Advancesin
--.----Medicinal
1_
Advances in
Medicinal Plants
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Advances in
Medicinal Plants
Sandhya Agrawal
Oxford Book Company Jaipur India I
ISBN: 978-81-89473-69-3 First Published 2009
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Preface Primitive humans experimentally sampled many kinds of plants in their search for nourishment. Plants that were palatable were used for food; those with toxic or unpleasant effects were avoided or used against enemies; others that produced physiological effects such as perspiration, defecation, healing or hallucination were saved for medicinal purposes and divination. Over a period of thousands of years, people learned to use a variety of plants for different ailments, with the process continuing to be so even in the age of allopathy, especially through systems as Ayurveda and Unani. The present text aims to acquaint readers with the advances that have been taking place in the in the field of medicinal plants, particularly within the context of New Age medicine. The book delineates not just conventional practices, techniques and treatments associated with medicinal plants, but also gives space to understand the challenges and issues and how current trends and advances are making progress to address them. In addition, the book brings within its purview the use in history of medicinal plants, its progress and decline, the competition faced from allopathic drug treatment, with an emphasis on its continuity and contemporary revival. Sandhya Aggarwal
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Contents Preface
v
1. 2.
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
1
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
36
3.
Bioprospecting of Medicinal Plants
68
4. 5. 6.
Medicinal Plants and Health Care
87
Wild Harvesting of Medicinal Plants
113
Conservation of Medicinal Plants
133
7.
Heritage of Indian Medicinal Plants
175
8.
Quality Control of Plant-based Medicines
195
9.
Industrial Utilisation of Medicinal Plants
217
10. International Trade in Medicinal Plants
228
11. Medicinal Plants and Intellectual Property Rights
12. Medicinal Plant Information Databases
258 277
Bibliography
298
Index
300
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1 Current Status of Medicinal Plants Traditional medicine is the synthesis of therapeutic experience of generations of practicing physicians of indigenous systems of medicine. Traditional preparation comprises medicinal plants, minerals and organic matters etc. Herbal drug constitutes only those traditional medicines that primarily use medicinal plant preparations for therapy. The ancient record is evidencing their use by Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Syrian dates back to about 5000 years (Table 1). About 500 plants with medicinal use are mentioned in ancient texts and around 800 plants have been used in indigenous systems of medicine. Indian subcontinent is a vast repository of medicinal plants that are used in traditional medical treatments, which also forms a rich source of knowledge. The various indigenous systems such as Siddha, Ayurveda, Unani and Allopathy use several plant species to treat different ailments. In India around 20,000 medicinal plant species have been recorded recently, but more than 500 traditional communities use about 800 plant species for curing different diseases. Currently 80 % of the world population depends on plant-derived medicine for the first line of primary health care for human alleviation because it has no side effects. Plants are important sources of medicines and presently about 25%
Advances in Medicinal Plants
2
of pharmaceutical prescriptions in the United States contain at least one plant-derived ingredient. In the last century, roughly 121 pharmaceutical products were formulated based on the traditional knowledge obtained from various sources. Table 1: Plant derived ethnotherapeutics and traditional modern medicine. SNo. 1.
Drug Codeine, morphin
Basic investIgation latex of Papaver used by ancient Sumarians. Egyptaians and Greeks for the treatment of headaches, arthritis and inducing sleep.
Opium the
somniferum
2
Atropine, hyoscyamine
3
Ephedrine
4
Quinine
5
Emetine
6
Colchicine
7
Digoxin
Atropa belladona, Hyascyamus niger etc., were important drugs in Babylonium folklore. Crude drug (astringent yellow) derived from Ephedra sinica had been used by Chinese for respiratory ailments since 2700 BC Cinchona spp were u!>ed by Peruvian Indians for the treatment of fevers Brazilian Indians and several others South American tribes used root and rhizomes of Cephaelis spp to induce vomiting and cure dysentery. Use of Colchicum in the treatment of gout has been known in Europe since 78 AD. Digitalis leaves were being used in heart therapy in Europe during the 18th century.
MODERN MEDICINE FROM HIGHER PLANTS
Medicinal plants play a vital role for the development of new drugs. During 1950-1970 approX\mately 100 plants based new drugs were introduced in the USA drug market including deserpidine, reseinnamine, reserpine,
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
3
vinblastine and vincristine which are derived from higher plants. From 1971 to 1990 new drugs such as ectoposide, Eguggulsterone, teniposide, nabilone, plaunotol, zguggulsterone, lectinan, ·artemisinin and ginkgolides appeared all over the world. 2% of drugs were introduced from 1991 to 1995 including paciltaxel, toptecan, gomishin, irinotecan etc. Plant based drugs provide outstanding contribution to modern therapeutics; for example: serpentine isolated from the root of Indian plant RauwOlfta serpent ina in 1953, was a revolutionary event in the treatment of hypertension and lowering of blood pressure. Vinblastine isolated from the Catharanthus rosesus is used for the treatment of Hodgkins, choriocarcinoma, non-hodgkins lymphomas, leukemia in children, testicular and neck cancer. Vincristine is recommended for acute lymphocytic leuken:lia in childhood advanced stages of hodgkins, lymophosarcoma, small cell lung, cervical and breast cancer. Phophyllotoxin is a constituent of Phodophyllum emodi currently used against testicular, small cell lung cancer and lymphomas. Indian indigenous tree of Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Mappia foetida) are mostly used in Japan for the treatment of cervical cancer (Table 2). Plant derived drugs are used to cure mental illness, skin diseases, tuberculosis, diabetes, jaundice, hypertension and cancer. Medicinal plants play an important role in the development of potent therapeutic agents. Plant derived drugs came into use in the modem medicine through the uses of plant material as indigenous cure in folklore or traditional systems of medicine. More than 64 plants have been found to possess significant antibacterial properties; and more than 24 plants have been found to possess antidiabetic properties, antimicrobial studies of plants, plant for antiodotes activity-Daboia russellii and Naja kaouthia venom
Advances in Medicinal Planb
4
neutralisation by lupeol acetate isolated from the root extract of Indian sarsaparilla Hemidesmus indicus RBr. Which effectively neutralised Daboia t'Ussellii venom induced pathophysiological changes The present investigation explores the isolation and purification ot another active compound from the methanolic root extract of Hemidesmus indicus, which was responsible for snake venom neutralisation. Table 2: Some of the important medicinal plants used for major modern drugs for cancer. Plant namelfamily Cathranthus roseslls L.
Drugs
(Apocynaceae)
Vinblastine and vincristine
Podophyllum emodi Wall. (Beriberidaceae)
Podophyllotaxin,
Taxus brevifolius (Taxaceae)
Mappia Joetida Miers.
Comptotheca acuminata Tuniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae)
Treatment Hodgkins, Lymphosarcomas and children leukemia
Testicular cancer, small cell lung cancel and lymphomas Paciltaxel, taxotere Ovarian cancer, lung cancer and malignant mE:'lanoma. Lung, ovarian and cervical Comptothecin, cancer, lrenoteccan and topotecan Quinoline and used in Japan for the comptothecin treatment of cervical alkaloids cancer Lung cancer Teniposide and etoposie
Antagonism of both viper and cobra venom and antiserum action potentiation, antioxidant property of the active compound was studied in experimental animalso Recently, Chatterjee et a1. from this laboratory reported that an active compound from the 5trychnus nux vomica seed extract, inhibited viper venom induced lipid peroxidation in experimental animals.
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
5
The mechanism of action of the plant derived micromolecules induced venom neutralisation need further attention, for the development of plant-derived therapeutic antagonist against snakebite for the community in need. However, the toxicity of plants has known for a long period of time, and the history of these toxic plants side by side with medicinal ones are very old and popular worldwide, they considered the major natural source of folk medication and toxication even after arising of recent chemical synthesis of the active constituents contained by these plants. Teniposide and etoposide isolated from Podophyllum species are used for testicular and lung cancer. Taxol isolated from Taxus brevifolius is used for the treatment of metastatic ovarian cancer and lung cancer. The above drugs came into use through the screening study of medicinal plants because they showed less side effects, were cost effective and possessed better compatibility. Market Potential of Phytomedicine
The estimation of total phytomedicine sale reported in country wise Eurvpean Union was about US$ 6 billion in 1991 and $ 4 billion in 1996, of which almost half were sold in Germany $ 3 billion, in France $ 1.6 billion, in Italy $ 0.6 billion and in Japan $ 1.5 billion. The present global market (Table 3) is said to be US 250 billion. In India the sale of total herbal products is estimated at $ 1 billion and the export of herbal crude extract is about $ 80 million, of which 50% is contributed by Ayurvedic classical preparations. Plant derived drugs are important in Germany and Russia. Particularly, herbal drugs are imported by several countries for their usage of traditional medicinal preparation from various parts of the country (Table 4). Some of the important Indian medicinal plants exported to various countries are reported. Important medicinal plants and their parts used for the preparation
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6
in indigenous systems table 5.
()f
Indian medicines are reported in
T. ':Jle 3. Market size of phytomedicine and their sale in US Dollar. S.No. Country
5
Europe Germany France Italy Others Europe USA India Other countries
6
All countries
1
2 3. 4
Years
Drugs sales in US $ (billion)
1991
6 3.0 1.6 0.6 0.8
1996
10.0
1996
4.0
1996
1.0
1996
5.0
1998
30.0 - 60.0
Table 4. Percentage of herbal drugs imported by various countries for drug preparation Country
Percentage of herbal drugs imported
China USA Australia India South Korea Taiwan
45%
Indonesia
15.6% 10.5% 3.7% 1.4% 1.7% 8.1%
R()le of WHO in Phytomedicine
In 1991 WHO developed guidelines for the assessment of herbal medicine, and the 6th International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities held at Ottawa in the same year ratified the same. The salient features of WHO guidelines are: 1). Quality assessment: Crude plant materials or extract plant preparation and finished product. 2). Stability: Shelf life. 3). Safety assessment:
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
7
Documentation of safety based on experience and toxicological studies. 4). Assessment of efficacy: Documented evidence of traditional use and activity determination (Animals and human). Standardisation of Phytomedicine
In the traditional system of medicine, the drugs are primarily dispensed as aqueous or ethanol extract. Fresh plant juice or crude extract are a rarity rather than a rule. The medicinal plants should be authentic and free from harmful materials like pesticides, heavy metals, and microbial and radioactive contamination. The medicinal plant should be single solvent extraction once or repeatedly or aqueous extract or as described in the ancient texts. The extract should be then checked for biological activity in experimental animal models. The bioactive extract should be standardised on the basis of active compound (Table 5). The bi....1ctive t~xtract should undergo limited safety studies. Table 5 S.No 1
Traditional sector phar11UlS
2
Himalaya Zandu
3 4
Dabur Hamdard
5
Maharishi
Modern sector Standardisation of phaT11UlS phytomedicine (formulation) Ranbaxy Chromatography techniques Lupin Thin Layer chromatographx (TLC) Allembic UV - Spectrophotometer High Performance of Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
New Sources of Tribal Medicine
Tribal healers in most of the countries, where ethnomedical treatment is frequently used to treat cut wounds, skin infection, swelling, aging, mental illness,
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
cancer, asthma, diabetes, jaundice, scabies, eczema, venereal diseases, snakebite and gastric ulcer, provide instructions to local people as how to prepare medicine from herbal. They keep no records and the information is mainly passed on verbally from generation to generation. World Health Organisation (WHO) has shown great interest in documenting the use of medicinal plants used by tribals from different parts of the world. Many developing countries have intensified their efforts in documenting the ethnomedical data on medicinal plants. Research to find out scientific evidence for claims by tribal healers on Indian herbs has been intensified. Once these local ethnomedical preparations are scientifically evaluated and disseminated properly, people will be better inform€d regarding efficacious drug treatment and improved health status. HERBAL MEDICNE SCENARIO IN INDIA
Herbal medicine is still the mainstay of about 75-80% of the world population, mainly in the developing countries, for primary health care because of better c~ltural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects. However, the last few years have seen a major increase in their use in the developed world. In Germany and France, many herbs and h~rbal extracts are used as prescription drugs and their sales in the countries of European Union were around $ 6 billion in 1991 and may be over $ 20 billion now. In USA, herbal drugs are currently sold in health food stores with a turnover of about $ 4 billion in 1996 which is anticipated to double by the tum of the century. In India, the herbal drug market is about $ one billion and the export of plant-based crude drugs is around $ 80 million. Herbal medicines also find market as nutraceuticals (health foods) whose current market is estimated at about $ 80-250 billion in USA and also in Europe.
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
9
India is sitting on a gold mine of well-recorded and wellpracticed knowledge of traditional herbal medicine. But, unlike China, India has not been able to capitalise on this herbal wealth by promoting its use in the developed world despite their renewed interest in herbal medicines. This can be achieved by judicious product identification ~ased on diseases found in the developed world for which do medicine or only palliative therapy is available; such herbal medicines will find speedy access into those countries. Backward integration from market demands will pay rich dividends. Strategically, India should enter through those plant-based medicines which are already well accepted in Europe, USA and Japan. Simultaneously, it should identify those herbs medicinal plants) which are time-tested and dispensed all over in India. The basic requirements for gaining entry into developed countries include: (i) well-documented traditional use, (li) singleplant medicines, (iii) medicinal plants free from pesticides, heavy metals, etc., (iv) standardisation based on chemical and activity profile, and (v) safety and stability. However, mode of action studies in animals and efficacy in human will also be supportive. Such scientifically generated data will project' herbal medicine in a proper perspective and help in sustained global market. Herbal Medicine
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has recently defined traditional medicine (including herbal drugs) as comprising therapeutic practices that have been in existence, often for hundreds of years, before the development and spread of modern medicine and are still in use today. Or say, traditional medicine is the synthesis of therapeutic experience of generations of practising physicians of indigenous systems of medicine. The traditional preparations comprise medicinal plants,
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
minerals, organic matter, etc. Herbal drugs constitute only those traditional medicines which primarily use medicinal plant preparations for therapy. The earliest recorded evidence of their use in Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Syrian texts dates back to about 5000 years. The classical Indian texts include Rigveda, Atherveda, Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita. The herbal medicines/traditional medicaments have, therefore, been derived from rich traditions of ancient civilisations and scientific heritage. Nutraceuticals
This is a term of recent origin and comprises nutritionally or medicinally enhanced foods with health benefits. These include engineered grain, cereals supplemented with vitamins or minerals or genetically manipulated soybean and canola oil without trans fatty acids, etc. Many pharma and biotech companies have moved into this area since it does not involve regulatory clearances and offers large markets. These companies have extended the term nutraceutical to include pure compounds of natural origin like lovastatin (a lipid lowering agent from red rice yeast), docosahexaenoic acid (a cardiovascular stimulant from algae), sterols, curcumin (from plants), etc. Likewise herbal preparations are being marketed as nutraceuticals or health foods and even the minimum standards laid down by WHO are not followed. It is pertinent to mention that herbal medicines are therapeutics of the indigenous/ traditional systems of medicine and it is unethical to classify them as health foods. The regulatory agencies should, therefore, step in to prevent such misuse of natural products/herbal medicines as was done by US-FDA by banning the dietary supplement cholestin (Le. lovastatin). Nutraceuticals are in great demand in the developed world particularly USA and Japan. Nutraceutical market in USA alone is about $ 80-250 billion, with a similar
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
11
market size in Europe and Japanese sales worth $ 1.5 billion. Such huge markets have arisen because of the Dietary Supplement Health Education Act passed by USA in 1994 which permits 1,inprecedented claims to be made about food or the dieta~ supplement's ability about health benefits including prevention and treatment of diseases. This act has motivated pharma to include not only compounds isolated from fauna and flora but also herbal medicines as nutraceuticals, which is unfortunate. The developing countries also see this as a good opportunity and are marketing such products. Herbal Medicine Market
As per available records, the herbal medicine market in 1991 in the countries of the European Union was about $ 6 billion (may be over $ 20 billion now), with Germany accounting for $ 3 billion, France $ 1.6 billion and Italy $ 0.6 billion. Incidentally in Germany and France, herbal extracts are sold as prescription drugs and are covered by national health insurance. In 1996, the US herbal medicine market was about $ 4 billion and with the current growth rate may be more than double by the turn of century. Thus a reasonable guesstimate for current herbal medicine market worldwide may be around $ 30-60 billion. The Indian herbal drug market is about $ one billion and the export of herbal crude extracts is about $ 80 million. The 10 best-selling herbal medicines in developed countriesare given in Table 7. The sales of these drugs account for almost 50% of the herbal medicine market. These drugs have been well standardised and some of them namely echinacea, garlic, gingko, ginseng and saw palmeto are supported with mode of action and clinical studies. Amongst the developed countries Germany holds the lead and has published individual monographs on therapeutic benefits of more than 300 herbs. In developing countries, China has compiled/generated data on over
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
800 medicinal plants and exports large amounts of herbal drugs. India has prepared only a few monographs and its exports are dismal. Herbal medicines are being used by about 80% of the world population primarily in the developing countries for primary health care. They have stood the test of time for their safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability and lesser side effects. The chemical constituents present in them are a part of the physiological functions of living flora and hence they are believed to have better compatibility with the human body. Ancient literature also mentions herbal medicines for age-related diseases namely memory loss, osteoporosis, diabetic wounds, immune and liver disorders, etc. for which no modern medicine or only palliative therapy is available. These drugs are made from renewable resources of raw materials by ecofriendly processes and will bring economic prosperity to the masses growing these raw materials. The turnover of herbal medicines in India as over-thecounter products, ethical and classical formulations and home remedies of Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha systems of medicine is about $ 1 billion with a meagre export of about $ 80 million. Psyllium seeds and husk, castor oil and opium extract alone account for 60% of the exports. 80% of the exports to developed countries are of crude drugs and not finished formulations leading to low revenue for the country. Thus the export of herbal medicines from India is negligible despite the fact that the country has a rich traditional knowledge and heritage of herbal medicine. Considering the huge herbal medicine and nutraceutical market in developed countries, India should reconsider exporting crude herbal drugs. Three of the 10 most widely selling herbal medicines in developed countries, namely preparation of Allium sativum, Aloe barbadensis and Panax species are available in India.
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
13
India is the largest grower of Psyllium. (Plantago ovata) and Senna (Cassia senna) plants and one of the largest growers of Castor (Ricinus communis) plant. These are also exported in large amounts and yet our market share is dismal because of export of crude extracts/drugs. Twenty other plants are commonly exported as crude drugs worth $ 8 million. Five of these, namely Glycyrrhiza glabra, Commiphora mukul, Plantago ovata, Aloe barbadensis and Azadirachta indica are even used in modern medicine. The plants Glycyrrhiza glabra, Piper longum, Adhatoda vasica, Withania somnifera, Cyperus rotundus, Tinospora cordifolia, Berberis aristata, Tribulus terristris, Holarrhena antidysenterica and Boerhavia diffusa have been used in 52 to 141 herbal formulations and triphala (Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica and Embelica officinalis) alone have been used in 219 formulations (Table 8). In spite of this, efforts have not been made to preserve their germ-plasm from different localities, identification of active plants vis-a-vis climatic zone and development of agrotechnologies for their organised farming and use as authentic materials in herbal medicines for better economic gains. India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centres having over 45,000 plant species. Its diversity is unmatched due to the presence of 16 different agroclimatic zones, 10 vegetative zones and 15 biotic provinces. The country has 15,000-18,000 flowering plants, 23,000 fungi, 2500 algae, 1600 lichens, 1800 bryophytes and 30 million microorganisms. India also has equivalent to % of its land exclusive economic zone in the ocean harbouring a large variety of flora and fauna, many of them with therapeutic properties. About 1500 plants with medicinal uses are mentioned in ancient texts and around 800 plants have been used in traditional medicine; the most widely used plants are given in Table 6. Tables 7 and 8 give the names
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
of medicinal plants exported and imported in India, respectively. The major traditional sector pharmas, namely Himalaya, Zandu, Dabur, Hamdard, Maharishi, etc. and modern sector pharmas, namely Ranbaxy, Lupin, Allembic, etc. are standardising their herbal formulations by chromatography techniques like TLC/HPLC finger printing, etc. There are about 7000 firms in the small-scale sector manufacturing traditional medicines with or without standardisation. However, none of the pharma has standardised herbal medicines using active compounds as markers linked with confirmation of bioactivity of herbal drugs in experimental animal models. Table 6. Miljor Indian medicinal plants used in three indigenous systems of medicine Botanical name Abies webbiana Achyranthes aspera Acorus calamus Aloe sp. Andrographis paniculata Asparagus adscendens Asparagus racemoSus Bauhinia variegata Bergenia ligulata Boerhavia diffusa Centella asiatica Clerodendrum serratum Convolvulus pluricaulis Crataeva nurvala Dioscorea bulbifera Embe~ ribes Gymnemma sylvestre Hedychium spicatum IHolarrhena antidysenterica MfOsua ferrea
Sanskrit name Taleespatra Apamarga Vacha Kumari Bhoonimba (KaImeg) Mushali Shatavari Kachnar Pashan bheda Punarnava Mandukparni Bharangi Shankhapushpi Varuna Vidarikand Vidanga Madhunashni Shathi Kutaja Nagkesar
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Current Status of Medicinal Plants
Nardostachys jatamansi Ocimum sp. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthus emblica Picrorhiza kurrooa Piper longum Pluchea lanceolata Psoralea corylifolia Rubia cordifolia Saraca indica Saussurea lappa Sida sp. Symplocos racemosa Terrninalia arjuna Terrninalia chebula Tinospora cordifolia Tribulus terrestris Valeriana jatamansi Vitex negundo Withania somnifera
Jatamansi Tulsi Bhumyamalika Amalika (Amla) Kutki Pippali Rasna Bakuchi Manjistha Ashoka Kushtha Bala Lodhra Arjuna Haritaki (Harad) Guduchi Gokshura Tagar Nirgundi Ashwagandha
Role of WHO in Herbal Medicine
Two d-ecades ago, WHO referr¢d to traditional health systems (including herbal medicine) as 'holistic' - 'that of viewing man in his totality within a wide ecological spectrum, and of emphasizing the view that ill health or disease is brought about by an imbalance or disequilibrium of man in his total ecological system and not only by the causative agent and pathologenic evolution' (WHO), probably implying that the indigenous system drugs (including herbal medicine) restore the imbalance or disequilibrium leading to the cure of ill health or disease. Such an attitude sent signals that WHO as an organisation has failed to provide leadership to establish traditional systems of medicine which prOVide health care to about 80% of the world population. However, it helped the
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
inclusion of proven traditional remedies in national drug policies and regulatory approvals by developing countries. The World Health Assembly continued the debate and adopted a resolution in 1989 that herbal medicine is of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. The redefined definition of traditional medicine thus issued in the early nineties is given vide supra. Consequently, in 1991 WHO developed guidelines for the assessment of herbal medicine, and the same were ratified by the 6th International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities held at Ottawa in the same year. The salient features of WHO guidelines are: (i) Quality assessment: Crude plant material; Plant preparation; Finished product. (ii) Stability: Shelf life. (iii) Safety assessment: Documentation of safety based on experience or / and; Toxicology studies. (iv) Assessment of efficacy: Documented evidence of traditional use or/and; Activity determination (animals, human). To the best of my knowledge, WHO has not systematically evaluated any traditional medicine.' Table 7. Medicinal plants being exported from India Botanical name Aconitum species (other than heterophyllum) Acorus calamus Adhatoda vasica Berberis aristata Cassia angustifolia Colchicum luteum Hedychium spicatum Heracleum candicans Inula racemosa Juglans regia Juniperus communis -tiperus macropoda
Part of the plant Root Rhizome Whole plant Root Leaf and pod Rhizome and seed Rhizome Rhizome Rhizome Bark Fruit Fruit
17
Current Status of Medicinal Plants
Picrorhiza kurroo<' -,. Plantago ovata Podophyllum emodi Punica granatum Rauvolfia serpentina Rheum emodi Saussurea lappa Swertia chirayita Valeriana jatamansi Zingiber officinale >
Root Seed and husk Rhizome Flower, root and bark Root Rhizome Rhizome Whole plant Rhizome Rhizome
Herbal Medicine Standardisation
In indigenous/traditional systems of medicine, the drugs are primarily dispensed as water decoction or ethanolic extract. Fresh plant parts, juice or crude powder are a rarity rather than a rule. Thus medicinal plant parts should be authentic and free from harmful materials like pesticides, heavy metals, microbial or radioactive contamination, etc. The medicinal plant is subjected to a single solvent extraction once or repeatedly, or water decoction or as described in ancient texts. The extract should then be checked for indicated biological activity in an experimental animal model(s). The bioactive extract should be standardised on the basis of active principle or major compound(s) along with fingerprints. The next important step is stabilisation of the bioactive extract with a minimum shelf-life of over a year. The stabilised bioactive extract should undergo regulatory or limited safety studies in animals. Determination of the probable mode of action will explain the therapeutic profile. The safe and stable herbal extract may be marketed if its therapeutic use is well documented in indigenous systems of medicine, as also viewed by WHO. A limited clinical tribal to establish its therapeutic potential would promote clinical use. The herbal medicines developed in
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this mode should be dispensed as prescription drugs or even aTe products depending upon disease consideration and under no circumstances as health foods or nutraceuticals. UNDERGROUND FLOWER
Flowering involves transformation of a foliar into a floral bud through a series of histological, physiological and biochemical changes. Since flower represents a modified shoot, and shoot is negatively geotropic, flowers almost invariably differentiate above ground. If flowers had been underground, the world would be devoid of the range of colours, variety of scents, and innumerable patterns and forms we see around us. Table 8. Medicinal plants being imported in India Botanical name
Native name
Cuscuta epithymum Glycyrrhiza glabra Lavendula stoechas Operculina turpethum Pimpinella anisum Smilax china Smilax ornata
Aftimum vilaiyti
Thymus vulgaris
Hasha
Mullathi
Ustukhudus Turbud Anise fruit Chobchini Ushba
The immense variety and enormous beauty of flowers benefits the plants and appeals the human eye. However, for the plant, underground flower formation could be an asset, as it ,substantially cuts down resource allocation involved in differentiation of accessory floral parts, biosynthesis of pigments and production of large quantities of pollen and nectar to reward pollinators. Importantly, underground flowers have assured pollination and seed set, with security against predators and vagaries of environment.
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Nevertheless, the invariable differentiation of flowers above ground has deprived plants of all the above advantages. However, as compensation the aboveground flowers confer on plants the ability for (i) crosspollination, which generates variability, assures adaptability and evolutionary plasticity, and (ii) wider dispersal of pollen and seed for greater distribution and reducing intrapopulation competition. That pollination and seed dispersal are the only major events which aerial flowers help to accomplish is reflected by TuIipa, Sternbergia, Ixilioron and such other bulbous angiosperms in which flower development is completed within the bulb, underground. The hidden flower is thrust above ground for accomplishing pollination, whereafter, seeds and fruits develop above ground. Geocarpy
Have plants ever tried to combine the advantages of above ground flowering and underground development of fruits? The answer is provided by a few plants of which peanut is the most common example. In this legume, flowers diffe-rentiate above ground. Soon after pollination, they shed their petals and bend with the help of a peg to first come close to soil surface, and finally become subterranean. Pods and seeds mature underground. This phenomenon of development of fruits underground is called geocarpy. Besides Arachis hypogaea, development of aerial flowers and subterranean fruits is also known in Trifolium subterraneum, Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouarsand Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms. There are also reports of the differentiation of fertile, cleistogamous flowers on the underground shoots of peanut. Development of seed from flowers which are ab initio underground, is called amphicarpy. However, when these underground buds are brought above the ground and exposed to light, they open readily, and follow normal
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Advances in Medicinal Plants
course of development, suggesting that these flowers are not truly c1eistogamous and the plants are not truly amphicarpic. Some scientists believe that such flowers differentiate in response to the environment created by farmer's 'plow'. Amphicarpy
During their evolutionary history, differentiation of true underground flowers has been attempted by flowering plants more than once. Of the nearly 250,000 flowering plants, only 36 are amphicarpic. These are distributed over 10 phylogenetic ally distantly related groups with a maximum concentration in the Fabaceae (- 10 species) and Poaceae (8 species). Most amphicarpic plants are annuals; only a few are perennial. With a few notable exceptions, the amphicarpic taxa grow well in aerated, well drained sandy or gravely soils. The ,characters shared by most amphicarpic plants include the presence of (i) self-fertile subterranean flowers that mature into large fruits and seeds with limited dispersal, and (li) aerial flowers that are capable of crosspollination and set many smaller fruits and seeds suited to long distance dispersal. Flowers of aboveground capitula of Gymnarrhena micrantha Desf. a dwarf, annu::.l desert composite, are chasmogamous, while those comprising the subterranean capitula are cleistogamous. The aerial capitula bear a large number of small, wind dispersed fruits. On the contrary, the subterranean fruits are large sized and fewer. They are .li. never shed; their seeds germinate in situ. Aerial flowers of the plant are potentially openpollinated, which helps in increasing the genetic variability of the population. The wind dispersed achenes widen the distribution of the species to distant habitats. Subterranean flowers are invariably self-pollinated and are tAerefore, instrumental in preserving the parental
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genotype. Underground fruits and seeds improve chances of survival of these plants at specific microhabitats. Amphicarpum purshii Kunth., an annual panicoid grass, also bears aboveground and subterranean spikelets on the same individual. The former are smalJ and chasmogamous, while the latter are large and cleistogamous. The subterranean seeds are few but heavy. These account for most progeny seedlings. Aerial florets outnumber the subterranean flowers and contribute to the widening of genetic variability of $e species.
.
Relative Cost of Aerial and Underground Flowers
In the genus Commelina of Commelinaceae, five species are
known to produce underground cleistogamous flowers. Commelina forskalaei and C. benghalensis bear flowers on three .types of shoots; positively geotropic subterranean shoots, negatively geo-tropic cauline shoots and diageotropic shoots which run parallel to soil surface. The positively geotropic leafless shoots grow deep into the soil, and carry flowers inside colourless spathes. Flowers on other two types of shoot differentiate in green spathes and vary in number as well as structure. In C. benghalensis spathes on the diageotropic and subterranean shoots have a single hermaphrodite flower each, but aerial spathes have three and occasionally four flowers each. Flowers of aerial spathes are trimorphic; the oldest is male and chasmogamous, the second'is hermaphrodite and chasmogamous and the youngest is hermaphrodite and cleistogamous. Flowers of the diageotropic spathes are always chasmogamous, and those of the subterranean spathes are invariably cleistogamous. The subterranean cleistogamous flowers are obligately self-pollinated. Their floral parts are small. The ratio between the resources consumed in the differentiation of their essential (stamens and carpels) and accessory organs
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(sepals and petals) is 3: 2 (60: 40%). Resource expenditure on pistil differentiation is 20% higher than that on the differentiation of stamens. This is reflected in the greater biomass of the pistil. Cleistogamous flowers have fewer pollen grains and their pollen-ovule ratio is 2,305 : 1. They also produce fewer but larger and heavier seeds than their counterparts on aeria1 and diageotropic shoots. This increase in size and weight of seeds is caused by the diversion of reso~ces saved from male function and differentiation of extrafloral parts to the female function. The diversion is made possible by assured pollination due to cleistogamy despite the availability of fewer ovules borne by the pistil. On the contrary in all chasm<,gamous flowers, aerial as well as diageotropic, greater share of resources is invested in floral advertisement; it approaches 62% in male and 42-50% in hermaphrodite chasmogamous flowers. From the tota1 reproductive investment 'on chasmogamous hermaphrodite flowers, 56-61% investment is channelised to male function. Even in cleistogamous flowers of the aerial branches, the ratio between pistil and stamen biomass is male biased unlike their subterranean counterparts. Although anther dehiscence and stigma receptivity overlap in hermaphrodite chasmogamous flowers leading to self-pollination, these flowers hold the potential for crosspollination because of their colourful petals and anthers, profuse pollen production and very frequent visitation by a variety of hymenopteran insects. The potential for crosspollination can get expressed in the event of the failure of self-pollination. From what has been stated above, it follows that reproduction through underground flowers is less expensive, yet more assured. In terms of investment/ allocation of the resources, the seed produced underground is cheaper than that set above-ground: If
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selectitm pressure has not worked against above ground flowers, and they continue to differentiate on the plant, it is because they help in retrieving one of the costs of sex, that of sharing gene(s)through occasional outcrossing. In most amphicarpic plants including C. benghalensis, seedlings produced by subterranean seeds are more vigorous than those produced by aerial seeds. As a .. consequence, they have greater competitive ability and better survival compared to seedlings resulting from aerial flowers/ fruits. According to Cheplick and Quinn, it is perhaps on account of the importance of subterranean seeds to individual fitness that they are produced early in ontogeny, well in advance of aerial seeds. Zeidehas termed early production of subterranean seeds and fruits a 'p~ssimistic' strategy of plants, suited to highly disturbed habitats, where survival even up to the end of growing season is uncertain. In such situations it is a definite advantage if plants produce fruits as early as possible. In contrast, the, formation of aerial fruits is an 'optimistic' strategy, whereby reproduction is delayed until the end of growing season, when time and growth conditions have resulted in accumulation of sufficient resources in the plant body. Evolution of Amphicarpy
What factors have led to the evolution of amphicarpy is a question that remains to be answered. A number of hypotheses have been proposed from time to time. Since subterranean seed production has evolved independently in phylogenetically unrelated taxa, the factors underlying their evolution are most likely to differ from species to species. Mattatiabelieves that amphicarpy in the genus Lathyrus has arisen independently at least three times. According to one hypothesis, the adaptive significance of subterranean seeds is to expose them and the plants
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differentiating therefrom to similar, presumably favourable, microhabitat as that of the parent. However, in experiments conducted on Amphicarpum purshii, plants raised from subterranean Seeds close to the parent did not always outperform the plants raised at places far removed from the parent. • A related possibility is that being better shielded from the extreme fluctuations of micr~te at the soil surface, the buried seeds retain viability, germinate and establish seedlings far better than the seeds lying exposed on ~oil surface. This hypothesis seems particularly plausible for those amphicarp~c plants which inhabit dry habitats since 'active seed burial will, for instance, ensure availability of greater soil moisture'. Supporting evidence for this comes from Emex spinosa, Amphicarpum purshiiand to· a certain extent Commelina benghalensis. In all these taxa, none (some in C. benghalensis) of the subterranean seeds germinated when they were spread on the soil surface. However, this hypothesis does not explain evolution of subterranean seed ,production in species inhabiting mesic environments. Another hypothesis is that severe predator pressure must have led to the evolution of subterranean seed production which is understandable since buried flowers, fruits and seeds are comparatively safe from foraging animals. 'In grasses, it is easy to envisage the selective advantage of subterranean seed production under conditions of intense grazing.' Even in deserts where animals can be a major cause of seed predation, seed burial might be an adaptive response. Detailed comparative data on the effect of herbivory on aerial and subterranean flowers, fruits and seeds are "" required to confirm this hypothesis. Another advantage which can accrue to a plant from subterranean seeds becomes explicit during a major disturbance which periodically destroys the aerial portion
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of a herbaceous plant. At this critical juncture in plant's life cycle, only individuals producing subterranean propagules would contribute to the formation of next generation. This would be true especially for annuals which usually lack vegetative propagation and therefore, have a single means of reproduction. In Amphicarpum purshii, Vigna minimaand Commelina virginica, amphicarpy has been viewed as possible adaptation to escape fire. All the above hypotheses concede selective advantage to subterranean reproduction. If this were so, why do amphicarpic plants still produce aerial seeds? Is it for combating the constraints associated with subterranean reproduction? The retention of aerial flowers may be a selective compromise between the risks associated with production of either of the two types of flowers. Detailed ecological, evolutionary and physiological studies are required to fully appreciate the actual significance of underground flowers. CHAMOLI EARTHQUAKE, GARHWAL HIMALAYA
The Chamoli earthquake of 29 March 1999 is yet another moderate event of this decade in the Garhwal Himalaya. n occurred at 00:35:13.59 h (local time) near the town of Chamoli in northern India. The US Geological Survey (USGS) located the event at 300 49.2¢N, 79°28.8'E (m6.3 and M6.6), and the India Meteorological Department (IMD) located it at 30 0 17.82'N, 79°33.84'E (m6.8 and M6.5; focal depth - 15 km). A long aftershock sequence including at least three events of M > 5 followed the main event, some of which were located using local and regional stations. The USGS faultplane solution indicates a pure thrust mechanism with two nodal planes striking at 282° and 97°. The earthquake triggered landslides, blocked several roads, and disturbed electricity and water supply. A maximum intensity of VIII (MSK) has been attributed to
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this event. Maximum damages occurred in the district of Chamoli where nearly 2600 houses collapsed and over 10,800 were partially damaged, leaving about 100 dead and 400 injured. The quake was also felt at far-off places such as in Kanpur (440 km south-east), Shimla (220 km north-west) and Delhi (280 km south-west). A few buildings in Delhi sustained non-structural damages. The Chamoli event is important from various considerations. One: its location in the 'central seismic gap', a segment of the Himalaya that is considered to have the maximum potential for a large earthquake. Two: its proximity to the high dam under construction near Tehri, - 125 km west of Chamoli. Here. we present some of the observations made in the Chamoli area and discuss the significance of this earthquake in our understanding of the seismic hazard of the region. Geologic and Tectonic Setting
The Himalayan mountain range, an outcome of the compressional processes ensued by the India-Asia collision (70-40 Ma) has been undergoing extensive crustal shortening along the entire 2400-km-Iong northern edge of the Indian plate. A series of major thrust planes - the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) - have been formed as a result of these processes. In some models, these thrust faults are considered to have evolved progressively, leaving the older ones dormant whereas in others, they are treated as contemporaneous. For example, the evolutionary modelconsiders the MCT to be an older thrust plane that was more active in the early phases of the Himalayan orogeny and MBT as a younger one that is more active currently. The steady-state model on the other hand, treats the MCT and the MBT to be contemporaneous and merging at depths with a common detachment surface where the
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great Himalayan earthquakes are believed to originate. The seismicity of the Himalaya, therefore, needs to be understood in terms of the relative roles of these faults. It has been argued on the basis of focal mechanismsthat the MCT is probably aseismic and the current activity is on the MBT. However, Chandernoted that the coseismic ground elevation changes observed during the 1905 Kangra earthquake could not be~xplained by assuming slip on the MBT. The pronounced band of seismicity observed beneath and south of MCT in Kumaun and Nepalis another indication of active deformation. The earthquakes recorded during 1984-1986 by a network of stations in the Yamuna and Bhagirathi valleys are also noted to be following a trend of the MCT. The 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake is the most recent activity associated with the MCT. Tectonically, the MCT represents a ductile shear zone at depth, comprising a duplex zone with three distinct thrust planes: MCT I, MCT II and MCT III from south to north. Based on the degree of metamorphism, lithostratigraphy and tectonic setting, these thrust planes are also referred to as Chail (MCT I, lower thrust), Jutogh (MCT II, middle thrust) and Vaikrita (MCT III, upper thrust). Of these, the Chail Thrust (MCT I), the southernmost and the youngest, is believed to have moved during the Uttarkashi earthquake. The Chamoli earthquake appears to be associated with the ongoing deformation along this thrust. The Lesser Himalayan sequence lying between the MCT and the MBT shows stacking of various groups of rocks characterised by south-vergent imbricate thrusts, which were later folded into major scale synforms and antiforms. Geological map of the area indicates presence of an anticlinal structure very close to Chamoli. The whole area, considered as a schuppen zone, is delimited on two sides by almost vertical faults - the E-W trending
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-
Alaknanda fault in the south and the NNW-SSE trending Nandaprayag fault in the east. Several parallel faults have been mapped within this schuppen zone and one interpretation is that, these faults demarcate isoclinal anticlines split along the contacts of various litho-units. During the post-earthquake investigations, we observed some signatures of recent deformation, associated with the anticline mapped near Chamoli. A sharp contact of MCT I with recent/sub-recent deposits was located on the southern flanks of this anticline. Thick deposit of colluvium (boulders and pebbles intercalated with coarse sand) occurs at the foot of the steeper limb of the fold. The colluvium may have been remobilised on an incipient slope due to -the development of the growing fold. Such surficial features have been associated with fault propagation folds. We interpret the contact near Chamoli to be the surface expression of an active fold. The tight compressional folding in the Berinag quartzite and the stretching lineation in mylonitic quartzite observed at these localities are suggestive of the intense shortening along this contact. The above observations are significant because the contact of the thrust plane occurs very close to the epicentral zone of the Chamoli earthquake. Although the models for many earthquakes including the Uttarkashi event suggest the rupture along MCT I, geological evidences for active faulting in this region are sparse. From this point, the above observations from the epicentral region of the Chamoli earthquake may provide certain clues to identify active faults/folds in the Himalaya. The present data by themselves are insufficient to suggest the nature of the ongoing deformation in this region but they provide pointers for selecting sites for palae( ~ismological and related investigations.
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Historic and Current Seismicity
Although four great earthquakes (M > 8) have occurred along the Himalayan front during the last 100 years, the Garhwal region is not known to have experienced a magnitude 8 or larger earthquake in the recorded history. Historic and recent seismicity of the Kumaun-Garhwal region suggests the occurrence of at least three earthquakes of M > 7 in this region. The largest historic earthquake reported from this region occurred on 1 September 1803. Several villages were reported to have been buried by rockfalls and landslides landslides caused by this earthquake. The Badrinath temple located ~ 40 km north of Chamoli was severely damaged in this earthquake. The epicentre based on the maximum intensities is located ~ 100 km west of Chamoli. We examined two temples at Gopeshwar and Makkumath, both of which have been reconstructed at least once in the past. Inscriptions on stones, supported by historic data testify that the damages to these temples caused by the 1803 event were substantial and that the smaller structures around the main shrine were totally destroyed. It should be noted that the temples at Gopeshwar and Makkumath suffered only minor vertical cracks during the 1999 earthquake, in spite of their locations in the meizoseismal area, possibly because the 1803 event was much larger. Based on the extent of affected areas, it has been suggested that the 1803 event is a much larger earthquake on the detachment surface. Intensity of Coseismic Processes
The area affected by the Chamoli earthquake lies in seismic zone V, implying a potential for shaking intensity of IX on the Modified Mercalli scale. Our survey indicates that the maximum intensity of the 1999 event was only VIII.
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Intensity showed rather abrupt changes from one 1-JCation to another, probably due to the local site conditions. For instance, the intensity of shaking at Upper Birahi located on the river terrace was VIII, whereas it was only VI at Lower Birahi located on the hard rock. Similarly, Lower and Upper Chamoli showed intensity VIII whereas Gopeshwar, located 2 km away on the hill slope, showed intensity V. Higher intensity observed at Makkumath, located on the river terrace, - 15 km north-west of Chamoli, is another example of site amplification. Ground cracks developed at several places as part of slope failure, causing threat to the settlements. Welldeveloped ground cracks trending roughly in the east-west direction and showing lateral movement of up to - 12 cm were observed at Gopeshwar, Chamoli and Bairagna. A ttempts to make trenches across the ground fissures at Telecom Hill in Gopeshwar were unsuccessful since these were bottomed on the rubble and boulders at shallow depths (- 1 m), which form a part of the debris. In one of these trenches, a poorly defined thrust plane was detected, but its growth and overburden followed a complex pattern. Although the trench sections did not reveal fault planes convincingly, the fissures which had cut through concrete steps and wellconsolidated debris could be traced for nearly 1 km. Orientation of these ground fissures, although discontinuous, conforms to the trend of the MCT and also to one of the nodal planes (282°) inferred from the focal mechanism. The predominance of east-west oriented fissures, particularly those developed in the wellconsolidated debris, may be manifestation of a blind thrust. The earthquake was also associated with marked changes in groundwater discharge. In many groundwater springs, flow increased by as much as ten times, surpassing even the post-monsoon discharge. Flow
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decreased and the water turned muddy, in one spring near village Bairagna, a possible indication of fluidisation and remobilisation of fine sediments. Response of Structures
The building stock in the affected area consists primarily of rural dwellings, urban houses and a few modern constructions. Load-bearing random rubble stone masonry in mud mortar forms the predominant wall system. Brick or concrete block masonry in cement mortar is used in many newer constructions. The roofing system is usually thatch, tin sheets, slate tiles, or reinforced concrete (RC) slabs. Many recent constructions are in RC frames, with masomy infill walls. In general, most of these are non-engineered with no formal involvement of engineers in design or construction. In this session we briefly discuss the performance of common types of buildings in these areas. TraditiCVlal stone dwellings
The traditional dwellings in the area are usually made up of one or two storeys with a rather low storey height (1.65 m). The walls are about 0.45-0.60 m thick and are made of random rubbles or slate wafers. The former type of walls has two separate layers, the outer and inner wythes, the intervening space being filled with stone rubble. In the latter type, dressed stones and slate wafers are stacked tightly using very little or no mud mortar. Most dwellings have wood rafter roof supported directly on the walls. Many old constructions and a few new buildings have wood rafter roof supported on vertical wooden posts. Some of the new constructions use RC roof directly resting on the walls. Houses described above performed poorly, as expected, and most deaths and injuries were caused by the collapse of such constructions. Among these types of
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constructions, those with masonry walls in slate wafers performed better than those in random rubble masonry, probably due to better interlock4ng in the latter. The most common damage pattern was the separation of wythes following which the walls tended to buckle. Brick masonry buildings and buildings with lintel bands
In general, buildings with burnt brick masonry in mud or cement mortar performed much better than the traditional stone masonry buildings. Numerous recent constructions in stone as well as brick/ concrete block masonry are provided with a RC lintel band. Often rooms are provided with a RC shelf of about half metre width, projecting from the wall at the lintel level, serving the dual purpose of a storage slab and a lintel band. Most houses with lintel bands performed very well. Reinforced concrete frame buildings
Many RC frame buildings (up to four storeys) with brick masonry infill walls characterised by simple and regular configuration, performed well even though most of these were not formally designed, and certainly not for seismic loads. The common form of damage included separation cracks at the interface of the RC frame and infill panels, and cracking of infill material. Implications for the High Dam at Tehri
Construction of the 260 m high rockfill dam at Tehri, located between the MCT and the MBT has remained controversial since its inception. The environmental issues associated with the dam as well as the seismic design parameters have remained active topics of discussion. Occurrence of another earthquake in its vicinity is likely to enliven this debate. In this context, it may be useful to review some of these issues.
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Although no great earthquakes have been reported from the vicinity of the dam during the historic past, the Uttarkashi and the Chamoli events have occurred during a span of nine years, within a radius of - 125 km from Tehri. As mentioned earlier, the largest historic eartbquake in this region is the 1803 event of M > 7. Maximum intensity based on historic reportsindicates that the source of this earthquake may be within a distance of 50 km from the dam. Aside from current and historical activity, this region is believed to have undergone several movements in the recent geological past, as expressed by the morphological features like deep incision of rivers and development of river terraces. The WNW-ESE trending Srinagar Thrust is a prominent structure reported to be passing through the vicinity of the dam. Data on slip rates or fault offsets in trenches are not available, placing major limitations on the evaluation of recurrence rate of earthquakes in this region. However, probability for an earthquake during the projected life of the dam is considered to be high. Effect of impounClment of a large reservoir leading to the possibility of reservoir-induced seismicity (RIS) is another concern. Proximity to an active thrust and geological conditions favourable for infiltration of water into the deep fault zones may favour weakening of faults, leading to failure. Gupta and Rajendransuggested that the water load might tend to stabilise the thrust faults in the immediate vicinity of the Himalayan reservoirs, making them less prone to seismicity, although the delayed effect of pore pressure diffusion may be significant during later periods. Mathematical simulation for the load-induced changes at Tehri has also suggested a postponement of the next earthquake, but later studies suggest that the delay may be short-lived. Thus, the studies so far indicate that water-induced weakening of the faults may remain as a point of concern in the long-term life of the dam.
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Another important issue is the possibility of landslips, earthquake-induced or otherwise. A large chunk of land falling into the river could generate large waves that could breach the dam or could cause an overflow. Instances of landslips that caused enormous floods in the Indus River in Pakistan are reported. The landslips and rockfalls that followed a moderate earthquake at Chamoli (that too during a dry season) underline the serious threat posed by these processes and an urgent need to i.dentify landslide prone regions, from the point of seismic hazard associated with high dams in the Himalaya. A major issue of contention regarding the Tehri dam has been the choice of peak ground acceleration (PGA). Preliminary design of the dam was carried out by pseudostatic analysis for a design seismic coefficient of 0.12 g. Subsequently, dynamic analyses were carried out for earthquake motions with effective peak ground acceleration (EPGA) of 0.25 g, which was considered inadequate by many workers. Specialists from Russia have also been involved in the evaluation of the seismic hazard at the dam site and checking the dam's safety. After considering a number of postulated earthquake scenarios, their evaluation of dam safety was based on two worst ground motions: a M 6.5 earthquake on Srinagar fault with PGA of 0.5 g at Tehri site, and a M 8.0 event on the MBF with PGA of 0.4 g. At the time the dam was designed, strong motion records were not available for this region, and the characteristics of strong motion records obtained elsewhere were used to develop the design spectrum. Data on stress drop, attenuation characteristics and site amplification have also been very limited, for a proper evaluation of the seismic hazard in the Tehri region. In this context, the earthquake at Chamoli is significant as it provides a useful set of data.
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REFERENCES
Anita Chatterjee(ed.)., Academic Dictionary of Medicinal Plant, Delhi, Isha Books, 2005, vi, 264 p. Chadha K.L. (ed.)., Advances in Horticulture: Volume 11: Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Reprint, New Delhi, Malhotra Publishing House, 2006, XXXX, 935 p. Rama Swamy N., Biotechnological Applications for Improvement of Solanum Surattense: A Medicinal Plant, Delhi, Daya Pub., 2007, xii, 168 p.
2 Cultivation of Medicinal Plants The potential returns to the farmer from cultivation of medicinal plants is reported to be quite high. A 1995 study suggested that the cultivation of certain high altitude Himalayan herbs could yield products priced anywhere between Rs. 7,150 to 55,000 per hectare although it is not clear at which point in the marketing chain these prices are paid. What is clear however is that although estimates of returns vary widely, medicinal plants can be valuable crops. Rao and Saxena reported average annual (per hectare) income of Rs. 120,000 through mixed cropping of high altitude medicinal herbs. High altitude medicinal tend to command higher prices but those of lower altitudes are still significant. Data for some low altitude crops from the Amarkantak region of Madhya Pradesh show economic returns for four profitable species. Cultivation is clearly a sustainable alternative to coll°ction of medicinal plants from the wild. Most of the produce of cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants is exported as crude drugs e.g. Psyllium, senna leaves, opium poppy and Asgand. Unfortunately, however, due to emphasis being placed on important cash crops, as well as the fact that the majority of the cultivated species are not indigenous to India, most cultivation efforts are not alleviating the pressure being exerted on the natural resource base.
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Nevertheless, a number of techniques have been developed to increase the quality and yield of many of the cultivated species. It is estimated that Indian public sector research institutions have developed standardised practices for the propagation and agronomy of a total of about 40 species. Much of the research progress to date has resulted from the decision of the Indian Council for AgriculturaJ Research (ICAR) to establish an All-India Coordinated Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (AICRPMAP), in 1972, under the auspices of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). Efforts have mainly focused on the development of agro-technology techniques, including propagation methods for medicinal and aromatic plants. Aromatic plants have however tended to receive more attention, perhaps because their market values are in general more widely known. ICAR works through a network of research stations, including the National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic, Plants located in Anand, Gujarat, which specialises in domestication, and has created structural link3 between the NBPGR and its Plant Breeding Division in order to develop improved varieties of some of the medicinal plant species used in allopathic preparations. Another major national public research organisation, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), has also played a significant role with regard to cultivation of medicinal plants, through its creation of (CIMAP), the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, in Lucknow. CIMAP is now an eminent institution in India focusing on agrotechnology as wel1 as basic studies; improvement and enhancement of the resource base, and chemistry and related research regarding product development from plants. In connection with the two major research efforts described above, the Central Government initiated a five
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year program implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture to accelerate research and development of medicinal plants. Wj th the support of 16 state agricultural universities, state horticulture and agriculture departments, regional research laboratories and the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the GOI is establishing herbal gardens, nursery centres and Jemonstration seed production centres nation-wide. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (Department of rSM&H) started a "central scheme for development and cultivation of medicinal plants" in the year 1990-91 to encourage development of agrotechnique for important species through Govt/ semi-government organisations having expertise and infrastructure for this work. The scheme is expected to initiate studies on harvesting, drying, and storage of medicinal plants. Private companies have also started to invest in the cultivation of medicinal plants, since they face difficulties with regard to increasing supply gaps as well as in some cases adulterated materials from the wild. One such company, the Arya Vaidya Sa1a, in Kottakal, Kerala, in addition to maintaining two large herbal gardens, has also undertaken research on the propagation of 10 species, the demand for which currently outstrips supply, or may soon do so. MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE
Under Reproductive Child Health (RCH) programme it was decided to include Ayurvedic $ Unani medicines, and, to ensure the availability of raw material of good quality and quantity, "Vanaspati Van Yojna" was incorporated. Each Vanaspati Van was to be identified over waste lands and denuded forest of 3000 to 5000 hectare of contiguous areas. Since the forestland cannot be transferred and sold, the interested State Governments were advised to register a society under the Society Registration Act in the name of
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Vanaspati Van Society for a particular State. The SOCiety was to be headed by the Forest Officer with the members from the Department of Family Welfare and from the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine in its Executiye Committee. The experts of forest, agriculture, botany, Ayurveda and Unani were also incorporated in the Executive Committee. Keeping in view the geo-climatic conditions suitable for medicinal plants the conservation and propagation of about 100 plants species in the "Vanaspati Van" are encouraged in in-situ/ex-situ conditions. The site of the Vanaspati Van and suitability of the plants are identified by the Expert group of Government of India, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, and the State Government. There is a provision of providing assistance of Rs.1.00 crore per year for a period of 5 years. Subsequently the Vanaspati Van Society will be selfsustained by scientific harvesting the produce for the benefit of the community as well as the society. The State Governments of Himacha1 Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have started implementing this scheme and the State Governments of Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat U.P, and Tamilnadu are also approaching with the proposals. The ultimate objectives of the Scheme is to have at least onE' Vanaspati Van in each State so as to have full range of medicinal plants used in ISM. Improving Awareness and Availability of Medicinal Plants
Because of pressure of population the cultivation of food grains and commercial crops has progressively practically eliminated locally growing medicina1 plants and because of the vast changes in the social system, the family traditions have also become weak. Worldwide there has been a huge growth in the popularity of alternative medicine and herbal products mainly due to their being no harmful side effects
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when genuine medicinal plants are used. To address both these problems and to resurrect a highly cost effective preventive health and medical care system the NGOs will be assisted for raising nurseries of medicinal plants which are known to grow in that particular area. They will distribute the medicinal plants free of charge to desirous families and village level ISM practitioners. These practitioners will be encouraged to grow these plants over a somewhat larger piece of land about 1-2 acres (if that can be managed). This will enable the products of these medicines to be not only readily available but to be available in a pure form. The NGOs will also be simultaneously assisted to do extension work and educate local population about the uses of locally available medicinal plants for preventive health and for curative purposes. In order to ensure impact, NGOs will be asked to take up this work on a project basis for a district and only a few of the NGOs with proven large capability will be assigned more than one district. The applicant NGO having experience and expertise of medicinal plants in ISM will identify one district to propagate the ISM remedies. There is a provision of up to Rs.15.00 lakh per year for the scheme and the scheme can continue three to four years. Uthhan-Centre for Sustainable Development & Poverty Alleviation has improved awakening and availability of medicinal plants in Allahabad-Koshambi districts of Uttar Pradesh. For improving awareness and availability of medicinal plants the task force recommends cultivation of 25 species which are in great demand. Information on these species are listed as under: 1. AONLA
1. 2.
Name of Medicindl Plant Family
Emblica officinalis Gaertn Euphorbiaceae A deciduous tree,
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3.
4. 5. 6. i. ii.
Area Production Important States Cultural Practices Varieties/Types/Clones released/ identified Propagation methods and planting time
iii.
Fertiliser dozes
iv.
Irrigation schedule
v.
Diseases, pests and their control:
found in deciduous forests of the country upto 1350 m on hills. Often cultivated. 1300 ha 88200 t UP, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, Kanchan, Krishna, Balwant, NA-6, NA-7, NA-9, Anand-2 and B5-1. Moditied ring, patch and shield budding as well as soft wood grafting. June to August 1000 gm N, 500 gm PP2 and 750 gm ~O per plant/year. The fertiliser should be given in two split doses viz. Se~ and April-May. Irrigation to young plantation at 10 days interval during the summer. To fruit bearing plantations, first irrigation should be given just after manuring and fertilisation and then at 15 days intervals after fruit set (April) till onset of monsoon. Avoid irrigation during flowering period. Diseases/causitive Control Organism/ agent measures Aonla rust (RavenelIia emblica) Fruit rot (Pencillum islandlium) Necrosis (Boron Deficiency)
Spray (twice) Dithane Z 78(0.2%) during JulySeptember. Treating the fruits withNacl solutions. Spra y of 0.5%0.6% borax in SeptOctober Months.
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42
Bark eating caterpillar (Inderbela tetraonis)
Injecting kerosene oil/Dichlorovols or Endo-Sulfan (0.05%) in holes and plugging with mud
Shoot gall maker (Betousa stylophora)
Galled twigs should be pruned. Spray of 0.05% monocrotophos emblica) during season
Aphid (Cerciaphis rainy Scale insect
Spraying of dimethoate @ 0.03%
Anar butterfly (Virachola isocrates) 7.
Planting time i) Rainy season ii) Spring season
8.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
9.
Post Harvest Management
Application of monoCrotophos @ 0.05% Remove and destroy all the affected· fruits.
July to September Mid of January to March The fruit is rich source of vitamins and minerals. High vitamin C content (750-850 mg/lOO gram pulp) Different varieties mature at different period e.g Chakaiya (January), Banarasi (October end), Krishna (December) and Francis (mid November - December). Large size fruits (4 cm. & above) free from blemishes are used for preserve, candy and pickle. Small sized fruits are used for chavanprash making and defective fruits are used for Trifala making. Generally, basket
Culti I'ation of Medicinal Plants
10.
Cost of Cultivation
11.
Internal consumption and export potential
12.
Action and uses
13.
Compound Preparations alkaloid can be easily obtained
for pigeon pea stem and gunny bag of 40-50 kg capacity with newspaper as liners are used for packing of aonla fruits. However, wooden crate with polythene lines is most suitable for packing and long distance transportation, Aonla fruits can be stored upto 1520 days at low temperature (1015°C). However Chakaiya can be stored upto 45 and 75 days in 10% and 15% salt solution respectively without any decay. Cost benefit ratio is 1 :4. Pay back period is six years. Export potential yet to be exploited, Huge internal demand in ISM. Aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, digestive, diuretic, laxative, refrigerant and tonic. Useful in anaemia, jaundice, dyspepcia, haemorrhagic disorders, bilionsness. diabetes, asthma, bronchitis, An Ayurvedic preparation Chyavanprasha is very much valued for its restorative action Chyavanprasha, Dhatri Lauha, Amalki Rasayana, from the roots in the form of its salts.
2. ASWAHAGANDHA
Name of Medicinal Plant
1. 2. 3.
Family Yield Plant rart
4.
Actual Ingredients
5.
Important States
Withania somnifera Dunaf Solanaceae 300-400 kg roots/ha + 50-75 kg seeds/ha Withaferin, Anaferin, Tropine and many othe! Alkaloides and Steriodes Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
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44
6.
Cultural Practices i) Varieties/Types/Clones released/identified ii)Propagation methods and planting time iii) Fertiliser doges
iv) Irrigation schedule iv) Diseases, pests and their control
7.
8.
9.
10.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Post Harvest Management
Cost of cultivation (Cost: benefit ratio) Internal consumption export potential
11.
Any other remarks
12
Action and uses
13.
Parts used Root Compound preparation
14.
Jawahar Asgandh - 20, Jawahar Asgandh 134 and Rakshita Direct sowing of seeds (Broadcasting) Planting time in 3rt! week of August to September. The crop is mainly grown on residual fertility. Hence, no fertilisers applied Rainfed Major disease is damping off, seedling rotting, seedling blight. Seed treatment with Captan 3 g/kg seed is recommended. Alkaloids and Steroids The crop is ready in six month, harvesting starts from January and continues up to March. Average yield 400-500 kg of root and 50 kg seed/ha. Cleaning, drying and grading of roots. About Rs.1000/ha and gross return about Rs.28oo (CB ratio 1:2:8) Huge internal consumption also being and exported. Immunomodulator /Rasayan drug, general tonic in arthritis. Alterative, aphrodisiac, tonic, deobstruent, diuretic, narcotic, abortifacient. Used in rheumatism, consumption, debility from old age. Ashwagandhadi churna, Ashwagandha rasayana, Ashwagandha Ghrit, Ashwagandharishta
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
4S
3. ASHOKA
3. 4.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Local Name Habit and Habitat
5.
Important Habit.lt
6.
Cultural Practices i. Propagation methods and planting time ii. Irrigation Schedule Biochemical analysis (Active Ingredients)
1. 2.
7.
9.
Utilisation
10.
Plant used
Saraca asoca (roxb.) DC Wild. Leguminosae Ashoka A small evergreen tree 6-9 m. high, found wild along steams or in the shade of evergreen forests. It occurs almost throughout India up to an altitude of 720 m in the Centre and Eastern Himalayas & khasi, Garo & Lushai hills. It is also found in the Andaman islands. Leaves pi! ' pinnate, 15··20 em long, leaflets 6-12, oblong, lanceolate, flowers organe or orangeyellow, very fragrant, pods flat, leathery, seeds 4-8, ellipsoidoblong. Himalayas, Bengal and Western Peninsula. Seeds. Seedlings are raised and planted in rainy season Rainfed Haematoxylin, tannins and glycoside, leucopelargonidin and leucoeyanidin have been extracted from the barks 8. Post Harvest Management Bark is removed and sun dried fur use in preparation of various herbal medicines. The bark is reported to stimulate the uterus, making the contractions more frequent and prolonged without producing tonic contraction as in the case of pituitary ergot. It is also reported to cure biliousness dyspepsia, dysentery, colic, piles and pimples. Leaves possess blood purifying properties. Flowers used in dysentery and diabetes. Bark
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11. 12.
Actual Ingredients Internal consumption and export potential
13.
Action and uses
14.
Compound Preparations
Tannin and Catechol Internal consumption is quite high in pharmaceutical industries. Good export potential Astringent, used in menorrhagia and uterine affections, internal bleeding, bleeding haemorrhoids and haemorrhagic dysentry. Ashokarishta, Ashokaghrita
4. ATIS
4.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Use of Plant Part Actual Ingredients Important Habitats
5.
Cultural Practices
6.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
7.
10.
Post Harvest Management Cost of cultivation Internal consumption and exports Action and Uses
11.
Compound Preparations
1. 2. 3.
8. 9.
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall Ranunculaceae Root Alkaloids (atisine 0.4%) Common in Alpine and subalpine zone of the Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon from 6000 to 15000 ft. from the sea level. Local clones Propagation through seeds in rainy season Root alkaloids: hetrophylsive, hetrophylline and hetrophyllidine, heteratisine, artisine, altidine, F dihydroatisine, Isatisine, Hetisine, Hetidines and Hetisinone. Roots are dried and powdered Not exploited commercially: Roots are exported Antipyretic, antiperiodic, aphrodisiac, astringent tonic. Used in diarrhoea, indigestion, cough troubles during dentition in children. Balachaturbhadra, Ativishadi Chuma
5. BAlBERANG
1.
Name of Medicinal Plant
Embelia ribes Burm. F
47
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
2. 3.
Family Habit and Habitat
4.
Plant Part used Actual Ingredients Cultural Practices
5. 6.
7.
i) Varieties"/Types/Clones released / identified ii) Propagation methods and planting time Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
8.
Post Harvest Management
9.
Action and uses
10.
Compound Preparations
Myrsinaceae A scandanl shrub, reported to be distributed in the hilly parts of India, Assam and Tamil Nadu upto to 1700 m. Fruits Embelin (2.5-3.1%)
Local types Seeds are sown in rainy season Embelin, raponone, homoembelin and homorapanone, quercitol, christembine. Fully mature fruits are harvested and dried in sun. Anthelmintic, alterative, astringent, carminative, stimulant and tonic. Used in colic, constipation, flatulence and worms. Vidangadi churna, Vidanga lauha, Vidanga taila.
6. BAEL
1.
2. 3. 4.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat Yield Plant Part used Actual Ingredients
5.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties /Types/ Clones Released/ identified
Aegle marmelos L.Corr. Rutaceae A small or medium sized tree, distributed throughout the country. 7500 t Fruits and leaves (200-400 fruits/ tree) Non reducing sugars, essential oil, abscisic acid and marmelosin. Some well known types have been named according to fruit shape and locality e.g Mirzapuri, Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri etc. Some improved selections are: NB-4, NB-5, NB"9.
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ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser dose
iv. Irrigation
Vegetative propagation by Patch budding in June-July. For 8 years old and onwards trees, 80 kg FYM, 480 g N, 320 g P and 480 g K/ tree/year is recommended. In the initial years, plants require frequent irrigation. Once established, light irrigation should be given after manuring and fertilisation and proper soil moisture may be maintained after fruit set.
v. Diseases, pests and their control Name Bacterial shot
6.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
7.
Post Harvest Management
Control Measures Spray of streptomycin Hole sulphate @ 500 ppm. (Xanthomonas controls this disease. BiIvae) Fruit c.lnker Precaution should be . taken so that fruit is Not hurt during plucking Also during transportation, the fruit should be packed tightly. Protein (1.8%), Fat (0.39%), minerals (1.7%), Carbohydrate (31.8%), Carotena (55 mg/100 fruit), thiamine (0.13 mg/100g), riboflavin (1.190 mg/lOO). At the time of harvest, tree become leafless and fruits get completely exposed. The fruits are picked individually from the tree keeping a portion of fruit stalk. Fruits are usually packed in gunny bags, baskets or wooden crates using newspaper as cushioning material. F~its are quite hardy and they can be stored well at ambient
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
8.
Internal consumption and export potential
9.
Cost of cultivation
10.
Action and uses
11.
Parts used
12.
Compound Preparations
13.
Any other remarks
49
temperature. However, fruits can be stored for 12 weeks at 9°C. Fruits are mostly consumed in our country. Export potential to be explored. Cost-benefit ratio is 1:3 and pay back period is SIX y~ars. Aromatic, astringent, carminative, cooling, laxative, febrifuge, stomachic; used in colitis, diarrhoea, dysentery and flatulence. Root is also an ingredient of Dashmoola. Fruits, root bark, leaves, rind of the ripe frurt, flowers. Bilwapanchaka Kwath, Bilwandi Churna, Dashrnoola rishta, Dashmools Kwath Presence of marmelosin in fruits has anthelminitic activity.
7. BRAHMI
1.
2.
3.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Yield Plant part Actual Ingredients
4.
Habit & Habitat
5.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types / Clones Released/identified' ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser doses
iv. Irrigation
Bacopa monnieri L Scrophulariaceae Whole plant especially leaves (100 kg dry herb/ha) Alkaloid, brahrnine A small herb found throughout India upto 4000 feet. Plant an annual, creeper is mostly found near waterlogged place.
Subodhak and Pragyashakti By runners and by seeds, In rainy season 100 kg N/ha in three splits; 60 kg P205 60 kg K20/ha at the time of planting After sowing/transplanting
so
Advances in Medicinal Plants
6.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
7. 8.
10.
Post Harvest Management Cost of cultivation Gross return Net return "Internal consumption and export potential Uses
11.
Compound Preparations
9.
Plant contains bacosides A & B, bacogenins, stigmasterol, stigmaotanol B-sitosterol. Leaves give herpestine/ Monnierin is also isolated from the plant. Harvesting in October-November Rs.35,OOO / ha Rs.2,OO,000 / ha Rs. 1,65,000 /ha Having internal and external demand. Used as nervine tonic/memory enhancer Sarasvatarisht, Brahmighrit, Brahmivati.
8. CHANDAN
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Actual Ingredients Distribution
I
Cultural Practices . i. Varieties/Types/Clones released/identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser dozes iv. Irrigation schedule v. Diseases, pests and their control
Santalum album Linn Santalaceae Essential oil (1.5-6%) A small evergreen tree, distributed in dry scrub forests of Salem, Mysore, Coorg, Coimbatore, Nilgiris upto 900 m. altitude. Also reported to be found in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamilnadu.
Local type By seed and grafting. Seedlings are raised in polythene bags and plants during rainy season. 20t FYM/ha. Fertiliser requirement not yet worked out. Rainfed Spike disease is common which is caused by mycoplasma. Under severe infection, the whole plant dies. Jassids (Pentacephala
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
6.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
7.
Post Harvest Management
8.
Internal consumption and export potentIal
9.
Action and use
10.
Compound Preparations
51
nigrilines), Fulgoroides and sandal wood beetle are important insects reported to cause considerable lo~s. Alphasantalal, beta santalol and alphs and beta santalene are the main constituents in the oiL Sandal wood trees are harvested at the age of 30-60 years. The soft wood is first removed, the hard wood is chipped and then converted into powder in a mill. The powder is soaked in water for 48 hours and then distilled. Distillation takes place in 48 hours. The oil is rectified by redistillation and filtration. Export of sandal wood chips and oil and dust was 552.2 and 29.5 t respectively during 1995-96. Besides our internal consumption in cosmetics and perfumery industries is also high. Antiphlogistic, antiseptic, cooling and styptic. The wood round up with water into a fine parts is commonly applied to local infammations, to the temples in fever and to skin diseases to allay heat and pruritus. It is internally administered in cystitis, gonorrhoea, haemorrhagia, urinary disorders and gleet. Chandanasava.
9. CHlRATA
1.
Name of Medicinal Plant
2.
Family Use Plant part Actual Ingredients Habit and Habitat .
3. 4.
Swertia chirata syn. S.Chirata Buch - Ham. Gentianaceae Whole plant used Alkaloids An erect herb, found in temperate Himalayas between 1300-3000 m.
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5
Cultural Practices i. Propagation methods and planting time ii. Fertiliser doses iii. Disease
6.
Biochemical analysiS (Active ingradients)
7.
8.
Post Harvest Management Internal consumption and export potential
9.
Action and uses
10.
Compound Preparation
from Kashmir to Bhutan and Khasia hills. It is scarcely available in the market and generally substituted by Andrograpis paniculata Nees or other species of Swertia. Propagated by seeds. The seeds are sown in the nursery and then seedlings are transplanted in the field. FYM is ideal for these plants Some species of this genus are reported to serve as alternate host of blister rust of Pinus. Plant contains alkaloids gentianine, gentiocrucine, enicoflaving, swer - chirin. Plant is antiinflammatory, swerchirinantimalarial, hypoglycaemic. Drying of plants Huge demand in ISM and was imported at a tune of 58.22 t valued at Rs.14.61 lakhs in 1995-96. Bitter, tonic, stomachic, laxative, febrifuge. Used in anorexia, biliary disorders, cough, constipation, fevers, skin diseases, worms. Kiratadi Kwath, Sudarshan Churna.
10. GILOE
1.
Name of Medicinal Plant
2.
Family Local Name Habit & Habitat
3.
4.
Tinospora cordifolia wild miers, ex hook Meninspermaceae Giloe A large, glabrous, deciduous climbing shrub found throughout tropical India. Ascending to an altitude of 300 m. Stem rather succulent with long filiform flesh aerial roots from the branches. Bark gray-brown or creamy white. Leaves membranous, cordate with a
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
5.
Propagation
6.
Utilisation
7.
Plant part used Active Ingredients tultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones Released/identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Crop duration Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
8. 9.
10.
11.
Post Harvest Management
12.
Internal consumption & export potential
53
broad sinus. Flowerl' small, yellow or greenish yellow, appearing when the plant is leafles~ Drupes ovoid, glossy, succulent, red Seed curved. The Plant is sometimes c:ultivated as ornamental & propagated by cuttings. The plant is used in general debilities, dyspepsia, fever & urinary disease. The leaves are good as fodder for cattle and rich in proteins and fairly in calcium and phosphorous. A decoction of the leaves is used for the treatment of gout. The young leaves bruised in milk, are used as a liniment in erysipeals. The leaves are beaten with honey and applied to ulcers Dried & powdered fruit mixed with ghee or honey is used as a tonic and also in the treatment of Jaundice and rheumatism. The root is a powerful emetic and used for visceral obstructions. Its watery extract is used in leprosy. Stem and Leaves Alkaloid
Locally grown Stem cuttings. Planting time is rainy season. Perennial Tinosporon, Tinosporic acid, Tinosporol, Giloin, gilonin, berberine, cordifol, Tinosporidine. The stem and leaves dre harvested and dried in sun. Mostly consumed by Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals
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54
13.
Action
14.
Uses
Rejuvinator, astringent, antipyretic, blood purifier and curative of dermatosis. General debility, pyrexia, skin diseases, gout, rheumatic arthrites and spure.
11. GUGGAL
1.
Name of Medicinal Plant
2. 3.
Family Yield Plant Part Actual Ingrt:.!ients Habit and Habitat
4.
5.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones released / identified ii. Propagation methods iii. Fertiliser doses iv. Irrigation Schedule v. Diseases, pests and their control
6.
Harvesting and yield
7.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
Commiphora wightii (Am) Bhandari Burseraceae 700-900 g gum per plant Tree yield an oliogum-resin-guggulipid A shrub or small tree, reported to be found in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Deccan and Gujarat. Local types Plants raised (about 80% success) by cutting. Application of 5 kg FYM and 25-50 gm urea per bush per year. Require moderate irrigation Plants are affected by white ants, Cercospora leaf spot and bacterial leaf blight. Control: Pits are filled with FYM and treated with BHC or aldrin to protect the new plants from white ants. Plants attain normal height and girth after 8-10 years of growth when they are ready for tapping of the gum by shallow incision on the bark between December and March. Gum resin contains guggulsteraes Z and E guggulsterois, two diterpenoids-a terpene, hydrocarbon named cembme A and B, a cfiterpene-a1cohol-mukuloI3 camphorone and cambrene
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
8.
Action and uses
9.
Compound Preparations
10.
Marketing
55
Carminative, antispasmodic, disphoretic, ecbolic, antisuppurative, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, Gum resin is commonly used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Yogarajaguggu!u, Kaishoreguggulu, Chandraprabha vati. Gum-resin is in great demand.
12. INDIAN BARBERY
L
2.
3. 4.
5. 6. 7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Local Name Habit & Habitat
Plant part used Actual Ingradients Important States Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types / Clones Released/identified Propagotion
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Post Harvest Management
Berberis aristata DC Berberidaceae Chitra, Rasaut An erect spinous shrub, 2 - 6 m. high, often forming gregarious patches, pale yellowish-brown bark, closely and rather deeply furrowed. Flowers are golden-yellow. It occurs in the Himalayas between 2000 3000 m & also in Nilgiri Hills. Root bark, stem, wood fruit. Barberine Assam, Bihar and Himalayan Region
Local clones Propogation is from seeds, self sown in nature. Seedlings or cuttings can be taken during spring season after the berries are over. Layering is also recommended since the cuttings present some difficulties. Barberine (alkaloid) Drying of barks
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12.
Utilisation
13.
Action and uses
14.
Compound Preparations
The use of the roots as a source of Rasaut has been referred to. The dried berries are edible. The alkaloidal content. Berberine, the principal alkaloid can be easily obtained from the roots in the form of its salts. Rasaut, mixed witii butter and alum, or with opium & lime-juice & painted over the eyelids as a useful louse-hold remedy in acute conjuctivities and in chronic ophthalkmia. A yellow dye is obtained from root and the stem. The berberry dye has been largely used in tanning & colouring of leather. Stomachic, astringent, tonic, antiperiodic, diaphoretic, antiphyretic, alerative, purgative. Used in menorrhagia, diarrhoea, jaundice, skin diseases, malarial fever. Darvyadi Kwath, Darvyadi leha, Darvyadi taila.
13. ISkBGOL
3.
Name of M~dicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
4. 5. 6.
Area under cultivation Production in tonnes Yield Plant part
7.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones released/identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time
1.
2.
Plantago Ovata Forsk Plantaginaceae A herb found in Punjab plains and low hills from Sutlej westwards, Sindh and Baluchistan. 50000 ha 48000 t of seeds Seeds 900-1500 kg/ha, Husk-225375 kg/ha RI-87, RI-89, AMB-2, GI-I, GI-2, MI 4, MIB-121, HI-34, HI2, HI-I, HI-5, NIHARlKA By seeds Mid October to Mid December
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
iii. Fertilisers doses
iv. Irrigation schedule
v. Diseases, pests and their control
8. 9.
10. 11.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Post Harvest Management
Cost of cultivation Internal consumption and export potential
57
N:P 50:25 kg/ha (25 kg of N + full P as basal dose 25 Kg N as top dressing 35 DAS) 3 to 6 irrigations, Presowing, after sowing, Seedling stage, Spike formation stage, Flowering stage, Seed development stage depending upon the soil type and agro climatic condition. Downy mildew and Powdery mildew: Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 @ 2.0 to 2,5 g/lit or Bordeaux mixture 6:3:100 for downy mildew and Karathane W.D. (0.2%) for Powdery mildew 6:3:100 for downy mildew, Karathane W.D (0.2%) for Powdery mildew. Wilt: Wilt disease is also observed which can be controlled by seed treatment with Bavistin or Benlate 2.5g/kg of seed. Sucking type of pests (Aphid) attach the crop. Spraying with Endosulfan @ 0.5% or Dimethodafe @ 0.2% at fortnighty interval can control the aphids. Protein, polysaccharides, cellulose, pectin, oil, muscilage. Crop matures during March-April (110-130 days). It should be harvested when atmosphere is dry. Harvested plants spread over and after 2 days they are threshed with tractor /bullocks. Pinkish type husk are removed from the seed coat by processing through a series of grinding in mills to separate husk. Cost of Cultivation = Rs.19320/ha Isabgol seed 17,680.63 tonnes valued at Rs.4,069.78 lakhs and husk 2580.29 tonnes valued at Rs.1663.73 lakhs exported during
Advances in Medicinal Plants
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12.
Action and uses
13.
Parts used
14.
Any other remarks
the period from April-October, 1997-98. Besides our internal consumption is also quite high. Demulcent, cooling, diuretic; used in inflammatory conditions of the mucous membrane of gastro intestinal and genitourinary tracts, in chronic dysentery, diarrhoea and constipation. Seeds and seek husk. Used as single drug for cure of constipation and Dysentery. This crop has good export potential and can be exploited commercially
14. JATAMANSI
1.
2-3.
• 4.
5.
5.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
Yield Plant part Actual Ingredients Cultural Practices i. Varieties /Types / Clones released / identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time
Nardostachys jatamansi De Valerianaceae An erect perennial herb with long, stout, woody rootstock; found in alpine Himalayas at 3500- 5000 m. extending eastwards to Sikkim and Bhutan. The species is vulnerable . Rhizome (1290 kg/ha) Valeopotriate and Essential Oil
Dalhouse clones Seeds and Roots. Seed nursery preparation in July / Aug. Transplanting after 6-8 weeks (April/May) iii. Fertiliser doses 60:20:40 NPK iv. Irrigation schedule One irrigation soon after sowing and 2-3 irrigations during rain free condition. v. Diseases, pests and their No serious pests and diseases. control Biochemical analysis Volatile essential oil 0.5% (Active ingredients) (Valeopotriates and Valerian oil)
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
6.
Post Harvest Management
7. 8.
Cost of cultivation (Cost: benefit ratio) Action and uses
9. 10. 11.
Parts used Compound Preparations Any other remarks
59
Harvested roots washed and dried in shade condition. Not commercially cultivated Aromatic, bitter, tonic, antispasmodic, deobstruent, stimulant, antiseptic, diuretic, emmenagogue. Used in epilepsy, hysteria, chorea, convulsions, palpitation of heart, mental disorders, insomnia. Root-stock Mansyadi Kwath Crop is not under regular cultivation, so then' is a rapid depletion of the plant from its natural sources. Quality degradation under storage is reported.
15. KALMEGH
1.
Name of Medicinal Plant
2.
3.
Family Yield Plant part Actual Ingredients .:"
4.
Habit and Habitat
5.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones released / identified ii. Propagation methods and Planting time iii. Fertiliser doses
Andrographis paniculata Acanthaceae Panchang (Stem, leaf, flower, seed and root) Kalmeghin Andrographolide (0.8-2.%%). Leaves contains maximum while stem contains minimum amount. A small herb found throughout India in plains of Himachal Pradesh to Assam, Mizoram, Gujrat, Bihar and South India. .Local clones. There is no named variety. Propagated by seed and cuttings. Seedlings/plantlets raised in nursery in last week of July. Poultry manure or FYM 10 t/ha, Castor cake 2 t/ha, 75 Kg N, 75 Kg P~Q5·
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iv. Irrigation schedule
6.
Post Harvest Management
7.
Cost of cultivation Gross return Net return Internal consumption and export potential
8.
Kharif season crop. If rain is inadequate then 2-9 irrigations are given. Crop duration 90-100 days. Harvesting is done in end of October and l't week of November. Harvest should be spread over on the floor and it should be covered at night to protect from dew. One week drying under shade is required. Average yield 2-2.5 t/ha dry herb. Rs.10,000/ha Rs.43,OOO/ha Rs.33,000 Iha A yurvedic formulations for debility, chronic malaria, jaundice, anemia and loss of apetite. Andrographis preparations in different potencies for Homeopathic medicines.
16. KATKI
1.
2.
3.
4. 5.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
Cultural Practices Propagation method Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
6. 7.
Post Harvest Management Action and uses
8.
Parts used
Picrohiza Kurroa Royle ex Benth Scrophulariacae A perennial herb, found in Alpine Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 2700 -4500 m. Through seeds and rhizome Bitter glucoside Kutkin (3.4%), Kurrin, (0.5%), Vanillicacid (0.1%). Drying Bitter tonic, antiperiodic, cholagogue, stomachic. Used in dyspepsia, fever, diseases of liver & spleen including jaundice, anaemia, scorpion stings and in purgative preparations. Root and rhizome
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
9. . Compound Preparations 10. 11.
Internal consumption and export potential Any other remarks
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Arogyavardhani, Katukadya lauha, Tikkadi Kwath, Tiktadighrita Limited internal consumption Threatened perennial herb but can be domesticated and cultivated.
17. KOKUM
1. 2. 3.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
4.
Area under cultivation Production Yield Plant part Actual Ingredients Distribution
5.
6.
7.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones released/ identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser doses iv. Irrigation schedule
v. Disease and Pests
8.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
Garcinia indica Linnacus Clusiaceae Frequent in evergreen and deciduous forests along the coasts on win-ward side of Western Ghats to 400 m. 1200/ha 10200 t Ripe Fruit, 8.5 t/ha Hydroxy Citric Acid (HCA) Cambogin & Camboginol A tree found in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, South Gujarat, Assam and West Bengal.
Konkan Amrita and local types By soft wood grafting, July August 20 Kg FYM + 500 gm N + 250 gm P20S· Normally grown as rainfed crop. Hence regular irrigation is not in vogue for grown up orchards. Hardy crop. No major disease and pests. Leaf minor and pink disease sometime occurs which can be easily controlled. Arabin, essential oil, resin, tartaric, citric and phosporic acids, Hydroxy citric Acid.
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9.
Post Harvest Management
10.
Cost of cultivation Net return Internal consumption and export potential
11.
12.
Any other remarks
Harvesting in March to April. Drying of fruits and bark Rs.13000/ha Rs.34300/ha 1:1:37 Fruit mainly used for preparation of value added products like Kokum syrup, dried kokum rind etc. which are consumed within the country. However, kokum seed fat is exported to Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Singapore, U.K and Malaysia. Good export potential. Hardy rainfed crop in coastal tropical region in the country. Crop has outs- standing medicinal properties (acidulent, dyscentry, pains, heart problems etc.) and also spice quality.
18. KERTH
1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Area under Cultivation Production Yield Plant part Actual ingredients
6.
Important States
7.
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types / Clones released/ identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Irrigation schedule
Saussurea lappa Compositae About 100 ha About 200 t Tuberous Roots Essential oil (1.5%) Saussunine (0.05%) Kashmit valley a&K) Lahaul spiti (HP) Garhwal (UP)
Kashmir & Punjab types Seeds are sown in May 5-6 irrigations between MaySeptember.
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iv. Diseases, pests and their control v. Crop duration Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients)
9.
Post Harvest Management
10
Cost of cultivation (Cost: benefit ratio)
11.
Internal consumption and export potential
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No major pests and diseases 3 years. • Essential oil (1.5%). Essential oil constituents (Aplotaxena 20%, Sesquiterpenes (60%), Saussuine alkaloid, Kushtin, Lactones, Costunolide, Palmitic Acid, Dihydrodehydrocostus, lactone, propyl acetate, lauric acid. Economical yield is obtained from 3 year old crop. Root is harvested in early spring. The roots are cleaned with water and dried for processing. 1:3.2 (in 3 years) Cost of cultivation : Rs. 14, 0007Gross income: Rs. 45,0007Exported to China, Japan, Italy and France. Internal consumption is limited.
19. L1QORICE
1. 2.
3.
4.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones released/ identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser doses
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn Papilionaceae A herb, reported to be found in subHimalayan tracts. Most of the requirement of Pharmaceutical industries is met by import only. Recently introduced in Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana. Haryana Mulhati No.1 (HM No.1) EC-I11236, EC-124587, EC-21950 By root cuttings February-March or July-August 10 t FYM/ha applied at the time of planting Chemical fertilisers: N 80 kg (40 kg basal dose + 20 kg each at 2nd + 3rd year), Pa0s-40 kg/ha and KaO 20 kg/ha.
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iv. Irrigation schedule
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
At 30-45 days intervals in summer or in dry season, 7-8 irrigations are needed.
v. Diseases, pests and their control Disease Causal name Organism Control i) Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z - 78 @ Leaf spot Cercospora 0.2%. ii) Bavistine (0.1%) followed by Daltan 0.3%. Bavistin or benlate before planting Rhizoctonia Root rot Collor rot batalicola Aerial portion should be cut and Selerotium sps destroyed. Carbonxazin 0.5% Bilitox 0.2%, 3-4 Wilting Fusarium sps times at an interval of 6 days after Leaf spot Alternaria tenius appearance of disease symptoms. Pests: Attack of terminate has Observed in light soils vi. Crop duration 2.5 to 3 year Biochemical analysis Glycyrrhizin (12-15%), Flavonoids (Active ingredients) (Apioliquiretin, liquiritin, Apiossliquiritin, Isoliquiritin, monin, liquisitigenin, Glycycocernarin, Glycysol and Glycyrin). Post Harvest Management After digging the roots in September, left in the field for sun drying, later the roots are sorted out and cleaned. Dry roots stored in polythene lined bags. Action and uses Laxative, demulcent, emllkient, tonics, aphrodisiac. Used in sore throat, cough, genitourinary diseases, anorexia, asthma, persistent low fever. Compound Preparations Yashtyadi churna, Yashtyadi Kwath' Yashtimadhwadya tails. Internal consumption and It is imported (about 5,000 to 10,000 export potential of dry roots annually) from Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq. Any other remarks Cultivation not yet popularised.
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20. LONG PEPPER
1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Habit and Habitat
Yield Plant part Actual Ingredients
Long Pepper (Piper longum Linn) Piperaceae A slender climber with perennial woody roots, found in hotter parts of India with humid damp climate, viz" Western ghats, central Himalayas to Assam, Khasi and Mikir hills and lower hills of Bengal Dry spike 650-700 kg/year/ha Root yield 500 kg/ha Piperine (4.5%) Essential oil 0.7%)
Cultural Practices i. Varieties/Types/Clones
released / identified ii. Propagation methods and planting time iii. Fertiliser doses
iv. Irrigation schedule
v. Diseases, pests and their control
6. 7.
Biochemical analysis (Active ingredients) Post Harvest Management
Cheemathipali, Viswam Rooted vine cuttings and suckers. Soon after the onset of monsoon Mostly grown as an under crop on residual fertility. 20 t FYM/ha. Application of inorganic fertilisers are not yet reported. During summer, one irrigation/ week. Sprinkler irrigation is also beneficiai. Leaf and vine rot & necrotic spots and blights on leaves (1% spray of Bordeaux mixture). Mealy bug attack (any systemic insecticides). Adults and nymphs of Helopeltis theivora attack (neems seed kernel extract @ 0.25%). Piperine and Piplartin The first harvest from vines is available after six months of planting. Spike are ready for harvest after two months of formation. Harvested spikes and roots are sundried and stored in moisture
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8.
Action and uses
9.
Compound Preparations
10.
Internal consumption and export potential
proof bags. The produce fetches price according to the grade. Alterative, tonic, sedative, vermifuge, cholagogue, emmenagogue. Used in cough, cold, chronic bronchitis, palsy, gout, rheumatism, lumbago, insomnia, epilepsy, asthma, amorexia, piles, dyspepsia, leucoderma. Gudapippali, Pippalikhanda, Pipalyasva. Huge internal consumption. 558.31t imported in 1995-96 valued at Rs.76.92 lakhs and 38.523t exported in 1995- 96 valued at Rs.17.02
21. SHANKAPUSHPI 1.
2. 3.
4.
Name of Medicinal Plant Family Distribution
5.
Part used Soil type
6. 7.
Rainfall Field preparation
Convolvulus pluricaulis Convolvulaceae A prostrate perennial herb found all over India, in Lalitpur district found in Talbehat, Meharauni and Lalitpur forest ranges. Present day availability is very low, approximately 50 - 60 quintal per year. Whole plant Sandy loams, Block cotton soils Red sandy soils; PH 5.5 to 7. It is also grown in marginal lands with good drainage and some organic matter applied to the soil. 800 mm - 1200 mm Deep ploughing in the month of May and is allowed to weather. 15 tons per hectare farm yard manure is spread out in the field during June before rains. After FYM applied and after on set of monsoons second ploughing is done followed by two cross harrowing. The land is finally
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Sowing
9.
Weeding-& Hoeing
10.
Harvesting
11. 12.
Biochemical analysis (active ingredients Action
13.
Uses
67
divided in to small blocks, The seeds are broadcast mIxmg with sand or Line sowing 30 cm x 30 cm also done. After sowing light top dressing of FYM is given. Very light watering is done. Seedlings appear within 30 days. Generally two weedings & hoeing are given within 40 - 50 days. Plants get flowers in October and seeds developed in December. Crop harvesting period is January to May. Whole plant is dried in shade and is stored for marketing. Alkaloids, Sankhpuspine Intellect promoting, nervine tonic, Expectrorant, Antileprotic, Refrigerant Insomnia, Insanity and Epilepsy, Cough, Skin disorders, Hyperpyrexia, General debility
REFERENCES
Kulkarni P.H. and Shahida Ansari., The Ayurvedic Plants, Delhi, Satguru Publications, 2004, xvi, 334 p. Rama Swamy N .. , Biotechnological Applications for Improvement of Solanum Surattense: A Medicinal Plant, Delhi, Daya Pub., 2007, xii, 168 p. Sherriff J., Catalogues of Indian Synonymes Medicinal Plants Inorganic Substances Propos, 675 p. Swami Brahmananda (ed.)., Common Medicinal Plants of India: A Complete Guide to Home Remedies, Delhi, Dominant, 2000, 327 p.
3 Bioprospecting of Medicinal Plants 'Bioprospectors' express optimism that they can help to implement the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity by encouraging biodiversity conservation and stimulating capacity building in developing countries. Many indigenous peoples, though, are sceptical of existing bioprospecting agreements. Most agreements are based upon acceptance of two international trends which indigenous peoples feel threatened by. These are the standardisation of intellectual property rights law, and the extension of nation state sovereignty to encompass all biogenetic resources within national boundaries. Bioprospecting is the collection and screening of biogenetic resources for industry. One of the first scientists to argue that such an activity could constihlte the basis for a conservation strategy was Thomas Eisner of Cornell University, USA. In 1989 Eisner and his colleagues in the International Society of Chemical Ecology adopted the Goteborg Resolution, which stated: Natural products constitute a treasury of immense value to humankind. The current alarming rate of species extinction is rapidly depleting this treasury, with potentially disastrous consequences. The International Society of Chemical Ecology urges that conservation measures be mounted worldwide to stem the tide of species extinction, and that vastly increased biorational studies be undertaken aimed at discovering new chemicals of use to medicine, agriculture and industry. These
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exploratory efforts should be pursued by a partnership of developing and developed nations, in such fashion that the financial benefits flow in fair measure to all participants.
The recent resurgence of natural product-based research by the pharmaceutical industry is mainly due to technological advances. However, as Eisner acknowledges, bioprospecting is hardly new. Since 18th century 'gene hunters' from Europe and North America have'discovered' botanical treasures iri the tropics, and these have generated enormous wealth. Indeed, for several generations virtually everybody living in the biodiversity-poor North has been a beneficiary of free northward transfers of biological resources. However, a number of influential conservationists believe that the world is undergoing an extinction' spasm', and that many resources are vanishing before people become aware of their existence. This situation is attributed mainly to large-scale clearances of the biodiversity-rich tropical forests. Southern governments are frequently blamed for letting this happen, but respond that as long as Northern countries fail to share the benefits of commercial exploitation of biogenetic resources, conservation cannot be justified economically. Intergovernmental negotiations, such as those resulting in the agreed text of the Convention on BiologkalDiversity, have to some extent accommodated the demands of multinationals seeking access to the resources of biodiversity-rich areas, and of Southern governments wishing to control what they regard as their biogenetic assets. Unfortunately, indigenous peoples have tended to be marginalised from these debates, as they are from by the types of partnership promoted by many bioprospecting . enthusiasts. I
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came into
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force in 1993 and has been ratified by over 160 countries. There are three main objectives (Article 1): the conservation of biological diversity the sustainable use of its components the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources Agreeing a text acceptable to governments in the biodiversity-poor North and the multinational companies on one side, and the Southern governments on the other, proved to be a difficult and contentious process. The latter countries together possess most of the planet's biological wealth but require greater scientific, technological and financial capacities to exploit it. The multinationals wanted continued free access to biological resources; Southern governments demanded technology transfers and benefitsharing as conditions for access. To some extent Southern governments prevailed. Nevertheless, only the United States refused to sign at the Earth Summit, the other Northern countries deciding that it was an agreement they could live with, as did most multinationals. In many ways, then, the CBD is a framework agreement setting out the terms on which the world's biogenetic wealth is to be shared out between nation states in the South and industrial concerns mostly in the North, but with some potentially far-reaching concessions to indigenous peoples and local communities. Thus, while the sovereignty of nation states is now extended by treaty to all genetic resources within their borders, the intellectual property rights of corporations were recognised in the final version of the CBD, albeit in somewhat ambiguous language. Brief reviews of these developments explain why indigenous peoples feel threatened by them. National sovereignty According to Article 15: Recognising the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, their authority to determine access to genetic
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resources rests with the national governments and is subject to national legislation.
Until recently, genetic resources have been considered as part of the common heritage of humankind. Given the widely disparate abilities of countries to exploit these resources profitably, it was understandable that developing countries would wish to challenge this assumption. However, this extension of the domain of the nation state is highly problematic for indigenous peoples, because it appears to contradict international human rights law, according to which 'all peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources'. Indigenous peoples fear that governments which enact legislation to implement the CBD will apply this principle unrestrictedly,
Developing countries in re~ent years have been put under tremendous pressure to adopt intellectual property rights (IPR) regimes that accord with the standards which now prevail in North America, Europe and Japan. Discussions on the standardisation of IPR have taken place mainly during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), although the CBD is another important forum where IPR has been debated. The Uruguay Round culminated in an international agreement commonly known as the 1994 GATT Final Act, which was signed in 1994 by 124 governments. It includes the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). During negotiations the United States and several other Northern countries demanded protection for biotechnology products and processes in the broadest possible sense, including the patenting of life-' forms. As a result, although members may exclude from patentability 'plants and animals other than
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microorganisms, and essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes', TRIPs does not easily allow countries to prohibit the patenting of all life-forms, whether on moral or other grounds. Therefore, patenting of genetically-modified organisms and even human genetic material will probably be permitted by more and more countries. Indigenous peoples are outspoken in their opposition to such patents, considering them to be violations of the sanctity of life and contrary to their moral beliefs. Despite certain ambiguities, the CBD tends also to support corporate IPR. Thus, Article 16 on Access to and Transfer of Technology, states in part: In the case of technology subject to patents and other intellectual property. rights, such access and transfer [of technology including biotechnology] shall be provided on terms which recognise and are consistent with the adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights.
While compliance with GATT-TRIPs and the CBD requires states to implement domestic legislation consistent with their provisions, a potential conflict exists. Implementing GATT 1994 will tend to harmonise IPR law, while national legislation to implement the CBD in biodiversity-rich countries is likely to link access to biogenetic resources to expanded nation state rights, and perhaps indigenous rights, too. Two important and inter-linked issues arise here: the possibility of adapting IPR regimes so they can protect indigenous knowledge, and the question of intellectual and biological 'piracy'. Conventionally, IPR are conferred upon individuals and corporate entities, but not upon communities. While intellectual property law can protect inventions of companies based upon the knowledge of local communities, the community knowledge itself cannot be protected. Furthermore, in the case of patents the
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geographic location of the source of the raw material used for the 'invention' has no bearing on the decision to accept or reject a patent application. These features of patents effectively support the act of 'biopiracy' in which indigenous peoples and local communities have their knowledge and resources taken and used without their authorisation by corporations and governments without their prior agreement. One controversial instance of this is the case of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), which has been used for centuries by Indian farming communities for numerous purposes, including protecting crops from insect pests. Two companies in the United States have patents for derivatives of the active principle without having compensated local farmers for their knowledge and prior use of the tree. It is estimated that the global. market for neem-based bioinsecticides will reach US$ 50 million per annum by the year 2000. Indigenous Perspectives
Given the sources of knowledge in such cases as neem, the fairness of IPR law is being questioned by indigenous peoples. The Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples expresses the concerns, demands and aspirations of hundreds of indigenous peoples' organisation around the world. Article 29 states that: Indigenous peoples are entitled to the recognition of the full ownership, control and protection of their cultural and intellectual property. They have the right to special measures to control, develop and protect their sciences) technologies and cultural manifestation, including human and other genetic resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs and visual and performing arts.
Evidently, indigenous peoples interpret their cultural and intellectual property broadly, so that these encompass much more than knowledge, but also their cultural
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heritage, their biological resources, and even their cells and DNA. In fact, indigenous peoples have their own regimes to regulate access to and control over knowledge and resources that are often more sophisticated than those based on IPR or national sovereignty. According to the North American indigenous peoples' organisation, the Four Directions Council: Indigenous peoples possess their own locally-specific systems of jurisprudence with respect to the classification of different types of knowledge, proper procedures for acquiring and sharing knowledge, and the rights and responsibilities which attach to possessing knowledge, all of which are embedded uniquely in each culture and its language.
For this reason, the Four Directions Council argues that: Any attempt to devise uniform guidelines for the recognition and protection of indigenous peoples' knowledge runs the risk of collapsing this rich jurisprudential diversity into a single 'model' that will not fit the values, conceptions or laws of any indigenous society. A better approach ...would be for the international community to agree that traditional knowledge must be acquired and used in conformity with the customary laws of the peoples concerned.
This perspective has limited support in the CBD, which, in Article lO(c) requires contracting parties to: Protect and encourage customary uSe of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements.
For indigenous peoples, then, protection of knowledge and re~urces, and continuation of customary law and practice, are\ \\=entral to maintenance of their cultural identity. Therefore, control over these is an aspect of human rights. This neeqis to be understood by aU governments, companies and otht institutions before they enter into negotiations for thp If'se of biogenetic resources on the territories of
Bioprospecting of Medicinal Plants
7S
indigenous peoples. These negotiations should certainly involve indigenous peoples. Often they do not. The following case, despite a generally favourable image, has attracted criticism for failing to accommodate local needs and concerns. National Biodiversity Institute
The National Biodiversity Institute of Costa Rica is frequently hailed as a model bioprospecting institution, and its agreements with pharmaceutical companies are regarded as examples for other countries to follow. It is true that INBio's activities and collaborations have some positive features, including capacity building and benefitsharing. In other respects, INBio and its agreements are inappropriate for other countries and may be inappropriate for Costa Rica, too. INBio is a private non-profit organisation which was established in 1989 with the blessing of the government. Its main objectives are to carry out a species inventory of the country - which is estimated to have 4% of the world's biological diversity - and to explore the commercial potential of the qmntry's biological resources. Costa Rica's 1992 Conservation of Wildlife Law declares national sovereignty over the biological diversity of the country. This is not equivalent to nationalisation of all biogenetic resources in the country. Nevertheless, the State has the exclusive right to grant permits to investigate, collect and exploit the country's biological diversity in the publicly-owned conservation areas, which make up 25% of the whole country. The Minis.try of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (MIRENEM) is authorised to grant bioprospecting permits in these areas, and INBio has such a permit. INBio's first and best known agreement with a multinational company was the one with Merck, which began in 1991 and has been renewed up to the present. Merck gave INBio an advance
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payment of US$1 million, equipment for an extraction laboratory, and a guarantee of royalties in case a product is derived from any of the extracts (of plant and insect specimens) which INBio will transfer to Merck. 50% of the royalties will go to the government's National Parks Fund through MIRENEM. The agreement has certain positive aspects. First, the advance payment, which is not a common feature of such agreements; second, INBio's freedom to supply extracts to other companies, including those given to Merck if two years have elapsed since Merck received them; third, INBio has control over taxonomic information on all its samples. Thus, if an extract shows promise for Merck to continue its research it will have to approach INBio again to obtain more material. However, before promoting the Costa Rican appro~ch as a model, certain points merit consideration: 1) The government has granted INBio prospecting rights to explore lands and biogenetic resources over which the State has jurisdiction. Although Costa Rica is more culturally homogeneous than its neighbours indigenous peoples exist whose inalienable rights to lands and resources pre-date the existence of the country. Therefore if indigenous peoples are not parties to negotiations, an argument can be made that both the government and INBio are effectively usurping the territorial and resource rights of indigenous peoples. 2) The government and INBio are the beneficiaries of the Merck agreement. The only way that local communities appear to gain in any direct sense is through the training of a small number of local'parataxonomists'. Furthermore, INBio will not contribute at all to revitalising local knowledge traditions because it professes to have no interest at all in such knowledge. Nor, one can only conclude, in the cultural diversity
Bioprospecting of Medicinal Plants
3)
77
that underpins such traditions. According to Maurice Iwu, a prominent Nigerian scientist: The kind of deal that was done in Costa Rica cannot be done in Nigeria .. ,The kind of deal that India and Nigeria [etc.] will negotiate has to recognise the multi-ethnic nature of our own societies. A company like Merck will tend to seek cures for therapeutic groups that are major concerns in developed countries, but which may be relatively less important in developing countries where other diseases and infections take higher priority. According to Iwu. Screening strategies should include parasitic infections and diseases to aid in the search for new treatments for diseases of primary concern to source country inhabitants, and proper objectives should not be limited to the generation of pure chemical isolates as pharmaceuticaJ leads, but should include the standardisation of phytomedicines for the benefit of traditional healers and their patients. The inclusion of such measures will contribute to an improvement of the quality of life of source country inhabitants.
Indigenous initiatives for self-determination
Indigenous peoples are concerned that bioprospecting expeditions, even those carried out with good intentions, will infringe their rights. To a large extent, the rules of the game are those of multinationals and nation states, and indigenous peoples still find it difficult to get their voices heard. In response, a growing number of groups, such as the Kuna of Panama, the Awa of Ecuador and the Inuit of the Arctic have developed their own regulations which visiting scientists must adhere to. In India local communities are setting up community registers of local knowledge of biodiversity to revitalise
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traditional knowledge systems for the benefit of future generations and to protect them from piracy. Such initiatives are being carried out independently of governments and companies. Other indigenous peoples have declared their opposition to bioprospecting. Participants at the UN Development Programmesponsored Regional Consultation on Indigenous Peoples' Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights held in April 1995, called for a moratorium on bioprospecting in the Pacific region and urged indigenous peoples: not to co-operate in bioprospecting activities until appropriate protection mechanisms are in place. Indigenous peoples demand that their right to selfdetermination be recognised beforethey are prepared to enter into negotiations over access to their territories and resources. Given the vital role indigenous peoples play in the conservation of biodiversity it is vital for .!:!.S all that national laws to implement the CBD and GAIT be enacted which uphold this right. ANTI-ARRHYTHMIC EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINE
Herbs have been used for medical treatment since the beginning of human civilisation. Herbal medicine has made many contributions to commercial drug preparations manufactured today including ephedrine from Ephedra sinica (rna-huang), digitoxin from Digitalis purpurea (foxglove), salicin (the source of aspirin) from Salix alba (willow bark), and reserpip.e from Rauwolfia serpentine (snake root). With wide use of herbs in Eastern traditional medicine as well as in Western medicinal drugs, continuing research is necessary to elucidate the pharmacological activities of many herbal remedies now being used to treat cardiovascular diseases, such as congestive hear! failure, hypertension, angina pectoris, atherosclerosis, and arrhythmias.
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Arrhythmias have accounted for significant cardiac morbidities and mortalities over the past few decades. Although some arrhythmias may appear benign or potentially dangerous, the majority of sudden cardiac arrests are a direct result of ventricular tachycardia (VT) and/ or ventricular fibrillation (VF). Although conventional anti-arrhythmic drugs have been shown to be effective in preventing arrhythmias, they themselves can also cause lethal arrhythmias in some conditions. It is known that electrical defibrillation is the only effective clinical means to treat VF. Currently, the shock strength required to successfully defibrillate is still high. A number of studies have been done to lower the defibrillation threshold (DFT). One of the means to decrease the DFf is to combine the defibrillation with the drugs. Both pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions to prevent these lethal arrhythmias have been widely investigated. Recently, many herbal products have been shown to be antiarrhythmic and would be useful to treat and prevent arrhythmias. Both crude extracts and pure compounds, that have been widely studied for their anti-arrhythmic effects in recent years. These consist of trilinolein, garlic, and certain other common herbal products. Continuing research is necessary to provide more information regarding the safety and efficacy of herbal medications now being used to treat arrhythmias. Trilinolein
Trilinolein, isolated from the traditional Chinese herb Sanchi (Panax notoginseng), has been used for treatin9 circulatory disorders in China for hundreds of years. Chemical structure of trilinolein consists of a triacylglycerol with the fatty acid and linoleic acid, which carries two unsaturated bonds, at all three esterified positi<:>n's of
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glycerol. Trilinolein has been shown to have various beneficial effects, including reduction in thrombogenicity, erythrocyte deformability and having antioxidant, antiischemic, and anti-arrhythmic effects in various experimental models. In a rat model study, trilinolein was reported to reduce ischemia-induced arrhythmias.9 In this study, trilinolein (0.01-100 ng/kg) was administered intravenously 15 min before ligation of the coronary artery. At dose of 100 ng/ kg, trilinolein has been shown to completely suppress all ventricular arrhythmias. Trilinolein also reduced the incidence, rate and duration of VT and the number of ectopic beats during the first 30 min of coronary ligation. Additionally, similar doses of trilinolein also reduced ventricular arrhythmias during 10 min reperfusion of the myocardium, following the 30 min of coronary artery ligation. . Furthermore, the effect of trilinolein on infarct size was evaluated by occluding the coronary artery for 4 hours before the infarct zone was stained and weighed. In rats subjected to 4-hour coronary ligation, pre-treatment with 10-7 g/kg trilinolein infused intravenously at 15 min prior to the coronary ligation significantly reduced infarct size. The anti-arrhythmic effects of trilinolein have been investigated in ventricular arrhythmia caused by digitalis intoxication. Ventricular arrhythmia is a frequent side effect with the use of digitalis, the mechanism underlying the arrhythmias induced by cardiac glycosides being complex. It has been shown that delayed afterdepolarisation (DAD) is responsible for such arrhythmia. DAD is believed to be generated by the overloading of intracellular Ca2+ stores, caused by the inhibitory effect of digitalis on the Na+ /K+ pump which subsequently activates the reverse mode of the Na+ /Ca2 +exchanger. Treatment of guinea pigs with trilinolein (0.1-100 p.g/ kg) prior to intravenous administration of strophanthidine
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significantly reduced ventricular extrasystoles which were related to DADs induced by cardiac glycoside. It is known that low concentrations of trilinolein effectively reduced Ca 2+ influx in isolated rat cardiomyocytes. Similar mechanisms may be involved in reducing strophanthidineinduced ventricular extra systoles. Excess of Ca2+ and overloading of Ca 2.. not only favors abnormal automaticity as well as trigg~red activity created by DADs, but also induces cell-to-cell uncoupling and block of conduction by inhibition of gap junction channels with down-regulation of intermyocyte communication which can initiate reentry. Trilinolein also dose-dependently narrowed the width of the QRS complex during VT, possibly due to the improvement of the conduction velocity between muscle fibers through the action of trilinolein on Ca2+ metabolism that contributed to prevention of further arrhythmias. Since VF induction and failed defibrillation have been demonstrated to be related to intracellular calcium overload, it is likely that trilinolein could be beneficial in this case. Further studies are needed to verify this hypothesis. Garlic and its Anti-Arrhythmic Effects
Garlic (Allium sativum) is a perennial plant that is cultivated worldwide. Its bulb has been used as a spice or medicinal herb for many centuries. It contains a higher concentration of sulfur compounds than any other Allium species. The sulfur compounds are responsible both for garlic's pungent odor and many of its medicinal effects. Dried, powdered garlic contains approximately 1% alliin (S-allylcysteine sulfoxide). One of the most biolOgically active compounds, allicin (diallylthiosulfinate or diallyl disulfide) does not exist in garlic until it is crushed or cut since injury to the garlic bulb activates the enzyme allinase, which metabolises alliin to allicin. Allicin is further metabolised
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to vinyldithiines. This breakdown occurs within hours at room temperature and within minutes during cooking. Garlic oil, aged garlic and steam-distilled garlic do not contain significant amounts of aliin or allicin, but instead contain various products of allicin transformation; none appears to have as much physiologic activity as fresh garlic or garlic powder. In rats, aliin is well absorbed orally, reaching maximum serum concentrations within 10 min, and is completely excreted within 6 hours. Allicin and vinyldithiines are absorbed more slowly, reaching peak levels between 30 and 120 min and persisting in the body for up to four days. There is significant first pass effect in which allicin is metabolised to allylmercaptan, ajoene and vinyldithii.nes. Excretion occurs renally and through hepatic breakdown, fecal excretion and exhalation. In modem medicine, garlic and its preparations have been widely recognised as agents for prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and other metabolic diseases, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, thrombosis, hypertension and diabetes. These biological responses have been largely attributed to the ability of garlic to reduce risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and cancer, stimulate immune function, and enhance detoxification of foreign compounds. It also has hepatoprotective, antimicrobial and antioxidant effect. Previous studies have demonstrated that garlic has significant anti-arrhythmic effect in both ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias, especially its free radical scavenging activity which reduces the incidence of VT and VF induced by myocardial ischemic-reperfusion injury. However, the definite mechanism by which garlic suppresses arrhythmia is still unclear. Martin et al. demonstrated that garlic dialysate prolonged sinus node recovery time (SNRT) and effective refractory period (ERP) of isolated rat atria in a dose-dependent manner. TItey also reported that garlic depresses a Ca2+ influx which is related
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to prevention of DAD. It is known that the mechanism underlying the generation of DAD involves an overload of intracellular Ca2+ with oscillation of the transmembrane potential, giving rise to new activations. Thereafter, arrhythmia can be induced from these activations (triggered activity) if they reach a critical threshold. In study by Kojima et al. normalisation of intracellular Ca 2+ has been suggested to contribute to termination of VF by suppressing DAD and/or slowing ventricular conduction in the isolated rat heart model. The ability of garlic to prevent intracellular Ca2+ oscillation .could help prevent DAD. In human studies, many clinical trials studying cardiovascular effects of garlic used dried garlic powder that contains approximately 1.3% alliin (precursor of allicin) at a dosage of 300 to 900 mg/ day (SIS mg/kg), corresponding to 0.9 to 2.7 g of fresh garlic daily. For example, in a prospective, 4-year clinical trial of patients treated with 900 mg daily of standardized garlic powder, there was a 9-18% reduction in plaque volume, a 4% decrease in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels, an 8% increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) concentrations, and a 7% decrease in blood pressure. However, in randomised, controlled trials, side effects in those taking garlic included heartburn, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flatulence, bloating, mild orthostatic hypotension, flushing, tachycardia, headache, insomnia, sweating and dizziness as well as offensive body odor. Although the exact toxicity of garlic has yet to be definitively determined, side effects are rare at the dosage mentioned above. Nevertheless, further human studies are required to evaluate the antiarrhythmic properties of garlic, especially its definite mechanisms. Anti-Arrhythmic Effects of Other Herbal Products Many herbal products show their effects on inhibition of VT, VF and/or extrasystole during the period of ischemiareperfusion injury or acute myocardial infarction
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in animals. Pre-treatment with magolol and honokiol, the active components of Magnolia officinalis significantly reduced the incidence and duration of ventricular arrhythmia including VT and VF in rats subjected to coronary ligation. These could in part be relevant to the vasorelaxant effects due to an increased nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. Dauricine, an active compound found in Menispermum dauricum, ameliorates acute myocardial ischemia-induced VT and VF in anesthetised dogs. The mechanism of its antagonistic effect lies in its blocking effect on inward K+ current in ventricular myocytes. Neferine, isolated from the seeds of Nelumbo nucofera, prevented the onset of re-entrant VT and sudden cardiac death after myocardial ischemic damage studied in open-chest dogs. It lengthened the ERP as well as decreased the dispersion of the ERP, and increased the diastolic excitability threshold of normal and infarct myocardium in both ventricles. All of these effects stabilize membrane potential of cardiac myocytes, and thus, could prevent arrhythmias. Oxymatrine, an alkaloid isolated from Sophora japonica, increased the diastolic excitability threshold and lengthened ERP in dogs after myocardial infarction. However, it had no effects on the dispersion of ERP, QTc interval and VT or VF induced by programmed electric stimulation. On the other side, .;tudies using hawthorn berry (Crataegus oxyacantha) demonstrated beneficial antiarrhythmic effects. Using Langendorff-perfused rat heart, reperfusion arrhythmias of a 3-month oral pretreatment with a dried Crataegus extract were reduced significantly. Crataegus, however, aggravated rather than prevented arrhythmias with its long-term application in a recent study. Tetrandrine, an extract from Stephania tetrandra, has been shown to inhibit VT and VF during regional ischemiareperfusion injury without further reducing
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ischemiareduced heart rate and coronary artery flow. It may be a better choice for the treatment of arrhythmia and infarction induced by myocardial ischemia and reperfusion than a classical Ca2+channel blocker, Le. verapamil, whicll can reduce heart rate during ischemia. Pre-treatment with sinomenine, a compound found in Sinomenium acutum, could also reduce the incidence of VT and VF in isolated perfused rat heart subject to ischemiareperfusion injury by lowering intracellular Ca2+ accumulation. Other herbal products having anti-arrhythmic effects are hirsutine, EGB761 and dehydroevodiamine. Hirsutine, an indole alkaloid found in Uncaria rhynchphylla, showed anti-arrhythmic action on membrane potentials of rabbit sinoatrial node and guinea-pig right ventricle and left atrium by decreasing the slope of the pacemaker depolarisation and prolongation of the action potential duration. EGB761, a Ginkgo biloba (maidenhair tree) extract, in combination with superoxide dismutase significantly attenuated both the formation of oxygen-free radicals and the incidence of reperfusion-induced VF and VT in isolated rat hearts. Dehydroevodiamine, an alkaloid from Evodiac rutaecarpa, has been shown to depress arrhythmias in calcium-overloaded guinea-pig cardiac myocytes through its inhibitory actions on the Na+- dependent inward current, the transient inward current and, to a smaller extent, the Ltype Ca 2+ current. In addition, dehydroevodiamine has been shown to possess anti-arrhythmic effect similar to class III anti-arrhythmic drugs through a reduction of outward K+ currents across the sarcolemma. REFERENCES
Azhar Ali Farooqi and B.S. Sreeramu., Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, New Delhi, Universities Press, 2001, viii, 518 p. Bhatt O.K., Apama Raj and Kiran Bhatt., Herbal and Medicinal Plants of India, New Delhi, Shree Pub., 2007, viii, 476 p.
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Billore K.V., Yelne M.B., Dennis T.]. and Chaudhari B.G., Database on Medicinal Plants Used in Ayurveda, Vol. 6/New Delhi, Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, 2004, xxi, 469 p. Gopi K.S., Kozhikode, Aiy Pub., Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants Used in Homoeopathy, Vol. 12000, xvi, 744 p. Misra P.N., Hasan S.A. and Sushi! Kumar., Lucknow, Cultivation of Aromatic Plants in India, Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 2000, iv, 330 p. \ Panda H., Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants, Delhi, Asia Pacific Business Press, 2005, viii, 600 p. Trivedi P.c. (ed.), Etllllomedicillal Plallts of India, ]aipur, Aavishkar Pub., 2007, xiv, 410 p. '
4 Medicinal Plants and Health Care Medicinal plants form the basis of traditional or indigenous health systems used, in the estimate of the World Health Organisation, by the majority of the population of most developing countries. It is a feature of traditional health systems that they span a divers range of policy areas that extend beyond the immediate domain of health. For example, prospects for the future supply of medicinal plants impact the long term viability of traditional health systems. Training of practitioners and preservation of traditional ecological and medical knowledge lie at the core of future prospects for ancient but challenged traditions. In many traditional societies, women are the primary herb gatherers and also the herbalists. Societal changes in work and family patterns also have an impact on the nature of the traditional health sector and the services it plays in providing everyday health care to the majority of the population of most countries in the South. In recent years, there has been a growth of interest in traditional medicine, in part driven by the interest in complementary medicine in industrial countries and in part resulting from the interests of the international pharmaceutical industry. Demand for herbal medicines in the North has led to significant changes in traditional patterns of medicinal plant harvesting and, as in the case of Prunus africana in Cameroon, has placed some species under threat.
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Herb'alists now report having to walk increasingly greater distances for herbs that once grew almost outside their door. As habitats for plants disappear and overharvesting for commercial uses red uces stocks of wild medjcinal plant material, there is a corresponding drop in the availability of the plants used as the first and last resort for health care by many rural populations. The pharmaceutical interest in plants as a source of medicines is less likely to raise issues of concern about sustainability of harvesting, as relatively small amounts of plant material are needed to conduct the screening for bioactivity that is the basis of many contemporary drug development strategies. However, issues of intellectual and cultural property rights have emerged as significant factors in this field. FOREST-BASED MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (MAPS)
Forest-based medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are an essential part of traditional health care systems. Their gathering and cultivation provide a critical source oj income for many rural communities, especially landless poor and marginalized farmers. MAPs are also inextricably linked to the region's natural biodiversity. Unfortunately, MAPs are increasingly threatened by various environmental, socioeconomic and institutional problems. At the same time traditional and indigenous knowledge about these plants is weakening and, in some cases, vanishing altogether. While attempts have been made (both at local and national levels) to address these issues, they have suffered from inadequate funding, a lack of government prioritization, and insufficient information sharing and coordination among stakeholders. After a number of years of supporting research on MAPs around the world by organizations like IDRC, Ford Foundation, and others a number of networks such as the Medicinal and Aromatic
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Plants Program in Asia (MAPS) have been established in .Asia. South Asia is home to many rich, traditional systems of medicine. Ayurvedic methods date back to 5000 B.C. Along with the Unani, Siddha and Tibetan systems, they remain an important source of everyday health and livelihood for tens of millions of people. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), including trees, shrubs, grasses and vines, are a central resource for these traditional health systems, as well as for pharmaceutical (or allopathic) medicines. There are more than 8,000 plant species in South Asia with known medicinal uses. Medicinal plants are an accessible, affordable and culturally appropriate source of primary health care for more than 80% of Asia's population. Marginalized, rural and indigenous people, who can not afford or access formal health care systems, are especially dependent on these culturally familiar, technically simple, financially affordable and generally effective traditional medicines. As such, there Is widespread interest in promoting traditional health systems to meet primary health care needs. This is especially true in South Asia, as prices of modem medicines spiral and governments find it increasingly difficult to meet the cost of pharmaceutical-based health care. Throughout the region, there is strong and sustained public support for the protection and promotion of the cultural and spiritual values of traditional medicines. Demand for MAPs
Conservative estimates put the monetary value of MAPrelated global trade at over 60 billion USD. With increasing popular demand for medicinal plants, both in South Asia and internationally, this trade is expected to grow to 5 trillion by the year 2050. Besides health benefits, MAPs also provide crucial livelihood options for millions of rural people in South Asia, particUlarly women, tribal peoples,
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and the very poor. India is the centre of South Asia's export trade in medicinal plants, and in this country alone, it is estimated that the collection and processing of medicinal plants contributes to at least 35 million workdays of employment a year. Unfortunately, while demand rises, inequitable trade practices have meant that only a small margin of the profits from MAPs trickle down to the collectors and harvesters. Highly developed illegal trading networks in Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, India and Myanmar control the raw MAPs trade, through lax border controls. Despite this, no regional collaboration in implementing international covenants relating to biodiversitY' exists to stem this growing illegal market. The expansion of unregulated trade and commercial use of MAPs poses a major threat to biodiversity in the region. Local communities tend to collect the highest value or most popular plant species, leading to over-harvesting or species extinction. Even when MAP species are safely cultivated, if done with mono-cropping systems, local biodiversity can be weakened. Finally, as 95 % of MAPs are harvested and collected in wild, the alarming levels of deforestation and ecosystem degradation in the region are also contributing to a decline in MAPs. Combined, all of these factors have severely reduced the availability of medicinal plant ingredients and the overall environmental sustainability of the region. Along with the deterioration of resources, the cultural heritage surrounding MAP use is being eroded. Unstandardized expertise and knowledge of traditional systems of medicine, as well as inadequate processing and storage facilities, can result in ineffective or unsafe treatments. The absence of institutional support, appropriate validation systems, and quality contro] protocol for indigenous health practices, threatens valuable MAP knowledge and use practices, as well as public health.
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Benefits of Medicinal Plants
MPs offer a wide range of subsistence, cultural and monetary benefits to people in the world. They provide affordable means of primary health care to poor and marginalized people, especially in impoverished rural areas. In some countries like China, Nepal & India, they are an important revenue generating resources providing critical income to economically marginalized and indigenous people. But most important, in a condition of sustainable harvesting and optimal usage, the medicinal plants could prove to be a model resource that can benefit both the environment and livelihoods in a balanced manner. The real challenge is how to strike this critical balance? Given the fact that there are multiple benefits of MPs including: 1) improved access to primary healthcare, 2) enhanced livelihood security, 3) potentially sustainable use of the biodiversity, and 4) improved benefit sharing with local communities, the promotion of sustainable management of medicinal plants can help the biodiversity rich countries to meet the international obligations such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In the broader sense, medicinal plants can also contribute to address the chronic problem of global poverty and hunger. The realization of mega global targets such as those set by the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Poverty Reduction Strategy and Programs (PRSP) etc. will require interventions which are grass roots-based, poor-centred and livelihood focused. Put differently medicinal plants can meet the basic needs of the poor rural people. For example, pro-poor marketing and enterprise development activities in medicinal plants can help poor collectors and growers of medicinal plants to increase their ~ousehold income" which is dwindling due to increased input costs and decreasing returns.
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For example, China is estimated to have 12,807 species of plants out of which 11,146 are classified as medicinal plants used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It is estimated that up to 492 species are currently under cultivation and the remaining 10,654 species are harvested from wild habitats. The total production from wild sources is 8.5 million tons and the cultivated medicinal plants production was estimated to be 0.3 million tons in 2001-02. These produce not only contribute to the health of Chinese people but also add approximately 2 billion USO to the national economy annually. In the southwest mountainous province of Guizhou, the contribution of medicinal plants is reported to be about 10 percent of the province's GOP in 2002.
Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants (MAOPs) also have potential to present as commodities with competitive advantages for the poor regions of Asia, Africa & Latin America. It is observed that some of the poorest regions of the world such as the western and eastern regions of Himalayas, Borneo and' Sumatra regions in Asia; Congo basin in Africa and Amazon catchments in South America are also rich in biological diversity where medicinal plants and other NTFP species grow in abundance. If we can promote a balanced conservation and cultivation of MAUPs, rural poverty can be alleviated, gender imbalances can be addressed and local economy improved. Many medicinal plants are found in forest ecosystems, where they are used to meet the health care needs and livelihoods pursuits of indigenous and local communities. Forests have been targeted in Central America and the Caribbean as priority eco-regions for conservation. MPs are increasingly being recognized as an important resources for sustainable development, particularly as sources of safe, effective, and accessible health care that integrates traditiona1 and community knowledge, innovations, and practices with modern scientific approaches to health research.
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FOREST BASED MEDICINES IN HEALTHCARE
Rainforests contain no less than 60% of all higher plant species known on earth and they provide all that is needed for human survival, including remedies against disease. Through evolution, plants have developed large numbers of chemical substances to defend themselves against insect pests and fungal and other pathogenic diseases. Some of these agents can also act within the human body against microorganisms and other causes of disease, and represent an important source of natural drugs. Theil- highly complex molecular structures often sWpass the imagination of the chemist and cannot easily be reproduced in the laboratory. More than 35,000 plant species are being used in various human cultures around the world for medical purposes and many of them are subjected to uncontrolled local and external trade. So far, natural products from fewer than 40 tropical species have been incorporated into modern medicine and only a fraction of the tropical flora has been thoroughly analysed for their pharmacological activity. Therefore, the annual extinction rate of an estimated 3,000 plant species is a matter of great concern as it could imply the loss of a potential drug against an incurable condition, such as dementia, cancer, influenza or AIDS. The resulting health impact on the basic needs of the population in developing countries is equally important and will be discussed separately. Health care and botany have evolved as inseparable domains of human activity: the medicine man (shaman) is often regarded as the first botanical professional in human history. Whereas western medicine, as taught in most medical schools around the" world, has largely switched from natural to manufactured drugs, plant products are still of paramount importance in traditional health care systems of developing countries. In traditional therapies of certain indigenous communities, herbs are administered along with chants,
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dance and spiritual ceremonies to expel bad spirits and to help reharmonising the sick person with his or her environment. Plants, however, also serve a less metaphysical role, as anticonceptives in indigenous birth control procedures or to counteract tangible pathogenics such as fungi and parasit~s (e.g. worms, malaria). In developing countries, medicine men and women are particularly knowledgeable about the recognition and treatment of common diseases. In Amazonia, at least 1,300 plant species are being used as medicines, poisons or narcotics. Traditional healers are also skilled botanists and have a great talent for locating the requisite plant from the green vastness that makes up their natural pharmacy. In Latin America and Africa, this knowledge has largely remained undocumented and is handed down orally from father to son or from mother to daughter. Today's younger" generations often have very different ambitions and, therefore, these traditional skills are doomed to get lost even faster than the plants themselves. This is why ethnobotanists compare the death of a shaman to the loss of a national library and invest much effort in assembling this knowledge as written accounts. In recent years, traditional healing in distaht forest areas has come under pressure from n.ove1- diseases such as influenza and tuberculosis, that -have often revealed the superiority of Iwhite ma~/'5"capsules/. This course of events has greatly affected the prestige of the local healers and has also opened the" market for expensive and less necessary western drugs. Apart from the heavy drain imposed on foreign exchange reserves by these imports, the existing available and often equally effective traditional equivalents have betl1 forced into disuse and oblivion. Although western medicine has been integrated to some extent with ancient health care systems in Asia, it has become the dominant method in most larger hospitals around the world. In non-hospital care in most developing
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countries, traditional and modern systems operate independently without a clear hierarchy, whereas in rural areas only traditional healing and herbal self-care may be at hand. In these countries, there is a great demand for medicinal plants that often come from the forests. In the future, the use of these plants can be expected to increase further due to population growth and the increasing importance being attached to traditional health care by the World Health Organisation (WHO). WHO's 'Health for All by the Year 2000' campaign emphasizes the urgent need for the conservation of medicinal plants. This same initiative has launched a first step toward a more rational use of herbal medicines inJ:l're Carribean, following a recent paarmacological evaluation of their effectiveness and safety. In the secoI.'ld ~ of this century, 'chemical' drugs have. largely replaced plant products in mainstream medicine. This development is in line with the prevailing concept of disease, the belief in human-initiated progress, and the quest for pure therapeutic substances that contain no more than one active principle. On closer analysis, however, over 25% of all prescription drugs in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, and up to 60% of those in Eastern Europe, prove to consist of unmodified or slightly altered higher plant products. They embrace such important therapeutic categories as anticonceptives, steroids and muscle relaxants for anaesthesia and abdominal surgery; quinine and. artemisinin against malaria; digitalis derivatives for heart failure; and the anticancer drugs vinblastin/vincristin, etoposide and taxol. These agents cannot be synthesized in a cost-effective manner. Therefore, their production requires reliable supplies of plant material, either from cultivation or from the wild. Such is the case for the wild yam Dioscorea compos ita, which cannot be cultivated and is
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exported from Mexico and other countries in quantities of hundreds of tons. These few examples should make one realise how modern drug delivery depends on the continuing availability of raw materials and how vulnerable it is to the exhaustion of natUral resources. This awareness is even more pertinent to clients of health products stores and herbalists, since natural non-prescription formulae may contain rare and even endangered wild plants that are regarded, often unjustly, as more powerfu1 than their cultivated analogues. So far, only three species of medicinal plants have been listed by CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Natural drugs and medicinal plants, along with other non-timber forest products, already yield important _ economic returns. They compare favourably in monetary terms with logging and cash cropping, and contribute in providing better prospects for sustainable forest use. The pharmaceutltal industry has recently rediscovered the tropical rainforests as an unmatched source of chemicals with potential for new drug development, which promises additional revenues. Thousands of plant extracts of all continents are being screened for activity against HIV and cancer- in the laboratories of the U.S. National Cancer Institute. For example, Merck Sharpe & Dome, a New Jersey based pharmaceutical company, has paid US$l million for research rights in Costa Rica and has agreed to contribute 25% of profits made from Costa Rican plants to rainforest conservation in Costa Rica. EmNOBoTANICAL RESEARCH AND HEALm CARE
According to recent estimates by the World Health Organisation, more than 3.5 billion people in the developing world rely on plants as components of their primary health care. Just as many Europeans know of the
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use of Aloe vera [Aloaceae] to treat burns, many indigenous peoples know of some common plants that have medicinal uses. Ethnobotanical research should not be limited to discovering new pharmaceuticals for Westerners; it can also be of some benefit to peoples in developing COl'.ntries. An increasing number of nations, including China, Mexico, Nigeria, and Thailand, have decided to integrate traditional medicine into their primary health systems. In these systems, ethnobotanical research plays a crucial role in documenting the traditional health care practices of the country. Medicinal plant lore often recedes or completely vanishes in the wake of rapid Westerni~ation. In some countries, careful ethnobotanicaf!.6tudies have become invaluable records of ancestral ways. In areas -where the people are moving away from traditional lifestyles, particularly in rapidly growing urban populations, careful ethnobotanical documentation can provide the needed foundation for educational programs. Workers at Mahidol University in Bangkok, for example, have prepared a series of slide presentations and pamphlets to teach schoolchildren about traditional Thai uses of plants. Ethnobotanical research can also help in the discovery of crude drugs. Only pure compounds with known structures and pharmacological activities are permissible as drugs in Western medicine, but in many developing countries the price of such pure substances puts them beyond the reach of all but the affluent. Careful clinical studies can document the safety and efficacy of crude extracts or tinctures of plants that can be dispensed at far less cost. Carefully designed clinical trials of crude botanical drugs have been conducted in Mexico and Thailand. An area of ethnobotanical drug discovery that has yet to be developed is that of "gray pharmaceuticals"-drugs of proven safety and efficacy that are not marketable in the
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Western world. Decisions concerning marketability in the Western pharmaceutical industry are not driven solely by proof of safety and efficacy. To be marketable, a drug candidate must affect only one point on a biochemical pathway: compounds that affect multiple points of the same pathway are unlikely to be marketed because only "magic bullets" (single-activity drugs) are viable in today's legal and economic environment. Drug candidates must also show superiority over competing drugs in the same market. Thus some plantderived drugs that are not marketable as Western pharmaceuticals may still be acceptable in the country of their origin, particularly if they can be produced cheaply. The transfer of information (sometimes costing millions of dollars) concerning the safety and efficacy of such gray pharmaceuticals from Western firms to developing countrie's, should be encouraged, along with the appropriate patent rights and technologies to enable the developing countries to produce plant-based medicines. Intellectual Property Rights of Indigenous People
Historically, the intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples have not been recognised. The use of information supplied by indigenous peoples in the discovery of commercially marketable pharmaceuticals raises the question of those people's intellectual property rights and the ownership of biodiversity. We believe that indigenous peoples are entitled to the same-intellectual property rights enjoyed by other investigators. Yet in many cultures, the preservation of important habitats is equally urgent. In Samoa, four village-owned and -managed reserves totalling 50,000 acres, beginning with the Falealupo Rain Forest Reserve, have been created with donated funds, and in Belize, the world's first extractive reserve for medicinal plants has been created on 6000 acres of tropical rain forest by the local government working with the association of
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traditional healers with significant international support. This effort seeks to demonstrate that conservation and the use of forests as sources of locally consumed medicines are compatible objectives. Elsewhere, as iri India, medicinal plant reserves are being established to ensure a continued supply of plants for traditional health care practitioners and their patients. Cash disbursement of royalty income most closely approaches the Western concept of equity, but this approach fails with peoples who have no monetary system. For many indigenous peoples, the right to Hve unmolested and undisturbed on their ancestral lands is the greatest value. Establishment of nature preserves that protect both biodiversity and indigenous cultures is of tremendous importance to indigenous peoples. In the Western tradition, natural resources are property and therefore subject to either private or government ownership. Thus Western conservation has its roots in the pragmatic use of property; according to this viewpoint, no action should be taken that decreases the value -of the resource for the long term. Many indigenous cultures, in contrast, perceive the earth as existing not in the realm of the profane, but in the realm of the sacred, a world view that distinguishes them from many Western traditions. Indigenous legends emphasise the need to protect the earth not because it is useful to humans, but because it is sacred. The perception of conservation as a religious duty, of course, also serves ecological and cultural purposes. Though they start from very different assumptions, both Western conservationists and many indigenous peoples recognise the need to protect vanishing natural habitats. When Maori elders became concerned about the loss of native plants used in weaving, for example, they organised a hui, or a traditional conference, with the New Zealand Division of Scientific and Industrial Research
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(DSIR). They invited both scientists and traditional leaders to discuss conservation strategies. Such collaborations, although' complicated by cultural differences, have provided strong support for three positions advocated by indigenous peoples: that all forest plants have a purpose and value; that the true economic values of rain forests and native habitats have scarcely been considered and are vastly underestimated; and that entire cultures and ways of life will disappear if rain forests are destroyed. Recent ethnobotanical studies provide evidence that substantiates these indigenous views. Quantitative Ethnobotanic Research in South America
Forest-dwelling peoples often claim that most, and perhaps all, plants in their environment have a use. Ethnobotanist Brian Boom of The New York Botanical Garden used some pioneering plant census techniques to test that hypothesis. Working for an extended period in the Bolivian Amazon, Boom found that the Chacabo Indians knew of 360 species of vascular plants in the forest surrounding their village of Alto Ivon and that they had uses for 305 of them. They collected Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa) for their own consumption and for sale, for instance, and used Anthurium gracile to cure appendicitis. Boom then surveyed a I-hectare plot in the tropical forest and found that 82 percent of the tree species growing there had uses known to the Chacabo. When he measured the densities of plants in the plot, Boom found that the Ch.kabo used 95 percent of the individual trees for some purpose. Similar studies were undertaken by William BaMe among the Ka'apor and Tembe Indians in Venezuela. The percentage of tree species put to use by the Ka' apor was found to be 76.8 percent, by the Tembe 61.3 percent, and by the Panare 48.6 percent. Although these findings do not prove that every forest plant has a use, they do confirm the local people's claim that the forest plants have far more uses
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than Western investigators have realised. Balee and Boom
have concluded that certain plant families are so important in these Neotropical areas that conserving them is essential if people are to continue to depend on the forest for their sustenance. Among these valuable plant families are the palm family [Arecaceae], the Brazil nut family [Lecythidaceae], a tropical relative of the rose family [Chrysobalanaceae], and a family that includes the hallucinogenic capi vine, Malpighiaceae. Working in Tambopata, Peru, with mestizo people, Oliver Phillips and the late Alwyn Gentry of the Missouri Botanical Garden employed an even more detailed quantitative technique to inventory the plant families used for construction, in commerce, for food, for technology, and for medicine. Their interviews with 29 field guides yielded a total of 1885 reported uses for the 605 tagged plants in their plots. When they compared data to determine whether the age of the person interviewed affected his or her knowledge of plant use, they found that the bulk of the information in some categories, such as medicinal plant lore, was held by older people. These are the people, Phillips and Gentry concluded, who should be the main focus of ethnobotanical studies and conservation efforts. Through their use of statistical tools, they substantiated the intuitive judgements of many other workers, who perceived that the long chain of oral ethnomedical tradition was coming unravelled in the current generation. Once investigators can identify the best sources of ethnobotanical information in a community or indigenous society, both local people and ethnoscientists can make more efficient efforts to conserve such information. Ethnobotanical Valuation Studies
Historically rain forests have been cut down because the simplest and quickest way to convert them into cash is to harvest the timber, bum down all that remains, and plant
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and annual crop for a few seasons, until much of the soil's nutrients are leached out. Since most of the nutrients in the tropical rain forest are found in plant material rather than in the soil, large-scale removal of that living material prevents rain forests from growing back. By using the tools of economists to analyse the value of land under various uses, ethnobotanists have found that in some areas there are viable alternatives to clear-cutting. Researchers studying the use of non-timber resources from forests in Brazil and Peru have concluded that nonwood forest products "yield higher net revenues per hectare than timber, but they can also be harvested with considerably less damage to the ecosystem. Without question, the sustainable exploitation of non-wood forest resources represent the most immediate and profitable method for integrating the use and conservation of Amazonian forests." In a similar study, Balick and Mendelson valued the native medicinal plant species taken by the local people from a fOllest in Belize. From two separate I-hectare plots of 30- and 50-year-old forest, respectively, total biomass of 308.6 and 1433.6 kilograms of plant material for medicines was collected. It was suggested that harvesting the medicinal plants, from a hectare of forest would yield the collector $564 and $3054 in the local markets, respectively, for the two plots, after the costs of harvesting, processing, and shipping were subtracted. For the 30-year rotation, a present value of $726 per hectare was calculated for the medicine, and for the 50-year rotation a present value of $3327 per hectare was calculated. This study fostered a greater understanding of the value of the tropical forest to the local inhabitants and their economy. It ultimately led to the development of several industries based on the extraction of medicinal plants from the forest for processing into tinctures, extracts, and salves. Today local Belizean brands of traditional medicines-
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Agapi, Rainforest Remedies, Rainforest Rescue, Triple Moon-all help to generate employment for many local people. Additional studies to establish the net present value of the tropical forest of the Neotropics have confirmed the relatively high value of the products that can be harvested on a hectare in areas where land is now priced in the hundreds of dollars or less. Critics of this method of establishing the value of forests point out that the land must be near to a market or to a distribution channel in order for the economic benefit to be realised. They state that there is probably a finite market for the commodities produced under these management schemes. Both points have their validity, but nevertheless, it is clear that in areas that have been intensively studied the harvesting of non-timber forest products has increased the income levels of local people and has stimulated the development of new industries with a local value-added component that increases returns to the region or country of origin. Such studies also tend to confirm indigenous beliefs that tropical forests, if properly managed, have far more value than as mere sources of lumber and wood pulp. Given the proven profitability of sustainable exploitation of non-timber forest products, why has so little been done to promote the marketing, processing, and development of these valuable resources? We believe that the problem lies not in the actual value of these resources, but in the failure of public policy to recognise it. Green industries now promote the sale of rain forest products, such as the buttons fashioned from palm seeds that adorn garments made from Paris to Hong Kong, ice creams flavoured with exotic nuts and fruits, and rare tropical essences in perfumes, shampoos, and body creams. We can wash with soap made from tropical oils and nectars, eat cereals based on grains that once sustained the Aztec~, and drive to work on tyres manufactured from wild rubber
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harvested in the Amazon Basin. Like other suggested solutions to the dilemmas posed by deforestation and economic development, green marketing is hardly a panacea. The continued use of these products depends on the reliability of their supply, markets, and distribution. Key to maintaining supply is the issue of sustainable resource production. Sustainable Production of Medicinal Plants
Of greatest concern in the development of products based on tropical forest species is our ability to ensure sustainability. But nowadays, the concept of sustainability is used in a rather cavalier fashion. In truth, we know very little about the sustainability of any production, especially of the products from tropical ecosystems. Charles Peters of The New York Botanical Garden has undertaken many detailed studies of tropical forest trees in efforts to determine the level of sustainable production or harvest of each species. According to Peters, a sustainable system for exploiting non-timber forest resources is one in which fruits, nuts, latexes, and other products can be harvested indefinitely from a limited area of forest with negligible impact on the structure and dynamics of the plant /I
popuJations be.mg expJo:ired." A pJant such as Brosimum alicastrum [Moraceae], a tree found in Central and South America that is exploited for its protein-rich fruits, needs to produce over 1.5 million seeds to ensure that one tree will live long enough to reproduce. If most of the fruits produced by this species were to be harvested rather than left to grow in the forest, the population would become extinct within one generation. Too little is known about the levels of sustainable harvest of many of the internationally important NTFPs, including the Brazil nut. Some 200,000 people harvest the Brazil nut from the 20 million hectares of Amazonian forest
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where it grows; annually they produce around 42,000 metric tons for the commercial trade, valued at approximately $35 million, or 1.5 percent of the total international nut trade. The harvest of this nut is one of the largest sources of cash income for many of these people, and reduction in government subsidies for other NTFPs such as rubber, which grows in the same areas, has led people to harvest increased quantities of Brazil nuts. What, then, will happen 50 or 100 years from now, when most of the seeds produced by once-great populations of Brazil nut trees have been removed from the forest and sold? Quite simply, the mature, seed-producing trees that are the backbone of the population will die and not be replaced, and the resource base on which these indUstries are built will disappear. Charles Peters suggests six steps for exploiting NTFPs in a sustainable fashion. First, the species to be exploited should be carefully selected, after such factors as the ease of harvesting and resilience of natural populations to disturbance are considered. A tree valued for its roots will be harder to harvest than one valued for its fruits, and the harvest of a species that produces fruits in massive quantities at one time of year will be easier to manage than the harvest of a species that produces fruits sporadically throughout the year. Once the species has been decided upon, a forest inventory should be undertaken to learn where the resource is found in greatest abundance and the number of productive plants per hectare. Investigators should then estimate the quantity of the resource produced by the species in its various habitats and by trees in all size classifications, to determine which trees in which habitat it is best to harvest. When these three steps have been taken, the harvesting of the resource can begin, but the careful measurement should continue. The status of the population should be monitored for signs that the forest is being overharvested.
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People should examine the status of adult trees periodically to determine whether the flowers are being pollinated, whether large numbers of fruits are being consumed by predators, and so on. If problems arise, the harvest should be adjusted to keep its level below the rate that would threaten sustainability. When necessary, people may replant areas that do not seem to be regenerating, clean out competitive species, or open up the forest canopies to allow more light to reach the young trees and thus speed up their regrowth. The precise measurements that Peters recommends are expensive and time-consuming, and very few species have been studied from this perspective. However, plant populations may be threatened if harvests are determined by the demands of the marketplace rather than the needs of the ecosystem. Issues in Conservation of Forest-based Medicines
Early nature preserves were established in the tropics during colonial times primarily to serve the needs of biggame hunters or to protect watershed and timber resources. The colonial administrations created most exciting rain forest reserves by simply declaring government land to be a national park or by purchasing land from private owners, the same strategies followed to create national parks in North America and Europe. The Mexican government owned more than 99 percent of the 528,000 hectares of rain forest, wetlands, and coral reefs that are now included in the Sian Ka'an biosphere Reserve on the Yucatan Peninsula, whereas the 100,000hectare Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica, an area of dry lowland tropical forest, was purchased largely from private landowners for $9 million contributed by a variety of conservation organisations, trusts, foundations, private donors, and government agencies. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in Costa Rica, on the other hand, was created partially through a "debt-for-
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nature" swap--conservation organisations purchased part of the country's international debt and accepted conservation of rain forest acreage as payment. While these strategies have been effective in preserving land, they have been primarily focused on meeting national needs rather than the concerns of local peoples. These traditional strategies create reserves that are essentially free from human disturbance. New strategies differ in that they emphasise the possibility of using the resource while protecting it from degradation. In the late 1980s, Brazil created a category of forest reserve known as the "extractive reserve," an area where local people can extract products on a small scale while still preserving a largely intact ecosystem. This form of biological reserve is closely associated with a social movement, begun in the state of Acre, which attempts to improve economic standards among Brazil's traditional peoples. The first reserves were established for the extraction of rubber and Brazil nuts. Most of the rubber produced in the Amazon Basin is gathered in a way that does not destroy the trees, so the people who gather it are strongly opposed to any destruction of the rain forest. When ranchers who wished to clear the forest assassinated Chico Mendes, the movement's most visible leader and organiser of the local rubber tappers' union, there was such an outcry that the government eventually responded by creating the first major extractive reserves, which now total some 10 percent of the entire state of Acre. Over the last few years, however, the value of both wild-harvested rubber and Brazil nuts has fallen. Ethnobotanists and taxonomists such as Douglas Daly of the New York Botanical Garden are working with local inhabitants of the reserves to identify other species that can be produced for regional and international commerce and provide income opportunities for the people who protect these areas of tropical forest. Individuals in north temperate
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countries are also helping to create extractive reserves: Such organisations as Conservation International and Cultural Survival have organised the marketing of forest products from reserves. Maintaining an extractive reserve b not without its problems. The forest ecosystem may be damaged if economically important products are overharvested. An extractive reserve differs from a parcel of Land that i~ simply public property in that a social structure is a key element of the reserve. Ideally, guidelines can be developed and rules and regulations enforced. While such rules do not exist or are strongly enforced elsewhere, it appears that most reserves are respected by the local people, particularly if they are established with an understanding of local culture and needs. Sometimes the ecosystem of a forest reserve can be altered by protecting economically important species while other species-those whose value is not clear-are not protected with the same tenacity. Thus, some critics have argued, extractive reserves are able to protect only a portion of the biodiversity they contain. The lesson is that there is no one formula for protecting wildlands, especially in remote regions of the tropics. But in the global effort to assemble a jigsaw puzzle of conservation areas, ethnobotanical research can play an important role by helping to preserve and disseminate traditional knowledge. When this knowledge is applied, economic returns can accrue to those who make. their living in the rain forest while still protecting it. Ethno-biomedical Forest Reserve in Belize
Belize is a small nation with a population of around 200,000. Vast tracts of forest still cover a significant portion of the country. A recent environmental profile of Belize estimated that more than 93 percent of the country could be classified as forest land, although this estimate was optimistic, for it
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excluded only urban areas and large-scale farming operations. In 1988 the Belize Ethnobotany Project was initiated to inventory, understand, and conserve as much ethnobotanical data as possible in a country that is undergoing rapid change, accompanied by loss of natural habitat and the erosion of existing cultures. The project is a collaborative effort between The New York Botanic
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healers in efforts to understand disease concepts, healing traditions, and the uses of plants. This type of knowledge recovery has been described as salvage ethnobotany. The project helped local organisations convene four national traditional healers' meetings. The open forum provided by these meetings enabled healers from different cultural groups and geographic regions of Belize for the first time to exchange information about the medical uses of local and exotic plants. They discussed the importance of. traditional healing, the central role of the healer as community health care provider, and the increasing difficulty of locating certain useful species. In 1992 the Belize Association of Traditional Healers was formed and Rosita Arvigo of the Ix Chel Tropical Research Foundation was elected its president Yet without plants, their work is impossible. As part of the effort to conserve species that are important to the work of traditional healers, a 2400-hectare parcel of lowland tropical forest was given forestry reserve status in June 1993 at the suggestion of a government minister, Daniel Silva, who noted that Belize has a rich tradition of conservation reserves. It has reserves for jaguars, for monkeys, for butterflies, so why not for medicinal plants? The reserve was intended to provide a source of medicinal plants as well as a place to teach apprentices. Funds for surveying and demarcating the reserve were provided by the Healing Forest Conservancy and the Rex Foundation. The forest, in the Yalbak region of Belize, contains a wide diversity of fauna as well as many useful medicinal plant species. As originally conceived, this ethnobiomedical forest reserve would serve as a site to promote ethnobotanical and ecological research in efforts to define harvesting regimes for sustainable extraction. Toward this end, a team of scientists is carrying out ecological inventories as well as experiments designed to learn at what rates bark and roots will regenerate after harvest.
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Unfortunately, within a year after the reserve was established, the local government changed, and controversy arose over which group of local healers would be responsible for its operation. Various plans have been submitted to the Forestry Department and scientific experiments continue, but development of the educational and social component of the reserve's program is currently on hold. Despite the best of intention, not all conservation efforts are immediately successful. As habitat destruction and overharvesting are depleting the supply of medicinal plants in the forests of Belize, Rosita Arvigo and Gregory Shropshire of the Ix Chel Tropical Research Foundation have started a program to develop horticultural nurseries in collaboration with Hugh O'Brien of the Belize College of Agriculture. As part of the program, the subject of medicinal plants was introduced into the college curriculum. The major goal of the joint project is to learn to propagate many of the commercially valuable plants currently harvested from the wild. The species differ wildly in their morphology and biology so the task is complex. Challeges of Ethnobotanical Conservation
Many challenges face ethnobotanists in future years, particularly the rapid loss of biodiversity and the concomitant loss of indigenous knowledge systems. Published reports of the use of a medicinal plant might create a demand for the resource, with riches flowing to all parties involved except the original owners of the knowledge. Others fear that if only the most sensational information is written down, the more mundane information may be lost. Clearly, one priority for the future is to involve indigenous colleagues in ethnobotanical research as coinvestigators and to train a new generation of people from a variety of cultures to initiate studies among their own people.
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Increasingly, the local people involved in ethnobotanical research, especially the healers, are being credited as co-authors of scientific papers and receiving patent rights to discoveries that result from the information they have provided. Indigenous peoples, if given the proper information and granted status as equal partners, are capable of plotting their own future. And while that future will probably include satellite ground stations, kidney dialysis machines, and personal computers, we are determined that the information flow should not be oneway, from Western nations to indigenous peoples. REFERENCES
Arvigo, R & Balick, M. Rainforest Remedies; One Hundred Healing Herbs of Belize. Twin Lakes, USA; Lotus Press. 1994. Fuller, D. Medici1le from the Wild. Washington, DC; Traffic USA 1991. Lewington, A. Medicinal Plant and Plant Extracts: A Re-oiew of Their Importation into Europe. Cambridge, UK; Traffic International. 1993. Quansah, N. "Biocultural diversity and integrated health care in Madagascar". Nature and Resources 30: 18-22. 1994. Schultes, R.E. & Raffauf RF. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia. Portland, Oregon, USA; Dioscorides Press. 1990. Sittenfeld, A. & Gamez, R "Biodiversity prospecting" by INBio. In: Biodiversity Prospecting. Washington, DC; World Resources Institute. pp. 69-97. 1993.
5 Wild Harvesting of Medicinal Plants Since time immemorial, people have gathered plant and animal resources for their needs. Examples include edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices, gums, game, fodder, fibres used for construction of shelter and housing, clothing or utensils, and plant or animal products for medicinal, cosmetic or cultural uses. Even today, hundreds of millions of people, mostly in developing countries, derive a significant part of their subsistence needs and income from gathered plant and animal products. Gathering of high value products such as mushrooms, medicinal plants. Among these uses, medicinal plants playa central role, not only as traditional medicines used in many cultures, but also als trade commodities which meet the demand of often distant markets. Demand for a wide variety of wild species is increasing with growth in human needs, numbers and commercial trade. With the increased realization that some wild species are being over-exploited, a number of agencies are recommending that wild species be brought into cultivation systems. Cultivation can also have conservation impacts, however, and these need to be better understood. Medicinal plant production through cultivation, for example, can reduce the extent to which wild populations are harvested, but it also may lead to environmental degradation and loss of genetic diversity as well as loss of incentives to conserve wild populations.
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The relationship between in-situ and ex-situconservation of species is an interesting topic with implications for local communities, public and private land owners and managers, entire industries ~md, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for MAP should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO MAP CULTIVATION
Since its adoption in 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has strived to implement its three major goals: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources. Although MAP have not been explicitly on the agenda of the various CBD meetings, all three goals of the Convention are fully applicable to MAP resources. In decision V/ 6, the Conference of the Parties of the CBD adopted the ecosystem approach as the primary framework for action under the Convention. It is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. The ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. In April 2002, the CBD adopted the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation which provides a policy environment that is particularly well suited to addressing the conservation challenges for MAP in a coherent way. As a base line element of the ecosystem approach it has to be recognized that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems. In conceptual terms, the essence of sustainable development is expressed
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by the relationship between people and the ecosystem around it. This implies that ultimately one is entirely dependent upon the other. Human and ecosystem wellbeing need to be assessed together. A society is thought to be sustainable when both the human condition and the condition of the ecosystem are satisfactory or improving. The system improves only when both the condition of the ecosystem and the human condition improve. The number of plant species which have at one time or another been used in some culture for medicinal purposes can only be estimated. An enumeration of the WHO from the late 1970s listed 21 000 medicinal species. However, in China alone 4 941 of 26 092 native species are used as drugs in Chinese traditional medicine, an astonishing 18.9 percent. If this proportion is calculated for other wellknown medicinal floras and then applied to the global total of 422 000 flowering plant species, it can be estimated that the number of plant species used for medicinal purposes is more than 50 000 (Table 1). Table l' Medicinally used plants Cou Il try China India Indonesia Malaysia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand USA Viet Nam Average World
Plant species
Medicinal plant species
%
26092 15000 22500 15500 6973 4950 8931 3314 11 625 21641 10500 13366
4941 3000 1000 1200 700 300 850 550 1800 2564 1800 1700
18.9 20.0 4.4 7.7 10.0 6.1 9.5 16.6 15.5 11.8 17.1 12.5
422000
52885
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Certain plant families have higher proportions of medicinal plants than others. Good examples are the Apocynaceae, Araliaceae, Apiaceae, Asdepiadaceae, Canellaceae, Guttiferae and Menisper-maceae, In addition, these families are not distributed uniformly across the world. As a consequence, not only do some floras have higher proportions of medicinal plants than others, but also have certain plant families a higher proportion of threatened species than others. It is difficult to assess how many MAP are commercially traded, either on a national or even an international level. The bulk of the plant material is exported from developing countries while major markets are in the developed countries. An analysis of UNCTAD trade figures for 19811998 reflects this almost universal feature of MAP trade. Adding the volumes for the five European countries in this list (94300 tonnes) marks the dominance of Europe as an import region. Germany ranks fourth and third as importer and exporter, expressing the country's major role as a turntable for medicinal plant raw materials world-wide. A thorough investigation of the German medicinal plant trade identified a total of 1 543 MAP being traded or offered on the German market. An extension of this survey to Europe as a whole arrived at 2 000 species in trade for medicinal purposes. Recognizing the role of Europe as a sink for MAP traded from all regions of the world, it is a qualified guess that the total number of MAP in international trade will be around 2 500 species worldwide. THREATENED MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES
To satisfy the regional and international markets, the plant sources for expanding local, regional and international markets are harvested in increasing volumes and largely from wild populations. Supplies of wild plants in general are increasingly limited by deforestation from logging and
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conversion to plantations, pasture and agriculture. In many cases, the impact through direct off-take goes hand-in-hand with decline owing to changes in land use. Species favoured by extensive agricultural management likeArnica montanain central Europe go into decline with changes in farming practices towards higher nutrient input on the meadows. This requires habitat management as the key factor in managing species populations. One of the goals of the IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is to identify the species that have become threatened by non-sustainable harvest and other factors. The enormity of this task is illustrated by the following estimate: According to Walter and Gillett, 34 000 species or 8 percent of the world's flora are threatened with extinction. If this is applied to our earlier estimate that 52 000 plant species are used medicinally, it leads us to estimate that 4160 MAP species are threatened. MAP UNDER CULTIVATION
Many medicinal plants, especially the aromatic herbs, are grown in home gardens, some are cultivated as field crops, either in sole cropping or in intercropping systems and rarely as plantation crops. In a survey carried out for the Rainforest Alliance, companies involved in trade and production of herbal remedies and other botanical products were asked what percentage of their material is from cultivated sources and what percentage from the wild. On average, companies reported that 60-90 percent of material was cultivated, with the remaining wild harvested. However, when asked about species numbers rather than volume of material, the figures are generally inverted. Lange and Schippmann state that of the 1 543 species traded in Germany, only 50-100 species (3-6 percent) are exclUSively sourced from cultivation.
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Of more than 400 plants species used for production of medicine by the Indian herbal industry, fewer than 20 species are currently under cultivation in different parts of the country. In China, about 5 000 medicinal plants have been identified and about 1 000 are more commonly used, but only 100-250 species are cultivated. In Hungary, a l:ountry with a long tradition of MAP cultivation, only 40 species are cultivated for commercial production. In Europe as a whole, only 130-140 MAP species are cultivated. Based on these figures, we assume that the number of MAP species currently in formal cultivation for commercial production does not exceed a few hundred world-wide. A global survey on the extent of MAP cultivation in terms of species, volumes and values would be highly desirable. On the other hand, however, we recognize that many more MAP species are cultivated on a small-scale in home gardens, either as home remedies or by herbalist or cultivation by local people can take place as enrichment planting. DEMAND OF WILD AND CULTIVATED MEDICNAl PLANTS
Given the demand for a continuous and uniform supply of medicinal plants and the accelerating depletion of forest resources, increasing the number of medicinal plants species in cultivation would appear to be an important strategy for meeting a growing demand. But why are so few species cultivated and why are some species cultivated and so many others not? One explanation may be found in the observation that cultivated plants are sometimes considered qualitatively inferior when compared with wild gathered specimens. For instance, wild ginseng roots are 5-10 times more valuable than roots produced by artificial propagation. The reason is primarily cultural, as the Chinese community, which is the largest consumer group of wild ginseng, believes that the similarity in appearance of gnarled wild roots to the .
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human body symbolizes the vitality and potency of the root. Cultivated roots lack the characteristic shape of wild roots and are therefore not as highly coveted by consumers. In Botswana, traditional medicinal practioners said that cultivated material was unacceptable, as cultivated plants did not have the power of material collected from the wild. Scientific studies partly support this. Medicinal properties in plants are mainly due to the presence of secondary metabolites which the plants need in their natural environments under particular conditions of stress and competition and which perhaps would not be expressed under mono-culture conditions. Active ingredient levels can be much lower in fast growing cultivated stocks, whereas wild populations can be older due to slow growth rates and can have higher levels of active ingredients. While it can be presumed that cultivated plants are likely to be somewhat different in their properties from those gathered from their natural habitats it is also clear that certain values in plants can be deliberately enhanced under controlled conditions of cultivation. In general, in all countries, the trend is towards a greater proportion of cultivated material. The majority of companies, the mass-market, over-the-counter pharmaceutical companies as well as the larger herb companies, prefer cultivated material, particularly since cultivated material can be certified biodynamic or organic. From the perspective of the market, domestication and cultivation provide a number of advantages over wild harvest for production of plant-based medicines: (i) While wild collection often offers material adulterated with unwanted, sometimes harmful other plant species, cultivation provides reliable botanical identification. (ii) Wild harvest volumes are dependent on many factors that cannot be controlled and the irreguiarity of supply
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is a common feature. Cultivation guarantees a steady source of raw material. (iii) Wholesalers and pharmaceutical companies can agree on volumes and prices over time with the grower. (iv) The selection and development of genotypes with commercially desirable traits from the wild or managed populations may offer opportunities for the economic development of the medicinal plant species as a crop. (v) Cultivation allows controlled post-harvest handling and therefore quality controls can be assured and product standards can be adjusted to regulations and consumer preferences. (vi) Cultivated material can be easily certified organic or biodynamic although certifiers are also presently developing wildcrafting. However, domestication of the resource through farming is not always technically possible. Many species are difficult to cultivate because of certain biological features or ecological requirements (slow growth rate, special soil requirements, low germination rates, susceptibility to pests, etc.). Economical feasibility is the main rationale for a decision to bring a species in cultivation but it also is a substantial limitation as long as sufficient volumes of material can still be obtained at a lower price from wild harvest. Cultivated material will be competing with material harvested from the wild that is supplied onto the market by commercial gatherers who have incurred no input costs for cultivation. Low prices, whether for local use or the international pharmaceutical trade, ensure that few species can be marketed at a high enough price to make cultivation profitable. Domestication of a previously wild collected species does not only require substantial . investment of capital but also requires several years of
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investigations. On a time scale of sometimes many decades, the transition from wild harvesting to possible cultivation goes through various phases: (i) Discovery phase: At this point the demand can be met by wild harvest. Extractivism is done for local use or for barter with others. (ii) Expansion phase: It is clear that the product is potentially useful and that demand is likely to increase. Harvest is done for local or regional sale and eventually for international markets. In general, speci~s with naturally low densities are unlikely to H~come important sources of commercially large quanb~es. (iii) Stabilization phase: The species is unlikely tb be attractive to growers unless prices are high enough and wild-harvested resources are scarce enough. However, desirable species may be grown on farm land and planted around settlements. (iv) Decline phase: Prices increase with scarcity due to transport costs, search time and the long-distance trade. Wild populations will have to decline further before cultivation is a viable option. The trade is characterized by fluctuations in supplies, often to the extent of disrupting the trade balance. For slow growing species, if controls on collection are not strictly enforced, wild populations will be more seriously eroded before cultivated material is available. (v) Cultivation phase: Now, formal cultivation systems are developed and instituted. The plants are domesticated and incorporated in agroforestry systems sometimes for the benefit of small-scale farmers. If international market opportunities exist, commercial plantations are created with substantial investment and genetic selection, cloning, breeding and biotechnology may be applied. More resilient species may recover in their wild populations.
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Health Care Needs
There is a worldwide trend of increasing demand for many popular, effective species in Europe, North America and Asia, growing between 8-15 percent per year. Rapid urbanization and the importance of herbal medicines in African health care systems stimulated a growing national and regional trade in Africa. Demand for medicinal plants also reflects distinct cultural preferences. In the USA, for example, only 3 percent of people surveyed had used herbal medicin,e in the past year, whereas in Germany, with a strong tradition of medicinal plant use, 31 percent of the over-the-counter products in pharmacies in 2001 were phytopharmaceutical preparations. The level of herbal medicine use in most developing countries is much higher than this. While most traditional medicinal plants are gathered from the wild, these are not static health care systems, and introduced species are commonly adopted into the repertoire of plants used by African or South American herbalists. In many cases, herbal medicines can also be cheaper than western medicines, particularly where access to traditional healers is easier. Demand for traditional medicine continues in the urban environment even if western biomedicine is available. Income Generation
Wild harvesting of medicinal plants is a chance for the poorest to make at least some cash income. Especially those people who do not have access to farm land at aU depend on gathering MAP to earn at least some money. However, local people generally get a low price for unprocessed plant material. Although income fromPrunus africanabark sales is an important source of revenue to villagers in Madagascar, in some cases generating >30 percent of village revenue, the price paid to collectors is negligible compared to Madagascan middlemen. In Mexico, Hersch-Martinez
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found that medicinal plant collectors only received an average 6.17 percent of the medicinal plant consumer price. Whether fruits, roots, bark or whole plants are involved, the potential yield from wild stocks of many species is frequently over-estimated, particularly if the effects of stochastic events is taken into account. As a result, commercial harvesting ventures based on wild populations can be characterized by a "boom and bust" situation where initial harvests are followed by declining resource availability. Small-scale Cultivation and Home Gardens
Small-scale cultivation, which requires low economic inputs, can be a response to declining local stocks, generating income and supplying regional markets. This can be a more secure income than from wild harvest which is notoriously inconsistent. For farmers that integrate MAP into agroforestry or small-scale farming systems, these species can provide a diversified and additional source of income to the family. Home gardens are increasingly a focus of medicinal plant propagation and introduction programmes intended to encourage the use of traditional remedies for common ailments by making the plant source~ more accessible. Large-scale Cultivation
Large-scale cultivation has a number of socio-economic impacts on rural people: "Commercialization is both necessary and potentially harmful to farmers. It is necessary in that without it the market for products is small and the opportunity does not exist for rural people to generate income. A degree of product domestication is therefore desirable. On the other hand, commercialization is potentially harmful to rural people if it expands to the point that outsiders with capital to invest come in and develop large-scale monocultural plantations for export
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markets. Rural people may benefit from plantations as a result of available employment and hence off-farm income [... ]. However, plantations may also distort market forces to their advantage, for example, by imposing low wages which will restrict the social and economic development of local people. The major beneficiaries of large-scale exports will probably be the country's elite and, perhaps, the national economy". Also, those Socially disadvantaged groups who actually depend on gathering MAP for their survival and cash income, may not have access to farm land at all and are therefore not able to compete with large-scale production of MAP by well-established farmers. Other limitations to the domestication approach include boom-bust and fickle markets that let farmers down when consumers turn their attention elsewhere. ISSUES IN WILD CULTIVATION OF MAP Cultivation of medicinal plants is widely viewed not only as a means for meeting current and future demands for large volume production of plant-based drugs and herbal remedies, but also as a means for relieving harvest pressure on wild populations. Booming markets with rapidly rising demands often have devastating effects on wild collected species. A closer look reveals that not all species are affected in the same way by harvesting pressures. The seven forms of rarity described by Rabinovitz make clear that a species which (i) has a narrow geographic distribution, (ii) is habitat specific, and (iii) has small population sizes everywhere, is more easily over-harvested than species of any other pattern. Secondly, the susceptibility or resilience to collection pressure varies among species owing to biological characters such as different growth rates, reproductive
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systems (vegetative or generative propagation; germination rates; dormance; apomixis) and life forms (annual; perennial; tree). Species can be distinguished quite well in their susceptibility to over-collection if their life form and the plant parts collected are viewed together. Harvesting fruits from a long-lived tree presents a far lower threat to the long-term survival of the species than does collecting seeds from an annual plant. In the latter case, if the seed is gone the plant is gone. In some cases the harvest impacts are more complex, e.g. with slow growing trees which reproduce from seed but only produce few, large fruits. This will increase their susceptibility to over-harvest from low to medium or even high. A thorough summary of predictors of resilience or vulnerability to harvesting wild populations is presented by Cunningham. Species most susceptible to over-harvest are habitat specific, slow growing and destructively harvested for their bark, roots or the whole plant. These species suffer most from harvesting and many of them have been seriously depleted, for example Prunus africana in West Africa, Warburgia salutaris in southern Africa and Saussurea costus in the Himalayas. For threatened medicinal plant species cultivation is a conservation option because the constant drain of material from their populations is much higher than the annual sustained yield. If the demand for these species can be met from cultivated sources the pressure on the wild populations will be relieved. In these cases, the need for strict conservation of remaining populations, improved security of germplasm ex-situ and investment in selection and improvement programmes is extremely urgent as the example of Jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandi) in Brazil shows. However, among the species that can be marketed at a high enough price to make cultivation profitable, only few are in the highest threat categories. Examples for
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threatened but cultivated species are Garcinia afzelii, Panax quinquefolius, Saussurea costus and Warburgia salutaris. With respect to economic viability many highly endangered MAP do not qualify for cultivation. This group of plants will enter cultivation only with the help of public domestication programmes. For all other harvested MAP species the priority conservation option is sustainable harvest from wi.ld populations, for a variety of reasons. Let's imagine that a valuable medicinal plant is exploited by local collectors. A pharmaceutical company has domesticated and begun to cultivate the plant on a commercial scale. When the company no longer needs the wild-harvested material, local harvesters have to abandon the harvest and any incentive the local collectors might have had to protect the wild populations is gone. The domestication of MAP species has an environmental inlplication in the sense that it reduces the economic incentives for forest dependent people to conserve the ecosystems in which the MAP species occur. If collectors and collecting communities can be involved in the development of propagation and management methods, the lL1<elihood of their having an interest in protecting the wild populations from overexploitation, particularly if these are understood to be the genetic resource "bank" for the domestic enterprises, will be greater. Another aspect to consider is the genetic diversity of the species which is in demand. Long before non-sustainable harvest practices lead to extermination of a whole species, selection of favoured growth forms and concentration on certain harvesting areas which may hold certain ecotypes will lead to a degradation of genetic diversity of the wild populations. The same is true under domestication: Industry requirements for standardization encourage a narrow genetic range of material in cultivation.
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Domestication will not achieve conservation of genetic diversity because a narrow group of high yielding individuals will be selected for planting. Challenges of Wild Harvesting
Sustainable harvest is increasingly seen to be the most important conservation strategy for most wild-harvested species and their habitats, given their current and potential contributions to local economies and their greater value to harvesters over the long term. The basic idea is that nondestructive harvestS!' and local benefits will maintain population, species and ecosystem diversity. Besides poverty and the break-down of traditional controls, the major challenges for sustainable wild-collection include: lack of knowledge about sustainable harvest rates and practices, undefined land use rights and lack of legislative and policy guidance. The most important ingredient required to achieve a truly sustainable form of resource use is information. In reality, resource managers are always confronted with the lack of adequate information about the plants used, their distribution, the genetic diversity of wild populations and relatives and, above all, the annual sustained yield that can be harvested without damaging the populations. Research on the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants and their habitats has fallen far behind the demand for this globally important resource. Each species has unique ecological, socio-economic, health and cultural associations that must be understood. Model research approaches are feasible, model solutions are not. In many cases, access to the resource is open to everybody, rather than a limited access or private ownership. To make a living, commercial medicinal plant gatherers therefore "mine" rather than manage these resources. Open access schemes to harvestable plant population prevent rational and cautious use and make it difficult to adhere to quotas and closed seasons.
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Policies Supporting Wild Harvesting Schemes
Information on trade in MAP is scarce and data are rarely collected or published at a national level. Much production and consumption is at subsistence level and as a consequence the economic importance of these activities is' largely under-estimated in government decision making regarding rural development, natural resource management planning and in government budget allocations. Therefore, national legislation and policies mostly fail to provide frameworks for a rational and sustainable use of wild resource. Opportunities for governments to develop legislation to control and monitor harvest and trade of medicinal plant species and to consider conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants as a priority in establishing protected areas have been greatly enhanced by two recent developments in international legislation: the addition of medicinal plant species to the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) and the entry into force of the CBD. Future Trends
How will the market demand develop in the future?People in developing countries are already and will increasingly depend on medicinal plants as sources for their primary health care. An estimate by the World Health Organization that more than 80 percent of the world's population relies solely or largely on traditional remedies for health care is frequently cited. Also in the northern countries, use of medicinal plants is expected to rise globally, both in allopathic and herbal medicine. This upward trend is predicted not only because of population explosion, but also due to increasing popularity for natural-based, environmentally friendly products. In general, the demand for medicinal plants and herbal remedies and especially its
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renaissance in the developed countries is driven by the following factors: increasing costs of institutional, pharmaceutical-based health care; interest of individuals, communities and national governments in greater self-reliance in health care; interest of communities and national governments in small and large-scale industrial development based on local/national biodiversity resources; increasing success in validating the safety and efficacy of herbal remedies; legislation improving the status of herbal medicine industry; renewed interest of companies in isolating useful compounds from plants; search for new drugs and treatments of serious and drug-resistant diseases; marketing strategies by the companies dealing in herbal medicine. The limitations of cultivation as an alternative to wild harvest have been examined by Sheldonet al. in several case studies. We share their conclusion that, notwithstanding the level of interest in cultivation as a means for enhanced production and in a few cases as an effort to contribute to conservation of the resource, most medicinal and aromatic plant species will continue to be harvested wild to some extent. There is therefore a need to recognize and strengthen the role of local people in forest inventory, monitoring and impact assessment processes and to integrate non-timber product uses into forest management Implementation of Management Plans
Limiting the harvest to a sustainable level requires an effective management system and sound scientific
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information (Table 2). The management system must include annual harvest quotas, .consider seasonal or geographical restrictions and restriction of harvest to particular plant parts or size classes. In addition, clarification of the access and user rights to the resources providing MAP is part of the essential baseline information. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the success is necessary to adapt the management strategy. Table 2. Steps and standard elements of a management plan for MAP utilisation resouIce inventory of population abundance and distribution assessment of regional and global threat based on all available knowledge and expertise biological studies (growth and regeneration rates, pollination system, seed dispersal, potential for confusion with similar species, etc.) and assessment of harvest impact on viability of individuals assessment of annual sustained yield review of local knowledge and harvest practices review of harvest and trade levels in the past and evaluation of market trends revision of national regulations for the utilization in source country assessment of tenure and access design and implementation of management scheme: annual harvesting quota, seasonal or regional restriction and on certain plant parts or size classes, domestication programme installation of continuing monitoring and re-evalutaion
In many cases harvesting techniques need to be improved as the extraction of the roots or bark is often negatively affecting the recovery of the species or may even kill it. Collecting methods are often crude and wasteful, resulting in loss of quality and reduction in price. Field-based methods have already been developed for sustainable harvest assessment and monitoring of non-wood forest products, resulting in the publication of research guidelines and predictive models.
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Given that sustainable harvesting from the wild is difficult to achieve, certification standards can playa role to assure that a product meets certain standards of sustainability. Certification programmes related to natural resource use have mainly been developed for timber and agricultural products but they are presently being adapted for wild harvest of non-timber plants. Various schemes focus on different areas along the supply chain: production, processing, trade, manufacturing, marketing. Four categories of certification schemes have been identified to be of relevance for MAP products: (i) forest management certification (e.g. Forest Stewardship Council FSC), (ii) social certification (e.g. Fair Trade Federation FTF), (iii) organic certification (e.g. International Federation of Organic Agriculture IFOAM), and (iv) product quality certification. The latter include parameters such as product identity, purity, safety and efficacy. The Good Harvesting Practices (GHP) developed for medicinal plants cover to some degree ecological aspects but need to be more clearly focussed on this aspect before they can make a meaningful contribution to ensuring sustainability. REFERENCES
Anon.Conservation impacf~ of commercial captive breeding workshop. Briefing notes II. 7-9.12.2001, Jacksonville. Cambridge, UK, IUCN/Sse Wildlife Trade Programme. 2002. Bannerman, R.H."Traditional medicine in modern health care." World Health Forum3(1): 8-13. 1982. Bodeker, G., K.K.S. Bhat, J. Burley & P. Vantomme, (eds.) Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. Rome, FAO (Non-wood Forest Products 11). 1997. Cunningham, A.B.African medicinal plants. Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. Paris, UNESCO. 1993. Cunningham, A.B.Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use and conservation. - London, Earthscan. 2001.
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Farnsworth, N.R. & D.O. Soejarto. Global importance of medicinal plants.InAkerele, 0., V. Heywood & H. Synge, eds.,Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge, UK, University Press. 1991. Groombridge, B. & M. Jenkins.Biodiversity data sourcebook. Cambridge, UK, World Conservation Press. 1994. Groombridge, B. & M.D. Jenkins.WorM-atlas of biodiversity. Earth's living resources in the 21stcentury. Berkeley, USA, University of California Press. 2002. Penso, G. WHO inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. 1980. Uniyal, R.C, M.R. Uniyal & P. Jain.Cultivation of medicinal plants in India. A reference book New Delhi, India, TRAFFIC India & WWF India. 2000.
6 Conservation of Medicinal Plants The special significance of medicinal plants in conservation stems from the major cultural, livelihood or economic roles that they play in many people's lives. Several themes consistently arise in the various sets of recommendations that have been compiled relating to the conservation of medicinal plants, such as those associated with international conferences at Chiang Mai, Thailand, in 1988 and Bangalore, India, in 1998. They include: the need for coordinated conservation action, based on both in situ and ex situ strategies; inclusion of community and gender perspectives in the development of policies and programmes; the need for more information on the medicinal plant trade; the establishment of systems for inventorying and monitoring the status of stocks of medicinal plants; the development of sustainable harvesting practices; encouragement for micro-enterprise development by indigenous and rural communities; and the protection of traditional resource and intellectual property rights. Because so many species of plants are medicinal, medicinal plant conservation is, in some ways, a microcosm of plant conservation as a whole. Similar questions arise concerning identification of the most Significant issues and most effective approaches. This is especially so given that, just because a species has been used somewhere
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medicinally, it does not follow that it is so used everywhere and at all times. There may be good reasons, for the purpose of genetic conservation, to conserve particular populations of 'medicinal plants', even though their designation as such carries little or no meaning to people living in the neighbourhood. The challenges facing conservationists are then similar to those encountered with other groups of plants singled out by 'plant conservationists' as special, but which lack any special significance to local people, such as, commonly, many 'threatened' species and wild crop relatives. There can be aspects of medicinal plant conservation which 'plant conservationists' can pursue, working largely outside the normal dynamics of people/plant relationships. Work of this type can sometimes be found, for instance, associated with seed-banks, information systems or 'totally protected' nature reserves. The fact that efforts are made in favour of medicinal plants, rather than plants of any other type, is incidental, except as regards the criteria used for the initial selection of species for attention. Most work by conservationists on medicinal plants should be with those people who own, manage or make use of these species, or else own or manage the land on which they grow. It is in working with such stakeholders that the special meanings of medicinal plants to people can best be 'exploited'. Billions of people in the world rely chiefly on herbal medicine, while millions gain income from their wild harvest or cultivation, or are involved in their trading or processing. Medicinal plants are symbolically significant in many cultures, often being seen as sources of power. My experience over the years, working for WWF, is that medicinal plants hold more fascination for the British public than any other facet of the botanical world. Probably, the single most important 'role' for medicinal plants in biological and ecological conservation stems from the foundations that they can provide for the involvement
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of people in conservation of natural habitats. In other words, the significance of medicinal plants to people can be sufficiently great that arrangements made for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants can lay important foundations for the conservation of natural habitats and ecological services more generally. Therefore the 'biological beneficiaries' of 'medicinal plant conservation' are not necessarily only the medicinal plants themselves. This is nowhere more so than in those remoter parts of the world where cultural and biological diversity tend to be most concentrated, and where medicinal plants can assume high importance in cultures and for livelihoods. Working effectively with communities requires conservationists to have an appreciation of the cultures, economies and social structures and dynamics of iocal societies, in addition to the knowledge that they need about the biology and ecology of the plants themselves. Similar . 'lateral engagement' is also necessary for work with other classes of people involved with medicinal plants. For example, the main concerns of conservationists about manufacturers are likely to revolve around questions of the effects of their patterns of obtaining raw materials on the environment. However, manufacturers will often be more interested in other aspects of product quality than biological and ecological sustainability, especially those relating to quality control that involve species authentication, presence of active constituents, limitations to heavy metal content, and residues of pesticides and fertilisers. Conservationists working with manufacturers need to understand these facts of the business, just as they need to understand those of village life when working with communities. However, in doing so, they should never lose sight of their own conservation objectives. There can be debate as to what exactly constitutes a 'medicinal plant'. In many instances, there is little controversy, but what about 'magical' plants, plants taken
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basically as food but believed to have additional benefits to health, or flavourings that also have medicinal properties? There are cultural differences in the ways that plants are classified according to their properties, for example, with less of a distinction between food and medicine in Eastern and African traditions than in the West. Medicinal plants are grouped for many commercial purposes in the broader category 'medicinal and aromatic plants' (MAPs), covering not only plants used medicinally, but also for neighbouring and overlapping purposes, for instance as foods, condiments and cosmetics. The term 'botanicals' is becoming commonly used for a wide range of plant-based products. VALUES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
It is estimated that 70-80% of people worldwide rely chiefly
on traditional, largely herbal, medicine to meet their primary healthcare needs. The global demand for herbal medicine is not only large, but growing. The market for Ayurvedic medicines is estimated to be expanding at 20% annually in India, while the quantity of medicinal plants obtained from just one province of China has grown by 10 times in the last 10 years. An example of increased pressure on collecting grounds is provided by the Gori valley in the Indian Himalayas, where the annual period of MAP harvesting has increased from 2 to 5 months. Factors contributing to the growth in demand for traditional medicine include the increasing human population and the frequently inadequate provision of Western (allopathic) medicine in developing countries. There are many traditional systems of medicine. Following the practice in China, they may be classified into 3 broad categories: (1) Traditional medical systems, with written traditions of documentation of knowledge, pharmacopoeias for doctors and institutions for training doctors;
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(2) Traditional medical knowledge (Folk Medicine), which is orally transmitted and associated with households, communities or ethnic groups; and (3) Shamanistic medicine, with a strong spiritual element and which can only be applied by specialist practitioners (shamans). Traditional medical systems are especially concentrated in Asia. Some of the more widely familiar are Chinese Traditional Medicine, Tibetan Medicine, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Western Herbal Medicine, the latter being rather ill-defined. PLANTS IN HERBAL MEDICINE
Herbal medicine is becomirig ever more fashionable in richer countries, a market sector which has grown at 10-20% annually in Europe and North America over recent years. In addition, there are many related botanical products sold as health foods, food supplements, herbal teas, and for various other purposes related to health and personal care. The extent to which herbal preparations are prescribed within conventional medicine varies greatly between countries, for instance being much higher in Germany than in the UK or USA. Plants have contributed hugely to Western medicine, through providing ingredients for drugs or having played central roles in drug discovery. Some drugs, having botanical origins, are still extracted directly from plants, others are made through transformation of chemicals found within them, while yet others are today synthesised from inorganic materials, but have their historical origins in research into the active compounds found in plants. There are undoubtedly many more secrets still hidden in the world of plants. GLOBAL USE OF MEDICINAL SPECIES
In terms of the number of species individually targeted, the
use of plants as medicines represents by far the biggest
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human use of the natural world. Plants provide the predominant ingredients of medicines in most medical traditions. There is no reliable figure for the total number of medicinal plants on Earth, and numbers and percentages for countries and regions vary greatly. Estimates for the numbers of species used medicinally include: 35,000-70,000 or 53,000 worldwide; 10,000-11,250 in China; 7500 in India; 2237 in Mexico; and 2572 traditionally by North American Indians. The great majority of species of medicinal plants are used only in Folk Medicine. Traditional Medical Systems employ relatively few: 500-600 commonly in Traditional Chinese Medicine (but 6000 overall); 1430 in Mongolian Medicine; 1106-3600 in Tibetan Medicine; 12501400 in Ayurveda; 342 in Unani; and 328 in Siddha. Table 1. Numbers and percentages of medicinal plant species recorded for different countries and regions. Number of species of medicinal plants
Total number of native species in flora
which is medicinal
China India Mexico North America
11,146 7500 2237
27,100 17,000 30,000
41 44 7
2572
20,000
13
World
52,885
297,000-510,000
10-18
Country or region
% of flora
The number of plant species that provide ingredients for drugs used in Western Medicine is even fewer. It was calculated for an article published in 1991 that there were 121 drugs in current use in the USA derived from plants, with 95 species acting as sources. Despite the small number of source species, drugs derived from plants are of immense importance in terms of numbers of patients treated. It is reported that ca. 25% of all prescriptions dispensed from community pharmacies in the USA between 1959 and 1973
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contained one or more ingredients derived from higher plants. A more recent study, of the top 150 proprietary drugs used in the USA in 1993, found that 57% of all prescriptions contained at least one major active compound currently or once derived from (or patterned after) compounds derived from biological diversity. The value of medicinal plants to human livelihoods is essentially infinite. They obviously make fundamental contributions to human health, and: Is not health dearer than wealth?" Financially, the retail sales of pharmaceutical products was estimated at US$ 80-90 billion globally in 1997, with medicinal plants contributing very Significantly. A study of the 25 best-selling pharmaceutical drugs in 1997 found that 11 of them (42%) were either biologicals, natural products or entities derived from natural products, with a total value of US$ 17.5 billion. The total sales' value of drugs (such as Taxol) derived from just one plant species (Taxus baccata) was US$ 2.3 billion in 2000. The world market for herbal remedies in 1999 was calculated to be worth US$19.4 billion, with Europe in the lead (US$ 6.7 billion), followed by Asia (US$ 5.1 billion), North America (US$ 4.0 billion), Japan (US$ 2.2 billion), and then the rest of the world (US$ 1.4 billion). • There is much trade in MAPs, on scales ranging from the local to the international. Much of this is unrecoTded in official statistics or poorly documented - reasons why there is typically so little awareness among decision-makers of the significance of the trade to the healthcare and economies of their people, or about problems of unsustainability and the sometimes deleterious impacts of wild collection on natural habitats. Large quantities of MAPs are traded into urban centres from rural areas in developing countries, and also regionally and internationally. China's production of medicinal plants from cultivated and wild-harvested sources, considered together, was calculated at 1.6 million tonnes in 1996, with 1/
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a total value (excluding exports) in terms of finished products of US$ 3.7 billion. The reported annual imports of MAP material into all countries during the 1990s amounted to an average of 400,000 tonnes, valued at US$ 1.2 billion, showing a 100% rise between 1991 and 1997. The three leading exporting countries are China, India (about onethird of the Chinese amount) and then Germany. Europe is the major trading centre for MAPs globally, with imports into one European country or another amounting to 440,000 tonnes in 1996. There are at least 2000 species of MAPs marketed in Europe, these originating from over 120 countries. It is guessed that the total number of MAPs in international trade may be about 2500 species.· Although virtually everyone on Earth benefits from medicinal plants, it is the financially poorest who are typically most closely dependent on medicinal plants culturally and for their medicines and income. Only 15% of pharmaceutical drugs is consumed in developing countries, and a large proportion of even this small percentage is taken by relatively more affluent people. The poor have little alternative to using herbal medicine, which, anyway, they may prefer - at least for certain conditions. Both rural and urban dwellers, in developing countries, rely on medicinal plants, many rural people still depending largely on plants collected from close to their homes, while town folk depend, for the most part, on dried plants transported in from rural areas. Medicinal plants can provide a significant source of income for rural people in developing countries, especially through the sale of wild-harvested material. The collectors are often herders, shepherds or other economically marginalised sections of the population, such as landless . people and women. Between 50-100% of households in the northern part of central Nepal and about 25-50% in the middle part of the same region are involved in collecting medicinal plants for sale, the materials being traded on to
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wholesale markets in Delhi. The money received represents 15-30% of the total income of poorer households. Medicinal plants can be symbolically very important to people. They can be held in special religious, nationalistic or ideological esteem; This can be advantageous for conservation efforts, given that it is an acknowledgement, well rooted in culture, of the worth of a sizable proportion of the world's flora. But it a1:so carries challenges, in that this can result in dogmatic views about the medicinal properties of plants, resistance to accepting equally effective substitutes, and uncompromising attitudes towards the ownership of the plants and who should benefit from (or pay for) their continuing existence. The subject of 'medicinal plants' can arouse strong feelings, providing opportunities for bringing key conservation debates into the public arena. There is similarity to the emotions surrounding charismatic species, such as elephants and whales, with the difference that medicinal plants carry much more universal appeal. CONCERNS ABOUT MEDICINAL PLANTS
Loss of Biodiversity and Resoll!ces
These concerns exist, for a large part, because most species of medicinal plants are collected from the wild. The total number of species of medicinal plants cultivated on any scale is few, although this does include some species of MAPs that are traded internationally in large volumes, as well as the many of the (small) number of species used as starting points for pharmaceutical drugs. As an example, the Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), a species which originated in Madagascar and which is the source of the anti-leukemia drugs vincristine and vinblastine, is widely cultivated in Spain and Texas. China is probably the country with the greatest acreage of medicinal plants under cultivation, with over 300,000 hectares devoted to just one species - Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae r~mnoides) - with
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10,000 people employed. However, even in China, only 100250 species are cultivated and more than 80% of the 700,000 tonnes of medicinal plants reportedly used annually come from wild sources. Only 130-140 of the 1200-1300 species that are both traded in, and native to, Europe are derived predominantly from cultivation. There are many parts of the world in which there is virtually n<;> cultivation on any significant scale, including, by way of examples, Albania and Turkey in Europe, Pakistan and Bangladesh in Asia, and ~ll countries in Africa. An estimated 99% of the 400550 species currently sold for use in traditional medicine in South Africa originate from wild sources. There is no reliable estimate for the number of medicinal plants that are globally threatened., variously calculated as 4160 or 10,000. There would seem little doubt from theoretical considerations that many medicinal plant species that have been listed as threatened, and indeed others that have not, must be suffering from genetic erosion now, or will do so in the near future. This is because populations of many species are in retreat, with outlying populations being destroyed, as the extent and quality of many natural habitats decline. However, genetic erosion among wild plants is very poorly documented. The advantage of maintaining a pool of genetic diversity within a medicinal species can be illustrated with reference to Arnica (Arnica montana), a popular, but endangered, European medicinal plant, in which genes from wild populations have been used successfully to breed superior cultivated strains. Another example is African Cherry or Pygeum (Prunus africana), a forest tree yielding a medicinal extract from its bark in high demand in Europe. Varieties of P. africana are being tested in a breeding programme to select types that will take less time to reach harvestable age. The number of species of medicinal plants known to have become globally extinct is very few and conservationists are advised to avoid exaggerated claims in
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this respect. One of the best advertised cases is Silphion, a plant apparently found formerly in the dry hinterlands of the Middle East and much prized by the Ancient Greeks. It is believed to have become extinct in ca. 250 Be, with over-harvesting thought to have been a contributory factor. It should be noted that many medicinal plants are rather widely distributed. In the USA, only 121 of the 3214 plant species classified as of 'conservation concern' are report~d to have been used medicinally or in any other way by native Americans. This low percentage suggests that it may be easier for people to recognise the useful properties of plants that are common than those that are rare. : It has been estimated that over-exploitation threatens 150 species of MAPs in at least one European country, but it should not be deduced from this that many, if any, of these species are in danger of complete continental extinction. On the other hand, the seriousness of local, national or regional extinction, or, indeed, of commercial extinction should not be under-estimated. There can be serious consequences for livelihoods and economies, quite apart from issues of genetic conservation. Many of the threats to medicinal plant species are similar to those causing endangerment to plant diversity generally. The most serious proximate threats generally are habitat loss, habitat degradation and over-harvesting. Medicinal plants can have other uses than as sources of medicines, and the threats from over-harvesting may be due, or partly due, to collection for purposes other than medicinal. This is so in the case of the African trees Acacia senegal, Boswellia papyrifera and Pterocarpus angolensis. So far as collection for medicines is concerned, there is generally agreement that it is collection for commercial trade rather than home-use that is overwhelmingly the pro~lem. One reason why medicinal plants have become increasingly threatened has been the weakening of customary laws that traditionally have regulated the use of
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natural resources. Such laws have proved often to be easily undermined by modem socio-econornic forces. In at least one case, the collapse of customary institutions seems to have been connected directly to changes in the ways that a medicinal plant was exploited, and this may be a widespread phenomenon. Commercial collection of Prunus africana commenced in Cameroon in 1972, being at first a monopoly of Plantecam Medicam, a company which took steps to promote its sustainable harvesting. Bark was removed from opposing quarters of trunks, avoiding girdling, the rotation time for bark recovery being 4-5 years. In 1985, the Government of Cameroon issued 50 additional licenses and the controlled harvesting system broke down. Complete girdling now became the norm, or else trees were simply felled so that all their bark could be easily collected. In the case of one site, Mount Oku, it appears that this sudden injection of capitalist enterprise led to a great weakening in traditional customs that formerly helped to maintain a forest cover. The result was, not only destructive harvesting of P. africana, but a sudden massive loss of forest to agriculture, with stabilisation only becoming achieved through the intervention of an outside project, able to act as a mediator. Concerns about loss of medicinal plants, considered as material resources, relate to worries about healthcare, livelihood security and financial income. Among those for whom these problems are most acute are the rural poor, reliant on medicinal plants growing close to their homes for their healthcare and perhaps an income. Manufacturers and consumers, higher up commercial systems, are less influenced by local scarcities of resources, often being insulated by manufacturers switching their sources of supply. Unsustainable harvesting practices result in spreading frontiers of resource-depletion, with the negative impacts of over-exploitation confined to the local level until such time as regional or global resource scarcity becomes
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critical. Poorer members of local communities can face additional problems of loss of access to medicinal plants due to the privatisation or nationalisation of land. There is a major trend today in many developing countries towards stricter individual ownership of land and plant resources, replacing older forms of tenure and resource-rights in which poorer people could be less excluded. Loss of access through nationalisation can occur with the creation of more strongly protected types of conservation area. Declines in Local Knowledge
Knowledge of medicinal plants, as once embedded in tens of thousands of indigenous cultures, is rapidly disappearing. Every year, the sum total of human knowledge about the types, distribution, ecology, methods of management and methods of extracting the useful properties of medicinal plants is declining rapidly - a continuation of a process of loss of local cultural diversity that has been underway for hundreds of years. There has, of course, been a great growth in scientific information about medicinal plants in recent decades, but in many ways this has proved poor compensation, because such information is accessible, in practice, only to a very few people and, anyway, rather little of it is relevant to problems of management and utilisation, as encountered in the field. Among those liable to suffer most from loss of indigenous knowledge are those who live in harsh places, such as mountain ranges,· and who have high degrees of dependency on their local natural environments. The cultures and economies of such people must be closely adapted to the intricacies of their local environments, if they are to prosper. Knowledge of the natural world is typically a very important part of the knowledge-worlds of rural people following more traditional life-ways. Further, medicinal plants tend to figure prominently in these
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galaxies. It is therefore not surprising that the revitalisation of traditional systems of medicine can be high on the agendas of those promoting local and indigenous cultures, a political trend in many parts of the world. The Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) is an example of an organisation, in this case working in India, which is engaged in many aspects of medicinal plant conservation and sustainable use, including - prominently - cultural aspects, as is clear from its name. Concerns of Quality of Healthcare Services
The adequate provision of healthcare is threatened by declines in traditional medical knowledge and related plant resources. There are many people, notably in developing countries who lack - and will continue to lack for the foreseeable future - effective access to Western medicine, while even those who do enjoy this privilege will be limited in their choices of alternative therapies. Traditional medical practitioners came under attack during the colonial era and the legacy of this widely persists. The spread of Western Medicine was aided in its supremacy by association with the political and economic power of the West. Western Medicine became part of the 'civilising colonial mission'. Ayurvedic medicine was suppressed in state-funded medical colleges in India after 1835 and local medical traditions, with their 'witchdoctors', denounced in Africa. Even in China, never under full colonial rule, Western Medicine came to be seen as progressive. The Kuomintang Government decided that Traditional Chinese Medicine was unscientific and passed a law in 1929 making its practice illegal. The increasing nationalisation of medicine during the 19th and especially the 20th centuries and the rise in the power of pharmaceutical companies have given even further impetus to Western Medicine.
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Until recently, and then only in some countries, national healthcare systems have devoted all, or nearly all, their resources to the promotion and delivery of Western Medicine, ignoring other traditions. This is now changing, more so in some countries than others, but, even so, some medical traditions, such as Tibetan Medicine in India and Nepal, have yet to gain official recognition. Lack of official recognition and associated support has implications for conservation, because such recognition can raise the status of practitioners at village level. Since such practitioners are generally the most knowledgeable people about plants in their communities and have an intrinsic interest in their conservation, an increase in their authority has the potential to greatly assist improved management of plant resources. From the point of view of efficient and effective provision of national healthcare, a problem facing those countries which acknowledge the value of traditional medicine is how best to utilise the resources available. One approach is to provide official recognition to traditional medicine, which is then permitted to operate as a separate sector parallel to and largely unconnected with the main Western medical services provided by the state. Other countries, such as China, are attempting synthesis through trying to draw on the best of different traditions. Official recognition has several implications, including the desirability of registering authentic practitioners and supporting their training. There is also the question of how best to develop traditional systems to meet modern challenges. The environment in which traditional medical practitioners are operating today is not the same as in the past. Payment for treatment is now more frequently being requested, associations of traditional medical practitioners are being formed for networking and political lobbying, and there is a move towards professionalisation, including towards instruction based in schools rather than through lineages.
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The development of traditional medicine to meet modern challenges can be resisted. For instance some Ayurvedic practitioners in India can be conservative and claim that their treatments have been authenticated through long tradition and should not be subject to research. Authentication of traditional medicine is both a cultur~l and physiological matter and requires more than just trials similar to those used to test pharmaceutical drugs. Sensitive techniques are needed to avoid unnecessary prohibitions. Due attention needs to be given to traditional standards of quality, which, in Ayurveda, for example, classically refer to cultural and tantric use as well as therapeutic qualities. Research Concerns
This has become the most publicised area of 'policy debate' relating to medicinal plants. It is a field in which "there has been a polarisation and we've ended up arguing over who is in the wrong". In part, the issues can be traced back to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), agreed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Parties to the CBD accept that biodiversity is the property and responsibility of states, that the components of this biodiversity should be used sustainably, and that there should be a just sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. Some of the concerns have arisen because of knowledge, or suspicion, that some scientists, research institutes or commercial enterprises have taken samples of plants to test for new products, such as pharmaceutical drugs, without due permission or on ethically unacceptable terms. The worry is that there will be no, or inadequate, benefits accruing to the countries and communities from where the materials originate. There are also concerns' about the theft of local or indigenous intellectual property, given that the traditional uses of plants as medicines can
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be useful guides for the development of new drugs. Proponents of local and indigenous rights argue that traditional knowledge of the uses of plants can be based on years, perhaps millennia, of experimentation, and therefore it is not only scientists or pharmaceutical companies that can claim to be inventors (scientists do so through the filing of patents). There is also an argument that local jUld indigenous communities have acted historically as the keepers, or even developers, of biological diversity, and thus should be 'compensated' by those who benefit later from their care and labour. On the other hand, there are accusations that some countries and territories have over-reacted to the scares of biopiracy and theft of intellectual resources through creating such tight restrictions over research as to potentially cause serious setbacks to conservation and sustainable development. It is highly likely that issues surrounding medicinal plants (especially) have been largely responsible for these alleged over-reactions. Probably, there are often misconceptions about the relative prominence that research aimed at bioprospecting should have (compared with research having other objectives), the extent, of bioprospecting and the amounts of money to be made. There seems to be an unresolved conflict concerning intellectual property rights (IPRs) between the CBD and the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It is not yet clear how a compromise will be reaChed between the commitments to accessibility and equity enshrined in the CBD and the pressures for private ownership and profit-based systems of reward represented by TRIPS. "There is no requirement on applicants (to TRIPS) to involve or consult with local communities or governments about patenting a compound based on a natural product from that country. Nor is there provision
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for sharing benefits or including the prior contributions of indigenous peoples to an innovation". APPROACHES TO MEDICINAL PLANT CONSERVATION
An ecosystem-based approach is endorsed by the CBD and is appropriate for conservation of medicinal plants. It encourages lateral thinking, inter-disciplinarity and prioritisation. The ecosystem-based approach of the CBD, as encompassed in its 12 principles, recognises that: humans, with their cultural diversity, form an integral component of biodiversity; the delimitation of ecosystems for conservation action needs to be defined conceptually on scales appropriate to the problems being addressed; work can involve all 3 objectives of the Convention, requiring the striking of a balance between them; there are uncertainties in managing ecosystems and, consequently, a need for conservation measures to contain elements of 'learning-by-doing' or feedback from research; the approach needs to be used flexibly, so that other approaches to management and conservation can be incorporated, such as protected areas and singlespecies conservation programmes; benefits need to accrue to those responsible for producing and managing the benefits derived from ecosystems, with a special emphasis on local communities; and networks are needed for the sharing of experiences and information. In view of the inherent uncertainties, the CBD recommends an adaptive approach to ,interventions and management. This requires the establishment of indicators to monitor the effects of new measures, so that the need to make adjustments can be recognised. Conservationists should
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periodically take time to reflect fundamentally on their work, drawing back from deep immersion in particular matters. The desirability of changes in emphasis or taking on new types of activity may become apparent. Activists (conservationists) will be essential to ensure the success of efforts to conserve medicinal plants. Their work (or 'projects') should be designed to influence the ways that resource managers, traders, manufacturers, consumers or members of other defined social groups go about their normal business. What is required is the institutionalisation of new activities in favour of conservation. The attainment of institutionalisation requires the taking of responsibility by the various stakeholders involved, and therefore conservationists need to be careful in how much they take a lead themselves, balancing this with encouraging the development of initiatives by those who are more fundamentally parts of the systems. Conservationists can expect progress normally to be slow, though hopefully with occasional breakthroughs. They need to be persistent and imaginative. Inherent problems in this field of conservation, as in others, stem from the conservatism of human nature and the low priority that people normally give to conservation over more pressing day-to-day affairs. Conservationists must identify priorities if they are to stand much chance of being heard. The systems involved in medicinal plant conservation tend to be complex, with many variables and many types of actual or potential stakeholders. For the sake of presentation, 4 distinct subsystems are recognised here, namely (1) production systems and in situ conservation, (2) commercial systems, (3) ex situ conservation, propagation, domestication and the breeding of crop varieties, and (4) new product discovery, though actually all can be closely connected.
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It is emphasised that the heart of medicinal plant conservation should be aimed at securing robust management systems in favour of conservation or sustainable production (or both) at the sites where the medicinal plants grow. Given the diversity of field contexts, most 'medicinal plant conservation projects' should be field projects rather than projects of any other type. It will be noted from the brief descriptions of approaches that follow that many measures, which can be taken in favour of conservation, are essentially indirect. They include changes in laws and in the purchasing practices of companies and consumers, the compilation of databases, the ex situ preservation of germplasm in seed banks, and so on. What should be borne in mind is that all such measures will be essentially useless for supporting in situ conservation and sustainable development unless they 'feed back' positively to the field level. Unless due attention is paid, then' distant' conservation measures, taken with good intent, may be ineffective~r even backfire. Take the case of medicinal plants and I:3wmdi Impenetrable forest in Uganda. The upgrading of Bwindi from being a Forest and Game Reserve to a National Park in 1991 was a reaction to the rampant level of illegal activities, such as timber harvesting, hunting and goldmining, that previously prevailed. Following parks policy at the time, this declaration resulted in a total ban on the collection of all forest produce, including medicinal plants. What was not taken adequately into account, however, was the impact of this tough new regime on local livelihoods and attitudes. One of the items no longer legally available was the bark of Nyakibazi (Rytygynia spp.), a product so highly valued for medicinal purposes that, without it, declared the people, they would die". Conflict over this and other matters resulted in an increase in cases of deliberate burning of the forest and threats being made against the mountains 1/
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gorillas, the flagship species of the forest. The conflict was later partially defused through the formulation of agreements on local rights and responsibilities allowing regulated collection of Nyakibazi and other natural products from the park. Another example of a good intention back-firing concerns a suggestion emanating from Europe in the late 1990s for the listing of the medicinal plant Devil's Oaw (Harpagophytum procumbens) on CITES. A proposal to list a species on CITES might be considered' to be an entirely positive matter, but in this case this seems not to have been so, related probably to a lack of appreciation of the situation in the field. At the time, the non-governmental organisation CRIAA (Centre for Research Information for Action in Africa) SA-DC was just beginning to achieve considerable success in assisting rural communities in Namibia to harvest Devil's Claw in sustainable ways, also involving more direct access to markets and greater income for the harvesters. Even a mention of the idea of including the species on CITES was apparently enough to cause a fall in demand by the trade. This fed back to Namibia, causing a slump in sales and a general feeling of disappointment, threatening to undermine all that had been achieved through hard work on the ground. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND IN SITU CONSERVATION
In many ways, the approaches and methodologies used to promote the in situ conservation and sustainable production of medicinal plants differ little, in principle~ from those used for conservation and sustainable use of plant diversity generally. In particular, there are many similarities to those used for other categories of wild plants that are harvested as resources, especially those subject to the pressures of commercial trade. The types and levels of activities that are possible will vary greatly between projects, depending on the resources
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of time and money availablet as well as the particular int~rests and competencies of those involved. In any event, it is desirable for project teams to be multidisciplinary, preferably with coverage of the biological, ecological, cultural, economic and political dimensions of ecosytems. At least some members of project teams should have an understanding of both the biological and social dimensions of the ecosystems. Interventions will stand less chance of being successful if conservation teams consist solely of different types of specialist, without such linking expertise. This is why a knowledge of applied ethnobotany is so desirable. The involvement of local communities will almost invariably be a fundamental ingredient of in situ projects aimed at medicinal plant conservation. One reason, crudely stated: is that it is not difficult, in many parts of the world, for collectors of medicinal plants to harvest medicinal plants unsustainably or illegally, if the only controls present are those associated with government officials. It is even easier to avoid detection in the case of many medicinals than with timber, which is illegally harvested on massive scales in some countries. Conservation agencies, such as Park and Forest Departments, often suffer from shortages of resources and sometimes also work in conditions of political instability. Apart from the problems that they face in regulating medicinal plants, government agencies, acting alone, are liable to have little control over many other activities that can endanger medicinal plants, which may include excessive grazing by livestock, the harvesting of plants for other purposes apart from medicinal and excessive burning. The forms of relationships between project teams, local communities and other local stakeholders, established at the onset of work, are critical. These relationships may well be unwritten and relatively informal, but the tone that they
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set is important if more precise agreements are needed later, including if possibilities of commercial opportunities emerge based on local biodiversity or knowledge. Projects are also liable to go through a period of confidence-building as trust is established. Whatever the initial purposes of a project, it is important that priorities are periodically reevaluated.As work proceeds, it will often be found that presumptions ab0ut priorities at the onset of projects are inaccurate, for instance concerning the abundance and vulnerability of medicinal or other types of plants. It may even be discovered that medicinal plants are of no particular local concern. If this is so, then the project is faced with a challenge similar to .tha t which can occur with other projects started by 'special interest' conservationists. The project team must choose whether to continue narrowly to concentrate· on its own special concerns, transform the project into a general habitat conservation project or move to a more promising site. Successful conservation depends on the existence of rules and regulations, and a reasonable degree of compliance to them. Property rights and terms of access to resources are critical factors. It is especially important to ensure that the interests of those people in communities whose lives are most dependent on MAPs are properly accommodated. Despite reported successes of joint or participatory forest management in India and Nepal, the MAP sector has often been inadequately covered. For instance, in Nepal there are frequent difficulties relating to a general neglect of NTFPs, excessive restrictions on access, heavy taxes and rent-seeking. Both customary and statutory laws will often be relevant to medicinal plant conservation. Each type of legal system has its merits and disadvantages, and a critical question facing conservationists will often be how they can best be combined so that their positive elements are
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strengthened, while avoiding a process of mutual undermining. Analysis of the effectiveness of the two types of laws in India and Nepal shows that there can be considerable strength still remaining in customary institutions, but that they often need reinforcement today, as, for example, through their official recognition by government agencies. Protected areas, established through statutory law, can be very useful for the conservation of medicinal plants. There are many types (national parks, forest reserves, strict nature reserves, etc.), generally serving various purposes in addition to biodiversity conservation, and with various rules applying to the conservation and collection of m~a1 plants. Generally, medicinal plant issues have proved to be low among the priorities of the responsible agencies. In India, for example, the Forest Department is much more interested in timber than nontimber forest products (NTFPs) and, within the broad category of NTFPs, often in other types of products apart from medicinal plants (especially those regarded as being financially more lucrative). A study of the distribution and exploitation of 14 species of MAPs of high trade and conservation value in a high valley of the Indian Himalayas has started to reveal something of the details which local management plans must incorporate. Research resulted in a classification of species according to their distribution (including in relation to altitude and habitat) and pressure (both as regards collection for local use or trade, and pressure from livestock). Recommendations, varying between groups of species, included the protection of particular populations, rotational harvesting, cultivation and development of improved marketing. The range of measures which can be taken to conserve medicinal plants in protected areas differs little from those that can be applied elsewhere, with the essential difference
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of an extra layer of legal protection. This means that the rights of communities and other 'outside' parties will be more circumscribed than they are in the general landscape (although, it may be noted, the rights of individual people outside protected areas will depend greatly on systems of land tenure and whether they have private property). Agreements between communities and agencies responsible for protected areas will be necessary if collection of medicinal plants is to be controlled. This legal necessity can create exceptional opportunities to strengthen biodiversity conservation generally - not just in favour of those particular species of medicinal plants which receive specific attention. This is because of the special status that medicinal plants can hold in local societies, related to their symbolic, healing and economic properties. Agreements on medicinal plants can form firm bases for improved management of protected areas generally. If cultivation is introduced in the support zones of protected areas, then the provision of assistance by agencies to encourage this development can usefully be tied to agreements which enhance the participation of communities in conservation of the protected areas. Various, often isolated, initiatives are being tried to link conservation and livelihoods through a focus on medicinal plants. A project of the WWF-Nepal Programme with the People and Plants Initiative, at Shey Phodsundo National Park, is developing community-based systems for the sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants, combined with the strengthening of local medical services as provided by amchis. The amchis are identified as key members of the communities for promotion of conservation, with their allied interests in plant diversity and livelihoods. The Forest Department of the Great Himalayan National Park, India, is promoting cultivation of medicinal plants as an income-generating enterprise linked to conservation. The emphasis is on women, in recognition of their economically
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marginalised status and their special interest in plant resources. By 2002, 92 Women Saving and Credit Groups had been formed involving 930 people. The Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) is active across the southern cone of India with an integrated programme of conservation, health security and livelihood support, centred around medicinal plants and plant-based medicine. FRLHT encourages the foundation of micro-credit groups, and seeks to prioritise health problems and related local remedies. Species in demand, and also endemic and threatened species, are grown in nurseries, and planted out in demonstration plots, homegardens, and for enrichment planting in areas of degraded forest. Steps are taken to encourage the transmission of medical knowledge between generations. The FRLHT model is proving successful and becoming adopted elsewhere in India. Three levels of monitoring to guarantee that MAPs are used sustainably have been proposed for Prespa National Park, Albania. If implemented, they would involve collectors and collectors' organisations, the Forest and National Park Service and scientists, all working co-operatively. They would cover: (1) the recording of the amounts of all MAPs collected, and associated information; (2) detailed population studies of rare species; and (3) monitoring to detect changes in the vegetation, especially on the landscape scale. Actually, in practice, it is necessary to identify indicators in monitoring programmes and the selection of these is important. Certain species are of greater cultural or economic significance to communities or agencies, and there is a greater chance that monitoring programmes will give good results if these are included as indicators.. The vulnerability of species to commercial collection depends on the parts of plants used and how they are collected. For example, the collection of underground
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organs, as is the case with many species in the Himalayas, is liable to be more damaging that if leaves are targeted, as is the case with many species used in tropical forest areas of Africa. Populations of specialist species associated with habitats of restricted occurrence, as Mecanopsis spp. in the Himalayas, can easily be decimated. Some countries have laws specifically giving protection to wild plants, some of which may be medicinal. The UK Wildlife and Countryside Act prohibits the uprooting of any species of wild plant, except by landowners and other authorised people. In several Italian regions, Austrian Lander and Swiss cantons, not only is the uprooting or the collection of subterranean parts of plants prohibited, but ,there are restrictions on the gathering of aerial parts as well. The number of flowering stems or branches that may be picked varies from 5 to 20, or a handful, according to local regulations. Only a few countries have laws specifically for medicinal plants. In Nepal, the collection, sale, transportation and export of Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Juglans regia and Picrorhiza scrophulariifolia are all banned, while other species are specifically banned for export. However, in many parts of the world, for instance Africa and India, laws protecting wild plants are little known by the general public or, indeed, even among those charged with their enforcement. Cultivation is frequently advocated as a measure to take the pressure off wild stocks, especially for species collected in large quantities for trade. Cultivation can be commercially attractive to companies, because they then have greater control over quality and supply. Various fa¢tors influence the feasibility of cultivation, its impact on conservation and by whom it is best undertaken. If volumes required and market prices are both high, then cultivation is more likely to be economically feasible. The introduction of medicinal plants into home-gardens is seen as a useful means of providing accessible cures for common ailments
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and supplementary income. Medicinal plants have been introduced successfully into traditional farming systems in Guatemala, providing regular incomes to farmers. If cultivation is to be introduced, then there can be many problems inhibiting success - for instance, in India, lack of knowledge of cultivation and post-harvest techniques for some species, and lack of availability of planting material of good quality. If a species has not previously been in cultivation, then domestication may be needed, which can prove a difficult, expensive and lengthy process. There should be public funding for domestication programmes for those many species of MAPs which are highly endangered but which economically or otherwise are unlikely to become domesticated. It has been proposed for the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa that faster-" growing species are most suitable for communities, but that the cultivation of slower-growing types of plants is best undertaken by statutory bodies, such as the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, or by private companies. There can be advantages to wild collection over cultivation. From the medical viewpoint, there is a widespread belief that wild-harvested material is more efficacious, as is sometimes reflected in higher prices. Asian buyers will pay up to 30 times more for wild-harvested roots of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) than for those from cultivated sources. On the other hand, 82% of healers interviewed in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa stated that they would readily make use of cultivated plants, possibly because they recognise that wild supplies are declining. The social benefits of wild harvest too can be considerable, given that it is generally the most economically and socially marginalisp.d members of communities that are so involved. Even if cultivation is introduced, then this may be adopted by relatively well-off people, with better access to land, financial capital or information. The landless and other disadvantaged sectors
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of society may fail to benefit, but rather continue to collect j1:lst as before. Another important factor is that individual land-holdings can be very small and farmers are likely to adopt a high risk strategy in terms of livelihood secur~ty if they convet from food crops to MAPs. For example, in the Himalayas topographic and demographic factors limit the size of agricultural land per family often to only 0.4-1 ha. However, from the conservation viewpoint, perhaps the strongest argument for retaining or promoting wild harvesting is that this will then maintain links between people and the intricacies of their local natural worlds. The successful conservation of biodiversity will always require the existence of people who know about such details and care enough for their existence that they will make efforts to retain them. Without this type of involvement, there is little cultural base at the local level on which to build support for national or global conservation goals. COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS FOR MAP CONSERVATION
Some conservationists interested in MAPs should become engaged with the commercial sector, both because it is the pressures of trade that are responsible for so much MAP endangerment, and also, more positively, because of the opportunities which engagement with industry and consumers present. Various stakeholders are involved in commerciar systems, including producers (collectors or growers), traders of various types, manufacttu:ers and consumers. Apart from self-regulation, commercial systems for MAPs are subject to many types of standard, statutory or otherwise. Conservationists can become engaged in various ways, including helping to formulate and promote appropriate standards, supplying relevant information to the parties involved, and also putting parties in touch which each other. Because of the connections between different parts of commercial systems, it will often be productive to work
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simultaneously with different types of stakeholder. Thus, it can make sense to work simultaneously both with
producers (to improve their management systems) and manufacturers (to make their purchasing of raw materials more conservation-friendly). In any event, what is vital is that changes in the behaviour of those at the 'top' of the trade chains (e.g. traders, manufacturers and consumers) feed back to the production level, otherwise efforts will have been in vain. In many countries, the MAP sector is economically liberalised and in the hands of private enterprise. In such cases, commercial systems tend to be complex, poorly integrated vertically and secretive. There is very little overlap in the UK between the trading systems relating to traditional European herbal medicine, Chinese Traditional Medicine, Ayurveda and Unani. Bhutan has a central system which controls the harvesting of medicinal plants - made into medicines in the capital Thimpu - and then the . distribution of the medicines to hospitals throughout the country. In China, there is 'one major business, the state-owned Company of Chinese Medical Crude Drugs, which is responsible for the bulk of the collection and distribution of raw materials, but there are several major manufacturers of Chinese Traditional Medicine, some under national and others under private ownership. The collapse of Communist regimes in eastern Europe resulted in considerable deregulation of statecontrolled commerce in MAPs and a weakening of pre-existing quota-controlled harvesting structures. As a result, the number of traders in MAPs has increased and wild collection has grown in an unregulated fashion, with associated conservation concerns. In Bulgaria, an element of socialist centralisation remains. The main national dealer in MAPs is Bulgarcoop, a co-operative enterprise, but this is joined today by many small, largely familyowned, businesses. Both Bulgarcoop and 50-60 of the
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businesses provide help to growers with cultivation and guarantees to purchase harvests. Standard-setting with regard to MAPs is a complex business, more so than with timber (which will be a point of comparison for some conservationists). The complexity is due to the variety of harvesting and socio-economic circumstances, the complexity of the chains of custody through which materials travel, the wide range of markets and the numerous types of product. The latter include not only medicines, but also foods, food supplements, fragrances and personal care products. Quite a number of therapeutic products made from MAPs are marketed as food supplements or herbal tonics, rather than medicines, avoiding the stricter regulations that apply to the latter. The main concerns of the industry (and consumers) as regards standards normally relate to medical efficacy and safety. In terms of botanical ingredients, these concerns translate into specific requirements, most basically that MAP materials or products really are made from the right species, but also concerning the parts of the plants used, the times of harvest, the levels of active principles, and the contents of pollutants. It is not unusual for species to be sold incorrectly labelled. Aside from these medical concerns, some enterprises (and consumers) are also interested in social justice, for instance relating to the distribution of financial benefits received from the trade, and the fair treatment of women and children. There are major questions of social justice in the MAP sector, because of the very low prices generally paid to collectors and, allegedly, the maintenan~e of artificially high prices by a monopoly of wholesale distributors. Environmental concerns may not be restricted solely to matters strictly related to biological conservation or the sustainability of harvesting. Some environmental standards, such as those relating to organic accreditation, only relate partially to biological conservation.
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Many manufacturers, at least in some countries, are said to care little about the standards of quality of the material they purchase. If manufacturers actually are interested in conservation, then they are faced with the problem of knowing whether the raw materials that they purchase are derived from plants harvested or grown in ways that promote this objective. Manufacturers commonly think about conservation, in this context, in terms of sustainability. In general, even the most environmentally inclined manufacturers will find it impossible to guarantee that all their sources of medicinal plants are sustainable. Many manufacturers buy largely from wholesalers. They do so because they then can be more certain that stocks of reliable quality are available, prices are relatively low and purchasing is easy. Therefore, a problem for environmentally inclined manufacturers is how to learn about the origins of MAP materials on sale. Some wholesalers are reluctant to provide information about their sources, fearing that manufacturers might use this information to side-step them in the future. It has been suggested that one way that manufacturers might be able to obtain greater assurance of sustainability is through the incorporation of conservation criteria in the specification sheets which they prepare for the formulation of products. They can then require w\lolesalers to confirm that they have met these standards or lose out to .other suppliers. Some manufacturers may be able to encourage higher conservation standards through their more direct sourcing of MAP materials. Likewise, ethical producers may be able to 'jump up' market chains, for instance selling MAP materials directly to manufacturers. Collectors and growers often benefit from being organised into associations of cooperatives, including to increase their negotiating power. The US-based Rocky Mountain Herbalist Coalition provides a list of ecologically conscious suppliers of
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botanicals. Direct sourcing or marketing is not without its drawbacks. Manufacturers may be faced with higher costs and reduced reliability in supplies. For communities, social and economic problems can arise if traditional trading relationships are broken. Probably, direct sourcing is likely to remain a preferred option mainly for manufacturers of quality' products aimed at specialised markets, in which there is an ability to pay the higher prices required. Nevertheless, there are probably many unrealised opportunities for more direct sourcing awaiting discovery by enterprising communities and manufacturers. Given the concerns of at least some manufacturers and consumers to produce, or use, medicines of good quality, there would seem to be opportunities for communities, per~aps motivated by NGOs, to seek market advantage for themselves through adopting higher environmental standards and establishing direct market linkages. An incremental approach is probably often realistic, starting, for instance, from first meeting organic standards, with full certification of sustainability (a complex undertaking) a more distant possibility. If cultivation is attempted, then it is important to select suitable species from the agronomic and economic perspectives, the number of which may be quite limited for any particular site. An example, which so far is proving successful at promoting a socially and environmentally ethical trade, is the project, mentioned earlier, of the NGO CRIAA SA-DC on Devil's Claw (Harpagophytum procumbens). Devil's Oaw has become a very popular remedy in Europe, but the plant has been unsustainably harvested in the past and it has even been held that it could be in danger of extinction. Between 10,000 and 15,000 harvesters rely on sales from its collection as their only source of cash. In 1998, a sustainably harvested Devil's Claw project was established at one resettlement farm in Namibia and the scheme rapidly expanded. In 1999, the project covered some 307,415 ha of I
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rangeland and 10,210 kg of Devil's Claw were produced, providing local people with a sustainable product at a guaranteed and fair price. Dave Cole and Cyril Lombard write that: "We have been able to demonstrate through this project that by ensuring good prices, by making information available, by creating options, by strengthening their bargaining position and by providing general support, harvesters are taking responsibility for the management of this resource. Compliance with sustainable harvesting techniques, i.e. leaving the tap-root undisturbed and refilling the hole, for example, has increased to between 80 and 85 percent. This is generally not the case in other areas where Devil's Claw is extensively harvested in Namibia." Another example of a project aimed at organising producers for market and conservation advantage is the Medicinal Plants Growers Forum (MPGF) in Uttaranchal, India. So far, 51 farmers in 4 valleys are members of the Forum, committed to growing medicinal plants to organic standards. One lesson from this and other experiences is the need to involve a wide range of partners from the start, including not only the farmers, but traders, the government, NGOs and scientists, so that the necessary linkages and access to tedlrucat expertise are established. The involvement of industry from project inception can help ensure that products will be purchased at agreed prices, taking note of required species and standards of quality. Marketing is a critical issue for the success of organised collectors' or growers' schemes. Obstacles to progress with the MPGF have included a cumbersome system of required permits, lack of good quality planting material, problems with cultivation practices and access to markets. The Devil's Claw and MPGF projects are trendsetters, but throw up many challenges, requiring dedication and persistence.
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Actually, biological conservation and sustainability rarely figure prominently in these standards, being, for example, mentioned with very little practical detail in recent proposals for Good Harvesting Practices (GHP) for Collecting Plant Material. Nevertheless, there can be significant opportunities for conservationists in commenting on standards produced by official bodies, recommending improvements in favour of conservation. The World Health Organisation (WHO) first published guidelines for Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for medicines and herbal products in 1969, recommending these to member states. The aim was to guarantee the consistent quality of medicinal products. The guidelines contained no provision requiring proof of sustainable production, inclusion of which would have stimulated the development of sustainability criteria. In Europe, the European Herb Growers Association (EURDP AM) is currently developing Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) and Good Wild Harvesting Practice (GWHP) guidelines for MAPs. These might be included in the European Union (EU) Directive on Good Manufacturing Practice for Starting Materials, if and when this directive becomes operational. The-GAP guidelines are more or less finalised and have already been endorsed by the European Medicine Evaluation Agency (EMEA). They are weak from the sustainability perspective. There might possibly be a greater chance of incorporating sustainability criteria in the GWHP guidelines, since these are still under active development. There is an EU Directive on Traditional Medicinal Products nearing completion. This deals mainly with issues of efficacy and safety, and apparently will contain nothing on conservation and sustainable production. In the case of China, a new law came into effect in June 2002 relating to the standards of traditional medicines. The main purpose is the regulation of products produced by
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larger enterprises. The law was introduced because of concerns about inadequate supplies, toxicity and lack of standardisation of ingredients. The law will require various types of information to be supplied with each batch of MAP material, including the botanical name, the place of origin, the time of harvest and the level of insect contamination. Material of cultivated origin will require information on the fertilisers and pesticides used, and on heavy metal content. Quotas will be set for the quantities of species allowed for wild harvest in particular areas. This is a framework law and regulations for individual species will follow. The current government target in China is to ensure that 50 species of MAPs are cultivated according to GAP by 2010. Promotion of GAP is regarded as the most important type of quality standard from the conservation point of view, because. it applies directly to the source of the material, but other standards are being pursued in China, including Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), GMP, Good Clinical Practice (GCP) and Good Service Practice (GSP). Some countries have laws that regulate the commercial collection or trade of MAPs. Poland lists species of MAPs that, cannot be collected without permit. An Italian law of 1931 stipulates that permits for the commercial collection of species that are listed will only be issued to people who have degrees in herbalisrn from schools of pharmacy. Bulgaria has established a quota system for the gathering of certain MAPs that is reviewed annually, according to species and region. Countries may also ban exports, as did the Government of India in 1994 for 50 species believed to be endangered in the wild. To return to the matter of standards, it is known that there can be problems in adherence because there are so many types of standards and some of the requirements are cumbersome to meet. Furthermore, the expense involved in meeting some standards means that they can be dL~riminatory against small producers. Another issue is
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that conservation organisations have had problems in devising useful messages for consumers, related to the challenge of combining simplicity with accuracy. A general warning that some medicinal plants are threatened is hardly helpful. There is no unified label existing today guaranteeing sustainability. Fortunately, there is a groundswell in sections of the industry to improve their conservation standards, partly in recognition that, unless they do so voluntarily, they may well be forced to do so by law. There is also a sizeable market, especially in more affluent countries, for environmentally-friendly products. At present, the best that can be expected generally i~ that some manufacturers will gain just recognition for their environmental efforts and will accordingly be rewarded by concerned consumers. It might also be useful for a few species which should be avoided by consumers to be identified and' publicised, but these have yet to be authoritatively listed. Because presumably mostl consumers have some interest in the standards of efficacy and safety of medicines, and at least some of them are concerned also about social justice and the environment, it would be useful for conservationists to explore the possibility of establishing a unitary concept of 'quC'lity', covering all of these matters. If so, this could be followed by the development of a system of labelling, with a chance of general recognition, guaranteeing the quality of products containing MAPs across the board. This would greatly help the ethical consumer. Such labelled products should be third-party certified. APPROACHES TO EX SITU CONSERVATION
Plant species can be found away from the sites where they naturally occur in a range of contexts, including in botanic and other types of gardens, nurseries, seedbanks, tissue culture units, etc. In fact, ex situ conservation is not always
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sharply separated from in situ conservation. There are intermediates between the 'purest' forms of in situ and ex situ conservation, as represented possibly, on the one hand, by the total protection of wild populations of species without any other form of management and, on the other hand, by seedbanks with specialist scientists situated at a far distance from the places where the plants naturally grow. The term circa situ conservation has been used for a range of practices commonly associated especially with more traditional agricultural systems. They include the deliberate encouragement of certain species of 'wild' plants in 'natural' habitats, the retention of valued 'wild' plants when land is cleared for agriculture or crops are weeded, the growing of valued 'wild' plants in home gardens, and the selection and storage of seed at household level for later replanting. Circa situ conservation grades into both in situ and ex situ conservation. As an example of how ex situ collections of MAPs can be connected to conservation and livelihoods through circa situ means, consider the case of the Pepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris), the most highly prized medicinal plant in southern Africa. This species has been collected to the point of national extinction in Zimbabwe, causing difficulties in obtaining the medicine, a matter of great concern to traditional medical practitioners and patients alike. Dr Tony Cunningham and the Zimbabwean NGO SAFIRE have managed to successfully re-introduce this species from nurseries in South Africa into Zimbabwe. However, reintroduction was not back into its natural forest habitat, from which it would probably again soon diSappear since the causes of its over-collection in these largely open-access areas remain. Rather, rooted cuttings were distributed for the home-gardens of local farmers, all of whom knew and valued the species. It is believed that many of these farmers will be prepared to guard the plants with the attention that will certainly be required.
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Given that such a large proportion of the world's flora is medicinal, it is not surprising that MAPs are well represented in botanical gardens, even though, in most cases, they will not have been selected for grpwing because of their medicinal properties. This said, there are many botanical gardens with collections of MAPs and, in some parts of the world, such displays are quite commonly also found attached to schools, museums and other institutions. In general, these living collections consist of only one or a few specimens of each species and, while sometimes of value educationally, they are of limited use from the point of view of genetic conservation. Botanic gardens can play further major roles in medicinal plant conservation through developing propagation and cultivation protocols, and undertaking programmes of domestication and variety breeding. Such research can benefit from traditional knowledge. For example, the seeds of Paris polyphylla, a medicinal plant in China, have proved difficult to germinate in trials, but much greater success was achieved after following the practice of a farmer in Yunnan who mixed the seeds with those of another species. Seedbanks offer a more attractive way of storing the genetic diversity of many plants ex situ than botanic gardens, at least in terms of cost. However, medicinal plants are poorly represented in seedbanks. Currently, the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is supporting an Economic Crop Protection/Genetic Resources (ECP /GR) Group for MAPs. However, only few members of the group, which convened for the first time in Slovenia in September 2002, have shown an interest in the conservation of threatened species. More concern was expressed at the meeting with gene-banking common culil!ary herbs with complicated taxonomy. Unless properly organised, the contribution of ex situ collections to in situ conservation and sustainable , development can be limited. In practice, most seedbanks
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are used mainly as repositories of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops and their main users are agricultural scientists - breeders of 'improved' varieties of crops. Seedbanks will remain of limited use for conservation of MAPs until, 'and unless, their fundamental purposes and modes of operation are rethought. It is not just a question of increasing the stocks of MAPs in genebanks. Nor is there much point in reintroducing endangered species from ex situ collections back into natural habitats, unless the factors that caused their endangerment in the first place are reduced or eliminated. What is needed to make ex situ collections more useful for conservation is connection with the socio-economic and cultural dimensions of in situ ecosystems. This means that ex situ collections must be designed to serve developmental purposes, as well as for crop-breeding and' strict' biological conservation. There is progress in this field in India, where 4 genebanks have been established specifically for MAPs, producing considerable quantities of planting materials for conservation and production purposes. APPROACHES TO NEW DISCOVERIES
Several stages are involved in the process of prospecting the chemical properties of plants to discover drugs or other novel products. First, unless discoveries are fortuitous, decisions are made about which plants to sample and how to sample them. Sampling may be in the field or from ex situ collections, the latter perhaps represented by plants growing in botanical gardens or by dried specimens in herbaria. These decisions are based on published and unpublished information, including sometimes knowledge of local medical uses and about the relative difficulty of undertaking research in different contexts. The next step involves isolation of chemical fractions for automated screening, for example the in vitro testing of activity against cell lines. Promising results may lead to further tests,
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including perhaps clinical trials, and these may result in the development, including licensing, of marketable products. As an alternative to chemical screening, there is growing interest today in screening extracts from plants for genetic information, a branch of science set to grow spectacularly. Although, according to the CBD, benefits for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development should accrue from this process, there are often difficulties for researchers, national authorities and communities to agree exactly what these should be. The onus is on all parties to be reasonable, which itself requires a good grasp of the complexities involved. Various types and levels of benefits are appropriate at different stages. Agreements with communities are likely to prove null and void unless they can demonstrate that they have been made ~ith 'prior informed consent'. The experience of the last 10 years is that the most significant benefits to source countries have resulted from the research process. The foundation has been partnerships between bioprospecting companies and institutions in source countries, such as research agencies, universities and local businesses. These benefits have so far been mainly in the form of scientific and technological capacity-building. They have also been channelled chiefly to central government, and to urbanbased companies and institutions, often with little (if any) contributions to conservation or sustainable development at the sites at which the plants actually grow. Even when there have been discussions or inclusion of benefits to source areas, much more interest has generally been taken in equity than conservation. Thus the challenge remains for those interested in conservation of biological diversity or development compatible with this objective to connect biodiversity prospecting to real benefits at field level. It is extremely useful if developing country institutions, which enter into agreements with companies, develop clear and transparent
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institutional policies to ensure that some benefits really are extended to the field. Similar types of policies are also needed on the parts of protected areas, local and indigenous communities, and other involved parties. Parties to the CBD are required to pass the principles of the CBD into national law to make them effective. Several countries, including the Philippines, the 5 countries of the Andean Commission and Costa Rica have already introduced access and benefit sharing laws, and over 40 other countries are now developing legislation. The current challenge is to create a permit system for authorising work by researchers, allowing a fair and equitable distribution of benefits from bioprospecting, while, at the same time, not being overrestrictive and bureaucratic, and thus preventing or delaying useful research. REFERENCES
Akerele, 0., Heywood, V. & Synge, ·H. The Conseroation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 1991. Balick, M. J. & Cox, P. A. Plants, people and culture: the science of ethnobotany. The Scientific American Library, New York, USA. 1996. Hawkes, J. G., Maxted, N. & Ford-Lloyd, B. V. The ex situ conseroation of plant genetic resources. Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, UK.2ool. Schippmann, U. Medicinal plants significant trade study. German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany. 2001. Sheldon, J. W., Balick, M. J. & Laird, S. A. {Medicinal plants: can utilization and conservation coexist?". Advances in Economic Botany 12, 1-104. 1997.
7 Heritage of Indian Medicinal Plants The ethos of conserving b4>diversity is deeply ingrained in ancient Indian culture. Traditionally, patches of pristine forests were set aside as sacred groves; planting of shade and fruit bearing trees had religious sanction, as also prescriptions to regulate hunting, e.g. ban on killing a pregnant female animal and designating certain parts'of the year as closed season. This serious concern for ecology continued to thrive side by side with developments related to economic progress, international trade, and science and technology. In fact the Indian health system which goes back to 1500 Be, and is mainly based on plants and animals, symbolises how deep-rooted was this concern for biodiversity conservation and its sustainable use. The Indian people know a great deal about medicinal plants. Studies reveal that the largest proportion of the biodiversity in all our ecosystems is used by village communities for human and veterinary health care (Table 1). Table 1. An example of uses of biodiversity by "ecosystem people" Purpose Medicinal uses Veterinary uses As fish poisons For pest control
Number of species 202 109 23 51
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For water purification As wild edible plants As fodder plants For fuel Hunting purposes
30 3
Cultural and religious purposes
38
3 87
65
Over 7,500 species of plants are estimated to be used by lithe ecosystem people" who belong to some 4635 ethnic communities. India probably has the oldest, richest and most diverse, cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants. Medicinal plants continue to provide health security to rural people in primary health care (Table 2 ). According to WHO estimates, over 80% of people in developing countries depend on traditional medicines for their primary health needs. In India the coverage of. rural population by the modern health system varies between different regions from three to thirty percent. Thus, for some 4-5 hundred million people, traditional medicine is the only alternative. This is also borne out by the fact that there still exist over one million traditional, village-based carriers of the herbal medicine traditions in the country. Table 2. Richness of folk medicine: Examples of ethno medicinal plants with ten or more uses reported across ethnic communities in South India. Plant species Centella asiatica Pergularia daemia Aristolochia indica Ichnocarpus frutescens Alstonia scholaris Holarrhena antidysenterica Trachyspermum ammi Hygrophila auriculiculata Triar,therna portulacastrum
Reported number of uses 33 23 22 22 19 18 16 15 15
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Semecarpus anacardium Hen;rldesmus indicus Catharanthus roseus Apama siliquosa Anacardium occidentale Costus speciosus Justicia gendarussa
15 15 14 13 12 12
Perguiaria extensa
10
11
Table 3. List of species banned from export by the Ministry of Commerce. Aconitum sp. Acorus sp. Angiopteris sp. Aristolochia sp. Artemisia sp. Arundinaria jaunsarensis Atropa sp. Balanophora sp. Berberis aristata Colchicum luteum (Hirantutya) COmmiphora wightii Coptis sp. Coscinium fenestratum (Calumba wood) Costus speciosus (Keu, Kust) Cyathea gigantea Cycas beddomei (Beddomes cycad) Didymocarpus pedicellata Dioscorea deltoidea Dolomiaea pedicellata Drosera sp. Ephedra sp.
Gnetum sp. Gynocardia odorata (Chaulmogri) Hydnocarpus sp. Hyoscyamus niger (Black henbane) Iphigenia indica Meconopsis betonicifolia Nardostachys sp. Oatamansi) Nepenthes khasiana (Pitcher plant) Osmunda sp. Paphiopedilium sp. (Ladies' slipper orchid) Physochlaina praealta (Bajarbang) Podophyllum hexandrum Pratia serpumlia Rauvolfia sp. (Serpgandha) Renanthera imschootiana (Red vanda) Rheum emodi (Dolu) Rhododendron sp. Saussurea lappa (Kuth) Strychnos potatorum (Nirmali) Swertia chirata (Charayatah) Taxus baccata (Yewu, Birm)
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Gentiana kurroo (Kuru, Kutki) Urginea sp. Gloriosa superba
Yanda caerulea (Blue vanda)
Today these biodiversity-dependent rural communities are facing a serious resource threat because of the rapid loss of natural habitats, and the over-exploitation of medicinal plants from the wild. To meet the demands of the Indian herbal industry which has annual turnover of about US$ 300 million, tons of medicinal plants are being harvested every year from some 165,000 ha of forests. The biodiversity loss is not only a threat to ecology of the planet but a more immediate threat to the livelihood security of rural communities. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN INDIA
The biodiversity of medicinal plants is associated with a very 'rich cultural diversity related to India's traditional systems of medicine. Traditional Medicine as practised in India consists of two streams, viz. folk medicine and the codified systems of medicine. Folk Medicine
This is a diverse stream which is ecosystem and ethnic community specific. It is an oral tradition purely empirical in nature that exists in all rural communities throughout the length and breadth of India (Table 4). Table 4. Types of carriers of village-based health traditions. Traditional carrier
Conditions treated
Housewives and elders Home remedies, food and nutrition-related Traditional birth attendants Normal deliveries Common ailments Herbal healers Bone setters Orthopaedics
Numbers millions 700,000 300,000 60,000
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Visha vaidhyas (snake, scorpion, dog bite specialists) Other specialists
Natural poisons Eyes, skin, respiratory, dental, arthritis, mental diseases, gastro-intestinal, wounds, fistula, piles
60,000 1,000
in each
One comes across many examples of the great depth and range of the folk tradition in unpublished reports on medical practices in different regions. For instance, in 1793, two medical officers of the East India Company-James Finlay and Thomas Cruso-reported on the practice of rhinoplasty by a potter's community in Pune district in the Madras Gazette. It was this technical report that led to further developments in Britain of plastic surgery of ~he nose. To cite a current example, it is well known in south Kamataka that certain paralytic conditions can -effectively be treated using 'Ankola' oil. Ankola is the name of a village; this particular herbal oil is part of its folk medical legacy. There is also the case, in Tamil Nadu state, of the socalled 'Coimbatore orthopaedic treatment' for straightening out a club foot by the combined use of a special herbal oil which softens the bony tissues and traditional forms of traction. Codified Traditional Medicine
Systems like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and the Tibetan system are expressions of this stream. The'codified' stream consists of medical knowledge with sophisticated theoretical foundations expressed in thousands of regional manuscripts covering treatises on all branches of medicine and surgery. However, of an estimated 100,000 medical manuscripts lying in oriental libraries and private collections in India and abroad, less than one percent are available and in current use by students and teachers in
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Indian medical schools. The earliest Ayurvedic texts, the Susruta Samhita and Caraka Samhita, are believed to have been written between 1500 and 1000 Be. The main branches of Ayurveda are Kayacikitsa (General Medicine), Balacikitsa (paediatrics), Grahacikitsa (Psychiatry), Salakya Tantra (Ophthalmology and ENT), Salya Cikitsa (Surgery), Visa Cikista (Toxicology), Rasayana (Rejuvenation) and Vajikarana (reproductive health). Besides these, there are specialised treatises on a range of subjects including Pharmacy (Bhesaja Kalpana), Pharmacopoeia (Nighantu), Diagnostics (Nidana), Special diagnostic techniques like Pulse diagnosis (Nadi Cikista), Iatrochemistry (Rasasastra), Dietetics (Pathyapathya), Pharmacology (Dravyaguna) and Positive health and preventive medicine (Svastha Vrtta). Today there are over 400,000 licensed registered practitioners of the codified stream practising in the towns and cities of India. Unfortunately, despite the large presence of a "living bio-health culture" in villages throughout India, it receives marginalised policy and financial support from national and international agencies, either for conserving its bioresources or for maintaining its indigenous knowledge base. This is evidently due to the western ethnocentric bias in health policies around the globe. CULTURAL HERITAGE CHAllENGES
Whereas the reasons for loss of plant diversity are well known, the reasons for loss of cultural diversity are much less understood. In the domain of knowledge, non-western medical systems like Ayurveda have so far failed to stake their claims to originality. Their epistemological foundations lie unexplored outside of their cultural worlds. The universal attributes of the indigenous knowledge systems remain unrecognised due to the marginalised political status of the southern societies and more
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mundanely due to the limitations of language and ethnicity. A major problem that non-western societies have to contend with in any serious evaluation of their own indigenous knowledge systems, is the common claim of all western scientists and philosophers that, after all, science is one, universal and uniquely expressed in the western scientific paradigms. Thus, while it may be possible to conceive of alternative methodologies, theories and practices in other domains such as music, linguistics, logic, art and politics, there is no such possibility conceded with regard to alternative sciences. Table 5. Examples of strength of codified stream. Discipline Prenatal care
Obstetrics Post -natal care Food & nutrition
Gynaecology
Respiratory disorders
Skin disorders
GIT disorders
Nature of treatment or advice offered detailed diet and promotive herbs; behaviorial advice for healthy progeny and for all stages of foetal development reliable advice which can help in ease of delivery herbs that can raise the general immunity of the mother & child advice on seasonal diets suited to different constitutions; advice on specific (therapeutic) diets for various ailments/disease stages; food values provided on a range of relevant parameters different from modem nutrition; advice on incompatible foods Safe herbal treatments for all typical ailments of women; better management of suspected infertility conditions Safe herbal treatments for entire range of respiratory disorders including asthamatic conditions & allergies Safe herbal treatments for wide range of skin conditions including diseases like Psoariasis and Erysipelas Safe herbal treatments for hyperacidity, ulcers & metabolic disorders
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Cardiac diseases Ophthalmology
Orthopaedics
Nervous & muscular disorders Mental health
Specific diseases
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herbal drugs for lowering chlorestrol, chronic angina and congenital heart diseases Safe herbal treatments for intra-occular haemorrhage, diabetic retinopathy, paediatric myopia and a range of common eye diseases management of compound factures with open wounds; management of polio; management of osteal deformities herbal drugs for degenerative diseases in their early stages; hemiplegia, paraplegia, cereberal palsy etc. safe herbal drugs for anxiety neurosis, obsessions, hysteric manifestations, epilepsy etc. Herbal treatments for non-insulin-dependent diabetes, arthritis, hepatitis, rheumatic fevers, gall & kidney stone, ano-fistulas & haemorrhoids, promotive care of cancer and AIDS cases.
The fact, however, is that different cultures have developed fundamentally different ways of perceiving and viewing nature and this in tum has given rise to different traditions of. knowledge. The comparative understanding between Ayurveda and modem medicine in fact has not progressed sufficiently to correlate diagnosis of the two systems of medicine or translate Ayurvedic pharmacology (Dravya gun shastra) in terms of modem pharmacological parameters or reduce Ayurvedic lines of treatment to satisfy Allopathic therapeutic logic. Efficacy of disease management by Ayurvedic means and methods based on its own theories and monitored using modem parameters could form the basis for a dialogue between the two systems where the outcome would be in the form of prima Jacie evidence of success or failure in management but not a one-to-one correlation in diagnosis or a modem explanation of how and why of the traditional line of treatment.
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The scope of this kind of comparative research designs from the modem medicine viewpoint will inevitably be limited. It will provide modem medicine only with some evidence of the efficacy or otherwise of A yurvedic management. If modern medicine wants to apply the success of Ayurvedic treatment more widely based on the prima facie results, it will have to take the trouble to learn Ayurvedic principles and its diagnostic, pharmacological and treatment theories and procedures. The kind of comparative research outlined above will not, for instance, lead to any 'short-cut' ways to directly coopt Ayurvedic drugs into the modem Materia Medica. This should be seen as a short-term loss. A pursuance of genuine dialogue with the traditional systems of medicine may pave the way for more rneaningfullong-term advances in world medicine that may broaden the scope of modern understanding of health and disease at more fundamental levels. PHYTO·MEDICINAL MARKET IN INDIA
Ancient Indian system of medicine is known as Ayur7Jeda in which the medicines are prepared mostly from wild plants. The roots, tubers, bulbs, leaves, fruits, flowers and barks of wild vegetation, depending on their active principle contents, are used for the preparation of medicines for different ailments. Indian rich biological diversity supported the system of medicine from times immemorial. The diverse agro-climatic conditions, variation in regional topography, occurrence of variety of floral and faunal types, different human practices have not only contributed to the richness of Indian biological diversity, but also have maintained the same to a great extent. Tribal people in India, mostly forest devellers, played very significant role in the identification, conservation and
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collection of medicinal plants form the very ancient times. Depending on the availability of principal medicinal plants, the country has been divided into eight phyto-geographic regions. In olden period the forest-dwellers used to collect a variety of leaves, fruits, seeds, nuts, roots, barks, tubers and rhizomes havrng medicinal value and used to exchange such products with their Aryan counterparts through a barter system. Surprisingly enough, the system still continues without much change or modification. Collection of medicinal plants and other non-timber forest produce provides income for the forest dwellers for their subsistence. Studies indicate that agricultural production from tribal land is inadequate to maintain a household at subsistence level. The forest dwellers hence, depend on collection of medicinal plants and other nontimber forest produce for their livelihood. Realising the importance of collection of wild medicinal plants and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the tribal economy, the Indian Forest Policy, 1988 provided for safeguarding the customary rights and interests of tribal people. The provision asks for protection, regeneration and optimum collection of minor forest produce along with institutional arrangements for the marketing of such produce. Market Imperfections
Trade in medicinal herbs, like any other natural product, suffers from market imperfections. Such imperfections are apparent on supply side, on the demand side and also on the difficulties in marginal-pricing system for such products. Factors contributing to such market imperfections are: absence of a system of defining property right, problems in arriving at a convincing patenting policy,
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unique characters of medicinal plants and uncertainty of their availability, knowledge about medicinal plants being restricted to a limited people, absence of organised market, interplay of middlemen in the trade and problems in marginal cost pricing of the medicinal herb i.e. absence of a mechanism for determining the share of the primary collector8m the final revenue obtained from the finished products. Imperfections on the supply side There has been steady reduction in the area of natural forests producing the wild medicinal plants. The conversion of forest cover into non-forest uses between 1951 and 1980 has been given in Table 6. Table: 6 Forest cover converted into non1orest uses between 1951 and 1980 Purpose
Forest Converted (million hectares)
Agriculture River velly projects Industires and Twonships Transmission lines and Roads Miscellaneous
2.623 0.502 0.134 0.061 1.008
Total
4.328
Since the enforcement of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 although there has been considerable decrease in such conversion of forests for non-forest uses, the process has not altogether stopped. The shrinkage of forests has considerably affected the supply of wild medicinal plants. The depletion of medicinal plant resources are also due to: Irregular and unscientific collection, unscientific mining and quarrying,
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uncontrolled forest grazing, forest fires, shifting cultivation, biotic pressure, beyond carrying capacity of the land. Inadequate knowledge about the medicinal value of' many of the plants occurring locally is also responsible for short supply of medicinal herbs. The situation has aggravated due to the absence of property rights, institutional arrangements and an authority system. The tribal people are far from fully informed about what they can legally collect and what is prohibited. Such uncertain situation benefit the traders and petty contractors. The wild medicinal herbs are sold without any significant processing or value addition. The producers' / collectors' access to consumers is limited to the sales made locally or in the weekly village markets. A major portion of their product is sold to intermediaries like contractors and commission agents who operate in such areas. Although the medicinal plant materials reach a much larger market, as far as, the producers or collectors are concerned the market is geographically very limited. The limitation in access to real market is more pronounced in the case of perishable items or items containing active principles, which change or deteriorate rapidly with time. The situation is worst when a tribal woman is a collector of medicinal herb. Traditionally burdened with her other household jobs, an woman generally look for local market having limited access. Sporadic spatial distribution of the plants, having medicinal value, makes their bulk collection impossible. Small collections force the tribal population into a vicious small market circle, low production and (leading to) small surplus continuously erode their bargaining capacity as their need for conversion of small production into cash becomes more acute.
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Wide variation in active principle contents of the wild varieties of medicinal herb constitutes yet another supply side imperfection. Such variations complicate the process of manufacturing herbal medicines that determine the efficacy rate and their subsequent quality control. Scientific cultivation of medicinal plants through bioengineering and modern farming techniques could overcome the problem. But that would generate an imperfect competition, having the tribal subsistence economy on the one hand, and the capitalistic return maximisation through scientific farming on the other. Knowledge base of phyto-medicine is eroding steadily. Migration of forest dwellers in search of employments, their displacement from the developmental project areas, low returns from collection of medicinal plants and invasion of market economy alien to the forest dwellers have systematically contributed to the erosion of the local knowledge. Knowledge about the local botany, the habitat of medicinal plants, their fruiting or flowering seasons, the time when the plants have the highest concentration of active principle contents, are becoming gradually rare. The policy approach for augmentation of supply position and sustainable use of medicinal plants should include a combination of institutional, economic, administrative and legal agenda. Imperfections on the demand side
The present bad shape of the market for medicinal plants is due to the interplay of the middlemen or the petty contractors. The market is very disorganised. The forest dwellers collecting the medicinal plants do not know about the phyto-medicinal market, nor do they know about the prices of the products at which those are sold to the consumers. The middlemen act as impervious screens, blocking the vital communications between the primary collectors of the medicinal plants and their consuming
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centers. The contractors, generally, purchase the collected medicinal herbs at a low price, or even exchange those for trivial consumer goods. In the absence of any control or restriction, the firms engaged in manufacturing· herbal medicines are involved in profiteering. They purchase the raw material at negligible prices and sale the final products at much higher rates. The poor collectors have no share in the high profit earning business. Traditionally, knowledge about phyto-medicines in Indian society is handed over from generation to generation in the same family. Scope for analysing, researching, modifications. and refinements in such family-based occupation are limited. Such secrecy restricted the growth of Indian traditional medicine system. Family secrecy, absence of sustained research & development and gradual erosion of knowledge about medicinal plants have contributed to the decline of Ayurveda system leading to demand side imperfections in medicinal plant trade. Low growth in demand for phyto-medicine is also due to the absence of a system of standardization of different formulations extracted from plants. Medicines in indigenous systems require multi-ingredients and multi-processing. It is impossible to monitor various formulations, each formulation having a number of ingredients. There are cases, where the traditional medical practitioners themselves prepare their formulations. Strict secrecy is observed about such medicines. In absence of standard practice, and in the atmosphere of secrecy the market for phyto-medicine could not flourish. Further, when the efficacy of plant-based medicine is compared with the Allopathic system of medicines, there are some treatments in Ayurveda for which there is no substitute in the alternative medicine system. This constitutes a typical market imperfection, since the opportunity cost of treatment through traditional medicine is so huge that it is difficult to be valued.
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Another potential threat on the demand side of the market is from the piracy of indigenous knowledge and of biological resources by both national and international companies and corporations engaged in the trade of phytomedicines. However, various Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and the Governments from the developing countries are increasingly raising their voices against such piracy. There has been a general demand for the rights of the originators and of the communities involved in conservation of the natural resources. Such rights of the communities need to be protected both through national as well as international laws. Recent expression of such concern is contained in the Convention of Biological Diversity. The recommendations ofthe Convention commit that every country will respect and maintain local knowledge, try to promote its application and encourage equitable sharing of benefits arising from the same. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GAIT) allows signatory countries to implement intellectual property rights over plant varieties. Such concession needs that India should either adopt an existing international convention on protection of plant varieties or develop its sui generis alternatives. As India has vast biological diversity of economically important plants, it is expected that the tribal population of the country will benefit from such arrangements. Imperfection in the marginal- pricing system
Imperfections are also introduced due to faulty marginal cost pricing system that is generally followed. Price of the medicinal plants collected by the tribal population has no relation with the unique character of the materials and their rare availability. The biological diversity of medicinal plants is increasingly on the decline due to various factors
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as discussed earlier. Under such conditions, it is necessary to evolve a system of pricing the medicinal plants in such a way that it includes the ecological costs of irreversibility, uncertainty of their collection and their unique properties. In this process, the problem arises from the fact that determining ecological costs of irreversibility is not an easy job. The problem still vexes the economists in general, OVERCOME MARKET IMPERFECTIONS
Supply Side Corrections
The supply side imbalances could be overcome by ensuring extraction of medicinal herb without depleting the resource base. To achieve this, it is needed to have: well laid out inventory of medicinal herb occurring in the wild, statistics of their incremental aspects for ensuring that only the periodic increments are removed scientifically, rejuvenation of the degraded forests with the regeneration of medicinal plants, cultivation of endangered and extinct species in forest nurseries and on degraded common properties (CPs). The provision of the Indian Forest Conservation Act, 1988 prohibits the plantation of medicinal plants on forestlands without the prior permission from the Government of India. Such provisions need revision under the present context. The silvicultural system presently followed for encouraging monoculture is very much responsible for gradual depletion of various varieties of medicinal herb. Most of the medicinal plants occur in the ground or middle canopy of the forests. These are periodically burnt under controlled burning or are eliminated through cultural operations for encouraging the economically import:mt tree species producing commercial timbers. The present practice
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of having a single canopy of valuable species needs replacement through a management of multi-canopy forestry system such multi canopy forest system would thus provide encouragements to biological diversity. Though the rights and concessions enjoyed by the forest dwellers have been protected by the Indian Forest Policy, 1988, there has been no bar against others collecting wildmedicinal plants and plant-materials. The exclusive rights of the forest dwellers regarding collection of minor forest produce need to be recognised. Tribal knowledge about phyto-medicine needs wider acceptance and their integration with the present systems of medicine. NGOs can play vital role in such integration process. NGO interventions are also necessary in the fields of: study of pharmacopoeia of tribal medicine system and the standardisation of different formulations, identification and codification of locally occurring medicinal plants, standardising the collection methodology, designing of effective processing and efficient storing of collected plant materials. NGO and Governmental interventions at the supply point will eliminate the middleman. There are some encouraging examples of augmentation of supply of medicinal herbs through benefit-sharing mechanisms between the tribal people and the Government agencies. One such example is about the benefit sharing mechanism that has been adopted by the Kani tribal population of the Agstyar hills and the Tropical Botanical Gardens and Research Institute, Palode of Kerala regarding the anti-tress and anti-fatigue herb Trichopus zeylanicus. The scientists from the Institute have developed a formulation, having brand name /eevani from the herb. They also made marketing arrangements with a pharmacy. The Kani people gets 4% of the revenue obtained from the sale of the product. Such vertical integrations with
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research laboratories, pharmacies or NGOs will improve the supply side economics. Conservation and sustained yield of wild- medicinal plants are directly related to the survival of the forests and other common property resources (CPRs). So there is an urgent need for protecting such areas from further degradation. Protection of forestlands and the CPRs can be achieved only through the active participation of the tribal population living in those areas. The modalities for achieving such participation may vary from place to place, depending upon the aspirations of the loca\ tribal population.' Demand Side Corrections
Demand side corrections need more transparencies in the market deals .. Such situations are possible when the middlemen and the petty contractors are removed from market operations. Presently, the middlemen by and large, control demand of the phyto-medicine market. There is need for intervention of some benevolent institution, cooperative or organisation for taking up the function of marketing of medicinal plants. Multi-stage approaches are needed. The strategy should include making finances available to the tribal people during the lean seasons, making value additions of the collected materials, taking the products to the niche market and getting appropriate returns from the sale of the Phyto-medicinal herb. Institutional Interventions
There have been some successful institutional interventions in this aspect in different states of the country. One such example of intervention is that of the Kerala State Federation of schedule caste/schedule tribal (SC/ST) Development Co-operative. The Government of Kerala has granted exclusive rights of collection of some of the notified items of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the Tribal
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Co-operative Societies (TCS). There is a state level committee, called NTFP Committee, which detemunes the prices for different NTFPs for different stages, namely "collection charges", "procurement charges" and "sale prices". The "collection charges" are the minimum prices by which the TCS collect NTFPs from the tribal people; the "procurement charges" are the minimum prices by which the SC/ST Federation procures the produce from TCS and the "sale prices" are the sales of the produce. The SC/ST Federation, under its marketing strategy, sales some of the produce to the Pharmaceutical Corporation (I.M) Kerala Ltd. and the remaining part of the produce is sold through auctions. Studies have shown that the procurement of NTFPs through TCS has liberated the tribal people in Kerala from the clutches of the private traders. Another example of institutional intervention is that of the Gujarat State Forest Development Corporation (GSFDC) Ltd. GSFDC appoints collection agents who collect the NTFPs from the tribal people at a price fixed by a state level committee. The state level NTFP price fixation committee has representatives from the tribal people, business community as well as GSFDC. The procured NTFPs are sold by GSFDC through open auctions. Studies show that the poor sections of the society have been gainfully employed during the non-agricultural season through such intervention. GSFDC has also started processing units for manufacturing herbal medicines which will ensure reasonable returns to the tribal people engaged in the collection of medicinal herbs. In Madhya Pradesh, three level cooperative societies have been formed for looking after the total business of NTFPs. The primary society is at the level of the NTFP collectors; the secondary societies are formed at the district level and at the final level the Madhya Pradesh State Co operative operates. The collection, storage and marketing of
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NTFPs, are taken care of by the three tier cooperative societies. Uttar Pradesh, Forest Corporation has recently entered into the marketing of the medicinal herbs collected by the tribal people of Lalitpur district. This was essential for stopping the exploitation of the local Sahariya, Gond and Ravut tribal communities. These tribal communities previously used to sell their collected materials to the middlemen. Now they sale their products to the Uttar Pradesh Forest Corporation. The major NTFPs, like leaves of Diospyrus melanoxylon (not a medicinal plant) and resin from Pinus roxburghii are traded directly by the Forest Corporation and the Forest Department respectively. REFERENCES
Abdul Kareem, Inventory of Plants used in Indian Systems of Medicine, FRLHT Research Report, Bangalore, India, 1995. Alvares, C. , Homo Faber, New Delhi, India; Mentor Publications, 1984. Anthropological Survey of India, People of India Project Report for 1994. Bodeker, G, "Traditional health knowledge and public policy", Nature and Resources 30 (2): 5-16, 1994. Darshan Shankar, "Indigenous health services", In: State of India's Health. Published by Voluntary Health Association of India, 1992. Dharmpal, Indian Science and Technology in the 18th Century, Hyderabad, India; Academy of Gandhian Studies, 1983. Farnsworth, N. R. & Soejarto, D.D., "Global importance of medicinal plants", In: Akerele, 0, Heywood, V. & Synge, H. (eds) Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press, 1991.
8 Quality Control of Plant-based Medicines Quality control in the case of synthetic drugs is much simpler and easier than in the case of drugs prepared from medicinal plants where multiplicity of active ingredients can create a difficulty in quality assurance. The main difficulty in preparing the standards is that most of these products use whole herbs or parts of plants or their extracts and in some cases even a mixture of number of plants. It is also difficult to identify these plants, as, medicinal plants collected in different seasons from the same place can exhibit marked difference in the content of active constituents. It is challenging to develop suitable standards because the preparation of drug based on medicinal plants is regarded as one active entity in its entirity. It is difficult to measure in quantity and quality the various constituents and their therapeutic activity. Again, the standardisation of such drugs does not end with the identification or assay of active ingredient, rather it embodies total information and controls which are necessary to guarantee constituents of composition. Their standards are influenced by many factors such as age of the plant, the area of origin, harvesting time, method of drying, storage condition, manufacturing process, packing etc. Thus, there are number of bottlenecks in establishing standards for medicinal plants.
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PHARMACOPOEIAL STANDARDS Of ISM&H DRUGS
Government of India have set up pharmacopoeial committees for Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homeopathy systems. The Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicines (PLIM) and the Homeopathy Pharmacopoeial Laboratory (HPL) at Ghaziabad are providing the technical back up to these committees. At present 178 monographs are ready for publication. The pharmacopoeia committee has also published two volumes of Ayurvedic Formularies of India consisting of 635 formulations. The siddha pharmacopoeia committee has brought out seven volumes containing standards of 910 drugs. The Unani pharmacopoeia committee has published one national formulary of 441 formulations of Unani medicines. Now 45 monographs on single Unani drugs have been published. The Homeopathy pharmacopoeia committee has brought out 7 volumes containing standards of 910 drugs. A large part of the work relating to about 1000 drugs used in ISM remains to be done. The standardisation of compound formulations is yet to take off. Realising the growing urgency of standards, the Department of ISM&H has implemented a scheme for evolving of standards through government, semi-government research labora-tories. Financial assistance is provided to these laboratories. Each laboratory is allocated In drugs per year. So far 32 organisations have been assigned with the job and roughly 300 drugs have been covered. Work on 100 drugs is mature for preparation of monographs. However, this is going to be a time consuming process. As yet, even the established standards have not been tried out. QUALITY CONTROL IN RAW MATERIALS
The quality control must start with raw materials. At present, the big markets of medicinal plans are in Khari Baoli in Delhi, Amritsar and Mumbai. Here, the raw or crude drugs are sold in the traditional manner. There is no
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cleaning, grading or selection of the medicinal plants. The buyer has no yardstick to judge the genuineness of the plants and their quality. There are no indications about the shelf life. There is no proper packing or labeling. The following steps are, therefore, recommended:omOAL CERTIFICATION CENTRES (OCC)
First of all, the crude drugs of standard quality need to be identified and preserved as the reference standard. Therefore, a National Repository of Crude Drugs of ISM&H with an excellent herbarium having authentic reference samples needs to be establis~ed. This centre should have the crude drug samples, herbarium specimen, chemical finger print profiles, anatomical slides, supporting literatures and a collection of living plants. I~ should provide easy access to wide range of groups including traders, medical practitioners, plant chemists, TM students, academics, regulators as well as the pharmaceutical industry. User services will also have to be made available. This repository should then become the official certification centre for raw materials. The drug industry can get the raw materials certified from the centre. Perhaps, some regional branches of this centre could also be started. The centre could generate some income by way of charging fee for the authentication work of the crude samples. Perhaps some of the existing institutes working on medicinal plants could be developed into official certification centre. QUALITY CONTROL DURING PROCESSING
The next stage is the quality control during processing and manufacturing. The Government of India in the Department of ISM&H have notified elaborate good manufacturing practices only recently. This is a very
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important step which will ensure quality during the manufacturing process. It is' also felt that in order to ensure availability of genuine, authentic medicinal plants, it would be better to have a centralised agency for marketing of the medicinal plants and it may be made mandatory for all to purchase, the certified material only from authorised agencies like Forest Development Corporation or the proposed National Board for Medicinal Plants. The packing also needs to be made more attractive and in suitable containers and sizes. There is also the question of labeling of products. The labels should give all the details and specifications. STATE DRUG TESTING LABORATORIES
There are about 7483 drug manufacturing units of Ayurveda, Siddha & Unani (ASU) Systems of MediciRe in the country. Keeping in view the growing demand of plant based drugs and cosmetics in domestic and international market, there is felt need to have good quality plant based medicines and cosmetics. To ensure the quality there is a need of public test houses as well as statutory State Drug Testing Laboratories for ASU drugs. Presently there are only a couple of laboratories in the country, which can perform few basic tests. In order to assure that quality medicines reach the consumer it is necessary to set up renovate or upgrade State Drug Testing Laboratories capable of testing ISM&H drugs in 20 State where there is good infrastructure for manufacture of ISM drugs. In the absence of such a mechanism being available the licensing of ISM drugs has no safety standard and this can lead to a situation where adulterated/spurious items are sold to the public which could be toxic and hazardous. It is equally essential to check that no synthetic/chemical substitutes are added into the ISM&H products and this responsibility has to be fulfilled while checking that the
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vital plant based ingredients are actually contained in the preparation. One time assistance to support the State Government to establish or strengthen such laboratories is essential. This is a very useful investment which will improve the credibility of the system as well as increase the export of plant based products. RECOGNISING PUBLIC TEST HOUSES
For modern system of medicine facilities are being extended by the public test houses to the pharmaceutical industry on commercial basis. Oh the same pattern public test houses need to be encouraged for ISM&H drug testing and recognised for testing plant based drugs. Necessary legislation needs to be introduced in the Drug and Cosmetic Act 1940. Strengthening of Indian Medicine Pharmaceutical Corporation Limited (IMPCL) and State Government .Pharmacies of ISM&H. There are about 25 pharmacies run by the State Governments themselves. At Govt. of India level also there is a public sector undertaking, Indian Medicine Pharmaceutical Corporation Limited, located at Mohan, Almora District of V.P. It is a joint venture with V.P. Government and is manufacturing classical Ayurvedic and Vnani drugs. Its authorised and paid up share capital is Rs. 1.00 crore. The Govt. of India's share is 51%. This corporation is functioning in old barrack type accomm-odation. Lot of repairs, renovation and modernisation are required to enable this corporation to produce the drugs on a larger scale and ensure quality at every stage. It also needs to enter the open market. It is necessary to provide additional share capital of the order of Rs. 5.00 crore to this corporation. Similarly some funding could be provided to the State Government pharmacies to strengthen their existing pharmacies.
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QUALITY CONTROL MANAGEMENT
The processes, which are used for the production of plant, based drugs vary widely and there is variation in quality of the same product produced by the process used by different manufacturers. Therefore, it is necessary to standardise the in-process quality control which is reproducible and some of the processes which are very traditional need to be modernised without changing the concept of ISM drug preparations. Any change in the process would need validation of establishing the equiva-Ience of quality produced by the traditional methods as compared to the modem methods. It may be appropriate to have two centres for in process quality control standards development, which may cost about Rs. 5.00 crore. Some good existing centre could be developed accordingly. ROLE OF SAFETY EVALUATION CENTRES
Although the plant based drugs are considered to be comparatively safer, but some of the drugs are toxic especially when these are not properly processed and used judiciously. It has become mandatory to ensure the safety of all drugs put into the market for human consumption. At present we do not have any centre for safety evaluation of the plant based drugs. It is necessary to designate a safety evaluation centres with Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) norms. This will facilitate the acceptance of the drugs at a global level. Safety evaluation of herbometalic-mineral formulation of Ayruveda, Unani and Siddha is necessary. Although majority of the plant based drugs are time tested but still the clinical validation is necessary for confirming the efficacy. Some of the hospitals utilising plant based drugs could be identified for undertaking clinical trials following the double blind protocols to
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validate and reestablish the clinical efficacy following standard protocols as prescribed by WHO. For this certain additional financial inputs should be provided to such recognised hospital for promoting clinical evaluation status and recurring expenditure. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ISM
The drug related fundamental concepts are unique in Ayurveda and the standardisation of these concepts has not been attempted so far. The traditional system of medicine can be strengthenged further if these concepts of "Rasa, gun., virya-vipaka, Karma and prabhava are standardised in terms of modern scientific parameters also. These will go a long way in better acceptance of Ayurvedic and plant based drugs. It has been felt that this is an area which needs serious exploration and it will be advantageous to have an independent institute of developing standards for drug related concept of Ayurveda and validating these in terms of modem molecular pharmacology. This will need a multidisciplinary approach involving Clinical Bio-Chemist, Clinical Pharmacologist, Modern Clinicians, Ayurvedic Clinicians, Phyto chemists etc. This will open new vistas for finding rare potentials of our traditional drugs. In the modem system of medicine there are many diseases for which there is no treatment available but exploring the fundamental concept of Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani may unfold treatment for dreaded diseases. No Pharmacopoeia is considered perfect because each pharmacopoeia needs up-dating from time to time and development of newer methods for maintaining quality control for plant based drugs. Therefore, constant R&D inputs are needed for developing newer methods of standardisation and quality control.
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INFLUENCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Human resource development in the drug related area of plant based products is very essential. There is need to appoint Drug inspectors qualified in the area of ISM medicines to inspect the plant based drug industry. Also there is a need to impart focused training to the existing Drug Inspectors on plant based drugs. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and pharmacopoeial standards of Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicines are in the process of being notified. Therefore, the training of both the aspects viz. GMP and pharmacopoeial standards should be an essential part of the training for which specific modules need to be urgently prepared. . Expert Institutions should be identified for training purposes and a systematic programme drawn to impart training to the Drug Inspectors as well as the persons working in plant based drug industry responsible for quality control. At least one officer/expert working in the factory /industry should undertake this training which is also required as per the rules of the Drugs & Cosmetics Act. Plant based products whether in the name of Ayurveda, Siddha & Unani medicines or marketed as food items have been regularly used in the country. The knowledge about the medicinal value of the plants has been systematically documented and the therapies are regularly practiced in the South-Asia region. With the recent trends towards the use of herbal and natural products there is a need to popularise these products at an intemationallevel especially in Europe and USA. The ingredients and the efficacy of the plants need to be projected through the print and electronic media, particularly their strength in treating specific problems like Diabetes, hypertension, liver, disorders, Allergic disorders, Arthritis, Neurological disorders, Obesity and Ulcerative-
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colitis. Their immunomodulatory properties and their efficacy in treating autoimmune disorders like rheumatic conditions must be made known more widely. Various Mission, High Commissions, Embassies of India in various countries also need to be provided with the literature on Indian Medicinal plants, their uses as well as the literature on systems of health care like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani for various countries. MEDICINAL PLANTS: DEMAND AND SUPPLY
There are 7843 licensed pharmacies of Indian System of Medicine in addition to 857 of Homeopathy and a number of unlicensed small scale processing units engaged in the manufacture of the medicines to meet the requirement of 4.61akh 'registered practitioners of ISM & H and other users in the country. These pharmacies range from large Indian drug houses like Baidyanath, Dabur, Zandu, Himalaya Drugs etc., employing modern/sophisticated equipments and methods for production of drugs on mass scale to small ones which manufacture drugs generally following the traditional prescriptions of ancient medical texts in the form of Nighantus (Lexicons) and texts on Bhaisaj Kalpana (Pharmacy) that specifically deal with plants and plant products. Many pharmacies attached to Ayurvedic institutes and hospitals and Vaidyas of villages produce drugs for their own consumption. The largest numbers of these pharmacies are located in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra and Gujarat and the lowest numbers in the States of North East (N.E.) region. Apart from pharmacies of ISM&H there are herbal industries like Alchem International, Delhi; Hitashi Chemicals, Calcutta; Kanga Aromatics, Madurai; Herbochem, Hyderabad; Chemiloids, Vijayawada; Natural Remedies, Bangalore, etc., which specialise in production and marketing of plant
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extracts for the use in the products of allopathy and Homeopathy. Although about 8000 species of plantsare estimated to be used in human and animal health care and over 10,000 herbal drug formulations have been recorded in codified medical texts of ayurveda, the pharmaceutical industries are largely based on about 400 plant species.Though accurate and updated data on the requirement of total quantity and quality of crude drug is not available, conservative estimates put the economic value of medicinal plant related trade in India to the order of Rs.1000 crore/ yearand the world trade over u.s. $ 60 billion. Unfortunately, data regarding the participation of both licensed and unlicensed firms in the medicinal plants raw material trade, and the extent of their demand for the raw materials are not readily available. The structural break-up of licensed pharmacies in terms of large and small companies is unknown, making it difficult to assess the level of concentration in the market. Extensive and systematic surveys are required to generate . data and information on this crucial aspect for useful resource planning. However, the task force has made an attempt to assess the demand and supply position with the help of simple questionnaire sent to about 25 pharmacies but only about half of them have responded and that too partially. Requirement of individual pharmacies varies depending upon the total number and quantity of high and low value medicinal herbs used by them. For example, Gufic, Mumbai, engaged in production of herbal formulations and extracts requires annually 49.5 tons of raw material derived from 49 species worth Rs.18,70,000/ -, while an ayurvedic pharmacy Shree Dhootapapeshwar Ltd., Mumbai, requires 204 tons of raw material of 30 species worth Rs.32,46,960/-. M/s.Sandu Brothers Ltd., need 1760 tons of 156 species worth Rs.1,26,0000/-. '.~
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In a survey conducted in 1991 by Vaidya Khadiwale of Pune for 120 species, a total demand of S09.4 tons of raw drugs was estimated for pharmacies located in Maharashtra. With a modest annual growth rate of 18% suggested for the industry the figure for 1999 works out to 733S.36 tons for the state. However, Natural Remedies Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, engaged in the sale of veterinary formulations and herbal extracts puts its annual demand of raw material to 6771 tons. Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakal, the most popular one of the 1000 odd pharmacies of Kerala has an annual demand of 3000 tons of raw material comprising of 700 species of medicinal plants worth Rs.30 crores. Medicinal Plants Business Farm Project, a feasibility done by AFC in 1995, has estimated the annual requirement of raw herbal drugs for ayurvedic pharmacies to 92,994 tons for the Kerala State which is expected to double by 2000 A.D. An assessment made by the traders of Guwahati suggests that the annual turnover of pharmaceutical concerns in Assam, where only 18 licensed companies are known to be in operation, could be in the range ·of Rs.3S0 to 450 c!ores requiring supplies of more than 700 tons of high value medicinal plants in the region every year. The total crude drug demand of Government run pharmacies of some states in 1998-99 varied from 60 tons for Madhya Pradesh to 2300 tons for Kerala. The demand averages to 386 tons per state worth Rs.l.48 crores. In statewise assessment of demand for 10 major states it works out to 33000 tons per State per year totaling to approximately 3.S lakh tons for the country as a whole. However, individual pharmacy requirement works out to 1292 tons annually. Assuming that there are 100 major pharmacies, the country's demand for crude drugs on this basis comes to 1.29 lakh tons per year. Combining the averages of the two sources, the demand estimate is worked out to 2.4 lakh tons of crude drugs per annum. With
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doubling of the rate of demand every five years the figure is expected to cross 10 lakh tons by 2010 A.D. The information received through CHEMIXCIL indicates the total annual demand of major raw herbal material of 55 species to be 31,680 tons. ADMA puts the figure to 29,413 tons of 110 species. Large variation in the figures received makes the estimation of demand and availability of medicinal plants at the national level a difficult task which re-affirms the need for a systematic survey in this regard. The estimated annual demand of some of the important herbal crude drugs used in preparation of Indian system of medicines is - Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) (10,000 T), Rasna (Pulchea racemosa) (3000 T), Amla (Emblica officinalis) (2750 T), Aswagandha (Withania somnifera) (2500 T), Shatawari (Asparagus racemosus) (2500 T), Mandukparni (Centella asiatica) (1500 T), and Gugul (Commiphora wightii), Sonamukhi (Cassia ungustifolia), Harda (Terminalia chebula), Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata) and Kumari (Aloe vera) 1000 tons each. Progressive increase in demand of raw material can be inferred from the fact that Dabur India Ltd., one of the largest ayurvedic companies has recorded annual growth rates of 25% in their sales since 1990 and a doubling of their turnover, every three years. A study of the ayurvedic products in both the organised and unorganised marketing channels from 1987-1990 has revealed an increase of nearly 30% in the trade. APC's study of 1995 estimates the Kerala State's demand. to double by 2000 A.D. SUPPLY CHAIN AND PRICES
Around 90% of the medicinal plants used by the Indian Pharmacies today are collected from the wild/ natural sources. Less than 20 species of plants are under commercial cultivation and many of these have their uses for other purposes like perfumary / condiments/ spices. The
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crude drug trade is based on local names. The bigger supply of the raw material is procured by pharmacies from the drug dealers in the markets of cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta, Chennai, Hyderabad, Amritsar, Patna and many small cities of the country. These drug dealers of the cities in-turn procure them from the so called unknown sources (as it forms a part of their trade secret) though 90% of them ultimately come from natural sources of various parts of the country collected by unskilled forest dwelling communities and purchased by the contractors at a nominal price. This supply chain often extends to 3 - 4 tiers without much value addition but with increase in sale price at each level. There is, on an average, 70 to 100% increase in sale price of crude drugs from primary collectors level to pharmacy level. Many times the same crude drug is available in various grades with major traders having considerable difference in price. For instance various grades of "safed musU" are available at varying prices of Rs.BOO/ - to 1200/ -per kg. The gradation is generally dependent on physical features of the crude drug as well as the geographical source of origin. Current market price of certain expensive crude drugs are given as follows: S.No. Crude drugs 1.
2. 3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Botanical name
Price (Rs./kg)
Akkalkada Ativisha Safed Musli
Anacyclus pyrethrum Aconitum heterophyllum Chlorophytum arundinaceum
Kallawi Triman Kankol Kakad Singi Jaiphal Phansombe (Fleshy fungus) Vavding
Gloriosa superba Gentiana kurroo Piper cubeba Pistacia chiensis Myristlca fragrance Arotocarpus heterophyllus Embelia ribes
1200/1300/880/- to 1200/700/504/440/385/-
348/200/195.50
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II. 12. 13. 14.
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16. 17. 18. 19.
Chopchini Smilax china Dhotra bee (Blue) Datura innoxia Nakeshar Mesua ferrea Maiphal (galls) Quercus infactoria Piper Piplamool longum Pipallendi Piper longum (Inflorescence) Kutki Picrorhiza kurrooa Kapur Kachari Curcuma zedoria Chirata Swertia Chirata Commiphora wightii Gugul
150.50 160/135/143/-
20.
Jatamanshi
Nadrostachys jatamansi
120/-
15.
192/176/175/165/120/-
Crude drugs trade in certain states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra operates through Tribal Cooperative Societies established to ensure fair price for tribals who collect the crude drugs. However, the operation of many of these organisations is unsatisfactory and the tribals prefer to sell their produce to middle men who ensure quick payment in cash. Most of the pharmacies of ISM have long standing relationship with large traders, through generation and at personal level and users satisfaction level is quite high. They often have preference for crude drugs originating from specific geographical region e.g., Tamalpatra' of N E and 'Kadechirayata' of arid tracts of Gujarat and Rajasthan are preferred over supplies from other regions. Most of the ayurvedic pharmacies rely on purity of their raw material supplied through their traditional source of suppliers and are generally sceptical about quality of crude drugs from cultivated source. It appears that these informal trade routes are able to supply various types of raw materials in the quantity required by the pharmacies, though at varying prices depending upon the availability of the raw source in the market. Information supplied by ADMA indicates that of
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the total 3,15,826 tons of raw herbal drug material produced in the country annually only 29,413 tons are utilised by the ayurvedic pharmacies indicating that only 9.31% of total production is consumed by pharmacies. Unsustainable ways of harvesting and unrestricted marketing have led to the reduction in population of some of the high demand medicinal plants leading to sudden escalation in prices of these crude drugs in the market. AVS, Kottakal, informs that it is unable to get sufficient raw drugs of Saussurea lappa (Kustha), Aconitun heterophyllum (Ativish), Trichosanthes cucumerina Gangli Padwal), and Coscinium fenestratum (Maramanjal) for use in their pharmacies. Bharat Ayurvedic Stores, Lucknow, informed that Safed musli (Asparagus adscendens), Salumpunja (Orchis latifolia), Akkalkadha (Anacyc1us pyrethrum) are in short supply. In addition to Safed musli and Salum punja (Orchis latifolia), Karpur Kachori (Hedychium spicatum), Ativish (Aconitum heterophyllum) and Raktachandan (Pterocarpus santalinus) are also reported to be in short supply by Gufic Healthcare, Mumbai. A list of species in short supply as communicated by Sandu Brothers, Mumbai. Similar is the case with Coptis teesta, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum emodi, Rauwolfia serpentina, Embellia rlbes, Gloriosa superba, etc. Recognising the trend many larger pharmacies like Dabur, Zandu, Himalaya drugs, AVS, Kottakal, Shree Dhootpapeshwar etc., have started promoting contract farming of medicinal plants to meet their demand. The modern pharmaceutical industries like Cipla, Natural remedies, Core Health Care, Cadila Health Care, Bio-Ved Pharma etc., who specialise in production of a few speciality drugs/chemicals from plant sources are also involved in contractual cultivation to supplement their requirements. They enter into buy-back arrangements with the growers and employ modem product standardisation
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techniques. Established traders of crude drugs also feel that promotion of cultivation of medicinal plants is a step in right direction. Growing popularity of herbal medicines in health care systems and the trend of increase in their export demand are quite apparent. Estimated figures indicate 15 -20% growth of Indian pharmaceutical concerns per year. Figures projecting global trade in medicinal plant species indicate a steep upward trend in near future. According to the World Bank report 1998 world trade in medicinal plants and related products is expected to be of the order of US $ 5 trillion by A D 2050. Unrestricted exploitation of crude drugs from natural sources without proper measures of conservation have brought the natural medicinal plant wealth of the country to a situation where twenty six species have become endangered, seven species on the verge of extinction and ten to threatened status. This calls for urgent measures for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of such species coupled with cultivation for sustained development of growing herbal drug industry. Policy intervention and support is, therefore, urgently needed for conservation and to encourage and facilitate investments into commercial cultivation of medicinal plants. IMPORT AND EXPORT OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
According to the Convenor (Ayurvedic Products SubPanel) of CHEMEXCIL National pharmaceutical market is of the order of Rs. 12500 Crores inclusive of Ayurvedic market, which is of Rs.2500 crores. Out of this, Rs.2000 Crores is of OTC range and Rs. 500 Crores is of Ethical range. The rate of growth of the market is approximately 20% per year. However, in absence of any systematic survey no authentic data of the Ayurvedic market is available.
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Import
All the raw materials used by the Pharmacies are not of indigenous origin. Considerable supplies are received from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afganistan, Singapore, etc., often through informal routes. For instance most of the 'Chirata' and other Himalayan medicinal plant crude drugs come from Nepal and Bhutan, 'Oleoresin gugul' of best quality from Pakistan, 'Liquorice' from Afganistan and good quality of 'Banshalochan' from Singapore. According to the data received from CHEMEXCIL, of the total estimated annual demand of 31,780 tons of raw herbal material of pharmaceutical industries 7180 tons is met with through import. The requirements of Akkalkada - Anacuclus pyrethrum, Jestimadh - Glycrrhiza glabra (Pakistani Iran, Afganistan), Dalchini -Cinnamomum zeylanica (China), Gajpimpli -Scindapus officinalis, and Kankol- Piper cubeb a (Indonesia), Chopchini - Smilax china, Maiphal - Quercus infectoria and Revchini - Garania pictoria are mostly met through imports. About 90% requirement of Gugul (Commiphora wightii) is received from Pakistan. Clove (Syzygium aromaticum), Nutmeg mace (Myristica fragrence aril) , Ginger (Zingiber officinale), Kapurkachri (Hedychium spicatum) and Patang (Caesalpinia sappan) are the other r~w materials partially imported to fulfill the requirement. Export
Apart from requirement of medicinal plants for internal consumption, India is one of the major exporters of crude drugs mainly to the six developed countries, viz. USA, Germany, France, Switzerland, UK and Japan who share between them 75 to 80% of the total export of crude drugs from India. The principal herbal drugs that have been
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finding a good market in foreign countries are Aconite, Aloe, Ammi majus, Belladona, Bach, Cinchona, Cassia tora, Dioscorea, Digitalis, Ephedra, Ergot, Hyoscymus, Ipecac, Isabgol, Liquorice, Opium, Papain, Podophyllum, Pyrethrum; Rauwolfia, Rhubarb, Senna, Stramonium, Valerian, Vinca etc. of which Senna leaves, Isabgol seeds/ husk and cassia tora seeds are in maximum demand. The total value of export of crude drugs, Ayurvedic not put-up for retail and Ayurvedic put-up for retail has increased from Rs.394 crores in 1996-97 to Rs;446 crores in 1998-99. Itemwise data for a 3 years period is given in the following table: . 1997-98
1998-99
Crude drugs 2559501617 .395000210 Ayurvedic not put for retail Ayurvedic put-up 985250139 for retail
2831380625 422417579
2824862157 406265096
1187745520
1232053813
3939751966
4441543724
4463181066
Item
.
Total
1996-97
( ]~q5o}'t opportunities of natural products are tremendous,
as the world market is looking towards natural sources for the purposes of therapeutic use as well as nutritional dietary supplements. The global herbal remedies market can be classified into five strategic areas as follows: Phyto-Pharmaceuticals - the plant derived drugs containing isolated pure active compounds used to treat diseases, Medicinal Botanicals / Botanical Extracts / Herbal or Dietary Supplements-the whole plant or plant-part extracts, used for maintenance of health by affecting a body structure and its function,
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Nutraceuticals - the foods containing supplements from natural (botanical) sources, that deliver a specific health benefit, including prevention and tr~atment of disease, Cosmeceuticals - the cosmetic products which contain biologically active ingredients having an effect on the user Herbal raw material Details of the strategic areas are as under:Phyta-Pharmaceuticals: The Global market for sale of Phyto-Pharmaceuticals in 1997 stood at US$10 billion. It is estimated that this market will increase at an average annual growth rate of 6.3% through 2002. India has tremendous potential to contribute to this market segment. Nutrac'euticals: The nutraceuticals market in Europe is expected to increase from 1.05 to 1.6 billion US $ and in U.S. from 3 to 4.6 billion US $. Cosmeceuticals Annual Market for cosmeceuticals have been estimated at 2.5 US $ billion in U.S. and 5.0 US $ billion in Europe. Herbal raw material: Herbal raw material market is very large but no definite estimates are available till date to quantify its size in dollar terms. The principal suppliers however to this market are the developing countries who collect the raw material mainly through wild sources. Immense opportunities for Indian herbals industry exists in the global market in view of its vast herbal resources. With one quarter of all prescribed medicines in addition to aTC products now being herbals in the western countries, there is a vast market potential for India to exploit by catering to the international market on a much larger and organised scale than what it is doing presently. Most of the medicinal plants required globally for processing of top-selling value added products and
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formulations in the Phyto-Pnaqnaceuticals, Botanicals, Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceutlcals category are the followings: Sr.No.
Common Name
Botanical Name
1 2 3
Periwinkli Senna Valerian Cayenne Guar Himalayan mayapple
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Carlic Nettle Horse chestnut Phyllanthus Puncture vine Winter cherry Green tea Turmeric Ginger Aloe vera Henna Chamomile Rosemary Marigold
Catharanthus roseus Cassia senna Valeriana wallichii Capsicum annuum Cyamopsis tetrogonolobus Podophyllum emodi or P. hexandrum Allium sativum Urtica dioica Asculus hippocastanus Phyllanthus amarus Tribulus terrestris Withania somnifera Camellia sinensis Curcuma tonga Zingiber officina Ie Aloe barbadensis Lawsonia inermis Metricaria chamonilla Rosmarinus officina lis Tagtus erecta
21
Hibiscus
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
The above medicinal plants either grow wild in the country or are grown commercially on a small scale. They need to be cultivated on a bigger scale and as an organised activity. The cHmatic conditions prevailing in various parts of India are conducive for the cultivation of many exotic and "hot sellers" of the west.
I
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The processed and value added products from the aforementicmed herbals can be a big source of foreign exchange for India, if their expanding markets could be better catered. For instance the Phyto-chemical of Valerian· i.e. V'alepatriate sells at the rate of US $ 6000/kg as against the crude drug selling at the rate of US $ 2.3/kg. Average bulk (100 kg) wholesale prices in the US and leading European markets for certain medicinal plants are as follows: Sr.
Dried Roots
1
Echinflcea root Echinacea leaf Valerian root
40 18 15
Himalayan May-apple root
5.5
·2 3 4
Price (US $/kg)
Nutraceuticals are gaining popularity in USA and W. Europe in recent years comprise of many botanicals, which are available in India. Considering the markets of over US $ 14 billion, capturing the market share of even 10% will lead to export values equivalent to 50% of the Indian pharmaceutical turnover in the domestic market and equal to the projected total exports of drugs and pharmaceuticals by 2000 AD. US demand for bulk nutraceuticals for the year 1997 has been estimated at about US $ 4 billion. Apart from the opportunities for 'Herbais ana Ayurvedic', there is considerable scope for medicinal plants based phytochemical products development also. Market Opportunity for Herbal Products. REFERENCES
Alvares, c., Homo Faber, New Delhi, India; Mentor Publications, 1984. Anthropological Survey of Jndia, People of India Project Report for 1994. I Bodeker, G, "Traditional health knowledge and public policy", Nature and Resources 30 (2): 5-16, 1994.
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Darshan Shankar, "Indigenous health services", In: State of India's Health. Published by Voluntary Health Association of India, 1992. Wijesekera, R.O.B. "Is there an industrial future for phytopharmaceutical drugs? An outline of UNIDO programmes in the sector", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32: 217-224, 1991. Wijesekera, R.O.B., Renaissance of the Phytopharmaca, Vienna, Austria; United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1987.
9 Industrial Utilisation of Medicinal Plants Modem pharmacopoeia still contain at least 25% drugs derived from plants and many others which are synthetic analogues built on prototype compounds isolated from plapts. China, India, Sri Lanka and a few other countries have officially recognised the use of traditional medicines in their health care delivery systems. A major factor impeding the development of the medicinal plant based industries in developing countries has been the lack of information on the social and economic benefits that could be derived from the industrial utilisation of medicinal plants. Except for the use of these plants for local health care needs, not much information has been available on their market potential and trading possibilities. As a result, the real potential of these plants has not been exploited by the governments or entrepreneurs. The demands of the majority of the people in developing countries for medicinal plants have been met by indiscriminate harvesting of spontaneous flora including those in forests. As a result many plant species have become extinct and some are endangered. It is therefore necessary that systematic cultivation of medicinal plants be introduced in order to conserve biodiversity and protect threatened species. Systematic cultivation of these plants could only be initiated if there is a continuous demand for the raw
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materials. It is therefore necessary to establish processing facilities preferably in the vicinity of cultivations in order to create a demand and assure farmers of the sale of raw material. Thus cultivation and processing should be started simultaneously. In cases where parts of mature plants from forests are to be harvested, sustainable harvesting tech.."liques are needed to protect these plants, The promotion and development of processing of plantbased products have been given a fresh impetus due to certain ground realities: Green consumerism and the current resurgence of interest in the use of "Naturals" in developed countries. Free market economy bringing in more openness and expanding markets and demand for new resources, materials and products. A growing acceptability of the social responsibility of minimising socio-economic inequalities in favour of rural people resulting in creating additional job and income opportunities for poor people. Poor economic conditions in developing countries restricting import, thereby placing increased reliance on medicines using local plant resources. Increasing awareness regarding biodiversity conservation and the sustainable and protective use of plant resources. Search for new phytopharmaceuticals for the prevention and cure of deadly diseases such as cancer and AIDS. In 1981, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIOO) established a programme for the systematic utilisation of this renewable natural resource for the benefit of the populace of developing countries. The programme aims for initia~g development projects for increasing the industrial output of developing countries in
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the field of locally-used herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals which affect the economies of both developing and developed countries. Some of the constraints associated with the processing of medicinal plants which may result in reducing their competitiveness in global markets and which have to be remedied are: Poor agricultural practices Poor harvesting (indiscriminate) and post-harvest treatment practices Lack of research on development of high-yielding varieties, domestication etc. Poor propagation methods Inefficient processing techniques leading to low yields and poor quality products Poor quality control procedures High energy losses during processing Lack of current good manufacturing practices Lack of R&D on product and process development Difficulties in marketing Lack of local market for primary processed products Lack of trained personnel and equipment Lack of facilities to fabricate equipment locally Lack of access to latest technological and market information Systematic cultivation of many medicinal plants needs specific cultural practices and agronomical requirements. These are species-specific and are not only dependent on soil, water and climatic conditions. Hence research and development work has to be done to formulate Good Agricultural Practices which will include proper selection and identification, propagation methods, cultivation techniques, harvesting, step-wise quality control of raw
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material up to processing stage, post-harvest treatment, storage and safety. These aspects have to be incorporated into protocols for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Organic farming is another practice that is gaining wide acceptance as world demand particularly in developed countries for organically grown crops is rapidly on the increase. Farmers have to be trained in all aspects of organic farming of medicinal plants and herbs including obtaining certification from associations that do the monitoring starting from cultivation to final harvesting. Organic farming which is labour-intensive gives the developing countries the comparative advantage to be competitive. PROCESS MElHOD
Traditional Medicines
The medicines for internal use prepared in the traditional manner involve simple methods such as hot- or cold-water extraction, expression of juice after crushing, powdering of dried material, formulation of powder into pastes via such a vehicle as water, oil or honey, and even fermentation after adding a sugar source. Traditional herbal medicines were produced using age old methods by the practitioner him/ herself who was able to identify the correct plant species. This practice of the traditional practitioner dispensing his own medicines is being gradually shifted to herbal drug stores which are profit-oriented. As a result, there is no guarantee of the authenticity and quantity of plant material used in the preparations. The quality of traditional medicines so produced vary widely and may not even be effective. Therefore, there is a need to select proper and appropriate technologies for the industrial production of traditional medicines such that the effectiveness of the preparation is maintained. Traditional methods used have many disadvantages which could be corrected by selecting the suitable technologies. It has to be stated that the traditional methods were dependent on the
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status of technology that was available at that time. It therefore follows that these can be modified and improved using the technologies available today to make them more effective, stable, reproducible, controlled and in dosage forms that can easily be transported or taken to office. Hence the introduction of appropriate, simple and lowcost technologies should be encouraged maintaining as much as possible the labour-intensive nature of such activities, conservation of biodiversity through small-scale production and preservation of cultural knowledge. Use of sophisticated modern technology will alienate the traditional practitioner as he has no control over such production methods. Even in the use of appropriate technologies, the practitioner who produces these drugs has to be educated about the advantages of using such production and quality control methods. One major concern in introducing modem technology for the production of traditional medicines is whether the final preparation will be acceptable to the practitioner who has sole faith in extemporaneous preparations. This problem has to be overcome by a process of education, whereby the disadvantages of the old methods and the advantages of the new methods can be imparted. Value of Medicinal Plants
The value of medicinal plants as a source of foreign exchange for developing countries depends on the use of those plants as raw materials in the pharmaceutical industry. These raw materials are used to: Isolate pure active compounds for formulation into drugs (quinine, reserpine,digoxin,etc.) Isolate intermediates for the production of semisynthetic drugs Prepare standardised galenicals
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If one is to produce known pure phytopharmaceuticals
used in modern medicine, more processing stages and more sophisticated machinery are required. Furthermore, safety and pollution aspects have to be considered. Most of these processes and formulations are patent-protected. Evell transferring technology through contractual agreements and payment will not be of much help unless there is a large local demand for these drugs. Often the drugs so produced are more expensive than world market prices owing to the limitations of the economy of scale of production. Certain plants are rich sources of intermediates used in the production of drugs. The primary processing of parts of plants containing the intermediates could be carried out in the country of origin thus retaining some value of the resource material. For example, diosgenin (from Dioscorea sp.) and hecogenin (from sisal) used in the production of steroids can be commercially produced in the cduntries of origin where there are steady supplies of sufficient raw materials. Processed products (galenicals) from plants could be standardised fluid/solid extracts or powders or tinctures. Standardised extracts of many plants are widely used in health care. Some of these have to be formulated for incorporation into modern dosage forms. New formulations require some development work, particularly on account of the nature of the processed products. Plant extracts are difficult to granulate, sensitive to moisture and prone to microbial contamination. Hence the types of excipients to be used and the processing parameters have to be determined. Most of the activities of UNIDO in the industrial utilisation of medicinal plants have involved: the production of standardised traditional medicines, galenicals and extracts, the formulation and development of dosage forms, the development of new preparations based on the traditional pharmacopoeia, research and
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development in processing and formulation and basic chemical and pharmacological studies. Processing using clean and pollution free technologies have been introduced. Facilities for Pilot Scale Production
Development of process parameters has to be carried out at a pilot scale in order to be up scaled to industrial production. Many R&D institutions and universities in developing countries do not have such facilities and are therefore unable to pass on their R&D findings to the industry. UNIOO has played a significant role in achieving university-industry interaction by designing a polyvalent pilot plant which could be used for many unit operations needed for the production of plant-based products. Detailed engineering drawings with specifications and bills of quantities are published in a separate UNIDO publication. The pilot plant has enabled the R&D work to be demonstrated to produce final products which could be market tested. Universities in turn have been able to realise the hidden potential of industrialisation of their R&D work. Any institution which wants to initiate downstream processing of medicinal plants and other non-wood forest products should possess facilities for pilot scale production. NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Improved methods for the processing of medicinal and aromatic plants and new techniques for quality assessment are being developed rapidly and continuously and they have to be introduced to developing countries if they are to forge ahead to keep up with recent developments and new international requirements. One such method of recent development is Supercritical Fluid Extraction of natural products as an alternative for solvent extraction. It is now used both for processing.- of phytopharmaceuticals and other plant products and for the removal of trace amounts
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of contaminant substances such as pesticides, toxins and surfactants. The control of the quality of the raw materials, finished products and of processes is an absolute necessity, if one is to produce goods for world markets and human consumption. International Standard Specifications exist for some processed products and some countries and buyers have their own requirements. The quality requirements for medicinal plant preparations are stringent in terms of content of active principles and toxic materials. Whereas the production of traditional medicines for local use does not require such stringent standards, what is produced will be a much more improved version of the already produced medicines using traditional methods. Quality has to be built into the whole process beginning from the selection of propagation material to the final product reaching the consumer. It is therefore a management system where all steps involved in the industrial utilisation process have to be properly and strictly controlled to produce the desired quality products. All elements of Total Quality Management(TQM) have to be introduced in any industrial project. The requirements for ISO 9000 certification and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) have to be introduced and the personnel trained so that enterprises could introduce the proper systems needed for certification. Many developing countries have a core of trained personnel in the fields of chemistry, biology, agriculture, pharmacology and pharmacy: They lack resources in such fields as chemical engineering and technology. This can be considered as a major constraint upon industrial development. UNIOO therefore has developed the human resources required for this specific area of industrial development by conducting training in industrial practice including quality assurance, management and marketing.
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Management and Marketing
Marketing is an unsurmountable problem besetting the development of the plant-based industry in developing countries and marketability will be a crucial factor in determining the failure or success of these industries. The market outlets can be for local use and for export. As for local use, some products could reach the consumer directly while others have to be either further processed or used as secondary components in other industrial products. Hence user industries have to be promoted so that locally produced extracts can be used to save foreign exchange needed for importation of such additives. Further processing to yield value added products will be limited by the local demand situation unless they could be produced at prices to be competitive in the world market. Even if the CGst of production is low and quality of the products is good, substantial market promotion has to be undertaken in order to penetrate the world market. Market tie-ups with progressive entrepreneurs from the developed world would be a convenient and a realistic option for securing markets for the finished products. Joint ventures or trade agreements could be initiated with companies that are expanding their production to meet the ever increasing demand for green products. Industrial development requires parallel research and development. Research in chemistry and bioactive components of indigenous flora of developing countries has been ongoing for quite some time, funded by multi-/ bi- lateral aid or non-governmental donor organisations. A systematic and a concerted approach to this activity has not been maintained for want of sophisticated equipment and high-cost chemicals. Much of the research has been mainly academic. The concept of applied research in the industrial use of plants has not received much attention. Research in support of industrial development encompasses all activities
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ranging from the development of superior propagation materials, agrotechnology, low cost and efficient processing technologies to improve quality and yield, new fommlations to new products and the marketing of finished products. Role of Property Rights
Many developing countries do not have procedures to register medicinal plant preparations although they are widely used for the health care needs of the majority of people. The regulations if any, are very stringent requiring the same standards expected of modern medicines. WHO has recently published guidelines for the assessment of herbal medicines taking into account the long and extensive usage of them. These guidelines should encourage developing countries to relax some of the current regulations to be realistic in recognising the role of traditional medicines in the health care delivery of their countries. The vital question of property rights to developing countries for the use of know-how and genetic resources in the development of modern drugs in developed countries has been discussed in many forums but without a final solution. As the use of plant-based drugs has declined with the introduction of synthetic drugs especially in developing countries, the need to collate all available knowledge on medicinal plants and their uses has become imperative particularly because of the recent revival of interest in the use of "natural" medicines. In view of the greater demand for information on traditional uses and proper identification, and the enormous volume of information being generated, a user-friendly information storage and retrieval system will be of considerable importance. As such a computer database would be 9f invaluable assistance to developing countries in R&D work on industrial utilisation of local plant resources.
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Data on the medicinal plants are also available in international journals and a number of databases, the premier being Napralert established at the University of Illinois in Chicago with WHO assistance. Many developing countries lack the resources to subscribe to research journals or acquire access to these databases. In fact, the data required by the scientific personnel in developing countries with respect to technologies and methods used for processing and formulation of medicinal plants are not re~dily available in the literature nor in the databases as some of these are patent-protected. REFERENCES
Tcheknavorian-Asenbauer, A. & Wijesekera, RO.B., Industrial Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, UNIDO 10.505, 1982. United Nations Industrial development Organization, Design Options for
a Polyvalent Pilot Plant Unit for the Distillation and Extraction of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, IPCT.143(spec), 1991. Wijesekera, RO.B. "Is there an industrial future for phytopharmaceutical drugs? An outline of UNIDO programmes in the sector", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32: 217-224, 1991. Wijesekera, RO.B., Renaissance of the Phytopharmaca, Vienna, Austria; United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1987. World Health Organization, Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines. Geneva; Switzerland; WHO, 1991.
10 International Trade in Medicinal Plants Medicinal plant material is used by a large number of industries. This chapter attempts to focus mainly on demand from industries which use these plants for their medicinal or health giving properties as explained below. The problem lies in the fact that statistical data do not usually differentiate between these groups and other users such as manufacturers of: cosmetics, detergents, dyes, insecticides, foods, paints etc. PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES
This sector uses medicinal plants: for the isolation of single purified drugs, e.g. digitoxin extracted from digitalis and vincristine from Catharanthus roseus. in advanced extract form where the extract is highly standardised in terms of the active constituents it contains. In many cases, these are in admixtures with other ingredients, e.g. senna extract from Cassia senna. as starting material for the production of other semisynthetic pharmacologically active substances. For example, plant saponins can be extracted and alte~d chemically to produce sapogenins required to manufacture steroids.
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Demand for medicinal plants from this group alone is significant with an estimated 25% of prescription drugs in the US containing plant extracts or active principles prepared from higher plants. PHYTOPHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES
In some countries (e.g. Germany), there is little distinction between pharmaceutical and phytopha.rmaceutical companies as both may sell products made from standardised extracts of plant material. However, in other countries where the licensing criteria for plant extracts are very different from those for medicines, there is more of a distinction. Phytopharmaceutical companies not only use plant extracts but also raw plant material for example to make tinctures, teas or in capsule form. HEALTH PRODUCT COMPANIES
Examples of some of the more important health products are garlic, ginseng, propolis, royal jelly, tonics, guarana and herbal drinks for which there has been a growing demand recently. There is also a fine line of distinction between health products and phytopharmaceuticals as many health products are being marketed as such in order to avoid the need to license a prodact as a medicine (a costly and complex process). TRADmoNAL MEDICINES
Although traditional medicines could equally be covered under phytopharmaceuticals, a distinction is made here in order to highlight their importance in the medicinal plants trade. The WHO estimated that 80% of the population of developing countries rely on traditional medicines (primarily plant drugs) for their primary healthcare needs. The most renowned traditional systems are Ayurvedic, Unani and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In
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addition, there are many less well documented systems of traditional medicine which have been handed down from one generation to the next by word of mouth and practised in many parts of the world. In the Cote d~voire, a market survey of 800 households found that traditjonal medicines were not just used in rural areas but increasingly in urban areas as well. ALTERNATIVE PRACTITIONERS
In addition to the traditional medicine practitioners in developing countries, there are an increasing number of alternative practitioners of natural medicine in the developed world. Demand for medicinal plants is undoubtedly increasing in all the above sectors (with the possible exception of their use as pure chemical isolates) and this growth is fuelling an increase il1: both the number of species and volume of plant material being traded. What we now need to consider is from what sources this demand is being met. MEDICINAL PLANT SUPPLY
There are two sources of supply of medicinal plants, viz. material collected from the wild and cultivated material. Surprisingly, the bulk of the material traded is still wild harvested and only a very small number of species is cultivated. Wild Harvested Material
Wild harvesting is the collection of plant material such as the herba (plant above ground), flos (flowers), folia (leaves), lignum (wood), or radix (roots) from wild sources. In many traditions of medicine, wild harvested material is considered to have higher therapeutic benefits, and therefore, for example in China, commands higher prices. Although there are many common species that can be harvested sustainably and with little impact on their
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survival, an increasing number are not in this category. A study undertaken by WWF found that in several African countries, wild harvesting for local requirements was not detrimental to plant survival as the quantity collected tended to be small and also most of the material collected came from the more common varieties. What is of major concern is the fact that a major part of wild harvested material is now traded commercially. As the prices paid to the gatherers tend to be very low, commercial plant gatherers, often 'mine' the natural resources rather than manage them, as their main objective is to generate an income. A critical factor in wild harvesting is the availability of cheap labour to undertake the very labour intensive work of gathering. As in many cases income from such sources represents the only form of paid employment for members of remote rural areas, there is an eagerness to undertake such work. Most countries have little or no regulations controlling the collection of material from the wild. India is one exception and has banned the export of severai wild species in the form of raw material although the export of finished products containing the material is allowed. Despite this, an e~timated 95% of medicinal plants collected in India are gathered from the wild and the process of collection is said to be destructive. Equally, a major part of the high range Himalayan plants are wild harvested and many of these are close to extinction from over-harvesting or unskilful harvesting e.g. Nardostachys jatamansi, Aconitum spp. An estimated 70-90% of the medicinal plant material imported into Germany is wild harvested and only 50-100 species among these are currently propagated on a large scale. In China, the output of the area cultivated is estimated to be between 300,000 and 400,000 tonnes whilst in 1994 the
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total demand for medicinal plant material was 1,600,000 tonnes. This huge gap must be made up from wild harvested material. What is particularly worrying is that TCM tends to use the roots of plants which are the most difficult plant parts to harvest sustainably. Although the major part of wild harvested material is sourced from developing countries, a surprisingly high amount is also gathered in developed countries. For example, in the United States, an estimated 200 tons of Echinacea angustifolia is wild harvested annually and 220,589 pounds of ginseng was wild harvested in 1992. In France, more than 500 species were wild harvested during 1988-89, including those used homeopathically, i.e. in minuJe quantities. Volumes harvested for the most important among these are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Tonnage of wild haroested 71Ulterial for leading medicinal plants in France during 1988-89. Plant species
Tonnage of dried plant 71Ulterial
Arnica montana Betula pendula& Betula pubescens Calluna vulgaris Conyza canadensis Fraxinus excelsior Hippophae rhamnoides Hypericum perforatum Prunus spinosa Rhamnus frangula Ros71Ulrinus officinalis Ruscus aculeatus Sorbus aucuparia Filipendula uI71Ulria
3-6 5-10 50 50 50 50-10 50-100 5-10 5-10 50-100 5-10 50 5-10
Although one can cite data for some such specific cases, there is very little global data on the volume wild harvested.
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This is partly because it is very difficult to distinguish between wild and cultivated material, as such wild harvested material is often sold as cultivated. This means that even CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) data are often questionable given that the process of issuing licenses and acquiring import/ export papers as required by CITES is rarely checked and may often be the subject of corruption. Cultivation The other main source of medicinal plants is from cultivation. Cultivated material is infinitely more appropriate for use in the production of drugs. Indeed, standardisation whether for pure products, extracts or crude drugs is critical, and will become increasingly so, as quality requirements continue to become more stringent. Examples of countries that do cultivate on a large scale are Hungary, Poland, India (psyllium), China, Spain (liquorice), and Argentina (chamomile, psyllium). Requirements of successful commercial cultivation operations are to produce high quality drugs using low input cultivation methods keeping in mind that the material has to compete within a highly competitive international market. Given the higher cost of cultivated material, cultivation is often done under contract. In the majority of cases, companies would cultivate only those plant species which they use in large quantitie~ or in the production of derivatives and isolates, fOJ! which standardisation is essential and quality is critical. More recently, growers have set up co-operatives or collaborative ventures in an attempt to improve their negotiating power and achieve higher prices. One such COt operative is VNI< in the Netherlands; others have also emerged in Eastern Europe to help them compete in a now
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privatised sector. Eastern Europe exports significant quantities to the rest of Europe and North America. Before the subsidies were cancelled post-1989, these countries were reliable suppliers of good quality material. However, since then reliability and quality have become a problem. The question "that begs to be asked is why more material is not cultivated 4ltemationally. There are several reasons, notably the low cost of wild harvested material, and the fact that cultivated material requires management/ agricultural expertise, time (sometimes more than 10 years before the crop is ready for harvesting), land, financial resources etc. before an income can be derived. Channels of supply
The following section considers the different forms of trade that exist and examines the channels through which medicinal plants pass. Cunningham describes three trading sectors for medicinal plants: On the first level, there is the national trade in medicinal plants which can involve hundreds of species. This trade would be undertaken at regional medicinal plant markets where hundreds of plant species are traded. For example in urban markets in Kwa Zulu, Natal, more than 400 species were being traded out of a total 1,000 that were used medicinally in the area. The second level again is informal and consists of trade across national borders but within the same continent. This trade terids to consist of fewer number of species, although many of these are threatened. For example in Africa, Warburgia salutaris and Siphonochilus aethiopicus are two !species with high demand and very scarce supply. In Asia, Nardostachys grandiflora and Valeriana jatamansi are examples of species which are threatened,
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but both are still traded from Nepal to India. The third level comprises formal export trade. In Africa, Cunningham found that at this level only a limited number of species were traded in significant volumes. Cunningham cites Cameroon which exports four species to Europe including Prunus africana (a bark extract of 'which is used in the treatment of benign prostatic hxpertrophy), all of which is exported to France; and Pausinystalia johimbe, 65% of which is exported to Holland, 18% to Germany and the rest to Belgium, Luxembourg and France. However, based on the imports of plant material into Germany; a significant number of species are indeed traded internationally, i.e. at this third level, and several hundred species in significant volumes. From the source of collection, plant material passes through a network of buyers including collectives' organisations and state run organisations, and agents or subsidiaries of the plant traders. The major part of material is sold to plant trading companies. These plant traders hold enormous stocks, and also have the facilities to undertake the quality controls required for raw material used in the production of drugs. The major trading companies are located in Hamburg, New York, tokyo and Hong Kong. They play an enormously powerful role in the medicinal plant trade, partly because of the large quantities they purchase which enables them to more or less dictate the price. In addition, their ability to reliably undertake the quality control analysis also helps to protect their position of power. The situation in Germany illustrates the critical role of the traders, where drug' imports of medicinal plants is undertaken almost entirely by 20 drug trading companies. Another critical point which helps safeguard the position of the traders is the guarantee that they will supply I
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material of a specified standard of quality at a fixed price. This price and quality guarantee is a major incentive to the end user, for whom cost, quality, reliability and flexibility are said to be the key requirements for purchasing pharmaceutical raw materials. There are also brokers who buy plant material and sell it on adding a commission; however, they do not stock material or have any warehousing facilities. In the past the brokers played a more important role as they had the contacts at the purchasing level. Other traders have been emerging, referred to as the 'ecological trade' by Lange, they source botanical material for use generally by the smaller herbal medicine/health product companies and alternative practitioners. These trading companies tend to be more discerning/ethical in their purchasing approach, and often trade extensively in . organically cultivated products. They often establish their own contacts in the source countries and have shorter sales routes involving fewer parties, partly as they purchase only raw material not extracts. One such example is a company in the United Kingdom called Hambledon Herbs (HH), who endeavour to build relationships with trustworthy and ethical suppliers who practise sustainable harvesting or organic/semi-organic cultivation methods. For example, Hambledon Herbs source Harpagophytum from Namibia as part of a conservation project that they have set up with Oxfam. The material is collected from the wild in a controlled and sustainable way, planting is encouraged, and quality control measures have been introduced. HH are now the leading supplier of Harpagophytum, supplying an estimated 50 tonnes per annum. Plant Extracts
A significant percentage of medicinal plant material is used to make plant extracts. This process is carried out either by
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the end product manufacturers or by extract companies. Sales of plant extracts is undoubtedly increasing as evidenced by the growth of one of Europe's leading extract suppliers, Indena, which increased its operating revenue by 92% from 1991 to 1994 . More recently, several extract companies have been set up in the Far East, in an attempt to increase the value of the raw material through processing. For example, Qingdao Huanzhong Pharmaceutical Ltd is a Sino-Japanese joint venture in China with a production capacity of 240 tonnes of extracts all of which is destined for export to Japan and other international markets. Another example is that of Southern Herbals in India which started production in 1992 of plant extracts and is reported to be supplying companies such as Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Fujisawa with vincristine and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus. Volume Traded
Having examined the channels of supply, consideration needs to be given to the volume that passes through those channels. Unfortunately, there are very few data on the volume of international trade in medicinal plants. What little data there are, are further complicated by the fact that medicinal plants are, as previously mentioned, used in many other industries. Much of the following data have been sourced from the UNCTAD COMTRADE database and compiled from statistical information from approximately 100 countries. The other main source of data is the market report published by the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. With both sources, the SITC codes used to compile the data need to be considered in the light of the fact that they are not exclusively used as medicinal plants. Furthermore, the data do not include the trade in glycosides and vegetable alkaloid derivatives which are
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both important raw materials to the pharmaceutical industry. Table 2 provides some perspective on the growth in sales of glycosides and vegetable alkaloids based on the increased quantities being imported globally. Table 2. Global imports of vegetable alkaloids, glycosides and their derivatives. Year
1966
Imports of vegetable Imports of alkaloids and derivatives glycosides and Standard units derivatives Standard units in Million kg in Million kg 1,922,449
312,252
1976
4,339,750
621,569
1986
13,359,933
1,984,916
1988
13,839,193
2,524,890
1990
12,516,068
3,016,647
1991
11,412,323
2,929,112
Major Supplying Counbies and Regions
There are major source countries for medicinal plants traded internationally. Table 3 provides more information on which countries in each geographical region, are important suppliers of raw material to Germany (indicative of trends in exports to Europe and North America). Table 3. Countries with exports to Germany in excess of 500 tonnes for Commodity Codes 1211 90 80bzw 1211 9090 (0) . Volume exported to Germany in tonnes. Country
1994
1993
1992
1991
1,011.4
1,016.7
748.7
670.0
Europe France Netherlands
641.6
684.5
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Greece Austria Yugoslavia Croatia Poland Hungary Rumania Bulgaria Albania
580.9 1,125.3
1,169.9
601.5
1,247.6 1,457.6
557.8 2,065.8
2,168.3
2,142.8
2,209.2
2,185.0
2,0395
2,170.2
1,623.5
656.9
747.5
2,723.3
1,360.1
3,487.6
3,644.3
1,471.4
1,158.7
2,296.9
1,876.2
608.4
500.1
1,208.4
990.1
4,247.3
4,294.3
3,981.3
6,040.1
651.1
1,236.9
1,594.6
1,336.7
1,633.3
1,420.5
567.8
562.5
Egyptl,729.1
1,351.2
1,687.0
1,987.0
Sudan Zaire
3,755.4
2,891.4
1,949.1
1,655.8
912.1
728.4
1,172.7
789.3
1,767.3
1,119.8
Asia Turkey India Thailand China
AFrica Morocco
America USA Brazil Chile Argentina Others Australia Anonymous countries Total
658.8
670.0
579.2
1,711.3
2,440.6
2,934.4
961.7
1,129.0
1,477.2
1,812.9
2,204.5
530.4
648.2
899.3
952.0
535.7
522.5
35,362.1
32,832.5
42,346.7 35,849.1
Table 4 gives more of an international perspective in that it identifies the leading exporters of medicinal plant material in general, i.e. not to any specific market. Again these data highlight the importance of Asia as a supplier of medicinal plants.
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Table 4. Leading exporters of Pharmach Plants Nes: value in in excess of US$ 10,000,000.
Country Sum World879,7S7 China Germany
Unit US$ 000 1995
Index 1995/1991
136 337,162
204
49,887
89
USA, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands
36,269
146
France orn ASIA NES
23,505
Korea Rep. Bulgaria
20,125
84 84 112 111
23,148 16,049
125 100
Italy
15,865
Thailand
15,806
Vietnam
15,237
283
Egypt
13,789
109
Hong Kong
12,767
103
Chile
10,582
239
Morocco
10,558
89
Albania
10,036
102
MAJOR IMPORTING COmrmIES AND REGIONS
Germany
Germany dominates the Europeari trade in medicinal planfs as it dominates the European market for phytopharmaceuticals. During the last three years, 40,000 tonnes of 'botanicals' were imported annually into Germany with a value of US$ 109 million (DM 160 million). These were from a total of 109 countries and one-third of the material was re-exported as finished plant based products primarily to Western Europe and the United States.
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North America
North America is another important importing region for medicinal plant material. IUCN /WWF sources estimate the annual turnover of the plant derived pharmaceuticals industry in the US at US$ 10 billion. Retail sales of the herbal medicines industry in 1994 were estimated at US$ 1.6 billion. Indeed, the North American health products market is a fast growing market and its demand for medicinal plant material is significant. The major part of material is sourced from Europe (notably Eastern Europe) and Asia. Over the last five years, demand in North America for Latin American herbs and Chinese and Indian material has also been significant. Asia
The major importers of medicinal plants in Asia are Hong Kong (most of its imports being destined for mainland China), and Japan. Traditional systems of medicine
When considering major sources of demand, the volumes of material used in traditional systems of medicine, particularly in Asia, need to be taken into account. China's total output of medicinal plants from both cultivated and wild harvested sources is 1,600,000 tonnes. In comparison, that of Germany is relatively small at 40,000 tonnes. China is also a significant exporter of medicinal materials with export sales in 1993 reported as US$ 270 million although this figure does not only include plant material but also animal and mineral matter. Ayurvedic and Unani herbs are also traded in large quantities and over a very wide geographical area. For example in 1992, an estimated 4,117,254 kg were exported, largely to Bangladesh, Japan, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, USA and the UAE.
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As already noted above, the major importers of medicinal plant material are Germany, China (via Hong Kong and Singapore) and Japan. The data presented in Table 5 substantiate this and identify other leading importers. Table 5. Leading importers of Pharmach Plants Nes: value in excess of US$ 10,000,000 Country
Unit US$ 000
Index 1995/1991
1994 Sum world
824,212
227
Hong Kong Germany Japan Singapore OTH, ASIA NES Korea Rep. France USA, PR, US VI Malaysia Italy Switzerland United Kingdom Spain Saudi Arabia United ArabE Canada Belgium/Luxembourg
125,277 86,496 73,927 60,519 57,004 49,884 49,748 47,787 36,068 22,629 17,649 17,5Q4
1,092
Netherlands
166 328 729 232 2,219
15,314 12,572 12,507
206 110 244 140 144 150 121 192 237 147
11,396
100
11,104
108
15,6~6
Conservation Implications of Medicinal Plant Trade
It is evident that the trade in medicinal plants has serious implications on the survival of some plant species. If one
considers that 70-90% of material imported into Germany
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and 75% of material collected in China are wild harvested, the survival of some of these species may well be under threat, given the increasing demand for medicinal plants. Although there are only a relatively small number of species that are traded in any significant volume, the fact that so few species (50-100) are produced entirely under cultivation is a matter of great concern. Examples of major cultivated species are: Catharanthus roseus, Chamomilla recutita, Cinchona spp., Digitalis lanata, D. purpurea, Duboisia spp., Mentha piperita, Papaver somniferum and Plantago ovata. There are a number of reasons as to why the trade in wild harvested material has been left to reach such a critical point: Firstly, the legislation that exists to control harvesting and trade of medicinal plants is inadequate and ineffective in its current form; new policies and easier mechanisms to control the trade are needed. Secondly, the lack of awareness among many of the end users, as to the extent to which wild harvested materials are used; indeed, it is only during the last five to ten years that wild harvesting has become a subject of concern. Thirdly, in an attempt to control the market, the traders will give virtually no information on the extent of wildharvesting. Finally, as already mentioned, the low price of wild harvested material has made the pro~urements of alternative sources of raw material (via cultivation) financially unattractive. International Policy and Regulation
Despite the seriousness of the problem, there exist a limited number of measures for controlling international trade in medicinal plants. Currently the main form of regulation is through CITES (Convention on International Trade in
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Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). However, this agreement is not specifically concerned with medicinal plants and, in fact, has only a limited number of medicinal plants listed in the Appendices. The CITES treaty was signed in Washington in 1973, and has signatories from 99 countries. The treaty functions on the basis of its three appendices, each of which sets out different trade restrictions. Only very recently has a list been compiled of medicinal plants that are included in CITES and only for plants that are in trade in Germany. Included in this list are 43 species. New policy is needed and an easier mechanism to control the trade of plants. Apart from the recent (and continuing).Jnvolvement of The World Bank, most of the current cOrlservation efforts seem to be led by nongovernmental organisations and privately funded internatioI¥ll agencies, notably World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), the Nature Conservancy (of USA), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), several botanic gardens, mainly Kew, Edinburgh, Missouri and New York. The problem lies in the fact that there is little or no legislation restricting the use of wild-harvested materials in finished products, or for assuring the sustainable utilisation of medicinal plants. PROMOTION OF HERBAL MEDICINE
Medicinal herbs are moving from fringe to mainstream use with a greater number of people seeking remedies and health approaches free from side effects caused by synthetic chemicals. Recently, considerable attention has been paid to utilise eco-friendly and biofriendly plant-based products for the prevention and cure of different human diseases. Considering the adverse effects of synthetic drugs, the Western population is looking for natural remedies which are safe and effective. It is documented that 80% of the
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worlds population has faith in traditional medicine, particularly plant drugs for their primary healthcareo India is sitting on a gold mine of well-recorded and traditionally well-practised knowledge of herbal medicine. This country is perhaps the largest producer of medicinal herbs and is rightly called the botanical garden of the world. There are very few medicinal herbs of commercial importance which are not found in this country. India officially recognises over 3000 plants for their medicinal value. It is generally estimated that over 6000 plants in India are in use in traditional, folk and herbal medicine, representing about 75% of the medicinal needs of the Third World countries. Three of the ten most widely selling herbal medicines in the developed countries, namely preparations of Allium sativum, Aloe barbedensis and Panax sp. are available in India. There are about 7000 firms manufacturing traditional medicines with or without standardisation. Medicinal herbs have been in use in one form or another, under indigenous systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Sidha and Unani. India, with its traditional background, needs to increase its share in the world market. But unlike China, India has not been able to capitalise on this herbal wealth by promoting its use in the developed world, despite their renewed interest in herbal medicines. This can be achieved by judicious product identification based on diseases prevalent in the developed world for which no medicine or palliative therapy is available. Such herbal medicines will find speedy access into those countries. Undoubtedly, the plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing substances of medicinal value which have yet to be discovered. India is a land of immense biodiversity in which two out of eighteen hot spots of the world are located. India is also one of the twelve mega biodiversity countries in the world. The \otal number of
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plant species of all groups recorded from India is 45,000. Of these, seed-bearing plants account for n~arly 15,000-18,000. India enjoys the benefits of varied climate, from alpine in the Himalaya to tropical wet in the south and arid in Rajasthan. Such climatic conditions have given rise to rich and varied flora in the Indian subcontinent. In order to promote Indian herbal drugs, there is an urgent need to evaluate the therapeutic potentials of the drugs as per WHO guidelines. Ironically, not many Indian products are available in standardised form, which is the minimum requirement for introducing a product in the Western market. Adulteration in market samples is one of the greatest drawbacks in promotion of herbal products from India. Plant samples in the market are stored under undesirable conditions over the years, and often contain a mixture of other plant species, thus adversely affecting their bioefficacy. The efficacy of many of drugs is fading because of the adulterated, dried raw materials profusely available in the indigenous market. Due to this adulteration and altered efficacy, the faith in crude drug promotion has declined. Desire for quick returns by some of the pharmaceutical firms by not processing the herbal materials in a proper way, is the major cause of decline of Ayurveda in India. It also adversely affects the global promotion of Indian herbal products. Workers in these firms frequently lack the knowledge and skill required in processing. The common examples which are well known are substitution of the bark of Holarrhena antidysentrica by Wrightia tictoria, and Saraca indica by Trema orientalis. Mycotoxin Elaboration in Stored Drug Samples
It has been reported that the stored drug samples harbour mycotoxin-producing fungi in high frequency. Degradation of alkaloids and medicinally valuable secondary metabolites of stored plant drugs due·to fungal
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infestations has been reported. WHO has also paid serious attention on mycotoxin contamination in herbal drugs, considering it as a global problem. However, its incidence is higher in tropical and subtropical countries as the harvesting practices and high temperature and moisture contents are conducive to fungal invasion and mycotoxin elaboration. Some of \he powdered drugs bearing trademarks of standard Indian herbal firms have been reported to contain high concentration of aflatoxin B1. Detection of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, citrinin and zearalenone) is certainly a mattt!r of great concern in stored drugs of important medicinal plants, e.g. roots/ rhizomes of Asparagus racemosus (0.16 mg/ g), Atropa belladonna (0.27 mg/g), Withania somnifera (0.68 mg/g) Plumbago zelanica (1.13 mg/ g); fruits of Emblica officinalis (up . to 1.51 mg/ g), Terminalia chebula (1.19 mg/ g); seeds of Macuna puriens (1.J6 mg/g). Such herbal drugs containing mycotoxins above the toleranCE limit fixed by WHO for human consumption, will be certainly rejected in the global market. This is because of improper storage and processing of herbal drugs by Indian firms. The situation is alarming and appropriate qualitycontrol measures have to be taken urgently. It would be, therefore, advisable to treat plant drugs with nontoxic chemicals at various stages of storage and processing. Improper Harvestation
Another major issue reqUIrmg immediate attention concerns the harvest of medicinal plants in appropriate seasons. The medicinal properties of plants vary with respect to different seasons. These properties may be restricted to one particular part of the plant. The age of thE' plant also decides its medicinal potency. Therefore, the authentic part of medicinal plants of a particular age should be harvested in a particular season before processing for drug manufacture, to avoid any alteration in its medicinal
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potency. The medicinal potency of an angiosperrnic taxon also varies among its populations occurring in different geographical localities. Besides, the period of storage in sun or shade conditions also affects medicinal properties of the plants. Precautions during harvestation of medicinal plants are not observed by most of the firms and it ultimately results in decline in efficacy of the herbal drugs. Responsibility of Research Organisations
Research needs to be enhanced to identify plants with potential medicinal value and to isolate compounds of medicinal importance. Every plant-based product should be documented properly with regard to the identification of species and utilisation of specific parts of the plant. Some of the common medicinal plants are known in different parts of the country by different names. 'Shankhpuspi' is an important medicinal plant. Different plants, viz. Clitoria ternatea Linn. in Kerala, Canscora decussata Schult. in Bengal, and Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois. and Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. in other parts of India are known as Shankhpuspi. This type of confusion is also met with other medicinal plants. There is an urgent need of taxonomic databases of ethnomedicinal plants prepared in joint collaboration by Ayurvedic practitioners and experienced plant taxonomists. Correct taxonomic identification of medicinal plants before their processing for drug manufacture is an important aspect. Wrong identification of herbs has led to many cases of poisoning. Boerhaavia diffusa is used widely as a 'quality of life enhancer' in the traditional system of medicine. However, both B. diffusa and the plant Trianthema portulacastrum are known as 'Punarva', and so both the plants may be collected at the same time. Most of earlier plant scientists attracted towards huge Indian flora, made extensive surveys and proposed their systems of classification. But in the present scenario of newly born modem disciplines in botany; taxonomy is
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treated as a neglected discipline. Even in most of the botany departments of Central Universities, no facilities are provided for herbaria of regional medicinal plants. There is a lack of trained personnel for both proper identification of plants and to teach plant taxonomy. So every university where botany is taught as a subject should have a wellmaintained medicinal plant garden. Also, it should be their responsibility to conserve the rare medicinal plants of the area. Training the youth of the country in taxonomy of ethnomedicinal plants would help in developing such databases. Safety Profile Assessment
Ayurvedic practitioners have not given much emphasis to the evaluation of adverse side reactions. The efficacy of some herbal products is beyond doubt. However, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects have been identified in some of these drugs. Although herbal medicines are widely used, cases of toxicity reported seem to be less. A commonly used drug, Licorice is reported to cause oedema and hypertension if used for a long time. Likewise Ginseng, one of the most widely used herbal drugs causes hypertension, gynaecomastica and vaginal bleeding. Toxic materials like arsenic, mercury, lead, etc. have been detected from time to time in some herbs. The Food and Drug Administration, USA has banned utilisation of many plants by human beings on this ground. Hepatotoxidty, nephrotoxicity and most critically, drug interactions with synthetic medicines are common in some of the herbal practices. One of the popular plants, Acorus calamus, has been banned due to the presence of B-asarone, which has shown carcinogenic properties. This plant is popular among Ayurvedic practitioners. The toxic effects of herbal drugs may also be because of adulteration, contamination by pesticides and their diseased state. WHO has laid down guidelines for determination of adverse
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reactions as essential requirements for human application. Keeping these facts in view, the safety limit profile of the herbal drugs should be recorded in order to popularise Indian pharma in the global market. The government and drug industry must come forward in funding and undertaking this task, so that good quality and safe herbal preparations are a reality. Active Principle Identification and Standardisation
The identification of biologically active compounds is an essential requirement for quality control and dose determination of plant-based drugs. A medicinal herb can be viewed as a synthetic laboratory as it produces and contains a number of chemical compounds. These compounds, responsible for medical activity of the herb, are secondary metabolites. For example, alkaloids which are nitrogenous principles of organic compounds combine with acids to form crystalline salts. In addition, herbs may contain saponins, resins, oleoresins, lactones and volatile oils. Complete phytochemical investigations of most of the medicinally important herbs of India have not been carried out so far. This would be beneficial in standardisation and dose determination of herbal drugs. Further, there should be a quality control test for the entire preparation to ensure the quality of the drug. Bioprospecting of Indigenous Medicinal Flora
Gene technology has given unlimited powers to developed countries to exploit the genetic resources of poor nations, leading to a situation of' biopiracy' and 'gene robbing'. A number of herbs, viz. neem, haldi and ashwagandha and plant drugs of India have been patented by outsiders on the basis of secondary researches. In such a putative situation, it is extremely important for the biodiversity-rich nations to build capabilities at least to know their biodiversity and prevent biopiracy. To
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achieve such a capability, it is a prerequisite to inventorise and document the bioresources, putting a price tag to them. More recently, the term bioprospecting has been widely used to assess the economic potential of different plant species. It would involve economics of sustainable utilisation of our biodiversity. It can throw light on new classes of materials. Bioprospecting would be one of the challenging areas for future research in the 21 st Century. It would enable us to make use of our rich biological heritage. Bioprospecting can enhance the conservation value of Indian medicinal plants. In addition, this would check illegal exploitation of such indigenous plants through biopiracy or gene robbing by biotechnologically developed countries and wot,tld be helpful in many fold enhancement of Indian herbal medicine in the global market. If quick and urgent steps are not taken in bioprospecting our ethnomedicinal plants, the fate of some of the valuable Indian plants will be like that of neem and haldi. Synergy in Relation to Pharmacological Action of Phytomedicines
There is no doubt that most herbs exhibit their effects on a variety of constituents and the idea of synergy within and between them is also gaining acceptance. It is not welldocumented in most of the herbal medicines whether they are acting truly in a synergistic way or by additive effects. Clinical evaluation is also difficult, without knowing the extent to which synergy occurs within the herbal preparations. Some of the components of the crude drugs may not have any biological activity, but may be the enhancers of potency of the active components. St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum, family Hypericaceae) is one of the most important herbs of proven clinical efficacy as an antidepressant. Its activity is due to hypericins which are napthodianthrones. It has also been suggested that pure hypericins are very weak and the positive results are due
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to impurities in the fraction used, which would suggest some polyvalent action as well as synergy. St John's wort thus represents a good example of a herb which may exhibit synergism and polyvalent action medicinal herbs are moving from fringe to mainstream. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is another example of a chemically unstable range of compounds being responsible for the activity and probably acting synergistically. Synergism or enhancement of activity of herbal drugs is also possible using combinations of herbs. In case of multiple herb extracts, some of the herbs enhance the potency of the real effective herb. Besides, in some cases, herbs or their constituents reduce the toxic effects of the main medicinal herb, making the herbal combination safe for the human system. Our ancient Ayurvedic system relies on this principle. In order to promote Indian herb preparations in the global market, care should be taken during drug standardisation. Appropriate proportions of each herb used in the formulation of more efficacious drugs should be taken, so as to get effective chemotherapeutic response. Synergism between herbal drugs may be also beneficial in the treatment of a disease caused due to multiple factors. Synergy in herbal medicine may lead to improved products and it would be better if new and improved drug formulations are prepared with some of the globally demanded drugs of Indian medicinal plants so that India may occupy a leading position in the world market of herbal drugs. Conservation and Sustainable Exploitation
The unscrupulous collection of medicinal plants from wild habitats by traders has threatened the very existence of valuable medicinal plant resources. Due to biopiracy and over exploitation, some of the ethnomedicinal plants are becoming rare. Reserves of medicinal plants are
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diminishing and are in danger of extinction due to unfriendly harvesting techniques, loss of growth habitat and their unmonitored trades. Coleus forskohlii, an Indian species is now listed as vulnerable to extiction in the wild as a result of indiscriminate collection for the isolation of forskolin, a diterpenoid used in the treatment of glaucoma and heart disease. Some important species that need immediate attention for conservation in India are Aconitum deinorrhizum, A. heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, Arnebia benthemii, Artemisia brevifolia, A. maritiII\e, Atropa acuminata, Berberis aristata, Colchicum luteum, Corydalis govaniana, Dactylorhiza hategirica, Dioscorea deltoidea, Ephedra gerardiana, Ferula jaeschkeana, Gentiana kurroa, Hedychium spicatum, Jurinea dolomiaeae, Nardostachys jatamansi, Orchis latifolia, Picrorrhiza kurroa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum emodi,' Swertia chirata, V.aleriana wallichii and Zanthoxylum alatum. These are important medicinal plants and their conservation in sustainable environment is urgently needed, keeping in view the demand of their drugs in the global market. Cultivation of Wild Medicinal Plants
Both wild and cultivated plants are used for drug formulation. However, in many cases cultivation is advisable because of the improved quality of the drug. The efficacy of medicinal herbs is affected by different environmental factors. Temperature, rainfall, day length and soil characteristics are some of the factors which affect the potency of the medicinal plants. A plant may grow well in different situations, but fail to produce the same constituents (e.g. Cinchonas growing at altitudes and in plains). The cultivation of some medicinal plants in demand under appropriate environmental conditions will provide (i) better development of plants owing to improved conditions of the soil, pruning, and control of insect pests,
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and (ii) better facilities for treatment after collection. For example, drying at a correct temperature in the case of colchicum, belladonna and valerian. For success in cultivation it is necessary to study the conditions under which the plants flourish in the wild state and reproduce these conditions or improve on them. India is satisfactorily cultivating some wild medicinal herbs. Several research institutes have undertaken studies on the cultivation practices of medicinal plants, which were found suitable and remunerative for commercial cultivation. The agronomic practices for growing poppy, senna, cinchona, belladonna and a few other plants have been developed. One should start cultivation of some more globally important medicinal herbs which are endemic to India or comparatively grow more luxuriantly in this country. India has a huge unused saline land in its sea coast and it should develop agrotechnological procedures to use such land for cultivation of medicinal plants. . Quality Control During Collection and Processing
The season at which each drug is collected is a matter of considerable importance. The amount and nature of active constituents is not constant throughout the year. The age of the plant is also of considerable importance and governs not only the total quantity of the active constituents produced, but also the relative proportions of the active principles. Duration of the drying conditions of the harvested medicinal herb also varies from a few hours to many weeks. If enzyme action is to be encouraged, slow drying at moderate temperatures is necessary. Storage of the harvested plant parts under hygienic conditions is another important factor to be considered during processing of the drug. Drugs such as Indian hemp and sarsaparilla deteriorate even when carefully stored. It has been reported that the content of taxol in Taxus baccata leaves and extracts stored
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at room temperature for one year decreased by 30-40% and 70-80% respectively, while storage in a freezer and out of direct sunlight produced no adverse deterioration. Such information regarding suitable conditions for storage of most of our medicinal herbs, is not available, Careless processing of medicinal drugs without considering these points is a major reason Jor ineffectiveness of some of our traditional medicines. Such deteriorated drugs will definitely not be accepted in the global market The drug-manufacturing firms in India should take care during processing of medicinal herbs like some firms in other Asian countries which are our real competitors in the global market Plant Cell and Tissue Culture, Biochemical Conversions and Clonal Propagation
Low seed set, poor seed viability, high dormancy and low percentage of seed germination are some of the problems in propagation of some medicinal plants. Seed set is extremely poor in safed musli. Seed germination is poor in Swertia. Although, tissue culture protocols in safed musli, guggul and some other medicinal plants have been reported, none of them has been commercially adopted so far. The production of crude drugs is subject to the vagaries of the climate, to crop disease, to varying methods of collection and drying which influence quality, and to the inherent variation of active constituents arising from plants of the same species having different genetic characteristics. To overcome this problem, recently, one of the rapidly expanding areas of pharmacognosy has involved the application of tissue culture of plant cells, tissues and organs in the study of medicinal plants. This includes development of commercial production of expensive biomedicaments, discovery of new metabolites, selection
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superior strains of medicinal plants and improvement medicinal plant species by genetic engineering. In some laboratories of India like the Regional Research Laboratories Bhubneshwar, research work is in progress on the enhancement of valuable secondary metabolites of some medicinally important aromatic plants (e.g. geraniol content in Cymbopogon martinii oil) which are produced plants in low levels . This woUld definitely attract foreign firms towards such indigenous medicinal plants. Some the plant tissue-culture laboratories in India have published their research findings in this aspect. However, looking into the number of medicinal plant species in this country, coordinated research projects should be launched on this aspect, which would not only have high industrial significance but also lead to improvement of medicinal potency of traditional medicinal herbs by producing their different chemical races or ' chemodemes'. A clone A. annua giving a high yield of the important antimalarial artemisinin, has recently been reported. Medicinal plants growing in varied geographical regions of India may exhibit geographic chemotypes. The chemical races of our indigenous medicinal plants, whether they be natural origin or produced by plant breeding, can offer considerable scope for the improvement of therapeutic value of the drug, either by adjustment of individual constituents or by increase in overall yield. Such biotechnological approaches would be beneficial in providing standardised drugs of Indian pharma in bulk for commercial availability in the global market. REFERENCES
Cunningham, A.B., "Medicinal plant trade, conservation and the MPSG" (Medicinal Plant Specialist Group), Medicinal Plant Conservation, 1996. Farnsworth, N.R., Soejarto, D.D.& Bingel, A.S., "Medicinal plants in therapy", Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1986.
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Foster,S., Commercial herb production: Conservation by cultivation, Herbalgram, 1994. ITC - UNCTAD GATT, Markets for Selected Medicinal Plants and Their Derivatives, Geneva, Switzerland; International Trade Center, 1982. Srivastava, J., Lambert, J.& Vietmeyer, N., Medicinal Plants; A Growing Role in Development, Washington, D.C, USA; Agricultural and Natural Resources Department, The World Bank, 1995.
11 Medicinal Plants and Intellectual Property Rights
The local communities or individuals do not have the knowledge or the means to safeguard their property in a system which has its origin in very different cultural values and attitudes. The communities have a storehouse of knowledge about their flora and fauna-their habits, their habitats, their seasonal behaviour and the like-and it is only logical and in consonance with natural justice that they are given a greater say as a matter of right in all matters regarding the study, extraction and commercialisation of the biodiversity. A policy that does not obstruct the advancement of knowledge, and provides for valid and sustainable uses and intellectual property protection with just benefit sharing is what we need. While it is true that many indigenous cultures appear to develop and transmit knowledge from generation to generation within a system, individuals in local or indigenous communities can distinguish themselves as informal creators or inventors, separate from the community. Furthermore, some indigenous or traditional societies are reported to recognise various types of intellectual property rights over knowledge, which may be held by individuals, families, lineage or communities.
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While recognising the market-based nature of IPRs, other non-market-based rights could be useful in developing models for a right to protect traditional knowledge, innovations and practices. Geographical indications and trademarks, or sui generis analogies, could be alternative tools for indigenous and local communities seeking to gain economic benefits from their traditional knowledge. To date, debate on IPRs and biodiversity has focussed on patents and plant breeders' rights. The potential value of geographical indications and trademarks needs to be examined too. They protect and reward traditions while allowing evolution. They emphasise the relationships between human cultures and their local land and environment. They are not freely transferable from one owner to another. They can be maintained as long as the collective tradition is maintained. It is generally difficult to attribute an objective economic value to the knowledge of local and indigenous communities, and associated resources for a number of reasons. One could be the absence of a market for genetic resources, and the complexit'"j of inputs into creation, new crop varieties. It will be more pragmatic to focus on the costs of conservation to indigenous and local communities as a guide to designing economic incentives that will help them gain adequate rewards. Different interest groups such as industry intellectual property experts and indigenous and local peoples' organisations need to cooperate in order to define mechanisms for more effective sharing benefits with the providers of traditional knowledge and genetic sources. Models of benefit sharing are beginning to emerge in India. There is the case of a medicine that is based on the active ingredient in a plant. Trichopus zeylanicus, found in the tropical forests of south-western India and collected by the Kani tribal people. Scientists at the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research (TBGR!) in Kerala learned of the
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tonic, which is claimed to bolster the immune system and provide additional energy, while on a jungle expedition with the Kani in 1987. A few years later, they, returned to collect the samples of the plant, known locally as arogyapacha, and began laboratory studies of its potency. These scientists then isolated and tested the ingredient and incorporated it into a compound, which they christened "Jeevani"-giver of life. The tonic is now being manufactured by a major Ayurvedic drug company in Kerala. In November 1995, an agreement was struck for the institute and the tribal community to share a license fee and 2% of net profits. The process marks perhaps the first time that cash benefits have gone directly to the source of the know ledge of traditional medicines and the original innovators. Many times, wrong patents are given in the area of medicinal plants: the recent case of Jamun/Karela linked patent on diabetes is a point. First, it must be understood that patent offices do make mistakes in checking the novelty of an invention because these usually look at their own databases. So the chances of issuing wrong patents are quite finite especially when an application based on the indigenous knowledge is being examined in a foreign country. The knowledge which may be in public domain in one country may be a new knowledge in another country. Therefore, it is expected tnat foreign patent offices would make mistakes in granting patents for the inventions based on the traditional knowledge in India and such numbers are to increase with time. The question whether all such patents be opposed or not should be addressed on the following three basis: a) Would the Indian trade, both domestic and foreign, be affected by not opposing the patent? b) What would be the time and cost involved in opposing a patent? The time and cost would depend on how
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quickly all the necessary information could be collected, collated and presented? c) Have necessary ground and factual information been established to oppose the patents successfully? The following two paragraphs from the letter by Robert Saifer, Director, US Patent Office is revealing, since it shows the difficulties that such patent offices face as well as a way' out. "Patent examiners are particularly careful in searching patent literature when considering the patentability of claimed subject matter, and do the best job they can seeing available resources for searching the appropriate nonpatent literature sources as well. Patent literature, however, is usually wholly contained in several distinctive databases and can be more easily searched and retrieved then can non-patent literature prior art that may be buried somewhere in the many and diverse sources of non-patent literature. The examiner who issued US Patent 5,401,504 was not aware, nor was he able to ascertain at the time he decided to grant the patent, that there existed non-patent literature which taught the use of turmeric in wound healing in India. We should, however, address the need of creating more easily accessible non-patent literature databases that deal with traditional knowl~dge. Perhaps an office amongst the developing countries should suggest this as a project for the SCIT. Working Group on Standards and Documentation, working in close cooperation with the International Patent Classification (IPC) Committee of Experts. With the help of the developing countries, traditional knowledge can be documented, captured electronically, and placed in the appropriate classification within the I PC'so that it can be more easily searched and retrieved. This would help prevent the patenting of turmeric, as well as karela, jamun, brinjal and other traditionally used remedies."
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GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND ACTIONS
India is behind the rest of the world in patents both quantitatively and qualitatively, even when comparison is made with our neighbour China. The continued illiteracy and confusion about patents is a serious matter. Our pool of knowledge that is protected by patents, even in areas where we have a competitive advantage is rather poor. Take the area of herbal products, where so much emotion has been raised. Have we protected our innovations by strong patenting? No. But our neighbour China is doing it. The number of herbal patents were 1889, out of which China had a share of 889, and the Indian share was next to nothing. Incorporating strong systems of generation of IPR, documentation valuation, protection and its gainful use will need a massive thrust. A weak physical infrastructure, inadequate documentation, poor public awareness and delay in framing and implementing Government policies will hurt India. We need to act on this speedily. Some of the key actions are summarised below:Government Would Need to
Modernise the patent offices by modernising the premises, information processing and assessing systems and office management, creatk-ig conditions which will attract talented, qualified, trained and motivated personnel to work in these office. Empowering the employees in the patent offices and raising their level and stature; and Ensuring early and timely grant of IPR. Introduce attractive fiscal incentives and mechanism to enhance and encourage patenting of inventions overseas. Launch a massive programme on creating digital data
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Create/amend IPR laws to protect national interests while meeting the international obligations.
Judiciary and Legal System Would Need to:
devise and provide mechanisms for quick and effective disposal of legal cases. Provide for registration of Patent Attorneys and form a Council for maintaining high professional standards. Industry Would Need to:
enhance skills to understand, analyse and manage IPR as a means for corporate strategy scout and seek alliances with sources of IPR for market positioning transact and treat IPR as any other tangible property spearhead formation of a National Assosication of inventors to foster inventiveness and to provide a forum for inventors to meet together. S&T System Would Need to:
stimulate and encourage creativity and inventiveness of their employees. promote awareness of IPR and the importance for its protection. develop skills to understand, interpret and use the techno-legal business information contained in patents. facilitate access to international IPR and information databases capture and assess the intellectual property generated at an early stage recognise and reward inve/itiveness develop skills to manage and exploit IPR
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Educational Systems Would Need to:
devise appropriate curricula on IPR and introduce these as formal courses at school, graduate and post graduate levels. develop qualified manpower to draft and interpret patents and other IPRs provide referesher training to practising IPR professionals carry out research on IPR to further its knowledge and use. POLICY AND INSTITIJTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
Policy Issues
While addressing the policy issues, there is need to highlight various factors like constraints, importance, traditional knowledge and indigenous uses, marketing and trade, patent & I PR, quality control! standards etc. Constraints
Medicinal Plants sector is facing following constraints:i) Depletion of the resource-base, which is the foundation of entire sector. ii) Decline of folk traditional medicines, a source of primary health care for an estimated 800 million people in the country. iii) Impoverishment of rural people, who are stewards of the resource base and the holders of traditional ecological and medical knowledge, through inequitable marketing channels. iv) Medicinal plant trade is inefficient, imperfect, informal and opportunistic. v) Crude drugs supply situation is shaky, unsustainable, exploitative and adulteration taking place.
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vi) Deficient toxicology studies and standard preparations to improve the quality, efficacy and effectiveness of the traditional drugs. vii) Unsustainable wild-harvesting. viii) Lack of coordination amongst various stakeholders such as Govt. of India (Ministry of Agriculture, Environment & Forests, ISM&H, Science & Technology etc.) State Governments, Private traditional medicine sector, research institutes, NGOs, International , Networks etc. Importance of Medicinal Plants In terms of policy, medicinal plants have generally been
lumped into the broad category of Minor Forest Produce (MFP). Even the relatively progressive 1988 Forest Policy Resolution continues to use this terminology.-However, as the markets and sizes of the user communities suggest, a more accurate designation for these products they I...we been termed as Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Nonetheless, NTFPs, including medicinal plants, have rarely been considered as warranting the ennrmous amount of consideration and research gh--t!n to timber policies. However, some provision for regulation was made as early as 1927 under the Indian Forest Act. Most medicinal plants are covered under sub:::section 2 (4) (b), and are not subject to regulations unless extracted from the forests. However, some items such as bark and wood-oil from certain trees were covered under sub-section 2 (4) (a); c;md subsequent state amendments to the act have added several medicinal species to this sub-section, as shown in table, the following subject to signficant regulation regardless of origin. Medicinal plants included by State Amendments in section 2 (4) (a) of 1927 Indian Forest Act
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State Gujrat Maharashtra Karnataka
Tamil Nadu Kerala Orissa Uttar Pradesh
Species Rauwolfia serpentina, Kadaya gum Rosha grass including oil, Rauwolfia serpentiana Sandalwood oil, rosha grass and oil, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica, Capparis mooni Sandalwood Gum, fibres and roots of sandalwood and rosewood Gums, roots of Patal garuda, sandalwood, tamarind Gum, Chiraunji
Considering the importance of medicinal plants they should be taken out from NTFPs and given due importance for their development. A policy dialogue has already been initiated regarding medicinal plant conservation and statements of support for such a policy are forthcoming from many of the stakeholders in the sector, including the private companies which depend upon a continuous source of raw material supply. More recently governmental, nongovernmental and private sectors have started the process of developing and enacting a national policy on medicinal plant. Some of the salient points are:i) Documentation relating to properties, natural distribution, ecological tolerances and uses of valuable medicinal plants. ii) Identification of forest areas rich in medicinal plants and formulation of their management plan. iii) At present 90% collection of medicinal plants is from the wild. The plant part is collected without paying attention to the state of maturity dried haphazardly and stored for long periods under unsuitable conditions. The unsustainable collection is rapidly
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depleting the resource base and, therefore, many species are under threat. The policy for sustainable development of medicinal plants resource may aim:a. In-situ conservation of medicinal plants in protected areas, herbal gardens, sacred groves, preservation plots and forest areas rich in medicinal plants. b. Ex-situ conservation through cultivation, Joint Forest Management, gene banks etc. c. Developing medicinal plant conservation areas (MPCAs) inside as well as outside protected areas. d. Research and development efforts for developing agrotechniques, extension & dissemination of information on cultivation of super genotypes. e. Establishing linkages between farmers and pharmaceutical industries for promotion of organic and contract farming. f. Formalising and organising marketing by providing information and possible interventions at various level.s. g. As prices paid to the gatherers tend to be very low, they often 'mine' the natural resources, as their main objective is to generate an income. Formalisation of market may resolve the problems of exploitation and impoverishment of gatherers. Traditional Knowledge & Indigenous Uses
Policy implications relating to the traditional knowledge base of tribals peoples on medicinal plants and health care are complex due to the fact that they are coloured by debates on biodiversity conservation imperatives, knowledge systems for drug discovery, intellectual property rights/patents and equitable sharing of benefits derived from tribal knowledge. Although India is
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committed to the Convention of Biological Diversity, question of equity are yet to be fully addressed. The proposed UN declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; as well as the activities of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) all impinge on national policy development in this area. It will therefore be sometime before policy is formulated and practical applications developed. The latter are likely to devote attention to encouraging collaboration between all concerned parties in order to foster respect for the contribution of traditional knowledge, as well as to ensuring that regulations take local laws and customs into account in the utilisation of biodiversity. Although they may constitute the largest part of health care provision among India's population, especially among the poor, tribal and folk practices are still not recognised" by Gal policies. However, the policies do recognise the value of the classical traditional systems. Furthermore, tribal practices have begun to assume greater importance in recent years due to the current debate on intellectual property rights and the potential implications of bioprospecting. There is however a danger, as articulated by several NGOs, that new possibilities for the exploitation of the poor, will be created by the Trade Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) stipulation attached to GATT. India is a signatory to GAIT and has agreed to comply with the stipulation in principle, although a good deal of internal debate continues with regard to who should obtain universally valid patents as well as the benefits which should accrue to the communities providing the input knowledge. The current policy have neglected the folk traditional sector which should be included in legislation and policy
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development especially in relation to health care centres and folk practitioners. Policies regulating safety and efficacy need to be evolved based on recognition of the uniqueness of tribal and folk medicines, and this should be linked to intellectural property rights which is sure that community benefit from the use made of their technology. Marketing and Trade
In the medicinal plant industry, the various actions needed include: setting up of a national level authority, responsive marketing cooperatives, organisation of formal market, dissemination of market information, creation of international market opportunity etc. Patents and Intellectual Property Rights
Indian's present system, based on the Patent Act of 1970, especially defines process patents. However, the implications of developing product patents could involve higher investments in research and development by the traditional industry, given the likely returns through patent protection. There is little relevant policy which affects the marketing channels. The regulations on licensing and registration for certain products appear to be easily bypassed and are generally not enforced. Beyond these policies, little has been done to address the domestic market. The focus of most regulatory and related policy has been on export. Measure for achieving an equitable marketing system and a thriving of new drugs for primary health care; as well as improvements in quality and production standards for existing drugs. Furthermore, it might have a relaxing effect on the secretive and defensive nature of the trade. The major dilemma confronting India is how to apply patent law to formulations and products, which have been
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developed over 1000 years. In essence, no one can claim "innovations" of the medicines of ISM&H. And, it is also argued that upgrading a simple production technology to a more sophisticated one or adding or subtracting a single ingredient does constitute an innovation. The government is facing pressure to go for patents since foreign companies have already access to patents on Neem., Turmeric, Brinjal, Jamun seed etc. India's wealth of traditional knowledge will be damaged by such patents if the government does not act quickly to protect the knowledge. Therefore we have to standardise our pharmacopoeia modify our laws and take patents of important plants medicine and paramedicine. Quality Control/Standards
Quality control and standards constitute an area where policy making is still 'work in progress'. Pharmacop~ia are now available for the major species. Nevertheless, a universally recognised set of quality control standard have still not been developed for the preparation of ISM drugs, which pose serious challenges as they often contain a number of constituent plants, unlike the single principle allopathic medicines. Some of the unique aspects of traditional medicinal preparation that would need to be considered include specific means of identifying and collecting constituent plants, including seasons for collections and appropriate age of plants; ecological origins; cleanliness in processing and adherence to documented procedures in the ancient texts of relevance. It is important to ensure that the plants used as medicines by the people are not toxic in any way. This is therefore, one area in which modem technology can be of great service. In addition, standard preparations need to be developed to make quality efficacy and effectiveness of the traditional drugs.
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Strategies of Ten Major Indian Plants For Various Ailments In The World Market
As a policy issue there is a need to draw the proper strategy to increase our export of value added plant based products as was done in the matter of Gingseng or Gingko biloba (by China and Korea). There is lot of literature available on every aspect of su
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8.
Ashoka (Saraca asoca) Uterine Tonic 9. Satavari (Asparagus racemosus) Anti-Ulcer, Aprodisiacs 10. Amala (Amalaki) (Emblica officinalis) For Rasayana, Geriatics 11. Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) For Cardiac disorders 12. Gugglu (Commiphora wightii) For cholesterol related disorders, Arthritis There is a need to conduct extensive R&D on thes~ plants not only to improve their varieties, enhance availability but also to establish their efficacy in various clinical conditions mentioned above. While undertaking this research there has to be active interface with the industry so that the research leads to patents being obtained and new drugs being marketed for public benefit and for exports. Institutional Issues
In order to have a focussed approach for developing the whole sector of medicinal plants both in terms of conservation, cultivation, sustainable use and legal protection, an institutional mechanism need to be evolved. For addressing the institutional mechanisms relating to the medicinal plants, the activities of various organisations/ agencies and also the existing institutional me~hanism need to be brought out. The Task Force recommends following action plans for various stakeholders: Ministry of Environment and Forest
i)
'n
Inventorisation and economic mapping of medicinal plants areas. Establishment of 200 Medicinal Plant Conservation
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iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
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Areas (MPCA) covering all ecosystems, forest types and sub-types in the country, (inside protected areas viz national park, wild life sanctuary, biosphere reserves, preservation plots etc.) for in-situ conservation of important species. All endangered or rare or threatened species should be grown in well established gardens managed by Agriculture, Horticulture, Forest Departments, Botanical Survey of India etc. Forest Department should identify forest areas rich in medicinal plant (MPDA), their management plan should be formulated for intensive management and sustainable harvesting of herbal drugs from 200 places. Forest Department should effectively regulate extraction and transport of medicinal plant from wild. The department should maintain a list of petty traders, private agents, wholesale dealers and final consumer of medicinal plants. Forest Department should establish 200 "Vanaspati Van" in open forest areas (each having an area of about 5000 hectare) for commercial supply of crude drugs to pharmacies and for exports. The "Vanaspati Van" should be managed by a registered society headed by Divisional Forest Officer under JFM system. Organsing training and awareness camps on various aspects of medicinal plants.
Ministry of Agriculture & leAR
i)
Development of agro-technological packages under different ecological conditions and information on intercropping, rotation cropping and use of biofertilisers, organic farming etc. ii) Large scale availability of high quality planting material by developing a protocol for bulk production
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of super genotypes and seedlings through a network of nursery of medicinal plants. iii) Human Resource Development of farmers by organising training and awareness programme on various aspects of medicinal plants sector development including seminars and conferences. Department of ISM&H (GOI)
i)
Nodal agency for integrated development of medicinal plants. ii) Establishment of National Medicinal Plant Board for coordinating various activities. iii) Developing pharmacopoeial standards. iv) Quality control and efficacy for medicinal plant and their products. v) Legal, policy and other supports for overall development of the sector. Department of Family Welfare (GOI)
i)
Promoting use of medicinal plant product in RCH programme ii) The scheme of establishing "Vanaspati Van" should continue and atleast one "vanaspati van" in each state shouJd be estabJished dur:ing 9th plan period. iii) The scheme of improving awakening and availability of medicinal plants planting material should continue. Atleast 50 NGOs technically qualified may be identified for making available extension material such as literature, planting material etc. Department of Biotechnology
i)
Ex-situ conservation through establishment of genebanks
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R&D relating to biotechnological efforts involving Invitro culture, biotransformation, bioprospecting and bioengineering
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)
Chemical studies on medicinal plant constituents and quantitative assessment of major constituents, Pharmacological and lexicological studies Pilot plant scale processing of plant extracts Standardisation of extracts Formulation studies on extracts into dosage form, Development of new drugs
Department of Science & Technology
i)
Establishment of a cell for motivating the scientists and technologists to patent products and processes of their research findings. ii) S&T interventions to help the rural people to process medicinal plant at local level for their economic development.
Pharmacies & Medicinal Industries
Supporting and conducting high quality biomedical research for developing new drugs. ii) Encouraging contract farming of medicinal plants, iii) Reducing secretive and exploitative trade i)
NON Governmental Organisation (NGO)
Create awakening amongst the people about importance of medicinal plant. ii) Ensure supply of planting material and technology to motivate people for sustainable cultivation, harvesting, ~~, processing and marketing. i)
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iii) Preparation of posters and other information on medicinal plants, iv) Establishing linkages between growers and Pharmacies, v) Organising marketing of medicinal plants. REFERENCES
Mshigenio, K.E., "Foreword", In Proceedings of the International Conference on Traditional Medicinal Plants, Arusha, Tanzania, 18-23 February 1990. upav (Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants), International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV, Geneva, Switzerland, 1991.
12 Medicinal Plant Information Databases Concomitant with the growing interest world-wide in the conservation, cultivation and use of medicinal, aromatic and other related groups of plants. Until early 1970s, printed publications were the almost exclusive means available for recording and disseminating scientific information. Developments in information technology during the =1.980s and 1990s have led to an increasing proportion of this pool of information now being held in electronic form in databases which can either be searched online from remote sites or consulted offline at the reader's own desk. Whereas the bulk. of the information held in databases is still copied from or entered simultaneously with its appearance in printed publications, we are now beginning to see documents which are published exclusively in electronic form. Recent developments in tele-communications and information technology and the rapidly growing popularity of Internet as the medium of communication of the 1990s suggest that a significant proportion of information dissemination will occur through this medium within the next few years. Internet resources containing information on medicinal plants which cannot be found elsewhere have already started to appear.
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INFORMATION SOURCES ON MEDICINAL PLANTS
Primary Publications
These are documents reporting current work or reviewing and analysing recent advances in knowledge. Documents in this category L'lclude journals reporting the results of original research, conference proceedings, annual and other reports published by various organisations, books, theses and patents. By far the most important among these are the primary journals. A recent survey involving extensive scanning of primary publications has shown that approximately a quarter of the total volume of literature currently being generated on medicinal and related groups of plants appears in less than ten periodicals. Approximately 50% of the total volume is contained in some 50 titles. However, the remaining 50% of this literature is scattered across some 2,500 periodicals in a wide range of disciplines. . Whereas the bulk of these documents constituting primary sources of information are still published in printed form, an increasing number of books, periodicals and reports are now also being made available in electronic form. Early developments in this area are typified by the weekly updated ADONIS CD-ROM launched a few years ago, which now delivers PDF and TIFF images of articles appearing in over 800 biomedical journals published by 80 European and North American publishers. More recently, ADONIS has been complemented by ExtraMED, the WHO-sponsored CD-ROM publication containing the text and illustrations of papers from over 290 medical journals published in developing countries (India, Pakistan, China, Philippines, Hong Kong, Korea, Singapore, Tanzania and Saudi Arabia among others). As might be expected, ExtraMED provides better coverage of literature in areas such as traditional medicine, tropical medicine, AIDS and waterborne diseases than ADONIS.
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Over the past year or so, some primary publications have also become available on the Internet. Secondary and Tertiary Publications
Documents in this category are compiled from information previously published in primary source documents or that which is already common knowledge. They provide information in a summarised, 'digested', or otherwise 'processed' form rather than acting as vehicles for reporting new knowledge. They include various printed and electronic products derived from major bibliographic databases, abstracting and indexing periodicals, current awareness services, annotated bibliographies on specific topics, annual reviews and other books and periodicals which are dedicated to reviewing progress in specific areas, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, compendia, pharmacopoeias, directories, manuals and other reference works. Compared with primary publications, a much greater proportion of secondary publications are available in electronic form. Many printed documents in this category are derived from data held in databases in electronic form. Electronic Databases
TheSE may be classified into (a) secondary information databases (e.g. bibliographic databases) which give summaries of individual papers contained in primary publications and point the user to the original publication for further information; and (b) tertiary information databases (e.g. electronic compendia, encyclopaedias and other reference works) which give detailed information on specific topics and which mayor may not indicate the source literature from which they are compiled. The main differences between secondary and tertiary information databases are given in Table 1.
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Table 1. A comparison of main features of secondary and tertiary information databases. Secondary information database contents of each paper from primary publications are summarised by the abstractor / indexer only contains previously published in{ormation usually contains only views expressed by the author of the original paper each 'record' consists of full bibliographic details and an abstract of a single paper or document usually (but w.ith a few notable exceptions, e.g. patent abstract databases) provides information in textual form only in-depth indexing using descriptors for organisms and concepts covered in the paper and subject classification to facilitate retrieval of information updated at regular and frequent intervals by adding new records rather than by altering existing records
Tertiary Information database assembled by the compiler using information gathered selectively from a number of relevant sources may contain information from unpublished sources may contain compiler's own comments, observations etc. each 'record' consists of encyclopaedic type of information on a specific topic or a sub-file containing a set of data contributing the compendium often contain illustrations, line diagrams, photographs, structural formulae etc. in addition to texl subject indexing usually (but not necessarily) restricted to a limited number of keywords
updated at infrequent intervals mainly by revising existing records to include new information.
Secondary Information Databases
Information on medicinal and other related groups of plants (which include herbs, spices and condiments; essential oil plants; plants containing compounds exhibiting insecticidal, molluscicidal, piscicidal, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral or other biocidal activities; and poisonous plants) can be found in bibliographic databases
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dedicated exclusively to these groups of plants as well as in botanical, biological, agricultural, chemical, medical, veterinary or multidisciplinary databases with much wider subject coverage. The most important among these are listed below. Some of the secondary information databases published by organisations which also produce other types of publications are included in the section on tertiary information databases. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts (MAPA)
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts (MAPA) published by the National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM, formerly known as the Publications and Information Directorate, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), New Delhi, is a bimonthly printed journal in its 19th volume year. It prOVides good coverage of global literatUre on medicinal and aromatic plants. Over 55,000 abstracts have been published in the first 18 volumes of MAPA covering the period 1979-1996. The data from 1988 onwards (about 30,000 records) are also held in electronic form in the MAPA database and distributed on CD-ROM and other electronic media. Source literature currently scanned for compiling the database includes some 600 periodicals (of which about 200 are Indian) originating from 60 countries and published in 30 different languages. Conference proceedings, books and patents are also covered. Coverage of Indian and South-East Asian literature is particularly good and some records in this database are unique and cannot be found in other databases. CAB Abstracts
Among multidisciplinary bibliographic databases, CAB Abstracts provides the best all round coverage of world literature on medicinal and related groups of plants. Source literature scanned includes books, reports, conference
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proceedings and over 12,000 serials published from all over the world in a wide range of languages and covering virtually every discipline involved in the study of medicinal and related plants (botany, agronomy, biotechnology, phytochemistry, economics, medicine and veterinary science). Current rate of input of new material is over 150,000 records per year. The database contains over 3 million bibliographic records prepared since 1972, of which approximately 60,000 are concerned with studies on medicinal and related groups of plants. The printed abstract journal, Review of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, which is in its third volume year, provides excellent coverage of this literature. Earlier literature, dating back from 1931, which is not included in the electronic database, can be found in long-established CABI printed journals including Horticultural Abstracts and Forest Products Abstracts. These are among some 45 printed abstract journals published by CABI in the different disciplines covered in the database. The database is made available to users through online and CD-ROM vendors such as DIALOG, DIMDI, ESA IRS, CAN-OLE, Silver Platter, etc. AGRIS
The AGRIS (International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology) database is managed by the Library and Documentation Systems Division of FAa, Rome. The database is compiled from information provided by 158 national and 28 regional and international input centres around the world and contains nearly 3 million bibliographic records prepared since 1975. Subject areas covered include all aspects of agriculture, fisheries, human nutrition and management of natural resources and environment. In addition to scientific literature, the database contains material which cannot easily be found in other databases,
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compiled from less widely known publications of local or regional relevance. The database can be searched using keywords in several languages with the aid of a multilingual vocabulary. Current rate of input of new records is over 150,000 per year. The database is made available to users through online vendors and CD-ROM suppliers such as Dialog, DIMDI, ESA-IRS, Faxon, Microinfo and Silver Platter. AGRICOLA
Bibliographic database compiled and maintained by the US National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, Maryland. The database contains over 3 million records of post-1970 publications covering all aspects of agriculture and provides particularly extensive coverage of US literature not covered by other agricultural databases (e.g. reports from agricultural experiment stations containing material - not published elsewhere). It is made available to users . through online and CD-ROM vendors DIALOG, DIMDI, FAXON, Microinfo, Silver Platter and others. PASCAL
Compiled by the Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique (INIST) of the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, PASCAL is one of the world's largest multidisciplinary bibliographic information databases covering literature published in all areas science and technology, including biology and medicine. This French/English bilingual database contains over 12 million records relating to papers published in over 25,000 serials, 56,000 reports, 60,000 conference proceedings and 100,000 theses covering the period from 1973 to date. Current rate of growth is over 500,000 records per year. It provides better coverage of French literature than any other database. Search aids include a lexicon containing over 80,000
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descriptors and the lexicon is available in 3 languages, viz. French, English and Spanish. A sister database called FRANCIS, also compiled by INIST, covers literature in social sciences' (including ethnology) and economics. PASCAL can be accessed online, or offline on CD-ROM, using the services of online and CD-ROM vendors such as QUESTEL/ORBIT, ESA-IRS and DIALOG/DATA STAR. BIOSIS Previews
Probably the world's largest bibliographic information database on biological subjects including medicine, compiled by BIOSIS of Philadelphia, USA. The database contains over 12 million citations and the current rate of addition of new records is 540,000 per year. As with other databases, the source literature includes journals, books, monographs and conference proceedings. In addition to online access, the database is published for offline consultation on CD-ROMs and in printed form in Biological Abstracts and other abstract journals. Subscriptions to these are available through online vendors and CD-ROM distributors. CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS
For phytochemical information on medicina1 plants and patent-related literature, Chemical Abstracts is an indispensable resource. The Chemical Abstracts database compiled by CAS (a division of the American Chemical Society) in Columbus, Ohio, contains some 13 million abstracts of literature and patents in all areas of chemistry and chemical engineering covering the period from 1970 to date. Over 700,000 new records are added per year. The accompanying CA Registry database contains information on over 16 million chemical substances. The database can be searched online or on CD-ROM. Literature published
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prior to 1970 can be found in the printed journal Che.!nical Abstracts. Search aids include a very detailed list-~ .indexing terms used. Online access is provided through the STN International online network. Subscriptions are also available through national offices in many countries. e.g. Royal Society of Chemistry in the UK; VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH in Germany, Centre National de l'Information Chimique in France, Japan Association for International Chemical Information in Japan, etc.• MEDLINE
A limited amount of information relating to medicinal plants (from mainstream medical literature) can be found in this most widely known database of medicine compiled by the National Library of Medicine, USA. The database is available to users through a large number of online and CD-ROM vendors including: Blaise Link, CD-PLUS, Data-Star, Dialog, DIMDI, EURO-CD Diffusion, FAXON, Infopro Technologies, Learned Information LTD, MIC KIBIC, Optech Ltd., Questel/Orbit, STN, Telesampo etc. Although direct online searches are still fee-based, free search facilities are now provided by a number of organisations through their web sites on the Internet. The CD-ROM is also becoming widely available in public libraries around the world. EMBASE
Literature published in some 3,600 biomedical journals is covered in this bibliographic database of medicine produced by Elsevier, Amsterdam. It contains some 6.5 million records covering the period from 1974 to date. Products derived from the database include CD-ROMs and the printed journal Excerpta Medica. Like MEDLINE,
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coverage of literature on medicinal pl!Ults is restricted to that appearing in mainstream biomedical journals. The database also accessible through various online and CDROM vendors including CD Plus, Data--Star, Dialog, DIMDL Faxon, Infopro Technologies, Microinfo; Silver Platter and-STN. TERTIARY INFORMATION DATABASES
Unlike the secondary i.nhmnation databases listed above, tertiary electronic publications containing information on medicinal and related groups of plants vary widely in their design, structure and contents. A number of them, produced for different purposes by various organisations, are listed below in alphabetical order. While some of them can be accessed online, others are only available only on CD-ROM or other offline electronic media. AHEAD CD-ROM
The Asian Health, Environmental and Allied Databases (AHEAD) CD-ROM series consists of 3 disks containing various databases contributed by the participating organisations based in India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Bangladesh. The project is sponsored by the International Development Research Centre of Canada and co-ordinated by the National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM), New Delhi. , Disk 1 entitled "Environment Asia" contains full-text and bibliographic databases related to water management, recycling of waste water, hygiene education and community participation. Disk 2, named "Wealth Asia", contains the entire Medicinal and Aromatic Plants bibliographic database mentioned above and a full-text database of Indian plant, animal and mineral resources, based on the well known "Wealth of India" encyclopaedic book series. Disk 3 is called "Health Asia" and contains a
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bibliographic database on tropical (mosquito-transmitted) diseases and occupational safety and health, a full-text database on water-borne (diarrhoeal) diseases, and a natural toxins database providing text and pictorial information on poisonous plants and animals. APINMAP
The Asian Pacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (APINMAP) is a UNESCO-sponsored voluntary network of organisations in 14 Asian and Pacific region countries (Australia, People's Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey and Vietnam) with a Secretariat based in the Philippines. Its objective is to promote exchange of information relating to medicinal and aromatic plants between its member organisations. Databases and other resources held by each organisation are shared with others. APINMAP resources include an Integrated APINMAP database containing bibliographic and factual information on medicinal plants, lists of research projects, institutions and personneL Other databases shared include the AHEAD CD-ROM series mentioned above, the Health Research and Development Information Network (HEROIN) database from the Philippines and the FLOTURK database (see below) from Turkey. BACIS
Boelens Aroma Chemical Information Service (BACIS) offers a set of five databases (which can be installed on a desktop PC) mainly aimed at users in the perfumery and flavouring industries. These contain information on volatile compounds in foods, analytical chemical data compiled from published literature on essential oils and other natural compounds, and trade-related data.
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BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PHYI'OCHEMICALS AND THEIR ACI'lVITIES; and PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF GRAS HERBS AND OTHER ECONOMIC PLANTS '
A set of two databases compiled by Dr James Duke of ARS/ USDA. The first of these contains information on some 3000 biologically active (medicinal, antimicrobial, pesticidal and allelopathic) phytochemicals, their reported activities and inhibitory concentrations or doses. The second database lists the chemical constituents of approximately 1000 plant species. These include most of the GRAS (generally recognised as safe) plants, many medicinally important foods (GRAF, generally recognised as foods) and about 500 strictly medicinal (GRAP,. generally recognised as poisonous or medicinal) plants. Quantitative information is included where available. A rather complicated set of codes is used to indicate plant parts and reference sources. These databases are published in book form with accompanying diskettes, by CRC Press, Inc. Information contained in these databases can be searched online on the Phytochemical Database (which also has input from other interconnected databases) on the Internet at the following URL: Brazilian Medicinal Plants Database
This is a database being developed by the Medicinal Plants Laboratory of the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", Sao Paulo University, and CIAGRI, the computing centre of the U¢versity. It currently contains the common name in Portuguese, Lain name and synonyms, family, biological activity, and therapeutic uses of over a thousand species. China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Databases
The Institute of Information of the China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine has put together several bibliographic and factual information databases. The
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largest among these is the Traditional Chinese Medica Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (TCMLARS) which contains about 200,000 bibliographic records 0 literature on traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese herba. medicine, integrated traditional Chinese medicine ana Western medicine, published in over 500 Chinese and foreign biomedical journals since 1984. TCMLARS consistE of its three constituent databases,the largest among these being the Traditional Chinese Medical Literature (TCM) database. The other two are the Acupuncture Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (ACULARS), and the Chinese Materia Medica (CMM) database which contains chemical, pharmacological and horticultural information on medicinal plants. TCMLARS has both English and Chinese versions. Other databases which are exclusively in Chinese language include a Traditional Chinese Medical Research Achievement database, a TCM News Database, a Traditional Chinese Patent Drug and Health Products database(which contains about 2000 entries relating to the production and marketing of traditional Chinese patent drugs and health products), an Aids Information database and an Overseas TCM Academic Organisations and Scholars database. All the above databases can be searched at the institute. A fee-based search service is provided. Chinese University of Hong Kong Databases
The Chinese Medicinal Material Research Centre (CMMRC) of the Chinese University of Hong Kong has compiled a database of TCM which contains botanical, chemical, pharmacological and clinical information selected from Chinese medical treatises and translated into English. This database is updated by abstracting papers form over 180 medical and other scientific journals in Chinese.
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CMMRC is also developing a database on the safety of Chinese foods and medicines. The first product is CHIMERA, a bibliographic database on reported cases of adverse reactions to Chinese foods and medicines. Colour images of the suspected materials are also included in this database. Dictionary of Natural Products
DNP on CD-ROM published by Chapman and Hall contains chemical, physical, bibliographic and structural data on over 113,000 natural products, organised into over 36,000 entries. Pharmacologically active compounds, food ingredients and many compounds of biochemical significance are well covered. Categories of natural products covered include amino acids, peptides and proteins, antibiotics, nucleosides, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, lignans, lichen acids, polyacetylenes, tannins and coumarins. In addition to text-based searches using keywords, it offers the possibility of searching by drawing structures or parts of structures of the compounds concerned. Directory of Specialists in Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants
This is _a database containing names, addresses, professional expertise and interests, and contact details of specialists in this field, compiled by Professor Lyle Craker, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. It is available in printed form. Langer's DROGENANALYSE published by Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany, is a plant identification aid database on floppy disk. It contains names, synonyms and illustrations of medicinal and poisonous plants (2,400 entries in total). ETHMED is a database currently being compiled at the Yakko Kaiseki Centre (Analytical Research Centre for
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Ethnomedicines) of the Institute for Wakan-Yaku (Traditional Sino Japanese Medicines) affiliated to the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Toyama University, Japan. Data on morphology, anatomy, active principles, biological activity and uses of medicinal plants are being recorded. The project is linked to the cataloguing and indexing of the crude drug samples held at the Museum of Materia Medica of the Institute, which is the largest museum of its kind in the world. The museum holds over 20,000 crude drug samples, more than 75,000 herbarium specimens, and other pharmaceutical preparations covering virtually every system of traditional and folk medicine practised around the world. Flavour and Fragrance Materials is a chemical entry database published by Allured Publishing Corporation. The database contains 2,500 records with CAS registry numbers, structure, molecular formulae and physical constants for flavour and fragrance materials. Florin Medicinal Plants
Florin Medicinal Plants database is compiled by Professor Boris Golovkin of the Moscow Botanic Gardens. It is one of the several taxonomic and economic botany databases published by Florin, Inc. of Moscow. Florin Medicinal Plants now contains information on over 5,000 taxa of vascular plants from more than 200 families and is expected to grow to twice its current size in the near future. Taxonomic data, plant parts used, bioactive substances they contain and their therapeutic activity or toxicity are among the interactively searchable fields. Classified lists of diseases and drugs are also included. Floturk
Floturk (FLOra of TURKey) is a database compiled and maintained by the Anadolu University Medicinal Plant and Drug Research Centre (TBAM). It contains botanical,
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phytochemical, chemotaxonomic and pharmacological activity-related data as well as information on production and commercial potential of Turkish flora. Green Medicine is a Chinese Herbal Medicine database containing information on 390 biomedical syndromes, 257 basic formulas, 490 individual herbs and 600 variations. Hopkins Technology CD-ROMs
The series of multimedia CD-ROMs published by Hopkins Technology of Hopkins, Minnesota, include (1) the HERBALIST and (2) the Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology databases. The Herbalist by David Hoffman is an encyclopaedia of western herbal medicine and gives botanical information on the plants used as well as medical and pharmacological information relating to their use. The Materia Medica consists of data sheets on some 170 plant species illustrated with colour pictures and containing the following information: Latin and common names, method of collection, parts used, constituents, pharmacological activity, preparations and dosage. The Traditional Chinese Medicine & Pharmacology CDROM describes the basic philosophical elements, and diagnostic and therapeutic principles of TCM. The Materia Medica gives information on the -:.Ise of 322 medicinal herbs with colour illustrations. Commonly used formulas are given with their functions and applications. ILDIS Wolrd Database of Legumes
This database being compiled by the International Legume Database & Information Service (ILDIS) is a major source of information on leguminous plants, many of which have medicinal uses. Many institutions around the world participate in this project managed by Dr Frank Bisby of the Biology Department, University of Southampton. The
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database consists of an exhaustive checklist of species of the Fabaceae with names and synonyms, geographic distribution, life-form and conservation data, known economic uses and key literature citations. Combining taxonomic data from this database with phytochemical data from the Chapman & Hall Dictionary of Organic Compounds has led to the publication of the book Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae. Further expansion of this database by including root nodulation data and interlinking it with ethnobotanical and molecular biological datasets has been planned. Subscriptions for online searches are available through BIDS at Bath University, UK. The online version is called LegumeLine. INMEDPLAN
INMEDPLAN (Indian Medicinal Plants National Network of distributed databases) is an initiative of a network of several Indian organisations with expertise on different aspects of medicinal plants to build a multidisciplinary (botanical, horticultural, pharmacological and other) information pool by sharing their resources. The network secretariat is at FRLHT, Bangalore. Major Aromatic Plants of India (MAPI)
MAPI (Major Aromatic Plants of India) is a database compiled by the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. It contains very detailed botanical, agronomic, phytochemical and bibliographic information on 45 major aromatic plants of India. The database has a very elaborate structure with a total of 86 unique data entry fields for each record. Medicinal Plants of Malta
An electronic inventory of 300 medicinal and aromatic
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plants of Malta, compiled by the University of Malta, containing text and images. Medicinal Plants of Papua New Guinea developed by the Wau Ecology Institute Herbarium, this database contains botanical, phytochemical and ethnopharmacological information on plants native to PNG. MEDFLOR (MEDicinal FLORa) is an ethnobiological database being developed in collaboration with the Organization of American States. It aims to compile botanical information and ethnomedical uses of plants from literature scanned locally at data entry sites located in Costa Rica, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Hungary and India. DEREP (DEREPlication) is a recently initiated database exdusively containiJ)g data on the physical constants of natural products. Online search subscriptions to NAPRALERT are available through STN International and other online vendors. A CD-ROM version of NAPRALERJ' has been annour.ced for 1997 by Chapman and Hall. Access to MEDFLOR and DEREP is restricted to collaborating organisations. NATIS
NATTS is the Natural Products database developed by the Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow. It contains factual information on medicinal plants. Detailed data on botanical characters, collection site details, pharmacological screening results, chemical structures of active constituents, uses in folk medicine and in established traditional medicine, information from traditional health systems' literature and from modern scientific literature are recorded in the six sub-files constituting the database.
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Plantes Medicinales
This multimedia CD-ROM database developed a. an educational tool by Professor Michel Paris of the Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chatenay-Malabry, France is sponsored by the French Ministry of Education and published by Algo Vision, Paris. It contains botanical and phytotherapeutic information on some 175 species and is well illustrated with over 500 high quality colour photographs. Descriptions of pathological conditions are at:companied by monographs on the main species used in the treatment and additional lists of other relevant plants. The French version is expected to become available by June 1997. An English version is also being planned. Poisonous Plants in Britain and Ireland
This is a CD-ROM database developed jointly by the Poisons Unit of Guy's & St Thomas' Hospital Trust, London and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It is an interactive database designed for identifying common poisonous plants using easily recognisable morphological features such as size, shape and colour of different plant parts for characterising the species concerned. The database contains textual and pictorial information on over 200 plant groups covering approximately 2,000 species and cultivars. Two versions have been published, a medical version for the benefit of medical professionals dealing with suspected plant poisoning cases, especially in hospital. Accidents & Emergency Departments for identifying plants ingested accidentally by children, and a more popular version aimed at the general public. Plants Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA)
Plants Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) is a foundation with an international charter and consists of a
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network of participating organisations based in Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and the Netherlands. The network has a secretariat is at Bogor, Indonesia, and a publishing office at Wageningen, Netherlands. The main objective of PROSEA is to collect and disseminate information on the plant resources of SouthEast Asia ,for education, extension, research and industry. Its main activities therefore involve developing electronic databases and publishing books, CD-ROMs, bibliographies • etc. The PROSEA database already contains a wealth of information on some 6,000 useful plants of South-East Asia. A series of scholarly handbooks, CD-ROMs and bibliographies on several commodity groups, and other products derived from the database have already been published. Future publications will include volumes on spices and condiments, medicinal and poisonous plants" essential oil plants, stimulants, and plants producing exudates among others. Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (SEPASAL)
The Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands SEPASAL (Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands) database developed by the Centre for Economic Botany, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is a major source of information on the flora of arid and semi-arid regions and a valuable resource for people involved in biodiversity conservation, germplasm collection and storage, and environmental management. It contains information gathered from various sources on some 6,000 useful dryland species. The data include detailed botanical descriptions, geographic distribution, conservation status, soil and climatic preferences, and uses
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of different plant parts (following an international standard classification). The range of information and the amount of data vary between species. REFERENCES
Bhat, K. K. 5., "Literature published during the past two decades on medicinal, aromatic and other related groups of plants", Acta Horticulturae, 1995. Cunningham, A.B.African medicinal plants. Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. Paris, UNESCO. 1993. Farnsworth, N. R. & Soejarto, D.O., "Global importance of medicinal plants", In: Akerele, 0, Heywood, v. & Synge, H. (eds) Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Bibliography Abdul Kareem, Inventory of Plants used in Indian Systems of Medicine, FRLHT Research Report, Bangalore, India, 1995. Anita Chatterjee(ed.)., Academic Dictionary of Medicinal Plant, Delhi, Isha Books, 2005, vi, 264 p. Arvigo, R. & Balick, M. Rainforest Remedies; One Huttdred Healing Herbs of Belize. Twin Lakes, USA; Lotus Press. 1994. Bodeker, G., K.K.S. Bhat, J. Burley & P. Vantomme, (eds.) Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. Rome, FAO (Non-wood Forest Produru. 11). 1997. Chadha K.L. (ed.)., Advances in Horticulture: Volume 11: Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Reprint, New Delhi, Malhotra Publishing House, . 2006, XXXX, 935 p. Cunningham, A.B.African medicinal plants. Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. Paris, UNESCO. 1993. Farnsworth, N. R. & Soejarto, D.D., "Global importance of medicinal plants", In: Akerele, 0, Heywood, V. & Synge, H. (eds) Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press, 1991. Fuller, D. Medicine from the Wild. Washington, DC; Traffic USA. 1991. Groombridge, B. & M.D. Jenkins.World atlas ojbiodiversity. Earth's living resources in the 21stcentury. Berkeley, USA, University of California Press. 2002. Kulkarni P.H. and Shahida Ansari., The Ayurvedic Plants, Delhi, Satguru Publications, 2004, xvi, 334 p. Lewington, A. Medicinal Plant and Plant Extracts: A Review of Their Importation into Europe. Cambridge, UK; Traffic International. 1993. Penso, G. WHO inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. 1980. Quansah, N. "Biocultural diversity and integrated health care in Madagascar". Nature and Resources 30! 18-22. 1994.
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Rama Swamy N., Biotechnological Applications for Improvement of Solanum Surattense: A Medicinal Plant, Delhi, Daya Pub., 2007, xii, 168 p. Schultes, R.E. & Raffauf R.F. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia. Portland, Oregon, USA; Dioscorides Press. 1990. Sherriff J., Catalogues of Indian Synonymes Medicinal Plants Inorganic Substances Propos, 675 p. Sittenfeld, A. & Gamez, R. "Biodiversity prospecting" by lNBio. In: Biodiversity Prospecting. Washington, DC; World Resources Institute. pp. 69-97. 1993. Swami Brahmananda (ed.)., Common Medicinal Plants of India: A Complete Guide to Home Remedies, Delhi, Dominant, 2000, 327 p. Tcheknavorian-Asenbauer, A. & Wijesekera, R.O.B., Industrial Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, UNIOO 10.505, 1982. United Nations Industrial development Organization, Design Options Jor
a Polyvalent Pilot Plant Unit for the Distillation and Extraction of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, IPCT.143(spec), 1991. Uniyal, R.c., M.R. Uniyal & P. Jain.Cultivation of medicinal plants in India. A reference book New Delhi, India, TRAFFIC India & WWF India. 2000. WijesE'kera, R.O.B. "Is there an industrial future for phytopharmaceutical drugs? An outline of UNIOO programmes in the sector", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32: 217-224, 1991. Wijesekera, R.O.B., Renaissance of the Phytopharmaca, Vienna, Austria; United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1987.
Index Aerial flowers 20 Amphicarpic plants 20 Ancient Indian system 183 Antagonism 4 Anti-arrhythmic effects 80 Biogenetic resources 74 Bioprospecting 68 Codified traditional medicine 179 Coimbatore orthopaedic treatment 179 Common Property Resources (CPRs) 192 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 114 Effective Peak Ground Acceleration (EPGA) 34 Effective Refractory Period (ERP) 82 Fair Trade Federation (FTF) 131 Forest conservation act 185 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 131
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) 268 German medicinal plant 116 Good Harvesting Practices (GHP) 131 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) 224 Gujarat State Forest Develop ment Corporation (GSFDC) 193 High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) 83 Indian biological diversity 183 Indian forest act 265 Indian health system 175 Indian herbal industry 178 Indigenous knowledge systems 181 Intellectual property rights 258 Intergovernmental negotiations 69 International Labour Organisation (!LO) 268 International Patent Classification (IPC) 261
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Index
International pharmaceutical trade 120 Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) 83 Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) 26 Main Central Thrust (MCT) 26 Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) 26 Medicinal Plant Conserva,tion Areas (MPCA) 272 Medicinal plant species cultivation 125 Minor Forest Produce (MFP) 265 Modernfancrrlngtechniques 187 Modern pharmacological parameters 182
Profuse pollen production 22 Reinforced Concrete (RC) 31 Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS) 33 Seed dispersal 19 Sinus Node Recovery TlD\e (SNRT) 82 Static health care systems 122 Subterranean cleistogamous flowers 21 Total Quality Management (TQM) 224 Trade Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) 268 Traditional medicine 1 Tribal Co-operative Societies (TCS) 192 Trilinolein 81 Tropical Botanic Garden and Research (TBGRI) 259
Ndigenous knowledge systems 181 Nitric Oxide (NO) 84 NON Governmental Organisa- United Nations Industrial tion (NGO) 275 Development OrganisaNon TImber Forest Products tion (UNIDO) 218 {NTFPs)265 Non-GovernmentaIOrganisaVentricular Fibrillation (VF) 79 .Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) tions (NGOs) 189 Non-TlD\ber Forest Products 79 (NTFPs) 184 Veterinary health care 175 Nutraceuticals 10 Wtld medicinal plants 185 Peak Ground Acceleration World Health Organisation (PGA)34 (WHO) 8
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