueman Dicken; London: Oliver & Boyd, 1966), 1–78. 18 Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (trans. Bernard W. Anderson; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1970), 46. 19 Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 49. Italics Noth’s.
6
Introduction
slavement in and geographical movement out of Egypt. He found the historical bedrock of the tradition in the Reed Sea event, though he did not clarify why he regarded this tradition in particular as historically more reliable than other elements in the book of Exodus. 20 Noth thought it irrelevant to seek a particular tribal affiliation or a particular cultic Sitz im Leben for this “common confession of all Israel.”21 This position concerning the earliest layers of the exodus tradition left Noth in a difficult position. On the one hand, he regarded the exo‐ dus as a primary confession of the tribal amphictyony Israel, while on the other he believed that this tribal league was only constituted long after the historical events underlying the exodus, after the subsequent occupation of the land. He found a solution to the problem by assum‐ ing that “later on the clans who experienced the events in Egypt and at 20 Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 49–51. Cf. also Martin Noth, “Der Schauplatz des Mee‐ reswunders,” in Festschrift Otto Eissfeldt (ed. Johann Fück; Halle an der Saale: M. Miemeyer, 1947), 181–90. Noth did not sufficiently articulate his criteria for deter‐ mining the historicity of various elements of tradition. He regarded some burial tra‐ ditions as authentic—for example, those of Jacob (p. 88) and Moses (p. 169). He also regarded elements that ran against the grain of later tradition to more likely be his‐ torical—for example, Moses’ marriage to a foreign woman (p. 168). However, in the case of the crossing of the sea there hardly seems to be any particular reason to re‐ gard it as historically more reliable than any other aspect of the exodus tradition. For a critique of Noth’s apparent arbitrariness in method, see Roger N. Whybray, The Making of the Pentateuch: A Methodological Study (JSOTSup 53; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 185–98. Noth’s view, that the Reed Sea crossing was the bedrock of the exodus tradition, is followed by a number of scholars. See Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology (trans. D. M. G. Stalker; 2 vols.; New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 1:176; Sa‐ Moon Kang, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East (BZAW 177; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989), 123. Other scholars have instead seen the sea tradi‐ tion as being more intimately tied with the wilderness wandering tradition than with the exodus tradition. This view was advocated by Coats and also taken up by Childs (George W. Coats, “Traditio‐Historical Character of the Reed Sea Event,” VT 17 [1967]: 253–65; Brevard S. Childs, “A Traditio‐Historical Study of the Reed Sea Tradition,” VT 20 [1970]: 406–18). Cf. also John Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yah‐ wist as Historian in Exodus‐Numbers (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 139; Marc Vervenne, “The Protest Motif in the Sea Narrative (Ex 14:11–12): The Form and Structure of a Pentateuchal Pattern,” ETL 63 (1987): 257–71. Instead of trying to locate the sea tradition either with the exodus or with the wilderness wan‐ dering, Mark S. Smith sees it, and especially Exod 15:1b–18, as a fulcrum that joins the exodus tradition to the wilderness wandering tradition (The Pilgrimage Pattern in Exodus [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997], 183, 207). 21 Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 49. Italics Noth’s. Cf. the observation of Niels Peter Lemche that, whereas the patriarchal narratives revolve around individuals, the “perspective of the Joseph and Exodus sagas is national” (Prelude to Israel’s Past: Background and Beginnings of Israelite History and Identity [trans. E. F. Maniscalo; Pea‐ body, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1998], 215).
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
7
the Sea from time to time became part of the associations of Israelite tribes which banded together and occupied the land. Moreover, they probably became involved in a number of tribes and tribal groups rather than in just one tribe.”22 The solution is awkward. Regarding the sea tradition in particular, Noth seems to have envisioned a single group of pre‐Israelites experiencing the event. It hardly seems plausible that this single group should then be distributed among the numerous clans that would later make up the Israelite tribes. Noth never satisfac‐ torily resolved the matter, and later he expressed similar views in his History of Israel.23 Ultimately, Noth’s analysis suffered because of his treatment of the image of Egypt as monolithic throughout the land of Israel—in sharp contrast to his sensitivity to the regional ties of other pentateuchal traditions. William F. Albright took an alternative approach to the Bible’s exo‐ dus tradition, but also treated it as monolithic by conflating Cisjordan‐ Israelite, Transjordan‐Israelite and Judahite elements. On the basis of stylistic and grammatical criteria, he developed a chronological typol‐ ogy of biblical poetry in light of the Ugaritic texts. Within this scheme, he dated Exod 15:1b–18 to the thirteenth century B.C.E. and the Balaam oracles to the tenth century B.C.E.—with its oral history stretching back to the twelfth century B.C.E.—and found in them proof of the antiquity of the exodus tradition. Thus, Albright argued, “The antiquity of the basic oral traditions about the Exodus makes it quite unreasonable to deny its substantial accuracy.” 24 With regard to Exod 15, Albright’s position bore a certain resemblance to that of Noth, who, though he regarded Exod 15:1b–18 as a late composition, suggested that the Reed Sea event was the historical bedrock of the exodus tradition.25 As far as the antiquity of the tradition is concerned, Albright was largely fol‐ lowed by his student Frank Moore Cross, who viewed Exod 15:1b–18 as premonarchic, but interpreted it as an Israelite memory of an Egyptian military force drowned at sea, perhaps as a result of capsized barges.26 Baruch Halpern and Ronald S. Hendel also follow Albright in regard‐ 22 Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 50–51. Italics Noth’s. 23 Martin Noth, The History of Israel (trans. Stanley Godman; trans. rev. P. R. Ackroyd; London: Adam and Charles Black, 1960), 116–18. 24 William F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Con‐ trasting Faiths (London: Athlone Press, 1968; repr., Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994), 164. 25 Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 49–51. Cf. Martin Noth, Exodus: A Commentary [OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962), 120–26. 26 Frank Moore Cross Jr., Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of Relig‐ ion (repr., Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 132.
8
Introduction
ing Exod 15:1b–18 as early, though not necessarily premonarchic. They see in it evidence of an Iron Age Israelite memory of Egypt.27 As will be discussed further below, Exod 15:1b–18 need not be as old as Albright, nor even Cross, had envisioned. More importantly, the fact that this poem might be quite old does not mean that the exodus tradition should be taken as a monolithic block. As I will argue more fully in Chapter 4, the Song of the Sea does not assume an exodus from Egypt. Although it may contain some Iron Age memory of an Egyptian defeat, this memory is not dependent on the wider exodus scheme. Further‐ more, Exod 15:1b–18 is a southern, Judahite text and should be ana‐ lyzed independently of northern, Israelite traditions about Egypt. Ad‐ ditionally, as discussed in Chapter 3, the Transjordanian Balaam oracles preserve notions about Egypt and the exodus that differ from the pres‐ entation of Egypt in texts reflecting Cisjoran‐Israelite traditions. Despite the lack of confirmation of the exodus event in Egyptian sources, some have argued for the historicity of the exodus based on its central thematic thrust. John Bright, for example, asserted, “Although there is no direct witness in Egyptian records to Israel’s presence in Egypt, the Biblical tradition a priori demands belief: it is not the sort of tradition any people would invent!”28 Nahum Sarna makes a similar claim: “The historical core of an Exodus of some sort seems highly likely . . . . Otherwise how can we account for the adoption of this epic as Israel’s foundation narrative?”29 Whether or not one finds the argu‐ ment compelling,30 it is clear that the approach treats the biblical tradi‐ tions about Egypt as though they were monolithic. It assumes that from 27 Baruch Halpern, “The Exodus from Egypt: Myth or Reality,” in The Rise of Ancient Israel (ed. Hershel Shanks; Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeological Society, 1992), 86–113; Hendel, “Exodus in Biblical Memory,” 601–22. 28 John Bright, A History of Israel (3d ed.; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981), 120–21. 29 Nahum Sarna, “Israel in Egypt: The Egyptian Sojourn and the Exodus,” in Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple (ed. H. Shanks; Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1999), 45. Cf. also William H. Hallo, who argues, “A united Israel is hardly conceivable without the shared memory of the Exodus (or an exodus) preceding the conquest of Canaan. And the Exodus in turn presupposes the prior sojourn in Egypt. . . . The Exodus in particular had such a perennial impact on later Israelite belief and thought that to reject its historicity is to rob subsequent (and even prior) Biblical historiography of its basic paradigm” (The Book of the People [BJS 225; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991], 45, 107). 30 Cf. the critique by William H. C. Propp: “The rags‐to‐riches tale, or rather the riches‐ to‐rags‐to‐riches tale, is popular worldwide and conforms to the Vladimiar Proppian archetype. . . . The deeper and longer the transitory degradation, the greater the ul‐ timate exaltation” (Exodus 19–40 [AB 2A; New York: Doubleday, 2006], 740).
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
9
the start there was a singular core exodus story that emphasized en‐ slavement in Egypt followed by movement out of Egypt to the prom‐ ised land. It is, however, possible that the present form of the tradition evolved to that form from a different articulation, one in which libera‐ tion from Egypt and journey out of Egypt were unconnected. Chapter 3 will discuss this possibility. For other scholars, the basic congruence between many details in the book of Exodus and Egyptian and other ancient Near Eastern sources supports the authenticity and antiquity of the biblical Egypt traditions. Kenneth A. Kitchen summarizes the connections: the Egyp‐ tian elements in the book of Exodus accurately reflect the functioning of Egyptian labor; some of the plagues are understandable in an Egyptian context; the exodus route via Pi‐Rameses and Succoth fits the thirteenth century B.C.E. rather than later periods; Moses’ position as a foreign vizier is suited to New Kingdom Egypt; the tabernacle’s structure and implements, including the use of desert ox carts, point to Late Bronze Age Egyptian influence.31 More recently, he has added to this list of ancient Near Eastern parallels the observation that migration was part of life in the ancient world. Groups in Mari, Hatti, and Egypt attest this phenomenon.32 Karel van der Toorn discusses further cases of ancient migration in Uruk and Ur.33 The Egyptian elements in the exodus story hold validity for other scholars. “These analogues,” argues Carol L. Meyers, “suggest a core of reality.” 34 Abraham Malamat, Gary A. Rendsburg, and James K. Hoffmeier, who accept the notion of some smaller or greater historical core to the exodus, express related views.35 31 Kenneth A. Kitchen, “Exodus, The,” ABD 2:707. He expresses similar views in On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), 241–312, esp. 311–12. 32 Kitchen, Reliability, 254. 33 Karel van der Toorn, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life (SHCANE 7; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 144–45. 34 Carol L. Meyers, Exodus (NCBC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 10. 35 See Abraham Malamat, “The Exodus: Egyptian Analogies,” in Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence (ed. Ernest S. Frerichs and Leonard H. Lesko; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen‐ brauns, 1997), 15–26; Gary A. Rendsburg, “The Early History of Israel,” in Crossing Boundaries and Linking Horizons: Studies in Honor of Michael C. Astour on His 80th Birthday (ed. Gordon D. Young, Mark W. Chavalas, and Richard E. Averbeck; Be‐ thesda, Ma.: CDL Press, 1997), 438–44; James K. Hoffmeier, Israel in Egypt: The Evi‐ dence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 223–27; James K. Hoffmeier, Ancient Israel in Sinai: The Evidence for the Authen‐ ticity of the Wilderness Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 47–73, 223– 34. See also J. Gwyn Griffiths, “The Egyptian Derivation of the Name of Moses,” JNES 12 (1953): 225–31; William G. Dever, “Is There Any Archaeological Evidence
10
Introduction
These scholars vary in the extent to which they regard various de‐ tails of the exodus narrative as historically accurate but they share a common method. While the approach does draw attention to elements of tradition that might belong to the early Iron Age, some have too easily inferred that the exodus story as a whole belongs to the Iron I. In other words, to some extent, this approach has also treated the core of the exodus story as monolithic. While acknowledging the existence of these parallels, William H. C. Propp, building on the work of Ronald S. Hendel on Israelite collective memory, suggests reading them in a more nuanced way. Propp argues, “The Exodus story might be a conflation, the experience of none of the Israelites and of all of the Israelites. . . . This would explain why numerous elements of the biblical account do find resonances in the archaeological record—but not in a single time and space.”36 Propp offers a list of Egyptian parallels to biblical material, and dates that would suit them. He thus shows the chronological diversity of the traditions about Egypt. Some scholars have recognized regional variation in the biblical Egypt material.37 Yair Hoffman explored the development of the exo‐ dus tradition over time and paid close attention to the distinction be‐ tween Israel and Judah.38 He surveyed all the major blocks of biblical texts that treat the exodus and argued that before 910 B.C.E. the exodus tradition was not very prominent, if it even existed.39 Instead, he found
36
37
38 39
for the Exodus?” in Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence (ed. Ernest S. Frerichs and Leonard H. Lesko; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1997), 87–103; Sarah Israelit‐Groll, “The Egyptian Background of the Exodus and the Crossing of the Reed Sea: A New Read‐ ing of Papyrus Anastasi VIII,” in Jerusalem Studies in Egyptology (ed. Irene Shirun‐ Grumach; ÄAT 40; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), 173–92; Ogden Goelet, “Moses’ Egyptian Name,” BRev 19 (2003): 12–15, 17, 50–51. Propp, Exodus 19–40, 741. Italics Propp’s. Propp cites Ronald S. Hendel, Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 59–62. On the possibility that the exodus story reflects the conglomera‐ tion of different Israelite memories, cf. Michael Grant, The History of Ancient Israel (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984), 40; Benedikt Isserlin, The Israelites (Lon‐ don: Thames & Hudson, 1998), 52; Kurt L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An In‐ troduction (BS 83; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 80; Jonathan M. Golden, Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives (UAC; Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC‐CLIO, 2004), 268. See also Horst Dietrich Preuss, who notes in a brief discussion of Num 23:22; 24:8, “It is even more likely that within the nation of Israel several ‘exodus traditions’ coa‐ lesced, among which one with Yahweh as subject proved to be the most important (for whatever reasons and in whatever contexts)” (“יצא,” TDOT 6:246). Yair Hoffman, The Doctrine of the Exodus in the Bible (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1983) [Hebrew]. Hoffman, Doctrine of the Exodus, 231.
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
11
the earliest traces of the tradition in the time of Jeroboam: “When Jero‐ boam divided the Kingdom his interest was to unite the tribes around a religious‐national tradition, and the Exodus was a perfect means to this end.” 40 Alan Cooper and Bernard R. Goldstein have taken a similar approach; they find the beginning of the exodus tradition in Jeroboam’s “clarion call to the North.”41 Whether the traditions about the Bethel calf cult are as old as the time of Jeroboam or not, these scholars have made a significant contribution by recognizing the northern prove‐ nance of the tradition of an exodus from Egypt—a provenance also noted, to a greater or lesser extent, by Otto Eissfeldt, Robert P. Carroll, Hans Heinrich Schmid, and Daniel E. Fleming. 42 The present study furthers this critical trajectory by making a stronger case for the preex‐ ilic date of the northern traditions about the exodus, and by distin‐ guishing within Israel between Cisjordan and Transjordan. A second scholarly trend with which this book engages is the in‐ creasingly held view that the biblical Egypt traditions are the inven‐ tions of the exilic and postexilic periods, with little or no basis in the preexilic history of Israel and Judah. Part of the legacy of the work of Rolf Rendtorff has been a focus on the written form of the Pentateuch, which is dated later and later, and a reluctance to comment on the pre‐ exilic traditions that are reflected in the pentateuchal texts.43 Rendtorff highlighted the contradictions between the source‐critical approach of Wellhausen, which affirmed the existence of documents spanning the whole plot of the Pentateuch, and the traditio‐historical method of Noth, which focused on small units of tradition and their development. For Rendtorff, the major units of the Pentateuch developed indepen‐ dently and were combined only at a late editorial stage. He thus aban‐ doned the old thesis of continuous sources in favor of Noth’s traditio‐ historical themes. In another sense, however, his work represented a return to the literary focus of Wellhausen and a rejection of the pre‐ 40 Hoffman, Doctrine of the Exodus, 230. 41 Alan Cooper and Bernard R. Goldstein, “Exodus and Maṣṣot in History and Tradi‐ tion,” Maarav 8 (1992): 15–37. 42 Otto Eissfeldt, Palestine in the Time of the Nineteenth Dynasty: (a) The Exodus and Wan‐ derings (CAH rev. ed.; fascicle 31; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965), 16; Robert P. Carroll, “Psalm LXXVIII: Vestiges of a Tribal Polemic,” VT 21 (1971): 139; Hans Heinrich Schmid, Der sogenannte Jahwist: Beobachtungen und Fragen zur Penta‐ teuchforschung (Zurich: Theologischer Verlag Zurich, 1976), 157; Daniel E. Fleming, forthcoming. 43 Rolf Rendtorff, The Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch (trans. John J. Scullion; JSOTSup 89; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990). Cf. Ska, Reading the Penta‐ teuch, 134–36.
12
Introduction
literary questions asked by an intervening generation that included Gunkel, Gressmann, Engnell, von Rad and Noth. Rendtorff’s influence is evident in the literary focus, and a tendency towards late dating of the exodus material, in the work of a number of scholars, especially in Germany. His student Erhard Blum, for example, has argued that the Pentateuch consists of two major blocks of material, KD and KP, both of which are of late date.44 Building on the work of those who saw Deuteronomistic elements in Exod 1–15, Blum suggests that the call narrative in Exod 3:1–4:18 and a series of connected texts form part of KD.45 For Blum, KD is a postexilic heir to the Deuterono‐ mistic traditions, and although it drew on earlier material, he advocates methodological reserve in attempting to reconstruct the traditions on which KD is based. 46 More recently, Konrad Schmid has taken up Rendtorff’s notion of separate major units by arguing that there are no pre‐Priestly literary connections between the exodus and patriarchal narratives.47 In the course of his argument, Schmid highlights the ten‐ sions between the Joseph story and the exodus story; indeed, they do not present Egypt identically.48 His main focus, however, is not on the earliest formulations of these traditions.49 Rather, he presents the case for a unified, Persian‐period redaction linking the patriarchal and exo‐ dus material in Gen 15, Exod 3:1–4:18, Josh 24, and Gen 50:25–26 to‐ gether with the non‐P portions of Exod 1.50 Jan Christian Gertz has also abandoned the notion of a continuous non‐Priestly source running through the Pentateuch based on his examination of Priestly and non‐ Priestly material in Exod 1–15.51 He argues that the earliest connection between the patriarchal and exodus traditions are to be found in the Priestly texts Gen 1:22; Exod 1:7, 13–14, and he tries to reconstruct the 44 Erhard Blum, Studien zur Komposition des Pentateuch (BZAW 189; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1990). 45 Blum, Studien, 7–43. 46 Blum, Studien, 164–88. 47 Konrad Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus: Untersuchungen zur doppelten Begründung der Ursprünge Israels innerhalb der Geschichtsbücher des Alten Testaments (WMANT 81; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1999). 48 Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus, 56–62. 49 But see Konrad Schmid, Literaturgeschichte des Alten Testaments: Eine Einführung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2008), 86–91. On the question of northern, Israelite material preserved in the Bible, see Schmid, Literaturgeschichte, 62– 63, 68–69 50 Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus, 170–301. 51 Jan Christian Gertz, Tradition und Redaktion in der Exoduserzählung: Untersuchungen zur Endredaktion des Pentateuch (FRLANT 186; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000).
1.2 The Scholarly Context of This Study
13
Endredaktion of the unit. He assigns Exod 3:1–16 to this last editorial layer, which combined Deuteronomic/Deuteronomistic and Priestly perspectives in the Persian period. In the United States, Rendtorff’s methodological framework has influenced Franz V. Greifenhagen’s survey of all the pentateuchal texts that mention Egypt.52 Greifenhagen focuses on the “final form” of the Pentateuch and seeks to find a Sitz im Leben for its portrait of Egypt in Persian period Yehud.53 Like these scholars, I am wary about reconstructing in exacting de‐ tail the earliest history of the pentateuchal text and the traditions that it reflects. Documented examples of textual transmission within the an‐ cient world, and our growing knowledge of ancient scribal culture, certainly urge caution in this regard.54 I have not abandoned, however, the possibility of recovering, at least in part, preexilic Israelite and Judahite material. By examining a limited set of texts for which a criti‐ cal density of evidence supports a date in the eighth century B.C.E. and earlier, this book attempts such a recovery, without demanding adher‐ ence to a particular approach to the textual formation of the Penta‐ teuch. Independently of Rendtorff’s literary thesis, some date the exodus material late on thematic grounds. John Van Seters regards J’s treat‐ ment of the exodus and wilderness periods as a biography of Moses.55 For Van Seters, a long and gradual process of tradition transmission did not underlie J; rather, J was an author, and contemporary of Second Isaiah, who drew on older material to compose a prologue to, and ex‐ pansion of, the Deuteronomistic work.56 Van Seters rejects the proposed 52 Franz Volker Greifenhagen, Egypt on the Pentateuch’s Ideological Map: Constructing Biblical Israel’s Identity (JSOTSup 361; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002). 53 Greifenhagen, Egypt, 233. 54 On documented examples of textual transmission and their relevance for biblical studies, see the several essays in Jeffrey H. Tigay, ed., Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985). Note also Stephen A. Kaufman, “The Temple Scroll and Higher Criticism,” HUCA 53 (1982): 29–43; David M. Carr, “Method in Determination of Direction of Dependence: An Empirical Test of Criteria Applied to Exodus 34,11–26 and Its Parallels,” in Gottes Volk am Sinai: Untersuchungen zu Ex 32–34 und Dtn 9–10 (ed. Matthias Köckert and Erhard Blum; VWGT 18; Gütersloh: Kaiser, Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2001), 107–40. On ancient scribal culture more broadly, see David M. Carr, Written on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible (Cambridge, Mass.: Har‐ vard University Press, 2007). 55 Van Seters, Life of Moses, 2; John Van Seters, The Pentateuch: A Social‐Science Commen‐ tary (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 139. 56 Van Seters, Life of Moses, 457–68.
14
Introduction
Egyptian parallels in the exodus narrative and instead highlights the appropriateness of the exodus themes to the context of the Babylonian exile, as is underscored by the way these themes are taken up in Second Isaiah. 57 Niels Peter Lemche also notes the thematic connections be‐ tween the exodus narrative and the later situation of exile and return.58 He argues that there is “no real reason even to attempt to find a histori‐ cal background for the events of the exodus.”59 Neither the lack of Egyptian evidence for the kind of exodus de‐ scribed in the Bible, however, nor the reshaping of the themes of the exodus in the exilic period, prevents a recovery of preexilic biblical traditions about Egypt. While the exodus story may have received sub‐ stantial transformation in the exilic period, this study will argue that major Egypt themes were rooted in preexilic Cisjordan Israel, Transjor‐ dan Israel, and Judah. Such an approach is reflected in the work of Mario Liverani, who acknowledges the profound reinterpretation of the exodus in light of Assyrian deportation and Babylonian exile, but who argues from the evidence of the writings of the eighth‐century prophets that the idea of Israelite freedom from Egyptian control is preexilic.60 Within this scholarly context, the present study explores the biblical traditions about Egypt. Instead of treating them as monolithic, it will be sensitive to the regional variations between the traditions. Instead of regarding them as late inventions, it will show how they are intelligible within the preexilic history of Israel and Judah.
1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm The major texts treated in this study each reflect the religious traditions from one of three major regions. The picture obtained from these texts is necessarily fragmentary; other images of Egypt may have existed beyond the material that has been preserved in the Bible. The recon‐ struction undertaken here can nevertheless be considered representa‐ tive of the various regions since these texts each have some probable 57 Van Seters, Pentateuch, 153–59. 58 Niels Peter Lemche, The Israelites in History and Tradition (LAI; Louisville, Ky.: West‐ minster John Knox Press, 1998), 92. 59 Niels Peter Lemche, Ancient Israel: A New History of Israelite Society (BS 5; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988), 109. 60 Mario Liverani, Israel’s History and the History of Israel (trans. Chiara Peri and Philip R. Davies; BibleWorld; London: Equinox, 2005), 277–79.
1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm
15
association with a sanctuary. Sanctuaries were ancient sites of pilgrim‐ age and served not only as bearers of tradition for the populations that visited them, but also as shapers of that tradition. The commemoration of Egypt at sanctuaries would have both reflected and shaped the tradi‐ tions about Egypt within the regions whose populations visited them. The reality on the ground may have been even more complicated than the threefold picture presented here, and future work may be able to paint an even more subtle portrait of the growth and development of the biblical Egypt traditions. For the present, it is evident that a regional paradigm for understanding these traditions can be sustained because of the clear political and cultural differences between the three regions, and because the results of such an examination are coherent and en‐ lightening. The primary political and cultural distinction was between the tribal collective Israel in the north and Judah in the south. This distinc‐ tion was recognized by the editors of Kings, who wrote a bifold politi‐ cal and religious history that alternated between Israel and Judah. The eighth‐century prophets also recognized the religious differences be‐ tween north and south and offered an extended religious and social critique of Israel. The distinction between Israel and Judah is acknowl‐ edged, to a greater or lesser extent, by many scholars. Here, I would simply mention Daniel Fleming’s forthcoming work on the portrayal of the tribal collective Israel in the, ultimately Judahite, Bible. He clarifies the extent to which Israel was a tribal collective, with a social and po‐ litical structure different from Judah’s. In other words, Israel was not simply a northern mirror image of Judah; rather, its internal political and social structure was different. Prior work on tribal life and collec‐ tive governance in the Mari texts enhances his description of the tribal collective Israel. The subject of the Israelite tribal collective is taken up in greater detail in Chapter 2, particularly in my discussion of the Song of Deborah. As already noted, Robert Carroll, Yair Hoffman, and Alan Cooper and Bernard Goldstein have shown that the exodus was a tradition that belonged to the northern collective Israel, rather than to Judah. The two recurring exodus formulae in the Bible have Israel as their object, and the book of Amos in particular offers a southern critique of the north‐ ern exodus tradition, as will be discussed in Chapter 2. This study reaf‐ firms this distinction between Israel and Judah, and the contribution of these scholars to the understanding of the growth of the exodus tradi‐ tion. Chapter 4 will show how an early southern Judahite portrait of Egypt—the destruction of Egyptian forces described in the Song of the Sea—was eventually incorporated into the originally Israelite exodus
16
Introduction
scheme. Previously, however, Exod 15:1b–18 was independent of the exodus framework. The result is some tension in the narrative in the book of Exodus—the story receives its climax in the destruction of Egypt’s firstborn and the celebration of the Passover; however, there is a second climax involving the obliteration of the Egyptian army at the Reed Sea. Within the tribal collective Israel, there were also social, cultural, and religious differences between Cisjordan and Transjordan. Robert Boling, Baruch Levine, and Jo Ann Hackett have highlighted the dis‐ tinctiveness of the Transjordanian community.61 More recently, disser‐ tations by Daniel A. Kirsch, David V. Santis, Jeremy M. Hutton, and Thomas D. Petter have also taken up this distinctiveness and its place in biblical imagination.62 This study builds on the work of these schol‐ ars, especially in Chapter 3. The Transjordan was a contested region, often not under Israel’s control or influence. The political relationship between east and west was a complex one, and it coexisted with cul‐ tural differences as reflected in religious practice and spoken language. The political tension between east and west surfaces in a number of biblical texts. In Judg 5, discussed in further detail in Chapter 2, the Transjordanian Reubenites and Gileadites appear to receive mild re‐ buke for failing to join the Cisjordanian tribes in the war against Sis‐ era.63 Lawrence E. Stager argues that for the poet to achieve verisimili‐ 61 Robert G. Boling, The Early Biblical Community in Transjordan (SWBA 6; Sheffield: Almond Press, 1988); Baruch Levine, Numbers 21–36 (AB 4A; New York: Doubleday, 2000); Jo Ann Hackett, “Religious Traditions in Israelite Transjordan,” in Ancient Is‐ raelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross (ed. Patrick D. Miller Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dead McBride; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 125–36. 62 Daniel A. Kirsch, “The Importance of Looking East: A Study of the Domestic and Foreign Policies of the Kings of Israel and Judah with Regard to Transjordan” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2003); David V. Santis, “The Land of Transjordan Is‐ rael in the Israel Age and Its Religious Traditions” (Ph.D. diss., New York Univer‐ sity, 2004); Jeremy M. Hutton, “The Transjordanian Palimpsest: The Overwritten Texts of Personal Exile and Transformation in the Deuteronomistic History” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2005), a revised version of which recently appeared as BZAW 396; Thomas D. Petter, “Diversity and Uniformity on the Frontier: Ethnic Identity in the Central Highlands of Jordan during the Iron I” (Ph.D. diss., Univer‐ sity of Toronto, 2005). For later periods, note also Adam L. Porter, “Transjordanian Jews in the Greco‐Roman Period: A Literary‐Historical Examination of Jewish Habi‐ tation East of the Jordan River from Its Biblical Roots through the Bar‐Kochba Re‐ volt” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1999). 63 Cf. Lawrence E. Stager, “The Song of Deborah: Why Some Tribes Answered the Call and Others Did Not,” BAR 15/1 (1989): 53; Lawrence E. Stager, “Archaeology, Ecol‐ ogy, and Social History: Background Themes to the Song of Deborah,” in Congress Volume: Jerusalem 1986 (ed. J. A. Emerton; VTSup 40; Leiden: Brill, 1988), 227; Frank
1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm
17
tude, the setting and circumstances must have been realistic, even if not real. He suggests, “It must have been plausible to the listeners (assum‐ ing the poem was first recited orally) that Ephraim (Deborah’s tribe), Benjamin, Machir (later called Manasseh), Zebulun, Issachar and Naph‐ tali answered the call and participated in the battle, while Reuben, Gilead (or, as it is also called, Gad), Dan and Asher did not.”64 At the same time, the tone of the poem suggests that on some level all the tribes were expected to join the war. Stager argues that economic fac‐ tors played a major role in determining who answered the call, with those tribes who had stronger economic ties with their non‐Israelite neighbors refraining.65 Whatever the reasons for the failure of all the tribes to answer the muster, the poem suggests that in the political arena of war, Cisjordanian expectations did not dictate the actions of the Transjordanian tribes Reuben and Gilead. The narratives about Jephthah in Judg 11–12 also reflect the am‐ biguous relationship between east and west in the muster to war. Ac‐ cording to the story as it now stands, the Ammonites attacked the Transjordan region of Gilead. Jephthah, despite his mixed pedigree, defeated the Ammonites without help from the Cisjordanian Ephraim‐ ites and became the acknowledged leader of the Gileadites. The Eph‐ raimites, however, crossed the Jordan to confront the Gileadites, claim‐ ing that they had gone to war without their assistance or approval. Jephthah countered that it was the Ephraimites who had acted inap‐ propriately by failing to answer his muster to war. The tension over the obligations associated with the muster to war was so serious that it resulted in open conflict between Ephraim and Gilead. Regardless of the historical accuracy of the text, verisimilitude would have been re‐ quired to make the story plausible to its audience—one early audience may have been Gileadite, but the assertion would hold true whether the early audience of the story was Transjordanian or Cisjordanian. Thus, Judg 11–12, like Judg 5, suggests that easterners and westerners did not always agree on their political relationship to one another, spe‐ cifically in the context of the muster to war. The book of Judges por‐ trays both as expecting the other to answer the muster while also por‐ traying both as neglecting the muster. Moore Cross Jr., From Epic to Canon: History and Literature in Ancient Israel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 55 n7. On the literary skill of the taunts against Reuben and Gilead, and their originality to the poem, see Alexander Globe, “The Muster of the Tribes in Judges 5 11e–18,” ZAW 87 (1975): 174–78. 64 Stager, “Song of Deborah,” 54. 65 Stager, “Song of Deborah,” 62–64.
18
Introduction
This discrepancy is not entirely surprising given the fact that Is‐ rael’s eastern enemies Moab and Ammon could strike at the eastern tribes without posing a direct threat to the west. Thus, Judg 10:8 depicts Ammon holding Transjordan without crossing over into Cisjordan Israel. Further evidence of the extent to which the west could remain immune to attacks in the east comes from the Mesha Stele, discussed further in Chapter 3. It recounts Israel’s conquest of what was, from the royal Moabite perspective, Moabite territory in the Transjordan, and Mesha’s recovery of this territory from Israel. Despite the stele’s de‐ scription of repeated fighting between Israel and Moab over land in the Transjordan, there is no hint that Mesha ever held Israel’s territory in Cisjordan. The Jordan served as a psychological and physical land boundary that helped to preserve Cisjordan Israel from attacks from the east.66 The conquest and settlement narratives also preserve the political distinction between east and west. They consistently portray Cisjordan as the land of Israel’s inheritance. In other words, these narratives en‐ visage “Israel” as belonging to Cisjordan. Additionally, there is a sharp plot break between the portrayal of the settlement of the east and that of the west: the death of Moses and the crossing of the Jordan River. While Moses leads the tribes in the conquest of the Transjordan region, Joshua alone leads them into the promised land. On a literary level, the crossing of the Jordan River mirrors the crossing of the Reed Sea and serves to frame Israel’s wanderings in the desert.67 The land of Israel’s inheritance is conceived, within this larger narrative framework, as Cisjordan. The descriptions of the boundaries of the territories allotted in the east and in the west are also different. Douglas A. Knight argues that the boundary descriptions for the western tribes are usually clearly drawn (Judah, Ephraim, Manasseh west, Benjamin, Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali).68 Two lack clear boundaries (Simeon and Dan), and one has 66 On the mythical and psychological nature of the river boundary, cf. Rachel Havre‐ lock, “The Two Maps of Israel’s Land,” JBL 126 (2007): 650–58. 67 See Jan A. Wagenaar, “Crossing the Sea of Reeds (Exod 13–14) and the Jordan (Josh 3–4): A Priestly Framework for the Wilderness Wandering,” in Studies in the Book of Exodus: Redaction, Reception, Interpretation (ed. Marc Vervenne; BETL 126; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1996), 461–70. Cf. Zakovitch, You Shall Tell Your Son, 9–10. 68 Douglas A. Knight, “Joshua 22 and the Ideology of Space,” in “Imagining” Biblical Worlds: Studies in Spatial, Social and Historical Constructs in Honor of James W. Flanagan (ed. David M. Gunn and Paula M. McNutt; JSOTSup 359; Sheffield: Sheffield Aca‐ demic Press, 2002), 61.
1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm
19
only a partial description of its borders (Issachar). 69 In contrast, the Transjordanian territories are described “in terms of towns and king‐ doms, specifying the Jordan River as their western boundary (Josh. 13.23, 27), but detailing nothing explicitly about their eastern border.”70 The land of the easterners is thus “an indistinct area.”71 Joshua 22 suggests that some circles understood “Israel” to be rooted in Cisjordan.72 According to the narrative as it now stands, fol‐ lowing the conquest of Cisjordan under Joshua, the Transjordanian tribes—Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh—were permitted by Joshua to return to their inheritance in the east, the land of Gilead. On the way home, the eastern tribes built an altar that became a source of tension with the western tribes. When confronted about this appar‐ ent violation of proper Yahweh worship, the Transjordanian tribes reaffirmed their loyalty to Yahweh and denied that the altar was any‐ thing more than a witness for subsequent generations that the east has a share in Yahweh. Elie Assis argues, “The main thrust of the story is the unity of the people despite of [sic] geographical separation, a topic that runs like a thread throughout the entire story.”73 While this biblical passage attempts to affirm the common ancestry and religion of Transjordan and Cisjordan, however, its purpose and details betray the opposite. In the language of the text, בני ראובן, “Reubenites,” and בני גד, “Gadites,” are opposed to בני ישראל, “Israel‐ ites.”74 The former leave “the Israelites” to return home (Josh 22:9); the report of the altar that they build reaches “the Israelites” (Josh 22:11); the altar is located in Transjordan opposite “the Israelites” (Josh 22:11); the כל עדת בני ישראל, “whole community of the Israelites,” assembles to make war on the eastern tribes (Josh 22:12); a delegation is sent by “the Israelites” to rebuke the “Reubenites” and “Gadites” for this action (Josh 22:13). In other words, the story consistently equates “the Israel‐ ites” with Cisjordan peoples. Although the larger narrative framework 69 Knight, “Joshua 22,” 61. 70 Knight, “Joshua 22,” 61. See also Yehezkel Kaufmann, who notes, “the description of the portions of the Transjordanian tribes [in Josh 13:15–32] . . . bears a stamp of its own” (The Biblical Account of the Conquest of Canaan [2d ed.; Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1985], 48). 71 Knight, “Joshua 22,” 61. 72 Douglas A. Knight clearly shows the gulf between east and west suggested by this text (“Joshua 22,” 51–63, esp. 55–59). 73 Elie Assis, “Position and Function of Jos 22 in the Book of Joshua,” ZAW 116 (2004): 528. Cf. similar comments in Elie Assis, “‘For It Shall Be a Witness between Us’: A Literary Reading of Josh 22,” SJOT 18 (2004): 208. 74 Cf. similar comments in Knight, “Joshua 22,” 55–56.
20
Introduction
tries to affirm the place of the eastern tribes as part of Israel, the lan‐ guage used for the collective betrays a different understanding of what constituted the political entity Israel. “Israel” was evidently firmly rooted in Cisjordan. According to the narrative, the eastern tribes de‐ fend their actions by claiming that the altar is intended as a witness to subsequent generations of Israelites who might seek to exclude their descendants from being reckoned with Yahweh’s people (Josh 22:22– 29). This concern also betrays a distinction between the eastern and the western tribes. Regardless of the controversies over the date of the text,75 and the mixed use of Priestly and Deuteronomistic language,76 this analysis suggests that there was some disagreement about the po‐ litical status of the eastern tribes and their relationship to the Cisjordan tribal coalition Israel.77 On a literary level, Assis thus points to the the‐ 75 For a survey of suggested dates, see Assis, “Position and Function of Jos 22,” 528–29. She cites Jan Dus, Kurt Möhlenbrink, and Yehezkel Kaufmann as arguing that the contents reflect various premonarchic realities, though the story is not straightfor‐ wardly historical, Abraham Kuenen as arguing that the story is completely ahistori‐ cal but that it reflects the centralization of the cult in the time of the monarchy, N. H. Snaith as suggesting it reflects the historical situation prior to the Deuteronomic re‐ forms of the monarchic period, and A. Menes, J. G. Vink, and R. Goldstein as vari‐ ously suggesting the story reflects tensions and questions related to the legitimacy of worship outside the land of Israel in exilic and postexilic times. See Jan Dus, “Die Lösung des Rätsels von Jos. 22,” ArOr 32 (1964): 529–64; Jan Dus, “Der Brauch der Ladewanderung im alten Israel,” TZ 17 (1961): 15–16; Norman H. Snaith, “The Altar at Gilgal: Joshua XXII 23–29,” VT 28 (1978): 330–35; Kurt Möhlenbrink, “Die Landnahmesagen des Buches Josua,” ZAW 56 (1938): 246–50; Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Book of Joshua (Jerusalem: Kiryat Sepher, 1959), 239–40 [Hebrew]; J. G. Vink, “The Date and Origin of the Priestly Code in the Old Testament,” in The Priestly Code and Seven Other Studies (ed. P. A. H. de Boer; OtSt 15; Leiden: Brill, 1969), 73–77; A. Menes, “Tempel und Synagoge,” ZAW 50 (1932): 268–76; R. Goldstein, “Joshua 22:9–34: A Priestly Narrative from the Second Temple Period,” Shnaton 13 (2002): 43– 81 [Hebrew]; Kuenen, Historico‐Critical Inquiry, 107. 76 On the presence of Deuteronomistic and/or Priestly elements in Josh 22, see Martin Noth, Das Buch Josua (HAT 7; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1938), 103; J. Alberto Soggin, Joshua: A Commentary (trans. R. A. Wilson; OTL; London: SCM Press, 1972), 212, 214– 15; John S. Kloppenborg, “Joshua 22: The Priestly Editing of an Ancient Tradition,” Bib 62 (1981): 347–71; Volkmar Fritz, Das Buch Josua (HAT I/7; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1994), 220–27; Richard D. Nelson, Joshua: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997), 247; Knight, “Joshua 22,” 57, 60–63; Goldstein, “Joshua 22,” 43–54; David Janzen, The Social Meanings of Sacrifice in the Hebrew Bible: A Study of Four Writings (BZAW 344; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 134–35; Assis, “Position and Function of Jos 22,” 529–31. 77 Cf. also David Jobling, “‘The Jordan a Boundary’: A Reading of Numbers 32 and Joshua 22,” SBL Seminar Papers, 1980 (SBLSP 19; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980), 183–207.
1.3 Toward a Regional Paradigm
21
matic links between Josh 22 and the story of Rahab in Josh 2, “which deals with the inclusion of outsiders within Israel.”78 The actual scene in which Israel confronts the eastern tribes sug‐ gests that the differences were not only political, but also religious. The narrative betrays tension over which deity should be worshipped, and, if Yahweh, where he should be worshipped. The delegation from the Israelites accused the easterners of turning away from Yahweh and/by building an altar outside Cisjordan (Josh 22:16). In response, the Ga‐ dites and Reubenites offered a twofold defense. First, they invoked Yahweh, showing their loyalty to him, despite their use of the ambigu‐ ous אל, “El/God” (Josh 22:22). Second, they affirmed that Yahweh was to be worshipped only in Cisjordan by claiming that the altar that they had built was never intended for sacrificial offerings (Josh 22:23). The narrative thus attempts to reconcile the religious differences between Cisjordan and Transjordan by resignifying Transjordanian religious paraphernalia. The very resignification, however, suggests that there were religious differences between east and west. At the same time, the discussion of religious difference is predicated on the assumption that the Transjordanian and Cisjordanian tribes were one entity in Yah‐ weh’s eyes, so that the sin of one could have consequences for the other. Furthermore, the story assumes that the Transjordanian tribes had a responsibility to act in a manner that did not harm the Cisjorda‐ nian tribes.79 In sum, the story suggests that there was some slippage between Cisjordanian expectation and Transjordanian action. The cultural differences between Cisjordan Israel and Transjordan Israel also extended to spoken language, as suggested by Judg 12, dis‐ cussed above. According to the narrative, Jephthah and the Gileadites did not yield to Ephraimite pressure but instead went to war with them and defeated them in Transjordan. The Gileadites then held the fords of the Jordan to prevent the defeated Ephraimites from escaping back to Cisjordan. All who wished to cross were tested in their pronunciation, and those whose pronunciation betrayed their Ephraimite status were killed. Whatever the historical and phonetic, or perhaps even phono‐ logical, underpinnings of the story, it clearly reflects an understanding that there were linguistic differences between east and west that could be identified by native speakers.80 These may have extended beyond 78 Assis, “Position and Function of Jos 22,” 533. 79 Cf. Assis, “Position and Function of Jos 22,” 537. 80 For differing proposals on the linguistic differences reflected in the story, see John A. Emerton, “Some Comments on the Shibboleth Incident (Judges XII 6),” in Mélanges bibliques et orientaux en l’honneur de M. Mathias Delcor (ed. A. Caquot, S. Légasse, and
22
Introduction
pronunciation as suggested by the considerable work on the classifica‐ tion of the language of the Deir ‘Alla plaster inscriptions from the Gileadite region of Transjordan; these texts are discussed in Chapter 3. The Transjordanian tribes were sometimes the subject of special re‐ buke, as pointed out by Douglas A. Knight. He notes that Reuben is condemned for having intercourse with Bilhah (Gen 35:22; 49:3–4; and 1 Chr 5:1); some Reubenites are executed for participating in the rebel‐ lion against Moses and Aaron (Num 16); and the Transjordanian tribes are said to be deported by the Assyrians because of their transgression against the god of their fathers (1 Chr 5:25–26).81 These narratives sug‐ gest a Cisjordanian and Judahite sense of the Transjordanian tribes as Other. At the same time, the separation between Cisjordan and Transjor‐ dan should not be overstated. The poem in Judg 5 assumes that on some level the eastern tribes were expected to come to the aid of the western tribes, Judg 11–12 assumes that Ephraim and Gilead had some form of obligation to each other, and Josh 22 assumes that the tribes were in Yahweh’s eyes so closely tied together that the sin of one could bring judgment on the other. The figures Jehu and Elijah are of Transjordanian origin, and yet they both became important in Cisjor‐ danian memory, and perhaps also history. In sum, there were major political, religious, and cultural differ‐ ences between Judah and Israel on the one hand, and between Cisjor‐ dan Israel and Transjordan Israel on the other. It is not surprising, therefore, that these different regional communities should have held traditions about Egypt that were formulated with different emphases, and that may have had different historical antecedents.
1.4 Recovering Early Biblical Traditions The regional differences in the biblical memories about Egypt and the exodus became blurred over time, and the present pentateuchal narra‐ tive presents all Israel, including Judah, the Cisjordan‐Israelite tribes, M. Tardieu; AOAT 215; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1985), 149–57; Gary A. Rendsburg, “More on Hebrew Šibbōlet,” JSS 32 (1988): 255–58; Alice Faber, “Second Harvest: Šibbolεθ Revisited (Yet Again),” JSS 37 (1992): 1–10; Ronald S. Hendel, “Sibbilants and Šibbōlet (Judges 12:6),” BASOR 301 (1992): 69–75; Robert Woodhouse, “The Biblical Shibboleth Story in the Light of Late Egyptian Perceptions of Semitic Sibilants: Reconciling Divergent Views,” JAOS 123 (2003): 271–89. 81 Knight, “Joshua 22,” 52.
1.4 Recovering Early Biblical Traditions
23
and the Transjordan‐Israelite tribes, as having participated in the same exodus event. The exodus narrative, however, is not the invention of later editors; rather, they shaped material that had its roots in separate traditions about Egypt in the north, east, and south. The regional tradi‐ tions go back to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier and are intelligible within the known historical framework of the different regions. In mak‐ ing this argument, each chapter of the current study spends consider‐ able time arguing that the particular texts it discusses reflect traditions that go back to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. In the process, no new system of dating biblical material is advo‐ cated. Rather, this study builds on the work of several scholars who have utilized a variety of approaches to dating biblical texts. Not every method is applied to every text. Rather, the study draws on those methods that are appropriate to a particular text and offers a concise case for an early date based on a coherent synthesis of these different methods. The study utilizes linguistic evidence, including vocabulary, syntax, grammar, and poetic structure. It compares texts under consid‐ eration to other biblical texts and to inscriptional evidence. It analyzes the historical contents of the texts, especially in relation to political and social realities that seem unlikely to have been the literary creations of a later age. While a definitive case cannot be made for the dating of any biblical text, the study uses as many lines of argument as possible to build a critical density of evidence for each of the texts discussed. The breadth of the study demands that texts of radically different genres be analyzed, and this in turn has necessitated a variety of complementary approaches. The result is an affirmation of the preexilic origins of the biblical traditions about Egypt.
Chapter 2 Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
2.1 Introduction The Bible frequently refers to the exodus with some variation of the formula “Yahweh brought up []העלה Israel from Egypt.” 1 Whether expressed or implied, Yahweh is always the subject of this formula, and Israel, rather than individual tribes, is always its object. 2 Unsurpris‐ ingly, the earliest biblical traditions that use the formula are associated with an Israelite sanctuary, rather than a Judahite one. Chapter 1 ar‐ gued that the Bible portrays Israel as being rooted in Cisjordan, rather than in Transjordan; indeed, this sanctuary lay in Cisjordan. This chap‐ ter explores a set of texts connected with the Cisjordan‐Israelite sanctu‐ ary Bethel. Taken together, the description of Jeroboam’s patronage of Bethel and its calf cult in 1 Kgs 12:25–33, the related account of Aaron and the golden calf in Exod 32, and isolated references to Egypt and Bethel in the writings of the eighth‐century prophets Hosea and Amos offer a portrait of the Cisjordan‐Israelite conception of the exodus em‐ bodied in the exodus formula with העלה.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 According to 1 Kgs 12:25–33, the Israelite king Jeroboam made two golden calves, placed at least one in the Cisjordan‐Israelite sanctuary Bethel, and declared over them the exodus formula. The text reads: (12:25) Then Jeroboam (re)built3 Shechem in mount Ephraim and he dwelt4 in it, and he went forth from there and (re)built Penuel. (26) Jeroboam said
1 2
3
The alternative exodus formula, which uses the Hiphil of יצא, is discussed in Chap‐ ter 3. As noted in Chapter 1, this observation had already been made by Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (trans. Bernard W. Anderson; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1970), 47. On the meaning “fortify” or “rebuild” for בנה, HALOT cites Josh 6:26; Ezek 36:36; Amos 9:14; Ps 69:36; 102:17; 147:2. Cf. John Gray, I & II Kings: A Commentary (OTL; 2d ed.; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1970), 313–14.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
25
to himself,5 “Now the kingdom will return to the house of David. (27) If this people go up to perform sacrifices6 in the temple of Yahweh in Jerusa‐ lem, then the heart of the7 people will return to their lord, to Rehoboam, king of Judah. Then they will kill me8 and they will return to Rehoboam, King of Judah.” 9 (28) So the king took counsel 10 and made two golden calves. He said to them, “It is too hard for you to go up11 to Jerusalem: here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt.” (29) And he set the one in Bethel, and the other he appointed in Dan. (30) And this matter was a sin.12 And the people went before the one as far as Bethel and before the other as far as Dan.13 (31) And he made House of High Places.14 And he appointed priests from the whole population,15 who were
4
5
6
7 8 9
10
11 12 13
14
On the meaning “dwell” for ישב with the preposition ב, see, for example, Gen 4:16; 13:8; 19:1, 30; 21:20, 21; 22:19; 26:6; 47:27. Mordechai Cogan also notes the alternative possibility, “And he ruled from there” (1 Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [AB 10; New York: Doubleday, 2000], 357). He cites Exod 15:14–15; Deut 1:4; Amos 1:5, 8; Ps 2:4. Literally, “in his heart.” Jeroboam’s internal self‐dialogue is here given. Cf. Gen 17:7; 27:41; Esth 6:6; Ps 10:6, 11, 15; 14:1; 32:25; 53:2; 74:8; Eccl 2:1, 15; 3:17, 18; Isa 47:10; Obad 1:3; Zech 12:5. With Gary N. Knoppers, following MT plural instead of LXXAB singular (Two Nations under One God: The Deuteronomistic History of Solomon and the Dual Monarchies [2 vols.; HSM 52, 53; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993, 1994], 2:25). With Knoppers, following LXXAB; MT adds הזה (Two Nations, 2:25). Knoppers omits MT והרגוני with a few Hebrew manuscripts and Lucifer of Cagliari (Two Nations, 2:25). A few Hebrew manuscripts and LXXAB lack ;ושבו אל רחבעם מלך יהודה it may be an editorial insertion, as discussed further below. Cf. Knoppers, Two Nations, 2:26; Julio C. Trebolle Barrera, “The Text‐Critical Use of the Septuagint in the Books of Kings,” in VII Congress of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, Leuven, 1989 (ed. Claude E. Cox; SBLSCS 31; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991), 292–93. Martin Noth observes the absence of a direct object for ויועץ (Könige [BKAT 9; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1968], 268). Cogan notes that some take the verb reflexively: “after giving thought to the matter” (1 Kings, 358). On the comparative use of min with an infinitive, Cogan points to Gen 4:13; 36:7; 1 Kgs 8:64 (1 Kings, 358). Knoppers omits v. 30a as a late gloss, though without the support of a particular textual witness (Two Nations, 2:26). Alternatively, with Dan first and Bethel second. For a discussion, see Knoppers, Two Nations, 2:27. MT and 6QKgs read only לפני האחד עד דן, whereas LXXL reads προ προσωπου της μιας εως Δαν και προ προσωπου της αλλης εις Βαιθηλ. Evidently, MT and 6QKgs have suffered haplography. Cf. the discussion in Dominique Barthé‐ lemy, ed., Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament (4 vols.; OBO 50; Göttingen: Van‐ denhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982–2005), 1:364–65. The construct phrase בית במות is not marked by the definite article ה. However, the noun phrase is used with את, which is reserved for use with definite accusative nouns. It seems, therefore, that a place‐name is intended, though the name is unat‐
26
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
not from among the Levites. (32) Jeroboam established a festival in the eighth month on the fifteenth day of the month, like the festival that was in Judah. He ascended the altar—thus he did in Bethel—to sacrifice to the calves that he had made. (Now he had appointed16 in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made.)17 (33) He ascended the altar that he had made in Bethel on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, in the month that he had devised in his own heart.18 He appointed a festival for the Israelites and he ascended the altar to burn incense.
15
16
17 18
tested elsewhere in the Bible. Cf. the use of את with Shechem and Penuel in v. 25. The determined construct phrase בית הבמות occurs in 2 Kgs 13:32; 17:29, 32; 23:19. See also the discussions in Noth, Könige, 266, 268; Cogan, 1 Kings, 359–60. For an al‐ ternative understanding of the phrase as a composite plural, see Knoppers, Two Na‐ tions, 2:27. Following James A. Montgomery and Henry S. Gehman, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Books of Kings (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1960), 255; Noth, Könige, 266, 268; Gray, Kings, 317. Cf. the use of קצה in Judg 18:2; 2 Kgs 17:32. Cogan renders, “some of the people,” and suggests that “the sense is not that the priests were low‐class persons (so KJV) but that they were of the wrong class” (1 Kings, 360). He points to the discussion of the term by Speiser in his treatment of Gen 47:2, and by Greenberg in his treatment of Ezek 33:2. See E. A. Speiser, Genesis: Introduction, Translation and Notes (AB 1; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), 350; Moshe Green‐ berg, Ezekiel 21–37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 22A; New York: Doubleday, 1997), 672. Cf. also Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor, II Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 11; Garden City: Doubleday, 1988), 212. The form והעמיד is not connected with the preceding sequence of waw‐consecutive verbs that have Jeroboam as their subject. It may be intended as a parenthetical comment. Alternatively, והעמיד may be connected to the preceding subordinate clause: “to sacrifice to the calves that he had made and set up in Bethel, along with the priests of the high places that he had made.” Favoring the former rendering is the fact that the Hiphil העמיד is used with כהנים as its object in 2 Chr 8:14; 19:8; 31:2; 35:2. This also seems to be the sense of the word in the parallel description of Jero‐ boam’s actions in 2 Chr 11:15. The fact that this usage is found elsewhere in the Bible only in the book of Chronicles may suggest that the parenthetical comment here is a postexilic gloss. Favoring the alternative rendering is the fact that העמיד is used to describe the erection of the physical structure of the cult in Ezra 2:68; 2 Chr 24:13. Knoppers and Trebolle Barrera regard v. 32b as a late editorial expansion, as dis‐ cussed further below (Two Nations, 2:28; “Text‐Critical Use,” 290). MT ketib has מלבד, while the qere reads מלבו. I have followed the latter; cf. Neh 6:8, where the only other biblical occurrence of בדא is also used with לב.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
27
2.2.1 Date and Provenance 2.2.1.1 The Assumed Historicity of the Traditions in 1 Kgs 12:25–33 Scholars have sometimes taken for granted the historical reliability of the traditions that lie behind the account of Jeroboam and the golden calves in 1 Kgs 12:25–33. Some who have explored the history of the exodus tradition have thus found in the Jeroboam story an anchor for their reconstructions. As noted in Chapter 1, Yair Hoffman had found the earliest traces of the exodus tradition in the time of Jeroboam.19 Alan Cooper and Bernard Goldstein follow Hoffman in finding the start of the exodus tradition in Jeroboam’s “clarion call to the North.”20 They see a basic congruence between the Jeroboam story and the exo‐ dus story in their tripartite structures of enslavement, liberation, and celebration, a congruence that has also been noted by Yair Zakovitch.21 Karel van der Toorn likewise seeks to push the Israelite exodus tradi‐ tion back to the time of Jeroboam.22 These reconstructions assume that, historically speaking, Jeroboam undertook religious reforms that in‐ volved cultic celebrations at Bethel, and perhaps also at Dan, including a celebration of the exodus from Egypt. They rely, in other words, on the traditions preserved in 1 Kgs 12:25–33. Similar attitudes to the historical reliability of the traditions behind 1 Kgs 12:25–33 underlie the work of scholars who have explored this text from the perspective of the history of Israelite religion. A number of questions have formed the focus of these explorations. There has been discussion of the identity of the deity or deities worshipped in the cult that Jeroboam is said to have established, and the closely connected question of the origin of the calf iconography. Some have taken the condemnation of Jeroboam in the biblical accounts as an indication that 19 Yair Hoffman, The Doctrine of the Exodus in the Bible (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1983), 230–31. 20 Alan Cooper and Bernard R. Goldstein, “Exodus and Maṣṣot in History and Tradi‐ tion,” Maarav 8 (1992): 15–37. 21 Cooper and Goldstein further understand the bulk of the exodus narrative to be the creation of a northern redactor living in Judah who utilized a variety of materials and created a synthesis of history, cult, and myth. They understand the Sitz im Leben of the feast of maṣṣôt, associated with the exodus tradition, to be the ancestral cult. Cf. Yair Zakovitch, “And You Shall Tell Your Son . . .”: The Concept of the Exodus in the Bible (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1991), 87–97. 22 Karel van der Toorn, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life (SHCANE 7; Leiden: Brill, 1996,) 278–80, 287– 315.
28
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
Jeroboam had introduced the worship of a foreign deity into Israel, most probably Baal.23 Baal is occasionally associated with bovines at Ugarit, though the evidence is sparse.24 Others have suggested that the calf iconography derived from Egypt, and perhaps represented an Egyptian deity such as Ra or Hathor (cf. Jeroboam’s sojourn in Egypt, 1 Kgs 11:40; 12:2; 2 Chr 10:2),25 or else from Mesopotamia, and perhaps represented a Mesopotamian deity such as Hadad‐Rammān or the moon god Sin (cf. the tradition of Abraham’s family’s origins in Ur, Gen 11:28; Josh 24:2).26 Others have argued that Jeroboam, in a politi‐ cally precarious position, could hardly have afforded to introduce a 23 Frank E. Eakin Jr., “Yahwism and Baalism before the Exile,” JBL 84 (1965): 412. Cf. also Theophile J. Meek, who sees one of the tribes that made up Israel as having bull iconography as part of its cult before the introduction of the worship of Yahweh (“Some Religious Origins of the Hebrews,” AJSL 37 [1921]: 119–30). 24 Anat’s grief as she searches for Baal is worded, “As the heart of the c[ow] towards her calf, as the heart of the ew[e] towards her lamb, so is the heart of Anat towards Baal” (KTU 1.6 II 6–9), and Baal appears to have sex with a cow (KTU 1.5 V 17–22). Additionally, as Fleming notes, a stele and a figurine depict Baal with a horned hel‐ met (“If El Is a Bull, Who Is a Calf? Reflections on Religion in Second‐Millennium Syria‐Palestine,” ErIsr 26 [1999]: 24*). Such connections are tenuous. For such an un‐ derstanding of calf imagery in the Bible, see T. Worden, “The Literary Influence of the Ugaritic Fertility Myth on the Old Testament,” VT 3 (1953): 290. Cf. also the dis‐ cussions in Patrick D. Miller Jr., “El the Warrior,” HTR 60 (1967), 419; Jack M. Sasson, “Bovine Symbolism in the Exodus Narrative,” VT 18 (1968): 380–87; Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990), 84. Izak Cornelius notes that “Ba‘al is never depicted as a bull in (old) Canaanite iconography . . . though he has bull horns” (The Iconography of the Canaanite Gods Reshef and Ba‘al: Late Bronze and Iron Age I Periods (c 1500–1000 BCE) [OBO 140; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994], 165; cf. also 226–28). 25 Robert H. Pfeiffer, “Images of Yahweh,” JBL (1926): 217–18; Eva Danelius, “The Sins of Jeroboam Ben‐Nebat,” JQR 58 (1967–68): 111–12, 211. Cf. also Lloyd R. Bailey, “The Golden Calf,” HUCA 42 (1971): 102–3; Joachim Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb”: Die Jahwe‐Verehrung bei Stierbildern in der Geschichte Israels (EHS.T 154; Frankfurt am Main, Bern: Peter Lang, 1981), 313–26; Wesley I. Toews, Monarchy and Religious Insti‐ tution in Israel under Jeroboam I (SBLMS 47; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), 47 n20; Jason S. Bray, Sacred Dan: Religious Tradition and Cultic Practice in Judges 17–18 (LHB/OTS 449; New York: T&T Clark, 2006), 73–74. In a personal communication, Ogden Goelet points out that, although the Egyptian cults of Apis, Mnevis, and Bu‐ chis contained bull symbolism in several contexts, and although the Horus aspect of the king also drew on the imagery of the strong bull, Hathor was properly a cow cult that emphasized the motherly aspect of the deity; furthermore, none of these cults involved a calf. 26 Johannes Hehn, Die biblische und die babylonische Gottesidee (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1913), 364; Andrew F. Key, “Traces of the Worship of the Moon God Sîn among the Early Israelites,” JBL 84 (1965): 20–26, esp. 23; Bailey, “The Golden Calf,” 97–115. See also the discussion in Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 336–37; Bray, Sacred Dan, 74.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
29
new cult and deity. Rather, his religious “innovations” were reforms that called Israel back to traditional forms of worship, most probably of Yahweh.27 Those holding this view sometimes point to Yahweh’s asso‐ ciation with El in order to explain the bovine iconography—El being frequently called “Bull El” in the Ugaritic texts.28 If Yahweh originated in the desert to the south, then the calf imagery could have derived
27 Lewis B. Paton, “Did Amos Approve the Calf‐Worship at Bethel?” JBL 13 (1894): 80– 81; Meek, “Some Religious Origins,” 130; Martin Noth, The History of Israel (2d ed.; New York: Harper & Row, 1960), 231; Montgomery and Gehman, Kings, 255–57; W. F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths (repr., Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994), 197; Moses Aberbach and Leivy Smolar, “Aaron, Jeroboam, and the Golden Calves,” JBL 86 (1967): 135; Frank Moore Cross Jr., Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 73–75; John W. Davenport, “A Study of the Golden Calf Tradition in Exodus 32” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1973), 200; Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, “The Veto on Images and the An‐ iconic God in Ancient Israel,” in Religious Symbols and Their Functions (ed. Haralds Biezas; SIDA 10; Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International, 1979), 20–21; Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 344–47; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 43; Zakovitch, “And You Shall Tell Your Son . . . ,” 90–91; Karel van der Toorn, “Saul and the Rise of Israelite State Religion,” VT 43 (1993): 534; Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 289–90; Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament (2d ed.; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Publishing House, 2000), 243; Cogan, Kings, 358; Joel S. Burnett, A Reassessment of Biblical Elohim (SBLDS 183; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Lit‐ erature, 2001), 96–97; Jules Francis Gomes, The Sanctuary of Bethel and the Con‐ figuration of Israelite Identity (BZAW 368: Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006), 27–28. Cf. also the discussion in Klaus Koenen, Bethel: Geschichte, Kult und Theologie [OBO 192; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003], 81–95. 28 Cf. W. Gunther Plaut, The Torah: A Modern Commentary (New York: Union of Ameri‐ can Hebrew Congregations, 1981), 377; Raphael Patai, The Hebrew Goddess (3d ed.; JFA; Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 45; S. David Sperling, The Original Torah: The Political Intent of the Bibleʹs Writers (New York: New York Univer‐ sity Press, 1998), 107; Philip J. King and Lawrence E. Stager, Life in Biblical Israel (LAI; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 322–23; Kenneth A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 2003), 403; William G. Dever, Did God Have a Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005), 136. Note, however, Daniel E. Flem‐ ing’s careful distinction between bull and calf imagery, the latter being associated with a younger generation of deity rather than with the head of the pantheon (“If El Is a Bull,” 23*–27*). The same distinction is made, with less evidence presented, in Gwendolyn Leick, A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology (London: Routledge, 1991), 38. By not making this distinction, Toews has overemphasized Jeroboam’s connection to Elistic tradition (Monarchy and Religious Institution, 59–60). Cf. also the discussion in Bray, Sacred Dan, 74–80.
30
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
from a synthesis of Yahweh with El.29 If Yahweh originated as a title of El,30 the calf iconography could likewise be traced to El’s image as a bull. It is also possible that, although Yahweh was the deity being wor‐ shipped, the bovine iconography might have resulted from the Syro‐ Palestinian association of the storm god with the calf,31 or from Egyp‐ tian or Mesopotamian influence on Israelite cultic practice. 32 Others have suggested that the calf image represented El himself.33 These ques‐ tions will not be resolved here; rather, I have highlighted them in order to show the extent to which the traditions behind 1 Kgs 12:25–33 have been taken as a reliable basis for discussing the deities worshipped in ancient Israel during the early divided monarchy. Similar assumptions underlie the discussion of 1 Kgs 12:25–33 in re‐ lation to other aspects of the history of Israelite religion. There has been some debate about whether the calves functioned as representations of the deity or deities, or instead as pedestals on which the deity or deities sat enthroned.34 Some have attempted to reconstruct the history of the 29 On the connection between El, Yahweh, the exodus, and bovine iconography cf. Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 45–46. On Yahweh’s possible origins in the desert to the south, cf. Smith, Early History of God, 32. 30 The clearest articulation of this position remains Cross, Canaanite Myth, 60–73. Cf. also Gösta W. Ahlström, Aspects of Syncretism in Israelite Religion (trans. Eric J. Sharpe; HSoed 5; Lund: Gleerup, 1963), 13. For further bibliography see Smith, Early History of God, 32 n45. 31 Fleming, personal communication. 32 Robert H. Pfeiffer, “Images of Yahweh,” JBL 45 (1926): 217–18. 33 C. F. A. Schaeffer, “Nouveaux témoignages du culte de El et de Baal a Ras Shamra‐ Ugarit et ailleurs en Eyrie‐Palestine,” Syria 43 (1966): 16; Nicholas Wyatt, “Of Calves and Kings: The Canaanite Dimension in the Religion of Israel,” SJOT 6 (1992): 78–88. Cf. R. Scott Chalmers, “Who Is the Real El? A Reconstruction of the Prophet’s Po‐ lemic in Hosea 12:5a,” CBQ 68 (2006): 615–17. 34 See the survey of David E. Fass, “The Molten Calf: Judgment, Motive, and Mean‐ ing,” Judaism 39 (1990): 174–75. Fass points out that the pedestal view goes back at least to Abraham Ibn Ezra (ad. Exod 32:1) and that in this century it has been argued by William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Histori‐ cal Process (2d ed.; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957), 266; Noth, History of Israel, 232–33; Norman K. Gottwald, A Light to the Nations: An Introduction to the Old Testa‐ ment (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 213; Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Religion of Is‐ rael (trans. and abr. Moshe Greenberg; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 270–73; Umberto Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus (trans. Israel Abra‐ hams; Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1983), 407–8; Herbert Chanan Brichto, “The Worship of the Golden Calf: A Literary Analysis of a Fable on Idolatry,” HUCA 54 (1983): 44; Nahum M. Sarna, Exploring Exodus: The Heritage of Biblical Israel (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 218–19; and Plaut, Torah, 650. See also Hugo Gressmann, ed., Altorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament (2d ed.; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1970), 331, 335, 338, 345, 354–56; Gray, Kings, 315; Mettinger, “Veto,” 21; Aberbach and
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
31
various, sometimes overlapping, Israelite priestly groups: the Mushites, Aaronids, Shilonites, Zadokites, and Levites.35 Finally, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 has been analyzed from the perspective of the history of the cultic cal‐ endar, with scholars attempting to identify which festival the text refers to, and to determine whether it was the Judahite or the Israelite festival that was more long‐standing.36 Answers to these questions lie beyond the scope of the present investigation; they nevertheless highlight the extent to which 1 Kgs 12:25–33 has generally been taken as reflecting historically accurate traditions. Smolar, “Aaron, Jeroboam, and the Golden Calves,” 135; Cogan, Kings, 358; Volkmar Fritz, 1 & 2 Kings: A Continental Commentary (trans. Anselm Hagedorn; CC; Mineapo‐ lis: Fortress Press, 2003), 147; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 25–26. For the representa‐ tion view, see Koenen, Bethel, 95–132. In a personal communication, Mark S. Smith suggests that when the calf/bull was depicted alone it may have been understood as the emblem animal of the deity, whereas when the calf/bull was depicted with the deity they may have been understood as a combined syntax of anthropomorphic and theriomorphic forms of the deity. Thorkild Jacobsen had noted the presence in Mesopotamia of both human and nonhuman forms for the deity; in his view, the nonhuman forms were older, and “on crucial occasions it was in their old forms as ‘emblems’ that the gods elected to be present to follow and guide the army to vic‐ tory, or to be brought out to witness and guarantee the making of oaths” (The Trea‐ sures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion [New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni‐ versity Press, 1976], 6–9). 35 Theophile J. Meek, “Aaronites and Zadokites,” AJSL 45 (1929): 149–50; Cross, Ca‐ naanite Myth, 195–215, esp. 199; Baruch Halpern, “Levitic Participation in the Reform Cult of Jeroboam I,” JBL 95 (1976): 31–42; J. Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes, A History of Ancient Israel and Judah (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1986), 113; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 59–60; King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 326; Mark Leuchter, “Jeroboam the Ephratite,” JBL 125 (2006): 58–61, 70–71; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 29–33. Cf. also Melanie Köhlmoos, Bet‐El: Erinne‐ rungen an eine Stadt (FAT 49; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 208–13. 36 J. B. Segal, “Intercalation and the Hebrew Calendar,” VT 7 (1957): 258; Shemaryahu Talmon, “Divergences in Calendar‐Reckoning in Ephraim and Judah,” VT 8 (1958): 48–74 (reprinted in Shemaryahu Talmon, “The Cult and Calendar Reform of Jero‐ boam I,” in King, Cult and Calendar in Ancient Israel: Collected Studies [Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1986], 113–39); Julian Morgenstern, “The Festival of Jerobeam I,” JBL 83 (1964): 109–18; Roland de Vaux, The Bible and the Ancient Near East (Garden City: Doubleday, 1971), 107; Miller and Hayes, History of Ancient Israel, 242; Cooper and Goldstein, “Exodus and Maṣṣot,” 20; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 103–7; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 33–36.
32
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
2.2.1.2 A Challenge to the Historical Value of 1 Kgs 12:25–33: Its Southern Provenance In light of the complex editorial history of the books of Kings, however, some caution seems warranted in attempting to reconstruct history from 1 Kgs 12:25–33. Although some of the Jeroboam material in Kings is quite old,37 other material was added much later. The Septuagint to 1 Kgs 12:24a–z makes it clear that traditions about Jeroboam continued to be incorporated into some manuscripts of Kings well into the postex‐ ilic period. 38 Against those who have assumed the historicity of the material in 1 Kgs 12:26–32, Van Seters has argued that the text was
37 For example, the positive portrayal of Jeroboam’s rise to power, which imitates that of David, suggests that some of the Jeroboam material dates from before a time in which Jeroboam became the archetypal evil ruler. Cf. Leuchter, “Jeroboam the Eph‐ ratite,” 52. 38 Since LXX 1 Kgs 12:24a–z is marked with a Wiederaufnahme, and since much of the material that it contains appears to be based on other traditions found in Kings and Chronicles, it is generally held to be a later editorial expansion. On this text see Thomas Römer, and Albert de Pury, “Deuteronomistic Historiography (DH): His‐ tory of Research and Debated Issues,” in Israel Constructs Its History: Deuteronomistic Historiography in Recent Research (ed. Albert de Pury, Thomas Römer and Jean‐Daniel Macchi; JSOTSup 306; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 93. In a very brief overview, Römer and de Pury cite Adrian Schenker, “Jeroboam and the Division of the Kingdom in the Ancient Septuagint: LXX 2 Kingdoms 12.24 a–z, MT 1 Kings 11– 12; 14 and the Deuteronomistic History,” in Israel Constructs Its History: Deuterono‐ mistic Historiography in Recent Research (ed. Albert de Pury, Thomas Römer and Jean‐ Daniel Macchi; JSOTSup 306; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 214–257; J. Debus, Die Sünde Jerobeams (FRLANT 93; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1967), 90; Julio C. Trebolle Barrera, Salomón y Jeroboan: Historia de la recensión y redac‐ ción de I Reyes 2–12, 14 (BSDiss 3; Salamanca: Universidad Pontificia, 1980); Steve L. McKenzie, The Trouble with Kings: The Composition of the Book of Kings in the Deuter‐ onomistic History (VTSup 42; Leiden: Brill, 1991), 21–40; Zipora Talshir, “Is the Al‐ ternate Tradition of the Division of the Kingdom (3 Kgds 12:24a–z) Non‐ Deuteronomistic?” in Septuagint, Scrolls and Cognate Writings: Papers Presented to the International Symposium on the Septuagint and Its Relations to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Writings (ed. George J. Brooke and Barnabas Lindars; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), 599–621. Cf. D. W. Gooding, “The Septuagint’s Rival Versions of Jeroboam’s Rise to Power,” VT 17 (1967): 173–89; Moses Aberbach and Leivy Smolar, “Jero‐ boam’s Rise to Power,” JBL 88 (1969): 69–72; Robert P. Gordon, “The Second Sep‐ tuagint Account of Jeroboam: History or Midrash?” VT 25 (1975): 368–93; Philip R. Davies and John W. Rogerson, The Old Testament World (2d ed.; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 74. Amos Frisch argues that Jeroboam is por‐ trayed as more evil in LXX 3 Kingdoms 12:24a–x (“Jeroboam and the Division of the Kingdom: Mapping Contrasting Biblical Accounts,” JANES 27 [2000]: 15–29).
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
33
composed by a post‐Josianic Deuteronomistic historian.39 He thus dis‐ misses its historical usefulness. Ernst Axel Knauf notes the almost complete absence of iconographic evidence of calves in Israel in the tenth century in contrast with the abundant evidence in the eighth cen‐ tury.40 He notes also the lack of archaeological evidence for the kind of economic prosperity in late tenth‐ and early ninth‐century Israel that one might expect to be associated with public works such as Jero‐ boam’s establishment of cultic centers. He suggests that Jeroboam II was a much more likely candidate for patronizing Bethel, and that the anti‐Bethel polemic reflected in 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is likely a projection back into history in the context of the competition between Bethel and Jerusalem in the seventh through fifth centuries B.C.E. (cf. 2 Kgs 17:28). Sara Milstein also questions the date of 1 Kgs 12:25–33 and suggests that the exodus formula it contains is secondary to the context.41 Juha Pakkala has argued on literary grounds that the calves and Bethel were connected to Jeroboam only at a late stage in the development of the narrative in Kings; in an earlier layer, Jeroboam’s sin consisted in build‐ ing temples on the high places.42 Regardless of whether one accepts the conclusions of these scholars, their work highlights the need for caution in drawing historical conclusions from 1 Kgs 12:25–33.43 A major challenge to using 1 Kgs 12:25–33 to access eighth‐century or earlier Cisjordan‐Israelite traditions about Egypt is the fact that the text, as it now stands, is Judahite.44 Jeroboam’s internal dialogue, which gives his motivation for his cultic reforms, reflects a Judahite perspec‐ tive.45 Here, Rehoboam is referred to as “their lord” (1 Kgs 12:27), i.e., the rightful king of the Israelites, a perspective hardly likely to come 39 John Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yahwist as Historian in Exodus‐Numbers (Louis‐ ville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 295–301. 40 Ernst Axel Knauf, review of Klaus Koenen, Bethel: Geschichte, Kult und Theologie, n.p. [cited July 28, 2007]. Online: http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/3813_3765.pdf. For a survey of the iconographic evidence of bovines from Mesopotamia and Syria‐ Palestine, see Koenen, Bethel, 95–131. 41 Sara Milstein, “‘Allusions’ of Grandeur: Revisiting the Connection of the Golden Calf Accounts” (paper presented at the NYU Golden Calf Symposium, New York, October 22, 2007). 42 Juha Pakkala, “Jeroboam without Bulls,” ZAW 120 (2008): 501–25. 43 Cf. also Juha Pakkala, who urges caution in this regard (“Jeroboam’s Sin and Bethel in 1 Kgs 12:25–33,” BN 112 [2002]: 87). 44 Noth, History of Israel, 231; Debus, Die Sünde Jerobeams, 35–47; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 297; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 35; Sperling, Original Torah, 96; Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 88. 45 Cf. Van Seters, Life of Moses, 297.
34
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
from northern circles.46 The text further assumes that Israelites would regularly go up to Jerusalem on pilgrimage (1 Kgs 12:28), and that di‐ version from this norm, and from Jerusalemite iconography, consti‐ tuted a great sin (1 Kgs 12:29).47 The northern sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel are not depicted as having a long cultic history; rather, they are imbued with cultic significance only by Jeroboam (1 Kgs 12:29).48 Here, the internal logic of the narrative assumes that, apart from the calves constructed by Jeroboam, Israel contains no gods—Jeroboam must fashion gods in Israel to keep the Israelites from going up to the God in Jerusalem. The cultic legitimacy of the north is thus placed in doubt. Toews also points out that the very assumption of a united monarchy, which undergirds the pericope, “betrays a Jerusalemite author who refused to acknowledge that the rupture at Shechem was rooted in the fundamental duality of Israel and Judah.”49 Finally, the text portrays the date of the Judahite festival as original and authentic, but attributes the date of the Israelite festival to Jeroboam’s scheming (1 Kgs 12:33). The text is thus Judahite, and at least somewhat removed from the northern history that it portrays. 2.2.1.3 Signs that the Judahite Redactor Drew on Israelite Tradition Nevertheless, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 cannot come from the hand of a single, late, Deuteronomistic editor. Although Cross speaks of the “strongly Deuteronomistic description of Jeroboam’s archcrime” in 1 Kgs 12:26– 33 and Van Seters regards the text as “Deuteronomistic in its presenta‐ tion,” Toews is correct in pointing out that the language itself is not characteristically Deuteronomistic.50 Although the passage, like some 46 Cf. Cogan, 1 Kings, 358. 47 Cf. Van Seters, Life of Moses, 297; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 35. 48 Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 36–37. As discussed further below, even modern scholars read 1 Kgs 12:25–33 as though Jeroboam built the sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel. A notable exception is Halpern, “Levitic Participation,” 32. 49 Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 35. Cf. V. Philips Long, Iain W. Provan, and Tremper Longman III, who argue that the assembly at Shechem also appointed Jeroboam over Judah (A Biblical History of Israel [Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003], 260–61). 50 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 279; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 296; Toews, Monarchy and Reli‐ gious Institution, 37. On the question of the Deuteronomistic nature of 1 Kgs 12:25–33, cf. the discussions in Charles F. Burney, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903), 176–77; H. Donner, “Hier sind deine Götter, Israel!” in Wort und Geschichte: Festschrift für Karl Elliger zum 70. Geburtstag (ed. Hartmut Gese and Hans Peter Rüger; Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1973), 49; Hans‐Detlef
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
35
Deuteronomistic writing, reflects a concern for Jerusalem as the only valid sanctuary and a concern for the status of the Levitical priests, its vocabulary and phrasing do not show a distinctive affinity with Deu‐ teronomistic texts.51 Rather, the language of 1 Kgs 12:25–33 shows simi‐ larity to a wide range of biblical literature, as charted below: Item Verse Other Biblical Occurrences הר אפרים25 Josh 17:15; 19:50; 20:7; 21:21; 24:30, 33; Judg 2:9; 3:27; 4:5; 7:24; 10:1; 17:1, 8; 18:2, 13; 19:1, 16, 18; 1 Sam 1:1; 9:4; 14:22; 2 Sam 20:21; 1 Kgs 4:8; 2 Kgs 5:22; 1 Chr 6:52; 2 Chr 13:4; 15:8; 19:4; Jer 4:15; 31:6; 50:19 פנואל25 Gen 32:32; Judg 8:8, 9, 17; 1 Kgs 12:25; 1 Chr 4:4 בלבו... אמר26 Gen 17:7; 27:41; Esth 6:6; Ps 10:6, 11, 15; 14:1; 32:25; 53:2; 74:8; Eccl 2:1, 15; 3:17, 18; Isa 47:10; Obad 1:3; Zech 12:5 with geminate consonant shown ()לבב: Deut 7:17; 8:17; 9:14; 18:21; Ps 4:5; Isa 14:13; 47:8; 49:21; Jer 5:24; 13:22; Hos 7:2; Zeph 1:12; 2:15 with the preposition אל instead of ב: Gen 8:21; 1 Sam 27:1 הממלכה26 singular with definite article: Josh 10:2; 1 Sam 27:5; 28:17; 2 Sam 3:10; 1 Kgs 2:46; 11:11, 13, 31, 34; 14:8; 18:10; 2 Kgs 11:1; 14:5; 15:19; 1 Chr 29:11; 2 Chr 11:1; 14:4; 17:5; 21:3; 22:10; 23:20; 25:3; 29:21; Isa 60:12; Jer 27:8; Amos 9:8 בית דוד26 1 Sam 19:11; 20:16; 27:3; 2 Sam 3:1, 6; 1 Kgs 12:16, 19, 20; 13:2; 14:8; 2 Kgs 17:21; 1 Chr 17:24; 2 Chr 8:11; 10:16, 19; 21:7; Neh 12:37; Ps 122:5; Isa 7:2, 13; 22:22; Jer 21:12; Zech 12:7, 8, 10, 12; 13:1 ירושׁלם... עלה27, 28 2 Sam 19:35; 1 Kgs 14:25; 2 Kgs 12:17; 23:9; 24:10; 2 Chr 2:15; 12:2, 9; Ezra 1:3, 11; Isa 7:1; Zech 14:17 (contrast 2 Kgs 12:19; Jer 37:5, 11)
Hoffmann, Reform und Reformen: Untersuchungen zu einem Grundthema der deuterono‐ mistischen Geschichtsschreibung (ATANT 66; Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1980), 73; Ernst Würthwein, Die Bücher der Könige (2 vols.; ATD 11; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984–1985), 1:162–63; McKenzie, Trouble with Kings, 52, 58, 99; Gary N. Knoppers,“Aaron’s Calf and Jeroboam’s Calves,” in Fortunate the Eyes That See: Es‐ says in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday (ed. As‐ trid B. Beck; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995), 92–104; Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 86; Fritz, Kings, 146; T. C. Vriezen and A. S. van der Woude, Ancient Israelite and Early Jewish Literature (trans. Brian Doyle; 10th ed.; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 227–28; Reinhard G. Kratz, The Composition of the Narrative Books of the Old Testament (trans. John Bowden; London: T&T Clark, 2005), 165, 185. 51 On the language of the Deuteronomistic school, see Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 320–65.
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Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
זבח... עשׂה27, 32 Num 6:17; Josh 22:23; 2 Kgs 10:24; Jer 33:18 closely related: Num 15:3, 5, 8; 2 Kgs 5:17 בית־יהוה27 1 Kgs 12:27; 1 Chr 6:17; 2 Chr 3:1; 30:1 בירושׁלם cf. also 2 Kgs 21:4; 2 Chr 20:28; 33:4; 36:14; Ezra 1:3, 5; 2:68; 7:27; Ps 116:19 שׁוב לב27 Mal 3:24 רחבעם מלך27 twice in v. 27 but nowhere else in the Bible יהודה לחטאת... היה30 1 Kgs 13:34 בית במות31 no occurrences outside 1 Kgs 12:31; however, note בית הבמות in 2 Kgs 13:32; 17:29, 32; 23:19 כהן... עשׂה31 1 Kgs 13:33 (Wiederaufnahme); 2 Kgs 17:32; 2 Chr 13:9; (and parallel with העמד in 2 Chr 11:15) מקצות העם31 1 Kgs 13:33 (Wiederaufnahme); cf. מקצותםin 2 Kgs 17:32 and קצה העם in Num 22:41 בני לוי31 Gen 46:11; Exod 6:16; 32:26, 28; Num 3:15, 17; 4:2; 16:7, 8, 10; 18:21; Deut 21:5; 31:9; Josh 21:10; 1 Chr 5:27; 6:1; 9:18; 23:6, 24, 27; 24:20; Ezra 8:15; Neh 12:23; Ezek 40:46; Mal 3:3 עשׂה חג32 Ex 34:22; Deut 16:10, 13; 1 Kgs 8:65; 2 Chr 7:8, 9; 30:13, 21; 35:17; Ezra 3:4; 6:22; Neh 8:18 העמיד32 85 occurrences of the Hiphil, the vast majority in postexilic texts such as Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe‐ miah, and Daniel בדא33 Neh 6:8
While vv. 26–28 may have some linguistic parallels in other material in Kings, this chart suggests that the language of vv. 25–33 does not bear similarity to a particular individual biblical corpus; rather, it contains affinities with a range of biblical literature. At the same time, some of the language is distinctive, if not unique, especially in vv. 30–31. De‐ spite the assertion of Cross and Van Seters, therefore, a Deuteronomis‐ tic writer did not compose 1 Kgs 12:25–33. In fact, the passage contains a number of textual seams that suggest multiple stages of editorial activity.52 First, there are clear shifts in style. Verse 25 contains a list of cities built or fortified by Jeroboam. Its style thus contrasts with the narrative account of Jeroboam’s construction of 52 Cf. Gustav Hölscher, “Das Buch der Könige, seine Quellen und seine Redaktion,” in EYXAPIΣTHPION: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments: Hermann Gunkel zum 60. Geburtstage, dem 23. Mai 1922 (ed. Hans Schmidt; FRLANT 19; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923), 183; Alfred Jepsen, Die Quellen des Königsbuches (Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1956), 6; Fritz, Kings, 146; Mark S. Smith, “Counting Calves at Bethel,” in “Up to the Gates of Ekron”: Essays on the Archaeology and History of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour Gitin (ed. Sidnie White Crawford et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2007), 383–84; Pakkala, “Jero‐ boam without Bulls,” 503.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
37
the calves (vv. 26–29).53 There is another shift from this narrative ac‐ count to a list of his further cultic reforms (v. 31).54 Second, a number of phrases may be editorial glosses. The phrase רחבעם מלך יהודה is oddly repeated in verse 27; one of these occurrences may be an editorial gloss.55 Verses 32–33 in particular are repetitive and may contain multi‐ ple editorial glosses.56 Third, there is some confusion over the number and location of the calves.57 Jeroboam clearly made two calves (v. 28), but much of the narrative reads as though these calves were not in a particular location.58 Later, he is said to place one in Bethel and one in Dan (v. 29); but he sacrificed to more than one calf in Bethel (v. 32).59 Jeroboam institutes a festival at Bethel, rather than at Dan or at both sanctuaries (v. 32). In sum, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 contains a number of textual seams that suggest multiple stages of editorial development. Furthermore, material in 1 Kgs 12:25–33, though it was redacted in southern circles, drew on northern traditions.60 The narrative records Jeroboam’s patronizing of shrines at Dan and Bethel. It is not entirely clear, however, how Dan and Bethel would have served Jeroboam’s 53 Cf. Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 34; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 296. 54 Pakkala, “Jeroboam without Bulls,” 504. 55 Cf. Knoppers, Two Nations, 2:26; Trebolle Barrera, “Text‐Critical Use,” 292–93; Pak‐ kala, “Jeroboam without Bulls,” 504. As it currently stands, the verse could neverthe‐ less make some sense. The repetition might be interpreted as a progression: first, the people’s desire and loyalty (literally, “their heart”) will return to Rehoboam, then they will kill Jeroboam, then the people themselves will return to Rehoboam, i.e., submit to his rule. 56 Cf. Walter Dietrich, Prophetie und Geschichte: Eine redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersu‐ chung zum deuteronomistischen Geschichtswerk (FRLANT 108; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1972), 115; Würthwein, Könige, 162; Iain W. Provan, Hezekiah and the Books of Kings: A Contribution to the Debate about the Composition of the Deuteronomistic History (BZAW 172; Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 78–81; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 101; Knoppers, Two Nations, 2:28–29; Trebolle Barrera, “Text‐Critical Use,” 290; Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 86; Pakkala, “Jeroboam without Bulls,” 510. 57 Montgomery and Gehman, Kings, 255; Cogan, 1 Kings, 359; Smith, “Counting Calves,” 383–84. 58 Cf. 2 Chr 13:8, discussed below, where Jeroboam’s calves seem to function as a mo‐ bile war standard comparable to the ark of the covenant. 59 Dan also seems secondary in the editorial description of Jehu imitating Jeroboam’s sins in 2 Kgs 10:29. Additionally, 2 Kgs 23:15, which describes Josiah’s destruction of the high place that Jeroboam built, mentions only Bethel. Note also that the pro‐ nouncement in v. 28, “Here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt,” seems to assume that the calves are in one location—though the se‐ quence of verbs may be interpreted as suggesting that the pronouncement was made before the calves were dispersed to Dan and Bethel. On the number of calves, see Burnett, Reassessment, 80–105; Smith, “Counting Calves,” 382–91. 60 So also Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 38.
38
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
stated political purpose of preventing Israelites from going up to Jeru‐ salem.61 According to 1 Kgs 12:25, Jeroboam set up his capital at She‐ chem, a site that had its own venerable cultic history.62 A calf at She‐ chem would certainly have more effectively encouraged loyalty to his own regime over that of Rehoboam. Furthermore, the story of the divi‐ sion of the kingdom in 1 Kgs 12:1–17 suggests that Shechem was al‐ ready an important center in Ephraim. Weinfeld has argued that be‐ hind the division of the kingdom lay Shechem’s demand to be exempt from taxation like other important ancient Near Eastern religious cen‐ ters.63 If that were the case, it would have been far more politically as‐ tute of Jeroboam to patronize the cult at Shechem. Shiloh, which was farther away from Jerusalem than Bethel, also had a long cultic history (cf. Ps 78:60, 67–69; Jer 7:12–14; 26:6; Judg 18:31) and may have better served to draw the Israelites away from Jerusalem.64 In fact, according to the narrative, Jeroboam had received support from Ahijah the Shilo‐ nite (1 Kgs 11:29–39).65 These observations suggest that the editor must have worked with certain givens from the tradition, whether these 61 Notwithstanding Toews’s suggestion that Bethel might have served to lure pilgrims on the north‐south highway running just east of Bethel (Monarchy and Religious Insti‐ tution, 75). More to the point, perhaps, is Halpern’s suggestion: “The location of these towns on the northernmost and southernmost extremes of the land was further tonic against regional dissatisfaction with the central government” (“Levitic Partici‐ pation,” 32). Toews rejects the notion of decentralization and argues instead for a centralized government that asserted its power over the entire region, “[Jeroboam] appointed various sanctuaries as royal sanctuaries (with Bethel and Dan among them) to represent the jurisdiction of God and king in their respective areas” (Monar‐ chy and Religious Institution, 80). On the choice of Dan and Bethel, cf. also Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 338–44. 62 Cf. also Eduard Nielsen, Shechem: A Traditio‐Historical Investigation (Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, 1955), 30; Bernhard W. Anderson, “The Place of Shechem in the Bible,” BA 20.1 (1957): 10–19; Nigel Allan, “Jeroboam and Shechem,” VT 24 (1974): 353–57; Miller and Hayes, History, 244; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 14–15; John Bright, A History of Israel (4th ed.; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 2000), 236. Toews suggests, less than convincingly, that Shechem may have had a sanctuary in the time of Jeroboam that is simply not mentioned in 1 Kgs 12:25–33 (Monarchy and Religious Institution, 85). 63 Moshe Weinfeld, “The Counsel of the ‘Elders’ to Jeroboam and Its Implications,” in Reconsidering Israel and Judah: Recent Studies on the Deuteronomistic History (ed. Gary N. Knoppers and J. Gordon McConville; SBTS 8; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen‐ brauns, 2000), 525. 64 On the ancient importance of Shiloh, see Robert D. Miller II, Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries BC (BibWor; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005), 119; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 14. 65 Leuchter argues that a close connection between the Shilonites and the Judean mon‐ archy caused Jeroboam to turn his back on Shiloh (“Jeroboam the Ephratite,” 70).
39
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
were literary or not. If the account of the golden calves were pure edito‐ rial invention, the editor would have placed them in Shechem or Shiloh or some other site in keeping with the description of Jeroboam’s moti‐ vation. The fact that the editor placed the calves in Bethel and in Dan, even though these cities do not fit well the stated political motivation, suggests that the tradition associating the calves with Dan and Bethel was known to the audience of the story.66 Juha Pakkala argues that the unnecessary presence in the narrative of the calves themselves suggests that they were present in the south‐ ern editor’s source material.67 They are not required by the story in Kings unless one assumes that a connection between Bethel and the calves was already known. There would have been other ways for the writer to discredit the cultic legitimacy of Bethel and the north, such as linking these to the worship of gods other than Yahweh. Pakkala notes, “If they had been [the writer’s] invention, he would have used them frequently in his composition and certainly [would have described] their destruction.”68 The fact that other biblical texts reflect these connections also sug‐ gests that 1 Kgs 12:25–33 was not simply invented by late Judahite edi‐ tors. The calf or calves are variously associated with the exodus, Bethel and Dan, and Jeroboam as outlined below: Calves Exod 32:4 Deut 9:16 1 Kgs 12:26–29 1 Kgs 12:32 2 Kgs 10:29 2 Chr 11:15 2 Chr 13:8 Neh 9:18 Ps 106:19 Hos 8:5–6 Hos 10:570 Hos 13:2
+ Exodus X X X
+ Bethel (+ Dan)
+ Jeroboam
X X X
X X X X X
X X X69 X X
66 Pakkala points out that Dan in particular has no special importance in the seventh and sixth centuries and is far removed from Jerusalem (“Jeroboam’s Sin,” 89). 67 Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 89. 68 Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 89. 69 Since Hos 10:5 indicates that the inhabitants of Samaria worship the calf at Bethel, the “Calf of Samaria,” in Hos 8:5–6 was evidently located at Bethel. Cf. Hans Walter Wolff, Hosea: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Hosea (trans. Gary Stansell; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 140–41. 70 The reference in Hos 10:5 is to a heifer ()עגלה.
40
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
Of these, Exod 32 and the references in Hosea are especially relevant; I will discuss them in turn.71 Scholars have long noted the connection between Exod 32 and 1 Kgs 12:25–33.72 In their seminal article, Moses Aberbach and Leivy Smolar showed thirteen specific points of contact between the portray‐ als of Aaron and Jeroboam: Jeroboam and Aaron both make golden calves; the making of the calves in both instances is accompanied by the pronouncement of an exodus formula; Jeroboam and Aaron both build altars; in both narratives sacrifice is offered to the calf images; the Le‐ vites are excluded from the calf cult in 1 Kgs 12, while in Ex 32 the Le‐ vites are opposed to the calf worship; in both accounts calf worship is described as the sin par excellence; both Jeroboam and Aaron come under divine displeasure and are threatened with annihilation; inter‐ cession is made for forgiveness in both accounts—Moses interceding for the people, and a prophet from Judah interceding for Jeroboam; Josiah desecrates Jeroboam’s altar by slaying priests on it, while in Exod 32 the persons slain are described as brothers and sons of the Levites, thus indicating that they may have been priests who partici‐ pated in the calf cult; both Jeroboam’s altar and Aaron’s calf are burnt and ground to fine dust; the verb נגף, “strike,” is used to describe God’s action against the people (Exod 32:35), and against Jeroboam (2 Chr 13:20); Aaron and Jeroboam both have sons named Nadab and Abijah who die in the prime of their life; both Jeroboam’s and Aaron’s sons bring some glory to God in their deaths (Lev 10:3, 6; 1 Kgs 14:3).73 These connections suggest that the stories, or the traditions behind them, were interdependent. While admitting that a historical Jeroboam may have deliberately modeled himself on a known account of Aaron and the calves, Aberbach and Smolar preferred to see the connections be‐ tween the narratives as suggesting that “most of our account of Aaron’s golden calf was tendentiously narrated by the Zadokite priesthood of 71 In addition to these texts, note also 2 Kgs 17:16, which mentions the calves and the Israelites. Burnett raises the possibility of a connection between the calves and the exodus formula in 1 Sam 4:8 (Reassessment, 82–86). 72 In their treatment of this text, Aberbach and Smolar (“Aaron, Jeroboam, and the Golden Calves,” 129) cite nineteenth‐century scholars Otto Thenius, Die Bücher der Könige (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1873), 184; and Carl Heinrich Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1896), 39. In addition, see Heinrich Ewald, Ge‐ schichte des Volkes Israel (Göttingen: Dieterich, 1847), 153 n2; and Wilhelm Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebräischen Archäologie (Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1894), 23–24. Cf. also Wolf Graf von Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen religionsgeschichte (2 vols.; Leipzig: Grunow, 1876–1878), 1:137. 73 Aberbach and Smolar, “Aaron, Jeroboam,” 129–40.
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
41
Jerusalem with a view to discrediting the northern kingdom and its bull cult.”74 Since their work, Exod 32 has been widely regarded as a tendentious narrative against the Bethel calves. The connections between the two traditions, however, are quite complex. One text was not simply written as a polemic against the other.75 While the specific connections outlined by Aberbach and Smo‐ lar point to some relationship between the traditions in Exod 32 and in 1 Kgs 12, the literary connections between the texts are not extensive.76 In terms of the literary history of Exod 32, vv. 1–6 (or vv. 1–5) are often regarded as constituting the oldest literary core.77 This literary core may contain a positive account of the origins of the golden calf.78 Daniel Fleming notes the absence of a Judahite perspective in these verses and suggests that they may be Israelite.79 Sara Milstein has pointed out that the connection between the calves and the exodus is thematically well suited to the context of the exodus story in Exod 32, whereas the con‐ text of the narrative in Kings has no overt connection to the exodus.80 Additionally, to regard Exod 32 simply as polemicizing against Jero‐ boam, or Exod 32:1–6 as being entirely based on 1 Kgs 12,81 hardly ex‐ plains why the creation of the calves is attributed to Aaron. At the same time, the literary core of Exod 32 contains an exodus formula that uses a plural verb not particularly well suited to the context, which has a single calf image.82 These observations suggest that, in literary terms, 74 Aberbach and Smolar, “Aaron, Jeroboam,” 140. 75 The same point is well made by Toews (Monarhcy and Religious Institution, 124). Cf. Bailey, “Golden Calf,” 97 n2; Burnett, Reassessment, 100–1; Pakkala, “Jeroboam with‐ out Bulls,” 519. 76 Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 304–13. 77 Immanuel Lewy, “The Story of the Golden Calf Reanalysed,” VT 9 (1959): 318–22; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 130; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 292–93. On the literary history of Exod 32, cf. also Jacques Vermeylen, “L’affaire du veau d’or (Ex 32–34): Une clé pour la ‘question deutéronomiste,’” ZAW 97 (1985): 1–23; C. Tu‐ riot, “Une lecture du veau d’or, Exode 32,” SémBib 43 (1986): 8–22; Jan Christian Gertz, “Beobachtungen zu Komposition und Redaktion in Exodus 32–34,” in Gottes Volk am Sinai: Untersuchungen zu Ex 32–34 und Dtn 9–10 (ed. by Matthias Köckert and Erhard Blum; VWGT 18; Gütersloh: Kaiser, Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2001), 88–106. 78 Davenport, “Golden Calf Tradition,” 197; Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 212–17. Cf. Burnett, who suggests that Exod 32 may reflect Shilonite critique of Bethel (Reassess‐ ment, 100). Cf. also Halpern, who sees the core as containing a northern polemic against the calves (“Levitic Participation,” 40). 79 Fleming, personal communication. 80 Milstein, “‘Allusions’ of Grandeur.” 81 Van Seters, Life of Moses, 299. 82 Often, the formula with the plural verb in Exod 32:4 is regarded as borrowed from 1 Kgs 12:28, where the plural could suit the two calves made by Jeroboam. On the
42
Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
there is no simple explanation for the relationship between Exod 32:1–6 and 1 Kgs 12:25–33. Regardless, it is possible that underlying the literary text of Exod 32 was a (nonliterary) legend transmitted within the Bethel cult that con‐ nected its calf tradition to the venerable Aaron.83 As Cross argued, “It is impossible to believe that opponents of the Bethel establishment from the Northern Kingdom invented a tradition crediting venerable Aaron with manufacture of the double of Bethel’s bull, and recited a classic Yahwistic cult cry over it, unless in fact the old sanctuary of Bethel pos‐ sessed a cult legend claiming Aaronic authority for the iconography of its shrine.”84 Older northern tradition may have associated the golden calves with the exodus and with Aaron, whereas the specific connec‐ tion with Jeroboam may be due to later northern tradition or to south‐ ern editorial activity; the latter has been argued especially by Juha Pak‐ kala.85 use of the plural, cf. Alan H. McNeile, The Book of Exodus: With Introduction and Notes (WC; London: Methuen, 1908), 204; S. R. Driver, The Book of Exodus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 350; Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1974), 560; Mettinger, “Veto,” 19; Hahn, Das “Gol‐ dene Kalb,” 305–11; Burnett, Reassessment, 81–82; Smith, Early History of God, 176. But note Pakkala’s arguments for the intentionality of the plural in Exod 32 (“Jeroboam without Bulls,” 520). 83 R. H. Kenneth, “The Origin of the Aaronite Priesthood,” JTS 6 (1904–1905): 161–86; Cuthbert A. Simpson, The Early Traditions of Israel: A Critical Analysis of the Pre‐ Deuteronomic Narrative of the Hexateuch (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1948), 625; Walter Bey‐ erlin, Herkunft und Geschichte der ältesten Sinaitraditionen (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1961), 149 n1; Frank Moore Cross Jr., “Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs,” HTR 55 (1962): 258; Cf. also the discussions of J. G. Vink, “The Date and Origin of the Priestly Code in the Old Testament,” in The Priestly Code and Seven Other Studies (OtSt 15; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969), 133–34; Geo Widengren, “Israelite‐Jewish Relig‐ ion,” in Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions (ed. Claas Jouco Bleeker and Geo Widengren; 2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1969–1971), 1:266; Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 212–17; Rainer Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testa‐ ment Period (trans. John Bowden; OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 305–11; Koenen, Bethel, 141–49. 84 Cross, “Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs,” 258. Cf. also some of the arguments of Mettinger (“Veto,” 17). Toews outlines further evidence for the Bethel priesthood identifying itself with Aaron (Monarchy and Religious Institution, 96–97). He sees in Exod 32:1–6 an etiology of the cult iconography that attributed it to Aaron and that was at home in the Bethel cult (Monarchy and Religious Institution, 133–34). Cf. also Burnett, Reassessment, 102; Cogan, Kings, 358; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 28. 85 Pakkala, “Jeroboam without Bulls,” 521–24. Note Pier Cesare Bori’s suggestion that 1 Kgs 12:25–33 and Exod 32 both draw on an older calf tradition, (The Golden Calf and the Origins of the Anti‐Jewish Controversy [trans. David Ward; SFSHJ 16; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990], 90).
2.2 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves, 1 Kgs 12:25–33
43
Despite these complexities, the traditions behind Exod 32 suggest that the editors of 1 Kgs 12:25–33 did not invent out of whole cloth a connection between the calves and the exodus. Rather, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 reflects Israelite tradition. Whether or not one regards the exodus for‐ mula in Exod 32:4 as original to its context, the narrative reflects a tradi‐ tion that associated a calf image with the exodus. The narrative as it now stands regards this image as a sin (cf. vv. 7–35). Such a critique best makes sense if the connection between the calf image and the exo‐ dus really was Israelite. The chapter as a whole is predicated on a known association between the calves, the exodus, and Israel; this asso‐ ciation is in turn reflected in the narrative in 1 Kgs 12:25–33. The writings of the eighth‐century prophet Hosea also suggest that 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is not the pure invention of Judahite editors, but reflects an Israelite tradition connecting Bethel, the calves, and the exodus.86 Hosea criticizes לעגלות בית און, “the calves of Beth ’Aven” (Hos 10:2). Beth ’Aven, “House of Iniquity,” appears to be a sarcastic reference to Beth ’El, “House of God,” which is mentioned in Hos 10:15. 87 Else‐ where, Hosea ridicules עגל שׁמרון, “the calf of Samaria” (Hos 8:5–6), and עגלים, “calves,” that were a מסכה, “molten image” (Hos 13:2). The logic of Hos 13, in particular, may assume a connection between the calves and the exodus. Hosea criticizes the calf images as the vain crea‐ tion of men (Hos 13:2) and asserts instead that only Yahweh has been Israel’s god and helper since the land of Egypt (Hos 13:4). Although v. 4 is sometimes regarded as beginning a new rhetorical unit or even a new oracle,88 the internal logic of the prophecy is stronger if, in the mind of the prophet, Israel relied on the calves for saving help because of their association with the exodus from Egypt. In contrast, Hosea would then be asserting that Yahweh alone had been Israel’s god and helper since Egypt—the waw and the initial position of the pronoun suggest a contrast with what has gone before, ואנכי יהוה אלהיך מארץ מצרים ואלהים זולתי לא תדע ומושׁיע אין בלתי׃, “But I am Yahweh your god from the land of Egypt, and you have not known a god except me, and there is no savior besides me” (Hos 13:4). Hosea also refers to Israel’s origin in, or exodus from, Egypt in 2:16–17; 9:3; 11:1; 12:10, 14. 86 Cf. Burnett, Reassessment, 80. 87 Cf. Abraham Kuenen, The Religion of Israel to the Fall of the Jewish State (trans. Alfred Heath May; 3 vols.; London: Williams and Norgate, 1874), 1:73–74; Burnett, Reas‐ sessment, 80; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 162–66; Köhlmoos, Bet‐El, 126–33. 88 Wolff, Hosea, 222–23; Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, Hosea: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 24; Garden Ciry, NY: Doubleday, 1980), 633.
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Early Cisjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
These and other references to Egypt in Hosea are discussed further below. This nexus of connections, and especially Hos 13:2–4, suggests that there was a well‐known association between the calves, Bethel, and the exodus by the eighth century B.C.E. Papyrus Amherst 63 also attests a connection between Bethel and bovine imagery. This Aramaic text, written in Demotic script, is largely poetic and has been dated to the fourth century B.C.E. 89 Richard C. Steiner notes five major points of connection between sections of this text and the Bethel calf cult, though, as Smith points out, none of these is without controversy.90 First, the name Bethel occurs in Column XI line 18 and seems in context to be a place‐name. Elsewhere in the text, Bethel is clearly a divine name, but throughout it is marked with the determinative for deities. The absence of the determinative in line 18, according to Steiner, suggests that a place‐name is in view. He thus translates “the Lord of Bethel,” rather than “Lord Bethel.” Second, the immediately preceding line reads yhwt.r.n.m, which Steiner translates as “Horus‐Yaho, our bull, is with us.” Vleeming and Wesselius instead take yhwtrn as a 3ms Hafel imperfect of *ytr with a 1cp suffix and trans‐ 89 I am thankful to Richard Jasnow for his assistance in clarifying the provenance and date of this text. In a personal note, he indicates that Charles F. Nims and Richard C. Steiner, had dated the text to the late second century B.C.E. (“A Paganized Version of Psalm 20:2–6 from the Aramaic Text in Demotic Script,” JAOS 103 [1983]: 261). Steiner later changed his view: “It seems to have been dictated by a priest of the community, possibly at the beginning of the third century BCE, to an Egyptian scribe trained in the fourth century BCE” (“The Aramaic Text in Demotic Script,” trans. Richard C. Steiner [COS 1.99:310]). Here, Steiner seems to have been influ‐ enced by the work of Sven P. Vleeming and Jan W. Wesselius. On the basis of its content and the paleography of the Demotic script, they dated the text as follows: “The papyrus was written by or for a member of a pagan Aramean community in Egypt. The beliefs of this community probably closely resembled those of the Aramean community in Syene in southern Egypt in the fifth century B.C. . . . We maintain that this papyrus was probably written in the fourth century B.C.” (“Betel the Saviour,” JEOL 28 [1983–84]: 111). Cf. also Sven P. Vleeming and Jan W. Wes‐ selius, “An Aramaic Hymn from the Fourth Century B.C.,” BO 39 (1982): 501–9. On P. Amherst 63, see also Martin Rösel, “Israels Psalmen in Ägypten? Papyrus Am‐ herst 63 und die Psalmen XX und LXXV,” VT 50 (2000): 81–99; Smith, “Counting Calves,” 384–87. 90 Richard C. Steiner, “The Aramaic Text in Demotic Script: The Liturgy of a New Year’s Festival Imported from Bethel to Syene by Exiles from Rash,” JAOS 111 (1991): 362–63; Richard C. Steiner, “Papyrus Amherst 63: A New Source for the Lan‐ guage, Literature, Religion, and History of the Aramaeans,” in Studia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches (ed. Markham J. Geller, Jonas C. Greenfield, and Michael Weitzman; JSSSup 4; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 205; Smith, “Counting Calves,” 385–87.
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late “may he cause us to be left.” 91 Smith points out, however, that Steiner’s translation “has the advantage of providing parallel structure and a relatively straightforward syntax with the rest of the line.”92 The poem would thus read, “Horus‐Yaho, our bull, is with us. May the lord of Bethel answer us on the morrow.” Third, Steiner notes that Column V lines 12–13 refer to the kissing of calves, an act of worship also men‐ tioned in Hos 13:2. In the immediate context, however, there is not a clear connection to the place‐name Bethel.93 Fourth, Steiner points out that Column XI line 9 refers to a city of ivory houses, and Bethel is as‐ sociated with ivory houses, as suggested by Amos 3:14–15. Again, however, the immediate context contains no clear connection with Bethel. Fifth, Steiner observes that the text refers to the god Bethel both as “Ash(em)‐Bethel” (Column XV lines 14–15) and as “Resident of Ha‐ math” (Column VIII 6, 10), while 2 Kgs 17:28–30 suggests that, at Be‐ thel, colonists from Hamath worshipped Ashima. The text in XV 14–15 is broken, however, thus making the connection tenuous. While the last three lines of evidence may be questionable, the first two are stronger, especially because they occur within the context of a prayer with a se‐ ries of connections to Ps 20. Based on the connections between Ps 20 and this section of P. Amherst 63, some have argued that, although Ps 20 in its present form comes from Jerusalem, they both have a common origin.94 If Steiner is correct, Papyrus Amherst 63 XI 11–19 provides an external witness to the presence of bovine iconography at Bethel. Al‐ though the witness is from a later period, it suggests that the connec‐ 91 Sven P. Vleeming and Jan W. Wesselius, Studies in Amherst Papyrus 63: Essays on the Aramaic Text in Aramaic/Demotic Papyrus Amherst 63 (2 vols.; Amsterdam: Juda Pala‐ che Instituut, 1985, 1990), 1:59, as cited in Smith, “Counting Calves,” 385–86. 92 Smith, “Counting Calves,” 386. 93 Cf. Smith, “Counting Calves,” 386. 94 Proposals for the exact relationship between the two differ. See the discussions in Nims and Steiner, “Paganized Version,” 263–72; Moshe Weinfeld, “The Pagan Ver‐ sion of Psalm 20:2–6: Vicissitudes of a Psalmodic Creation in Israel and Its Neigh‐ bors,” ErIsr 18 (1985): 130–40 [Hebrew]; Klaas A. D. Smelik, “The Origin of Psalm 20,” JSOT 31 (1985): 75–81; Ingo Kottsieper, “Anmerkungen zu Pap. Amherst 63: I 12, 11–19: Eine aramäische Version von Ps 20,” ZAW 100 (1988): 217–44; Ziony Zevit, “The Common Origin of the Aramaicized Prayer to Horus and of Psalm 20,” JAOS 110 (1990): 213–28; Mathias Delcor, “Remarques sur la datation du Ps 20 comparée à celle du psaume araméen apparenté dans le papyrus Amherst 63,” in Mesopotamica— Ugaritica—Biblica: Festschrift für Kurt Bergerhof zur Vollendung seines 70. Lebensjahres am 7. Mai 1992 (ed. Manfried Dietrich and Oswald Loretz; AOAT 232; Neukirchen‐ Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1993), 25–43; Gert Prinsloo and Thomas Marthinus, “Psalm 20 and Its Aramaic Parallel: A Reappraisal,” JSem 9 (1997): 48–86; Rösel, “Is‐ raels Psalmen,” 81–99.
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tion between Bethel and bovine imagery was known beyond the Jerusa‐ lemite circles that produced the present form of 1 Kgs 12:25–33. Finally, it should be noted that although archaeological excavations at Bethel do not shed substantial light on the question of the date of the connection between Bethel, the calves, and the exodus, they neverthe‐ less do not preclude the cultic significance of Bethel in the eighth cen‐ tury B.C.E. or earlier.95 Biblical Bethel has been identified with the mod‐ ern village of Beitin, which was excavated by William F. Albright and James L. Kelso, though there have also been attempts to identify it with modern‐day el‐Bireh, which has not been excavated.96 To date, there has been no discovery of a sanctuary dating to the time of Jeroboam I that would have been large enough to function as a national sanctuary. Nevertheless, it is clear that the town had a significant population dur‐ ing the divided monarchy until the capture of Samaria by the Assyr‐ ians. 97 The archaeological data thus does not preclude a connection between Bethel, the calves, and the exodus in the eighth century B.C.E. 2.2.1.4 Date and Provenance: Summary In sum, although 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is Judahite in its present redaction, it draws on Israelite traditions that connect the calves, Bethel, and the exodus from Egypt. Exodus 32 suggests an Israelite association be‐ tween the calf image and the exodus, and the internal logic of Hos 13:2– 4 is best understood as assuming a connection between the calf image 95 The relevance of the archaeological evidence to the biblical traditions about Bethel is also discused by Pakkala, “Jeroboam’s Sin,” 90–92. 96 On the identification with Beitin, see James L. Kelso, The Excavation of Bethel (1934– 1960) (AASOR 39; Cambridge, Mass.: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1968), 1–3; James L. Kelso, “Bethel,” EAEHL 1:190. David Livingston, and later John J. Bim‐ son, defended the el‐Bireh proposal. See David Livingston, “Location of Biblical Bethel and Ai Reconsidered,” WTJ 33 (1970): 20–44; D. Livingston, “Traditional Site of Bethel Questioned (Reply to A. F. Rainey),” WTJ 34 (1971): 39–50; J. J. Bimson and D. Livingston, “Redating the Exodus,” BAR 13 (1987): 4–53, 66–68; and D. Liv‐ ingston, “Further Considerations on the Location of Bethel at el‐Bireh,” PEQ 126 (1994): 154–59. For a rebuttal of Livingston, see Anson F. Rainey, “Bethel Is Still Beitin,” WTJ 33 (1971): 175–88; Anson F. Rainey, “The Location of Bethel and Ai,” BAR 14 (1988): 67–68. More recently, see the surveys in Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 2– 7; Köhlmoos, Bet‐El, 19–83. 97 Kelso, Excavation of Bethel, 37, 50–51; Menahem Haran, Temples and Temple‐Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry into the Character of Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 30. On the ongoing significance of Bethel after the Assyrian invasion, cf. Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 49–59, 195–212.
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and the exodus. This cluster of associations dates to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. At the same time, the editorial complexity of the Jero‐ boam material in Kings makes it more difficult to say when the connec‐ tion between the Bethel calf cult and Jeroboam was made. Although northern tradition may already have connected these, the link may be the product of a southern editor working after the fall of the northern kingdom. Such an editor may have known of Jeroboam’s involvement in Israel’s rejection of Judahite rule, or some other activity associated with Jeroboam. From the perspective of this southern editor, it may have seemed reasonable to attribute to Jeroboam not only Israel’s rejec‐ tion of the house of David but also its (supposed) rejection of the Jeru‐ salem temple and the (supposed) establishment of alternative northern shrines with their calf images.98 Bethel was one of the northern shrines that was well known in the south, and it may have seemed reasonable to this editor to attribute the establishment of the calf cult at Bethel to the arch evil figure, Jeroboam.99 At present, the evidence simply does not support a clearly early date for the connection between Jeroboam and the calves. Regardless, 1 Kgs 12:25–33 reflects traditions about a Bethel calf cult and its associated celebration of an Israelite exodus from Egypt, traditions that date to before 722 B.C.E. 2.2.2 Portrayal of Egypt 2.2.2.1 Introduction: The Cultic Context First Kings 12 reflects genuine traditions about the north, as seen through southern eyes. In particular, part of what seems to be authenti‐ cally northern in these texts is the cultic context of the exodus formula. 98 Cf. Van Seters, Life of Moses, 297–98. 99 Jeroboam has been described as the biblical Unheilsherrscher, a term originally coined in connection with ancient Near Eastern historiography. See Carl Evans, “Naram‐Sin and Jeroboam: The Archetypal Unheilsherrscher in Mesopotamia and Biblical Histori‐ ography,” in Scripture in Context II: More Essays on the Comparative Method (ed. Wil‐ liam Hallo, James Moyer, and Leo Perdue; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 97–125. Evans may overstate the comparison, but his point is well taken. Cf. also Sperling, Original Torah, 162–63 n12; Francesca Stavrakopoulou, King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities (BZAW 338; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 33. This term for Naram‐Sin was coined by H. G. Güterbock, “Die historische Tradition und ihre literarische Gestaltungen bei Babyloniern und Hethi‐ tern,” ZA 8 (1934): 75. Cf. J. J. Finkelstein, “Mesopotamian Historiography,” PAPS 107 (1963): 467.
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Both 1 Kgs 12:25–33 and Exod 32:1–6 place the exodus formula within the context of a festival to Yahweh.100 Closely related exodus formu‐ lae—with the same verb but without the deictic “Here!” or “These!” and without an explicit festival context—are also attested in the writ‐ ings of the eighth‐century prophets Hosea and Amos (cf. Hos 12:14; Amos 9:7). Karel van der Toorn notes, “The formula with which Jero‐ boam is said to have introduced the calf images to the people can hardly be the invention of the Deuteronomists. It is presumably a cita‐ tion of a traditional doxology spoken at the annual festival in Bethel when the image of Yahweh left the temple to be carried around in pro‐ cession.”101 Although the specific cultic context in an annual festival that van der Toorn proposes is difficult to prove, it is clear that some cultic context at Bethel is indicated. Thus, these texts reflect the cultic enshrinement of Egypt as the location of Israelite origins, and the en‐ shrinement of Yahweh as Israel’s divine guide. The memory of Egypt is preserved in this cultic context as a title of the god(s) of Israel: “The one(s) who brought you up from Egypt” (1 Kgs 12:28). At least two sets of implications arise from the description of the Bethel calf cult and its exodus formula; I will examine these in turn. 2.2.2.2 The Significance of the Use of עלה In describing the exodus, 1 Kgs 12:28 uses the Hiphil of the verb עלה, which places emphasis on the geographical movement of Israelites out of Egypt and into Canaan. The context also uses the verbal root to de‐ scribe pilgrimage to Jerusalem and acts related to the sacrificial cult. Its use in the exodus formula in 1 Kgs 12:28, however, cannot be entirely explained as a leitmotif within 1 Kgs 12:25–33. The eighth‐century prophets Hosea and Amos and Exod 32 use the same verb to describe the event. The verb is thus connected with the idea of the exodus. Movement out of Egypt need not have been described with the Hiphil of ;עלה other verbs of motion would have been possible, at least theo‐ 100 The festival context in 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is not as obvious as that in Exod 32:1–6. How‐ ever, note the pun on עלה in 1 Kgs 12:28. The force of Jeroboam’s speech seems to be that the people should no longer make a festival pilgrimage to Jerusalem but should instead make the pilgrimage to Bethel. On the use of this root to describe a pilgrim‐ age festival see Exod 32:24; 1 Sam 1:3; 10:3; Isa 2:3; Jer 31:6; Ps 122:4. Note also Ps 24:3. Cf. Mark S. Smith, Psalms: The Divine Journey (New York: Paulist Press, 1987), 42. This interpretation of v. 28 is strengthened by the contrast between the festivals of Jerusalem and Bethel contained in v. 32. 101 Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 289.
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retically, such as the Hiphil of הלך or that of ירד.102 The texts associ‐ ated with the Bethel calf cult, however, are consistent in describing the exodus with העלה. Fundamentally, עלה describes motion upward.103 The use of העלה in the exodus formula thus implies that a particular destination is assumed, one that bears a certain geographical relation‐ ship to Egypt, namely upward, or perhaps north.104 J. N. M. Wijngaards notes that the exodus formula with העלה is “frequently enunciated in immediate connection with the coming to the land, at times explicitly by the addition ‘to this land.’”105 Although he may overstate the evidence, the semantic nuance of the verb supports his claim.106 Dozeman similarly argues, “The vantage point of the formula ‘YHWH brought up Israel from Egypt’ is the settled land, not the wilderness.”107 The exodus for‐ mula with העלה, as used in 1 Kgs 12:28, thus envisions a particular destination. The tradition associates the cultic declaration with Bethel, while the proclamation addresses Israel. It would seem, then, that the destination envisioned by 1 Kgs 12:28 is the land that Israel occupied, and especially the central hill country, in which Bethel was located.108
102 Cf. the use of the Hiphil of הלך with Yahweh as the actual or implied subject in Deut 8:2, 15; 28:36; 29:4; Josh 24:3; Ps 136:16; Isa 48:21; Jer 2:17; 31:9. 103 Compare the use of the Hiphil of עלה in Num 22:41; Josh 2:6; 7:6, 24; Judg 15:13; 16:3, 8, 18, 31; 1 Sam 1:24; 2:19; 6:21; 7:1; 19:15; 28:8, 11, 15; 2 Sam 2:3; 6:2, 12, 15, 17; 21:13; 1 Kgs 8:1; 10:17; 17:19; 2 Kgs 2:1; 25:6; 1 Chr 13:6; 15:3, 12, 14, 25, 28; 2 Chr 1:4; 5:2, 5; 8:11; 36:17; Ezra 1:11; Isa 8:7; Jer 16:15; 23:8; 27:22; 38:13; 39:5; 50:9; 52:9; Ezek 26:19; 39:2. By way of contrast compare the Hiphil of ירד in Gen 37:25; 39:1, 11, 22; 45:13; Deut 21:4; Judg 7:4, 5; 1 Sam 30:16; 1 Kgs 1:33; 17:23; 18:40; 2 Kgs 11:19; 2 Chr 23:20; Joel 3:2. The Hiphil of עלה also means, “to offer sacrifice,” presumably in reference to the manner in which sacrifice was performed. 104 Cf. J. N. M. Wijngaards, who points out that the verb עלה can have the meaning “go north” in addition to “go up” (“הוציא and העלה: A Twofold Approach to the Exo‐ dus,” VT 15 [1965]: 99 n6). On this point of usage he cites G. R. Driver, “On עלה ‘Went Up Country’ and ירד ‘Went Down Country,’” ZAW 69 (1957): 74–77. Driver notes, “In all the [four] instances in which עלה refers to going downhill, the journeys are actually in a northerly direction” (“On עלה,” 76). See Gen 26:23; 1 Sam 24:13; 28:19; 1 Kgs 24:1. 105 Wijngaards, “הוציא and העלה,” 99, italics Wijngaard’s. 106 By my count there are some 44 references to the exodus that use העלה. Of these, the connection to the land is made explicit only in Exod 3:8, 17; 33:1; Num 32:11; Judg 2:1; Amos 2:10. It may be that Wijngaards is considering the larger narrative context, whereas I have focused on the immediate grammatical context. 107 Thomas B. Dozeman, “Hosea and the Wilderness Wandering Tradition,” in Rethink‐ ing the Foundations: Historiography in the Ancient World and in the Bible: Essays in Hon‐ our of John Van Seters (ed. Steven McKenzie and Thomas Römer; BZAW 294; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000), 62. 108 Cf. the fact that the Qal of עלה is used with reference to the geographical movement of individuals or groups from Egypt into Syria‐Palestine (Gen 13:1; 45:25; 50:14;
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This implies that, as hinted at by Noth, the earliest recoverable memory of an exodus tradition in the north does not envision the guidance out of Egypt as an independent theme. 109 Rather, the exodus is already connected to a particular geographical destination, and hence to the theme of guidance into the land. The use of this verb also suggests the possibility, discussed further below, that some version of the exodus tradition in the north may have omitted a journey eastward to the wil‐ derness and Transjordan before the entry into the land.110 2.2.2.3 The Military Overtones of the Bethel Calf Cult The texts that offer a portrait of the Bethel calf cult also suggest that the Cisjordan‐Israelite exodus tradition had military overtones. These texts connect a calf image with the exodus. Fleming has argued that the calf was associated throughout Syria‐Palestine with a younger warrior de‐ ity, such as Baal or Yahweh, rather than with a pantheon head, such as El.111 Along similar lines, Davenport has argued, “The Calf form was, for the northern tribes, a central expression of Yahweh’s saving pres‐ ence.”112 Furthermore, Fleming regards Israel as a “tribal collective” that functioned particularly in time of war, as well as when other political decisions were required.113 The martial nature of tribal Israel, especially 1 Kgs 9:16; 14:25; 2 Chr 2:12; Zech 14:18–19) and Mesopotamia, via Syria‐Palestine (2 Kgs 23:29; 2 Chr 35:20). On the correspondence between northern tribal allotments and the topography of the central hill country, see Elizabeth Bloch‐Smith and Beth Alpert‐Nakhai, “A Landscape Comes to Life: The Iron I Period,” NEA 62 (1999): 62– 92, 101–27, esp. 74. 109 Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 52 n169. 110 Cf. A similar suggestion in Wijngaards, “הוציא and העלה,” 99 n6. 111 Fleming, “If El Is a Bull,” 23*–27*. On the iconography of fighting deities, see Martin Klingbeil, Yahweh Fighting from Heaven: God as Warrior and as God of Heaven in the He‐ brew Psalter and Ancient Near Eastern Iconography (OBO 169; Fribourg, Switzerland: University Press, 1999), 165–267, esp. 190, 239–40, 245–46. On bull iconography, cf. Tallay Ornan, “The Bull and Its Two Masters: Moon and Storm Deities in Relation to the Bull in Ancient Near Eastern Art,” IEJ 51 (2001): 1–26. 112 Davenport, “Golden Calf Tradition,” 200, emphasis mine. 113 Fleming, forthcoming. Cf. Johannes C. de Moor, The Rise of Yahwism: The Roots of Israelite Monotheism (BETL 91; Leuven: University Press, 1990), 110. Later, in the re‐ vised and enlarged edition of his book, de Moor altered his view (The Rise of Yah‐ wism: The Roots of Israelite Monotheism [BETL 91; rev. and enl. ed.; Leuven: University Press, 1997], 124–25 n98. See also Johannes C. de Moor, “The Twelve Tribes in the Song of Deborah,” VT 43 (1993): 483–94. Cf. also Max Weber, Ancient Judaism (trans. and ed. Hans H. Gerth and Don Martindale; Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1952), 81; Gerhard von Rad, Holy War in Ancient Israel (trans. Marva J. Dawn and John H.
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as portrayed in the book of Judges, is discussed further below. Since the exodus was connected with a warrior deity, represented by a calf, and with the military coalition Israel, Fleming suggests that the exodus may have been envisioned within the Bethel cult in military terms.114 Military overtones of the Bethel calf cult and its associated exodus tradition can be found in Exod 32. The tendentious narrative contained in Exod 32 is not merely directed against the calves in a general way. Rather, the narrative has martial coloring. Otto Eissfeldt, like Aberbach and Smolar, had regarded the calf of Exod 32 as a projection back into Israelite history of Jeroboam’s calves, known from 1 Kgs 12:28–33.115 Eissfeldt disagreed, however, with those who saw the calf of Exod 32 primarily as a fertility symbol.116 Instead, he observed the request of the people for someone to go before them (Exod 32:1), the emphasis in the exodus formula on divine guidance (Exod 32:5; 1 Kgs 12:28), and the statement that the people followed the calf as far as Dan (1 Kgs 12:30). From these he argued that, like the ark in the south, the calf image in the north functioned as a guide icon (Führersymbol).117 In building his case, Eissfeldt cited other examples of calf images functioning in this manner in the ancient Near East, including a depiction, found at Mari, of a procession behind an elevated calf image.118 Eissfeldt further ar‐ gued, especially from the account of the confrontation with the Amale‐ kites in Exod 17:8–16, that both the ark and the calf image functioned not only as divine guides in a general sense but also more specifically as war standards.119 He therefore regarded the calf image as having a military function. The use of military language in Exod 32 also suggests a military background for the Bethel cult. J. Gerald Janzen, drawing on Eissfeldt’s work, argued, “The specific textual data in Exodus 32 commonly taken Yoder; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991), 41, 58–59; Norbert Lohfink, “Beobach‐ tungen zur Geschichte des Ausdrucks עם יהוה,” in Probleme biblischer Theologie: Gerhard von Rad zum 70. Geburtstag (ed. Hans Walter Wolff; Munich: Kaiser, 1971), 281–82; Patrick D. Miller Jr., The Divine Warrior in Early Israel (HSM 5; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 159; Millard C. Lind, Yahweh Is a Warrior: The Theology of Warfare in Ancient Israel (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1980), 70. 114 Fleming, personal communication. 115 Otto Eissfeldt, “Lade und Stierbild,” ZAW 58 (1940): 200, 203. On Eissfeldt’s theory cf. Hahn, Das “Goldene Kalb,” 335. 116 Eissfeldt, “Lade und Stierbild,” 202. 117 Eissfeldt, “Lade und Stierbild,” 200, 202. 118 Eissfeldt, “Lade und Stierbild,” 208–10. 119 Eissfeldt, “Lade und Stierbild,” 206. Cf. Davenport, who argued, “The Calf had previously served as a mobile war palladium which the OT narrative now calls the Ark” (“Golden Calf Tradition,” 198).
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to point to a fertility rite or orgiastic revelry can be taken with equal plausibility to point to a rite celebrating divine might and victory,” a theme more relevant to the context of the Exodus story.120 He pointed out that the root צחק (Exod 32:6) occurs here with the verbal pair “eat and drink.”121 Elsewhere, this pair is associated with the celebration of a military victory or preparations for battle (Judg 9:27; 1 Sam 30:16).122 Jack M. Sasson has argued that the Piel of צחק should be translated here as “sport.”123 He points to the use of the root in Judg 16:25, where Samson is brought out in the midst of a festival to Dagan in order to sport before the Philistine rulers—presumably, the text describes some sort of athletic or acrobatic performance. Sasson cites other ancient Near Eastern examples of sporting before deities, including: “the young men, the strong men, fight one another in wrestlings and athletics be‐ fore you [Ninurta]” (KAR 119 rev. 6–7).124 Daniel E. Fleming empha‐ sizes the festival context in one such Hittite example of mock fighting before a deity.125 He points to the description of a fall festival to the storm god that includes a dramatized battle: They divide the (group of) young men into halves, and they name them. One half they call “men of Ḫatti,” and the other half they call “men of Maša.” The “men of Ḫatti” have bronze weapons, but the “men of Maša” have reed weapons. And they fight. And the “men of Ḫatti” win, and a prisoner they take, And to the god they devote him. And the god they pick up, and into the temple they carry him home. On the postament they put (him) down. (KUB XVII 35 iii 9–16)126
120 J. Gerald Janzen, “The Character of the Calf and Its Cult in Exod 32,” CBQ 52 (1990): 598. 121 Janzen, “Character of the Calf,” 600. 122 Janzen, “Character of the Calf,” 600. 123 Jack M. Sasson, “The Worship of the Golden Calf,” in Orient and Occident: Essays Presented to Cyrus H. Gordon on the Occasion of His Sixty‐fifth Birthday (ed. Harry A. Hoffner; AOAT 22; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1973), 154–57. 124 Translation Sasson’s. 125 Daniel E. Fleming, “Israel’s Calves and Judah’s Complaint” (paper presented at the New York University Golden Calf Symposium, New York, October 22, 2007). This Hittite text is also cited in Sa‐Moon Kang, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East (BZAW 177; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989), 72. On Hittite mock battles, cf. Albrecht Goetze, Kleinasien (HAW 3; KGAO 3; Munich: Beck, 1957), 163– 66; Sasson, “Worship of the Golden Calf,” 156 n24. 126 Translation from Charles W. Carter, “Hittite Cult‐Inventories” (Ph.D. diss., Univer‐ sity of Chicago, 1962), 143.
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Ogden Goelet has pointed out to me that Egyptians also seem to have had mock battles, stick fights, and wrestling matches in connection with some religious festivals. A well‐known example is found in con‐ nection with the cult of Osiris on the Middle Kingdom Stela of the offi‐ cial Ikhernofret: I [Ikhernofret] conducted the procession of Wep‐Waut, when he goes forth to champion his father. I repulsed the attackers of the neshmet‐bark, I felled the foes of Osiris. I conducted the Great Procession, following the god in his steps.127
These texts confirm that mock fighting could form part of the celebra‐ tion of a festival to a deity within the ancient Near East. It is quite plau‐ sible, then, that צחק within the context of a festival in Exod 32 refers to sporting or mock fighting. In Judg 16:25, 27; 1 Sam 2:14, the by‐form שׂחק likewise appears to mean something like “wrestle” or “engage in mock fighting.” Exodus 32 contains other military language. It is the sound of war that Joshua hears in the camp (Exod 32:17). Mark S. Smith points out that the verb ענה (Exod 32:18) and the noun מחלה (Exod 32:19) de‐ scribe the celebration of David’s war victories in 1 Sam 29:5.128 Accord‐ ing to Janzen, the root שׁמץ (Exod 32:25) may also suggest “a fearful reporting of the threat posed by the advancing Israelites under the ae‐ gis of their god” (cf. the use of the root in Job 26:14).129 While some have argued that the root פרע (Exod 32:25) suggests freedom from the con‐ straints of the covenant, it also echoes a military context, as reflected in Judg 5:2.130 Thus, Janzen notes, “The ‘festival’ has all the marks of a 127 Translation from Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 124–25. 128 Smith, personal communication. 129 Janzen, “Character of the Calf,” 603. 130 Janzen, “Character of the Calf,” 604–5; J. Gerald Janzen, Exodus (WesBC; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997), 240; Mark S. Smith, The Memoirs of God: History, Memory, and the Experience of the Divine in Ancient Israel (Minneapolis: For‐ tress Press, 2004), 24. Although the military context is clear, the exact meaning of the root has been debated. H. Louis Ginsberg suggested that the root is used in Judg 5:2 as a technical designation for fighting men, perhaps because the head may have been left unshaven during a military campaign (cf. the use of פרע to refer to untrimmed hair in Num 6:4; Ezek 44:20). See H. Louis Ginsberg, The Israelian Heritage of Judaism (TSJTSA 24; New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1982), 101 n131. Pe‐ ter C. Craigie, on the basis of one of the common uses of the Arabic cognate, sug‐ gests that the term here means, “offer themselves willingly” (“A Note on Judges V 2,” VT 18 [1968]: 397–99). Robert G. Boling follows Craigie and suggests more spe‐ cifically that the root refers here to volunteering for war (Judges: Introduction, Transla‐ tion and Commentary [AB 6A; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975], 107). Cf. also
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celebration of military victory.”131 The military overtones of the festival could also be indicative of the nature of the warrior god in general terms, instead of implying a specific military accomplishment. These data suggest that the polemic against the Bethel calf cult in Exod 32 was deliberately intended to parody the military nature of the cult and its festivals. Against this background, the statement of Moses that it is not the sound of victory that is heard (Exod 32:18) is particu‐ larly biting. The audience of Exod 32, in other words, would have been familiar with the military aspect of the cult of Bethel and would have heard in Exod 32 a mocking of the cult’s reliance on the calf image for military strength. Such polemic would be especially cogent in the af‐ termath of 722 B.C.E., but there is no clear indication of a specific defeat. Instead, the passage generally mocks Israel’s ill‐founded reliance on the calf images. The book of Chronicles also ridicules the north’s dependence on the calves. Abijah’s speech in 2 Chr 13:4–12 contains a number of expres‐ sions characteristic of the Chronicler, and it thus dates to the postexilic period.132 The speech presupposes the surrounding context, namely a war between Israel and Judah in the hill country of Ephraim. With the Israelites arrayed for war, Abijah taunts them: “And now you think that you can withstand the kingdom of Yahweh in the hand of the sons of David, because you are a great multitude and have with you the golden calves that Jeroboam made as gods for you” (2 Chr 13:8). Here, the use of the preposition עם, “with,” suggests that the postexilic writer of the speech understood the calves to have been physically present in Israel’s battle camp. In other words, the writer viewed the calves as having functioned as a mobile war standard that accompanied the Isra‐ elite army. The speech mocks the Israelites’ false hope in the military security supposedly provided by the calves of the Bethel cult. Gregory Mobley, who follows Ginsberg’s etymology and suggests that untrimmed hair was part of a larger association between war and the uncivilized, in which men sought to become subhuman or animalistic (Samson and the Liminal Hero in the An‐ cient Near East [LHB/OSS 453; New York: T&T Clark, 2006], 104). Cf. also Chaim Rabin, “Judges 5:2 and the ‘Ideology’ of Deborah’s War,” JJS 6 (1955): 125–34. 131 Janzen, Exodus, 228. 132 See Gary N. Knoppers, “‘Battling against Yahweh’: Israel’s War against Judah in 2 Chr 13:2–20,” RB 100 (1993): 512. Knoppers cites S. R. Driver, “The Speeches in Chronicles,” Exp 1–2 (1895): 241–56, 286–308. Cf. also Ralph W. Klein, “Abijah’s Campaign against the North (II Chr 13)—What Were the Chronicler’s Sources?” ZAW 95 (1983): 210–17; Gomes, Sanctuary of Bethel, 204.
2.3 The Eighth‐Century Prophets Hosea and Amos
55
2.2.3 Summary In sum, although 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is Judahite, it reflects Israelite tradi‐ tions about the Bethel calf cult with its associated exodus tradition. These traditions date from the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. The clearest connection that dates this early involves Bethel, the calves, and the cultic exodus formula; the connection to Jeroboam may come from a later period. These traditions have at least two major implications. First, the verb העלה in the cultic exodus formula suggests that, in the north, the exodus tradition contained from the outset a connection to the settlement in the land. In other words, the theme of the guidance out of Egypt did not exist independently of the theme of the guidance into the land. Second, a number of lines of evidence, and in particular Exod 32, suggest that the calf image at Bethel served as a mobile war standard.133 Therefore, it may be that by the eighth century B.C.E. the exodus from Egypt was envisioned in military terms.
2.3 The Eighth‐Century Prophets Hosea and Amos 2.3.1 Date and Provenance That some material in Hosea and Amos goes back to northern pro‐ phetic tradition of the eighth century B.C.E. is widely accepted.134 Aside from the book headings, which claim that the prophets prophesied before the fall of the northern kingdom (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), much of their content is well suited to this period. The wealthy excesses and 133 Cf. Koenen, who argues that the Bethel calf image was a symbol of helping power, helfender Macht (Bethel, 110–32). 134 William Rainey Harper, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea (ICC; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1905), cii, cxli; Wolff, Hosea, xxi; Hans Walter Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos (trans. Waldemar Janzen, S. Dean McBride Jr., and Charles A. Muenchow; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 89–90; James Luther Mays, Amos: A Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1969), 1–3; Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 29–54; Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, Amos: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 24A; New York: Doubleday, 1989), 18–22, 141–44; Shalom Paul, Amos: A Commentary on the Book of Amos (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1991), 1–2, 5–6; Jörg Jeremias, The Book of Amos: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 1–2; Tchavdar S. Hadjiev, The Composition and Redaction of the Book of Amos (BZAW 393; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009), 9–24.
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exploitation of the poor described in Hos 4:1–5:7, Amos 2:6–8; 3:13; 4:1– 3; 5:10–12; 6:1–6, 11; 8:4–6, for example, would suit the prosperity of Israel under Jeroboam II (c. 786–746 B.C.E.).135 Amos was probably the earlier of the two; in contrast to the oracles attributed to Hosea, those attributed to Amos do not mention Assyria, which expanded to the west under Tiglath‐pileser III.136 Even Hosea held out both the Assyrian and Egyptian threats, suggesting that the events of 722 B.C.E. were un‐ known to him (compare Hos 7:11; 9:3 with the certainty of Hos 10:6; the grammar of Hos 11:5 is ambiguous). Amos 1–2 reflects preexilic cir‐ cumstances insofar as Damascus is prominent and Israel is addressed independently of Judah.137 Despite its epilogue, the book of Amos as a whole does not primarily reflect the note of hope that one might expect in a postexilic context.138 At the same time, the books were probably compiled only after the deaths of the prophets, and they continued to be edited through the exile and the post‐exile.139 In general, I have taken the references to Egypt in Hosea and Amos to reflect authentic tradi‐ tions that predate the Assyrian invasion of Israel in 722 B.C.E. unless there are clear reasons for regarding the reference or its context as com‐ ing from a later period. On this basis, I would regard the following texts as reflecting traditions about Egypt that go back to the eighth cen‐ tury B.C.E: Hos 2:16–17; 7:11, 16; 8:13; 9:3, 6; 11:1, 5, 11; 12:2, 10, 14; 13:4; Amos 3:9; 9:7.140 Of these, perhaps the most contested is Hos 2:16–17. Grace I. Emmerson, however, has argued that Hos 2:16–17, despite its note of hope, is integral to its context and was not the product of later Judahite redactors.141 135 Cf. Mays, Amos, 2; James Luther Mays, Hosea: A Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1969), 3–4; Paul, Amos, 1–2; Jeremias, Book of Amos, 1–2. 136 Cf. Paul, Amos, 1; Jeremias, Book of Amos, 1. Cf. Hadjiev’s observation that Amos knows of no foreign overlord (Composition and Redaction, 14). 137 Hadjiev, Composition and Redaction, 12–13. 138 Hadjiev, Composition and Redaction, 13. 139 Harper, Amos and Hosea, cxxx–cxxxiv, clix–clxii; Wolff, Hosea, xxix–xxxii; Wolff, Joel and Amos, 106–13; Mays, Amos, 13; Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 56–57; Andersen and Freedman, Amos, 141–44; Paul, Amos, 5–6; Jeremias, Amos, 5–9. Ehud Ben Zvi ar‐ gues that the book has its setting among the literati of Persian‐period Yehud (Hosea [FOTL 21A/1; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005], 12–19). 140 See also a fuller defense of the dating of some of these texts in Yair Hoffman, “A North Israelite Typological Myth and a Judaean Historical Tradition: The Exodus in Hosea and Amos,” VT 39 (1989): 170–81. 141 Grace I. Emmerson, Hosea: An Israelite Prophet in Judean Perspective (JSOTSup 28; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984), 21–24, 157. In contrast, she regards Hos 2:18–25 as be‐ traying a later, Judahite perspective (Hosea, 25–30, 158).
2.3 The Eighth‐Century Prophets Hosea and Amos
57
Egypt is also mentioned elsewhere in Hosea and Amos in texts that may be secondary; these are not included here in the reconstruction of the portrayal of Egypt in Cisjordan Israel in the eighth century B.C.E. and earlier. Amos 3:1 contains peculiar shifts in number, and so the reference to Egypt there may be secondary.142 Amos 8:8 and 9:5, which mention the Nile of Egypt, are also disputed.143 These verses, however, contain parallel ideas in the eighth‐century references to Egypt; their inclusion or exclusion from the discussion is of little consequence. More distinctive than these excluded texts is the reference to Egypt in Amos 4:10; it does not contain parallel ideas elsewhere in Hosea and Amos. As the prophecy reads, Yahweh recounts a pestilence he sent upon Israel בדרך מצרים, “on the Egypt road” or “in the manner of Egypt.” Most commonly, the biblical expression דרך road/way/manner followed by a geographical name refers to a route to, or from, a particu‐ lar location (cf. Gen 16:17; 35:19; 38:14; 48:27; Exod 13:17–18; Josh 12:3; 1 Sam 6:12; 13:17–18; 17:52; 2 Kgs 9:27; Isa 15:5; Lam 1:4; Eze 47:15; 48:1). The expression דרך מצרים is clearly used with the meaning “road to Egypt” in Jer 2:18, where it is contrasted with the road to As‐ syria. If this is the intended meaning in Amos 4:10, the text speaks of Yahweh’s punishment of Israelites who attempted to flee to Egypt. Rather than a pathway to safety, the Egyptian road turned out to be a pathway of destruction. Hence, the expression may confirm the peril associated with the route between Egypt and Israel’s land. The seman‐ tic range of דרך is wide, however, and it may have an alternative meaning in Amos 4:10. Isaiah 10:24, 26 uses the expression דרך מצרים with the nuance “manner of Egypt” or “similar to Egypt.”144 There, the reference is apparently to events that would be similar to the stories about Egypt that were known to the audience. If this is the intended meaning in Amos 4:10, the text would bear witness to a memory of pestilence associated with the Egypt story, though whether the Egyp‐ tians or the Israelites were the victims of the pestilence remains unclear. Regardless, the text may be secondary. Jeremias points to the con‐ nections between the plagues in Amos 4:6–13 and those in the Deuter‐ onomistic text 1 Kgs 8:33–40.145 Both present the plagues against Israel as having already occurred, both have a comparable sequence, and 142 Wolff, Joel and Amos, 174; Paul, Amos, 100; Jeremias, Amos, 48–49; Hadjiev, Composi‐ tion and Redaction, 140. 143 Cf. Andersen and Freedman, Amos, 142; Jeremias, Amos, 8; Hadjiev, Composition and Redaction, 98–99, 131–33. 144 Cf. Paul, Amos, 147. 145 Jeremias, Amos, 69–72.
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both associate the plagues with the theme of return. Jeremias argues, “1 Kings 8 imbeds this return . . . into a liturgical progression with which Amos 4:6ff. apparently already assumes its readers are familiar. . . . Israel incurs guilt—Yahweh enjoins a punishment/plague—Israel repents—Israel praises Yahweh—petition for compassion with a con‐ fession of sin—acceptance of this prayer—forgiveness and end to the plague.”146 If his analysis is correct, the prophecy as a whole dates to a period later than the one that forms the focus of this study. Despite Hadjiev’s extended defense of the text as preexilic, I omit it from my reconstruction of the eighth‐century portrait of Egypt in Cisjordan Is‐ rael for the sake of caution, especially in view of the fact that an early date for the text would add little to the major theses explored in this chapter.147 Also relevant to the argument developed here is the possible sec‐ ondary nature of Amos 2:10, which mentions the exodus and the wil‐ derness wanderings. Wolff regarded the text as a late Deuteronomistic insertion for at least three reasons.148 First, there is a peculiar shift in person between 2:6–9 (“I” and “them”) and 2:10–12 (“I” and “you”). Second, 2:9 contains a statement about Yahweh’s destruction of the Amorite, while 2:10 seems to double back and highlight the standard hexateuchal scheme: the exodus, followed by forty years in the wilder‐ ness, followed by possession of the land of the Amorite. There is thus a clear break in the sequence between 2:9 and 2:10. Third, he regarded the language as characteristically Deuteronomistic, including לרשׁת את־]ה[ארץ, “to posses [the] land.” Admittedly, he also regarded the passage as late because of its contents; he did not regard the wilderness wanderings as a pre‐Deuteronomistic concept.149 The last of these ar‐ guments would be circular in the thesis being developed here, but the first and second arguments carry weight. These criteria have been chal‐ lenged by others. 150 Nevertheless, Wolff’s observations point toward 2:10 as secondary, though it may not be a Deuteronomistic insertion.151 146 Jeremias, Amos, 71. 147 Hadjiev, Composition and Redaction, 147–61. 148 Wolff, Joel and Amos, 141–42, 169–70. See also Jeremias, Amos, 40–41; and the discus‐ sion of the issues in Hoffman, “A North Israelite Typological Myth,” 178–79. Hadjiev also regards the text as secondary (Composition and Redaction, 46–53). 149 Wolff, Joel and Amos, 141–42, 169–70. 150 For questioning of these criteria see Paul, Amos, 91; Andersen and Freedman, Amos, 328. Paul notes that the wilderness wandering period is viewed here positively, and not as a punishment (Amos, 91). 151 If the text comes from the eighth century B.C.E., it may represent the influence of Transjordanian tradition on the central northern tribes. Amos 2:10 connects the wil‐
2.3 The Eighth‐Century Prophets Hosea and Amos
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2.3.2 Portrayal of Egypt The references to Egypt in Hosea and Amos that reflect eighth‐century traditions offer an interesting portrait of the Cisjordanian memory of Egypt. These texts reflect a tradition of Israel’s exodus from Egypt. Israel is explicitly said to have come up from Egypt (Hos 12:14; Amos 9:7), and Hosea threatens a return to Egypt, implying that Israel had previously been there (Hos 8:13; 9:3). It is Israel as a whole that is pre‐ sented as the subject of the exodus, rather than any particular tribe. Furthermore, Israel’s time in Egypt is presented as something that oc‐ curred in its youth (Hos 2:16–17; 11:1). Such imagery implies that the exodus was viewed as an event in the distant past, at the beginning of Israel’s existence. Hosea and Amos suggest that the exodus was attributed to Yahweh and was regarded as signaling Israel’s special relationship with him. The prophets explicitly credit Yahweh with the exodus (Hos 12:14 and the possibly secondary Amos 9:7); perhaps this is also what Hosea in‐ tends by Yahweh summoning his son from Egypt (Hos 11:1). Yahweh accomplished this salvation through a prophet (Hos 12:14), but no other deity is credited. The exodus somehow signaled the beginning of Yahweh’s relationship with Israel, or perhaps a new phase of that rela‐ tionship, as is suggested by the repeated phrase “I am Yahweh your God from the land of Egypt” (Hos 12:10; 13:4). The context of Hos 2:17 also suggests that Israel responded to Yahweh in a special way at the time of the exodus. The chapter uses the metaphor of marriage to de‐ scribe Israel’s relationship with Yahweh, and the exodus is envisioned as the time when Israel first responded to Yahweh’s advances. In other words, the exodus was understood as the beginning of an exclusive relationship between Israel and Yahweh. derness wandering period with the promise of land. It is not the central hill country that is promised, however, but rather the land of the Amorites (cf. Paul, Amos, 91). This land of the Amorites in biblical tradition is associated with the Transjordan re‐ gion (Num 21:32; 32:39; Deut 2:24; 4:47; Josh 24:8; Judg 11:21–23), as noted by Baruch Levine (Numbers 21–36 [AB 4A; New York: Doubleday, 2000], 35). Amos 2:10 there‐ fore connects the forty‐year wilderness wandering period with the settlement in the Transjordan region. The text may therefore represent a conglomeration of Cisjorda‐ nian and Transjordanian traditions. Amos 5:25, which mentions the forty‐year wil‐ derness period, but not the exodus, may likewise be secondary, as argued by Wolff and Jeremias (Joel and Amos, 259–60, 264–65; Amos, 104–5). If it is authentic, perhaps it is best understood in light of Amos 2:10, in which case the forty‐year wilderness wandering would be linked traditio‐historically to the Transjordan region.
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The southern prophet Amos seems to have been more critical of such an exclusive exodus theology than was the northern prophet Ho‐ sea. Y. Hoffman has argued that Amos 9:7, which details Yahweh’s acts on behalf of Israel, Philistia, and Aram, should be interpreted as a cri‐ tique of an election theology based on the exodus.152 Evidently, north‐ erners regarded Yahweh’s saving act in the exodus as signifying his unique relationship to Israel. The force of Amos 9:7, however, seems to be that although Yahweh indeed led Israel in the exodus, he had per‐ formed similar feats for other nations. Israel was not unique in that regard. Thus, the fact that Yahweh had acted on behalf of Israel in the past did not guarantee their immunity from foreign attack. Although Amos 9:7 is often taken as an independent saying attributable to Amos (cf. Amos 3:2), it should be noted that this text may be part of the larger unit Amos 9:7–15, which may be secondary.153 In either case, Hoffman’s analysis suggests that the exodus was a northern, Israelite idea. In Hosea and Amos, the exodus is never referred to with the use of the Hiphil of יצא. Instead, as in 1 Kgs 12 and Exod 32, the verb of mo‐ tion used to describe the exodus is the Hiphil of עלה (it occurs in Hos 2:17; 12:14, as well as in the possibly secondary texts Amos 2:10; 3:1; 9:7). As noted above, the use of this verb suggests that the exodus tradi‐ tion was already connected with a final destination. As with 1 Kgs 12, the context of the declaration of the formula is the tribal collective Is‐ rael. Presumably, then, the destination that the exodus formula with העלה envisions is the territory of Israel, centered in the central hill‐ country. The exodus formula in Hosea suggests that the exodus is con‐ ceived from the perspective of Israel’s own land. This perspective, in which Israel is rooted in its land, is also re‐ flected in the prophetic threats of exile. Both Assyria and Egypt are held out as possible places of banishment for Israel (Hos 8:13). The use of both threats in poetic parallelism suggests that the primary threat was that Israel would be away from its own land, regardless of the actual destination of exile. As a result, Israel would be forced to eat unclean things (Hos 9:3), and Israelites would ultimately die away from their homeland (Hos 9:6). Against this background, the threat of Israel’s return to Egypt (Hos 8:13; 9:3) is not primarily a threat of return to slavery but a threat of banishment from its homeland. In fact, there is no explicit evidence in Hosea and Amos that Israel’s time in Egypt was remembered as a period of slavery. Instead, Israel’s exodus is described 152 Hoffman, “North Israelite Typological Myth,” 181. 153 Jeremias, Amos, 9, 162–64.
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61
with a verb of motion rather than with a verb of freedom. In Chapter 3, the use of the alternative Egypt formula with the Hiphil of יצא, which connotes liberation from oppression or slavery, will be explored. For the moment, I would simply note that this verb and the notion of Egyp‐ tian enslavement of Israel are not present in the cluster of texts associ‐ ated with the Bethel calf cult that have been examined here. At the same time, there is some hint of a military overtone to the memory of Egypt and the exodus. In Hos 13:4, Yahweh asserts that his relationship with Israel originated in Egypt and since that time Israel has known no other מושיע, “savior.” In Judg 3:9, 15, this Hiphil partici‐ ple is used of Ehud in his capacity as a military commander who res‐ cued Israel from Moab (cf. its use in 2 Kgs 13:5; Neh 9:27). The context of the Hosea prophecy also suggests a military nuance to מושיע here: it is in light of the imminent Assyrian military threat that Hosea affirms Yahweh’s role as Israel’s commander (on this threat, cf. Hos 5:8, 13; 11:5–6). It is also in the context of the mention of Egypt that Israel is described as a (betraying) warrior trained by Yahweh and a (defective) weapon in his hand (Hos 7:15–16), language that is explicitly martial. There is also some connection between the idea of the journey up from Egypt and pastoral imagery. According to Hos 12:14, it was by a prophet that Israel was brought up from Egypt, and it was by a prophet that it “was kept” ()נשמר. Elsewhere, Yahweh’s keeping of Israel is explicitly connected to pastoral imagery: “He who scattered Israel will gather him, and will keep him as a shepherd a flock” (Jer 31:10). Al‐ though the semantic range of שמר is wide, it is also used in a pastoral‐ ist context in Gen 30:31; 1 Sam 17:20; 25:21. More decisively, the imme‐ diate context suggests that the verb is used here with pastoral overtones. The parallelism with the previous lines indicates that the verb puns Jacob’s keeping of sheep. If this is indeed the nuance of the verb, Israel’s journey up from Egypt under the protection of Yahweh’s prophet was conceived by northerners as similar to a flock’s journey under the protection of its shepherd. As discussed further below, the book of Genesis presents the journey down to and back up from Egypt as the kind of journey that pastoralists based in Canaan might make in time of economic, climatic, or political crisis. The danger associated with such a journey by pastoralists forms the background to the im‐ agery of Hos 12:14. Hosea and Amos further hint that northern Cisjordan tradition was formulated as an exodus from Egypt and an entry into Cisjordan with‐ out any journey eastward through the wilderness to Sinai before the entry into the land. Hosea does not attest to a wilderness wandering period, or a movement from Egypt eastward through the wilderness
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before the settlement. Hosea mentions the wilderness several times, but none of these are in reference to a period of wandering (Hos 2:5, 16; 9:10; 13:5, 15).154 Rather, as Paul A. Riemann and Shemaryahu Talmon have argued, the eighth‐century northern prophets regarded the desert, from the ideal of a settled agricultural life, as a place of desolation and thus as a powerful literary metaphor.155 Hosea’s omission of the forty‐ year wilderness wanderings is striking, given his several references to the wilderness.156 The references to this period in Amos seem to be sec‐ ondary, as discussed above. These data suggest that in the north one early memory of the exo‐ dus involved a direct movement of Israelites from Egypt into Cisjor‐ dan. Such a tradition may also be reflected in the Deuteronomistic speech attributed to Samuel in 1 Sam 12 and supposedly delivered by him to the Israelite tribes at Gilgal, in Cisjordan. This speech credits Moses and Aaron with leading the people out of Israel and with mak‐ ing them settle “in this place,” apparently Cisjordan (1 Sam 12:8).157 In the dominant biblical scheme, Moses, as well as Aaron, is associated only with the settlement in Transjordan. Although v. 9 turns to events associated with the Transjordan region, v. 8 bears witness to an alterna‐ tive tradition that omitted a journey eastward before the entry into Cisjordan. As discussed further below, the portrayal of Egypt examined here thus permits a revisiting of the work of Gerhard von Rad on the late date of the incorporation of the Sinai tradition into the Hexateuch and Noth’s view concerning the secondary character of the wilderness
154 As Dozeman points out, Hosea, in his references to the wilderness, has generally been understood as reinterpreting an existing wilderness tradition, in relation either to a nomadic ideal and a desert god or to so‐called salvation history. Cf. Dozeman, “Hosea and the Wilderness Wandering,” 56–57. In this regard, Dozeman points to K. Budde, “The Nomadic Ideal in the Old Testament,” NW 4 (1895): 235–79, esp. 235; and Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology (trans. D. M. G. Stalker; 2 vols.; New York: Harper & Row, 1962–65), 1:126–29. It does not seem to me that Hosea con‐ ceives of the wilderness as a period in Israelite salvation history. 155 Paul A. Riemann, “Desert and Return to Desert in the Pre‐exilic Prophets” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1964), 2–59; Shemaryahu Talmon, “The ‘Desert Motif,’ in the Bible and Qumran Literature,” in Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations (ed. Alexander Altmann; LIAJSBUST 3; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966), 31–63; Cf. Dozeman, “Hosea and the Wilderness Wandering,” 57. 156 Note also, as Dwight R. Daniels points out, Hosea’s silence on the Sinai encounter in 13:4–8 (Hosea and Salvation History: The Early Traditions of Israel in the Prophecy of Hosea [BZAW 191; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1990], 77). 157 Gösta W. Ahlström, “Another Moses Tradition,” JNES 39 (1980): 65–69.
2.4 Military Israel: The Song of Deborah, Judg 5
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wandering tradition in relation to the exodus and settlement tradi‐ tions.158 Finally, Hosea and Amos point to disagreement in the north about the reliability of Egypt as an economic and military ally in light of the imminent Assyrian threat (Hos 7:11, 16; 9:6; 12:2). The apparently common conception among northerners of an exodus did not preclude some from regarding Egypt as a possible ally, and as a world power capable of standing up to the Assyrians. Hosea criticized such an alli‐ ance as being misplaced. Rather, he advocated a religious, rather than a political, solution to the crisis: Israel must return to Yahweh and aban‐ don its worship of foreign gods and its alliances with nations that wor‐ ship idols.
2.4 Military Israel: The Song of Deborah, Judg 5 In broad terms, then, the writings of the eighth‐century prophets Hosea and Amos confirm, and extend, the two main aspects of the Cisjordan‐ Israelite exodus tradition that were discussed in relation to the Bethel calf cult: the notion of an Israelite journey from Egypt to Cisjordan, without a detour into the desert, and the military nature of the tradi‐ tion. The military aspect of the exodus may in turn be understood against the background of the military nature of early Israel. Such a picture of the early Israelite tribal collective is provided by Judg 5. 2.4.1 Date and Provenance A premonarchic date for at least some sections of Judg 5 is suggested by a number of lines of evidence. Scholars have noted its archaic strophic structure, and especially its use of staircase parallelism, com‐ pared with Ugaritic poetry.159 Judges 5 is thought to contain archaic orthography160 and a number of archaic grammatical features, includ‐ 158 Gerhard von Rad, “The Form‐Critical Problem of the Hexateuch,” in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (trans. E. W. Trueman Dicken; London: Oliver & Boyd, 1966), 1–78; Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 58–59. 159 Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, 12; Frank Moore Cross Jr. and David Noel Freedman, Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry (BRS; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1997), 9–14. 160 Cross and Freedman, Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 21–25.
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ing mixed usage of the prefix and suffix verbal conjugations.161 The stronger evidence for an early date involves the content of the poem. The list of tribes varies considerably from later lists of Israelite tribes.162 Although kingship as an institution is employed by Israel’s enemies (Judg 5:3), Israel itself is not depicted as having a king.163 Rather, Israel is led by the warriors Deborah and Barak. The last of these arguments in particular points toward a premonarchic date for the literary tradi‐ tions of Judg 5. The Song of Deborah is northern in provenance, as sug‐ gested by the distinctive description in the poem of the tribes that con‐ stituted Israel. Additionally, Judah is not mentioned in the poem despite the enumeration of tribes.164 2.4.2 Portrayal of Early Israel as a Military Coalition of Tribes In later biblical literature, as van der Toorn points out, Israelite collec‐ tive identity was defined either by the notion of common family de‐ scent—the Jacob tradition—or by the notion of joint participation in the flight from Egypt—the exodus tradition. 165 With regard to the latter tradition, the exodus was viewed as the event that defined the birth of the collective entity Israel, and it was through the exodus that Yahweh was understood to have become the god of this tribal collective (e.g.,
161 David A. Robertson, Linguistic Evidence in Dating Early Hebrew Poetry (SBLDS 3; Missoula, Mont.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972), 31–32. 162 Martin Noth, Das System der zwölf Stämme Israels (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1980), 5–6, 36; David Noel Freedman, Pottery, Poetry and Prophecy: Studies in Early Hebrew Poetry (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1980), 153–55; Baruch Halpern, The Emergence of Israel in Canaan (SBLMS 29; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983), 117–26, 146–49. 163 The depiction of kingship in the poem poses a problem for Henrik Pfeiffer’s view that its oldest core dates from the ninth or eighth century B.C.E. (Jahwes Kommen von Süden: Jdc 5; Hab 3; Dtn 33 und Ps 68 in ihrem literatur‐ und theologiegeschichtlichen Um‐ feld [FRLANT 211; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005], 65). 164 Cf. Robert H. Pfeiffer, Introduction to the Old Testament (New York: Harper & Broth‐ ers, 1941), 325; Gottwald, Light to the Nations, 175; Bright, History of Israel, 166; Baruch Halpern, David’s Secret Demons: Messiah, Murderer, Traitor, King (BibWor; Grand Rap‐ ids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2001), 272. 165 Van der Toorn provides an insightful comparison of these two traditions (Family Religion, 300).
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Lev 11:45; 22:33; 25:38; Deut 4:34; Ezek 20:5–11).166 The early Israelite poem Judg 5, however, does not share this definition of Israel. Instead, Judg 5, and in particular its introduction, portrays a tribal collective brought together due to an external military threat, as noted by scholars.167 Mark S. Smith argues that Judg 5:2–12 is an introduction that both draws on older tradition (vv. 4–5) and acts as an interpretive lens to the account in vv. 13–30.168 As he reconstructs the development of the poem, the earliest core does not mention Israel. Henrik Pfeiffer has also presented the case for the editorial growth of Judg 5; the oldest layer of his reconstruction does not mention Israel either.169 It is thus unclear what the precise relationship between Israel, the individual tribes, and Yahweh would have been in the period before the poem took its current form. The composer of the introduction, however, evi‐ dently applied the name Israel to the tribal collective bound together in the muster to war. Other biblical texts also point to the military nature of early Israel. The same dynamic of tribal muster, though with a differing trigger event, can be seen in the account of the Levite whose concubine is raped and murdered, and who subsequently calls the tribes to take vengeance on Gibeah (Judg 19–20).170 Saul’s muster to war, described in 1 Sam 11, also assumes the martial and tribal nature of Israel. P. Kyle McCarter notes that the earliest Israelite poetry consistently portrays Israel’s deity Yahweh as a warrior.171 Therefore, it would seem that the Israelite tribal muster took place under the aegis of the divine war‐ rior.172 The identity of this divine warrior in almost all of the earliest 166 Cf. Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 47–49; Horst Dietrich Preuss, Old Testa‐ ment Theology (trans. Leo G. Perdue; OTL; 2 vols.; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995), 1:40–50. 167 Cf. Weber, Ancient Judaism, 81; Von Rad, Holy War, 58–59; Halpern, Emergence of Israel, 146–49; Freedman, Pottery, Poetry and Prophecy, 152–53; Frank Moore Cross Jr., From Epic to Canon: History and Literature in Ancient Israel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 54–55 n7. For an alternative view, see Rudolf Smend, Yahweh War & Tribal Confederation: Reflections upon Israel’s Earliest History (trans. Max G. Rogers; Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1970), 30–32, 40. 168 Mark S. Smith, forthcoming. 169 Pfeiffer, Jahwes Kommen, 19–69; with a summary of the five layers he reconstructs on 68–69. 170 Cf. Weber, Ancient Judaism, 43–44. 171 P. Kyle McCarter Jr., “The Origins of Israelite Religion,” in The Rise of Ancient Israel (ed. Hershel Shanks; Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1993), 125. 172 On the divine warrior, see Miller, Divine Warrior, 74–127. See also Cross, Canaanite Myth, 91–111.
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biblical poetry is Yahweh.173 The early poetry, including Judg 5 in its present form, thus attests to a collective Israel with Yahweh as its god. At the same time, it is unknown whether he was the primary god of a majority of individual families; family gods may have varied consid‐ erably.174 Furthermore, it is unclear how Israel may have functioned prior to the evidence of the earliest biblical poetry. Some have argued that an earlier Israelite coalition fighting under El may have existed, though the evidence for this is sparse at best. Pat‐ rick D. Miller outlines the evidence for El’s warrior nature: his status as ruler of the gods; Philo of Byblos’s depiction of Kronos/El as more ruth‐ less than the representation of this god in the Ugaritic texts; Albright’s etymology for El as “the Strong one”; bull imagery as indicative of El’s strength; attested personal names such as “El is a warrior” (KTU 4.63 I 9; 4.631 18; 4.775 10); and El’s appearance to Kirta telling him to plan a military expedition.175 This evidence, however, has been challenged.176 El’s status as ruler of the gods need not imply his status as a warrior. Philo depicts El only as punishing his father, rather than as being a warrior in a more general sense; nor is this punishment elaborated with martial imagery (Praeparatio evangelica 1.10.17–21).177 Marvin H. Pope has pointed out that Albright’s etymology for El is fallacious if the root is not generative of verb forms.178 Although bull imagery may point to El’s strength, this imagery is not extended to war in the Ugaritic texts. The name “El is a Warrior” may be understood more generically: “God is a warrior.” While El suggests that Kirta go to war, El does not ac‐ company him into battle. In fact, El instructs Kirta to seek Baal’s help for the war. Miller’s evidence thus seems a slim basis on which to build a case for war as a dominant realm of activity for El. In addition to the 173 Van der Toorn envisions the rise of state religion as taking place in the time of Saul, with Yahweh growing from Saul’s family god to become the god of Israel (Family Re‐ ligion, 266–85, esp. 281; “Saul and the Rise,” 521). However, Judg 5 makes it clear that there was already a trans‐tribal religious identity before the rise of the monarchy, one based on war and, apparently, based on Yahweh—though the possibility of later editing of Judg 5 cannot be entirely eliminated. 174 In other words, the tribal collective would have been quite loose and would have come into operation primarily during times of military threat. On Israelite family re‐ ligion consisting primarily of the cult of the dead and devotion to a family god, see van der Toorn, Family Religion, 181–82. 175 Miller, Divine Warrior, 49–58. 176 Cf. the critique of Miller in Smith, Early History of God, 55. 177 For text and translation, see Harold W. Attridge and Robert A. Oden Jr., Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text, Translation, Notes (CBQMS 9; Washington, D.C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1981), 48–51. 178 Marvin H. Pope, El in the Ugaritic Texts (VTSup 2; Leiden: Brill, 1955), 16–19.
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evidence outlined by Miller, the Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions contain a relevant fragment: “when El shone forth on the day of battle.”179 In this inscription, however, אל may be used generically to mean “God”; as such, the text may actually refer to Yahweh.180 Although some have argued for El’s warrior nature, then, the evidence is problematic and the Ugaritic texts and the Bible generally do not present El as a warrior. Mark S. Smith takes an alternative approach to the question of El’s relationship to the early Israelite collective, one in which El is not viewed as a warrior. He hypothesizes a three‐stage development of the Israelite pantheon: (i) El was the original god of early Israel; (ii) El was the head of an early Israelite pantheon with Yahweh as its warrior god; and (iii) El and Yahweh were identified as a single god.181 His assertion that “the original god of Israel was El” is made on the basis of two lines of evidence.182 The name Israel itself suggests that El was the god of Israel.183 Furthermore, a variety of epithets for and characteristics of Yahweh seem to be borrowed from El, as he is known from the Ugaritic texts.184 In this reconstruction, Smith places greater emphasis on El’s status as a patriarchal, family god.185 If Smith is correct, although Yah‐ weh may have functioned as the warrior god of the tribal collective Israel as reflected in the present form of Judg 5, an earlier Israel may have existed that was not primarily military in nature, and that may have had El as its chief deity. Furthermore, even after Yahweh became 179 See McCarter, “Origins of Israelite Religion,” 125; Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 327. 180 Cf. F. W. Dobbs‐Allsopp et al, ed., Hebrew Inscriptions: Texts from the Biblical Period of the Monarchy with Concordance (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005), 287. 181 Mark S. Smith, “When the Heavens Darkened: Yahweh, El, and the Divine Astral Family in Iron Age II Judah,” in Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past: Ca‐ naan, Ancient Israel, and Their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palaes‐ tina: Proceedings of the Centennial Symposium, W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and American Schools of Oriental Research, Jerusalem, May 29/31, 2000 (ed. Wil‐ liam G. Dever and Seymour Gitin; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 272–73; Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 143–44. On El’s early im‐ portance at shrines in the central country, see Choon Leong Seow, Myth, Drama, and the Politics of David’s Dance (HSM 44; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 11–54; Toews, Monarchy and Religious Institution, 11–19. 182 Smith, Early History, 7. 183 Smith, Early History, 7; Smith, Origins, 142. 184 Smith, Early History, 11. Rolf Rendtorff cautions against overdependence on the Ugaritic evidence in understanding biblical אל (“ʾEl als israelitische Gottesbezeich‐ nung: Mit einem Appendix: Beobachtungen zum Gebrauch von האלהים,” ZAW 106 [1994]: 4–21). 185 Smith, Early History, 9; Smith, Origins, 135–42.
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the warrior god under which the tribal collective Israel fought, El may have featured prominently as the family god of a number, perhaps even the majority, of individual families and clans within Israel.186 Such a situation may be reflected in the Balaam oracles, which are discussed in Chapter 3. In these, Yahweh is identified as the national god of Israel (Num 23:21), though El appears to be regarded as the head of the re‐ gional pantheon.187 In sum, the introduction to Judg 5, which is secondary to the tradi‐ tions about the battle, witnesses to a collective Israelite identity based on a muster to war under the aegis of the divine warrior, Yahweh. There is no indication in Judg 5, however, that the external military threat is Egypt, or that the exodus memory was regarded as a basis for the coalition of tribes. Other biblical poems that some consider ancient either do not mention Egypt (Gen 49; Deut 32; 33; 2 Sam 22 [Ps 18]; Hab 3) or, if they do, are southern in provenance (Exod 15; Ps 68). While Egypt may have featured in unrecorded premonarchic Israelite traditions, in the earliest surviving Israelite poetry, the traditions about Egypt and the exodus are not the primary lens for viewing collective Israelite identity.188 The military nature of early Israel portrayed in the introduction to Judg 5, however, sheds light on the military nature of the exodus tradition in the Bethel calf cult. This military coloring may have resulted from an existing martial coalition Israel coming to view Egypt as its chief enemy, whom Yahweh had defeated. 186 El’s prominence as a personal family god in the earliest period of Israelite history is suggested by the evidence of Israelite personal names with El. However, different studies suggest differing levels of prominence for El in this period. See Martin Noth, Die israelitischen Personennamen im Rahmen der gemeinsemitischen Namengebung (BWANT 3/10; Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1928), 82–100; Jeffrey H. Tigay, “Israelite Religion: The Onomastic and Epigraphic Evidence,” in Ancient Israelite Religion: Es‐ says in Honor of Frank Moore Cross (ed. Patrick D. Miller Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dean McBride; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 157–94; de Moor, Rise of Yah‐ wism, 14–20, 29–33. Cf. also Benedikt Isserlin, “Israelite and Pre‐Israelite Place Names in Palestine: A Historical and Geographical Sketch,” PEQ 89 (1957): 133–44. 187 Levine, Numbers 21–36, 42, 218, 224. Levine notes, “Even if we assume, as is reason‐ able, that YHWH, the God of Israel, was known to the people of Israel from very early times as their national God and was worshipped as such, this does not neces‐ sarily imply that YHWH was perceived as the sole deity to be worshipped” (Num‐ bers 21–36, 226). 188 The absence of the exodus motif in the early poetry was already recognized by Hoffman (Doctrine of the Exodus, 231).
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2.5 The Exodus Narrative The texts discussed above suggest that a tradition of an exodus from Egypt was established in Cisjordan Israel by the eighth century B.C.E. Daniel E. Fleming has argued more specifically for the existence of an Israelite narrative that included a departure from Egypt under the leadership of Moses, the journey through the wilderness, and the entry into the land via Transjordan.189 Although the existence of such a narra‐ tive is plausible, it is harder to specify its relationship to the literary text of the Pentateuch, and I will not attempt to do so here. However, at least one aspect of the exodus narrative in the Pentateuch is relevant to the arguments developed in this chapter. The pentateuchal narratives hint at the possibility of an exodus route that omitted a journey eastward into the desert. Roland de Vaux argued for separate exodus traditions related to a northern and a southern route.190 Based on a source‐critical analysis of the Pentateuch, and an examination of the itinerary sites associated with these sources, he identified two separate routes. According to de Vaux, the Elohist preserves a tradition of a southeastern exodus route through the desert, while the Yahwist maintained a route to the north, through the Philis‐ tine territory. De Vaux further argued that the two literary traditions reflected the departures of two different groups: initially the Leah tribes took a northern route and established themselves in southern Palestine; later, under the guidance of Moses, the Rachel tribes took a southern route through the desert with its experience of Sinai. Al‐ though de Vaux’s thesis has not been widely accepted,191 and the notion of an Elohistic source spanning the Pentateuch has been largely aban‐ doned, his observations point to the complexity of the literary tradi‐ tions about the exodus route. This complexity, in turn, confirms the possibility that at least one Cisjordan‐Israelite exodus tradition omitted the journey eastward into the desert. In this regard, the texts examined here allow a revisiting of the work of Gerhard von Rad on the late date of the incorporation of the Sinai materials into the Hexateuch. In his influential essay “The Form‐ Critical Problem of the Hexateuch,” von Rad attempted to address the 189 Fleming, forthcoming. 190 Roland de Vaux, Early History of Israel (trans. David Smith; Philadelphia, Pa.: West‐ minster Press, 1978), 370–73. Cf. also Henri Cazelles, Autour de l’Exode: Études (SB; Paris: J. Gabalda, 1987), 361. 191 Cornelis Houtman, for example, urges caution (Exodus [trans. Johan Rebel and Sierd Woudstra; HCOT; 4 vols.; Kampen: Kok, 1993–2002], 1:129).
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question of the genre of the Hexateuch as a whole. In so doing, he ex‐ tended Gunkel’s form‐critical notion of genre to the basic plot outline of the Hexateuch. This plot outline he also found in a number of other texts, most notably Deut 6:20–24; 26:5b–9, and Josh 24:2b–13. He thus regarded these texts as belonging to the same genre as the Hexateuch as a whole. He further regarded them as constituting a liturgical for‐ mula, which is to say, a historical creed. By a careful comparison of the various texts that he placed in this genre, von Rad reconstructed a his‐ tory of its development, and thus a history of the development of the preliterary stage of the Hexateuch as a whole. He argued in particular that the Sinai material was incorporated into the Hexateuchal frame‐ work only at a late stage.192 This Sinai material he regarded, following Mowinckel, as the cult legend of the New Year festival.193 He also found a cultic setting for the preservation of the tradition of the settlement, and the Sitz im Leben of the historical creed of Deut 26 in the Feast of Weeks.194 Von Rad regarded the Yahwist as the chief architect of the literary form of the Hexateuch and attributed to him the inclusion of the Sinai material.195 Von Rad’s critics largely rejected his thesis since they did not re‐ gard his so‐called short historical creeds, which were embedded in Deuteronomistic texts, as pre‐dating the Yahwist.196 More recently, the trend to lower the dating of the Yahwist has allowed the possibility of revisiting von Rad’s thesis.197 The material examined here also permits 192 Von Rad, “Problem of the Hexateuch,” 13–20. 193 Von Rad, “Problem of the Hexateuch,” 20–26. 194 Von Rad, “Problem of the Hexateuch,” 40–43. 195 Von Rad, “Problem of the Hexateuch,” 53, 63–74. 196 See, for example, Leonhard Rost, Das kleine Credo und andere Studien zum Alten Testa‐ ment (Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer, 1965), 11–25; Norbert Lohfink, Theology of the Pen‐ tateuch: Themes of the Priestly Narrative and Deuteronomy (trans. Linda M. Maloney; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 265–89. Cf. also Douglas A. Knight, Rediscovering the Traditions of Israel (3d ed.; SBLSBL 16; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 80. On the other hand, Dwight R. Daniels has tried to maintain the antiquity of the creed as a whole (“The Creed of Deuteronomy xxvi Revisited,” in Studies in the Pentateuch [ed. J. A. Emerton; VTSup 41; Leiden: Brill, 1990], 231–42). Cf. Georg Fohrer, who ar‐ gues from the location of Moses’ call in Sinai that the Sinai and exodus traditions were originally connected (Überlieferung und Geschichte des Exodus: Eine Analyse von Ex 1–15 [BZAW 91; Berlin: Töpelmann, 1964], 24–55). 197 Albert de Pury and Thomas Römer, “Le Pentateuque en question: Position du problème et brève histoire de la recherche,” in Le Pentateuque en question: Les origines et la composition des cinq premiers livres de la Bible à la lumière des recherches récentes (ed. Albert de Pury; Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1989), 51–52. The close linguistic and theo‐ logical similarity between the Deuteronomist and the Yahwist was argued especially by Hans Heinrich Schmid (Der sogenannte Jahwist, Beobachtungen und Fragen zur
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a revisiting of von Rad’s work, but from a different perspective. Rather than explaining the divergent traditions solely in chronological terms, this study suggests that regional variation could have played an impor‐ tant role. In other words, although some of the Sinai material might be quite old, as argued especially by Frank Crüsemann, the tradition con‐ necting the exodus to the Transjordan may have been restricted to that region and may have lacked a foothold in the north or south until after the eighth century B.C.E.198
2.6 The Joseph Story 2.6.1 Date and Provenance The Joseph story (Gen 37–50) is frequently considered late, perhaps even postexilic, because of its novella‐like structure 199 and supposed connections between it and other Israelite or Egyptian literature from the seventh through fifth century B.C.E.200 Some also argue for a late date because of its supposed function as a bridge between the patriar‐ chal and the exodus stories, but Konrad Schmid highlights its ineffec‐ tiveness as a bridge and suggests that its bridging function was secon‐ Pentateuchforschung [Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1976], 167–83). Martin Rose, a student of Schmid, then argued that the Jahwist was later than the Deuteronomist (Deuteronomist und Jahwist: Untersuchungen zu den Berührungspunkten beider Literatur‐ werke [Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1981]). See also Van Seters, Life of Moses, 11–12; Römer and de Pury, “Deuteronomistic Historiography,” 84; Christoph Levin, “The Yahwist: The Earliest Editor in the Pentateuch,” JBL 126 (2007): 209–30. 198 On the antiquity of some of the traditions about Sinai, see Frank Crüsemann, The Torah: Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law (trans. Allan W. Mahnke; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), 27–57. 199 Hermann Gunkel, Genesis (trans. Mark E. Biddle; MLBS; Macon, Ga.: Mercer Univer‐ sity Press, 1997), 381–82; Rolf Rendtorff, The Old Testament: An Introduction (trans. John Bowden; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 86, 107; Werner H. Schmidt, Old Testament Introduction (trans. Matthew J. O’Connell and David J. Reimer; 2d ed. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1999), 70–71. 200 On connections to Persian‐period Egyptian material see Donald B. Redford, A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph (Genesis 37–50) (VTSupp 20; Leiden: Brill, 1970), 242–50; Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (Princeton, N.J.: Prince‐ ton University Press, 1992), 422–29. Cf. also von Rad, who saw the Egyptian connec‐ tions as pointing to a date in the time of Solomon (“The Joseph Narrative,” 292–300). On the thematic similarities between Joseph, Esther, and Daniel see W. Lee Hum‐ phreys, “The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament” (Th.D. diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1970), 191–341, esp. 313–17.
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darily realized.201 The complex redactional history of the pentateuchal text and the dating of particular Egyptian elements in the Joseph story lie beyond the scope of this study. Insofar as Joseph, Ephraim, and Ma‐ nasseh feature positively in the narrative, however, at least some of the perspectives in the story reflect Israelite tradition, and as such date to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier.202 Daniel E. Fleming notes that the Joseph story, and Hos 12, may reflect the fact that already in the north prior to 722 B.C.E. attempts were being made, at least in oral story‐ telling circles, to reconcile the tradition of Israel’s origins in Mesopota‐ mia with the tradition of Israel’s origins in Egypt.203 201 Konrad Schmid, “Die Josephsgeschichte im Pentateuch,” in Abschied vom Jahwisten: Die Komposition des Hexateuch in der jüngsten Diskussion (ed. Jan Christian Gertz, Kon‐ rad Schmid, and Markus Witte; BZAW 315; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002), 83–118. Cf. the discussions of the following, not all of whom regard the Joseph story as a bridge since the literary connections between it and the patriarchal and exodus ma‐ terials are relatively slim: Gerhard von Rad, “The Joseph Narrative and Ancient Wisdom,” in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (trans. E. W. Trueman Dicken; Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1966), 292 n2; George W. Coats, Genesis: With an Introduction to Narrative Literature (FOTL 1; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1983), 297; Claus Westermann, Genesis 37–50: A Commentary (trans. John J. Scullion S.J.; Minneapolis: Ausburg Publishing House, 1986), 27–28; Long, Provan, and Longman, Biblical History of Israel, 108; John Van Seters, Prologue to History: The Yahwist as Histo‐ rian in Genesis (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 314–17; Ernest Nicholson, The Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century: The Legacy of Julius Wellhausen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 126; John J. Collins, Encounters with Biblical Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 64. 202 Cf. Rainer Albertz, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. (trans. David Green; SBLSBL 3; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), 263. Von Rad had earlier regarded the Joseph story as a wisdom novella of the Solomonic enlightenment (“The Joseph Narrative,” 292–300). Such a position is no longer ten‐ able; cf. Michael V. Fox, “Wisdom in the Joseph Story,” VT 51 (2001): 26–41. 203 Building on the work of Rendtorff, a number of scholars now argue that there are no pre‐P, or perhaps no pre‐D, literary connections between the patriarchal and exodus traditions. Cf. the discussions of David M. Carr, Reading the Fractures of Genesis: His‐ torical and Literary Approaches (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 272; Konrad Schmid, “The So‐Called Yahwist and the Literary Gap between Genesis and Exodus,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 29–50, esp. 32; Jan Christian Gertz, “The Transition between the Books of Genesis and Exodus,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 73–87; Erhard Blum, “The Literary Connection between the Books of Genesis and Exodus and the End of the Book of Joshua,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Doze‐ man and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006),
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2.6.2 Portrayal of Egypt The Joseph story is littered with particulars that lend the story an Egyp‐ tian air.204 Whether individual Egyptian elements accurately reflect the preexilic period, much less the Egyptian New Kingdom period, is diffi‐ cult to prove, however. Dozens of details in the story have been dis‐ cussed in relation to the Egyptian evidence.205 I mention a few here by way of illustration. Egypt is depicted as a place of trade, with agricul‐ tural security provided by the Nile (cf. the discussion of Hosea and Amos above). Furthermore, Egypt has a king and a bureaucracy associ‐ ated with the royal court. The story’s elements of a chief baker and a butler as well as Joseph’s appointment as vizier may reflect Israelite perception of an extensive Egyptian royal household and bureaucracy. Like so many bureaucracies, the state may have been partly supported by a tax on the produce of the land (cf. Gen 47:26), though the case of Egypt is debated.206 These perceptions of Egyptian bureaucracy would have been well founded even if the portrayal of the system remained abstracted, and its details obscure. The Joseph story also records the embalming of Joseph’s body and his placement in a coffin in the Egyptian manner (Gen 50:26). This tra‐ dition contrasts with that of Joseph’s bones being taken up out of Egypt (Gen 50:25; Exod 13:19; Josh 24:32). The latter seems to assume a burial, characteristically Judahite, in which the body would be interred in a cave or rock‐cut bench tomb.207 Such an arrangement would have made the de‐fleshed bones easily accessible long after the initial burial. As far north as Beth Shan, whose cemetery contains Egyptian‐style burials from the Late Bronze Age, there would have been a consciousness that
89–106; Christoph Levin, “The Yahwist and the Redactional Link between Genesis and Exodus,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 131–41. 204 Cf. Redford, Biblical Joseph Story, 187. 205 For an extensive discussion of these, see Redford, Biblical Joseph Story, 189–243. 206 David A. Warburton, on the basis of the inscription of Mes and Papyrus Valencay I, argues, “Private land owners were obliged to pay a financial tax to Pharaoh,” in the New Kingdom period (State and Economy in Ancient Egypt: Fiscal Vocabulary of the New Kingdom [OBO 151; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997], 319). As far as I am aware, however, Warburton’s treatment of taxation has not been widely ac‐ cepted by Egyptologists. 207 Elizabeth Bloch‐Smith, Judahite Burial Practices and Beliefs about the Dead (JSOTSup 123; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), esp. 22–23, and 41–52.
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Egyptian burials differed from local ones.208 The mention of Joseph’s embalming may thus reflect an awareness of Egyptian burial practices. The story’s underlying assumptions about the nature of the social structure of agricultural life could also reflect New Kingdom Egypt. The narrative evidently envisions (walled?) cities that are surrounded by farmed fields belonging to those cities (Gen 41:48). This mode of agricultural life has little to do with the independent villages and ham‐ lets of early Iron Age Israel, and it may be more reflective of the Syrian, the Mesopotamian, or the New Kingdom Egyptian situation.209 In an earlier period, Egypt was not urbanized in the same way as Mesopota‐ mia. 210 Ogden Goelet points out, however, that there seems to have been substantially more urbanization by the Ramesside period, espe‐ cially in the Delta.211 The Joseph story could accurately reflect the New Kingdom relationship between urbanism and agriculture. At a mini‐ mum, the story suggests that Egypt was perceived as having an agrar‐ ian structure that differed from that of Israel. Details such as these would be intelligible within a New Kingdom context, as has been argued by Jozef Vergote and James K. Hoffmeir, among others, but the story’s Egyptian elements are intelligible in later contexts as well.212 As far as the thesis being pursued here is concerned, 208 Eliezer D. Oren, The Northern Cemetery of Beth Shan (UMM 33; Leiden: Brill, 1973), 142–50; Bloch‐Smith, Judahite Burial Practices, 164; Frances W. James and Patrick E. McGovern, The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VII and VIII (2 vols.; UMM 85; Philadelphia: University Museum, 1993), 1:238–39. 209 On the structure of Israelite agriculture see Lawrence E. Stager, “The Archaeology of the Family in Ancient Israel,” BASOR 260 (1985): 1–35; David C. Hopkins, The High‐ lands of Canaan: Agricultural Life in the Early Iron Age (SWBA 3; Sheffield: Almond, 1985), esp. 265–72. On Egyptian agriculture, see Adolf Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (trans. H. M. Tirard; New York: Dover, 1971), 425–45. On Mesopotamian agriculture, see Daniel T. Potts, Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), 56–89. 210 Cf. J. Donald Hughes, who argues, “Unlike Mesopotamia, mutually hostile city‐ states did not become the characteristic political units in Egypt, nor were urban cen‐ ters separate from, and dominant over, the rural landscape” (“Sustainable Agricul‐ ture in Ancient Egypt,” AgrH 66 [1992]: 13). Cf. also Susan Pollock, Ancient Mesopo‐ tamia: The Eden That Never Was (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 219. 211 Ogden Goelet, personal communication. Cf. E. Bleiberg, “The Economy of Ancient Egypt,” in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (ed. Jack M. Sasson; New York: Scrib‐ ner, 1995), 3:1373–85. 212 Jozef Vergote, Joseph en Égypte: Genèse chap. 37–50 à la lumière des études égyptologiques récentes (OBL 3; Leuven: Publications Universitaires, 1959), 203–13; James K. Hoff‐ meier, Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 83–98. On these details being intelligible in a later context, see Redford, Biblical Story of Joseph, 241–43.
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it is worth noting the underlying assumption of the story that pastoral‐ ists could journey to Egypt in times of crisis in order to pasture their flocks. The same assumption evidently underlies the Abraham story and the Isaac story. The scribal exercise P. Anastasi VI, which reports the movement of Shasu pastoralists from the northern Sinai region into Egypt for the purpose of saving their animals, confirms that this as‐ sumption was well founded.
2.7 Conclusion The Cisjordan‐Israelite memories about Egypt explored here could plausibly be explained from what is otherwise known about Egyptian and Syro‐Palestinian history. At least two major exodus themes were at home in Cisjordan Israel: the notion of a journey from Egypt to Israel’s land, and the military overtones of the exodus. Although these may have been linked from an early stage, within the context of the ancient Near East, there is no reason to view them as inherently linked. We might better expect the notion of a journey to be connected to the god of the fathers El, rather than to the warrior Yahweh—such a connection may be attested in the late linking text Gen 46:1–4. That text, and El’s role in the exodus traditions from Transjordan, are discussed more fully in Chapter 3. For the moment, I would note that the notion of a journey from Egypt and the theme of Yahweh’s role as a warrior in relation to the exodus need not have been originally connected. If these two major aspects of the exodus tradition in Cisjordan Is‐ rael were originally separate, they may also have been rooted in differ‐ ent historical memories. As far as the idea of a journey is concerned, I noted above the connection in Hos 12:14 between the notion of journey and pastoral imagery. Daniel E. Fleming has suggested a connection between the exodus tradition and the movement of tribal pastoralists to and from Egypt in times of crisis. A major component of the critique by John Van Seters of the approach of Albright to the patriarchal traditions in Genesis had been the Pentateuch’s depiction of pastoralism.213 Van Seters regarded the occasional migrations of the patriarchs as bearing little resemblance to the seasonal migrations of transhumant pastoral‐ ists. This critique notwithstanding, Fleming notes that the Mari evi‐ dence suggests that tribal groups could shift their entire base of opera‐ 213 John Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univer‐ sity Press, 1975), 13–38.
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tion in times of crisis.214 In the early second millennium B.C.E., Mari was ruled by Yaḫdum‐Lim and his successors, who defined themselves in tribal terms and belonged to the tribal group known as the Binu Sim’al, or Sim’alites.215 When Mari was taken by Samsi‐Addu, king of Ekalla‐ tum, the Sim’alites, or at least their pastoral component, appear to have shifted their entire base of operations. Many years later, a Sim’alite coalition returned to take Mari from Samsi‐Addu’s successor, and the Sim’alite Zimri‐Lim became king of Mari. The Mari evidence thus demonstrates the ability of tribally defined pastoral communities to migrate in times of crisis. Fleming suggests that some pastoral component of earliest Israel may have moved to Egypt in a time of crisis and may later have re‐ turned to Syria‐Palestine. While such a thesis is impossible to prove, it is clear that Egypt was commemorated as a region to which pastoralists in western Asia and northern Arabia could travel in times of crisis. The patriarchal narratives assume such an understanding of Egypt. In a similar vein, P. Anastasi VI reports the movement of Shasu pastoralists from the northern Sinai region into Egypt for the purpose of watering their flocks. The book of Amos also shows an awareness of the regular inundation of the Nile—further attesting the widespread recognition of the reliability of the water supply in Egypt (Amos 8:8; 9:5). Taken to‐ gether, these data suggest that Egypt was perceived as a land to which pastoralists could turn to find suitable pasture for their flocks. As has long been noted, a pastoral background to part of the exodus celebra‐ tions is also suggested by the sacrificing of animals from the flock in the Passover festival.216 Whether some specific pastoral migration underlies the exodus commemoration within the Bethel calf cult, however, is impossible to prove. While the evidence allows for Fleming’s thesis, it does not de‐ mand it; the biblical connections between pastoralists and the exodus may be more general in nature. In other words, the understanding of Egypt as a place to which pastoralists could turn in times of famine could provide a plausible background to the commemoration of a jour‐ ney out of Egypt, whether or not some specific pastoralist migration 214 Daniel E. Fleming, “Mari and the Possibilities of Biblical Memory,” RA 92 (1998): 44–78. 215 For a survey of the history of Mari in this period, see Daniel E. Fleming, Democracy’s Ancient Ancestors: Mari and Early Collective Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni‐ versity Press, 2004), 8–11. 216 For a recent survey, see Tamara Prosic, The Development and Symbolism of Passover until 70 CE (JSOTSup 414; London: T&T Clark, 2004), 19–32.
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underlay the tradition. The biblical descriptions of the Passover festival allow for the possibility that an original pastoralist festival may have been unconnected with the exodus, as has been argued.217 If so, it may have been through the Passover that pastoralist imagery came to be associated with the exodus. On the basis of the current evidence, one cannot be definitive, though the data presented here suggest that, al‐ ready in the preexilic period, pastoral imagery and the notion of a jour‐ ney up from Egypt both formed part of the Cisjordan‐Israelite com‐ memoration of the exodus. The military overtones of the memory of Egypt and the exodus also make sense in the preexilic period. It was noted above that the evidence in Judg 5 suggests that early, though perhaps not earliest, Israel was primarily a military tribal coalition. There is no evidence from the earli‐ est northern poetry in the Bible that early Israel regarded Egypt as its archenemy. The narratives in the book of Judges likewise do not depict Egypt as a major enemy of Israel. By the eighth century B.C.E., however, the exodus was celebrated with military overtones in the Bethel calf cult. Precisely how this tradition grew in the intervening period re‐ mains unclear. The answer may lie in part in the military nature of early Israel. At some point in its history, an existing military tribal coalition began to regard Egypt as its chief enemy, whom Yahweh had defeated. Whereas, as noted in Chapter 1, Noth had found it difficult to explain the all‐Israel orientation of the exodus formula, the evidence presented here suggests that Egypt may have assumed the position of the chief enemy of an already existing military coalition. The exact mechanism of this transition and its relationship to actual historical occurrence remain unclear. Evidently, however, the Bethel calf cult played a central role in the development of the tradition.
217 Prosic, Passover, 19–21.
Chapter 3 Early Transjordan‐Israelite Traditions about Egypt
3.1 Introduction Transjordan Israel maintained traditions about Egypt that diverged from those in the central hill country of Ephraim. Chapter 1 showed that social, cultural, and political distinctions existed between eastern and western Israel, with the Jordan River serving as a physical and psychological barrier separating the regions. While the Transjordan was intimately connected with the northern kingdom of Israel, it was a contested region and differed in its religious traditions. This chapter will focus on an analysis of two of the oracles attributed to Balaam, who was associated in biblical tradition with the sanctuary at Baal‐ Peor. 1 This material, which reflects Transjordanian traditions, offers insight into how the Egypt traditions varied between east and west.
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9 According to Num 22–24, Balak, king of Moab, was terrified of the Isra‐ elite camp and summoned the seer Balaam to curse them on his behalf. Instead, Balaam blessed Israel in a series of oracles. Two of these men‐ tion Egypt: (23:18) Then he took up his verse,2 saying: “Rise, O Balak, and listen, Give ear to me,3 O son of Zippor!
1
2
3
On the connection of Balaam to the sanctuary of Baal‐Peor, see especially Martin Noth, “Israelitische Stämme zwischen Ammon und Moab,” ZAW 60 (1944): 23–30; Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (trans. Bernard W. Anderson; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1970), 76–77. Outside of Balaam pericope, נשׂא, “lift up, take up,” and משׁל, “proverb, verse,” are found together in Job 27:1; 29:1; Isa 14:4; Mic 2:4; Hab 2:6. For a discussion of משׁל, perhaps used here as a technical term referring to a particular poetic form, see Ba‐ ruch Levine, Numbers 21–36 (AB 4A; New York: Doubleday, 2000), 102–3. MT האזינה עדי, cf. אזין עד־תבונתיכם, “I listened to your insights” (Job 32:11). An‐ dreas Schüle instead takes MT עדי as deriving from *עדד, and translates, “Tue auf deine Ohren für meine Prophetie”. He cites the meaning “prophet” for this North‐
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(19) El4 is not a man,5 that6 he should lie, Nor a mortal, that he should change his mind.7 Has he spoken and not performed? Has he promised and not fulfilled it? (20) See! I have obtained blessing!8 So he has blessed and I cannot revoke it. (21) Trouble is not beheld in Jacob; Nor harm seen in Israel.9 Yahweh, his god, is beside him, The battle cry10 of the King is with him. (22) El, who delivers11 them from Egypt, Has horns like horns of a wild ox.12
west Semitic root in KAI 202A 12 and suggests it occurs in the Bible in personal names of prophets in Zech 1:1, 7; Ezra 5:1; Neh 12:4, 16; 1 Chr 6:6; 2 Chr 9:29; 12:15; 13:22 (Israels Sohn—Jahwes Prophet: Ein Versuch zum Verhältnis von kanonischer Theolo‐ gie und Religionsgeschichte anhand der Bileam‐Perikope (Num 22–24) [ATM 17; Münster: LIT Verlag, 2001], 31). Cf. the discussion in Hedwige Rouillard, La péricope de Balaam (Nombres 22–24): La prose et les “oracles” (ÉBib 2/4; Paris: Gabalda, 1985), 274–76. 4 As argued below in 3.2.2.3, the use of the noun אל in the oracles suggests that the deity El is in view; the noun is not used merely in a generic sense to mean “god.” 5 אישׁ and בן אדם are also used in parallel in 2 Sam 7:14; Ps 80:18; Prov 8:4; Isa 52:14; Jer 49:18, 33; 50:40; 51:43; Mic 5:6. 6 On the function of the waw here, cf. Schüle, Israels Sohn, 32 n1. 7 The Hithpael of נחם is used in Gen 27:42; 37:35; Deut 32:36; Ps 119:52; Ps 135:14; Ezek 5:13 and refers to being consoled or satisfied. The parallelism here suggests a mean‐ ing similar to “lie,” and I have thus translated “change his mind.” Cf. the use of the Niphal of the verb with a similar nuance, וגם נצח ישׂראל לא ישׁקר ולא ינחם כי לא אדם הוא להנחם , “Moreover, the Glory of Israel will not lie nor change his mind, for he is not human that he should change his mind” (1 Sam 15:29). See also the discus‐ sion of Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 277–80. 8 Cf. the discussion below in 3.2.1. Levine instead takes לקחתי as a Qal passive against the Masoretic vocalization and understands the infinitive ברך as expressing pur‐ pose, “I was summoned to bless” (Numbers 21–36, 182). Cf. Schüle’s translation: “Siehe, zu segnen bin ich geholt worden” (Israels Sohn, 32). See also Rouillard, Péri‐ cope de Balaam, 280–82. 9 Here, understanding the 3ms active verbs to represent an indefinite subject, “One does not see. . . . One does not perceive,” and thus translating with the English pas‐ sive voice. 10 On the war connotations of תרועה, cf. Num 31:6; 1 Sam 4:5; Job 39:29; Jer 4:19; 20:16; Ezek 21:27; Amos 1:14; 2:2; Zeph 1:16; 2 Chr 13:2. 11 On the semantic range of הוציא, cf. 3.2.2.2 below. For אל as a name or defined noun followed by a participle without the definite article, cf. אל מחללך, “El/God who brought you forth” (Deut 32:18); לאל גמר, “to the god who completes” (Ps 57:3); האל עשׂה, “the god who does” (Ps 77:15); and אל מושׁיעם, “El/God who saved them” (Ps 106:21). Alternatively, one might translate, “El, their deliverer from Egypt.” 12 For the semantic range of ראם, cf. Deut 33:17; Ps 22:27; 29:6; Job 39:10; Isa 34:7. These suggest that it refers to a bovine that is strong, untamed, and dangerous. Cf. the dis‐ cussion in Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 292–98; HALOT 1163–64. תועפת evidently
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(23) Surely there is no enchantment against13 Jacob, No divination against Israel. Immediately Jacob is told, Israel, what El performs. (24) Look, a people that rises like a great lion, And rouses itself like a lion! He does not lie down until he eats prey, And drinks the14 blood of slain ones.” (24:3) Then he took up his verse, saying: “The oracle of Balaam son of Beor,15 And the oracle of the man whose eye is pure,16 (4) The oracle of one who hears the words of El, Who sees the vision of Shadday,17 Who falls18 with eyes uncovered:
13
14 15
16
17 18
entails the idea of height, as suggested by its other biblical uses תועפות הרים, “the peaks of the mountains” (Ps 95:4), and כסף תועפות לך, “a tall (pile) of silver is yours” (Job 22:25). In Num 23:22, it thus appears to mean horns or antlers. Cf. קרני ראם, “horns of a wild ox,” Deut 33:17. Cf. also the discussion in HALOT 1704–6. The construction כתועפת ראם לו is evidently elliptical for תועפת כתועפת ראם לו, “He has horns like horns of a wild ox.” Cf. ואין להן עמודים כעמודי החצרות, “and they had no pillars like the pillars of the outer court” (Ezek 42:6). Possessive lamed need not occur with ישׁ or אין (e.g., Gen 31:16, 43; 48:5; Exod 19:5; Judg 17:5; 1 Sam 1:2; 25:7, 36; 1 Kgs 20:3, 4; Isa 43:1; 44:5; Ezek 29:3; Hos 6:10; Ps 47:10; 50:10; Job 12:13, 16; 22:8; Song 2:16; 6:3). Cf. the discussion in Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 299–300; R. Scott Chalmers, “Who Is the Real El? A Reconstruction of the Prophet’s Polemic in Hosea 12:5a,” CBQ 68 (2006): 617. Levine reads the preposition here to indicate position (“in, among”), and sees it as related to the immediately following bicolon: since Israel is immediately informed of El’s plans, there is no need for divination in Israel (Numbers 21–36, 185–86). Cf. the discussion in Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 300–301; Schüle, Israels Sohn, 32–33 n3. Undefined in Hebrew, the is supplied here to make the English translation read more smoothly. Although the nomen rectum of the construct chain with נאם typically indicates the deity who provides the oracle (נאם־יהוה = “oracle from Yahweh”), similar phrasing to this line occurs in נאם דוד בן־ישׁי ונאם הגבר הקם על, “The oracle of David ben Jesse, the oracle of the man raised on high” (2 Sam 23:1). Following the proposal of William F. Albright to rearrange the consonantal text of MT to read שׁתםה עין and to read a 3ms suffix on עין not indicated in the orthogra‐ phy (“The Oracles of Balaam,” JBL 63 [1944]: 216–17 n57). For a survey of ancient and modern attempts to understand שׁתם, see HALOT 1670–71. Cf. also Levine, Numbers 21–36, 191–93; Schüle, Israels Sohn, 33. On Shadday, cf. Jo Ann Hackett, The Balaam Text from Deir ‘Allā (HSM 31; repr., Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980), 85–89; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 195–96. The verb נפל may be used here in a technical sense, “fall into a prophetic trance,” as it is in ויפשׁט גם־הוא בגדיו ויתנבא גם־הוא לפני שׁמואל ויפל ערם כל־היום ההוא
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(5) How lovely are your tents, O Jacob, Your encampments, O Israel! (6) Like palm groves19 that stretch far away, Like gardens beside a river, Like aloes20 Yahweh planted, Like cedars beside the water. (7) Water drips from his boughs,21 And his seed are beside the mighty waters. His king shall prevail over Agag,22 And his kingship shall be exalted. (8) El, who delivers them from Egypt, Has horns like horns of a wild ox. He shall devour the nations who oppose him, And break their bones, And smash his arrows.23 (9) He crouched, he lay down like a lion, And like a lioness, who will rouse him? Blessed are those who bless you, And cursed are those who curse you.”
3.2.1 Date and Provenance A variety of approaches have been taken to the literary history of the Balaam pericope (Num 22–24). Abraham Kuenen and Julius Well‐ hausen made a distinction within the pericope between the traditional pentateuchal sources J and E, though they disagreed on which material should be assigned to which source, and as to who redacted the peri‐ cope.24 Wellhausen also expressed some uncertainty about the source division of the Balaam pericope, and about the ability of scholarship to 19 20 21 22 23
24
וכל־הלילה, “Then he too stripped of his garments and he too prophesied before Samuel and he fell naked all that day and all night” (1 Sam 19:24). The root נחל evidently refers to palms in Song 6:11 and perhaps also in Job 29:18. The context suggests a plant. Cf. אהלים in Prov 7:7, where the context also suggests a plant. Although the masculine plural is here unique, Levine points to the use of the femi‐ nine plural with the meaning “boughs” in Ezek 17:6; 19:11, 31 (Numbers 21–36, 197). See the discussion of Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 370–71. MT וחציו ימחץ is awkward. Levine follows the Peshitta וחלציו ימחץ, “And smashes his loins” (Numbers 21–36, 197). Schüle translates instead, “ihre Knochen zermalmt er und zerschlägt (sie) mit seinen Pfeilen” (Israels Sohn, 34). Abraham Kuenen, “Bileam,” ThT 18 (1884): 497–540, esp. 514–16; Julius Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Bücher des Alten Testaments (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1889), 109–12, 347–52.
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clearly distinguish between J and E in the Pentateuch in general.25 It is not surprising, therefore, that scholars following the documentary ap‐ proach differed widely in their results.26 In particular, a comparison of the Septuagint to Num 22–24 suggested that there was no consistent variation between the divine names, except, perhaps, in the ass episode (Num 22:22–35). 27 Driver expressed some caution: “It is uncertain whether c. 23–24 belong to J or E, or whether they are the work of the compiler who has made use of both sources: critics differ and it is wis‐ 25 Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs, 347–52; Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel (repr., New York: Meridian Books, 1957), 7–8. 26 Bruno Baentsch, Exodus‐Leviticus‐Numbers (HKAT 1/2; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1903), 588–622; George B. Grey, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1903), 309–21; Heinrich Holzinger, Numeri: Erklärt (KHC 4; Tübingen: Mohr, 1903), 104–11; Carl Heinrich Cornill, Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old Testament (trans. G. H. Box; TTL; New York: G. P. Put‐ nam’s Sons, 1907), 119–20; Hugo Gressmann, Mose und seine Zeit: Ein Kommentar zu den Mose‐Sagen (FRLANT 1/18; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1913), 318–34, esp. 318–19 n4; L. Elliott Binns, The Book of Numbers (WC; London: Methuen, 1927), 149–75; Sigmund Mowinckel, “Die Ursprung der Bileamsage,” ZAW 48 (1930): 233– 71; Otto Eissfeldt, “Die Komposition der Bileam‐Erzählung: Eine Nachprüfung von Rudolphs Beitrag zur Hexateuchkritik,” ZAW 57 (1939): 212–24; Cuthbert A. Simp‐ son, The Early Traditions of Israel: A Critical Analysis of the Pre‐Deuteronomic Narrative of the Hexateuch (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1948), 259; Otto Eissfeldt, “Sinai‐Erzählung und Bileam‐Sprüche,” HUCA 32 (1961): 179–90; Martin Noth, Numbers: A Commen‐ tary (trans. James D. Martin; OTL; repr., Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1968), 171– 94; Joseph Coppens, “Les oracles de Biléam: Leur origine littéraire et leur portée prophétique,” in Mélanges Eugène Tisserant (7 vols.; StT 231–37; Vatican City: Biblio‐ teca Apostolica Vaticana, 1964), 1:72; Frank Moore Cross Jr., “Reuben, First‐Born of Jacob,” ZAW 100/supp (1988): 55. See Walter Gross’s extensive survey of the history of the literary analysis of the prose material in the Balaam pericope, and his ex‐ tremely helpful table that summarizes the source assignments of some thirty‐four critical works, twenty‐eight of which utilize some form of the documentary hypothe‐ sis involving J and E (Bileam: Literar‐ und formkritische Untersuchung der Prosa in Num 22–24 [SANT 38; Munich: Kösel, 1974], 19–64, 419–27). 27 William F. Albright, “The Oracles of Balaam,” JBL 63 (1944): 207–8; Alexander Rofé, The Book of Balaam (Numbers 22:2–24:25) (JBS 1; Jerusalem: Simor, 1979), 37–40 [He‐ brew]. Cf. also discussion of the divine names in Grey, Numbers, 310–13; Paul Heinisch, Das Buch Numeri (HSAT 2/1; Bonn: Peter Hanstein, 1936), 88–89. Note, however, John William Wevers, “The Balaam Narrative According to the Septua‐ gint,” in Lectures et relectures de la Bible: Festschrift P. M. Bogaert (ed. André Wénin, J. M. Auwers, and Pierre Bogaert; BETL 144; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1999), 133–44. Wevers notes that in the Balaam pericope, MT אלהים is never translated by LXX κυριος. He argues that there is some pattern to the discrepancies between MT and LXX and suggests that the differences between the divine names in MT and LXX stem from an interpretive bias on the part of the translator, who does not allow Yahweh to speak with Balaam.
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est to leave the question unanswered.”28 Rudolph made easy work of this pericope in his attempt to discredit the existence of the Elohist.29 Subsequently, Gross and Rofé showed that the textual inconsistencies in Num 22–24 cannot be explained in terms of the traditional sources J and E. 30 Rather, the editorial history of the pericope must be analyzed independently in terms of its own internal development. Many have now come to regard the narrative as an independent unit that includes its own interpolations, most notably the ass story (Num 22:22–35).31 One outcome of this approach has been the tendency, especially among some German scholars, to regard the unit as having only very limited diachronic development, if any, and to situate its origin and growth in the postexilic period. Stefan Timm argues against a preexilic date for any material in Num 22–24 and considers the text of little value for reconstructing the history of Moab in the Late Bronze and Iron 28 S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (repr., New York: Merid‐ ian, 1956), 67. See similarly cautious comments by Albright (“The Oracles of Ba‐ laam,” 207–8). 29 Wilhelm Rudolph, Der “Elohist” von Exodus bis Josua (BZAW 68; Berlin: Töpelmann, 1938), 97–128. 30 Gross, Bileam, 16–18; Rofé, Book of Balaam, 15–26, 30–34. 31 Cf. Gross, Bileam, 64–69; Ludwig Schmidt, “Die alttestamentliche Bileamüber‐ lieferung,” BZ 23 (1979): 234–61; M. Delcor, “Le texte de Deir ‘Alla et les oracles bib‐ liques de Bala‘am,” in Congress Volume: Vienna, 1980 (ed. John A. Emerton; VTSup 32; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 63; Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 9–16; Meindert Dijkstra, “The Geography of the Story of Balaam: Synchronic Reading as a Help to Date a Biblical Text,” in Synchronic or Diachronic? A Debate on Method in Old Testament Exegesis (ed. Johannes C. de Moor; OtSt 34; Leiden: Brill, 1995), 72; Christoph Levin, “The Yahwist and the Redactional Link between Genesis and Exodus,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 132. The ass episode, long recognized as distinct in character, seems to be a later interpolation, marked by a Wiederaufnahme and possibly of postexilic date. On this episode, see Kuenen, “Bileam,” 503–4; Marcus M. Kalisch, The Prophecies of Ba‐ laam (Numbers XXII to XXIV): Or, The Hebrew and the Heathen (London: Longmans, 1877), 40–41; Rofé, Book of Balaam, 54–57; David Marcus, From Balaam to Jonah: Anti‐ prophetic Satire in the Hebrew Bible (BJS 301; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 29‐41; R. W. L. Moberly, “On Learning to be a True Prophet: The Story of Balaam and His Ass,” in New Heaven and New Earth: Prophecy and the Millennium: Essays in Honour of Anthony Gelston (ed. P. J. Harland and C. T. R. Hayward; VTSup 77; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 1–17; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 154–55; Hans‐Christoph Schmitt, “Der heid‐ nische Mantiker als eschatologischer Jahweprophet: Zum Verständnis Bileams in der Endgestalt von Num 22–24,” in Theologie in Prophetie und Pentateuch: Gesammelte Schriften (BZAW 310; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2001), 249–54. For an alternative view, cf. Schüle, Israels Sohn, 45–48, 59–65.
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Ages.32 Andreas Schüle proposes that the tensions in Num 22–24 do not result from a long process of growth.33 Rather, he sees the pericope as a postexilic composition that reflects the internal religious conflicts of the Persian period, especially the question of legitimate Jewish identity in light of the differences between those who remained in Yehud and those who did not. Markus Witte distinguishes between a basic layer, which incorporated an independent narrative about Balak’s failed at‐ tempt to have Israel cursed into the exodus and conquest scheme, and a late redactional layer, which emphasized the blessed state of Israel.34 He regards both, as well as a minor eschatological layer, as post‐ Priestly and post‐Deuteronomic. Others have attempted to recover a much longer history of devel‐ opment within Num 22–24 by distinguishing between its prose and its poetry. A significant step in this direction was the work of Sigmund Mowinckel.35 Though he was not the first to distinguish between the prose and the poetry, he solidified the form‐critical distinction between them and showed that the so‐called J‐poems (the third and fourth ora‐ cles) do not presuppose the prose.36 Although Mowinckel still followed the common assignment of the first two poems to E and the last two to J, the distinction between the poetry and the prose in the pericope opened up the possibility of an alternative historical‐critical treatment of the text.37 Albright’s analysis drew on this distinction between prose 32 Stefan Timm, Moab zwischen den Mächten: Studien zu historischen Denkmälern und Texten (ÄAT 17; Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1989), 97–157, with a summary on 156. 33 Schüle, Israels Sohn, 50–85, esp. 79. 34 Witte identifies the basic layer in Num 22:1, 3, 4*, 5, 6aα1β, 7*, 8–12a, 13–20, 36–41; 23:1–4a, 5–10a, 11abα, 12–19, 21–22; 24:10bα, 11–13a, 14a, 25; the blessing layer in Num 22:6aα2b, 12b, 21–35; 23:11bβ, 20, 23a, 25–30; 24:1–6, 9b, 10abβ; and the eschato‐ logical layer in Num 23:10b, 23b–24; 24:14b–24 (“Der Segen Bileams: Eine redak‐ tionsgeschichtliche Problemanzeige zum “Jahwisten” in Num 22–24,” in Abschied vom Jahwisten: Die Komposition des Hexateuch in der jüngsten Diskussion [ed. Jan Chris‐ tian Gertz, Konrad Schmid, and Markus Witte; BZAW 315; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002], 191–213). 35 Mowinckel, “Die Ursprung der Bileamsage,” 233–71. 36 The separation had been made earlier by Cornill, Introduction, 119–20. In addition, the following also distinguish between the poetry and the prose: H. H. Rowley, The Growth of the Old Testament (HUL 45; 3d ed.; London: Hutchinson’s, 1967), 39; Artur Weiser, The Old Testament: Its Formation and Development (trans. Dorothea M. Barton; New York: Association Press, 1961), 104–5; Coppens, “Les oracles de Biléam,” 75; Horst Seebass, “Einige vertrauenswürdige Nachrichten zu Israels Anfängen: Zu den Söhnen Hobabs, Sichon und Bileam im Buch Numeri,” JBL 113 (1994): 582–85. 37 On the unity of and progression within the four poetic oracles, against their former division between J and E, cf. John Sturdy, Numbers (CBC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 157; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 210–12.
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
85
and poetry.38 He regarded the poetic oracles as older than the prose material, in keeping with his larger project of identifying a body of ancient Hebrew poetry preserved in the Bible.39 More recently, Rofé has argued that a prose editor drew on older poetic material.40 He sees all four oracles as earlier than the prose. This position is also held by Le‐ vine, who notes, “The narratives take up themes first introduced in the poems, and modulate them in significant ways. The result is that the narratives project perspectives quite different from those of the po‐ ems.”41 Such a hypothesis is supported by a careful comparison of the prose and the poetry. Although the prose and poetic accounts share certain thematic similarities, they differ in their outlooks. The prose is more strictly monotheistic and attributes Balaam’s visions and other divine intervention to Yahweh (Num 23:3, 5, 12, 16, 26; 24:1, 11, 13) or the generic האלהים, “the deity” (Num 23:27), also in context a reference to Yahweh. The poetry, as discussed further below, includes a pan‐ theon of acting deities: El and Yahweh, and possibly also Shadday and Elyon, though the latter two are more likely titles of El. Balaam’s vi‐ sions come from El (Num 23:8, 19, 22–23; 24:4, 16).42 Furthermore, the prose material, or at least the transitional editorial material at the start of the pericope, assumes a chronological schema not assumed by the poetry. The prose envisions Israel traveling through Transjordan on the way from Egypt to Canaan (Num 22:1, 5); the poetry knows of no such journey but may envision instead a settled Israelite presence east of the Jordan River (Num 22:9–10; 24:5). Additionally, differing uses of the verb לקח in the prose and the poetry may reflect the misconstrual of the poetry by the prose. The verb לקח is used in the prose to refer to Balak’s summoning of Balaam: לקב 38 Albright, “Oracles of Balaam,” 207–8. 39 For a holistic treatment of such a corpus of ancient Hebrew poetry, see William F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths (London: Athlone, 1968), 1–46. 40 Rofé, Book of Balaam, 26–30. See also W. Gunther Plaut, ed., The Torah: A Modern Commentary (New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1981), 895. Jacob Milgrom argues the opposite, that the poems are incomprehensible without the prose and were composed for their present prose context (Numbers [JPSTC; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990], 467–78). Such an approach does not adequately account for the differences between the prose and the poetry. The argu‐ ments of Rofé and Levine, here outlined, are more germane. 41 Levine, Numbers 21–36, 207–8, 210. On the differences between prose and poetry, cf. Timm, Moab, 147–48. 42 Levine, Numbers 21–36, 234.
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איבי לקחתיך והנה ברכת ברך, “In order to curse my enemies I sum‐ moned you, but you have certainly blessed them!” (Num 23:11). This passage is closely tied to a line in the poetry: הנה ברך לקחתי וברך ולא אשׁיבנה, which I have translated “See! I have obtained blessing! So he has blessed and I cannot revoke it!” (Num 23:20). The verb לקח with an infinitive also occurs in Prov 3:1, where the meaning is “obtain”: לקחת מוסר השׂכל, “For obtaining the instruction in wise dealing.” The verb, however, may have a more specific connotation in Num 23:20. Here, the context suggests that the verb refers to divination. Balaam has evidently obtained a particular divinatory result: blessing for Israel. Such a result has made it clear that El has blessed Israel, and Balaam is thus powerless to revoke it. Such a divinatory use of the Akkadian and Ugaritic cognates is at‐ tested. Akkadian leqû occurs with this meaning: bēl niqê ur-tú TI-qé, “the one who brought the sacrificial animal will obtain a (divine) decision” (CT 20 50 r. 16).43 Ugaritic lqḥ is also attested with such a nuance: ymǵ mlʾakk ʿm dtn lqḥ mṯpẓ, “may your messenger come before DTN to obtain the oracular decree” (KTU 1.124 12). If the reference in the Balaam ora‐ cles is also to divination, הנה, “see,” could have a specific meaning: the tangible results of the divination may be on hand, and Balaam may be inviting Balak to inspect them for himself. In the broadest terms, the situation may be similar to that described in Ezek 21:26–27, though the verb לקח is not used there. In that text, the king of Babylon stands at a fork in the road, evidently unsure of which way to go, and thus which city to attack next. He undertakes divination and afterward holds the omen for Jerusalem—and its destruction—in his right hand. If this analysis is correct, the prose has misunderstood the use of לקח in the oracles and has interpreted it instead as a reference to Balak’s summon‐ ing of Balaam. In sum, the prose and the poems reflect different out‐ looks, and the prose seems to draw on the poems.44 A number of arguments for a premonarchic date for the Balaam oracles were put forward in the twentieth century. Albright felt that the contents of the poems reflected historical events taking place perhaps as early as the thirteenth or twelfth century B.C.E., when the invasion of the so‐called Sea Peoples in the Nile Delta precipitated upheavals in the
43 Cf. CAD 9:136, which cites examples from the Epic of Zu, Atrahasis, and a Southern Babylonian extispicy text. On the use of leqû for obtaining legal decisions, cf. CAD 1/II:39. 44 Cf. Levine, Numbers 21–36, 207, 234, 236–37.
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
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Egyptian frontier in Transjordan.45 According to Albright, the oracles may have been attributed to Balaam as early as the twelfth century B.C.E.46 Their orthography, however, suggested to him that they were not committed to writing until the tenth century B.C.E. 47 Cross and Freedman regarded certain grammatical features, such as the presence of energic nun (Num 23:9, 19, 20; 24:17), as pointing to a relatively early date.48 David A. Robertson noted the use of the archaic nominal affix -w (Num 23:18; 24:3, 15), but observed that in the oracles it is used only in the personal name Balaam ben Beor, and names are known to preserve archaic elements.49 According to Robertson, the poem may be archaiz‐ ing rather than archaic.50 Freedman offered a critique of Albright’s view and suggested that the events depicted reflect the early twelfth century B.C.E., while the oracles themselves were composed in the eleventh or tenth century B.C.E.51 The critique of Albright’s early date for the oracles has been taken further by Stefan Timm and Andreas Schüle, who were mentioned above and who regard this material as postexilic.52 Timm offers four lines of evidence that in his view point to a late date.53 First, the poetic parallelism between Israel and Jacob (Num 23:21, 23; 24:5) does not occur in preexilic texts. Second, the use of נאם in connection with a human being (Num 24:3) belongs to a late period in the development of prophetic speech. Third, the names שדי and עליון for the deity occur only in texts from the exile and later. Fourth, the religious perspective of the oracles suggests that they do not precede the Deir ‘Alla plaster 45 Albright, “Oracles of Balaam,” 231. Some connection with the events surrounding the invasion of the Sea Peoples is also maintained by Johannes C. de Moor (The Rise of Yahwism: The Roots of Israelite Monotheism [BETL 91; Leuven: University Press, 1990], 153–54). 46 Albright, “Oracles of Balaam,” 233. 47 Albright, “Oracles of Balaam,” 210. 48 Frank Moore Cross Jr. and David Noel Freedman, Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry (BRS; repr., Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1997), 75. 49 David A. Robertson, Linguistic Evidence in Dating Early Hebrew Poetry (SBLDS 3; Missoula, Mont.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972), 76–77. 50 Robertson, Linguistic Evidence, 145. 51 David Noel Freedman, Pottery, Poetry and Prophecy: Studies in Early Hebrew Poetry (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1980), 78, 170. Susan E. Gillingham also holds to a premonarchic date (The Poems and Psalms of the Hebrew Bible [OBS; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994], 117). 52 On the question of late dating, Timm cites A. Freiherr von Gall, “Zusammensetzung und Herkunft der Bileam‐Perikope in Num. 22–24,” in Festgruss Bernhard Stade (ed. Schülern W. Diehl et al.; Giessen: Töpelmann, 1900), 2–47. 53 Timm, Moab, 97–158, with summary on 156.
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inscriptions, but come afterward. He therefore concludes that the ora‐ cles are of little value for reconstructing the history of Moab in the late Bronze and Iron Ages. Schüle offers a critique of Albright’s ortho‐ graphic, metrical, and morphological arguments for an early date.54 He argues that two features of the text point to late Aramaic influence: the use of an anticipatory pronominal suffix on the nomen regens of a con‐ struct chain (בנו in 23:18; 24:3), and the use of the imperfect with an object suffix with energic nun (יקימנה in 23:19; אשיבנה in 23:20; יקימנו in 24:9).55 Although the critique of Albright’s position offered by Timm and Schüle serves as a caution, their arguments for a postexilic date are less convincing. A problem for Timm’s view, as for Albright’s, is that the corpus of biblical poems that might date to the eighth century or earlier is relatively small. Arguments about what such early poems should or should not contain are difficult to sustain. Although Timm is correct in noting the many occurrences of poetic parallelism between Israel and Jacob in Deutero‐Isaiah, the pairing also occurs in Gen 49:2, 7, 24; Deut 33:10, 28; 2 Sam 23:1; Ps 78:5, 21, 71; 81:5; it is difficult to accept that all of these texts are postexilic. Outside Num 22–24, I can find only two biblical occurrences of נאם where the term relates to a human being (נאם דוד בן ישי ונאם הגבר הקם in 2 Sam 23:1; נאם הגבר in Prov 30:1). The only occurrence in the nonbiblical texts from Qumran is in a pas‐ sage that cites the Balaam oracles (4Q175 9–10). With such a small data set, it is difficult to see how this usage could point to a late stage in the development of prophecy. El is a widely known divine name in many periods, as has been demonstrated by Mark S. Smith.56 Shadday occurs in Gen 49:25 and Ps 68:15, which are hard to dismiss as postexilic. More to the point, the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts, which date to before 722 B.C.E., as is discussed further below, also mention these divine terms. Their use in the Balaam oracles points to the Transjordanian provenance of these traditions rather than their supposed late date. Timm points to the portrayal of Balaam and the divine pantheon in Num 22–24 as sug‐ gesting a date for this material after the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts. The oracles themselves, however, are not as strictly monotheistic as the prose in Num 22–24. As will be clear from my discussion of the oracles in this chapter, Balaam and the divine realm are treated in much the same manner in the oracles and in the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts. There is 54 Schüle, Israels Sohn, 80–81. 55 Schüle, Israels Sohn, 80–81. 56 Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 135–48.
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
89
no clear evolutionary relationship between them. As for the evidence adduced by Schüle, alternative explanations for the phenomena he observes are equally plausible. The ו on בנו may be understood as a remnant of the case system, as argued by Paul Joüon.57 Furthermore, the paragogic vowel here occurs only in personal names; if Schüle were correct we might have expected it to occur with other bound nouns as well (e.g., 23:19, 24; 24:4). The imperfect with an object suffix with ener‐ gic nun may be a remnant of an old verbal modal system, as has been suggested by Waltke and O’Connor.58 Regardless of its origin and func‐ tion, it is found in the preexilic, and probably premonarchic, Judg 5:26 (;)תשלחנה there is therefore no reason to regard its use in the Balaam oracles as necessitating a postexilic date. While the arguments for a premonarchic date may not be compel‐ ling, there is reasonable evidence to suggest that the oracles date to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. The poems reflect a period of Israelite ascendancy in Transjordan.59 Israel is depicted as permanently blessed by El and Yahweh, so that Moab is unable to attack it (Num 23:7–8, 19– 21).60 This Israelite dominance in Transjordan points to a period before 722 B.C.E., when the Assyrian invasions permanently altered the politi‐ cal landscape of the region.61 A reconstruction of the history of Israelite‐ Moabite relations in the Transjordan suggests an even earlier date, in the ninth century B.C.E.62 Evidence for the internal political situation in Transjordan during the ninth century B.C.E. comes from the biblical book of Kings, and from the Mesha Stele.63 The relevant section of the Mesha Stele reads:64 57 58 59 60
Joüon §93r. Cf. GKC §90o. IBHS 20.2f, 31.1.1, 31.7.2. Cf. Joüon §61f. Levine, Numbers 21–36, 78–80. Cf. Gerhard von Rad, who does not discuss the pantheon of deities at work, but who exegetes the blessed state of Israel in the oracles (“Du Texte au Sermon: Nombres 22:36, 41; 23:7–12; 24:1–7,” ETR 46 [1971]: 217–30). 61 Similar observations are made by Theodore H. Robinson, The Poetry of the Old Testa‐ ment (repr., London: Gerald Duckworth, 1960), 53–54. 62 Cf. similar arguments in Levine, Numbers 21–36, 231–32. 63 Cf. Stefan Timm, Die Dynastie Omri: Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Israels im 9. Jahrhundert vor Christus (FRLANT 124; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982), 158–80; Karl‐Heinz Bernhardt, “The Political Situation in the East of Jordan during the Time of King Mesha‘,” in Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan I (ed. A. Hadid; Amman: Department of Antiquities of Jordan, 1982), 163–67; Mor‐ dechai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor, II Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 11; New York: Doubleday, 1988), 48–52; James Maxwell Miller, “Moab and the Moabites,” in Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab (ed. John Andrew Dearman; ABS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 1–40; Mordechai Cogan,
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1. I am Mesha, son of Kemosh‐[Yat],65 king of Moab, the Daibonite.66 2. My father reigned67 over Moab thirty years and I myself became king68 3. after my father. Now I myself69 made this high place70 for Kemosh in Qarkho.71 I bu[ilt it]72
64
65
66
67
68 69
70
1 Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 10; New York: Dou‐ bleday, 2000), 418–19, 473. The text given here is based in part on a facsimile of the stone in the library of the Princeton Theological Seminary. The reconstruction of the Mesha Stele in the Louvre is dependent on the work of Clermont‐Ganneau, who made squeezes of the stone before it was shattered (M. Patrick Graham, “The Discovery of the Mesha‘ Inscrip‐ tion,” in Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab [ed. John Andrew Dearman; ABS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989], 41–92). The present text differs from the reconstructed Louvre stele, where other textual reconstructions seem more likely, as indicated in the footnotes. The restoration is based on a fragment found at Kerak mentioning [k]mšyt (W. L. Reed and F. V. Winnett, “A Fragment of an Early Moabite Inscription from Kerak,” BASOR 172 [1963]: 1–9). The line breaks as follows: יבני/הד. On the vocalization with the diphthong, cf. Frank Moore Cross Jr. and David Noel Freedman, Early Hebrew Orthography: A Study of the Epigraphic Evidence (AOS 36; New Haven, Conn..: American Oriental Society, 1952), 36. The noun הדיבני seems to be in apposition to מלך מעב. There is some dis‐ agreement, however, as to whether these two phrases should together be taken to be in apposition to [כמש]ית or if [בן כמש]ית, מלך מעב, and הדיבני are all in apposition to משע. The latter seems more likely in light of the overall sentence structure and the fact that the sentence is the first of the inscription and thus serves primarily to iden‐ tify Mesha himself. The name is generally taken to correspond to modern Dhiban, which was where the Mesha Stele itself was first encountered by Europeans in 1868. Recently, however, Eveline J. van der Steen and Klaas A. D. Smelik have argued that Mesha belonged to a tribe called Dibon that had its capital at Qarkho (“King Mesha and the Tribe of Dibon,” JSOT 32 [2007]: 139–62). Although there is no change to the overall sense of the passage, Kent P. Jackson points out the ambiguity here of whether to take this as a verbal or nominal form (“The Language of the Mesha Inscription,” in Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab [ed. John Andrew Dearman; ABS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989], 103). The line breaks as follows: תי/מלכ. Translated thus to reflect the emphasis in the original, where the normal verb‐initial syntax is disrupted. Cf. W. Randall Garr, Dialect Geography of Syria‐Palestine: 1000– 586 B.C.E. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 190; Jackson, “Language of the Mesha Inscription,” 104. The phrase הבמת זאת is important for Klaas A. D. Smelik’s identification of the inscription as a building inscription rather than a victory report (Writings from An‐ cient Israel: A Handbook of Historical and Religious Documents [trans. Graham I. Davies; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox, 1991], 36–37). In a similar vein, others re‐ gard it as a memorial inscription. See John D. Davis, “The Moabite Stone and the Hebrew Records,” Heb 7 (1891): 178; James Maxwell Miller, “The Moabite Stone as a Memorial Stela,” PEQ 106 (1974): 9–18; Joel Drinkard, “The Literary Genre of the Mesha‘ Inscription,” in Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab (ed. John Andrew Dearman; ABS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 131–54; Simon B. Parker, Stories in
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
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4. [as vi]ctor because he delivered me from all despoilers73 and because he made me gloat74 over all my enemies. Now Omri was75 5. king of76 Israel.77 He humbled Moab many days because Kemosh was angry with his land.78
71
72
73
74 75
Scripture and Inscriptions: Comparative Studies on Narratives in Northwest Semitic In‐ scriptions and the Hebrew Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 55–58. As a building inscription, its primary purpose is not the accurate chronological delinea‐ tion of Israelite‐Moabite relations. However, Thomas L. Thompson’s identification of the inscription as belonging to a genre of tales about kings long past, and his resul‐ tant rejection of the historical value of the inscription, is hardly warranted (“Prob‐ lems of Genre and Historicity with Palestine’s Inscriptions,” in Congress Volume: Oslo 1998 [ed. A. Lemaire and M. Sæbø; VTSup 80; Leiden: Brill, 2000], 321–26). On the uncertainty of the vocalization, cf. Cross and Freedman, Early Hebrew Orthog‐ raphy, 36. Scholars, believing the inscription to have been found in situ in modern‐ day Dhiban, suggest that Qarkho is a district or suburb of Dibon. See John C. L. Gib‐ son, Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions (3 vols.; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 1:78. Van der Steen and Smelik propose that Qarkho was the capital of the tribal kindom of Dibon, and later the town name was abbreviated from Qarkho of the Diboni to Dibon (“King Mesha and the Tribe of Dibon,” 156). Here following the reconstruction of Edward Lipiński, who relies on those with access to the original squeezes (“Etymological and Exegetical Notes on the Meša‘ In‐ scription,” Or 40 [1971]: 327–28). The line breaks as follows: שע/[נ.בנ]תה. The similarity in the script between ש and מ led to early division amongst the com‐ mentators as to the reading here. Christian D. Ginsburg, citing others, reads שלכן (The Moabite Stone: A Fac‐Simile of the Original Inscription with an English Translation and a Historical Commentary [2d ed.; London: Reeves and Turner, 1871], 37, 52). S. R. Driver read מלכן (Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Book of Samuel [Oxford: Clar‐ endon Press, 1890], xc). מלכן would make a reasonable parallel with the following sentence, but Ganneau, who would have had the best access to the original frag‐ ments, rejected it as incompatible with the evidence. My own examination of the fac‐ simile at Princeton Theological Seminary confirms this. The area in which the sup‐ posed tail of the מ would lie is not substantially eroded. In other words, the surface of the stone in this area is well above the depth of the inscribed letters. One cannot therefore posit that the tail has been erased. However, while שלכן appears to be a better reading, its etymology is difficult. C. D. Ginsburg’s attempt is typical: “As the noun שָׁ לָ ְך . . . denotes in Hebrew a bird of prey, from the fact that it throws itself upon (שלך, to cast) its victim, and, moreover, as this name is supposed to have been given to the cormorant (Levit. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 17), from the habit of this bird to cast or plunge itself upon the fish it eats, we may easily presume that this appellative de‐ noted other despoilers who manifested the same characteristics of pouncing upon their victims” (Moabite Stone, 37). On the metaphorical use of animals, Mitchell J. Da‐ hood points to Isa 46:11 and Jer 12:7–9 (“The Moabite Stone,” 429–30). Although such etymology may not be entirely convincing, the context suggests some kind of political and military enemy. Cf. also Gibson, Syrian Semitic Inscriptions, 1:78; Jack‐ son, “Language of the Mesha Inscription,” 105. Cf. the use of Hebrew ראה with the preposition ב in Obad 12; Ps 22:18; 37:34; 54:9; 112:8. The line breaks as follows: י/עמר.
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6. His son succeeded him and he also said, “I will humble Moab!” In my days he spoke th[us].79 7. But I gloated over him and his house. And Israel has certainly fled for‐ ever! Now Omri had taken possession of the whole land80 8. of Mehdeba.81 And (Israel) dwelt there in his days and half the days of his son, forty years, but82 9. Kemosh [retu]rned it in my days . . .
While there are many difficulties in reconstructing a precise chronology of Israelite‐Moabite relations on the basis of the Mesha Stele and the biblical texts, a broad picture of their relations in the ninth century B.C.E. can be painted.83 It seems that Omri, in the early ninth century 76 As in line 2, there is some ambiguity as to whether to take this as a nominal or verbal form. Jackson notes that the absence of a preposition before ישראל suggests that it is probably a noun in the construct state (“Language of the Mesha Inscription,” 103). 77 In light of the fact that the following verbal form is a waw‐consecutive it seems best to take the phrase עמרי מלך ישראל as its own sense unit. 78 The line breaks as follows: צה/באר. 79 The reconstruction at the end of this line is uncertain. Driver proposed כָּ כָ ה on the analogy of 1 Kgs 1:48 (Notes on the Hebrew Text of Samuel, xc). He criticized the previ‐ ously proposed [כ]דבר because there seemed to be insufficient space for more than two letters and one might better expect כדבר הזה, as in Biblical Hebrew. C. D. Ginsburg argued that the waw of the next line suggests that it is a verb that is lacking and he suggested נֵצֵ א or נ ְֵלָך, “let us go” (Moabite Stone, 39). He therefore translated the next several clauses as being the words of Omri. Lipiński believed he saw the top half of a מ and restored [כ]מש, therefore translating as “in my days Kamoš spoke” (“Etymological and Exegetical Notes,” 329–30). The reconstruction followed here is that of Gibson and Jackson and Dearman (Syrian Semitic Inscriptions 1:78; “Text of the Mesha‘ Inscription,” 94). 80 The line breaks as follows: צ/[א]ר. 81 On the uncertain vocalization, cf. Cross and Freedman, Early Hebrew Orthography, 38; Gibson, Syrian Semitic Inscriptions, 1:78. 82 The line breaks as follows: כמש.בה/[ו]יש.שת. 83 According to the chronology of the books of Kings, as reconstructed by Mordecai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor, Omri would have ruled from 882 to 871 B.C.E., his son Ahab from 873 to 872 B.C.E., his grandson Ahaziah from 852–851 B.C.E. and his other grandson, Jehoram, from 851 to 842 B.C.E., before the dynasty was overthrown by Jehu (II Kings [AB 11; Garden City: Doubleday, 1988], 341). The dynasty would thus have reigned for about forty years. 2 Kgs 3 describes a battle between Mesha and an Israelite coalition in the time of Jehoram. These dates seem to conflict with the chro‐ nology suggested by lines 7–9 of the Mesha inscription. As Dearman points out, at least three interpretive issues are involved (“Historical Reconstruction and the Me‐ sha‘ Inscription,” in Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab [ed. John Andrew Dearman; ABS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989], 164). First, is the “forty years” re‐ ferred to in line 8 of the Mesha inscription a figurative or a literal number? Second, should חצי in line 8 be taken to mean “half,” as in Biblical Hebrew, or as something vaguer, such as “portion,” “part,” or “section”? Third, does בנה in line 8 mean “his son” or “his sons”? On the chronological difficulties, cf. Noth, “Israelitische Stämme
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
93
B.C.E., consolidated the Israelite presence in Transjordan, including northern Moab (Mesha Stele 4–5, 7). 84 Both the Mesha Stele and the biblical text assume that Moab remained subservient to Israel until Mesha led a rebellion, sometime in the middle of the ninth century B.C.E. (Mesha Stele 8–9; 2 Kgs 1:1; 3:4–5).85 Additionally, both sources agree that Mesha achieved some level of military success against Israel (Mesha Stele 7, 9; 2 Kgs 3:26–27).86 The Mesha Stele and the book of Kings thus provide evidence for Israelite dominance over Moab from the time of Omri to the middle of the ninth century B.C.E. The first three Balaam oracles envision the Israelite presence in Transjordan as unchal‐ lenged and unchallengeable by Moab. This picture of supremacy in the Balaam oracles best fits a period prior to Mesha’s victories over Israel in the Transjordan in the middle of the ninth century B.C.E.87 A terminus post quem is more difficult to pin down. Prior to Omri, Saul and David are depicted as paying attention to the Transjordan region.88 Already in the premonarchic period, as Judg 5:16–17 suggests,
84
85
86
87 88
zwischen Ammon und Moab,” 43–47; Timm, Dynastie Omri, 163–65; Klaas A. D. Smelik, Converting the Past: Studies in Ancient Israelite and Moabite Historiography (OtSt 28; Leiden: Brill, 1992), 80–83; Gershon Galil, The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah (SHCANE 9; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 22, 41; Parker, Stories in Scripture, 56; Niels Pe‐ ter Lemche, “On the Problems of Reconstructing Pre‐Hellenistic Israelite (Palestin‐ ian) History,” JHebS 3 (2000): 3–5; Anson F. Rainey, “Mesha’s Attempt to Invade Judah (2 Chron 20),” in Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Pre‐ sented to Zechariah Kallai (ed. Gershon Galil and Moshe Weinfeld; VTSup 81; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 174–76; Lawrence J. Mykytiuk, Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E. (AcBib 12; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Litera‐ ture, 2004), 108; Anson F. Rainey and R. Steven Notley, The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s At‐ las of the Biblical World (Jerusalem: Carta, 2006), 203–5. Bernhardt, “Political Situation,” 165; Cyrus H. Gordon and Gary A. Rendsburg, The Bible and the Ancient Near East (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1997), 224; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 130. Cf. the discussion in Stefan Timm, “Die territoriale Ausdehnung des Staates Israel zur Zeit der Omriden,” in “Gott kommt von Teman . . . ”: Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte Israels und Syrien‐Palästinas (ed. Claudia Bender and Michael Pietsch; AOAT 314; Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag, 2004), 1–26. William Rainey Harper, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea (ICC; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1905), 40; John Gray, I & II Kings: A Commentary (OTL; 2d ed.; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1963), 460; Bright, History of Israel, 248; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 130–31; Kenneth A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), 35. As noted above, it is not entirely clear that the same Moabite victory is in view in 2 Kgs 3 and the Mesha Stele. Cf. Richard D. Nelson, First and Second Kings (IBC; At‐ lanta: John Knox Press, 1987), 164–68. Dijkstra, “Geography of the Story of Balaam,” 92; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 232. In 1 Sam 14:47, Saul fights Moab. While a fugitive, David leaves his parents with the king of Moab, according to 1 Sam 22:3–4. The Moabites reportedly become David’s
94
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the Transjordanian Reubenites and Gileadites had ties with the Cisjor‐ danian tribes.89 An Israelite connection with Transjordan was thus long‐ standing. At the same time, Dijkstra observes that a terminus post quem may be provided by the apparent mention of Agag, king of Amalek, in the third oracle (Num 24:7).90 Though the story of Saul’s conflict with Agag in 1 Sam 15 has undergone some Deuteronomistic redaction, it may be that this ruler belonged to the period of the early united monar‐ chy.91 If so, and if the two Agags are identical, then the mention of him in the oracles would provide a terminus post quem in the early monar‐ chic period. Without clear arguments for the historical reliability of the traditions preserved in 1 Sam 15, however, it is perhaps safer to say that the Balaam oracles date to the eighth or ninth century B.C.E. or earlier, rather than to posit for them a firm terminus post quem. Other scholars favoring a date in the monarchic period include Marcus M. Kalisch (c. 1030 B.C.E. for the original book of Balaam, including the oracles), George A. Smith (between the time of Saul and fall of the northern kingdom), Robert H. Pfeiffer (c. 950 B.C.E. for the first two oracles), Theodore H. Robinson (ninth century B.C.E. or earlier, probably from the time of David), Meindert Dijkstra (tenth century B.C.E. for the first and fourth oracles), Kevin J. Cathcart (early monarchy), and Christoph Levin (monarchic).92
89
90
91 92
servants and bring him tribute in 2 Sam 8:2, while 2 Sam 24:5–7 reports a census taken by David of the people, including sections of northern Moab. Cf. Marc Zvi Brettler, The Creation of History in Ancient Israel (London: Routledge, 1995), 83. Cf. Magnus Ottosson, Gilead: Tradition and History (trans. Jean Gray; ConBOT 3; Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1969), 138–40; John L. McKenzie, The World of the Judges (PHBB; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1966), 87–88; Cross, “Reuben,” 48–57; John Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yahwist as Historian in Exodus‐Numbers (Louis‐ ville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 448–49. Dijkstra, “Geography of the Story of Balaam,” 95. Similar observations are made by George A. Smith, The Early Poetry of Israel in Its Physical and Social Origins (London: British Academy, 1912), 71; Rudolf Kittel, The Religion of the People of Israel (trans. R. Caryl Micklem; London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1925), 34; J. Alberto Soggin, Introduc‐ tion to the Old Testament: From Its Origins to the Closing of the Alexandrian Canon (trans. John Bowden; OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1989), 78–79. Note also Schüle, Israels Sohn, 32 n1. Cf. Sa‐Moon Kang, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East (BZAW 177; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989), 191. Kalisch, Prophecies of Balaam, 43; Smith, Early Poetry, 71; Robert H. Pfeiffer, Introduc‐ tion to the Old Testament (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1941), 277; Robinson, Poetry of the Old Testament, 53–54; Dijkstra, “Geography of the Story of Balaam,” 96; Kevin J. Cathcart, “Numbers 24:17 in Ancient Translations and Interpretations,” in Interpreta‐ tion of the Bible: The International Symposium in Slovenia (ed. Jože Krašovec; JSOTSup 289; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 511; Christoph Levin, The Old Testa‐
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
95
A date in the eight century or earlier is broadly confirmed by com‐ paring other biblical and nonbiblical traditions about Balaam. Balaam is depicted positively in the biblical Balaam oracles as an authentic seer (Num 24:4, 15–16) who defended Israel against the Moabite king Balak (Num 23:7–8, 19–20). 93 Other scattered biblical portrayals of Balaam, however, are not always so positive. These other biblical allusions are so brief that some caution must be exercised in extrapolating from them. Nevertheless, there seems to be some contrast between this addi‐ tional biblical material and the oracles in Num 22–24. While Mic 6:5 emphasizes Balaam’s role in rebuffing Balak, Neh 13:2 and Deut 23:4–5 see Balaam as a neutral figure—or perhaps even a conspirator with Balak—who was prevented from harming Israel by Yahweh’s interven‐ tion. Numbers 31:16, probably attributable to P, goes even further and portrays Balaam negatively. There, he is apparently assigned blame for the sin of the Israelites at Baal‐Peor.94 As already noted, the story of the ass (Num 22:22–35), seems to disparage Balaam’s ability to see pro‐ phetically, and it too stands in contrast to the oracles. The positive por‐ trayal of Balaam in the oracles in Num 22–24 evidently points to a pe‐ riod when Balaam was still revered as a seer who played a positive role in defending Israel against the machinations of the Moabite king Balak. ment: A Brief Introduction (trans. Margaret Kohl; Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), 65. 93 On the shifting assessment of Baal in biblical tradition, see Herbert Donner, “Balaam Pseudopropheta,” in Beiträge zur alttestamentlichen Theologie: Festschrift für Walther Zimmerli zum 70. Geburtstag (ed. Herbert Donner, Robert Hanhart, and Rudolf Smend; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977), 119–23; Schmidt, “Bileamüber‐ lieferung,” 257–61; Hans‐Peter Müller, “Die aramäische Inschrift von Deir ‘Alla und die älteren Bileamsprüche,” ZAW 94 (1982): 243; George W. Coats, “The Way of Obedience: Traditio‐Historical and Hermeneutical Reflections on the Balaam Story,” Semeia 24 (1982): 53–79; Michael S. Moore, The Balaam Traditions: Their Character and Development (SBLDS 33; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990), 118–22; John T. Greene, Ba‐ laam and His Interpreters: A Hermeneutical History of the Balaam Traditions (BJS 244; At‐ lanta: Scholars Press, 1992), 69–81; Dijkstra, “Geography of the Story of Balaam,” 92; David Frankel, “The Deuteronomic Portrayal of Balaam,” VT 46 (1996): 30–42; John Van Seters, “From Faithful Prophet to Villain: Observations on the Tradition History of the Balaam Story,” in A Biblical Itinerary. In Search of Method, Form and Content: Es‐ says in Honor of Geroge W. Coats (ed. Eugene E. Carpenter; JSOTSup 240; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 126–32; Harriet Lutzky, “Ambivalence toward Ba‐ laam,” VT 49 (1999): 421–25. On the positive recognition of foreign augury within Is‐ raelite tradition, cf. also Brian B. Schmidt, “Canaanite Magic vs. Israelite Religion: Deuteronomy 18 and the Taxonomy of Taboo,” in Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World (ed. Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer; RGRW 141; Leiden: Brill, 2002), 251. 94 Greene, Balaam and His Interpreters, 69–75.
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Such a positive portrayal of Balaam is also reflected in the plaster texts from Tell Deir ‘Alla, a site in the Transjordan region near the mouth of the Jabboq River.95 While paleographic analysis of the inscrip‐ tions allowed for a date in the late eighth or early seventh century B.C.E., carbon‐14 analysis and the site stratigraphy (itself based largely on an analysis of the presence and absence of Egyptian‐ and Assyrian‐ style pottery) suggested a date for the inscription of c. 800 B.C.E.96 The plaster texts have been reconstructed in two combinations, the first more readable, and more relevant to the present discussion, than the second. The first half of the first combination reads:97
95 The fragmentary plaster texts were discovered at excavations in 1967 by a Dutch team under H. Franken. The first edition of the text was undertaken by J. Hoftijzer and G. van der Kooij in Aramaic Texts from Deir ‘Alla (DMOA 19; Leiden: Brill, 1976). 96 Hoftijzer and van der Kooij, Aramaic Texts, 94–96; M. M. Ibrahim and G. van der Kooij, “The Archaeology of Deir ‘Alla Phase IX,” in The Balaam Text from Deir ‘Alla re‐ evaluated: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Leiden 21–24 August 1989 (ed. J. Hoftijzer and G. van der Kooij; Leiden: Brill, 1991), 27–28. On the paleographic dating, see also Hackett, who suggests a date as late as the early seventh century B.C.E. (Balaam Text, 18–19). Cf. also Schüle, Israels Sohn, 120–22. Cf. Erhard Blum, “Die Kombination I der Wandinschrift vom Tell Deir ‘Alla: Vorschläge zur Rekonstruk‐ tion mit historisch‐kritischen Anmerkungen,” in Berührungspunkte: Studien zur Sozial‐ und Religionsgeschichte Israels und seiner Umwelt (ed. I. Kottsieper, R. Schmitt, and J. Wöhrle; AOAT 350; Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag, 2008), 594–98. 97 The arrangement of the lines followed here, which differs from the standard ar‐ rangement by fragments, is that of Levine (Numbers 21–36, 244–45). Following the initial publication by Hoftijzer and van der Kooij, a major rearrangement of the ma‐ terial was suggested by André Caquot and André Lemaire (Aramaic Texts, 173–82; “Les textes araméens de Deir ‘Alla,” Syria 54 [1977]: 189–208). Jo Ann Hackett of‐ fered a further edition of the text after consulting the plaster originals (Balaam Text, 25–30). Other contributions to the reconstruction of the text include P. Kyle McCarter Jr., “The Balaam Texts from Deir ‘Alla: The First Combination,” BASOR 239 (1980): 49–60; Baruch Levine, “The Deir ‘Alla Plaster Inscriptions” (review of J. Hoftijzer and G. van der Kooij, Aramaic Texts from Deir ‘Alla) JAOS 101 (1981): 195–205; Müller, “Die aramäische Inschrift von Deir ‘Alla,” 216–38; E. Puech, “Le texte ‘ammonite’ de Deir ‘Alla: Les admonitions de Balaam (première partie),” in La vie de la parole: De l’Ancien au Nouveau Testament: Études d’exégèse et d’herméneutique bibliques offertes à Pi‐ erre Grelot (Paris: Desclée, 1987), 13–30; Blum, “Kombination I,” 573–601; Erhard Blum, “‘Verstehst du dich nicht auf die Schreibkunst . . . ?’ Ein weisheitlicher Dialog über Vergänglichkeit und Verantwortung: Kombination II der Wandinschrift vom Tell Deir ‘Alla,” in Was ist der Mensch, dass du seiner gedenkst? (Psalm 8,5): Aspekte einer theologischen Anthropologie (ed. M. Bauks, K. Liess, and P. Riede; Neukirchen‐ Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2008), 33–51.
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
97
1. [vacat]98 ʾmry99 . blʿm . b[rbʿ]r . ʾš . ḥzh . ʾlhn . hʾ [.] 2. wyʾtw . ʾlwh100 . ʾlhn . blylh [. w]yḥz . mḥzh . km[šʾ]101 . ʾl . 3. wyʾmrw lb[lʿ]m . brbʿr . 4. kh . ypʿl [ ]ʾ102 . ʾḥrʾh . 5. ʾš . lr[ʾ h . mh . šm]ʿt103 . 6. wyqm . blʿm . mn . mḥr . hn104 [ ]lt 7. y[zmn . rʾšy qhl . ʾ]lwh105 . 8. wlym[yn . yṣ]m106 . wbkh . ybkh . 9. wyʿl . ʿmh . ʾlwh107 . wyʾm[rw .]108 lblʿm . brbʿr . 10. lm tṣm . wlm tbkh 11. wyʾmr lhm . 12. šbw . ʾḥwkm . mh . šdyn109 . ḥ[ ]110
98 So Hackett, Balaam Texts, 25; McCarter, “Balaam Texts,” 51. Levine follows Puech in reading ysry, and translates, “the misfortunes of,” in light of Late Hebrew yissûr, “suf‐ fering, discipline” (Numbers 21–36, 246–47). 99 Following the suggestion of McCarter (“Balaam Texts,” 51). In favor of McCarter’s suggestion is the occurrence of the same root, apparently with the technical meaning “(oracular) utterance,” in Num 24:4, 16. As such the usage would be parallel to דברי עמוס, “The (oracular) words of Amos” (Amos 1:1; cf. Jer 1:1). As Hackett points out, the r is reasonably clear and the preceding letter is either m, p, or k (Balaam Text, 31). The reading spr, offered by Caquot and Lemaire, is thus also possible and would be suitable to the beginning of a text (“Les textes Araméens,” 194). So also Schüle, Is‐ raels Sohn, 128; Blum, “Kombination I,” 576. Cf. זה ספר תולדת אדם, “This is the ac‐ count of the generations of man” (Gen 5:1). 100 ʾlwh is written above the line; evidently it was initially omitted by haplography and then corrected by the scribe. Cf. McCarter, “Balaam Texts,” 52; Hackett, Balaam Text, 32. The important implication is that the text was copied from an existing document. 101 Following the reading of Hackett, which makes sense in the context (Balaam Text, 33). So also Blum, “Kombination I,” 577. The fragmentary nature of the text also allows the restoration kmlyʾ, with emphatic aleph, which is suggested by Caquot and Lemaire and McCarter (“Les textes Araméens,” 194; “Balaam Texts,” 51). 102 Levine reads blʾ and understands the clause to mean “without a future” (Numbers 21– 36, 248). He thus translates, “with naught surviving” (Numbers 21–36, 245). 103 Following the restoration of Levine, Numbers 21–36, 244. McCarter offers instead, ʾš . lrʾt . zy . šmʿt (“Balaam Texts,” 51). Blum offers as an alternative: ʾš . lrth {h}ṭb[h . ]kʿt (“Kombination I,” 577). 104 So Levine, Numbers 21–36, 244. 105 As suggested by Puech (“Le texte Ammonite,” 19). He inserted known fragments into the lacuna, yielding yzmn and qhl; rʾš was then a contextual guess. Cf. Levine, Numbers 21–36, 248. 106 The restoration is that of Puech and is based on the contextual references to Balaam’s weeping and fasting (“Le texte Ammonite,” 19–20). Cf. Levine, Numbers 21–36, 248. 107 The initial publication read here ʾlqh. McCarter suggested instead ʾlwh, which is better suited to the context and was confirmed as a suitable possibility by Hackett after her examination of the plaster (“Balaam Texts,” 53; Balaam Text, 37). Cf. Blum, “Kombi‐ nation I,” 577. 108 Following the restoration suggested by McCarter (“Balaam Texts,” 51).
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13. wlkw . rʾw . pʿlt . ʾlhn . 14. ʾl[h]n111 . ʾtyḥdw . wnṣbw . šdyn . mwʿd 15. wʾmrw . lš[gr]112 16. tpry . skry . šmyn . bʿb 17. ky . šm . ḥsk . wʾl . ngh ʿṭm113 . wʾl smr114 18. ky . thby . ḥt[t. bʿ]b115 . ḥšk 19. wʾl . thgy . ʿd . ʿlm . 20. ky ssʿgr . ḥrpt . nšr . 21. wql116 [.] rḥmn . yʿnh . 22. ḥ[sdh .] bny nṣṣ117 . wṣdh118 . 23. ʾprḥy . ʾnph . drr . nšrt . 24. ywn . wṣpr [.ʿp bšm]yn119
109 Following McCarter, Hackett, Levine, and Blum (“Balaam Texts,” 53; Balaam Text, 39; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 12; “Kombination I,” 577). Hoftijzer and van der Kooij sug‐ gest restoring instead šgr (Aramaic Texts, 273–74). 110 As Levine notes, the ḥ is quite legible (Numbers 21–36, 249). McCarter’s suggested šd[yn . pʿlw .] and Blum’s restored šd[yn . ypʿl]w are thus difficult to accept (“Balaam Texts,” 51; “Kombination I,” 577). Puech suggests ḥ[šbw], “they planned,” which is followed also by Levine (“Le texte Ammonite,” 21; Numbers 21–36, 249). 111 As suggested by McCarter (“Balaam Texts,” 51). So also Blum, “Kombination I,” 577. 112 Following the restoration of Levine, which is based on the mention of the goddess Shagar‐and‐Ishtar in line 39, and the fact that feminine verbal forms follow in line 16 (Numbers 21–36, 249). Schüle offers lš[mš.], and Blum thinks that the final š of such a reading is partially visible (Israels Sohn, 129; “Kombination I,” 577). 113 The reading ʿṭm is that suggested by Hoftijzer and van der Kooij and followed by Puech, Levine, Schüle, and Blum (Aramaic Texts, 106; “Le texte Ammonite,” 22; Num‐ bers 21–36, 250–51; Israels Sohn, 129; “Kombination I,” 577). McCarter and Hacket read instead ʿlm (“Balaam Texts, 51; Balaam Text, 25). 114 So Hoftijzer and van der Kooij, McCarter, Puech, Levine, Schüle, and Blum (Aramaic Texts, 106; “Balaam Texts,” 51; “Le texte Ammonite,” 22; Numbers 21–36, 50–51; Is‐ raels Sohn, 128; “Kombination I,” 577). Hackett reads instead skr (Balaam Text, 45). 115 So Levine (Numbers 21–36, 251). He points to Hebrew חת, “dread, fear,” (Gen 49:2; Job 41:25), and חתת (Gen 35:5). He also notes as a biblical parallel to the usage here in DAPT, אשׁר נתנו חתיתם בארץ חיים, “who instilled their fear in the land of the liv‐ ing” (Ezek 32:24). McCarter and Hackett restore instead ḥt[m] (“Balaam Texts,” 51; Balaam Text, 45). The restoration [bʿ]b is suggested by Levine, who points to the in‐ terplay between ʿb, “dense cloud,” and ḥšk, “darkness,” in 2 Sam 22 (Ps 18):12–13; Isa 25:5; 60:19; Job 22:14 (Numbers 21–36, 250). 116 Following the reading of McCarter and Hackett (“Balaam Texts,” 51; Balaam Text, 25). Levine reads instead wqn and translates as “and a nest of” (Numbers 21–36, 244, 246). Cf. Schüle, Israels Sohn, 129; Blum, “Kombination I,” 578. 117 So Levine, who cites Hebrew נץ (Numbers 21–36, 251). McCarter, Hackett, Schüle, and Blum read nḥṣ (“Balaam Texts,” 51; Balaam Text, 48–49; Israels Sohn, 129; “Kom‐ bination I,” 578). 118 So Levine, who cites the bird ṣdh attested in the Aramaic treaty from Sefire (Numbers 21–36, 251). So also Blum, “Kombination I,” 578. McCarter, Hackett, and Schüle read wṣrh (“Balaam Texts,” 51; Balaam Text, 25; Israels Sohn, 129).
3.2 The Balaam Oracles, Num 23:18–24; 24:3–9
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25. w[yḥsl . bqr]120 . mṭh . bʾšr . rḥln . yybl . ḥṭr . 26. ʾrnbn . ʾklw . [yḥd]121 . 27. ḥpš[y . ]m[ . ] ḥyt [. šd]h122 28. w[ ]n . štyw . ḥmr . wqbʿn . 1. The utterances of Balaam, s[on of Beo]r. He was a man who saw the gods.123 2. Now the gods came to him at night [and] he beheld a vision according to the oracle of El.124 3. They said to B[alaa]m, son of Beor, 4. “Thus125 [ ] will do hereafter.126 5. No one127 has s[een what you have hear]d.” 6. Balaam arose in the morning, behold [ ]. 7. He [summoned the heads of the assembly t]o him 8. and for [two] days [he fas]ted and wept exceedingly. 9. His people entered128 before him and [they sa]id to Balaam, son of Beor, 10. “Why do you fast, and why do you weep?” 11. He said to them, 12. “Sit, and I will tell you what the Shadday gods129 [ ].
119 The restoration is that of Puech, followed also by Levine (“Le texte Ammonite,” 17; Numbers 21–36, 252). 120 The restoration is that of Puech, followed also by Levine (“Le texte Ammonite,” 23; Numbers 21–36, 252). Puech points to the use of the verb in fragment IXk, which be‐ longs elsewhere. 121 Following the suggestion of Levine (Numbers 21–36, 245). Compare Blum, “Kombi‐ nation I,” 578. 122 [y . ]m[ . ] ḥyt [. šd]h follows the suggestions of Levine (Numbers 21–36, 145). 123 Cf. אישׁ־צרוע הוא, “He is a leprous man” (Lev 13:44); אישׁ האלהים הוא, “He is a man of god” (1 Kgs 13:26); אישׁ אלהים קדושׁ הוא, “He is a holy man of god” (2 Kgs 4:9); אישׁ־עבד אדמה אנכי, “I am a man who works the soil” (Zech 13:5). Cf. also Hackett, Balaam Text, 32; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 247. McCarter instead reads hʾ as “behold,” and as the beginning of the next clause (McCarter, “Balaam Texts,” 52). 124 In biblical usage, the noun following the construct of משׂא often indicates the main subject matter of the oracle (Isa 13:1; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1; 21:1, 11; 22:1; 23:2; 30:6; Nah 1:1). However, it can also indicate the deity who provides the oracle (Jer 23:33, 34, 36, 38). 125 The actual content of the message from the gods is elided. 126 Following Caquot and Lemaire and McCarter (“Les textes Araméens,” 194–95; “Ba‐ laam Texts,” 52). McCarter followed Caquot and Lemaire in seeing the root as ʾḥr. On analogy to Hebrew hālĕʾāh, “further on,” they argued that the second aleph was em‐ phatic, and the final heh adverbial. The form ʾḥrʾh would thus be equivalent to Old Aramaic lʾḥrh, “afterward, hereafter, in the future” (KAI 226:8). Cf. Hackett, who ac‐ cepts McCarter’s translation, but who does not accept the presence of emphatic aleph in the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts (Balaam Text, 35). 127 On the syntax ʾš + negative particle, cf. Gen 23:6; 24:16; Exod 34:3; Esth 9:2; Jer 40:15; 41:4; Ezek 44:2; Hos 2:12. 128 I follow Levine in taking the root here to be ʿll, “to enter” (Numbers 21–36, 248). 129 The form šdyn allows for two possibilities. The parallelism between šēdîm, “demons,” and ʾelōhîm, “gods,” in Deut 32:17 suggests that šdyn be taken as a dual form of šēd.
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13. And come see the deeds of the gods. 14. The g[od]s have gathered, and the Shadday gods have taken their places in the assembly.130 15. And they have said to Sh[aggar . . . ] 16. ‘ . . . sew up. Close up131 the heavens with thick cloud, 17. That in that place there will be darkness and not shining, obscurity and not clarity,132 18. That you instill dread [in thi]ck darkness, 19. And do not utter a sound133 forever.’ 20. So that the swift (and) crane will revile the eagle134 21. And a cry of vultures will resound. 22. The st[ork], the young of the falcon and the owl 23. The chicks of the heron, sparrow and eagles; 24. Pigeons and birds, [and fowl in the s]ky; 25. And a rod [shall flay the cat]tle; where there are ewes, a staff will be brought. 26. Hares eat [together] 27. Free[ly ] oh the beasts [of the fiel]d! 28. And [ ] drink, asses and hyenas!”135
Although controversy over individual readings or translations in the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts abounds, the broad parallels to the biblical Ba‐ laam poems are clear. Levine notes, “In these texts, the name blʿm brbʿr ‘Balaam, son of Beor’ appears once, fully and legibly, and several more However, the form may also be taken as a previously unattested plural of šadday. From the narrative, as it unfolds in DAPT, Hackett argues that ʾlhn was the generic term for gods, whereas the appellative šdyn referred to the gods in their role as members of the council of El (Balaam Text, 85–89). She further suggests that šdy was an epithet applied to El in his role as head of the divine council. 130 Cf. אלהים נצב בעדת־אל, “God takes his place in the council of El” (Ps 82:1). Mark S. Smith also notes the use of the verb נצב to describe participation in an audience be‐ fore a king or high official in Gen 45:1; Exod 7:15; 1 Sam 22:9; Prov 22:29 (forth‐ coming). Such “language of assembly,” to borrow Smith’s term, is also reflected in Deut 31:14. Job 1:6 and 2:1 use the root to describe the divine beings presenting themselves before Yahweh. Cf. Simon B. Parker, “The Beginning of the Reign of God—Psalm 82 as Myth and Liturgy,” RB 102 (1995): 537–38. 131 Reading the verbs as feminine singular imperatives. 132 The translation is that suggested by Levine (Numbers 21–36, 250–51). He suggests smr may be cognate with Hebrew‐Aramaic s-m-r (Ps 119:20; Job 4:15), while ʿṭm may rep‐ resent the metathesis of Aramaic ʿmṭ. Although the etymology remains unclear, the context suggests a pair of contrasting nouns parallel to the “darkness” and “light” of the preceding phrase. 133 Understanding thgy as a feminine verbal form of hgh, “groan, utter.” 134 Levine notes that a number of the birds mentioned in lines 20–24 are prohibited in the dietary laws of Lev 11 and Deut 14 (Numbers 21–36, 251). 135 Lines 25–28 describe the abandonment of pasture land to the wild beasts. Cf. Levine, Numbers 21–28, 252.
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attestations of the name may be restored with certainty” (clearly in 1.9; restorable in 1.1, 3).136 Furthermore, Balaam is portrayed as a divine seer (cf. DAPT 1.1 and Num 24:3). His visions ultimately come from the head of the pantheon, El (cf. DAPT 1.2 and Num 24:4). These visions concern the plans of the gods (cf. DAPT 1.12 and Num 23:23). The Deir ‘Alla plaster texts mention the Shadday gods, perhaps, as Hackett has suggested, members of the divine assembly, while the biblical Balaam oracles mention Shadday, perhaps, as Hackett has also suggested, a title for El in his capacity as head of the divine council (cf. DAPT 1.12 and Num 24:4). 137 Finally, both prophetic texts use extensive animal imagery (cf. DAPT 1.20–28, 40 and Num 23:4; 24:9).138 Given these broad parallels, the dating of the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts has relevance for the dating of the Balaam oracles. It is evident that the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts were written on‐site on the plaster covered walls. The plaster writing, as noted above, dates from c. 800 B.C.E. and evidently remained until the invasion of the Assyrians between 734 and 722 B.C.E. It also appears that the inscriptions were copied from an ex‐ isting text. The writing of ʾlwh above line 2 is the apparent correction of a scribal error occasioned by haplography. The DAPT scribe thus worked from an existing text, which would have been even older than the plaster inscription. Regardless of Balaam’s origins, therefore, it seems that he was revered as a seer in the Transjordan region in the late ninth and eighth centuries B.C.E.139 He may also have been revered ear‐ lier. The positive portrayal of Balaam in the biblical Balaam oracles also points to a period in which Balaam was regarded as an authentic seer in the region. The Deir ‘Alla texts thus provide broad confirmation of a monarchic date for the traditions reflected in the biblical Balaam ora‐ cles. Also pointing to a relatively early date is the depiction of El and Yahweh in the poems. As noted by Levine and discussed further be‐ 136 Levine, Numbers 21–36, 241. 137 Hackett, Balaam Text, 85–89. 138 On specific connections between Num 22–24 and the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts, cf. Delcor, “Le texte de Deir ‘Alla,” 64–68; Müller, “Die aramäische Inschrift von Deir ‘Alla,” 239–42. On the presence of animal imagery in both, see Kenneth C. Way, “Ba‐ laam’s Hobby Horse: The Animal Motif in the Balaam Traditions,” UF 37 (2005): 682–88. 139 On the conflicting traditions about Balaam’s origins, cf. William F. Albright, “The Home of Balaam,” JAOS 35 (1915): 386–90; Albright, “Oracles of Balaam,” 212, 231– 33; A. S. Yahuda, “The Name of Balaam’s Homeland,” JBL 64 (1945): 547–51; Van Se‐ ters, Life of Moses, 411; Levine, Numbers 21–36, 145–46.
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low, El and Yahweh are not yet fully synthesized in the oracles.140 Fur‐ thermore, El is depicted as the god of the deliverance from Egypt (Num 23:22; 24:8). In all other biblical tradition the god of this deliverance is Yahweh. The designation of El as the god of the deliverance points to a period before the synchronizing of the differing regional traditions about Egypt. In passing, it should be noted that the fourth oracle may be later than the first three oracles, perhaps considerably so.141 Undoubtedly all four share similar themes and subject matter: the blessed state of Israel, and military encounters between Israel and Moab. Furthermore, all express a perspective of Israelite victory. This perspective, however, is not precisely the same. The first three poems envision Israelite victory as a present and ongoing reality; Israel is permanently blessed by the pantheon. The fourth, however, depicts Israelite victory as a future event. Thus, in the fourth poem, Balaam claims to be able to see events before they happen, while they are still far off (Num 24:17). It is a fu‐ ture Israelite leader who will defeat Moab (Num 24:17). If, at the time of composition of the fourth oracle, a specific known victory was in‐ tended, perhaps David’s victory over Moab, 142 then the ex eventu prophecy already assumes a chronology in which Balaam and his prophecies (greatly) predate an Israelite presence in Transjordan. The first three poems do not assume such a chronology; rather, Israel is depicted as occupying Transjordan at the time of Balaam and his ora‐ cles. If the fourth poem speaks instead of some future unknown vic‐ tory, it assumes a time when Transjordan Israel was under the oppres‐ sion of Moab. The first three poems, however, know Israel to be invincible in Transjordan thanks to the blessing of El and Yahweh. While the former, ex eventu, scenario seems more likely, in either case it appears that the perspective of the fourth poem differs from that of the first three. If it is a later composition, it may be that an original three‐ encounter ass episode was composed to preface and counterbalance a three‐oracle sequence (cf. Num 24:10 and Num 22:28).143 In terms of the 140 Levine, Numbers 21–36, 225. 141 So also Van Seters on the basis of a comparison with Jeremiah material (Life of Moses, 401). Cf. also Coppens, who emphasizes the Messianic content of the fourth oracle (“Les oracles de Biléam,” 78–80). On the fourth oracle, see also Klaus Seybold, “Das Herrscherbild des Bileamorakels: Num. 24, 15–19,” TZ 29 (1973): 1–19. 142 So Levine, Numbers 21–36, 199. 143 On the ass episode, cf. Schmitt, “Die heidnische Mantiker,” 249–54. On symmetry in Num 22–24, cf. Schüle, who regards the symmetry of the unit as further evidence that the text did not develop over time but was rather composed (Israels Sohn, 37–39,
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thesis being pursued here, the fourth oracle does not mention Egypt; its date does not substantially affect the present analysis. The Balaam oracles are Transjordanian in provenance.144 They con‐ cern an encounter, or encounters, with Moab, whose territory was east of the Jordan (Num 23:7; 24:17). They also feature Balaam, son of Beor (Num 24:3), a figure known to be associated with the Transjordan re‐ gion, as discussed above. The further thematic and religious similarities between the biblical Balaam poems and the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts also anchor the biblical traditions in the Transjordan region. It would seem, then, that the biblical Balaam oracles reflect Transjordanian traditions. It is possible that these Transjordanian traditions underwent some sub‐ sequent alteration by Cisjordan Israelites or southern Judahites. Never‐ theless, given the preservation in the poems of material running con‐ trary to later tradition—the positive portrayal of Balaam as an authentic seer, the recognition of El and Yahweh as separate deities, and the des‐ ignation of El as the god of the deliverance from Egypt—it seems that some of the Transjordanian material remained intact. 3.2.2 Portrayal of Egypt 3.2.2.1 Introduction The second and third Balaam oracles mention Egypt in the context of nearly identical deliverance formulae (Num 23:22; 24:8). These formu‐ lae, however, differ in the suffix used on the main verb of the deliver‐ ance clause. While the masculine singular suffix on the participle ()מוציאו is suited to the grammatical context in Num 24:8, the mascu‐ line plural suffix on the participle ()מוציאם is not suited to the gram‐ matical context in Num 23:22.145 This incongruity suggests that Num 23:22 is citing a known poetic couplet containing an epithet of El and a description of his oxlike horns. Additionally, although one could argue that Num 24:8 is quoting from Num 23:22, it seems more likely that 42). Such a position, however, does not adequately account for the multiple perspec‐ tives represented in the poetry and the prose. 144 Levine posits a body of Transjordanian traditions preserved in the Bible, including the Balaam oracles and the Sheol oracle of Isaiah 14 (Numbers 21–36, 42, 208–9). Wyatt is mistaken in regarding the Balaam oracles as southern (“Of Calves and Kings: The Canaanite Dimension in the Religion of Israel,” SJOT 6 [1992]: 84). 145 The distinction is preserved in the Septuagint: αυτον vs. αυτους. See the discussion in Rouillard, Péricope de Balaam, 290–91.
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they both drawn on a well‐known poetic couplet, which originally con‐ tained the masculine plural suffix.146 The original context and Sitz im Leben of the formula remain unknown. Regardless, the implication is that the tradition connecting El and his oxlike horns with the deliver‐ ance from Egypt is older than the oracles themselves. Since the deliverance formula is evidently earlier than the oracles, its present literary context can provide only a very general basis for interpreting it. The meaning of the formula will have to be determined primarily by an examination of the formula itself. In treating it here, I will pursue two broad lines of analysis: the meaning of הוציא, and the role of El as the god of the deliverance from Egypt. In terms of the dual setting in which the poetic couplet now finds itself, the Balaam oracles emphasize the blessed state of Israel. At the time of the composition of the oracles, the entity being freed from Egypt in the formula was un‐ derstood to be Israel, rather than Moab or other regional neighbors. Furthermore, the deliverance from Egypt was also understood as sig‐ naling, in some sense, El’s choice to bless Israel. Whether this under‐ standing was true of the formula in its original context is impossible to say. The oracles may represent an Israelite adaptation of earlier non‐ Israelite Transjordanian tradition. 147 If so, the original formula may have celebrated El’s deliverance of other regional neighbors as well, as discussed further below. Regardless, the understanding of the deliver‐ ance as a distinctively Israelite event must have already taken hold by the time of the composition of the oracles. Let us turn, then, to an inter‐ nal examination of the formula. 3.2.2.2 The Significance of the Deliverance Formula with הוציא The deliverance formula in the Balaam oracles uses the Hiphil of the verb יצא. Martin Noth suggested that this formula, as used throughout the Bible, implied not only geographical movement, but also movement from a state of slavery to a state of freedom: “The הוציא of the confes‐ sional statement certainly did not mean a ‘leading out’ into the un‐ known or into vacant space but precisely into the state of free fullness 146 Rouillard suggests an even more complicated development for the third oracle (Péricope de Balaam, 385). O. Loretz regards the cited formula as an interpolation (“Die Herausführungsformel in Num 23,22 und 24,8,” UF 1 [1975]: 571–72). 147 Cf. Horst Dietrich Preuss, “יצא,” TDOT 6:246; S. David Sperling, The Original Torah: The Political Intent of the Bible’s Writers (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 73.
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of life which Israel now enjoyed on her own soil.”148 J. N. M. Wijn‐ gaards expressed the same opinion in stronger terms: “The הוציא for‐ mula expresses a strict liberation from slavery . . . . Although יצא may indicate the mere fact of departure or of origin, it is inclined to conno‐ tate the departure from a place of bondage or oppression.”149 De Vaux, Kang, Preuss, and Dozeman likewise see the formula with the Hiphil of יצא as connoting liberation from slavery.150 The legal material in the Pentateuch supports this meaning of the verb. Thus, this meaning of the Qal of the root appears in several bibli‐ cal passages dealing with the going free of a slave: When you purchase a Hebrew slave, for six years he will serve, but in the seventh he shall go free (*)יצא without payment. (Exod 21:2; and similarly in vv. 3, 4, 5, 7, 11; cf. also Lev 25:54)
Particularly telling are passages that speak of land and houses becom‐ ing free in the Jubilee Year—objects that do not involve spatial move‐ ment: If he lacks sufficient means to recover it [i.e., the land that he had previ‐ ously sold], what he sold shall remain with the purchaser until the jubilee; in the jubilee year it shall become free (*)יצא, and he shall return to his holding. (Lev 25:28; and similarly 25:30, 31, 33; 27:21)
While such technical legal usage in relation to slavery may largely be confined to the legal material in the Pentateuch, the verb has a wider usage with the meaning “to go free from distress or oppression.” The causative stem of the verb shows this meaning in a wide variety of texts, for example: The troubles of my heart have enlarged, From my distresses deliver (*)יצא me. (Ps 25:17; cf. also Ps 107:28; 143:11)
148 Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 52 n169. 149 J. N. M. Wijngaards, “הוציא and העלה: A Twofold Approach to the Exodus,” VT 15 (1965): 92–93. 150 Roland de Vaux, The Early History of Israel (trans. David Smith; 2 vols; London: Dar‐ ton, Longman and Todd, 1978), 371–72; Kang, Divine War, 124; Horst Dietrich Preuss, “יצא,” TDOT 6:247, 49; Thomas B. Dozeman, “Hosea and the Wilderness Wandering Tradition,” in Rethinking the Foundations: Historiography in the Ancient World and in the Bible: Essays in Honour of John Van Seters (ed. Steven McKenzie and Thomas Römer; BZAW 294; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000), 61. See also P. Humbert, “Die fait sortir, Hiphil de yāṣāʼ avec Dieu comme sujet,” TZ 18 (1962): 357–61; and P. Humbert, “Note complimentaire,” TZ 18 (1962): 433–36. Dozeman is incorrect in seeing the first appearance of the formula with הוציא in Jer 7:22; 11:4; 31:32; 32:21; 34:13 (“Ho‐ sea and the Wilderness Wandering,” 61). The earliest occurrence of the formula is in the Balaam oracles.
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The same usage is also found with reference to more tangible enemies: [The god who …] rescued me from my enemies ()ומוציאי מאיבי, Lifted me from those rising against me, Saved me from a violent man. (2 Sam 22:49)
Tellingly, the parallel passage to this old poem in Ps 18:49 uses the verb פלט instead of הוציא, further corroborating that הוציא in this context means “deliver.”151 The text is thus important for confirming that the Hiphil of יצא has the meaning “deliver” during the monarchic period. Here the syntax participle + suffix + mem + people particularly resembles the formula cited by the Balaam oracles: מוציאם ממצרים, “(who) deliv‐ ered them from the Egyptians” (Num 23:22). That the West Semitic root *yṣʾ had among its meanings “go free” relatively early is further corroborated by nonbiblical evidence.152 The root appears in the causative stem in a gloss in the fourteenth‐century Amarna correspondence. Šuwadarta appeals to the king of Egypt for military assistance: May he know, the king my lord: I am alone! May he send, the king, my lord, archers in large numbers and rescue me ia-ṣi-ni (EA 282:8–14)153
Here, iaṣini is given as a gloss on the verb ekēmu.154 The semantic range of ekēmu is wide, but apparently in this context it means “deliver” or “rescue,” as is clear from other letters that spell out Šuwadarta’s situa‐ tion more fully.155 According to Šuwadarta, some thirty towns that had 151 Frank Moore Cross Jr. and David Noel Freedman note that “the variant readings are equally acceptable” (Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 105 n110). 152 DNWSI gives eight occurrences of the verbal root in the Northwest Semitic inscrip‐ tions. Of these, the one discussed above is the only one in the C‐stem and the only one with the clear meaning “go free” or “deliver.” The other occurrences, all in the G‐stem, are Canaanite: EA 151:70; Phoenician: KAI 27:26, Syria 48 296:3, CIS I 91:2; Punic: Poen 939; and Hebrew: Tel Arad 16:3, Lachish 21:4. 153 I am grateful to Prof. Shlomo Izre’el for kindly making his unpublished collations of the Amarna tablets available for my consultation. 154 On this gloss, cf. Anson F. Rainey, Canaanite in the Amarna Tablets: A Linguistic Analy‐ sis of the Mixed Dialect Used by the Scribes from Canaan (HO 25; 4 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 2:192. 155 On this meaning of ekēmu, cf. Wayne T. Pitard, “Amarna ekēmu and Hebrew nāqam,” Maarav 3 (1982): 11–13.
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been under his rule had revolted against him; unable to cope with the hostilities he sent to Egypt for military help (cf. EA 281, 283).156 It is thus clear that the West Semitic root *yṣʾ had among its meanings “go free from distress or oppression.”157 That this particular nuance of Hebrew יצא was the intended mean‐ ing of the early Egypt formula is suggested by the contexts of the for‐ mula in a number of later biblical passages. Psalm 114 describes the going free of Israel from Egypt: 158 When Israel went free (*)יצא from Egypt, The house of Jacob from a people of strange tongue, (Ps 114:1–2)
Here the parallelism between “Egypt” and “people of strange tongue” suggests that “Egypt” is being used to refer to a people rather than a territory. The elision of the verb in the second line implies that the verb in the first line is being used to refer to deliverance rather than to geo‐ graphical movement, since geographical movement from a social group hardly makes sense. The Hiphil of יצא is found in parallel with other verbs of deliver‐ ance in a number of references to the exodus: Therefore say to the Israelites, “I am Yahweh and I will free (*)יצא you from the labors of the Egyptians and deliver (*)נצל you from their bond‐ age. I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty judg‐ ments. And I will take you to be My people, and I will be your god. And you shall know that I am Yahweh your god who freed (*)יצא you from the labors of the Egyptians. (Exod 6:6–7; cf. Deut 9:26)
This early meaning of the יצא formula is also preserved in several texts in which being delivered from “Egypt” is paralleled with being deliv‐ ered from “a house of slaves.” The emphasis therefore falls on move‐ ment from a state of oppression to a state of freedom rather than on movement from the territory of Egypt to the territory of Canaan: 156 It might be argued that in light of the gloss iaṣini, the verb ekēmu could simply refer here to the geographical movement of Šuwadarta to Egypt—“may the king come and bring me to Egypt.” That this is not the case, however, is made clear from the use of the verb ekēmu in a letter from Šuwadarta’s ali Milkili to the king of Egypt (EA 271). There a clear distinction is drawn between an act of deliverance or rescue, in‐ volving the liberation of the king’s vassals from unruly elements, and a granting of safe passage to Egypt. 157 At Ugarit, the C‐stem of *yṣʾ may have had as one possible meaning “deliver” or “set free,” though the evidence is less than definitive. See KTU 1.17 I 26–28, with parallels in 1.17 I 45 and 1.17 II 1. Cf. DUL 985–86. 158 It is difficult to date this psalm. It has some archaic features but may be archaizing rather than archaic. Cf. Cross, Canaanite Myth, 138–39.
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Then Moses said to the people, “Remember this day on which you went free (*)יצא from Egypt, from a house of slaves, for with a mighty hand Yahweh freed you from this. And leavened bread shall not be eaten!” (Exod 13:3; cf. Exod 13:14; Deut 7:8)
The הוציא formula is also found with מארץ מצרים, “from the land of Egypt,” parallel to מבית עבדים, “from a house of slaves,” in Exod 20:2; Deut 5:6; 6:12; 8:14; 13:6, 11; Jer 34:13. In contrast, the formula with העלה occurs only twice with slavery emphasized by the use of “from a house of slaves” (Josh 24:17; Mic 6:4). The only text to contain both formulae in parallel illustrates the contrast between them: And Yahweh sent a man, a prophet, to the Israelites and he said to them, “Thus Yahweh the god of Israel has said, ‘I brought you up (*)עלה from Egypt and freed (*)יצא you from a house of slaves.’” (Judg 6:8)
In sum, although הוציא can refer to geographical movement, this verb in the Egypt formula seems to bear the nuance of a movement from a state of oppression to a state of freedom. In some sense, Egypt was perceived as a former overlord of Israel. Although the later exodus formulae cited here probably understood this oppression, in keeping with the narrative in Exodus, as having taken place in Egypt, the distinctiveness of the early deliverance for‐ mula in the Balaam oracles allows for an alternative understanding of its exact nuance in that context. I have already noted the unique attribu‐ tion of the deliverance to El in the oracles, and the fact that Israel is not specified as the object of deliverance within the formula itself. The Egypt formula in the Balaam oracles may have originally commemo‐ rated deliverance from Egyptian control of Syria‐Palestine, rather than a journey from Egypt. Variations of such a proposal have been made by a number of scholars. S. David Sperling, fully acknowledging the ar‐ chaeological and textual difficulties with locating Israel’s ancestors in Egypt, has sought to find the origin of the exodus tradition in the land of Canaan itself: Given that the Amarna letters demonstrate local consciousness and strong opposition to the collision between the Canaanites and Egypt, we must in‐ terpret the Hebrew traditions of servitude in Egypt as allegories of servi‐ tude to Egypt. The 430 years of the Bible reflect the duration of Egypt’s em‐ pire in Asia from a Canaanite perspective. The group that became first‐ millennium Israel had indeed been subjugated by kings of Egypt, but in its native land.159
159 Sperling, Original Torah, 54.
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A similar suggestion has been made, apparently independently, by Robert Drews in his discussion of the end of the Bronze Age: Prior to the Catastrophe [i.e., the widespread collapse of Bronze Age civili‐ zations c. 1200 B.C.E.], the land of Israel had for almost four hundred years chafed under Egyptian hegemony, a condition so unthinkable in post‐ Catastrophe circumstances that tradition seems eventually to have trans‐ formed it into four hundred years of Israelite “bondage” in the land of Egypt.160
Gottwald seems to hint in a similar direction in the preface to the re‐ print of his monumental The Tribes of Yahweh, though his delineation of the theory is less precise.161 Ronald Hendel has made a related argument by drawing on the no‐ tion of collective memory.162 He suggests that multiple individuals and groups may have been enslaved in Egypt and may have escaped to Syria‐Palestine. The exodus stories that they bore would have found ready ears among the local inhabitants precisely because of Egypt’s oppressive control of the entire region. According to Hendel, this shared memory of Egyptian oppression helped to consolidate Israelite identity. William H. C. Propp, who cites Hendel, also allows for such a possibility.163 Mario Liverani likewise argues that in the eighth century B.C.E. “the motif of arrival from Egypt was . . . quite well known, but especially as a metaphor of liberation from a foreign power.”164 He cites a few ancient Near Eastern examples of the use of the language of movement as a metaphor for shifting political affiliation and suggests that the idea of movement in the exodus story was a later reinterpreta‐ tion of the language of political liberation.165 This reinterpretation, Liv‐ erani argues, was triggered by the observation of mass population movements under the Assyrians and Babylonians. The usage of הוציא in the Balaam oracles would certainly allow for the thesis of these scholars. I have already noted above that the empha‐ sis of the formula is on deliverance rather than on movement. The only 160 Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), 173. 161 Norman K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel 1250–1050 BCE (repr., Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), xlv. 162 Ronald Hendel, Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 57–62. 163 William H. C. Propp, Exodus 19–40: A New Translation with Introduction and Commen‐ tary (AB 2A; New York: Doubleday, 2006), 744. 164 Mario Liverani, Israel’s History and the History of Israel (trans. Chiara Peri and Philip R. Davies; BibleWorld; London: Equinox, 2005), 278. 165 Liverani, Israel’s History, 278–79.
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biblical text to use the verb to refer to Israel’s going free from a power other than Egypt suggests that this deliverance could take place within Israel’s own land. In language reminiscent of the editorial cycles in the book of Judges,166 2 Kgs 13:4–5 tersely describes the oppression of Israel by the Aramaeans and Yahweh’s deliverance of Israel from Aramaean power: (13:3) Now Yahweh’s anger was kindled against Israel, and he delivered them into the power of Hazael king of Aram, and into the power of Ben‐ hadad the son of Hazael, continually. (4) But Jehoaz pleaded with Yahweh, and Yahweh listened to him; for he saw the oppression of Israel with which the king of Aram oppressed him. (5) So Yahweh gave Israel a savior, so that they went free (*)יצא from under the power of the Aramaeans; and the Israelites lived in their tents as formerly.
Here the reference is not to geographical movement of Israelites from Aram to Israel, but rather to Israel’s going free from the power of the Aramaeans. Furthermore, although the context is not entirely clear, it seems that the oppression referred to would have consisted in Aramaean control of Israelite territory, perhaps through periodic raids. In DtrH, the phrase “Yahweh delivered X into the power of Y” most frequently refers to Yahweh granting army Y a military victory over X (e.g., Josh 2:24; 6:2; 8:1, 7, 18; 10:8, 19, 30, 32; 11:8; 21:44; Judg 1:2, 4; 4:14; 11:30, 32; 20:28). In this usage, army Y is almost always an advancing army. As such, Aram may be depicted here as successfully advancing into Israelite territory. The internal logic demanded by the text also suggests this interpretation: if Israel had been defeated while attempt‐ ing to invade Aram, it would probably not have made continuous suc‐ cessive attempts to do so. The fact that the oppression is ongoing in the text suggests that Aram was the one invading Israel. This is probably also the intended narrative meaning of Yahweh’s delivering Israel into the power of Midian (Judg 6:1) and Philistia (Judg 13:1). In none of these cases is there any sense in the narrative that Israel as a whole was deported to a foreign territory. Rather, though individuals may have been captured, Israel as a whole was oppressed in its own land. There‐ fore, the deliverance of Israel from Aram described in 2 Kgs 13:5 would have involved freedom from foreign Aramaean control. The statement about Israel dwelling in their tents as formerly would then be a refer‐ ence to their freely occupying their own territory again. 166 Cf. Rainer Albertz, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. (trans. David Green; SBLSBL 3; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), 290 n453.
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The same may be true of the deliverance from Egypt celebrated in the formula cited by the Balaam oracles. Rather than preserving a memory of freedom from oppression in Egypt, the tradition may in‐ stead preserve a memory of freedom from Egyptian control of Syria‐ Palestine, including Transjordan. If this was the case, it may be that as the memory of Egypt’s presence in Canaan faded, the deliverance for‐ mula with הוציא came to be understood as referring to Israel’s deliver‐ ance from Egyptian oppression in Egypt. The original formula, how‐ ever, may have referred, like 2 Kgs 13:5, to God’s deliverance from foreign control of his people’s territory. At the same time, the case should not be overstated since the formula is open to a reasonable range of interpretation. As far as Transjordan is concerned, the hypothesis would also fit with what is known from nonbiblical sources about the Egyptian pres‐ ence in Syria‐Palestine, and in Transjordan more specifically. Following the expulsion of the Asiatic “Hyksos” rulers from Egypt in the course of the sixteenth century B.C.E., Thutmose III established an Egyptian sphere of influence in Syria‐Palestine after defeating a Syrian coalition at Megiddo.167 For much of the New Kingdom period Egyptian kings conducted occasional campaigns in Syria‐Palestine and ruled the in‐ digenous Canaanite city‐state political structure, more or less continu‐ ously, by a system of tribute and vassal kingship.168 Apart from inter‐ mittent battles, the vassal system was rather laissez‐faire compared to some forms of empire. With the rise of the Nineteenth Dynasty, how‐ ever, there seems to have been a change in Egyptian policy toward Syria‐Palestine. Egypt began to exercise direct administrative control of the region, or at least to assume more direct financial responsibility for its governance.169 This new form of Egyptian control in Syria‐Palestine 167 Cf. James M. Weinstein, “The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: A Reassessment,” BASOR 241 (1981): 1–12; Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), 125–58; Ellen Fowles Mor‐ ris, Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 123–24. 168 Cf. Carolyn R. Higginbotham, Egyptianization and Elite Emulation in Ramesside Pales‐ tine: Governance and Accommodation on the Imperial Periphery (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 18. 169 The increase in the presence of Egyptian‐style buildings and pottery in the architec‐ tural record in Syria‐Palestine at the time of the rise of the Nineteenth Dynasty has occasioned multiple explanations. Weinstein suggested that the shift occurred be‐ cause Egypt assumed direct administrative control of the region, a “military occupa‐ tion” in his own terms (“Egyptian Empire,” 17–22). Higginbotham proposed instead that the increase in Egyptian finds in Canaan were due to the increased Egyptianiza‐ tion of local elites (Egyptianization, 128). Her elite‐emulation model was extensively critiqued by Morris, who proposed instead that the increased presence of Egyptian
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is likely to have been experienced by the wider population as oppres‐ sive. Egyptian presence in Syria‐Palestine seems to have declined after Ramesses III, though it persisted into the reigns of Ramesses IV and Ramesses V.170 While the New Kingdom Egyptian empire in western Asia was cen‐ tered in the Canaanite plains, Egypt also exerted influence in the Transjordan. Pella, in Transjordanian Gilead, is one of the city‐states mentioned in the Amarna letters (EA 256:8, 13, 34).171 The stele of Seti I from Beth Shan also mentions Pella as a treaty partner with Beth Shan.172 Ramesses II conducted more than one war in Transjordan, evi‐ dently aimed at securing Egyptian control of the north‐south trade routes that passed through the region.173 The various Egyptian finds from Deir ‘Alla also suggest the importance of Transjordan as a trade route for Egyptian goods.174 The control of Syria‐Palestine, including Transjordan, by Egypt and the subsequent withdrawal of Egypt from the region in the thirteenth and twelfth centuries B.C.E. may well have been remembered as a movement from a state of oppression to a state of freedom. This newly found freedom may also have been attributed to the regional head of the pantheon, El. The hypothesis of the scholars cited above therefore remains plausible. At the same time, though, the connection is difficult, if not impossible, to prove since the withdrawal of Egypt from Syria‐ Palestine may predate the Balaam oracles by as much as two or three centuries. Furthermore, it should be noted that while the hypothesis may have some explanatory power for the memory of Egypt preserved in the Transjordan region, it is less applicable to Cisjordan Israel or to material in the architectural record was due to Egypt assuming direct financial re‐ sponsibility for maintaining its empire in Canaan, rather than depending on local rulers to support Egyptian troops and officials (Architecture, 19). See also Ann E. Killebrew, “New Kingdom Egyptian‐Style and Egyptian Pottery in Canaan: Implica‐ tions for Egyptian Rule in Canaan during the 19th and Early 20th Dynasties,” in Egypt, Israel and the Ancient Mediterranean World: Studies in Honour of Donald B. Red‐ ford (ed. Gary N. Knoppers and Antoine Hirsch; PÄ 20; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 309–43. 170 Weinstein, “Egyptian Empire,” 22–28. 171 Cf. Ottosson, Gilead, 179. 172 Cf. Ottosson, Gilead, 179. 173 Ottosson, Gilead, 180; Redford, Egypt, Canaan and Israel, 274–75. 174 J. Yoyotte, “Un souvenir du ‘Pharon’ taousert en Jordanie,” VT 12 (1962): 464–69; Redford, Egypt, Canaan and Israel, 275; H. J. Franken, “Deir ‘Alla Re‐visited,” in The Balaam Text from Deir ‘Alla Re‐evaluated: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Leiden 21–24 August 1989 (ed. J. Hoftijzer and G. van der Kooij; Leiden: Brill, 1991), 10–11.
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Judah. As discussed in Chapter 2, the Bethel calf cult celebrated a movement of Israelites from Egypt into Cisjordan under the power of the divine warrior Yahweh. The Transjordan idea of liberation from slavery and the Cisjordan idea of geographical movement need not have presupposed each other. In Chapter 4, it will be argued that the earliest attested Judahite memory of Egypt was of a foreign power de‐ feated by Yahweh, but not within the schema of an exodus. 3.2.2.3 El as the God of the Deliverance from Egypt In the Balaam oracles, the deliverance from Egypt is attributed to אל. It has frequently been suggested that אל is used here as a designation for Yahweh, either because it is used generically to mean “god” or because Yahweh and El are being identified as the same deity. A more careful examination of the evidence, however, suggests otherwise. The inter‐ pretative crux is often held to be the parallelism between Yahweh and El/God in the first oracle (Num 23:8): Whom175 can I curse that El/God has not cursed? Whom can I doom that Yahweh has not doomed?
This parallelism in itself, however, is not sufficient to establish the iden‐ tification of Yahweh with El/God in the poem. There are several biblical examples in which parallel proper nouns belong to the same logical category even though they are clearly not regarded as identical. Thus, the foreign nations Egypt and Ethiopia are parallel in Ps 68:32; Isa 43:3. Likewise, Egypt and Assyria are parallel in Isa 19:25; 52:4; Jer 2:18; Hos 7:11; 9:3; 11:11; 12:1; Zech 10:10; Lam 5:6. The Philistine cities Ash‐ dod, Ashkelon, and Ekron are parallel in Amos 1:8. The Moabite cities Ar and Kir are parallel in Isa 15:1. The ethnic designations Hittite and Canaanite are parallel in Ezek 16:3. The personal names Shamgar and Jael are parallel in Judg 5:6; Saul and David are parallel in 1 Sam 29:5; 175 This seems like the best way to understand the interrogative particle מה in this context. מה functions as the direct object of the verbs and thus refers to the person or thing being cursed. This is evidently the usage of the verb זעם in the previous line, where the direct object appears to be Israel. קבב is used similarly, with the direct ob‐ ject referring to the person being cursed, in Num 22:17; 23:11, 13, 27; 24:10; Job 3:8; Prov 11:26; 24:24. It is also possible that the verbs are used in the Balaam oracles as technical verbs of speaking associated with divination, though there is little evidence outside the oracles themselves to suggest such usage of the verbs. If a technical us‐ age as verbs of speaking is intended, מה may, as a direct object, refer to the sub‐ stance of the curse. In this case, one could translate, “What curse can I utter that El has not uttered? What doom can I pronounce that Yahweh has not pronounced?”
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and Jonathan and Saul are parallel in 2 Sam 1:22. The deities Baal and Anat are parallel in KTU 1.4 II 12–16; and Anat and Astarte are parallel in KTU 1.14 III 41–42, VI 26–28 and 1.114 9–11. The parallelism between Yahweh and El in Num 23:8 is intelligible in this way. The verse entails two proper nouns that belong to the same logical category of deities. In this understanding, both Israel’s deity, Yahweh (cf. Num 23:21), and the head of the regional pantheon, El, have refused to curse Israel. In a sense, the whole pantheon stands on Israel’s side. Balaam is thus un‐ able to curse Israel. In sum, Num 23:8 is insufficient in itself to establish that El and Yahweh are identified in the poems. Instead, the wider por‐ trait of Yahweh and El in the oracles will have to suggest how the par‐ allelism in Num 23:8 is to be understood. El’s portrayal in the Balaam oracles is consistent with his portrayal in the Deir ‘Alla plaster texts, and also with what is known about him from the Ugaritic texts.176 In the oracles, Balaam’s visions are attributed to El (Num 24:4, 16). El is also apparently the source of the message to Balaam in DAPT 1.2. Similarly, El appears to Kirta in a night vision (KTU 1.14 I 31–43). The Balaam oracles depict El as blessing Israel (Num 23:20). Although the connection is not explicit, the context sug‐ gests that this blessing consists in part of the large number of Israelite descendants (Num 23:10). The Ugaritic texts also associate the blessing of El with obtaining (numerous) offspring (KTU 1.15 II 15–28; cf. also 1.17 I 23–48). The Balaam oracles associate El with bovine imagery, by attributing to him horns like those of a wild ox. It is significant that the image is that of an ox, rather than that of a calf. As noted in Chapter 1, the image of a calf would have been associated with a younger genera‐ tion of warrior deity, such as Yahweh, whereas the image of the adult bull would have been associated with the head of the pantheon. The Ugaritic texts also depict El as a bull (e.g., KTU 1.2 I 33, 36; 1.3 V 35; 1.14 I 41). Since the characteristics of El in the Balaam poems match what is known about the deity El from other sources, it appears that אל is used to refer to the deity El, rather than as a generic designation, “god.” Fur‐ thermore, El and Yahweh are consistently distinguished in the poems. Thus the oracles themselves attribute Balaam’s visions to El, while never suggesting that Yahweh is the source of such revelation. Al‐ though El acts in a way that is beneficial to Israel, only Yahweh is des‐ ignated as the god of Israel (Num 23:21). In sum, Yahweh and El should be regarded as separate deities in the Balaam oracles. Although 176 On the relevance of the Ugaritic depictions of deities for an understanding of the conception of these deities in the geographically removed region of Canaan/Israel, see Smith, Early History of God, 28–30.
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they are closely aligned in their attitude toward Israel, they remain separate, with discernible individual characteristics. 177 Later on, the prose context understood Yahweh and El as identified in the oracles. In early Transjordanian circles, the god of the deliverance from Egypt was El. Such an attribution stands in contrast to all other biblical traditions, in which the god of the deliverance from Egypt and of the exodus was Yahweh. 178 El’s role in freeing Israel from Egypt is pre‐ sumably in keeping with his character and depiction elsewhere. Smith has discussed the possibility that El was the original god of the Israelite exodus.179 He suggests that El was the god of the Israelite group who left Egypt, and that his role in the exodus may be that of a family god who accompanied the family on its journeys, rather than a warrior who fought against Egypt.180 Such a reconstruction would fit the profile of El as the god of the patriarchs, and the traditions of the patriarchs as wandering pastoralists. The connection is preserved in Gen 46:2–4. There it is the patriarchal god who promises to take Jacob safely down to Egypt and to bring him back up again: Now God spoke to Israel in a vision by night. He said “Jacob! Jacob!” And he answered, “Here I am.” He said, “I am the god, the god of your father, do not be afraid to go down to Egypt for I will make you a great nation
177 Smith argues that Yahweh converged with El relatively early in the history of Israel‐ ite religion (Early History of God, 32–35). 178 As noted in Chapter 2, C. F. A. Schaeffer and Nicholas Wyatt have suggested that Jeroboam’s calves were intended to represent El, who was understood as the god of the exodus (“Nouveaux témoignages du culte de El et de Baal à Ras Shamra‐Ugarit et ailleurs en Syrie‐Palestine,” Syria 43 [1966]: 16; “Of Calves and Kings,” 78–88). Cf. Chalmers, “Real El,” 615–17. As will be clear from my discussion of 1 Kgs 12:28–33, I do not accept this identification. Rather, with Daniel E. Fleming, I distinguish be‐ tween a bull or other adult bovine, which would have represented the head of the pantheon El, and calves, which would have represented a younger generation of warrior deity (“If El Is a Bull, Who Is a Calf? Reflections on Religion in Second‐ Millennium Syria‐Palestine,” ErIsr 26 (1999): 23*–27*). Furthermore, it is not entirely clear that the calf tradition associated with Bethel would have been as old as the time of Jeroboam. While Schaeffer and Wyatt are correct in understanding El to have played a role in the deliverance from Egypt, it seems to me that Yahweh was wor‐ shipped as the god of the exodus in the Bethel calf cult. In contrast, the Balaam ora‐ cles celebrated a deliverance from Egypt and attributed it to El, who was depicted as a wild ox with horns. 179 Mark S. Smith, “Yahweh and the Other Deities of Ancient Israel: Observations on Old Problems and Recent Trends,” in Ein Gott allein? JHWH‐Verehrung und biblischer Monotheismus im Kontext der israelitischen und altorientalischen Religionsgeschichte (ed. Walter Dietrich and Martin A. Klopfenstein; OBO 139; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994), 207–8. Cf. also Chalmers, “Real El,” 614–19. 180 Smith, “Yahweh and Other Deities,” 208; Smith, Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 147.
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there. I myself will go down with you and I myself will bring you up again. And Joseph will place his hands on your eyes.”
This text preserves the idea of the patriarchal god accompanying the family of Jacob on its journey down to Egypt and its journey back up to the land of Canaan. The date and provenance of this text are in ques‐ tion. In terms of provenance, Jacob, who features integrally in the nar‐ rative, is certainly associated with Bethel in the north. He is also associ‐ ated, however, with Penuel in Transjordan. With regard to Gen 46:2–4, all that can be said is that its present narratival connection with Beer‐ Sheba in the south, where the dreams sequence occurs, may be a sec‐ ondary association. It is impossible to say with certainty, then, whether this tradition of geographical movement associated with the god of the fathers was at home in Cisjordan Israel or in Transjordan Israel or in Judah. In terms of date, the text is related to a number of other promise texts that run throughout the Jacob cycle, and indeed throughout the patriarchal narratives, and that serve to tie the patriarchal traditions together, and to connect these with the larger pentateuchal narrative.181 Whatever its provenance and date, however, the text preserves a differ‐ ent conception of the exodus than we have encountered so far, one with an association between the family god and the journey of the Israelite family down to Egypt and back up again. This conception may be a later development resulting from an attempt to link the god of the fa‐ 181 Cf. Noth, Pentateuchal Traditions, 56; Claus Westermann, Genesis 37–50: A Commentary (trans. John J. Scullion; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986), 156; Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, In Search of God: The Meaning and Message of the Everlasting Names (trans. Frederick H. Cryer; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988), 61–62; Suzanne Boorer, The Promise of the Land as Oath: A Key to the Formation of the Pentateuch (BZAW 205; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1992), 85–86; John Van Seters, Prologue to History: The Yahwist as Historian in Genesis (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 223, 318–19; David M. Carr, Reading the Fractures of Genesis: Historical and Literary Approaches (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 211–12; Damian J. Wynn‐Williams, The State of the Pentateuch: A Comparison of the Approaches of M. Noth and E. Blum (BZAW 249; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1997), 49; Konrad Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus: Unter‐ suchungen zur doppelten Begründung der Ursprünge Israels innerhalb der Geschichtsbücher des Alten Testaments (WMANT 81; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1999), 62–63; G. Fischer, “Die Josefsgeschichte als Modell für Versöhnung,” in Studies in the Book of Genesis: Literature, Redaction and History (ed. André Wénin; BETL 155; Leuven: Peeters, 2001), 253; David M. Carr, “Genesis in Relation to the Moses Story: Dia‐ chronic and Synchronic Perspectives,” in Studies in the Book of Genesis: Literature, Redaction and History (ed. André Wénin; BETL 155; Leuven: Peeters, 2001), 279; Tho‐ mas B. Dozeman, “The Commission of Moses and the Book of Genesis,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 126.
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thers with the god of the exodus. Alternatively, although embedded in a later linking text, such a conception of the exodus may be older.182 At present, the evidence does not permit a firmer conclusion. Regardless, the analysis of the Balaam oracles undertaken here opens up another possibility for understanding El’s role in the deliver‐ ance from Egypt. The focus of the Egypt formula in the Balaam oracles is on liberation from oppression rather than on a geographical journey. Thus, El may be envisioned here as the head of the pantheon, who de‐ termines the lot of individuals and peoples and who appoints and over‐ throws kings. In the Ugaritic texts, this role is seen primarily in terms of individuals. Though Baal earns his kingship by defeating Yamm (KTU 1.2 IV 32–33),183 and though he enjoys the support of the gods (KTU 1.4 V 43–46), El is the one who must grant permission, by his decree, for the construction of Baal’s palace (KTU 1.4 IV 62 – V 1). It is thus El who ultimately ratifies Baal’s kingship. At the same time El has the power to overturn the kingship of Athtar and of Mot, both of whom are threat‐ ened with action by El: l . ysʿ . ʾalt / ṯbtk . Surely, he will remove the support of your throne! lyhpk . ksʾa . mlkk / Surely, he will overturn the chair of your kingship! lyṯbr . ḫṭ . mṯpṭk Surely, he will shatter the scepter of your rule! KTU 1.6 VI 27–29 (// 1.2 I 17–18)
The Ugaritic texts, then, witness to El’s authority to establish and over‐ throw divine kings. This power of El to apportion fate and assign rule may also be re‐ flected in the Bible in terms of peoples, as suggested by Deut 32:8–9. The text reads: When the Most High apportioned the nations, when he divided up hu‐ mankind, he fixed the boundaries of the peoples according to the number
182 Cf. also the commission of Moses in Exodus 3. There, Yahweh is associated both with the exodus and with the god of the fathers who promised land to the ancestors. Cf. Propp, Exodus 1–18, 180–81; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 36–43; Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus, 186–208; John Van Seters, “The Patriarchs and the Exodus: Bridging the Gap between Two Origin Traditions,” in The Interpretation of Exodus: Studies in Honour of Cornelis Houtman (ed. Riemer Roukema; CBET 44; Leuven: Peeters, 2006), 5. See also Jan Christian Gertz, Tradition und Redaktion in der Exoduserzählung: Untersuchungen zur Endredaktion des Pentateuch (FRLANT 186; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000), 254–305, esp. 278. 183 On the precise nature of this victory, cf. Edward L. Greenstein, “The Snaring of Sea in the Baal Epic,” Maarav 3 (1982): 195–216.
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of the divine184 sons. Surely Yahweh’s portion is his people, Jacob his own inheritance.
If עליון, “Most High,” is intended here as an epithet of El, the text may reflect El’s role as head of the pantheon, allotting the fates of the peo‐ ples. Even if the designation is not intended to represent El, however, it is clear that some head of the pantheon is in view, and in this role as head he apportions the destinies of gods and peoples. He also fixes the boundaries between nations. The liberation from Egyptian rule cele‐ brated in the Balaam oracles may be understood in similar terms. El, as head of the regional pantheon, may have been understood as the one who decreed an end to the Egyptian presence in Syria‐Palestine. El’s role as an authority figure issuing decrees is seen in the Balaam oracles in Num 23:19b where he secures Israel’s blessing: “Has [El] spoken and not performed? Has he promised and not fulfilled it?” In its present context in the Balaam oracles, the statement about El’s deliverance from Egypt confirms the special state of blessing enjoyed by Israel. Israel has been blessed by the chief gods of the regional pan‐ theon. The oracles thus understand the deliverance from Egypt as sig‐ naling the divine choice of Israel over Moab or other regional neigh‐ bors. A related view of the exodus as indicating Israel’s special status was critiqued by the eighth‐century prophet Amos, as discussed in Chapter 2. Evidently an understanding of Israel’s special place was also entrenched in Transjordan, and it was also defined in relation to Egypt. Although the oracles understand El to have delivered Israel, the de‐ liverance formula itself does not mention Israel. I noted above that the dual occurrence of the formula suggests that it was borrowed from some other context. I also observed that the masculine plural suffix was probably the original form of the formula: “El, who liberated them from slavery.” The original formula may have used the masculine plural suffix to refer to Israelites, or the Israelite tribes. Given that the original context of the formula is no longer known, however, it is also possible that the original formula understood El’s deliverance more broadly. It may be that El, as head of the regional pantheon, was understood as having liberated the entire region from Egyptian domination. The for‐ mula itself simply does not state who was delivered by El. In sum, the Balaam oracles date to the eighth century B.C.E. or ear‐ lier, probably at least to the ninth century, and preserve Transjordanian
184 MT reads בני ישׂראל, “sons of Israel.” However, 4QDeutj reads בני אלוהים, and LXX reads αγγελων θεου, an apparent exegetical attempt to cope with a text like 4QDeutj. Cf. Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (Minneapolis: For‐ tress, 1992), 269; Smith, Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 143.
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traditions. They draw on an even older poetic couplet describing El as the one who delivered a group from Egypt. A careful study of the use of the verb הוציא, “bring out, deliver,” in this description of El suggests that it emphasizes deliverance from oppression rather than geographi‐ cal movement. Therefore, there may be some connection between the formula and the withdrawal of Egypt from Syria‐Palestine, including Transjordan, in the twelfth century B.C.E., as has been proposed by sev‐ eral scholars. Given the chronological gap between this withdrawal and the earliest attestation of this Egypt formula, however, such a hypothe‐ sis is difficult to prove. It is also significant that the deliverance from Egypt is here attributed to the head of the regional pantheon, El. As the leading authority among the gods, he was responsible for appointing and overthrowing kings, for allotting the fates of peoples, and for fixing the boundaries between nations. It is probably in this capacity as an authority figure who issues decrees that El is understood in the Balaam oracles to have played a role in freeing Israel from Egypt.
3.3 The Exodus Narrative In light of the differing Egypt formulae attested in the Cisjordanian Bethel cult and the Transjordanian Balaam oracles, it may be that the tradition of Egyptian oppression, now prominent in the exodus narra‐ tive, had its antecedents in Transjordan rather than in Cisjordan. As discussed in Chapter 2, the northern prophets Hosea and Amos know of Egypt as a place of Israelite origin, and as a place of potential exile. They also know of some pestilence associated with Egypt (Amos 4:10), though it is difficult to say what this pestilence might have been. They do not explicitly comment on any prior enslavement of Israelites in Egypt.185 While they may have known of such a tradition, it does not come to the fore in their several references to Egypt. The memory of Egypt in Cisjordan had a different emphasis from that in Transjordan. The former focused on the idea of an exodus involving a journey out of Egypt, whereas the latter focused on liberation from oppression by 185 Cf. Michael D. Oblath, who observes that the eighth‐century prophets “mention the slavery in Egypt only once (Mic 6:4). There are no references to any miracles or con‐ flict between YHWH and Pharaoh, no establishment of a Passover ritual nor crossing of any body of water. Isolating these prophets, all we may say is that the ‘exodus’ re‐ fers to the Israelites coming forth out of the land of Egypt” (The Exodus Itinerary Sites: Their Locations from the Perspective of the Biblical Sources [StBL 55; New York: Peter Lang, 2004], 4).
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Egypt. Both the Priestly and non‐Priestly material in the narrative con‐ tained in the book of Exodus also preserve faint traces of such a distinc‐ tion. The Priestly text Exod 6:2–8 integrates both the idea of liberation from oppression and the idea of a journey to the land that Yahweh had promised the fathers by covenant.186 There is, however, some hint that the text is combining separate traditions. It reads: (6:2) Then God spoke to Moses and said to him, “I am Yahweh. (3) And I appeared to Abraham and to Isaac and to Jacob as187 El Shadday, but by188 my name Yahweh I was not made known to them. (4) And I have both es‐ tablished my covenant to give them the land of the Canaanite, the land of their sojourning wherein they sojourned, (5) and also I myself have heard the groaning of the Israelites whom the Egyptians have enslaved and I have remembered my covenant. (6) Therefore say to the Israelites, ‘I am Yahweh and I will free you from Egypt’s burdens, and I will rescue you from their work, and I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with great judgments. (7) And I will take you for myself as a people, and I will be for you as a god. (8) And I will bring you to the land that I raised my hand to give it to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob. And I will give it to you as an inheritance. I am Yahweh.’”
After Yahweh is identified with the god of the fathers in vv. 2–3, he is identified in v. 4 with the promise of land to the fathers and in v. 5a with the deliverance from the Egyptian oppression. Both v. 4 and v. 5a are introduced with וגם, “and also.” This grammatical structure sug‐ gests that Yahweh is being assigned credit for separate activities and traditions. In other words, the grammar suggests, though it does not demand, that separate traditions are here being integrated and attrib‐ uted to Yahweh. In fact, the pericope does not explicitly mention a movement of Israelites out of Egypt, only the liberation from Egyptian oppression (v. 6) and a journey to the land promised to the fathers (v. 8). The pericope may preserve an awareness on the part of the Priestly writer of differing traditions about Egypt and the exodus. 186 On Exod 6:2–8, cf. J. Lust, “Exodus 6,2–8 and Ezekiel,” in Studies in the Book of Exodus: Redaction, Reception, Interpretation (ed. Marc Vervenne; BETL 126; Leuven: Peeters, 1996), 209–24; Carr, Fractures, 118; Schmid, Erzväter und Exodus, 73, 241, 258‐60; Levin, Old Testament, 105; Dozeman, “The Commission of Moses,” 107–29. 187 Propp renders: “in El Shadday” (Exodus 1–18, 261). 188 Understanding the phrase adverbially; alternatively, “But my name is Yahweh. I was not made known to them.” For an extensive discussion of the grammar of Exod 6:3, see W. Randall Garr, “The Grammar and Interpretation of Exodus 6:3,” JBL 111 (1992): 385–408. Garr renders, “I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shad‐ dai. But I, my name Yahweh, was not known to them.”
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The non‐Priestly text Exod 1:8–12 may also hint at an earlier distinc‐ tion between the idea of a journey out of Egypt and the idea of libera‐ tion from oppression by Egypt. 189 This text introduces the theme of bondage in Egypt by presenting Pharaoh’s internal logic for enslaving the Israelites: (1:8) Now there arose a new king over Egypt who did not know Joseph. (9) He said to his people, “See! The Israelites are more numerous and mightier than us! (10) Let us act shrewdly towards him, lest he multiply and it will be that when a war occurs he will be added to our enemies and fight against us and go up from the land. (11) So they set over him corvée mas‐ ters in order to oppress him with their tasks. And he built storage cities for Pharaoh—Pithom and Raamses. (12) And when they oppressed him so he multiplied, and so he burst out. And they dreaded the Israelites.
According to this explanation of the genesis of Egyptian oppression of Israelites, Pharaoh is ultimately afraid that the Israelites will “go up from the land.” It is not clear, however, why the Egyptians should fear the exodus of the Israelites. The flight of the Israelites from Egypt would be a loss to the Egyptians only if they were already enslaved in Egypt and so served some cultural, political, or economic purpose there. Yet the speech supposedly precedes the enslavement of the Isra‐ elites. The internal logic of the narrative consequently collapses. The fact that the narrative is strained at this particular juncture may suggest that the idea of oppression by Egypt was not always linked to the idea of movement into and out of Egypt. Both the Priestly and non‐Priestly materials in Exodus thus contain faint hints that the notion of liberation of the Israelites from Egyptian oppression may have been separate from the notion of geographical movement of Israelites out of Egypt to the promised land. While I am not arguing that either of these texts in Exodus dates from the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier, I am suggesting that they may preserve hints that the traditions about Egypt and the exodus now integrated into the book of Exodus may have been separate in earlier periods. As such, they are consistent with the distinction I have drawn between the em‐ phasis of the Cisjordanian memory of Egypt and that of the Transjor‐ danian memory of Egypt. 189 On this text, cf. Konrad Schmid, “The So‐Called Yahwist and the Literary Gap be‐ tween Genesis and Exodus,” in A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Penta‐ teuch in Recent European Interpretation (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman and Konrad Schmid; SBLSymS 34; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 33–34; Meik Gerhards, Aussetzungsgeschichte des Mose: Literar‐ und traditionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu einem Schlüsseltext des nichtpriesterlichen Tetrateuch (WMANT 109; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2006), 35–37.
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The tradition of a journey of Israelites from Egypt to Syria‐Palestine may itself have taken various forms. In his analysis of the text of Exo‐ dus, Noth identified one tradition of an exodus expulsion and another of an exodus flight.190 Despite his emphasis on the unity of the exodus theme, itself based on his belief that the exodus theme had from the start an all‐Israel orientation, Noth recognized in the narrative of the book of Exodus a hint that there might have been different versions of the tradition of movement out of Egypt. In particular, he observed that in Exod 14:5, which he attributed to E, it is reported to the king of Egypt that the Israelites fled ()ברח from Egypt. He argued that this small occurrence was extremely important: “Now we can hardly as‐ sume that the use of the word ‘flee’ by the Elohist was just a lapsus lin‐ guae and that he—albeit in a clumsy way—had only meant to say that Israel had departed against Pharaoh’s better judgment; for even the reference to the fact that Pharaoh was ‘told’ shows that here some change in the situation for Pharaoh is indicated.”191 Noth found no trace of his E in the plague and Passover narratives and suggested that E may not have included this material in his original narrative, or that he was at least aware of a tradition in which the exodus from Egypt was a flight rather than an expulsion. Although many are now skeptical of the ability of scholarship to separate the non‐Priestly material in the Penta‐ teuch into an E and a J strand, some scholars have taken up Noth’s dual‐exodus theory. Roland de Vaux built on Noth’s work and saw both exodus traditions as rooted in history, the exodus‐expulsion being a memory of the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, and the exodus‐ flight being that of a later group under Moses. 192 De Vaux also at‐ tempted to link the dual exodus‐expulsion and exodus‐flight traditions with other dualities in the Hexateuchal narrative: “These two exoduses might therefore explain the duality of the ensuing traditions—the northern route and the southern route for the exodus from Egypt, the tradition of Kadesh and the Sinai tradition and the conquest of Canaan by the south and the conquest from Transjordania.” 193 The possible duality of flight and expulsion has also been discussed by H. Jagersma, 190 Martin Noth, Exodus: A Commentary (trans. J. S. Bowden; OTL; London: SCM Press, 1962), 111–12. 191 Noth, Exodus, 111. 192 De Vaux, Early History of Israel, 370–73. 193 De Vaux, Early History of Israel, 375. On the northern and southern routes, see also de Vaux, Early History of Israel, 376–81. On Sinai and Kadesh, see also de Vaux, Early History of Israel, 419–25. On the southern and eastern conquest traditions, see also de Vaux, Early History of Israel, 673–80.
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Michael Grant, John F. Craghan, and Cornelis Houtman. 194 Another dual‐exodus theory, based on the supposition of a friendly departure with gifts, has been argued by M. B. Rowton.195 Vervenne has offered a useful summary and critique of this hy‐ pothesis.196 He argues that the statement in Exod 14:5 that the Israelites have fled is instead the result of an attempt to integrate the Sea narra‐ tive, which includes the motif of the pursuit of the Israelites by the Egyptians, into the exodus narrative. Here, he draws on a comparison of the vocabulary of flight and pursuit in Exod 14:5–10 and Gen 31:22– 25. For Vervenne, the motif of flight is occasioned by the motif of pur‐ suit. Far from preserving an old tradition, therefore, the flight motif results from redactional activity. The present analysis suggests a different kind of complexity within the tradition of a journey out of Egypt. Chapter 2 argued that the Bethel cult of the eighth century B.C.E. attributed the exodus to Yahweh and conceived of it as a journey that may have required Yahweh’s military strength. Genesis 46:2–4, on the other hand, preserves a tradition of a journey under the guidance of the family god El. The provenance and date of the latter tradition remain uncertain. Although embedded in a late linking text, it would certainly fit a stage of Israelite religion suited to wandering pastoralists. There seem to have been, then, two different ways of conceiving of the journey of Israel from Egypt to Canaan, one centered on Yahweh’s role as a warrior, and one centered on El, the family god who accompanied the family on its journeys. 194 H. Jagersma, A History of Israel in the Old Testament Period (trans. John Bowden; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 40–41; Michael Grant, The History of Ancient Israel (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984), 40; John F. Craghan, Exodus (CollBCOT 3; Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1985), 43–44; Cornelis Houtman, Exodus (trans. Johan Rebel and Sierd Woudstra; HCOT; Kampen: Kok, 1993), 174–75. 195 M. B. Rowton, “The Problem of the Exodus,” PEQ 85 (1953): 46–60, esp. 52. Cf. also the precursor to this view in S. H. Hooke, In the Beginning (CBOT 6; Oxford: Claren‐ don Press, 1947), 83–84. 196 Marc Vervenne, “Exodus Expulsion and Exodus Flight: The Interpretation of a Crux Critically Reassessed,” JNSL 22 (1996): 45–58; Marc Vervenne, “Current Tendencies and Developments in the Study of the Book of Exodus,” in Studies in the Book of Exo‐ dus: Redaction, Reception, Interpretation (ed. Marc Vervenne; BETL 126; Leuven: Leu‐ ven University Press, 1996), 42. Vervenne’s critique is accepted by Douglas K. Stuart (Exodus [NAC 2; Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2006], 331 n31). See also the critique of de Vaux in John J. Bimson, Redating the Exodus and Conquest (JSOTSup 5; Sheffield: Almond Press, 1981), 20–21.
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3.4 Moses Finally, brief mention should be made of Moses, who features promi‐ nently in the exodus narrative, and who is connected with the settle‐ ment of Transjordan Israel. David V. Santis has outlined the evidence for Moses’ connection with the Transjordan region as follows.197 The book of Deuteronomy is structured as Moses’ farewell speech, given in Transjordan, on the plains of Moab (Deut 1:1, 5).198 According to tradi‐ tion, Moses led the defeat of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan, whose territories in Transjordan he assigned to the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half tribe of Manasseh (Num 32:32; Deut 1:4; 3:1–16; 4:47; 29:7; Josh 13:12).199 The introduction to the Deuteronomic law also locates Moses’ farewell speech and lawgiving in Transjordan (Deut 4:44–46).200 Repeatedly in his farewell speech, Moses speaks of the Israelites crossing over into Cisjordan, suggesting his own location was in Transjordan (Deut 6:1; 9:1; 11:8, 11, 31; 12:10). Tradition locates Moses’ death in the Transjordan region, on Mount Pisgah (Deut 34:1) and his burial near Beth‐Peor (Deut 34:6). The alternative tradition in Deut 32:48–52, frequently ascribed to the Priestly school, also locates his death in the Transjordan region.201 Santis also points to the numerous connections between Moses and Midian, which he locates in southern and perhaps far eastern Transjordan (cf. Gen 25:2; 37:25–28; Exod 2:21; 3:1; 18:1; Num 22:1; 25:14; 31).202 To Santis’s list may be added the liter‐ 197 David V. Santis, “The Land of Transjordan Israel in the Israel Age and Its Religious Traditions” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2004), 279–88. Noth had placed great emphasis on the tradition of Moses’ grave in Transjordan (History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 169–73). 198 Cf. Zecharia Kallai, “Where Did Moses Speak (Deuteronomy I 1–5)?” VT 45 (1995): 188–97, esp. 196–97. 199 On the relationship between these traditions and history, cf. J. R. Bartlett, “Sihon and Og, Kings of the Amorites,” VT 20 (1970): 257–77. 200 Cf. Eduard Nielsen, “Moses and the Law,” VT 32 (1982): 87–98. 201 On this text, see Gerhard von Rad, Deuteronomy: A Commentary (trans. Dorothea Barton; OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1966), 11; Jean‐Pierre Sonnet, The Book within the Book: Writing in Deuteronomy (BIS 14; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 187; Antony F. Campbell and Mark A. O’Brien, Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History: Origins, Up‐ grades, Present Text (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000), 96; David Frankel, The Mur‐ muring Stories of the Priestly School: A Retrieval of Ancient Sacerdotal Lore (VTSup 89; Leiden: Brill, 2002), 281. 202 Santis cites in this regard George E. Mendenhall, “Midian,” ABD 4:815–18. See also James K. Hoffmeier, Ancient Israel in Sinai: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wil‐ derness Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 237.
3.5 Conclusion
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ary parallels in the depictions of Moses and Elijah, another figure firmly connected with the Transjordan region.203 A wide variety of traditions thus associate Moses directly or indi‐ rectly with Transjordan. Most likely, these traditions would have been at home in the Transjordan region. However, the figure of Moses in the biblical tradition is quite complex. He seems to have had multiple ma‐ jor roles.204 It would be a mistake to suggest that all the biblical tradi‐ tions associated with him also had their home in Transjordan Israel. In terms of the thesis being pursued here, Moses’ role as conqueror and lawgiver in Transjordan need not presuppose the traditions about him in Egypt. The only tentative link between the Transjordan region and Moses’ role in the traditions about Egypt is the Midianite material in the book of Exodus. However, this material does not seem like a firm basis for building a case for an eighth‐century or earlier connection between the Moses of the exodus and the Moses of the Transjordanian lawgiving and conquest.
3.5 Conclusion In sum, the Balaam oracles date to the ninth century B.C.E. or earlier and are of Transjordanian provenance. They attest to an Egypt tradition that focused on the idea of liberation from Egyptian oppression rather than on the idea of a journey of Israelites out of Egypt into Syria‐Palestine. This tradition may be related historically to the withdrawal of Egypt from Syria‐Palestine in the twelfth century B.C.E., as suggested by a number of scholars. Both the Priestly and non‐Priestly materials in the 203 On the literary parallels in the portrayals of Moses and Elijah, especially Moses’ theophanic experience at Sinai and Elijah’s at Horeb, cf. Johann Gottfried Herder, The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (trans. James Marsh; 2 vols.; Burlington: Edward Smith, 1833), 1:39; Robert H. Pfeiffer, The Books of the Old Testament (New York: Harper, 1957), 150; Robert P. Carroll, “The Elijah‐Elisha Sagas: Some Remarks on Prophetic Succession in Ancient Israel,” VT 19 (1969): 411; Bernard F. Batto, Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 141–42; Burke O. Long, 1 Kings: With an Introduction to Historical Literature (FOTL 9; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1984), 201; Bernard P. Robinson, Israel’s Mysterious God: An Analysis of Some Old Testament Narratives (Newcastle: Grevatt & Grevatt, 1986), 53; James Nohrnberg, Like unto Moses: The Constituting of an Interrup‐ tion (ISBL; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 329; Thomas L. Brodie, The Crucial Bridge: The Elijah‐Elisha Narrative as an Interpretive Synthesis of Genesis‐Kings and a Literary Model for the Gospels (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2000), 47. 204 See, for example, Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 156–74; Nielsen, “Moses and the Law,” 90.
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book of Exodus contain hints that the idea of liberation from oppres‐ sion may have originally been distinct from the idea of movement out of Egypt. Whether these ideas in fact existed entirely separately from one another remains uncertain. It is clear, however, that the former was especially resonant in the Transjordanian Balaam oracles, and the latter in the Cisjordanian Bethel calf cult.
Chapter 4 Early Judahite Traditions about Egypt
4.1 Introduction As noted in Chapter 1, Martin Noth regarded the biblical tradition about Egypt as formulated from the beginning in terms of the exodus event.1 For Noth, the “bedrock” of the exodus tradition was the Reed Sea event.2 Many regard the Song of the Sea in Exod 15:1b–18 as the oldest witness to this event, and among the earliest witnesses to the exodus. I have argued, however, that the exodus was an Israelite tradi‐ tion. This chapter offers a reading of Exod 15:1b–18 as an early Judahite poem independent of the Israelite exodus tradition. The chapter also touches on Ps 68:29–32, a prediction that bronze will come from Egypt; and 1 Kgs 3:1, a notice about Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt. Of these texts, the poem in Exod 15:1b–18 arguably dates to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. While the other two could be this early as well, their dates are less certain.
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18 The Song of the Sea celebrates Yahweh’s triumph over Pharaoh’s army and the special place that Yahweh’s people occupy: (1b) Let me sing3 to4 Yahweh, For he has been highly exalted,5
1 2
3
Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (trans. Bernhard W. Anderson; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1972), 49–51. For Noth, the earliest witness to the Reed Sea event was the poem in Exod 15:20, while Exod 15:1b–18 was a later poem combining variant narrative traditions about the Reed Sea (Exodus: A Commentary [OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962], 120–26). So also Frank Moore Cross Jr. and David Noel Freedman, Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry (SBLDS 21; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1975), 50, 54. Others render “I will sing.” Cf. אשירה, with cohortative heh in Judg 5:3; Ps 13:16; 27:6; 57:8; 89:2; 101:1; 104:33; 108:2; 144:9. Umberto Cassuto also notes the use of the related Ugaritic form ʾašr at the beginning of the poem describing the wedding of Nikkal and Yarikh, KTU 1.24 1 (A Commentary on the Book of Exodus [trans. Israel Abrahams; Publications of
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The horse and its chariot,6 He cast into the sea. (2)7 My might and my defense8 was9 Yah,
4
5
6
7
8
the Perry Foundation for Biblical Research in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967], 174). William H. C. Propp notes other instances of poets acknowledging themselves in the opening lines of ancient poems: Odyssey 1:1; Aeneid 1:1 (Exodus 1–18: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [AB 2; New York: Doubleday, 1999], 509). Alternatively, “Let me sing of Yahweh.” On lamed signaling the theme of the song, cf. P. A. H. de Boer, “Canaanite Domino: An Erroneous Dative?,” in Remembering All the Way: A Collection of Old Testament Studies Published on the Occasion of the Fortieth Anniversary of the Oudtestamentisch Werkgezelschap in Nederland (ed. B. Albrektson et al.; OtSt 21; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 55–67; Bruce K. Waltke and Michael P. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 210. See also Michael P. O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1980), 179; J. P. Fokkelman, Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: At the Interface of Herme‐ neutics and Structural Analysis (4 vols.; SSN 37, 41, 43, 47; Assen: Van Gorcum, 1998– 2004), 1:37; Propp, Exodus 1–18, 509. Both translations are permitted by the context since the poem alternates between direct address to Yahweh and declaration of Yahweh’s saving acts. Or perhaps, “He has highly exalted himself.” The verb גאה can mean “be high” or “grow tall.” Cf. its use in Job 8:11; 10:16; Ezek 47:5. The martial context of Exod 15:1b suggests a particular kind of exaltation: triumph over an enemy. The phrase could thus be rendered, “triumphed triumphantly.” Cf. Propp, Exodus 1–18, 509–10. Alternatively, “chariotry,” “charioteer,” or “rider.” Cf. Jer 51:21 and Paul Haupt, “Moses’ Song of Triumph,” AJSL 20 (1904): 158–59; Hugo Gressmann, Mose und seine Zeit: Ein Kommentar zu den Mose‐Sagen (FRLANT 2/1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1913), 351; Alan Hugh McNeile, The Book of Exodus: With Introduction and Notes (WC; London: Methuen, 1908), 89–90; Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 50, 54; Cassuto, Exodus, 180–81; Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus: A Criti‐ cal, Theological Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1974), 242; O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 179; Propp, Exodus 1–18, 471, 510; Brian D. Russell, The Song of the Sea: The Date of Composition and Influence of Exodus 15:1–21 (StBL 101; New York: Peter Lang, 2007), 12. Cross and Freedman omitted v. 2, the first half of which is also found in Ps 118:14 and Isa 12:2, since it does not fit the meter of the rest of the poem (Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 54–56). O’Connor notes that they both later modified this view (Hebrew Verse Structure, 179). Freedman pointed out that the verse could fit the meter, depending on how the line was pronounced (“Strophe and Meter in Exodus 15,” in A Light unto My Path: Old Testament Studies in Honor of Jacob M. Myers [ed. Howard N. Bream, Ralph D. Heim, and Carey A. Moore; GTS 4; Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974], 191). Cross suggested that only v. 2ab was interpolated (Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973], 127). Brian D. Russell argues that meter is not a sufficient cri‐ terion to excise the verse from the poem (Song of the Sea, 19–20). On the meter of the poem, cf. also Fokkelman, Major Poems, 1:30–32. The context suggests reading זמרת as זמרתי. The semantic range here, apparently similar to that in 2 Sam 23:1, has been the subject of discussion. The proposal “pro‐
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
129
And he became my salvation.10 This one is my god, and11 I will praise him,12 The god of my father,13 and I will exalt him. (3) Yahweh is14 a man15 of war, Yahweh is his name, (4) The chariots of Pharaoh and his army,16 He hurled into the sea. And as for his choice troops,17 They sank18 in the Sea of Reeds.19
9 10
11 12 13 14 15
16 17
18
tection, defense” by Cross and Freedman was based on an alleged South Arabian cognate. Their suggestion was challenged by Loewenstamm, who drew on the Uga‐ ritic cognate to suggest “glory,” as it was given to the deity in cultic song. The trans‐ lation of Cross and Freedman, followed here, was subsequently defended by Parker. See McNeile, Exodus, 90; Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 55; Samuel E. Loewenstamm, “‘The Lord Is My Strength and My Glory,’” VT 19 (1969): 464–70; Edwin M. Good, “Exodus XV 2,” VT 20 (1970): 358–59; Simon B. Parker, “Exodus XV 2 Again,” VT 21 (1971): 373–79; Cassuto, Exodus, 174; Childs, Exodus, 242; Michael L. Barré, “‘My Strength and My Song’ in Exodus 15:2,” CBQ 54 (1992): 623–37; Propp, Exodus 1–18, 511–12. Alternatively, “My might and my defense are Yah, and he has been my salvation.” Cf. Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 55. More literally, “He has become for me salvation.” Mark S. Smith suggests that the syntax has the force: “He acted as my savior” (The Pilgrimage Pattern in Exodus [JSOTSup 239; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997], 208 n16). Alternatively, “This is my god whom I praise, the god of my father whom I exalt.” So O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 180. On ואנוהו, see Mitchell J. Dahood, “Exodus 15:2: ʾanwehû and Ugaritic snwt,” Bib 59 (1978): 260–61. Cf. J. Philip Hyatt, “Yahweh as ‘The God of My Father,’” VT 5 (1955): 134. Alternatively, “Yahweh, the Warrior; Yahweh is his name!” Cf. Fokkelman, Major Poems, 1:24. On the basis of the Samaritan text גבור במלחמה, Cross and Freedman suggest an ancient variant, יהו גבור, “Yahweh is a warrior” (Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 56). Cf. Propp, Exodus 1–18, 472. O’Connor notes that the sense of the phrase may be “Pharaoh’s chariots, which are his strength” (Hebrew Verse Structure, 180). Though its etymology is debated, שלש evidently refers to some kind of warrior (Ezek 23:15, 23). For a survey of proposals for the etymology of שלש, see Propp, Exod 1–18, 492–93. Among others, he cites A. Marzal, “Consideraciones sobre la raíz ugarítica ‘ṯlṯ’,” Bib 44 (1963): 343–51; O. Margalith, “וכל רכב מצרים ושׁלשׁם על־כלו (Exodus 14:7),” Beit Mikra 23 (1977–1978): 68–72 [Hebrew]; B. A. Mastin, “Was the Šālîš the Third Man in the Chariot?” in Studies in the Historical Books of the Old Testa‐ ment (ed. J. A. Emerton; VTSup 30; Leiden: Brill, 1979), 125–54; P. Särko, “‘The Third Man’—David’s Heroes in 2 Sam 23,8–39,” SJOT 7 (1993): 108–24. Following MT. Cross and Freedman point out that the Peshitta and some witnesses to the LXX seem to have read, “he drowned (them)” (Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 58). Cf. Propp, Exodus 1–18, 472.
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(5) The deeps covered20 them, They descended into the depths like a stone. (6) Your right hand, O Yahweh, Awesome21 in22 power, Your right hand, O Yahweh, Shattered the enemy. (7) And in the greatness of your loftiness, You smashed your adversaries. You sent forth your fury, It consumed them like stubble. (8) And at the blast of your nostrils, The waters piled up,23
19 Alternatively, “a sea of reeds” or “Red Sea.” A plural sense for סוף is suggested by Exod 2:3, 5; cf. also Isa 19:6; Jonah 2:6. I do not find convincing Bernard F. Batto’s proposal that סוף be read as “end” or “extinction” in this context (“The Reed Sea: Requiescat in Pace,” JBL 102 [1983]: 27–35). As discussed below, however, his recog‐ nition that the sea is mythological/metaphorical rather than historical/geographical is probably correct. Batto’s etymology of סוף is also followed by Diana V. Edelman, who cites Copisarow, Snaith and Ahlström as also holding the same view (“The Creation of Exodus 14–15,” in Jerusalem Studies in Egyptology [ed. Irene Shirun‐ Grumach; AAT 40; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998], 152). In light of Jonah 2:6, discussed further below, I would regard סוף as belonging to the family of lin‐ guistic terms associated with destructive water imagery. I thus retain the translation “reed.” On סוף in relation to the sea crossing tradition, cf. Maurice Copisarow, “The Ancient Egyptian, Greek and Hebrew Concept of the Red Sea,” VT 12 (1962): 1–13; Norman H. Snaith, “ים־סוף: The Sea of Reeds: The Red Sea,” VT 15 (1965): 395–98; Marc Vervenne, “The Lexeme sûph and the Phrase yam sûph: A Brief Reflection on the Etymology and Semantics of a Key Word in the Hebrew Exodus Tradition,” in Immi‐ gration and Emigration within the Ancient Near East: Festschrift E. Lipiński (ed. K. Van Lerberghe and A. Schoors; OLA 65; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1995), 403–29; Thomas B. Dozeman, “The yam-sûp in the Exodus and the Crossing of the Jordan River,” CBQ 58 (1996): 407–16; Michael D. Oblath, The Exodus Itinerary Sites: Their Lo‐ cations from the Perspective of the Biblical Sources (StBL 55; New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 25–76, 105. 20 On the use of the prefix conjugation with past meaning in the poem, see Frank Moore Cross Jr., Canaanite Myth, 125; Cassuto, Exodus, 175. 21 On נאדרי, cf. Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 59; William M. Moran, “The Hebrew Language in Its Northwest Semitic Background,” in Amarna Studies: Collected Writings (ed. John Huehnergard and Shlomo Izre’el; HSS 54; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 207. O’Connor takes נאדרי as an infinitive equivalent to a finite verb: “Yahweh, your right hand prevails in power” (Hebrew Verse Structure, 181). The climatic action, however, may be delayed until the end: “Shattered the en‐ emy.” Therefore, נאדרי בכח may simply be a general attribute of Yahweh’s right hand. 22 Alternatively, “against,” in which case the phrase could be rendered, “Awesome against the strong.” 23 Cf. Propp, Exodus 1–18, 521; Russell, Song of the Sea, 14–15.
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The swells stood like a heap,24 The deeps foamed25 in26 the heart of the sea. (9) The enemy had said,27 “I will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the spoil, My desire28 will be sated by them,29
24 The meaning of נד is uncertain. I have here followed those who point to the Arabic cognate, which means “hill” or “heap” (cf. E. W. Lane, An Arabic‐English Lexicon [London: Williams & Norgate, 1863–1893], 2778). Others suggest “wall,” following Jewish interpretive tradition as represented, for example, by Targum Onqelos, Rashi, and Ibn Ezra, or, by extension, “dike.” The word occurs elsewhere only in Josh 3:13, 16; Ps 33:7; 78:13; Isa 17:11, and these occurrences may be dependent on Exod 15:8. Whether a heap, or a hill, or a wall, or a dike, the context suggests that the emphasis is on the terrifying height of the waves as they swelled up in the wind. Cf. Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 59; Cassuto, Exodus, 175; Childs, Exodus, 243; O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 181; Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 209 n18; Propp, Exodus 1–18, 522; Russell, Song of the Sea, 15. 25 The meaning of the verb קפא is uncertain. In Job 10:10, the root refers to the making of cheese from milk, while in Zeph 1:12 it refers to the dregs of wine. The only other biblical reference, Zeph 14:6, is obscure. What the first two occurrences have in common is the precipitation of a solid. The verb is often translated here as “congeal.” Cross and Freedman translated as “churn,” with an emphasis on action. Subse‐ quently, Cross suggested “foam” and noted cognate use related to froth or scum that floats on a liquid. If the verb is used in Exod 15:8 with the meaning “coagulate” or “congeal,” the image is of a massive wave that is heaped high like a solid mass. If, instead, the verb here means “churn” or “foam,” the image is of the frothing of the waves as they are whipped up by the wind. In either case, the emphasis is on the ter‐ rific wave that arises under the power of Yahweh’s blast. Cf. McNeile, Exodus, 91; Cross, Canaanite Myth, 128–29; O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 181–82; Smith, Pil‐ grimage Pattern, 209 n19; Propp, Exodus 1–18, 522–23; Russell, Song of the Sea, 15. 26 Alternatively, “from.” Cf. O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 181–82. 27 Evidently, the boast was uttered before Yahweh destroyed the enemy. I have there‐ fore translated with the pluperfect. Cf. Haupt, “Moses’ Song,” 157. 28 Cross and Freedman and Cassuto translate נפש as “desire” in light of the Ugaritic cognate npš; cf. the meaning “appetite, desire” in KTU 1.5 I 14; 1.5 I 18; 1.16 VI 11; 1.17 V 17; 1.133 3–4 (Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 51; Exodus, 175). The more literal mean‐ ing “throat” is adopted by Propp, who builds on the work of O’Connor and takes the verb מלא and the noun נפש together as an idiom that refers to eating; cf. Jer 31:25; Ps 107:9; Prov 6:30; Eccl 6:7 (Exodus 1–18, 524; Hebrew Verse Structure, 182). Marvin H. Pope notes that the Ugaritic cognate can mean “throat,” “appetite,” or “life/breath”; cf. KTU 1.5 I 32, where Mot threatens that he will swallow Baal (“A Lit‐ tle Soul‐Searching,” in Probative Pontificating in Ugaritic and Biblical Literature: Col‐ lected Essays [ed. Mark S. Smith; UBL; Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag, 1994], 148). See also Marvin H. Pope, “The Cult of the Dead at Ugarit,” in Probative Pontificating in Uga‐ ritic and Biblical Literature: Collected Essays (ed. Mark S. Smith; UBL; Münster: Ugarit‐ Verlag, 1994), 225. In either case, the text is meant to portray vividly the contrast be‐ tween the enemy’s confidence prior to battle and the disastrous defeat subsequently
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I will draw my sword, My hand will dispossess them!” (10) You blew with your wind, The sea covered them. They sank30 like lead, In the powerful waters. (11) Who is like you among the gods,31 O Yahweh, Who is like you, awesome in holiness,32 Revered33 with praises, Working wonder? (12) You stretched out your right hand, The earth34 swallowed them. (13) You led in your faithfulness, The people whom you redeemed. You guided (them) in your might, To your holy encampment. (14) The peoples heard, they shuddered, Pangs seized the inhabitants35 of Philistia. (15) Then the chieftains36 of Edom were dismayed, As for the nobles of Moab, trembling seized them, The inhabitants of Canaan were utterly terrified.
29
30
31
32 33 34
35
36
suffered. Cf. Raymond J. Tournay, “Recherches sur la chronologie des Psaumes,” RB 65 (1958): 347; Fokkelman, Major Poems, 1:44–45. Alternatively, “My desire for them will be filled,” or perhaps even “My desire will fulfill itself on them.” Cf. the Qal of מלא with the meaning “be full of” and an accu‐ sative of substance in Gen 6:13; Exod 8:17; Deut 34:9. The verb צלל occurs only here in the Bible. Propp points out that the Akkadian cognate means “lie down, sleep,” while the Ethiopic cognate means “swim” or “float” (Exodus 1–18, 526). The context suggests some sort of descent. O’Connor, cit‐ ing Cross and Freedman, suggests the possibility “to perish” (Hebrew Verse Structure, 183; Studies in Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 61 n28). Others, “among the celestials” (e.g., NJPS; Fokkelman, Major Poems, 1:25). The plural אלים is used elsewhere in the Bible only in Job 41:17; Ps 29:1; 89:7; Dan 11:36. It is clear that some level of the divine world is suggested by the term. Alternatively, “among the holy,” i.e., “among the gods” (cf. O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 183). Following the suggestion of O’Connor (Hebrew Verse Structure, 183). Perhaps figuratively here for the underworld. Cf. Haupt, “Moses’ Song,” 161; Cas‐ suto, Exodus, 176; Cross, Canaanite Myth, 129; Childs, Exodus, 243; O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 183; Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 210; Propp, Exod 1–18, 530. Given the poetic parallelism, others suggest that some royal connotation of sitting on a throne is appropriate for the root ישׁב here and in v. 15: “the enthroned of Philis‐ tia,” or, in other words, “the rulers of Philistia.” Cf. Freedman, “Strophe,” 172; Cross, Canaanite Myth, 130; O’Connor, Hebrew Verse Structure, 184; Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 210 n21. Cf. Gen 36:15, where the term אלוף refers to the heads of the Edomites. Cf. Cassuto, Exodus, 176.
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(16) You brought down on them, Terror and dread, In your sovereign might, They were still37 like stone, Until your people crossed, O Yahweh, Until the people you created38 crossed. (17) You brought them and planted them, On the mount of your inheritance, The place of your dwelling,39 That you made, O Yahweh, A sanctuary, O Lord,40 That your hands established. (18) Yahweh will reign,41 Forever and ever.
4.2.1 Date and Provenance The date of the composition of the Song of the Sea (Exod 15:1b–18) has been the subject of considerable debate, with proposals ranging from the thirteenth century B.C.E. through the Hellenistic period.42 The major lines of evidence that have been advanced by scholars in their attempts to date the song include historical allusions to the history of Israel, the use of the song in the Passover celebration, the use of Deuteronomistic language in the song, linguistic connections between the song and other biblical material (esp. the exilic and postexilic prophets and the 37 Cf. Baruch A. Levine, “Silence, Sound, and the Phenomenology of Mourning in Biblical Israel,” JANES 22 (1993): 89–106, esp. 103–4. 38 Note the use of the verb to describe the god’s creation of the world in Gen 14:19, 22 and Yahweh’s creation of his people in Deut 32:6. See Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 64. Propp further notes that in Hebrew and Ugaritic the verb can have the more specific meaning “procreate, engender” (Exodus 1–18, 539–40). Alter‐ natively, one could translate as “acquired” or “purchased.” 39 Alternatively, “throne” (cf. 1 Kgs 10:19). See the discussion in Propp, Exodus 1–18, 542–43. 40 Others emend to “Yahweh.” See, for example, Cross, Canaanite Myth, 131 n170. 41 The subsequent temporal clause לעלם ועד suggests that the prefix conjugation here should not be rendered as a preterite. 42 A convenient chart summarizing proposals for the date of the Song of the Sea is provided in Trent C. Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea’: Exodus 15:1–18: A Study in the Exegesis of Hebrew Poetry” (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1971), 57–58. Butler lists some forty‐eight proposals ranging from “Mosaic” times through to the second century B.C.E., including every period in between. On eighteenth‐century and nine‐ teenth‐century scholarship on the Song of the Sea, see Butler’s comprehensive For‐ schungsbericht (“‘The Song of the Sea,’” 4–60).
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psalms), a connection to Zion theology, and the presence of archaic grammatical elements in the song. The traditional view that the song was Mosaic43 was challenged by scholars such as Heinrich Ewald and Julius Wellhausen. They saw in it allusions to the later history of Israel, such as the crossing of the Jordan River, the conquest of Canaan, or the establishment of a sanctuary in the land.44 Although some allowed for a Mosaic kernel, in their view these allusions suggested for the poem as a whole a date after the set‐ tlement in the land, perhaps even after the period of the united monar‐ chy.45 This criterion of historical allusions also played a role in the dates proposed by Sigmund Mowinckel (ninth century) and Trent C. Butler (sixth century, with older elements).46 However, while there is a certain resonance between the themes of Exod 15:1b–18 and the biblical por‐ trayal of the history of Israel, Frank Moore Cross has shown how these themes have their background in the mythology of the ancient Near East.47 This mythological background will be discussed further below. For the moment I would note that this resonance is not sufficient to dictate that the poem was composed after the biblical history of early Israel attained its basic outline. In fact, the poem does not fit precisely the larger normative scheme of Israel’s early history, as will become clearer below. The criterion of historical allusions cannot settle the question of a date for Exod 15:1b–18. 43 Butler cites von Herder as articulating the traditional view (“‘The Song of the Sea,’” 4). Johann Gottfried von Herder, The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (trans. James Marsh; Bur‐ lington: Edward Smith, 1833), 2:65–67. 44 Heinrich Ewald, Die Dichter des Alten Bundes (2 vols.; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1839), 105–7; Julius Wellhausen and Johannes F. Bleek, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (4th ed.; Berlin: G. Reimer, 1878), 91–92; Julius Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Bücher des Alten Testaments (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1899), 79. 45 Butler cites G. A. Smith as maintaining a Mosaic kernel (vv. 1–12), with later expan‐ sions (“‘The Song of the Sea,’” 13, 57). George Adam Smith, The Early Poetry of Israel in Its Physical and Social Origins (London: British Academy, 1912), 51. Cf. also Mena‐ hem Haran, Temples and Temple‐Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry into the Character of Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 17–18. 46 Sigmund Mowinckel, Der achtundsechzigste Psalm (ANVAO.HF 1; Oslo: Dybwad, 1953), 73–74. Cf. Sigmund Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship (trans. D. R. Ap‐ Thomas; BRS; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004), 2:247. Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 61–78. 47 Frank Moore Cross Jr., “The Song of the Sea and Canaanite Myth,” JTC 5 (1968): 1–25.
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Some have seen a close association between the Song of the Sea and the Passover celebration described in Exod 12–13. The texts are almost juxtaposed, suggesting that the biblical editors may have considered them linked in some way. The poem describes the defeat of the Egyp‐ tians, a theme appropriate to the Passover festival. The poem is a song (cf. אשירה, “Let me sing,” Exod 15:1b) and celebrates the establishment of a sanctuary (Exod 15:17), perhaps suggesting that it was sung at a sanctuary. Ewald viewed the song as being composed for the Passover festival at a sanctuary in the land where the ark had been set up, per‐ haps Shiloh.48 Willy Stärk saw the song as being composed more spe‐ cifically for the great Passover feast of Josiah in 621 B.C.E.49 Johannes Pedersen argued that Exodus 1–15 was the cult legend of the Passover festival, and he regarded Exod 15:1b–18 as the festival hymn.50 Accord‐ ing to Georges Auzou, the poem was sung at the Passover feast in Jeru‐ salem.51 Marc Rozelaar suggested a date for the poem between the time of David and Psalm 78; he also saw the song as being one of the psalms sung at the Passover festival.52 Martin L. Brenner argued that the song had been composed specifically for the Passover feast but associated it with the Passover festival of the postexilic period (cf. Ezra 6:19–21).53 Paul Haupt also regarded the song as part of the postexilic Passover celebrations.54 Admittedly, the song describes vividly the destruction of the Egyptians, who are Israel’s archfoe in the exodus tradition cele‐ brated in connection with Passover. The Song of the Sea, however, does not mention the exodus of Israel from Egypt, as will be discussed fur‐ ther below. While it may have been used during the Passover celebra‐ tions, then, it seems unlikely that it would have been composed specifi‐ cally for any Passover that celebrated the exodus from Egypt. Therefore, the possible use of the song in the Passover celebrations is of little help in dating its composition. An attempt has also been made to locate the song within the history of the traditions associated with Zion. Jasper J. Burden argued on the 48 Ewald, Die Dichter des Alten Bundes, 105–7, as cited in Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 5. 49 Willy Stärk, Lyrik (Psalmen, Hoheslied und Verwandtes) (SAT 3/1; Göttingen: Vanden‐ hoeck & Ruprecht, 1911), 21–23 as cited in Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 13. 50 Johannes Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture: III–IV (repr., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947), 382–412, 728–37, esp. 737. 51 Georges Auzou, De la servitude au service: Étude du livre de l’Exode (ConBib 3; Paris, 1961), 204–6. 52 Marc Rozelaar, “The Song of the Sea,” VT 2 (1952): 221–28. 53 Brenner, Song of the Sea, 20. 54 Haupt, “Moses’ Song,” 152.
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basis of vocabulary links to the psalms and major prophets that the song was composed in the late preexilic period when Zion theology was still at its peak.55 Admittedly, מכון לשבתך עולמים, “a place for you to dwell in forever,” is used of the Jerusalem temple in 1 Kgs 8:13, and מכון לשׁבתך is used to describe Yahweh’s sanctuary in Exod 15:17. Neither Zion nor Jerusalem, however, is explicitly mentioned in the song. The idea of the divine dwelling is a widely attested motif, found already in the Ugaritic literature, as discussed further below. Further‐ more, Mark S. Smith has pointed out in his discussion of the date of the song that “the Zion tradition . . . lacks otherwise any theology of the Exodus until Second Isaiah and later literature (Isa 11.15–16; cf. Jer 23.7–8).”56 Such an approach, then, does not yield a firm basis for dat‐ ing the song. There have also been attempts to date the song on the basis of pro‐ posed similarities to the writings of the Deuteronomists.57 Raymond J. Tournay regarded the song as the product of a Deuteronomistic milieu in light of its style and ideology, especially what he considered to be the insistence of the poet on a specific sanctuary established by Yahweh himself.58 He regarded some form of the Deuteronomistic work as com‐ ing from the time of Josiah59 and found in the song vocabulary links to other writings that he dated to the same period: Zephaniah, Nahum and Jeremiah. He initially dated Exod 15:1b–18 to the time of Josiah and inferred that the song may have been composed for Josiah’s great Pass‐ over feast.60 The connections proposed by Tournay include the follow‐ 55 Jasper J. Burden, “A Stylistic Analysis of Exod 15:1–21: Theory and Practice,” in Exodus 1–15: Text and Context (ed. Jasper J. Burden; OTWSA 29; Pretoria: Ou‐ Testamentiese Wekgemeenskap in Suid‐Afrika, 1987), 68–69. 56 Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 222. 57 Cf. also Fabrizio Foresti, who argued for verbal links between the Song of the Sea and the Dtr redaction of Jeremiah. He suggested that the song was a composition of Dtr, with a terminus a quo provided by Psalm 78. He thus argued for a date in the exile or early postexilic period. See Fabrizio Foresti, “Composizione e redazione deu‐ teronomistica in Ex. 15,1–18,” Lat 48 (1982): 41–69, esp. 51–54, 60–64, 69. Note also the discussion in J. Alberto Soggin, “Das Wunder am Meer und in der Wüste (Exo‐ dus, cc. 14–15),” in Mélanges bibliques et orientaux en lʹhonneur de M. Mathias Delcor (ed. André Caquot, Simon Légasse, and Michel Tardieu; AOAT 215; Kevelaer: But‐ zon & Bercker, 1985), 382. 58 Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 357. 59 Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 327. 60 Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 327–28, 357. He saw the language of “holi‐ ness” in the song as pointing more specifically to the Jerusalem priesthood in the time of Josiah, most notably Hilkiah and his circle. Tournay later proposed a postex‐ ilic date in light of the connections with literature from the postexilic period and his
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ing: גאה in v. 1 (cf. מצרים and גאוה in Zeph 3:11; cf. also Nah 2:3), לישועה in v. 2 (cf. גבור יושיע. . . יהוה in Zeph 3:17), יהוה שמו in v. 3 (cf. the theme of Yahweh’s name in the Deuteronomistic writings), תהום in v. 5 (cf. Deut 8:7; 33:13), the image of Yahweh’s devouring fire in v. 7 (cf. Zeph 1:18; 3:8; Nah 1:10; perhaps also contemporaneous with Ps 21:10), ירש in v. 9 (a verb characteristic of Dtr), and Yahweh’s ex‐ tended hand in v. 12 (cf. the connection between Yahweh’s hand and the exodus in Deuteronomy and Jeremiah).61 The evidence that Tournay presents, however, does not seem to jus‐ tify his conclusions. While the song does mention a sanctuary, it hardly emphasizes the unique legitimacy of that single sanctuary. Further‐ more, the language that Tournay cites is not unique to biblical writings that might be associated with the time of Josiah. The root גאה is also found in Job 8:11; 10:16; Ezek 47:5. Within the Deuteronomistic writ‐ ings, it is not merely the noun שם, “name,” that is important, but the characteristic phrase לשכן שמו שם, “to set his name there,” (cf. Deut 12:5, 11, 21; 14:23, 24; 16:2, 6, 11; 26:2).62 The Song of the Sea uses שם rather more broadly than this. Likewise, תהום is found in a wide vari‐ ety of literature (cf. its use in Gen 1:2; 7:11; 8:2; 49:25; Job 28:14; 38:16, 30; 41:24; Ps 33:7; 36:7; 42:8; 71:20; 77:17; 78:15; 104:6; 106:9; 107:26; 135:6; 148:7; Prov 3:20; 8:24, 27f; Isa 51:10; 63:13; Ezek 26:19; 31:4, 15; Amos 7:4; Jonah 2:6; Hab 3:10). The image of Yahweh’s devouring an‐ ger is also found in Lam 4:11 (cf. also related imagery in Isa 5:24; 33:11; Jer 49:37; Joel 2:5; Obad 1:18; Nah 1:10). The Hiphil of the verb ירש is used in relation to invading armies; as such it is understandably fre‐ quent in DtrH, but it is also found in other texts with the meaning “dis‐ possess” (cf. Num 14:12; 24; 32:21, 39; 33:53; Ps 44:3; Zech 9:4). Finally, the connection between Yahweh’s hand and the exodus is not limited to DtrH but is also found in Dan 9:15; more to the point, the Song of the Sea does not mention an exodus. In sum, although some of the lan‐ guage used in the Song of the Sea is also used in the writings of the Deuteronomistic school, the Song of the Sea is not characteristically Deuteronomistic in style.63 proposed allusion to the return of the exiles in vv. 13–17 (“Le chant de victoire d’Exode 15,” RB 102 [1995]: 522–31). 61 Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 341–56. 62 Sandra L. Richter has recently argued that the language of the name theology results from Akkadian influence (The Deuteronomistic History and the Name Theology: lešakkēn šemô šām in the Bible and the Ancient Near East [BZAW 318; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002]). 63 Cf. Bernard Gosse, who finds in favor of a preexilic date for the song after a com‐ parison of its vocabulary with that of other biblical texts (“Le texte d’Exode 15,1–21
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Another line of argument for a late date for the poem has come from comparisons of the language of the song with that of other biblical texts that are considered exilic or postexilic. 64 Alan H. McNeile ob‐ served vocabulary items in the song that are found in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the later psalms but that are “almost or entirely absent from earlier writings.”65 At the same time, he found it doubtful that there was Ara‐ maic influence on the song. 66 He thus suggested that the song was composed in the exile as a source of comfort to those who hoped for a return to the land of Yahweh’s inheritance. Martin L. Brenner argued for a special connection between the song and the Asaphite psalms, which he regarded as the product of the Levitical singing clans of the postexilic period.67 He saw in the “vocabulary, usages, phrasing, and forms” of the song evidence that it “belonged to a period of style that existed only in the second temple, and that flourished around the pe‐ riod of Nehemiah.”68 Along related lines, Rüdiger Bartelmus has pro‐ posed connections between the song and Second Isaiah.69 The evidence for such a position, however, is equivocal. Two major lines of evidence are relevant to the discussion: the distribution of par‐ ticular individual vocabulary items, and fuller allusions or citations. Individual terms that some regard as evidence for a late date include יה, זמרת, אנוהו, מצלות, נזלים, קפא, לב ים, אריק, עופרת, and מכון. The language of the poem, however, is not unique to exilic and postexilic texts.70 The vocabulary items cited as belonging to exilic and postexilic material can also be found in biblical writings that are arguably preex‐ ilic. The alternative divine name יה is found in Ps 68:5, 19, a psalm whose date is discussed further below. The noun זמרת does not occur independently in Exod 15 but forms part of a larger expression ( עזי
64 65 66 67 68 69
70
dans la rédaction Biblique,” BZ 37 [1993]: 264–71). Cf. also the discussion of Salvatore Garofalo, “L’Epinicio di Mosè (Esodo 15),” Biblica 18 (1937): 1–22, esp. 21– 22. Cf. Cornelis Houtman, Exodus (trans. Sierd Woudstra; 4 vols.; HCOT; Kampen: Kok, 1996), 2:244. McNeile, Exodus, 89 McNeile, Exodus, 89. Martin L. Brenner, The Song of the Sea: Exodus 15:1–21 (BZAW 195; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1991), 181–86. Brenner, Song of the Sea, 21. Rüdiger Bartelmus, “‘Schriftprophetie’ außerhalb des corpus propheticum—eine unmögliche Möglichkeit? Das Mose‐Lied (Ex 15, 1–21) als deutero‐jesajanisch geprägtes ‘eschatologisches Loblied,’” in Schriftprophetie: Festschrift für Jörg Jeremias zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. Friedhelm Hartenstein, Jutta Krispenz, and Aaron Schart; Neukirchen‐Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2004), 55–82. Cf. Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 341–56.
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)וזמרת יה ויהי־לי לישׁועה that is also found in Ps 118:14 and Isa 12:2; this expression is treated below. The Hiphil verb from the root נוה oc‐ curs in the Bible only in Exod 15:2; it is difficult to see how its use would point to a postexilic date. Among its eleven biblical occurrences outside Exod 15, the noun מצולה is found in Ps 68:23.71 The root נזלים is found in Judg 5:5 and Num 24:7, texts that have been shown in Chap‐ ters 2 and 3 to be older than the exile, perhaps considerably so. The root קפא is found in Zeph 1:12, a text that may be preexilic.72 The phrase לב ים is also found in Ps 46:3, a psalm whose Zion theology suggests a preexilic date.73 The Hiphil of ריק is also found in Ps 35:3, a psalm of uncertain date.74 The noun עופרת is also found in Num 31:2, whose date is also uncertain. Finally, מכון is used in Ps 89:15, a psalm that may contain early material, especially in vv. 6–16.75 In sum, the vocabulary items that have been used to point to a postexilic date for the Song of the Sea can also be found in texts that are arguably preexilic. While the biblical distribution of these vocabulary items has been interpreted by some in chronological, or perhaps even theological, terms, it is also possible to interpret the data in terms of genre. The preexilic occur‐ rences that I have cited for these roots have all been in texts that are poetic. The small sample size for biblical poetic texts from the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier does not allow a clear picture of the distribution of vocabulary between earlier and later poetry. Another line of evidence has come from the denser connections be‐ tween the Song of the Sea and Isaiah and some psalms. The concentra‐ tion of these associations suggests that the texts could be interpreted as alluding to, or quoting from, one another, rather than simply using vocabulary characteristic of a given period. Such links are found be‐ tween the Song of the Sea and Isa 11–12, Ps 118, and three of the psalms of Asaph (Pss 74, 77, 78). Some have argued that these connections point to a late date for the Song of the Sea. In each case, however, Brian Russell has shown that the connections are explained if Isa 11–12 and 71 Cf. the critique of Brenner in Gary A. Rendsburg, “Hurvitz Redux: On the Continued Scholarly Inattention to a Simple Principle of Hebrew Philology,” in Biblical Hebrew: Studies in Chronology and Typology (ed. Ian Young; JSOTSup 369; London: T&T Clark International, 2003), 108 n9. 72 On the date of Zephaniah, see Adele Berlin, Zephaniah: A New Translation with Notes and Commentary (AB 25a; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1994), 31–47. 73 Cf. Hans‐Joachim Kraus, Psalms 1–59: A Continental Commentary (trans. Hilton C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 460–61. 74 Kraus, Psalms 1–59, 392. 75 Cf. Hans‐Joachim Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary (trans. Hilton C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989), 202–3.
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the psalms borrow from, or allude to, the Song of the Sea.76 He has laid out the evidence for the connections between the texts, and I will briefly summarize this evidence here. With regard to Isa 11–12, the phrase עזי וזמרת יה ויהי־לי לישׁועה, “My might and my defense was Yah, and he became my salvation” (Exod 15:2a) is found almost verba‐ tim in Isa 12:2b (cf. also Ps 118:14, discussed below). Additionally, Isa 12:5a זמרו יהוה כי גאות עשה, “sing to Yahweh for he has done glori‐ ously,” is similar to Exod 15:1b אשרה ליהוה כי גאה נאה, “Let me sing to Yahweh, for he has been highly exalted.” Isaiah 11:15 contains the vocabulary items ים, “sea,” and רוח, “wind,” both found in the Song of the Sea; it also mentions מצרים, “Egypt.” In Isa 11:15 the verb קנה, “create,ʺ describes Yahweh’s saving acts for Israel; the verb also ap‐ pears in Exod 15:16. Finally, Isa 11:14 mentions as enemies Philistia, Edom, Moab, and Ammon, while the Song of the Sea mentions Philis‐ tia, Edom, Moab, and Canaan. Isaiah 11:11–12:6 predicts a second exo‐ dus for the people of Yahweh from their exile in Assyria back to their own land (esp. Isa 11:11, 16). Therefore, the text shows an awareness of the wider context of the exodus in which the Song of the Sea is now located. Isaiah points back to Yahweh’s saving acts in the past in order to provide hope for his people. Quite plausibly, the composer of Isa 11:11–12:6 was aware of both the Song of the Sea and its subsequent association with the exodus and filled his prophecy for future hope with allusions to Yahweh’s saving acts of the past. Russell points out that the similarity between Isa 12:2b and Exod 15:2b makes sense in light of this direction of dependence. Isa 12:2b begins with the causal particle ;כי he suggests, “The line substantiates the poet’s confession of faith in verse 2a by directly alluding to the Exodus tradition.”77 A number of connections are also found between the Song of the Sea and Ps 118.78 As already noted, the phrase עזי וזמרת יה ויהי־לי לישׁועה, “My might and my defense was Yah, and he became my salva‐ tion” (Exod 15:2a) is found verbatim in Ps 118:14. The closely related phrase ותהי־לי לישׁועה (with a shift in person from 3ms to 2cs) is also found in Ps 118:21. There is also some similarity between Exod 15:2b זה אלי ואנוהו אלהי אבי וארממנהו, “This one is my god, and I will praise him, the god of my father, and I will exalt him,” and Ps 118:28 אלי אתה ואודך אלהי ארוממך,“You are my god, and I will praise you, my god, 76 Russell, Song of the Sea, 97–130. Russell argues not only that such a situation is possi‐ ble, but that it best explains the evidence. 77 Russell, Song of the Sea, 105. 78 Cf. Brenner, Song of the Sea, 61–73; Hans Schmidt, “Das Meerlied: Ex 15,2–19,” ZAW 49 (1931): 62–66.
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and I will exalt you” (cf. the reappearance of the root רום in Ps 118:16). In addition, Yahweh’s חסד, “faithfulness,” to his people is mentioned in both texts (cf. Exod 15:13 and Ps 118:1–4, 29); and his saving power is embodied in his ימין, “right hand,” in Exod 15:6, 12 and Ps 118:15–16.79 Some suggest that both songs also use similar kinds of poetic parallel‐ ism (cf. Exod 15:6–7a and Ps 118:15b–16).80 While it is possible that the author of Exod 15:1b–18 combined separate poetic lines from Ps 118 (cf. the suggestion of Cross and Freedman, noted above, that Exod 15:2 is secondary), it is also possible that the composer of Ps 118 cited Exod 15 “at key junctures of the psalm [that] emphasize the psalmist’s thanks‐ giving for Yhwh’s salvation.”81 The evidence would be intelligible in the latter scenario; thus the connections to Ps 118 do not prove a late date for Exod 15:1b–18. There are also a number of connections between the Song of the Sea and Pss 74, 77, and 78. Psalm 74:2 shares a clustering of vocabulary items with the Song of the Sea: זכר עדתך קנית קדם גאלת שׁבט נחלתך הר־ציון זה שׁכנת בו, “Remember! You created your congregation long ago, you redeemed the tribe of your inheritance, Mount Zion is the place where you dwell.” Psalm 74:11–12 also contains a density of vo‐ cabulary held in common with the Song of the Sea: ידך, ימינך, מלכי, ישועות. Psalm 77:15, like Exod 15:11, contains the phrase עשה פלא, “performing wonders,” within the context of a rhetorical question em‐ phasizing God’s uniqueness. Psalm 77 also contains the vocabulary items ימין, נחה, גאל, ים, תהמת, מים. Finally, connections are also found with Ps 78. Psalm 78:13b ויצב־מים כמו־נד, “the water stood like a heap,” is strikingly similar to Exod 15:8b נצבו כמו־נד נזלים, “the swells stood like a heap.” Psalm 78:12, like Exod 15:11, speaks of the deity עשה פלא, “performing wonders.” Psalm 78:49 ישׁלח־בם חרון אפו, “he sent forth against them his fierce anger,” bears some resemblance to Exod 15:7 תשׁלח חרנך, “you sent forth your fury.” Psalm 78:53–54 con‐ tains a number of vocabulary items similar to those in the Song of the Sea, וינחם לבטח ולא פחדו ואת־אויביהם כסה הים׃ ויביאם אל־גבול קדשׁו הר־זה קנתה ימינו, “He led them to safety so that they did not fear, but as for their enemies, the sea covered them. He brought them to his holy territory, the mount that his right hand created.” Scattered through Psalm 78 are a few other shared terms: עבר, תהום, נזל, גאל, עז, ישועה. As noted above, Brenner had argued from these connections that the Song of the Sea was a product of Asaphite circles. Russell sug‐ 79 Cf. Russell, Song of the Sea, 106. 80 Cf. Russell, Song of the Sea, 106–7. 81 Cf. Russell, Song of the Sea, 107.
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gests, however, that the Song of the Sea is not likely to have been pro‐ duced by the same circle that produced the psalms. He notes the incon‐ sistent use of archaizing grammatical features in the Asaphite psalms, against the consistent archaic grammar of Exod 15:1b–18 (the gram‐ matical evidence for the Song of the Sea is discussed further below). Russell also points out that the Asaphite psalms overwhelmingly use the divine title אלהים, “God,” whereas Exod 15 preserves the divine name יהוה, “Yahweh.” Furthermore, Exod 15 leaves the people of Yahweh unspecified, whereas the Asaphite psalms are clear. Likewise, the sanctuary in the Asaphite psalms is named as Jerusalem (Ps 74:2; 76:2; 78:60–69; 79:1), while that of the song is not identified. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the Asaphite circles that produced Pss 74, 77, and 78 also produced Exod 15:1b–18. Russell goes further and argues that the Asaphite psalms deliber‐ ately allude to the Song of the Sea. For Russell, the psalms draw on the memorialized language of Yahweh’s saving acts in order to engender hope for the present. This language, however, has been reinterpreted. Among the evidence for this direction of dependence, Russell points to the following. The place of Yahweh’s inheritance left unspecified by the Song of the Sea is identified as Zion (Ps 74:2).82 The use of עז, “might,” in Ps 77:15 suggests it is being borrowed directly from the Song of the Sea since this is the normal term for God’s power in the song (vv. 2, 13), whereas the term occurs nowhere else in Psalm 77.83 Psalm 78 takes the language of waters from the Song of the Sea (תהום, )נזל and applies it in a context that does not seem appropriate: obtaining water from the rock (Ps 78:15–16).84 Such clues point to the use of the Song of the Sea by the Asaphite psalms. In sum, the density of connections between the Song of the Sea and Isa 11–12, Ps 118, and some of the Asaphite psalms (Ps 74, 77, and 78) can be explained by the use of the Song of the Sea by these other texts. Therefore, these connections do not point to a postex‐ ilic date for the song. Others have argued for the high antiquity of Exod 15:1b–18. Wil‐ liam Foxwell Albright’s study of Ugaritic poetry led him to develop a chronological typology of the strophic and metrical structure of West Semitic poetry. He saw the use of staircase parallelism in the song, a strophic structure also found in the Ugaritic texts, as pointing to a date
82 Russell, Song of the Sea, 114. 83 Russell, Song of the Sea, 116. 84 Russell, Song of the Sea, 118.
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for the song in the thirteenth century B.C.E.85 His views on the orthog‐ raphy, morphology, and syntax of the song were further developed by his students Frank Moore Cross and David Noel Freedman in one of their joint doctoral dissertations; they argued that the song dated to sometime between the twelfth and tenth centuries B.C.E.86 Here again, the Ugaritic texts provided the evidence for the antiquity of the orthog‐ raphy, morphology, and syntax of the song. David A. Robertson took the argument a step further. He quantified the presence of these archaic features and argued on the basis of their density in Exod 15:1b–18 that the song was genuinely archaic rather than archaizing.87 Cross also de‐ veloped another line of this argument by showing how the mythologi‐ cal contents of the Ugaritic Baal cycle are reflected in Exod 15:1b–18, including the specific language used of Yahweh’s sanctuary.88 Other scholars who find the combined evidence as pointing to a relatively early date include Samuel R. Driver (the early days of the Davidic dy‐ nasty), Bernard F. Batto (tenth century B.C.E.), Samuel E. Loewenstamm (Solomonic times), Ronald E. Clements (no later than the end of Solo‐ mon’s reign), Baruch Halpern (premonarchic), Brian D. Russell (ca. 1150 B.C.E.), and Carol L. Meyers (early monarchy).89 85 William F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Con‐ trasting Faiths (Jordan Lectures 1965; London: Athlone Press, 1968), 10. 86 Cross and Freedman, Ancient Yahwistic Poetry, 45–68, esp. 47. Cross later specified the late twelfth or early eleventh century B.C.E. (Canaanite Myth, 124). Freedman later specified the twelfth century B.C.E. (“Early Israelite History in the Light of Early Isra‐ elite Poetry,” in Unity and Diversity: Essays in the History, Literature, and Religion of the Ancient Near East [ed. H. Goedicke and J. J. M. Roberts; JHNES; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975], 3). 87 David A. Robertson, Linguistic Evidence in Dating Early Hebrew Poetry (SBLDS 3; Missoula, Mont.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972), 138, 148, 152. That the song was archaizing was argued by Adolf Bender, “Das Lied Exodus 15,” ZAW 23 (1903): 1– 48. Cf. Haupt, “Moses’ Song,” 153. 88 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 112–44, with the language of the sanctuary discussed on 125. 89 Samuel R. Driver, The Book of Exodus (The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 131; Bernard F. Batto, Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 109; Samuel E. Loewenstamm, The Evolution of the Exodus Tradition (trans. Baruch J. Schwartz; Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1992), ix; Ronald E. Clements, Prophecy and Covenant (SBT 43; London: SCM Press, 1965), 54; Baruch Halpern, The Emergence of Israel in Canaan (SBLDS 29; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983), 32; Carol L. Meyers, Exodus (New Cambridge Bible Commentary; Cambridge: Cam‐ bridge University Press, 2005), 110–11; Russell, Song of the Sea, 149. Childs also finds the evidence as pointing toward a relatively early date, though he is not specific (Exodus, 245–46). Cf. also Norbert Lohfink, who regards the poem as old without
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The grammatical evidence points to a date for the song earlier than that for the standard biblical poetry found in the writings of the eighth‐ century prophets. Carola Kloos summarizes these archaic grammatical features: the preservation of the yod/waw of a III‐weak root when it opens a syllable (יכסימו, v. 15); the use of זה/זו as a relative pronoun (vv. 13, 16; אשר does not occur in the song); the use of the affix –נהו (וארממנהו, v. 2); the use of the 3mp pronominal suffix –מו with both verbs and nouns (יכסימו, v. 5; יאכלמו, v. 7; תמלאמו, תורישׁמו, v. 9; כסמו, v. 10; תבלעמו, v. 12; יאחזמו, v. 15; תבאמו, ותטעמו, v. 17; the stan‐ dard 3mp pronominal suffix does not occur in the song); the use of the affixes –י (נאדרי, v. 6); the use of enclitic mem (כמו, vv. 5, 8); the distri‐ bution of the suffix and prefix conjugations for describing the past (e.g., the prefix conjugation: יכסימו, v. 5; תרעץ, v. 6; תהרס, תשׁלח, יאכלמו, v. 7; תבלעמו, v. 12; the suffix conjugation: גאה, רמה, v. 1; ירה, טבעו, v. 4; ירדו, v. 5; נערמו, נצבו, קפאו, v. 8; אמר, v. 9; נשפת, כסמו, צללו, v. 10; נטית v. 12).90 The density of these features and the absence of distinc‐ tively late forms in the song suggest that it is archaic rather than archa‐ izing. An archaic date for the song, however, is only relative to the stan‐ dard biblical poetry found in the eighth‐century prophets. Mark S. Smith notes, “Given the insufficient sample for establishing a chronol‐ ogy for pre‐prophetic poetry, it is impossible on the basis of grammar to precisely date poems such as the one in Exodus 15.”91 Neither do the contents of the song clarify the date obtained from the grammatical evidence. The list of specified enemies—Philistines, Edomites, Moabites and Canaanites—is intelligible within either an early monarchic or a premonarchic setting. 92 The theme of Yahweh’s kingship, which is made explicit in Exod 15:18, would make good sense in a monarchic setting. But it may also be intelligible as stemming from the mythologi‐ cal background of the poem; the biblical traditions imagine that the idea of Yahweh’s kingship predates the monarchy (cf. 1 Sam 8, 10).93 90 91 92 93
specifying an actual date (“The Song of Victory at the Red Sea,” in The Christian Meaning of the Old Testament [trans. R. A. Wilson; London: Burnes & Oates, 1969], 72). Carola Kloos, YHWH’s Combat with the Sea: A Canaanite Tradition in the Religion of Ancient Israel (Leiden: Brill, 1986), 131–32. Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 223. Cf. also Freedman, “Early Israelite History,” 9–10. On the theme of Yahweh’s kingship in the song, cf. Mowinckel, Psalms, 1:126, 140; Jörg Jeremias, Das Königtum Gottes in den Psalmen: Israels Begegnung mit dem kanaa‐ näischen Mythos in den Jahwe‐König‐Psalmen (FRLANT 141; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987), 93–106. Mowinckel recognized the possibility that the idea of Yahweh as king might have become part of Israelite religion before the establish‐
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Against this background, a cautious approach seems warranted. The grammatical evidence points to a date for the Song of the Sea before the prophetic writings of the eighth century B.C.E.; a ninth‐ or tenth‐century date is quite feasible, and there is nothing in the song to preclude an eleventh‐century date.94 The provenance of the song has also been a matter of much debate. Here, attention has focused on the identity of נוה קדשׁך (v. 13), as well as הר נחלתך, מכון לשׁבתך, and מקדשׁ (v. 17). These are sometimes taken as having the same referent, and at other times as having differ‐ ent referents. Proposals for the abode of v. 13 include Gilgal, Sinai, Shi‐ loh, the battle encampment at Shittim, the Jerusalem temple, and the entire promised land.95 Proposals for the mountain sanctuary of v. 17 include Sinai,96 Shiloh,97 Jerusalem/Zion,98 Gilgal,99 the land of Canaan
94 95
96 97
98
ment of the Jerusalem temple; however, he argued, “We have no clear indications of the enthronement ideas in such early times” (Psalms, 140). Jeremias dates the Song of the Sea to late preexilic times (Königtum Gottes, 106). The theme of Yahweh’s king‐ ship is stated explicitly in v. 18. As with the Baal cycle and Enuma Elish, however, the theme of the god’s kingship forms the backdrop of the whole. On the theme of king‐ ship in the Baal cycle, see Mark S. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 1: Introduc‐ tion with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2 (VTSupp 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994), 87–115. On the theme of kingship in Enuma Elish, see Thorkild Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion (Yale: Yale University Press, 1976), 183–86. On the relevance of Enuma Elish for understanding P’s treatment of the exodus more broadly, cf. Kenton L. Sparks, “Enūma Elish and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism,” JBL 126 (2007): 635–37. So Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 223. For a survey of these proposals see Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 63. He cites the following. Gilgal: Patrick D. Miller Jr., “Holy War and Cosmic War in Early Israel” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1964), 238; Shiloh: Rudolf Kittel, Geschichte des Vol‐ kes Israel (Handbücher der alten Geschichte 1/3; 2 vols.; Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes, 1922), 2:506 n1; the battle encampment at Shittim: Cross, “Song of the Sea,” 23; the Jerusalem temple: Josef Schreiner, Sion‐Jerusalem Jahwe’s Königssitz: Theologie der Heiligen Stadt im Alten Testament (SANT 7; Munich: Kösel‐Verlag, 1963), 210; Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 350; and the entire promised land: Georg Beer, Exodus (HAT 3; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1939), 82; Driver, Exodus, 131; John D. W. Watts, “Song of the Sea: Exodus 15,” VT 7 (1957): 377; Noth, Exodus, 125; George W. Coats, “Song of the Sea,” CBQ 31 (1969): 12–13; Heinrich Holzinger, Exodus: Er‐ klärt (KHCAT 2; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1900), 49. Cf. Halpern, Emergence of Israel, 38–39. Ewald, Die Dichter des Altes Bundes, 105–7, as cited in Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 5; Wellhausen, Einleitung, 91–92, as cited in Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 67–68; Judah Goldin, The Song at the Sea: Being a Commentary on a Commentary in Two Parts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971), 50–55. Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 321–57; Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 63–77; Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 114, 216 n11; Mark S. Smith, “The Poetics of Exodus 15 and Its Position in the Book,” in Imagery and Imagination in Biblical Literature: Essays in
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as a whole,100 and one of the ancient cult sites of Canaan.101 The debate arises because the song does not specify a particular sanctuary or city. As Cross has pointed out, the “mount of inheritance” was an expres‐ sion already used in the Ugaritic narrative poems (KTU 1.3 III 30; cf. also KTU 1.3 VI 16).102 The ancient biblical editors themselves seem to have disagreed on the location of the mountain sanctuary of Yahweh in the Song of the Sea. Mark S. Smith has argued that the editors of Psalm 78 apparently understood this language to refer to Shiloh. 103 The psalm mounts a theological argument for Yahweh’s rejection of Shiloh and his choice of Jerusalem. Within this argument, the narrative flow moves from exo‐ dus to Shiloh to Jerusalem. In the psalm, the sanctuary at which Yah‐ weh’s people arrive following the defeat of the Egyptians is evidently Shiloh.104 If the psalm alludes to the Song of the Sea, and if Psalm 78:54 refers to Shiloh, the psalm suggests that some Jerusalemite circles un‐ derstood the referent of the Song of the Sea to be Shiloh. Even this, however, does not settle the question of the original sanctuary referred to in the Song of the Sea. Psalm 78 portrays a traditional biblical se‐ Honor of Aloysius Fitzgerald, F.S.C. (ed. Lawrence Boadt and Mark S. Smith; CBQMS 32. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2001), 33; Diana Edelman, “Creation of Exodus 14–15,” 156–57; Houtman, Exodus, 241; Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, “Fighting the Powers of Chaos and Hell: Towards the Biblical Portrait of God,” ST 39 (1985): 31. Cf. also Childs, Exodus, 246; Clements, Prophecy and Covenant, 54; J. Philip Hyatt, Exodus (NCB; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1980), 163; Soggin, “Das Wunder am Meer,” 382. 99 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 142; Patrick D. Miller Jr., Divine Warrior in Early Israel (HSM 5; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 116. On the importance of Gil‐ gal, and the possibility that it was in the Gilgal cult that the motif of crossing the sea dry shod was combined with the exodus tradition, see Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 128–51. 100 Watts, “Song of the Sea,” 377; Coats, “Song of the Sea,” 12–13. William H. C. Propp also cites the following as holding this view: Noth, Exodus, 125–26; Cassuto, Exodus, 177; McNeile, Exodus, 92. See Propp, Exodus 1–18, 564 101 Antonin Causse, Les plus vieux chants de la Bible (ÉHPhR 14; Paris: Alcan, 1926), 104; Theodore Henry Robinson, The Poetry of the Old Testament (ST; London: Duckworth, 1947), 61, as cited in Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 67–68. 102 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 125. Cf. Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 222. 103 Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 225–26. 104 On Shiloh as the referent of Psalm 74:54, Smith cites among others Bernard Duhm, Die Psalmen (KHC 14; Tübingen: Mohr‐Siebeck, 1899), 204–5; Charles A. Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vols.; ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1907), 2:189; Alexander F. Kirkpatrick, The Book of Psalms (Cambridge: Cam‐ bridge University Press, 1957), 475; Mitchell Dahood, Psalms II: 51–100 (AB 17; Gar‐ den City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), 245; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 129.
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quence of Israelite history: an exodus followed by a settlement in the land. Exodus 15, however, as will be argued further below, is inde‐ pendent of this scheme. Therefore, Psalm 78 may itself have misunder‐ stood the original referent of the song under the influence of the later normative picture of Israelite history. Some kind of misunderstanding was also perhaps influential in the editorial choice of the current loca‐ tion of the Song of the Sea. Smith has argued that the poem’s current placement functions as a fulcrum between the exodus tradition and the wilderness tradition. Such an arrangement suggests that the Priestly editor understood the mountain referred to in the song to be Sinai.105 In sum, ancient Judahites also disagreed on the original referent of the sanctuary in the Song of the Sea. Exodus 15:1b–18 itself simply does not specify. Despite this uncertainty, the language of the song suggests a south‐ ern provenance. In some texts, similar language is used of Jerusalem and its sanctuary without any clear indication that an allusion to the Song of the Sea is intended. Trent Butler notes that a Jerusalemite refer‐ ent for נוה is indicated in Jer 25:30; 31:23; Isa 27:10; 33:20; 2 Sam 15:25, for נחלה in Ezek 45:1, and for מכון לשׁבתך in 1 Kgs 8:13.106 In none of these texts is there anything else to suggest that a deliberate allusion to the Song of the Sea should be presumed. The fact that the language used to describe the sanctuary in the Song of the Sea is used in these texts in relation to Jerusalem and its sanctuary suggests that such lan‐ guage was at home in southern circles. The language of vv. 13, 17 may thus point to the southern provenance of the poem, whatever the origi‐ nal referent of these verses. While this line of evidence is suggestive, however, it is not definitive. The Bible has come from the hands of Judahite editors, and there is simply more biblical material, and hence more biblical language, describing the Jerusalem sanctuary. Other language within the song also hints at its Judahite prove‐ nance. Susan E. Gillingham observes language similar to Exod 15:11 in Pss 86:8 and 89:7–8, the latter especially at home in Jerusalem, as sug‐ gested by its Davidic focus (v. 4).107 Daniel E. Fleming has noted the 105 Smith, “Poetics of Exodus 15,” 31–33. On the redactional placement of Exod 15:1b– 18, see also Erich Zenger, “Tradition und Interpretation in Exodus xv 1–21,” in Con‐ gress Volume: Vienna, 1980 (ed. John A. Emerton; VTSup 32; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 483; James W. Watts, Psalm and Story: Inset Hymns in Hebrew Narrative (JSOTSup 139; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992), 48–49, 58–61. 106 Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 63–77. 107 Susan E. Gillingham, The Poems and Psalms of the Hebrew Bible (OBS; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 143–45.
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complete absence from the song of language characteristic of the north‐ ern Israelite tribal collective. 108 Thus, no individual tribes are men‐ tioned, nor is the tribal collective Israel mentioned. Further evidence for the southern provenance of the song comes from an examination of the geographical locations that are explicitly mentioned. Edom, Moab, Philistia, and Canaan are all listed as the enemies of the people of Yahweh (vv. 14–15). As Smith has pointed out, all of these territories are, relatively speaking, southern.109 Absent from the list are traditional enemies of Israel in the north or northeast: Am‐ mon, Amalek, Aram, Tyre, Sidon, Assyria, and Babylonia. Particularly striking is the absence of Ammon, which is found together with Moab and/or Edom and/or Philistia in several biblical texts, though never with Canaan (Judg 10:6; 11:15; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:12; 1 Kgs 11:7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13; 24:2; 1 Chr 18:11; 2 Chr 20:1, 10, 22f; Isa 11:14; Jer 9:25; 25:21; 27:3; 40:11; Dan 11:41; Zeph 2:8).110 Some have sought to explain the absence of Ammon from the list solely on chronological grounds. They have thus attempted to find a period in which these were the enemies of Israel, or they have argued that the reference to the Philis‐ tines is anachronistic. 111 While these chronological observations have merit, the particular choice of enemies could also be explained in terms of geography and the provenance of the song. The territories Philistia, Edom, Moab, and Canaan would have encircled Judah. The geographi‐ cal horizon of the poem is thus evidently southern. This list of enemies also provides confirmation of the date proposed above since the early monarchic period and the late premonarchic period provide a setting in which all of the peoples mentioned could have been enemies of the people of Yahweh.112 In sum, although the tribe of Judah is not men‐ tioned in the song, multiple lines of evidence suggest that the poem is southern. 108 Daniel E. Fleming, forthcoming. 109 Mark S. Smith, personal communication. 110 The only other text to mention Philistia, Edom, and Moab without also mentioning Ammon is Ps 60:10, a text that may also be southern Cf. Frank‐Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100 (trans. Linda M. Maloney; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 95–96; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 3–4. 111 Cf. the discussions of Mowinckel, achtundsechzigste Psalm, 74; Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 198; Goldin, Song of the Sea, 55–56; Cross, Canaanite Myth, 124. 112 Cf. Freedman, “Early Israelite History,” 9–10.
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
149
4.2.2 Portrayal of Egypt 4.2.2.1 The Journey Theme in the Song In his seminal study, Cross showed decisively the mythological back‐ ground of Exod 15:1b–18.113 He noted carefully language and motifs common to the song and to the Ugaritic Baal texts, as well as to Enuma Elish, and summarized this shared constellation of motifs as follows: “(1) the combat of the Divine Warrior and his victory at the Sea, (2) the building of a sanctuary on the ‘mount of possession’ won in battle, and (3) the god’s manifestation of ‘eternal’ kingship.”114 Although the Song of the Sea drew on mythological material, for Cross, there was in the poem “no question . . . of a mythological combat between two gods. Yahweh defeats historical, human enemies.” 115 Instead, Cross envi‐ sioned behind the poem an historical event in which “the Egyptians are thrown from barks or barges into the stormy sea; they sink in the sea like a rock or a weight and drown.”116 Despite this mythological background, several scholars understand the events described in the Song of the Sea in light of the normative scheme of Israel’s history, especially the exodus. In Chapter 1, I noted William Foxwell Albright’s view that the historical reality of the exodus was suggested by the antiquity of the oral traditions about it.117 Al‐ bright presumably refers here to Exod 15:1b–18, as well as to the Ba‐ laam oracles discussed in Chapter 3. More recently, Tournay has as‐ serted, “Le thème de l’Exode est le sujet central d’Ex. xv.” 118 While Tournay may be particularly strong in his formulation, many under‐ stand Exod 15:1b–18 within the scheme of the exodus tradition. 113 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 112–44. See also an earlier version of this material in Cross, “The Song of the Sea,” 1–25. On the mythological background of the song, cf. also Bernhard W. Anderson, “The Song of Miriam Poetically and Theologically Consid‐ ered,” in Directions in Biblical Hebrew Poetry (ed. Elaine R. Follis; JSOTSup 40; Shef‐ field: JSOT Press, 1987), 287; Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 104, 113–14. 114 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 142. For a summary of the comparison between the Song of the Sea and Enuma Elish and the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, see also Theodor H. Gaster, Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 241. Gaster’s analysis conflates Exod 15 with Exod 14. As discussed further below, the poem itself does not contain the motif of the splitting of the sea with the result‐ ing emergence of dry land. 115 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 131–32. 116 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 132. 117 Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, 164. 118 Tournay, “Chronologie des Psaumes,” 327.
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It would seem, however, that scholars have overestimated the poem’s evocation of the later biblical picture of Israel’s history, includ‐ ing the exodus from Egypt. While the first half of the poem describes an Egyptian defeat, and the second half describes a journey taken by Yah‐ weh’s people, the logic connecting these themes within the poem is not the notion of an exodus. Nowhere does the song portray Yahweh’s people as being in Egypt, nor does it depict them leaving Egypt. Rather, the song’s halves are connected within the logic of the old mythological themes taken up by the poem. As much is borne out by a careful ex‐ amination of the song’s description of the people’s journey. According to Exod 15:16, Yahweh’s people “cross,” but the verb עבר here has neither a direct nor an indirect object; it is unclear what Yahweh’s people cross. This “crossing” of Yahweh’s people has gener‐ ally been taken as a reference to some event in the Bible’s presentation of Israelite history.119 One possibility is that Exod 15:16 refers to the Israelite crossing of the Reed Sea, described in Exodus 14.120 Although the root עבר is not found in the prose descriptions of the Reed Sea event in Exodus 14, the verb is used to refer to the event in Num 33:8; Josh 2:10; 4:23; 5:1; Neh 9:11; Ps 78:13; Isa 51:10. Of these, the wording of Josh 4:23 bears at least some resemblance to Exod 15:16, אשׁר־הובישׁ יהוה אלהיכם את־מי הירדן מפניכם עד־עברכם כאשׁר עשׂה יהוה אלהיכם לים־סוף אשׁר־הובישׁ מפנינו עד־עברנו, “as Yahweh your God did to the Reed Sea, which he dried up for us until we crossed over.” It might be argued, then, that Exod 15:16 refers to the crossing of the Reed Sea by the Israelites. However, the notion that Exod 15:16 alludes to the sea crossing, as known from the biblical presentation of Israelite his‐ tory, does not adequately reckon with the context of Exod 15:14–16. The 119 B. S. Childs, for example, writes, “The sea tradition in the song has been transmitted in conjunction with the conquest tradition. Verse 16 describes the crossing of the Jordan, v. 17 the entrance into the land. In spite of the continued attempt of the Al‐ bright school to avoid this conclusion . . . the conquest of the land is presupposed” (Exodus, 244). For similar interpretations, see Brenner, Song of the Sea, 19–20; Miller, Divine Warrior, 116; Edelman, “Creation of Exodus 14–15,” 143; Burden, “Stylistic Analysis,” 67; Alan Jon Hauser, “Two Songs of Victory: A Comparison of Exodus 15 and Judges 5,” in Directions in Biblical Hebrew Poetry (ed. Elaine R. Follis; JSOTSup 40; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 271. Freedman sees the crossing as referring to the march through the wilderness to the mountain (“Early Israelite History,” 7; “Moses and Miriam: The Song of the Sea (Exodus 15:1–18, 21),” in Realia Dei: Essays in Ar‐ chaeology and Biblical Interpretation in Honor of Edward F. Campbell, Jr. at His Retirement [ed. Prescott H. Williams and Theodore Hiebert; Scholars Press Homage Series 23; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999], 76–78). Cf. also Roland Meynet, “Le Cantique de Moïse et le Cantique de l’Agneau (Ap 15 et Ex 15),” Gregorianum 73 (1992): 37. 120 Russell, Song of the Sea, 118.
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
151
enemies of Yahweh’s people, namely the Philistines, Edomites, Moab‐ ites, and Canaanites are said to have trembled “until your people crossed” ()עד־יעבר עמך. In the normative biblical portrayal of the Israelite exodus and conquest, it makes little sense that these enemies should be terrified only until Yahweh’s people have crossed the sea. According to the biblical story, Yahweh’s people are understood to be moving from Egypt to Canaan. Thus, it is only after they cross the sea that they pose any real threat to the Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, and Canaanites. These enemies can hardly be said, therefore, to tremble until Israel has crossed the sea. More to the point, as discussed further below, the Song of the Sea does not depict the crossing of the sea by the Israelites. The piling up of the waters in the first half of the poem is an image of destruction—by Yahweh’s angry blast the waters rise up against the Egyptians. No path through the sea is made for Yahweh’s people. In fact, the water imagery is limited to the first half of the poem, which describes the destruction of the Egyptians, while the crossing of Yahweh’s people is mentioned in the second half of the poem, which celebrates the effects of that destruction. There is nothing in Exod 15 to indicate that the Israelites cross any sea, much less on dry ground. In sum, עבר in Exod 15:16 does not refer to the Reed Sea crossing. A second suggestion is that עבר in Exod 15:16 refers to the Israelite march through the wilderness to the sacred mountain. The root עבר, however, is not used to describe the wilderness wandering in the Bible, neither in the Pentateuch nor in extra‐pentateuchal references to this journey.121 Additionally, the notion that Exod 15:16 alludes to the bibli‐ cal depiction of the journey through the wilderness to the mountain does not adequately reckon with the context of Exod 15:14–16. As the story of this journey is presented in the Bible, Israel does at some point encounter Edom and Moab. The Philistines, however, are not under threat from Israel during this period, and the Canaanites are under threat only after the wilderness period is completed. These four ene‐ mies, therefore, can hardly be said to tremble until Israel has crossed the wilderness. Furthermore, the Song of the Sea does not mention a 121 As far as I am aware, the text that comes closest to using the verb to describe the wilderness wandering period is Jer 2:6. Even here, however, the verb does not de‐ scribe Israel’s journey: ולא אמרו איה יהוה המעלה אתנו מארץ מצרים המוליך אתנו במדבר בארץ ערבה ושׁוחה בארץ ציה וצלמות בארץ לא־עבר בה אישׁ ולא־ישׁב אדם שׁם, “They did not say, ‘Where is Yahweh who brought us up from the land of Egypt, who led us in the wilderness, in a land of desert and pit, in a land of drought and deep darkness, in a land that no one crosses, where no human lives?’” (cf. such stock use of the verb in Jer 9:9, 11).
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wilderness. In short, Exod 15:16 does not seem to refer to the wilder‐ ness crossing. The most common suggestion is that Exod 15:16 refers to, or alludes to, the crossing of the Jordan River by the Israelites. The root עבר is explicitly used to describe this event in a few dozen texts in Numbers, Deuteronomy and Joshua—though, as far as I am aware, nowhere else in the Bible.122 Of these texts, Josh 4:23 and Josh 5:1 in particular bear some similarity to Exod 15:16. I have already cited Josh 4:23; Josh 5:1 notes that the kings of the Amorites and the Canaanites heard that “Yahweh had dried up the waters of the Jordan before the children of Israel until they had crossed over ()עד־עברנו.” Again, however, such an interpretation of Exod 15:16 does not make sense in the context of vv. 14–16. In the traditional biblical presentation, the Israelites leave Egypt, bypass the Philistines, have some encounter with Edom and Moab, and cross the Jordan to take possession of the territory of the Canaanites. While Philistia, Edom, and Moab might tremble until Yah‐ weh’s people cross the Jordan, the Canaanites must surely continue to tremble afterward. The Canaanites can hardly be said to tremble until Yahweh’s people have crossed the Jordan River. Furthermore, despite all its water imagery, the Song of the Sea does not mention the Jordan or any other river. In sum, עבר in Exod 15:16 does not refer to the Jor‐ dan crossing. Interpretations that read the verb עבר in Exod 15:16 in light of the standard later biblical portrait of Israelite history are ill‐founded. Rather, as an early Judahite text, the Song of the Sea should be under‐ stood independently of the Israelite exodus tradition and of the later biblical presentation of Israel’s early history. If so, what does יעבר in Exod 15:16 describe? Mark S. Smith suggests that the verb here may denote a military progression, found, for example, in West Semitic my‐ thology.123 Following his defeat of Yamm, and after the initial phase of the construction of his house, Baal journeyed throughout the land: 7–8.
ʿbr124 . l[ʿr]125 . ʿrm / ṯb . lpd[r . p]drm /
He traversed all the cities,126 He toured all the towns;
122 Num 32:5, 21, 32; 33:51; 35:10; Deut 2:29; 4:22, 26; 9:1; 11:31; 12:10; 27:2, 4, 12; 30:18; 31:13; 32:47; Josh 1:2, 11, 14; 3:1, 14, 17; 4:1, 7, 10, 22, 23; 5:1; 7:7; 24:11. 123 Mark S. Smith, personal communication. 124 Ginsberg and KTU read ʿdr instead of ʿbr, but the photograph clearly shows a b, as was read by Driver (Harold Louis Ginsberg, The Ugaritic Texts [Jerusalem: Vaad Ha‐ lashon, 1936], 38; G. R. Driver, Canaanite Myths and Legends [OTS 3; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1956], 100). Moreover, the context demands ʿbr (cf. Mark S. Smith, “The Baal Cycle,” in Ugaritic Narrative Poetry [ed. Simon B. Parker; SBLWAW 9; Atlanta: Schol‐ ars Press, 1997], 135).
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
9–10. ṯṯ . lṯṯm . ʾaḫd . ʿr / šbʿm . šbʿ . pdr / 11–12. ṯmnym . bʿl . [ ]/ tšʿm . bʿl . mr[ ]/ 13–14. b[ ]b bʿl . bqr[b]129 / bt (KTU 1.4 VII 7–14)
153
Sixty‐six127 cities he seized, Seventy‐seven towns, Eighty Baal [ ], Ninety Baal [ ]. Baal s[at?] in [the palace?],128 In the mid[st] of the house.
Here the verb ʿbr, which has the same root as יעבר in Exod 15:16, de‐ scribes what Smith has called “Baal’s victory tour.”130 That Baal’s march is a victory tour is reinforced by the use of numbers in the passage. J. T. Lee has argued that Ugaritic numerical sequences of more than two numbers, as we have here in lines 9–12, cannot be understood in terms of parallelism alone. Rather, they need to be understood as action 1 + numerical sequence with internal repetition + action 2.131 In other words, in this text we should expect action 1 (Baal traverses/tours), followed by a numerical sequence in which the same action occurs repeatedly (Baal seizes again and again), followed by action 2 (Baal returns home). Thus, 125 This reconstruction is suggested by the parallelism of the lines. The tablet does not seem to have space for the first noun in each pair to have had a final m. 126 Compare the following three syntactic constructions: (1) absolute singular noun + absolute singular noun, which seems to mean “all of X” (Exod 3:15; 17:16, perhaps KTU 1.19 III 56, IV 6; 1.4 III 7 [broken context]). Presumably, in this construction the second noun would have functioned as a kind of adverbial accusative. (2) preposition + construct singular noun + absolute plural noun, which seems to mean “all of X” (Isa 34:10; 51:8). (3) preposition + noun + noun with locative ending, which seems to mean “from X to X” (Exod 13:10; Judg 11:40; 21:29; 1 Sam 1:3; 2:19). With regard to KTU 1.4 VII 7, the second construction seems most likely; otherwise, one would have to posit a consistent use of a grammatically insignificant enclitic mem. 127 The numbered item is normally in the singular with quantities greater than ten. The construction units + lamed + tens is not uncommon, as, for example, in KTU 4.213 9, 4.144 5, and 4.775 9. Syntactically the separation of a numerical adjective or construct noun (ṯṯ . lṯṯm) from the noun being counted (ʿr) by a verb (ʾaḫd) is awkward. 128 Some synonym of bt would seem to be required by the context. 129 The reconstruction bqr[b] seems certain despite the fact that the vast majority of the occurrences of bqrb are followed by hkl (KTU 1.17 25, 43; 1.4 V 14, 30, 37, 62, 65, VI 6, 9, 31, 45, VII 18, 27; 1.10 II 2, 5; 1.20 II 1; 1.21 II 8; 1.22 II 20). This is the only occur‐ rence followed by bt. There is one occurrence followed by m[ ] (KTU 1.20 II 9) and one by ʿr (KTU 1.62 5). 130 Smith, “Baal Cycle,” 135. Smith also discusses this text in his new commentary, which I have been unable to consult. See Mark S. Smith and Wayne T. Pitard, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume II: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU/CAT 1.3–1.4 (VTSup 114; Leiden: Brill, 2008), 660–66. 131 Jin Tae Lee, “The Ugaritic Numeral and Its Use as a Literary Device” (Ph.D. diss., Brandeis University, 1973), 210.
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Baal’s tour is not a casual one but is meant to ratify, or perhaps estab‐ lish, his kingship over a vast number of cities and towns. More broadly, the concept of the military tour is also found in an‐ cient Near Eastern descriptions of campaigns by kings. Sometimes these provide specific itineraries of military campaigns, as well as lists of territory brought under the king’s rule.132 Elsewhere, the boast of marching throughout defeated territory is more general. 133 Although the use of Akkadian ebēru(m) is generally restricted in these texts to the crossing of particular bodies of water, the sequence represented in some of these texts is relevant to an understanding of the Ugaritic Baal cycle. Mesopotamian royal inscriptions often contain the basic pattern “When I was appointed to kingship by the gods, at that time I did spe‐ cific mighty deeds.” Not infrequently, a military tour to quash a rebel‐ lion or expand the kingdom is among the first of the king’s great acts. Thus, for example, Shalmaneser I describes his early reign as follows: When Aššur, the lord, faithfully chose me to worship him, gave me the sceptre, weapon, and staff to (rule) properly the blackheaded people, and granted me the true crown of lordship; at that time, at the beginning of my vice‐regency, the land Uruaṭri rebelled against me. I prayed to the god Aššur and the great gods, my lords. I mustered my troops (and) marched up to the mass of their mighty mountains. I conquered the lands Ḫimme, Uatqun, Mašgun (or Bargun), Salua, Ḫalila, Lūḫu, Nilipaḫri (or Ṣ/Zalli‐ paḫri), and Zingun—eight lands and their fighting forces; fifty‐one of their cities I destroyed, burnt, (and) carried off their people and property. I sub‐ dued all of the land of Uruaṭri in three days at the feet of Aššur, my lord. (RIMA 0.77.1 22–41)134
Other examples of this literary pattern include RIME 3/2.1.4.3 i 17–v 19 (Šū‐Sîn), RIME 3/2.1.4.4 i 7′–ii 23′ (Šū‐Sîn), RIMA 0.78.10 15–46 (Tukultī‐ Ninurta I), RIMA 0.102.1 (Shalmaneser III); RIMA 0.102.2 (Shalmaneser III), and RIMA 0.102.6 (Shalmaneser III). 132 For example, RIME 2.1.1.1 (Sargon); RIME 2.1.1.2 (Sargon); RIME 2.1.2.4 (Rīmuš); RIME 2.1.4.2 (Narām‐Sîn); RIME 2.1.4.26 i 11–ii 28 (Narām‐Sîn); RIME 3/2.1.4.3 ii 21– 39 (Šū‐Sîn); RIME 3/2.1.4.4 ii 21′–23′ (Šū‐Sîn); RIMA 0.77.1 22–46 (Shalmaneser I); RIMA 0.78.1 iii 12–20 (Tukultī‐Ninurta I); RIMA 0.78.2 17–36 (Tukultī‐Ninurta I); RIMA 0.78.10 15–46 (Tukultī‐Ninurta I); RIMA 0.78.23 27–55 (Tukultī‐Ninurta I); RIMA 0.100.5 (Tukultī‐Ninurta II); RIMA 0.102.1 (Shalmaneser III); RIMA 0.102.2 i 14–ii 102 (Shalmaneser III); RIMA 0.102.6 (Shalmaneser III); RIMB 2.4.7 5–22 (Nebu‐ chadnezzar). 133 For example, RIMA 0.78.6 12ff (Tukultī‐Ninurta I); RIMA 0.102.1 8–10 (Shalmaneser III); RIMA 0.102.2 i 5–10 (Shalmaneser III). 134 Translation from A. Kirk Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia (to 1115 BC) (RIMA 1; Toronto: University of Toronto, 1987), 183.
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
155
Even without the specific literary pattern, it is clear that the king’s early reign was frequently occupied with military tours. As much is suggested by RIMA 0.87.1 i 46–61 (Tiglath‐pileser I); RIMA 0.87.2 11–22 (Tiglath‐pileser I); RIMA 0.89.2 (Aššur‐bēl‐kala); RIMA 0.98.1 6–15 (Aššur‐dān); RIMA 0.99.1 8–19 (Adad‐nārārī II); RIMA 0.99.2 13–15 (Adad‐nārārī II); RIMA 0.101.1 i 40b–69 (Ashurnasirpal II); RIMA 0.102.5 i 6b–ii 2a (Shalmaneser III). The sequence is therefore not merely a literary pattern but is reflective of the political realities of empire: the change of king tempted vassals to rebel, and new kings had to prove themselves both at home and abroad.135 Nor is this basic sequence lim‐ ited to Mesopotamia; Ogden Goelet points out that there are several Egyptian parallels to the king’s military/civil progress across the land at regular intervals, but particularly at his ascension.136 An inscription of Seti I describing his campaign in Canaan, for example, shows in its stylized boasting of his trampling of Asia how a tour served as a form of legitimization for the newly ascended king (COS 2.4A; cf. the belli‐ cose titles used for Seti I in his Beth Shan stela, COS 2.4B). These wider ancient Near Eastern motifs are reflected in the Baal cycle: following his assumption of kingship, Baal marched throughout the land and con‐ quered city after city. He thus acted in a manner appropriate for a newly appointed king and firmly established his rule. Akkadian ebērum can also be found in Enuma Elish in a context re‐ lated to that of the cognate in the Baal cycle. After defeating Tiamat, Marduk split her corpse in two and used half of it to form the sky. Hav‐ ing stretched out her hide to hold back the heavenly waters, he sta‐ tioned guards to ensure that her waters did not escape. He then crossed heaven, where the verb ebērum is used to describe his journey. 141. AN-e i-bi-ir áš-ra-ta i-ḫi-ṭam-ma 142. uš-tam-ḫir mé-eḫ-rit ap-si-i šu-bat dnu-dím-mud 143. im-šu-úḫ-ma be-lum šá ap-si-i bi-nu-tuš-šu 144. èš-gal-la tam-ši-la-šu ú-kin . . . He crossed heaven. He inspected the sky and made a counterpart to Apsu, the dwelling of Nudimmud. The lord measured the dimensions of the Apsu and
135 In addition to the texts already cited, cf. also a report by Narām‐Sîn that does not follow the literary pattern suggested here but reflects the same sequence of ap‐ pointment to kingship followed by war, RIME 2.1.4.6. Cf. also RIMA 0.78.23 27–55 (Tukultī‐Ninurta I). 136 Ogden Goelet, personal communication.
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founded the likeness of the Great Sanctuary. (Enuma Elish IV 141–44)137
In Marduk’s case, there are no cities to be conquered. Rather, his cross‐ ing of heaven should be interpreted in light of what immediately fol‐ lows in the narrative: his construction of a temple. Marduk crosses heaven in search of a suitable location for the construction of a sanctu‐ ary. His tour thus appears to be an administrative survey of his new kingdom, and it does not have the strong military overtones found in Baal’s tour. Marduk’s journey is evidently a precursor to another kind of mighty deed frequently undertaken by ancient Near Eastern kings: the building of temples and cities. Despite the differences in the gods’ tours in Enuma Elish and the Baal cycle, the presence of cognates of עבר suggests that this verb was part of the standard narrative sequence of the warrior god myths, in turn rooted in the political realities of succession and empire. The use of the root in the Song of the Sea could be understood against this background. The verb as used in Exod 15:16 has neither a direct nor an indirect object. Instead, עבר is used in the more general sense of “tour,” “roam around,” or “travel.” It clearly has this meaning in other biblical passages. Especially instructive is the use of the verb without a direct object in Mic 5:7; the text likens the remnant of Jacob to a lion that de‐ stroys wherever it crosses/roams. The meaning “tour” or “travel” is also reflected in Josh 18:9; Judg 11:29; 2 Chr 30:10, all in military or ad‐ ministrative contexts (cf. also the use of the root in 2 Sam 15:8; Isa 33:8; 35:8; Ps 8:9).138 In Exod 15:16, the verb may be used to describe a tour by Yahweh’s people. Unlike the description of Baal’s violent seizing of towns, Exod 15 does not portray Yahweh’s people asserting control over their neighbors. Yet the trembling of Philistines, Edomites, Moab‐ ites and Canaanites implies that the root should be understood here as reflecting a threat, and probably a military one. As Yahweh’s people take their victory tour, they pass by these territories before ending their journey at Yahweh’s mountain abode. The motif of trembling enemies found in Exod 15:14–16 is also found in the Baal cycle. After securing his kingdom, Baal returned home to finish construction of his palace with the help of Kothar‐wa‐ Hasis. He then gave forth his voice, causing his enemies to tremble. 137 Text from Phillipe Talon, The Standard Babylonian Creation Myth: Enūma Eliš (SAACT 4; Helsinki: Neo‐Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2005), 56. 138 This usage has been pointed out by Johannes C. de Moor, An Anthology of Religious Texts from Ugarit (Leiden: Brill, 1987), 61.
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
25–27. 27–29.
yptḥ . ḥ/ln . bbhtm . ʾurbt / bqrb . hk[lm] [yp]tḥ / bʿl . bdqt [. ʿrp]t / qlh . qdš [.] b[ʿl . y]tn
30–31. yṯny . bʿl . ṣ[ʾat ? . š]pth / qlh . q[dš ? . t?]r . ʾarṣ 32–33. [ . . . ] 33–35. [ . . . ] / qdmym bmt . ʾa[rṣ] / tṭṭn . 35–37. ʾib . bʿl . tʾiḫd / yʿrm . šnʾu . hd . gpt / ǵr . 37–38. wyʿn . ʾaliyn / bʿl . 38–39. ʾib . hd{t} . lm . tḥš / lm . tḥš . nṯq . dmrn (KTU 1.4 VII 25–39)
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He opened a door in the house, A window in the midst of the pala[ce]; Baal [ope]ned a break in the [clo]uds. His holy voice, Ba[al gave fo]rth, Baal repeated the is[sue of?] his li[ps], His ho[ly?] voice [shoo?]k the earth. [ . . . ] [ . . . ] The high places of the ea[rth] shook. The enemies of Baal fled to the woods, Those who hate Hadd, to the side of the mountain. Then Mightiest Baal responded: “O enemies of Hadd, why do you tremble? Why tremble, those who attack the Warrior?”
Following Marduk’s defeat of Tiamat, his enemies also tremble in fear: 105. ul-tu ti-amat a-lik pa-ni i-na-ru 106. ki-iṣ-ri-šá up-tar-ri-ra pu-ḫur-šá is-sap-ḫa 107. ù DINGIR.DINGIR re-ṣu-šá a-li-ku i-di-šá 108. it-tar-ru ip-la-ḫu ú-saḫ-ḫi-ru al-kàt-su-un After the leader had slain Tiamat, He dispersed her army, he scattered her troop. And as for the gods, her supporters, who came to her aid, They trembled,139 they were terrified, they turned around their course. (Enuma Elish IV 105–8)140
In a similar fashion, the tour of Yahweh’s people, as noted above, re‐ sulted in their enemies trembling in fear even though the language of seizing is not used (vv. 15–16). The thematic cluster of tour, mountain abode, and trembling enemies is shared by Exod 15:1b–18, KTU 1.4 VII, and Enuma Elish IV–V, though in differing sequences. The tour of Yah‐ weh’s people belongs to this thematic cluster. In sum, Exod 15:15–17 does not presuppose an exodus event.141 Nei‐ ther is there any reference to an exodus from Egypt anywhere else in the poem. Rather, the journey theme and the logic connecting victory and journey in the two halves of the poem are drawn from the mytho‐ 139 For the translation of ittarru as “they trembled,” I am following CAD 15:47–48, which cites this text. 140 Text from Talon, Standard Babylonian Creation Myth, 55. 141 Nor does it presuppose an encounter at Sinai. On the supposed assumption of the Sinai event by Exod 15, see Miller, Divine Warrior, 115. Cf. also the discussion of Sinai and Exod 15:1b–18 in Smith, “Poetics of Exodus 15,” 31–33; Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 215–16, 224–26.
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logical material that forms the background to the song. The victory‐ journey sequence within the mythological traditions is in turn rooted in the ideology of kingship in the ancient Near East. Such an understand‐ ing of Exod 15:1b–18 comports with the view, advanced above, that Exod 15:1b–18 is an early Judahite text, whereas the exodus is an early Israelite tradition. 4.2.2.2 The Song of the Sea and the Reed Sea Event of Exod 14 The Song of the Sea is now embedded in an account of the Israelite crossing of the Reed Sea, which in turn provides a transition between the narratives about the exodus and those about the wilderness period. As discussed above, however, the poem does not assume a splitting of the sea with the resultant crossing on dry land, as is found in the prose account.142 The awkwardness of this omission seems to have been felt even by the biblical editors, hence the note following immediately in v. 19.143 The piling up of the waters in Exod 15:8 does not reflect the split‐ ting of the sea, nor the preparation of a safe path for Yahweh’s people to cross.144 Instead, as Marc Vervenne and Albert M. Wolters have ar‐ gued, the image is of the destructive waters rising up against the Egyp‐ tians.145 Thus, it is by Yahweh’s angry blast that the waters are piled up. 142 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 131–34. Cf. similar observations by Arlis John Ehlen, “Deliv‐ erance at the Sea: Diversity and Unity in a Biblical Theme,” CTM 44 (1973): 190; Robert Luyster, “Wind and Water: Cosmogonic Symbolism in the Old Testament,” ZAW 93 (1981): 6. 143 Cf. George W. Coats, Exodus 1–18 (FOTL 2A; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999), 118. Edelman’s suggestion that the ancient composer of the Song of the Sea, although aware of the prose account, deliberately omitted the dry land motif is difficult to ac‐ cept (“Creation of Exodus 14–15,” 153). 144 Those who mistakenly see the crossing of the sea or the appearance of dry land in Exod 15:1b–18 include George W. Coats, “History and Revelation: The Reed Sea Event,” LTQ 4 (1969): 23–24; Thomas B. Dozeman, God at War: Power in the Exodus Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 155; Edelman, “Creation of Exo‐ dus 14–15,” 143; Lohfink, “The Song of Victory at the Red Sea,” 77; Rebecca S. Wat‐ son, Chaos Uncreated: A Reassessment of the Theme of “Chaos” in the Hebrew Bible (BZAW 341; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005), 373. Salient, however, is the observa‐ tion of Aloysius Fitzgerald that dry wind imagery is found in Exod 15:7b (The Lord of the East Wind [CBQMS 34; Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of Amer‐ ica, 2002], 67). 145 Marc Vervenne, “Metaphors for Destruction in Exodus 15,” JNWSL 24 (1998): 179– 94. Vervenne does not recognize the full force of the image of destruction and still tries to reconcile the poem with the prose accounts, in which a passage through the waters is made (“Metaphors for Destruction,” 190–91). Albert M. Wolters, “Not Res‐
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The initial waw of v. 8 connects the divine blast with the immediately preceding description of Yahweh’s destructive actions against the Egyptians in v. 7. The piling up of the waters is an act of destruction, not salvation. The image of the swelling of the destructive waters is found in other biblical and ancient Near Eastern literature and will be discussed below. The dominant understanding of the waters motif in Exod 15 has largely derived from interpreting the poetic account in terms of the prose version in Exodus 14. The relationship between prose and poetry in Exod 14–15, however, is quite complex. 146 The prose accounts in Exod 14, or at least the account of P, seem to have drawn on the poem, as reflected by the specificity of the references to Pharaoh’s chariotry (compare 14:23, 26, 28, all P, with 15:1b) and the verbs used to describe the Egyptian pursuit (compare Exod 14:9, also P, with Exod 15:9). However, since the dry land and the crossing of Israelites through the sea are absent from the poetic account, the prose accounts in Exod 14 must also have drawn on a separate tradition or interpretation that contained the dry land as an integral part of the storm theophany and cue but Destruction: Rereading Exodus 15:8,” CBQ 52 (1990): 223–40. Cf. also James Muilenburg, “A Liturgy on the Triumphs of Yahweh,” in Studia Biblica et Semitica: Theodoro Christiano Vriezen, Qui Munere Professoris Theologiae per XXV Annos Functus Est . . . Dedicata (Wageningen: H. Veenman & Zonen N.V., 1966), 242; Luyster, “Myth and History,” 159; Luyster, “Wind and Water,” 6. See also the discussion of the issue in Lester L. Grabbe, “Comparative Philology and Exodus 15,8: Did the Egyptians Die in a Storm?” SJOT 7 (1993): 263–69. 146 On the relationship between the poem and the surrounding prose material, see Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 205–26. Edelman’s attempt to make the poetry dependent on the prose is mistaken (“Creation of Exodus 14–15,” 137–58). More to the point are the arguments of Cross in favor of the opposite direction of dependence (Canaanite Myth, 133). See likewise Baruch Halpern, “Doctrine by Misadventure: Between the Israelite Source and the Biblical Historian,” in The Poet and the Historian: Essays in Lit‐ erary and Historical Biblical Criticism (ed. Richard E. Friedman; HSS 26; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1983), 41–73. See also Walter J. Houston, “Misunderstanding or Midrash? The Prose Appropriation of Poetic Material in the Hebrew Bible,” ZAW 109 (1997): 342–55. Martin Brenner argues, “The Song has no real relation to the sources present in Ex 14, but it does have a relation to the layout of the final text” (Song of the Sea, 14). I too make a sharp distinction between the poetic and prose ac‐ counts, but, since I view the poetic material as dating from an earlier period than Brenner supposes, I do not share his views on the relationship between the prose and the poetry. Kang points out that the tradition itself is also confused about whether the Sea and the Yamm‐Suf are one or two events, especially in Num 33:8–11 and Neh 9:9–11 (Divine War, 118–19). Cf. also Werner H. Schmidt, Exodus, Sinai und Mose: Erwägungen zu Ex 1–19 und 24 (EdF 191; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge‐ sellschaft, 1983), 60–67.
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the storm god’s victory over the sea.147 Here, Fitzgerald’s distinction between the raincloud‐bearing winds coming off the Mediterranean and the dry sirocco from the east is most helpful: it is the latter that results in the drying up of the sea.148 This dry sirocco is reflected, for 147 Several have sought to find the origin of the dry land crossing motif in the Jordan crossing tradition. See Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 128; Brenner, Song of the Sea, 19–20; Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 133–34, 143, 149–50; Brevard S. Childs, “A Traditio‐ Historical Study of the Reed Sea Tradition,” VT 20 (1970): 414; George W. Coats, “History and Theology in the Sea Tradition,” ST 29 (1975): 55; George W. Coats, “The Traditio‐Historical Character of the Reed Sea Motif,” VT 17 (1967): 261; John Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yahwist as Historian in Exodus‐Numbers (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 143–45. Cf. also Jan A. Wagenaar, who ar‐ gues that the Jordan tradition and the sea traditions were independent of each other until late redactional connections made by the Priestly writer (“Crossing the Sea of Reeds (Exod 13–14) and the Jordan (Josh 3–4): A Priestly Framework for the Wilder‐ ness Wandering,” in Studies in the Book of Exodus [BETL 126; Leuven: Leuven Univer‐ sity Press, 1996], 461–70, esp. 468). The dependence of the Jordan tradition on the Reed Sea tradition is argued, unconvincingly, by Brian D. Russell (Song of the Sea, 139–45). While the crossing motif may have originated with the Jordan tradition, the motif of the splitting of the sea with the resultant emergence of dry land was already integral to the storm theophany in 2 Sam 22 (Ps 18):16. This combination of motifs may also be reflected in Enuma Elish: the splitting of Tiamat’s body may have re‐ sulted in the emergence of the space in which Marduk created land. However, the text is not clear and Marduk may have created the land from the lower half of Tia‐ mat’s body. In either case, the sequence splitting of sea followed by creation of land is clear. On the splitting of Tiamat’s body, see Hermann Gunkel, “The Influence of Babylonian Mythology upon the Biblical Creation Story” in Creation in the Old Testa‐ ment (IRT 6; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 43; Wayne Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography (Mesopotamian Civilizations 8; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1998), 117–32; David Toshio Tsumura, The Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1 and 2: A Linguistic Investigation (JSOTSupp 83; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989), 166; Mary K. Wakeman, God’s Battle with the Monster: A Study in Biblical Imagery (Leiden: Brill, 1973), 19; Jacobsen, Treasures of Darkness, 179. S. R. Driver speculated that the motif of the dry land appearing from the watery chaos originated in Mesopotamia, where “during the long winter, the Babylonian plain, flooded by the heavy rains, looks like a sea. . . . Then comes spring, when the clouds and water vanish, and dry land and vegetation appear” (The Book of Genesis: With Introduction and Notes [WC; London: Methuen, 1904], 28). See also Jean‐Louis Ska, “Séparation des eaux et de la terre ferme dans la récit sacerdotal,” NRTh 103 (1981): 512–32. 148 Fitzgerald, Lord of the East Wind, 66–70. Although Gaster is not as explicit in this regard, he envisions behind the Reed Sea event a wind from the east; presumably this must be a dry wind (Gaster, Myth, 86). This failure to distinguish between the dry sirocco from the east and the rain‐filled storm coming off the Mediterranean leads John Day to argue that “contrary to widespread view, Gen. 1 is neither de‐ pendent on, nor polemicizing against, the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Rather, as else‐ where, the traditions are ultimately Canaanite” (God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament [University of Cambridge Oriental
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example, in 2 Sam 22 (Ps 18):16 where the exposing of the seabed and the laying bare of the world’s foundation result from the drying up of the sea by Yahweh’s wind.149 This dry‐storm imagery lies behind the account of the splitting of the sea in Exod 14:21 ( ויט משׁה את־ידו על־הים ויולך יהוה את־הים ברוח קדים עזה כל־הלילה וישׂם את־הים לחרבה ויבקעו המים׃, “Moses stretched out his hand over the water. Yahweh drove back the sea with a strong east wind all that night and turned the sea into dry ground and the waters were split”). There, Yahweh, with wind as a weapon, drives back the sea so that the land appears. 150 While dry wind storm imagery is reflected in Yahweh’s consuming fury (Exod 15:7b), however, the split sea and the dry land are not found in Exod 15. The above analysis suggests that the Song of the Sea shows no knowledge of an exodus event, or of a crossing of the Reed Sea by Yahweh’s people. Although there are literary traces of the influence of the poem on the surrounding prose narratives, the traditions of the Reed Sea crossing and of the exodus have a different traditio‐historical background than the Song of the Sea. These different streams of tradi‐ tion may have merged secondarily. 151 Such an understanding of the content of Exod 15:1b–18 would tend to support its early date, since its view of this Egyptian defeat differs from the later biblical sequence presupposed by the prose account in Exod 14: exodus followed by the sea crossing followed by the wilderness wandering. Publications 35; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985], 61). So far as Gen 1 contains the motif of the splitting of the sea and the emergence of dry land, however, it draws on dry wind storm imagery like that found in Enuma Elish. The Canaanite traditions reflected in the Ugaritic Baal cycle, however, do not contain this motif and instead draw on the imagery of the rain‐filled storm. 149 The passage reflects both dry sirocco and wet rainstorm imagery. Cf. Fitzgerald, Lord of the East Wind, 97–100. 150 Cf. Jean‐Louis Ska, Le passage de la mer: Étude de la construction, du style et de la symbo‐ lique d’Ex 14, 1–31 (AnBib 109; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1986), 107–11. 151 On the tradition history of the Reed Sea crossing, see also Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 128–51, esp. 140–45; Butler, “‘The Song of the Sea,’” 107–50; Childs, Exodus, 244; Childs, “Traditio‐Historical Study,” 406–18; Coats, “History and Theology,” 53–62; Coats, “Traditio‐Historical Character,” 253–65; Kang, Divine War, 118–23; Russell, Song of the Sea, 139–45; Van Seters, Life of Moses, 139–47.
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4.2.2.3 The Use of Metaphor in the Song of the Sea Scholars have often seen behind the Song of the Sea a historical event in which an Egyptian army was drowned in some body of water.152 I have already mentioned Cross’s view that the Egyptians were tossed from barges and sunk.153 Similarly, Freedman argued, “There is enough evi‐ dence to make it clear that the decisive moment came with the destruc‐ tion of the Egyptian chariot force by a violent storm at the Red Sea.”154 Noth had argued from the prose accounts that “the detachment of Egyptian chariots sank in the water owing to some unexpected disaster and the escaping Israelites were thereby suddenly liberated from su‐ preme and apparently inescapable danger. . . . The incident itself, which the Israelites experienced as an unexpected and mighty act of deliverance of their God, remains veiled from our sight.”155 Batto too noted, “As regards what transpired at the Sea, the song says little be‐ yond that the Egyptians perished in the sea.”156 However, even cautious interpretations such as these may be overstated. The poem does not describe the death of the Egyptians exclusively in terms of drowning. Rather, they are pictured as being burnt up like stubble at the blast of Yahweh’s fury (Exod 15:7), and as being swal‐ lowed up by the earth (Exod 15:12). Rather than taking the latter two images as describing a literal fire that burns the Egyptians (cf. Num 11, where a fire from Yahweh consumes the Israelite camp) or a literal earthquake during which the earth opens up to swallow the Egyptians alive (cf. Num 16, where the ground opens up and swallows the oppo‐ nents of Moses and Aaron), it is more customary to regard them as metaphors for destruction.157 The image of Yahweh’s devouring fury is also found in Lam 4:11 and Zeph 3:8 (cf. also Ps 21:10).158 While some 152 In addition to those cited here, see Houston, “Misunderstanding,” 353; Hyatt, Exo‐ dus, 156; Charles Richard Krahmalkov, “A Critique of Professor Goedicke’s Exodus Theories,” BAR 7/5 (1981): 52. 153 Cross, Canaanite Myth, 132. 154 Freedman, “Early Israelite History,” 4. 155 Noth, History of Israel, 115–16. 156 Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 109. 157 Propp’s speculation that the object of the verb “swallow” is the gods is incorrect—it is manifestly the Egyptians who are swallowed (Exodus 1–18, 521). On the image of swallowing, cf. Cassuto, Exodus, 176; Hyatt, Exodus, 165; Noth, Exodus, 125. 158 Michael G. Hasel argues that the language of fire in Egyptian royal texts should also be interpreted metaphorically: “Conflagration terminology was often used as a metaphor for the king and his army” (Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, ca. 1300–1185 B.C. [PÄ 10; Leiden: Brill, 1998], 248).
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biblical references to the swallowing earth are more literal (Num 16:32; 26:10; Deut 11:6; Ps 106:17), the underworld is also pictured metaphori‐ cally as swallowing its victims in Prov 1:12. Since it is unlikely that the Egyptians were burnt alive and drowned and swallowed up by an earthquake, the descriptions of burning and swallowing in Exod 15 are generally taken as metaphors for destruction.159 Is it possible that the poem’s description of drowning may also be figurative? In biblical and ancient Near Eastern literature, water is often used as a metaphor for danger or destruction. This imagery takes many forms, including the water‐filled storm,160 the rising of the floodwaters or sea, the watery depths, the sinking of the individual or group into the watery depths, and the casting of the individual or group into the waters. These several images are interrelated and are sometimes found together in the same text. Underlying all of them is the sense that water was dangerous.161 A full survey of this language lies beyond the scope of this study.162 I will cite here a few examples of biblical and nonbibli‐ cal texts that show the metaphorical use of three aspects of the water language found in the Song of the Sea: rising of the waters (Exod 15:8), sinking into the waters (Exod 15:4–5, 10), and casting into the waters (Exod 15:1, 4). The Song of the Sea depicts the waters rising up terrifyingly to overwhelm the Egyptians (Exod 15:8). As noted above, Vervenne and Wolters have argued that the image in Exod 15:8 is of destruction 159 Cf. also Cassuto, Exodus, 176; Ronald E. Clements, Exodus (CBC; Cambridge: Cam‐ bridge University Press, 1972), 92; Nahum Sarna, Exodus (JPSTC; Philadelphia: Jew‐ ish Publication Society, 1991), 80. 160 On the water filled‐storm as a metaphor for the destructive battles of the king, see RIME 3/2.1.5.2 11–16 (Ibbi‐Sîn of Ur, ca. 2029–2004 B.C.E.); RIMA 0.87.1 i 9–10, 42–43, 77–78, iv 87–90 (Tiglath‐pileser I of Assyria, ca. 1114–1076 B.C.E.); RIMA 0.101.23 3 (Ashurnasirpal II, ca. 883–859 B.C.E.). 161 Danger and destruction are not, of course, the only connotations of water imagery in biblical and other ancient Near Eastern literature. Water, when controlled and pre‐ dictable, was a source of blessing and agricultural fertility; even the sea could be a source of bounty. Cf. Reymond, L’eau, 108–15, 196–98; Else Holt, “The Fountain of Living Water and the Deceitful Brook: The Pool of Water Metaphors in the Book of Jeremiah (MT),” in Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible (ed. Pierre van Hecke; BETL 187; Leuven: Peeters, 2005), 99–117. 162 Surveys of the use of water as an image of despair or destruction can be found in Philippe Reymond, L’eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l’Ancien Testament (VTSup 6; Leiden: Brill, 1958), 111–12, 161, 194–96, 212–14; Robert Luyster, “Myth and History in the Book of Exodus,” Religion 8 (1978): 164–65; Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 74–113; David Toshio Tsumura, Creation and Destruction: A Reappraisal of the Chaoskampf Theory in the Old Testament (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 184–88.
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rather than the creation of a safe path for Yahweh’s people.163 Thus, it is by Yahweh’s angry blast that the waters are piled up. The terrific image of the rising waters is found in a number of biblical and nonbiblical texts. In some passages, this language is used to refer to generalized suffering rather than to a specific military enemy. The psalms speak of suffering in these terms:164 Therefore let every faithful one pray to you In a time when you may be found (?),165 That the mighty waters, Do not overtake him (Ps 32:6)
Here, distress is depicted as mighty waters that threaten to overtake the faithful. The language used for the waters ()מים רבים is reminiscent of that used in Exod 15:10 ()מים אדירים.166 Generalized suffering is also described in similar language: (8) Your fury lies heavy upon me; You afflict (me) with all Your breakers. Selah. (17) Your fury sweeps over me; Your terrors destroy me. (18) They surround me like water all day long; They encircle me on every side. (Ps 88:8, 17–18)
In this psalm, the suffering is squarely attributed to Yahweh, whatever its manifestation in earthly terms may have been. Some biblical texts use the image of the rising waters more specifi‐ cally to reference oppression by enemies: (2) Were it not for Yahweh who was for us, When men rose up against us, (3) Then they would have swallowed us alive, In the heat of their anger against us, (4) Then the waters would have carried us away, The torrent would have swept over our necks. (5) Then over our necks would have swept, The seething waters. (Ps 124:2–5)
163 Vervenne, “Metaphors for Destruction,” 179–94; Wolters, “Not Rescue but Destruc‐ tion,” 223–40. 164 Cf. also Ps 42:8. 165 Hebrew לעת מצא, “at the time of finding.” 166 On מים רבים, cf. Herbert Gordon May, “Some Cosmic Connotations of Mayim Rabbîm, ‘Many Waters,’” JBL 74 (1955): 9–21.
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The image of the waters rising to overwhelm the psalmist is a metaphor for his enemies attacking him. Similar language is used elsewhere in Psalms: Stretch forth your hand from on high! Rescue me, save me, From the mighty waters, From the power of foreigners! (Ps 144:7)
Here, the enemies are specified as foreigners, and it would seem then that a military threat is in view. The psalm thus suggests that the lan‐ guage of the rising waters could be used to describe military situations. The image of the destructive swell is not limited to the language of מים, “water(s),” but is also described with the language of ים, “sea.” Thus, a prophecy against Babylon in Jer 51:42 vividly portrays its de‐ struction as a storm surge that overwhelms it: “The sea has risen over Babylon, with the roar of its waves, it was covered.”167 The imagery of the rising waters is also found in nonbiblical texts.168 A prayer to Ninisina on behalf of Iddin‐Dagan (ca. 1960–1941 B.C.E.) expresses the goddess’s power to defeat his enemies using such lan‐ guage: Holy Ninisina, . . . whose raging heart, made like the heart of dusk (?), none can cool; whose angry heart no god can confront, which like the sea, bringing a flood‐wave, drowns (?) the foe. Like the high tide, she pours spewed‐out bile upon the enemy. She has made . . . known in its midst. (ETCSL 2.5.3.4 34–39)169
This graphic depiction of a massive wave from the sea is reminiscent of Exod 15:8, where a sea wave rises menacingly under the influence of Yahweh’s blast. As a result of the storm surge, the foe is drowned. The language, however, is metaphorical. With reference to some of these texts, David Tsumura notes in his treatment of the Chaoskampf motif, “The image of a raging flood or sea is also a metaphor for destructive power in many poetic texts.”170 Such imagery is a natural extension of the storm imagery associated with deities and conquerors—storms bring floods and they whip the sea into 167 On the imagery in this text, cf. Martin Kessler, Battle of the Gods: The God of Israel versus Marduk of Babylon: A Literary/Theological Interpretation of Jeremiah 50–51 (SSN 42; Assen: Van Gorcum, 2003), 130–31. 168 In addition to the text cited, see RIME 3/2.1.4.1 i 40–45 (Šū‐Sîn of Ur, ca. 2037–2029 B.C.E.). 169 Translation from Jeremy A. Black et al, The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Litera‐ ture, n.p. [cited 27 January 2007]. Online: http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/. 170 Tsumura, Creation and Destruction, 188.
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a frenzy (cf. RIME 3/1.1.7.CylA vii 23–27 from Gudea of Lagaš, ca. 2141–2122 B.C.E., where the image of the rain‐filled storm and the image of the rising flood are found together).171 It is also possible that the im‐ age of the rising flood draws more directly on the mythology of the primeval flood than on the mythology of the Chaoskampf in order to derive its power as a metaphor. In either case, the texts that use the rising of the waters or sea as a metaphor for destruction suggest that the image of the swelling sea in Exod 15:8 could also be understood metaphorically. Although some destruction of the Egyptian army is in view, its precise historical details may be obscured. Closely related to the image of the rising floodwaters is that of the sinking or drowning of the individual or group. The Song of the Sea describes several times the sinking of the Egyptians (Exod 15:4b, 5a, 10). Propp notes in his treatment of Exod 15:1b–18, “Drowning was considered a particularly horrific death, and it symbolized general des‐ peration—doubtless, a universal metaphor.”172 A number of texts make this clear. The biblical psalms describe imminent danger or death using this imagery of descent into the watery depths. The image of the deep is not merely used for generalized danger, but is also used with refer‐ ence to the oppression of enemies (cf. 2 Sam 22:4–6, 17–19). As might be expected, the image of the rising floodwaters and the image of sinking down into the deep can be found together: (2) Deliver me, O God, For the waters have reached (my) neck; (3) I have sunk in the miry deep, Without foothold, I have come into the watery depths, The flood has swept me away. (5a) More numerous than the hairs of my head Are those hating me wrongfully, Many are those who would annihilate me, My treacherous enemies. (15) Deliver me from the mire, Do not let me sink, Let me be rescued from those who hate me, And from the watery depths. (16) Do not let the flood waters sweep me away, Do not let the deep swallow me,
171 As noted above, the rain‐filled storm is used as an image for conquest in RIME 3/2.1.5.2 11–16 (Ibbi‐Sîn of Ur, ca. 2029–2004 B.C.E.); RIMA 0.87.1 i 9–10, 42–43, 77–78, iv 87–90 (Tiglath‐pileser I of Assyria, ca. 1114–1076 B.C.E.); RIMA 0.101.23 3 (Ashur‐ nasirpal II, ca. 883–859 B.C.E.). 172 Propp, Exodus 1–18, 557.
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Do not let the Pit close its mouth over me. (Ps 69:2–3, 5a, 15–16)
This psalm shares a number of key vocabulary items with the Song of the Sea: ישע, מים, מצולה, טבע, איב, בלע. The psalm uses the language of sinking into the waters metaphorically to describe oppression by the psalmist’s enemies (cf. esp. v. 15).173 The same may be true of the Song of the Sea. Yahweh’s destruction of the coastland city of Tyre is prophesied with similar language: (19) For thus says my Lord Yahweh: “When I make you a desolate city, Like the cities that are uninhabited, When I bring over you Deep, And the mighty waters cover you, (20) Then I will make you descend with those descending to the pit, To the people of old, And I will make you live in the Underworld’s depths, Among ancient ruins, With those that go down to the pit (Ezek 26:19–20a)
In this case, the prophecy has special resonance because Tyre was a coastal city, and hence vulnerable to the sea, but the language is broader. Again, several terms are shared with the Song of the Sea: תהום, כסה, מים, ירד, ארץ. The metaphor of the watery depths, river, or sea as a place of despair and death is also found in nonbiblical texts (e.g., CTH 374 B iii 9′–13′; Ludlul bēl nēmeqi IV 1–8; Great Hymn to Nabu 47–50).174 173 On the water image in this psalm, cf. Fokkelman, Major Poems, 3:128. 174 Cf. also W. G. Lambert, “Prayer to Marduk no. 2,” AfO 19 [1959–1960]: 64, lines 73–75. This text is also found in Foster, Before the Muses, 528. Cf. also CAD 4:36, which points to a similar use of Akkadian edû in a broken context: “waves, a raging tide have surrounded me!” (Maqlu III 79, 136). The immediate context of the prayer to Marduk no. 2 suggests that the danger results from guilt, or sin. Thus, the specific allusion may be to the Babylonian river ordeal in which an individual who was sus‐ pected of a crime was cast into the raging river so that the gods might decide his fate. If he drowned, he was deemed to have been declared guilty by the gods. It must be noted, however, that edû, although sometimes used of catastrophically flooding rivers, does not seem to have been used with reference to the river ordeal. Thus, this text may simply be a further example of the general image of the waters as representing danger. On the Babylonian river ordeal, and the possibility that it un‐ derlies a number of biblical texts, see P. Kyle McCarter, “The River Ordeal in Israel‐ ite Literature,” HTR 66 (1973): 403–12; Tikvah Frymer‐Kensky, “The River Ordeal in the Ancient Near East” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1977).
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The repertoire of metaphorical language used in this way also ex‐ tends to the act of casting into the sea, as is seen in Jonah 2.175 This poem now stands within its narrative setting as a prayer uttered by Jonah while in the belly of a great fish. Discrepancies between the prayer and its context, however, have long been observed.176 The prayer is offered from the perspective of accomplished deliverance rather than present danger, its language diverges from that of the narrative, and the characterization of the pious poet may be incongruous with that of the complaining Jonah. 177 Despite the similarity between the poem’s themes and those of the story, the first of these observations suggests that the prayer was not originally composed for its present context, but was borrowed from elsewhere and inserted into the narrative by either the original composer of the narrative or some subsequent editor.178 Water imagery pervades the poem: 175 On sea imagery in Jonah, cf. also Gila Ramras‐Rauch, “The Response of Biblical Man to the Challenge of the Sea,” in Poetics of the Elements in the Human Condition: The Sea. From Elemental Stirrings to Symbolic Inspiration, Language, and Life‐Significance in Liter‐ ary Interpretation and Theory (ed. Anna‐Teresa Tymieniecka; Analecta Husserliana 19; Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1985), 139–48; Frank Moore Cross Jr., From Epic to Canon: His‐ tory and Literature in Ancient Israel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 127–28. 176 George M. Landes notes that the discrepancies were already observed by Charles G. Hensler (1786), J. G. A. Müller (1794), and Willhelm M. L. DeWette (1817). See George M. Landes, “The Kerygma of the Book of Jonah: The Contextual Interpreta‐ tion of the Jonah Psalm,” Int 21 (1967): 3. 177 Cf. Ludwig Schmidt, “De Deo”: Studien zur Literarkritik und Theologie des Buches Jona, des Gesprächs zwischen Abraham und Jahwe in Gen 18, 22ff. und von Hi 1 (BZAW 143; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1976), 55–57, 119–23; Hans Walter Wolff, Obadiah and Jo‐ nah: A Commentary (trans. Margaret Kohl; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986), 128–31; Cross, From Epic to Canon, 127. 178 On the relevance of the poem to the story, cf. Landes, “Kerygma of the Book of Jonah,” 3–31; Gabriel H. Cohn, Das Buch Jona im Lichte der biblischen Erzählkunst (As‐ sen: Van Gorcum, 1969), 93–94; Otto Kaiser, “Wirklichkeit, Möglichkeit und Vorur‐ teil: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis des Buches Jona,” EvT 33 (1973): 91–103; James S. Ackerman, “Satire and Symbolism in the Song of Jonah,” in Traditions in Transforma‐ tion: Turning Points in Biblical Faith (ed. Baruch Halpern and Jon D. Levenson; Wi‐ nona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1981), 213–46; Samuel E. Balentine, Prayer in the He‐ brew Bible: The Drama of Divine‐Human Dialogue (OBT; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 73–80; James Limburg, Jonah: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westmin‐ ster/John Knox Press, 1993), 31–33. Cf. also Steven Weitzman, Song and Story in Bibli‐ cal Narrative: The History of a Literary Convention in Ancient Israel (ISBL; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 112–13; Hugh S. Pyper, “Swallowed by a Song: Jo‐ nah and the Jonah‐Psalm through the Looking Glass,” in Reflection and Refraction: Studies in Biblical Historiography in Honour of A. Graeme Auld (ed. Robert Rezetko, Timothy H. Lim, and W. Brian Aucker; VTSup 113; Leiden: Brill, 2007), 337–58.
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(3aβ) “I cried out of my distress to Yahweh, And he answered me! From the belly of Sheol, I cried out, And you heard my voice! (4) You had cast me into the depth, Into the heart of the seas. The river had engulfed me, All your breakers and billows Had swept over me. (6) The waters had closed in up to (my) neck, The deep had engulfed me, With reed wrapped around my head. (7) I had sunk to the base of the mountains, The earth with its bars had closed upon me forever, But you brought up my life from the pit, O Yahweh, my god! (Jonah 2: 3aβ–4, 6–7)
In his treatment of this text, Paul Haupt argued, “The editor who in‐ serted the psalm in the Book of Jonah misunderstood the metaphorical expressions sea, ocean, surge, and billows, which are used in Hebrew for distress, disaster.” 179 Pedersen similarly noted in relation to this and other biblical texts, “He who is in Sheol is also in the ocean, because they both denote the subterraneous, negative power, the world of death and chaos.”180 In other words, the suffering described in this prayer of thanksgiving is rather general in nature. The prose account, however, contains a more literal version, in which Jonah is physically cast into the sea. Much of the language used in Jonah 2 is similar to that found in the Song of the Sea: מצולה, לבב ימים (cf. )לב ים, מים, תהום, סוף, ירד, ארץ. Although the verbs used are different, both poems also contain 179 Paul Haupt, “Jonah’s Whale,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 46 (1907): 163. Haupt gives no basis for this assertion. Surprisingly, Haupt’s prior treatment of Exod 15:1b–18 does not entertain the possibility that water is used metaphorically in the poem (Haupt, “Moses’ Song,” 149–72). Here he seems to have been constrained by his view of the poem as being late and as building on the prose accounts. He thus reads the poetic descriptions of drowning in relation to the prose descriptions. Note also Alistair G. Hunter, who observes, “The language [of Jonah 2] is, needless to say, metaphoric, drawn from a reservoir of familiar images” (“Jonah from the Whale: Exodus Motifs in Jonah 2,” in The Elusive Prophet: The Prophet a His‐ torical Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist [ed. J. C. de Moor; Leiden: Brill, 2001], 152). 180 Johannes Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture: I–II (London: Oxford University Press, 1926), 463, as cited in Elaine R. Follis, “Israel and the Sea: A Test Case in Helle‐ nosemitic Studies,” SBL Seminar Papers, 1978 (SBLSP 15; Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1978), 409. Pedersen cites Ps 40:3; 69:3, 16; 71:2; 88:7; Jonah 2:6; 2 Sam 22:5. Cf. also Reymond, L’eau, 212–14.
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the image of casting into the waters. Alistair G. Hunter has noted the connection between Jonah 2 and Exod 15 and suggests that Jonah 2 alludes to Exod 15.181 At a minimum, they both draw on a common stock of imagery as suggested by the several texts cited above. As with Jonah 2, the language of the Song of the Sea can be understood figura‐ tively, despite the fact that the surrounding narrative context is more literal in its treatment of the water themes. In sum, the texts cited above suggest that water was used as an im‐ age for suffering and destruction in biblical and nonbiblical texts, espe‐ cially in poetry.182 Within biblical and other ancient Near Eastern litera‐ ture, the defeat of historical, human enemies could be depicted by the use of water imagery that drew on old mythological themes. The Song of the Sea can be interpreted in light of this wider use of water im‐ agery.183 With regard to the nonbiblical texts cited, the song uses the image of the watery depths (v. 10) found also in the Great Hymn to Nabu 47–50, Ludlul bēl nēmeqi IV 1–8, and CTH 374 B iii 9′–13′. It also uses the image of the rising of the waters (v. 8), an image similar to that used in RIME 3/2.1.4.1 i 40–50, RIME 3/1.1.7.CylA viii 23–27, the Great Hymn to Nabu 47–50, and ETCSL 2.5.3.4 34–39. With regard to the bib‐ lical texts cited, the image of the deity casting the individual or group into the sea (v. 1) is also found in Jonah 2:4, and that of the sea rising to overwhelm the enemy (v. 8) is also found in Jer 51:42–43 and Ezek 26:19–20a. Furthermore, the song uses much of the same vocabulary as these biblical texts: ים, “sea” (Exod 15:4, 10; Jer 51:42; Jonah 2:4); מים, “water” (Exod 15:10 and 2 Sam 22:17; Ps 32:6; 68:23; 69:2–3, 15–16; 88:18; 124:4, 5; 144:7; Ezek 26:20); תהמה, “deep” (Exod 15:5 and Ps 42:8; Ezek 26:20; Jonah 2:6); מצולה, “depth” (Exod 15:5 and Ps 68:23; 69:3, 16; 88:7; Jonah 2:4); טבע, “sink” (Exod 15:4 and Ps 9:16; 69:3, 15); סוף, “reed” (Exod 15:4 and Jonah 2:6); ירד, “go down” (Exod 15:5 and Ezek 26:20; Jonah 2:7); 184 כסה, “cover” (Exod 15:5, 10 and Ps 44:20); בלע, “swallow” (Exod 15:12 and Ps 69:16; 124:3). 181 Hunter, “Jonah from the Whale,” 144–54. 182 Such water imagery is also found in Isa 43:2; Ezek 28:8; Ps 44:20; 63:10; 66:12; 68:23; 71:20; 88:4b–5a, 7; Job 22:11; and Lam 3:52–54. 183 This point is well made by Luyster, “Myth and History,” 155–70. Cf. also the discus‐ sion of the metaphor of swallowing in Propp, Exodus 1–18, 530. 184 A comparison with the language of sinking in Ezek 27:27 and 2 Kgs 6:5 is instructive. In those texts, it is clear that an actual sinking into water is in view rather than a metaphorical one. Both texts use the verb נפל to describe this action. In contrast, Exodus 15 uses ירד, which in this context seems, then, to refer to a descent into the underworld; i.e., it is used as a metaphor for death rather than as a reference to any actual drowning.
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The extent of the historical content reflected in Exod 15:1b–18 may have been overestimated.185 The Song of the Sea is a poetic text, and any attempt to reconstruct history from it must take into account its poetic genre. A. J. Hauser’s observation of the “highly metaphorical treatment of the battle in Exod 15” should serve as a warning about drawing his‐ torical inferences from it, whether one sees a battle reflected in the song or not.186 While language like that in the Song of the Sea could have been used by a poet to describe an event in which Egyptians were physically drowned in some body of water, the wider use of water imagery in biblical and other ancient Near Eastern literature suggests that a defeat of any kind could have been described similarly. As with all of the texts cited above, the water imagery in Exod 15:1b–18 may be interpreted metaphorically. There may be no reference to an actual drowning in an actual sea in Exod 15:1b–18, any more than there is in any of the texts cited above. In the same way, the poem does not refer to any actual swallowing of the Egyptians by the earth (Exod 15:12), nor were the Egyptians literally burnt alive (Exod 15:7). Rather, the poem describes the deaths of Pharaoh and his army with the meta‐ phorical language of sinking into the depths, being swallowed by the earth, and being burnt alive. These metaphors may have no necessary correspondence to the actual physical details of the death of Pharaoh and his army. Even the vocabulary item סוף, “reed,” which in later tra‐ dition became the proper name of the sea, belongs to this metaphorical repertoire, as is indicated by its use in Jonah 2:6. In turn, these images derive their power as metaphors, at least in part, from mythology. Thus, despite Tsumura’s valuable contribution in highlighting the use of metaphor in the biblical text, he overstates the case when he argues, “The biblical poetic texts that are claimed to have been influenced by the Chaoskampf‐motif of the ancient Near East (e.g., Pss 18, 29, 46; Hab 3) in fact use the language of storms and floods metaphorically and have nothing to do with primordial combat.”187 It is 185 Cf. the critique of Cross in Kloos, YHWH’s Combat, 127–212. See also Day, God’s Conflict, 97–101; Frank E. Eakin Jr., “The Plagues and the Crossing of the Sea,” Review and Expositor 74 (1977): 479; Ehlen, “Deliverance at the Sea,” 190. 186 Hauser, “Two Songs of Victory,” 266. That a military encounter lies behind the Reed Sea tradition is argued by Lewis Scott Hay, “What Really Happened at the Sea of Reeds,” JBL 83 (1964): 397–403, though I would regard his reconstruction of the de‐ tails as overly optimistic. Cf. also Hyatt, Exodus, 157. 187 Tsumura, Creation and Destruction, 196. Tsumura is correct in noting that the pres‐ ence of the Chaoskampf motif in the Bible has been overstated. Similar critiques are of‐ fered by Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 367, 394–99; H. W. F. Saggs, The Encounter with the Divine in Mesopotamia and Israel (London: Athlone Press, 1978), 54–60. Cf. also Cas‐
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precisely the mythological stories of the flood and the battle between the storm‐god and his enemies that gave the metaphors of rising waters and onrushing storms their visceral power. While the metaphors de‐ pended on climate, their use was mediated by the language of mythol‐ ogy. When deployed, they conjured up a rich mythological complex, and it is this background that made them productive and meaningful metaphors. On the other hand, Robert Luyster may go too far in em‐ phasizing the mythological dimension of the metaphors and in failing to credit ancient Israelite poets with the ability to understand and use metaphors. He argues, “In ancient Israel . . . to be endangered or de‐ feated by an enemy was literally to be plunged into those deathly wa‐ ters.”188 For Luyster, later on, “when life has left the mythic archetypes, such talk becomes mere metaphor, and when complete misunderstand‐ ing has set in talk of the miraculous arises.”189 Although it is possible that ancient Israelites thought in such literal terms, an evolutionary approach to the development of metaphor is difficult to sustain from the evidence of the biblical text. It remains clear, however, that these biblical metaphors derive their power from their rich mythological background. It is sometimes emphasized that Exod 15:1b–18 refers to historical rather than mythological events, as though the use of mythological themes to depict historical events were distinctive or innovative.190 The use of mythological imagery to describe historical events, however, is not limited to Exod 15:1b–18, or to biblical texts.191 As we have seen in suto, who notes that the references to the Chaoskampf in the Bible occur in poetic texts and are metaphors and similes (Exodus, 178–79). On echoes of the Chaoskampf in Exod 15:1b–18, see Bernhard W. Anderson, “Introduction: Mythopoeic and Theo‐ logical Dimensions of Biblical Creation Faith,” in Creation in the Old Testament (IRT 6; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 5; Day, God’s Conflict, 96; Nicolas Wyatt, “Arms and the King: The Earliest Allusions to the Chaoskampf Motif and Their Implications for the Interpretation of the Ugaritic and Biblical Traditions,” in “There’s Such Divin‐ ity Doth Hedge a King”: Selected Essays of Nicolas Wyatt on Royal Ideology in Ugaritic and Old Testament Literature (SOTSMS; Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2005), 185. 188 Luyster, “Myth and History,” 161. 189 Luyster, “Myth and History,” 161. 190 Those who emphasize the historical nature of Exod 15:1b–18 include Cross, Canaan‐ ite Myth, 131–32; and Hyatt, Exodus, 156. 191 Cf. also Saggs, who argues that the idea of the intervention of the divine in human history was a wider ancient Near Eastern phenomenon (Encounter with the Divine, 64–92). See also Bertil Albrektson, History and the Gods: An Essay on the Idea of Histori‐ cal Events as Divine Manifestations in the Ancient Near East and in Israel (ConBOT 1; Lund: Gleerup, 1967), esp. 24–41. Albrektson nevertheless acknowledges the extent
4.2 The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18
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the survey above, a number of texts from the ancient Near East describe battles between historical human enemies with metaphors that draw on mythological themes. As early as the late third millennium B.C.E., Ibbi‐ Sîn of Ur described his defeat of his enemies in the language of the rain‐ filled storm (RIME 3/2.1.5.2 11–16), and in the early second millennium B.C.E. the goddess Ninisina is described as destroying historical ene‐ mies using the language of storm and sea (ETCSL 2.5.3.4 34–99). The Song of the Sea belongs to a larger tradition of biblical and other an‐ cient Near Eastern literature that uses metaphors steeped in mythology to describe historical events. It is not necessary, however, to argue that mythology preceded metaphor or history. Rather, a certain resonance was achieved between the narrative myths, the poetic metaphors used to describe history, and the social, political, and climatological world of the ancients. This resonance reinforced the notion of water as a poten‐ tially destructive and terrifying force and provided the Song of the Sea with a powerful description of the death of the Egyptian forces. 4.2.2.4 Historical Background of the Song of the Sea In light of its mythological and metaphorical language, caution needs to be exercised in reconstructing history from Exod 15. At the same time, the poem is not the late invention of exilic or postexilic writers, but reflects preexilic Judahite traditions about Egypt. At least four as‐ pects of the poem help to narrow its possible historical background. First, Pharaoh and his army appear to have suffered defeat. Although Egypt is not mentioned in the poem, I am not as skeptical about the identity of the enemy as Kang, who argues that it cannot be specified without reference to the surrounding exodus tradition.192 Neither do I favor the proposal by Cooper and Goldstein that the word פרעה used here, if original to the poem, has nothing to do with Egypt but is probably related to the use of the root פרע in Judg 5:2.193 Such a theory would need a clearer explanation of the noun form with final ה. Fur‐ thermore, the פרעה of the Song of the Sea has chariots (מרכבת, plural in MT) and an entire army ()חיל attributed to him. He thus seems to be a great leader, rather than a mere warrior among the ranks. It seems to which this phenomenon pervaded Israelite literature (History and the Gods, 116– 18). 192 Kang, Divine War, 114. 193 Alan Cooper and Bernard R. Goldstein, “Exodus and Maṣṣot in History and Tradi‐ tion,” Maarav 8 (1992): 34.
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more fruitful to follow the suggestion of Maribeth Howell that the po‐ etic device of synecdoche is at work here.194 Pharaoh, with horse and chariot, represents the whole Egyptian army. The poem describes a defeat suffered by the entire force. At the same time, nothing definitive can be said about the exact manner of the defeat since its description is heavily overlaid with mythological and metaphorical language. While some body of water may have been involved, it is also possible that a land‐based military encounter was described with the metaphorical language of destructive waters. Second, the people of Yahweh benefit from the Egyptian defeat. For the celebrant of Exod 15:1b–18, Yahweh is associated both with the victory over Egypt and with his people. Within the logic of the poem, the surrounding enemies associate the Egyptian defeat with Yahweh’s people. Ancient Near Eastern texts sometimes attribute victory in battle to the deity even when it was fought, in historical terms, by the king.195 Therefore, it could be the people of Yahweh who defeat the Egyptians. Although the victory is attributed to Yahweh in the poem, the partici‐ pation of his people in the battle cannot be excluded.196 Miller under‐ stands holy war as a synergistic fusion of human and divine participa‐ tion, and the same could be true of the defeat described in the Song of the Sea.197 Regardless of whether they participate directly in the de‐ struction of the Egyptians or not, the poem assumes that they benefit from the Egyptian defeat. In other words, as the poem stands, there is some logical connection between its first and second halves. This logic echoes the sequence of the old warrior god myths, in turn rooted in the political realities of empire, as discussed above. Third, Yahweh’s people appear to be settled in southern Palestine. The sequence Philistia, Edom, Moab, and Canaan suggests a southern geographical horizon (Exod 15:14–15). Whether Yahweh’s people were new to the region remains unclear. Certainly the poem depicts a jour‐ ney; Yahweh led ()נחה his people and guided ()נהל them to his holy encampment (v. 13); he brought ()הביא them and planted ()נטע them on the mount of his inheritance (v. 17). The starting point of the jour‐ ney, however, is not stated. I have argued that the sequence of victory followed by tour is attested more broadly in the warrior god myths; 194 Maribeth Howell, “Exodus 15,1b–18: A Poetic Analysis,” ETL 65 (1989): 17. 195 Cf. Albrektson’s discussion of the extent to which the king’s victories were regarded as the victories of the god (History and the Gods, 42–52). 196 Contra Millard C. Lind, Yahweh Is a Warrior: The Theology of Warfare in Israel (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1980), 49–50. 197 Miller, Divine Warrior, 156.
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thus the verbs in Exod 15 tell us little about the start of the journey. Exodus 15:13 also draws on the language of pilgrimage (cf. Ps 43:5). Pilgrims need not come from outside the broader region in which the sanctuary they visit is located. The language of planting in Exod 15:17 is used elsewhere to refer to a people who already belong in their land (cf. Jer 42:10). Thus, although the journey takes Yahweh’s people past regional neighbors and leads them to Yahweh’s mountain sanctuary, the language of journey itself need not imply that Yahweh’s people were outsiders to the region. Within the poem, the destination of this journey is Yahweh’s mountain sanctuary rather than the broader region occupied by Yahweh’s people. Thus, they could have belonged to the region already. Regardless, it is clear from the list of enemies that the poem envisions them in southern Palestine. Fourth, the poem does not state the location of the Egyptian defeat. I suggested above that the vocabulary item סוף belongs to a wider rep‐ ertoire of destructive water imagery and gives no hint of the geo‐ graphical setting of the destruction of the Egyptians. It may be that Pharaoh suffered his defeat in southern Palestine rather than in Egypt. The song portrays the enemy as an aggressor: אמר אויב ארדף אשיג, “The enemy had said, ‘I will pursue, I will overtake’” (Exod 15:9a). Such language would certainly be appropriate for a pharaoh invading southern Palestine. Similar language is used in Josh 10:19 to describe an Israelite army that is commanded to pursue its enemies as far as the enemies’ hometowns; and in 2 Kgs 25:5 (cf. Jer 39:5; 52:8) to describe a Babylonian army invading Judahite territory and pursuing king Zede‐ kiah. The language, however, is hardly limited to an invading army (cf. 2 Sam 22 [Ps 18]:38; Ps 7:6; Lam 1:3). As such, it could be that an Egyp‐ tian defeat suffered elsewhere proved beneficial to Yahweh’s people in southern Palestine, perhaps by precipitating a shift in the balance of power in the region. The song, insofar as it may be rooted in some historical memory, may reflect some defeat suffered by the Egyptians. The use of mytho‐ logical and metaphorical language in the poem, however, makes it im‐ possible to identify a particular battle. It could reflect an Egyptian cam‐ paign in Palestine in which Judah felt that it had been miraculously spared thanks to Yahweh’s intervention, regardless of whether the Egyptians themselves experienced the events described as an utter defeat. Campaigns by several Egyptian kings present themselves as possibilities with little to choose between them, though the mention of Philistia in the song could point toward a campaign after the time of Ramesses III. Alternatively, the song may preserve a memory of an Egyptian defeat suffered elsewhere that resulted in a shift in the politi‐
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cal landscape of southern Palestine. The vagueness of the song makes it impossible to reach a more precise conclusion regarding its historical background. It is precisely this poetic vagueness that made the song amenable to reinterpretation by both the Asaphite psalmist and the Priestly redactor of the book of Exodus. Such reinterpretation, however, drew on preexilic Judahite traditions about Egypt. 4.2.3 Summary Egypt’s portrayal in Exod 15:1b–18 differs from its portrayal in Israelite material from the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. There is in this south‐ ern text no mention of an exodus. As used in the poem, the verb עבר does not refer to a crossing of Yahweh’s people from Egypt to Canaan, or to a crossing of the Jordan River. Rather, the verb is part of the poem’s language that draws on old mythological motifs related to the ideology of kingship. As such, it refers to the tour of the people of Yahweh as they journey to Yahweh’s sanctuary. Furthermore, the rest of the poem does not assume an exodus. Although arguments from silence should always be made with caution, the absence of the exodus from Exod 15:1b–18 is particularly striking given the song’s current setting as a culmination of the exodus narrative. At the same time, there was some similarity between the Egypt traditions in the south and those in the north and east. In all three regions, the traditions about Egypt were considered, in some sense, foundational. Drawing on the language of the old primordial battles, the Song of the Sea associates the Egyptian defeat with the establishment of Yahweh’s reign and the planting of his people on his own mountain.
4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32 Psalm 68:29–32 is another arguably preexilic Judahite text that men‐ tions Egypt. It reads: (29) Your God has ordered198 your stronghold,199 The stronghold,200 O God,
198 Albright vocalized as an imperative and moved the kaph to the following word. He translated, “Command, O my God, Triumph like the triumph, O YHWH, which thou didst win for us!” See William F. Albright, “A Catalogue of Early Hebrew Lyric Poems (Psalm lxviii),” HUCA 23 (1950–1951): 31, 39. Cf. Dahood, Psalms II, 149.
4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32
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That you have made201 for us. (30) On account of202 your temple above Jerusalem, To you the kings will bring tribute.203 (31) Rebuke the beast of the marsh, The congregation of the stallions,204 Along with205 the calves of the peoples; The one who humbles himself with pieces of silver.206 He scattered207 peoples, They delight in wars.208
199 Alternatively, “strength,” “defense,” or “triumph.” Cf. Exod 15:2, 13 and Albright, “Catalogue,” 31. 200 Others read עוזה as a ms Qal imperative of עזז with paragogic ה. However, this would make the subsequent archaic relative particle זו difficult to understand. I therefore read with BHS as עֹ ז הָ אֱ׳, with vocative ה. 201 Cf. Dahood, Psalms II, 149. 202 On the meaning “on account of” for מן, see Exod 2:23; 15:23; Deut 7:7–8; Josh 22:24; 1 Kgs 14:4; Isa 6:4; 53:5; Ps 31:12; 38:19; Prov 20:4; Ruth 1:13; 2 Chr 36:12. Cf. HALOT 598; BDB 580. As discussed further below, others rearrange the sequence of the lines in order to make sense of מן, “From thy temple above Jerusalem rebuke . . . .” Cf. John Gray, “A Cantata of the Autumn Festival: Psalm lxvii,” JSS 22 (1977): 25. 203 Albright emends to מה יכלת על ירשלם לך יבל מלכם שי, and translates, “How great is thy triumph over Jerusalem, the kings will bring their offerings to thee” (“Catalogue,” 15, 39). 204 Alternatively, “the congregation of the mighty ones” or “the herd of bulls.” Cf. Patrick D. Miller Jr., “Animal Names as Designations in Ugaritic and Hebrew,” UF 2 (1970): 177–86, esp. 180–81. The animal imagery of the verse can be understood in light of the use of similar imagery elsewhere in Ugaritic and Hebrew. In the Ugaritic epic of Kirta, for example, Kirta summoned from his deathbed his leading clansmen for a banquet designed to name an heir and successor. These invited lords are de‐ scribed as “my seventy bulls, my eighty gazelles, the bulls of Khubur the great,” šbʿm[ . ]ṯry / ṯmnym . [ẓ]byy / ṯr . ḫbr[ . r]bt (KTU 1.15 IV 6–8). Miller notes that animal imagery also designates specific ranks or professions in KTU 4.141 III 4–11; 4.360 1–3. He notes that the root אבר is also used to designate rulers or warriors in Job 24:22; 34:20; Lam 5:1; 1 Sam 21:8. 205 Or, perhaps, “among.” 206 The translation is uncertain. Should the phrase be read with what immediately precedes it, or with what follows? Does the Hithpael participle refer to an action done to oneself, “the one humbling himself,” or to an action with an external object, “the one treading on”? In what sense is the particle ב used? Should רצי be taken as a plural construct of a noun meaning, “piece,” in other words, a measure of silver, or should it be taken as a plural construct of a participle from רוץ, “the ones desiring,” silver? There is little basis for resolving these difficulties. 207 Others vocalize as an imperative, reading בזר in parallel with the imperative גער of v. 31a. Cf. Gray, “Cantata,” 25. 208 Others translate, “Scatter the people who delight in wars” (cf. NJPS).
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(32) Bronze209 will come from210 Egypt, Kush’s arms will hasten211 it212 to God.
209 חשׁמנים is a hapax legomenon, and proposals for its etymology and translation have been wide‐ranging. For a survey of the translation of the term, see Johannes Vlaard‐ ingerbroek, Psalm 68 (Academish Proefschrift; Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit te Am‐ sterdam, 1988), 137–40. Some scholars, guessing from context, opt for “magnates,” “noblemen,” or the like, since v. 30 proclaims that kings will bring tribute to God (Cecelia Carniti, Il salmo 68: Studio etterario [Biblioteca di Scienze Religiose 68; Rome: Libreria Ateneo Salesiano, 1985], 41; Weiser, Psalms, 479). Cf. Mowinckel’s transla‐ tion “Messinggeräte” (Achtundsechzigste Psalm, 59). Such a translation, however, makes little sense of the parallel line in v. 32b. Others relate the term to Egyptian ḥsmn, meaning copper/bronze, amethyst, or the mineral natron, i.e. caustic soda. On these meanings of ḥsmn, see John Raymond Harris, Lexicographical Studies in Ancient Egyptian Minerals (Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. Institut für Orientfor‐ schung. Veröffentlichung 54; Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1961), 63–64; 121–22; 195–96. Cf. also Rainer Hannig, Die Sprache der Pharaonen: Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch‐ Deutsch (2800–950 v. Chr.) (KGAW 64; Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2006), 604–5. Al‐ bright opted for natron, since he regarded it as naturally occurring in Egypt, whereas bronze would have been imported into Egypt—he does not discuss the pos‐ sible meaning “amethyst” (“Catalogue,” 33). Later, he pointed to an Akkadian textile receipt found at Ugarit that contained ḫu-us-ma-nu mentioned together with blue cloth (“Notes on Psalm 68 and 134,” in Interpretationes ad Vetus Testamentum perti‐ nentes Sigmundo Mowinckel Septuagenario missae [NTT 56; Oslo: Land og kirke, 1955], 5). The text had been published in Charles Virolleaud, “Les nouvelles tablettes de Ras Shamra (1948–1949),” Syria 28 (1951): 55. Albright noted that natron was used in the dyeing process, as had been suggested by A. Lucas, and offered a revised trans‐ lation for Ps 68:32a, “They are bringing red cloth out of Egypt” (Lucas, Ancient Egyp‐ tian Materials and Industries [3d ed.; London: E. Arnold, 1948], 176). Dahood, fol‐ lowed by Gray, noted that Akkadian ḫašmānu referred to “a stone” or “a blue‐green color” and thus regarded the Ugaritic text as referring to blue cloth (Psalms II, 150; “Cantata,” 25). Cf. CAD 6:142. Others prefer to emphasize Egyptian ḥsmn, given the context in Ps 68:32, and suggest bronze as a more suitable gift than natron (Butten‐ wieser, Psalms, 258; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 45; Schmidt, Psalmen, 126; Henrik Pfeiffer, Jahwes Kommen von Süden: Jdc 5; Hab 3; Dtn 33 und Ps 68 in ihrem literatur‐ und traditi‐ onsgeschichtlichen Umfeld [FRLANT 211; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005], 219). According to Harris, the majority of references to ḥsmn as bronze are from the New Kingdom period, whereas the meaning “amethyst” occurs mainly in Middle Kingdom texts (Lexicographical Studies, 64, 122). The plural חשׁמנים may indicate “bronze items”or “bronze pieces.” Cf. Pfeiffer’s translation: “Bronzestücke” (Yahwes Kommen, 217). 210 Dahood reads מני instead as a construct plural participle of מנה, “to count”; he trans‐ lates, “Egyptian merchants” (Psalms II, 150). 211 The 3ms suffix on ידיו suggests that כושׁ is understood as having masculine gram‐ matical gender. Furthermore, כושׁ as a subject of a verb is used with a masculine verbal form in Ps 87:4; Jer 46:9; Ezek 30:5, but never elsewhere with a feminine ver‐ bal form. MT תריץ is a 3fs Hiphil imperfect of רוץ. The subject of the verb would therefore seem to be the feminine noun יד. Although the dual of יד more often takes a plural verb (cf. Exod 15:17; Jer 6:24; 50:43; Neh 6:9; Prov 21:25), it can also be used
4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32
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4.3.1 Date and Provenance Psalm 68, arguably the only preexilic psalm to mention Egypt,213 has not attracted a consensus among scholars regarding its date and inter‐ pretation.214 The psalm contains a large number of grammatical obscu‐ rities, hapax legomena, and textual corruptions.215 Furthermore, the indi‐ vidual strophes are not related to one another in a transparent manner. As a result, several divergent treatments of the psalm as a whole have emerged. William F. Albright entirely rejected the unity of the composi‐ tion, regarding it instead as a list of incipits of some 30 ancient Hebrew poems.216 Moses Buttenwieser argued that vv. 8–9, 12–19b, 25–28 consti‐ tuted one of the ancient songs of the wars of Yahweh inspired by the victory of Deborah, while vv. 1–7, 19c, 20–24, 29–36 were an exilic com‐ position from the circle of Deutero‐Isaiah, and vv. 10–11 were an incan‐ tation for rain.217 In contrast, Hermann Gunkel saw the whole as a sin‐
with a singular verb (cf. Deut 32:27). One could thus translate, “As for Kush, its arms will hasten it to God.” I have opted for the more colloquial “Kush’s arms will . . . .” Albright suggests that the phrase should instead be read in light of Akkadian qāta tarāṣu, “to stretch forth the hand” (“Catalogue,” 33; Albright attributes the connec‐ tion with the Akkadian phrase to Perles, presumably Felix Perles, but he offers no actual citation). The Akkadian phrase can be used idiomatically to mean “beg” and, by extension, also refers to a gesture of prayer (CAD 18:211). Dahood notes, “The parallelism with ‘bring’ makes a verb of motion desirable in the second colon,” rather than the proposed translation that depends on the Akkadian parallel (Psalms II, 151). There are only four other occurrences of the Hiphil of רוץ in MT, all appar‐ ently with the meaning “hasten, bring quickly.” 212 Here, it is presumably חשׁמנים that Kush’s hands hasten to God. There are four other uses of the Hiphil of רוץ in the Bible. In Gen 41:14 and Jer 49:19, the object of the verb is grammatically expressed. In 1 Sam 17:17 and 2 Chr 35:13, however, the object of the verb must be inferred from the context. Here, the parallel line suggests that Kush will bring bronze to God. Note Pfeiffer’s translation: “Kusch wird eifrig Gaben bringen zu Gott” (Jahwes Kommen, 217). 213 The other eight that mention Egypt, Pss 78, 80, 81, 105, 106, 114, 135, and 136, either have no clear grounds for being preexilic or are clearly postexilic. 214 Cf. Artur Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary (trans. Herbert Hartwell; OTL; Philadel‐ phia: Westminster Press, 1962), 481. 215 Cf. the introductory comments on the psalm in Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 47; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 160; Dahood, Psalms II, 133. 216 Albright, “Catalogue,” 1–39. The view is also taken up by Samuel Iwry, “Notes on Psalm 68,” JBL 71 (1952): 161–65. 217 Moses Buttenwieser, The Psalms: Chronologically Treated with a New Translation (LBS; New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1969), 31–34, 258.
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gle eschatological hymn anticipating a new exodus.218 Hans Schmidt saw the autumn festival as a scarlet thread running through the psalm. 219 Sigmund Mowinckel regarded the disparate motifs and themes of the psalm as reflecting a common Sitz im Leben: the festal procession of the enthronement festival of Yahweh.220 André Caquot and John Gray followed Mowinckel in viewing the psalm as celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh at the New Year festival.221 Caquot lo‐ cated it more specifically in the time of Hezekiah, while Gray saw both early and later elements in the psalm. J. P. Fokkelman saw only a mod‐ est line of development in the psalm as it progressed from the rise of God and his departure from Sinai, through the conduct of actual war‐ fare, to the eventual results of God’s victory.222 Klaus Seybold sought unity for the poem by regarding it as a fragment of an original acrostic, now with portions missing and with its sequence rearranged.223 Widely divergent approaches to the Psalm have thus been taken. The dating of the psalm has been likewise controversial. Several lines of evidence point to an early date for at least sections of the psalm. Thus, some have emphasized the linguistic connections with the pre‐ monarchic Song of Deborah (Judg 5), especially in vv. 8–9, 12–19b, and 25–28 of the psalm.224 Albright, on the basis of orthography, grammar, and strophic structure, regarded the incipits, and hence the individual poems that lay behind them, as dating from the thirteenth through the tenth century B.C.E., with the psalm itself being compiled in the period 218 Hermann Gunkel and Joachim Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen: Die Gattungen der religiösen Lyrik Israels (HKAT; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1933), 79–80, 344–46, 355–57. Cf. the discussion of Gunkel’s position in Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 49. 219 Hans Schmidt, Die Psalmen (HAT I/15; Tübingen: Mohr, 1934), 128–30, cited by Gray, “Cantata,” 3. 220 Mowinckel, Psalms, 1:152. See also Mowinckel, Achtundsechzigste Psalm, 16–21. Mo‐ winckel argued not for a previously unknown festival in ancient Israel, but rather for a previously unrecognized aspect of a well‐known festival, the New Year harvest festival. He reconstructed this festival from the psalms that he identified as having their Sitz im Leben in the festival, and from the Babylonian Akitu festival. 221 André Caquot, “Le Psaume LXVII,” RHR 177 (1970): 147–82; Gray, “Cantata,” 2–26. Mowinckel’s views are also taken up by Weiser, Psalms, 482. 222 J. P. Fokkelman, “The Structure of Psalm LXVIII,” in In Quest of the Past: Studies on Israelite Religion, Literature and Prophetism: Papers Read at the Joint British‐Dutch Old Testament Conference, Held at Elspeet, 1988 (ed. A. S. van der Woude; OTS 26; Leiden: Brill, 1990), 81–82. 223 Klaus Seybold, Die Psalmen (HzAT I/15; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1996), 262–63. 224 Buttenwieser, Psalms, 29–47; Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 44–45; Gray, “Cantata,” 2, 13, 19; Pfeiffer, Yahwes Kommen, 238–41. Cf. Schmidt, Die Psalmen, 129.
4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32
181
of Solomon or shortly thereafter.225 Gray, in addition to other lines of evidence, saw the similarity between the themes of the psalm and those of the Ugaritic texts, and especially the Baal cycle, as pointing toward a premonarchic date for at least some of the psalm.226 Some suggest that the leading role played by the tribe of Benjamin in v. 28 may indicate that the psalm was at least partially composed or edited in a period of Benjamite hegemony, perhaps in the reign of Saul—though Judah also plays a leading role in v. 28, and Zebulun and Naphtali are also men‐ tioned in v. 28.227 At the same time, some have argued that at least some of the psalm should be dated relatively late. Nineteenth‐century scholars saw the contents of the psalm as suited to events that transpired in the postex‐ ilic period.228 Hermann Gunkel and Charles A. Briggs also saw the con‐ tent of vv. 30–36 as suiting a postexilic context, and more specifically the period of Egyptian independence from Persia in the fourth century B.C.E.229 Hans‐Joachim Kraus argued that the archaic meter of the psalm ceased from v. 30 onward, and he therefore regarded this material as a later editorial expansion. 230 Buttenwieser emphasized the supposed linguistic and theological connections between vv. 1–17, 19c, 20–24, and 29–36 and the exilic‐period Deutero‐Isaiah.231 Many posit a long period of composition and editing for the psalm. Mowinckel, followed by Kraus and Gray, suggests that Ps 68 contained an original northern psalm, associated with the autumn festival at Ta‐ 225 Albright, “Catalogue,” 10. 226 Gray, “Cantata,” 13. He regards Albright’s arguments as insufficient but argues, “When a passage combines characteristic motifs of the theme of the kingship of Baal in the Baal myth of Canaan with vocabulary, phraseology, morphology and syntax familiar in Ugaritic, cumulative evidence (even though it may not be as strong as Al‐ bright claimed) does suggest an early date for Ps. lxviii” (“Cantata,” 19). 227 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 50; Mowinckel, achtundsechzigste Psalm, 68–73. 228 So Ewald, Hupfield, Wellhausen, Olshausen, and Duhm; for a survey see William Walter Cannon, The 68th Psalm: Comprising Introduction, Revised Translation, and Criti‐ cal Notes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 2–3. 229 Gunkel as cited in Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 49, 55; Briggs, Psalms, 2:96. 230 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 48. 231 Buttenwieser, Psalms, 261–65. Buttenwieser did not regard Deutero‐Isaiah as writing in the Babylonian exile, but rather saw him as one of those who remained in the desolate country of Judah (Psalms, 265). For a critique of Buttenwieser’s proposed connections between the psalm and Deutero‐Isaiah, see Gray, “Cantata,” 7–8. Gunkel had also seen the psalm as theologically dependent on Deutero‐Isaiah (Die Psalmen [HKAT; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926], 283–84, 286–87 as cited in John W. Hilber, Cultic Prophecy in the Psalms [BZAW 352; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005], 210).
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bor in Galilee, that was later adapted to the Jerusalem temple.232 Jörg Jeremias posited a north Israelite origin for the psalm in the early mon‐ archy, with southern rephrasing in the time of Hezekiah. 233 Frank‐ Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger see the editorial development as follows: the original psalm consisted of an inner core in vv. 8–28 with a framing ring in vv. 5–7 and 29–32; subsequently, a second framing ring in vv. 5–7 and 33–36 was added; and finally, vv. 2–4 were added as an isolated prelude.234 Henrik Pfeiffer also sees a basic concentric composi‐ tional structure in the psalm.235 While scholars have not agreed, then, on the details of the editorial history of the psalm, there is general agreement that the psalm reflects a long period of development. The unit mentioning Egypt, vv. 29–32 or perhaps vv. 30–32,236 may be preexilic in date. There is some consensus that vv. 30–32, or sections of it, date later than the northern Israelite core because of its focus on Jerusalem. Thus, as noted above, Hossfeld and Zenger regarded vv. 29– 32 with vv. 8–11 as forming a ring structure that enclosed an earlier core, and Kraus noted that the archaic meter found in the core of the psalm was missing from vv. 30–36.237 Some have gone so far as to sug‐ gest an exilic or postexilic date for the unit. Buttenwieser argued that vv. 29–36 were exilic in date, Briggs saw v. 32 as a late gloss from the postexilic period, and Pfeiffer argues that vv. 2–4, 29–32 are a late addi‐ tion to the psalm.238 While it is clear that vv. 29–32 are later than the northern Israelite core, however, it does not appear that the unit is as late as the exilic period. Gray has offered a critique of Buttenwieser’s attempts to connect this section with the exilic Deutero‐Isaiah. As noted above, Briggs’s dating is based on his understanding of the Persian period as the most suitable period in which to locate the reference to 232 Mowinckel, Psalms, 2:152; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 50. Cf. the discussion of Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 161; Gray, “Cantata,” 5. Cf. also the discussion of the identity of the mountain mentioned in v. 16 in J. A. Emerton, “The ‘Mountain of God’ in Psalm 68:16,” in History and Traditions of Early Israel: Studies Presented to Eduard Niel‐ sen May 8th 1993 (ed. André Lemaire and Benedikt Otzen; VTSup 50; Leiden: Brill, 1993), 24–37. 233 Jeremias, Königtum Gottes, 69–82. Cited in Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 161. 234 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 161–62. 235 Cf. Pfeiffer, Yahwes Kommen, 234–35, 256–57. 236 Those who regard vv. 29–32 as constituting the unit include Fokkelman, “Structure of Psalm LXVIII,” 75; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 161. Albright saw vv. 29, 30, 31, and 32 as a four separate incipits (“Catalogue,” 15–16). Kraus saw v. 29 as an edito‐ rial addition, with v. 30 being later still (Psalms 60–150, 51). 237 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 161; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 48. 238 Buttenwieser, Psalms, 257–71; Briggs, Psalms, 2:104–5; Pfeiffer, Yahwes Kommen, 223– 25.
4.3 Bronze Will Come from Egypt, Ps 68:29–32
183
the conversion of Egypt and Kush.239 However, it is not at all clear that the text refers to the conversion of these nations, as discussed further below. Furthermore, the mention of Kush suggests a preexilic date for vv. 29–32, either in the New Kingdom period, when Kushites might have served in various capacities under their Egyptian overlords, or in the Third Intermediate Period, when a new Kushite kingdom emerged and ruled Egypt in the eighth century before being forced out in the seventh.240 The southern provenance of the unit is made clear by the focus on Jerusalem and its temple (v. 30). 4.3.2 Portrayal of Egypt In addition to the difficulties already outlined, the grammatical and poetic obscurities of vv. 29–32 complicate its interpretation. As noted already, it is unclear that the unit constitutes a whole. If it does, it is not transparent how the disparate cola cohere. While it is possible to read v. 30 as directly related to v. 32,241 it is difficult to see how vv. 31 would fit into this context. As a result, Buttenwieser rearranged the sequence of the cola so that vv. 30b and 32a are juxtaposed: 30b Kings shall bring gifts unto thee: 32a They shall bring bronze from Egypt
239 Briggs, Psalms, 2:96. Briggs compares the text to Isa 19:19; 43:3; 45:14; Zeph 3:10 (Psalms, 96). 240 On the relationship between Kush and Egypt, see Kenneth A. Kitchen, “Historical Observations on Ramesside Nubia,” in Ägypten und Kusch (SGKAO 13; Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1977), 213–25; Paul J. Fransden, “Egyptian Imperialism,” in Power and Propoganda: A Symposium on Ancient Empires (ed. M. T. Larsen; Mesopotamia 7; Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 1979), 167–90; Donald B. Redford, Egypt and Canaan in the New Kingdom (Beer‐Sheva Studies by the Department of Bible and Ancient Near East 4; Beer‐Sheva: Ben‐Gurion University of the Negev Press, 1990), 2–4; Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), 111, 130, 192–93; P. L. Shinnie, Ancient Nubia (London: Kegan Paul, 1996), 78–94; László Török, The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan‐Meriotic Civilization (HO 31; Leiden: Brill, 1998), 92–188; James K. Hoff‐ meier, “Aspects of Egyptian Foreign Policy in the 18th Dynasty in Western Asia and Nubia,” in Egypt, Israel, and the Ancient Mediterranean World: Studies in Honor of Don‐ ald B. Redford (ed. Gary N. Knoppers and Antoine Hirsch; PÄ 20; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 121–41; Ellen Fowles Morris, Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolu‐ tion of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom (PÄ 22; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 68–111, 180– 211, 310–39, 645–82, 782–99. On the depiction of Kush in the Bible, see David M. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003), 17–40. 241 So, for example, Carniti, Il salmo 68, 101–3.
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31b Gold and Silver from Patros 32b Ethiopia shall hasten to offer her might unto God242
Seybold’s rearrangement is even more radical, with sections of vv. 29– 32 reassigned to strophes 1, 5 and 6 of his 7‐strophe acrostic scheme.243 Seybold’s proposal seems extreme, but it highlights the difficulties in the present sequencing of vv. 29–32. Further difficulties arise from the poetic language of v. 31. The identities of the “beast of the marsh,” the “herd of bulls,” and the “calves of the people” are unclear. Several commentators regard the “beast of the marsh” as Egypt, in light of the reference to Egypt in v. 32 and the use of קנה, “marsh, reed,” in relation to Egypt in 2 Kgs 18:21; Isa 19:6 (cf. Ezek 29:6).244 However, קנה is also used to refer to Israel in 1 Kgs 14:15. It is also possible that a particular nation is not in view and that the reference is instead to God’s power over the behemoth (cf. Yahweh’s power over the behemoth in Job 40:15–24, with קנה men‐ tioned in v. 21). Briggs regarded the “assembly of the bulls” as Assyria, Edom, and the eastern world powers, and the “calves of the people” as the smaller nations cooperating with them.245 However, this is simply guesswork; he offers no real evidence in support of these identifica‐ tions. As discussed above, animal imagery is used to describe various leaders in several Ugaritic and biblical texts, and the same device is at work in Ps 68:30. Exactly which leaders are in view, however, remains obscure. I have discussed above in the footnotes to the translation the several ambiguities in v. 32. Furthermore, although Kush and Egypt have a close relationship in the psalm, it remains unclear whether the Kushites are envisioned as mercenaries in the Egyptian army or as dominant over the Egyptians, as in Dynasty 25. Despite these problems, at least three interpretations are possible. First, it may be that the psalm pictures Egypt, or Kushites ruling Egypt, as bringing tribute of some kind to Jerusalem. In other words, they would be pictured as a defeated enemy subject to Judahite control. Such an interpretation is strengthened if v. 30 does in fact refer to trib‐ ute and if v. 32 is read in light of v. 30. This approach may also gain support if v. 32b is translated, “Kush’s arms will hurry it [i.e., bronze] to God,” since the emphasis on speed may imply a servile attitude. Second, it may be that Egypt, or Kush, is pictured here as an ally en‐ 242 Buttenwieser, Psalms, 258. 243 Seybold, Die Psalmen, 263 244 Briggs, Psalms, 2:96; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 167; Kraus, Psalms 60–150, 55; Weiser, Psalms, 490; Dahood, Psalms II, 149; Pfeiffer, Yahwes Kommen, 222. 245 Briggs, Psalms, 2:96.
4.4 Solomon’s Marriage Alliance with Egypt, 1 Kgs 3:1
185
gaged in mutually beneficial trade under the support of the respective monarchies. The image may be simply the exchange of gifts of rela‐ tively small quantity between the two monarchies in order to cement diplomatic ties, or it might have been envisaged as a larger economic endeavor. Such an interpretation would be more plausible if v. 32 were interpreted independently of v. 30 and if חשׁמנים referred to a product that is not readily available in Syria‐Palestine. Third, it may be that Egypt, or Kush, is depicted as a future convert to the God of Israel— presumably, the text would have originally specified Yahweh before its revision and incorporation into the Elohistic Psalter.246 Briggs points to other biblical passages that speak of the conversion of Egypt and Ethiopia: Isa 19:19; 45:14 and Zeph 3:10; and Pfeiffer notes the broader theme of nations turning to Yahweh in Isa 18:7; 60; Zech 14:16.247 Such an interpretation would be more likely if תריץ ידיו were related to Akkadian qāta tarāṣu, which can refer to a gesture of prayer.248 The sev‐ eral interpretive ambiguities of the psalm make it difficult to determine which image of Egypt is reflected here. The larger context of the psalm, if it provides a reliable clue, points in the direction of the first view.249
4.4 Solomon’s Marriage Alliance with Egypt, 1 Kgs 3:1 A third text that might preserve a preexilic Judahite tradition about Egypt is the notice of Solomon’s marriage alliance with the Egyptian royal family in 1 Kgs 3:1. The text reads: Then Solomon allied himself by marriage250 to Pharaoh king of Egypt by taking251 the daughter of Pharaoh and bringing her to the City of David— until he finished building his house and the house of Yahweh and the wall surrounding Jerusalem.
246 Cf. Albright, “Catalogue,” 11. 247 Briggs, Psalms, 2:104–5; Pfeiffer, Yahwes Kommen, 223. 248 Cf. CAD 18:211. 249 Importantly for this investigation, there is no mention of an exodus from Egypt in the psalm. This absence is all the more notable since all eight of the other psalms that mention Egypt are exilic or postexilic and all of them mention Egypt in relation to the exodus event (Pss 78, 80, 81, 105, 106, 114, 135, and 136). 250 Cf. the use of the Hithpael of חתן in Gen 34:9; Deut 7:3; Josh 23:12; Ezra 9:14. Alter‐ natively, “become the son‐in‐law of”; cf. 1 Sam 18:21–23, 26. 251 On the epexegetical use of the wayyiqtol verbal form, see Waltke and O’Connor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 551. On לקח used in the context of marriage, cf. Gen 4:19; 12:19; 20:2–3; 21:21; 24:4; 25:1; 34:16. Mark S. Smith notes the use of the Ugaritic cog‐ nate in a marriage context in KTU 1.23 35 (personal communication). Akkadian leqû can also have a similar nuance (cf. CAD 9:137).
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This marriage alliance is also referred to in 1 Kgs 7:8; 9:16, 24; 11:1, though these texts mention only Pharaoh or his daughter rather than Egypt itself. The book of Chronicles contains no parallels to 1 Kgs 3:1; 7:8; 9:16; 11:1. In 2 Chr 8:11, however, the Chronicler shows an aware‐ ness of the tradition. The absence of references in Chronicles to the alliance may be understood as deliberate suppression by the editor(s) of Chronicles.252 Such an editorial strategy would be understandable in the period of Egyptian rebellion against Persian domination. As noted in Chapter 1, the Judean elite would have wanted to distance itself from Egypt for the sake of political expediency. In this context, the editor(s) of Chronicles may have deliberately downplayed the references to an old alliance with Egypt.253 4.4.1 Date and Provenance The tradition about the marriage alliance probably originated no later than the time of Hezekiah. The latest period in which it might have been politically expedient for those who edited the book of Kings to invent or exaggerate Judean political connections with Egypt was the reign of Hezekiah. That some edition of the material now contained in Kings should be attributed to his reign is suggested by the shifts in editorial formulae in the book.254 With the imminent Assyrian threat, 252 So Japhet, Chronicles, 625–26. 253 At the same time, concern over Egypt does not seem to have been the only factor in the discrepancies noted here between Kings and Chronicles. 1 Kgs 7:8 is part of a larger section detailing the building works of Solomon, and this entire larger section is missing from Chronicles, which contains a more streamlined presentation of Solomon’s works. Additionally, 1 Kgs 11:1 is part of a larger critique of Solomon that is missing from Chronicles, which portrays Solomon in a very positive light. It would seem, then, that the tradition about Solomon’s alliance with Pharaoh pre‐ dates the Chronicler. 254 Helga Weippert, “Die ‘deuteronomistischen’ Beurteilungen der Könige von Israel und Juda und das Problem der Redaktion der Königsbücher,” Bib 53 (1972): 301–39; Baruch Halpern and David Vanderhooft, “The Editions of Kings in the 7th–6th Cen‐ turies B.C.E.,” HUCA 62 (1991): 179–244; Erik Eynikel, The Reform of King Josiah and the Composition of the Deuteronomistic History (OtSt 33; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 33–136; André Lemaire, “Toward a Redactional History of the Book of Kings,” in Reconsider‐ ing Israel and Judah: Recent Studies on the Deuteronomistic History (ed. Gary N. Knop‐ pers and J. Gordon McConville; SBTS 8; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2000), 446– 61; W. Boyd. Barrick, The King and the Cemeteries: Toward a New Understanding of Josiah’s Reform (VTSup 88; Leiden: Brill, 2002), 116. Cf. also Iaian Provan, Hezekiah and the Books of Kings: A Contribution to the Debate about the Composition of the Deuterono‐ mistic History (BZAW 172; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 172.
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Hezekiah adopted a pro‐Egyptian policy (2 Kgs 18:21, 24; Isa 36:6, 9), and it would have made sense for those in his circle to emphasize the real or imagined antiquity of the political alliances between Egypt and Judah. A post‐Hezekian date seems less likely, since subsequent periods lack evidence of political motivation for inventing a connection with Egypt. A possible exception is Manasseh’s reign, during which a Jewish community at Elephantine may have already been in existence.255 Such a community might point to some relationship between Egypt and Judah during his reign. In fact, Manasseh seems to have juggled the Egyptian‐Babylonian diplomatic minefield so skilfully that Judah en‐ joyed a temporary economic recovery.256 There is no evidence, how‐ ever, that he was responsible for any edition of the book of Kings. Sub‐ sequently, Josiah’s circle seems to have carried out further editing of the material now contained in Kings.257 Josiah seems to have adopted an anti‐Egyptian policy (2 Kgs 23:29), however, and so it is unlikely that the notice concerning Solomon could be attributed to his circle.258 In the exilic period, where some editing of the book of Kings took place, there 255 John S. Holladay Jr., “Judeans (and Phoenicians) in Egypt in the Late Seventh to Sixth Centuries B.C.” in Egypt, Israel, and the Ancient Mediterranean World: Studies in Honor of Donald B. Redford (ed. Gary N. Knoppers and Antoine Hirsch; PÄ; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 405–34; Bezalel Porten, “Settlement of the Jews at Elephantine and the Arameans at Syene,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo‐Babylonian Period (ed. Oded Lipschits and Joseph Blenkinsopp; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 451–70. I do not find convincing E. C. B. MacLaurin’s assertion that the colony at Yeb was formed by Israelites who had been left behind from the time of the exodus, though the evidence he presents may point toward the antiquity of the colony there (“Date of the Foundation of the Jewish Colony at Elephantine,” JNES 27 [1968]: 89–96). 256 Cf. Abraham Malamat, “The Twilight of Judah: In the Egyptian‐Babylonian Mael‐ strom,” in Congress Volume: Edinburgh, 1974 (ed. J. A. Emerton; VTSup 28; Leiden: Brill, 1975), 123–45; Abraham Malamat, “The Kingdom of Judah between Egypt and Babylon: A Small State within a Great Power Confrontation,” ST 44 (1990): 65–77. 257 Cross’s succinct argument for a Josianic redaction of the book of Kings is based on his analysis of the themes of the book (Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic, 274–89). Shifts in editorial formulae are also associated with Josiah’s reign. On a Josianic re‐ daction of Kings, see Weippert, “Die ‘deuteronomistischen’ Beurteilungen,” 301–39; Provan, Hezekiah, 28, 155; Halpern and Vanderhooft, “The Editions of Kings,” 238; Steven L. McKenzie, The Trouble with Kings: The Composition of the Books of Kings in the Deuteronomistic History (VTSup 42; Leiden: Brill, 1991), esp. 150; Lemaire, “Toward a Redactional History,” 450; Marvin A. Sweeney, King Josiah of Judah: The Lost Messiah of Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 87–88. 258 It is clear that not everyone agreed with his policy toward Egypt (cf. Jer 42), but Kings seems to have been edited by those who were pro‐Josianic, and so presumably in agreement with his Egyptian policy.
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would seem to be little political motivation for inventing a Judean con‐ nection with Egypt. 259 The tradition of Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt therefore seems to date to the time of Hezekiah or earlier. It should also be noted that the several allusions to the alliance need not all date from the same period. On the literary level, some of the references to Solomon’s marriage to Pharaoh’s daughter seem out of place in their context. Thus, Cogan notes of 1 Kgs 3:1, “The placement of this verse in its present context is not immediately clear, because it is poorly connected to this context.”260 Likewise, he finds that the refer‐ ence in 1 Kgs 7:1 “interrupts the account of the building’s layout.”261 These texts may well be the work of editors who expanded the number of references to the marriage alliance. The core tradition, however, is not later than Hezekiah. This preexilic tradition was most likely preserved in southern cir‐ cles. This is suggested by the fact that Jerusalem is specifically men‐ tioned in connection with the tradition: it is in Jerusalem that Solomon builds a home for Pharaoh’s daughter (1 Kgs 3:1). Furthermore, the tradition concerns Solomon, a king of the southern Davidic dynasty. Admittedly, the tradition is connected, at least editorially, to a critique of Solomon (1 Kgs 3:1 juxtaposed with 1 Kgs 3:2–3). An editor of Kings regarded Solomon’s foreign wives as leading him away from Yahweh (1 Kgs 11:1–5, with v. 1 mentioning Pharaoh’s daughter). Even this critique, however, is best understood as coming from within Judean circles. It is designed to explain the fact that Judah no longer had con‐ trol of the northern tribal collective Israel (1 Kgs 11:6–13); it is thus Judean in its concerns. 4.4.2 Historical Reliability of 1 Kgs 3:1 It is difficult to say whether this preexilic southern memory of a mar‐ riage alliance between Solomon and Egypt reflects historical reality. Hezekian or other scribes might have had access to very old and his‐ torically reliable source material indicating such an alliance. At the same time, two lines of evidence pose a challenge to the historical reli‐
259 The Judean communities in Egypt do not seem to have had any significant influence on the editing of the Bible. 260 Cogan, 1 Kings, 184. 261 Cogan, 1 Kings, 256.
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ability of the tradition. While these may at first raise questions, I will suggest why they need not entirely discount the veracity of the claim.262 First, there is some tension between the notion of Solomon’s diplo‐ matic alliance with Egypt and the notice of Egypt’s support of a rival to Solomon’s dynasty, Jeroboam (1 Kgs 11:40; 12:2). Egyptian policy at the height of the New Kingdom period emphasized preserving dynasties in the region.263 Beginning with Thutmose III’s battle against the Syrian coalition at Megiddo, Egypt had required its vassals in Canaan to send their children to Egypt as hostages. These children would subsequently acquire an Egyptian education, as well as Egyptian tastes and cultural values. Egypt then appointed these Egyptianized heirs to the local thrones on the death of their fathers. The Annals of Thutmose III de‐ scribe the practice explicitly: Now the children of the chiefs and their brothers were brought to be hos‐ tages in Egypt; and as for any of these chiefs that died, His Majesty used to have his son assume his post. (Urk IV 690:2–5)264
Several of the Amarna letters indicate that the practice continued be‐ yond Thutmose III.265 ‘Abdi‐Ḫeba of Jerusalem, in particular, attributes his position to Egyptian appointment rather than to his royal lineage: Since, as for me, neither my father nor my mother set me in this place, but the strong arm of the king brought me into the house of my father, why should I commit a crime against the king, my lord? (EA 286:9–15)266
262 On the tradition of a Solomonic marriage alliance with Egypt, cf. Bernd Ulrich Schipper, Israel und Ägypten in der Königszeit: Die kulturellen Kontakte von Salomo bis zum Fall Jerusalems (OBO 170; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999), 84–107. 263 Morris, Architecture of Imperialism, 123–24; Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, 198; Donald B. Redford, The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III (CHANE 16; Lei‐ den: Brill, 2003), 218; Anthony J. Spalinger, “Covetous Eyes South: The Background to Egypt’s Domination over Nubia by the Reign of Thutmose III,” in Thutmose III: A New Biography (ed. Eric H. Cline and David O’Connor; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 355, 359; Diamantis Panagiotopoulos, “Foreigners in Egypt in the Time of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III,” in Thutmose III: A New Biography (ed. Eric H. Cline and David O’Connor; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 399–400; Hoffmeier, “Aspects of Egyptian Foreign Policy,” 138–39. More broadly on Asiatics in Egypt in the New Kingdom period, see Wolfgang Helck, Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (ÄgAbh 5; Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1962), 359–90. 264 Translation from Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, 198. The text is also translated in Hoffmeier, “Egyptian Foreign policy,” 138. For the text, see Kurt Sethe, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie (Urkunden des Ägyptischen Altertums 4; Leipzig: J. C. Hinrisch’s, 1907), 4:690. 265 EA 156:9–4; 180:1–10; 198:24–31; 199:15–21; 296:23–29. Cf. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, 198; Hoffmeier, “Egyptian Foreign Policy,” 138–39.
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By the time of Solomon, Egypt had already lost direct political control of Canaan. Therefore, it did not appoint kings in the region. Neverthe‐ less, the notice of Jeroboam’s support by Egypt may suggest that Egypt continued to play some role in the internal politics of Syria‐Palestine.267 In light of its older policies in the region, it might seem unlikely that Egypt should support both the Solomonic dynasty and a rival to that dynasty. The statements of Solomon’s alliance with Egypt and its support of Jeroboam, however, need not be contradictory. The Egyptian king who aids Jeroboam is explicitly identified as Shishak in 1 Kgs 11:40; Solo‐ mon’s supposed father‐in‐law, however, is not named in the biblical text.268 Various Egyptian kings may have adopted different diplomatic policies in their relations with Syria‐Palestine. Alternatively, a single Egyptian king may have supported both Solomon’s dynasty and Jero‐ boam in an attempt to limit Israelite‐Judahite power by discouraging unity in Syria‐Palestine. A somewhat similar divide‐and‐rule strategy had been employed by Egypt centuries before in the Amarna period.269 A second line of evidence challenges the credibility of a claim to a marriage alliance between Solomon and Pharaoh. The Amarna letters suggest that at the height of the New Kingdom period, Egypt would not have considered offering a pharaoh’s daughter to a foreign ruler as a wife, especially to a power that it regarded as a vassal. Although the marriage of foreign princesses to Egyptian rulers is attested,270 it seems 266 Translation based on text in Knudtzon, El‐Amarna‐Tafeln, 2:860, except for line 14 ana<-ku>, where I have followed Shlomo Izre’el. I am grateful to Professor Izre’el for kindly making his unpublished collations of the Amarna tablets available for my consultation. 267 Cf. 1 Kgs 11:14–22. 268 Malamat identifies Solomon’s father‐in‐law as Siamon, the second‐to‐last king of the Twenty‐first Dynasty (“Kingdom of David & Solomon,” 99). 269 The Amarna letters make it clear that Egypt had earlier adopted just such a policy of promoting strife between petty kings in the region. Cf. Amélie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC (2 vols.; London, New York: Routledge, 1994, 1995), 1:196. 270 According to the Amarna correspondence, Tadu‐Ḫeba, daughter of Tušratta, king of Mitanni, was married to Pharaoh (EA 23:1–8; 26:1–6; cf. 21:13–23; 20:14–22). The daughter of Kadašman‐Enlil, king of Karaduniyaš, was also sent to Egypt as a bride of Pharaoh (EA 2:6–11; 3:1–8). Ramesses II married three Hittite princesses, Maat‐ Hor‐Neferu‐Re, daughter of Hattusili III, a second wife of unknown name, and later another daughter of Hattusili III. For a survey of diplomatic marriage from the Hyk‐ sos ruler Apophis to Ramesses II, see Alan R. Schulman, “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom,” JNES 38 (1979): 177–93. Cf. Terry G. Wilfong, “Mar‐ riage and Divorce,” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 2:340–45; Hoffmeier, “Egyptian Foreign Policy,” 138–39.
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that Egyptian princesses were only rarely given to foreign rulers as wives.271 A fourteenth‐century letter from a ruler of uncertain identifi‐ cation to Pharaoh makes it clear that Egyptians objected to giving their royal princesses to foreign rulers. In the letter, the ruler complains to Pharaoh that his request for an Egyptian bride of royal blood has been denied: [No]w, you, my brother, when I sent for your daughter to marry (her, you) sent to me saying, “Since earlier times, a daughter of the king of Egy[pt] was not given to anyone.” (EA 4:4–7)272
Furthermore, it seems that the tradition of not giving a daughter of Pharaoh to a foreign ruler was not limited to the New Kingdom period. As Malamat points out, Herodotus records that Amasis, king of Egypt, rebuffed the request of Cambyses, king of Persia, for his daughter’s hand in marriage.273 This suggests that the tradition of refusing to give a daughter of Pharaoh in marriage to a foreigner was not just related to Egypt’s heightened political power in the New Kingdom period, but was related to a much larger, and longer lasting, cultural view of for‐ eigners. Other evidence, however, suggests that Egypt could engage in mar‐ riage alliances with neighboring kingdoms. The closest parallel may come from Ugarit. The fragments of a vase unearthed there contain hieroglyphic inscriptions with the name of Niqmaddu and show the torso and head of a woman in Egyptian dress.274 Charles Desrouches‐ Noblecourt argues that the scene was copied from an Egyptian original by an artist from Ugarit and regards it as “l’évocation du mariage d’une princess égyptienne, ‘Ornement’ du Harem d’un des derniers 271 A. Malamat questions other reputed occurrences of such marriage alliances. Thus he notes, “The hypothesis that the four nobles from Syria, called ‘king’s son’ (mâr sharri) in the El‐Amarna letters of the fourteenth century, were in reality the Pharaoh’s sons‐in‐law, is quite unsubstantiated. Equally doubtful is the contention that the mother of Queen Tiy, wife of Menhotep (Amenophis) III, was a pharaoh’s daughter and married to a Syrian prince” (“The Kingdom of David & Solomon in Its Contact with Egypt and Aram Naharaim,” BA 21 [1958]: 97–98). On these claims see Knudtzon, El‐Amarna‐Tafeln, 2:106–7, cf. also 306–7; W. M. Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt (6 vols.; London: Methuen, 1904), 2:182–84. 272 Translation based on text in Knudtzon, El‐Amarna‐Tafeln, 2:72. 273 Malamat, “The Kingdom of David & Solomon,” 98. 274 Charles Desrouches‐Noblecourt, “Interprétation et datation d’une scène gravée sur deux fragments de récipient en albatre provenant des fouilles du palais d’Ugarit,” in Ugaritica III: Sceaux et cylindres hittites, épée gravée du cartouche de Mineptah, tablettes Chypro‐minoennes et autres découvertes nouvelles de Ras Shamra (ed. Claude Schaeffer; Mission de Ras Shamra 8; Paris: P. Geuthner, 1956), 179–220.
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Pharaons de la XVIIIe dynastie, avec Nykmacd, Prince d’Ugarit.”275 Ma‐ lamat suggests that the woman “was a member of the royal harem and not a real daughter of the Pharaoh.”276 If this interpretation of the frag‐ ments is correct, and if one sets aside the question of the existence of royal harems in the New Kingdom period and instead considers the woman simply as having some unknown connection to the extended royal household, the situation would provide a close parallel to that described in 1 Kgs 3:1. Although Donald B. Redford expresses some skepticism about the trustworthiness of 1 Kgs 3:1, he notes, “It has to be admitted that the tenth century, significantly enough, witnessed the prominence of several members of the distaff side of the great noble and royal families of Egypt, whose marital unions were understood to be important for economic and political purposes.”277 Sheshonq was not of royal blood, but his family forged several important marriage alli‐ ances and he succeeded to the Egyptian throne about 930 B.C.E.278 Ken‐ neth A. Kitchen, cited by Redford, notes the marriages of the daughters of the ruling house of Thebes to commoners in the tenth century B.C.E., and that of the sister of Ramesses II to a commoner—though that mar‐ riage could have occurred before Ramesses’ rise to power.279 It remains plausible, therefore, that Solomon could have married an Egyptian woman from Pharaoh’s extended royal household.280 4.4.3 Portrayal of Egypt Striking, whether the tradition is as old as Solomon or as late as Heze‐ kiah, is the portrayal of Egypt as an ally. As noted above, Exod 15:1b– 18 and pre‐722 B.C.E. texts from the north and the east overwhelmingly portray Egypt as an enemy. The tradition of Egypt as an ally ratified by diplomatic marriage is thus conspicuous. It should also be noted that there is in 1 Kgs 3:1 no hint of an exodus. However, this is not as sur‐ prising as it is with Exod 15:1b–18. An exodus tradition, if it were 275 Desrouches‐Noblecourt, “Interprétation,” 218–19 276 Malamat, “The Kingdom of David & Solomon,” 98. 277 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, 311. 278 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel, 299. 279 Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 B.C.) (Warmin‐ ster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1973), 276, 282. 280 Cf. Nadav Na’aman, Ancient Israel’s History and Historiography: The First Temple Pe‐ riod: Collected Essays Volume 3 (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2006), 76–77, 84–85.
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known, would hardly be mentioned in a text attempting to emphasize the friendly ties between Egypt and Judah.
4.5 Conclusion The Judahite texts examined here contain at least two opposing images of Egypt. Exod 15:1b–18 portrays Egypt as an enemy, while 1 Kgs 3:1 portrays Egypt as an ally. Ps 68:29–32 could fit one or the other of these categories: a subservient vassal paying tribute, or an ally in trade. The image of Egypt as an enemy, and as a defeated one, is shared with early Cisjordan‐Israelite and Transjordan‐Israelite texts. The image of Egypt as an ally is also reminiscent of the material in Hosea, which suggested that there was disagreement in the north about whether Egypt could be relied on as an ally. The image of Egypt in early Judahite texts also differs from the view of Egypt in Israelite texts. None of the three Judahite texts exam‐ ined in this chapter refers to an exodus. An argument from silence may be misplaced. It may be significant, however, that of the nine psalms that mention Egypt, the only one that might be preexilic is also the only one that does not refer to the exodus event. The absence of any indica‐ tion of the exodus in Exod 15:1b–18 is particularly noticeable, given the current location of the song as a climax of the exodus narrative. The absence of the exodus motif from Exod 15:1b–18 also suggests that the poem dates to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. In later tradition, the exodus dominates the portrayal of Egypt. This Israelite tradition may have taken hold in the south only after the influx of refugees from Is‐ rael around the time of the Assyrian invasion in 722 B.C.E.281
281 On the archaeological evidence for the expansion of Jerusalem in the eighth century B.C.E. and its possible connection to an influx of refugees, cf. Magen Broshi, “The Ex‐ pansion of Jerusalem in the Reigns of Hezekiah and Manasseh,” IEJ 24 (1974): 21–26; A. Graeme Auld and Margreet Steiner, Jerusalem I: From the Bronze Age to the Macca‐ bees (CBW; Cambridge: Lutterworth, 1996), 39; Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Sil‐ berman, “Temple and Dynasty: Hezekiah, the Remaking of Judah, and the Rise of the Pan‐Israelite Ideology,” JSOT 30 (2006): 259–85; Amihai Mazar, “The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues,” in The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel by Israel Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar (ed. Brian B. Schmidt; SBLABS 17; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Litera‐ ture, 2007), 167.
Chapter 5 Summary and Implications
5.1 Summary The traditions about Egypt varied regionally within preexilic Israel and Judah. Chapter 2 examined the eighth‐century or earlier memory of Egypt in Cisjordan Israel, with a focus on 1 Kgs 12:25–33 and Exod 32. The former passage describes Jeroboam’s construction of the golden calves and his declaration over them, “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt.” Although 1 Kgs 12:25–33 is southern in provenance, it preserves eighth‐century or earlier north‐ ern traditions about the Bethel calf cult and its celebration of the exo‐ dus. The account of Aaron’s construction of a golden calf on the jour‐ ney out of Egypt in Exod 32 has been understood by scholars as a later polemic against Bethel’s calf cult. Closely related is the material from the eighth‐century prophets Hosea and Amos, whose prophetic minis‐ try took place in part at Bethel. A careful analysis of these texts sug‐ gested that, in the north, Cisjordan Israelites celebrated an exodus from Egypt in the Bethel calf cult as a journey of the tribal collective Israel from Egypt to Cisjordan. That journey, however, may not have in‐ cluded the detour eastward into the Sinai desert that became prominent in the final biblical presentation of Israel’s history, a discrepancy that was already highlighted by Gerhard von Rad. Although Israel was understood as having its origins in Egypt, there is no explicit evidence from this complex of material that its time there was remembered as a period of slavery. At the same time, the exodus was evidently envi‐ sioned in military terms, as suggested by the martial overtones of the cult reflected in Exod 32, and the attribution of the exodus to the war‐ rior Yahweh, Israel’s own deity. Chapter 3 discussed the eighth‐century or earlier memory of Egypt in Transjordan Israel and centered on the Balaam oracles in Num 23:18– 24; 24:3–9. This complex contains prophetic utterances by the mysteri‐ ous seer Balaam concerning Israel’s blessed state despite Moabite op‐ position. From internal evidence and evidence from the Deir ‘Alla plas‐ ter inscriptions and the Mesha Stele, it is evident that these oracles date to the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier, most likely to the ninth century B.C.E., and that they are Transjordanian in provenance. They suggest
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that Transjordanian Israelites also defined themselves in relation to Egypt. The eastern traditions, however, focused on deliverance from oppression, rather than on a journey from Egypt to Canaan. The loca‐ tion of this oppression is not specified, and it may have taken place within Syria‐Palestine instead of Egypt. In Transjordan, the deliverance was attributed to the head of the regional pantheon, El, rather than to Israel’s deity, Yahweh. El, as head of the pantheon, was an authority figure who issued decrees, and it may be in this capacity as head that he was credited with liberating Israel from Egyptian domination. Chapter 4 treated the preexilic memory of Egypt in Judah and took as its starting point the Song of the Sea in Exod 15:1b–18. This poem describes Yahweh’s destruction of Pharaoh and his army. The language of the song suggests that it pre‐dates the eighth‐century prophetic cor‐ pus; the song is southern in provenance. I argued that the poetic and mythic nature of the song has not been adequately considered. When these are more fully examined, it appears that Exod 15:1b–18 is inde‐ pendent of the exodus scheme. Its sequence of victory and tour follows the logic of the old warrior god myths, which were rooted in the ideol‐ ogy of kingship in the ancient Near East. In the south, Judahites recog‐ nized Egypt as a major enemy, but the traditions about Egypt were not formulated in terms of an exodus event. Rather, a military victory over Egypt was commemorated, one that may have taken place within Syria‐Palestine rather than within Egypt. The warrior Yahweh is cred‐ ited with the defeat of the Egyptians. This analysis confirms the extent to which the exodus was a tradition belonging to the Israelite tribal collective, rather than to Judah. The chapter also touched on Ps 68:29– 32 and 1 Kgs 3:1, which may also contain preexilic Judahite traditions about Egypt.
5.2 A Historical Exodus? This study suggests that debates about the historicity of the exodus have been misguided insofar as they have assumed that the biblical traditions about Egypt were monolithic. The biblical memories about Egypt varied by region. Any attempt to reconstruct the early history of Israel and Judah from the Bible must take this variation into account. While individual elements of the tradition may be historically accurate, or reflect realistic historical circumstances, this does not mean that the tradition as whole as it is articulated in the book of Exodus has a single historical core. The more recent work of William H. C. Propp and Ronald S. Hendel has emphasized the importance of the exodus in pre‐
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exilic Israelite collective identity, without necessitating a monolithic historical core to the exodus in the Late Bronze Age. The narratives in the book of exodus reflect differing traditions about Egypt that were at home in Cisjordan Israel, Transjordan Israel, and Judah. At the same time, a major thesis of this study is that the exodus story was not a pure invention of the exilic or postexilic periods, a mere response to the experience of exile. Although the exodus found a cer‐ tain resonance among exilic communities, traditions about an exodus and Egypt were firmly rooted in Israel and Judah in the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier. I have suggested how the differing portrayals of Egypt might relate to Syro‐Palestinian and Egyptian history as known from nonbiblical evidence. Chapter 2’s examination of the Cisjordan memory of an exodus suggested that the military overtones of the tradition may be understood as the military tribal coalition Israel coming to view Egypt as its chief enemy. This process may be related to the place that the nearby world power Egypt occupied in the imagination of the col‐ lective Israel, or to a particular Egyptian military incursion into Syria‐ Palestine—though a connection to a specific event cannot be proven. In terms of the Cisjordanian celebration of a journey from Egypt to Ca‐ naan may have as its historical background the notion that pastoralists inhabiting Canaan could shift their base of operation to Egypt in times of crisis, as suggested by Daniel Fleming. Chapter 3 argued that the Transjordanian tradition of deliverance from Egyptian oppression may be related to Egyptian control of, and subsequent withdrawal from, Canaan at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Chapter 4 noted that the Judahite memory of an Egyptian defeat celebrated in the Song of the Sea would make sense in the context of Egyptian incursions into Syria‐ Palestine—though it is impossible to identify a particular pharaoh or battle—or in the context of waning Egyptian power at the end of the Late Bronze Age, which allowed for a redistribution of power in south‐ ern Palestine. There are thus plausible historical contexts for the differ‐ ing regional traditions about Egypt. The regional portraits of Egypt are intelligible in these contexts and may be intelligible in other contexts as well. Regardless, the traditions about Egypt and the exodus were not the invention of the exilic and postexilic periods, but were rooted in Israel and Judah in the eighth century B.C.E. or earlier.
5.3 Israelite Origins This study may hold implications for a second, related area, namely the question of Israelite origins. The biblical narratives contain at least two
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separate traditions of Israelite origins: Israel’s ancestors came from northern Syria and Mesopotamia—the Abraham tradition—and Israel’s ancestors came from Egypt—the exodus tradition. Some have also seen evidence of a third claim for Israelite origins in the Bible: Israel’s ances‐ tors came from Transjordan—the settlement traditions. An older gen‐ eration of scholars understood the biblical claims about Israel’s foreign origins in relation to wider historical developments in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt, and perhaps others as far off as the Indus valley. More recently, scholars have emphasized the local archaeological data from Israel, which show clear continuity between Late Bronze Age “Canaanite” forms and Iron Age “Israelite” ones. These data suggest that Israel was indigenous. While this study does not deal with the claim of a Syrian or a Transjordanian origin for Israel, its examination of the memory of Egypt bears on the question of Israelite origins in Egypt. The regional portraits of Egypt charted here could be made compatible with an autochthonous model for Israel and Judah without dismissing the bib‐ lical traditions about Egypt as late inventions. It should be noted, how‐ ever, that, as evidence considered independently, the regional tradi‐ tions neither clearly support nor undermine such a model. They can simply be made compatible with it. The three regional traditions about Egypt are all offered from the perspective of the land of Canaan. In Cisjordan‐Israel, the exodus for‐ mula associated with the Bethel calf cult indicates that the exodus theme was not viewed independently, but was tied to a particular des‐ tination, presumably the central hill country in which Bethel was lo‐ cated. The perspective of this tradition is “the promised land” and it assumes that Israel belongs in this land. Although the connection is difficult to prove, it may be that the biblical idea of a journey out of Egypt grew out of the perception that pastoralists could move to Egypt in times of crisis. Such pastoralists could be indigenous to southern Palestine, and could have alternated between a more pastoral and a more agricultural way of life. With regard to the Transjordanian tradi‐ tions, I argued that the Egypt formula associated with the Balaam ora‐ cles from Transjordan focused on deliverance from oppression rather than on the idea of a journey. As such, it could be understood against the background of Egyptian control of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age, rather than Israelite slavery in Egypt. In terms of the Judahite memory of Egypt, I also argued that the Song of the Sea presented Yahweh’s people not as crossing over from Egypt to Canaan, but rather as con‐ ducting a tour within southern Palestine following the defeat of the Egyptians. The poem does not state that Yahweh’s people come from
198
Summary and Implications
outside the region, nor are they seeking a region in which to dwell. Instead, they journey to Yahweh’s sanctuary. In sum, all three regional portraits of Egypt could be made compatible with an indigenous model for Israelite origins since their perspectives are rooted in Syria‐Palestine rather than in Egypt. At the same time, as evidence considered inde‐ pendently, the regional portraits of Egypt do not demand that Israel was autochthonous.
5.4 The Pentateuchal Traditions There are at least two aspects of pentateuchal studies for which this study has relevance. First, the work of Rolf Rendtorff and his student Erhard Blum has resulted in an increasing trend to regard each of the major units of the Pentateuch as literarily independent prior to the work of P, or perhaps D. Much work has focused on the independence of the ancestor tradition from the exodus tradition, as argued especially by Jan Christian Gertz and Konrad Schmid, and already hinted at by Hans Heinrich Schmid and Martin Rose. Rendtorff’s thesis, however, also extends to the independence of the exodus tradition from the wil‐ derness and settlement traditions. Although this study has not taken as its primary starting point the literary text of Exodus, the examination of the Cisjordan‐Israelite exodus formula suggests that already by the eighth century B.C.E. there was a logical link between the themes of the exodus and the settlement in the land. Chapter 2 argued that the use of the Hiphil of עלה in the exodus formula implies a known destination. Since the formula addresses the entire tribal collective Israel, and since it was associated with Bethel, which was located within the land occu‐ pied by the tribal collective, it would seem that the destination envi‐ sioned by the exodus formula with העלה is the land of Israel. In Cis‐ jordan Israel, the exodus memory was connected to the notion of Israel’s homeland in Syria‐Palestine. Regardless of the date of the liter‐ ary connections between the exodus and settlement traditions, then, these traditions were logically connected by the eighth century B.C.E. Second, this study has reaffirmed the importance of individual sanctuaries and their cults in the development of Israel’s traditions. Building on the work of Hermann Gunkel, who had pioneered the form‐critical method and had seen the need to locate each form within a particular life setting, Albrecht Alt and Gerhard von Rad tied the pentateuchal traditions to the cultus. Thus Alt comments on the mate‐
5.4 The Pentateuchal Traditions
199
rial in the book of Genesis, “The framework and elaboration of the Pa‐ triarchal sagas were determined by a few great sanctuaries.”1 Martin Noth also championed such connections in his treatment of the penta‐ teuchal themes. Thus, for example, he credited the sanctuary of Baal‐ Peor with the preservation of the Balaam material, and the sanctuaries of Bethel and Shechem with the preservation of some of the Jacob mate‐ rial. 2 Such connections were also championed by the Scandinavian school, especially Ivan Engnell and Sigmund Mowinckel. On this side of the Atlantic, William F. Albright credited the cult with stabilizing Israel’s oral traditions, and the connection between cult and tradition is also reflected in the work of his student Frank Moore Cross. However, form criticism’s leap from a particular textual genre to a particular sanctuary often exceeded the available evidence. More re‐ cently, Rolf Rendtorff’s work on the Pentateuch has resulted in a swing of the tide in pentateuchal criticism. Scholars of the Pentateuch now emphasize the growth and development of the written form of the text and regard any investigation of the pre‐literary stages of the Pentateuch with suspicion.3 This emphasis on the written text results in a gap be‐ tween our understanding of Israel’s written traditions and how they might have functioned as a living part of tribal identity. Without affirming the sometimes overly‐specific cultic claims of scholars such as Alt, von Rad, Noth, Pedersen, Engnell, and Mow‐ inckel, nor extrapolating from the exodus material to the Pentateuch as a whole, this study reaffirms the importance of particular preexilic sanctuaries in shaping biblical traditions. Here, the emphasis has been not on locating particular forms in a life setting, but on observing the connections between the memories of Egypt and sanctuaries. The com‐ plex of material from which I have drawn a portrait of the Cisjordan‐ Israelite memory of Egypt centered on the calf cult of the Bethel sanctu‐ ary. Bethel was host to a pilgrimage festival that celebrated the exodus, and it played a major role in the ongoing memorialization of Israel’s journey up from Egypt to its land under Yahweh’s power. In Transjor‐ dan, the Balaam oracles now preserved in the book of Numbers may also have been connected to a sanctuary. Traditions about the seer Ba‐ 1 2 3
Albrecht Alt, Essays on Old Testament History and Religion (trans. R. A. Wilson; Ox‐ ford: Blackwell, 1966), 56. Martin Noth, A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (trans. Bernhard W. Anderson; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice‐Hall, 1972), 76–77, 80. For example, John Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yahwist as Historian in Exodus‐ Numbers (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 6–12.
200
Summary and Implications
laam are known to have been preserved at a sanctuary at Tell Deir ‘Alla. More broadly, the connection between prophetic oracles and temples is well known throughout the ancient Near East. Martin Noth noted that the larger biblical Balaam traditions are connected with the sanctuary of Baal‐Peor.4 The climax of the Balaam narrative in Num 22– 24 takes place at altars in Peor (cf. Num 23:28); these events are fol‐ lowed immediately by the account of Israelites attaching themselves to the Baal of Peor by bowing down to foreign gods, presumably in a sanctuary of some kind (Num 25), and Num 31:16 explicitly connects Balaam with the Baal of Peor incident. It seems that at some stage the Balaam oracles, including the deliverance formula that they contain, would have become associated with a sanctuary in Transjordan, though this connection is less certain than in the case of Bethel. The Song of the Sea, Exod 15:1b–18, connects the victory over Egypt with the construc‐ tion of a sanctuary for Yahweh. While the identity of the original sanc‐ tuary referred to in the song remains unspecified, the song was taken up and preserved within circles in Jerusalem and its sanctuary, as sug‐ gested by the use of the song by both the Priestly editors of Exodus and the Asaphite psalmists. The biblical memory of Egypt and the exodus is thus tied in all three regions to sanctuaries. There may have been other memories of Egypt that were transmitted in ancient Israel and Judah, but the ones that have dominated the shaping of the biblical portrait of Egypt had a cultic background. Ancient sanctuaries were sites of communal wor‐ ship and pilgrimage, and as such they were extremely influential in both transmitting and shaping the biblical traditions about Egypt. As pilgrimage centers, they would have served to disseminate the tradi‐ tions about Egypt to the populations that visited them. For this reason, although the portrayals of Egypt that have been reconstructed here are based on a limited textual base, the resulting picture is representative of the memories of Egypt that circulated in major regions within ancient Israel and Judah. These sanctuary‐related texts suggest that, in the eighth century B.C.E. and earlier, the traditions about Egypt were not monolithic, but varied regionally.
4
Noth, History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 76–77.
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Index of Texts
Biblical Genesis 1 1:2 1:22 4:13 4:16 4:19 5:1 6:13 7:11 8:2 8:21 11:28 12:19 13:1 13:8 14:19 14:22 15 16:17 17:7 19:1 19:30 20:2–3 21:20 21:21 22:19 23:6 24:4 24:16 25:1 25:2 26:6 26:23 27:41 27:42 30:31 31:16
35, 160n148 137 12 25n11 25n4 185n251 97n99 132n29 137 137 35 28 185n251 49n108 25n4 133n38 133n38 12 57 25n5, 35 25n4 25n4 185n251 25n4 25n4, 185n251 25n4 99n127 185n251 99n127 185n251 124 25n4 49n104 25n5, 35 79n5 61 80n12
31:22–25 31:43 32:32 34:9 34:16 35:5 35:19 35:22 36:7 36:15 37–50 37:25 37:25–28 37:35 38:14 39:1 39:11 39:22 41:14 41:48 45:1 45:13 45:25 46:1–4 46:2–4 46:11 47:2 47:26 47:27 48:5 48:27 49 49:2 49:3–4 49:7 49:24 49:25 50:14
123 80n12 35 185n250 185n251 98n115 57 22 25n11 132n36 71–75 49n103 124 79n5 57 49n103 49n103 49n103 179n212 74 100n130 49n103 49n108 75 115–116, 123 36 26n15 73 25n4 80n12 57 68 88, 98n115 22 88 88 88, 137 49n108
50:25 50:25–26 50:26 Exodus 1 1–15 1:7 1:8–12 1:13–14 2:3 2:5 2:21 2:23 3:1 3:1–4:18 3:1–16 3:8 3:15 3:17 6:2–8 6:3 6:6–7 6:16 7:15 8:17 12–13 13:3 13:10 13:14 13:17–18 13:19 14 14:5 14:5–10 14:9 14:21 14:23 14:26 14:28 15 15:1 15:1b
243
Index of Texts
73 12 73
15:1b–18
15:2 12 5, 12, 135 12 121 12 130n19 130n19 124 177n202 124 12, 117n182 13 49n106 153n126 49n106 120 120n188 107 36 100n130 132n29 135 108 153n126 108 57 73 149n114, 150, 158–161 122, 123 123 159 161 159 159 159 7, 68, 138, 142, 159 137, 144, 163, 170 135, 140
15:2a 15:2b 15:3 15:4 15:4–5 15:4b 15:5 15:5a 15:6 15:6–7a 15:7 15:7b 15:8 15:8. 15:8b 15:9 15:9a 15:10 15:11 15:12 15:13 15:14–15 15:14–16 15:15 15:15–17 15:16 15:17
15:18 15:20 15:23 17:8–16 17:16
2, 6n20, 7–8, 16, 127–176, 192–193, 195, 200 137, 139, 144, 177n199 140 140 137 144, 163, 170 163 166 137, 144, 170 166 141, 144 141 137, 141, 144, 162, 171 158n144, 161 131n25, 144, 158, 163–164, 165, 170 131n24 141 137, 144, 159 175 144, 163, 164, 166, 170 141, 147 137, 141, 144, 162, 170, 171 141, 144, 145, 147, 174, 175, 177n199 25n4, 148, 174 150–152, 156–157 144 149–157 140, 144, 150–153 135–136, 144, 145, 147, 174, 175, 178n211 144 127n2 177n202 51 153n126
244 18:1 19:5 20:2 21:2 21:3 21:4 21:5 21:7 21:11 32
32:1 32:1–6 32:4 32:5 32:6 32:17 32:18 32:19 32:24 32:25 32:26 32:28 32:35 33:1 34:3 34:22 42:8 Leviticus 9:17 10:3 11 11:45 13:44 22:33 25:28 25:30 25:31 25:33 25:38 25:54 27:21 106
Index of Texts
124 80n12 108 105 105 105 105 105 105 2, 40–43, 41n78, 42n82, 42n85, 46, 48, 51–55, 60, 194 51 41–42, 42n84, 48, 48n100 39, 41n82, 43 51 52 53 53, 54 53 48n100 53 36 36 40 49n106 99n127 36 170
91n73 40 100n134 65 99n123 65 105 105 105 105 65 105 105 40
Numbers 3:15 3:17 4:2 6:4 6:17 11 14:12 15:3 15:5 15:8 16 16:7 16:8 16:10 16:32 18:21 21:32 22–24
22:1 22:3 22:4 22:5 22:6aα1β 22:6aα2b 22:7 22:8–12a 22:9–10 22:12b 22:13–20 22:17 22:21–35 22:22–35 22:28 22:36–41 22:41 23:1–4a 23:3 23:4 23:5 23:5–10a 23:7 23:7–8 23:8
36 36 36 53n130 36 162 137 36 36 36 22, 162 36 36 36 163 36 59n151 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 95, 101n138, 200 84n34, 85, 124 84n34 84n34 84n34, 85 84n34 84n34 84n34 84n34 85 84n34 84n34 113n175 84n34 82, 83, 95 102 84n34 36, 49n103 84n34 85 101 85 84n34 103 89, 95 85, 113, 114
23:9 23:10 23:10b 23:11 23:11abα 23:11bβ 23:12 23:12–19 23:13 23:16 23:18 23:18–24 23:19 23:19–20 23:19–21 23:19b 23:20 23:21 23:21–22 23:22 23:22–23 23:23 23:23a 23:23b–24 23:24 23:25–30 23:26 23:27 23:28 23:30 24 24:1 24:1–6 24:3 24:3–9 24:4 24:5 24:7 24:8 24:9 24:9b 24:10 24:10abβ
245
Index of Texts
87 114 84n34 86, 113n175 84n34 84n34 85 84n34 113n175 85 87, 88, 194–195 2, 78–119 85, 87, 88, 89 95 89 118 84n34, 86, 87, 88, 114 68, 87, 114 84n34 10n37, 80n12, 102, 103, 106 85 87, 101 84n34 84n34 89 84n34 85 85, 113n175 200 86 137 85 84n34 87, 88, 101, 103 2, 78–119, 194–195 89, 95, 97n99, 101, 114 85, 87 94, 139 10n37, 102, 103 88, 101 84n34 102, 113n175 84n34
24:10bα 24:11 24:11–13a 24:13 24:14a 24:14b–24 24:15 24:15–16 24:16 24:17 24:25 25 25:14 26:10 31 31:6 31:16 32:5 32:11 32:21 32:32 32:39 33:8 33:8–11 33:51 33:53 35:10 Deuteronomy 1:1 1:4 1:5 2:24 2:29 3:1–16 4:22 4:26 4:34 4:44–46 4:47 5:6 6:1 6:12 6:20–24 7:3 7:7–8
84n34 85 84n34 85 84n34 84n34 87 95 97n99, 114 87, 102, 103 84n34 200 124 163 124 79n10 95, 200 152n122 49n106 137, 152n122 124, 152n122 59n151, 137 150 159n146 152n122 137 152n122
124 25n4, 124 124 59n151 152n122 124 152n122 152n122 65 124 59n151, 124 108 124 108 70 185n250 177n202
246 7:8 7:17 8:2 8:7 8:14 8:15 8:17 9:1 9:14 9:16 9:26 11:6 11:8 11:11 11:31 12:5 12:10 12:11 12:21 13:6 13:11 14 14:17 14:23 14:24 16:2 16:6 16:10 16:11 16:13 18:21 21:4 21:5 23:4–5 26 26:2 26:5b–9 27:2 27:4 27:12 28:36 29:4 29:7 30:18 31:9 31:13
Index of Texts
108 35 49n102 137 108 49n102 35 124, 152n122 35 39 107 163 124 124 124, 152n122 137 124, 152n122 137 137 108 108 100n134 91n73 137 137 137 137 36 137 36 35 49n103 36 95 70 137 70 152n122 152n122 152n122 49n102 49n102 124 152n122 36 152n122
31:14 32 32:6 32:8–9 32:17 32:18 32:27 32:36 32:47 32:48–52 33 33:10 33:13 33:17 33:28 34:1 34:6 34:9 Joshua 1:2 1:11 1:14 2 2:6 2:10 2:24 3:1 3:13 3:14 3:16 3:17 4:1 4:7 4:10 4:22 4:23 5:1 6:2 6:26 7:6 7:7 7:24 8:1 8:7 8:18
100n130 68 133n38 117 99n129 79n11 179n211 79n5 152n122 124 68 88 137 79n12, 80n12 88 124 124 132n29
152n122 152n122 152n122 21 49n103 150 110 152n122 131n24 152n122 131n24 152n122 152n122 152n122 152n122 152n122 150, 152, 152n122 150, 152, 152n122 110 24n3 49n103 152n122 49n103 110 110 110
10:2 10:8 10:19 10:30 10:32 11:8 12:3 13:12 13:15–32 13:22 13:23 13:27 17:15 18:9 19:50 20:7 21:10 21:21 21:44 22 22:9 22:11 22:12 22:13 22:16 22:22 22:22–29 22:23 22:24 23:12 24 24:2 24:2b–13 24:3 24:8 24:11. 24:17 24:30 24:32 24:33 Judges 1 1:2 1:4 2:1
247
Index of Texts
35 110 110, 175 110 110 110 57 124 19n70 19 19 19 35 156 35 35 36 35 110 21, 22 19 19 19 19 21 21 20 21, 36 177n202 185n250 12 28 70 49n102 59n151 152n122 108 35 73 35
35 110 110 49n106
2:9 3:9 3:27 4:5 4:14 5 5:2 5:2–12 5:3 5:5 5:6 5:16–17 5:26 6:1 6:8 7:4 7:5 7:24 8:8 8:9 8:17 9:27 10:1 10:6 10:8 11–12 11:15 11:21–23 11:29 11:30 11:32 11:40 12 13:1 15 15:13 16:3 16:8 16:18 16:25 16:31 17:1 17:5 17:8 18:2
35 61 35 35 110 16, 22, 63–68, 77, 180 53, 53n130, 173 65 64, 127n3 139 113 93 89 110 108 49n103 49n103 35 35 35 35 52 35 148 18 17, 22 148 59n151 156 110 110 153n126 21 110 61 49n103 49n103 49n103 49n103 52, 53 49n103 35 80n12 35 26n15, 35
248 18:13 18:31 19:1 19:16 19:18 19–20 20:28 21:29 Ruth 1:13 1 Samuel 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:24 2:14 2:19 4:5 4:8 6:12 6:21 7:1 8 9:4 10 10:3 11 12 12:8 13:17–18 14:22 14:47 15 15:29 17:17 17:20 17:52 18:21–23 18:26 19:11 19:15 19:24 20:16
Index of Texts
35 38 35 35 35 65 110 153n126
177n202
35 80n12 48n100, 153n126 49n103 53 49n103, 153n126 79n10 40n71 57 49n103 49n103 144 35 144 48n100 65 62 62 57 35 148 94 79n5 179n212 61 57 185n250 185n250 35 49n103 81n18 35
21:8 22:3–4 22:9 24:13 25:7 25:21 25:36 27:1 27:3 27:5 28:8 28:11 28:15 28:17 28:19 29:5 30:16 2 Samuel 1:22 2:3 3:1 3:6 3:10 6:2 6:12 6:15 6:17 7:14 8:2 8:12 14:47 15:8 15:25 19:35 20:21 21:13 22 22:12–13 22:16 22:38 22:4–6 22:5 22:17 22:17–19
177n204 93n88 100n130 49n104 80n12 61 80n12 35 35 35 49n103 49n103 49n103 35 49n104 53, 113 49n103, 52
114 49n103 35 35 35 49n103 49n103 49n103 49n103 79n5 94n88 148 93n88 156 147 35 35 49n103 68 98n115 160n147, 161 175 166 169n180 170 166
22:49 23:1 24:5–7 1 Kings 1:33 2:46 3:1 3:2–3 4:8 7:1 7:8 8:1 8:13 8:33–40 8:64 8:65 9:16 9:24 10:17 10:19 11:1 11:1–5 11:6–13 11:7 11:11 11:13 11:14–22 11:29–39 11:31 11:33 11:34 11:40 12 12:1–17 12:2 12:16 12:19 12:20 12:24a–z 12:25 12:25–33 12:26 12:26–29 12:26–32 12:27
249
Index of Texts
106 80n15, 88, 128n8 94n88
49n103 35 185–193, 195 188 35 188 186, 186n253 49n103 136, 147 57 25n11 36 50n108, 186 186 49n103 133n39 186, 186n253 188 188 148 35 35 190n267 38 35 148 35 28, 189, 190 40, 41, 60 38 28, 189 35 35 35 32, 32n38 35, 38 2, 24–55, 194 35 39 32 33, 35, 36
12:28 12:29 12:30 12:31 12:32 12:33 13:2 13:26 13:33 13:34 14:3 14:4 14:8 14:15 14:25 17:19 17:23 18:10 18:40 20:3 20:4 24:1 2 Kings 1:1 2:1 3 3:4–5 3:26–27 4:9 5:17 5:22 6:5 9:27 10:24 10:29 11:1 11:19 12:17 12:19 13:4–5 13:5 13:32 14:5 15:19
34, 35, 41n82, 48, 48n100, 49, 51 34 36, 51 36 36, 39 34, 36 35 99n123 36 36 40 177n202 35 184 35, 50n108 49n103 49n103 35 49n103 80n12 80n12 49n104
93 49n103 92n83, 93n86 93 93 99n123 36 35 170n184 57 36 37n59, 39 35 49n103 35 35 110 61, 110, 111 26n14, 36 35 35
250 17:16 17:21 17:28 17:28–30 17:29 17:32 17:32. 18:21 18:24 21:4 23:9 23:13 23:15 23:19 23:29 24:2 24:10 25:5 25:6 1 Chronicles 4:4 5:1 5:25–26 5:27 6:1 6:6 6:17 6:52 9:18 13:6 13:20 15:3 15:12 15:14 15:25 15:28 17:24 18:11 23:6 23:24 24:20 29:11 23: 27
Index of Texts
40n71 35 33 45 26n14, 36 26n14, 36 26n15 184, 187 187 36 35 148 37n59 26n14, 36 50n108, 187 148 35 175 49n103
35 22, 33, 40 22 36 36 79n3 36 35 36 49n103 40 49n103 49n103 49n103 49n103 49n103 35 148 36 36 36 35 36
2 Chronicles 1:4 2:12 2:15 3:1 5:2 5:5 7:8 7:9 7:16 7:19 8:11 8:14 9:29 10:2 11:1 11:15 12:2 12:9 12:15 13:2 13:4 13:4–12 13:8 13:9 13:22 14:4 15:8 17:5 19:4 19:8 20:1 20:10 20:22f 20:28 21:3 21:7 22:10 23:20 24:13 25:3 29:21 30:1 30:10
49n103 50n108 35 36 49n103 49n103 36 36 35 35 35, 49n103, 186 26n16 79n3 28 35 36, 39 35 35 79n3 79n10 35 54 37n58, 39, 54 36 79n3 35 35 35 35 26n16 148 148 148 36 35 35 35 35, 49n103 26n16 35 35 36 156
30:13 30:21 31:2 33:4 35:2 35:13 35:17 35:20 36:12 36:14 36:17 Ezra 1:3 1:5 1:11 2:68 3:4 5:1 6:19–21 6:22 7:27 8:15 9:14 Nehemiah 6:8 6:9 8:18 9:9–11 9:11 9:18 9:27 12:4 12:16 12:23 12:37 13:2 Esther 6:6 9:2 Job 1:6 2:1
251
Index of Texts
36 36 26n16 36 26n16 179n212 36 50n108 177n202 36 49n103
35, 36 36 35, 49n103 26n16, 36 36 79n3 135 36 36 36 185n250
26n18, 36 178n211 36 159n146 150 39 61 79n3 79n3 36 35 95
25n5, 35 99n127
100n130 100n130
3:8 4:15 8:11 10:10 10:16 12:13 12:16 22:8 22:11 22:14 22:25 24:22 26:14 27:1 28:14 29:1 29:18 32:11 34:20 38:16 38:30 39:10 39:29 40:15–24 41:17 41:24 41:25 Psalms 2:4. 4:5 7:6 8:9 9:16 10:6 10:11 10:15 13:16 14:1 18 18:12–13 18:16 18:38 18:49 20 21:10
113n175 100n132 128n5, 137 131n25 128n5, 137 80n12 80n12 80n12 170n182 98n115 80n12 177n204 53 78n2 137 78n2 81n19 78n3 177n204 137 137 79n12 79n10 184 132n29 137 98n115
25n4 35 175 156 170 25n5, 35 25n5, 35 25n5, 35 127n3 25n5, 35 68, 171 98n115 160n147, 161 175 106 45 137, 162
252 22:18 22:27 24:3. 25:17 27:6 29 29:1 29:6 31:12 32:6 32:25 33:7 35:3 36:7 37:34 38:19 40:3 42:8 43:5 44:3 44:20 46 46:3 47:10 50:10 53:2 54:9 57:3 57:8 60:10 63:10 66:12 68 68: 30–36 68:1–17 68:2–4 68:5 68:5–7 68:8–9 68:8–11 68:8–28 68:12–19b 68:15 68:17 68:19 68:19c
Index of Texts
91n74 79n12 48n100 105 127n3 171 132n29 79n12 177n202 164, 170 25n5, 35 131n24, 137 139 137 91n74 177n202 169n180 137, 164n164 175 137 170, 170n182 171 139 80n12 80n12 25n5, 35 91n74 79n11 127n3 148n110 170n182 170n182 68 181 179, 181 182 138 182 180 182 182 180 88 181 138 179, 181
68:20–24 68:23 68:23–36 68:25–28 68:28 68:29–32 68:29–36 68:30 68:30–32 68:31 68:32 68:32b 69:2–3 69:3 69:5a 69:15 69:15–16 69:16 69:36 71:2 71:20 74 74:2 74:8 76:2 77 77:15 77:17 78
78:5 78:12 78:13 78:13b 78:15 78:15–16 78:21 78:49 78:53–54 78:54 78:60 78:60–69
179, 181 139, 170, 170n182 182 180 181 176–185, 182n236, 193, 195 181 183n239, 184–185 182 184 113, 178n209, 184– 185 184–185 166–167, 170 169n180, 170 166–167 170 166–167, 170 169n180, 169 n180, 170 24n3 169 n180 137, 170n182 139, 141, 142 141, 142 25n5, 35 142 139, 141, 142 79n11, 141, 142 137 139, 141–142, 146– 147, 179n213, 185n249 88 141 131n24, 150 141 137 142 88 141 141 146 38 142
78:67–69 78:71 79:1 80 80:18 81 81:5 82:1 86:8 87:4 88:4b–5a 88:7
38 88 142 179n213, 185n249 79n5 179n213, 185n249 88 100n130 147 178n211 170n182 169 n180, 170, 170n182 88:8 164 88:17–18 164 88:18 170 89:2 127n3 89:4 147 89:7 132n29 89:7–8 147 89:15 139 95:4 80n12 101:1 127n3 102:17 24n3 137 104:6 104:33 127n3 105 179n213, 185n249 106 179n213, 185n249 106:9 137 106:17 163 106:19 39 106:21 79n11 107:9 131n28 107:26 137 107:28 105 108:2 127n3 112:8. 91n74 114 179n213, 185n249 114:1–2 107 116:19 36 118 139, 140–141, 142 118:1–4 141 118:14 128n7, 139, 140 118:15–16 141 118:15b–16 141
253
Index of Texts
118:16 118:21 118:28 118:29 119:20 119:52 122:4 122:5 124:2–5 124:3 124:4 124:5 135 135:6 135:14 136 136:16 143:11 144:7 144:9 147:2 148:7 Proverbs 1:12 3:1 3:20 6:30 7:7 8:4 8:24 8:27f 11:26 20:4 21:25 22:29 24:24 30:1 Ecclesiastes 2:1 2:15 3:17 3:18 6:7
141 140 140 141 100n132 79n5 48n100 35 164 170 170 170 179n213, 185n249 137 79n5 179n213, 185n249 49n102 105 165, 170 127n3 24n3 137
163 86 137 131n28 81n20 79n5 137 137 113n175 177n202 178n211 100n130 113n175 88
25n5, 35 25n5, 35 25n5, 35 25n5, 35 131n28
254 Song of Songs 2:16 6:3 6:11 Isaiah 2:3 5:24 6:4 7:1 7:2 7:13 8:7 10:24 10:26 11:11 11:11–12:6 11–12 11:14 11:15 11.15–16 11:16 12:2 12:2b 12:5a 13:1 14:4 14:13 15:1 15:5 17:1 17:11 18:7 19:1 19:6 19:19 19:25 21:1 21:11 22:1 22:22 23:2 25:5 27:10 30:6 33:8
Index of Texts
80n12 80n12 81n19
48n100 137 177n202 35 35 35 49n103 57 57 140 140 139–140, 142 140, 148 140 136 140 128n7, 139 140 140 99n124 78n2 35 99n124, 113 57 99n124 131n24 185 99n124 130n19, 184 183n239, 185 113 99n124 99n124 99n124 35 99n124 98n115 147 99n124 156
33:11 33:20 34:7 35:8 36:6 36:9 43:1 43:2 43:3 44:5 45:14 46:11 47:8 47:10 48:21 49:21 51:10 52:4 52:14 53:5 60 60:12 60:19 63:13 Jeremiah 1:1 2:6 2:17 2:18 4:15 4:19 5:24 6:24 7:12–14 7:22 9:9 9:11 9:25 11:4 12:7–9 13:22 16:15 20:16 21:12 23.7–8
137 147 79n12 156 187 187 80n12 170n182 113, 183n239 80n12 183n239, 185 91n73 35 25n5, 35 49n102 35 137, 150 113 79n5 177n202 185 35 98n115 137
97n99 151n121 49n102 57, 113 35 79n10 35 178n211 38 105n150 151n121 151n121 148 105n150 91n73 35 49n103 79n10 35 136
23:8 23:33 23:34 23:36 23:38 25:21 25:30 26:6 27:3 27:8 27:22 31:6 31:9 31:10 31:23 31:25 31:32 32:21 33:18 34:13 37:5 37:11 38:13 39:5 40:11 40:15 41:4 42 42:10 46:9 49:18 49:19 49:33 49:37 50:9 50:19 50:40 50:43 51:21 51:42 51:42–43 51:43 52:8 52:9
255
Index of Texts
49n103 99n124 99n124 99n124 99n124 148 147 38 148 35 49n103 35, 48n100 49n102 61 147 131n28 105n150 105n150 36 105n150, 108 35 35 49n103 49n103, 175 148 99n127 99n127 187n258 175 178n211 79n5 179n212 79n5 137 49n103 35 79n5 178n211 128n6 165, 170 170 79n5 175 49n103
Lamentations 1:3 1:4 3:52–54. 4:11 5:1 5:6 Ezekiel 5:13 16:3 17:6 19:11 19:31 20:5–11 21:26–27 21:27 23:15 23:23 26:19 26:19–20a 26:20 27:27 28:8 29:3 29:6 30:5 31:4 31:15 32:24 33:2. 36:36 39:2. 40:46 42:6 44:2 44:20 45:1 47:5. 47:15 48:1 Daniel 9:15
175 57 170n182 137, 162 177n204 113
79n5 113 81n21 81n21 81n21 65 86 79n10 129n17 129n17 49n103, 137 167, 170 170 170n184 170n182 80n12 184 178n211 137 137 98n115 26n15 24n3 49n103 36 80n12 99n127 53n130 147 128n5, 137 57 57
137
256 11:36 11:41 Hosea 1:1 2:12 2:16–17 2:17 4:1–5:7 5:8 5:13 6:10 7:2 7:11 7:15–16 7:16 8:5–6 8:13 9:3 9:6 10:2 10:5 10:6 10:15 11:1 11:5 11:5–6 11:11 12 12:1 12:2 12:10 12:14 13 13:2 13:2–4 13:4 Joel 2:5 3:2 Amos 1:1
Index of Texts
132n29 148
55 99n127 43, 56, 59, 63 59, 60 56 61 61 80n12 35 56, 63, 113 61 56, 63 39, 43 56, 59, 60 43, 56, 59, 60, 113 56, 60, 63 43 39 56 43 43, 56, 59 56 61 56, 113 72 113 56, 63 43, 56, 59 43, 48, 56, 59, 60, 61, 75 43 39, 43, 45 44, 46–47 43, 56, 59, 61
137 49n103
1:5 1:8 1:14 2:2 2:6–8 2:6–9 2:9 2:10 2:10–12 3:1 3:2 3:9 3:13 3:14–15 4:1– 3 4:6–13 4:6ff 4:10 5:10–12 5:25 6:1–6 6:11 7:4 8:4–6 8:8 9:5 9:7 9:7–15 9:8 9:14 Obadiah 1:3 1:18 12 Jonah 2 2:3aβ–4 2:4 2:6 2:6–7 2:7
55, 97n99
25n4 25n4, 113 79n10 79n10 56 58 58 49n106, 58, 59n151, 60 58 57, 60 60 56 56 45 56 57 58 57, 119 56 59n151 56 56 137 56 57, 76 57, 76 48, 56, 59, 60 60 35 24n3
25n5, 35 137 91n74
168–170 168–169 170 130n19, 137, 169 n180, 170, 171 168–169 170
257
Index of Texts
Micah 2:4 5:6 5:7 6:4 6:5 6:64 Nahum 1:1 1:10 2:3 Habakkuk 2:6 3 3:10 Zephaniah 1:12 1:16 1:18 2:8 2:15 3:8
3:10 3:11 3:17 14:6
78n2 79n5 156 108 95 119n185
99n124 137 137
78n2 68, 171 137
35, 131n25, 139 79n10 137 148 35 137, 162
Zechariah 1:1 9:4 10:10 12:5 12:7 12:8 12:10 12:12 13:1 13:5 14:16 14:17 14:18–19 17 Malachi 3:3 3:24
183n239, 185 137 137 131n25
79n3 137 113 25n5, 35 35 35 35 35 35 99n123 185 35 50n108 79n3
36 36
Nonbiblical COS (The Context of Scripture) 1.99 (P. Amherst 63) 44, 44n89 2.4A (Seti I at Karnak) 155 2.4B (Beth Shan stele) 111, 155 CTH (Catalogue de textes hittites) 374 B iii 9’–13’ 167, 170 DAPT (Deir ‘Alla Plaster Texts) 1.1 101 1.2 101, 114 1.9 101 1.12 101 1.20–28, 40 101 Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q175 9–10 87–88
6QKgs 25n13 EA (El‐Amarna tablets) 2:6–11 190n270 3:1–8 190n270 4:4–7 191 20:14–22 190n270 21:13–23 190n270 23:1–8 190n270 26:1–6 190n270 151:70 106n152 156:9–4 189n265 180:1–10 189n265 198:24–31 189n265 199:15–21 189n265 256:8 112 256:13 112
258 256:34 271 281 282:8–14 283 286:9–15 296:23–29
Index of Texts
112 107n156 107 106 107 189 189n265
Enuma Elish IV 105–108 157 IV 141–144 156 IV–V 157 ETCSL (Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature) 2.5.3.4 34–39 165, 170 2.5.3.4 34–99 173 Great Hymn to Nabu 167, 170 Ikhernofret inscription 53 KAR (Keilschriftexte aus Assur re‐ ligiösen Inhalts) 119 rev. 6–7 52 KTU (Keilaphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit) 1.2 I 17–18 117 1.2 I 33, 36 114 1.2 IV 32–33 117 1.3 III 30 146 1.3 V 35 114 1.3 VI 16 146 1.4 II 12–16 114 1.4 III 7 153n126 1.4 IV 62–V 1 117 1.4 V 14 153n129 1.4 V 30 153n129 1.4 V 37 153n129 1.4 V 62 153n129 1.4 V 65 153n129 1.4 V 43–46 117 1.4 VI 6 153n129 1.4 VI 9 153n129 1.4 VI 31 153n129
1.4 VI 45 1.4 VII 1.4 VII 7 1.4 VII 7–14 1.4 VII 18, 27 1.4 VII 25–39 1.5 I 14 1.5 I 18 1.5 I 32 1.5 V 17–22 1.6 II 6–9 1.6 VI 27–29 1.10 II 2, 5 1.14 I 31–43 1.14 I 41 1.14 III 41–42 1.15 II 15–28 1.15 IV 6–8 1.16 VI 11 1.17 25, 43 1.17 I 23–48 1.17 I 26–28 1.17 I 45 1.17 II 1 1.17 V 17 1.19 III 56 1.19 IV 6 1.20 II 1 1.20 II 9 1.21 II 8 1.22 II 20 1.23 35 1.24 1 1.62 5 1.114 9–11 1.124 12 1.133 3–4 4.63 I 9 4.141 III 4–11 4.144 5 4.213 9 4.360 1– 3. 4.631 18 4.775 9. 4.775 10
153n129 157 153n126 153 153n129 157 131n28 131n28 131n28 28n24 28n24 117 153n129 114 114 114 114 177n204 131n28 153n129 114 107n157 107n157 107n157 131n28 153n126 153n126 153n129 153n129 153n129 153n129 185n251 127n3 153n129 114 86 131n28 66 177n204 153n127 153n127 177n204 66 153n127 66
KUB (Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi) XVII 35 iii 9–16 52 Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions 67 Ludlul bēl nēmeqi IV 1–8 167, 170 Maqlu III 79, 136 167n174 Mesha stele 1–3 90 4–5 91 6–9 92 Papyrus Amherst 63 44, 44n89 Papyrus Anastasi VI 75, 76 Praeparatio evangelica 66 1.10.17–21 RIMA (Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian) 0.77.1 22–41 154 0.77.1 22–46 154n132 0.78.1 iii 12–20 154n132 0.78.2 17–36 154n132 0.78.6 12ff 154n133 0.78.10 15–46 154, 154n132 0.78.23 27–55 154n132, 155n135 0.87.1 i 9–10, 42–43, 77–78 163n160 0.87.1 i 46–61 155 0.87.1 iv 87–90 163n160, 166n171 0.87.2 11–22 155 155 0.89.2
259
Index of Texts
155 155 155 154n132 155 163n160, 166n171 0.102.1 154, 154n132 0.102.1 8–10 154n133 0.102.2 154 0.102.2 i 5–10 154n133 0.102.2 i 14–ii 102 154n132 0.102.5 i 6b–ii 2a 155 0.102.6 154, 154n132
0.98.1 6–15 0.99.1 8–19 0.99.2 13–15 0.100.5 0.101.1 i 40b–69 0.101.23 3
RIMB (Royal Inscriptions of Meso‐ potamia, Babylonian) 2.4.7 5–22 154n132 RIME (Royal Inscriptions of Meso‐ potamia, Early Periods) 2.1.1.1 154n132 2.1.1.2 154n132 2.1.2.4 154n132 2.1.4.2 154n132 2.1.4.6 155n135 2.1.4.26 i 11–ii 28 154n132 3/1.1.7.CylA vii 23–27 166 3/1.1.7.CylA viii 23–27 170 3/2.1.4.1 i 40–45 165n167 3/2.1.4.1 i 40–50 170 3/2.1.4.3 i 17–v 19 154 3/2.1.4.3 ii 21– 39 154n132 3/2.1.4.4 i 7’–ii 23’ 154 3/2.1.4.4 ii 21’–23’ 154n132 3/2.1.5.2 11–16 163n160, 166n171, 173 Seti I inscriptions on Beth Shan stele 111, 155 at Karnak 155
Index of Authors Ackerman, James S., 168n178 Ahlström, Gösta W., 30n30, 62n157, 130n19 Albertz, Rainer, 42n83, 72n202, 110n166 Albrektson, Bertil, 172n191, 174n195 Albright, William F., 7n24, 29n27, 30n34, 63n159, 80n16, 82n27, 83n28, 85n38–39, 87n45–47, 101n139, 142n85, 149n117, 176n198, 177n199, 177n200, 178n209, 179n211, 179n216, 181n225, 182n236, 185n246 Allan, Nigel, 38n62 Alpert‐Nakhai, Beth, 50n108 Alt, Albrecht, 199n1 Andersen, Francis I., 43n88, 55n134, 56n140, 57n143, 58n150 Anderson, Bernhard W., 38n62, 149n113, 172n187 Assis, Elie, 19n73, 20n75, 21n78–79 Attridge, Harold W., 66n177 Auld, A. Graeme, 193n281 Auzou, Georges, 135n51 Baentsch, Bruno, 82n26 Bailey, Lloyd R., 28n25, 28n26, 41n75 Balentine, Samuel E., 168n178 Barré, Michael L., 129n8 Barrick, W. Boyd, 186n254 Bartelmus, Rüdiger, 138n69 Barthélemy, Dominique, ed., 25n13 Bartlett, J. R., 124n199 Batto, Bernard F., 125n203, 130n19, 143n89, 145n98, 146n99, 149n113, 160n147, 161n151, 162n156
Baudissin, Wolf Wilhelm, Graf von, 40n72 Beer, Georg, 145n95 Begrich, Joachim, 180n218 Ben Zvi, Ehud, 56n139 Bender, Adolf, 143n87 Berlin, Adele, 139n72 Bernhardt, Karl‐Heinz, 89n63, 93n84 Beyerlin, Walter, 42n83 Bimson, John J., 46n96, 123n196 Binns, L. Elliott, 82n26 Black, Jeremy A., 165n169 Bleeck, Johannes F., 134n44 Bleiberg, E., 74n211 Bloch‐Smith, Elizabeth, 50n108, 73n207, 74n208 Blum, Erhard, 12n44–46, 72n203, 96n96, 96n97, 97n99, 97n101, 97n103, 97n107, 98n109–114, 98n117–118, 99n121 Boer, P. A. H. de, 128n4 Boling, Robert G., 16n61, 53n130 Boorer, Suzanne, 116n181 Bori, Pier Cesare, 43n85 Bray, Jason S., 28n25, 28n26, 29n28 Brenner, Martin L., 135n53, 138n67–68, 139n71, 140n78, 150n119, 159n146, 160n147 Brettler, Marc Zvi, 94n88 Brichto, Herbert Chanan, 30n34 Briggs, Charles A., 146n104, 181n229, 182n238, 183n239, 184n244–245, 186n244 Bright, John, 8n28, 38n62, 64n164, 93n85 Brodie, Thomas L., 125n203 Broshi, Magen, 193n281 Budde, K., 62n154 Burden, Jasper J., 136n55, 150n119
Index of Authors
Burnett, Joel S., 29n27, 37n59, 40n71, 41n75, 41n78, 42n82, 42n84, 43n86–87 Burney, Charles F., 34n50 Butler, Trent C., 133n42, 134n43, 134n45–46, 135n48–49, 145n95, 145n97–98, 146n101, 147n106, 148n111, 160n147, 161n151 Buttenwieser, Moses, 178n209, 179n217, 180n224, 181n231, 182n238, 184n242 Campbell, Antony F. and Mark A OʹBrien, 124n201 Cannon, William Walter, 181n228 Caquot, André, 96n97, 97n99, 97n101, 99n126, 180n221 Carniti, Cecilia, 178n209, 183n241 Carr, David M., 13n54, 116n181, 120n186 Carroll, Robert P., 11n42, 125n203 Carter, Charles W., 52n126 Cassuto, Umberto, 30n34, 127n3, 128n6, 129n8, 130n20, 131n24, 131n28, 132n34, 132n36, 146n100, 162n157, 163n159, 171n187 Cathcart, Kevin J., 94n92 Causse, Antonin, 146n101 Cazelles, Henri, 69n190 Chalmers, R. Scott, 30n33, 80n12, 115n178–179 Childs, Brevard S., 6n20, 42n82, 128n6, 129n8, 131n24, 132n34, 143n89, 146n98, 150n119, 160n147, 161n151 Clements, Ronald E., 143n89, 146n98, 163n159 Clermont‐Ganneau, Charles, 90n64, 91n73 Coats, George W., 6n20, 72n201, 95n93, 145n95, 146n100, 158n141–142, 158n143–144, 158n144, 160n147, 161n151 Cogan, Mordechai, 25n4, 25n10–11, 26n14, 26n15, 29n27, 31n34,
261
34n46, 37n57, 42n84, 89n63, 92n83, 188n260–261 Cohn, Gabriel H., 169n176 Collins, John J., 72n201 Cooper, Alan, 11n41, 27n20–21, 31n36, 173n193 Copisarow, Maurice, 130n19 Coppens, Joseph, 82n26, 84n36, 102n141 Cornelius, Izak, 28n24 Cornill, Carl Heinrich, 40n72, 82n26, 84n36 Craghan, John F., 123n194 Craigie, Peter C., 53n130 Cross, Frank Moore, Jr., 7n26, 16n63, 17n63, 29n27, 30n30, 31n35, 34n50, 42n83, 42n84, 63nn159–160, 65n167, 66n172, 82n26, 87n48, 90n66, 91n71, 92n81, 94n89, 106n151, 107n158, 127n3, 128n6–7, 128n7, 129n8–9, 129n15, 129n18, 130n20, 130n21, 131n24–25, 131n25, 131n28, 132n30, 132n34–35, 133n38, 133n40, 134n47, 143n86, 143n88, 145n95, 146n99, 146n102, 148n111, 149n113– 116, 158n142, 162n153, 168n175, 168n177, 171n185, 172n190, 187n257 Crüsemann, Frank, 71n198 Dahood, Mitchell J., 91n73, 129n12, 146n104, 176n198, 177n203, 178n209–210, 179n211, 184n244 Danelius, Eva, 28n25 Daniels, Dwight R., 62n156, 70n196 Davenport, John W., 29n27, 41n79, 50n112, 51n119 Davies, Philip R., 32n38 Davis, John D., 90n70 Day, John, 160n148, 171n185, 172n187 de Moor, Johannes C. see Moor, Johannes C. de
262
Index of Authors
De Vaux, Roland. see Vaux, Ro‐ land de Dearman, John Andrew, 92n83, 92n79 Debus, Jörg, 32n38, 33n44 Delcor, Mathias, 45n94, 83n31, 101n138 Desrouches‐Noblecourt, Charles, 191n274, 192n275 Dever, William G., 9n35, 29n28 Dietrich, Walter, 37n56 Dijkstra, Meindert, 83n31, 93n87, 94n90, 94n92, 95n93 Dobbs‐Allsopp, F. W., 67n180 Donner, Herbert, 34n50, 95n93 Dozeman, Thomas B., 49n107, 62n154, 62n155, 105n150, 116n181, 120n186, 130n19, 158n144 Drews, Robert, 109n160 Drinkard, Joel, 90n70 Driver, G. R., 49n104, 152n124 Driver, S. R., 42n82, 54n132, 83n28, 91n73, 92n79, 143n89, 145n95, 160n147 Duhm, Bernard, 146n104, 181n228 Dus, Jan, 20n75–76 Eakin, Frank E., Jr., 28n23, 171n185 Edelman, Diana Vikander, 130n19, 146n98, 150n119, 158n143–144, 158n144, 159n146 Ehlen, Arlis John, 158n142, 171n185 Eissfeldt, Otto, 11n42, 51n115–119, 82n26 Emerton, John A., 21n80, 182n232 Emmerson, Grace I., 56n141 Engel, Helmut, 2n2 Erman, Adolf, 74n209 Evans, Carl, 47n99 Ewald, Heinrich, 40n72, 134n44, 135n48, 145n97, 181n228 Eynikel, Erik, 186n254
Faber, Alice, 22n80 Fass, David E., 30n34 Finkelstein, Israel, 193n281 Finkelstein, J. J., 47n99 Fischer, Georg, 116n181 Fitzgerald, Aloysius, 158n144, 160n148, 161n149 Fleming, Daniel E., 11n42, 28n24, 29n28, 30n31, 41n79, 50n111, 50n113, 51n114, 52n125, 69n189, 76n214–215, 115n178, 148n108 Fohrer, Georg, 70n196 Fokkelman, J. P., 128n4, 128n7, 129n14, 132n28, 132n31, 167n173, 180n222, 183n233 Follis, Elaine R., 169n180 Foresti, Fabrizio, 136n57 Foster, Benjamin R., 167n174 Fox, Michael V., 72n202 Frankel, David, 95n93, 124n201 Franken, H. J., 112n174 Fransden, Paul J., 183n240 Freedman, David Noel, 43n88, 55n134, 56n140, 57n143, 58n150, 63nn159–160, 64n162, 65n167, 87n48, 87n51, 90n66, 91n71, 92n81, 106n151, 127n3, 128n6–7, 128n7, 129n8–9, 129n15, 129n18, 130n21, 131n24–25, 131n28, 132n30, 132n35, 133n38, 143n86, 144n92, 148n112, 150n119, 162n154 Frisch, Amos, 32n38 Fritz, Volkmar, 20n76, 31n34, 35n50, 36n52 Frymer‐Kensky, Tikvah, 167n174 Galil, Gershon, 93n83 Gall, A. Freiherr von, 87n52 Garofalo, Salvatore, 138n63 Garr, W. Randall, 90n69, 120n188
Index of Authors
Gaster, Theodor Herze, 149n114, 160n148 Gehman, Henry S., 26n15, 29n27, 37n57 Gerhards, Meik, 121n189 Gertz, Jan Christian, 12n51, 41n77, 72n203, 117n182 Gibson, John C. L., 91n71, 91n73, 92n79, 92n81 Gillingham, Susan E., 87n51, 147n107 Ginsberg, Harold Louis, 54n130, 152n124 Ginsburg, Christian D., 91n73, 92n79 Globe, Alexander, 17n63 Goelet, Ogden, 10n35, 28n25, 74n211, 155n136 Goetze, Albrecht, 52n125 Golden, Jonathan M., 10n36 Goldenberg, David M., 183n240 Goldin, Judah, 145n97, 148n111 Goldstein, Bernard R., 11n41, 27n20–21, 31n36, 173n193 Goldstein, R., 20n75 Gomes, Jules Francis, 29n27, 31n34, 31n35, 31n36, 42n84, 43n87, 46n96, 46n97, 54n132 Good, Edwin M., 129n8 Gooding, D. W., 32n38 Gordon, Cyrus H., 93n84 Gordon, Robert P., 32n38 Gosse, Bernard, 137n63 Gottwald, Norman K., 30n34, 64n164, 109n161 Grabbe, Lester L., 159n145 Graham, M. Patrick, 90n64 Grant, Michael, 10n36, 123n194 Gray, George B., 82n27 Gray, John, 24n3, 30n34, 93n85, 177n202, 177n207, 178n209, 180n219, 180n221, 180n224, 181n226, 181n231, 182n232 Grayson, A. Kirk, 154n134 Greenberg, Moshe, 26n15 Greene, John T., 95n93, 95n94
263
Greenstein, Edward L., 117n183 Greifenhagen, Franz Volker, 13n52–53 Gressmann, Hugo, 4, 4n10–11, 30n34, 82n26, 128n6 Grey, George B., 82n26 Griffiths, J. Gwyn, 9n35 Gross, Walter, 82n26, 83n30–31 Gunkel, Hermann, 4, 4n9, 5n12, 71n199, 160n147, 180n218, 181n229, 181n231 Güterbock, H. G., 47n99 Hackett, Jo Ann, 16n61, 80n17, 96n96, 96n97, 97n98, 97n99, 97n100–101, 97n107, 98n109, 98n114, 98n115, 98n116, 98n117, 98n118, 99n123, 99n126, 100n129, 101n137 Hadjiev, Tchavdar S., 55n134, 56n136–138, 57n142–143, 58n147–148, 58n149 Hahn, Joachim, 28n25, 28n26, 29n27, 38n61, 41n76, 41n78, 42n83 Hallo, William W., 8n29 Halpern, Baruch, 8n27, 31n35, 34n48, 38n61, 41n78, 64n162, 64n164, 65n167, 143n89, 145n96, 159n146, 186n254, 187n257 Hannig, Rainer, 178n209 Haran, Menahem, 46n97, 134n45 Harper, William Rainey, 55n134, 56n139, 93n85 Harris, John Raymond, 178n209 Hasel, Michael G., 162n158 Haupt, Paul, 128n6, 131n27, 132n34, 135n54, 143n87, 169n179 Hauser, Alan Jon, 150n119, 171n186 Havrelock, Rachel, 18n66 Hay, Lewis Scott, 171n186 Hayes, John H., 31n35, 31n36 Hehn, Johannes, 28n26
264
Index of Authors
Heinisch, Paul, 82n27 Helck, Wolfgang, 189n263 Hendel, Ronald S., 1n1, 8n27, 10n36, 22n80, 109n162 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 125n203, 134n43 Higginbotham, Carolyn R., 111n168–169 Hilber, John W., 181n231 Hill, Andrew E., 29n27 Hoffman, Yair, 10n38–39, 11n40, 27n19, 56n140, 58n148, 60n152, 68n188 Hoffmann, Hans‐Detlef, 35n50 Hoffmeier, James K., 9n35, 74n212, 124n202, 183n240, 189n263– 265, 190n270 Hoftijzer, Jacob, 96n95–96, 98n109, 98n113, 98n114 Holladay, John S., Jr., 187n257 Hölscher, Gustav, 36n52 Holt, Else, 163n161 Holzinger, Heinrich, 82n26, 145n95 Hooke, S. H., 123n195 Hopkins, David C., 74n209 Horowitz, Wayne, 160n147 Hossfeld, Frank‐Lothar, 148n110, 179n215, 182n232–234, 182n236–237, 184n244 Houston, Walter J., 159n146, 162n152 Houtman, Cornelis, 69n191, 123n194, 138n64, 146n98 Howell, Maribeth, 174n194 Hughes, J. Donald, 74n210 Humbert, P., 105n150 Humphreys, W. Lee, 71n200 Hunter, Alastair G., 170n181 Hupfield, Hermann, 181n228 Hutton, Jeremy M., 16n62 Hyatt, J. Philip, 129n13, 146n98, 162n152, 162n157, 171n186, 172n190 Ibrahim, M. M., 96n96 Israelit‐Groll, Sarah, 10n35
Isserlin, Benedikt S. J., 10n36, 68n186 Iwry, Samuel, 179n216 Izreʹel, Shlomo, 106n153, 190n266 Jackson, Kent P., 90n67, 90n69, 91n73, 92n76, 92n79 Jacobsen, Thorkild, 31n34, 145n93, 160n147 Jagersma, H., 123n194 James, Frances W. and Patrick E. McGovern, 26n15, 74n208 Janzen, David, 20n76 Janzen, J. Gerald, 52n120–122, 53n129–130, 54n131 Jasnow, Richard, 44n89 Jepsen, Alfred, 36n52 Jeremias, Jörg, 55n134, 56n135–136, 56n139, 57n142–143, 57n145, 58n146, 58n148, 59n151, 59n152, 60n153, 144n93, 182n233 Jobling, David, 20n77 Joüon, Paul, 88n57–58 Kaiser, Otto, 168n178 Kalisch, Marcus M., 83n31, 94n92 Kallai, Zachari, 124n198 Kang, Sa‐Moon, 6n20, 52n125, 94n91, 105n150, 159n146, 161n151, 173n192 Kaufman, Stephen A., 13n54, 30n34 Kaufmann, Yehezkel, 19n70, 20n75 Kelso, James J., 46n96, 46n97 Kenneth, R. H., 42n83 Kessler, Martin, 166n167 Key, Andrew F., 28n26 Killebrew, Ann E., 112n169 King, Philip J., 29n28, 31n35 Kirkpatrick, Alexander F., 146n104 Kirsch, Daniel A., 16n62 Kitchen, Kenneth A., 9n31–32, 29n28, 93n85, 183n240, 192n279 Kittel, Rudolf, 94n90, 145n95 Klein, Ralph W., 54n132
Index of Authors
Klingbeil, Martin, 50n111 Kloos, Carola, 144n90, 171n185 Kloppenborg, John S., 20n76 Knauf, Ernst Axel, 33n40 Knight, Douglas A., 18n68, 19n69– 72, 19n74, 20n76, 22n81, 70n196 Knoppers, Gary N., 25n6–9, 25n12– 13, 26n14, 26n17, 35n50, 37n55–56, 37n56, 54n132 Knudtzon, Jørgen A. , 190n266, 191n271–272 Koenen, Klaus, 29n27, 33n40, 42n83, 55n133 Köhlmoos, Melanie, 31n35, 43n87, 46n96 Kooij, G. van der, 96n95–96, 96n96, 98n109, 98n113, 98n114 Kottsieper, Ingo, 45n94, 95n96 Krahmalkov, Charles Richard, 162n152 Kratz, Reinhard G., 35n50 Kraus, Hans‐Joachim, 139n73–75, 146n104, 148n110, 178n209, 179n216, 180n215, 180n218, 181n227, 181n229, 182n232, 182n237, 184n244 Kuenen, Abraham, 4n6–8, 20n75, 43n87, 81n24, 83n31 Kuhrt, Amélie, 191n269 Lambert, W. G., 167n174 Landes, Georges M., 168n176, 168n178 Lane, E. W., 131n24 Lee, Jin Tae, 153n131 Leick, Gwendolyn, 29n28 Lemaire, André, 96n97, 97n99, 97n101, 99n126, 186n254, 187n257 Lemche, Niels Peter, 6n21, 14n58– 59, 93n83 Leuchter, Mark, 31n35, 32n37, 39n65 Levin, Christoph, 71n197, 73n203, 83n31, 94n92, 120n186
265
Levine, Baruch A., 16n61, 59n151, 68n187, 78n2, 79n8, 80n13, 80n16–17, 81n21, 81n23, 83n31, 84n37, 85n40–42, 86n44, 89n59, 89n62, 93n84–85, 93n87, 96n97, 97n98, 97n101–106, 98n109– 110, 98n112–118, 99n119–122, 99n128, 100n132, 100n134–135, 101n136, 101n139, 102n140, 102n142, 103n144, 133n37 Lewy, Immanuel, 41n77 Lichtheim, Miriam, 53n127 Limburg, James, 168n178 Lind, Millard C., 51n113, 174n196 Lipiński, Edward, 91n72 Liverani, Mario, 14n60, 109n164– 165 Livingston, David, 46n96 Loewenstamm, Samuel E., 129n8, 143n89 Lohfink, Norbert, 51n113, 70n196, 143n89, 158n144 Long, Burke O., 125n203 Long, V. Philips, 34n49, 72n201 Longman, Tremper, III, 34n49, 72n201 Loretz, O., 104n146 Lucas, A., 178n209 Lust, Johan, 120n186 Lutzky, Harriet, 95n93 Luyster, Robert, 158n142, 159n145, 163n162, 170n183, 172n188–189 MacLaurin, E. C. B., 187n257 Malamat, Abraham, 9n35, 187n256, 190n268, 191n271, 191n273, 192n276 Marcus, David, 83n31 Margalith, O., 129n17 Marthinus, Thomas, 45n94 Marzal, A., 129n17 Mastin, B. A., 129n17 May, Herbert G., 164n166 Mays, James Luther, 55n134, 56n135, 56n139 Mazar, Amihai, 193n281
266
Index of Authors
McCarter, P. Kyle, Jr., 66n171, 67n179, 96n97, 97n98, 97n99, 97n100–101, 97n103, 97n107– 108, 98n109, 98n110–111, 98n114, 98n115, 98n116, 98n117, 98n118, 99n123, 99n126, 167n174 McGovern, Patrick E., 26n15, 74n208 McKenzie, John L., 94n89 McKenzie, Steven L., 32n38, 35n50, 187n257 McNeile, Alan Hugh, 42n82, 128n6, 129n8, 131n25, 138n65– 66, 146n100 Meek, Theophile J., 28n23, 29n27, 31n35 Mendenhall, George, 124n202 Menes, A., 20n75 Mettinger, Tryggve N. D., 29n27, 30n34, 42n82, 42n84, 116n181, 146n98 Meyers, Carol L., 9n34, 143n89 Meynet, Roland, 150n119 Milgrom, Jacob, 85n40 Miller, James Maxwell, 31n35, 31n36, 89n63, 90n70, 150n119, 157n141 Miller, Patrick D., 28n24, 51n113, 65n172, 66n175, 145n95, 146n99, 174n197, 177n204 Miller, Robert D. II, 38n64 Milstein, Sara, 33n41, 41n80 Moberly, R. W. L., 83n31 Mobley, Gregory, 54n130 Möhlenbrink, Kurt, 20n75 Montgomery, James A., 26n15, 29n27, 37n57 Moor, Johannes C. de, 50n113, 68n186, 87n45, 156n138 Moore, Michael S., 95n93 Moran, William M., 130n21 Morgenstern, Julian, 31n36 Morris, Ellen Fowles, 111n167, 111n169, 183n240, 189n263
Mowinckel, Sigmund, 82n26, 84n35, 134n46, 144n93, 148n111, 178n209, 180n220– 221, 181n227, 182n232 Muilenburg, James, 159n145 Müller, Hans‐Peter, 95n93, 96n97, 101n138 Mykytiuk, Lawrence J., 93n83 Na’aman, Nadav, 192n280 Nelson, Richard D., 20n76, 93n86 Nicholson, Ernest W., 72n201 Nielsen, Eduard, 38n62, 124n200, 125n204 Nims, Charles F., 44n89, 45n94 Nohrnberg, James, 125n203 Noll, Kurt L., 10n36 Noth, Martin, 5n18–19, 6n20–21, 7n22–23, 7n25, 20n76, 24n2, 25n10, 26n14–15, 29n27, 30n34, 33n44, 50n109, 63n158, 64n162, 65n166, 68n186, 78n1, 82n26, 105n148, 116n181, 122n190– 191, 124n197, 125n204, 127n1, 127n2, 145n95, 146n100, 162n155, 162n157, 199n2, 200n4 Notley, Steven R., 93n83 Nowack, Wilhelm, 40n72 Oblath, Michael D., 119n185, 130n19 O’Brien, Mark A., 124n201 O’Connor, Michael Patrick, 128n4, 128n6–7, 129n10, 129n16, 130n21, 131n24–26, 131n28, 132n30, 132n32–35, 185n251 Oden, Robert A., Jr., 66n177 Olshausen, Justus, 181n228 Oren, Eliezer D., 74n208 Ornan, Tallay, 50n111 Ottosson, Magnus, 94n89, 112n171–173 Pakkala, Juha, 33n42–44, 35n50, 36n52, 37n54, 37n55–56,
Index of Authors
39n66–68, 41n75, 42n82, 43n85, 46n95 Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis, 189n263 Parker, Simon B., 90n70, 93n83, 100n130, 129n8 Patai, Raphael, 29n28 Paton, Lewis B., 29n27 Paul, Shalom, 56n135–136, 56n139, 57n142, 57n144, 58n150, 59n151 Pedersen, Johannes, 5n12–16, 135n50, 169n180 Petrie, W. M. Flinders, 191n271 Petter, Thomas David, 16n62 Pfeiffer, Henrik, 64n163, 65n169, 178n209, 179n212, 180n224, 182n235, 182n238, 184n244, 185n247 Pfeiffer, Robert H., 28n25, 30n32, 64n164, 94n92, 125n203 Pitard, Wayne T., 106n155, 153n130 Plaut, W. Gunther, 29n28, 30n34 Pollock, Susan, 74n210 Pope, Marvin H., 66n178, 131n28 Porten, Bezalel, 187n257 Porter, Adam L., 16n62 Potts, Daniel T., 74n209 Preuss, Horst Dietrich, 10n37, 65n166, 104n147, 105n150 Prinsloo, Gert, 45n94 Propp, William H. C., 8n30, 10n36, 109n163, 117n182, 120n187, 128n3, 128n4–6, 129n8, 129n15, 129n17–18, 130n23, 131n24–25, 131n28, 132n30, 132n34, 133n38–39, 146n100, 162n157, 166n172, 170n183 Prosic, Tamara, 76n216, 77n217 Provan, Iain W., 34n49, 37n56, 72n201, 186n254, 187n257 Puech, E., 96n97, 97n98, 97n105– 106, 98n110, 98n113, 98n114, 99n119–120 Pury, Albert de, 2n2, 32n38, 70n197, 71n197
267
Pyper, Hugh S., 168n178 Rabin, Chaim, 54n130 Rad, Gerhard von, 5n17, 6n20, 50n113, 62n154, 63n158, 65n167, 70n192–195, 71n200, 72n201–202, 89n60, 124n201 Rainey, Anson F., 46n96, 93n83, 106n154 Ramras‐Rauch, Gila, 168n175 Redford, Donald B., 71n200, 73n204–205, 74n212, 111n167, 112n173–174, 183n240, 189n263–265, 192n277–278 Reed, W. L., 90n65 Rendsburg, Gary A., 9n35, 22n80, 93n84, 139n71 Rendtorff, Rolf, 11n43, 68n184, 71n199, 72n203 Reymond, Philippe, 163n161, 163n162, 169n180 Richter, Sandra L., 137n62 Riemann, Paul A., 62n155 Robertson, David A., 64n161, 87n49–50, 143n87 Robinson, Bernard P., 94n92, 125n203 Robinson, Theodore Henry, 89n61, 146n101 Rofé, Alexander, 82n27, 83n30–31, 85n40 Rogerson, John W., 32n38 Römer, Thomas, 2n2, 32n38, 70n197, 71n197 Rose, Martin, 71n197 Rösel, Martin, 44n89, 45n94 Rost, Leonhard, 70n196 Rouillard, Hedwige, 79n3, 79n7, 79n8, 79n12, 80n12, 80n13, 81n22, 83n31, 103n145, 104n146 Rowley, H. H., 84n36 Rowton, M. B., 123n195 Rozelaar, Marc, 135n52 Rudolph, Wilhelm, 83n29
268
Index of Authors
Russell, Brian D., 128n6–7, 130n23, 131n24–25, 140n76–77, 141n79– 81, 142n82–84, 143n89, 150n120, 160n147, 161n151 Saggs, H. W. F., 171n187, 172n191 Santis, David Vincent, 16n62, 124n197, 124n202 Särko, P., 129n17 Sarna, Nahum M., 8n29, 30n34, 163n159 Sasson, Jack M., 28n24, 52n123–125 Schaeffer, C. F. A., 30n33, 115n178 Schenker, Adrian, 32n38 Schipper, Bernd Ulrich, 189n262 Schmid, Hans Heinrich, 11n42, 70n197 Schmid, Konrad, 12n47–50, 72n201, 72n203, 116n181, 117n182, 120n186, 121n189 Schmidt, Brian B., 95n93 Schmidt, Hans, 140n78, 178n209, 180n219, 180n224 Schmidt, Ludwig, 83n31, 95n93, 168n177 Schmidt, Werner H., 71n199, 159n146 Schmitt, Hans‐Christoph, 83n31, 102n143 Schreiner, Josef, 145n95 Schüle, Andreas, 78n3, 79n6, 79n8, 80n13, 80n16, 81n23, 83n31, 84n33, 88n54–55, 94n90, 96n96, 97n99, 98n112–114, 98n116– 118, 102n143 Schulman, Alan R., 190n270 Seebass, Horst, 84n36 Segal, J. B., 31n36 Seow, Choon Leong, 67n181 Sethe, Kurt, 189n264 Seybold, Klaus, 102n141, 180n223, 184n243 Shinnie, P. L., 183n240 Silberman, Neil Asher, 193n281 Simpson, Cuthbert Aikman, 42n83, 82n26
Ska, Jean‐Louis, 3n2, 11n43, 160n147, 161n150 Smelik, Klaas A. D., 45n94, 90n66, 90n70, 91n71, 93n83 Smend, Rudolf, 65n167 Smith, George Adam, 94n90, 94n92, 134n45 Smith, Mark S., 6n20, 28n24, 30n29–30, 31n34, 36n52, 37n57, 37n59, 42n82, 44n89–90, 45n91–93, 48n100, 53n128, 53n130, 65n168, 66n176, 67n181–185, 88n56, 100n130, 114n176, 115n177, 115n179– 180, 118n184, 129n10, 131n24– 25, 132n34–35, 132n35, 136n56, 144n91, 145n93–94, 145n98, 146n102–104, 147n105, 148n109, 152n123–124, 153n130, 157n141, 159n146, 185n251 Smolar, Leivy, 29n27, 30n34, 32n38 Snaith, Norman Henry, 20n75, 130n19 Soggin, J. Alberto, 20n76, 94n90, 136n57, 146n98 Sonnet, Jean‐Pierre, 124n201 Spalinger, Anthony J., 189n263 Sparks, Kenton L., 145n93 Speiser, E. A., 26n15 Sperling, S. David, 29n28, 33n44, 47n99, 104n147, 108n159 Stager, Lawrence E., 16n63, 17n64– 65, 29n28, 31n35, 74n209 Stärk, Willy, 135n49 Stavrakopoulou, Francesca, 47n99 Steen, Eveline J. van der, 90n66, 91n71 Steiner, Margreet, 193n281 Steiner, Richard C., 44n89, 45n94 Stuart, Douglas K., 123n196 Sturdy, John, 84n37 Sweeney, Marvin A., 187n257 Tadmor, Hayim, 26n15, 89n63, 92n83
Index of Authors
Talmon, Shemaryahu, 31n36, 62n155 Talon, Phillipe, 156n137, 157n140 Talshir, Zipora, 32n38 Thenius, Otto, 40n72 Thompson, Thomas L., 91n70 Tigay, Jeffrey H., ed, 13n54, 68n186 Timm, Stefan, 84n32, 85n41, 87n52–53, 89n63, 93n83, 93n84 Toews, Wesley I., 28n25, 29n27–28, 30n29, 31n35–36, 33n44, 34n47–50, 37n53, 37n56, 38n60, 38n64, 39n61–62, 41n77, 42n84, 67n181 Toorn, Karel van der, 9n33, 13n54, 27n22, 29n27, 48n101, 64n165, 66nn173–174, 67n179 Török, Lásló, 183n240 Tournay, Raymond Jacques, 132n28, 136n58–60, 137n61, 138n70, 145n95, 145n98, 149n118 Tov, Emanuel, 118n184 Trebolle Barrera, Julio C., 25n9, 26n17, 32n38, 37n55–56 Tsumura, David Toshio, 160n147, 163n162, 165n170, 171n187 Turiot, C., 41n77 van der Steen, Eveline. see Steen, Eveline J. van der van der Toorn, Karel. see Toorn, Karel van der Van Seters, John, 6n20, 13n55, 14n57, 33n39, 33n44–45, 34n47, 34n50, 41n77, 42n81, 47n98, 71n197, 72n201, 75n213, 94n89, 95n93, 101n139, 102n141, 116n181, 117n182, 160n147, 161n151, 199n3 Vanderhooft, David, 186n254, 187n257 Vaux, Roland de, 31n36, 69n190, 105n150, 122n192–193 Vergote, Jozef, 74n212
269
Vermeylen, Jacques, 41n77 Vervenne, Marc, 6n20, 123n196, 130n19, 158n145, 164n163 Vink, J. G., 20n75, 42n83 Virolleaud, Charles, 178n209 Vlaardingerbroek, Johannes, 178n209 Vleeming, Sven P., 44n89, 45n91 von Herder, Johann Gottfried. see Herder, Johann Gottfried von von Rad, Gerhard. see Rad, Gerhard von Vriezen, T C., 35n50 Wagenaar, Jan A., 18n67, 160n147 Wakeman, Mary K., 160n147 Waltke, Bruce K., 128n4, 185n251 Walton, John H., 29n27 Warburton, David A., 73n206 Watson, Rebecca S., 158n144, 163n162, 171n187, 180n224 Watts, James W., 146n100, 147n105 Watts, John D. W., 145n95 Way, Kenneth C., 101n138 Weber, Max, 50n113, 65n167, 65n170 Weinfeld, Moshe, 35n51, 38n63, 45n94 Weinstein, James M., 111n167, 111n169, 112n170 Weippert, Helga, 186n254, 187n257 Weiser, Artur, 84n36, 178n209, 179n214, 180n221, 184n244 Weitzman, Steven, 168n178 Wellhausen, Julius, 3n3–5, 81n24, 82n25, 134n44, 145n97, 181n228 Wesselius, Jan W., 44n89, 45n91 Westermann, Claus, 72n201, 116n181 Wevers, John William, 82n27 Whybray, Roger N., 6n20 Widengren, Geo, 42n83 Wijngaards, J. N. M., 1n1, 49n104– 106, 50n110, 105n149
270
Index of Authors
Wilfong, Terry G., 190n270 Winnett, F. V., 90n65 Witte, Markus, 84n34 Wolff, Hans Walter, 39n69, 43n88, 55n134, 56n139, 57n142, 58n148–149, 59n151, 168n177 Wolters, Albert M., 158n145, 164n163 Woodhouse, Robert, 22n80 Worden, T., 28n24 Woude, A. S. van der, 35n50 Würthwein, Ernst, 35n50, 37n56 Wyatt, Nicolas, 30n33, 103n144, 115n178, 172n187
Wynn‐Williams, Damian J., 116n181 Yahuda, A. S., 101n139 Yoyotte, J., 112n174 Zakovitch, Yair, 1n1, 18n67, 27n21, 29n27 Zenger, Erich, 147n105, 148n110, 179n215, 182n232–234, 182n236–237, 184n244 Zevit, Ziony, 45n94
Index of Subjects Aaron and golden calf, 40–41, 194 Abijah, 54 Abrahamic tradition of ancestors from Mesopotamia, 197–198. See also settlement tradition Agag, king of Amalek, 94 agrarian societies difference between Egypt and Israel, 74 for pastoralists, 197 Ahijah the Shilonite, and Jero‐ boam, 38 Akkadian texts, divination in, 85 altar, construction of by Transjor‐ danians, 19, 21 Amarna letters on Egyptian influence in Transjordan, 112 hostage keeping in, 189, 189n265 and marriage alliance with Solomon, 190–191, 190n269– 270, 191n271 and servitude to Egypt, 108 Ammon and Ammonites, 17, 18, 140, 148, 148n110 Amos absence of threat of slavery in, 60–61 Bethel calf cult in, 194 critique of election theology, 60, 118 date of, 55–56 Egypt traditions in, 57, 59–63, 76 exodus tradition in, 12, 15, 60 pestilence and plagues in, 57–58, 119 preexilic context of, 56 wilderness wandering tradition in, 58, 58n150, 59n151
ancestor tradition, 64, 116–117, 197–198. See also family de‐ scent tradition of Israel anger of Yahweh, as motif in Song of the Sea, 137 animal imagery, 31n34, 91n73, 101, 177n204, 184 Aram and Aramaeans, 110, 148 archaeological evidence of Israelites as indigenous, 197 of sanctuary at Bethel, 46 ark as war standard, 51 Asaphite psalms and Song of the Sea, 138, 139, 141–142, 176, 200 Asher in western tribes, 18 Ashima, worship of, 45 Assyria as enemy, 56, 60, 61, 63 Baal introduction of worship of by Jeroboam, 28, 28n24 relationship to El in Ugaritic texts, 117 Baal cycle. See also Ugaritic texts kingship of god, 145n93, 154 military progressions in, 153n126–127, 153n129, 154–156 “mount of inheritance” in, 146 and Psalm 68, 181 trembling enemies in, 156–157 Baal‐Peor and Balaam oracles, 78, 95, 199–200 Balaam, 95–96, 101 Balaam oracles, 78–119 date and provenance of, 81–103, 118–119, 125 Egypt in, 78–81, 103–119 exodus narrative in, 119–123 and Moses, 124–125
272
Index of Subjects
prose and poetic accounts in, 84– 87 sources of, 84–85 as Transjordanian, 103, 194–195 beast of the marsh, 184 behemoth in Psalm 68, 184 Benjamin, 18, 181 Beth Shan stele, 111, 155 Bethel archaeological evidence of sanc‐ tuary at, 46 and Cisjordan‐Israelite memory, 199 as destination, 48–50, 197 golden calf at, 24–25 Bethel calf cult and Amos and Hosea, 194 and Egypt as enemy, 77 historicity of tradition of, 38–39 military aspects of, 53–54 in Papyrus Amherst 63 (COS 1.99), 44–46, 44n89 Bethel priesthood in alliance with Aaron, 42 “bronze will come from Egypt” (Ps 68:29–32), 176–185, 178n209 bull imagery for El, 66, 103, 114, 115n178 in Psalm 68, 184 burial of Joseph, 73–74 burning up metaphor in Song of the Sea, 162, 163, 171 calves. See also Bethel calf cult; bull imagery associations with exodus, 38–39, 42, 46–47 and golden calf incident in Exo‐ dus, 40 as guide, 51 in Hosea, 43–44 iconography of, 27–29, 28n24–25, 29n28 as mobile war standard, 37n58, 51, 54, 55
in Psalm 68, 184 as representation of deity, 30, 30n31, 50, 52 ridicule of in Chronicles, 54 Canaan and Canaanites conquest of, 8n29, 122, 134 as enemy in Song of the Sea, 151, 152, 156 exodus formula from the per‐ spective of Canaan, 108 casting into the sea as metaphor, 168–170 Cisjordan Israel. See also specific tribes, e.g., Ephraim and Eph‐ raimites alliance with Transjordan Israel, 94 Bethel and, 199 conflicts with Transjordan Israel, 16–17, 19, 21–22 conquest of by Joshua, 18–19 Egypt, portrayals of in, 47–55 exodus traditions in, 48–50, 60, 197–198 journey theme in, 75, 119, 121 political differences with Transjordan, 19–20, 20n75 religious differences with Transjordan, 21 Cisjordan‐Israelite traditions, 24– 77 Exodus Narrative, 69–71 Hosea and Amos, 55–63 Jeroboam and the Golden Calves (1 Kgs 12:25–33), 24–55 Joseph story (Gen 27–50), 71–75 Song of Deborah (Judg 5), 63–68 conquest. See also Egyptian em‐ pire, occupation by of Canaan, 8n29, 122, 134 of Cisjordan under Joshua, 18–19 rainstorm as image of, 166n171 and Song of the Sea, 150n119, 151 of Transjordan by Moses, 125
Index of Subjects
Dan boundaries of, 18 golden calf set up at, 24–25 in Jeroboam’s story, 37–38, 37n59 dating biblical texts, methods of, 23 Deir ‘Alla inscriptions and date of Balaam oracles, 96, 101, 194 language of, 21–22 and occupation by Egypt, 112 parallels with Balaam poems, 87–89, 100–103, 100n129, 200 portrayal of El in, 114 reconstruction of, 97–100, 98n115 deities. See gods deliverance formula in Balaam oracles, 103, 104–113, 109–110, 111, 118 deliverance from distress, 105–106, 107 deliverance from oppression. See also Egyptian empire, occupa‐ tion by in Balaam oracles, 107–108 and Egyptian control of Syria‐ Palestine, 196 by El, 102, 108, 113–119, 195 in Transjordanian traditions, 119, 121, 126, 195, 197 deliverance from slavery. See slav‐ ery, deliverance from desert wanderings. See wilderness wandering tradition desolation, desert as, 62 destination, movement toward. See also wilderness wandering tradition in Cisjordan exodus formula, 48– 50, 60, 197–198 as metaphor of liberation from foreign power, 109 destruction, metaphors for, 162– 163 Deutero‐Isaiah and Psalm 68, 181, 182
273
Deuteronomists and Amos, 57–58 and Cisjordanian tradition, 62 and date of Song of the Sea, 133, 136–137 and Jeroboam’s story, 34–36 in scholarly opinion, 12–13, 20, 70 and Transjordanian tradition, 94 distress, deliverance from, 105– 106, 107 divination in Balaam oracles, 86 divine dwellings. See sanctuaries divine warrior. See warrior god myths drowning as metaphor for destruc‐ tion, 163, 165–166, 166–167, 171 dry land crossing theme, 159–161, 160n147 dual exodus theory, 122–123 Edom and Edomites as enemy in Song of the Sea, 140, 144, 148, 148n110, 151–152, 156, 174 Egypt customs in, 73–76 departure from as metaphor of liberation from foreign power, 109 diplomatic relations in Syria‐ Palestine, 189–190 and journeys out of Egypt, 116– 117, 126 marriage alliances in, 185–193 military tours or progressions in, 155 and pastoralist journeys, 61, 74, 75, 76–77, 123, 196, 197 Egypt, portrayals of in Amos and Hosea, 59–63 in Balaam oracles, 103–119 in Cisjordan Israel, 47–55 in Jeroboam story (1 Kgs 12:25– 33), 189–190 in Joseph story, 73–75 in Psalm 68, 183–185
274
Index of Subjects
in Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt (1 Kgs 3:1), 192– 193 in Song of the Sea (Exod 15:1b– 18), 149–176 Egypt as ally, 63, 77, 192–193 Egypt as convert to Yahweh, 185 Egypt as enemy in Bethel calf cult, 77 in Judahite texts, 193 in northern traditions, 196 victory over Egypt theme, 1, 174, 184 Egypt as place of banishment, 60– 61 Egypt as trade partner, 184–185 Egyptian empire, occupation by, 108–109, 111–112, 117, 174–175, 196. See also deliverance from oppression Egyptian gods, golden calf as, 28 El in Balaam oracles, 79, 85, 86, 89 bovine imagery for, 66, 103, 114, 115n178 as deliverer from oppression, 102, 108, 113–119, 195 as family god, 67, 68n186, 115, 123 as god of the patriarchs, 115–116 as head of pantheon, 68, 117–118 and notion of a journey, 75, 123 as regional god, 112 as warrior, 66–67 and Yahweh, 29–30, 113, 114–115 Elijah, 22 Elohist. See Yahwist and Elohist (JE materials) embalming of Joseph’s body, 73–74 Enuma Elish and kingship of god, 145n93, 155–156 shared motifs with Song of the Sea, 149, 157, 160n147, 160n148
exodus narratives in Cisjordan Israel, 69–71 historicity of, 195–196 as northern tradition, 60, 195 in Transjordan Israel, 119–123 exodus tradition. See also deliver‐ ance from oppression; journey theme; wilderness wandering tradition absence of from early Judahite texts, 137, 176, 185n249, 193, 195 in Amos, 12, 15 and Bethel calf cult, 51, 55, 63 centered in Canaan, 108 in Cisjordan, of movement to‐ ward destination, 48–50, 60, 197–198 distinction between Israel and Judah, 10–11, 10n37 and festival, 27n21 and Gilgal cult, 146 and Hyksos, 108 independence of from wilder‐ ness and settlement traditions, 198 and Israelite origins, 197–198 and Jeroboam, 11, 12, 15 and Judah, 127, 152 military overtones of, 50, 64, 68, 75 and Passover, 135, 140 and pastoralists, 77 and patriarchal tradition, 72n203, 197 routes for, 69–71, 122 in scholarly opinion, 5–6, 6n20, 7–8, 127 and Sinai, 70n196 and Song of the Sea, 149, 173 and wilderness tradition, 147 exodus traditions as delivery from oppression, rather than physical move‐ ment, 108 emphasis on divine guidance, 51
Index of Subjects
as flight, 64, 122–123 in northern tradition, 47–48 from perspective of Israel’s own land, 60 and specific destination, 48–50, 60, 197 family descent tradition of Israel, 64, 116–117, 197–198. See also ancestor tradition Feast of Weeks, exodus narrative and, 70 fertility symbol, calf as, 51, 52 festivals. See also Passover festi‐ vals and authenticity of Jeroboam story, 31 at Bethel, 25–26 as celebrating military victory, 53–54 exodus formulas used in, 27n21, 48 Feast of Weeks, 70 Massot festival, 5, 27n21 New Year Festival, 70, 180 in Psalm 68, 180, 182 sport or athletic performance at, 52 flight motif in exodus narrative, 64, 122–123 flood as metaphor for destruction, 166, 171–172 Gilead (Gad) and Gildeadites. See also Transjordan Israel alliances with Cisjordanian tribes, 94 in Amarna letters, 112 conflicts with Cisjordanian tribes, 16–17, 19, 21–22 and Moses, 124 gods. See also El; kingship of god; victory of god theme; warrior god myths; Yahweh in Balaam oracles, 85
275
possibly associated with Jero‐ boam, 28–30 grammatical evidence for date of Song of the Sea, 142–143 hand of Yahweh as motif in Song of the Sea, 137 Hezekiah, reign of, and Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt, 186 historical allusions in Song of the Sea, 134 Hittites, 52, 190n270 Hosea, 55–63 absence of wilderness wander‐ ing tradition in, 61–62 Bethel calf cult and exodus, 43– 44, 194 date and provenance of, 55–58 Egypt, portrayals of, 59–63, 193 pestilence and plagues in, 119 hostages in Egypt, 189–190 Hyksos rulers, 111, 122 Ibbi‐Sîn of Ur, 163n160, 166n171, 173 indigenous origins of Israelites and Judahites, 198 Isaiah and Song of the Sea, 139–140 Israel. See also Cisjordan Israel; Transjordan Israel boundaries of, 18–19 as military coalition of tribes, 64– 68 political differences between Cis‐ jordan and Transjordan, 19–20, 20n75 as tribal collective, 148 as whole as subject of exodus, 59 Israel and Jacob, poetic parallelism between, 87–88 Israelite identity in Bethel story, 46, 55 distinguished from Reubenites and Gadites, 19
276
Index of Subjects
equated with Cisjordan peoples, 19 and exodus traditions, 195–196 unimportance of exodus in, 68 Israelite origin traditions, 196–198 Israelite priestly groups and calf cult, 31 Issachar, boundaries of, 19 Jacob and idea of patriarchal god, 115– 116 parallelism with Israel, 87–88 tradition of common family de‐ scent of Israel, 64 JE materials. See Yahwist and Elohist (JE materials) Jehu, 22 Jeroboam story (1 Kgs 12:25–33) connection between calves and exodus, 43 date of, 32–33 Egypt’s support for, 189–190 golden calves in, 24–25 historicity of, 27–31 as Judahite, 32–34, 47 language of, 34–36 northern traditions in, 37–38 Jerusalem associations of Song of the Sea with, 135–136, 147 and Psalm 68, 183 and Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt, 188 Jordan River, possible crossing of in Song of the Sea, 18, 152, 160n147 Joseph story, 71–75 Josiah and date of Song of the Sea, 136–137 journey theme in Balaam oracles prose, 85, 116– 117 in Bethel calf cult, 50, 194 in Cisjordan memory, 75, 119, 121
and pastoralists, 61, 75, 76, 123, 196, 197 in Song of the Sea, 149–158, 150, 175, 176 Judah in Psalm 68, 181 in western tribes, 18 Judahite origins, 148 Judahite traditions about Egypt “Bronze will come from Egypt,” 176–185 in Jeroboam’s story, 34, 46 of military tour, 197 Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt, 185–193 Song of the Sea, 127–176 kingship of god Baal, 145n93, 154 in Enuma Elish, 145n93, 155–156 in Song of the Sea, 149, 176 Yahweh, 144 Kush, 183, 184 Levites, 40–41 liberation from oppression. See deliverance from oppression Manasseh east, 19 Manasseh west, 18 Manasseh’s reign, diplomatic rela‐ tions with Egypt in, 187 Marduk, tour of, 155–156, 157 Mari, 9, 15, 51, 75–76 marriage alliances with Egypt, 185–193 Massot festival, 5, 27n21 Mesha stele, 18, 89–94 Mesopotamia as origin of Israel, 197 Mesopotamian gods golden calf as, 28 Marduk, 155–156, 157 Midian, 110, 124, 125 migrations
Index of Subjects
as metaphor of liberation from foreign power, 109 occasional by patriarchs vs. sea‐ sonal by pastoralists, 75–77 military themes of Bethel calf cult, 50–55 defense in Song of the Sea, 128n8 examples, 65 in Exodus 32, 53–54 in memories of Egypt, 61, 68 in preexilic period, 77 and Song of Deborah, 63 victory over Egypt, 195 military tours or progressions in ancient Near Eastern texts, 154–155 Judahite memories of, 197–198 in scripture, 156 Song of the Sea as, 152–153 Moab and Moabites in Balaam oracles, 78, 83, 95, 102–104, 118, 194 and David, 93n88 as enemy in Song of the Sea, 140, 144, 148, 148n110, 151–152, 156, 174 military threats from, 18, 61 relations with Israelites in early ninth century, 92–93, 92n83 mock fighting at festivals, 52–53 Moses as author of Song of the Sea, 134 and settlement in Transjordan, 62, 124–125 “Most High” as epithet of El, 117– 118 mount of inheritance theme in Song of the Sea, 175, 176 in Ugaritic texts, 146 mountain sanctuaries in Song of the Sea, 133, 141, 145–146, 149, 151, 156–157, 174–176. See also sanctuaries movement out of Egypt in Cisjordanian Bethel calf cult, 126
277
as event in distant past in Hosea, 59 mythological motifs in Song of the Sea, 171–173, 176 “name,” use of phrase in Song of the Sea, 137 Naphtali, 18, 181 New Year Festival, 70, 180 Ninisina, 165, 173 non‐Priestly narratives. See also Yahwist and Elohist (JE mate‐ rials) distinction between journey out of Egypt and liberation from oppression, 121 in scholarly opinion, 3, 12–13, 20, 84 and Transjordanian traditions, 120–122, 125 Omri, 92–93 oppression. See also deliverance from oppression; Egyptian empire, occupation by by Arameans, 110 waters rising up as symbol for, 164–165 Papyrus Amherst 63 on calf cult, 44–46, 44n89 Passover festivals absence of in eighth‐century prophets, 119n185, 122 pastoral background to and sac‐ rificing of animals at, 76–77 in scholarly opinion, 3, 5, 16 and Song of the Sea, 133, 135–136 pastoralists and journeys to Egypt, 61, 75, 76, 123, 196, 197 patriarchal narratives El as god in, 115–116 emphasis on individuals, not na‐ tions, 6n21 migrations in, 75–77
278
Index of Subjects
relation to exodus traditions, 72n203, 197 Yahweh as god in, 120 Pella, 112 Pentateuchal traditions, 198–200 Penuel, 24, 116 people of Yahweh theme, 174 Persian period redaction of exodus story, 12–13, 56n139, 84, 182, 186 pestilence and plagues, 57–58, 119 Pharoah as enemy in Song of the Sea, 173–174. See also Egypt Pharoah’s chariots as synecdoche for Egptian army, 173–174 Philistia and election theology of Amos, 60 as enemy in Song of the Sea, 140, 144, 148, 148n110, 151–152, 156 as enemy of Israel, 110, 113 and possible invasion by Egyp‐ tian army, 174–175 and sport, 52 pilgrimage theme and sanctuaries, 200 in Song of the Sea, 175 plagues and pestilence, 57–58, 119 Priestly text and Moses, 124 in scholarly opinion, 3, 12–13, 20, 84 and Song of the Sea, 147, 160n147, 176, 200 and Transjordanian traditions, 119–121, 125 promised land tradition, 197 Psalm 68 (“Bronze will come from Egypt”), 176–185 date and provenance, 179–183 portrayal of Egypt in, 183–185 text, 176–178 Psalm 78 and Song of the Sea, 38– 39, 38n65 Psalm 118 and Song of the Sea, 140–141
Psalms, Asaphite, and Song of the Sea, 138, 139, 141–142, 176, 200 Rahab as outsider in Israel, 21 Reed Sea. See also sea crossing tradition in Exod 14, 158–161 Jordan River and, 18 as metaphor, 171 in scholarly opinion, 3, 6, 127 in Song of the Sea, 130n19, 150 reeds as allusion to Egypt in Psalms, 184 regional differences between Cis‐ jordan Israel and Transjordan Israel, 14–22, 71, 200 Reuben, 16, 17, 19, 21–22, 94, 124. see also Transjordan Israel routes of exodus, 69–71, 122 sanctuaries. See also mountain sanctuaries in Song of the Sea archaeological evidence of at Be‐ thel, 46 in Akkadian mythology, 156 in development of biblical tradi‐ tions, 199–200 in development of Israel’s tradi‐ tions, 198–199 in Psalm 78 and Song of the Sea, 38–39, 38n65 in Song of the Sea, 135, 136–137, 145–146, 149, 176 Saul, 65, 94 sea crossing tradition. See also Reed Sea absence from Song of the Sea, 151, 158 in scholarly opinion, 6n20, 7, 150n119, 160n147, 171n186 Septuagint and Balaam oracles, 82, 82n27, 103n145, 118n184 and Jeroboam story, 25n6–7, 25n9, 25n13, 32, 32n38 and Song of the Sea, 129n18
Index of Subjects
Seti I stele from Beth Shan, 111, 155 settlement tradition association with exodus, 3, 18, 155 in Balaam oracles poetry, 85 and Bethel calf cult, 55, 70, 198 and Moses, 62, 124 and origins of Israel, 197 in Song of the Sea, 175 and wilderness wandering in Amos, 59, 62–63 Shadday, 80, 85, 88, 99–100, 101, 120, 120n187 shared memory of Exodus, 7, 8, 8n29, 109 Shasu pastoralists, 75, 76 Shechem, role of in Jeroboam, 38 Shibboleth incident and differences between tribes, 21–22 Shiloh and Jeroboam, 38–39, 38n65 as site of sanctuary in Song of the Sea, 135, 145–146 Shishak, 190 Simeon and boundaries in western tribes, 18 slavery, deliverance from absence of theme in north, 60–61, 119, 194 in deliverance formulae, 104–105 Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt (1 Kgs 3:1), 185–193 date and provenance, 186–188 historical reliability of, 188–192 portrayal of Egypt in, 192–193 Song of Deborah, 63–68 absence of exodus tradition in, 65, 68 connections with Psalm 68, 180 date and provenance of, 63–64 Song of the Sea (Exod 15:1b–18), 127–176 date of, 133–145 as independent of exodus tradi‐ tion, 152 metaphors in, 162–173
279
mythological background of, 171–173, 195 portrayal of Egypt, 149–176 provenance of, 145–148 and Reed Sea event, 130n19, 150, 158–161 southern provenance of, 8, 147– 148 text, 127–133 sport or athletic performance at festivals, 52 staircase parallelism in Song of the Sea, 142 storm surge as metaphor for de‐ struction, 165–166 swallowed by earth in Song of the Sea, 162–163, 171 Tiamat, 155, 157, 160n147 Transjordan Israel. See also Gilead (Gad) and Gildeadites; Reuben boundaries of, 19 and Egptian empire in Syria‐ Palestine, 119 memory of exodus as liberation from oppression, 119, 121 objects of special rebuke/as Other, 22 Transjordanian Israelite traditions about Egypt, 78–126. See also Balaam oracles exodus narrative and, 119–124 and Moses, 124–125 trembling enemies motif, 156–157 Ugaritic marriage alliances with Egypt, 191–192 Ugaritic numerical sequences, 153 Ugaritic texts. See also Baal cycle animal imagery in, 177n204 Baal’s relationship to El in, 117 cognates in, 107n157, 127n3, 131n28, 185n251 compared to Judges 5, 63 cow imagery in, 28n24 divination in, 86
280
Index of Subjects
parallelism in, 114 and preexilic date for Song of the Sea, 142–143 representation of god in, 66–67 and Song of the Sea, 149 unity of the people despite geo‐ graphical separation, 19 untrimmed hair of soldiers, 53n130 victory of god theme and Balaam oracle, 102 in Deuteronomist, 110 in Jeroboam story, 52, 54 in Judahite texts, 195 in Near Eastern texts, 149 in Song of the Sea, 174 victory over Egypt theme, 1, 174 victory tour theme in Judahite texts, 195 in Song of the Sea, 153, 156–158, 174–175 war standard ark as, 51 calf as, 37n58, 51, 54, 55 warrior god myths and calf worship, 50 El as, 66–67 in Judahite texts, 195 in Song of the Sea, 149, 156, 174 Yahweh as, 65–68, 75, 110, 113, 123, 194, 195 water imagery in Song of the Sea, 151, 158–159, 163–165, 170 wilderness wandering tradition. See also destination, move‐ ment toward
absence of in Bethel calf cult, 194 absence of in Hosea, 61–62 in Amos, 58, 58n150, 59n151 secondary character of, 62–63 and Song of the Sea, 6n20, 151– 152, 151n121, 161 Yahweh in Balaam oracles, 85, 89, 102, 115 in Bethel calf cult, 29–30, 115n178 Egypt converted to, 185 and El, 29–30, 113, 114–115 in exodus formulas, 24, 59, 115 as god of patriarchs, 120 kingship of, 144 as god of Israel, 68 in settlement narratives, 174–175 in Song of the Sea, 129n9, 129n14–15, 137 as warrior, 65–68, 75, 110, 113, 123, 194, 195 Yahweh’s people, theme of, 174 Yahwist and Elohist (JE materials). See also non‐Priestly narra‐ tives and Balaam oracles, 81–82, 84 and route of exodus, 69 in scholarly opinion, 3, 13 and Sinai material, 70–71 Zebulun, 18, 181 Zion theology, traditions associ‐ ated with, 135–136