Horticultural, medicinal and aromatic plants

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

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-Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

D.K. Sharma

Book Enclave Jaipur

India

First Publishcd : 2008 ISBN: 978-81-8152-238-2 <0 Author

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Preface

In recent years marked advances have been made in the study 'of the Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. I am grateful to the publisher for giving me the opportunity of writing this book in the light of newer knowledge. In the process of writing I have experienced, to the full, both how essential and how difficult it is to follow Flaubert's advice: "Quant aux corrections, avallt d'en faire une sellle, and remedite I'ensemble." I have approached a scientific method to write this book. My study of herbals has now extended over so long a period, that to recall all those who have given me help would lengthen this introduction beyond measure; all that I can do is to supplement the acknowledgments in my preface by alluding to the most outstanding of my present debts. Prof. D.K. Sharma

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Contents Preface 1. An Introduction to HortiCttltural Plants

2. Tropical and Subtropical Fruits 3. Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits 4. Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas 5. Temperate Fruits 6. A Salubrious Perspective of Medicinal Plants

7. Ethnobiological Study of Medicinal Plants 8. Cultivation Practices of Medicinal Plants 9. Research and Developments of Medicinal Plants

v

1 3 10 49 80 90 151 154

11. The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

193 203 211

12. Some Other Aromatic Plants Index

289 307

10. Understanding the Rudiments of Aromatic Plants

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1

An Introduction to Horticultural Plants

Horticulture is a broad field of study encompassing the production, maintenance, sales, and service of bedding, flowering, ornamental, and nursery plants and food crops. This mainly has four distinct concentrations. Floriculhlre Crop Production stresses greenhouse production. General Horticulture allows students to design their own focus of study. Retail Floral Design emphasizes the principles and practices which prepare students for the successful operation of a retail floral business by concentrating on design, handling of plants, and business practices. Management of Woody Plants covers plant production and management in a nursery and the operation of a retail garden centre. Increasingly precise management of horticultural crops lends itself to the use of mechanistic crop simulation models to predict growth and yield. In this book, we encourage systematic approaches for developing, parameterizing, and testing of dynamic crop growth models for horticultural crops. Using the Cropgro model as an example, we describe crop development, photosynthesis, leaf area expansion, as well as the addition, growth, and maturation of individual fruits. An algorithm is described for predicting fruit fresh weight, size, and dry matter concentration from dry matter growth and physiological age of individual tomato (Lycopersicon esclilentum Mill.) fruits. Parameterizing crop models for response to climatic factors, especially tempera hIre, requires interpretive use of literahrre information, along with testing against growth data from a range of growth conditions. A review of tomato literature for tempera hIre dependencies of processes is presented with a view to how this infom1ation would be used to parameterize the CROPGRO-tomato model.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

In modern horticulture, growers are searching for reliable biosensors and diagnostic tools to evaluate plant eco-physiological behaviour in order to optimize plant growth and crop development. One of these biosensors is the linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) which accurately measures stem diameter variations. The variations of stem diameter reflect the combination of two main phenomena: irreversible radial stem growth and daily shrinkage and swelling of the elastic stem cells due to changes in internally stored water. A correct interpretation of the composite LVDT-signal, with respect to its practical application, requires an unambiguous distinction between these two components of the signal. This book describes a comprehensive model for stem diameter variations which includes a mechanistic description of radial stem growth and elastic stem diameter changes related to changes in internally stored water. Using the results of a two-year-old beech tree (Fagus sylvatica), the practical application of the model is illustrated with measured LVDT-signals where radial stem growth and elastic changes of the stem could be distinguished. As this approach is also applicable to other ornamental or vegetable crops, the model can be considered as a very powerful tool for interpretation of the composite and complex origin of the variations in stem diameter as is observed with LVDTs.

2

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits

Banana Banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) occupies over 1,64,000 hectares, mainly in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. Though some inferior Fig. Banana types of banana are found growing as far north as the Himalayas, its commercial importance is mainly limited to the more tropical conditions, such as those prevailing in central, southern and northeastern India. It is a moisture- and heat-loving plant and cannot tolerate frost or arid conditions.

Varieties Cultivated varieties are broadly divided into two groups: table and culinary. Among the former are 'Poovan' in Madras (also known as 'Karpura Chakkarekeli' in Andhra Pradesh); 'Mortaman', 'Champa' and' Amrit Sagar' in West Bengal; 'Basrai', Safed Velchi', Lal Velchi' and 'Rajeli' in Maharashtra; 'Champa' and 'Mortaman' in Assam and Orissa; and 'Rastali', 'Sirumalai', 'Chakkarekeli', 'Ney Poovan', 'Kadali' and 'Pacha Nadan' in southern India. 'Basrai', which is known under different names, viz., 'Mauritius', 'Vamankeli', 'Cavendish', 'Governor', 'Harichal', is also Erown in central and southern India. Recently, the 'Robusta' variety is gaining popularity in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The 'Virupakshi' variety (Hill Banana) is the most predominant variety in the Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu. Among the

4

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

culinary varieties, Nendran Bananas, 'Monthan', 'Myndoli' and 'Pacha Montha Bathis' are the leading commercial varieties in southern India. 'Gros Michel' is a recent introduction into southern India; it is suitable for cultivation only under garden-land conditions and is generally fastidious in its cultural requirements. It is not, therefore, in favour with the cultivation.

Propagation and Planting Propogation is by suckers or off-shoots which spring at the base of a banana-tree from underground rhizomes. Vigorous suckers, with stout base, tapering towards the top and possessing narrow leaves, are selected for plant. Each sucker should have a piece of underground stem with a few roots attached to it. Banana suckers can be planted throughout the year in southern India, except during summer, whereas in the rest of the country, the rainy season is preferred. They are planted in small pits, each just enough to accommodate the base of a sucker. The planting-distance varies from 2 m x 2 m in the case of dwarf varieties to 4 m x 4 m in the case of very tall varieties.

Manuring An application of 20 to 25 kg of farmyard manure, toget.h er with about 5 kg of wood-ashes per plant is given at planting time. In southern India, ammonium sulphate is applied one month, five months and nine months after planting 20 kg per hectare each time. In western India, a little over 2 kg of oilcake per stool is applied during the first three months after planting. A complete fertilizer mixture may be applied to supply 100 to 200 kg of N, 100 to 200 kg of P205 and 200 to 400 kg of ~O per hectare. A green-manure crop is also considered beneficial. Trials at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research have shown that for the 'Robusta' variety, a fertilizer mixture comprising 180 g of N + 108 g of P20 5 + 225 g of K20 per plant is ideal.

After-care The removal of suckers, dry leaves and pseudostems, from which the fruits have been harvested, constitute the main aftercare. Daughter-suckers should be removed promptly until the mother-plant flowers, when one daughter-sucker may be allowed to take its place. The removal of dry leaves and useless pseudostems requires to be done in time. After all the fruits are

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits

5

formed, the pendant portion of the remaining inflorescence along with th~ heart should be removed. The propping of plants with bamboo poles, especially those which have thrown out bunches, is necessary wherever damage by wind is apprehended. Where the wind damage is recurring, dwarf varieties should be preferred.

Irrigation The banana-plants require very heavy irrigation. Irrigation is given in most places once in seven to ten days. Stagnation of water in the soils is not very congenial to the proper growth of banana and, hence, the drainage of soil is also essential.

Harvesting Early varieties commence flowering in southern and western India about seven months after planting, and the fruits take about three months more to ripen. In the Andhra Pradesh delta areas, the fruits are ready for harvesting about seven to eight months after planting. The first crop of the 'Poovan' variety matures in 12 to 14 months and the second in 21 to 24 months after planting. In other parts of India, the first crop is usually gathered a year after planting, whereas the succeeding crop may be ready in six to ten months thereafter. The bunch is harvested just before it attains the ripening stage. When the fruits have reached the full size, they become plump, and mature with a distinct change in colour. For long transport, the bunch may be harvested somewhat earlier. The bunch is cut, retaining about 15 cm of the stem above the first hand. The yield varies considerably from 26,000 to 55,000 kg per hectare.

Curing and Marketing The ripening of banana is done in several ways, e.g., exposing the bunches to the sun, placing them over a hearth, wrapping them in closed godowns or smoking them in various ways. One of the common ways is to heap the fruits in a room and cover them with leaves, after which fire is lit in a corner and the room is closed and made as air-tight as possible. Ripening takes place usually in 30 to 48 hours. In a cool store, the bunches ripen well at about 15° to 20°C. The application of vaseline, a layer of clay or coal-tar to the cut-ends of the stalks prevents rotting during ripening and storage.

6

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Wra~ing up the fruits and packing them in crates help to reduce the damage during transport.

Mango Mango (Mangifera indica L.) occupies nearly half of the total area under fruits in the country. It is adaptable to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and grows well right from Assam to the southern-most limits of the country and from the sea-level up to about 1,500 metres.

Fig. Mango It withstands both fairly dry conditions and heavy rainfall, provided severe and recurring frosts in winter do not endanger the young hees.

Varieties The number of varieties is very large. Each variety has its own peculiar taste, flavour and consistency of pulp. Some of the important commercial varieties grown in different regions are: 'Bombay Yellow', 'Alphonso', 'Gopal Bhog', 'Zafran' (all early), 'Langra', 'Desheri', 'Safeda Lucknow', 'Safeda Malihabad', 'Fajrizafrani' (all mid-late), 'Fajri', 'Same Bihisht', 'Chausa', 'Taimura' (all late). In Uttar Pradesh; 'Bombai', 'Alphonso', 'Hemsagar', 'Krishna Bhog', , Aman Dasheri', 'Gulab Khas' (all early), 'Langra', 'Aman Abbasi', 'Khasul-Khas' (all mid-late), 'Sinduri', 'Sukal', 'Taimuria' (all late). In Bihar; 'Bombai' or 'Maldah', 'Gopal Bhog', 'Hemsagar' (all early), 'Krishna Bhog', 'Zardalu' (both mid-late), 'Murshidabadi', 'Fazli Maldah' (both late). In West Bengal;' Alphonso', 'Pairi', 'Cowsji Patel', 'Jamadar'. In Bombay; 'Swarnarekha', 'Benishan', 'Cherukurasan', 'Panchadarkalasa', 'Desavathiyamamidi', 'Sannakulu',

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits

7

'Nagulapalli', 'Irsala'. In Circars; 'Rumani', 'Neelum Benishan', 'Bangalore', ' Alampur Benishan'. In Rayalaseema; 'Murshidabadi', 'Mulgoa', 'Goabunder', 'Benishan', 'Neelam', 'Totapuri' or 'Bangalora'. In Telengana; 'Alphonso', 'Peter', 'Rumani'. In central districts; 'Mundappa', 'Neelam', 'Alphonso', 'Olour', 'Bennet Alphonso', 'Kalepad', 'Peter', 'Femandin'. In Coorg and Kamataka; 'Padiri', 'Alphonso', 'Peter', 'Neelum', In Bangalore, 'Rumani'. In Goa, some excellent varieties like' Alphonso', 'Fernandin', 'Mankurad' and 'Moussorate' are under cultivation. The new mango variety, 'Mallika' evolved at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute is now gaining popularity. Other varieties, such as 'Jehangir' and 'Himayuddin', produce high-quality fruits, but are poor in yield and cropping tendencies. Attempts are being made to evolve hybrid progenies by crossing.

Propogation and Planting Propogated vegetatively by inarching or budding in situ in the nursery, either by using Forkert or by using the T-method. The beginning of the monsoon in light-rainfall areas and the end of the monsoon in heavy-rainfall regions are the most suitable periods for inarching or budding. Recently, veneer-grafting has been found to be the best method of mango propagation. Grafted plant are ready for transplanting in the field after six to twelve months. Select straight-growing grafts and set them in pits filled with soil mixed with farmyard manure (45 kg) and a fertilizer mixture containing 0.225 kg of N, 0.45 kg of P and 0.225 kg of K per pit. The planting-distance is 7.5 to 9 metres in poor shallow soils and 15 to 17 metres in deep fertile soils. The beginning of the monsoon in low rainfall areas or the end of the monsoon in heavy rainfall tracts is the best time for planting. The graft-joint should be at least 15 cm above the ground.

Pruning No systematic pruning is done. The removal of dead-wood and the thinning of over-crowded and mis-shapen branches after about four years is all that is necessary; flowers that appear during the first three or four years should be removed.

Culture Before planting, the field is ploughed, harrowed and levelled.

8

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Thereafter, it is ploughed and harrowed twice a year, once in the beginning of the monsoon and again at the close of the rainy season or in the cold-weather. It is green-manured once every two or three years. Short-season intercrops, like vegetables, may be taken during the first four to five years. Young plants require irrigation regularly. After five to six years, when they have established themselves, the trees are able to grow and fruit satisfactorily without irrigation in most parts of Peninsular India. In northern India, they have to be irrigated throughout their life. Irrigation is usually withheld during the cold weather before flowering, especially in deep retentive soils. Though the exact manurial requirement is not known, regular manuring is beneficial. The dose recommended for the bearing trees is 45 to 70 kg of farmyard manure, 0.5 to 0.7 kg of N, 0.7 kg to 1.0 kg of P and 1.2 to 1.5 kg of K per tree. Nitrogen and half of potash may be given before the monsoon, and farmyard manure, phosphate and half of potash in October or before flowering starts.

Crop Irregularity Grafted mango-trees bear fruits from the fourth or fifth year onwards and a full crop from the tenth or fifteenth year. The erratic bearing of mango is well known. It depends upon the variety, the weather and climatic conditions and cultural treatments. The selection of regular-bearing varieties, timely cultural practices and proper nutrition help to produce a regular crop. New growth in spring, on which flower-buds are produced during the next winter, can be encouraged by applying nitrogenous fertilizers (0.45 to 0.90 kg of N per tree). In the case of heavy late rains, an additional ploughing in winter helps to produce flower-buds in January-February. In the case of individual trees, ringing or girdling in August-September may also to help to force flowerbuds the following winter. The application of Ethral (200 ppm) from September onwards has been found to induce flowerinL in mango in Karnataka by the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research.

Improvement of Old and Seedling Trees Mango trees of inferior varieties, so also those raised from seedlings, can be converted into choice varieties by grafting them

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits

9

in situ either by crown or side-grafting. In crown-grafting, the trunk of the tree is cut down to about half a metre from the ground and one or more scions of the selected variety are inserted into it between the bark and the wood by splitting open the bark. The scion should be a dormant, terminal shoot, about 12.5 mm in diameter, with a whorl of plump swollen buds at the top. In sidegrafting, the procedure is the same as in crown-grafting, except that the trunk of the stock tree above the grafting joint is cut down after the scions have sprouted and have established themselves properly. Old trees, having several branches, can be similarly improved (top-worked) by crown-grafting on each branch at a suitable height. Sometimes, the grafting is done by inarching, but the process is cumbersome, expensive and not very satisfactory.

Harvesting and Marketing The fruit takes five to six months to mature. Depending upon the onset of flowering, the mature fruits are ready for harvesting from April to May in western India, from May to June in the Deccan, from February to March in Malabar, from April to July in the coastal Andhra Pradesh, from May to August in Mysore and Rayalaseema, and from June to August in northern India. The mature fruits are harvested by severing the stalks to which they are attached, when they are still green and hard. The signs of maturity vary with different varieties. As a mango tree usually bears flowers in three or four distinct flushes lasting over a month, it is preferable to harvest the fruits as they mature. The fruits, so harvested, can be transported after packing them in baskets or wooden crates, properly padded with straw, wood-shavings or wool, to long distances. For overseas markets, they are packed in a single layer in specially designed wooden crates. For ripening, the fruits are spread out on rice straw in a single layer. Two or three such layers are built one above another in a well-ventilated room. The mangoes are ready for disposal after they change colour. Yield varies considerably with the variety, vigour of growth, flowering, etc. A grafted tree yields about 300 to 500 fruits in the tenth year, about 1,000 in the 15th year and 2,000 to 5,000 from the 20th year onwards.

"

3

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits Citrus fruits are grown in almost all the states of India. The total area covered is over 67,650 hectares, of which Madhya Pradesh, Chennai and Maharashtra have the largest share. Citrus trees are grown in almost all kinds of soils, varying from heavy black soils to shallow open soils. Some of the varieties of citrus seem to adapt themselves to soil conditions better than others. They thrive in free-draining alluvial or medium black soil of loamy texture. A hard substratum or a sticky impervious layer is very injurious. Soils having a high water-table should be avoided. Though citrus trees on the whole do well in dry climate, with a rainfall between 75 and 125 em, certain species, such as Pummelo and certain Mandarin oranges, thrive in heavy-rainfall areas of Konkan, Assam and Coorg.

Grapefruit The name grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Mad.) has been derived from the habit of bearing the fruit in clusters like grapes. In India, its introduction is comparatively recent, and its cultivation is confined mostly to Punjab, the western parts of Uttar Pradesh and to places around Poona in Maharashtra.

Climate and Soil The climatic and soil requirements of the grapefruit are similar to those of the orange. High rainfall and humidity are harmful, as they encourage diseases.

Varieties The popular varieties, which are all imported, are 'Marsh Seedless', pink-fleshed 'Foster' and yellow-fleshed 'Duncan'.

11

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

Propogfltion and Planting Propogation is done by budding. However, owing to their polyembryonic nature, seedling trees have been frequently found to be quite satisfactory. The rootstock most successfully employed in the northern regions is Kharna Khatta (Citrus kama Raf.). In the south and Bombay-Deccan, 'Jamburi' is commonly employed, whereas in Assam grapefruit does well on Rabab tenga. Plantin~ irrigation, manuring and interculture are the same as for the orange.

Pruning Grapefruit trees require less pruning than orange trees.

Harvesting and Marketing The harvesting season is from January to March in the north and from September to November in the south. Picking, packing and other operations are the same as for the orange. Quality and flavour of the fruit is improved if it is stored before transporting.

Lemon It (Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f) is not cultivation to any great extent in India, . as it requires a comparitively cool climate for regular bearing. Its fruit is not so highly flavoured as that of sour lime.

L..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- '

Fig. Lemon

Lime The lime (Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle), both sour and sweet, known as Kaghzi Nimboo and Mitha respectively, are more organized in India than lemon. Sour lime is propagated mainly from seed. Budding on rough lemon rootstock, layering and morcotting are also practiced to some extent. The tree is susceptible to frost. It flowers twice a year in February-March and again in August. The main crop is obtained in August from the first flowering. The second crop is ready in the following February. The propagation of sweet lime is done from mature wood cuttings which root readily. It can also be propagated from seeds

12

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

and the seedlings, usually come true to type. Planting of limes and their pruning, manuring, etc., are the same as for the sweet orange.

Mandarin Orange

Climate and.Soil Santra or Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Balanco) grows successfully in all tropical and subtropical parts of the country. It tolerates more humidity in summer and winter than the sweer orange. It is grown under rain-fed conditions in Coorg, Wynad tract, Palni Hills and the Nilgiris in the south between elevations of 600 and 1,500 metres. In Assam, the main centres of production are the Khasi, Jaintia and Lushai Hills. The region around Nagpur (elevation about 370 metres) produces a superior quality of Mandarins. It is mainly grown under irrigation. In Punjab, its cultivation is confined mainly to the submontane districts up to about 600 metres. It can be grown successfully on a wide range of soiis, but the ideal soil is medium or light loam with a slightly heavier subsoil. Heavy black soil, underlain with murram and having good drainage, is also suitable. In the Khasi Hills of Assam, oranges are grown on sandy or gravelly soils.

Varieties The important varieties cultivated on a commercial scale are the 'Nagpur' orange, the 'Khasi' orange, the 'Coorg' orange, 'Desi Emperor' and the 'Sikkim' orange.

Propogation The propagation of Mandarin orange is largely through seed, except the 'Nagpur' and 'Emperor' varieties which are propagated by budding. Like other citrus species, the seed is polyembryonic. Therefore, while propagating by seed, the sexual seedlings which are usually stunted and poor are rogued out and the rest that are produced from the cells of the nucellus are allowed to grow. The seedlings, thus selected, are more or less uniform in growth and production. They are, however, late in bearing and remain tall and slender. Budded plants do not suffer from these defects. The Santra orange is usually budded on rough lemon Oambhiri, Sohmyndong or Jatti Khatti) rootstock. The variety 'Emperor' is

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

13

budded on the Kharna Khatta rootstock. Studies at the Citrus Experiment Station, Coorg, of the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, has shown that trifoliate, Rangpur lime, Kodakthuli and Troyer citrage are good rootstocks for Mandarin.

Planting In the hills and humid regions, where plantings are generally done on steep slopes, the land is properly terraced. In the plains, where the trees have to be irrigated, the land should be levelled. The trees are usually transplanted during the monsoon. In heavyrainfall areas, the plantings is generally done at the end of the heavy rains. They are planted 4.5 to 6 metres apart.

Pruning Prune young trees to build up a strong framework, as recommended for sweet orange. The bearing trees require little or no pruning. Undesirable growths, like water-shoots and crossing branches, should be removed once or twice a year. In Bombay-Deccan, root exposure or resting treatment is given to santra trees to make them flower to order. The treatment is the same as for the sweet orange.

Manuring Farmyard manure, 20 to 25 kg per tree, is applied at planting, together with about half a kilo of ammonium sulphate. A mixture supplying 0.09 kg each of N, P and K per tree may be applied in the first year after planting, and the dose is gradually increased to 0.45 kg of each Nand P and to 0.90 kg of K per tree in the seventh year and kept constant thereafter. The dose of farmyard manure is increased to 50 kg per tree. It may be replaced by gre~n manuring. In northern India, manuring is generally done in winter, whereas in Bombay-Deccan it is done before the advent of the monsoon or at the time of root exposure.

Irrigation When grown under irrigation, the method and frequency of application of water are the same as described under sweet orange.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Harvesting Seedling trees bear their first crop in the eighth year and the full crop from the tenth year onwards. Budded trees start bearing from the fourth year and full crop is had from the seventh year onwards. The harvesting periods differ in different parts of the country. While picking the fruit, the stem-end should be cut close to the fruit without damaging rind. Packing is done by putting the fruits of different size grades in separate wooden crates.

Sweet Orange It (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) is grown under both subtropical and tropical conditions. Dry and arid conditions, coupled with distinct summer and winter having low rainfall, are most favourable to the growth of the sweet orange. Rainfall seems to be unimportant if irrigation is provided, but atmospheric humidity exerts a great influence.

Fig. Sweet Orange

The sweet orange can be grown on a wide range of soils, from heavy days to very light sands, with pH ranging from 6.0 to 8.0. The tree is particularly sensitive to high concentrations of salts and cannot stand water-logging.

Varieties The important varieties of sweet orange grown in each region are 'Blood Red', 'Pineapple', 'Hamlin', 'Jaffa' and Valencia Late' in northern India, 'Mosambi' in Western India and 'Sathgudi' and 'Batavian' orange in southern India.

Propogation and Planting Usually, propagated by budding. The most suitable rootstock is Jamberi or Jatti Khatti. For 'Pineapple', 'Hamlin', 'Jaffa' and 'Valencia Late' varieties, Kharna Khatta also provide a suitable rootstock. The trees are planted 6 to 7.5 metres apart each way in January or August-September in the north and in July-August in the south. The bud-union should be kept at least 15 cm above the ground while planting.

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

15

Pruning The pruning of citrus-trees begins in the nursery. All branches that start within a few centimetres of the union are removed, leaving about a half a·metre of clean straight stem with a few wellplaced branches. All unwanted branches are removed once a month during the first year after planting, and once in two to three months in subsequent years. The bearing trees require little or no pruning. After the crop is picked, the branches touching the ground should be cut close total the laterals so that no stubs are formed. All diseased, injured and crossing branches, water-sprouts and dead wood should be removed periodically.

Root Exposure In the Bombay-Deccan region, root exposure is given to the trees to bring them into flowering at a particular time of the year. Water is withheld for about two months in advance of the normal flowering season, and after about a month, the roots are exposed by removing about 10 em of the soil in the case of light soils and about 20 cm in the case of heavy soils. After about 10 days, the soil is returned mixed with manure, and a light irrigation is given. After four or five days, a more copious watering is given, followed by 10 days later by the full dose of water. In the case of light soils, the withholding of water without root exposure is sufficient to check vegetative growth and force blossoming. In southern India, no root exposure is given nor is it feasible. In the north, the root-exposure treatment is not necessary as the trees normally rest in winter and flower once a year. It should be mentioned that in most situations, the root exposure of citrus trees is a devitalizing process and should be resorted to only under expert advice and direction.

Ma1turing Manuring may be followed as in the case of the Santra orange.

Irrigation After the first heavy irrigation given soon after planting a second light watering follows in four to five days. Thereafter,

16

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

irrigation is given at regular intervals, depending upon the source of water and the nature of the soil. Under well irrigation, water is given after every eight days in hot months and about 12 to 15 days in cold months. Where irrigation is from canals, the usual interval is about 14 days. A light soil requires irrigation more often than a heavy soil. Excess watering should be avoided, especially in heavy soils. When the trees are young, irrigation water is applied in basins of about one-metre radius. The basins are enlarged as the trees advance in age. In the ring method of irrigation a bund is formed about three-fourths of a metre away from the trunk to prevent water from touching it. The furrow method ensures a more even distribution of moisture in the soil.

Harvesting Trees begin to bear fruits from the fourth year onwards, but normal crops are borne from the seventh year. The main harvesting season in the north is December to February, whereas in the south, it is October to March. In the Bombay-Deccan region, there are two main seasons, November to January for Ambe Bahar, and March to May for Mrig Bahar. Picking may be done any time during the day, taking care that the stem is cut close to the fruit without damaging the rind. The fruits are washed, dried and graded for size and packed into wooden cases for disposal.

Grape Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is a subtropical fruit which grows well in dry climates having a short sharp winter and a long dry summer. The vines shed their leaves and rest in winter, put forth new growth in spring and mature in summer. Grape does not thrive in regions having . humid summers. It tolerates frost Fig. Grape during the resting period, but succumbs to it readily during its growing period. In India, however, it grows under varying climatic conditions. In Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh, it grows and fruits once a year in summer, and rests during winter.

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

17

In southern India, where it is cultivated mainly in Maharashtra, Hyderabad-Deccan, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, the vine grows throughout the year and bears two crops, the first in April and the second in August-September. The grape grows best on light, friable loamy soils with free drainage. Heavy soils are unsuitable.

Varieties Varieties suitable for different regions of the country are: 1. Northern Plains: 'Black Prince', 'Bedana', 'Foster's

Seedling', 'Kandhari Dakh' and 'Muscat of Alexandria', 'Perlette'. 2. Dry and Temperate Regions: 'Thomson Seedless', 'Sultana' and 'Kishmish White'. 3. Southern Plains: 'Bangalore Blue', 'Pachadraksha' and 'Anabe-Shahi', 'Gulabi', 'Black Champa', 'Thompson Seedless'. 4. Western Plains: 'Cheema Sahebi', 'Anab-e-Shahi', 'Thompson Seedless'.

Propagation and Planting The vine is usually propagated by cuttings. In northern India, cuttings are made from one-year-old wood at the time of pruning in FeblUary, when the vines are dormant. The cuttings are tied in bundles and stored in moist sand for about a month for callusing. The callused cuttings start well in the nursery. Elsewhere in India, they are obtained from the prunings in October and planted in nursery for rooting. The cuttings are ready for transplanting in January. It is also possible to raise a plantation by planting cuttings in situ in the field .

Planting The rooted cuttings are transplanted in northern India in January and February when they are dormant. The plantingdistance varies according to the method of training involved. It is 2.5 m x 3.0 m, if vines are trained on the head system and 6 m x 6 m, for the overhead pergola. In western India, it is 25 m x 1 m for the avenue system. in Karnataka, it is 4.5 m x 6 m and in Tamil Nadu 4.5 m x 7.5 m for the overhead arbour system.

18

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Training and Pruning The most popular systems of training are: 1. Head System: The vine is trained in the form of a dwarf bush. It is allowed to grow into an upright stern with the help of a support and the developing shoot is cut off at a height of 1 to 1.25 m in July. It is allowed to develop three to four lateral branches, each about 0.45 m long, arranged in the form of a vase or goblet. At the first dormant pruning in February, the lateral branches are shortened to spurs with one to two buds each. These spurs provide suitable arms for the framework during the succeeding summer. At the second dormant pruning, eight to ten arms, with one to two spurs on each arm, are retained for cropping in the third year. This system is cheap, but yields are poor. It is practiced in northern India on varieties which fruit on the first few buds of the cane. 2. Cane System: This system is suitable for training on a twowire trellis. The trunk is headed back, as in the head system; four arms, two on each side of the trunk, are allowed to develop and are pruned to a 30 m length after a year. Fruit canes, each carrying 10 to 20 buds, develop on each arm which is tied to the trellis wire. A renewal spur is left on each arm just below the cane for the next year's crop. 3. Cordon System: After the vine has reached a height of 0.5 to 1 m, the stern is bent and is trained along the singlewire trellis. On each arm that develops from the trunk, short fruiting spurs, each carrying two to four buds, are allowed to remain at the time of pruning. The replacing spurs are also provided close to the base of the fruiting spurs. 4. Pergola System: In the pergola, arbour or bower system, the vine is allowed to develop into two or three branches, about 1 m from the ground. The branches are fastened to the horizontal wires of the pergola and allowed to grow and spread on the roof. The branches that grow on the arms are pruned each year according to the mode of bearing of the variety planted. Pruning is usually done in northern India once a year in spring before the new growth starts. In Peninsular India, grapevine

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

19

is pruned twice a year, once in summer and again in October, the exact period being decided by the distribution of rainfall. Sometimes, the girdling or ringing of a caneis carried out to hasten maturity and to improve the size and quality of berries.

Irrigation The grapevine should be regularly irrigated. It is necessary to regulate the water-supply carefully both when the vine is in flower and when the bunches are ripening. Too wet a soil during those periods is not desirable.

Manuring In addition to the farmyard manure (25 to 30 kg), a dose supplying 0.07 to 0.09 kg of N, 0.54 to 0.57 kg of P and 0.135 to 0.18 kg of K per vine at pruning is recommended. Green-manuring may be done whenever feasible.

Tips for Successful Grape Growing 1. The cuttings for planting should be selected from one

year-old dormant wood from healthy bearing vines. 2. Pruning of the vines should be regulated to suit the bearing habit of each variety. The timing of pruning should be so regulated as to avoid the vines coming into blossom when the days are characterized by dewfall. 3. A portion of the berries at the tip of each bunch may be thinned to ensure more effective spraying against diseases.

Harvesting and Marketing The fruit is ready for picking after the berries near the tip have changed colour and have become sweet. The picked fruit should not be exposed to the sun and, if it is to be sent to a distant market, it should be packed in sawdust. Yields vary largely, depending upon the variety, the locality and upon a host of other factors. Yields even up to 40,000 kg per hectare have been obtained, though 15,000 kg may be considered an average. A single vine at Coimbatore has been known to yield more than 800 bunches in a single season.

20

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) The total area under guava in the country is about 30,000 hectares, of which Uttar Pradesh has the largest area (9,840 hectares), followed closely by Bihar (4,800 hectares). It is a very hardy tree, withstanding heat and prolonged droughts, but is susceptible to frost. A cool winter induces heavy fruiting. It grows in all types of soils having pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.2. Its fruit is rich in vitamin C (35 to 100 mg per 100 g) content.

Varieties 'Lucknow-49', 'Allahabad Safeda' and 'Seedless' are white-fleshed varieties. Several types having pink flesh and white flesh with bright red skin are also known.

Propagation and Planting

Fig. Guava

Guava is propagated through seed, and also vegetatively. Inarching, layering and air-layering are commonly practiced. Propagation through root suckers, root cuttings and budding is sometimes successful. Propagation is generally done during the rainy season. The new plants are ready to be set out after a year. The usual distance for planting is 5.5 to 6 metres.

Culture The growing of a green-manure crop during the rainy season, and clean cultivation during the rest of the year are recommended. One or two irrigations between the end of the monsoon and the harvesting (winter) are given in northern India. In southern India irrigation throughout the year is necessary. In addition to bulky organic manures, the use of 45 to 60 kg of N, 77.5 kg to 90 kg of P and 100 kg to 110 kg of K per hectare is recommended.

Pruning Young trees require pruning several times a year to prevent the formation of long and slender branches. As the fruit is borne on new growth, heavy pruning of the bearing trees increases fruiting. All flowers should be removed until the framework becomes strong enough.

21

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

Harvesting Fruits must be plucked as they ripen. Plucking extends over several weeks. For long-distance marketing, it is necessary to harvest the fruit somewhat earlier. Yields of 22,000 kg per hectare have been reported.

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Papaya occupies a very small area, yet its cultivation is widespread in the country. It grows well almost everywhere, except at altitudes higher than 1,500 metres. It cannot tolerate low temperatures. A dry warm climate is necessary. Strong winds are highly detrimental to the trees as the hollow stems break easily. Even though the tree is adapted to a wide range of soils, it grows best in the loamy soil. Deep clayey soils that are prone to water-logging should be avoided. In heavy-rainfall areas, a prolonged stagnation of water near its stem is highly injurious.

Fig. Papaya

Varieties 'Washington', 'Honey Dew' (Madhubindu), 'Coorg Honey Dew', 'Singapore' and 'Ceylon' are important varieties. e.O.I., an improved strain of the Ranchi type has been evolved at Coimbatore. The varieties do not remain pure under the existing state of cultivation and give rise to varieties, both in tree and fruit characteristics.

Sex Variation The papaya plant is normally unisexual. Some plants bear male flowers and some female. Occasionally, a plant with hermaphrodite flowers (having both male and female organs) may occur . The proportion of plants with male, female and hermaphrodite flowers varies with the variety. The proportion of fruit-bearing female plants of any variety varies from 40 to 60 per cent. The plants of 'Coorg Honey Dew' are either female or hermaphrodite and, hence, every plant yields fruits.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Propagation and Planting Papaya is propagated through seeds. About 100 to 200 grammes of seed is required for an acre of plantation. Seeds obtained from mature large fruits, borne on female plants, are usually the hest. The best time for raising seedlings is the monsoon period. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in four to six weeks, when they are 20 to 30 cm tall. They are lifted with a ball of earth around the roots; most of their leaves are clipped off, and they are planted in small holes made in the field 2.5 to 4 metres apart. Four seedlings may be planted in each hole about one-third metre apart from one another. After the plants have flowered, all male plants, except a few required for fertilizing the female plants, are pulled out. One male tree for every 10 to 20 female trees is sufficient. Transplanting is best done in the monsoon. The practice of planting four seedlings in one hole is not required for varieties; e.g., 'Coorg Honey Dew', which do not produce any male plants.

Culture Papaya plants are irrigated once in every 10 to 12 days in winter and six to eight days in summer. To avoid stagnation of water near the trunks, the basin may be made to slope away from it. Nine kg of farmyard manure per pit is applied at the time of planting, followed by 35 to 45 kg of it every six months, once at the beginning of the monsoon and again in winter. A fertilizer mixture to supply 25 to 50 kg of N, 50 to 100 kg of P and 50 to 100 kg of K per hectare may be given in two equal doses every six months. The removal of weeds and a light or shallow ploughing or harrowing once or twice a year are necessary. Low-growing vegetables of short duration may be taken as intercrops. An occasional thinning of fruits is necessary to prevent overcrowding. Papaya may itself be grown as a 'filler' or in plantation of other crops where spacing is wide enough.

Harvesting and lvfarketing Papaya flowers in about four months after planting and fruits are ready for harvesting in another six months. Except during winter, the trees continue to flower and fruit all the time. Fruits

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

23

are picker{ when they are still hard and green, but show a distinct change in the colour of the rind. Yield varies from 30 to 150 fruits per tree. The packing of fruits in baskets in several layers should be avoided. A soft padding, such as of wood-shavings, wool or straw is recommended.

Pineapple Pineapple (Ananas comusus (L.) Merr.) occupies about 12,000 hectares and is grown mainly in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka. It is a humid tropical plant and grows well, both in the plains and also at elevations not exceeding 900 metres. It tolerates neither very high temperatures nor frost. It grows in almost any type of soil, provided it is free-draining.

Fig. Pineapple

Varieties 'Kew', 'Queen' and 'Mauritius' are the three popular varieties. 'Kew' produces large fruits and is mostly used for canning. The other two have smaller fruits which are considered to be of superior quality. 'Kew' is a late-fruiting variety, 'Queen' is early, while 'Mauritius is intermediate.

Propagation and Planting Pineapple is commonly propagated from suckers or slips. Suckers arising from the underground parts of the plant are commonly used. Slips arise from the fruiting stem and from the crown on top of the fruit. After the fruit is harvested, stalks are cut into discs and used for propagation. Plants grown from suckers produce fruits in about 18 months, whereas those from slips and suckers propagated from disc cuttings take over two years. Suckers or slips are first cured by stripping off the lower leaves, followed by drying in the sun, or in partial shade for three to four days before planting. They are planted either in flat beds,

24

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

where there is no danger of water stagnation, or in shallow trenches which are filled as the suckers grow and develop. Care should be taken to see that the bud or 'heart' of the suckers does not get buried. A planting density of 43,500 plants per hectare can be followed, keeping a distance of 30 em between plant and plant, 60 em between rows and 90 em between beds. The rainy season is the best time for planting.

Culture The field is prepared by ploughing, harrowing, etc., before planting. In the hills, proper terracing is a necessity. In dry regions, the crop requires regular irrigation. Even when rain-fed, irrigation during the dry weather is necessary every week or ten days. Twenty-five to 50 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare is applied in two doses in the 6th and 12th month after planting. Sixteen grammes of Nand 2.5 g of K20 per plant should be applied. Of these, part of the nitrogen can be applied as foliar application as 4 per cent urea. Only two suckers are retained on each plant for the ratoon crop. After harvest, the plants are earthed up to stimulate the rooting of the ratoon suckers. The plantations is allowed to remain on the same site for four to five years after which it is renewed.

Induction of Flowering Uniform flowering can be obtained by the application of NNA (Planofix), calcium carbide or Ethrel (100 ppm) at the 45leaf stage.

Harvesting and Marketing Pineapple usually flowers from February to April and the fruits are ready from July to September. Sometimes, off-season flowers appear, and they produce fruits in September-December. The fruits are harvested when they just begin to yellow and the eyes become fuU and the bracts wither. The fruit is cut clean, retaining with it about 5 em of the stalk. The yield is 12 to 17 tonnes per hectare in the case of the two sRlaller varieties and 25 to 30 tonnes per hectare in the case of 'Kew' in the first year. With a high population density, even about

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

25

85 tonnes of fruit can be obtained. Fruiting decreased progressively in the case of the ratoon crops. For transport, the fruits are wrapped up in straw and packed in bamboo baskets or crates in one or two layers.

Sapota Sapota (Achras zapata L.) known popularly as chiku in western and central India, is adaptable to a large variety of conditions of soil and climate. It flourishes in the heavyrainfall areas of western and southern India and grows equally well in the drier parts of the Fig. Sapota Peninsular India. It is an evergreen, growing and flowering almost throughout the year. Rain or cloudy weather does not harm the setting of fruits. Young plants are easily injured by frost, but grown-up trees can withstand frost of a short duration. Its soil requirements are not very exacting, but it grows best in alluvial or sandy-loam soilshaving good drainage.

Varieties 'Cricket Ball' and 'Dwaropud(~oth with round fruits, are common in Tamil Nadu, whereas 'Bangalora', 'Vavila Valasa' (both oval-fruited), 'Jonnavalasa' (round-fruited), ' Kirtabarati' and 'Pot' (dwarf trees) are recognized in Andhra Pradesh. In western India, 'Kalipatti' and 'Chatri' (both oval-fruited) are well-known varieties. The variety 'Cricket Ball' does very well in Karnataka.

Propagation and Planting Propagated by layering, gootees (air-layering) or inarching. Sidegrafting and budding are also possible. Rootstocks employed are Rayan or Manikara (Manilkara hexandra or mohwa (Bassia latifolia and B. langifolia). The second and third species are not recommended, as they are not compatible with the sapota scions. In northern India, the planting-distance is 4.5 to 6 metres, whereas in the south, it is 9 to 12 metres. In northern India, the young plant must be suitably protected against frost and hot winds after planting.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Culture Before planting, the field is ploughed, harrowed and levelled. Irrigation is given every six to twelve days, except during the rainy season. The removal of weeds and the loosening of the soil by ploughing or harrowing are done once or twice a year. Manures and fertilizers are applied, as recommended for mango. For the bearing trees, half of the dose is applied in October-November and the other half in February-March or before the monsoon. Intercrops of vegetables may be taken for the first six to ten years. No pruning is necessary.

Harvesting and Marketing Substantial fruiting starts from the fourth or fifth year. The fruit takes four months to mature. Flowers appear throughout the year, but the crop is available for harvesting in two to three seasons, i.e., northern and central India, March-April and AugustSeptember; in southern India, February-June and SeptemberOctober and in western India, January-February and May-June. The yield varies from 200 to 300 fruits in the fourth year, from 700 to 800 in the seventh year, from 1,500 to 2,000 between the tenth and 15th year, and from 2,500 to 3,000 from the 20th to 30th year. Mature fruits show a yellow streak, whereas the immature fruits show a green streak when scratched with the fingernail. For distant markets, the fruits are packed in bamboo baskets immediately after picking, using straw as padding. Oval and round fruits may be separately packed.

Pomegranate The largest area under pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) about 500 hectares, is in Maharashtra, but there are small plantings in almost all parts. Where winters are cold, the tree is deciduous, but in the plains, it is evergreen. A hot, dry summer produces the best fruits. The presence of many seeds and of tannin in the rind and membranes detracts from its attractiveness . The tree can stand considerable drought.

Fig. Pomegranate

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

27

Climate Pomegranate is subtropical fruit. It can adopt itself to a wide range of climatic conditions and can grow up to 1800 m above sea level. The fruit tree grows best in semi-arid climate where cool winter and hot and dry summer prevail. The tree requires hot and dry climate during the peroid of fruit development and ripening. The optimum temperature for fruit development is 38°C. The tree can not produce sweet fruits unless the temperature is high for a sufficient long period. Under tropical and subtropical climate, it behaves as an evergreen or partially deciduous. Under humid conditions, the sweetness of fruit is adversely affected. Therefore, it is considered that pomegranate is a hardy fruit and can thrive well under drought conditions, though yield is low. The plant bear well only under irrigation. In areas of low temperature, the tree behaves as deciduous in nature and sheds its leaves during winter months. It is also rated as winter hardy fruit tree. Two l.ears old shoots of hardy cultivers are not damaged even at 2 C. When temperature falls below -14°C, visible damage due to frost occurs. Aridity and frequent anomalies of the climate cause leaf shedding and fruit cracking.

Soils It can be grown on diverse types of soil. The pomegranate is not very particular about its soil requirement. The deep loamy and alluvial soils are ideal for its cultivation. It can tolerate soils which are lomay and slightly alkaline. It can thrive well on comparatively poor soils where other fruits fail to grow. Pomegranate can also be grown in medium and black soils. It is rated as salt-hardy fruit plant.

Choice of Varieties 1. Ganesh: It is an improved variety known as GBG No.1. Ganesh is a seedling selection by Dr. G.S. Cheema at Pune. It is a selection from Alandi and considered to be the best variety. The fruit is medium in size. It has soft seeds. Ganesh is a high yielding variety and is a good cropper. The flesh is pinkish and has juice with agreeable taste. 2. Alandi: Fruit medium in size, fleshy tasta, blood red or deep pink with sweet slightly acidic juice. Seeds very hard. The variety is named after the name of village where it was grown extensively.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

3. Dholka: Fruit large size, rind grenish white, fleshy testa, pinkish white or whitish with sweet juice. Seeds soft. Juice is acidic. It is medium cropper. It is an important variety of Gujarat. 4. Kandhari: It produces large fruits. The rind is deep red. The flesh is dark red or deep pink. The juice is slightly acidic. The seeds are hard. The variety is successfully grown in Himachal Pradesh. 5. Muskat: This variety is also largely grown. Fruits small to medium in size. Rind in somewhat thick. Fleshy testa, with moderately sweet juice. The seeds are rosy in colour. Fruits are tasty. 6. Nabha: Tree is medium in growth, fruit skin yellowish and smooth. Cracking medium. Juice is 65 per cent. The arils are light pink in colour. Seeds are medium in soft. Taste is good.

Propagation Pomegranate plants raised from seed vary widely and are undesirable. Thus, they must be raised vegetatively. Among the vegetative methods of propagation, cuttings are universally used for raising pomegranate plants on commercial basis. Mature wood is used for making the cuttings and these are 8 to 10 cm long. The cuttings are planted in the nursery fields in such a way that not more than one-third of the cutting is exposed. The best time of making the cuttings is December-January when the plants shed leaves. The cuttings made during SeptemberOctober can also root satisfactorily. The cuttings in the nursery field are planted directly after making them from the plants. They need not to be kept for callusing. Pomegranate may also be propagated by air-layering or gootee. Treatment with 10,000 ppm Indole Butyric acid in lanolin as carrier was found to improve rooting. Ground layering is another method used for multiplying the pomegranate plants.

Planting Operation Land is prepared thoroughly and levelled prior to pit digging. The layout is done following square or hexagonal system. The size of the pit should be 60 x 60 x 60 cm. Pits should be filled with 22 - 25 kg of farmyard manure or compost, 1 kg of superphosphate and good soil mixture.

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

29

The plants are planted at a distance of 6 m x 6 m apart in square system and it will accommodate 275 plants per hectare. In higher but deeper soil, the planting distance can be reduced to 5 m x 5m. Planting density is the most important yield contributing factor which can be manipulated to attain the maximum production per unit area. The optimum spacing is important for the maximum utilization of land and good income over a long period. At MPAU, Rahuri, it was observed that as the plant density was increased, yield per hectare also increased without affecting fruit quality. A density of 1,000 plants per hectare gave 2-3 times higher yield and 2.44 times more profit as compared with normal plant population of 400 per hectare. It was also recommended that for higher yields for the first four to five years after planting, a distance of 5 m x 2 m may be adopted and alternate plants may be removed afterwards maintaining a planting distance of 5 m x 4 m. The best time of planting pomegranate in Northen India is dormant period, i.e., January to mid-February and in South India during monsoon season.

Flowering and Fruiting In evergreen pomegranate cultivers, the flower buds of the spring flush are borne on nature wood of one-year old shoot, whereas the flowers which appears during July-August are borne on the current year's growth. In deciduous cultivers, the flowers are borne on the current year's growth between July and August. The flowers are found mostly in clusters, either terminally or in axils of the leaves. The inflorescence in cyme and due to heavy drops of secondary and tertiary buds they appear to be solitary in clusters.In Western India, three flowering seasons and in North India, two flowering seasons have been reported. The flowering period of different cultivers is also quite variable. Under Delhi condition, Dholka, Kandhari, Muskat and Patiala flowered only once in a year while Ganesh and Japanese Dwarf flowered twice.

Irrigation The newly set plants require regular irrigation so that the roots become well established and the plants can start growth. The plants may be individually watered daily or about a week

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

30

after planting. In northern India where planting is done during the spring, regular watering may be given every 7 to 20 days till the start of the monsoon. In areas where planting is done during the monsoon, irrigation may be given whenever there is no rain for a prolonged period of time. After the plants are well established, in about 6 months, they can stand considerable amount of drought and irrigation may be given at intervals of 2 to 4 weeks depending upon the soil, climate, weather conditions and intercrops grown. Regular irrigation is essential from flowering to ripening of fruits, as irregular moisture condition results in dropping of flowers and small fruits.

Intercropping Intercropping is pomegranate orchard is highly desirable because it takes about 6-7 years to come to commercial bearing. Vegetables, viz., cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, radish, cucurbits, moong, peas, beans or green manure crops can easily be followed in pomegranate orchard. The growing of intercrops should be carried out for the first four years of the life of the plantation. It is usually advisable to allow the intercrops to grow throughtout the year. Intercrops can be continued for another 3 to 4 years after the plants had started bearing. It is best to grow a green manure crop during the monsoon and burry, when it has completed its vegetative phase and started flowering.

Manuring and Fertilization In northern India, manures are applied during February, whereas in other areas, manuring may be done just before the start of monsoon in case of young plants. The one year old tree should be manured with about 10 kg of farmyard manure and 150 to 200 g of ammonium sulphate. The amount is increased by the same amount every year so that a five year old tree gets 50 kg of farmyard manure and one kg of ammonium sulphate. Experiment carried out at the MPAU indicate the following schedule: Age of Plant (years)

Nitrogen (g/plant)

Phosphorus (g/plant)

Potassium (g/plant)

Ph - 2 2lh - 3 3lh - 4

250 500 500 625

125 125 125 250

125 125 250 250

4 and above

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

31

At Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, an application of 500 g N, 125 g P 205 and 125 g ~O is recommended for 'Ganesh' variety. Under Udaipur conditions of Rajasthan, application of 240 g N, 160 g P205 and 60 g K20 per plant is suggested for variety 'Jodhpur Red'. In Gujarat state pomegranate is applied with 50 kg farmyard manure, 500 g N, 250 g P205 and 500 g ~O per plant per year. Application of fertilizers is done in December-January for Ambe Bahar, in May-June of Mrig Bahar and in OctoberNovember for Hasth Bahar. In Andhra Pradesh, adult bearing trees are applied with 800 g N, 400 g P205 and 400 g ~O per tree along with 100 kg FYM per tree. In Karnataka a dose of 200 kg N, 300 kg P 20 5 and 100 g K2 0 along with 12.5 tonnes per hectare farmyard manure is applied. In Orissa, 45 kg N, 115 kg P20 5 per hectare along with 10 kg FYM + 100 g sterameal per tree are applied. In Tamil Nadu, 600 g N, 500 g P 205 and 1200 g K20 along with 30 kg FYM is incorporated per tree per year.

Training and Pruning Training Pomegranate may be trained as multi-stemmed tree or single stemmed tree. In multi-stemmed tree method 3 - 4 stems are left at hill and remaining shoots are removed. In Maharashtra, the growers prefer multi-stem training by retaining all stems. But yield has not been found to be affected by number of stems per plant. In singlestemmed tree the single stem is left by removing all the side shoots at the time of planting. The main stem is headed back at a height of about one metre results in the formation of branches. Four or five well distributed branches on all sides above 60-70 cm from the ground level are allowed to grow. In the third year of planting one can maintain desireu shape of the pomegranate. Single stemmed tree has tendency to produce less number of shoots.

Pruning Pomegranate does not usually require pruning except for removal of suckers, dead and diseased branches and developing a sound framework of the tree. It is essential to remove the suckers as soon as they arise. The fruits are borne terminally on short spurs produced all along the slow growing mature wood. These bear fruits for 3 to 4 years. Therefore, only a limited pruning of bearing tree is required. Annual pruning in winter during dormant period

32

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

should be confined to shortening of the previous season's growth to encourage fruiting. For getting a good crop, a set of new shoots should be allowed to develop every year on all sides of the tree and gradual growth of new shoots should be encouraged by restricted cutting back of the bearing shoots.

Crop Regulation The pomegranate starts fruiting about 4 years after planting and continues for about 25 to 30 years. Economic yield is generally obtained after 10 years of planting. To regulate flowering, water is withheld for about two months in advance of the normal flowering season. After two months, manures and fertilizers 'are applied and light irrigation is given. Three to four days later, heavier irrigations at normal interval are followed. The tree readily responds to this treatment by producing new growth and blooms and bears a good crop. A full grown pomegranate has tendency to bear flowers and fruits throughtout the year. To obtain higher fruit yield during a particular period, plants are given a resting period by which the natural tendency of the tree is altered with artificial means. It is done by withholding of water for about 2 months in advance of normal flowering, root exposure and also use of chemicals. By adopting such methods flowering can be induced in June-July (Mrig Bahar) coinciding with the break of monsoon, February-March (Ambe Bahar) and September-October (Hasth Bahar). Mrig Bahar is taken in Deccan areas where water is so scare during the hot weather. The flowering, therefore, is so forced that the maximum requirement of water falls during the rainy season. For this treatment, watering is withheld from December to April-May which results in sufficient suppression of growth. In the month of March-April leaves are shed as plants go in dormant stage. The manures and fertilizers are applied and light irrigation is given which is followed by two heavy irrigations at 7 days interval before rain sets in. Within 15 days, trees will put on profuse growth along with the formation of flowers and fruits. The fruits ripen in October and continues up to December. Ambe Bahar is taken in the areas where enough water is available during hot weather. The fruits are available during June and July and no irrigation is given after the start of the rainy season. The trees shed their leaves by October-November, when a shallow

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

33

hand digging or ploughing is done. During December-January, manures are applied. The first irrigation is given in January and the flowers appear within a month of this irrigation. In dry regions of western Maharashtra Ambe Bahar has been found to be better treatment than Mrig Bahar. Hasth Bahar is seldom taken. The trees have to be made dormant during August-September. This is rather uncertain because of the rains that occur during this period.

Pollination Both self and cross pollination are recorded in pomegranate. Greater percentage of fruit set was observed by hand pollination and pollination under natural conditions, i.e., open pollination.

Harvesting and Fruit Handling Pomegranate is a non-cl!macteric fruit. Its fruit become ready for harvesting in 5-7 months after the appearance of blossoms. Mature fruits become slightly yellowish and further pink to red. On tapping, the fruits give metallic sound and when pressed they give a 'Crunch' sound. The fruits are harvested with the help of SE:cateurs. The trees begin to bear fruit in the fourth year when a small crop of 20-25 fruits (4-5 kg) per tree may be harvested. In the 10th year, it rises to 100-150 fruits (20-25 kg). The average yield in well managed plantation may be as much as 200-250 fruits per tree. After harvesting, sorting of fruits should be exercised to remove undesirable fruits. The healthy fruits are packed mostly in bamboo baskets and wooden crates containing 10-12 kg with a padding of paddy straw or dry grasses. The fruits can be transported to distant market without any loss. The fruits can be stored for about 5-6 months at 4.5°C and 80-85 per cent relative humidity. The storage life of pomegranate fr4its in sealed polythene bags (0.02 mm) at lOoC is extended up to 12 weeks.

Cracking or Splitting of Fruits This disorder is reported to be due to boron and calcium deficiell'-:Y' There is further attack of insects or fungal attack on the cracked fruits. So fruits become unfit for marketing. The Mrig Bahar crop is more susceptible to cracking than the crop of other bahars. Main cause of this malady is the wide variation in moisture content of the soil as well as in the humidity of air due to monsoon. If there

34

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

is sudden break in the rains during August, the growth of fruit is arrested. So as a result of the dry atmosphere that follows, the elasticity of the skin is lost; then there is rain again and' growth restarts, results in cracking of fruit skin. Thus cracking fruits is mostly due to irregular water supply to the trees. Ambe Bahar cror is regularly irrigated, so it does not crack badly. The best treatment is to give regular irrigations to the Ambe Bahar crop taking care that at no stage there is a scarcity of water. In case of Mrig Bahar crop, the splitting of fruits cannot be controlled altogether as the variation in humidity cannot control cracking and can, however, be minimised if the plants are regularly irrigated whenever there is a break in rain. Cracking is correlated with rind thickness. Cultivars like Karkai, Guleshah, Bedana, Khog and Jalore Seedless are comparatively tolerant to fruit cracking. For checking fruit splitting in pomegranate, supply soil moisture regularly through light irrigations. Plant windbreak around the pomegranate plantation. Spray borax of 0.1 per cent. In the month of June, give a spray application of GA3 at 250 ppm. It is better to plant only those varieties which are less prone to fruit cracking.

Insect Pests Fruit Borer or Pomegranate Butterfly (Virachola isocrates) This is a serious pest found all over India. Infestation starts from flowering to button stage. The caterpillar bore inside the developing fruits. Such infested fruits are also invaded by bacteria and fungi and cause fruit to rot. Such affected fruits fall down. Collect and destroy the affected fruits. Apply carbaryl 0.2 per cent @ 4 g/litre or phosphamidon @ 0.3 ml/litre of water at 10-15 days interval. Also, bag young fruits with coarse cloth or muslin cloth or polythene of 300 gauge thickness .

.

Bark Eating Cuterpillar (Inderbela tetraonis) This pest bore into the bark of pomegranate tree and feed inside. Trees become weak and do not bear fruits. Avoid over crowding of trees by removing unwanted twigs. Clean the affected portions by removing all web. Inject kerosene oil or petrol and plug the hole with cotton wool soaked in carbon bisulphide.

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

35

Stemborer (Alf'urodes SpJ The caterpillar of this pest makes a hole and bores through the main trunk or main branches. It comes out at night and feeds on bark. Clean the hole by removing insect excreta with the help of a hooked wire. Plug the hole with cotton plug dipped in petrol, chloroform, carbon bisulphide OT kerosene oil followed by sealing it with mud or painting with coa1tar.

Sap Sucking Insects These are mealy bugs, scale insects, thrips, aphids, mites cause shedding of buds, flowers and fruits at very young stage. 1. Spray 0.04 per cent Monocrotophous for the control of mealy bug and scale insects. 2. Spray 0.04 per cent Dimethoate or Phosphamidon for the control of white flies, aphids and thrips. 3. Spray water soluble sulpher 1.25 g/litre for the control of red mites.

Diseases

Leaf Spot: Xanthomonas Punicae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides The former pathogen is bacterium and the latter is fungal. The bacterium pathogen causes irregular water-soak~d sFots on leaves. They are light brown to dark brown in appearance. The leaf spot caused by fungus, produce minute violet black 0r black spots on leaf. For their control, collect fallen leaves and fruits and destroy them. Spray 0.2 per cent Captan or Dithane M-45 at fortnightly interval.

Fruit Rot: Phomopsis Sp. The flowers are affected and fail to set fruit. The young fruits may drop pre-maturely. Yellow or black spots appear all over the fruit. The disease spreads through the seeds of affected fruits. The incidence is wide spread during rainy season. Remove all affected twigs, fruits and burn them. Spray Dithane Z-78 at 0.2 per cent at fortnightly interval.

36

Horticultural, Medicin,ll and Aromatic Plants

Avocado The avocado (Persea sp.) fruit is rich in protein and fat , both of which are deficient in the average Indian diet. It is neither sweet nor juicy, and is eaten fresh, either with bread or in salads. Of the three recognized races, the Mexican seems unsuited to India, the Guatemalan succeeds best at elevations above 1,000 Fig. Avocado metres, and the West Indian succeeds in the plains, except in the drier areas. Large parts of Maharashtra and southern India are quite suitable. A well -drained soil is required .

Varieties About a dozen varieties are grown in different states. 'Pollock', ' Paradeniya Purple Hybl id' and 'Feurte' were introduced from Ceylon and have established themselves successfully at the foot of the Nilgiris.

Propagation and Planting The easiest method of propagation commonly employed in India is through seeds. In Maharashtra and the Nilgiris, layering has met with success. The plants are set out 7 to 9 metres apart.

Harvesting The trees generally flower between February and April and the harvesting of the fruits is done in August-September. Cashew Cashew (Allacardium occidentale L.) is grown both for its fruit (cashew apple) as well as for its nuts, mainly for the latter. The crop is grown chiefly in Peninsular India, particularly along the coast. There are very few regular plantations of this crop. Cashew cannot tolerate the severe summers or winters of northern India. Even in the south, it does not grow satisfactorily at elevations higher than 300 metres. It is not very exacting in soil requirements, as it grows even in very gravelly soils. However, it needs a freedra ining soil. It grows in area s hav ing ra infall vary ing from 50 to

37

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

400 cm. Continued adequate soil moisture is, however, necessary for the success of cashew plantations.

Varieties There are no distinct varieties of cashew and it exhibits a marked variation in fruit and nut characters when grown from seed. Some of the superior variants can be multiplied or perpetuated through vegetative propagation.

Propagation and Planting Sowing the seeds ill .;itu is the usual practice, but it is possible to transplant onemonth-old seedlings after cutting them back by about one-third. This fruit can also be propagated by air-layering, inarching and side-grafting. The planing distance varies from 6 metres in lateritic and rocky soils to 12 metres in deep loamy soils.

After-care

Fig. Cashew

No attention is paid to cultivation, irrigation or manuring. An occasional clearing of undergrowth and the pruning of dead and diseased branches is necessary to maintain the trees in health and vigour.

Harvesting The fruits ripen from March to May but the season is prolonged during the years when heavy rainfall is experienced in November-December. The first bearing is normally secured in about three years after planting, though satisfactory crops can only be gathered after about eight years. The yield of nuts varies from 110 to 220 kg per hectare.

Curing and Processing The nuts are separated from the cashew apples immediately after harvest. The dried nuts are roasted either in open pans over a furnace or in rotary cylinders and in oil-baths. Shelling is done by hand soon after roasting. The kernels, so obtained, are dried in the sun or in hot-air chambers. They are then kept in sweating

38

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

chambers for some time. The nuts are then ready for grading and packing. For the export trade, the kernels are packed in tins under vacuum or in carbon dioxide. For internal markets, the kernels are sometimes packed in tins of different sizes and they mayor may not be hermetically sealed.

Jackfruit Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.) is grown in southern India as stray trees in home gardens and coffee plantations where it flourishes in the humid climate on hill slopes. Warmer plains are suitable, provided there is adequate soil moisture. Cold and frost are harmful. Usually, seedlings are planted. Inarching is employed to propagate jack trees Fig. Jackfruit vegetatively. A spacing of dbout 12 metres is necessary for planting in the fields.

Harvesting The 'Singapore' variety produces fruits in 18 to 36 months after planting. Others take about eight years to come into bearings. The fruits are in season from March to June, the season extending up to September at higher elevations. Yields range from a few to 250 fruits per tree, each fruit weighing from 9 kg to even up to 20 kg.

Loquat Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.) is grown mainly in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh on about 800 hectares each, and to a small extent in Delhi, Assam, Maharashtra and in the hills of southern India. Whereas the tree can stand temperatures well below freezing, the flowers and young fruits, Fig. Loquat which are borne in winter, are severely injured by frost. It does

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

39

not fruit well in areas with warm winter. It thrives on many different types of soils.

Climate The loquat has been naturalized in India. It is grown nearly throughout the country up to an elevation of 1525 m above sea level. It can be grown throughout the tropics where there are elevations of a few thousand feet. The loquat succeeds well under subtropical climate. It can grow successfully in regions in which the temperature does not fall below the freezing point. In general, a mild clima.te with an average annual rainfall of 60-100 mm, well distributed throughout the year, is ideal for loquat cultivation. Since the tree bloom between November and late January at certain places, the crop may be destroyed by moderate winter frosts. The fruit of loquat is most susceptible to frost injury when it just starts colouration. Heavy damage is noticed in early ripening varieties. In the areas where scorching hot winds begin to blow before the fruit ripens, the fruit either remain too small or do not ripen properly. Under such conditions, the pulp does not produce abundant required quantity of juice. Further, the fruit become sunburnt and unfit for marketing. Under cool and foggy weather at the time of ripening, the fruits lack in sweetness and flavour. The loquat trees are, however, resistant to heat and drought. The thick, leathery leaves are well adapted to withstand seasons of neglect without serious injury. Althought an evergreen fruit, loquat is unique in tolerating cold weather conditions. However, warm and dry climate is essential at the time of fruit ripening. In arid and dry zones, the fruits are prone to sun burn injury. Consequently, loquat should be cultivated only in the sub montane or other areas with mid climat~ or places free from severe hot weather condition.

Soil The loquat can thrive in a wide variety of soils. In some places seems to do best on a light sandy loam; whereas at other places it has faired well on heavier soils. Good drainage is however essential and the subsoil should be free from hard pan.

40

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromntic Plants

Stagnation of water in the land, even for a short time may damage or kill even grown up trees and such soils should be discarded. According to the opinion of an expert from Israel, heavy soil of medium type should be preferred than a very light soil.

Choice o/Varieties 1. Golden Yellow: It has medium sized, egg-shaped fruits with attractive golden yellow colour. Flesh is yellowish which tastes sour-sweet. Each fruit contain 4-5 dark brown, medium sized seeds. 2. Pale Yellow: It has large fruits, which are slightly conical to roundish in shape and pale yellow in colour. Flesh is white and tastes sour-sweet. Each fruit contains 2 or 3 medium-sized seeds. 3. Calijonzia Advance: Fruit medium-sized, conical to round in shape, external colour yellow. Flesh creamy white, soursweet in taste. Fruit contains 2 or 3 medium-sized seeds. 4. Tanaka: Fruit mediun, 4-5 cm long, 3-7 cm broad ovate in shape, smooth and moderately pubescent. Rind medium, firm. Pulp medium completely filled, sayal brown, coarse firm, juiceness abundant, taste pleasant subacid. Seeds 2 to 4 per fruit, medium in size.

Raising 0/ Rootstock The loquat seeds germinate readily'when it is sown immediately after extraction from the fruit. The seed should not be allowed to dry after extraction as exposure to heat and light tends to result in poor germinaiton and stunted seedling growth. Fresh seed are sown during April-May in moist sand for germinaton. When the seed lings are 4-5 cm tall, they are transplanted in the nursery under the mother trees for inarching. If the mother plants are high headed, the seedlings are transplanted in the pots and brought in contact with the mother plants by raising platforms when they attain inarchable size. The seedlings grow rapidally and are fit for grafting in the following rainy season.

Health Aspects ot Citrus Fruits

41

Promising loquat varieties are generally grafted upon domestic loquat seedlings of the commercial varieties. Several other rootstocks such as pear, apple, quince (Cydollia ob/onga) and Mespilus have also been used in certain occasions.

Propagation Techniques The usual technique followed is to raise the plants through inarching. The best time for inarching is July-August. Air-layering can also be tried but success is much less. In air-layering 3 months old shoots are used. The use of 3 per cent indole butyric acid enhances the success in air-layering.

Planting Operation There are two planting seasons for loquat plants, viz., February-March and August-September. The plants should preferably be planted during August-September when the weather has cooled down sufficiently. In general, loquat is planted at a distance of 6.5 m x 6.5 m in square system, thus accomodates 225 plants per hectare. The pit should be made 1 m x 1 m x 1 m. While mixing add 3-4 baskets of farmyard manure and 200 g of single superphosphate per pit. Add 30 - 50 g BHe 10 per cent dust to ward the attack of white ants.

Flowering and Fruiting In India, the flowering period of loquat is very long, lasting from mid-July to January or sometimes even upto May. Three reproductive flushes under tropical conditions are noted, out of which the intermediate ones give the higher yield of better-sized fruits. In Saharanpur only one flesh continued flower from September to February. The number of inflorescence was higher in beginning but only a few of them bore fruits. The number of inflorescence continued to decrease with the advancement of season, but th~ percentage of fruit-bearing panicles gradually decreased. The fruit size seemed to the inversely proportional to the number of fruits per panicle. Earlier panicles gave best-sized fruit and size reduced afterward.

42

Horticultural. Mcdicll1;:t1 and Aromatic Plants

In northen India only one continuous reproductive flush appears. No peak hour of anthesis was observed. The opening of flowers continued throughout the day. The dehiscence of anth~rs took place in longitudinal fashion. It took more than a day to complete dehiscence in all the varieities except improved 'Golden Yellow' and 'Pale Yellow' in which case it was completed only in one day. The time of dehiscence was found to have hastened with the increase in temperature. In Punjab, the flowering period in loquat is very lengthy. The flowering starts sometimes in the first week of October and continues up to third week of December. The number of flowers per cluster may vary from 50 to 100 but in general, not more than 15-20 fruits per cluster are set. Some of the varieties are good pollinizers for others. Loquat trees grow singly or in small groves, though produce perfect flowers, yield negligible or no crop. This is reported to be due to self-incompatibility in commercial loquat varieties. The edible portion in loquat is entirely toral in nature, consisting of pith and cortical areas. The development of edible portion consists of rather uniform growth of receptacle tissue throughout the truit. The toral cells of mature fruit are large, thin walled and very juicy.

Irrigation The loquat is more drought resistant than any of the citrus fruits. However, the best results are obtained when the orchard is irrigated judiciously. There must be sufficient moisture in the soil in order to enable the shoots to develop and the mature terminal buds to fill out properly. As the trees blossom buds. During fruit growth to maturity three to four irrigations are generally advisable.

Interculture Through cultivation of loquat field should be given to check the weed growth. It prefer clean cultivation management practice. Mulching with brown, black, or transparent polythene film from

43

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

November to June in loquat orchard was found effective. The cultivation of leguminous over crops is, however, considered beneficial. Winter cover crops may be planted before September, the purpose is that their sufficient growth to be turned under before the harvesting starts. The leguminous crops like gram, peas, mash, etc., should be preferred as intercrops.

Manuring and Fertilization Although little work has been done, it is generally recognized that loquat tends to exhaust the soil and that for good regular cropping it needs adequate nutrition. Given below is a broad nutritional schedule being recommonded by the Punjab Agricultural University: Age of Tree Farmyard (years) Manure (kg/tree)

(kg per tree)

Superphosphate Muriate of (kg per tree) Potash (kg per tree

CAN

1-3

10-20

0.3-1.0

0.2-0.5

0.15-0.4

4-6

2S-4O

1.1-1.5

0.6-1.5

0.6-1.0

7-10

40-50

1.6-2.0

1.5-2.0

1.1-1.5

60

2.0

2.0

1.5

10

&:

above

The farmyard manure should be applied in September along with entire quantities of phosphorus and potash. However, onehalf dose of nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied in October before flowering and remaining half in February-March, i.e., after the fruit-set.

Training and Puming Loquat is generally trained according to central leader or open centre system. During initial stages, stem up to height of 50 cm should be kept clean. Later on, purning is confined to removal of dead and diseased branches in the full grown tree. Harvesting of mature bunch is a kind of purning and it encourages new growth. The best time for purning is during summer after the crop has been harvested.

44

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Top-working A large percentage of the loquat seedlings trees are unprofitable. Such healthy trees should be top-worked with some improved commercial varieties. The vegetative method of propagation such as inarching, T-budding and bark grafting could be employed. Grafting plants will start bearing superior quality of fruit after third years. Top-working of inferior loquat tree should be done during May. Good number of healthy shoots will emerge from the headed back plant during the rainy season. Only one or two healthy branches should be retained for grafting purpose.

Thinning of Fruits The loquat is a prolific bearer fruit plant. The tree has tendency to over bear. Thinning of fruit in the clusters or removing of some of the clusters may, therefore, be practised, for improving the size and quality of the remaining fruits. The thinning should be done when the fruits are less than 1.2 cm in diameter.

Harvesting and Handling of Fruits Harvesting The loquat tree starts bearing fruit after third year of planting. The yield goes on increasing as the trees grow older and maximum yield is obtained after fifteen years of age. The harvesting of immature and green fruits should be avoided. All fruits in a cluster usually mature uniformly, the entire cluster may be cut at once. But, in some cases where the fruit at the base ripens before that at the tip of the cluster, the pickers will have to clip the ripe fruits by hand. The fruits should never be pulled from the tree by hand, as the stem would separate from the flesh and cause dacay to set in at once. The fruit should preferably be harvested with clipper. The average yield of loquat tree is about 16 kg. Well maintained and healthy tree can yield fruit upto 40 kg.

Grading The fruits should be suitably graded before packing into two grades. The large sized fruits tree from blemishes should be placed in one box while all the remaining marketable fruits should be packed separately. The undersized and mis-shapen fruits should be collected

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

45

in a separate lot which can be sold for the preparation of jams, jelly or other products. All superfluous stem should be clipped off and badly bruised, shrivelled or scarred fruits should be discarded.

Packing The fruit requires careful packing. Paper is placed at the bottom of each box. The large sized choice fruit should receive better handling and packing. The paper cuttings can be used for providing cushion. The wood boxes of 14 kg size should be used for sending fruits to nearby market. However, for distant markets, smaller packages are used to give considerable protection to the fruit.

Diseases Shoot/fruit Blight and Bark Canker The disease is caused due to fungus Phoma glumerata. The cankers appear on the bud scars, wounds, twig stubs or in . crotches. Small circular brown spots appear around a leaf scar. As the canker enlarges the centers become sunken with the edges raised above the surrounding healthy bark. The fungus perpetuates itself on the trees in bark cankers. The canker should be removed and the dead bark decorticated alongwith 2 cm of healthy bark. The dead-wood and pumings should be destroyed. The wounds should be covered with a disinfectant solution and painted with Bordeaux mixture immediately afterward and also in March and June.

Crown Rot It is caused due to fungus Phytophthora sp. The water loving fungus attacks the bark producing canker extending from the ground level up to the points where the main stem bifurcates. The rot girdles the trunk during the next 2-3 seasons. Flowering is very profuse on the affected trees, but fruiting is sparse and of low grade. Yellowish green foliage is characteristic of the crown rot disease. Often the half side of the tree affected by crown-rot may show symptoms. Some branches may be killed every year and ultimately the whole tree may succumb to the disease and dry up completely. The pathogen is soil borne and perpetuates itself in the dead cankers.

46

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Remove the severely infested trees and use them as fire wood. Remove the diseased bark during the dry season by extending the cut an inch beyond the diseased zone on all sides. First treat the cut with a disinfectant solution and then apply Bordeaux paint after a week. Immediately after this, spray the tree with 2: 2: 250 Bordeaux mixture. Repeat the spray just before the mansoon, during the mansoon and thereafter, too, till October.

Root-rot-White-rot The disease is caused due to Polyporus palustris. The bark and the wood of the root including the root collar is affected. The decayed wood is pinkish to dull violet in colour whereas in the advanced stages, small, white, elongated pockets appear and they form a mass of spongy white fibres. The affected tree begins to show symptoms of wilt, early leaf fall and increase in the fruitset. The fruiting bodies conks (gidder peehree) which may grow up to 30 em or more in diameter usually appear when the rot is fairly well advanced. They are either hidden by the litter or lie . exposed on the surface of the soil. Locate the affected trees in early stages by examining the roots and the root-collar region of the tree showing weakening signs. Digout decayed roots and cut them completely right from the collar region. Treat the cut end of the roots immediately with disinfectant solution. When dry, apply Bordeaux paste on these cut ends. Drench the soil from where the dead roots have been dug out with 2: 2: 250 Bordeaux mixture. Do not allow irrigation water to come into contact with the stem. Avoid deep houng and interculture to obviate' injuries to the roots, through which fungus attacks.

Mangosteen Though one of the most delicious among the tropical fruits, mangos teen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is the most difficult fruit-tree to grow on a commercial scale. At present, its cultivation is restricted to a few small pockets on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris at elevations of 300 to 1,000 m and in the Malabar and Tirunelv eli

Fig. Mangosteen

47

Health Aspects of Citrus Fruits

districts. Excessive heat or cold, direct sun for long periods, dry atmosphere and desiccated soils are uncongenial to this fruit. No varieties are recognized. Propagation is mainly done from seed. It is also done by inarching or side-grafting on mangosteen seedlings or on seedlings of Garcinia tinctoria, G. speciosa, etc., but the grafts are difficult to establish in the field. Timely irrigation is necessary to keep the soils moist. The removal of weeds and the replenishment of soil fertility through manuring are very necessary. Definite information on the manurial requirements of the fruit is lacking. As fruits are produced on the terminal portions of the primary and secondary laterals of the past season's growth, pruning is inadvisable. The mangos teen matures (main crop) fr0m August to October and another lighter crop from April to June. An individual tree may yield 2,000 fruits, but the average is far less.

Litchi Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn) is grown extensively in northern Bihar, in the submontane districts of western Uttar Pradesh and in Punjab. Hot dry winds in summer, when the fruit is ripening, are very undesirable. It grows well in sandy and clayey loams containing large quantities of lime.

Fig. Litchi

Varieties In Bihar, the recommended varieties include the 'China', 'Purbi', 'Deshi', 'Bedana' and 'Dehra Rose'; in Uttar Pradesh, 'Rosescented', 'Early Large Red', 'Kalkatia', 'Gulabi' and 'Late Seedless', and in West Bengal, 'China' and 'Muzaffarpur'.

Propagation and Planting Air-layering is the commonest method. Inarching, budding and grafting are also possible. One-year-old layers are planted nine metres apart in pits during the rainy season.

48

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Pruning As the fruit is borne on the growth of the previous year, the common practice of breaking off a metre or so of a branch along with the bunch of fruits is all the pruning that is necessary.

Culture Protect young trees against frost with a thatch and against hot and dry winds by growing windbreaks. Remove weeds from time to time .and irrigate from January onwards until the fruits mature. In adqition to bulky organic manures, a complete fertilizer mixture sho~ld be given to supply N, P and K and Ca in the case of soils deficient in lime.

Harvesting Fruit bunches are broken from the tree by hand. A mature tree produces about 110 kg of fruit each year.

4

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

Date Palm (Phoenix dactyli/era 1.) Some of the imported varieties of date palm have been cultivated successfully in Punjab. This tree thrives in light as well as in heavy soils, provided the depth is adequate (2.5 to 3 metres) and the drainage is good. The plant is not affected by frost and requires intense heat in summer for the development and ripening of the fruits. The maxim 'head in fire and feet in water' indicates the conditions that are ideal for date cultivation. If the water-table is within 3 to 3.5 metres from the surface, mature trees need no surface irrigation. A wet season during flowering and fruit-ripening is limiting factor in the successful cultivation of the date palm. South-western Punjab, Fig. Date Palm northern Rajasthan and Kutch offer suitable conditions for date growing.

Climatp The date palm is a tree flourishes well under varied sets of climate. However, for proper maturity of fruit, the date requires prolonged summer heat without rain or high humidity during the ripening period. A light shower with prolonged periods of

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

50

cloudy weather and high humidity may cause more damage than a heavy rain followed by clear weather and drying winds. The mean temperature between the period of flowering and ripening of the fruit should be above 21°C rising to 27°C or higher for at least one month. For successful fruit maturation, nearly 3,000 heat units are required. The heat units available in most of the north-western districts of India, counted from the time of flowering, Le., end February to July, indicate that these are suitable for date palm cultivation. Taking this into consideration, parts of Rajasthan extending from Sri Ganganagar to Anupgarh, Jaisalmer and Barmer and Kutch district of Gujarat will be suitable for date cultivation. The climate of Abohar (Punjab) should be considered marginal because of rainfall (30 cm) and high humidity at the time of ripening (July-August) being the limiting factor. Soil

The date palm can be grown in soils containing more alkali or salts. It can tolerate such condition better than many other fruit plants. In view of the large investment required to bring a date garden into bearing and maintain it on profitable production, sandy loam soil, 2 or 3 metres deep with good water holding capacity and drainage is most desirable. Date palm can tolerate high soil salinity. In the soil having 4 per cent salt concentrataion, dates can survive well provided the root system does not come in contact with a stratum of soil where the sodicity is more than 1 per cent.

Choice of Varieties 1. Hillawi: It is soft date from Iraq. This variety is relished both in doka and dang stages. Total soluble solids range between 28 to 42 per cent and astringency in the fruit at doka stage is low or almost absent. It is an early variety yielding good crops and is somewhat more tolerant to rains. Dry dates (Chhuhara) of good quality and cured soft dates (Khajoor) can be prepared. Its fruit at dang stage (fresh form) is very delicious. Average yield ranges from 50 to 80 kg per palm.

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

51

2. Khadrawi: It also originated from Iraq. This variety proved successful under Abohar conditions. The trees of this variety are comparatively less tall and and yield good crops. It can be used both for dry dates and soft dates. The yield ranges from 40 to 70 kg per palm. 3. Sham ran: It is a mid-season cultivar tolerant to high hUmidity. The variety yielding prolific crops. The fruits can be cured into good quality. Chhuhara and also softened with salt treatment. Fruit is medium to large, oblong to oblong-oval and yellow at doka stage. Its yield per palm is 40 to 70 kg. 4. Medjool: The variety originated in Morocco and has large size fruits. It is late in ripening and has prowJ particularly good in preparing dry dates of attractiw bold size and good quality. Its yield is 35 to 50 kg per palm. 5. Barhee: It is soft date from Iraq. The ,"anety has proved extremly good for table use in fresh form (doka stage). The doka fruit contains about 32 per cent T55, has golden yellow colour and has a very pleasant taste because of low astringency and high pulp content. The trees of this variety are prolific in yields and the fruit is ready for eating late in the season, i.e., first fortnight of August at Abohar.lts yield ranges from 60 to 110 kg per palm. 6. Hayany: It is soft date originated from the U AR. The berries have attractive deep colour. The fruits CQuid be consumed as fresh in the doka stage as ripening does not proceed further under Abohar conditions. The yield per palm ranges from 30-40 kg. 7. Zaidi: It is a mid-season variety, slightly tolerant to rain or high humidity. The fruit is small to medium, ohovat€' and yellow at doka stage.

Propagation Techniques The date palm are always propagated through suckers (offshoots) for commercial plantation. The suckers usually arise near the ground around the trunk. The offshoot.. arising at a higher

52

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

level from the ground on tree trunk and with no roots give very poor survival. These are separated from the mother palms during March or August-September. The leaves are trimmed off 4 - 5 days before their detachment. The inner leaves should be cut back by one-half and the outer ones by two-thirds. The tender young unopened leaves near the central bud and parts of the bare stalks of the old leaves necessary to protect the bud, should be kept on the offshoots. The outer whirl of leaves may be fastened to afford protection from heat and cold to the central bud also facilitate detachment and transport. The suckers weighing approximately 25 to 30 kg and well rooted should be removed. Expose the point of detachment and set a chisel (12 cm wide and 19 cm long) sharpened at the face and welded to a 150 cm long handle of 4 cm diameter. Drive in the chisel by hammering at the other end. It is very important that no mjury is caused to the mother palm. Cut surface should by coated with tarcol or some suitable material immediately and earthed up.

Planting Operation The offshoots are planted 6 to 7 metres apart in the already prepared pits of 1 m x 1 m x 1 m size immediately after detachment. In this way 202 to 275 plants/hectare will be accommodated. If transported from long distance, the offshoots may be kept in the straight. The soil around the offshoots should be pressed firmly. The field is irrigated immediately after planting. Thereafter, frequent light irrigations are given to keep the soil always moist. At Abohar, the offshoots removed in March survived better in direct field planting than those removed in August-September. However, the separation could be done both in February-March and August-September.

Irrigation Date palm is known as drought resistant fruit tree and is able to survive for long periods without irrigation. However, continuous drought condition retards the growth of the plant. If water is available, date palm uses it lavishly. Date palm is highly tolerant to excessive irrigation and floods. Continuous stagnation of water or waterlogged conditions are injurious for its growth. To maintain maximum growth, the root zone up to 2 - 3 m should

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

53

be kept moist and not allowed to dry. Light but frequent irrigation should be given after planting. The full grown trees on the lighter soils are usually irrigated 7 to 10 days during mid-summer and every 15 to 30 days during.winter. Such soils requires 2.75 to 3.75 acre-metre of water per year and 30 to 45 acre-centimetre per month is needed during summer. On heavy soils, half the amount may be enough. Each irrigation of 10-15 acre-centimetre is usually sufficient. Irrigation is withheld when ripening starts to facilitate harvesting, hasten fruit ripening and to reduce fruit drop caused by high humidity.

Manuring and Fertilization Generally the farmers do not apply manure to the date palm. The trees certainly respond to manuring as indicated by increased vigour and growth. The results of studies conducted at Abohar shows that 25 to 50 kg of farmyard manure and 1 to 2 kg ammonium sulphate per palm should be added. The quantities may be reduced if some leguminous crop has been grown in the date palm. Farmyard manure is applied during DecemberJanuary. The nitrogen dose should be given a fortnight before flowering, i.e., in the first week of February.

Intercropping Intercropping in date palm with suitable crops bring good income and also improves the fertility of the soil. During the first few years, intercropping can be practised with no shortage of irrigation. Intercrops such as gram, peas, mash, moong, moth, senji and lentil can be sown during summer. Intercropping of some vegetables in plantation located near the cities, can be practised if sufficient irrigation and manuring facilities are available. The filler trees like grapes can be tried with good success.

Fruit Thinning Excess load of fruit may cause shrivelling of berries, breaking of spathe stalks, more damage due to rain and humidity, delay in ripening and alternate bearing. It also reduced size and produce poor quality of fruit. It is, therefore necessary to keep only optimum quantity of fruit and thin out the rest. This is usually accomplished either by reducing the number of fruits on each bunch and or by removing some of the bunches. The number of

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

fruit that a palm can safely carry depends on the cultivar, age, size and vigour of the palm and number of green leaves on it. Under normal conditions, 1-2 bunches in the 4th year and 3-4 bunches in the 5th year may be left. Normally 8 - 10 bunches per palm are retained in India. Small, defective and broken bunches should be removed. In short-stranded varieties like Khadrawi, the strands are generally cut back to even up the bunch from the top. Most of the fruit thinning is done by the removal of half to twothird of strands from the centre. In the long stranded varieties like Deglet Noor, one-third to half strands are cut in similar way as in Khadrawi, in addition, strands are also cut back to remove about one-third of the flowers. The desirable number of fruits to be left is between 1300 and 1600 per palm depending on the variety. The per cent thinning is generally done 40-50 in Khadrawi, 50-55 in Hallawi, 50-60 in Zaidi and Barhee. Ethephon 100-400 ppm after 10 to 30 days from fruit set was found effective in fruit thinning of cv. Hayany. The biennial bearing habit of the treated palms were found to reduce by ethephon treatment. It also advances the ripening of fruit.

Harvesting au Processing Harvesting of dates generally depends upon the weather conditions. The rain and high humidity in the atmosphere at th~ ripening time is a limiting factor in its cultivation. When the climate is favourable, it is preferable to leave the fruit of most varieties on the palm until it reaches the stage of maturity at which it is to be consumed or stored. The changes associated with ripening and the period during which the fruit may be consumed extend from the peak of the khalal stage, when the fruit has its most intense red or yellow colour and maximum weight, to the final tamar stage, when it has lost the greater part of its moisture content and will keep without special attention to storage. Most of the people like to eat the fruit in khalal stage. At least two varieties of dates Hiliawi and Barhee, are liked most for eating in khalal stage. Dates are hand-picked at the stage of maturity. All the dates in the same bunch do not ripen at same time, it has been the practice to make several pickings to harvest the fruit during a season. Sometimes, when the season is favourable and more than 70 per cent fruit is ripe, the entire

I'rllit~

of And
55

bunch is h<1rvested. The research conducted on curing of dates in Punjab (Abohar) have revealed that the rain and high humidity in the atmosphere at the time of ripening (July and August) do ,not allow the ripening process on the tree to proceed satisfactorily beyond doka stage. If the fruit is retained on the tree, there is checking, splitting and rotting. High humidity and rainfall also cause the fruit to drop. Therefore, the crop has to be harvested at doka stage. Though in comparatively drier seasons partial crop on some trees may become dang (mellow and soft) but the quantity of such fruit is limited. The berrieE: are removed and graded manually on the basis of size and colour. Scientists working at Abohar (Punjab) have developed a technique to transform satisfactorily the date fruit at doka stage into dry dates (Chhuhara) of good quality. At least four varieties Hillawi, Khadrawi, Shamran and Medjool have yielded very good product. Chhuhara obtained from Medjool, which is a large-sized variety, compare very well with the high quality Chhuhara imported from Middle East countries. The technique developed involves immersion of frut at doka stage in boiling water for 6 to 8 minutes and then drying either in temperature-controlled oven (air-circulation type) for 80 to 120 hours at 48° to 50°C or in the sun for 10-15 days if weather is dry. Thus, an average of 45 per cent fruit product is obtained. Fruits at advanced doka stage or when they attain one-fourth, one-half or full dang (the berries become mellow and soft starting from the distal end) can be converted into soft dates (Khazoor) of good quality by drying either in the oven at 40°C or in the sun. Thus, for soft dates, only drying the berries at partial or full dang stage is required with no other treatment and this way a final product of soft Khazoor ranging from 50-60 per cent is obtained. Hillawi and Barhee yielded 50-100 kg fruit per palm at doka stage. The average yield from Khadrawi and Shamrar. is obtained 40-70 kg fruit per palm. The yield from Medjool palm is upto 50 kg but its fruits are very large in size. Artificial ripening of fruit at doka stage to transform it into dang stage was also attempted at Abohar. For these studies, berries were treated with 0.5 per cent to 2.0 per cent common sait (sodium chloride) and similar concentrations of acetic acid in

56

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

combination with 1.0 per cent salt. The fruits to be treated with salt were spread on polythene sheet and requisite quantity of salt was applied by rubbing and smearing uniformly on the berries. The fruits which were given acetic acid plus salt treatments, were first dipped in solutions of desired acetic acid concentrations for 2 minutes followed salt application by the method described above. Each treated lot was packed into wooden boxes lined with old newpapers and packed in laboratory at room temperature. The boxes were opened after 24 hours. From these studies, it was found that 2 per cent salt, 60 to 70 per cent of the doka fruit were transformed into dang. However, the dang obtained by this treatment was not as good in taste as that of naturally ripened on the tree, but still it was edible and generally acceptable on account of its having lost the astringency. But such products cannot be stored more than 24 hours and, as such, should be consumed to as early as possible.

Insect-Pests The most important pests of dates are follows: 1. Date Stone Bettie (Coceotrypes dactyliperda F.): It attacks unripe fruits and the adult penetrates the fruit and reaches the stone by constructing a direct circular hole through the pulp and both adults and grubs feed inisde on the pulp and results in the drop of unripe fruit. Hillawi and Khadrawi, which ripen early, are more suscepitble to this pest. Spraying the plants with 0.075 per cent per cent Malathion has proved effective for its control. 2. Nitiduled BettIe (Haptoncus luteolus Ev): The larve penetrate the fruit and eat the inner portion of the pulp. Their attack is followed by fungal decay. The adult is brownish yello~, oval, slightly oblong, 2.3 + or - 0.13 mm long and 1.16 + or - 0.21 mm broad. Initially, the dropped fruits are attacked. Then the peat spread to fruit bunches on the tree and cause the fruit to drop. The pest over winters as pupae in the soil. Spraying wiht Malathion (0.075 per cent) gave satisfactory results. Regular removal of dropped fruits and their destruction also helps in minimising the effect.

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

57

3. Cigar Hoeing BettIe (Lasioderma testaceum Duft): It is repOrted as pests of stored dates in India. For the control of these pests, fumigate the dates and keeping material with Methyl bromide at a dose of 1/2 kg/27 cubic metres giving an exposure of 24 hours. 4. Termites: They feed on the roots of the newly transplanted suckers which may ultimately cause them to wither and die. As a preventive measure, 10 per cent BHe mixed in each pit @ 30 g before planting is recommended.

Diseases Much less work has been done for the investigation of diseases of date palm in India. Studies conducted at Regional Fruit ~esearch Station, Abohar, have found two diseases. 1. Graphiola Leaf Spot (Graphiola phoneicis): It is .also called as

false smut or palm leaf pustule. It is a serio.us disease. This disease is more acute in the areas where humidity is more. Numerous hard black smut like pustules are seen scattered developing epidermily on the upper and lower surfaces of leaflets and also on rachis. The pustules at maturity consists of round, hard, black cups about 0.50 x 0.25 mm. These cups contain yellow spores. Older leaves are more affected; they loose their chlorophyll and dry up. For its control, remove and burn the affected leaves to check further contamination and spray the trees with 2: 2: 250 Bordeaux mixture (2 kg copper sulphate + 2 kg unslaked lime mixed in 250 litres of water). 2. Fruit Rot: It often causes considerable loss when humid weather occurs during the ripening season. Under such conditions, various funguses may develop in the fruit and cause spotting, dropping and rotting. The damage may be reduced by better ventilations of the branches and protecting the fruit from rain. In addition, spray the bunches with a mixture of 5 per cent fahana (ferHc dimethyl dithiocarbamate) in sulphur.

58

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Pl.lnts

Phalsa (Grewia Asiatica L.) Phalsa is a small bush which grows all over the country except at higher elevations. In Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, it is grown commercially. The fruit is berrylike, globular, smooth, deep reddish brown and comes in the market in May and June.

Climate Phalsa relish distinct winter and summer for best growth, yield and quality. [n regions having no winter, the plant does not shed leaves and produce flower more than once, thus yielded poor quality fruits. Full grown plants can tolerate freezing temperature for a short period. The plants can tolerate temperature as high as 44°C. High temperature during fruit development favours ripening of fruits. At flowering time, clear weather is needed, whereas rains at that time affect fruit-setting adversely. The phalsa is one of the. ·hardiest fruit plants and can be grown successfully throughtout Punjab and Haryana. Being deciduous in habit, it can \\rithstand frost quite well. However, care should be taken to select sites which are not subject to very low temperatures during winter. It can also grow successfully in hot and dry climatic conditions, such as those prevailing in the districts of Feroz~pur, Bhatinda and Sangrur of Punjab. It can withstand occasional drought and water shortages better than fruit plants. However, for raising profitable crop of phalsa, satisfactory arrangeIl\ents for irrigation need to be made.

.

Soil The phalsa is not at all ta,stidious in its soil requirements and can grow quite successfully in almost every kind of soil. Around Amritsar (Punjab), where the soils are comparatively heavy, its plants grow well and bear bumper crops. At many other places such as Ludhiana, it yields well under lighter soil conditions. Though the ideal soil for growing phalsa is the rich loamy type.

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

59

Under water logged conditions plants become chlorotic and make . poor growth. Proper soil drainage is another factor wh'ich should be kept in mind. However, soils where water stagnates for many days during the rainy season or those which have a poor sub-surface drainage and are water-logged should not be selected for commercial cultivation of phalsa.

Custard-apple or Sitaphal (Annona squamosa L.) It is a small tree seldom more than 4.5 metres high and is both cultivation and found growing in a semi-wild state throughout" Peninsular India. A dry-and-hot climate suits it most. It flourishes in lighter soils, and grows well even on the slopes of hills, but cannot stand cold or frost.

This fruit-tree is propagated through seeds and by grafting. There is considerable variation in the fruit-trees when propagated from seeds. 'Bullock's-heart (ramphal) provides a suitable rootstock for grafting by inarching or budding. Grafted plants give fruits earlier (in about two years) than seedlings which take three to four years. The plant flowers from April and November. The yield per tree varies from 25 to 30 kg. Fruits are mostly consumed locally, but they can be transported over long distances if they are picked before they are fully ripe and are packed in a single layer in well-ventilated wooden boxes with soft padding material.

BulIock's-heart (Annona reticulata L.) The Bullock's-heart is an allied fruit which is rarely cultivated. It prefers a heavier soil than custard-apple and is less resistant to cold and frost. It is easy to propagate by inarching. It gives fruits

from January tQ May and the yield goes up to 45 kg per tree. Cheri moyer is the best of the family and performs best in subtropical climate. It is propagated by inarching on Bullock's heart rootstock. The tree bears fruits from the sixth year onwards and gives about 100 fruits per year. Attemoya is a cross between custard-apple and cheri moyer and is similar to the latter in its growth requirement.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Aonla (Phyllanthus Emblica L.) It is indigenous to India and the tree is characterized by very small leaves which are attached to branchlets in such a way that each br.anchlet looks like a compound leaf. The tree attains good height. It is quite hardy and can be grown without much care in all types of soil, except very sandy.

The 'Banarsi' aonla is the most important cuitivar which is propagated vegetatively. In the District of Pratapgarh of Uttar Pradesh, there are many commercial orchards . The important varieties grown are 'Banarsi', 'Chakiya' and Fig. Aonla 'Pink-tinged'. These are vegetatively propagated and highly valued ut:llike the seedling-trees which produce unmarketable fruits. The commercial practice of propagating aonla is by shieldbudding which is done in June. The two-year-old seedling aonla is used as rootstock. Budded aonla plants are planted in the fields during rains at a distance of 11 metres each way. It can also be planted as a windbreak around an orchard . The budded plants will commence bearing from the 10th year. The vegetative growth of the tree continues from April to July. Along with the new growth in the spring, flowering also commences. The flowers are of two types: (1) male, and (2) female. Fruits are fully mature by January-February. Under conditions in southern India, the fruits are found throughout the year at one place or another.

Fig (Ficus Carica L.) Fig has never been grown extensively in India. Maharashtra formerly had more than 500 hectares, but largely because of diseases, this figure has decreased to less than 125 hectares. Southern India reports somewhat less than this area, and there are a few fig-groves in Hyderabad and in other parts of the country. TIle types are not of the best quality and it is likely that they are hybrids between the European and other species. The climate of most parts of India seems to be suitable for the

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

61

cultivation of fig . Rain at the time of fruit ripening is undesirable. Various types of soil are used successfully.

Varieties There is as yet little basis for recommending specific varieties for different parts of India. The variety most commonly grown in Maharashtra and southern India is known as the 'Poona' fig.

Propagation and Planting The plants are almost entirely grown from cuttings. Budding and-~rafting are easily done. Several species of figs are compatible as rootstocks. Cuttings made in winter are ready for planting out in the rainy season. Some prefer to plant the cuttings in situ. The spacing of fig-trees depends on the size they are to reach and this depends mainly on the type of pruning. Generally, a spacing of 4.5 to 5 metres is adopted.

Culture Tillage to keep down weeds is necessary and irrigation during the dry season when the fruits are growing and maturing is desirable. The tree is deep-rooted and drought-resistant, but does not bear well under conditions of water deficiency. A good supply of nitrogen is also required for heavy bearing, and the use of farmyard manure is also recommended. A fertilizer mixture containing 0.225 kg of N, 0.45 kg of P and 0.45 kg of K per tree may be applied.

Pruning The fig-tree can stand very heavy pruning. Most of the fruit is borne on the growth of the current year. Some annual pruning seems desirable, but the most efficient type in each of the areas where the fig is grown in this country is not known.

Harvesting The ripe fruit is delicate and must be harvested carefully and used within a few days. Where figs are grown for drying, they may be allowed to fall from the tree on clean dry ground.

62

Horticllltllrill, Medicinal ilnd Aromatic Plants

Jujube (Zizip}ms Mauritiana Lamk.) Jujube, ber or bor, is estimated to occupy about 4,000 hectares mainly in the northern, eastern and western parts of India. Almost any soil is suitable, even if it contains enough alkali to prevent the growth of some crops. The tree can stand prolonged drought and also water-logging. It cannot stand frost.

Fig. Jujube

Climate The ber is a hardy fruit tree and can grow successfully even under unfavourable climatic conditions, where most other fruit trees fail to grow. It can be grown up to a height of 1,000 metres above sea-level, beyond this it does not bear well. Ber relishes hot and dry climate for its successful cultivation, but the trees need adequate watering during the fruiting season. Excessive atmospheric humidity is considered a limiting factor for satisfactory fruiting. Frost during winter does not have much effect on the tree. It can very well withstand hot and dry weather during summer months of May-June, its tree enters into dormancy by shedding its leaves. New growth starts in Ju ly with the advent of rains and the growth period continues till the middle of November when it is inhibited with the onset of cold weather.

Soil Ber provides a good scope for cultivation on soils which have so far been considered marginal or even unsuitable for growing other fruits. Its tree developes a deep tap-root system within a short period of growth and as such adopts itself to a wide variety of soils. Ber is well known for its ability to thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and water-logging. The research work conducted at the Punjab Agicultural University has revealed that ber can flourish even in soils with pH as high as 9.2. Ber cultivation can succeed even under constraints of irrigation and fertilization; however, for good tree growth and yield, deep sandyloam soils with neutral or slightly alkaline reaction and good drainage are more desirable.

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Arcas

63

Promising Varieties 1. Umrml: This variety is cultivaed in a large scale in Punjab

and Haryana. The fruit is large, oval in shape with a roundish apex and has an attractive golden yellow colour which turns into chocolate brown at fully maturity. The fruit is sweet, with 14-19 per cent TSS and has pleasant flavour and excellent dessert quality. It is a prolific cropping variety, yielding 150-200 kg of fruit per tree. The fruits ripen late from second fortnight of March to midApril and have a good keeping quality. It is susceptible to powdery mildew. 2. Sallaur-2: This is a selection from Sanaur - a small town near Patiala, which is known for ber cultivation. The fruit is large and oblong with a roundish apex. On ripening, fruits attain a light yellow colour and TSS of 18-19 per cent. Like Umran, it is also a prolofic bearer-yielding about 150 kg fruit per tree. It is a mid-season variety, ripening during second fortnight of March under Punjab conditions and has been found fairly resistant to powdery mildew disease. 3. Kaithli: This variety is a selection fro~Kaithali in Haryana. The fruit is medium in size, oval in shape and has a tapering apex. Fruit pulp is soft and sweet with TSS of 14-16 per cent. Fruits ripen in the second fortnight of March to first week of April. The average yield is 120 kg fruit per tree. This is an excellent variety but appears to be more susceptible to powdery mildew disease. 4. Z.G.-2: The fruit is medium in size and roundish in shape with smooth skin. The fruit pulp is soft with an excellent sugar-acid blend. When ripe the fruits attain light yellow colour and TSS of 15-16 per cent. The average yield amounts to 150 kg fruit per tree and the ripening time extends from second fortnight of March to first week of April. This variety is recommended for growing for local markets only. It is less susceptible to powdery mildew. Sanaur-5, Gola, Sanaur-4, Chhuhara and Laddu are other important varieties of ber, which have good taste and bears heavily.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Plmlti"g and After-care

Planting The ber plants can be planted in February-March and again in August-September, but the latter season of planting gives a better success. Recently, Punjab Agricultural University has also recommended the bare-rooted (without earth ball) planting of ber during December-January. One meter deep pits of one meter diameter should be dug and left exposed for one month before actual planting. Pits should be refilled with a mixture of top-soil, about 20 kg well-rotten farmyard manure and 1 kg superphosphate per pit. To avoid attack of white ants 30 g of BHe 10 per cent dust is added to each pit. The refilled pits should be about 2-3 cm higher than the ground level and irrigated thoroughly, so that the loose soil settles down firmly. A plant may be set in the centre of a pit with the help of planting board, maintaining the same level of soil at which it stood in the nursery. The budding point should remain about 15-20 cm high from the ground level. The plants should be immediately watered after plantation. They should be irrigated after every 4-6 days at least during the first two months and subsequently after every 7-10 days for another 3-4 months or until the plants get fully established. The grafted ber is spreading in habit and grows into a big tree. The tree requires proper spacing for its healthy growth and fruiting. For obtaining good income, ber lJlants should be planted 7.5 metres apart in square system (from row to row and plant to plant) thus accommodating 180 trees per ha.

Lifting Plants from the NursenJ The budded ber plants should be transplanted during February-March or August-September. The plants are dug out from the nursery with good-sized earth-balls so that their root-system is not much distributed. The plants should be packed carefully to keep the earth-ball intact. The earth-ball should be kept moist throughout the period of transportation and up to plantation so that the roots of tree do not dry up in the intervening period. While lifting bare-rooted plants, the leaves and shoots of the budded ber plants are removed before uprooting them from the

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Arcas

65

nursery. These plants are also headed back at a height of 60-75 cm from ground level. Then, these plants are dug from the soil with the help of of Spade and Khurpa to keep maximum feeding roots with them;. These plants are tied 100sJy in bundles and are wrapped f1, moist rice straw. Such plants can easily be trained according to modified central leader system. The bare-rooted nlant should be lifted from nursery from mid-December to earlyFebruary.

Planting as Windbreak Besides regular ber plantations, the tree can also be successfully planted as a windbreak around the commercial orchards to provide an effective wind screen. The tall-growing tres like Safeda, Arjun and Simbal shou Is be interplanted with ber, being a low-headed tree.

Rootstock and Propagation Seeds of Katha ber (Zizyphus mauritYana Lamk.) are generally used for raising rootstock, which are easily available from the wild growing trees and possess the qualities of a good rootstock. The ber plants should be budded on Zizyphus mauritialla (Elongated Dehradun) for higher fruit yield. Ber plants raised on semivigorous rootstock Zizyplzus mauritialla (Coimbatore) can profitably be planted at a closer spacing of 6 m x 6 m. Umran trees grafted on this rootstock show a spread of 6 metre as compared to the recommended rootstock, viz., Zizyphus mauritialla (Elongated Dehradun) on whom the tree spread to an area of 7.5 metre. Thus about 50 per cent more plants/ha can be accommodated with over 20 per cent increase in yield of equally good quality fruit. Seeds of Mallah ber (Zizypltus llumularia) can also be used as rootstock. The seedangs of Mallah ber are slow growing and become buddable after longer period than the seedlings of Katha ber.

Raising of Rootstock The germination of ber seed is quite a difficult process on account of the stony nature of the shell (endocarp) which contains the seed. A large percentage of seed stones are non-viable and

66

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

require elimination at the time of sowing. Seed stones collected from dropped fruits contain 50-70 per cent non-viable seeds. Seeds should be dipped into a salt solution of 17-18 per cent concentration for 24 hours before sowing. The flaoting seeds should not be sown as these are generally non-viable. The ber seeds can also be sown by cracking the hard shell (endocarp). They germinate rapidlly in about 8-10 days. However, for commercial purpose, stones should be sown as such to avoid injury to embryos. To get best rootstock material, it is important that seeds should be collected only from healthy and vigorous-growing wild ber trees. The ber seedlings raised from Katha ber stones, which are sown during March-April, after fresh extraction, in well-prepared nursery field at a distance of 15 cm in rows 30 cm apart. Germination starts in about 3-4 weeks and seedlings make a rapid growth. The seedlings should be trained to the single stem. Nearly one-fourth of the seedlings attain buddable size of a lead pencil by August, while the rest are ready for budding by April next.

Budding The propagation of ber by budding is the most successful method. Both Shield or T-budding and ring-budding methods are employed but the former is preferable, because it is easier to perform. Budding operation should be done when there is proper flow of sap in the stock to be budded. Shield-budding is done during March-April or August-September, but it has been found that August-September budding gives a far better success. The buddlings make growth at a very fast speed. Plants budded in April usually become saleable in August-September, whereas those budded in rainy season are ready for planting by FebruaryMarch next. The ring-budding is preferable during June-July when the new growth starts. Shield-budding done during AugustSeptember has given success of 75-81 per cent, whereas budding in April has given a little success. The highest budding success is also achieved in June.

Selection of Stock and Scion The stock seedlings should be healthy and vigorous and it is allowed to grow as a single stem only. The budding is done when the stock stem has attained the thickness of a lead pencil.

Fruits of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

67

It is essential that bud sticks are taken only from selected trees which are known for bearing a heavy fruit crop of good quality. The mother plant from which the scion bud-sticks are obtained for budding should be healthy, vigorous, free from diseases and insect-pests and should be true-to-type. Two to three months old shoots with plump buds should be se!ected. Bud-sticks, about 30 em long, are cut from the selected mother plants. For sending to distant places, about 20 cm long bud-sticks should be taken. The leaves of the bud-sticks should be cut away, keeping the leaf stalks attached to the buds. These should be tied in small bundles and wrapped in moist piece of cloth. The bud-stick!> sl-tould be kept moist till they are used for budding. The bud sticks can be kept for 2-3 days in good condition.

Flowering and Fruiting The whole period of bud development is divided into eight stages. It takes 21 days to 22 days for passing through various stages of bud development. The flowering period lasts for about two and a half months from September to November. The peak of flower anthesis is at 6 a.m. in Sanaur-2, Sanaur-5 and Chhuhara ultivers and 2 p.m. in Thornless, Khaithli and Umran cultivars. The dehiscence of anthers starts just after anthesis and completes within 4 hours. Pollen grains are highly viable - the viability ranging between 87 to 91 per cent in different cultivers. Pollen grain germinability is also quite high to 36 - 48 per cent. The peak receptivity in stigma is found on the day of anthesis. It does not set any fruit by self-pollination, thereby showc; selfincompatibility. Fruit-setting starts in second week of October and continues up to first fortnight of November. The ber fruit reaches to ripe stage in about 180 days after fruit-setting. The fruit growth in terms of lenght and diameter shows three distinct phases and follows a pattern of 'Double Sigmoid' curve.

Orchard Cultural Practices

Training The ber plants start bearing within 2-3 years of their planting in the orchard. In the fourth year, the trees bear commercial crop. Hence, the ber plants should be properly trained during the first

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

2-3 years, to build up a strong framework. The young budlings should be given support with a bamboo stake to avoid the breakage of the bud-union and to support the main stem. The commercial varieties are spreading in nature, therefore, staking is absolutely essential during the first two years to train the tree properly. The plant will make vigorous growth during the first year. Many secondary branches will emerge from the main stem. All the branches upto 75 cm from the ground level should be removed. Four or five laterals which are most favourably located around the main stem should be selected to make the proper framework. At the end of the year, the main stem should be headed back to some outgrowing laterals. Pruning The pruning of ber trees is highly desirable to maintain their vigour and productivity as well as to improve fruit size and quality. Pruning also saves the fruit from being affected by the powdery mildew disease and strong winds. The ber tree remains young up to 30 years, if proper pruning is done regularly. Ber fruit is borne in the axils of leaves on the younge growing shoots of the current year. Hence, a regular annual pruning is essential to induce a good and healthy growth which will provide a maximum fruit bearing area on the trees as well as to improve the fruit size and quality. In unpruned ber tree, the canopies of the trees get un-necessarily enlarged, the growth and branchlets become weak and both fruit size and quality gets impaired. Ultimately, such trees become economically unproductive besides occupying large orchard space. Some thinning CJt of the branches of ber trees is also necessary to avoid too much crowding so as to admit adequate sunlight and facilitate proper aeration. Ber pruning experiments have shown that the light pruning, i.e., heading back of 25 per cent of the previous year's growth (branchlets, shoots, etc.) is desirable to obtain heavy yield, good fruit size and better quality. The lower branches should be pruned suitably to prevent them from spreading on the ground. The diseased, broken and intercrossing branches should also be thinned out. Severe pruning after every four-five years, is recommended. The ber trees shed their leaves and enter into dormancy by the end of May. The best time for taking up pruning would, therefore, be May-end or beginning of June.

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Irrigation Irrigation is essential during the development of fruit, i.e., from October to February at intervals of 3 or 4 weeks depending upon the weather. Trees will continue to bear even if no irrigation is applied during this period but the yield is substantially reduced because of heavy fruit drops and smaller size of the remaining fruit. The quality of fruit is also very poor. It has been observed that the fruit become large a!1d their quality is improved, the fruit shedding is very much minimized if irrigation is applied during fruit development period. Irrigation should be stopped in March as fruits on the branches lying on the ground get damaged and their ripening is delayed. The harvesting of fruit is o\- er in April , and they become dormant in May-June and shed their leaves. They need little or no irrigation during this period. If irrigation is applied during the dormant period, the trees would continue to put fourth growth haphazardly which is not desirable. Under Punjab conditions there are sufficient rains during July to September when the tree produce the maximum fresh growth. During the second half of September and October the trees come into flowering. At this time, light irrigation should be given.

Manuring and Fertilization Proper nutrition ofber tree is necessary to get good crop over the years. The fruit becomes large and attractive and get decent price in the market. 20 kg farmyard manure and 100 g nitrogen (400 g CAN) is recommended for one year old ber tree. Similar amount of farmyard manure and nitrogen should be increased every year up to the age of five years. The quantity of farmyard manure and nitrogen should be stabilized at 100 kg and 500 g (2 kg CAN), respectively, after the age of five years. Farmyard manure should be supplied in May-June. Half of the CAN may be applied during rainy season (July-August) and the other half at the time of fruit-set (October-November). The fertilizer should be evenly spread in the basins of trees up to the periphery. After adding the fertilizer, light hoeing with spade or khurpa should be given to thE:' basins to mix it thoroughly with the soil.

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lntercropping The ber tree begins to bear after one year of its planting in the field. To develop the tree properly, it is advisable that no fruit sIiould be taken at leasl for the first two-three years. Intercropping can be successfully practised on the vacant land in the young orchard dtlring the first four years. Only leguminous crops of short stature like gram, moong and mash can be grown to get some income from the land in these initial years. These crops also enrich the soil by fixing nit~ogen. The other exhaustive and tall-growing crops should not be groWn in the ber orchard as they deplete the soil of its nutrients to a greater extent and compete for light with the trees. . Manures and fertilizers, irrigation and plant protection measures should be given seperately to the fruit trees and intercrops according to their needs.

Weed Control Pre-emergence application of Hexuron 80 WP (diuron) at 1.2 kg/acre can be made during the first fortnight of August when field is free from growing weeds and stubbles. Glycel 41 SI (glyphosate) at 1.2 litres/acre or gramoxone 24 WSC (paraquat) at 1.2 litres/acre as post-emergence should be sprayed when the weeds are growing actively preferably before weeds flower and attain a height of 15-20 cm. Dissolve the herbicide in 200 Iitres of water per acre to give complete coverage of weeds/field. Spray Glycel and Gramoxone during the calm day to avoid spray drift to the foilage of the fruit trees.

Control of Fruit Drop Spray application of 20-30 ppm Naphthalene acetic acid once in the second week of October and. again in the second week of November, check 11 per cent fruit drop in Sanaur-5 snd 10 per cent in Kaithli cultivers of ber.

Harvesting The ber tree grows quickly and and the first crop can be harvested within 2-3 years of planting. The fruit itself requires about 22-26 weeks to mature after fruit-setting. The peak season

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71

of harvesting in north India is in mid-March to mid-April but some early v,.rieties may ripen by end-February. This period being a slack season for other kinds of fruits, ber sells readily at remunrative prices. The fruit should always be picked at the right stage of maturity, i.e., when it is neither under-ripe nor over-ripe. It should be picked when it has acquired normal size and characteristic colour of the variety, e.g., golden yellow colour in Umran. Normally four to five pickings have to be made as all the fruits on the tree do not ripen at the same time. In no case, the fruit should be allowed to become over-ripe on the trees, as they deteriorat~ in taste and quality and thus fetch lower price in the market.

Insect-Pests 1. Fruit-fly (Carpomyia vasuvialla Costa) It causes great damage to ber fruits. The larvae feed inside the fruits and render them unfit for human consumption. To control the pest, pick and destroy the infested fruits and spray 500 ml of Roger 30 EC (Dimethoate) in 300 litres of water during February-March, care being taken that sprayings are stopped atleast 15 days before fruit harvest.

2. LeafeatilZg Caterpiller (Porthmol(1ga paraelina Meyrick) and Ber Beetle (Adoretus paIlC1ls Harold) The plantation should be watched carefully during rainy season regarding the attack of these insect-pests. Leaf-eating caterpillars feed on leaves and cause huge damage. To control these, spray with 750 g Sevin 50 per cent (Carbaryl) in 250 Iitres of water as soon as the damage is noticed. 3. Lac Insect (LacciJer lacca) This insect also causes serious damage by sucking the sap from the twigs which usually dry up. To control this insects, remove and destroy the infested dry twigs. Spray the trees with 250 ml of Rogor 30 EC (Dimethoate) or 100 ml of Dimecron 85 WC (Phosphamidon) in 250 litres of water in April and again in September.

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Diseases Powdery Mildew The disease is caused by Microspha">ra alphitoides spp. Zizyphi and appears from September to December. It has become a big meance to ber orchards in north India. If not checked in time, the disease can wipe out the entire crop. Young developing leaves and fruits are covered with withish powdery mass of the causal fungus. The disease cause premature defoliation and heavy fruitdrop. Affected fruits remain small and become cankered and disfigured. Sometimes the attack is so sereve that the entire crop is lost either through drop or rendered unmarketable, thus causing heavy economic losses to the growers. The disease can be controlled by 3-4 spray of 0.05 per cent Karathane 40 EC (50-80 ml in 100 litres of water) or 0.25 per cent wettable sulpher (250 g in 100 litres of water). First spray must be given before flowering (first fortnight of September), second spray after fruit-set in early October and the third in the end of October. Another spray can be given if need arises.

Leaf Spots Two leaf spots of ber are very common in ber growing regions, i.e., 'Phoma Leaf Spot' caused by Phoma macrostoma Mont. and 'Black Mould of Leaf' caused by lsariopsis indica. Both diseases are caused by different fungi, while the Phoma leaf spot appears on the upper surface, the black mould make its appearence only on the lower surface of leaves. In case of Phoma leaf spot symptoms appear when the leaves have fully expanded, in the Black mould case the sysmptoms can appear even on young leaves. Phoma leaf spot appears with grey centre, yellow margin and dark fungal growth on the mid-rib, main vein, petiols and the leaves. Black mould spot appears as small circular, small finger-like projections like softy tufts. Both the leaf spots of ber can be controlled by spraying the following fungicides as given below:

1. First Spray: Bordeaux mixture 2: 2: 250 or with 0.3 per cent copper oxychloride 50 per cent {300 g in 100 Htres of water) should be sprayed both on upper and lower surface of leaves with the appearance of disease in August or when the leaves have expanded.

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2. Secolld Spray: This spray should be given after 14 days of the first spray with 0.2 per cent Dithane M-45 WP 75 per cent (200 g per litres of water) both on upper and lower surface of leaves. First and second spray should be repeated alternatively at 14 days interval till the fruits are fit for marketiing. Thereafter sprayings are stopped a week before harvesting.

Jamun Climate Jamun is successfully grown under tropical and subtropical climate. It also occurS in the lower range of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1300 metres and in the Kumaon hills up to 1600 metres above sea level. It is widely grown in the larger parts of India from the Indo-Gangetic plains in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South. It is one of the most hardy fruit crop and can be easily grown in neglected and marshy areas where other fruit plants cannot be grown successfully. Jamun is somewhat more susceptible to cold and drought than the seedling mango trees. It requires dry weather at the time of flowering and fruiting. For ripening of fruit and proper development of its size, colour and taste, early rains are considered very beneficial. The fruits show remarkable improvement in these respects after the very first shower of rain.

Soil Jamun tree is exact in its soil requirements. The tree requires deep, loam and well-drained soil for its optimum growth and good fruiting. Its cultivation should be avoided in very heavy or light soils.

Choice of Varieties 1. Ra /amu1l: It produces big sized fruit with average lenght of 2.5-3.5 cm and of diameter 1.2-2.0 cm. Fruits are oblong

in shape, deep purple or bluish black in colour at fully stage. The pulp colour of ripe fruit is purple pink and the fruit is juicy and sweet. The stone is small in size. It ripens in the month of June-July. The variety is very common among the people. rip~

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2. Small Sized Jamun: It is a late maturing variety. The average lenght of fruit is 1.5-2.0 cm and diameter is 1-1.5 cm. The fruit is slightly round in shape, deep purple or blackish in colour at full ripe stage. The colour of the pulp is purple, less in juice, weight and sweetness of pulp in comparison of that of 'Ra Jamun'. The stone is very large. Fruits ripen in the month of August.

Propagation and Rootstock Though lot of jamun plantation is seen on road side or scattered plantation at farmer's field, yet no single well established orchard is reported in North India. Also no systematic work has been done on its propagation. The most common method of jamun propagation is by seed. Seedling plant bears fruit of variable size and quality. For improved and selected true-to-true, vegetative methods of propagation like inarching and air-layering have been advocated.

Sexual Propagation Seeds are sown fresh in flat nursery beds during July when this fruit ripens. The seeds should be sown at a distance of 15 em in rows which are 25-30 cm apart. The seedlings can also be raised in polythene bags of 22.5-30 cm size. The bags should be filled with a mixture of soil and farmyard manure in equal proportion. To drain out excess water the polythene bags should be pricked from all sides before filling the mixture. It has been seen that more than one seedling comes out from a single seed. These seedlings are separated in different bags when they are about two weeks old. Plants grown from seed become transplantable during next spring season. But it is advisable to keep them in nursery up to next rainy season which is the best time of its plantation.

Vegetative Propagation T-budding and Patch Budding According to the recent research conducted at Punjab Agricultural University has revealed that jamun can be best propagated through T-budding as well ,~s.,,~hrollgh patch buddding. The seedling of jamun is used asll rod'tstock. Th~ per

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cent success is higher in T-budding (70 per cent) than patch budding (60 per cent). The best time for budding in both the cases is either during February-March or during August-September. However, the success during August-September is higher.

Inarching The rootstock used for propagating jamun is the jamun seedlings. For raising the rootstock, seeds are collected from healthy, vigorously growing and high yielding jamun trees. Seedlings are raised either in bed or in pots singly. In the month of June-July one or two year old rootstocks are inarched with the matching thickness of scion. Rootstocks are watered if necessary till the grafts are separated from the parent tree. The union will complete in a period of about six weeks.

Veneer Grafting Veneer grafting gives 31 per cent success when one year old seedlings are used as rootstocks. The shoots are taken from spring flush and the method is employed in the month of July.

Planting Operation Jamun can be transplanted during spring (February-March) or during monsoon (August-September). However, the later season of planting is considered better because the plants easily get established during the rainy season. The plants are transplanted with earth ball and are given irrigation till they get established. The size of the pit should be 1 m x 1 m x 1 m and these should be filled with a mixture of surface soil, silt and well rotten farmyard manure. The jamun is planted at the distance of 10-12 metres in square system.

Flowering and Fruiting The flowering in jamun starts in the first week of March and continues up to the middle of April. The trees are in full bloom in the second week of April. The inflorescence in jamun is generally borne in the axils of leaves on branchlet. The flowers are hermaphrodite, light yellow in colour. The maximum anthesis and dehiscence were recorded between 10 a.m and 12 noon. The pollen

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fertility was higher in the beginning of the season. The maximum receptivity of stigma was observed one day after anthesis. Jamun is a cross-pollinated fruit. The pollination is done by honeybees, house flies <:lnd wind. The maximum fruit set, i.e., 32.636.0 per cent was obtained when pollination was done one day after anthesis. Thereafter, a sharp decline was observed in fruit set. Three distinct phases of fruit growth in jamun are recorded. During the first phase (15-52 days after fruit set), the rate of growth was slow. In the second phase (52-58 days after fruit set), the rate of development was quite rapid and the third and last phase (58-60 days after fruit set) comprised comparatively slow growth with little addition of the fruit weight. The lenght and diameter of fruit showed a continued increase with advancement of maturity. The colour of jamun fruit changed from dark green at fruit set to light reddish colour at partial ripening and dark or bright purple at full ripe stage. The fruit took 63 days for complete ripening from fruit set. The ripe jamun had 76 per cent edible portion and 3: 1: 1 pulp to seed ratio. TSS and sugars followed an increasing trend, while tannin content followed a decreasing trend during growth and development.

Orchard Cultural Practices Irrigation During the initial year, the jamun plants required 8-10 irrigations in a year while bearing trees (full grown) required 4-6 irrigations during the summer months of May and June when fruits ripen. In the remaining period of the year, irrigation may be given when there are no rains or dry spell persists. During winter months, irrigation proves useful as it protects the plants from frost injury . .

I

In tercropping To supplement the income from pre-bearing period of jamun, intercropping should be practised judiciously. Intercropping also improved fertility of the soil. Fruit crops like peach, pulm, guava, kinnow, kagzi lime, phalsa and papaya can be grown as filler trees. Such filler trees can be uprooted when the jamun trees starts. bearing commucial crop. The leguminous crop like gram, peas, moong and mash can be grown successfully. In addition,

•

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77

intercrops of vegetables near established market may be taken with cauliflower, cabbage, knol, khol, radish, brinjal, turnip, carrot, etc.

Manuring and Fertilization During the pre-bearing period of jamun, a dose of 20 kg well rotten farmyard manure should be applied. To the bearing tree 80 kg FYM per tree should be supplied annually for proper growth and fruiting. Sometimes in highly fertile soils, the plants produce profuse vegetative growth and fruiting is delayed. Under such conditions, the manures should not be given and irrigation should also be given sparingly and withheld in September-October and again in February-March. This procedure will prove beneficial in fruit bud formation, flowering and fruit setting. Ringing and root pruning are also helpful.

Training and Pruning Jamun plants should be trained according to the modified leader system. Regular pruning is not required in jamun plants. However, in later years, the dry twigs and crossed branches are removed. While training the plant, the framework of branches is allowed to develop above 60-100 cm from the ground level.

Flower and Fruit Drop In jamun, the flower and fruit drop start just after opening of flowers and continue up to maturity. About 65 per cent flower and fruit drop in the first five weeks and since then a maxium of 19-21 per cent flowers and fruits drop off up to maturity. Only 12-15 per cent flowers reach maturity. The flower and fruit drop are found at 3 stages. The first drop takes place during bloom or shortly there after. This proves to be the heaviest drop as about 52 per cent of the flowers drop off after 4 weeks from flowering. TIle second drop starts about 35-40 days of full bloom and apparently there is no difference between the developing and aborting fruits. The third drop takes place after 42-50 days of full bloom and continues till 15th July.

Control The extent of flower and fruit drop in jam un may be reduced by two sprays of 60 ppm GA 3, one at full bloom and the other 15 days after initial setting of fruit.

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Harvesting and Fruit Handling The grafted jamun starts bearing after 6-7 years while the seedling one after 8-10 years of planting. The fruit ripen in the month of June-July. The main characteristic of ripen fruit at full size is deep purple or black colour. The jamun fruit is nonclimacteric in nature. The fruit should be picked immediately when it is ripe, because it can not be retained on the tree in ripe stage. The ripe fruits are picked singly by hand and in all cases care should be taken to avoid all possible damage to fruits. For harvesting, the picker climbs the tree with bags of cotton slung on the shoulder. The fruits of jamun is generally harvested daily and sent to market on the same day. The fruit is highly perishable and can be kept in good condition for about 2-3 days under ordinary conditions. The average yield of fruit from a full grown seedling jamun tree is about SO-loo kg and from a grafted one 60 - 70 kg per year. The storage life of jamun fruit is 6 days at room temperature and 3 weeks at low temperature (9°C and RH 85-90 per cent) when pre-cooled fruits are kept in perforated polythene bags.

Insects-Pests 1. White-Fly (Dialeurodes eugeniae): It damages the tree in all parts of India. Sometimes the fruits of jamun get wormy due to attack of fruit fly. Pests can be controlled by maintaining sanitary situation in the orchard. Pick up the affected fruits and burry them deep in soil. The area under the tree should be dug so that the maggots in the affected fruits and the pupae hibernating in the soil may be destroyed. 2. Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Carea subtilis): It is reported to damage the plant in South India at Coimbatore. The insect infest the leaves and may defoliate the trees. The pest can be controlled by spraying 625 ml Roger in 500 litres of water.

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3. Squirrels, Parrots, Crows and Birds: The jamun fruits are also damaged by squirrels, parrots, crows and birds. For keeping them away, beating of drum or flinging small dry earthern balls through a sling is useful.

Diseases

Leaf spot and Fruit Rot The disease caused due to Glomerella cingulata. Affected leaf shows scattered spots, light brown or reddish brown in colour. The affected fruits rot and shrivel. The disease can be controlled with fungicide like Dithane 2-78 at 0.02 per cent or Bordeaux mixture (2: 2: 250).

5

Temperate Fruits

Apple (Pyrus malus L.) Apple occupies nearly 12,141 hectares, mostly in temperate regions of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir and to a small extent in the Nilgiris.

Varieties Apple varieties fall into two categories: diploids and triploids. Diploids have plenty of good pollen and are self-fruitful. Triploids are selfunfruitful and become productive only when pollinated by using suitable pollenizer varieties. Even self-fruitful . varieties have to be interplanted to get FIg. Apple commercial crops through crosspollination. Varieties selected for interplanting should sufficiently overlap in their blossoming periods. Important varieties are listed below: 1. Himachal Pradesh: 'Red Delicious', 'Golden Delicious', 'Worester Pearmain', 'Newton Wonder' (all diploids), 'Cox's Orange Pippen' (triploid), 'King of Pippens', '5tarking (Royal) Delicious' and 'Richard'. 2. Kashmir Valley: 'Red Delicious' (diploid), 'B~dwin' (triploid), 'Ambri Kashmiri', 'White Dotted Red' and 'Blood Red'. 3. Simla Hills: 'Beauty of Bath' (triploid), 'Red Delicious', 'Jonathon'" 'Rome Beauty' (all diploids), 'Early 5hanburry',

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'Red Astrachan', 'Red Sudeley', 'Stayman Winesap', 'Winter Banana' and 'Yellow Newton'. 4. Kumaon Hills: 'James Grieve', 'Jonathon', 'Rome Beauty' (all diploids), 'Blenheim Orange Pippen', 'Delicious', 'Early Shanburry', 'Golden Pippen', 'King of Pipper,-', 'Rhymer' and 'Winter Banana'. 5. Kulu Vallet): 'Ben Davis', 'Red Delicious', 'Golden Delicious' (all diploids), 'Cox's Orange Tippen', 'Blenheim Orange', 'Baldwin' (all triploids), 'Red Astrachan', 'King of Pippens', 'Yellow Newton' and 'Granny Smith'. 6. Nilgiri: 'Rome Beauty' (diploid) and 'Irish Peach'.

Propagation and Planting Propagated mainly by shield-budding, bench-grafting and tongue-grafting on seedlings raised from seed. Use M. IX dwarfing stock and 7.5 to 9 metres if on seedling stock. Standardized clonal rootstocks of the Malling-Merton series are recommended where woolly aphis is serious.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.)

Varieties The cultivated varieties of apricot are mainly exotic and they grow successfully at varying elevations. The following varieties are recommended: 'Shipley Early', 'Kaisha', 'New Castle', 'St. Ambroise', and 'Royal'. 'All these varieties are self-fruitful.

Propagation and Planting Apricot is propagated by shield-budding on wild apricot stock, i.e., zardalu. Peach stock may also be used. Plant one-yearold grafts in autumn 6 to 7.5 metres apart.

Pruning Apricot grafts usually have numerous lateral branches unlike the straight whips of apple, pear and cherry. If the laterals develored in the nursery are not properly spaced, cut off the main stem while planting, about 50 to 75 cm above the ground level to promote the growth of new laterals. During the first summer, remove all unwanted laterals, leaving three to five well-placed

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branches to form the framework. Head-back the scaffold branches breast-high next winter to get secondary scaffold branches. Leave the upper branches longer than the lower ones, as the latter grow faster and crowd out the upper branches. By the end of the second growing season, the tree produces a large number of laterals on the scaffold branches and trunk, which should all be removed, except a few short growths (7 cm to 12 cm long) on the trunk and the main branches. Retain only five to seven secondary scaffolds. In subsequent years, thin only the branches which are either crossing or crowding one another. This practice admits light into the centre and encourages the growth of spurs. The pruning of old trees should aim at producing new spurs to replace those broken during picking. The kind and the amount of pruning depend upon the bearing habit of the variety. Light to moderate thinning of branches and the shortening of new wood back to the laterals is the usual practice. If new growth is less than 40 to 80 cm each year, resort to severe pruning.

Manuring Follow instructions given for manuring peach.

Thinning of Fruits Thin the fruits'4 to 8 cm apart, leaving not more than two to three fruits on each spur.

Harvesting The fruit should be picked when it is still hard, but has attained the proper colour. For drying, the fruit is harvested by hand-picking when it is fully ripe.

Cherry Cherries (Prunus avium L.) are of two types: sweet used for desert, and sour used for cooking, grown mainly in the Simla Hills, the Kulu Valley and Kashmir at elevations above 1,500 metres.

Varieties Selected varieties of proven merit are: 'Early Rivers', 'Governor '-\Tood', 'Bigarreau de Schreken', 'Elton', 'Bedford Prolific', 'White Bigarreau', 'Monstrueuse de Mezel', 'Bigarreau

Temperate Fruits

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Napoleaon', 'Emperor Frencis' and 'Late Black Bigarreau'. It is desirable to choose varieties that will ripen in succession in order to obtain the crops over a longer period. A large number of varieties are self-unfruitful and do not set fruits with their own pollen. As they are also cross-incompatible, only the compatible varieties, whose period of flowering overlaps to effect cross-pollination, should be interplanted to get commercial crops.

Propagation and Planting The plants are pIopagated by whip or tongue grafting on seedlings of wild cherry stock, called paja. Grafts are ready for transplanting in two years. Sometimes, the rootstock plants are planted in permanent positions in the orchard and gratted In situ.

Fig. Cherry

As cherry-trees are generally affected by frost, the site selected for planting should be such that the sun reaches the trees gradually. The distance between the trees varies from 9- to 12 metres, depending upon the variety. The trees should be properly staked after planting.

Pruning Cherry-trees grow into shape without much pruning. Crowded branches should be thinned out and dead-wood removed in the dormant season. The pruned cuts should be painted with tar.

Manuring Cherry orchards are best put under grass which is grazed by sheep. In addition to sheep manure, phosphate manures are applied to obtain a good growth of clovers. A dressing of fertilizers to supply 75 to 100 kg of N, 55 to 90 kg of P205 and 110 to 165 kg of K20 per hectare may be recommended.

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Peach The area under peach (Prunus persica (L.) Stokes) is very small and is mainly located in the Himalayas at various elevations.

Varieties Some of the promising varieties are 'Early Beatrice', 'Alexander', 'Early Rivers', 'Duke of York', 'Peregrime', 'Noblesse', 'Late Devonian', 'Elberta', 'J.H. Hale', and 'Triumph'. Except 'J .H. Hale', all other varieties are self-fruitful and set good crops without cross-pollination.

Fig. Peach

Propagation and Planting Propagation is done by budding on seedling peach. One-yearold grafts are planted 6 to 8 metres apart in early spring. Immediately after planting, the trees are white-washed to protect the bark from the sun.

Pruning At the time of planting, the stem is cut to about 0.6 metre from the ground and three to four branches are allowed to develop, distributed round the main stem. All other shoots that grow during the first summer are removed. During the first dormant season, two well-spaced secondary branches on each main branch are selected and the main branch is cut close t the secondary branches. During the second summer, water-sprouts, if any are removed. At the time of second pruning in winter, secondary branches are not cut, except to regulate the shape of the tree. In pruning, cut always to the outside buds to encourage a spreading shape. In the case of bearing trees, annual pruning is necessary to maintain the centre open. Two- to three-year-old branches may be cut back to the outward-pointing side branches to encourage a spreading growth. Shorten and thin outside branches to stimulate the growth of new fruiting wood every year. A satisfactory annual growth should be 45 to 50 em long.

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Fruit-buds are borne laterally upon one-year-old wood and on short spur-like twigs. Ordinarily, they develop two fruit-buds and a leaf-bud at one node. The fruit-l:mds are usually located from the middle of the shoot upwards. In cutting away branches, the position of the fruit-buds should be taken into consideration.

Culture A peach orchard should be regularly cultivated. Ploughing, which should not be deeper than 10 cm, is generally done in winter. A suitable cover or green-manure crop may be sown in the rainy season after the fruits are picked and ploughed-under during winter. A dose of fertilizers to supply 55 to 65 kg of N, 55 to 65 kg of P and 110 to 135 kg of K per hectare may be applied to the bearing trees in spring. Immediately after the natural fruitdrop in May and June, the fruits should be thinned out so as to have them 10 to 15 cm apart.

Harvesting and Marketing Peaches are picked when they are still hard, as they can ripen well during storage or in transit.

Pear Pear (Pyrus communis L.) is grown mainly in the hills at elevations ranging from 1,500 to 2,500 metres. Its cultivation is rather restricted, mainly because the fruit does not store well.

Varieties The following varieties are recommended: 'William Bon Christien' (Bartlett), 'Clapp' Soil Favouri ts', 'Thimpsons', 'Doyenne du Cornice', 'Easter Beurre', 'Winter Nalis', 'Conference', 'Dr . Jules Guyot', 'Marie Louise d'Uccle', 'Baggugosha' (Citron des carmes) and 'Emile d'Heyst'. 'Baggugosha' can also be grown in the sub montane tracts, but there its quality is ·poor. Nashpati is another variety that is grown successfully in the plains.

Pollination Most of thf.! pear varieties are self-unfruitful and the planting of pollenizer varieties is advocated. Nashpati is a self-fruitful variety.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Propagation and Planting Pear is propagated by shield-budding which is done in JuneJuly. The stocks are raised either from the seeds of a commercial variety or from those of wild pear, shegal (Pyr us pashia) . To produce dwarf trees, quince 'C' stock is employed. Some varieties are not compatible with quince. They are propagated by doubleworking, using as intermediate a pear variety which can successfully be grown on the quince stock. One-year-old grafts are planted in autumn. Those propagated on the quince stock are planted one to one-and-a-half metres apart, if they are trained as cordons. Those trained as pyramids are planted 3.5 to 4.5 m apart.

Pruning and Training Pears on the pear stock make vigorous growth and develop into large trees. They remain dwarf on the quince stock when they are trained into different forms. For the pyramid form, cut the graft while planting at about three-fourths of a metre above the ground. Next winter, prune the leader to about 25 cm and the laterals to about 20 cm to the outward-pointing buds. In the second summer, all the branch leaders and laterals should be pruned to five or six leaves from the clusters, allowing the central leader to grow unchecked. In the third winter, the central leader is cut back to about one-third its length, but the branch leaders and laterals are not pruned. In the third summer, the branch leaders and the laterals, except the central leader, are again cut back to five or six leaves as in the previous summer. In the fourth winter, the central leader is , again cut back to one-third its length. By following this procedure, a pear-tree on the quince stock would start flowering in fourth year. The bearing pear-trees are pruned as in the case of apples.

Fruit-thinning As a rule, less thinning is required in the case of pears than in the case of apples. One fruit per cluster in the case of prolific varieties and one to two fruits per cluster in others may be retained after thinning.

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Manuring The method of manuring and the time of its application are the same as for apples. The amount of nitrogen to be applied should, however, be a little more than in the case of apples.

Harvesti1tg and Marketing 'Bartlett' is picked when still green and hard. The early varieties are packed without storing, whereas the late varieties require storing to develop full flavour. The fruit should be size-graded before storing.

Persimmon Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.f.) is grown in the Kulu Valley at elevations ranging from 900 to 1,500 kilometres. The promising varieties are 'Fuy', 'Hachiya' and 'Hyakume'. Several good varieties, such as 'Dai Dai', 'Maru' and 'Tenanshi', are also being grown successfully at the Pomological Station, Conoor in the Fig. Persimmon Nilgiris in southern India. The tree is propagated by grafting (whip and tongue method) on seedlings of Diospyros lotus and D. virginiana. The grafts are planted in winter, 6.5 to 7.5 m apart. The trees are headed back one or two metres above the ground at the planting time. Four to five shoots are allowed to grow round the stem to avoid narrow crotches and to develop a well-balanced head. There is no further pruning after this. Dead, broken and interfering branches are removed every year. The fruit is picked when it has attained a yellowish or reddish colour, characteristic of the variety, when still hard. It is clipped from the tree, keeping intact the calyx and a short piece of the stem. It is wrapped up in tissue-paper and packed in a two-layer box for transport. With astringent varieties, the fruit has to be cured before it is fit for eating out of hand. The simplest method is to place the fruits in a closed chamber with other ripening fruits such as pears and tomatoes.

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Plum Plum (Prumls domestica (L.) Stokes) is grown mainly in the Himalayas where the following varieties have been successfully grown: 'Grand Duke', 'Early Transparent Gage', 'Victoria', 'Santa Rosa', 'Wickson', 'Beauty' and 'Kelsey'. In the south, in the Nigiris and Kodaikanal in the Tamil Nadu state, several choice varieties of the Japenese Fig. Plum plum (P. salicina) are grown. The more important of these are 'Rubio', ' Alu Bokhara', 'Gaviota', 'Shiro', 'Combination' and 'Hale'. All varieties except 'Beauty', 'Santa Rosa', 'Gaviota', 'Rubio',' Alu Bokhara' and 'Hale' which are self-fruitful, requires cross-pollination from other varieties. Plums are usually propagated by shield-budding on wild apricot or common peach stock. Planting, spacing, cultivation and fertilization are the same as for peach.

Pruning Cut back the top to about 60 cm at planting time. Select three to five scaffold branches situated spirally round the stem, equidistant from one another, and remove the unwanted ones. At the time of first winter pruning, the main branches are headed back. All growth, except the main and secondary branches, is removed during the year. At the second winter pruning, crossing and other undesirable branches are removed. In the case of varieties having a tendency for upward growth, heading should be done to outwardpointing buds to make them more spreading. Subsequent pruning is carried out every year on similar lines. The pruning should be light as far as possible. The 'bearing trees are pruned to secure a balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

Thinning Thinning should be carried out after the natural fruti-drop in April and May but before the hardening of the pits.

Harvesting and Marketing For transporting, the fruits are picked a few days in advance of full maturity. The change of colollr for each variety determines

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its stage of maturity. The fruits are required to be harvested in three or four pickings.

Strawberry The cultivated varieties of strawberry (Fragaria spp.) grown in India are all imported . The following are recommended: 'Laxton's Latest', 'Royal Sovereign', 'Early Cambridge', 'Huxley Giant', 'Penomenol' and 'Robinson'. Fig. Strawberry

Propagation and Planting Maiden paints (runners) that have not borne any crop are used for planting. The planting distance is half a metre between plants and three-fourths to one metre bet~een rows. Runners with a good root-system are used to set a new plantation. Transplanting is done in March-April in the hills and in January-February in the plains.

Culture Prepare the land by ploughing deep, followed by harrowing. Add bulky organic manures. Keep down weeds by light hoeing and runners, as and when they form . Manuring is done in winter. When plants blossom in spring, bed the plantation with straw to keep fruits off the soil. After fruiting, remove the straw and weeds, and cut off all runners. Continue hoeing. Rotate strawberry with vegetables every three years.

Irrigation Apply irrigation at five-day intervals during summer.

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A Salubrious Perspective of Medicinal Plants

Abroma augusta (L) Lt. (Sterculiaceae) (now known as Ambroma 1.£.) Syll: Abroma augulata Lam., A. wheeleri Retz., A. fastuosum Gaertn., Theobroma augusta L. English Name: Devil's cotton. Vemacular Names: Asm: Bon kopashi; Hin and Ben: Ulat kambal; Tam: Sivapputtutti.

Trade Name: Ulat kambal. Traditional Use: Seed: yields fatty oil, rich in linoleic acid and lowers cholesterol level in blood. Homoeopathy: Used to control mind, different ailments of head, heart, eyes, ears, nose, face, mouth, throat, stomach, abdomen, urinary organs, male and female Fig. Abroma augusta sexual organs, respiratory organs, (L) Lt. (Sterculiaceae) neck, back and limbs, skin diseases, fever; to regulate appetite and sleep. Modem Use: Fresh and dried root-bark: used as uterine tonic and emmenagogue; regulates menstrual flow; Fresh juice from root-bark: useful in congestive and neurologic forms of dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, urinary trouble, bronchitis,

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broncho-pneumonia, carbuncles and poisonous boils; Leaf: used in diabetes, rheumatic pain and sinusitis.

Phywgraphy: Shrub, branches downy; leaf simple, cordate, 1015 em by 10-12.5 em, base 3-7 costate, rep and-denticulate while the upper narrower leaves are entire, glabrescent above and t0mentose below, petiolate, petioles 1.25-2.5 cm long, stipules linear, as long as the petiole, deciduous; flowers axillary, pedunculate, peduncle 3.5 cm long; capsules 5-angled, 5-winged, obpyramidal, thrice as long as the persistent calyx; seeds albuminous, numerous. Distribution: Widely distributed in hotter parts of India up to 1500 m; Bangladesh, Pakistan and the adjacent countries. Ecology and Cultivation: Plant prefers hot and moist climate; sometimes planted, occasionally found as an escape. Chemical Contents: Plant: fixed oil, a little resinous matter, alkaloid (minute quantity) and water-soluble bases.

Abrus precatorius 1. (Fabaceae) (2n= 22) Syn: Abrus minor and A. pauciflorus Desv. English Names: Indian liquorice, Crab's eye. Sanskrit Name: Krishna gunja. Vernacular Names: Asm: Latuwani; Ben: Rati, Kunch; Guj: Gumchi; Hin and Pun: Rati; Kan: Gurgunn, Gulaganji; Ori: Kaincha, Gunja; Mal: Kunnikkura; Tam: Kunthamani; Tel: Gumginja. Trade Names: Rati, Kunch. Traditional Use: Santal 1. Grind the roots,' make small pills, encase the pills in molasses and eat the same to treat night-blindedness; 2. Make a plaster by grinding the roots of white-fruited variety and apply the plaster on the painful part of inflammated sections of the gum; 3. To treat white-coloured urine they drink a mixture made by grinding roots of the following: (a) White-fruited A. precatorius,

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(b) Indigofera pulchella, (c) Panicum repens and (d) Spatholobus roxburghii; 4. To treat gravel they drink a mixture made of the following: (a) Roots of A. precatorius, (b) The refuse of molasses, (c) Exudation from a sapling of Diospyros tomentosa, (d) Exudation from Acacia catechu, (e) Little saltpeter, and (f) Pinch of sulphur; 5. To treat the variety of childbed complaints (usually caused by anaemia) characterized by profuse diarrhoea, roots of A. precatorius are used in preparing two different varieties of mixtures; the ingredients of the mixtures are given below: (a) First variety: roots of A. precatorius, Elaeodendron

roxburghii, Coix lachryma-jobi, Piper longum, Ruellia suffruticosa, white onion, rhizome of Zingiber officinale; (b) Second variety: roots of A. precatorius, Coix lachrymajobi, Embelia robusta, Piper longum, bark of Casearea tomentosa, Elaeodendron roxburghii, Gmelina arborea, Emblica officinalis, white onion, leaves of Ocimum sanctum, rhizome of Curcuma angustifolia and Zingiber officinale - all these are ground together, boiled and mixed with the refuse of molasses; 6. Roots as abortifacient and used in paralysis; 7. Apply leaf-paste with lime-water (2: 1) on swelling of glands; 8. Grind the leaves of white-flowered A. precatorius, warm slightly and plaster on the loins to kill pain there; 9. Grind leaves of A. precatorius along with leaves of Lawsonia alba and Tamarindus indica (1: 1: 1), add a little salt, boil a little and apply the plaster on the whole body to get relief from muscular pain caused by over-exhaustion; 10. Make a paste of leaves of A. precatorius along with roots of Carissa carandas and Gossypium arboreum, warm the paste slightly and plaster the same over the whole body of the patient suffering from stealth convulsions;

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11. Leaf-paste in leucoderma; 12. Seed-paste in skin diseases; 13. Seeds after some processing as contraceptive. Paste in gonorrhoea. Oraon: dried root-powder as mild purgative.

AgniPurana 1. Husks of A. precatorius along with the same of Vitis inifera

2. 3.

4.

5.

and the decoction of Polyalthia longifolia, Moringa pterigosperma, payomuca and tripha (fruits of Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula and Emblica officinalis) destroys all intestinal worms; The mixture of powder of A. precatorius, marine salt and pathya in warm water removes all fe'/ers; Consumption of the seeds of A. precatorius along with the fruits of Melia azadiracta, Holarrhena antidysenterica (leaves). Acorus calamus (young leaves) and Glycyrrhiza glabra (powder of stem) causes vomiting; Regular drinking of A. precatorius along with Acorus calamus, Gloriosa superba, vasa, nisagada, Zingiber officinalis, Glycyrrhiza glabra and marine salt daily in the morning enhances memory of young boys; A precatorius can enhance the span of a man's life, if it is eaten with marine salt and some other plants (Tinospora cordifolia, pathya, citraka, dried rhizome of Zingiber officinalis).

Modern Use: Roots: Emetic and alexiteric; Decoction of roots and leaves: for cough, cold and colic; Seeds: purgative, emetic, tonic, aphrodisiac, used in nervous disorder and cattle poisoning; Poultice of seeds: as suppository to bring about abortion; Paste of seeds: applied locally in sciatica, stiffness of shoulder joints and in paralysis. Phytography: Copiously branched climber with slender branches; leaves alternate, pinnately compound with

Fig. Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae)

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numerous deciduous leaflets; flowers small, in dense racemes on axillary peduncles or short branches; pods 2.5-3.7 by 1.0-1.25 cm; seeds bright scarlet and black or whitish or black or mixed black and white, large like pea.

Phenology: Flwering: August and September; Fruiting: January to March (even up to May). Distribution: Occurring throughout greater parts of India, ascending the outer Himalaya up to 1200 m, occasionally planted in gardens. Ecology and Cultivation: Naturalised in tropical countries. Chemical Contents: Glycyrrhizin, isoflavanquinones, abrusquinone A, B & C; leaves taste sweet and roots less so; roots also contain precol, abrol, abrasine and precasine. Seed: poisonous, principal constituents being 'abrin'; a fat-splitting enzyme, haemaagglutinin, urease; alkaloid (abrin), a glucoside (abralin) and a small quantity of fatty oil have also been isolated from seed. Pharmacologically, abrin is considered to be intensely poisonous. Besides abrin, a seed contains hypaphorine, two steroids-one oily and the other crystalline-a.-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 5 B-cholanic acid, abricin, abridin, cholesterol, lectins and toxic proteins. Remark: Root is used as an adulterant of the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fam. Fabaceae)

Acanthus ilicifolius L. (Acanthaceae) (2n= 44, 48) Syn: Acanthus doloarius Blanco, Dilivaria iIiciJolia Nees. Sanskrit Name: Harikasa. Vernacular Names: Ben: Hargoza, Harkachkanta; Kan: Holeculli; Mal: Payinaculli; Mar: Maranda, Maraneli; Ori: Harkamcli; Tam: Kalutai mulli; Tel: Alei. Trade Name: Harkasa. Traditional Use: Tribes of Sundarbans: Root (boiled in mustard oil): in paralysis of limbs; Folks of Goa: Leaf: as fomentation in rheumatism and neuralgia.

Fig. Acanthus Ilicifolius L. (Acanthaceae)

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Modern lIse: Plant: In asthma; Decoction of plant: in dyspepsia; Leaf and tender shoot: in snake bite; Root: in asthma, paralysis, leucorrhoea and debility; Leaf: as fomentation in rheumatism, neuralgia and in snake bite. Phytography: Erect herb; stems up to 1.5 m, in clumps, little divided, glabrous; leaves shortly petioled, oblong or elliptic, base usually spinous, toothed or, pinnatifid, rigid, glabrous; spikes 1040 cm, terminal, commonly solitary; flowers mostly opposite, bract and bracteoles present, sepals 4, outer 2 elliptic rounded, inner 2 broadly lanceolate, subacute, petals 5, blue, united, 2-lipped, corolla tube short, pubescent within, stamens 4, didynamous, shorter than corolla lip, filaments stout, anthers 1-lobed, bearded, carpels 2, united, ovary 2-chambered having 2 ovules in chamber, style short, bifid; capsules shining chestnut-brown, ellipsoid, compressed, 0.6-0.8 cm long; testa white, very lax. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: almost throughout the year.

Distribution: Mangroves of Indian peninsula; Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and the adjoining areas. Ecology and Cultivation: Commonly grown on the river banks, tidal canal sides, low swampy areas in the mangrove forests and its vicinity; wild. Chemical Contents: Plant: Acanthicifoline, oleanolic acid, asitosterol, lupeol, quercetin and its glucopyranoside, trigonellin; Root: saponin, glycoside of 3a-OH-Iup-20(29)-ene.

Aconitum ferox Wall. (Ranunculaceae) (2n= 20) Syn: Aconitum virosllm Don., A. /lopellus var. rigidum Hook, f&T. English Names: Wolf's bane, Indian aconite. Sanskrit Names: Vatsanabha, Visa. Vemaclilar Names: Hin: Bish, Mahoor; Cuj and Mar: Vachang; Kas: Mohra; Tam: Vasnumbi; Tel: Vasnabhi. Trade Name: Bish. Traditional Use: Ayurveda: Root: used in the mrityunjaya rasa (used to treat the fever supposed to be caused by deranged vayu,

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i.e., wind, sannipatika jvara, i.e., remittent fever, hinguleswarerasa, anandabhairav agnitundi vati, etc. Vatsanabha has been used in medicine from a very remote period. It is regarded as healing and stimulant. It is used in a great variety of affections, but is specially recommended in fever, cephalagia, affections of throat, dyspepsia and rheumatism.

Homoeopathy: Remedy for clotting of blood in heart or in lungs, pneumonia, iymptisis, pleurisy, eye trouble, earache, toothache and urinary trouble. Modern Use: Extremely poisonous; used in leprosy, fever, cholera, nasal catarrah, tonsillitis, sore throat, gastric disorders, debility, etc., also used as a sedative and diaphoretic; applied in the form of paste in cases of neuralgia and rheumatism. Phytography: Perennial erect herb growing up to 2 m in height; roots look like the navel of children; leaves alternate, simple, rounded or oval, may be palmately 5-lobed; flowers borne on branched racemes, bracts and bracteoles present, large helmet-type, helmet vaulted with short sharp beak, pale dirty blue in colour, zygomorphic, floral parts arranged spirally on an elongated receptacle; follicles erect, usually densely villose-sometimes glabrous.

Fig. Aconitum Ferox Wall. (Ranunculaceae)

Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: July-November. Distribution: Alpine Himalaya including Nepal; endemic. Ecology and Cultivation: Temperate to alpine regions of the Himalaya in the altitude of 3,300-5,000 m. Chemical Contents: Root: pseudoaconitine (a toxic alkaloid), indactonitine, chasmaconitine, bikhaconitine. Adulterants: Indian aconite root is known as 'bikh' or 'bish', the name which is applied to aconite from more than one species, and different authors have ascribed it to different species.

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Remarks: Vulnerable due to excessive collection for medicinal uses. Collection in wild state should be banned and measures for cultivation should be initiated.

Acorus calamus L. (Araceae) (2n= 18, 24, 36, 48) Syn: Acorus griffithii Schott., A. belangeii Schott, A. casia Bertol. English Name: The sweet flag. Sanskrit Name: Vacha. Vernacular Names: Asm, Ben and Hin: Boch; Gui: Godavaj, Vekhand; Kan: Baje, Baje gida; Kon: Waikhand; Mal: Vayambu; Mar: Vekhand; Ori: Bacha; Pun: Bari, Boj, Warch; Tam: Vasamboo; Tel: Vasa. Trade Name: Boch.

Fig. Acorus calamus L. (Araceae)

Traditional Use: Santal: Use the plant in the following ways: 1. They mix and grind black pepper, cloves, root of Carissa carandus 10 along with little of the rootstock of A. calamus L., then stir the same in pure mustard oil - the emulsion, thus prepared is anointed daily over the whole body of the patient suffering form epilepsy with foaming and groaning, as soon as the fit comes on; a few drops of this emulsion should be poured into the nose of the patient; 2. For the treatment of indigestion, they take pills made by grinding 100 black peppers, little amount of ginger and the root of A. calamus together; 3. Also use in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, cold and cough, dry cough, epilepsy, haemoptysis, indigestion, phthisis; Birhor: Rhizome in alopecia, Root as massage, in fever, hysteria, pain in neck, teething trouble of children, malaria and cancer. Agni Purana: This plant is of great medicinal value; it recommends the following uses: 1. For treatment of epilepsy, this plant should be boiled with Costus speciosus, shankhapushpi, along with the juice of

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Bacopa monnieri; the substance thus obtained should be administered to the patient; 2. Drinking the decoction of this plant, Piper peepuloides, Staphyles emodi WalL, and Cyperus parviflorus Heyne and pippalimula is good for the patient of rheumatic arthritis; 3. The powder or decoction of this plant helps curing chronic enlargement of spleen; 4. Decoction of the plant is beneficial for the patient of dropsy; Ayurveda: Rhizome: bitter, healing, emetic, laxative, diuretic, carminative; improves voice and appetite; good for oral diseases, abdominal pain, epilepsy, bronchitis, hysteria, loss of memory, rat bite and worms in ear. Siddha System: Fresh root for bronchial asthma. Unani: An ingredient of the medicine called 'Waje-Turki'; useful in flatulent colic, chronic dyspepsia, catarrhal, in burn wounds, carminative, anthelmintic and as bitter tonic. Modern Use: Rhizome: aromatic, bitter, carminative, emetic, stimulant, stomachic, useful in dyspepsia, colic, remittent fevers, nerve tonic, in bronchitis, dysentery, epilepsy and other mental ailments, glandular and abdominal tumours and in snake bite. Phytography: Perennial, erect, aromatic herb, common on river banks and marshes, ascending to 3,000 m; rhizome cylindrical or siightly compressed, about 2.5 cm in diameter, much-branched, externally light brown or pinkish brown but white and spongy within; leaves distichous, large, 1-2 m in length, base eguitant, margin waved; spadix sessile, cylindric, densely flowered, not completely enclosed by spathe, spathe 15-75 cm in length, narrow, leaf-like; flowers small, bisexual; berries few-seeded; seeds oblong, albuminous. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: July-August; fruiting very rare.

Distribution: Throughout India; ascending the Himalaya up to 2,000 m; Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Ecologrj and Cultivation: Probably introduced; found from the coast to 1,200 m; often near village wells and along watercourses;

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99

confined to marshy areas; gregarious herb from a stout horizontal rhizome; wild and cultivated.

Chemical Contents: Dry rhizome: 1.5-3.5 per cent of a yellow aromatic volatile oil-calamus oil; the oil contains a-asarone, small quantities of sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenes alcohols; Rhizome: also contains choline (0.26 per cent), flavone, acoradin, 2,4,5-triMeO-benzaldehyde, 2,5-di-MeO-benzoquinone, galangin, calameone, acolamone, isoacolamone, epoxyisoacoragermacrone; Aerial parts: lutcolin-6,8-c-diglucoside; chemical constituents vary in ecotypes and polyploides. Adulterants: The powdered drug has been adulterated with siliceous earth, ground marsh mallow root and cereal flowers. Remark: Rhizomes are valued for indigenous medicine.

Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae) (2n= 16) English Name: Garlic. Sanskrit Names: Arishta, Lashuna, Mahausada, Rason. Vernacular Names : Asm: Naharu; Ben: Rasun; Guj: Lasan, Shunam; Hin: Lashun; Kan: Belluli; Kon: Lossun; Mar: Velluli, Velluthulli; Mar: Lasun; Ori: Rasun; Tam: Vellaipundu; Tel: Tellagadda. Trade Names: Rasun, Lashun. Traditional Use: Upavarhana Samhita: good for health; Agni Purana: a mixture of this plant, ginger and Moringa oleifera is helpful for eye and also as eardrop. Matsya Puralla: Of great medicinal value, should be stored in forts . Unani: An .ingredient of 'Seer (Lahsan),. Homoeopathy: Mother tincture, a good remedy for cough and cold, pain in the .::hest, swelling of glands, psoas, iliacus and erosion of old diseases at the adimanic stage. Modern Use: Bulb: Antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, effective in rheumatism, catarrhal conditions; Raw garlic: decreases glucose, cholesterol, phospholipids, triglycerides, useful in dyspepsia, cryptococcal meningitis, rickettsia; applied externally as resolvent to indolent tumours, internally given with

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common salt in nervous diseases, headache; Liniment: beneficial in infantile convulsion and other spasmodic affections; Juice: applied to bruises and sprain, relieves earache, allays pain in otorrhoea; preparation have been given to pulmonary phthisis, bronchitis, gangrene of the lung and whooping cough; Garlic juice: good for treatment of laryngeal tuberculosis, lupus and duodenal ulcer; Inhalation of fresh garlic juice: useful in pulmonary tuberculosis, dyspepsia, flatulence and colic; in external application, the juice is used as a rubifacient; in skin diseases, as an eyedrop and in earache.

Phytography: Hardy perennial bulbous scapigerous herb; stem flat, dry, lower portion of the plant forms bulb which consists of several smaller bulbs called cloves, surrounded by a thin white or pinkish sheath; leaves flat, narrow green; heads bear small white flowers and bulbils. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: Winter. Distribution: Cultivated throughout India since ancient days; also cultivated in Pakistan, Bangladesh and almost in all tropical countries. Ecology ilIld Cultivation: It favours a richer soil and higher elevation (1000-1300 m), well-drained, moderately clayey loam is best suited for cultivation; requires a cool, moist period during growth and a relatively dry period during maturing of the crop; takes 4-5 moni:hs to mature, harvested during February to April. Yields good results, if treated with farmyard manure and topdressing of ammonium sulphate mixed with superphosphate. It grows as a late irrigated crop; in South India, it is rotated with ragi. Chemical Contents: Garlic: protein 6.3 per cent, fat 0.1 per cent, carbohydrate 29 per cent, Ca 0.03 per cent, Fe 1.3 mg/IOO g, vitamin C 13 mg/lOO g, and also Cu-peptides, 2 mercapto-L-cysteins, anthocyanins, glycosides of kaempferol and quercetin, polysaccharides, allinase, sterols, hydrocarbons, alliin (nonvolatile sulpher amino acid), sativin I & II, scordinines A & B; Essential oil: the bulbs, on distillation, yield 0.06-0.1 per cent of an essential oil containing allyl-propyl-disulphide, diallyl disulphide and two sulphur containing compounds.

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Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Liliaceae) (2n= 14) Syn: Aloe indica Royle, A. littoralis Koening., A. vera Tourn. ex Linn. English Names: Barbados Aloe, Curacas Aloe, Indian Aloe, Jafarabad Aloe. Sanskrit Name: Ghritakumari. Vernacular Names: Asm: Chalkunwari; Ben: Ghritakumari; Guj: Kumarpathu, Kunvar; Hin: Ghee Kunvar; Kan: Lolesara; Kon: Kantikkor, Katkunvor; Mal: Kattarvazha kumari; Mar: Korphad; Ori: Gheokunri; Pun: Ghikur, Kawargandal; Tarn: Alagai, Chirukuttali, Kuttilai; Tel: Chinnakata ~anda, Kala banda, Kittanara.

Fig. Aloe barbadensis

Mill. (Liliaceae) Trade Names: Ghritakumari, Ghee Kunvar.

Traditional Use: Tribal: Leaf-pulp: in liver troubles, jaundice, fever, gonorrhoea, spleen disorder, rheumatism, piles, dysmenorrhoea, sterility in women; Leaf-mucilage: mild laxative, to cure hardening of breast tissues, in insect stings. Ayurveda: Alternative, bitter, cooling, purgative, sweet, tonic, anthelmintic, useful in eye diseases, tumours, enlargement of spleen, liver troubles, vomiting, skin diseases, bilious-ness, asthma, leprosy, jaundice, strangury, ulcer; Flowers: anthelmintic. Unani: Gheekawar is useful in inflammation of spleen, lumbago, muscular pain, ophthal-mia, digestive, purgative; Leaves good for piles and biliousness. Modern Use: Aloe: in illenstrual diseases, stomach pain, tonic after pregnancy, uterine disorders, high fever; Pulp: menstrual suppressions, nervous imbalance; Aloe compound: in treatment of women sterility; Mucilage: painful inflammation; Root: colic pain; Aloe mixture with other plant extracts: for treating obstruction of lymphatic system. Phytography: A coarse-looking plant with a short (30-60 cm high) stern; leaves succulent, green, large (37 cm long, 10 cm broad,

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2 cm thick), densely crowded; flowers in racemes, bright yellow, tubular, stamens frequently projected beyond the perianth tube.

Phenology: Flowering: September-December; Fruiting: scarce. Distribution: A native of North Africa, Canary Islands and Spain; naturalised in India; many varieties are found in a semiwild state in all parts of India; also cultivated in pots and gardens. EcologlJ aHd Cultivation: Xerophyte; propagated by suckers. Chemical Contents: Plant: aloin, aloe-emodin and resins. Adulterant: Aloe candelabrum Berger is used as substitute for Aloe barbadensis Miller.

Alstonia scholaris R. Br. (Apocynaceae) Syll: Echites scholaris L., E. paIn Ham. English Names: Devil's Tree, Dita Bark. Sanskrit Names: Saptaparni, Saptaparna, Sarada, Vishalalvaka, Vishamachhda, Ayugmaparna, Gandhiparna, Payasya, Jivani, Kshalrya, Madagandha, Grahashi, Grahanashana. Vernacular Names: Asm: Chatiar; Ben: Chhatim; Hin: Chatian, SaIni Chatian; Kan: Saptaparna, Maddale, Kodale, Elele Kale, Janthalla, Hale; Ken: Santnar Ukh; Mal: Ezhilampala, Mukkampala, Pala; Mar: Salvin; Ori: Chhatiana, Chhanchania; Silgandha; Pun: Satona; Sin: Rukattana; Tam: Elilaipillai, Mukumpalei, Pala, Wedrase; Tel: Eda Kula, Pala Garuda. Trade Names: Chatiyan, Shaitan wood, Saptaparni. Fig. Alstonia scholaris Traditional Use : Mundas of R. Br. (Apocynaceae) Chotanagpur: Bark: in colic pain; Some Parts of India plant is used in the treatment of leprosy; Twig: hung in the room of the newly confined woman to lessen the activities of evil spirit on the new born. Atharva Veda: preventive and curative of diseases caused by change of season. Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita: good for

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headache, sores, and some other diseases; Ayurveda: the following uses are recommended: 1. Bark: dermal sol/res, ragging fever, discharge of sperm with urine, hiccup, insufficiency in breast milk, gout, cold congestion, dyspepsia; 2. Latex: caries, pimple, pyorrhoea; 3. Flower: asthma, respiratory troubles.

Unani: Ingredient of 'Kashim'. Homoeopathy: Malarial fever, anaemia, indigestion, general debility and other stomach ailments. Modern Use: Bark: known in commerce as Dita Bark and is used in medicine as bitter, febrifuge and astringent, in treatment of malarial fever, chronic dysentery, diarrhoea and in snake bite; Milky juice: applied to ulcers. Phytography: Large (20 m high, 3 m gi,rth), evergreen tree with straight, often fluted and buttressed base, branches whorled, bark yellow inside and exudes milky bitter latex; leaves simple, whorled-usually 7 in a whorl, coriaceous, whitish beneath, obovate or elliptic or oblong, obtuse rounded or obtusely acuminate, 3060 pairs of horizontal veins joining an intramarginal one; cymes peduncled or sessile, umbellately branched; flowers aromatic, 0.81.25 cm in diameter, greenish white, pubescent; follicles 30-60 cm long and 0.3 cm in diameter, pendulous, in clusters. Phenology: Flowering: Autumn; Fruiting: Winter. Distribution: Throughout moist regions of India, especially in West Coast forests, in the Himalaya it ascends up to 1,000 m; also found in Bangladesh and Pakistan. Planted in the gardens. Ecology and Cultivation: Also grown as an ornamental. Chemical Contents: Root and Root-bark: echitamine chloride, a-amyrin, lupeol-OAc, stigmasterol, a-sitosterol, campesterol, alkamicine-its Nb-oxide and Nb-metttiodide, a-akummicine, Nbdi-Me-echitamine, tubotaiwine; Stem-bark: hydrochloride of echitam-ine, echitamidine, a glyceride of venotarpine, sterols, two isomeric lactones; Latex: caoutchouc and resins; Leaf: picrinine, nareline, akuammidine, picraJinal, akuammigine, betulin, ursoIic acid, a'sitosterol, flavonoids, phenolic acids, scholarine; Flower:

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picrinine, strictamine, tetrahydroalstonine, n-hexacosane, lupeol, a-amyrin, palmitic acid, ursolic acid.

Adulterants: Alstonia macrophylla Wall. and A. venenata R. Br. are used as substitute for A. scholaris.

Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae) (2n= 24, 40, 42) English Name: Cashewnut. Vernacular Names: Asm: Kaju badam; Ben: Hijli Badam, Kaju Badam; Guj, Hin, Mar and Pun: Kaju; Kan: Gerupappu; Godambi; Kon: Kaz; Mat: Kashumaru, Parankimara, Andiparuppau; Ori: Lanka badam; Tam: Mundiri, Munthirikai; Tel: Jidimamidi, Muntha Mamidi. Trade Names: Cashewnut, Kaju. Traditional Use: Cashewnut shell-oil: mild purgative, used in folk medicine for treatment of hookworm, cracks on soles of feet, warts, corns, leporus sores. Modern Use: Cashewnut: used in mental derangement, sexual debility, nervous prostration following seminal emission, morning sickness in pregnancy, palpitation of heart, rheumatic percarditis, loss of memory as a sequel to small pox; Kernel: good for week patients suffering from Incessant and chronic vomiting; Kerneloil: antidote for irritant poisons; Liquor made from fruit: diuretic. Homoeopathy: For boils, warts, wounds and different types of cracks in legs; used sometimes in case of leprosy. Phytography: Small tree with short, thick, crooked trunk; leaves simple, alternate, petiolate, entire, hard, 10-20 cm by 7.512.5 cm; panicles terminal, bracteatE'l pubescent; branches long, naked to the tips; flowers yellow with pink st,ripes, 0.8 cm in . diameter; cashew apple red or yendw-is the swollen, enlarged pedicel which bears the nut. Phenology: Flowering: March-April; Fruiting: April-May. Distribution: Native to tropical America, naturalized in the hotter sea-shores of India; Pakistan, Bangladesh and Malaysia. EcologtJ and Cultivation: Introduced; grows in plains, especially towards the coast, very occasionally ascending up' to 1,200 m; being extensively planted by clearing scrub jungles in the plains.

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Chemical Contents: Bark: exudes gum; Flower: polyphenols; Cashew shell: yield~ gum, oil and liquid (CNSL); Liquid-free nutshell: syringic and gallic acids, galocatechin; Defatted nutshell: naringenin, prunin-6"-O-p-coumarate; Cashew apple liquor: vitamin C, vitamin E; Reddish brown testa: D-catechin, gallic acid, caffeic acid, quinic acid, polyphenols, bioflavone.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. Ex Nees (Acanthaceae) Syn: Justicia paniculata Burm. f. English Names: The Great King of Bitters, The Creat. Sanskrit Names: Bhunimba, Kirata. Vemacular Names: Ben: Kalmegh; Guj: Kariyatu; Hin: Kirayat; Kan: Nelabaru; Mar: Olikiryata; Tam and Tel: Nelavemu. Trade Names: Kalmegh, Kirayat. Traditional Use: Plant: febrifuge, alterative, anthelmintic, anodyne, useful in debility, diabetes, consumption, influenza, bronchitis, itches and piles; in Bengal, household medicine known as 'Kalmegh', made from leaves, is given to the children suffering from stomach complaints. . Homoeopathy: Used for treatment of different ailments of head, mind, eyes, nose, mouth, tongue, throat, abdomen, stool, urine, fever and other modalities. Modem Use: Drug constitute stem, leaf and inflorescence: as a tonic and in the treatment of fevers, worms, dysentery and also beneficial to liver and digestive ailments; it is reported that it has some antityphoid and antibiotic activity; Decoction: used for sluggishness of liver and in jaundice. Phytography: An erect herb with square stem, glabrous below, glandular hairy above; leaves linear, lanceolate, glabrous and distinctly pedicelled; flowers white or pale purple; capsules compressed transversely; seeds bony. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: September-May. Distribution: Throughout India in the plains and hills; Bangladesh, Pakistan, all South-East Asian and SAARC countries.

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Ecology and Cultivation: Common in stony lines in forests and in wastelands. Culti-vated as an ornamental. Chemical Contents: Plant: kalmeghin, bitter principle andrographolide; bitterness is due to nonbasic principle. Addterallts: It is used as adulterants for Chirata, and is a substitute for quinine. Remark: Whole plant is bitter.

Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae) English Names: Areca Palm, Arecanut, Betelnut, Pinang Palm. Sanskrit Names: Gubak, Phalam, Poag, Pooga, Poogi. Vernacular Names: Asm: Tambul; Ben: Supari, Gua; Guj: Supaari; Hin: Kasaili, Supari; Kan: Adike, Bette; Kon: Maddi; Mal: Adakka, Pugam, Pakka; Mar: Supari Ori: Gua; Tam: Kamubu, Pakku; Tel: Poke, Vakka. Tradr. Names: Arecanut, Betelnut, Supari. There are over 150 trade types. Traditional Use: Santal: 1. A patient of small pox is given to eat the arecanut when the pustules subside; 2. A mixture for biliary colic is prepared with arecanut as a constituent; 3. An ointment for chancre and syphilis is made by pestling arecanut with the root of Gymnema hirsutus, leaf of Piper betel and then cooking the same in mustard oil or butter; Tribals also use this plant in rhagadas, venereal sores, syphilis, dysentery, cholera, small pox and for fractured bones. References to this plant are found in the Bhagvata along with the plants of Musa paradisica and Borassus JIabellifer. Charaka Samlzita: Fruit: useful in the diseases caused by bile; Sushruta Samhita: Fruit: beneficial in the diseases caused by phlegm; but overuse of this may distort voice of a man; Chacradatta: Paste of unripe fruit: may be used as liniment; Extract of unripe fruit: useful in small pox; Harita Samhita: sesame oil in which extract of unripe fruit has been boiled should be used; Ayurveda: various preparations of unripe and ripe nuts are useful in toothache, pyorrhea, gum diseases, in treatment of worms, while extract of young leaf mixed with mustard oil is useful as liniment in rheumatism;

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Brllhnuroaivarta Purana: brushing the teeth with twig of this plant is beneficial;

Agni Purana: 1. Immortality can be attained by consuming decoction of this plant along with the powder of root, bark, leaf and fruit of margosa and juice of Wedelia calendulacea; 2. Alkaloids of this plant are beneficial medicine.

Unani: Ingradient of 'Futal (ChaJia)'. Modern Use: Nut: chewing facilitates salivation, it being a good source of fluoride prevents tooth decay, but constant use might cause oral carcinoma; shows antimicrobial activities; Aqueous extract of nut: exhibits vascoconstriction and adrenalin p.Qtentiation in rats; Extract of leaf and fruit: spasmogenic. Phytography: Tall, slender, unbranched palm with a crown of leaves; stem annulate; leaves pinnate with a conspicuous sheet; flowers in spadix, male many at the upper portion, female much longer and a few at the base; fruits are single-seeded berries with flesh and fibrous pericarp and a stony seed, 3.8-5 em long, smooth, orange or scarlet when ripe. Phenology: Flowering: August-January; Fruiting: about a year later. Distribution: Cultivated in the coastal regions of India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and other tropical and subtropical countries. Ecology and Cultivation: This palm requires a moist tropical climate with heavy (500 cm/year) rainfall provided with good drainage. It can be grown in drier areas (rainfall 50 cm/year), if properly irrigated. It is a shade-loving plant, especially in the earlier stages and is very sensitive to drought. It grows on a variety of soils, but saline or alkaline soil, light and sandy soil are not suitable for it, but slightly saline sandy soil is good. It is generally cultivated as a mixed crop with coconut and plantain or along with Erythrina indica. The betel nuts are sown in October/November with a distance of 10-15 cm between two nuts. Transplanting is normally done after two years, occasionally after 3 or 4 years. Transplantation is done in July in the highlands and

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from February to April in lowlands. The second transplantation takes place when the first have come into bearing. In a fully planted grove, a distance of about 2 m each way is kept between the betel nut tree.

Chemical Contents: Nut: alkaloids-arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine and isoguvacine. . Adulterants: Fruits of Areca triandra Roxb. and Areca nagensis Griff. are substitutes for Areca catechu L. Remark: Stem and leaves are used in various ways.

Aristolochia indica L. (Aristolochiaceae) (2n= 12) English Name: Indian birthwort. Sanskrit Name: Ishvari. Vemacular Names: Ben and Hin: Isharmul; Mal: Isvaramuli; Mar: Sapasan; Tel: Eswaramuli. Trade Name: Iswarmul. Traditional Use: Root: tonic, stimulant, emetic, emmenagogue, in fever, in powder form is given with honey for leucoderma; Rootdecoction: in impotency; Crushed root: applied on itching; Juice of leaf: in snake bite, used for cough; Seed: inflammations, biliousness and dry cough. Unani: A constituent of 'Majnoon-e-Flasfa'. Modem Use: Plant: used as abortifacient; EtOH (50 per cent) extract: diuretic and anti-inflammatory; Dried stem and root: used as drug, which should be used in minimal doses; the drug promotes digestion and controls menstruation; in higher doses, it may prove lethal, it is used as a stimulant, tonic and for fevers; in moderate doses, it is used as a gastric stimulant and in dyspepsia; Root: considered as a stimulant, tonic and emmenagogue and also used in intermittent fever and in bowl troubles of children; shows antifertility activity in experimental animals. Phytography: Twining herb, semiwoody, having more or less swollen nodes; leaves cordate or ovate, exstipulate; flowers irregular, often offensively smelling, perianth globose with a purple dilated and trumpet-shaped mouth with a strap-shaped brown purple appendage or lip behind; fruit a subglobose capsule.

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Phenology: Flowering: June to October; Fruiting: November to March. Distribution: Found throughout the subcontinent, mainly in the plains and lower hilly regions from Nepal to Bangladesh. Ecology and Cultivation: Found in open scrub jungles; wild. Chemical Contents: Root: a crystalline substance - probably a glucoside, a micro-crystalline principle glucosidic in nature named isoaristolochic acid, allantoin, 0.05 per cent carbonyl compounds and a small amount of an oil, with the odour of isovanillin, ishwarone, ishwarane, aristolochene.

Asparagus racemosus Willd. var. Javanicus Baker (Liliaceae) Syn: Asperagus tetragonus. English Name: Asparagus. Sanskrit Names: Shatavari, Shatamuli. Vernacular Names: Asm: Shatamul; Ben: Shatamuli; Guj: Satawari; Hin: Shakakul, Sada Bori, Shatamuli, Satwar; Mal: Shatavali; Mar: Shatavari, Shatavarimul; Ori: Shatamuli; Tam: Chattavari, Cadumullam, Shimai Shadavari; Tel: Challagadda. Trade Names: Shatamuli, Asparagus. Traditional Use: Some Tribes of India: Root: refrigerant, antiseptic, alterative and galactogogue; roots form a constituent of medicinal oils used for nervous and rheumatic complaints; powder boiled with milk and sugar has been used in different types of neurological disorders, urinary calculi; rub the root of the plant in different diseases of urinary organs; Powder of leaf: enhances breast milk, used for the treatment of colon syndrome. Ayurveda: Useful in different types of cardiac abnormality; beneficial for intelligence as well as on memory modulatory; Powder of root (boiled with milk): for treatment of night blindness; Unani: Ingredient of 'Satawar'. Modern Use: Root: used as demulcent, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antidysenteric, in impotency, azoospermea. Phytography: A slender, scrambling/scandent suffruticose perennial, woody, prickly shoots with reflexed spines; cladode

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more or less acicular and triquetrous falcate 13-26 mm long; divaricate, finely acuminate; flowers white, sweet-scented, 6 mm on filiform articulate pedicels, 6-12 mm long in very short racemes; berries 2.5-6 mm in diameter, scarlet, red on ripening.

Phenology: Flowering: September-December; deciduous or dying back to the root in the hot season; Fruiting: throughout the year. Distribution: Throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the country. Ecology and Cultivation: Common in scrub jungles and in forests; cultivated as ornamentals. Chemical Contents: Leaf: quercetin-3-glucoronide, sitosterol, stigmasterol, sarsasapogenin, sito-sterol D-glucoside, stigmasterol-B-D-glucoside, two sirostanolic and two furostandic saponins. Remark: Root is used in veterinary medicine.

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennel (Scrophulariaceae) (2n= 64, 68) Syn: Herpestis monniera (L.) HB. and K, Moniera cuneiJolia Michx., Gratiola monniera L. English Name: Thyme-Ieaved-Gratiola. Sanskrit Names: Brahmi, Nira Brahmi. Vernacular Names: Ben Adhabirni, Birmi Shak, Barmi Shak, Brahmi; Hin: Barambhi, Safed Chammi; Mal: Nir Bramhi; Mar: Barna; Ori: Urishnaparni; Tam: Nirbrami; Tel: Sambranichettu. Trade Name: Brahmi. Traditional Use: Atharva Veda: strengthens body, improves quality of semen; Charaka Samhita: invigorating, life sustaining; Sushruta Samhita: increases memory and lifespan; Ayurveda: 1. Plant: bitter, diuretic, blood-purifier, invigorates sex;

2. Plant-extract: used in purification of blood, for anaemia, dermatitis, diabetes, filaria; 3. Plant-juice (along with ginger, sugar and l; ... rk extract of Moringa oleifera): to children in stomach disorder;

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4. Leaves (fried in ghee): as a brain tonic, in nervous weakness, hysteria, epilepsy, insanity, anxiety neurosis, and to sharpen dull memory. Agni Purana: Plant: poison-killer; Plant-juice: good for epilepsy.

Unani: Invigorating and good for cold and cough. Modern Use: Plant-extract: In experiments with mice, rat and dog, it has been proved to be tranquilizer, musculature relaxant, antispasmodic, anticancer; Powdered dried leaf: satisfactory results obtained in ma!l in cases of asthenia, nervous breakdown, and other low adynamic conditions. Phytography: Annual creeper, rooting at each node; stem soft, succulent, soft hairs present; branches 10-25 cm long; leaves alternate, simple, 1.25-1.8 cm long, sessile or subsessile, ovalshaped; flowers light blue or white, 0.8-1.5 cm long; capsules 2grooved, valves separating from entire column, many-seeded. Phenology: Flowering: April-June; Fruiting: June-December. Distribution: Marshes throughout India, ascending up to 1,300m; Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Ecology and Cultivation: Grows in damp or marshy areas, on the banks of ponds and canals, in the crop fields. Chemical Contents: Plant: Becoside A & B, betulic acid, betulinic acid, d-mannitol, stigmasterol, a-sitosterol, saponin, stigmastanol, hersaponin, monnierin, nicotine, luteoline and its glucosides.

Balanites aegyptica (L.) Delile (Balanitaceae) (2n=18) Syn: Balanites roxburghii Planch, B. aegyptica var. roxburghii Duthie. English Names: Desert Date, Soapberry Tree, Thorn Tree. Sanskrit Name: Ingudi. Vernacular Names: Ben and Hin: Hingan; Mar: Hinganbet; Tam: Nanjunda; Tel: Gari. Trade Name: Hingan. Traditional Use: Tribes of Panch Mahal (Maharashtra) and Rural Folk: Bark, Leaf, Fruit and Seed: as anthelmintic and

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purgative; Fruit: in boils, leucoderma and other skin diseases; Fruit-pulp: in whooping cough.

Modern Use: Plant: cytotoxic and antitumour principle isolated; Bark: bactericide; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of bark: spasmolytic; Seed-kernel oil: antimicrobial, useful in bums and ulcers, spermicidal. Phytography: Spiny tree, about 6 m high; branches glabrous or puberulous and ending in very strong ascending spines; leaves alternate, bifoliate, ashy green, leaflets coriaceous; cymes axillary, 4- to 10-flowered; flowers green, velvety pubescent; fruits ovoid, about 5 cm in length, fleshy drupes, l-seeded; seed oily but exalbuminous. Phenology: Flowering: November, also during February to May; Fruiting: Winter. Distribution: Bihar, Deccan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur) and Sikkim. Ecology and Cultivation: Xerophyte, found chiefly on black cotton soil; does not thrive in rocky areas. Chemical Contents: Plant: diosgenin and yamogenin; Root: steroidal sapogenin, diosgenin, yamogenin; Stem-bark: steroidal sapogenin, nitrogen glucoside, sesquiterpefle, balanitol, bergapten; Leaf: 6 diosgenin glucosides; Fruit: steroidal sapogenin, yamogenin, 5 diosgenin glycerides, 6 diosgenin glucosides, diosgenin, balanitisins A, B, C, D & E; Seed: a saponin of diosgenin, non-edible fatty oil. Remarks: Fruit-pulp is edible and used for cleansing silk and cotton. Fruit-shell is used in fire-cracker industry. Wood is chiefly used for making walking sticks and as fuel.

Bauhinia vahlii Wt. and Am. (Caesalpiniaceae> Syn: Phanera vahlii Benth. Vemacular Names: Ben: Sehari; Lod: Jom-Iar; San: Sihari-chop. Traditional Use: Tribes of Tehri-Garhwal: 1. Fruit: aphrodisiac, 2. Seed: tonic and vermifuge;

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Tribes of Bastar: 1. Seed: tonic; Santa1: 1. Plant: in dysentery, stomachache, 2. Fruit: to treat antifertility of women.

Phytography: Huge climber with many tendrils; branch lets hairy; leaves alternate, petiolate, simple, 2-cleft, cleavage goes down a quarter to one-third way from the apex, 7.5-45.0 cm long; racemes terminal, subcorymbose; flowers bracteate, 2.5 cm long; pods nearly 45 by 5 cm, rusty-downy, 7 to 12-seeded. Distribution: Foot of central and eastern Himalaya, ascending up to 800 m, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Fabaceae) (2n= 18, 32) Syn: Butea frondosa Roxb., Erythrina monospenna Lamk. English Names: Flame of the Forest, Parrot Tree. Sanskrit Name: Palasha. Vemacular Names: Asm and Ben: Palash; Guj: Khakar; Hin: Dhak; Kan: Muttugathoras, Muttugu-mara; Mal: Chamath, Khakar; Mar: Palash; Mun: Murudba; Om: Murka; Ori: Palasa;. Pun: Dhak; Sad: Palas, Paras; Tam: Samithu, Pal-asam; Tel: Moduga, Palashamu. Trade Names: Palasha, Dhak. Traditional Use: Khasi and Garo: Leaf: in delirium; Tribes of Purulia (West Bengal): Seed: in ascaris; Tribes of Ma Yurbhanja (Orissa): Seed: as contraceptive; Tribes of Santal Parganas (Bihar): Root: in tuberculosis; Tribes of Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh): Leaf: in boils; Seed: as vermifuge; Tribes of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh): Bark: in dysentery; Gum: in diarrhoea, dysentery; Tribes of Siwalik (Uttar Pradesh): Gum: as tonic; Bhat: Seed: as abortifacient; Bhoxa: Bark: in bone fracture, Gum: in piles, urinary complaints; Garhwali: Leaf: in boil, inflammation, Flower: in diarrhoea, dysentery, pimples, Seed: as anthelmintic; Tharu: Gum: as diuretic, Seed: as cooling agent; Folks of Delhi: Gum: as astringent, Flower: as aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, Seed: as anthelmintic; Folks of Kurukshetra (Haryana): Flower: in stomachache; Dang: Bark: in diarrhoea; Tribesofratanmahal Hills (Gujarat): Flower: in eye

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complaints; Korku (of Maharashtra): Flower, in dysentery; Tribes of Khandla (Maharashtra): Flower: in dog bite, urinary complaints; Tribes of Chandrapura (Maharashtra): Leaf: in skin diseases; Tribes of Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh): Root: in dog bite; Tribes of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh): Leaf: as vermifuge, Flower: in diabetes, diarrhoea, piles; Tribes of East Godavari (Andhra Pradesh): Gum: in diarrhoea; Tribes of Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu): Bark: as haemostatic, in wounds, Flower: in eye complaints; Tribes of Kannanore (Kerala): Flower: in antifertility.

Atharva Veda: Extract of st~m: beneficial for sperms and helps securing conception; Charaka Samhita: Stem-extract: useful in leprosy, piles, gastroenteritis and menorrhagia; Sushruta Samhita: useful in diseases caused by vayu (wind), Seed: effective against intestinal worms; Ayurveda: Bark: useful against snake venom, wounds, indigestion, gastroenteritis, fever, tuberculosis, Gum: astringent, beneficial to children and women, Leaf: astringent, sex stimulant, useful in intestinal worms, dyspepsia, piles, menorrhagia, pimples, wounds in ~outh/throat, Flower: diuretic, sex stimulant, helps menstruation, useful in gastroenteritis, Seed: useful against intestinal worms. Siddha: Flower-juice: used in preparation of the medicine Murukkam, Seed and Kernel: in Palac. Unani: Ingredient of the medicine called 'Dhak (tesu)' and 'Samaghke Dhak'. Modern Use: Plant alcoholic extract: produces persistent vasodepression in cats, shows activity against earthworms; Bark: insecticide against house flies; Alcohol extract of bark: inhibitory against E. coli and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus; Gum: solution applied to check conception; Root (bark): aphrodisiac, analgesic, anthelmintic, useful in elephan-tiasis, applied in sprue, piles, ulcers, tumours and dropsy; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of leaf: spasmogenic; Flower: effective in leprosy, gout; Alcoholic extract: antiestrogenic in mice; Aqueous extract: anti-implantation in rats; along with Hygrophila auriculata leaf and root taken with milk to cure leucorrhoea; Seed (freshly powdered): effective against Ascaris; Extract (in vitro): anthelmintic against Asacridia galli worms; finely powdered along with Acorus calamus rhizome or mixed with juice of Cyperus rotundus rhizome: cures delirium; Saline extract: agglutinates erythrocytes of animals; Hot alcoholic extract: anti-implantation and anti-ovulatory in animals.

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Phytography: Erect tree, reaching a height of 13-17 m; young stem clothed with grey or brown silky hairs; leaves alternate, petioles 7.5-15.0 em long, trifoliate, leaflets 10-20 cm long, leathery, lower surface covered with dense silky hairs; racemes 15 cm long; flowers bright orange-red, thickly clothed on the outside with silvery small hairs; pods 15-20 cm by 3.7-5.0 em, narrowed suddenly into a stalk longer than calyx. Phenology: Flowering: February-April; Fruiting: May-July. Distribution: Plains of India, ascending up to 1,300 m; Myanmar. Ecology and Cultivation: Mesophyte; wild. Chemical Contents: Plant: flavonoids, glucosides, butin, butrin, isobutrin, palastrin; Flower: butrin, coriopsin, monospermoside, sulphurein, chalcones; Seed: palasonin, Seed oil: d-Iactone of n·· heneicosanoic add, monospermine, new phytolectin. Remarks: An important tree for lac cultivation, but the lac produced on it is of inferior quality. Bark yields fibre, wood yields timber of poor quality; stem-bark used as fish poison by tribes of South Rajasthan. Plates and bowls are made by stitching the leaves by the tribes of Purulia and Saurashtra. Flowers yield a yellow dye of little permanency. Flowers are eaten as vegetables by tribes of Manbhum and Hazaribagh Districts of Bihar while fruits by Garhwalis. Tree is sacred to the Hindus and Buddhists. Flower is an essential item of Saraswati Puja.

Careya arborea Roxb. (Lecythidaceae) (2n= 26) English Name: Tummy Wood. Sanskrit Name: Kumbhi. Venzacular Names: Ben and Hin: Kumbhi; Guj: Kumbi; Kan: Kaval, Doddala, Asanda; Lod: Kumbi-daru, Kumbhi; Mal: Alam, Pelu; Mun: Asanda-daru, Kumbhir; Sad: Kumbi; San: Khubati; Tam: Ayma; Tel: Araya, Duddipa. Trade Names: Kumbhi, Kumbi. Traditional Use: Lodha: 1. Root-paste: in body pain, 2. Root-bark decoction (wit'" long pepper): in fever,

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2. Root-bark decoction (with long pepper): in fever, 3. Stem-bark powder (paste with honey): to children in cold and cough; Santal: Stem-bark: (paste with margosa): in leucoderma.

Phytography: Medium-sized tree with large ovate, ovateoblong leaves clustered at the end of the branchlets, old leaves often red/purple; flowers large, white and pink, in dense spikes, fruits large globose green, crowded with calyx tube, deciduous. Phenology: Flowering: March-May; Fruiting: July. Distribution: Sub-Himalayan tract occurring throughout India up to an elevation of 1,700 m. Chemical Contents: Bark: lupeol, betulin; Leaf: ellagk acid, hexacosanol, quercetin, a-sitosterol, a-spinasterol taraxerol and its OAc, valoneic acid, careaborin, a-amyrin; Seed: a-spinasterol, aspinasterone, baringtogenol-C, careyagenol-E. Remarks: Only plant named by William Roxburgh in honour of William Carey. !Lodhas use fresh stem bark decoction for washing septic wounds of cattle, and keep a dry fruit in a room as snake repellant. Oraons use powdered stem, root and leaf for poisoning fish.

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae) (2n= 16, 32)

Syn: Lochnera rosea (L.) Spach, Vinca rosea L. English Names: Madagascar Periwinkle, Old Maid, Red Periwinkle. Vemacular Names: Ben: Nayantara; Hin: Sada Sa wagon; Lad: Swet Chandu; Mal: Ushamalari; Mar: Sadaphul; Ori: Ainskati; Pun: Rattanjot; Tam: Sudukadu Mallikai; Tel: Billaganneru. Trade Name: Nayantara. Traditional Use: Bodo: 1. Plant: in cancer, diabetes, 2. Leaf: in menorrhagia; Lodha: 1. Root-paste: in septic wounds,

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2. Root-decoction (with paste of long peppers): in fever, 3. Leaf-juice: in blood dysentery, 4. Leaf-decoction: to babies in gripping pain; Santal: 1. Latex: in scabies, 2. Seed-powder (with decoction of black pepper): in epilepsy; Ethnic Communities of East Godavari District: Root: in cancerous wounds.

Modem Use: Plant-extract: antimitotic; Root (alkaloids): in cancer, and as emetic, hypotensive, sedative and antiviral. Phytography: A small herb or subshrub, up to 75 cm high; leaves elliptic-ovate to oblong, 4-10 by 2-4 cm, glabrous to puberulous, base acute or cuneate, apex obtusely apiculate, lateral nerves 10-12 pairs, petiole 1.0-1.5 cm; flowers in axillary or terminal cymes; solitary or paired, shortly pedicellate, pink or white or white with pink or yellow ring in orifice region; mericarps 3-4 by 0.3 cm, puberulous. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: throughout the year. Distribution: A native of West Indies; commonly grown in gardens throughout India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Ecology and Cultivation: Plains from the coasts, in wastelands, fallow fields, less on the hills 800-1,400 m, also widely cultivated. Chemical Contents: Root-bark: vincaline I & II; Root: vinblastine or vinleukoblastine (VLB), vincristine or vinleurocristine (VCR), ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, ajmalicine, alstonine; Stem: vinca rodine, vincoline, vinamidine, leurocolombine, vincathicine, vincubine; Leaf: leurosine, vindoline, catharanthine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, roseoside, essential oil; Seed: vincedine, vincedicine, tabersonine.

Costus speciosus (Koening ex Retz.) J.E. Smith (Zingiberaceae) (2n= 18,27,36) Syn: Banksea speciosa J. Koening Sanskrit Names: Canda, Kemuka.

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Vernacular Names: Ben: Keu; Hin: Kebu, Keyu, Kusi; Kan: Chengaivakoshtu; Mal: Cannakilannu, Cannakkuvva, Narumeanna; Mar: Penva, Pushkarmula; Tam: Kostam, Kuiravam, Kottam; Tel: Chengaivakohtu. Trade Name: Keyu. Traditional Use: Rhizome: bitter, astringent, acrid, cooling, purgative, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, depurative, febrifuge, expectorant and tonic, also beneficial in asthma, anaemia, bronchitis, leprosy, flatulence, constipation, fever, skin diseases and inflammation. Modem Use: In carcinogenic tumours. Phytography: Succulent perennial herb with long leafy spirally twisted stems, 2-3 m high and horizontal rhizomes; leaves simple, spirally arranged, oblanceolate or oblong, glabrous above, silky pubescent beneath with broad leaf sheaths; flowers white, large, scented, in large terminal spikes; bracts bright red; fruits globose/ ovoid capsules; seeds obovoid or semi-globose. Phenology: Flowering: September-October; inflorescence globose of closely packed bracts. Distribution: Throughout India, Pakistan and Bangladesh - in moist localities and in wastelands. Ecology and Cultiwtion: Hills above 800 m; moist places and wastelands also. Chemical Content: Root: rich in starch. Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) (2n= 32, 42, 62, 64)

II

Syn: Curcuma domestica Val. English Name: Turmeric. Sanskrit Name: Haridra. Vemacular Names: Asm: Holodhi; Ben: Halud; Guj: Halada; Hin: Haldi; Kan: Arisina; Kon: Holldi, Ghor hollad; Mal: ManjeIIakua; Mar: Halede; Mun: Hatu sasang, Sasang; Om: Balka; Ori: Haladi; Sad: Haldi; San: Oerel Sa san; Tam: Manjal; Tel: Pasupu. Trade Name: Haldi. Traditional Use: Ethnic Communities of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam: Rhizome: in migrain;

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Santals: 1. Rhizome: in hazy vision, inflammation of eye, night blindness, subnormal temperature after fever, spleen consumption, Basli rog (pain similar to rheumatism), rheumatism due to draught, lock-jaw, Rosbi (stealth convulsions with indistinct speech), chronic scabies, sores and curbuncles, infantile atrophy, indigestion, prolapsus ani and fistula ani, bronchitis, cough and cold, puerperal fever; 2. Extract of Rhizome: in rhagades; 3. Bulb: in drying up of lactation; 4. Flower: in cholera, sores in throat, syphilis; 5. Dried Flower: in icterus;

Ethnic Communities of Ranchi and Hazaribagh (Bihar): Leaf: in cold, fever, pneumonia; GarhwaH: Rhizome: in pimples and feckles on face, wounds, leprosy; Kumaoni: Rhizome: in cough, insect stings, wounds; Ethnic Communities of Kurukshetra (Haryana): Rhizome: in body pain, headache; Tribes of Araku Valley (Andhra Pradesh): Rhizome: as anthelmintic.

Rigveda: Rhizome: improves body complexion and apetite; Yajurveda: Rhizome: is a blood-purifier, improves body complexion; Charaka Samhita: laxative, useful in leprosyand against contaminuos microbes; Sushruta Samhita: digestive; Ayurveda: Rhizome: effective against bacterial infection, skin diseases, intestinal worms, liver complaints, stammering, filaria, asthma, sprain, boils, wOUIlds, conjuctivitis, thirst due to phlegm, allergic reactions, against leeches, minor ingredient of a drug for malarial fever. Siddha: Rhizome: ingredient of Kappu mancal, Manchal. Unani: Ingredient of 'Majnoor-e-falsfa', useful in gastrointestinal complaints; Powder of rhizome: used as antifertility agent. Modem Use: Rhizome: ingredient of 'Geriforte' - effective in senile pruritis, Vitafix: useful in premature ejaculation, Insect repellent against houseflies, insecticide, antifungal; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of rhizome: antiprotozoal, spasmolytic, hypotensive, central nervous system depressant; daily consumption of 1 gm raw rhizome helps to fight decaying metabolism and thus

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prevents cancer; Essential oil from rhizome: anti-arthritic, antifungal,. anti-inflammatory, antibacterial.

Phytography: Herb with large ovoid rootstock, sessile tubers thick, cylindric, bright yellow inside; petiole 60 cm long, leav.es green, 30-45 cm by 10-20 em; peduncle 15 cm or more long, hidden by sheathing petiole, spikes 10-15 cm, about 5 cm in diameter; bracts pale green, ovate, about 3.7 em long, those of the coma pale pink; flowers yellow, as long as the bracts. Phenology: Flowering: Autumn. Distribution: Indigenous to Paresnath (Bihar); widely cultivated in West Bengal and other parts of India; Bangladesh, Sri Lanka. Ecology and Cultivation: Tropical plant; cultivated throughout the tropics. Chemical contents: Essential oil from rhizome: curcumin. Remarks: Jr. Hawaii, rhizome is used against growth of nostrils, for cleaning blood and as gargle; green rhizome is given for whooping and other coughs. In Sri Lanka, Rhizome paste is used in skeletal fracture. Extensive research is being carried out on the nutritional and medicinal value of this plant. Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) (2n= 24, 48) Syn: Datura alba Nees, D. fastuosa L. var. alba C.B. Clarke English Name: Hindu datura. Sanskrit Name: Dhustura. Vernacular Names: Ben: Dhutra, Dhatura; Hin: Sadahdhatura; Tam: Vellum Mattai. Trade Name: Dhutra. Traditional Use: Folks of Purulia (West Bengal) and Rajasthan: Seed: for treatment of leprosy; Folks of Rajasthan: Leaf: in guineaworms; Other uses of seed, leaf and root: in insanity, fever with catarrhal and cerebral complications, diarrhoea, skin diseases and antideptic. It is narcotic, acrid, anodyne, antispasmodic, intoxicating, emetic and useful in asthma; Root: used for treatment of bites from rabbits; Poultice made of leaf: used for epilepsy, ophthalmodynia, otalgia, lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, mumps and painful swelling.

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Modern Use: Seed: aphrodisiac, narcotic and antispasmodic and useful in dontalgia, otalgia, gastropathy and skin diseases and for treatment of dandruff and lice; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of plant: anticancer, anthelmintic, spasmogenic and blood pressure depressant; Aquous extract of plant: nematicidal; Leaf extract: antiviral; EtOH extract of leaf and aquous extract of fruit: anticholinergic. Phytography: Coarse annual herb, may be 2 m tall, stern scented; leaf alternate, petiolate, simple; flowers axillary, peduncled, white or nearly so, 17.5 ern long and may be 12.5 ern in diameter across the mouth; capsules subglobose, 3 cm in diameter, equally spinous on all sides. Phenology: Flowering: Throughout the year; Fruiting: with blunt spines. Distribution: Throughout India; occasionally grown in gardens. Ecology and Cultivation: Hills up to 1,500 m, occasionally in the plains even to the coast; wild. Chemical Contents: Root: Alkaloids, tropane derivatives; Stern: hyoscine, hyoscyamine, Leaf: hyoscine, hyoscyamine, micotianamine; Fruit (pericarp): alkaloids, a-sitosterol, triterpene, daturaolone, daturadiol; Seed: hyosane, hyoscyamine, daturaolone, fastusic acid; Seed-oil: a-Me-sterols.

Dillenia indica 1. (Dilleniaceae) (2n= 54, 56) Syn: Dillenia speciosa Thunb. English Name: Dillenia. Sanskrit Names: Bhavya, Bharija. Vemacular Names: Asm: Chalita, Qutenga; Ben: Chalta; Guj: Karambel; Hin: Chalta; Kan: Betta kanijala; Mar: Mota Karmal; Mal: Chalita, Punna; Man: Heigri; Ori: Qu, Uvu; San: Korbhatta; Tarn and Tel: Uva. Trade Name: Chalta. Traditional Use: Manipuri: Fruit decoction: for curing dandmff and checking falling of hairs; Mikir (Assam): Fruit: eat to combat weakness; Tribes Oftejpur (Assam): Plant: in fever; Tribes of Tlrap (Arunachal Pradesh): Leaf: in dysentery;

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Santal: 1. Root: as prophylactic at the cholera season, an ingredient of a medicine for burning sensation in the chest; 2. Stem-bark: component of medicine for sores caused by mercury poisoning, chronic progredient sores and carbuncle, and as a prophylactic at the cholera season; 3. Mucilage: on wounds of burns; Tribes of Abujh Marh Reserve Area (Madhya Pradesh): Fruit: as tonic; Tribes of East Godavari (Andhra Pradesh): Fleshy calyx: in stomach disorders. Yajurveda: An important plant; Upavarhalla Samhita: the plant is aphrodisiac and prpmotes virility; Charaka Samhita: the fruit is sweet, acidic, astringent, removes bile, phlegm, fetid and flatulence; Sushruta Samhita: fruit cardiotonic, tasteful, astringent, acidic, removes bile, phlegm, fetid and flatulence; Rajanighantu: green fruit is acidic, pungent, hot, removes wind, phlegm, but the ripe fruit is sweet, sour, appetising and beneficial in colic associated with mucous; Matsya PlIralla: decoction of this plant can be used as universal antidote for poison; Aglli Purmza: spraying water, containing stem extract, on and around the wound caused by spider bite helps in removing the poison.

Ayurllcda: 1. Root (bark extract: in food poisoning; 2. Root-bark(paste): along with leaf-paste applied externally in sprains; 3. Young Bark and Leaf: astringent; 4. Fruit-juice: mixed with sugar and water serves as a cooling beverage in fever, fit, and as a cough syrup; 5. Ripe fruit-juice: removes flatulence, increases quantity of semen, galactogogue, combats weakness, external application helps supuration of boil, and checks loss of hair. Modern Use: Leaf (50 per cent EtOH extract): shows antiamphetamine activity; Seed-extract: antimicrobial; Seed-oil: antifungal, and its unsaponifiable matter antibacterial. Pltytograplty: Evergreen, round-headed tree, 9-42.5 m high; branchlets tomentose, bark cinnamomum-Iike; leaf alternate, simple, fascicled at the apices of branches, petiole 3.7 cm long, lamina 20-25 cm by 5-10 cm, oblong-ianceolate, closely set parallel veins from midrib, upper surfaf.~e glabrous, hairs present on the

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lower surface, especially on veins; flower terminal or leaf-opposed, solitary, white, 15 cm in diameter, sepals thick; fruit globose with accrescent calyx, 12.5-15 em in diameter, green when young, yellowish and sweet-scented when ripe; seeds many, compressed, embedded in hairy cells.

Phenology: Flowering: May-June; Fruiting: July-August. ripens in November-December. Distribution: Sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwal to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Central and South India; Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka.

Ecology and Cultivation: Plant of tropical forest; occasionally grown in gardens.

Chemical Contents: Stem-bark: betulin, betulinaldehyde, betulic acid, flavonoids, dillentin, dihydroisorhamnetin, lupeol, myricetin, glucosides, B-sitosterol; Wood: betulinic acid, lupeol, a-sitosterol; Leaf: betulinic acid, cycloartenone, flavonoids, nhentriacontanol, B-sitosterol; Fruit: an arabinogalactan, betulinic acid, a-sitosterol. Remark: Green calyx is eaten in various forms of pickles.

Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae) (2n= 36, 40, 54, 60, 70,80, 98,100)

Syll: Dioscorea crispata Roxb., D. pulcheUa Roxb. D. sativa Thunb. non L., D. versicolor Buch. Ham. English Names: Air Yam, Potato Yam, Air Potato. Sanskrit Name: Varahi. Vemacular Names: Ben: Banalu, Kukuralu; Hin: Gaithi, Ratalu, Pitalu; Kan: Heggenasu; Man: Ha; Mar: Manakundu, Karukarinda; Mun: Jo Aru; Tam: Kodikulangu; Tel: Chedupaddu-dumpa; San: Bongo-sanga. Traditioual Use: Tribes of Purulia (West Bengal): Tuber: in boils; Santal: 1. Dried tuber (powdery: as shampoo and on sores); 2. Plant: against madness; Sikkimese: Tuber: in jaundice; Ethnic Communities of Dehra Dun and Siwalik: Tuber:

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in dysentery, piles; Dang (Gujarat): Tuber: in abdominal pain, bone fracture.

Modern Use: Aerial parts (50 per cent EtOH extract): diuretic; Rhizome: anorexiant. Phytography: Climber, usually twining to the left; stem slender, green or purple, with 10-15 small crisped wings, tubers large, variable in form; leaves opposite and alternate, petioles sIS cm long, lamina cordate, very variable in size, attaining 35 em in length, membranous, dark green, 7-9 costate; male spikes slender, almost capillary, 2.5-10 cm long, panicled, flowers crowded or scattered, green or purplish; female spikes 10-25 em long, pendulous; capsules 1.6-2.5 em by 0.8-1.25 em, membranous; seeds with broad basal wing. Phenology: Flowering: August-September; Fruiting: November. Distribution: Common in the outskirts of forests throughout India, ascending up to 2,000 m in the hills; Bangladesh, Pakistan. Ecology and Cultivation: Plant of tropical climate, grows in the midst of scrub jungles, rare; wild and planted. Chemical Contents: Tuber: furanoid norditerpenes, norditerpene glucosides, diosbulbinoside D & F, diosbulbin B & 0, a new dihydrophenanthrene, d-sorbitol; Bulbil: diosgenin. Remarks: Tubers are eaten as vegetable by the ethnic communities of Meghalaya, Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh, Purulia and Medinipur districts of West Bengal, Varanasi, Mirzapur districts and Kumaon area of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Ratan Mahal Hills (Gujarat), Rajasthan, Cannanore district of Kerala and Mikirs (Assam), Santals (West Bengal) and Tharus (Uttar Pradesh). Boiled bulbils are eaten by Mikirs and Santals as vegetable.

Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke (Ebenaceae) (2n=30)

Syn: Diospyros embryoteris Pers., D. malabarica (Oeser.) Kost. English Names: Gaub Persimmon, Wild Mangostein.

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Sanskrit Names: Kalaskardha, KriEhnasara, Tinduka.

Vernacular Names: Ben and Hin: Gab, Kata Gab; Kan: Holetupari; Mal: Panachi; Mar: Tender; Ori: Dhusarokendu, Kendu; San: Makar Kenda; Tam: Katlati, Tumbi; Tel: Tinduki. Traditional Use: Santal: 1. Root: in gravel; 2. Bark: in cholera; 3. Fruit: in dysentery and menorrhagia; Tribes of Abujhmarh Reserve Area (Madhya Pradesh): Fruit: in dysentery and as tonic; Tribes of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh): Fruit: in blister in mouth, diarrhoea. Harit Samhita: Bark: in gastro-enteritis; Bagbhatta: Juice of unripe fruit: in restoring normal skin colour after burn; Bhabaprakasa: Aqueous extract of green fruit: in healing bumwound; Bangasena: Powder of dried fruit with honey: licking is beneficial in hiccup in children.

Ayurveda: 1. Bark extract: in chronic dysentery; 2. Aqueous extract of green fruit: in menorrhagia, excessive salivation. Modern Use: EtOH (50 per cent) extract of stem and leaf: anticancer, diuretic; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of stem bark: antiprotozoal, antiviral, hypoglyeaemic.

Phytography: Middle-sized, profusely branched tree; stem and branches black, branchlets glabrous; leaves alternate, petioles ±O.6 to ±O.8 cm long, lamina thick, leathery, oblong, veines slightly elevated above; male flowers in few or many-flowered short cymes, flowers tubular, 0.8 cm long, lobed, calyx black, silky; female flowers solitary or few together, subsessile or cymose, larger than male flowers, ovary 8-celled; fruits usually solitary, subglobose, 2.5-5.0 em in diameter, brick-coloured when young, yellowish when mature, persistent calyx lobed, accrescent 4 to 8 -seeded. Pheno[og-1: Flowering and Fruiting: Summer to rainy season. fruits take 4-5 months to mature.

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Distribution: Throughout India; Bangladesh, Malaysia' and other South-East Asian countries, also in Australia. Ecology and Cultivation: Throughout India, abundant in Bengal; cultivated near habitational sites; occasionally found as ferals; Sri Lanka.

Chemical Contents: Root: glycerides; Bark: myricyle alcohol, saponin, triterpenes; Stem: a-sitosterol, aleuconanthocyanin; Leaf: triterpenes; Fruit pulp: alkenes, triterpenes; Seed: betulinic acid, a-amyrin, fatty oil, unsaponified matter. Adulterants: Often it is confused with Garcinia mangostana and Strychnos nux-vomica. Remarks: Santals use bark in treatment of rinderpest. Rural people of North Bengal and Bangladesh consume the leaves as vegetable. Fruits are eaten by Bhoxas, Lodhas, Monpas, Santals and Bengalees. Tribes of Bastar consume the seeds. .;;Boatmen rub the fruit-juice on the undersurface of boats to protect the wood from rotting, and fishermen use the same in their fishing net for the same purpose.

Dolichos Biflorus L. (Fabaceae) Syn: Dolichos uniflorus Lam., Glycine uniflora Dalz. English Name: Horsegram. Sanskrit Name: Kulattha. Vernacular Names: Ben: Kurti-kalai; Hin and Mar: Kutthi; Kan: Hurali; Mal: Muthiva; Man: Nagakrijon; Mun: Kurthi; Om: Anrsga; Sad: Kurthi; San: Horec; Tam: Kollu; Tel: Ulavalu. Traditional Use: Santal: 1. Plant: dysuria, sores, tumours; 2. Leaf: in burns; 3. Seed: in adenitis, fistula ani, intercostal neuralgia, pleurisy, pneumonia, prolapsus ani; Munoa: aqueous extract of seed: to women after childbirth; Irula, Kota, Tooa (Nilgiri): seed: in menstrual complaints; Rural folks: Aqueous extract of seed: in urinary troubles and kidney stone.

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Charaka Samhita: Seed: Useful in piles, hiccup, abdominal lump, bronchial asthma, in causing and regulating perspiration; Sushruta Samhita: seed powder: useful in stopping excessive perspiration; Bagbhatta: seed: useful in spermatocalcali (Shukrashman); Chakradatta: decoction of seed: beneficial in urticaria; Rajanighantu: beneficial in piles, colic, epistasis, flatulence, ophthalmia, ulcer. Ayurveda: decoction of seed: useful in leucorrhoea, menstrual troubles, bleeding during pregnancy, colic caused by wind, piles, rheumatism, heamorrhagic disease; intestinal worms; seed powder: antidiaphoretic; seed (in combination with milk): work as anthelmintic, soup prepared from seeds is beneficial in enlarged liver and spleen. Siddha: seed: used in preparing a medicine named Kollu. Modern Use: Plant extract: radiolabel reagent in AB blood grouping of human hair; EtOH (SO per cent) extract of Seed: spasmolytic. Phytography: Annual herb, trailing or suberect, branched; leaves alternate, stipulate, trifoliate, leaflets membranous, ovate, ±2.S-S.0 cm long, young ones finely pilose; flowers axillary, may be more than one together but without a common peduncle, papilionaceous, usually yellow - may be white, ±1.2S-1.8 cm long; pods ±3.7-S.0 cm by 0.6-0.8 cm, recurved, tipped with a persistent style; seeds S-6 per pod, ellipsoid, flattened. Phenology: Flowering: August-November; Fruiting: September-December. Distribution: Widely distributed in India, ascending up to 1,000 m in Sikkim; cultivated mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. Ecology and Cultivation: Mesophyte; wild and cultivated. Chemical Contents: Stem and Leaf: coumesterol, a lectin-like glycoproticin, psoraliding; Leaf (bacteria treated): dolichin A and dolichin B; Seed: a-sitosterol, coumesterol, delbergiodin, genistein, 2-hydroxy-genistein, isoferreirin, keivitone, phaseollidin, pyranoside. Adulterant: Cassia abrus L. is sometimes confused with this plant.

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Remarks: Santals use the plant in treatment of rinderpest of domestic animals. Seeds are often consumed as pulse. Santals consider eating this pulse is good for patients of dysentery and leprosy, but they prohibit eating this by the patients of measles and small pox.

Eclipta alba (L.) Roxb. (Asteraceae) (2n= 18, 20, 22) Syn: Eclipta prostrata (L.) Hassk. English Name: Trailing eclipta. Sanskrit Names: Bhringa, Bhringaraja, Kesaraja, Kayyonni, Markava, Tekarajah. Vernacular Names: Asm: Kehoraji; Ben: Bhringaraj, Keshurti, Kesuria, Keshurey; Guj: Bhengra; Hin: Babri, Bhangra, Mocakand, Safed Bhannra; Kan: Garga; Mal: Kannunni, Kaiyanni, Kayyonni; Man: Oochisumbal; Mar: Maka; Mun: Bhengaj, Piri kesari; Om: Bhengraj; Ori: Kesarda; Sad: Bhengrait; San: Banda-kansa; Tam: Garuga, Kaikesi, Karipan, Kayyantakara; Tel: Galagara, Guntagalyeru. Trade Name: Kesuth. Traditional Use: Garo: Leaf: in gastric troubles, hepatic disorders; Manipuri: 1. Stem-decoction: in liver enlargement, 2. Leaf-extract: in fever and cough; Toto: 1. Whole plant: in hepatic problems, spleen troubles, 2. Root: in ulcers and wounds, 3. Leaf: as antidote to scorpion sting; Ethnic Communities of Orissa: 1. Plant: in itching, 2. Leaf: in conjunctivitis and other eye problems, in promoting hairgrowth; Santal: 1. Plant-decoction with paste of black pepper: in fever, 2. Leaf-juice: on wounds; Ethnic Communities of Bihar: 1. Plant: against antifertility, 2. Root: as anti~ote to snake bite, 3. Leaf: in malaria and other fevers;

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Ethnic Communities of Araku Valley (Madhya Pradesh): Leaf: in conjunctivitis, eye troubles; Irular: Leaf: in jaundice; Tribal Societies of Anaikatty Hills (Tamil Nadu): Flower bud: in fever, headache; Ethnic Communities of Salsette Island: Leaf: as cooling; Tribal Societies of Saurashtra (Gujarat): Whole Plant: in asthma, bronchitis, leucoderma; Tribal Societies of Eastern Rajasthan: Leaf: in sores, ulcers, wounds, spleen disorders; Tribes of Kurukshetra (Haryana): Leaf: as antiseptic; Garhwali: 1. Whole plant: in jaundice, spleen disorders,

2. Leaf: in leucoderma, skin diseases; Kol: Leaf: in malaria; Tribes of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh): Whole plant: in liver complaints; Tribes of Chhindwara (Madhya Pradesh): Leaf: for promoting hair growth; Tribes of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh): Plant: in toothache, headache, gland swelling, elephantiasis; Atharvaveda: It affects intelligence and memory, cures bile (pitta) disorders, prevents graying and falling of hairs; Bhavaprakasha: Cures problems caused by phlegm and wind, beneficial for hair, skin, teeth and eyes, removes worms, and also effective in jaundice and oedema; Rajanighantu: beneficial for hairs, eyes, oedema and phlegm; Kaiyadevanighantu: it removes the problems caused by phlegm and wind and worms, beneficial for hair, teeth, skin, cures cough, jaundice and oedema; Nighanturatnakaram: in addition to the above qualities, this plant invigorates sex; V.. idyamanorama: drinking juice of the plant strengthens the body and secures the foetus in womb.

Ayurveda: Cures headache, migraine; leaves are beneficial for hairs, they remove lice, blacken skin, cure pyorrhoea, chronic dysentery, oedema, nervous weakness, jaundice, anorexia, gum troubles and remove intestinal worms. Modern Use: Herb: in skin diseases; Gum resin (from herb): anticancerous against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma; Plant (50 per cent EtOH extract): antiviral, spasmogenic; Plant (aqueous extract): ovicidal against Sitotroga cerenle eggs, nematicidal, haemostatic, beneficial in body inflammation, protective against hepatotoxic action d carbon tetrachloride in female guineapigs; Plant (powder): curative of infective hepatitis, jaundice and viral hepatitis; Leaf (aqueous extract): myocardial depressant, hypotensive; Leaf-juice: cures shoulder pain caused by heavy load.

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Phytography: Erect or prostrate diffused annual herb with roots at each node; leaves opposite, sessile, oblong-Ianceolate, ±2.510 cm long, very variable in form and width; heads subglobose, ±1.25 cm broad; flowers white and compressed. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: throughout the year, peak period - August-February. Distribution: Throughout India, ascending up to 2,000 m; Bangladesh and Pakistan. Ecology and cultivation: Common on damp wastelands, low waterlogged areas, roadsides, grassy humid localities, prefers warm climate; wild. Chemical Contents: Leaf: stigmasterol, a-terthienyl methanol, wedelolactone, de-Me-wedelolactone, small amount of 2-formylterthienyl. Adulterants: In Sanskrit literature, three types of Bhringaraja have been mentioned - white-flowered (E. alba), yellow-flowered (Wedeia calandulacea) and blue-flowered (not yet identified). Remarks: Tribals use juice of leaves for tattooing purpose.

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (Zingiberaceae) (2n=48,52) Syn: Cardamum officinale Salisb.; (non-Ammomum cardamum L. 1753); Alpinia cardamum Roxb. English Names: Cardomum, Lesser Cardamum. Sanskrit Names: Ela, Trutih. Vernacular Names: Ben: Chhoto Elach; Guj: Elachi; Hin: Chhoti Elaichi; Kan: Yellaki; Mal: Cittelum, Elam; Mar: Elachi Veldodi; Tam: Elam; Tel: Yelakkayalu. Trade Name: Chhoti Elaichi. Traditional Use: Matsya Purana: a constituent of an anti venom drug; Siddha: dried fruit, seed and stem-bark are used to prepare drugs cell 'Elam', 'Elarici'. Ayurveda: Seeds abortifacient. alexiteric, aromatic, acrid, sweet, cooling, carminative, cardiac tonic, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, and tonic, beneficial in asthma, bronchitis, strangury, haemorrhoids, renal and vesical calculi, halitosis, anorexia, dyspepsia, gastropathy and burning sensation.

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Unani: 'Preparations used as antidote to poison, astringent, exhilarant and in nausea. Modern Use: Essential oil from seed: antimicrobial; oil is used in several pharmaceutical preparations. Phytography: Perennial leafy herb, 1.5-3.0 m high; rootstock thick, horizontal; leaves 30-65 cm by 5-10 cm, distichous, elliptic ;)r elliptic-Ianceolate, glabrous above, softly pubescent below, acuminate at apex, narrowed or obtuse at base; flowers white, striped with violet, in elongated, flexuous, bracts, panicles arising from the rootstock; capsules oblong or subindehiscent, marked with fine vertical ribs; seeds black, arillate. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: throughout the year, mainly in late autumn and winter. Distribution: Found in rich, moist forests of the hilly tracts, up to 2,000 m; commercially cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat. Ecology and Cultivation: Plant of tropical moist climate; wild and cultivated. Chemical Contents: Seed: essential oil, terpenoids. Remark: Fruits and seeds are used as masficator.

Embelia ribes Burm. f. (Myrsinaceae) Syn: Embelia glandulifera Wight, Samara ribes Kurz. English Names: Embelia, Embelia Fruit. Sanskrit Names: Jantughna, Krimighna, Krimiripu, Vella, Vidanga. Vernacular Names: Ben: Biranga; Guj: Vaivarang, Vavading; Hin: Baberang, Vayvidang; Kan: Vayuvilanga; Mar: Vaivarang, Vavadinga; Mal: Vizhal; Pun: Baburung; Tam and Tel: Vayuvilanga. Traditional Use: Garhwali and Tribes of North-east India: Seed: in skin diseases, ringworms, leprosy; Ethnic Communities of Kamrup (Assam): Fruit: in stomach complaints; Matsya Purana: important medicinal plant; Agni Purana: beneficial for gastroenteritis, cirrhosis of liver, oedema, skin diseases including leprosy and effective in killing worms in alimentary canal;

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Vijacintamanitantra: consumption of powdered fruit along with fruits of Emblica officinalis, honey and sesame-oil improves quality of sperms; Bhavaprakasha: it is pungent, removes morbidity, impi'Oves blood circulation, stimulates appetite, acts against phlegm, makes the body light, kills worms of all types; Rajanighantu: it is pungent, hot, light, enhances balance between wind and phlegm, beneficial in anorexia and improves digestive power; Siddha: Dried fruits are used to prepare the drug Vaivitankam.

Ayurveda: 1. Root: acrid, astringent, useful in colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, odontalgia, stomach pain and increases exothermic metabolism; 2. Leaf: astringent. demulcent, depurative, thermogenic, useful in skin diseases including leprosy; 3. Fruit: acrid, alexeteric, alterant, anodyne, anthelmintic, astringent, bitter, brain tonic, carminative, contraceptive, depurative, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rejuvenating, stimulant, tonic, vulnerary, and useful in amnetia, asthma, colic, constipation, cardiopathy, dental caries, dyspepsia, dyspnoea, fever, flatulence, general debility, hemicramia, odontalgia, psychopathy, respiratory troubles and ring-worms; 4. Seed: a constituent ofVidangadi Yoga, an antifertility drug.

Modern Use: Plant: cures abdominal tumours, and aenemeas, cystic tumours, pyorrhoea, useful against tape worms; EtOH extract of plant: slightly active against E coli; one of the constituents of 'Gasex', and some oral contraceptives; Fruit: cures dental, oral, throat troubles except cancer of lips and ptyslism, constituent of some quick aboriticide; Aqueous extract of fruit: pronounced antifertility activity, anthelmintic against earthworms; Fruitpowder: expels tapeworms within 6-24 hours, if taken with curd in empty stomach, effective against giardia; Seed: antibioti'c, anthelmintic, antituberculosis, alterative and stimulative.

Phytography: Large scandent shrub; branches long, slender, flexible, bark with many lenticels; leaves simple, alternate, petioles ±O.B cm, lamina elliptic, leathery, glabrous, shining above, silvery beneath, glandular pits present on the lower surface near the

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midrib; racemes axillary and terminal, laxly panicled; flowers whitr, may be greenish, ±O.2 cm long; berries dull red to black, globular, small, 1- or 2-seeded; seeds globose, hollowed at the base, white spotted, albuminous.

Phenology: Flowering: peak in March-April; Fruiting: August. Distribution: Throughout India up to 1,750 m in hilly regions; common in lower hills; Sri Lanka, Malaya. Ecology and Cultivation: Grows in shola border, thickets; wild. Chemical Contents: Fruit: embelin. Remark: Ethnic communities of Cannanore (Kerala) make bowstring with the bark.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Euphorbiaceae) (2n= 28, 98, 104, 196)

Read: Phyllanthus emblica L. English Name: Emblica Myrobalan. Sanskrit Names: Adiphala, Amlaka, Amritaphala, Dhatri, Hatha, Nellikka. Vernacular Names: Asm: Amluki; Ben: Amla, Amlaki; Guj: Amali; Hin: Amla, Aon, Aonala; Kan: Amalaka; Mal: Amalakam, Nelli; Man: Heikru; Mar: Anvala; Mun: Meral daru; Om: Amra; Ori: Amla; Pun: Ambli, Ambuli; Sad: Aonra; San: Aohal; Tam: Nelli, Toppunelli; Tel: Amlakamu, Usirika. Trade Name: Amla, Amlaki. Traditional Use: Ethnic Communities of Sagar District (Madhya Pradesh): Fruit: antiemitic, used in fever, indigestion; Ethnic Communities of Dehra Dunand Siwalik Districts (Uttar Pradesh): Fruit: in bronchitis, indigestion; Seed: in asthma; Dang (Gujarat): Bark: on bum, wounds, stomach complaint; Irular (Tamil Nadu): Leaf: against cold; Birhore (West Bengal): Fruit: in constipation, headache, liver complaint, madness; Thanes (Uttar Pradesh): Fruit: in constipation; Ethnic Communities of Galhwal: Fruit: laxative, cooling, in diabetes, dysentery, and as diuretic; Ethnic Communies of Tirap (Arunachal Pradesh): Fruit: in diabetes; Naga: FrLlit: in eye complaint; Khasi and Jaintia: Fruit: in eye complaint; Tribes of Mirzapur District (Uttar Pradesh): Fruit: in eye complaint; Tribes of Hazaribagh District (Bihar): Fruit:

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used to revive taste; Kol (Uttar Pradesh): Fruit: on scorpion sting; Ethnic Communities of Mayurbhanj (Orissa): Fruit: against thirst; Oraon: 1. Fruit: in cough, 2. Juice of fresh fruit and 3. Infusion of seed: in inflammation of eyes, 4. Crushed fruit with fruit of Tenninalia citrina and Tenninalia belerica macerated in a tumbler of water in the evening: a very good stomachic and tonic; Manipuri: 1. Boiled extract of leaf: in controlling high blood sugar, 2. Fruit: in constipation, bleeding gum, piles, blood diseases and also as brain and nerve tonic; Santal: 1. Leaf: in anaemia, diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, gravel, sores (agya ghao, rokoc ghao), 2. Stem-bark: in cholera, profuse diarrhoea (haga sitka), fistula, sores (bonga khoda, nason ghao, pachiari ghao, palania ghao), 3. Powder of male inflorescence: in nasal haemorrhage, 4. Infusion of green fruit: in gripe, 5. Ripe fruit: in cystitis and diarrhoea; Rajan/Ghantu: it is acidic (amla), astringent (kashaya), pleasant (madhura), cooling and light, beneficial in burning sensation caused by deranged bile, vomiting. oedema and is rejuvenating; the fruit is appetising, antiemetic and removes fatigue, useful in constipation and flatulence; Siddha: root-bark, fruit-juice and dried fruit are used to prepare a medicine named Nelli. .

Ayurveda: Fruit is useful in acidity, urinary trouble, hiccup, vomiting. leucorrhoea, biliary colic, urticaria, conjunctivitis and dysentery. Modem Use: Fruit: pronounced expectorant, antioxidant, anticancerous; EtOH (50 per cent) extract of fruit: antiviral, carminative, stomachic; Aqueous extract of fruit: increases cardiac glycogen level and decreases serum GOT, GPT and LDH in rats; Fruit-juice:

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1. Mixed with turmeric powder and honey: cures diabetes

insipidus; 2. In ghee: used for abdominal and glandular tumours; a constituent of the medicine SG-1-Switradilepa used against vitiligo, and of an antibiotic drug Septilin. Phytography: Deciduous tree with flaky bark, greenish, grey or red; leaves distichously closely set, bipinnate, dark green, leaflets linear-oblong; flowers densely fascicled, yellowish, unisexual, males on slender pedicels while females sub sessile; fruits light green when young, yellowish when mature, globose, depressed, succulent, obscurely six-lobed, one-seeded; seed trigonous. Phenology: Flowering: February-May; Fruiting: May onwards. . Distribution: Common in the mixed deciduous forests of India, ascending up to 1,500 m, often cultivated in gardens and homeyards; Bangladesh, Pakistan. Ecology and cultivation: Plant of tropical climate; predominantly wild, cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh. Chemical Contents: Root: ellagic acid, oleanolic acid, oleanolic aldehyde, lupeol; Stem-bark: lelucodel-phinidin, procyanidin, 3O-gallated prodelphinidin and tannin; Stem and Leaf: lupeol, asitosterol; Fruit: vitamin C, carotene, riboflavine, D-glucose, Dfructose, myoinositol, nicotinic acid, D-galacturoniaacid, phyllemblic acid, mucic acid, fatty acids, D-arabinosyl, D-xylosyl, L-rhamnosyl, D-glucosyl, D-mannosyl, D-galactosyl. Remarks: Santals use bark in rinderpest, anthrax and convulsion of cattle. Fruits are eaten raw or as pickle and used to make ink. Wood is not attacked by insects.

Euphorbia tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae) (2n= 20) English Name: Milk Bush, Indian Tree Spurge. Sanskrit Names: Shatala, Trikantaka. Vernacular Names: Ben: Ganderi, Lankasij, Latadoona; Guj: Thor dandalio; Hin: Konpol, Sehund; Kan: Bantakalli; Mar: Shera; Tam: Tirukalli, Kalli; Tel: Chemudu. Trade Name: Tirukalli.

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Traditional Use: Irular: Latex: in body pain, eczema, scabies; Ethnic Communities of Champakarai and Dhoomanoor (Tamil Nadu): Latex: on wounds; Nayadi: Latex: in rheumatism; Ethnic Communities of Madhya Pradesh: Latex: in earache, rheumatism, warts; Ethnic Communities of Chhotanagpur: Latex: in earache; Bhavaprakasha: it is pungent, bitter, helps digestion, beneficial in oedema, deranged phlegm, epistasis, deranged bile, constipation and dyscrasia. Ayurueda: Root: beneficial in colic; Latex of stem and leaf: cures cough, earache, emetic, laxative and rubefacient. Modern Use: Stem-extract: antifungal; Aerial parts (SO per cent EtOH extract): antiprotozoal. Phytography: Erect tree, 3-6 m high, branches thin, cylindrical, spreading, scattered, clustered, whorled, latex extraordinarily abundant, sticky and acrid; leaves alternate, linear, caducous, petioles modified to phyUoc1ade; involucres clustered in the forks of branches, inconspicuous, flowers shortly pedicelled, bracteoles numerous; cocci dark brown, velvety, compressed; seeds ovoid, smooth. Phenology: Flowering: very scarce, mainly in June-July; Fruiting: July-October. Distribution: Introduced from tropical Africa, naturalized in the drier parts of India; elsewhere largely cultivated as hedges and fuel plants. Ecology and Cultivation: Xerophytic. Chemical Contents: Root: cycloartenol, euphorbol and its hexacosanoate, taraxerone, tinyatoxin; Bark: euphorbol and its hexacosanate, euphorginol-taraxer-14-en-6-01, ingenol and its triacetate, taraxerone; Latex: a-amyrin, a-sitosterol, cycloartenol, cycloeuphordenol, 4-deoxyphorbol and its esters, euphol, euphorbinol, isoeuphorbol, palmitic acid, taraxerol, tinyatoxin, tirucallol, trimethyl ellagic acid; it may be noted that there are differences in chemical contents of latex of plant growing in differenet countries; Stem: campesterol, hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, kaempferol, stigmasterol, methyl ellagic acid. Remark: The plant is worshipped as a sacred one.

Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) (2n= 22, 26) Syn: Ficus glomera til Roxb.

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English Names: Ouster Fig, Country Fig, Gular Fig. Sanskrit Names: Apushpaphalasambandha, Audumbaram, Brahmavriksha, Haritaksha, Hemadugdha, Shetavalkala, Udumbara, Yajnaphala.

Vernacular Names: Asm: Dimoree; Ben: Dumur, Jajna-dumur, Jaya dumur; Guj: Gudar, Umar, Umbara; Hin: Gulav, Umar; I
Trade Name: Common Fig. Traditional Use: Manipuri: 1. Root-extract: in diabetes, dysentery, 2. Latex: on boils; (Hi) Fruit: in pulmonary diseases; Santal: 1. Bark-juice: on boils, in adenitis axillaris, epidydimitis, hydrocele, orchitis, 2. Latex: on adenitis, muscular pain, pimps, scabies, 3. Juice of pith: in menorrahgia, spermatorrhoea, 4. Warts on leaves: in small pox, 5. Leaf gall (decoction): for washing septic wounds; Bhoxa: Latex: in piles; Ethnic Communities of Northern India: 1. Latex: in piles, pulmonary diseases, 2. Bark and Fruit (together): in urinary complaints, 3. Fruit: as carminative; Garhwali: 1. Root: in dysentery, 2. Bark: as astringent; Ethnic Communities of Mount Abu (Rajasthan): Leaf: in pneumonia; Ethnic Communities of Chandrapura (Maharashtra): Leaf: in bronchitis; Ethnic Communities of Khedtaluka (Maharashtra): 1. Barkand Fruit (together): in leprosy, urinary complaints; 2. Fruit: in diabetes;

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Ethnic Communities of Chhindwara (Madhya Pradesh): 1. Latex: in diarrhoea, 2. Fruit: as carminative; Ethnic Communities of Banda (Madhya Pradesh): Latex: in dysentery, skin cracks in heels and lips;

Rigveda: cures piles, internal wounds, removes impurities from blood, worms from alimentary canal; Yajurveda: bark kills worms; Atharvaveda: useful in skin diseases, including leprosy, sinus, oedema, impurities of blood and in piles; Madanadinighantu: useful in antifertility, pimples and wounds; Bhavaprakasha: useful in treatment of pimples and wounds; Dhanvantarinighantu: removes worms, cures thrombophlebitis, syncope, burning sensation and unusual thirst; Kaiyadevanighantu: astringent, sweet and heavy, cures pimples and wounds, diseases caused by deranged phlegm apd deranged bile; fruits are tasteful, invigorating, astringent, cooli4tg, cardiac tonic, useful in urinary diseases, bile disorders, menstrual disorders; Siddha: 1. Bark: used to prepare the drug atti pattai, 2. Latex: for atti pal, and (Hi) Leaf: an ingredient of atti ilai. Ayurveda: Latex: external application useful in cuts, insect bites, boils, bruises, swellings, while internal application is beneficial in haemoptysis, bleeding piles and menstrual problems. Modern Use: Stem-bark (50 per cent EtOH extract): antiinflammatory, anti protozoal, hypoglycaemic; Leaf-powder: useful in bilious affections; Leaf-gall: beneficial in small pox. Phytography: Spreading laticiferous tree, 9.0-12.2 m tall, bark reddish grey, smooth; leaves alternate, stipules ovate-Ianceolate, pubescent, 1.25-2.5 cm long, petioles 2.5-5.0 em long, lamina simple membranous, ovate to obovate-oblong or lanceolate, 10-18 cm long, dark green, glabrous or softly pubescent above while lower surface pubescent or glabrous; fruits borne in clusters on the main trunk and leafless short branches, subglobose or pyriform, 2.55.0 cm in diameter, red when ripe. Phenology: Flowering: Spring; Fruiting: Rainy season. Distribution: Throughout India; Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka.

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Ecology and Cultivation: Tropical plant; grows on the banks of streams, sides of ravines, on rocky slopes, up to 1,500 m; wild. Chemical Contents: Bark: ceryl behenati gluanol-OAc, lupeol and its a-OAc, a-amyrin, a-sitosterol; Leaf: a-amyrin, a-sitosterol, gluanol-OAc; Fruit: lupeol-OAc, gluanol-OAc, glucose, hentriacontane, a-sitosterol, a sterol, ester of taraxasterol, tiglic acid. Remarks: Some ethnic communities of Rajasthan use leaves as a galactogogue for cattle. Rural folks of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa use bark in treatment of domestic animals. Unripe fruits are eaten as a vegetable by most of the Indians, while ripe fruits are consumed by Bhoxas, Garhwalis, tribes of North-East India, hill people of Maharashtra, tribes of eastern Rajasthan, Kerala and Madhya Pradesh (Bastar). Tribes of Chhindwara (Madhya Pradesh) use young stem as toothbrush. This tree is considered as a constituent of the sacred panchavata and as kalpataru by the Hindus. They keep a piece of stem of this plant, as a part of rite, in the labour room and also use the wood as samidh (sacrificial wood) in all yajnas. The wood is also used by the Hindus to make effigy if the corpse is lost or not available.

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. ex Schult (Asclepiadaceae) (2n= 22)

Syn: Periploca sylvestris Willd., Gymnema melicida Edgew. English Names: Vine, Periploca of the the Woods. Sanskrit Names: AjabaUi, Ajagandini, Ajashringi, Bahalchakshu, Chakshurabahala, Grihadruma, Karnika, Kshinavartta, Madhunasini, Medhasingi, Meshashringi, Meshavishanika, Netaushadhi, Putrashringi, Sarpadanshtrika, Tiktadughdha, Vishani. Vernacular Names: Ben: Meshashringi; Guj: Dhuleti, Mardashing; Hin: Gurmar, Gumar, Merashinghi; Kan: Karhasige, Sannagera-shehumbr; Mal: Cakkarakkolli, Madhunashini; Mar: Kavali, Kalikardor, Vakundi; Tam: Adigam, Cheorukurinja,

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Kannuminayamkodi, Pasaanr, Sakkaraikkolli, Shirukurinja, Sirukurumkay; Tel: Podapatra.

Trade Names: Gurmar, Merasingi. Traditional Use: Kol: Leaf: in gastric troubles; Ethnic Communities of Rajasthan and Ohasan Valley: Leaf: in diabetes; Ethnic Communities of Kandala (Maharashtra): Leaf: in urinary complaints; Gond: Leaf: in diabetes, stomachache; Ethnic Communities of Madhya Pradesh: Leaf: in cornea opacity and other eye diseases; Ethnic Communities of Godavari District (Andhra Pradesh): Leaf: in diabetes, glycosuria; Irular: Leaf: in diabetes; Charaka Samhita: removes bad odour from breast milk, aperitive; Sushruta Samhita: plant useful as purgative, in eye troubles; leaf extract and also the same of flower beneficial for eyes; bark useful in the diseases caused by vitiated kapha (phlegm); Bagbhat: rootbark useful in piles; Bhavaprakasha: it is bitter, appetiser, gastric stimulant, removes cough, alleviates breathing troubles, useful in curing phlegm, eyetroubles, wounds; Rajanighantu: appetiser, removes phlegm, piles, colic pain, cures dropsy, useful in eye troubles, cardiotonic, beneficial in respiratory diseases, wounds, detoxicant; fruits are bitter, sialagogue, thermogenic, cures the diseases caused by vitiated kapha (phlegm) or vata (wind); Nighanturatnakaram: removes cough, vitiated wind, detoxicant, appetiser, useful in eye troubles. Ayurveda: acrid, alexipharmic, anodyne, anthelmintic, antipyretic, astringent, bitter, cardiotonic, digestive, diuretic, emetic,expectorant, laxative, stimulant, stomachic, uterine tonic; useful in amennorrhoea, asthma, bronchitis, cardiopathy, conjunctivitis, constipation, cough, dyspepsia, haemorroids, hepatosplenomegaly, inflammations, intermittant fever, jaundice and leucoderma; root emetic and removes phlegm; external application is useful in insectbae; Siddha: an ingredient of 'Cirukuricinver'. Unani: An ingredient of 'Gurmarbuti'. The fresh leaves, when chewed, paralyse the sense of sweet for sometime; for this reason it is called gur-mar, thereby meaning sugar-killer and impression has become prevalent in some parts of the country that it is useful in diabetes mellitus. Chewing fresh leaves also paralyse the taste of bitter for a while. Modern Use: Aerial parts (50 per cent EtOH extract): spasmolytic, hypyoglycaemic, in vitro antiviral against influenza A'l. virl.!::-

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Phytography: Stout, woody, large climber; young ,branches slender and pubescent; leaves opposite, simple, petioles 0.6-1.2 an, stout or slender, lamina 2.5-6.25 cm in length, elliptic or ovate, thinly coriaceous, upper surface rarely pubescent; cymes subglobose, ± 1.25 cm in diameter; flowers yellow, ±O.2 an in diameter; follicles slender, ±5-7.5 by 0.8 em; seeds pale brown, flat, ±1.25 cm long. Phenology: Flowering: August-March; Fruiting: Winter. Distribution: Mainly in Deccan peninsula, also found in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan; Sri Lanka. Ecology and Cultivation: Grows in the plains from the coast, in scrub jungles and in thickets; wild. Chemical Contents: Leaf: conduritol A, gymnestrogenin, gymnamine, hentriacontane, nonacosane, penta-OH-triterpene. Remark: In Sri Lanka, plant used in bone fractures.

Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Verbenaceae) (2n= 36,38) Syn: Premna arborea Roth. English Names: Cashmeri Tree, Coomb Teak, Malay Bush Beech, White Teak. Sanskrit Names: Ashveta, Bahdrapami, Gambhari, Gandhari, Kakodumbari, Kassmari, Katphala, Nandivriksha, Sharubhadra, Shriparni, Subhadra, Vataha, Vidarini. Vernacular Names: Asm: Gomari; Ben: Gamar, Gamari, Gambar; Guj: Shewan; Hin: Gamari, Gambhari, Jugani Chukur, Khambheri; Kan: Kashmirimara, Kumbalamara, Shivani; Lcd: Kashmar Daru; Mal: Kambil, Kumil, Kumilu, Kumpil; Mar: Shewan; Mun: Kasambar Daru, Kasmar Daru; Om: Gambhair; Ori: Bhodroparni, Gambari; Pun: Gumhar; Sad: Gambhair; San: Kashmar Daru; Tam: Gumudu-taku, Kattanam, Kumadi, Kumala maram, Perumkumbil, Umithekku; Tel: Gumar-tek, Gummadi. Trade Names: Gamar, Gamari, Gumhar. Traditional Use: Mikir: Root: as blood purifier, Leaf: as carminative; Birhore: Leaf: in headache; Santal: in anasarca, asthma, bronchitis, cholera, colic pain, diarrhoea, dropsy, dyspepsia, epilepsy, fever, phthisis, rheumatism, smaIl pox, sore,

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spleen complaints, syphilis, throat swelling, urticaria, as antidote to snake bite and some other poisons; Munda: Bark: to cure wounds; Sora (Orissa): Root: in catarrh of bladder; Decoction of root: as tonic; Bark: in stomach disorder; Ethnic Communities of Araku Valley (Andhra Pradesh): Root: in malarial fever; Ethnic Communities of Godavari (Andhra Pradesh): Bark-paste: on bone fracture, Leaf: in cough, gonorrhoea; Ethnic Communities ofDehra Dun {Uttar Pradesh): Leaf-paste: on wounds; Atharvaveda: blood purifier; Charaka Samhita: useful in vomiting, dropsy and in burning sensation of the body; Sushruta Samhita: energiser like grape, can be used as substitute of sweet date palm; Bhavaprakasha: it is bitter, appetiser, brain tonic, energiser, digestive, subdues vata and kapha, removes dropsy, alleviates thirst, useful in colic pain, burning sensation of body, fever, urinary complaints, wastage; Rajanighantu: it is pungent, bitter, heavy (guru), thermogenic, removes oedema, phlegm, tridosha, burning sensation, fever, thirst, poisons; Dhanvantarinighantu: bitter, thermogenic, removes bleeding tendency, tridosha.• fatigue, burning sensation of body, fever, thirst; Kaiyaoevanighantu: it is sweet, bitter, thermogenic, heavy, appetiser, digestive, brain tonic, removes dropsy, giddiness, colic pain, toxins, burning sensation of body, fever, alleviates thirst; flowers sweet, cooling, bitter, astringent, beneficial for the diseases caused by pitta and kapha; fruits unctuous, heavy, cooling, astringent, brain tonic, cardiotonic, removes giddiness, acidity, urinary troubles, burning sensation of body, wounds, wastage and troubles caused by vata; Rajavallabham: fruits seizing, bitter, sweet, heavy, cooling, good for hair, brain, removes burning sensation of body and diseases caused by pitta; roots are too hot; Nighantu ratnakaram: it is pungent, bitter, hot, astringent, heavy, sweet, appetiser, digestive, brain tonic, cardiotonic, removes thirst, colic pain, oedema, phlegm, toxins, burning sensation of body, fever, impurities of blood, piles, giddiness; fruits aphrodisiac, heavy, increases semen, cooling, unctuous, increa~s intelligence, removes urinary troubles, impurities of blood, thirst, burning sensation of body, good for urticaria, consumption, wounds, leucorrhoea.

Ayurveda: Root: Acrid, bitter, anthelmintic, galactogogue, laxative, stomachic, tonic, useful in burning sensation, dyspepsia, fever, haemorrhoids, hallucination, hyperdisia and stomachalgia; Bark: bitter, tonic, stomachic, useful in dyspepsia, fever; Leaf-paste:

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useful in cephalalgia, Leaf-extract: good wash for foul ulcer; Flower: acrid, astringent, bitter, refrigerant, sweet, useful in skin diseases including leprosy; Fruits: acrid, alterant, aphrodisiac, astringent, bitter, diuretic, refrigerant, sour, sweet, tonic, trichogenous, useful in anaemia, blood dysentery, constipation, leprosy, leucorrhoea, malnutrition of child and embryo, strangury and wounds.

Modern Use: 50 per cent EtOH extract of bark (and also of stem): antiviral, hypoglycaemic. Phytography: Unarmed deciduous tree, 15-20 m in height; stem-bark whitish grey, lenticellate, young branches covered with fine white soft hairs; leaves opposite, simple, petioles ±7.5 em long, lamina broadly ovate, usually 22.5 by 15.0 cm, more or less acuminate, glabrous above but stellately hairy beneath; panicles terminal, often 30 cm long, many-flowered; flowers bucciniform, brownish yellow, ±3.7 cm long, tomentose at least when young; drupes ±1.8 cm 1,000 g, fleshy, ovoid, orange-yellow when ripe; seeds hard, oblong. Phenology: Flowering: January-April; Fruiting: May-June. Distribution: Throughout India; Bangladesh (Chittagong), Sri Lanka. Ecology and Cultivation: Grows in moist deciduous forests; wild. Chemical Contents: Root: ceryl alcohol, gmelofuran, gmelinol, hentriacontanol-I, n-octacosanol, a-sitosterol, sesquiterpene; Stem: arboreok, bromoisoarboreol, cluytyl ferulate, gme-lanone, gmelinol, gummidiol, lignans, lignan hemiacetal, n-hentriacontanol-I, n-octacosanol, a-sitosterol; Leaf: apigenin, hentriacontanol, luteoHn, quercetin, quercetogenin, a-sitosterol. Remarks: Ethnic communities of India use the plant in the treatment of rinderpest of cattle. In Sri Lanka, it is used in skeletal fracture. It is one of the best and most reliable timber-yielding trees of India. The plant is a fast grower.

Gloriosa superb a L. (Liliaceae) Syn: Methonica superba Lamk., Gloriosa simplex Don. English Names: Malabar Glory Lily, Glory Lily.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Sanskrit Names: Agninukhi, Agnisikha, Ailni, Garbhaghatini, Kalikari, Lanyli, Vishalya. Vernacular Names: Asm: Utatchandal; Ben: Bishalanguli, Ulatchandal; Guj: Dudhiovachnay, Varhvareli; Hin: Kalihari, Kaliari, Kulhari, Lariguli; Kan: Agnisikha, Akkatangaballi, Karadikanninagadde, Kolikuttuma, Sivasaktiballi, Mal: Kantal, Medoni, Mattamara, Mettonsi, Mentonni; Mar: Bachnag, Indai, Kariannag, Khadyanag, Nagharia, Nag Karia; Mun: Bulung Chukuru; Orn: Jhagrahi; Ori: Agnisikha, Garbhhoghhatono Panjanyulia, Meherlaphulo, Panchaangula; Pun: Kariari, Mulim; Sad: Jhagar; San: Siricsamano; Tam: Akkinichilam, Kalappaikkilanku, Kalaippaikkishangu, Kannuvalikkodi, Nabhikkodi, Tel: Adabhinabhi, Agnisikha, Gangeri, Kalappagadda. Traditional Use: Ethnic Communities of North-East India: Root: in gout, stomachache and as tonic; Munda and Oraon: Tuber: for antifertility purpose; Santal: 1. Tuberous root: for abortion purpose, in intermittent fevers, wounds, 2. Plant: in spleen complaints, syphilis, tumours, 3. Leaf: in asthma; Ethnic Communities of Bihar: Root: in cholera, to facilitate childbirth; Ethnic Communities of Orissa: Tuber: as abortifacient; Tribes of Varanasi: Root: in gout; Tribes of Pithoragarh: Tuber: in gonorrhoea, leprosy, piles; Ethnic Communities of Debra Dun and Siwalik: Root: as anthelmintic; Ethnic Communities of Garhwal: Tuberous root: for abortion; CharaJca Samhita: Useful in itching, skin diseases including wounds and ailments caused by vitiated kapha (phlegm) and vata (wind); Sushruta Samhita: can be administered to a delivered mother along with spirituous drink to give relieve to her postnatal complaints, roots are poisonous; Rajanighantu: it is pungent, thermogenic, eliminates deranged kapha (phlegm) and vat a (wind), terminates pregnancy; Dhanvantarinighantu: in addition to the ab':lVe, it is also useful in dropsy, labour pain, wounds, and as a purgative; Madanadinighantu: it is bitter, pungent, thermogenic, abortifacient, removes abdominal pain, expels the placenta, cures phlegm, skin diseases; Bhavaprakasha: it is apperient, alkaline,

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astringent, pungent, bitter, highly potent, light, abortifacient, helps storing up energy, excites pitta (bile), it cures dropsy, piles, wounds, acute spasmodic pain, and removes worms; Chakradatta: Root-paste: if smeared over' the palms and feet of a pregnant woman, delivery of child becomes easier.

Ayurveda: 1. Roots are abortifacient, acrid, alexiteric, anthelmintic, antipyretic, bitter, depurative, digestive, emetic, expectorant, gastrointestinal irritant, highly poisonous, purgative, rejuvenating, stomachic, thermogenic, tonic, beneficial in vitiated conditions of kapha (phlegm) and vata (wind), debility, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, helminthiasis, inflammations, in promoting labour pain and expulsion of the placenta, 2. Root-paste is effective against paralysis, rheumatism, snake bite, insect bites, 3. Leaf-juice effective against lice. Modem Use: Root (aq. extract): ecbolic in humans and other animals; Plant (50 per cent EtOH extract): spasmolytic, central nervous system depressant; Leaf-juice: piscicide. Phytography: Herbaceous tendril climber; rootstock tuberous, naked; stem 3-6 m long, sparingly branched; leaves sessile or nearly so, opposite or 3-nately whorled, tip tendrillar; flowers axillary, solitary, nearly 10 cm, at first greenish, becoming yellow and finally scarlet or red; capsules nearly 5 cm long. Phenology: Flowering: October; Fruiting: throughout the year. Distribution: Throughout tropical India ascending up to 2,000 m on the hills; Indo-China, Malaysia.

ECOlogy and Cultivation: Plains from the coast on thickets; wild. Chemical Contents: Root: colchicine, b-sitosterol and its glucoside, band t-Iumicolchicine, 2-0H-6-MeO benzoic acid; Young leaf: cholidonic acid; Flower: luterlin and its glucosides, N-formyl-de-Ac-colchicine, lumicolchicine; Seed: colchicine. Rpmarks: It is getting less attention in India, though extensive researches are on abroad.

Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) English Name: Maiden Hair Tree.

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Vernacular Name: Hin: Balkuwari. Trade Name: Ginkgo. Traditional Use: Seeds: expectorant and sedative. Modern Use: Tanakan (active principle of plant extract): effective in induced cerebral ischemia in rats; Tebonin (a preparation containing leaf extract): used in cardiovascular disorders, increased cerebral blood circulation, Parkinson's disease; Nut (extract): antibacterial against Mycobacterium

smegmatis. Recently Ginkgo is rapidly gaining recognition as a brain tonic that increases memory and boosts oxygen level in brain. It regulates neurotransmitters, increases blood flow and metabolism. It reduces migraine and vertigo. It may be useful in mental disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. Recently a pill containing extracts from Ginkgo has been launched for eliminating excess fat (cellulite) in women.

Phytography: Tree with pyramidal form, reaching a height of 30 m; leaves petiolar, lamina fan-shaped, bilobed; dioecious; mature seeds orange-coloured and are about the size of an apricot. Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: Summer. Distribution: Darjeeling (West Bengal). Ecologt} and Cultivation: Native of China; cultivated in Indian gardens, particularly on hills. Chemical Contents: Root-bark: Ginkgolides A, B, C & M; Plant: bilobalide, bilobanone sesquiterpene; Leaf: flavonols, biflavonoids, dilerpenes, sesquiterpene bilobalide A, a-sitosterol, ginkgolides A, B & C, shikimic acid, sequoyitol, 1,5-MeO-bilobetin; Fruit: anacardic acids, ginnol, bilobols, cardanols. Remarks: Chinese consume Ginkgo seeds. Endosperm of roasted seed is edible and kernel is highly nutritious. It is believed that regular consumption of Ginkgo preparation staves of ravages of age and checks senility. Ginkgo is a contemporary of dinosaurs of the Jurassic period. Because of its primitive characters, it is known as living fossil. It is a native of Chekiang in East China. It is grown by the Buddhist monasteries of China and Japan as a sacred tree. The plant was introduced into Europe in early 18th

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century and 'ater in America. Only a few trees occur in India. Perhaps it does not exist in the wild today. Because of its nutritional and medicinal properties, it is receiving increased attention. Commercial cultivation of this species should be endeavoured in India. If appropriate measures for conservation of this important medicinal species are not taken, it is destined to be extinct in the near future.

Garcinia xanthochymus Hook. f. ex T. Anders (Ousiaceae) (2n= 80) Syn: Xallthochymus tillctorius DC., Garcinia tillctoria Dunn. English Name: Egg Tree. Sanskrit Names: Tamala, Tapinjha. Vernacular Names: Ben: Tamal, Chalta; Hin: Dampel, Tamal, Tumul; Guj: Kasamala, Ota; Kan: Deva-garige; Mal: Anavaya; Man: Heilbung; Mar: Jharambi, Dampel, Ota; Nep: Chunyel; Ori; Cheoro, Sitambu; Tam: Kulavi, Malaippachai, Mukki, Tamalam; Tel: Sitakamraku, Evarumidi, Tamalamu. Trade Name: Tamala. Traditional Use: Fruit: antiscorbutic, cooling, digestive, emollient, demulcent and cholagogue. Sherbet made from dried fruit is used in billiousness. Ayurveda: Young branch: paste as ointment on boils; Bark: astringent; Leaf: decoction useful in diarrhoea; Young leaves (roasted in a special method): used in dysentery; Seed: butttr made from seeds useful in pulmonary affections, dysentery, goitre. Modem Use: Xanthochymol: antibacterial against Streptococcus faecallis and Klebsiella plleumoniae. Phytography: Evergreen tree, trunk straight; branches arising in tiers, drooping, angular; leaves opposite, coriaceous, bright green, sluning, 22.5-45.0 cm by 5-10 cm; flowers polygamous, male flowers from axils of fallen leaves, fascicled with 4-8 flowers, white, thick, rough, hermaphrodites like male flowers, ovary ovoid, usually 5-chambered; fruits subglobose, pointed, dark yellow; seeds 1-4, oblong, yields a large quantity of gamboge. Phenology: Flowering: Spring; Fruiting: Summer.

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Distribution: Native to India and Myanmar; distributed widely in the lower hill forests of eastern Himalaya, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, the Andamans; Bangladesh, Myanmar. Ecology and Cultivation: Tropical forest; wild. Chemical Contents: Fruit: xanthochymol, isoxanthochymol, maclurin, euxanthone, 1,S-dihydroxy- and 1,3,S-trihydroxyxanthones, methoxyxanthones, cambogin, volkensiflavone, morello-flavone, biflavones. Remark: In South India, fruits of this species are used in lieu of tamarind.

Holarrherta pubescence (Buch-Ham.) Wall ex DC. (Apocynaceae) (2n= 22) Syn: Holarrhena antidysenterica (L.) Wall., Echites pubescens Buch.-Ham. English Names: Bitter Oleander, Conessi Bark, Dysentery Rosebay, Easter Tree, Ivory Tree, Tellichery Bark. Sanskrit Names: Girimallika, Indrayava, Kalinga(ka), Kalingyava, Katuka, Katuja, Mahagandha, Mallikapushpa, Panduradruama, Pravrishya, Sangrahi, Shakrapadapa, Vatsika, Vrikshaka, Yavaphala. Vernacular Names: Asm: Dhurkhuri, Ducikhuri; Ben: Kurchi, Katuraj, Kuteswar, Indrajava; Guj: Dhowda, Kuda, Kari; Hin: Kurchi, Karchi Karra; Kan: Beppale coodsaloo, Korchie; Lep: Fajeerip; Mal: Kodagapala; Mar: Kura, Kala-kura, Kear, Kewar, Kodago, Kuda, Dola-kuda, Pandhrakura; 'Mun: Ludu-ba, Toa-ba; Nep: Khuria; Ori: Kherwa, Pita, Korwa, Patru kurwa; Om: Koraia; Pun: Kawar, Kura, Kear, Kewar; Sad: Koraia; San: Hat; Tam: Kudasappalai, Veppalei, Kodagapalei, Indrabam; Tel: Kodisepala, Palakodsa, Pala, Kodaga. Trade Name: Kurchi. Traditional Use: Manipuri: Bark (boiled extract): in diarrhoea, dysentery; Garo: Bark and Leaf: in dysentery; Ethnic Communities Around Guahati: Seed: as anthelmintic; Bodo (of Assam): Bark: in diarrhoea, dysentery, piles; Flower: as appetiser and in intestinal worms; Seed: in leprosy; Asur (of Bihar): Bark: in snake bite; Seed: diarrhoea, fever, intestinal worms; Munda: Root and Leaf: in

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diarrhoea, bleeding from nose, haemorrhage after childbirth; Santa!: Root: in bite of dog or jackal, blood and mucous in bowel excretion, diarrhoea, dysentery, hematuria, spermatorrhoea, spleen complaints; Bark: in bronchitis, chameleon's bite, cholera, cold, colic, fever, menorrhagia; Fruit: in anaemia, colic, constipation, diarrhoea, dry cough, epilepsy, gravel, postnatal complaints, stomachache; Tribal Societies of Hazaribagh and Ranchi: Bark: in gastric disorder, to revive taste in tongue; Ethnic Communities of Orissa: Latex: in eczema and other skin diseases; Ethnic Communities of Abujh-Marh (Madhya Pradesh): Bark: in menstrual :omplaints; Tribal Communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh): Seed: in dysentery; Tharu (of Uttar Pradesh): Bark: in fever; Bark and Seed (together): in dysentery; Kol (of Uttar Pradesh): Seed: in digestive complaints; Ethnic Communities ofDehra Dun and Siwalik: Seed: in diarrhoea, dysentery, fever; Ethnic Communities of East Rajasthan: Bark and Seed (together): in dysentery; Ethnic Communities of Mount Abu: Bark: as antidote to snake bite; Dang: (of Gujarat): Bark: in diarrhoea; Vasava (of Gujarat): Root: in fever; Root and Bark (together): in gout; Ethnic Communities of Saurashtra: Bark: in bronchitis; Ethnic Communities of Dahanu Forest Division(Maharashtra): Bark and Leaf (together): in dysentery; Latex: as antidote to snake bite, Seed: in asthma, colic; Atharllaveda: increases semen, tightens the slackened muscles; Charaka Samhita: Bark (paste): good for skin diseases, leprosy, ringworm, piles, fistula, adenitis; Fruit: in vomiting, beneficial in disorders caused by vitiated phlegm and bile, as galactagogue; Seed: in piles; Sushruta Samhita: Flower: beneficial in deranged phlegm and bile, and a good remedy for leprosy; Chakradatta: Bark: in diarrhoea; Bhavaprakasha: pungent, drying, refrigerant, excitant, cures piles, diarrhoea, phlegm, bile, leprosy, alleviates thirst; Rajanighantu: pungent, bitter, thermogenic, astringent, cures diarrhoea, vitiated bile, skin diseases and piles; Dhanvantarinighantu: pungent, bitter, astringent, drying, cooling, cures skin diseases, gastroenteritis, vitiated bile; Madananighantu: excitant, digestive, astringent, beneficial in bleeding tendency, worms, skin diseases; Saligramnighantu: appetising, beneficial in vitiated phlegm, cures diarrhoea, skin diseases, worms; Kaiyadevanighantu: astrinsent, cooling, drying, excitant, pungent, beneficial in vitiated phlegm, bile, skin diseases, diarrhoea, piles; Flower: refrigerant, bitter, astringent, excitant; Siddha: Root and Bark: used as constituents for the preparation of Kutacap patai.

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Ayurveda: Bark and Seed: acrid, anthelmintic, antiperiodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bitter, carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulating, beneficial in asthma, bronchitis, blood dysentery, diarrhoea, dropsy, dysentery, fever, haemorrhages, haemorrhoides, hepatopathy, malaria, piles, rheumatism, skin diseases, urinary troubles, verminosis, vomiting; Leaf: useful in boils, bronchitis, dysentery and wounds. Unani: In the preparation of Sufuf Habis and Majnum Bawasir. Modern Use: Bark (50 per cent EtOH extract): hypotensive; Bark-powder: in abdominal and glandular tumours; Fruit (50 per cent EtOH extract): anticancer, anti protozoa, hypoglycaemic, astringent, febrifuge, useful in diarrhoea, intestinal worms, and to regulate menstruation. Phytography: Deciduous tree or large shrub; leaves sessile or subsessile, broadly ovate to elliptic-oblong, abruptly acuminate, often unequal, rounded or obtuse at base, lateral nerves 10-15 pairs, cm:hing near the margin; flowers white, bracts small, follicles 20-42 by 0.8-1.2 cm; seeds up to 1 em long, linear-oblong, coma about twice as long as seeds, seeds br~ . Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting: May-January. Distribution: Major parts of India up to 1,500 m in the Himalaya; Bangladesh, also in Africa-mostly in drier regions. Ecology and Cultivation: Common in village surroundings; sometimes in private gardens. Chemical contents: Root-bark: holacetine; Stem-bark: L-quebrachitol, dihydroisoconessimine, kurcholessine, 3-a-aminoconan-5-ene, 7-a-OH -conessine, holonamine; Leaf: aminoglycosteroids, aminode-oxyglycosteroids, kurchiphylline, kurchiphyllamine, kurchaline, holadysine, holadysamine, holantosines A, S, C & D, holarosine A, B, E & F. Remarks: Tribals of East Rajasthan give root to cattle in a disease in which tongue ejects out and gets swollen. Tribals of Maharashtra eat flower and seed as vegetables. Ethnic communities of Ratan Mahal Hills use latex to curdle milk. Santal women use flowers to decorate their hairdos. Tribals of Madhya Pradesh use wood to make combs and many household articles.

7

Ethnobiological Study of Medicinal Plants Medicinal plants as a group comprise approximately 8,000 species and account for around 50 per cent of all the higher flowering plant species of India. Millions of rural households use medicinal plants in a self-help mode. Over one and a half million practitioners of the Indian System of Medicine in the oral and codified streams use medicinal plants in preventive, promotive and curative applications. There are estimated to be over 7,800 manufacturing units in India. In recent years, the growing demand for herbal product has led to a quantum jump in volume of plant materials traded within and a~ross the countries. An estimate of the EXIM Bank puts the international market of medicinal plants related trade at US$ 60 billion per year growing at the rate of 7 per cent only. Though India has a rich biodiversity, the growing demand is putting a heavy strain on the existing resources. While the demand for medicinal plants is growing, some of them are increasingly being threatened in their natural habitat. For meeting the future needs cultivation of medicinal plant has to be encouraged. According to an all India ethnobiological survey carried out by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, there are over 8,000 species of plants being used by the people of India.

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Medicinal Plants as a Part of Culture It is evident that the Indian people have a tremendous passion for medicinal plants and use them for a wide range of health related applications from a common cold to memory improvement and treatment of poisonous snake bites to a cure for muscular distrophy and the enhancement of body's general immunity. In the oral traditions local communities in every ecosystel]l from the trans Himalayas down to the coastal plains have discovered the medical uses of thousands of plants found locally in their ecosystem. India has one of the richest plant medical culture in the world. It is a culture that is of tremendous contemporary relevance because it can on one hand ensure health security to millions of people and on the other hand, it can provide new and safe herbal drugs to the entire world. There are estimated to be around 25,000 effective plant based formulations are available in the indigenous medical texts, formulations used in folk medicine and known to rural communities all over India and around 10,000 designed.

Distribution Macro analysis of the distribution of medicinal plants show that they are distributed across diverse habitats and landscape elements. Around 70 per cent of India's medicinal plants are found in tropical areas mostly in the various forest types spread across the Western and Eastern ghats, the Vindhyas, Chotta Nagpur plateau, Aravalis and Himalayas. Although less than 30 per cent of the medicinal plants are found in the temperate and alpine areas and higher altitudes they include species of high medicinal value. Macro studies show that a larger percentage of the known medicinal plant occur in the dry and moist deciduous vegetation as compared to the evergreen or temperate habitats. Analysis of habits of medicinal plants indicate that they are distributed across various habitats. One-third are trees and an equal portion shrubs and the remaining one-third herbs, grasses and climbers. A very small proportion of the medicinal plants are lower plants like lichens, ferns algae, etc. Majority of the medicinal plant are higher flowering plants.

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Disbibution of Medicinal Plants by Habits Of the 386 families and 2,200 genera in which medicinal plants are recorded, the families Asteraceae, Euphorbiacae, Laminaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Rosaceae and Apiaceae share the larger proportion of medicinal plant species with the highest number of species (419) falling under Asteraceae. About 90 per cent of medicinal plant used by the industries are collected from the wild. While over 800 species are used in production by indust-y, less than 20 species of plants are under commercial cultivation. Over 70 per cent of the plant collections involve destructive harvesting because of the use of parts like roots, bark, wood, stem and the whole plant in case of herbs. This poses a definite threat to the genetic stocks and to the diversity of medicinal plants if biodiversity is not sustainably used.

8

Cultivation Practices of Medicinal Plants Given the demands of the market for a continuous and uniform supply of raw materials, and the increasing depletion of the forest resource base, expanding tht? number of medicinal plants in cultivation appears to be an important strategy for research and development. However, acco'rding to one estimate, of more than 400 plant species used for production of medicines by Indian industry, less than 20 are currently under the cultivation in the country. The potential returns to the farmer from cultivation of medicinal plants is reported to be quite high. A 1995 study suggested that the cultivation of certain high altitude Himalayan herbs could yield products priced anywhere between Rs. 7,150 to 55,000 per hectare although it is not clear at which point in the marketing chain these prices are paid (Nautiyal, 1995). What is clear however is that although estimates of returns vary widely, medicinal plants can be valuable crops. Rao and Saxena (1994) reported average annual (per hectare) income of Rs. 120,000 through mixed cropping of high altitude medicinal herbs. High altitude medicinal tend to command higher prices but those of lower altitudes are still significant. Data for some low-altitude crops from the Amarkantak region of Madhya Pradesh show economic returns for four profitable species. Cultivation is clearly a sustainable alternative to collection of medicinal plants from the wild.

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Most of the produce of cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants is exported as crude drugs e.g., Psyllium, senna leaves, opium poppy and Asgand. Unfortunately, however, due to emphasis being placed on important cash crops, as well as the fact that the majority of the cultivated species are not indigenous to India, most cultivation efforts are not alleviating the pressure being exerted on the natural resource base. Nevertheless, a number of techniques have been developed to increase the quality and yield of many of the cultivated species. It is estimated that Indian public sector research institutions have developed standardized practices for the propagation and agronomy of a total of about 40 species. Much of the research progress to date has resulted from the decision of the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) to establish an All-India Coordinated Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (AICRPMAP), in 1972, under the auspices of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). Efforts have mainly focused on the development of agro-technology techniques, including propagation methods for medicinal and aromatic plants. Aromatic plants have however tended to receive more attention, perhaps because their market values are in general more widely known. ICAR works through a network of research stations, including the National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants located in Anand, Gujarat, which specializes in domestication, and has created structural links between the NBPGR and its Plant Breeding Division in order to develop improved varieties of some of the medicinal plant species used in allopathic preparations. Another major national public research organization, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), has also played a significant role with regard to cultivation of medicinal plants, through its creation of (CIMAP), the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, in Lucknow. ClMAP is now an eminent institution in India focusing on agro-technology as well as basic studies; improvement and enhancement of th~ resource base, and chemistry and related research regarding product development from plants.

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In connection with the two major research efforts described above, the Central Government initiated a five year programme (1992-1997) implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture to accelerate research and development of medicinal plants. With the support of 16 state agricultural universities, state horticulture and agriculture departments, regional research laboratories and the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the GOI is establishing herbal gardens, nursery centres and demonstration seed production centres nation-wide. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (Department of ISM&H) started a 'central scheme for development and cultivation of medicinal plants' in the year 1990-91 to encourage development of agrotechnique for important species through Government/ semi-government organizations having expertise and infrastructure for this work. The scheme is expected to initiate studies on harvesting, drying, and storage of medicinal plants. Private companies have also started to invest in the cultivation of medicinal plants, since they face difficulties with regard to increasing supply gaps as well as in some cases adulterated materials from the wild. One such company, the Arya Vaidya Sala, in Kottakal, Kerala, in addition to maintaining two large herbal gardens, has also undertaken research on the propagation of 10 species, the demand for which currently outstrips supply, or may soon do so.

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Under Reproductive Child Health (RCH) programme it was decided to include Ayurvedic and Unani medicines, aad, to ensure the availability of raw material of good quality and quantity, 'Vanaspati Van Yojna' was incorporated. Each Vanaspati Van was to be identified over waste lands and denuded forest of 3,000 to 5,000 hectare of contiguous areas. Since the forestland cannot be transferred and sold, the interested State Governments were advised to register a society under the Society Registration Act in the name of Vanaspati Van Society for a particular state. The society was to be headed by the Forest Officer with the members from the Department of Family Welfare and from the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine in its Executive Committee. The experts of forest, agriculture, botany, Ayurveda and Unani were also incorporated in the Executive Committee. Keeping in view

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the geo-climatic conditions suitable for medicinal plants the conservation and propagation of about 100 plants species in the 'Vanaspati Van' are encouraged in in situ/ex situ conditions. The site of the Vanaspati Van and suitability of the plants are identified by the Expert Group of Government of India, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, and the State Government. There is a provision of providing assistance of Rs. 1.00 crore per year for a period of 5 years. Subsequently the Vanaspati Van Society will be selfsustained by scientific harvesting the produce for the benefit of the community as well as the society. The State Governments of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have started implementing this scheme and the State Governments of Rajasthan, Kamataka, Kerala, Gujarat, U.P. and Tamil Nadu are also approaching with the proposals. The ultimate objectives of the scheme is to have at least one Vanaspati Van in each state so as to have full range of medicinal plants used in ISM.

Scheme for Improving AWareness and Availability of Medicinal Plants and Remedies of Indian Systems of Medicine for ReH Because of pressure of population the cultivation of food grains and commercial crops has progressively practically eliminated locally growing medicinal plants and because of the vast changes in the social system, the family traditions have also become weak. Worldwide there has been a huge growth in the popularity of alternative medicine and herbal products mainly due to their being no harmful side effects when genuine medicinal plants are used. To address both these problems and to resurrect a highly cost effective preventive health and medical care system the NGOs will be assisted for raising nurseries of medicinal plants which are known to grow in that particular area. They will distribute the medicinal plants free of charge to desirous families and village level ISM practitioners. These practitioners will be encouraged to grow these plants over a somewhat larger piece of land about 1-2 acres (if that can be managed). This will enable the products of these medicines to be not only readily available but to be available in a pure form. The NGOs will also be simultaneously assisted to do extension work and educate local population about the uses of

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locally available medicinal plants for preventive health and for curative purposes. In order to ensure impact, NGOs will be asked to take up this work on a project basis for a district and only a few of the NGOs with proven large capability will be assigned more than one district. The applicant NGO having experience and -expertise of medicinal plants in ISM will identify one district to propagate the ISM remedies. There is a provision of up to Rs. 15.00 lakh per year for the scheme and the scheme can continue three to four years. For improving awareness and availability of medicinal plants the task force recommends cultivation of 25 species which are in great demand.

Medicinal Plants in High Demand • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Aonla Chandan Kalmegh Satavari Aswahagandha Chirata Katki Shankapushpi Ashoka Giloe Kokum Safed MusH Madhunashini

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Atis Guggal Kerth Senna Baiberang Indian Barbery Liqorice Bael Isabgol Long Pepper Brahmi Jatamansi

Aonla 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 2. Family . Euphorbiaceae. A deciduous tree, found in deciduous forests of the country up to 1,350 m on hills. Often cultivated.

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3. Area 1,300 ha. 4. Production 88,200 t. 5. Important States V.P., Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra. 6. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, Kanchan, Krishna, Balwant, NA-6, NA-7, NA-9, Anand-2 and BS-1. b. Propagation methods and planting time Modified ring, patch and shield budding as well as soft wood grafting. June to August. c. Fertilizer dozes 1000 gm N, 500 gm P20 2 and 750 gm ~O per plant! year. The fertilizer should be given in two split doses, viz., Sep - Oct and April - May. d. Irrigation schedule Irrigation to young plantation at 10 days interval during the summer. To fruit bearing plantations, first irrigation should be given just after manuring and fertilization and then at 15 days intervals after fruit set (April) till onset of monsoon. Avoid irrigation during flowering period. e. Diseases, pests and their control Diseases/Causitive organism/agent Aonla rust (Ravenellia emblica) Fruit rot (Pencillum islandlium) Necrosis (Boron Deficiency) Bark eating caterpillar (Inderbela tetraonis) Shoot gall maker (Betousa stylophora)

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Aphid (Cerciaphis emblica) Scale insect Anar butterfly (Viraehola isocrates) f. Control measures Spray (twice) Dithane Z 78 (0.2 per cent) during July- September. Treating the fruits with NaCI solutions. Spray of 0.5 per cent-0.6 per cent borax in SeptOctober Months. Injecting kerosene oil/Dichlorovols or Endo-Sulfan (0.05 per cent) in holes and plugging with mud. Galled twigs should be pruned. Spray of 0.05 per cent monocrotophos during rainy season. Spraying of dimethoate @ 0.03 per cent. Application of mono-crotophos @ 0.05 per cent. Remove and destroy all the affected fruits. 7. Planting Time a. Rainy season b. Spring season July to September Mid of January to March. 8. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) The fruit is rich source of vitamins and minerals. High vitamin C content (750-850 mg/IOO g pulp). 9. Post Harvest Management Different varieties mature at different period, e.g., Chakaiya (January), Banarasi (October end), Krishna (December) and Francis (mid-November-December). Large size fruits (4 cm and above) free from blemishes are used for preserve, candy and pickle. Small sized fruits are used for Chavanprash making and defective fruits are used for Trifala making. Generally, basket for pigeon pea stem and gunny bag of 40-50 kg capacity with newspaper as liners are used for packing of aonla fruits. However, wooden crate with polythene lines is most suitable for packing and long distance transportation. Aonla fruits can be stored up to 15-20 davs at low

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temperature (10-15°C). However, Chakaiya can be stored up to 45 and 75 days in 10 per cent and 15 per cent salt solution respectively without any decay. 10. Cost of Cultivation Cost benefit ratio is 1: 4. Payback period is six years. 11. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Export potential yet to be exploited. Huge internal demand in ISM. 12. Action and Uses Aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, digestive, diuretic, laxative, refrigerant and tonic. Useful in anaemia, jaundice, dyspepcia, haemorrhagic disorders, bilionsness, diabetes, asthma, bronchitis. An Ayurvedic preparation Chyavanprash is very much valued for its restorative action. 13. Compound Preparations Chyavanprasha, Dhatri Lauha, Amalki Rasayana.

Aswahagandha 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Withania somnifera Dunal 2. Family Solanaceae 3. Yield Plant Part 300-400 kg roots/ha + 50-75 kg seeds/ha. 4. Actual Ingredients Aferin, anaferin, tropine and many other alkaloides and steriodes. 5. Important States Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. 6. Cultural Practices a. Varieties!fypes/Clones released identified Jawahar Asgandh - 20, Jawahar Asgandh 134 and Rakshita. b. Propagation methods and planting time Direct sowing of seeds (Broadcasting) Planting time in 3rd week of August to September. c. Fertilizer doses The crop is mainly grown on residual fertility. Hence, no fertilizers applied. d. Irrigation schedule

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e. f.

Diseases, pests and their control Major disease is damping off, seedling rotting, seedling blight. Seed treatment with Captan 3 g/kg seed is recommended. 7. Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Alkaloids and Steroids 8. Post Harvest Management The crop is ready in six months, harvesting starts from· January and continues up to March. Average yield 400-500 kg of root and 50 kg seed/ha. Cleaning, drying and grading of roots. 9. Cost of cultivation (Cost: benefit ratio) About Rs. 1,OOO/ha and gross return abou t Rs. 2,800 (CB ratio 1: 2: 8). 10. Internal consumption and export potential Huge internal consumption, also being exported. 11. Any other remarks Immunomodulator/Rasayan drug, general tonic in arthritis. 12. Action and uses Alterative, aphrodisiac, tonic, deobstruent, diuretic, narcotic, abortifacient. Used in rheumatism, consumption, debility from old age. 13. Parts used Root. 14. Compound preparation Ashwagandhadi churna, Ashwagandha rasay.ana, Ashwagandha Ghrit, Ashwagandharishta.

Ashoka 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Saraca asoca (roxb.) Dc Wild. 2. Family Leguminosae. 3. Local Name Ashoka. 4. Habit and Habitat A small evergreen tree 6-9 m high, found wild along steams or in the shade of evergreen forests. It occurs almost

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throughout India up to an altitude of 720 m in the Centre and Eastern Himalayas and Khasi, Garo and Lushai hills. It is also found in the Andaman islands. Leaves paripinnate, 15-20 cm long, leaflets 6-12, oblong, lanceolate, flowers organe or orange-yellow, very fragrant, pods flat, leathery, seeds 4-8, ellipsoid-oblong. 5. Important Habitat Himalayas, Bengal and Western Peninsula. 6. Cultural Practices a. Propagation methods and planting time Seedlings are raised and planted in rainy season b. Irrigation Schedule Rainfed. 7. BioLhemical Analysis (Active Ingredients) Haernatoxyiin, tannins and glycoside, leucopelargonidin and leucoeyanidin have been extracted from the barks. 8. Post Harvest Management Bark is removed and sun dried for use in preparation of various herbal medicines. 9. Utilization The bark is reported to stimulate the uterus, making the contractions more frequent and prolonged without producing tonic contraction as in the case of pituitary ergot. It is also reported to cure biliousness dyspepsia, dysentery, colic, piles and pimples. Leaves possess blood purifying properties. Flowers used in dysentery and diabetes. 10. Part used Bark. 11. Actual Ingredients Tannin and Catechol. 12. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Internal consumption is quite high in pharmaceutical industries. Gvod export potential. 13. Action and Uses Astringent, used in menorrhagia and uterine affections, internal bleeding, bleeding haemorrhoids and haemorrhagic dysentry. 14. Compound Preparations Ashokarishta, Ashokaghrita.

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Atis 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Acollitllln hctcrophylllllll Wall.

2. Family Ranunculaceae. 3. Use of Plant Part Actual Ingredients. Root Alkaloids (atisine 0.4 per cent). 4. Important Habitats Common in Alpine and Subalpine zone of the Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon from 6,000 to 15,000 ft from the sea level. 5. Cultural Practices Local clones Propagation through seeds in rainy season. 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Root alkaloids: hetrophylsive, hetrophylline and hetrophyllidine, heteratisine, artisine, altidine, Fdihydroatisine, Isatisine, Hetisine, Hetidines and Hetisinone. 7. Post Harvest Management Roots are dried and powdered. 8. Cost of Cultivation Not exploited commercially. 9. Internal Consumption and Exports Roots are exported. 10. Action and Uses Antipyretic, antiperiodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, tonic. Used in diarrhoea, indigestion, cough, troubles during dentition in children. 11. Compound Preparations Balachaturbhadra, Ativishadi Churna.

Baiberang 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Embelia ribcs Burm. F

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2. Family Myrsinaceae. 3. Habit and Habitat A scandant shrub, reported to be distributed in the hilly parts of India, Assam and Tamil Nadu up to to 1,700 m. 4. Plant Part Used Fruits. 5. Actual Ingredients Embelin (2.5-3.1 per cent). 6. Cultural Practices a. Varieties/Types/Clones released/identified Loca I types. b. Propagation methods and planting time Seeds are sown in rainy season. 7. Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients Embelin, raponone, homoembelin and homorapanone, quercitol, christembine. 8. Post Harvest Management Fully mature fruits are har\ll!sted and dried in sun. 9. Action and Uses Anthelmintic, alterative, astringent, carminative, stimulant and tonic. Used in colic, constipation, flatulence and worms. 10. Compound Preparations Vidangadi churna, Vidanga lauha, Vidanga taila.

Bael 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Ae~/e marmelos L. Corr. 2. Family Rutaceae. 3. Habit and Habitat A small or medium sized tree, distributed throughout the country. 4. Yield 7500 t. 5. Plant Part used Fruits and leaves, 200-400 fruits/tree.

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6. Actual Ingredients Non reducing sugars, essential oil, abscisic acid and marmelosin. 7. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones Released/identified Some well known types have been named according to fruit shape and locality, e.g., Mirzapuri, Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri, etc. Some improved selections are: NB-4, NB-5, NB-9. b. Propagation methods and planting time Vegetative propagation by Patch budding in JuneJuly. c. Fertilizer dose For 8 years old and onwards trees, 80 kg FYM, 480 g N, 320 g P and 480 g K/ tree/year is recommended. d. Irrigation In the initial years, plants require frequent irrigation. Once established, light irrigation should be given after manuring and fertilization and proper soil moisture may be maintained after fruit set. e. Diseases, pests and their control Bacterial shot Spray of streptomycin Hole sulphate @ 500 ppm. (Xanthomonas controls this disease Bilvae) Fruit canker Precaution should be taken so that fruit is not hurt during plucking. Also during transportation, the fruit should be packed tightly. 6. Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Protein (1.8 per cent), fat (0.39 per cent), minerals (1.7 per cent), carbohydrate (31.8 per cent), carotena (55 mg/100 fruit), thiamine (0.13 mg/1oog), riboflavin (1.190 mg/1oo). 7. Post Harvest Management At the time of harvest, tree become leafless and fruits get completely exposed. The fruits are picked individually from the tree keeping a portion of fruit stalk. Fruits are usually packed in gunny bags, baskets or wooden crates using newspaper as cushioning material. Fruits are quite hardy and they can be stored well at ambient temperature. However, fruits can be stored for 12 weeks at 9°C.

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8. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Fruits are mostly consumed in our country. Export potential to be explored. 9. Cost of Cultivation Cost-benefit ratio is 1: 3 and payback period is six years. 10. Action and Uses Astringent, carminative, cooling, laxative, febrifuge, stomachic; used in colitis, diarrhoea, dysentery and flatulence. Root is also an ingredient of Dashmoola. 11. Parts Used Fruits, root bark, leaves, rind of the ripe fruit, flowers. 12. Compound Preparations Bilwapanchaka Kwath, Bilwandi Churna, Dashmoola Rishta, Dashmools Kwath. 13. Any Other Remarks Presence of marmelosin in fruits has anthelminitic activity.

Brahmi 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Bacopa monnieri L.

2. Family Scrophulariaceae. 3. Plant Part Used Whole plant especially leaves (100 kg dry herb/ha). Actual Ingredients. Alkaloid, brahmine. 4. Habit and Habitat A small herb found throughout India up to 4,000 feet. Plant an annual, creeper is mostly found near water-logged place. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Subodhak and Pragyashakti. b. Propagation methods and planting time By runners and by seeds In rainy season.

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c.

iv. 6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11.

Fertilizer doses 100 kg N/ha in three splits; 60 kg P20 S 60 kg ~O/ha at the time of planting. Irrigation After sowing/transplanting. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Plant contains bacosides A&B, bacogenins, stigmasterol, stigmaotanol B-sitosterol. Leaves give herpestine. Monnierin is also isolated from the plant. Post Harvest Management Harvesting in October-November. Cost of cultivation Rs. 35,000/ ha Gross return Rs. 2,00,000 / ha Net return Rs. 1,65,000 / ha. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Having internal and external demand. Uses Used as nervine tonic/memory enhancer. Compound Preparations Brahmighrit, Sarasvatarisht, Brahmivati.

Chandan 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Santalum album Linn. 2. Family Santalaceae. 3. Actual Ingredients Essential oil (1.5-6 per cent). 4. Distribution A small evergreen tree, distributed in dry scrub forests of Salem, Mysore, Coorg, Coimbatore, Nilgiris up to 900 m altitude. Also reported to be found in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

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5. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesrrypes/Clones released/identified Local type. b. Propagation methods and planting time By seed and grafting. Seedlings are raised in polythene bags and plants during rainy season. c. Ferilizer doses 20t FYM/ha. fertilizer requirement not yet worked out. d. Irrigation schedule Rainfed. e. Diseases, pests and their control Spike disease is common which is caused by mycoplasma. Under severe infection, the whole plant dies. Jassids (Pentacephala nigrilines), Fulgoroides and sandal wood beetle are important insects reported to cause considerable loss. 6. Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Alphasantal,\I, beta santalol and alphs and beta santalene are the main constituents in the oil. 7. Post Harvest Management Sandal wood trees are harvested at the age of 30-60 years. The soft w~od is first removed, the hard wood is chipped and then converted into powder in a mill. The powder is soaked in water for 48 hours and then distilled. Distillation takes place in 48 hours. The oil is rectified by redistillation and filtration. 8. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Export of sandal wood chips and oil and dust was 552.2 and 29.5 t respectively during 1995-96. Besides our internal consumption in cosmetics and perfumery industries is also high. 9. Action and Use Antiphlogistic, antiseptic, cooling and styptic. The wood round up with water into a fine parts is commonly applied to local infammations, to the temples in fever and to skin diseases to allay heat and pruritus. It is internally administered in cy&titis, gonorrhoea, haemorrhagia, urinary disorders and gleet. 10. Compound Preparations Chandanasava.

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Chirata 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Swertia chirata; syn. S. chirata Buch - Ham. 2. Family Gentiana.::eae. 3. Plant Part Used Whole plant used Alkaloids. 4. Habit and Habitat An erect herb, found in temperate Himalayas between 1,300-3,000 m, from Kashmir to Bhutan and Khasia hills. It is scarcely available in the market and generally substituted by Andrograpis paniculata Nees or other species of Swertia. 5. Cultural Practices a. Propagation methods and planting time Propagated by seeds. The seeds are sown in the nursery and then seedlings are transplanted in the field. b. Fertilizer doses FYM is ideal for these plants. c. Disease Some species of this genus are reported to serve as alternate host of blister rust of Pinus. 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingradients) Plant contains alkaloids - gentianine, gentiocrucine, enicoflaving, swerchirin. Plant is antiinflammatory, swerchirin - antimalarial, hypoglycaemic. 7. Post Harvest Management Drying of plants. 8. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Huge demand in ISM and was imported at a tune of 58.22 t valued at Rs. 14.611akh in 1995-96. 9. Action and Uses Bitter, tonic, stomachic, laxative, febrifuge. Used in anorexia, biliary disorders, cough, constipation, fevers, skin diseases, worms. 10. Compound Preparation Kiratadi Kwath, Sudarshan Churna.

Giloe 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Tinospora cordifolia wild miers, ex hook.

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2. Family Meninspermaceae. 3. Local Name Giloe. 4. Habit and Habitat A large, glabrous, deciduous climbing shrub found throughout tropical India. Ascending to an altitude of 300 m. Stem rather succulent with long filiform flesh aerial roots from the branches. Bark grey-brown or creamy white. Leaves membranous, cordate with a broad sinus. Flowers small, yellow or greenish yellow, appearing when the plant is leafless. Drupes ovoid, glossy, succulent, red. Seed curved. 5. Propagation The plant is sometimes cultivated as ornamental and propagated by cuttings. 6. Utilisation The plant is used in general debilities, dyspepsia, fever and urinary disease. The leaves are good as fodder for cattle and rich in proteins and fairly in calcium and phosphorous. A decoction of the leaves is used for the treatment of gout. TIle young leaves bruised in milk, are used as a liniment in erysipeals. The leaves are beaten with honey and applied to ulcers. Dried and powdered fruit mixed with ghee or honey is used as a tonic and also in the treatment of jaundice and rheumatism. The root is a powerful emetic and used for visceral obstructions. Its watery extract is used in leprosy. 7. Plant Part Used Stem and leaves. 8. Active Ingredients Alkaloid. 9. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesrrypes/Clones Released/identified Locally grown. b. Propagation methods and planting time. Stem cuttings. Planting time is rainy season. c. Crop duration Perennial. 10. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Tinosporon, tinosporic acid, tinosporol, giloin, gilonin, berberine, cordifol, tinosporidine.

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11. Post Harvest Management The stem and leaves are harvested and dried in sun. 12. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Mostly consumed by Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals. 13. Action Rejuvinator, astringent, antipyretic, blood purifier and curative of dermatosis. 14. Uses General debility, pyrexia, skin diseases, gout, rheumatic arthritis and spure.

Guggal 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Commiphora wightii (Am) Bhandari. 2. Family Burseraceae. 3. Yield 700-900 g gum per plant. Actual Ingredients Plant Part Tree yields an oliogum-resin-guggulipid. 4. Habit and Habitat A shrub or small tree, reported to be found in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Deccan and Gujarat. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varieties/Types/Clones released/identified Local types b. Propagation methods Plants raised (about 80 per cent success) by cutting. c. Fertilizer doses Application of 5 kg FYM and 25-50 g urea per bush per year. d. Irrigation Schedule Require moderate irrigation. e. Diseases, pests and their control Plants are affected by white ants, Cercospora leaf spot and bacterial leaf blight.

Cultivation Practices of Medicinal Plants

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7.

8.

9. 10.

173

Control Pits are filled with FYM and treated with BHC or aldrin to protect the new plants from white ants. Harvesting and Yield Plants attain normal height and girth after 8-10 years of growth when they are ready for tapping of the gum by shallow incision on the bark between December and March. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Gum resin contains guggulsteraes Z and E guggulsterols, "two diterpenoids - a terpene, hydrocarbon named cembme A and B, a cliterpene - alcohol- mukulol3 camphorone and cambrtme Action and Uses Carminative, antispasmodic, disphoretic, ecbolic, antisuppurative, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue. Gum resin is commonly used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Compound Preparations Yogarajaguggulu, Kaishoreguggulu, Chandraprabha vati. Marketing Gum - resin is in great demand.

Indian Barbery 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

Berberis aristata IX. Family Berberidaceae. Local Name Chitra, Rasaut. Habit and Habitat An erect spinous shrub, 2-6 m high, often forming gregarious patches, pale yellowish-brown bark, closely and rather deeply furrowed. Flowers are golden-yellow. It occurs in the Himalayas between 2,000- 3,000 m and also in Nilgiri Hills. Plant Part Used Root bark, stem, wood fruit. Actual Ingradients Barberine.

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7. Important States Assam, Bihar and Himalayan Region. S. Cultural Practices i. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Local clones. 9. Propagotion Propagation is from seeds, self sown in nature. Seedlings or cuttings can be taken during spring season after the berries are over. Layering is also recommended since the cuttings present some difficulties. 10. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Barberine (alkaloid). 11. Post Harvest Management Drying of barks. 12. Utilisation The use of the roots as a source of Rasaut has been referred to. The dried berries are edible. The root bark is rich in alkaloidal content. Berberine, the principal alkaloid can be easily obtained from the roots in the form of its salts. Rasaut, mixed with butter and alum, or with opium and limejuice and painted over the eyelids as a useful household remedy in acute conjuctivities and in chronic ophthalkmia. A yellow dye is obtained from root and the stem. The berberry dye has been largely used in tanning and colouring of leather. 13. Action and Uses Stomachic, astringent, tonic, antiperiodic, diaphoretic, antiphyretic, alerative, purgative. Used in menorrhagia, diarrhoea, jaundice, skin diseases, malarial fever. 14. Compound Preparations Darvyadi Kwath, Darvyadi leha, Darvyadi taila.

Isabgol 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Plantago ovata Forsk. 2. Family Plantaginaceae.

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3. Habit and Habitat A herb found in Punjab plains and low hills from Sutlej westwards, Sindh and Baluchistan. 4. Area under Cultivation 50,000 ha. 5. Production in Tonnes 48000 t of seeds. 6. Yield Seeds 900-1,500 kglha, Husk-225-375 kglha. 7. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesrrypes/Clones released/identified RI-87, RI-89, AMB-2, GI·1, GI-2, MI-4, MIB-121, HI34, HI-2, HI-I, HI-5, NIHARIKA. b. Propagation methods and planting time By seeds Mid-October to Mid-December. c. Fertilizers doses N: P 50: 25 kglha (25 kg of N + full P as basal dose 25 Kg N as top dressing 35 DAS). d. Irrigation Schedule 3 to 6 irrigations, presowing, after sowing, seedling stage, spike formation stage, flowering stage, seed development stage depending upon the soil type and agro-climatic condition. e. Diseases, pests and their control Downy mildew and Powdery mildew: Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 @ 2.0 to 2.5 g/lit or Bordeaux mixture 6: 3: 100 for downy mildew and Karathane W.O. (0.2 per cent) for Powdery mildew 6: 3: 100 for downy mildew, Karathane W.O. (0.2 per cent) for Powdery mildew. Wilt disease is also observed which can be controlled by seed treatment with Bavistin or Benlate 2.5g/kg of seed. Sucking type of pests (Aphid) attach the crop. Spraying with Endosulfan @ 0.5 per cent or

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

13.

14.

Dimethodate @ 0.2 per cent at fortnighty interval can control the aphids. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Protein, polysaccharides, cellulose, pectin, oil, muscilage. Post Harvest Management Crop matures during March-April (110-130 days).It should be harvested when atmosphere is dry. Harvested plants spread over and after 2 days they are threshed with tractor/ bullocks. Pinkish type husk are removed from the seed coat by processing through a series of grinding in mills to separate husk. Cost of Cultivation Rs.19,320/ha. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Isabgol seed 17,680.63 tonnes va!ued at Rs. 14,069.78Iakh and husk 2,580.29 tonnes valued at Rs. 1663.73 lakh exported during the period from April-October, 1997-98. Besides our internal consumption is also quite high. Action and Uses Demulcent, cooling, diuretic; used in inflammatory conditions of the mucous membrane of gastro intestinal and genitourinary tracts, in chronic dysentery, diarrhoea and constipation. Parts Used Seeds and seek husk. Used as single drug for cure of constipation and dysentery. Any Other Remarks This crop has good export potential and can be exploited commercially.

Jatamansi 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Nardostachys jatamansi De. 2. Family Valerianaceae.

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3. Habit and Habitat An erect perennial herb with long, stout, woody rootstock; found in alpine Himalayas at 3,500-5,000 m extending eastwards to Sikkim and Bhutan. The species is vulnerable. 4. Yield Plant part Rhizome (1290 kg/ha) Actual ingredients Valeopotriate and essential oil. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesrrypes/Clones-released/identified Dalhouse clones. b. Propagation methods and planting time Seeds and roots. Seed nursery preparation in July/ Aug. Transplanting after ft:8 weeks (April/May). c. Fertilizer doses 60: 20: 40 NPK. d. Irringation schedule One irrigation soon after sowing and 2-3 irrigations during rain free condition. e. Dieseases, pests and their control No serious pests and diseases. 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Volatile essential oil 0.5 per cent (Valeopotriates and Valerian oil). 7. Post Harvest Management Harvested roots washed and dried in shade condition. 8. Cost of Cultivation (Cost: Benefit Ratio) Not commercially cultivated. 9. Action and Uses A.-omatic, bitter, tonic, antispasmodic, deobstruent, stimulant, antiseptic, diuretic, emmenagogue. Used in epilepsy, hysteria, chorea, convulsions, palpitation of heart, mental disorders, insomnia.

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10. Parts Used Root-stock. 11. Compound Preparations Mansyadi Kwath. 12. Any Other Remarks Crop is not under regular cultivation, so there is a rapid depletion of the plant from its natural sources. Quality degradation under storage is reported.

Kalmegh 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

Andrographis panicuiata. 2. Family Acanthaceae. 3. Yield Plant part Panchang (Stem, leaf, flower, seed and root) Actual Ingredients Kalmeghin andrographolide (0.8-2. per cent). Leaves contain maximum while stem contains minimum amount. 4. Habit and Habitat A small herb found throughout India in plains of Himachal Pradesh to Assam, Mizoram, Gujrat, Bihar and South India. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Local clones. There is no named variety. b. Propagation methods and planting time Propagated by seed and cuttings. Seedlings/plantlets raised in nursery in last week of July. c. Fertilizer doses Poultry manure or FYM 10 t/ha, Castor cake 2 t/ha, 75 Kg N, 75 Kg P205. d. Irrigation schedule Kharif season crop. If rain is inadequate then 2-9 irrigations are given. 6. Post Harvest Management Crop duration 90-100 days. Harvesting is done in end of October and 1st week of November. Harvest should be

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spread over on the floor and it should be covered at night to protect from dew. One week drying under shade is required. Average yield 2-2.5 t/ha dry herb. 7. Cost of cultivation Rs. 1O,000/ha Gross return Rs. 43,000/ha Net return Rs. 33,OOO/ha. 8. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Ayurvedic formulations for debility, chronic malaria, jaundice, anemia and loss of apetite. 9. Compound Preparations Andrographis preparations in different potencies for Homeopathic medicines.

Katki 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Picrohiza Kurroa Royle ex Benth. 2. Family Scrophulariacae. 3. Habit and Habitat A perennial herb, found in Alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 2,700-4,500 m. 4. Cultural Practices Propagation methods Through seeds and rhizome. 5. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Bitter glucoside Kutkin (3.4 per cent), Kurrin, (0.5 per cent), Vanillic acid (0.1 per cent). 6. Post Harvest Management Drying. 7. Action and Uses Bitter tonic, antiperiodic, cholagogue, stomachic. Used in dyspepsia, fever, diseases of liver and spleen including jaundice, anaemia, scorpion stings and in purgative preparations.

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8. Parts Used Root and Rhizome. 9. Compound Preparations Arogyavardhani, Katukadya lauha, Tikkadi Kwath, Tiktadighrita. 10. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Limited internal consumption. 11. Any Other Remarks Threatened perennial herb but can be domesticated and cultivated.

Kokum 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Garcinia indica Linnacus. Family Clusiaceae. Habit and Habitat Frequent in evergreen and deciduous forests along the coasts on winward side of Western Ghats to 400 m. Area under Cultivation l,200/ha Production 10,200 t. Yield Plant part Ripe Fruit, 8.5 t/ha Actual Ingredients Hydroxy Citric Acid (HCA), Cambogin and Camboginol. Distribution Tree found in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, South Gujarat, Assam and West Bengal. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Konkan Amrita and local types. b. Propagation methods and planting time

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By soft wood grafting, July-August. c. Fertilizer doses 20 kg FYM + 500 g N + 250 g P20 S. d. Irrigation schedule Normally grown as rain fed crop. Hence regular irrigation is not in vogue for grown up orchards. e. Disease and pests Hardy crop. No major disease and pests. Leaf minor and pink disease sometime occurs which can be easily controlled. 8. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Arabin, essential oil, resin, tartaric, citric and phosporic acids, hydroxy citric acid. 9. Post Harvest Management Harvesting in March to April. Drying of fruits and bark. 10. Cost of cultivation Rs. 13,OOO/ha Rs. 34,300/ha 11. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Fruit mainly used for preparation of value added products like kokum syrup, dried kokum rind, etc., which are consumed within the country. However, kokum seed fat is exported to Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Singapore, U.K and Malaysia. Good export potential. 12. Any Other Remarks Hardy rainfed crop in coastal tropical region in the country. Crop has outstanding medicinal properties (acidulent, dyscentry, pains, heart problems, etc.), and also spice quality.

Kerth 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

Saussurea lappa. 2. Family Compositae.

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3. Area under Cultivation About 100 ha. 4. Production About 200 t. 5. Yield Plant part Tuberous roots (25,000-30,000 kglha). Actual Ingredient's Essential oil (1.5 per cent) Saussunine (0.05 per cent). 6. Important States Kashmir valley (J&K) Lahaul spiti (HP) Garhwal (UP). 7. Cultural Practices a. Varieties/Types/Clones-released/identi fied Kashmir and Punjab types. b. Propagation methods and planting time Seeds are sown in May. c. Irrigation schedule 5-6 irrigations between May-September. d. Diseases, pests and their control No major pests and diseases. e. Crop duration 3 years. 8. Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Essential oil (1.5 per cent). Essential oil constituents (Aplotaxena 20 per cent, Sesquiterpenes (60 per cent), Saussuine alkaloid, Kushtin, Lactones, Costunolide, Palmitic Acid, Dihydrodehy-drocostus, lactone, propyl acetate, lauric acid. 9. Post Harvest Management Economical yield is obtained from 3 year old crop. Root is harvested in early spring. The roots are cleaned with water and dried for processing. 10. Cost of cultivation (Cost: Benefit Ratio) 1: 3.2 (in 3 years) Cost of cultivation: Rs. 14,000/- Gross income: Rs. 45,000/11. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Exported to China, Japan, Italy and France. Internal consumption is limited.

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Liqorice 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. 2. Family Papilionaceae. 3. Habit and Habitat A herb, reported to be found in sub-Himalayan tracts. Most of the requirenment of pharmaceutical industries is met by import only. Recently introduced in Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana. 4. Cultural Practices a Varieties/Types/Clones-released/identified Haryana Mulhati No.1 (HM No.1) EC-I11236, EC-124587, EC-21950 b. Propagation methods and planting time By root cuttings. February-March or July-August. c. Fertilizer doses 10 t FYM/ha applied at the time of planting; Chemical fertilizers: N 80 kg (40 kg basal dose + 20 kg each at 2nd + 3rd year), P205 - 40 kg/ha and K20 20 kglha. d. Irrigation schedule At 30-45 days intervals in summer or in dry season, 7-8 irrigations are needed. e. Diseases, pests and their control Disease-causal Organism Leaf spot-Cercospora Root rot-Rhizoctonia Collor rot-batalicola Selerotium sps Wilting-Fusarium sps Leaf spot-Altemaria tenius. Control i. Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 @ 0.2 per cent. ii. Bavistine (0.1 per cent) followed by Daltan 0.3 per cent. Bavistin or benlate before planting Aerial portion should be" cut and destroyed. iii. Carbonxazin 0.5 per cent.

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5.

6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

Bilitox 0.2 per cent, 3-4 times at an interval of 6 days after appearance of disease symptoms. Pests: Attack of terminate has been observed in light soils vi. Crop. duration 2.5 to 3 years. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Glycyrrhizin (12-15 per cent), Flavonoids (Apioliquiretin, liquiritin, Apiossliquiritin, Isoliquiritin, monin, liquisitigenin, Glycycocernarin, Glycysol and Glycyrin). Post Harvest Management After digging the roots in September, left in the field for sun drying, later the roots are sorted out and cleaned. Dry roots stored in polythene lined bags. Action and Uses Laxative, demulcent, emllkient, tonics, aphrodisiac. Used in sore throat, cough, genitourinary diseases, anorexia, asthma, persistent low fever. Compound Preparations Yashtyadi churna, Yashtyadi K wath, Yashtimadhwadya tails. Internal Consumption and Export Potential It is imported (about 5,000 to 10,000 of dry roots annually) from Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq. Any Other Remarks Cultivatrion not yet popularised.

Long Pepper 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Piper longum Linn. 2. Family Piperaceae. 3. Habit and Habitat A slender climber with perennial woody roots, found in hotter parts of India with humid damp climate, viz., Western ghats, central Himalayas to Assam, Khasi and Mikir hills and lower hills of Bengal. 4. Yield Plant part

Cultivation Practices of Medicinal Plants

5.

6. 7.

S.

9.

185

Dry spike 650-700 kg/year/ha Root yield 500 kg/ha Actual Ingredients Piperine (4.5 per cent) Essential oil (0.7 per cent.) Cultural Practices a. Varieties{fypes/Clones-released/identified Cheemathipali, Viswam. b. Propagation methods and planting time Rooted vine cuttings and suckers. Soon after the onset of monsoon. c. Fertilizer doses Mostly grown as an under crop on residual fertility. 20 t FYM/ha. Application of inorganic fertilizers are not yet reported. d. Irrigation schedule During summer, one irrigation/week. Sprinkler irrigation is also beneficial. e. Diseases, pests and their control Leaf and vine rot and necrotic spots and blights on leaves (1 per cent spray of Bordeaux mixture). Mealy bug attack (any systemic insecticides). Adults and nymphs of Helopeltis theivora attack (neems seed kernel extract @ 0.25 per cent). Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Piperine and Piplartin. Post Harvest Management The first harvest from vines is available after six months of planting. Spike are ready for harvest after two months of formation. Harvested spikes and roots are sundried and stored in moisture proof bags. The produce fetches price according to the grade. Action and Uses Alterative, tonic, sedative, vermifuge, cholagogue, emmenagogue. Used in cough, cold, chronic bronchitis, palsy, gout, rheumatism, lumbago, insomnia, epilepsy, asthma, amorexia, piles, dyspepsia, leucoderma. Compound Preparations Gudapippali, Pippalikhanda, Pipalyasva.

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10. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Huge internal consumption. 558.31 t imported in 1995-96 valued at Rs. 76.92 lakh and 38.523 t exported in 1995-96 valued at Rs. 17.02 lakh.

Madhunashini 1. Name of the Medicinal Plant Gymnema Sylvestre R. Sr. 2. Family Asclepiadaceae. 3. Plant Parts Used Leave and roots. 4. Habit and Habitat A perennial climber found in W.:!stern Ghats, Konkan, Tamil Nadu, Kamataka and Uttar Pradesh. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varietiesffypes/Clones released/identified Local clones. b. Propagation methods and planting time By cutting in rainy season. c. Fertilizer doses 10 g Nitrogen 65 g Phosphorous/vine. 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Gymnemic acid, Quercitol, Lupeol, B-amyrin, Stigmasterol. 7. Harvesting After one year leaves are ready for harvesting. 8. Harvesting Period September to February. 9. Post Harvest Management Drying of leaves and roots. 10. Action and Uses Astringent, stomachic, tonic, refrigerant, antidiabetic. Leaves have a peculiar property neutralising temporarily the taste sensation for sugar and used in diabetes. 11. Uses Diabetes, Liver disorders, cardiac amenorrhoea, Sec. amenorrhoea, cough and asthma.

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12. Compound Preparations

Sarivadyasava, Sarivadyavaleha, Sarivadi Kwath, Sarivadi vati.

Satavari 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Asparagus racemosus Willd.

2. Family Liliaceae. 3. Habit and Habitat A climber found almost all over India. 4. Yield Plant Tuberous roots (100-150 q/ha 3rd year). Actual ingredients Saponin. 5. Cultural Practices a. Varieties!Types/Clones b. Local clones Propagation methods and planting time By seeds/adventitious roots March-April (Sowing) July-August (Transplanting). 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Shatavarin I, II, III and IV (Roots), Quercetin, rutin and Hyperoside (Flowers and fruits) Diosgenin and Quercetin - 3 Glucuronide (Leaves). 7. Post Harvest Management Tuberous roots are ready for harvesting in 3rd year. After harvesting, roots (tuberous) are washed and dried in sun for making of powder. S. Action and Uses Antidiarrhoetic, refrigerant, anti dysenteric, diuretic, demulcent, nutritive tonic, galactagogue, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic. Used in consumption, epilepsy, diarrhoea, blood dysentery, haemophilic disorders, swellings. 9. Parts Used Root.

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10. Compound Preparations Shatavari ghrita, Naraina taila, Vishnu Tails, Shatmulyadi lauha, Shatavari panaka.

Shankapushpi 1. Name of Medicinal Plant COIHlolvulus pluricaulis. 2. Family Convolvulaceae. 3. Distribution A prostrate perennial herb found all over India, in Lalitpur district found in Talbehat, Meharauni and Lalitpur forest ranges. Present day availability is very low, approximately 50-60 quintal per year. 4. Part used Whole plant. 5. Soil Type Sandy loams, Block cotton soils, Red sandy soils; PH 5.5 to 7. It is also grown in marginal lands with good drainage and some organic matter applied to the soil. 6. Rainfall 800 mm-1200 mm. 7. Field Preparation Deep ploughing in the month of May and is allowed to weather. 15 tonnes per hectare farmyard manure is spread out in the field during June before rains. After FYM applied and aft(>r on set of monsoons second ploughing is done followed by two cross harrowing. The land is finally divided in to small blocks. 8. Sowing The seeds are broadcast mixing with sand or Line sowing 30 cm x 30 cm also done. After sowing light top dressing of FYM is given. Very light watering is done. Seedlings appear within 30 days. 9. Weeding and Hoeing Generally two weedings and hoeing are given within 40-50 days. 10. Harvesting Plants get flowers in October and seeds develop in December. Crop harvesting period is January to May. Whole plant is dried in shade and is stored for marketing.

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11. Biochemical Analysis (active ingredients) Alkaloids, Sankhpuspine. 12. Action Intellect promoting, nervine tonic, expectrorant, antileprotic, refrigerant. 13. Uses Insomnia, insanity and epilepsy, cough, skin disorders, hyperpyrexia, general debility.

SafedMusli 1. Name of Medicinal Plant

Chlorophytum borivillanum. 2. Family Liliaceae. 3. Yield Plant part Tuberous roots (1,000 kglha) Actual ingredients Saponin 2-4 per cent. 4. Distribution Southern Rajasthan, Western M.P. and North Gujarat. 5. Cultural Practices a Varieties/Types/CI ones-released/identi fied Selections viz., RC-2, RC-16, RC-36, RC-20, RC-23. RC-37 have been collected and maintained at RAU, Udaipur. b. Propagationn methods and planting time By seed and by tuberous roots, second week of June. _ c. Fertilizer doses No chemical fertilizer tested on thir crop. 10-i5 t FYM/ha provides good nutrient status for heatlhy growth. d. Irrigation schedule First irrigation immediately after planting. If there is no rainfall, then irrigation may be done after lOIS days interval. e. Diseases, pests and their control i. Rotting of root during storage ii. Chlorosis in foilage

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Infection of Aspergillus sps and Fusarium sps Control: Treatment with thiram and captan at 4.0 g/kg of roots reduced rotting during storage. This may be due to Iron defiency. d. Crop duration 90-110 days. 6. Biochemical Analysis (Active ingredients) Carbohydrates 39.10 per cent-42 per cent Protein 0.5 per cent Saponin 2 per cent-4 per cent Root fiber 3 per cent-5 per cent. 7. Post Harvest Management Harvested roots are spread in the shade for about 4-7 days. Later, fleshy roots separated from the bunches. Slight pressure exerted by thumb and finger on the skin of root so that they get separated and milky white root come out. It should be cleaned and dried for 7-10 days. 8. Cost of Cultivation (Cost: Benefit Ratio) Cost of cultivation Rs. 22,000/Gross return Rs. 65,000/Cost-benefit ratio 1:2:95. 9. Internal Consumption and Export Potential Mainly consumed in herbal based pharmaceutical industries. It has large and consistent market demand in the country and current projection of the annual demand is estimated between 300-500 t. 10. Any Other Remarks Sa fed musli is a well known tonic and a aphrodiasc drug given to cure general debility and extensively used in Ayurvedic medicines. Still major requirements of the parmaceutical industries is fulfilled through collection from the forest, thus it has become threatened species in India. Effort should be made for its regular cultivation to fulfil the growing demand.

,

Cultivation Practices of Medicinal Plants

191

Senna 1. Name of Medicinal Plant Cassia angustifolia Vahi. 2. Family Caesalpinaceae. 3. Area under cultivation 25,000 ha. 4. Production Leaves 22,500 t and Pods 7,500 t. 5. Yield Plant part Leaves 1,500-2,000 kg/ha and pods 700-1,000 kg/ha (Immature) Actual ingredients Sennosides (2.5 per cent in leaf; 3.5-4 per cent in pods). 6. Important States Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Delhi. 7. Cultural Practices a. Varieties!Types/Clones-reIeased/identified ALFT-2, Tinneyvalley senna and Sona. b. Propagation methods and planting time By seed, September-October in Tamil Nadu. June-July in Western India. c. Fertilizer doses 80 kg of N: 40 kg of P205: 20 kg K20/ ha. Nitrogen in 4 equal splits (sowing, 30 days thinning stage, after first and second harvest). d. Irrigation schedule At sowing and thinning stage. e. Diseases, pests and their control Diseases i. N.W India - Damping off at seedling stage caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola. Control - Thiram or Captan 2.5g/kg. ii. Dry rot caused by Macrophomina phaseoli iii. Leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta spp. and Cercospora spp.

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8.

9.

10. 11.

Control- 0.5 per cent Diathene M-45. Pests i. Green leaf eating caterpillar ii. Pod borer (0.05 per cent Endosulfan or 0.25 per cent Carbaryl). f. Crop duration 130-150 days. Biochemical Analysis (Active Ingredients) Sennosides, A, B, C, D rhein, aloe-amine, Kaempferein and Iso-rhein in free and compound/glycoside forms. Post Harvest Management Shade drying for 3-5 days to bring down to 8 per cent moisture level and light green to greeish yellow colour is preferred. Action and Uses Laxative, purgative. Used in conc:;tipation.. Compound Preparations Yashtyadi chuma, Shataskar chuma.

9

Research and Developments of Medicinal Plants

Introduction In order to fully convert the potential of our medicinal plants into economic wealth, a very active R&D programme is essential. The R&D has to cover all aspects relating to the species from collection to utilization. For convenience we may categorize medicinal species into: 1. those which are of proven medicinal value as per scientific parameters, 2. those on which sufficient leads are available, and 3. those on which much work is required to be done.

Research investigations need to concentrate on the first two categories on the following aspects: 1. Evolving and optimising the most appropriate technologies for conservation, especially for endangered or endemic species and molecular methods for characterization. 2. Detailed studies on life cycle and breeding behaviour, taxonomy, seed biology. 3. Population and habitat viability studies. 4. Optimising appropriate methods for post-harvest handling, processing and storage. 5. Investigation on quality control standardization and shelf life of raw materials and finished products.

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The search for new drugs of plant origin has yielded fruitful result in the past. Today it is possible to use molecular techniques for detection of genetic variability and tagging desired traits as well as culling out duplicates in accessions. The availability of high throughout screen has made the possibility of converting 'hits' into lead compounds in comparatively short time. Drug development from plant sources using gene/molecular techniques is becoming increasingly important.

Drug Development from New Molecules/Genes In terms of a modern research endeavour, drug development from plants must necessarily imply a multi-displinary approach. Recent computerized studies of ethnomedical information, albeit in specialized areas of biological activity, have nevertheless confirmed that plants are a reservoir of chemical agents with therapeutic potential. What has been hitherto missed is the collation of data gathered in the trial-and-error is a prolonged clinical trial. This information includes: 1. Ethnomedical particulars on cultivation, gathering and preparation of plant material for dosage. 2. The role of accompanying plants frequently used in multicomponent traditional preparations. 3. Recommended dosage regiments and contra-indications of certain foods . . In addition, it would be wise, in any research effort, to investigate the theories and concepts of the major systems of traditional medicine, as these cannot always be exactly interpreted in terms of modern concepts. In general, natural products that have come into modern medicine are the result of an approach to drug development adopted over the past fifty years or more. The goal has been to find new chemical structures that have a novel biological activity. The alternative approach of finding plant derived therapeutic agents as extracts that could be standardized and formulated, has not received attention. The emphasis of R&D should be on the following: 1. Development of technology for bulk production of

medicinal products.

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2. Development of quality control standards for the starting materials as well as for the finished products. 3. Development of new formulations and dosage forms specially suited to the prevailing climatic conditions and adapted to locally available raw materials. 4. Assimilation of acquired technology and its continuous improvement to make the products competitive. 5. Bioequivalence, bioavailability and pharmacokinetic studies on the dosage forms developed. 6. Search of new plant sources for known drug and for new drugs from locally available plants. Given the situation, production of standardized plant fraction should have priority over that of pure active substance, becaust' of the simple technology needed and hence lower cost of th(' product, provided, of course, the technologic.ll testing indicates that the product is safe. It would be advisable to find out the chemical compositIOn of the composite fraction and pharmacological action of each constitutent to ensure that they are safe and compatible with each other. In view of the high capital and recurring costs of R&D, collaboration among developing countries and between developed and developing countries is advisable. Keeping in view the national priority the target disease i& selected and the plants on the formulation is evaluated clinically using current protocols/criteria. Studies on <'nalytical methods. details, chemistry, pharmacology along with toxicity and safety aspects are required. A multidisciplinary approach to drug development from medicinal plants used in traditional medicine was tried out in several technical assistance programmes by U!'I1lDO beginning in the mid-1970s. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Economic mapping of the spontaneous flt)ra. Selection and authentication of plant species. Collation of ethnomedical and ethnobotanical data. Trial popagation to develop high yielding varieties. Medium scale plant propagation. Chemical studies on plant constituen t <;

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7. Analytical studies on quantitative assessment of major constituents. 8. Pharmacological and tOxicological studies. 9. Pilot plant scale processing of plant extracts. 10. Standardization of extracts. 11. Formulation studies on extracts into dosage forms. 12. Toxicity studies on formulations. 13. Analytical studies on formulated products. UNIDO's Technical Assistance Programme envisaged that if a successful candidate plant was identified, then the large-scale plant cultivation was to be implemented with FAO and the clinical assessment of the drug be conducted with WHO participation. Success was recorded in a number of instances and the programme introduced the concept of goal-oriented research.

Ethnobotanical Approach to Drug Discovery For pharmaceuticals ranging from digitalis to vincristine the ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery has proved successful. The advent of high-throughput, mechanism-based in vitro bioassays coupled with candidate plants derived from painstaking enthnopharmacological research has resulted in the discovery of new pharmaceuticals such as prostratin, a drug candidate for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus, as well as a variety of novel anti-inflammatory compounds. Gastrointestinal maladies, inflammation, skin infections and certain viral diseases are likely to be of high saliency to indigenous healers, whereas diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular illness are unlikely to be easily diagnosed by indigenous peoples. Yet indigenous remedies may indicate pharmacological activity for maladies such as schizophrenia, for which the biochemical mechanisms have yet to be discovered. Ethnopharmacological information can be used to provide three levels of resolution in the search for new drugs: 1. As a general indicator of non-specific bioactivity suitable

for a panel of broad screens. 2. As an indicator of specific bioactivity suitable for particular high-resolution bioassays.

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3. As an indicator of pharmacological activity for which mechanism-based bioassays have yet to be developed. Historically, ethnobotanical leads have resulted in three different types of drug discovery: 1. Unmodified natural plant products where ethnomedical use suggested clinical efficacy (e.g., digitalis). 2. Unmodified natural products of which the therapeutic efficacy was only remotely suggested by indigenous plant use (e.g., vincristine). 3. Modified natural or synthetic substances based on a natural product used in folk medicine (e.g., aspirin). The Napralert database developed by Farnsworth is especially thorough, with systematic searches dating back to 1900, on natural products in the areas of cancer (chemotherapy, chemoprevention, carcinogenesis), fertility regulation (both male and female), diabetes, malaria and other parasitic diseases, viral diseases, sugar substitutes, molluscicides and anti-HIV agents. As an exercise to demonstrate the power of computer analysis, selected 10 diseases searched Napralert for species that had both ethnomedical information and in vitro and/or in '{Jivo experimental data supporting the ethnomedical claims.

Bioengineering of Medicinal Plants Pharmaceutical importance/therapeutic value of medicinal plants is due to specific constituents/comibination of secondary metabolites present in them. Changes in the proportion of secondary metabolites are often required for the improvement of therapeutic values of medicinal plants. For example, increase in the artemisinin content of Artemisia annua in proportion to its immediate precursors and other terpenes is required to make the production of antimalarials from this plant more economically. The biosynthetic pathways for the biologically active chemical compounds in medicinal plants are usually complex and high branches. Genetic manipulations can help increase/decrease the contents of specific compounds in medicinal plants. Detailed understanding of these pathways will be a prerequisite for the identification, cloning and genetic engineering of the concerned structural and regUlatory genes. These genetic techniques will also

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help develop designer medicinal plants. For example, it wilI be possible to produce medicinal plants that will help raise the immunity towards infectious diseases in the use of such plants.

In Vitro Propagation Techniques The biotechnological tools are important to select, multiply and conserve the critical genotypes of medicinal plants by adopting techniques such as micropropagation, creation of somacional variations and genetic transformations. Biotechnological tools can also be harnessed for production of secondary metabolites using plants as bioreactors.

In vitro propagation involves cell culture systems of a range of ex-plant tissues and mostly micropropagation is achieved from organized tissues by multiplication of meristems and auxilIary buds. In many cases it provides an opportunity to maintain typeto type plant species and the propagation system can produce a large number of plants from a single clone. Plant regeneration from shoot and stem meristems has yielded encouraging results in medicinal plants like Catharanthus roseus, Cinchona ledgeriana and Digitalis spp. The production of tropane alkaloids by hairy root culture has been resorted in several medicinal plants like Atropa, Datura and Hyoscyamus. Plant cell suspension culture is the selection of variant cell lines for the genetic improvement of plants. High secondary product yields in plant cell cultures of medicinal plants like Catharanthus roseus, Coleus blumei, Coptis japollica and Panax ginseng have been reported. Cryopreservation has been used successfully to store a range of tissue types, including meristems, anthers/pollens, embryos, calli and even protoplasts. Cryopreservation is already reported for many medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentilla, Datura spp., Atropa, Hyoscyamus spp., etc. Protoplast fusion or somatic hybridization has been used to bypass the sexual process. The objective is to transfer important genes which can not be transferred through sexual means due to the operation of incompatibility systems. Somatic hybrids between Atropa belladona and Datura inlloxia were reported which showed higher amounts of tropane alkaloids. Biotransformation of psycho trine cephaeline to emetine production from cell cultures of Ipecac needs to be shown economically viable when compared with synthetic process of production of emetine.

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Plant cell culture is of importance in improvement of medicinal plants. Complete plants have been regenerated from callus cultures, excised anthers and isolated protoplasts of many medicinal and aromatic plants. Many of the regenerated plants showed somaclonal variation and selections were made for high active principle yielding cell lines. Protoplast fusion has been plant is regenerated, micropropragation techniques can be used to multiply and clone the desired species. Gene transfer is possible from wild and related species to desired cultivars through wide hybridization including embryo rescue systems. Thus, to sum up, various components of the application of tissue culture technology would be: 1. Micropropagation. 2. Conservation through cryopreservation. 3. Bioproduction of value added secondary metabolites. 4. Biotransformation of bioactive molecules. 5. Genetic upgradation for improvement. 6. Somatic hybridization. 7. Somaclonal variations. 8. Transgenic plants. The only limiting factor in commercialization of large number of medicinal plants has been the cost of cultivation. As for other annual/biennial crops per acre requirement of planting material is very large, cost of propagule is of major concern. Tissue culture can thus be adopted for species which are:

1. Difficult to regenerate by conventional methods and the only way to save them from extinction is to propagate them by tissue culture. 2. Species where population has decreased due to over exploitation and thus initial bulking of the stock can be taken up by tissue culture. 3. Species which show lot of variability in terms of the active principles with medic;nal properties. Tissue culture of selected clones will help in sustainable harvest and fetching better prices both in the domestic and international market. 4. Trees with medicinal properties or elites can be identified based on their potential of yielding higher amount of active principle.

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Tissue culture protocols have been developed for several plants but there are many more species which are over-exploited and need conservation through in vitro techniques. Also there are large number of species for which limiting factor in expanding the area under the cultivation is the scarcity of planting material.

Choosing Priorities It is necessary to prioritize the thrust areas to obtain the output of research efforts and other resources. Several factors help in determining the priorities. These include the distribution of flora, national or regional disease pattern, availability of modem health care, etc. In addition, we have to keep in mind the global priorities in developing new drugs so as to get a good financial return. The disease pattern and the priorities have national characteristics but there are several diseases which are common to tropical areas and in fact to most developing countries. These include protozoal and helminthic infections like malaria, filaria, onchocerciasis, etc. Many of these diseases do not exist in developed countries and large pharmaceutical houses, therefore, do not give high priority to develop new drugs for such conditions. There is a gross mismatch between the health needs of the developing countries and the interests of the pharmaceutical industry. These should, therefore, receive priority in national/ regional plans. The above examples are only illustrative but we have to evolve our own list of priority for communicable diseases. Primary health care usually requires comparatively milder medication and the acceptability of herbal medicines for such conditions is also much more. The main considerations should be adequate availability or possible cultivation on required scale, lack of toxicity and ease of formulation. oTheOglobal thrust areas for drugs from natural sources include disease conditions whose incidence is increasing and where the modem drugs are either unavailable or unsatisfactory. Some examples of such !1'aladies may be summarized as follows: 1. Tropical diseases: antimalarial, antifilarials and antileishmaniasis. 2. Chronic conditions: anti-arthritic agents, anti-rheumatic agents °

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Immunomodulators, immunostimulants, adaptogens. Hepatoprotectors. Rapid wounds and ulcer healing agents. Central stimulating or sedating agents. Alzheimers disease: prospective agents. Memory enhancers. Analgesics. Sedatives. In considering the validation of the claims of ethnomedical therapies and derived preparations for introduction into the health care systems, following deserve consideration: 1. The inadequacy of animal models to serve as adequate

systems to assess biological activities that can be extrapolated to the human situation. This is particularly so in some of the disease conditions for which no satisfactory modem therapy exists. 2. The minimizing of toxicity tests needed to introduce the drug into a health care system. This is particularly necessary when the drug has been in long human use, toxic manifestations could be assessed by studying its long term effect on patients already undergoing treatment in the traditional milieu and the mode of industrial processing does not significantly vary from the ethnomedical methods. Product comparisons by modern instrumental parameters can also be made as between processed product and ethnomedical preparation. 3. Clinical trials conducted under the supervision of competent authorities (e.g., WHO) must be a necessary prerequisite. 4. Stimulation of traditional processing methods, as well as adherence to ethnomedical regiments will be most helpful in not missing the activitiy present in an ethnomedical preparation. This will also stimulate examination of ethnomedical theories of disease with a view to interpretatio!'l of these, if at all possible, within modem concepts. (The idea particularly refers to long standing and well documented systems such as Ayurveda, Unani and the Chinese systems.)

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5. The selection of the appropriate dosage form and mode of administration should be recently based on economic parameters as well as shelf-life potential in the situations prevailing in the developing world. 6. There is some concrete evidence that pure compound need not necessarily be the best drugs. But on economic ground as well as on the therapeutic grounds it will serve all interests well if the most appropriate processing methodology of a plant or combination of plants is examined in this light. (This would also give rise to interesting researches on the synergistic and/or detoxificant effects of other constituents in the medicinal plants or non medicinal plants that are found often added to polyprescriptions used in traditional systems.)

Conclusion It is desirable to have a 'need based' approach to research on medicinal plants including screening of plants for biological activity. Research efforts could thus be directed for a number of above mentioned diseases for which suitable drugs are not available in the modern system of medicine and where herbal drugs have a possibility of offering new drugs.

10

Understanding the Rudiments of Aromatic Plants

Introduction The aromatic plants possess odoriferous and volatile substances which occur as essential oils, gum exudates, balsam and oleo-resin in one or more parts, viz., root, wood, bark, foliage, flower and fruit. The chemical nature of these aromatic substances may be due to a variety of complex chemical compounds. Many of these aromatics are powerful germicides and have anti-bacterial properties, but the bulk of the produce finds use in perfumery and the food-flavouring industries. Amongst the two, the perfumery and allied industries consume much larger amounts of the natural fragrant material. According to the UN Word Statistics along with essential oils and perfumery aromatics, a large quantity of the aromatic material of plant organ is utilized in cosmetics, toiletries and allied industries. Our current volume of foreign trade in the perfumery material, essential oils and aromatic compounds is around Rs. 65 million and this amount accounts for 1.6 per cent of the world trade. Some sixty-two types of essential oils come to the international market with a large and consistent demand. However, our treatment of the aromatic plants is confined to a few more important essential oil crops grown in the country. The methods employed to obtain aromatic substances from plants are classified into distillation, effleurage, maceration, expression and solvent extraction. Except in the case of flowers

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crops, such as jasmine and kewara in which the fragrant constituents are likely to be decomposed or destroyed, the essential oils are mostly obtained oy distilling the produce; in fact, steam distillation is the oldest method of separation of essential oils. The perfumery material is filled in a large-galvanized iron still over a perforated natal grid. Water is filled in the still below the level of the grid so that it generates a low-pressure steam on heating to pass through the material. The water vapours carry with it the essential oil of the perfumery material. These vapours are passed through a condenser and collected in a vessel where the oil is ecanted with a separating-funnel. A simple field distillation unit could be fabricated by a skilled blacksmith. For more efficient and quick distillation of the produce; 'steam distillation' units are employed. These units are built on the same principle except that live steam at 40-100 lb pressure per inch is injected into the filling-still through perforated coils and the distillation is completed in a shorter period. It has the advantages of handling a larger quantity of the material, besides improving upon the recovery of the essential oil. As stated earlier, the solvent-extraction method is employed for the extractors are of two types, viz., stationary and rotatory types, and low-boiling solvents, like petroleum, ether, alcohol or benzene, are used for extracting the odoriferous principals. The stationary type extractors consists of vertical cylinders provided with perforated metal grids arranged horizontally around a central vertical shaft. The flower crop is charged over the grids which come into contact with the solvent periodically and the essential oil is removed in successive washings. The rotatory type consists of an iron drum which rotates on a horizontal axis. The interior of the drum is divided with a perforated metal partition of holding flowers and the solvent is filled in the lower part of the extractor. While the drum moves, the solvent seeps through the perforations and drips back, so that the essential oil is washed out to the solvent. This extract is than distilled in a vacuum still at a low temperature to recover the dissolvent. The floral concentrate, thus obtained, also contains some waxes and plant pigments which are removed by treating with warm alcohol. The filtered solution, so obtained, is either used as such, or is concentrated in vacuum into viscous oil.

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Most of the important plant products on which man's sustenance depends come from field or other herbaceous crops of short duration. The plants involved are usually special domesticated strains that have been so highly selected and long cultivated that they are unable to compete with natural vegetation - perhaps anywhere in the world - but, with man's aid, they fortunately flourish sufficiently to enable him to maintain his position of supremacy. Human civilizations have largely developed in relation to the availability of suitable crops, in particular cereals, and there is altogether widespread interdependence between crops and man. Communities living outside the cereal belts are often backward to this day. Whereas each of the various crops commonly had a single region of origin, the main ones have usually become important through having their areas spread by man into other regions. It has even been said that "no world crop originated in the area of its modern commercial importance".

Historical Use of Essential Oils Plants and their extracts have betfh used since time immemorial to relieve pain, aid healing, kill bacteria and thus revitalize and maintain good health. Many books have now been written on aroma therapy, its history usually being included in more or less detail. Suffice it to say here that, although the word itself was not coined until last century, the distilled extracts from plants-the essential oils-have been employed by humankind for countless years in religious rites, perfumery and hygiene. Cedar wood oil, known to have been used by the Egypti~ for embalming and for hygienic purposes 5,000 years ago, was probably the first 'distilled' oil to have been produced although the process used is open to speculation. Both the lavender plant and its essential oil were used by the abbess Hildegard of Bingen as early as the 12th century, and by the 15th century it is thought that essential oils of turpentine, cinnamon, frankincense, juniper, rose and sage were also known and used. About 60 oils were known and used in perfumes and medicines by the beginning of the 17th century.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Modem Evidence for the Antiseptic Powers of Essential Oils Towards the end of the 19th century, the first acknowledged research to prove the antiseptic properties of essential oils was that undertaken by Chamberland. This was followed early in the 20th century by Cavel's research into the individual effects of 35 essential oils on microbial cultures in sewage. The most effective oil in terms of the quantity required to render inactive 1,000 ml of culture was found to be thyme (0.7 ml). Two other well-known oils showing high efficacy were sweet orange (1.2 ml, 3rd) and peppermint (2.5 ml, 9th). The antiseptic power of several oils has now been proved to be many times greater than that of phenol. Certain essential oils have also been shown to be effective against different bacteria, e.g., lemon, which is one of the best in its antiseptic and bactericidal properties, neutralizing both the Typhus bacillus and Staphylococcus aureus in a matter of minutes. Cinnamon kills the Typhus bacillus even when diluted to 1 part in 300. Professor Griffon, a member of the French Academy of Pharmacy, made up a blend of seven essential oils (cinnamon, clove, lavender, peppermint, pine, rosemary and thyme) to study their antiseptic effect on the surrounding air when sprayed from an aerosol; all the staphylococci and moulds present were destroyed after 30 minutes. The bacteriological approach of aromatherapy is an extremely complex field of the utmost interest, opening the way to the ecological understanding and management of the different colonies and flora that live in cohabitation-or at war-within us. Allopathic medicine has begun to realize that the misuse of antibiotics leads to numerous side-effects and sometimes results in chronic disastrous conditions (i.e., systemic candidosis) that could have been avoided if medical aroma therapy had been implemented in due time. Today, the properties of herb volatile oils are researched in many centres throughout the world.

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Wide-ranging Application Essential oils can be put to a multitude of uses both in general practice and in hospitals, as this quote from Dr. J. Valnet illustrates: The doctor who is familiar with essential oils can use them to treat a whole range of infections-pulmonary, hepatic, intestinal, urinary, uterine, rhinopharyngeal and .cutaneous (infected wounds and suppurating dermatoses). The use of these oils usually produces satisfactory results, provided they have been prescribed wisely and that, in the case of certain long-standing complaints, the treatment is followed for a long enough period. Aromatic therapy can neutralize enteritis, colitis and putrid fermentations, and can relieve chronic bronchitis and pulmonary tuberculosis. The colon bacillus cannot resist essential oils. Orthodox medicine currently uses plant material to help cure diseases which previously had a high death rate. Twenty years ago, four out of every five children with leukaemia lost their lives; nowadays four out of five are returned to health with the aid of vincristine and vinblastine, derivatives of the rosy periwinkle-a plant used for hundreds of years by tribal healers as a medicine. The snakeroot plant from India is now used in the Western world to treat hypertension; digitalis, for heart conditions, is produced from the humble foxglove and the well-known rhododendron is used in the treatment of fatigue. "Plants are an Intrinsic part of natural medicine, and not even the most orthodox doctor can get by without them; indeed they represent the link between the natural and the orthodox, the traditional and the ultra-new". Phytotherapy is the name increasingly given to the use of the whole, or part, of the plant for medicinal purposes. Aromatherapy and aromatology (similar to aroma therapy but including intensive and internal uses) are branches of this, utilizing only the essential oils produced by distillation and citrus oils produced by expression. These are simple to use and administer, yet can compete with the steroids and antibiotics used in allopathic medicine today without the body's defence mechanism becoming exhausted or tolerance developing to them. The basic reason which accounts for the diversity of conception and application of aromatherapy lies in the very nature

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of the aromatic substance. Lending itself to easy cutaneous penetration, being endowed with the capacity to influence the mind through its powerful impact upon the olfactive sense, and owing multiple and strong pharmacological properties to its highly active molecular components, it was natural for the aromatic substance to find developments in so many areas.

Powerful Healing Agents Many plant extracts used in the production of conventional medicines are, like the foxglove, poisonous and therefore exceptionally low doses are employed. Some essential oils are also toxic when used incorrectly and the most powerful of these are not normally available to aroma therapists. Essential oils are concentrated and intensely energetic in their effects, so very little is needed (even of those in general use) for successful treatmentdilutions generally being in the range 0.05-3 per cent, depending on the oil used. Apart from the difference in the intensity of the aroma, no apparent benefit is gained from higher concentrations, particularly where the problem is an emotional one, although neat oils are used in certain medical conditions and aromatology.

Their Mode of Action It cannot yet be proved exactly how they work, but research and extensive anecdotal evidence exists to prove that they do work. In the distant past, essences have been used to heal wounds, inhibit the decay of flesh (as in mummification) and reduce the spread of infection (as in the time of the Black Death)-all without anyone knowing how they worked, just as the humble aspirin was in use for many years before anyone knew its mode of action.

Bios is the Greek word for life and essential oils may be classed as probiotic (for life), as opposed to antibiotic (against life). To illustrate this point, antibiotics kill not only harmful bacteria, but also the beneficial flora that we need to keep us healthy, leaving the body in a weakened state. Carefully selected essential oils kill only the bacteria inimical to the successful functioning of the body. Some essential oils also possess antiviral and fungicidal qualities. "A serious condition obviously authorizes the use of antibiotics, and in high doses; but one should be aware that the price of a cure may be a permanent disability.'

Understanding the Rudiments of Aromatic Plants

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User-friendly Natural, whole essential oils can be used on living tissue with minimal unwanted effects (unlike some synthetic drugs, however successful these may be against their intended targets). Also, the human body accustoms itself to the effects of chemical synthetics, leading to escalating doses. This has not been found to be the case with essential oils, which retain their effectiveness in repeated applications and can in fact strengthen the living tissue while killing off the unwanted bacteria.

Quantities of Essential Oils Used Tens of thousands of tonnes of essential oils are used by the food and perfume industries with the food industry being the largest user. It is important to realise that the total amount of essential oil used by the aromatherapy profession is extremely small compared with these industries, and this contributes to the difficulties of obtaining high quality, pure, natural oils. Some oils which could be beneficial when used in aromatherapy are not generally supplied by distillers because they are not required by the giant users. Fortunately, however, a small number of independent distillers produce essential oils solely for aromatherapy use, although such products tend to be more expensive.

Economy of Use Compared with the very high price of drugs (perhaps due to the tremendous research and development costs) essential oils are extremely inexpensive - a factor which should interest those in charge of public health funds. Not only that, they are pleasant to use for both patient and career. In many hospitals and hospices they are used not only to improve the quality of a patient's life but in waiting rooms to relieve the anxiety of relatives and friends. More specifically, they can be used in place of secondary drugs, which might be prescribed to counteract iatrogenic effects of the primary drugs being taken. They have been found to aid relaxation effectively, both pre- and post-operatively, to regenerate tissue in cases of severe bums and inflammation, and to relieve pain in cases of rheumatoid arthritis. They have helped to improve the quality of life for the terminally ill, and they have also found important uses in maternity care.

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of Use

Essential oils are used extensively by aroma therapists and aromatologists to improve or uplift a patient's state of mind. The effect of the attitude of mind on a person's health is being recognized more and more and essential oils can play an important part here. Florence Nightingale said "what nursing has to do ... is to put the patient in the best condition for nature to act upon him", reinforcing the ancient tag medicus cura, natura sauat-the doctor treats, nature cures. By far the majority of essential oil users are outside the medical profession, some people using them merely on instruction from one of the many books written for the general public on the subject. They are simple to use and it should come as a relief to GPs that minor everyday ailments such as a sore throat or a winter cold, and even some more serious problems like bronchitis, sinusitis and rheumatism, can be treated in the home easily and successfully, leaving the doctor's time free for the cases requiring expert knowledge. All this is achievable by anyone, without professional medical skills. However, in France (from where aromatherapy was introduced to the UK) doctors prescribe essential oils for internal use in capsules or in drops diluted in alcohol, or in suppositories and pessaries. They are used externally in dreSSings, fumigations, inhalations, ointments and in foot, hand or complete baths. The original concept of aromatherapy in England, as introduced by Mme Maury, was to use the essential oils in massage only-suitably diluted in a fixed vegetable oil. This unfortunately led to the belief that this is all there is to aroma therapy, and the authors are actively trying to correct this image. It needs the medical profession not only to take an interest but also to use its professional skills to utilize these precious commodities to their fullest capabilities in order to bring the benefits of this aromatic therapy to the hospitals of the world in the 21st century. The subject of aromatherapy involves pharmacy and farming, botany and bodies, medicine and chemistry, toxicity and safetyall so intertwined and interconnected that it is scarcely possible to disentangle the ramifications for the purpose of setting them down without some repetition and much cross-referral.

11

The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

Amyris General Properties • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic

• Calming • Sedative • Stress reliever.

Description A musky rich exotic oil, not initially a strong aroma, but persistent. This oil is used as a fixitive for perfumes and soaps. It also has some therapeutic qualities. Amyris is known as the 'poor man's sandalwood' and actually is not sandalwood at all but a bushy tree known as 'Amyris'. Fig. Amyris This oil is a good fixative for perfume and soap makers. Due to its sedative properties this oil can also be calming and offer stress relief. Amyris also has antiseptic, balsamic and antispasmodic properties, which would make it useful for coughs, washing wounds, and to help when battling the flu. This oil is unlikely to present any hazards in aromatherapy.

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Amyris balsamifera Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil; Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Aniseed

General Properties • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic • Carminative

• • •

Diuretic Galactagogue Stimulant.

Description Aniseed is an herb. Some of its countries of origin are Spain, Egypt, Central and South America and India. The seeds are steam distilled to create an oil that is slightly yellow in colour. Aniseed is popular oil with soap makers because of its strong, fresh scent. In aromatherapy it is usually blended with something else to aid upper respiratory conditions and is good for indigestion and may help to relieve flatulence. Aniseed oil was considered one of the main medicinal plants in Greece, China, Egypt, India and . . FIg. AnIseed Rome. Pythagoras thought it to be an excellent appetizer! Aniseed may be good to use for nervous dyspepsia, or those who suffer from digestive migraines. Consult an aromatherapist for more infonnation. Aniseed can contain up to 90 per cent trans-anethol, which, when taken in high doses or if taken for a long period of time, can cause a narcotic effect, slowing circula tion, which can cause

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The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

damage to the brain. Its effects are cumulative and may also cause dermatitis in some individuals. For those with sensitive systems it would be best to use oil with similar properties (Fennel) to ensure safety.

Specific Cautions Can be stupefying in high doses. Avoid in endometriosis and estrogen dependent cancers. Use caution with hypersensitive skin or skin problems. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Pimp ill ella anisum Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Basil General Properties • • • •

Analgesic Antidepressant Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic

• • • •

Antispasmodic Decongestant Expectorant Stimulant.

Description Basil is a herb. Some of the countries where it is distilled are the USA, Europe and India. The leaves are steam distilled to create oil that is yellow in colour. Basil has been used throughout the ages for chest infections, digestive problems, as a brain stimulant (clears away those mental cobwebs!) and as an antispasmodic, making it wonderful in the treatment of bronchitis and whooping cough. It may be mixed into massage oil and used in a gentle massage over the stomach to help

Fig. Basil

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

stomach to help ease many types of digestive problems. As an additive to the bath, Basil can have the tendency to make the skin tingle, which could be a problem for those with sensitive skin. When used on the skin diluted in carrier oil or in a skin cream or lotion basil can help oily skin and acne. Basil takes its name from the Greek word for 'king' (basileum). This could be because the plant was so highly prized that it was considered 'king among plants' or it could have been because it was in the ingredient list of oil blended to anoint kings. This plant is still greatly valued in Greece, both for cooking and as a medicinal plant. This plant grows wild along many sunny Mediterranean hillsides. Basil blends well with lavender, bergamot, clary sage and geranium. Its active principles include methylchavicol (40 to 50 per cent) with linalol, cineol, eugenol, pinene and camphor. It should not be used when pregnant.

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnancy. Do not use in the bath. Use with caution on sensitive skin. Use in low doses.

Product Specifications Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Ocimum basilicum Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Benzoin Description Benzoin is the active ingredient for Friars Balsam. Used as an inhalation for coughs and loss of voice, and added to a cream it will help heal chapped and cracked hands. It is comforting and uplifting with a faint vanilla scent. This oil is collected in a solid form and is thinned using di-propylene glycol.

Fig. Benzoin

The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

215

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnancy. Is a well documented sensitizer. Use with caution, especially in the bath.

Product Specifications Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Styrax benzoin thinned with di-propylene glycol Steam Distillation Dark Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Birch, Sweet General Properties • Analgesic • Anti-inflammatory • Cleanser.

Description Sweet Birch is from a tree (the yellow and black species of this genus). Some of its coufltries of origin are Canada, Holland, Germany and eastern USA. The bark is macerated in warm . water before being steam distilled to produce oil that is clear to yellowish in colour.

Fig. Sweet Birch

Birch essential oil contains one major constituent, methyl salicylate (up to 98 per cent), which was first identified in Willow trees, and is more commonly known as the originhl ingredient in aspirin. This should give you an idea what the properties of Birch oil are. It carries with it the properties of being analgesic and antiinflammatory. Birch is also a diuretic and blood cleanser. It is great for all kinds of muscular pain, and because of its diuretic and blood

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

cleansing abilities; it helps to drain toxins, which help to cause the pain in arthritis and rheumatism. In treating cellulite, Birch partners up well with Rosemary, Geranium, Black Pepper and Juniper to help eliminate toxins, while the diuretic action helps reduce the water retention.

Specific Cautions Should not be used during pregnancy, while lactating or on babies and small children. Use sparingly.

Product Specifications Betula lenta Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Black Pepper General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Antiseptic Aphrodisiac Anti-bacterial Decongestant

• • • •

Diuretic Expectorant Rubefacient Vasodilator.

Description Black Pepper is a vine. Some of its countries of origin are India, Indonesia, Brazil and Southeast Asia. The berries are steam distilled to create a clear to pale olive colored oil. Black Pepper is a stimulating, warming oil well used during the cold wint~r months in massage oils, as well as blended into a carrier oil for an excellent

Fig. Black Pepper

The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

217

pre or post sport muscle rub. It is helpful when used in a massage oil when you have a cold or flu with aches and pains. It may help with fatigue, lethargy, lack of concentration and impotence. In the respiratory tract, black pepper may help with bronchitis, colds, flu, infections and viruses. In a room spray it may help to destroy airborne infections and for a toothache it may be helpful when blended with Clove. Black Pepper blends well with Clove, Frankincense, Lemon, Pine, Rosemary and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions May cause skin irritation. Avoid during pregnancy. Too much can over-stimulate the kidneys. Avoid with severe kidney disease.

Product Specifications Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Piper nigrum • Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble. Soluble.

Black Spruce, ORG General Properties • • • • • • • • •

Air-borne antispetic Antifungal Anti-inflammatory Anti-infectious Antimicotic Antimicrobial Antiparasitic Antispasmodic Anti-tissive

• • • •

• •

• •

Astringent Diaphoretic Expectorant General Tonic Hormone-like (Stimulating to Thyroid Gland) Nervine Neurotonic Rubefacient.

Description A small hardy evergreen upright tree or dwarf shrub with thin, scaly, greyish-brown barl. This plant is native to most of

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Horticultural, Med icinal and Aromatic Plants

Canada with the exc~ption of the west coast and the southern prairies. It generally grows in moist or boggy locations where it can grow up to 15 metres in height. Black spruce essential oil has a high ester content, meaning it has strong anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory and sedative properties. This essential oil is also known as antifungal and anti-bacterial. It can be used to help with cystitis, strengthen the immune system, sore throats, gingivitis and improve circulation. Its powerful anti-inflammatory properties make Black Spruce useful for arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and bronchitis. It may also be useful for acne, and hyperthyroidism. Emotionally, Black Spruce can be uplifting, mentally stimulating and helpful for mental exhaustion.

';~ ~i ' ~~: <

-

,.,\ ~.,

jig. Black Spruce, ORG

Black Spruce blends well with Pine, Cedarwood, Benzoin, Lavender, Lavendin, and Rosemary.

Product Specifications Botanical Name: Method of Extraction: Appearance: Solubility in Oil: Solubility in Water: Solubility in Alcohol:

Picea mariana Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Cajaput General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Antineuralgic Antiseptic Antispasmodic Balancing

•

• • •

Carminative Decongestant Expectorant Stimulant.

The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

219

Description Cajuput comes from a tree. Its leaves and twigs are steam distilled to create an oil that is yellowish-green in colour. Some of its countries of origin are Malaysia and several far Eastern countries. It is also known as white Tea Tree and 'kaju-puti' means 'white wood'. Cajuput belongs to the melaleuca group (this includes all the eucalyptuses, clove and myrtle). The main property shared by all members Fig. Cajaput of this family is their ability to combat and sometimes even prevent infection. Its active principles are cineol (between 45 per cent and 65 per cent) with terpineol, pinene and other aldehydes. It has a history of being used as an insecticide and parasiticide. Because of its camphor like, penetrating aroma, it is also used with excellent results when dealing with bronchitis and tuberculosis, or any issues surrounding the lungs. This makes it great to use in steam inhalations.

Specific Cautions In large amounts, cajaput may cause skin irritation. A void in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Camphor, White

General Properties • Antiseptic • Balancing

Melaleuca leacadendron Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

..!

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

220

• • • • •

Carminative Diuretic Stimulant Rubefacient Anti-Inflammatory.

Description Camphor oil comes from a tree. The essential oil is steam distilled from the wood, creating a colorless oil. Some of its countries of origin are Borneo, Sumatra, China and Japan. Camphor has traditionally been used as an insect repellant (flies and moths), as well as being utilized in detergents, soaps, disinfectants and room sprays. Camphor blends well with Olibanum (Frankincense), Ylang Ylang, Orange and Mandarin.

Specific Cautions Use with care. Avoid during pregnancy. Epileptics and asthmatics, as well as people with fever, should avoid camphor. Overdoses can cause convulsions and vomiting. Do not use in aroma therapy masasage.

Product Specifications Cinnamomum camphora Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubiiity in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cedarwood General Properties • • • •

Astringent Antifungal Antiseptic Expectorant

• • •

Insecticidal Detoxifier Sedative.

Description This Cedarwood is steam distilled from the wood of the Atlas cedar tree. This produces a thick, yellowish oil. It is grown mostly

221

The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

in North America. Cedar has been used by nearly every ancient civilization in medicine, perfumery and cosmetics. The Egyptians were well known for using it in their embalming practices. When the wood was used to create storage chests, it was discovered that its scent repels insects. Cedarwood's active constituents include cedrol, cadinene and other sesquiterpenes and many terpenic hydrocarbons. It is a very powerful antiseptic, fungicidal and antiseborrheic (helps with dandruff, hair loss and oily hair). When using for bronchial infections it also helps to break down mucus (expectorant). In a bath or douche it can help in the treatment of cystitis and vaginal infections and discharges (always remember to see a doctor for the cause of these infections).

Fig. Cedarwood

As a mild astringent, cedarwood essential oil is great for treating acne. This oil may also help to eliminate lactic acid and help to move toxins from joints, as well as help with cellulite. It is a very popular addition to men's toiletries. On a mental level this oil may help with focus and concentration as well as help counteract worry, fear and mental strain.

Specific Cautions Do not use with high blood pressure or heart problems., May irritate sensitive skin. Avoid with sever allergies. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cedrus atlantica Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

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Chamomile, German ORG

General Properties • Analgesic • Antidepressant • Anti-inflammatory

• • •

Antispasmodic Hepatic Sedative.

Description Chamomile, German is an herb that is steam distilled to produce an oil with a beautiful blue colour (due to the high levels of azulene). Some of its countries of origin are England, Germany, South America and France. German Chamomile has wonderful anti-inflammatory and soothing properties making this oil and excellent one for all manner of skincare. It is helpful in treating acne, dermatitis, and eczema as well as inflamed and sensitive skins. It is mainly composed of chamazulene (produced during the steam distillation process, not present in the fresh plant) and farnesene. For internal inflammation, Chamomile is very useful for arthritis and inflamed joints as well as Fig. Chamomile, inflamed conditions of the digestive GermanORG tract (colitis, gastritis and diarrhea) due to the fact that tension and anxiety are often the cause of these conditions and Chamomile is very calming on an emotional level. It has also been used in the treatment of depression. Chamomile, being one of the gentlest oils, is well known for being a suitable oil for treating children with. Earaches can be relieved by massaging around the ear with a massage oil infused with Chamomile. Of course, chamomile in the bath can take the 'edge' off a cranky, irritable child before bedtime, making life happier for all parties concerned.

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The Aromatic Plants with Essential Oils

Blends well with Bergamot, Jasmine, Neroli, Clary Sage and Rose. Oils for children should be at 1 per cent or less.

Specific Cautions May cause allergies in some individuals who are allergic to ragweed. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Matricaria chamomilla Steam Distillation Clear Blue Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Chamomile, Roman ORG General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Antidepressant Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic Antispasmodic

• • • •

Digestive Hepatic Immunostimulant Sedative.

Description Roman Chamomile is an herb that is steam distilled to produce a very light blue oil. Some of its countries of origin are England, France, Hungary, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. It is a very soothing, healing oil. When treating abscesses, boils and sensitive skin, Roman Chamomile is a good oil to use. It is good to use for headaches, insomnia, irritability, with the possibility of helping to take the edge off migraines if caught in the

Fig. Roman Chamomile, ORG

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

early stages. This oil is known to help balance the feminine reproductive system, and as such may help with amenorrhea, dysmennorrhea as well as menopause. The main chemical components of Roman Chamomile are angelic ester and tiglic ester (making up over 80 per cent of its composition). Roman chamomile blends well with Lavender, Bergamot, Jasmine, Neroli and Clary sage.

Specific Cautions Possible allergin to those who are allergic to ragweed. Use with caution during pregnancy. May irritate sensitive skin.

Product Specifications Anthemis nobilis Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cinnamon General Properties • • • •

Antimicrobial Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astrigent

• • • •

Carminative Digestive Insecticidal Stimulant.

Description Cinnamon is derived from a tree by the steam distillation of the leaves and twigs. Some of its countries of origin are Sri Lanka, India and Madagascar. Cinnamon is a warming and stimulating oil, making it great for helping to improve circulation when used in a massage oil (due to its ability to irritate the skin use only 1/2 per cent dilution for massage). It can be used to help with arthritic and rheumatic conditions (due to the warming action and increase in circulation).

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This is not an oil to be taken lightly. This oil carries with it antiseptic and parasiticidal properties. In an inhalation or as a room spray, Cinnamon can help disinfect the air or breathing passages. On skin that has lice or scabies this oil may help to destroy these parasites when applied topically. An excellent oil to use as a room fragrance, especially at Christmas time (smells great when mixed with Clove and Bitter Orange!). Some of its chemical components are eugenol, eugenol acetate, cinnamaldehyde, and linalol. Cinnamon also blends well with Caraway, all citrus oils, Myrtle and Nutmeg.

Specific Cautions Cinnamon is highly irritating to the skin. Not recommended for massage. High doses can cause convulsions. Avoid during pregnancy.

Fig. Cinnamon

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Citronella General Properties • Antiseptic Deodorant • Insecticidal • Parasiticide

• •

Purifier Tonic.

Description Citronella is derived from a scented grass. It is steam distilled to produce an oil that is yellowish brown in colour with a powerful lemony scent. Its main countries of origin are Sri Lanka, Madagascar and South America.

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Citronella's main chemical constituents are citronellal and geraniol. It is a great oil for adding to the wash water when cleaning any surfaces. When venturing out into the great outdoors, this is an excellent oil to blend into a body spray, as it will help to keep those flying pests off your skin. A few drops on pot pourri, in water, on candles or burners is also very effective. Mixed with a vegetable carrier oil and rubbed into the skin, it will keep mosquitoes from biting. When traveling, this would be a good oil to take with you to introduce a new sense of clean in any hotel rooms you find yourself staying in (antiseptic) as well as to help clear your mind (stimulant).

Fig. Citronella

Citronella blends well with Bergamot, Lemon, Orange and Lemongrass, creating a fresh, uplifting and extremely clea~ smelling blend.

Specific Cautions May irritate sensitive skin and can cause dermatitis in some individuals. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Cymbogpogon nardus Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Clary Sage General Properties • Antibactenal • Antidepressant • Anti::;eptic

• • •

Astringent Carminative Deodorant

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• •

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Digestive Sedative.

Description Clary Sage is a herb. Its flowering tops are steam distilled to produce a colourless oil. Some of its countries of origin are Hungary, Spain, Italy, and France. Its main chemical constituents are linalyl acetate sclareol, linalol, salvene and salvone. Clary Sage is a powerful muscle relaxant and is especially useful where muscle tension arises from mental or emotional stress. When used in skin care, it may help to regenerate aged skin by improving cell regeneration. It is very soothing on inflamed skins and on oily skin and hair it can help to regulate seborrhea. It is also known as a scalp stimulant to assist with hair growth. This oil is also known as an antidepressant oil as well as being extremely calming, making it great for helping to deal with anxiety, Fig. Clary Sage emotional tension, depression as well as post natal depression. It has been said that those using clary sage will experience dramatic and colorful dreams. It should be noted, as well, that this oil should not be used in conjunction with alcohol, as this combination can give rise to very severe nightmares. Its antispasmodic properties make it an excellent choice for menstrual cramping. It contains a hormone-like compound similar to estrogen, so it can be used to help regulate hormones. This oil is excellent for helping to balance feminine energies.

Specific Cautions Can cause headaches in large doses. Avoid when drinking alcohol. Best to avoid when driving. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance

Salvia sclarea Steam Distillation Clear Liquid

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Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubiiity in Alcohol

Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Clove Bud General Properties • Analgesic • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic

• • •

Carminative Disinfectant Insecticidal.

Description Clove Bud is steam distilled from the buds of a tree. Some of the countries of origin are Madagascar, the Philippines, as well as West and East Indies. Some of its active constituents are eugenol, eugenyl acetate and caryophyllene. Clove is antibiotic, antiseptic and an analgesic. It is a good oil for the prevention of infections and disease (disinfectant, antiinfectious). Used in the past for sterilizing surgical instruments . Clove essential oil is well known as a treatment for toothache, this is due Fig. Clove Bud to its analgesic and antineuralgic properties. These properties are great for helping to deal with any muscular and articular pains in the body when mixed in small quantities into a massage oil (use in a 1 per cent dilution). It must be kept in mind that this oil, as with cinnamon, can be a skin irritant and therefore must be treated with extreme caution. Clove is great blended into a room spray to help clean the air of any airborne germs, as it is an antiseptic as well.

Clove blends well with Basil, Black pepper, Cinnamon, Citronella, Grapefruit, Lemon, Nutmeg, Orange, Peppermint, Rose or Rosemary.

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Specific Cautions This oil is very potent. Do not use in the bath as it may irritate the skin and mucous membranes. Avoid during pregnancy and on children under 3 years old.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Eugenia caryophyllata Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Cypress General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astringent Decongestant

• Deodorant • Diuretic • Sedative.

Description Cypress is steam distilled from the leaves and twigs of the tree to produce a colourless to yellowy oil. The place of Origin is the Mediterranean . Its main chemical components contain d-pinene, dcamphene, d-sylvestrene, terpenic alcohol and camphor of Cypress. Cypress has some wonderful astringent properties, making it great in treating oedema, excessive perspiration, and even over-heavy menstruation. This oil has been used Fig. Cypress in the treatment of cellulite by helping to improve circulation and reduce the amount of fluid that is retained within the body's tissues, as well as will varicose veins

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and hemorrhoids. Cypress is also antispasmodic, especially on the bronchi, so it is a great oil to use when treating asthma, coughs or whooping cough through direct inhalation (place a drop on a tissue or in a diffuser) . Asthmatic sufferers will benefit from Cypress being used in the bedroom. The aroma has a stimulating and elevating effect on the mind and psyche, which helps to relieve and quell anger. This oil may help to calm angry, stressed out individuals. Its deodorant and astringent properties make it the ideal candidate for use in a footbath when dealing with excessive perspiration of the feet (helps with smelly feet, too!). Blends well with Bergamot, Clary Sage, Juniper Berry, Lemon, Orange, Rosemary, Lavender and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions Avoid if you have hypertension or any history of estrogendependent cancers. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Ex~action Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cupressus sempervirens Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Eucalyptus, Lemon General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antifungal Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic

• Deodorant • DisinJectant • Insecticidal.

Description Eucalyptus citriodora (lemon) is steam distilled from the leaves of the tree to produce an oil that is pale yellow in colour. Some of the countries of origin are China and Australia. Its main chemical constituents are cineol, pinene, limonene and

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phellandrene. It has a high percentage of citronellal and it has a great lemon scent. Lemon Eucalyptus is a great air freshener as it clears the air by surrounding and destroying the germ carrying bacteria. It is a strong antifungal and appears to have antistaph effects. It has good deodorant capabilities, making it great for various sanitation applications. Due to its' high Fig. Lemon Eucalyptus citronellal content this oil makes a great insecticide. This oil is a gentler version of Eucalyptus globulous.

Eucalyptus citridora blends well with Coriander, Juniper, Lavender, Lemon, Thyme, Lemongrass and Pine.

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Eucalyptus citriodora Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Eucalyptus, Blue Gum General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Antibacterial Antifungal Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic

• • • • •

Decongestant Deodorant Expectorant Immunostimulant Stimulant.

Description Eucalyptus globulus (blue gum variety) is steam distilled from the leaves of the tree to produce and oil that is pale yellow in colour. Its countries of origin are Australia, Tasmania, China and

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Brazil. Its main chemical constituents are eucalyptol (about 80 per cent), ethyl alcohol, amyl alcohol and aromadendrene.

Eucalyptus, globulus is an antiseptic, analgesic and expectorant. It is also effective at balancing or reequilibrating energy imbalances in individuals. As an antiseptic, it can help with infectious diseases of the respiratory system while its expectorant qualities can help with asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis, it is also thought to be an immune booster. Avoid this oil near the nostrils of infants and young children due to the risk of spasm of the glottis due to the cooling Fig. Blue Gum effect on the respiratory system . Eucalyptus Combined with Bergamot it is used for the treatment of cold sores caused by the virus herpes Simplex, and also for the blisters occurring in shingles (which are caused by the same virus as chickenpox). Blends well with Coriander, Juniper, Lavender, Lemon, . Thyme and Pine.

Specific Cautions Avoid with small children, high blood pressure and epilepsy. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Eucalyptus globulus Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Eucalyptus, Peppermint General Properties • Antibacterial • Anti-inflammatory • Antiseptic

• • •

Decongestant Expectorant Immunostimulant.

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Description Eucalyptus radiata (also known as grey peppermint) is steam distilled from the leaves and twigs of the tree to produce an oil that is pale yellow in colour. Its countries of origin are Australia and Tasmania. Traditional uses include: deodorant, antiseptic, immunostimulant. Eucalyptus radiata is regarded as the most useful eucalyptus. It has a more pleasant scent, is more easily assimilated by the body and is less likely to cause irritation on the skin. Its main chemical constituents are eucalyptol (about 70 per cent) with terpineol and some other alcohols and monoterpenes.

Fig. Peppermint

Eucalyptus

This particular eucalyptus is antibiotic, antiseptic, and anti-viral making it a great oil for viral infections, colds, bronchitis as well as muscular strains and rheumatism. It helps to keep the air germ free wh~n used in a vaporizer. This genus of eucalyptus is great for treating sinus conditions as it can be inhaled most deeply without triggering the cough reflex.

It is the oil of choice when dealing with infections high in the chest. It is a good immunostimulant, great for u')e by individuals who are run down, and prone to colds, etc. It is a very powerful bactericide and anti viral. This makes it excellent as an inhalation for colds as it eases nasal congestion while inhibiting the growth of the cold virus. A room spray containing 2 per cent eucalyptus essential oil will kill 70 per cent of airborne Staphylococci . Eucalyptus is also a great natural insect repellent (mosquitoes hate it) and it is useful when combined with Bergamot when treating both herpes simplex and complex.

Eucalyptus blends well with Coriander, Juniper Berry, Lavender, Lemon, Lemongrass, Pine and Thyme.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubilit\ in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Eucalyptus radiata Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Fennel General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Detoxifier Diuretic

• • •

Insecticidal Stimulant Stomachic.

Description Fennel is steam distilled from the seeds of the herb to produce an oil that is clear in colour. Some of its countries of origin are Japan, Europe, the Mediterranean and India. Its main chemical constituents are anethol, fenchone, estragol and camphene. Fennel has long been known as an aid to digestion, as it has a reputation for helping to decrease the appetite (Roman soldiers took fennel seeds with them on long marches to Fig. Fennel chew when there was no time to cook). It is also helpful for quick relief of nausea, flatulence, and hiccoughs (best taken as a tea for these ailments). As a diuretic, fennel can aid in releasing stored quantities of water, and it is also a urinary tract antiseptic. It has been used in the war that is ongoing with cellulite, as it helps these toxic wastes and fluids to be released from the body. Using fennel in a massage oil, in conjunction with a fennel tea made from the herb could work with an overall plan to help reduce cellulite. Fennel has also been used to help counterbalance alcoholic poisonings and help in the

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treatment and rehabilitation of alcoholics. In working with gout and arthritis, it works to help prevent the build-up of toxins in the body, which occurs before the onset of inflammation of the joints. For thousands of years, fennel has been known for its effects on the female reproductive system. We now know this is due to a plant hormone, anethol which helps stimulate the adrenal gland's production of oestrogen. It has a balancing effect on a woman's hormones. It can help regulate menstrual cycles especially where periods are scantly with painful cramping. This oil blends well with Basil, Geranium, Lavender, Lemon, Rose, Rosemary and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions May have a narcotic effect in large doses. Those with epilepsy should avoid this oil. Do not use on children under 6 years. A void during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Foeniculum vulgare Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Frankincense General Properties • • • •

Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic Astringent Carminative

• • •

•

Digestive Diuretic Expectorant Sedative.

Description Frankincense (also known as olibanum) is steam distilled from the resin of the tree to create an oil that is colorless to pale yellow. Some of its countries of origin are France, North Africa and some Arab countries. Among the chemicals that make up this oU are I-pinene, dipentene olibanol and a number of resins.

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Has a calming effect on emotions, which can be seen as relating both to its use as a meditation aid and in the treatment for asthma. In skin care, Frankincense is helpful for .nature skin and has a definite tonic effect, helping to restore tone to slack looking facial skin and is also helpful in reducing wrinkles. Has also been used to help heal sores and wounds as well as skin irritations and inflammations. It is an extremely calming oil, helping to slow down and deepen the breath, which in itself can help to instill a sense of calm. Because it slo~s the breathing, it is an excellent oil for asthma, when used in massage (not via steam inhalation). In a medicinal sense, frankincense is very helpful for the lungs, proving valuable for its use with respiratory infections. It can calm coughs, is an expectorant and is indicated for chronic bronchitis. frankincense blends well with Black ]'epper, Basil, Geranium, Grapefruit, Lavender, Orange, Patchouli and Sandalwood. Fig. Frankincense

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Boswellia thurifera Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Geranium General Properties • Analgesic • Anti-inflamp"atory • Antiseptic

• Antispasmodic • Expectorant • Stimulant.

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Description Geranium is a plant that is steam distilled to produce a light green oil. Some of its countries of origin are Algeria, Egypt and Morocco. Among its active components are geraniol and citronellol (usually making up at least 50 per cent of the oil's yield).

Fig. Geranium

Geranium is a great oil for skincare, with its antiseptic, astringent, sebum balancing properties and cell regenerating capabilities. It is effective for most skin types, from mature, devitalized skins to dermatitis and acneic conditions. It can be blended into skin creams or cleansers for daily use. It may be wise to note that some sensitive individuals may not be able to use this oil as they may find it to be a bit irritating.

This oil also has the reputation of being an antidepressant, making it a great oil to bum or use in a room spray during' down' times or to help combat the 'February Blahs'. Geranium oil is also an astringent and hemostatic (which means it helps stop bleeding) making it excellent for treating injuries and promote faster healing of wounds. Geranium essential oil stimulates the adrenal cortex, which is primarily responsible for secreting hormones, which help to balance the production of hormones secreted by other organs (including male and female sex hormones). This is why Geranium is very often recommended for PMS and menopausal problems (to help balance the production of estrogen and progesterone produced by the body). As a diuretic and lymph system stimulant, C~ranium is used in the treatment of cellulite and tluid retention, and it is also used as an insect repellant (especially helpful when combined with Citronella and Bergamot). Geranium blends well with Cedarwood, Citronella, Clary Sage, Grapefruit, Jasmine, Lavender, Lime, Neroli, Orange, Petitgrain, Rose, Rosemary and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions Generally thought to be non-toxic, non-irritating and nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Pelargonium graveolens Stearn Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Ginger General Properties • • • •

Analgesic Antiseptic Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac

• • • •

Astringent Carminative Digestive Stimulant.

Description Ginger is a plant that uses the roots for steam distillation to produce an essential oil that starts out pale greenish to yellow and darkens as it ages. It is native to Asia, but came into Europe due to trading in the Middle Ages. It is also now grown in the West Indies and Africa as well. Its main components are gingerin, gingenol, and zingiberine. Ginger is a warming oil that also helps with digestion. Ginger is well known for its ability to help assist with digestion as well as calm upset Fig. Ginger stomachs and even assist in easing pregnancy's 'morning sickness'. It may even help with hangovers and motion sickness. It is effective for aching muscles, rheumatism and stomach cramps and nausea which are soothed by its fiery properties. It is also considered a powerful nerve tonic, good for exhaustion and mental fatigue. It is a good oil to use in massage oils to help with arthritis, rheumatism and muscuLu pain due to its analgesic and rubefacient properties (it is important to note, however, that a single drop in a massage oil should be sufficient as higher concentrations can irrita te the skin).

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This oil blends well with Cinnamon, Coriander, Clove, Eucalyptus, Geranium, Lemon, Lime, Orange, Rosemary and Spearmint.

Specific Cautions May irritate sensitive skin and can cause photosensitivity. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Zingiber offtcinalis Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Grapefruit General Properties • • • •

Antidepressant Antiseptic Detoxifier Digestive Stimulant

• Disinfectant • Diuretic • Emotional Stimulant.

Description Grapefruit essential oil is produced by expression of the peel of the fruit. It can contain up to 90 per cent of limonene with citra I, geraniol, cadinene and paradisol. The essential oil is primarily produced in Israel, Brazil Florida and California. Grapefruit essential oil is valued for its ability to help with fluid retention and cellulite. It is a diuretic, detoxifier and lymphatic stimulant (good when used in a Fig. Grapefruit massage oil with geranium for these conditions). It has been used in post exercise massage oils for its ability to help break up lactic acid from the muscles (thereby

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helping to relieve muscle pain and stiffness). As it has the ability to control bodily secretions, it is great for use on oily and acneic skin, as it has a tonic effect. This essential oil's most important use, however, seems to be its antidepressant capabilities. It is a 'happy' oil that is non-sedating with uplifting powers. Those with SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder) have noticed good results when grapefruit essential oil was used. Grapefruit essential oil blends well with all other citrus oils, . particularly Orange and Bergamot.

Specific Cautions Phototoxic, do not use before exposure to the sun or tanning beds. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Citrus paradisi

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cold Pressed Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Jasmine Light 3 per cent Jasmine Absolute Essential Oil in 3 per cent dilution of Jojoba Oil. This dilution may be applied directly to the skin but is not recommended for use in creating other therapeutic blends, as this oil is already at at 3 per cent dilution.

Jasmine Absolute General Properties • • • •

Antidepressant Antiseptic Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac

• • • •

Emmenagogue Euphoriant Sedative Spiritual Stimulant.

Description Jasmine is a bush from which the flowers are either extracted by the labour intensive method of enfleurage (making it extremely

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expensive but a pure absolute great for aromatherapeutic use) or through chemical extraction. Jasmine is considered the King of Oils with its rich long lasting aroma. The reason it is so expensive is because of the enormous amount of flowers needed to produce a small amount of oiL The flowers have to be gathered at night for the odour of jasmine is more powerful after dark. They are laid out on cotton cloths soaked in olive oil for several days, then extracted leaving the true Jasmine essence. Some of the countries of origin are India, Egypt, China and Morocco. Its chemical constituents include methyl anthranilate, indol, benzyl alcohol and linalol. Jasmine is known as a 'woman's oil' as a valuable uterine tonic. It is good for menstrual pain and cramps. It has also proven very helpful in childbirth when used as a massage oil in the early stages of labour, it will both relieve pain and strengthen contractions. It also helps with the delivery of the placenta after delivery and aids postnatal recovery.

Fig. Jasmine Light 3 per cent

This oil has a reputation as an aphrodisiac, helping to relax and address sexual problems. On the emotional level, Jasmine is relaxing and emotionally warming, a powerful antidepressant of a stimulating nature which is wonderful where lethargy or a lack of confidence has set in it can help impart feelings of confidence and optimism, and help to restore energy. In skincare, Jasmine essential oil is useful for all skin types, but especially for those individuals with dry, sensitive skin. It must be used in small amounts, though, as too much can have the opposite effect to what is needed. .

Specific Cautions Can impede concentration. A void in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction

Jasminum officinale Solvent Extraction

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Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Juniper Berry General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astringent Detoxifier

• • •

Disinfectant Diuretic Emmenagogue.

Description Juniper is a bush from which the berries are steam distilled to produce an oil that may vary from colourless to yellow or pale green. Some of its areas of origin are Europe, North America, North Asia and North Africa. Some of its chemical components are ~lpha pinene, cadinene, camJ2hene and terpineol. Has been known since antiquity as an antiseptic and diuretic, both of which are important in Aromatherapy. It is one of the most valuable oils where the body needs to throw off toxic waste. Poor elimination is one of the causes of rheumatism, gout and arthritis, and Juniper Oil should be considered as a means of improving elimination. Juniper is well known for its antiseptic and diuretic qualities as well as its ability to aid the body in detoxification, making it great for use when dealing with cellulite, fluid retention and even gout. This oil also works well with the urinogenital tract via its tonic, purifying, antiseptic and stimulating properties. In skincare, juniper is wonderful for treating skin conditions. Acne responds well to its astringent, antiseptic and detoxifying properties. It is also tolerated well for oily skins and conditions such as eczema, dermatitis and possibly psoriasis. For any condition that is slow to heal, this oil could be used but due its property of aiding the body in throwing off any toxic residue, this may show up in the skin by worsening the condition initially before it actually begins to heal. This oil blends well with Cypress, Clary Sage and Lavendin.

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Specific Cautions Avoid in people with kidney problems. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Juniperus communis Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Lavender, True - Organic General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Anti-anxiety Antibacterial Antifungal Anti-inflammatory

• • • •

Antiseptic Balancing Calming Decongestant.

Description Lavender is a plant from which the flowers, leaves and stems are steam distilled. This multi-purpose oil's active constituents include the ethers on linalyl and geranyl, geraniol, linalol, cineol and coumarin. Some of its countries of origin are Bul~aria, England, France and the Mediterranean. Lavender has the wonderful ability to help restore balance to unbalanced states, within the mind or the body. Once balance has been achieved, proper healing can then occur. The analgesic, antiseptic and antibiotic properties of lavender make it great when treating colds, the flu and coughs with the best way of using it for these conditions being inhalation through steam. The steam is a great anti-viral treatment alone, but when combined with the Lavender you get soothing, decongesting, and destruction of bacteria, which may be responsible for further infections. It is also a wonderful sedative, making it great for use before bedtime, as

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this will help aid in sleep. When massaged into the temples, Lavender may help to relieve headaches. For muscular pain, this oil is excellent, especially blended with Rosemary or Marjoram, as the properties of Lavender improve when mixed with another oil (it also improves the' properties of the oil it mixed with). During labour, Lavender will both reduce pain and strengthen contractions (best massaged into the lower back), helping to speed labour. For skin conditions and general care, Lavender is an excellent oil. For treating acne, it is one of the most useful oils, as it inhibits the growth of bacteria which cause the infection, while working to heal the damage that has already been done. Some essential oils work well to help stimulate the growth of healthy cells (Lavender, Neroli and Tea tree), so using any of these oils in a regular skincare regime would be conducive to great skin. As an insect repellent, it will help protect dothes, sheets and towels (soak a cotton ball and place in your linen cupboard), as well as your skin when applied in a spray or body lotion. If you should forget to use something before you go outside and manage to get bitten, Lavender will help take the sting out of the bite, help to stop it from becoming infected, and work to help it heal faster. One of the few oils that may be used on the skin neat, no home should be without one! Blends well with Bergamot, Clove, Rosemary, Eucalyptus, Patchouli, Clary Sage, Rose and Jasmine.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Laver.dula angustifolium Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Lavendin, Provence General Properties • Analgesic • Antispasmodic

• Expectorant • Rubefacient.

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Description Lavendin is a hybrid Lavender from which the flowers, leaves and stem are steam distilled. Its main country of origin is France. Some of the chemical components are borneol, camphor, cineol, and geraniol. This plant is the product of cross-pollination of True Lavender with Spike Lavender by pollinating bees. The bushes of this genus of Lavender have larger deeper blue flowers that yield a larger amount of oil than true lavender. Not to be confused with Lavender, as each oil has differing characteristics. Lavendin is not as sedating as True Lavender. This would make it good to use during the day where you may have used Lavender but didn't want the sedating action. It is a ~reat oil to use for inhalation (steam) when you have a cold, sinusitis or any other respiratory condition. Because of its rubefacient and analgesic properties, Lavendin can also be very helpful for relieving muscular pain and stiffness, as well as headaches. Blends well with Bay, Clove, Cinnamon, Citronella, Cypress, Geranium, Patchouli, Pine and Thyme.

Specific Cautions Because of its high camphor content, this Lavandin is not to be used on burns. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Lavandin super Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Lemon General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antidepressant Antiseptic Astringent

• • • •

Disinfectant Germicide Immunostimulant Lymph Stimulator.

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Description Lemon essential oil is extracted from the rind of the fruit off the lemon tree to produce an oil that is yellow to yellowish green. It is usually extracted by expression (it can take as many as 3,000 lemons to make one kilo of essential oill). Some of its countries of origin are Brazil, Israel and the USA. While it has many chemical components, a few of them are limonene, terpinene, pinene, and myrcene. Lemon cleanses, refreshes, cools and stimulates. This astringent and antiseptic oil has been used in the pharmaceutical industry for hundreds of years. Widespread use is made of this oil in the production of perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, detergents and household cleaning products. It is an immunostimulant, antiviral and a lymphatic stimulant. Lemon essential oil has many valuable properties, but perhaps one of the most important is its ability to stimulate the white corpuscles in the body. These corpuscles are responsible for defending the body against all manner of infection. For this reason it is good to use lemon essential oil when cleaning wounds. It also helps to stop bleeding. Essential oil of lemon is a powerful bactericide. There is research to indicate that this essential oil will kill diptheria bacilli in 20 minutes and can even render tuberculosis bacilli inactive! By adding this oil to your diffuser or room spray at home you can feel comfortable knowing you are better protected from germs and bacteria. In skincare, lemon is astringent in nature, making it great for treating oily, blemished skin. Because of its ability to aid the body in releasing water, it is used to help alleviate water retention, which is very useful when treating cellulite. Blends well with Bergamot, Citronella, Clary Sage, Galbanum, Neroli and Violet Leaf.

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnancy. This oil is photo toxic, do not use before exposure to the sun or tanning beds.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance

Citrns limollum Cold Pressed Clear Liquid

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Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Lemongrass General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antimicrobial Antioxidant Antiseptic

• • • •

Astringent Deodorant Digetsive Tonic Insecticidal.

Description Lemongrass is a grass that is steam distilled to produce an oil that is yellow to reddish brown. The main constituent of this oil is citral (makes up 70 per cent - 85 per cent of its total volume). Some of its countries of origin are Brazil, India, and Sri Lanka. Lemongrass is a very powerful bactericide and antiseptic. This makes it a very effective oil to use when cleaning and sanitizing an area. As with other lemon scented oils, Lemongrass is very useful as an insect repellant (either alone or mixed with other 'repellant' oils). Lemongrass may help to boost the parasympathetic nervous system, and help to stimulate circulation. It is helpful for soothing headaches, although it must be blended with a carrier before being massaged onto the temples, as it can be irritating to the skin. This should also be kept in mind if Lemongrass oil is being used in the bath, as too much can irritate the skin (maximum 3 drops per tubful of water). Blends well with Geranium, Jasmine and Lavender.

Specific Cautions Can irritate the skin - use in low dilutions. Avoid during pregnancy . Avoid with children under 2 years old.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cymbopogoll citratus Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

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Lime

General Properties • Antibacterial • Antiseptic

• Antispasmodic • Stimulant.

Description Lime essential oil can be cold pressed from the rind of the fruit of the lime tree to produce an oil that is gold to yellowish green in colour. This produces an oil with furanocoumarins, which can cause photo toxic reactions from the sun if used in products for use on the skin. Ours is a steam distilled version of this oil, making it safer for use in products that will be used on the skin. Some of its countries of origin are Florida, Central America, Italy and the Caribbean Islands. Lime essential oil is very refreshing to use, especially in hot climates. It is a popular addition to many aftershave lotions for men, and due to its astringent qualities is useful for oily skin. As with other citrus oils, lirne is great as a diuretic, drainer and lymphatic stirnulant, making it useful when treating obesity, water retention and cellulite. It carries with it some antidepressant capabilities, so it's great for use with SAD (along with other 'happy' oils). Again, because this is a citrus oil, it can be irritating to the skin, so never apply without first mixing with a carrier oil and be aware of this on sensitive skin. Lime essential oil may also act as a febrifuge and therefore be cooling when fever is present. This oil blends well with Clary sage, dtronella, Lavender, Lavendin, Neroli and Rosemary.

Specific Cautions Phototoxic, do not use before exposure to the sun or tanning beds. Can irritate the skin. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Spetifications . Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Citrus aurantifolia Cold Pressed Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

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Litsea Cubeba

General Properties • • • • • • • • • • •

Antibiotic Anticongestive Antidepressant Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic •A Anti-viral Astringent Bactericidal Bronchodilator Calmative Deodorant

• • • • • • • • • •

Digestive tonic Disinfectant Emollient Galactagogue Hypotensive Insecticidal Regenerative Sedative Stimulant and Tonic Vulnerary.

Description A small tree related to the Laurel and Cinnamon, it is a member of the Laurel family. Native to East Asia, Litsea cubeba has lemon scented leaves and flowers. Lit sea Cubeba has a pepperlike fruit that is steam distilled to produce a yellow oil. It is mainly produced in China. The main uses are in skin care. Great in skincare for oily and acneic skin types, as well as for dermatitis. It is non-irritating, antiseptic and effective in treating oily skin, acn~ and other skin conditions. Good alternative to Bergamot because there is no risk of photo sensitivity. Said to be a good antidepressant. It is a newer oil on the aromatherapy scene and will give a wonderfully fresh top note reminiscpnt of lemons to any diffus~d blend. It is a deodorizer and disinfectant, as well as having antiseptic and antiviral properties making it great for use when cleaning or when making a blend to help keep the air clean and fresh. This oil has been used as a deodorant as well as to help reduce excess perspiration. It has been reported to have antispasmodic properties for the bronchia that may help those suffering from asthma. Blends well with any of the citrus oils, as well as Lavender and Clary Sage.

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Specific Cautions Can be a skin irritant. Do not use on children under 2 years old. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Litsea cubeba Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Mandarin, Green

General Properties • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic • Calming

• Digestive Stimulant • Sedative • Uplifting.

Description Green Mandarin essential oil is produced when the unripened fruit of the mandarin tree is expressed to produce a green oil. It is mainly produced in Italy, Brazil, Spain and China. Some of its main constituents are limonene, geraniol and citral. Mandarin Green similiar to Red Mandarin, however, this is gentler, and as such is wonderful for children. It is a safer citrus oil for children, pregnant women and the elderly. One of its major applications is for treating digestive problems (mild antispasmodic, digestive stimulant). It has a tonic and stimulating effect on the stomach and liver, and it calms the intestines. This makes it wonderful for using on children when they get upset tummies or trapped gas. To utilize mandarin for this purpose the oil would be blended into a massage oil (2 per cent dilution for children) and then massaged onto the tummy in a clockwise direction. It is great to use in an anti-stretch mark massage oil (daily) from the moment you find out you are expecting! It may also help with water retention and as a lymph stimulant. On an emotional level, this oil may be helpful when faced with emotional shock or grief. Green Mandarin is uplifting and refreshing and may help to calm nervous energy.

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This oil blends well with Basil, Bergamot, Chamomile, Clary Lavender, Neroli, Orange and Rose.

~ Geranium, Grapefruit,

Sp«ific C4tfltiolrs Mildly phototoxic, do not apply right before heading out into the sun.

,

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Citrus reticulata Cold Pressed Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Manuka Gmeral Properties • • • •

Analgesic Antibacterial Antifungal Antihistaminic

• • •

Decongestant Expectorant Insecticidal.

Description Manuka is a shrub that grows wild in New Zealand. The essential oil is steam distilled from the leaves and is usually colourless. Its main components are caryophyllene, geraniol, pinene and linalol. Manuka is a powerful bactericide, as well as possessing antiviral, decongestant and analgesic properties. Because of this, it is great for treating colds, sinusitis, bronchitis, etc. There have been good results, as well, with application neat onto cold sores. Manuka also carrie~ with it anti-histamine properties, which make it valuable for use when dealing with insect bites and stings and as a local analgesic, it is good for muscular and rheumatic pain. Insects do not seem to like it, making it a wise addition to your natural bug repellent. This oil blends well with most other oils and will help to make any blend anti-infectious.

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Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Leptospermum scoparium

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

'Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Marjoram General Properties • • • •

Analgesic Anaphr
• • • •

Antispasmodic Digestive Sedative Vasodilator.

Description Marjoram is an herb that is steam distilled from the flowering tops and leaves to produce an oil that is yellowish in colour (darkening to brown as it ages). Some of its countries of origin are the Mediterranean, Yugoslavia and Hungary. While it has many chemical components, some of them are borneol, camphor, origanol and pinene. Marjoram's outstanding contribution to the world of aroma therapy is its ability to be warming to both the body and the mind. It is an excellent oil to use when dealing with diseases that affect the ability of the individual to breathe (asthma, bronchitis, colds). When used in a steam inhalation it is quick to clear congested breathing passages quickly. It is warming while having analgesic and sedative properties. For those with a persistent, tickly cough this oil can be blended into a carrier to be massaged onto the throat and chest area (great before bed with the sedative aspect). For insomnia, this oil is a great one to use, especially when combined with lavender, in a warm bath before going to bed. Marjoram is also a vasodilator, making it a good oil to use in the treatment of high blood pressure and heart conditions. Because it

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dilates the arteries this, in turn, puts less strain on the heart. This quality also makes this a good essential oil to add to your post work out massage oil, as its ability to improve localized circulation will help to transport the toxins left in the muscles (due to the heavy exertion) away and out of the body. On an emotional level, those individuals who are lonely or grieving may use Marjoram for a short period of time. This oil also has the reputation of being used as an anti-aphrodisiac! Marjoram blends well with Cedarwood, Chamomile, Cypress, Eucalyptus, Lavender, Mandarin, Orange, Nutmeg, Rosemary, Thyme and Ylang Ylang.

Specific Cautions Care must be exercised not overuse this oil. In too large a quantity it can become stupefying. Keep in mind, also, that when using this oil it can dull the senses while inducing drowsiness. Avoid with low blood pressure and depression. A void in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Origanum marjorama Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Melissa, True General Properties • • • •

Antidepressant Antiseptic Antispasmodic Carminative

• • • •

Digestive Emmenagogue Hypotensive Sedative.

Description Melissa is a herb that is steam distilled from the leaves. It is produced mainly in the Mediterranean and Europe, although it

Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

grows quite proficiently anywhere. It has three main active principles in common with lemon (citral, citronellal and linalol) and as such should be treated with caution on the skin as it can cause irritation. Melissa's main property is that of soothing both the body and the mind. Asthma and coughs are many times relieved by inhalations of Melissa. On menstrual cycles, this oil can help to regulate erratic patterns of ovulation. Due to its calming, soothing effects, Melissa may also help to lower high blood pressure and will help to calm over-rapid breathing and heartbeat. This oil would be one that would be recommended when initially treating shocked and bereaved individuals. Due to its antiseptic and cytophilactic abilities, Melissa is good for treating acne, dermatitis and eczema in low doses (1 per cent dilutions). This oil blends well with Bergamot, Orange and Clary Sage.

Specific Cautions May cause sensitivity or irritaion. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Mel~a

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

officinalis Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Myrrh

General Properties • Antifungal • Anti-inflammatory • Antiseptic

• • •

Anti-viral Astringent Expectorant.

Description Myrrh is the sap or resin from a tree, rather than a true essential oil, and is a smoky mysterious oil with unique healing

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qualities. The oil will be pale to dark amber in colour and will have as its active constituents limonene, dipentene, pinene and eugenol. Some of its countries of origin are Somalia, North Africa and Libya. Myrrh has excellent fungicidal properties, which makes it well used in a vaginal douche against yeast infections, helping to alleviate the symptoms. As an antiseptic and astringent, Myrrh is good for the gums, as well as helping to heal mouth ulcers and other external skin conditions. Its antiseptic properties are also good for helping to treat asthma, coughs, chest infections and bronchitis (it's a great expectorant and will help to dry up excess mucous. It is also reported to have a tonic and stimulating action on the stomach as well as the entire digestive tract and is used as a remedy for diarrhoea. Blends well with Clove, Frankincense, Galbanum, Lavender, Patchouli and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Myrtle General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antiseptic Astrigent Decongestant

• • •

Expectorant Revitalizing Sedative.

Description Myrtle is steam distilled from the flowering tops and young leaves of the large bush to produce a pale yellow oil. It is native to North Africa and grows freely around the Mediterranean. Its main constituent is cineol. Myrtle is best known for its antiseptic and bactericidal properties, making it a natural choice when dealing with any infectious diseases of the respiratory system, as well as any urinary infections. Good for oily complexion, acne and capillaries. For asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis it can help as an expectorant.

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Myrtle is well used for children's coughs and chest problems (use a 3 per cent dilution in carrier oil for a chest rub). This oil blends well with Bergamot, Cardamom, Coriander, Lavender, Lemon, Rosemary, Spearmint, Thyme and Tea tree.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Myrtus communis

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Neroli

General Properties • • • •

Anti-anxiety Antibacterial Antidepressant Antiseptic

• • • •

Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac Cytophylactic Tissue Stimulant.

Description Neroli is steam distilled from the flowers of the bitter orange tree (Seville tree). It is so very expensive because it can take up to 1,000 lbs of orange blossoms to make just one pound of essential oil. Its active principles include linalol, linalyl acetate, limonene, nero I and nerolidol. Some of its countries of origin are France, Egypt, Italy and Morocco. Neroli has been used effectively to treat anxiety and sleep disorders arising from anxiety, emotional problems and shock. On a mental level, it is wonderful for dealing with anxiety both current, everyday events (interview, exam, etc.) and the more long term, serious states. In skin care it is excellent for use on dry or sensitive skin, though it may be used by any skin type as it has the special property of being able to stimulate the growth of new

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skin cells. It is safe to use during pregnancy and is wonderful when mixed in with a base cream to help prevent stretch marks. Neroli blends well with all citrus oils and Ylang Ylang. For a highly seductive blend, mix with Rose and Jasmine.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Citrus aurantium Steam Distilled Clear liqUid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Neroli Light 3 per cent Neroli Essential Oil in 3 per cent dilution of Jojoba Oil. This dilution may be applied directly to the skin but is not recommended for use in creating other therapeutic blends, as this oil is already at at 3 per cent dilution. Niaouli

General Properties • • • •

Analgesic Anti-inflammatory Antirheumatic Antiseptic

• • • •

Decongestant Expectorant Insecticidal Stimulant.

Description Niaouli is a bush from which the leaves and young twigs are steam distilled to produce an oil that can vary in colour from pale to dark yellow. It contains between 50 per cent and 60 per cent cineol, t:'lcalyptol, terpineol, pinene, limonene and various esters. Its main country of origin is Australia. This is a powerful antiseptic, therefore it is excellent for cleaning wounds, cuts or grazes, especially if any dirt has gotten

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into them. Add 5 or 6 drops of Niaouli to 250 ml of boiled cool water and rinse wound repeatedly. It is a powerful tissue stimulant and therefore will help healing. Niaouli is not irritating to the skin, when used in suitable dilutions. It can be used in massage, as a gargle and even as a vaginal douche for helping to treat cystitis and other urinary tract infections. As it is a powerful tissue stimulant, it is good for application on burns (sprinkle on a gauze pad and fasten over the affected area). A little known use of Niaouli is for use with radiation therapy for cancer. A thin layer may be applied to the skin before each session of cobalt therapy and this may provide some protection to the area being treated to minimize the burning effects on the skin. The tissue stimulating properties are most likely responsible for helping the burns to heal faster.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. Should not be used on children under 2 years of age.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Melaleuca viridiflora Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Nutmeg General Properties • • • •

Analgesic Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic Antispasmodic

• Digestive Stimulant • Emmenagogue • Febrifuge.

Description Nutmeg is a tree from which the seed is steam distilled. Its active principles include camphene, dipentene, sabinene and borneol. Some of its countries of origin are Java, Sumatra, West Indies and Indonesia.

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Nutmeg is good to assist with digestion, as it is a stimulant and is good as an analgesic to help with muscular and rheumatic pain. May help with flatulence, nausea, indegestions, impotence, frigidity, scanty periods, poor circulation, aches and pains. This oil blends well with Bay, Cinnamon. Clary Sage, ClovE', Geranium, Lavendin, Lime, Orange, Petitgrain and Rosemary.

Specific Cautions Nutmeg, in high doses or over a long period of time, can cause mental or nervous disturbances. It should always be used with caution, as it is very stimulating. Can overstimulate the brain and heart, causing hallucinations, delirium, convulsions and numbness. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. Should not be used on children. Use sparingly.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Myristica fragrans Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Orange, Bitter General Properties • Antidepressant • Antispasmodic • Lymph Stimulator

• Mildly Sedative • Stomachic.

Description Bitter Orange is derived from cold pressed expression of the peel of the fruit to produce an oil that is golden to bright yellow in colour. Although it has many of the same properties, Bitter Orange has a more delicious juicy orange aroma than the regular Orange. Our Bitter Orange is imported from Italy. This oil may help with colds, constipation, flatulence, slow digestion,stress and melancholy. It has been used in skincare to help with acne, but it must be kept in mind that this oil is phototoxic and there should not be applied before exposure to the sun or a

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tanning bed. Due to this oil's mildly sedative properties, it may help with insomnia. Bitter Orange is said to be a lymph stimulator, therefore it is a good oil to include in a body detoxifying blend.

Specific Cautions Photo toxic, do not apply before exposure to sun or tanning beds. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Citrus aurantium Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Orange, Sweet General Properties • • • •

Antidepressant Antiseptic Antispasmodic Lymph Stimulator

• Mildly Sedative • Tonic • Uplifting.

Description Orange is derived from cold pressed expression of the peel of the fruit to produce an oil that is golden yellow in colour. Some of its active constituents are limonene, bergaptene, citral, citronellal and myrcene. Some of its countries of origin are USA, Brazil, Italy, France and Spain. Orange is an antidepressant, antispasmodic, stomachic (has a normalizing effect on the peristaltic action of the intestines) and is mildly sedative in its nature. ~t is a 'happy' oil that makes the atmosphere in which it is released feel warmer and friendlier. Some people say it carries with it the sunshine that ripens it! It is an excellent oil to use in the winter months as it helps to lift the winter 'blahs' so well. This oil can be used as an addition to your bath, but no more than 3 drops as it may cause skin irritation.

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Orange essential oil may also be combined with Lavender or Neroli to help with insomnia. It is also a lymphatic stimulant, helping to rid the body of toxins and fluids (water retention). The bitter orange variety may also help with water retention as it \\-orks with the body's lymphatic drainage system. This oil blends well with Cinnamon, Clove, Nutmeg, and Lavender, as well as all of the citrus oils.

Specific Cautions Can be phototoxic. Do not apply beofre exposure to the sun or tanning beds. Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Citrus sinensis

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cold Pressed Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Origanum General Properties • • • •

Antiviral Analgesic Antirheumatic Antiparasitic

• • •

Antiseptic Emmenagogue Expectorant.

Description Origanum (oregano) is a herb from which the essential oil is steam distilled from the leaves and flowering tops. Some of its countries of origin are North Africa, Europe and Asia. Oregano is highly antiseptic, antiviral and a respiratory stimulant, it is also an analgesic, antirheumatic and an expectorant but it carries with it a high degree of hazards if not used properly. It is a fpirly severe skin irritant and a very severe mucous membrane irritant. Oreganum is an oil best used in a diffuser or room spray. Keep at a 1 per cent dilution when using in a massage oil.

..

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Specific Cautions This oil must definitely be avoided when pregnant and should never be used on babies or small children. Skin and mucous membrane irritant. Use a 1 per cent maximum for massage.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Origanum vulgare Stearn Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

PaImarosa GelltelYll Properties • • • • • •

Antibacterial Antifungal Anti-infectious Antimicrobial Antiseptic Anti-viral

• Bactericidal • Cellular Stimulant • Cytophylactic • Digestive Stimulant • Febrifuge.

Description Palmarosa is stearn distilled utilizing the entire grassy plant to produce a pale yellow oil with the main active constituent being geraniol (usually between 75 per cent and 95 per cent). It is a scented grass in the same family as lemon grass. Some of its countries of origin are Brazil, Africa and Central America. Palmarosa is probably best known for its valuable roll in skincare, as it helps to hydrate and stimulate the skin's cellular regeneration (cytophylactic). Keeping this in mind, it may, with regular use, help to decrease the appearance of wrinkles and crepey skin. It also has the power to help the skin in balancing the production of sebum. Its antiseptic properties make it useful for acne, some forms of dermatitis and even some minor skin irritations. This oil also has a strong reputation for its powerful, wide spectrum, bactericide capabilities. It has been tested on Escherichia coli bacteria and was found to kill it in 5 minutes!

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Palmarosa has been used in the treatment of anorexia to help stimulate the appetite and help to improve sluggish digestion (digestive stimulant). This oil blends especially well with Geranium.

Specific Cautious May irritate sensitive skin. Avoid during pregnancy. IncreClses photosensitivity.

Product Specifications Cymbopogon martinii

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Patchouli General Properties • • • •

Antidepressant Antifungal Anti-inflammatory Antiseptic

• •

• •

Aphrodisiac Cytophylactic Febrifuge Insecticidal.

Description Patchouli is a bush from which the oil is steam distilled from the large furry leaves to produce a thick, dark oil, yellowish brown in colour. Its main active principles are patchoulene, patchoulol and norpatchoulol. The patchoulene is very similar in structure to azulene (found in chamomile) and has the same antiinflammatory properties. The plant has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine as a stimulant, tonic and antiseptic. It is widely used in the perfume industry as a fixative due to its long lasting character. Patchouli continues to get better with age. Some of its countries of origin are Malaysia, Indonesia, and Paraguay. Patchouli has long been known as a tissue regenerator, fungicide, antidepressant and insecticide as well as being

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antiseptic and anti-inflammatory in nature. This makes it useful in treating many different skin conditions; especially when you consider that Patchouli possess the same cell regenerating ability as Lavender and Neroli (cytophylactic). Patchouli can be used for treating acne, cracked skin, certain types of eczema, fungal infections (athletes' foot), some skin allergies and even dandruff. Mentally, this oil has been found useful for treating all forms of depreSSion, anxiety and stress related issues. It also has the reputation of being a natural aphrodisiac. This oil blends well with Bergamot, Cedarwood, Clary Sage, Clove, Geranium, Lavender, Myrrh, Rose, Sandalwood and Vetivert.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Pogostemum cablin Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Peppermint General Properties • • • • •

Analgesic Antineuralgic Antiparasitic Antispasmodic Decongestant

• • • •

Expectorant Febrifuge Insecticidal Stimulant.

Description Peppermint is steam distilled from the entire herb. Some of the active components of this oil are menthol, mentone, limonene, menthene and phellandrene. It has been said that plants grown in England produce the best quality oil due to the moderate

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climate. Some of its countries of origin are Europe, USA and China. Used traditionally for various stomach and gastro-intestinal tract ailments such as travel sickness, diarrhea, and heartburn. The most popular use of this essential oil is as a remedy for digestive upsets and is very beneficial to the stomach, liver and intestines (intestinal antiseptic), making it good to use when dealing with colic, diarrhoea, indigestion, vomiting and stomach pains due to its antispasmodic action on the smooth muscles of the stomach and gut. Peppermint tea may be consumed or a massage oil into which a few drops of peppermint essential oil have been added may be gently massaged onto the stomach in a clockwise direction. Peppermint can also be used for its cooling effect in feverish conditions, since it induces sweating which will help to reduce a fever in a natural way. Peppermint cools by constricting capillaries so use in low dilutions. Another use of this oil is to reduces fatigue and to increases mental alertness. Inhaled directly from the bottle, it will clear the head leaving you feeling fresh and bright. When fighting colds or the flu, Peppermint is very effective when mixed with Lavender, Eucalyptus or Tea tree. This will help to clear sinuses (expectorant), calm any stomach upsets or head aches and help the body's immune system fight off infection more effectively. To help with cleaning and decongesting acneic skin, Peppermint can be used in a facial steam. Its mildly antiseptic capabilities help to control the proliferation of bacteria on the surface of the skin. As a double benefit, this can also help to stimulate the brain (like Rosemary and Basil) and clear the head (great before an exam or other mentally taxing event). Of course, most critters (bugs, mice, spiders, ants) really hate the strong smell emitted by this plant; so to discourage them from invading your space, keep Peppermint around (sprinkle a few drops on areas they frequent and watch them vacate in a hurry). This oil blends well with Sandalwood, Rosemary, Marjoram, Lavender, Bergamot and Geranium.

Spedfic Cautions Can be an irritant; use only 1 to 2 drops in the bath. Keep away from children under 7. Avoid during pregnancy. Use for inhalation only to help with nausea. Avoid in cardiac fibrillation.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction A?pearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Mentha piperita Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Petitgrain General Properties • Antidepressant • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic

• Deodorant • Nervine • Sedative.

Description Petitgrain is an oil that is obtained from the steam distillation of the leaves and young tips of twigs of the Bitter Orange tree. pus oil has a fresh, flowery, light perfume resembling its cousin Neroli. Chemically it shares many of the same properties as Neroli. Some of its constituents are Iinalyl acetate, geranyl acetate, and Iinalol, with some countries of origin being Paraguay and the Mediterranean region. Petitgrain is a great oil to use for insomnia, especially if it is induced by loneliness and depression. It is an antidepressant (great for Seasonal Affective Disorder) and not photo toxic, making it a useful addition to body lotions for use throughout the day. In skincare, petitgrain is helpful to control the over production of sebum and is a gentle antiseptic. For skin that is prone to acne this oil would be a great addition to a regular skin care regime. This oil blends well with Bergamot, Clary Sage, Frankincense, Geranium, Lavender, Rosemary, and all citrus oil. And it makes a good massage oil.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Citrus aurantium Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Petitgrain, Terpeneless

General Properties • Antidepressant • Antiseptic • Antispasmodic

• Deodorant • Nervine • Sedative.

Description Petitgrain is an oil that is obtained from the steam distillation of the leaves and young tips of twigs of the Bitter Orcwge tree. This oil has a fresh, flowery, light perfume resembling its cousin Neroli. Chemically it shares many of the same properties as Neroli. Some of its constituents are linalyl acetate, geranyl acetate, and linalol, with some countries of origin being Paraguay and the Mediterranean region. With Rosewood (Bois de Rose) on the endangered species list, Green Valley has made an ecological decision to try to do our part help protect the rain forest by no longer selling Rosewood essential oil. In our extensive research to replace Rosewood's aroma and therapeutic value, we decided to bring in Petitgrain Paraguay Oil, Terpeneless. Looking at the chemical structure, 'terpenes' (actually, monoterpene hydrocarbons. a feature of many essential oils) have been removed from the Petitgrain Oil to enhance the desirable constituent linalool which is the prominent constituent of Rosewood, giving similar properties and aroma for use in aromatherapy. May help with depression, stress and is helpful for oily/acne skin. Petitgrain is a great oil to use for insomnia, especially if it is induced by loneliness and depression. It is an antidepressant (great

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for Seasonal Affective Disorder) a'1d not photo toxic, making it a useful addition to body lotions for use throughout the day. In skincare, Petitgrain is helpful to control the overproduction of sebum and is a gentle antiseptic. For skin that is prone to acne this oil would be a great addition to a regular skincare regime. This oil blends well with Bergamot, Clary Sage, Frankincense, Geranium, Lavender, Rosemary, and all citrus oils. And it makes a good massage oil.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Citrus aurantium Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Pine

General Properties • • • •

Antifungal Antirheumatic Antiseptic Decongestant

• • • •

Deodorant Detoxifier Disi'nfectant Expectorant.

Description Pine is obtained from the dry distillation of the needles (sometimes the young twigs and cones are also used) to produce an oil that is very pale yellow in colour. Its' main constituent is pinene. Some of the countries of origin are Europe, and North Americ(;1. Essential oil of Pine also has a stimulating effect on the circulation, making it good for helping to relieve the pain of sore muscles from a too vigorous workout or from arthritis or rheumatism. Pine essential oil is used mainly for helping to treat

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respiratory and urinary tract infections as well as muscular pain. It's an excellent expectorant as well as a powerful pulmonary antiseptic. For an individual with a cold, sinusitis, coughs, bronchitis or sore throat, this oil is useful when used in a steam inhalation, several times daily. When dealing with these types of infections, pine blends well with eucalyptus (radiata), or tea tree. It is a refreshing, stimulating, clean smelling oil that is helpful when dealing with nervous exhaustion or mental fatigue. It is also excellent for cleaning.

Specific Cautions Can be a skin irritant. Should be avoided in those with allergies. Avoid during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in MandarinOil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Pinus sylvestris Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Ravintsara General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Anti-inflammatory Expectorant Febrifuge

• Immunostimulant • Muscle relaxant • Nervine.

Description Ravensara and Ravintsara have been consistently confused by suppliers and retailers alike. Green Valley has discovered that what we were calling Ravensara is actually Ravintsara. Our Ravintsara has a very high I,B-cineol content and is extracted from the leaves of this tall forest tree by steam distillation. Ravintsara is a fabulous immunostimulant and may be effective against flu and flu-like virus', especially if used at the first sign of symptoms. It is a completely safe oil to use (not neat),

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and ~ be safely used on children. The strong anti-viral action plus the fact that Ravintsara is safe for use on the skin, makes it a good oil for shingles, cold sores and genital herpes. It can help people who are over tired, lethargic or depressed. This oil is a great anti viral as well as being an immunostimulant, making it wonderful when there is a great deal of flu viruses floating around. It is said that upon feeling the very first inkling of the flu coming on, if Ravensara is used in the bath immediately before going to bed the possibility of warding off the infection is great. This is a good oil to use in your diffuser or room spray during the flu season to keep the air around you clear of any airborne viruses. As an expectorant, Ravintsara works well when treating sinusitis, bronchitis and whooping cough, etc. This oils blends well with Myrtle, Pine, and Thyme when treating these conditions.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. Not to be confused with Ravensara anisata (bark), which is not recommended for use in aromatherapy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Cinnamomum camphora 1,8 Steam Distilled Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Rosalina General Properties • Anticonvulsive • Antibacterial • Decongestant • Antifungal • Immunostimulant. • Sedative • Carminative Another name for Rosalina is lavender tea tree. The leaves and twigs are steam distilled to produce the essential oil. It is a middle note.

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Rosalina is excellent for upper respiratory tract congestion and infections and is a great oil to use for small children. Diffused, this oil has been found to help clear sinuses. It has antiseptic, sedative, spasmolytic and anticonvulsant properties. It is a gentle expectorant with anti-infectious properties. this oil is very high in linalool, making it a gentle oil that is considered to be nonirritating, non-sensitizing and non-toxic. Mentally, this oil has sedative, calming and relaxing properties, which makes it great for helping with insomnia and stress.

Chemical Profile • • • • •

39 - 55 per cent linalool 14 - 26 per cent cineole 2 - 12 per cent alpha pinene up to 5 per cent aromadendrene up to 4 - 5 per cent limonene andpara-cymene.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Melaleuca ericifolia Steam Distillation Pale Golden Colour, Gear and Watery Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Rose Absolute General Properties • • • • • •

Antibacterial Antidepressant Anti-infectious Antiseptic Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac

• • • • • •

Astringent Diuretic Emmenagogue Haemostatic Sedative Tonic...

Description Rose absolute is distilled by enfleurage or solvent extraction. Taken from the petals of the flowers of the Bulgarian rose. The

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chemical make up of rose oil is extremely complex, with over 300 known components. Sharing many of the same properties as Rose Otto, there are still notable differences. Absolute seems stronger in its aphrodisiac, sedative and bactericidal benefits. This oil is recommended if you are looking for a full, rose scent. The solvent extraction process takes more of the 'scent molecules' into the oil, as opposed to the steam distilled Rose Otto. Known as the Queen of oils, it is expensive but only a small amount is needed. Traces of rose extracts have been found in several tombs from around 2000 Be Rose. It is especially helpful where an emotional disturbance is linked to female sexuality. It carries with it distinct feminine qualities. It has a powerful effect on the uterus, as it helps to cleanse, purify, and regulate and may help with uterine muscle tone. It can be used to regulate the menstrual cycle and help to reduce excess loss. Rose has long been known as an aphrodisiac, the Romans used to scatter rose petals on the bridal bed, and this custom has degenerated into paper rose petals at weddings. It is also a very good skin care oil, especially valuable for dry, sensitive or aging skin. On an emotional level, Rose is a gentle antidepressant and may help with post-natal depression or the depression that may follow the break up of a relationship. It is also good for skincare (cell regenerator), most especially for dry, sensitive or aging skins. It is a natural astringent and has antiseptic properties. Very little of this oil is needed to benefit from its qualities. This oil blends well with most floral oils.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Rosea damascena Solvent Extracted Viscous Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

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Rose Geranium

General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antidepressant Anti-infectious Anti-inflammatory

• Antiseptic • Astringent • Deodorant.

Description Rose Geranium is steam distilled from the leaves of the Pelargollium graveolells plant with rose petals and its country of origin is France. The oil is pale yellow green in appearance. As the name would suggest, many of the chemical constituents are similar to that of Rose essential oil, not be mistaken as an alternative to Rose, it does have some of the Rose floral notes. This oil is identical in its uses to the regular Geranium with the added benefits from the rose petals. In skincare, this oil helps to normalize (balance) sebacious gland activity and sebum secretion, making it useful for all skin types, from dry to oily. Rose Geranium has antidepressant capabilities and carries with it antiseptic, antibacterial, astringent and deodorant properties. Its calming and uplifting properties make it a wonderful oil to bum in the long cold winter months to help lighten the mood in your home or office environment.

This beautifully scented oil is very balancing in skin care, making it great for dry skin as well as acne prone conditions. It is also a great mosquito repellent. In ages past, Geraniums were planted around the house to help keep evil sprits at bay. Rose Geranium oil can be used to help in the treatment of acne, bruises, bums, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, heamorrhoids, lice, mosquito repellant, ringworm, ulcers, breast engorgement, oedema, poor circulation, sore throat, tonsillitis, PMS, menopausal problems, stress and neuralgia. It's reputation as an extremely versatik essential oil is well documented. Rose Geranium blends well with most citrus oils as well as Basil, Carrot seed, Cedarwood, Citronella, Clary Sage, Jasmine, Lavender, Neroli, and Rosemary.

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Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. Possibility of skin irritation, should be used in moderation. Not for those with epilepsy or those subject to seizures.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Pelargonium graveolens Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Rose Otto General Properties • • • • • •

Antibacterial Antidepressant Anti-infectious Antiseptic Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac

• • • • • •

Astringent Diuretic Emmenagogue Haemostatic Sedative Tonic.

Description Rose Otto is distilled utilizing steam from the petals of the flowers of the Bulgarian rose. The chemical make up of rose oil is extremely complex, with over 300 known components. There is a warm, rich scent to this oil. It is gently cheering and can help to create a romantic mood. Calming and balancing, this oil helps to turn massage, facials or baths into a luxurious event. It has antidepressant, astringent, antibacterial, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, sedative and tonic properties. Sharing many properties with Rose Absolute, there are notable differences between the two. The Otto carries with it the benefit of having the highest energy frequency of any plant, corning in at around 320Hz. For individuals doing energy work,

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this oil can be used on clients or in-between clients to help keep the practitioner grounded and keep you from taking on the energy of your clients. Rose is thought of as the queen of the oils and carries with it distinct feminine qualities. It has a powerful effect on the uterus, as it helps to cleanse, purify, and regulate and may help with uterine muscle tone. It can be used to regulate the menstrual cycle and help to reduce excess loss. On an emotional level, it is a gentle antidepressant and may help with post-natal depression or the depression that may follow the break up of a relationship. It is also good for skincare (cell regenerator), most especially for dry, sensitive or aging skins. It is a natural astringent and has antiseptic properties. Very little of this oil is needed to benefit from its qualities. This oil blends well with most floral oils.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Rosea damascena Solvent Extracted Viscous Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol Rosemary

General PropertieJ • • • • •

Analgesic Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astringent Cephalic

• • • • •

Cytophyl...tic LlUretic Emmenagogue Hepatic Rubefacient.

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Description Rosemary is a herb that is steam distilled from the flowers and leaves. Originally from the Mediterranean coast, it can now be from Spain, France. Some of the chemical components in Rosemary are borneol, camphene and camphor. Rosemary essential oil has a remarkable effect on the central nervous system. It is an excellent brain stimulant, therefore great for inhaling to assist in achieving mental clarity. This oil is one that should be a part of every traveler's kit, whether you are flying or driving. Its effects on the foggy and fatigued mind of the weary traveller are amazing. Its sharp quality also lends it to use when respiratory problems occur (common cold, sinusitis, bronchitis, asthma, etc). For these conditions, Rosemary works best when used in a steam inhalation. Rosemary is a good analgesic to help relieve pain from rheumatism and arthritis, as well as pain from over worked muscles (great in rubs for athletes). Blends well with Basil, Citronella, Cedarwood, Cinnamon, Frankincense, Lavender, Lavendin, Peppermint, Petitgrain, and Thyme.

Specific Cautions Avoid with high blood pressure. May antidote homeopathic remedies. May cause epileptic fits in large doses. A void during pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Rosemarinus officinalis Steam Distillation Clear liqUid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Sage General Properties • Aritidepressant • Anti-infectious • Antisudorific

• Emmenagogue • Stimulant.

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Description Spanish Sage is steam distilled from the flowers and leaves of the herb. This herb is primarily from the Mediterranean and China. Sage is known to be a stimulant of the adrenal cortex, as well as the central nervous system, and has been used to try and stimulate the metabolism as well. Sage is good for the head and brain as it quickens the senses and memory. It helps to regulate the menstrual cycle and can help women in childbirth. Sage is a nervous system and metabolism stimulant. It may help to restore scanty or missed periods (t:mmenagogue). It can induce uterine spasm. It has a warming, softening effect which is useful on muscles which have been over-developed by weight-training. In skincare, sage can be useful in healing acne and dermatitis and as a cell regenerator, aged skin may benefit. May also be helpful for dandruff and hair loss. For its healing benefits, Sage is a nervous system and metabolism stimulant.

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnancy. Avoid in people with epilepsy. This oil can be abortive and toxic in higher doses. Use with caution, as this is a powerful oil. Not to be confused with Salvia officinalis (Dalmatian) which is not recommended for aromatherapy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Salvia lavandulaefolia Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Sandalwood, East Indian

General Properties • Antibacterial • Anti-inflammatory • Antisep~ic • Aphrodisiac

• • • •

Astringent Emollient Expectorant Sedative.

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Description We have chosen to no longer carry East Indian Sandalwood because it has been over-exploited to the point of near extinction. We highly recommend the Australian Sandalwood as its properties are nearly identical. It has a slightly green woodsy scent. The Australian Sandalwood is from sustainably harvested farms. Sandalwood (EI) is steam distilled from the wood of the evergreen tree. Its oil contains up to 90 per cent santalol. It is mainly imported from India and Indonesia. Green Valley has made a conscious decision to no longer carry East Indian Sandalwood because of over-exploited to the point of near extinction. We highly recommend the Australian Sandalwood as its properties are nearly identical. It has a slightly green woodsy scent. The Australian Sandalwood is from sustainably harvested farms. In skincare, East Indian Sandalwood 1s wonderfully soothing for treating dry, cracked and chapped skin and its slight asbingent and powerful antiseptic qualities make it effective for skins prone to oiliness and acne. It is also good for dry, persistent coughs, due to its sedating nature. It is one of the best essential oils to use in the treatment of bronchitis through inhalations and external application on the chest and throat. In Ayruvedic medicine this oil is valued for its powerful urinary antiseptic qualities. Sandalwood also has the reputation of being an aphrodisiac. Blends well with Bergamot, Black Pepper, Clove, Geranium, Jasmine, Lavender, Myrrh, Patchouli, Rose, and Vetiv~rt.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Santalum

Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

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Sandalwood, Australian

General Properties • • • •

Antibacterial Antifungal Anti-inflammatory Antimicrobial

• Cytotoxic • Demulcent • Relaxant.

Description Australian Sandalwood is steam distilled from the wood of the evergreen tree. Santalum spicatum is a small evergreen tree or shrub that can grow up to 8 metres in the wilds of Westem and Southem Australia. Plantation trees are generally 4-5 metres tall. They can take 5-10 years before they produce essential oils, but to get top quality oils the trees must be around 25 years old. Aromatherapists report that Santalum spicatum is equal to Santalum album for traditional uses and, as they become more familiar with it, Santalum spicatum will show a greater depth of appliation and eventually become the aromatherapy Sandalwood. Due to the fact that supplies of East Indian Sandalwood are rapidly dwindling (to the point of extinction) and costs are escalating, Australian Sandalwood is now the only Sandalwood we offer. Australian Sandalwood contains bisabolols and famesol in significant amounts and a high level of nuciferols. The presence of bisabolols are very similar to the bisabolols found in German Chamomile. Also found in Australian Sandalwood is famesol, which can be found in floral essential oils like Rose, Ylang ylallg and Jasmine. This modifies the deep earthy sandalwood scent everyone is familar with to make it greener and fresher smelling, with th2 wood-like presence lingering in the background. Farnesol is believed to have anti-bacterial properties. In skincare, Sandalwood is wonderfully soothing for treating dry, dehydrated skin. Combined with Lavender in an appropriate carrier oil it is wonderful for dry, itchy skin. On its own, in a carrier oil, it is great for red, inflammed skin. Australian Sandalwood can be blended with other oils to be used

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as an inhalant to help relieve dry coughs and also help to clear chest and nasal congestion. It may also help clear infections in the respiratory tract. Mentally, Australian Sandalwood has been described as the 'fragrance of the subtle body.' It has a calming and harmonising effect to help to reduce tension, fear, confusion and anxiety. It is a great oil to use when unwinding after a long and stressful day. It helps to encourage warmth, understanding and meaningful contact. As with the East Indian Sandalwood, Australian Sandalwood is considered an aphrodisiac, especially for men. It is said to be a very emotional oil, helping to bring out desires that would otherwise remain hidden. Australian Sandalwood blends well with Lavender, Vetivert, Orange, and Eucalyptus radiata.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Santalum spicatum Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Spearmint General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astringent Cephalic

• • • •

Decongestant Digestive Febrifuge Stimulant.

Description Spearmint is steam distilled from the leaves and flowering tops of the herb. Some of its countries of origin are Europe, the Mediterranean, Russia and the USA.

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Spearmint is a refreshing oil that is good in skincare for oily skin as it helps to cleanse and decongest the skin, especially when used in a facial steam. It may also be helpful for treating dermatitis. This oil has been used to help stimulate the metabolism and nervous system as well as being effective in helping to clear the respiratory tract during colds and flu. Its antiseptic and antispasmodic actions may help with asthma, and bronchitis while its calming actions can help to ease the pain of headaches and migraines. Spearmint has often been used to help with upset stomachs, and this is due to its digestive abilities. It may help to calm fevers, lift depression and, as it is a stimulant of the nervous system, help reduce mental strain and fatigue. This oil blends well with Bergamot, Jasmine, Lavender and Sandalwood.

Specific Cautions Avoid using in massage during pregnancy. May be used in a diffuser to help with morning sickness. Do not use on children under 2 years of age. May irritate sensitive skin.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Mentha spicata Steam Distillation Clear liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Spikenard

General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Astringent Cephalic

• • • •

Decongestant Digestive Febrifuge Stimulant.

Description Spikenard is an aromatic herb from which the oil is steam distilled from the rhizome (where most of the essential oil is found). It is a plant that is native to India.

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Spikenard has always been used extensively as a perfume, medicinal herb and in skincare. It has been known to be good for helping with kidney and liver problems (diuretic action), for all kinds of inflammation, and for helping to disperse accumulated toxins. This oil has antifungal properties, and so may be useful for helping to treat thrush (Candida albicans). As a balancing oil it is helpful for skincare. It can help to treat allergic skin reactions and all types of rashes. Spikenard may be used on any skin type, but the mature skin will receive the most benefit from this oil, as it helps to restore a moisturizing balance and help with regeneration of the cells. As a deeply relaxing oil, Spikenard may help individuals let go of old pain or emotional blocks long held inside. It may also have significance for individuals dealing with terminal illness.

Specific Cautions Avoid during pregnacy.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Nardostachys jatamansi Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Tea Tree General Properties • Antibacterial • Antifungal • Anti-inflammatory

• Antiseptic • Immunostimulant • Insecticidal.

Description Tea Tree is steam distilled from the leaves and twigs of the tree found only in Australia and Tasmania. Some of its main

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chemical constituents are terpinene-4-01, cineol, pinene, and

tetpenes. Tea tree is a powerful antibacterial, antifungal and anti-viral essential oil with the added capability of also being a powerful immunostimulant. For those individuals who are immune compromised or are slow to recover from illnesses, this oil would be valuable to add to any regular regime. It is invaluable for colds, flu and infectious illnesses and, when used at the first sign of these illnesses will stimulate profuse sweating, which is a valuable response to infection. On many occasions this will be enough to stop the illness from developing and if not, will greatly reduce the severity and help to prevent secondary infections. It does this not by suppressing the infection but by actively battling it. Neat tea tree has been used directly on cold sores and pimples with great results. Keeping moderation in mind, there should be no ill effects from applying directly on the skin. Warts can be removed by placing a drop directly on the wart and covering with a bandage daily until it has disappeared. This may take several weeks, but here, patience is a virtue. When used in a face wash, tea tree is great for treating acne (alternate with Lavender and Bergamot). As an antifungal, Tea tree is great for ringworm and athlete's foot as well as helping to control Candida albicans (yeast). Studies now have revealed that Tea tree used as a preventative measure on p?tients before surgery causes the patient to build up strength and therefore recover faster post operatively. This oil blends well with Clary Sage, Clove, Geranium, Lavender, Marjoram, Nutmeg and Rosemary.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. May cause sensitization in some people.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil

Melaleuca alternifolia Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble

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Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Insoluble Soluble.

Thyme, White General Properties • Antifungal • Anti-infectious • Antimicrobial

• Antiseptic • Diuretic • Immunostimulant.

Description Thyme is steam distilled from the leaves and flowering tops of the herb not once but twice to help remove irritating substances in the plant. Some of its countries of origin are the Mediterranean and Egypt. A few of its active constituents are thymol and carvacrol (makes up over 60 per cent of the oil). Essential oil of thyme will help to control the proliferation of bacteria and is a digestive stimulant. It is an intestinal antiseptic, making it helpful when treating gastric infections. Thyme is excellent when used against mouth and throat infections, especially when used as an inhalation. As a urinary tract antiseptic and diuretic this oil is highly valued for treating infections of the bladder or urinary tract. What may be Thyme's most valuable gift is its ability to stimulate the body's production of white corpuscles, thereby strengthening the body's resistance to invading organisms. Thyme is reported to help revive and strengthen both the body and mind and is reported to stimulate the brain and improve memory in much the same way rosemary does. When mixed in with a hand wash, Thyme is a great disinfectant (actually stronger than many washes used in hospitals!). This oil blends well with Bergamot, Lavender, Lemon, Marjoram and Rosemary.

Specific Cautions Do not use on children. Do not use in people with high blood pressure. Avoid during pregnancy. Mucous membrane irritant. Maximum dilutio(l 1 per cent for adults. This is a very powerful oil, use with caution.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Thymus vulgaris Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Vanilla This is a boosted extract, not an essential oil. Smells wonderful!

Vetivert General Properties • • • •

Antiseptic Antispasmodic Aphrodisiac Detoxifying

• Nervine • Sedative • Rubefacient.

Description Vetivert is steam distilled from the roots of the scented grass native to India and Sri Lanka. Some of its main chemical components are vetiverole, vitivone, and vetivenes. While vetivert has been used as a perfume base (fixative) for thousands of years, the fact that it is an immunostimulant is less well known. This increases our ability to withstand stress without getting sick. It also has mild rubefacient qualities, making it good in the treatment of arthritis, rheumatism and muscular pain. The most valuable use of this oil, however, is its ability to relieve stress, anxiety, insomnia and depression. It is a very grounding, stable oil and is very useful to use after a shock or during a traumatic period in life. This oil blends well with Sandalwood, Jasmine, Patchouli, Lavender, Clary Sage, and Ylang Ylang.

Specific Catitions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy.

'~.

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Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Vetiveria zizaniodes Steam Distillation Clear Liquid Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Vitex,ORG General Properties • Anaphrodisiac (Men) • Aphrodisiac (Women) • Uterine Tonic.

Description Vitex is steam distilled from the berries of the chaste berry bush. This is most definately a woman's oil, as it stimulates and normalizes the pituitary gland functions, helping to ensure a healthy balance between the amount of progesterone in the body with oestrogen. It is an excellent oil for helping with menopausal problems as well as menstrual difficulties and PMS. This oil is an aphrodisiac for men, so its a good idea for men to stay away from this oil!

Specific Cautions Do not use during pregnancy. Note: May interfere with oestrogen products. May negate birth control pills. If a woman is on HRT (hormone replacement therapy) treatments may need to be recalibrated.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance

Agnus castus Steam Distillation Clear Liquid

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Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

YlangYlang

General Properties • Antidepressant • Antiseptic • Aphrodisiac

• • •

Hypotensive Scalp Stimulant Sedative.

Description Ylang Ylang is derived from steam distillation of the flower of a tree, which grows in the Philippines, Java, Sumatra and Madagascar. Some of its chemical components are methyl benzoate, methyl salicilate, eugenol and geraniol and can vary in colour from colorless to a pale yellow. Ylang Ylang's most important property is its ability to slow down rapid breathing and rapid heart rates. It is among the oils that have the ability to help reduce high blood pressure. In skincare, it is a suitable oil for both dry and oily skins, as it has a balancing action on the skin's secretion of sebum. Ylang Ylang is also an antidepressant, aphrodisiac and sedative. It is important to note that too much of this oil can cause nausea, and/or headaches. This oil blends well with Bergamot, Lavender, Lemon, Neroli, Palmarosa, Sandalwood and Vetivert.

Specific Cautions Avoid in the first trimester of pregnancy. Avoid using with low blodd pressure. Excessive use can cause headaches and nausea.

Product Specifications Botanical Name Method of Extraction Appearance

Cananga odorata Steam Distillation Clear Liquid

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Solubility in Oil Solubility in Water Solubility in Alcohol

Soluble Insoluble Soluble.

Because the molecular structure of the essential oils is so small they can enter through the skin and enter the blood steam. A modern application of this principle is used by many people today and is known as the patch. To quit smoking, or to raise oestrogen levels in post-menopausal women, medication is introduced at a gentle and consistent level into the body through the skin. Massage is another way essential oils are introduced into the body.

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Cucurbits This group includes cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.), water-melon (Citrullus vulgaris Schred. Ex Eckl. & Zeyh.), bottle-gourd (Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl.), bitter-gourd (Momordicac harantia L.), sponge-gourd (Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem), ridge-gourd (Luffa acutangllla Roxb.), snakegourd (Trichosanthes anguina L.), pointed-gourd (Parwal) (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.), round-gourd (Tinda) (Citrullus vulgaris var. Fistulosus Outh. & Full), ash-gourd (Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.), pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Dutch. Ex Poir), summer squash (c. pepo L.), winter squash (c. maxima Ouch.) and a number of other crops mostly of trailing habit. They all belong to the family Cucurbitaceae and are grown during summer. The majority of them are monoecious and a few are dioecious, hermaphrodite and andrmonoecious.

Varieties Cucumber: 'Japanese Long Green', 'Straight Eight', 'Balam Khira', 'Khira Poona', etc. Musk-melon: 'Pusa Sharbati', 'Lucknow Safeda', 'Hara Madhum Kutana', 'Durgapur', 'Madhu', 'Arka Jeet', 'Arka Rajhans', ~tc. Water-melon: 'Sugar Baby', 'Asahi Yamato', 'Charleston Grey', 'Pusa Badana' (seedless), 'Tetra-2', etc.

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Bottle-gourd: 'Pusa Summer Prolific Long', 'Pusa Summer Prolific Round', 'Pusa Meghdut' and 'Pusa Manjari'. Bitter-gourd: 'Pusa Domousmi', 'Kalianpur Baramasi', 'Coimbatore White Long', etc. Sponge- gourd: 'Pusa Chikni'. Ridge-gourd: 'Pusa Nasdhar', 'Satputia'. Summer Squash: 'Early Yellow Prolific', 'Australian Green', 'Butternut', etc. Winter Squash: ' Arkha Suryamukhi'. Tinda: 'Arka Tinda'.

Cultivation The culture of all the commercially important crops in this group are more or less similar. Cucumber, bottle-gourd, bittergourd, pumpkin, sponge-gourd and ridge-gourd can be grown in summer as well as in the rainy season, whereas musk-melon, water-melon, squashes and tinda grow better only in summer. Winter squash grows well under mild climatic conditions. There are two methods of sowing. Ridges are prepared at proper spacing and after adding manure; a number of seeds are sown on each ridge. In the other method, furrows are made and seeds are sown on the edge either on one or both sides. The spacing from row to row, unless staked, varies from 1-1.5 to 3 m, according to the crop. The distance from plant to plant is kept at 60-90 cm. Approximately 2.5 to 3 kg of seed is required for sowing a hectare of cucumber, musk-melons and water-melon, 4 to 5 kg of seed of bottle-gourd, sponge-gourd and ridge-gourd, and 7 to 8 kg of seed of pumpkin and squashes. The summer crop is sown from January to r.,·farch and the rainy-season crop in June-July. In the hills, they are sown in ApriL About 30 tonnes of farmyard manure are added to the soil at the time of preparing the land. For a good yield, 80 kg of nitrogen in two doses and 50 kg each of phosphorus and potassium per hectare should be applied. The average yields per hectare are: bitter-gourd and squashes, 6,000 to 8,000 kg; cucumber and musk- melon, 8,000 to 10,000 kg; water-melon and bottlegourd, 15,000 to 20,000 kg, and pumpkin, 20,000 to 25,000 kg.

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The cucurbits are also grown on the river-beds during summer. Special techniques are followed to get an early crop on the sandy banks of the rivers. Cucurbitaceous crop are attacked by a number of diseases, of which powdery mildew, downey mildew, Fusarium wilt and virus diseases are of economic importance. Powdery and downey mildews can be controlled by spraying the crop with Karathane or Morestan, or by growing resistant varieties. Red pumpkin beetle and fruit fly are the most important insect pests. Dusting with 1 per cent lindane or a mixture of SHC and DDT control the beetle, but DDT should be dusted with caution, as it may damage the young bit leaves.

Sweet Potato The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir.) is a very important crop in the tropical regions of India. The chief uses of sweet potato are for human consumption and for the manufacture of starch and alcohol. It contains about 16 per ct:!nt starch and about 4 per cent sugar. It belongs to the family Convolvulaceae.

Varieties 'Pusa Suffaid', 'Pusa Lal', 'Pusa Sunheri', 'SP-3', 'SP-9', 'Ranger', 'Bhadrakali', 'Hosur Red', 'Gold Rush', 'Centennial', etc.

Cultivation Sweet potato require:> a long and warm growing season. It does not stand frost. A moderate proportion of sand in the top soil, with a fairly retentive subsoil, provides ideal condition for its growth. It is grown from sprouts produced from its tuber-like roots and from vine cuttings. In well-prepared nursery-beds, the selected roots are planted 30 cm apart in rows which are spaced 45 cm. The spr.;uts are cut and planted for further growth in a second nursery. Ultimately, the cuttings from this nursery are planted at about 60 cm from row to row and 30 cm within the row. About 40 to 50 thousand cuttings are required to plant one hectare. In northern India, the cuttings are planted during JuneJuly and in central and southern India during October-November.

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In some parts, both kharif and rabi crops are grown. A mixture of abo~t 60 kg each of nitrogen and phosphorus and 120 kg of potash per hectare may be applied to obtain good yield. Both flat beds and ridges are used in various parts from 10 to 15 thousand kg per hectare. Red-skinned roots generally store better than whiteskinned ones. The commonest diseases is stem-rot which is spread through soil or diseased roots or vines. The best method of conteolling the diseases is to use diseases-free planting material, and resistant varieties and follow a long crop rotation. Sweet potato weevil and leaf-eating caterpillars are the most damaging insect pests. The control measures consist in planting roots and cuttings free from weevils and dipping the cuttings beioreol>lanting into a DDT solution or a mixture of 500 g of lead arsenate in 50 litres of water and spraying the crop with lead arsenate at fortnightly intervals.

Okra or Bhindi The okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), belongs to the family Malvaceae. It is cultivated throughout India for its immature fruits. Its varieties are: 'Pusa Sawani', 'Pusa Makhmali', 'Perkin's Long Green' (for hills only), etc.

Cultivation Bhindi plant prefers a long warm season. The plant is tender and cannot tolerate cold at any stage of growth. Low temperature true in the early spring results in poor germination of seed. Bhindi seed does not germinate at 20°C or below. The best germination takes place between 24°C nad 30°e.

Soil and Soil Preparation Bhindi can be grown on all kinds of soil except light sandy soil. Well-drained loamy soil rich in organic matter is, however, preferred. Presence of sufficient amount of organiC matter improves the nutrient status, soil structure and water holding capacity. Operations for the preparations of land for bhindi sowing would depend upon the condition of the plot. If the plot was under crop which left behind stubbles and the organic material, it has to

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be ploughed or disced before cultivator is used. In such land normally the disc should be used twice and the tiller three or four times. Two to three plankings would give the desirable structure of the soil. However, if the land was under a crop as potato, one disc operation followed by 3-4 times cultivation would produce the desirable condition of the soil. However, the land has to be planked at least twice before the final sowing is taken up. Sowing is done by two methods: 1. Sowing on ridge. 2. Flat sowing.

Sowing on Ridges This method is particularly important for the early crop sown in February. the field is divided into plots and within each ridges are made 45 cm apart. If possible these should be made running east-west. Seeds are dibbled 1 cm below the soil surface keeping a distance of 15 cm between hilis. seed is dibbled on the top of the ridge or slightly on the side facing the sun. This is very important for early crop, as the side facing the sun attains a temperature several degrees haigher than that on the other side. This high temperature affects the seed germination favourably. Ridge sowing for early crop has another advantage. Seeds take many days to germinate and often an irrigation is required to keep up the right moisture content in the soil. In this case pre-emergence irrigation does not lead to crust formation as water is not allowed to run over the ridges.

Flat Sowing

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This method is used for the later crop when the days are quite warm. Sowing is done in rows 45 cm apart, which have been previously drilled with fertilizers. Single row cotton drill can also be used efficiently for flat sowing. This method is quite popular with bhindi seed growers. The advantage of this method over ridge sowing is that it is less labour consuming. Bhindi seed has a hard seed coat. In order to get good germination it is always advisable to soak the seed overnight before sowing. For early croF the soaked seeds may be kept covered at some warm place for

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sometime so that germination initiates there and slightly sprouted seeds can then be planted in the field.

Lemon-grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf.) It is a stemless perennial grass, found wild in the southern states of India. The leaves yield an aromatic oil, containing 75-85 per cent citral. The oil is used in soaps, cosmetics and disinfectants and is a raw material for manufacturing ions and vitamin A. The crop is grown on about 390,000 ha in Kerals and about 90 per cent of the produce is exported, earning about Rs. 10 million in foreign exchange annually.

The crop is grown mainly as a rain-fed crop on poor marginal lands. It is a hardy drought-resistant plant and is grown under a wided range of climatic conditions. Two types are recognized: 1. The red-stemmed grass is the true lemongrass and a selection '00-19' made at the Lemon Grass Research Station, Oodakkali (Kerala) is recommended for high yield, 2. The white-stemmed (var aJbsoens) yields oil or low citral content. The crop is best propagated through seed raised in nurseries; 10 kg of the seed produces enough seedlings for planting a hectare. About 2-month-old seedlings are planted in rows, 40 to 15 x 10 em apart, during rains and the first harvest is ready after 90 days. In Kerala, 3 harvests are obtained in the first year and 4 to 5 harvests during each of the 3 to 5 succeeding years; the crop is cut after every 60 to 65 days, except during the dry season. The fields are manured librally with ash and spent grass (obtamed after the distillation of the oil); farmers seldom apply inorganic fertilizers. The herbage contains 0.35 per cent oil on freshweight basis. The grass yield ranges from 18 to 25 tonnes per hectare, giving 60 - 72 kg of oil.

Citronella Grass (Cymobopogon winteriaruns Jowitt) It is a stemless perennial grass. The oil is mainly used in soaps, cosmetics, deodorants and mosquito-repellent creams. It is a recent introduction into India and its cultivation, mainly in the lower hills of Assam, in Karnataka and southern Gujarat, covers about 2,000 hectares. A part of out requirement is still met by imports.

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Java citronella is grown up to 1,000 m above sea level on welldrained sandy-Ioanto dayey-Ioamy soils with pH varying from 5 to 7.5. As a rainfed crop, it is propagated by using rooted slips, and is planted during the rainy season in rows, 60 to 45 cm x 45 to 30 cm apart, depending on the rate of growth and the soil fetility. Usually, the leafy portion is removed at planting during the monsoon season and the plants begin to tiller in 30 days after planting. A healthy one-year-old clump yields 60 to 80 slips. The crop needs a large quantity of nitrogenous fertilizers, When grown on medium soils, it is given 60 kg of P, 40 kg of K and 20 kg of N per hectare at planting, supplemented with 80 to 100 kg of N per hectare annually as top-dressing in 3 to 4 split doses. The crop is irrigated after every 10-15 days during the dry season and the first harvest is count 20 cm above the ground after 90 days of planting; usually 3 cuttings are obtained annually (4 under Assam conditions) for 3 to 5 year after planting.

Celery (Apium graveole1ts Linn) Celery is a native of the Mediterranean region, introduced into India during late ninteenth century. India is now the principal grower (of the annual type) and exports large quantities of celery seeds worth 17.5 millions to the American and European markets. About 8,000 ha is put under this crop, mainly in the Amritsar, Gurdaspur and Jallundhar districts of the Punjab State and to a smaller extent in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The dery seed is used in ground form as a dry seasoning powder and for the extraction of an oleoresin used to flavour a large variety of canned food products. The celery seed oil commands a larger market mainly in the confectionery industry. Whereas the bulk of celery seed is exported, a few local firms also produce its essential oil and olioresin on a small scale. Celery is an erect, branchin herb, about 100 cm tall. it is a rabi crop which remains for 2 months in the nursery and for another 4 to 4.5 months in the field. Nursery is raised during early November. The seed-rate used is 2 kg per hectare. The nurserybeds are kept moist and free from weeds through periodic irrigation followed by interculture. The seedlings grow up to 10 cm tall by the end of December and are ready for transplanting The seedlings are usually planted 45 cm x 20 em apart in early

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

January in well-prepared fields, to which 30-50 tonnes of armyard manure per ha is added during the preperatory tillage. On medium soils, about 80 kg N, 40 kg of P and 20 kg of K per ha is applied to the crop; half of N along with the entire quantity of P and K is given to the rows at the time of planting and the remaining N is given as a top-dressing after one month. The crop requires 10-12 irrigations, each about 5 cm deep. Once estalished the crop requires 3 to 4 hoeings to keep down weeds. The plants bear flowers in umbels during early March and the fruits mature in late April. The crop is harvested when about 80 per cent of the umbels begin to tum light brown. The harvested crop as stacked in the field for few days and is then threshed to obtain the seeds. The average grain yield ranges from 10 to 12 quintals per ha. The celery (seed) on distillation yields to 2.1 to 2.3 per cent of an essential oil containing selinene, d-limonene and sesquiterpenes. Oleoresin is prepared ,by using the method of the solvent extraction of the seeds. The.seeds yields glycoside opiin. The crop remains remarkably free from pests and diseases.

Rose Geranium (Pelargonium gravl:olens L'Herit) Pelargonium is a native of the hilly tracts of Cape Colony (South Africa). The highly aromatic 'Rose Geranium' is a hybrid (P. graveolens x P. radens), introduced by two Frenchmen - Earnest Sen and J. Priors in Yercaud in the Sheraroy Hills (Salem district) in Tamil Nadu. It is now grown in a limited areas around Bangalore, Yercaud and in the Nilgiri Hills. The major world supplies of the oil come from Malagasy Republic. The oil of geranium has a refreshingly delicate rose-like aroma containing 66-78 per cent of alcohols calculated as geraniol. As such also, it itself is a perfume; it blends well with a wide range of floral and oriental perfumes. It is used for scenting oinments, pharmaceutical abd tobacco products. It is suitable in a slightly-alkaline medium and, therefore, it is widely used in the manufacture of high-grade soaps and cosmetic products. Our total annual production of the oil is around 12 tonnes and, therefore, a sizeable quantity of the oil is annually imported. Two plant types of 'Rose Geranium' are recognized in India, viz., the Algeriaan type from the slender plants, with dark pink

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flowers. It is less suitable for humid conditions; the other is Bourbin type which produces more leafy growth and bears light pink flowers. It is a perennial crop and about two to three harvests of leaves are taken annually in the second and third years. It can be grown as a catch crop in newly planted orchards. 'Rose Geranium' flourishes well in deep well-drained, preferably sandy loam to clayey-loam soils. It grows luxuriantly in a mild subtropical climate; locality receiving excessive heat in summer or very low temperatures in winter are unsuitable. The 'Rose Geranium' can withstand drought but its yield is reduced. It is raised in nursery during early spring from 8-15 cm long stem cutting each with 2 to 4 nodes. Sandy beds are preferred for the nursery to avoid excessive moisture which damages the young sprouts. Under a favourable day temperature of 10 to 15 degree centigrade, about 80 per cent cuttings sproute in 3 weeks and are ready for field planting at 50 x 100 cm spacing with the onset of the monsoon rains in May-June. The field are brought to a fine tilth, are mixed with 45 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare. In the Nilgiris the crop is given a basal application of a fertilizer mixture, containing 35,45 and 17 kg of N, P and K per hectare; therefore, another 35 kg of N may be applied in two split applications annually. Initially, the crop is given 1 to 2 hoeings and weedings and the rows close up. The pruning of branches after the rains helps to induce bushy growth. The crop is irrigated at intervals of 10 to 15 days during summer depending upon the soils texture and the atmospheric humidity. Too moist or continued dry conditions lowers the crop yield. Generally, the first crop is obtained 6 to 8 months after planting and the average oil yields 8 kg; two or three crop are received in subsequent years, yielding 8 to 18 kg of oil per hectare. In countries, e.g., Algeria and Malagasy Republic, the oil yields is reported to range from 30 to 35 kg per hectare. The fresh leaves contain 0.12 to 0.2 per cent (w/w) volatile oil and semi-dry or even dry leaves can be distilled. The oil improves in odour on ageing. Fusarium spp. seriously damages the geranium crop; the diseases is favoured by continued misty weather and excess soils moisture. The removal of diseased parts arrests the spread of the

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diseases and the spraying of the crop with 5 per cent Bordeaux mixture periodically is recommended to control the diseases. However, when the roots are attacked, the plant dies and such infected plants should be pulled out along with the adhering soils and burnet.

Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth) Patchouli is a native of humid Indo-Malayan tropics. The plant is small bushy herb which yields fragrant leaves containing a very sweet smelling oil. It is grown in small pockets mainly in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The oil of Patchouli is used to manufacture soap, cosmetics and incense and for imparting lasting oriental perfumery notes to many fancy products. Two plants types of Patchouli are mainly recognized, viz., Jahore type which yields a poor leafy growth but produces a superior quality of oil; the other is Singapore type that gives more foliage and, therefore, more oil. It is a perennial crop, remaining in the field for about 3 years and gives 2 to 3 crops of leaves annually. It is a good catch crop for young orchards and can be raised as an intercrop in plantations where the over head shade is not heavy. Patchouli requires deep, well-drained, fertile, slightly acidic soils, rich in humus; its growth is luxuriant in regions experiencing mild summer (24-28°C), and a good rainfall ranging from 150 to 300 cm. Its sursery is raised in shade by planting 10-12 em long cuttings at 10 x 10 cm spacing during the rainy season and the beds are kept continuously moist. Under favourable conditions, about 85-90 per eent cutting per forth roots in a fortnight and they are ready for planting in the field in six to eight weeks at 90 x 90 em spacing. The crop requires a liberal amount of organic matter and fertilizers; usually 10-12 tonnes of farmyard manure with 100 kg of P per ha is incorporated into the soil at the planting time, followed by 80 to 100 kg of N per hectare to the crop annually as top dressing in two split appications. The first crop is ready for harvesting in the next 4 to 6 months as indicated by the browning of the lower leaves, and the herbage is cut 10-25 em below the apex in the morning hours. Usually, one or two growing branches

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are left unplucked to ensure a better growth of the succeeding harvest. Tne harvested leaves are dried in thin layers in sgade for 3-4 days and they develip their characteristic odour. Mature stalks are removed before distillation. Ageing improves the odour and the dry HA-771eaves are therefore stored for a few months before distillation. A good crop stand yields about 2 tonnes of dry leaves (with 3 to 35 per cent oil) per annum, yielding about 50-60 kg of oil per hectare. Golden nematode (Meloidogyne incognito) seriously damages this crop. No effective meaasure to control the nematode are known.

Vetiver or Khus (Vetiveria zizanioides Linn Nash) Khus is a tall perennial grass found wild in the drier tracts of western India. Its spongy, much-branched fine root lets ~ontain a fragrant oil, whcih is a perfume by itself. The dry aromatic roots are made into curtains, mats, fans, etc., to emit scented cool aroma when moistened. The oil is used as a vlauab!e fixative for blending perfumes and socmetics. A large bulk of the oil is produced by distilling the wild-growing plants found in Bharatpur (Rajasthan), Musanagar, Biswan and Nawabganj, etc., in western Uttar Pradesh. The cultivation of khus is scattered over small areas in the Trichur, Palghat, Kozikode, Wynad and Trivandrum districts of Kerala, in the Tirunelvelly, Madhrai and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu and in the Kurnool and East Godavari districts of Andhara Pradesh. In southern states, khus is grown as a rainfed crop in welldrained sandy-loam soils in moderately humid localities which received 100-200 em of rainfall annually. However, a luxuriant growth of healthier roots is obtained from plants growing under warm and damp conditions on rich, partially inundated, marshy land (Bharatpur). The field are laid out into beds of convenient size and 15-20 cm long rooted slips are planted. With the onset of the monsoon rains on both the sides of the ridges, made 45 em apart. The planting of 2 to 3 slips is done in spring in pits when the crop is raised under irrigation. The crop is given 10-12 tonnes of farmyard manure or compost at planting, supplemented with

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ash and groundnut cake or ammonium sulphate, one month after planting to stimulate growth. Khus is a 12 to 18 month crop and the roots are dug out during dry months before autumn. The aerial parts are first cut at a height of 15 to 20 cm and are removed, the clumps are then dug ou{and beaten. The soil is further dug out up to a depth of one metre to remove the remaining rootlets. The roots are light to yellowish brown containing usually 0.6 to 0.8 per cent of dark brown viscous, persistently fragrant oil. The yield is 3 to 5 tonnes of fresh root, yielding about 20 kg of oil per hectare.

Jasmine Among the perfume yielding jasmines, juhi (Jasminum curiculatum Vahl) and chameli U. officinale Linn) are commonly used for producing attars which sell at fancy prices. Jasmine 'concrete' and 'absolutes' are used to impart a gentle pleasing aroma to innumerable high-grade perparations. In the Western countries, Spanish (alsocalled French) jasmine U. officinale Linn var. grandiflorum Bailey) is largely cultivated; it has 7 to 11 leaflets and the flower bud has a dull creamy to punish spot on the posterior most petal. A high yelding clone of the Spanish jasmine has been recently developed at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. It blooms from March to December and is reported to yield about 12 tonnes of fresh flowers per hectare annually against 1.6 to 3 tonnes of flowers obtained from the Spanish jasmine in India. The crop remains in the field for 10 to 15 years. The jasmines prefer well drained, rich sandy-loam to clayeyloam soils and remain in loom longer in a mild climate; the var. grandiflorum is more sensitive to fros. It is raised from 20 cm long stem CUttillg prepared from near mature wood and planted in deep pits at 1.5 x 1 m spacing during the rainy season. The growing plants are pruned during January February and July to induce lateral branching and flowering, and are given farmyard manure liberally. The plantation needs fortnightly irrigation during dry months. Picking is done during the early morning hours and the precentage recovery of the concrete ranges from 0.24 to 0.38 by

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using the solvent extraction method. Fresh flowers lose their fragrance soon, and it is essential that the solvent extraction apparatus as available at the site where the jasmine plantation is raised for perfumery aromatics.

Kewara (Pandanus odoratissimus Linn) Kewara is a large indigenous shrub, 3 to 6 m tall, bearing white or creemy dioecious flowers including its enclosing spathe contains a fragrant oil. The kewara attar and kewara water are commonly used at ceremonial functions in perfuming aerated waters, other drinks and confectionery products. Most of the cultivation is confined to the Ganjam district (400 ha) in Orissa where it is drains and ponds. The plant thrives in clayey loam soil in the tropical climate, usually receiving heavy rainfall. Kewara is propagated from shoots, branches and leaves which readily from roots during the rainy season. It bears flowers in the fourth or fifth year and has an economic life of 20 years. The crops needs no special care, except periodic pruning. The flowers are borne from June to September. A plant may produce 15 to 40 flowers in a season. A flower takes 15 days to mature and grows grammes. The blossom contains 0.1 to 0.3 per cent oil. The attar is mosly produced over sandalwood oil or paraffin base.

Davana (Artemisia pallens Wall) It is a small (50 cm tall) annual indigenous herb with divided pluish green fragrant leaves. The oil of the herb is prized in perfumery for its sweet, persistent fruity fragrance. It is cultivated on a limited scale in Karnataka for making bouque!:; and producing oil. It is a 4 month rabi crop raised in fertile well drained red loamy soils under equable climate receiving mild winter rains and with clear sunny weather ar maturity. Seeds are small (about 6,000 g) and are kept in a moist piece of cloth for 1-2 lays for germination. The sprouted seed are thinly broadcast in the nursery in early November abd the seedlings establish themselves in 7-10 days. Five week old seedlings are planted in the field. The crop is given mainly their usual height in 10 weeeks afterplanting. The crop is harvested on bright sunny days and the harvested herb is

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air dried. The air dried herb is chopped into 3 to 4 pieces and distilled at pressure of 2 kg per sq cm for 8 to 12 hours. The yield of fresh herbage is about 30 tonnes per ha. The harbage loses about four-fifths of its moisture on drying; the averageoil content of the dry herb is 0.2 per cent. Thus 10 to 12 kg of brownish viscous oil is obtained from one hectare. Its quantity improves with age.

Henna or Mehandi (Lawsonia inennis Linn) It is a perennial hedge plant, native to North Africa. It is cultivated in the Pali, Sojat abd Nagor districts of Rajasthan and the adjoining districts of Gurgaon and Faridabad in Haryana. The crop is grown in sandy loam to loamy soils in the hot and dry climate on marginal land. Two varities are known, viz., Hinna (odorous) and Rajni (more colouring). A part of the produce is exported. Mehndi is raised through seeds as well as through cuttings; the former method is preferred. The seeds have a hard coat and are kept under a moist piece of cloth for 8-15 days till they sprout (the average germination being 20 per cent). The sprouted seeds are mixed with fine sand and sown broadcast in a well prepared nursery during March. The seedbeds are kept moist and free from weeeds. The seedlings grow 20-30 cm tall in the next 3 months and are transplanted in wet field during the monsoon season at 15 x 30 em or 30 x 30 em spacing. The land is given 40 tonnes of farmyard manure and 40 kg of N per ha at planting and a similar quantity thereafter in 2 split doses annually to boost vegetative growth. 1he field are bunded during the rainy season to conserve moisture. Usually the plants in third year begin to yield the leaf crop which continues to start economic yields for the nest 25 years or so. Normally, 2 harvests are taken branches are cut near the ground level and dried, preferable in shade. The dry branches are beaten on yield under rain fed conditions is 1 tonne per ha; higher yields up to 2.5 tonnes per ha are obtained when raised as an irrigated crop. Termites, ants and mites damage the crop; the dusting of the crop with BHC (10 per cent) is recommended as a preventive measure.

Sweet Flag or Bach (Acorus calamus L) It is a perennial indigenous under shrub which inhabits stagnant pools and shaHow creaks all over the country. Its long

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aromatic rhizomes contain an aromatic oil (Ascerone 82 per cent) used for lending oriental notes in perfumery; the oil has germicidal properties and is used in insecticidal formulations. It is a 10 month crop cultivated in clayey to clayey loam soils on about 500 ha confined to the Koratgere Taluk of the Tumkar district in Kamataka. Field are puddled with 40 tonnes if farmyard manure or with sullage and bunded like rice field for impounding water. The growing tops of the plants obtained from the previous crop are usually planted in March-April in soft mud at 30 x 30 cm spacing and the field are flooded with 5 cm deep water. As the crop grows, the depth of water in the field is raised to 10 cm till about a month before harvest. The crop is given weeding almost every month for the first 4 to 5 months when the plants close the rows and produce a thick cover. Fertilizers are seldom used; some farmers apply 40 kg of N in 2 splits 30 and 60 days after planting. The leaf tips begin to tum yellow as the crop matures. The rhizomes are then dug out. The rhizomes lie mostly near the surface and grow 30 to 50 cm long. They are washed, cut into 6 to 10 cm long pieces and rubbed with hessain to remove the leafy scales and fibrous roots before drying them in the sun. The crop yield ranges from 2.5 to 4 tonnes of dry rhizomes per ha. The produce can be stored for a long period. Linaloe (Burs era delpechianum Boiss Ex. Engl) It is a small Mexican tree whose wood (7-9 per cent) and berries (3 per cent) yield a sweet smelling essential oil on steam distillation. The characteristic odour of the oil due to the presence of 35-44 per cent of easter (linalyll acetate) and 32-48 per Cffit of free alcohols (linalool) resembling the odour of lavender. The oil is used in the manufacture of high quality soaps and cosmetic products. Linaloe is a dioecious plant which grows about 6 metres tall abd 1 metre in girth at 20 years of age. It sheds its leaves at the commencement of winter and gives out new leaves and flowers in April. The berries ripen in August-September and are collected before dehiscence. In its natural habitat, the plant grows in tropical serub forests on dry eroded land and is sensitive to frost and

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Horticultural, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

water-logging. Its growth is better on fertile forest land. Spring rains benefit the crop. Cutting, about 0.5 m in length and 1 em in diameter, are made from the female mother plants during February March and planted in pots, baskets or polythene bags in a nursery in shade. It sprouts in 3-4 weeks and, as such, is planted in pits during the rainy season. About 300 plants are planted per ha. and they need irrigation in the succeeding summer season. The plants bear flowering twigs at 3 or 4 years of age. The flowering twigs are clipped. In the sixth year, the plants develops a crown spread of about 2 m and commences giving the commercial crop. Ripe beries are collected during automn and dried in shade. The dry fruits split in two, exposing the kernels. The essential oil is confined to the husk of the fruit. The dry berries can be stored for long and distilled at . convenience. They yield 2.5 to 3 per cent oil on fresh weight basis. The yield of oil is around 20 kg/ha from the sixth year onards for a growing life span of about 50 years.

Lemon Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook) It is an Australian tree, about 25 m tall, with a clean silvery green trunk and strongly-scented narrow leaves. The plant is coppiced at a height of 90 em to get a larger yield of foliage which contains an aromatic oil. On an average, the foliage has up to 0.8 per cent of oil, containing 60-80 per cent of citronellal that imparts to it the lemon like odour. Commercial pi;mtations exist in the Nilgiri Hills. A plantation is raised on well drained gravelly soils both in tropical plains and in the sub-temperate hills up to about 2,000 metre above sea level. Seeds may be sown during early spring either in polythene bags in the nursery or direct in the field. About 10-20 em tall seedlings are translanted in the field (without exposing their roots) during the rainy season at 45 x 30 em spacing. The land is usually given 50 kg each of P and K per hectare at planting, supplemented with about 100 kg of N per hectare in 2 to 4 split doses anually as top dressing. The terminal branches are cut to induce the plants to produce more lateral branches. During harvesting, the plants are cropped in April and November and a small harvest is also gathered during the rainy season. Fresh leaves and tender branches are distilled. The average yield from the third year onwards is about 20 tonnes per hectare per annum.

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This field, in tum, gives about 100 kg of oil. The price of oil depends upon the content of citronellal in the oil. The Tamil Nadu Cinchona Department has located trees whose foliage is found to possess 85-90 per cent of citronellal and this oil fetches better price.

Muskdana or Ambrette (Abelmoschus moschatus) Abelmoschus moschatus (1.) Medic, Malvaceae (Syn. Hibiscus abelmoschus L.) is a tropical weedy shrub native to India valued for its scented seed. Ambrette is a close relative to Okra, a popular horticultural crop. The genus Abelmoschus has six species distributed in the South and South East Asia and in North Australia. Abelmoschus moschatus Medic., A. manihot (1.) Medic., and A. esculentus (1.) Moench, contain wild and cultivated forms, and A. ficulneus, A. crinitus, and A. angulosus, are only wild. Abelmoschus manihot, in Hindi, it is popularly known as mushkdana, kasturi bhendi (kashui= musk; bhendi= lady's finger). In other Indian languages it is known as gukhia korai (Assamese), kasturi bhenda (Telgu), kattukasturi (Malylam), varttilai kasturi (Tamil), lalkasturika (Sanskrit). The area under ambrette is presently low in India but is increasing rapidly with seed exports to France, Germany, Japan, Singapore, Spain for its use as an aromatic oil. Indian drug manufacturers are introducing new herbal drugs containing ambrette for medicinal use.

Botany Erect hispid herbs or undershrubs, 0.5-2.5 metres high, with a long slender tap root. Leave extremely variable, lower suborbicular in outline, cordate, lower or palmately 3-7 lobed, upper narrower, hastate or sagittate at the base with linear-oblong or triangular lobes. Flowers regular, bisexual, involucral bracts 812, hairy yellow with purple centre. Fruits capsule fulvous hairy, oblong lanceolate, acute. Seeds subreniform '!Ild blackish.

Uses Amorette oil obtained from seeds possess an odour similar to that of musk and its aromatic constitents have long been used in perfumery industry. Different grades of essential, or aromatic absolute, are marked in Europe as high-grade perfumes (Singh

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et a1., 1996) The seeds are valued for the volatile oil present in the seed coat. Seed analysis report 11.1 per cent moisture, 31.5 per cent crude fibre; 14.5 per cent lipids, 13.4 per cent starch, 2.3 per cent protein, volatile oil (0.2-0.6 per cent) and cal 5 per cent resin. Analysis of volatiles report myricetin-3-glucoside and a glycoside of cyanidin in flowers, an aromatic constituent in seeds, beta-sitosteral and its beta-D-glucoside, myricetin and its glucoside in leaves and petals and beta-sitosterol from dry fruit husk. In India, roots, leaves (rarely), and seeds of ambrette are considered valuable traditional medicines. The bitter, sweet, acrid, aromatic seeds are used as a tonic and are considered cooling, aphrodisiac, opthalmic, cardiotonic, digestive, stomachic, constipating, carminative, pectoral, diuretic, stimulant, antispasmodic, deodorant, and effective against 'kapha' and 'vata,' intestinal complaints, stomatitis; and diseases of the heart, allays thirst and checks vomiting. According to Unani system of medicine, seeds allay thirst, cure stomatitis, dyspepsia, urinary discharge, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and itch. Roots and leaves are cures for gonorrhoea. Even use against venomous reptiles has been reported.

Cultivation Ambrette is cultivated as pre-kharif crop in India. It is usually sown in March-April but as late as the first week of July in Central India. Seed rates of 41g/kg are optimum. Application of dried Neem leaves (500 kg/ha) at last ploughing increased oil content and quality. April sown crop start flowering in September; fruits ripen from November to January and are harvested when fully mature. Applications of fertilizers improves growth of plant and seed yields but studies conducted by SOPAM indicate the use of chemical inputs resulted in negative impact on oil content and quality. Harvested capsules are sun dried and seeds dehisce when the capsules burst. The oil for perfumery is extracted by steam distillation of crushed seeds.

Index Abortifacient 92, 108, 113, 130, 144, 145, 162 Acorus calamus 93, 114, 302 Adrenalin 107 Alcohols 99, 233, 296, 303 Aldehydes 219 Antiinflammatory 99, 170 Caryophyllata 229 Chemical composition 195 Diaphoretic 217 Diaphoretic 96, 174 Diarrhoea 92, 103, 113, 114, 120, 125, 134, 138, 141, 147, 148, 149, 150, 164, 167, 174, 176, 187, 255, 265 Distillation process 222 Diterpenes 146 Dysmenorrhoea 90, 101 Dyspepsia 95,96,98,99, 100, 103, 108, 114, 130, 132, 140, 141, 142, 145, 163, IiI, 179, 185, 212,306 Enteritis 125, 207 Epilepsy 97, 98, Ill, 117, 120, 141, 149, 177, 185, 187, 189,

232, 235, 274, 277 Eucalyptol 232, 233, 257 Eucalyptus 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 239, 244, 253, 265, 280, 304 Eugenol 214, 225,228, 255.. 287 Europe 146, 213, 234, 238, 242, 253, 261. 265, 268, 280, 305 Fatty acids 135 Febrifuge 103, 105, 118, 132, 150, 167, 170, 248 Fennel 213, 234, 235 Foeniculum vulgare 235 France 182, 210, 222, 223, 227, 235, 243, 245, 256, 260, 273, 276, 305 Frankincense 217, 220, 235, 236, 237, 255, 266, 268, 276 Fumigations 210 Furanocoumarins 248 Galbanum 246, 255 Geraniol 226, 237, 239, 243, 245, 250, 251, 262, 287, 296 Geranium 216, 235, 236, 237, 239, 245, 247, 251, 259, 263,

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264, 265, 266, 268, 273, 278, 283, 296 Grapefruit 10, 11, 219, 228, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 251 Haemorrhoids 130, 142, 145, 163 Heartburn 265 Himalayan 116, 123, 154, 174, 183 HIV 197 Hybrids 60, 198 Hypertension 207, 230 Immunostimulant 223, 231, 232, 245, 269, 270, 282, 284 Insomnia 177, 185, 223, 252, 260, 261, 266, 267, 271, 285 Japan 146, 181, 182, 220, 234, 305 Jasminum officinale 241 Juniper 216, 230, 231, 232, 233, 242 Lactones 103, 182 Lavandin 245 Linalyl 227, 243, 256, 266, 267 Macerated 134, 215 Mac~ration 203 Mandarin 10, 12, 13, 220, 250, 253 Medication 200, 288 Melaleuca 219, 258, 271, 283 Melissa 253, 254 Menorrhagia 114, 116, 125, 149, 163, 174

Molecular structure 288 Monoterpenes 233 Myristica fragrans 259 Narcotic 120, 121, 162, 212, 235 Nardostachys jatamansi 176, 282 Neroli 223, 224, 237, 244, 246, 248, 251, 256, 257, 261, 264, 266, 267, 273, 287 Nightmares 227 Ocimum 92, 214 Origanum marjorama 253 Palmarosa 262, 287 Pelargonium 238, 273,274, 296 Peppermint 228, 232, 264, 265, 276 Pessaries 210 Petitgrain 237, 259, 266, 267, 268, 276 Piperaceae 184 Probiotic 208 Ravensara 269, 270 Rhododendron 207 Rosaceae 153 Rosy periwinkle 207 Sabinene 258 Salvia officinalis 277 Salvia sclarea 227 Sclareol 227

Index Sesquiterpenes 99 Snakeroot 207 Spasmolytic 112, 119, 127, 140, 145, 271 Spearmint 239, 256, 280, ~81

309 -- -

UK2W

....

Unwanted effects l'otJ

Terpenic 221, 229

Vaginal 221, 255, 258 Valerianaceae 176 Vanilla 214, 285 Verbenaceae 141 Vincristine 117, 196, 197, 207

Therapeutic 194, 197, 202, 211, 240, 257, 267

Ylang Ylang 220

Thyme 110, 231, 232, 233, 245, 253, 256, 270, 276, 284

Zingiber 92, 93,

Terpenes 197, 283

23~