PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROGRESS
HISPANIC PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
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PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROGRESS
HISPANIC PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
VICTOR L. ROJAS AND
MARIA J. RUIZ EDITORS
Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Hispanic psychology in the 21st century / editors, Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61122-206-7 (eBook) 1. Psychology--Latin America. I. Rojas, Victor L. II. Ruiz, Maria J. BF108.L29H57 2010 155.8'468073--dc22 2010047001
New York
CONTENTS Preface Introduction Treatment of Young Adults With Generalized Social Phobia José Olivares, Ana Isabel,Rosa-Alcázar, Pablo José Olivares-Olivares and Ángel Rosa-Alcázar Social Anxiety Assessment Through Self-Report and Automatic Processing of Emotional Information María Isolde Hedlefs Aguilar, Ernesto Octavio López Ramírez and César Jesús Antona Casas Contingency Contrast in Matching to Sample with University Students Isaac Camacho, Mario Serrano and Claudio Carpio
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Meaning of Life for Mexican University Students with a High Academic Performance in a Private University María de Lourdes Francke Ramm and Rodolfo Bello Nachón
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Psychological Meaning of Values in Students From a University of Veracruz, Mexico Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante
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Profile of Vocational Certainty in Public and Private Universities: Personal and Social Variables Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández
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Approaches to Learning Demostrated By Psychology and Accounting and Business Management Students Jesús Enrique Esquivel Cruz, Ma. Concepción Rodríguez Nieto and Víctor Manuel Padilla Montemayor Psychology Students Who Fail Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro
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Assessment of Reliability of Inventory on Learning Styles and Motivational Orientation (EDAOM) Zaira Vega Valero, Eduardo Peñalosa Castro, Patricia Landa Durán and Carlos Nava Quiroz Effect of Age And Type of School on MMPI-A Scores in a 13-18 Year Old Mexican Adolescent Sample Emilia Lucio, Quetzalcoatl Hernandez-Cervantes, Consuelo Duran and James N. Butcher Risk Sexual Behavior Predictors in High School Students J. Isaac Uribe Alvarado, Patricia Andrade Palos and Ximena Zacarías Salinas Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scales in Spanish Physical Education Juan Antonio Moreno Murcia, Eduardo Cervelló Gimeno, Celestina Martínez Galindo and Luis Miguel Ruiz Pérez Cooperation and Cohesion in Football Teams in Competition A. Garcia-Mas, A. Olmedilla, E. Ortega, P. Almeida; J. Lameira, C. Sousa and J. Cruz Burnout of Public Schools Teachears in San Nicolás De Los Garza, Nuevo León, México Laura K. Castro, Karla Rodríguez and Cirilo H. García Effects of Couple Therapy on Dysfunctional Family Structure Jaime Montalvo Reyna, Carlos García Mondragón, Israel Velasco Jiménez, Maria Rosario Espinosa Salcido and C. Susana González Montoya Homes and Families: A Preliminary Perspective from Environmental Psychology Jose Gomez Herrera Correlation Between Perception of Family Support and Personality Trait in an University Sample Makilim Nunes Baptista, Thelma Margarida de Moraes dos Santos, Gisele Aparecida da Silva Alves and Mayra Silva de Souza Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) José Moral de la Rubia Model for Hiv/Aids Prevention by Forming Psychosocial Competencies Ariel César Núñez Rojas, Sergio Tobón, Diana Arias Henao and Stefano Vinaccia Stress-Related Situations as Predictors of Adherence-to-Medication Behavior Among Women with Type 2 Diabetes Julio Alfonso Piña López and Angélica Magali Torres Plancarte
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Contents Respiratory Habits, Health and Lifestyle Miguel López Torres Path Analysis Models Versus Latent Variable Models: Examples from Educational and Health Approaches María Noel Rodríguez Ayán, Mónica Teresa González Ramirez, Miguel Ángel Ruiz Díaz Relevant Factors for Objectives Effectiveness Accomplishment in Compensation Payments: The Use of Bonuses as a Payment for Performance Sergio Manuel Madero Gómez and Amaia Arizkuren Eleta Analysis of the Correspondence between Reporting and Doing in a Task of Matching to Sample Hortensia Hickman, Diana Moreno, Olivia Tena, Patricia Plancarte, Rosalinda Arroyo and María Luisa Cepeda Socio-Cognitive Basis of Positive Bias in Evaluating Work Teams Performance Eduardo Infante Rejano, Manuel Marín Sánchez and Eduardo Infante Rejano
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Development of a Scale to Study Differences in Gender in Organizational Socialization Processes Ana Lisbona Bañuelos and Francisco J. Palací
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The Laws of Physics, The Development of Intelligences and their Relationship to Behavior Washington Sandoval Erazo and Eduardo Leal Beltrán
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Factor Structure and Reliability of TAS-20 in Mexican Samples José Moral de la Rubia
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The Questions as an Instrument of Narrations’ Reading Javier González García
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Index
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PREFACE This book presents and reviews research derived from different conceptual models based on any psychological or psychosocial theory. It presents a global forum that exposes scientific studies on psychology, done principally by Spanish-speaking researchers from different countries. It includes the best academic efforts of research as an easy way of communication with non-Latin researchers, propitiating this way a fertile exchange of knowledge and cooperation among scientists of psychology around the world. Chapter 1 - The objective of this study is to determine if the Intervention Program for Young Adults with Social Phobia/Intervención en Adultos Jóvenes con Fobia Social – IPYASP/ IAJFS- (Olivares and Rosa, 2005), is good and effective in treating this disorder. To carry it out, 20 adults, from 18 to 20 years old were selected (average: 18.8, DT: 0.83) who were randomly distributed between two experimental conditions: 1) IPYASP/ IAJFS, and 2) control group - standby. The evaluation was applied before, after and on six and twelve months after the treatment finished. The results show the program efficiency in short and medium terms of all the measurements that directly evaluate anxiety and social avoidance, as well as the correlation of self-esteem, adaptation and social abilities; on the contrary, control group subjects did not have significant statistical improvement in any of the variables measured. Chapter 2 - A sample of 192 university students was divided into two groups. The first group (experimental) comprised those individuals with the highest scores on the ―Fear of negative evaluation‖ (FNE, Watson and Friend, 1969) and the ―Social avoidance and distress‖ scales (SAD, Watson and Friend, 1969). The second group (control) consisted of students who had obtained the lowest scores in both scales. Both groups were required to participate in one affective priming study in order to compare automatic valence recognition latencies using stressful word pairs related to social fear and social phobia, as well as positive, negative, and neutral words. Only the experimental group showed affective priming for social fear and social phobia. The control group showed no priming effect for any experimental condition. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for an integral diagnostic system of social anxiety disorder that takes into account automatic and controlled emotional appraisal of social stressful events. Chapter 3 - To evaluate the effect of the difference in response morphology emitted to sample (SS1 and SS2) and comparison stimuli (COS1 and COS2) on the accuracy index, four groups of university students participated in a successive symbolic matching to sample task.
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The groups were unequal among them by the morphological difference of the response to SS and COS stimuli. The results showed than in the conditions of similarity between SS1-COS1 and SS2-COS2, but with differences between SS1-SS2 and COS1-COS2, the participant‘s accuracy was greatly enhanced as opposed to any other type of difference between the stimuli. Results are discussed by the analysis of the role of the difference in the contingency structures in the development of conditional stimulus control. Chapter 4 - The XXI Century International Commission of Education, created by the UNESCO in 1998 has estimated that education is going to solve future problems, supported on four backbones: learning to know, learning to make, learning to live with others and learning to be. The last one, ―learning to be‖ invites us to think about the influence we have, both parents and teachers, on children and young‘s‘ personal maturity and identity which allow them to make their life worth living for. From this point of view, and considering the study carried out by Magaña and others (2004), we established the following researching goals: 1) To evaluate the ―meaning of life‖ for Mexican students who are granted by any kind of academic scholarship at the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey; 2) to explore the results related to personal, academic, professional and familial variables; 3) to compare researching results of the previous study made in Mexico, and 4) to analyze the psychometrical characteristics of the instrument used. The study was carried out in Monterrey, Mexico, in 2005. From a total of 4582 financially aid students, it was obtained a 1515 students sample (31%), between 16 and 27 years old, belonging to 34 different careers. Crumbaugh and Maholick ―Purpose in Live‖ test was applied. It was found that 78.9% of the students show a good meaning of life; a 13.4% is located in an indefinite state; and a 7.7% show a lack of meaning. Chapter 5 - Researchers such as Escamez, 2003; Figueroa, 2000; Grass, 2001; Pereira (2007); Pereira, 2003; Raths, 1967; Ratzlaff, 2000 and the Mexican Association of Psychology, 1998; suggest the educators‘ responsibility of knowing their students‘ values so as to contribute effectively to strengthen them. The objective was to learn about the psychological meaning university students have concerning their values, by using the qualitative technique of semantic networks. The sample comes from 100 Psychology students: 63 women and 37 men; from 19 to 25 years old; from a middle socio-economic level; instrument validated with a sample of 300 university students. The results refer to the analysis of the defining words from both shifts; honesty (100%) is the main word which defines their values. The results coincide with proposals made by Arias, 2000; Diaz Barriga, 2000; Ratzlaff, 2000; Valdez, 2000; Schmelkes, 1996. They proposed personal growth through values, completely aware of respect and tolerance concepts, which are reflected in an ethical, honest and integral behavior in the presence of professional commitment to be practiced. Chapter 6 - The objective of this study was to identify the influence of the social and course of study factors on vocational certainty in a sample that includes 392 third semester students from different Bachelors in public and private universities of the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. It was used the Comprehensive Scale of Course of study Factors (IAFC) of Aguilar et al. (1992) version for colleges. In addition, vocational context indicators were included (Gimeno, Rocabert and Lopez, 1996, in Lopez, 2004); as well as school and sociodemographic data. By structural equations a multifactorial predictive model on vocational certainty is created, in which social and course of study variables explain 23% of the
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vocational certainty variance, getting a good fit. It is suggested the program design of educational orientation through which intervention is developed in socio-labor, academic and personal environments so as to facilitate the academic and professional students‘ elections. Chapter 7 - This research‘s objective was to detect the differences in the learning approach of Psychology students, and Public Accountability and Administration students. The design was non-experimental and descriptive. The Biggs, Kember and Leung‘s Questionnaire of Study Processes (2001) was applied to a convenience sample of 213 students: 100 of Psychology, and 113 of Public Accountability and Administration. The students from both majors showed a preference for a serious approach towards learning and deep motives. Superficial strategies were preferred by Public Accountability and Administration students; and deep strategies, by Psychology students, although the difference in the latter was not significant. The preference of Public Accountability and Administration students for a deep approach was surprising because previous studies consistently show a superficial approach. It was also interesting that these students showed a tendency towards superficial strategies. Results are discussed based on previous studies and theoretical aspects, with the suggestion of further research under this perspective. Chapter 8 - A sample of 249 students from the School of Psychology belonging to a public university was used for this study. From the explanatory failure models used, it was found that using multiple regression analysis, there was no significant or substantial variable that influenced failure. The constructs that did not influence failure were: socio-economic level, parents‘ mean age, family hardiness, record of academic failure in preparatory school and, labor activities. Lastly, it was found that students do not attribute their failure to professors or to themselves. It was concluded that social educational policies must review their programs and actions in the light of results, including non-conforming products, in this case students who have failed and dropped out of the system. More and better research must be done with a series of models, which should incorporate constructs of the social, cultural and psychological type. Chapter 9 - The Learning Styles and Motivational Orientation Inventory (EDAOM, according to its initials in Spanish) is a viable instrument for evaluating learning strategies and motivation for study. Castañeda and Ortega (2004) stated that the reliability of this inventory is high, as well as its concurrent validity. It is known that any instrument of measurement has to have acceptable levels of reliability and validity and, for that reason the object of this paper was to carry out an evaluation of the reliability of the EDAOM with a student sample from Iztacala FES, in order to verify the initial index and establish the inventory‘s subscale index. The results obtained confirm the level of reliability; however, in this application in order to preserve the validity of the instrument, some items were eliminated because they had negative correlations. The data is discussed in the context of the psychometric characteristics of an instrument and items and response choices were proposed. Chapter 10 - The question as to whether the MMPI-A can be appropriately used to assess a 13-year-old adolescent has been addressed in past research on the test. This study was designed to provide information on the adequacy of administering the personality inventory to 13-year-old Mexican adolescents; in addition, the current Mexican MMPI-A norms were examined to determine their validity when using them with this younger group selected according to the same sampling criteria as the normative sample. A sample of 203 13-yearold adolescents (83 girls and 120 boys) was compared with the Mexican normative sample of 4050.
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The participants were obtained from both public and private schools (54% from public senior high schools); all participating schools (public and private) were selected to represent the different geographical and socioeconomic zones of Mexico City. Results indicate that the MMPI-A can be used with 13-year-old adolescents as long as they can understand the test and answer it properly. However, some differences between public and private schools on the MMPI-A validity scales were found. It was concluded that reading and comprehension levels likely differ between some of the Mexican schools. Therefore, it would be important to assure that the adolescent can read and comprehend the items at a 6th grade level in order to produce valid test results. Chapter 11 - The purpose of this work was to identify the factors which predict the risky sexual behavior in intermediate higher studies level undergraduates in public schools. It was applied an instrument to measure individual, social and cultural factors associated to risky sexual behavior (Uribe, 2007). In women, the results show there is a positive and significant correlation <0.01, about condom use shunning and risky sexual practices,.523; and in men,.332. In gender analysis, the risky sexual behavior predictors in women are condom use shunning, 27.3%, and communication and trust in family, virginity value and attraction for sexual activity explain the 33.5 for this formula; in men, the predicting factors for risky sexual behavior in addition to condom use shunning are the perception of using drugs and alcohol in sexual activity, the communication and trust in friends and the pride for sexual intercourse debut, with a total percentage of 14.6. For both men and women, the main predictor is condom use shunning; however, there are different factors for women and men, which indicate the pertinence of knowing the psychosocial and cultural aspects that influence differently on men and women regarding condom use shunning in sexual activity. Chapter 12 - The purpose of this study was to adapt two discipline scales (Papaioannou, 1998) to the Spanish educational context. The authors investigated construct validity and reliability of the instruments designed to measure pupils‘ reasons to be disciplined in the classroom and perceptions of strategies used by the teacher to maintain discipline in the physical education class. Participants were 356 Spanish pupils aged between 14 and 16. Results obtained from principal components analysis with varimax rotation revealed the existence of (a) five factors for the Reasons for Discipline Scale (RDS), that is: identified reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected reasons, amotivation and caring reasons for behaving, and (b) four factors for the Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale (SSDS), that is: caring and responsibility reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected and external reasons and teacher‘s indifference to maintaining discipline. The alphas varied between .86 and .58 for the first scale and between .88 and .70 for the second. In addition, the results showed suitable predictive validity. More studies are necessary to corroborate the results found with different populations and cultures. Chapter 13 - Cohesion (the social affiliation inside the team) is the most extended concept for to explain the internal dynamics in the sportive teams; along with the sport cooperation (relation between personal objectives with those of the team mates and the coach). It has two trait-like factors (conditioned and unconditioned cooperation) and several situational others. This work studies the relationships between cohesion and cooperation in competitive soccer teams, and their interdependence. The Questionnaire of Sportive Cooperation and the Team Climate Questionnaire (which measures the acceptance, clarity and perception of the player roles) were applied to 423 Spanish players of soccer (X= 14.8 years; Rank: 12-18 years; and 6.9 years of average practice of soccer). 9.7% were
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goalkeepers; 40.2%, defenders; 28.4%, midfielders and 9.1% were forwarders. The results showed different values for the cohesion and the cooperation; relationships between unconditioned cooperation and cohesion (role clarity and acceptance); the cooperation explains a percentage of the cohesion, and the cohesion (and its factors) explain a low value of the variance of cooperation; and only the role clarity seems to predict some level of cooperation. These results are discussed both theoretically and regarding to the psychological intervention on the teams. Chapter 14 - The term burnout refers to a feeling of failure and to an exhausted or usedup existence, and it is considered as a three-dimensional syndrome in which feelings of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment are present. This phenomenon has become a public health concern and may turn into a menace for teams of professionals whose objective is to help others, as it is the case for the education professionals. An instrument with the aims of knowing, describing and correlating some of the models related to the presence of the burnout syndrome in primary school teachers who work in public schools, was applied in this study. This instrument was a questionnaire directed to the teachers in 123 public primary schools in the municipality of San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, México. The results did not evidence the presence of the syndrome in its three dimensions in the studied sample. However, it is relevant the lack of personal accomplishment in the male teachers (33.61%), while the female teachers manifested as relevant the emotional exhaustion (44.33%). The analysis of this investigation gives us an idea of the importance of preventing the burnout syndrome in teachers. Chapter 15 - This paper employs a quasi-experimental ABA design to analyze the implementation of Communicative Restructuring (CR) in 15 cases of couple therapy. A semistructured interview format with a guide was used to measure family dysfunction (FD) before and after the application of the CR. Even though the therapy only targeted the marital holon, the effects of CR seem to have influenced family structure at large, since the degree of FD decreased significantly after the implementation of the technique. The affected boundaries changed from the diffuse to the clear or partially clear, and conflicts tended to disappear. The paper also emphasizes the importance of the systemic principle of totality (if an element in the system is modified this will alter or affect the other elements) and the need to take it into account. Chapter 16 - Studying family-home inter-relationships from the environmental psychology perspective implies tackling several epistemological and methodological aspects. In this paper some preliminary answers concerning the same are provided. In the first place, it is proposed that home-family inter-relationships be approached as a system composed of biological, psychological and socio-cultural components. The family-housing system contemplates objective aspects (daily activities) and subjective aspects (appreciation and affection). Aimed at including the notion of development in the analysis, the reconsideration of life cycles from developmental psychology and the classification of family life cycles from systemic theory are proposed. A proposal is made to reformulate both classifications in the framework of environmental psychology and, consequently a system to analyze dynamic diachronic and synchronic inter-relations in the housing-family system. Chapter 17 - Personality is a complex construct and could be influenced by several factors, as social and genetic ones. In order of social factors, the family could be playing an important role in development and maintenance in personality traits. The goal of this study was to correlate the dimensions of the perception of family support inventory (IPSF) and
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personality traits (Five-Factor Model of Personality). 346 students of a private university located in the state of São Paulo (Brazil) were subjects, aging by the means of 25 years old (SD=6). As expected, the correlations found between both instruments weren‘t high, since they measure different constructs, although related ones. Positive correlations were observed between dimensions of IPSF (Affective-Consistent, Autonomy and Adaptation) with dimensions of big five model like socialization, extroversion, realization and opening. Also, negative correlations between all dimensions of IPSF and neuroticism were observed. Chapter 18 - The objective of the study was to determine the semantic content associated to being married, considering the sample as a social group, as well as to delimit sub-groups of subjects and characterize them by comparing them in psychometric measures related to marital adjustment. A self-reporting questionnaire was administered to a sample of 100 married couples. The questionnaire was formed by a free association test, questions concerning socio-demographic data, sexual relations and nine scales (dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction, sexual dissatisfaction, alexithymia, state-trait anxiety, depression, positive and negative affect, social desirability and marital aggrandizement). An analysis of thematic content was applied to data from the free association test. Fifteen specific categories were defined as well as a residual category with an initial average inter-rater reliability of .81 and a final one of .93. The central nucleus of social representation is formed by couple and family obligations and functions, positive feelings emphasizing love, fidelity values, a family formed by parents and children, as well as values for living together; that is to say, the image of a united, happy family that struggles for its stability through fidelity, and living together in peace and harmony. The 200 subjects, with basis on a cluster analysis concerning the 15 specific semantic categories, were classified into 4 groups: 1) being married because of children, 2) being married for the company of his/her spouse, 3) being married for conjugal and family duties and 4) being married for love. The group married because of love is closer to the nucleus of social representation and reports better adjustment and marital satisfaction. Chapter 19 - In this chapter, the authors will analyze the strategies for HIV/AIDS prevention, especially on young people, since they are the riskiest group to be infected, due to their life style and practices in today‘s situations and contexts. From the experience of working with young people in the promotion of health, the authors propose a model for HIV/AIDS prevention, based on psychological competencies development and strengthening, which, at a time, is based on the following: (1) to transmit clear and true information concerning HIV/AIDS and preventions methods; (2) to develop high motivation for the use of prevention methods; (3) to develop the necessary abilities to handle risky situations and to put them into practice when necessary; and (4) to confront the environments that favor or block young people from practicing prevention. To undertake these aspects, it is necessary to evaluate the development state of young people‘s psychosocial competencies; to understand and intervene from young culture‘s point of view, and to tackle the dynamics of living with health and illness processes, incorporating prevention as an academic course, as well as parent education. Chapter 20 - This cross-sectional study was carried out with the main objective to assess the specific role of stress-related situations as predictors of adherence-to-medication behavior in 225 women with type 2 diabetes living in Hermosillo, Mexico, whom responded to a selfadministered questionnaire evaluating stress-related situations in three modalities: making decision, tolerance to ambiguity, and tolerance to frustration. A multiple regression analysis (stepwise method) was performed to identify which of those situations predicted the
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adherence-to-medication behavior. This analysis showed that the stress-related situation in the modality of making decision was a predictor for adherence-to-medication behavior (F [1, 207] = 6.041; p = 0.015). The results point out that experiencing low levels of stress related to making decision facilitate the practice of adherence-to-medication behavior in women with type 2 diabetes and also support the recommendation to monitor psychological well-being related to experiencing stress in patients with type 2 diabetes. Chapter 21 - This paper remarks the importance of breathing as a fundamental function in the development of physiological and psychological processes that have an effect on the health level of the persons, for the reason that even of its evident importance this variable has received relative low attention or has been ignored in applied psychophysiology. Main characteristics of breathing are explained, as well as the importance and relationships with emotions, and with the physical and psychological health level of the persons. Also, the convenience of research the breathing habits and its correlations with the health level and life quality from a life style perspective are presented. Chapter 22 - The aim of this study is to compare partially disaggregated structural models, using item parcels as indicators of latent variables, and path analysis models, assuming totally aggregated items make up measurements without errors of the constructs. Data come from two empirical studies: one focused on education and another one focused on health, in such a way the authors can prove the constructs evaluated do not interfere with methodological results showed. The results in both studies are consistent. On one hand, the use of items parcels as indicators of the constructs rather than path models increase the value of the parameters in absolute value, and residual variance is reduced. This is reflected in an increase of the explained variance by the models. Parcel construction method does not seem to be a relevant factor. On the other hand, goodness-of-fit indexes of path models show a better fit. Summarizing, latent variable models would be better fitted to reality, improving the percentage of explained variance, but losing fit due to the higher number of parameters to be estimated. Chapter 23 - This study describes and explains how the interest of companies in paying performance bonus (PPB) and information of the current process has an impact on the payment objectives‘ effectiveness (POE). The research was carried out between 419 persons who are executives (11.5%); managers (41.1%), and administrators (47.5%), from which 213 do receive performance bonus (50.8%), and 206 do not receive it (49.2%). Regarding sex, the sample is divided into 66.6% male and 33.4% female. Concerning age, 202 persons are under 30 years old; 141 persons are between 31 and 40 years old, and the other 76 are over the age of 40. The object of the article is to find out if POE shows significant differences between people who do receive the PPB and those who do not. By using variance analyses, there were found significant statistical differences between variables. In addition, to test the hypotheses presented, the results obtained are analyzed from their management‘s point of view. Chapter 24 - Recent research incorporates correspondence training procedures as an example of stimuli control. Lattal and Doepke (2001) state that correspondence and conditional discrimination procedures are homologous due to the fact that both contain behavioral relations in different temporalities and because the relationship between two or more stimuli or behaviors in both procedures is a distinctive feature. This paper attempts to explore the functional correspondence between the participants‘ reports of the rule and their performance on a task of matching to sample during training and transference tests. Five experimental groups were exposed to a do-report procedure, where the temporal distance
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from requesting the general rule of execution and the inclusion of incomplete sentences with different semantic properties were manipulated. Results were analyzed according to correspondence and non-correspondence between execution on transfer tests and the rule of execution reported. This analysis showed important group differences. The authors propose a methodological matrix that allow integrate research in the area of evaluation and training in doing-reporting in conditional discrimination tasks. Chapter 25 - Considering the anchoring and adjustment effect on social inference judgments (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974) and Chaiken‘s (1987) heuristic-systematic model, the present research examines the role of group design and in-group interaction on individual performance appraisal. Specifically, these variables were analyzed in relation to the emergence of positive bias. It was hypothesized that emotional criteria used by members to form and manage their groups would produce higher positive bias because their adjustment processes were supported by the heuristic processing route. A sample of 83 university students (72.2% women, 27.7% men) was distributed in 30 working groups of various sizes. The mean age was 23.3. Among other statistical procedures, factor analysis were used in order to test the hypothesis. Results seemed to support our hypothesis as to the existence of three different information processing routes in social inference related to judgment according to the previous anchoring effect. As it was predicted by literature revision (Van-Leeuwen and Van-Knippenberg, 2002; Van Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, and van Knippenberg, 2004, Loken, 2006), subjects involved in the central or systematic route estimated their in-group efforts with less positive bias. These findings are discussed in relation to group assessment systems and policies in organizational settings. Chapter 26 - In this paper the authors analyze the possible existence of policies for worker integration and promotion, according to gender, without taking into consideration the position held. The authors also validate an instrument for evaluating differences according to gender during the socialization process by following the Taormina‘s Model of Social Organization (1997). In this Model, four domains are proposed that coincide with the four subscales on the OSI Questionnaire (training, understanding, support of co-workers and future perspectives). In the same manner, the authors have designed a subscale that, in an abbreviated form, has been called the Gender Subscale for the Socialization Process. The degree of learning achieved in these domains is the main indicator of success in the socialization process. The study is composed of two transversal samples and a longitudinal sample. Data was gathered at two different times with approximately one year‘s difference between them. The first transversal sample contains 414 participants and the second transversal sample contains 396 participants. The longitudinal sample contains 118 participants. The authors can conclude that the statistical properties of this instrument for the Spanish sample, together with the items designed on this occasion, are appropriate and in accordance with the author‘s theoretical proposal, which insists on the relationship and interdependence between the different domains. In this paper, the authors discuss the relationship between the newly created gender variable of socialization and satisfaction and commitment. In the same manner, it we show how gender differences are an additional domain in the socialization process and how this is reflected in increased learning. Chapter 27 - The following paper attempts to establish that certain laws applicable to science are also generally applicable to human behavior, specifically the law of conservation of energy and the law of action and reaction (or Newton‘s third law). It also presents an explanation of behavior processes throughout different life stages and their relation to the
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theory of multiple intelligences, describing individuals‘ potential to develop them through time: the emotional, logical-rational and spiritual intelligences. Parallels are drawn between the aforementioned scientific laws and the psychological principles of andragogy, humanistic psychology, Gestalt theory, behaviorism, and the theory of multiple intelligences Chapter 28 - In this article it is presented a TAS-20 factorial validation study in Mexican population. Two samplings are employed, one from university students (n=381) and another, from two married couples (n=200). It can not be considered as linear structural equations those coming from the same population, in consequence, they are dealt as independent ones. The adjustment indexes are obtained by confirmatory factorial analysis, from adequate to good, used for a three related factors structure. The internal consistency of the scale and its two first factors are high. The third factor shows a low consistency, as it happens in other studies effectuated out of the Canadian population, which may be caused to cultural differences or methodological problems, since this factor concentrates most of its questions written in inverse sense. The conclusion is that it is an acceptable scale to be used in Mexico, and it is proposed to write all the questions in direct sense. Chapter 29 - In this work, the authors propose to analyze the use of information requests in a preparation process of the information that four teachers carry out with their students, from the reading of three tales. The sample is composed of 2 courses from two public schools in Burgos (Spain), and two more in (Mexico). In each class the authors have observed six discussion groups, composed of three children. For that, it is proposed an exploratory study from a systematic observation. First, the authors offer a didactic sequences qualitative description that show examples of questions preparation process, and it is finished by analyzing and comparing quantitatively, the evolution of the questions percentages. The answer capacity knowledge a child has in this discussion situation, helps the teacher to figure out the kind of support he will need. The results aim at a variety of kind of questions make easier the speech recovery of the children, and sometimes, the comprehension from inferring questions. These chapters were previously published in International Journal of Hispanic Psychology, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Cirilo H. García published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. It was submitted for appropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research.
INTRODUCTION I thank Nova Science Publishers, especially its President, Dr. Frank Columbus, for the opportunity to recapitulate and to express some minimum reflections about the work carried out jointly with the Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, in particular with School of Psychology and this extraordinary North American company of scientific culture divulgation in the world. Now, when passing this 2 first year‘s job (2008-09) of the International Journal of Hispanic Psychology into a book called Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century, we can describe some characteristics of scientific researches of Hispanophone psychologists of the world. 5 countries submitted 29 articles during 2 years: Mexico, Spain, Colombia, Ecuador and Uruguay. Mexico contributed 21 articles or 72.41%; Spain contributed 5 articles or 17.24%, meanwhile the 3 remaining countries only added one article each one, or 3.45% per Nation. Maybe, since International Journal of Hispanic Psychology is a Mexican initiative and it has its operations seat in Mexico, it was an advantage to know about its existence, and consequently, more researchers of this country see it as one of their publications‘ options. Moreover, Mexican public and private universities every time privilege more their professors‘ researches and even they link their productivity to their wages and economical incentives. Regarding Spain, it is known it is a country where some decades ago a strong tradition in forming psychology researchers prevails, and it is not surprising it has been the country which published the most of researches in the IJHP, after Mexico. We have a long way to run if we pretend to become a means so that Hispanophone scientists of psychology accept IJPH as one of their best options, since up to now only 4 out of 21 countries of the profile have published their works with us (the total of Hispanophone countries includes Bolivia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Argentina, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Colombia, Uruguay, Spain and Chile). The chapters of the book Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century can be divided in 12 types of psychology, as follows: health psychology submitted 7 or 24.14%; social psychology, 6 or 20.69%; educational psychology, 3 or 10.34%; meanwhile organizational, behavioral, sport and cognitive psychology submitted 2 or 6.90% chapters. Meanwhile environmental, family, general psychology, research methodology and vocational psychology submitted 1 chapter or 3.45%. It can be said to a large extent of certainty, that in this characteristic the plural spirit of discipline is present, since 9 out of 12 types of psychology
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were represented in the book by 44.85% from the total, meanwhile remaining 55.85% includes 3 types of psychology, which currently command the field. Based on this tendency found, the book was divided by sections, according to the 12 types of psychology, so as to help the interested reader to find his academic attention or professional priority. I hope scientific work of Hispanophone psychologists of the world can be divulgated by this means, and a better interchange between academic people of our discipline, all over the world could happen.
Cirilo H. Garcia, Editor-in-Chief San Nicolas de Los Garza, N.L., Mexico, July 15, 2010.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
TREATMENT OF YOUNG ADULTS WITH GENERALIZED SOCIAL PHOBIA* José Olivares†, Ana Isabel,Rosa-Alcázar, Pablo José Olivares-Olivares and Ángel Rosa-Alcázar Universidad de Murcia, Spain
ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to determine if the Intervention Program for Young Adults with Social Phobia/Intervención en Adultos Jóvenes con Fobia Social –IPYASP/ IAJFS- (Olivares and Rosa, 2005), is good and effective in treating this disorder. To carry it out, 20 adults, from 18 to 20 years old were selected (average: 18.8, DT: 0.83) who were randomly distributed between two experimental conditions: 1) IPYASP/ IAJFS, and 2) control group - standby. The evaluation was applied before, after and on six and twelve months after the treatment finished. The results show the program efficiency in short and medium terms of all the measurements that directly evaluate anxiety and social avoidance, as well as the correlation of self-esteem, adaptation and social abilities; on the contrary, control group subjects did not have significant statistical improvement in any of the variables measured.
Keywords: Generalized Social Phobia, young adults, IAJFS Program, Effectiveness, Experimental
INTRODUCTION Social phobia or social anxiety disorder is defined as an intense and lasting fear of one or more social situations in which the person is exposed to being observed by others and experiments fear of doing something, or fear of behaving in a manner that is humiliating or embarrassing (APA, 2000). It is distinguished from other disorders because of interpersonal situations fear and avoidance, and high interference in subjects‘ daily lives (Stein, Fuetsch, Müller, Höfler, Lieb and Wittchen, 2001). It is a serious public health problem, whose prevalence is determined by the APA (2000) after a major depression and dependency on alcohol consumption. For that reason, its study, evaluation and treatment have become a clinical psychologists‘ priority, since it has been * †
Research was supported by Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (SEJ200401471/PSIC). Address for correspondence: Facultad de Psicología, Edificio ―Luis Vives‖, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, Apdo. 4021, 30080 Espinardo, Murcia (España). E-mail:
[email protected]; Phone: 968363976
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classified as a diagnostic category (APA, 1980). However, that preoccupation has not produced a similar development in psychological treatments that are independent from socioeconomic-cultural contexts. Thus, while large epidemiological studies have been carried out among English native-speaking community (Kessler, Stang, Wittchen, Stein and Walters, 1999; Magee, Eaton, Wittchen, McGonagle and Kessler, 1996), have been designed and applied ad hoc, for the adult population (in Heimber, 1991, or Turner, Beidel, Cooley, Woody and Messer, 1994), and also for children and adolescents (see Albano, Marten and Holt, 1991, Beidel, Turner and Morris, 2000 Spence, Donovan and Brechman-Toussaint, 2000), the development of its study, evaluation and treatment in the Spanish-speaking population is still comparatively scarce in both adult populations (Mendez, Sanchez and Moreno, 2001) and in child-youth populations (Olivares, Rosa, Caballo, Garcia-Lopez and Orgiles, 2003). The object of this study, on one hand, is to contribute to alleviating these comparative shortages, and, on the other hand, to develop our own interventions adapted to our cultural contexts. With this double purpose, some applications have already been developed for other adaptations to the Intervention in Adolescents with Social Phobia/Intervención en Adolescentes con Fobia Social (-IASP/IAFS-; Olivares, 2005) for being applied to young adult population in the treatment of individual cases (Olivares, Piqueras and Garcia Lopez, 2005), and groups using intra-subjects treatment designs for the latter case (Garcia Lopez, Ruiz, Olivares, Piqueras, Rosa and Bermejo, 2006). The following are pending: (i) the definitive summary of those adaptations in an ad hoc manuscript, which we have developed for using it in this study (Intervention Program in Young Adults with Social Phobia/Intervención en Adultos Jóvenes con Fobia Social –IPYASP/IAJFS-;Olivares and Rosa, 2005), and (ii) to get to the bottom of applications of more controlled experimental conditions. These last two themes are the core of this document: to test the effects created by IPYASP on Spanish young adult population compared with a Standby List Control Group, under basic experimental design framework. Both, IASP/IAFS adaptations as well as previous applications to this population (Olivares, 2005) have been carried out for all cases, respecting its structure and application process (treatment units, sequence of application of strategies and treatment techniques, homework, etc.), and also updating and adjusting the contents, ranging from treatment units to the interest and needs of the young adult world. This paper was carried out within the Detection and Intervention Program with Social Phobia general framework among the community context carried out in the Unit of Behavioral Therapy environment, of the Applied Psychology Service at the Universidad de Murcia (Spain).
METHOD Subjects The participants were 20 young university students registered in Information Technology, Law, Medicine, Pedagogy, Psychology and Primary School Teaching careers that fulfilled the criteria required by DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) for the generalized social phobia diagnosis. The age average was 18.80 years old (SD: 0.83; range: 18-20), being most of them women (74%) in 1st and 2nd years (85%). Regarding family history, 20% had a relative in the 1st or
Treatment of Young Adults With Generalized Social Phobia
3
2nd degree that has and/or had a social phobia; 11% has relatives suffering other psychological problems. None of the participants had been treated previously for psychological problems. One hundred percent of the participants treated attended all of the program‘s sessions (12 sessions). Table 1 shows other relevant data related to the subjects according to their experimental status. Table 1. Measurements of other subjects variables
CO-MORBIDITY
IPYASP/IAJFS SLCG (n = 10) (n =10) Age M 18.90 18.70 T.D. 0.87 0.82 Gender Young Men 2 (20.0) 3 (30.0) Young Women 8 (80.0) 7 (70.0) Academic 1º University 4 (40.0) 5 (50.0) year 2º University 5 (50.0) 3 (30.0) 3º University 1 (10.0) 2 (20.0) Number of Relationship with M 4.50 3.90 phobic social others T.D. 0.53 0.87 1 situations for Performance M 2.70 3.50 with others T.D. 0.95 1.18 Anguish without agoraphobia 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Agoraphobia 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Generalized Anxiety 3 (30.0%) 1 (10.0%) Obsessive Compulsive disorder 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Specific Phobia 5 (50.0%) 4 (40.0%) Post-traumatic Stress disorder 1 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) Major depressive episode 0 (0.0%) 1 (10.0%) Dysthymic problems 4 (40.0%) 4 (40.0%)) Alcohol Consumption 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Abuse of toxic substances consumption 2 (20.0%) 1 (10.0%) Disorder of Personality by Avoidance 1 (10.0%) 1 (10.0%) Selective Mutism 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) *IPYASP/IAJFS: Intervention in Young Adults with Social Phobia (Olivares and Rosa, 2005) *SLCG: Standby List Control Group *M: Media; *TD: Typical Deviation; *n: Number of subjects. 1 Informed by the participants in pre-test (ADIS-IV; DiNardo, Brown and Barlow, 1994).
Evaluation Instruments All subjects completed the pre-test, post-test and follow-ups of the following evaluation instruments: (i) ―Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory‖ (SPAI; Turner, Beidel, Dancu and Stanley, 1989), which includes three scores: Social Phobia sub-scale score, Agoraphobia subscale score, and the Difference score; (ii) ―Social Phobia Scale (SPS)‖ and ―Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS)‖ by Mattick and Clarke (1998) that measure anxiety facing action and
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social interaction; (iii) ―Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale” (FNES, Watson and Friend, 1969), which evaluates the cognitive component of fear to a negative evaluation; (iv) ―Report of Confidence as a Speaker Questionnaire‖ (RCSQ; Gilkinson, 1942), modified by Paul (1966), so as to evaluate both the fear and security in public speech (before, during and after action); (v) Scale for evaluating ―Self-Statements during Public Speaking Scale (SSPS)‖ (Hofmann and DiBartolo, 2000), which is formed by two sub-scales: positive selfverbalization and negative self-verbalization; (vi) ―Scale of inadaptability‖ (EI; Echeburua and Corral, 1987), an instrument designed to evaluate the degree in which a disorder can affect different daily life areas: work, studies, social life, leisure, couple relationships and family life; (vii) ―Self-Esteem Scale‖ (SES; Rosenberg, 1965) developed to measure satisfaction degree with himself; (viii) the ADIS-IV:C interview (Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV Child Version; Silverman and Albano, 1996), from which it was registered the social situations number of performances and relations classified as phobic in the Social Phobia section, which was taken a dependent variable for calculating the clinical significance of treatment effect.
PROCEDURE Subjects were recruited as follows: (a) The SPAI was applied to a 625 voluntary participants sample, registered in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd years of the mentioned university studies, in 2 centers in the Region of Murcia and 2 in the Valencia Community, selected randomly among those existing in both autonomous Spanish communications. (b) Correction of paper and pencil tests, selection of persons starting from a previously determined cut off point of a SPAI total score (SPAI 98 —Olivares and Rosa, 2005—). (c) Individual interview to 87 young adults, who surpassed the established cut off point, following the ADIS-IV-L indications (DiNardo, Brown and Barlow, 1994). After the interview, only 52 fulfilled the criteria to issue the Social Phobia diagnosis (20 for Generalized Social Phobia, and 32 for Specific Social Phobia). Only the subjects with Generalized Social Phobia were selected to participate in this investigation, in order to test the IPYASP Program in the most difficult conditions; the others were selected from another treatment group. (d) Random distribution of participants in experimental conditions: 10 subjects in the IPYASP/IAJFS Condition, and 10 participants in the Standby List Control Group. (e) Pre-test evaluation, treatment application, and later evaluations for the post-test and those for the follow-up. The evaluation was done by four collaborators (two men-women couples), specifically trained to accomplish the tasks of selection, diagnosis and pre- and post-treatment evaluation; one couple brought to the pre-test evaluation, and six month later, the follow-up; the other couple evaluated the post-test, and follow-up twelve months later. The team was informed about the data until the second follow-up was carried out; that is to say, the evaluations were disguised to avoid confusion.
Design An experimental design was used as an intra factor (pre-test, post-test and follow-ups) and another inter factor (IPYASP vs. Standby List Control Group). The integrity of treatment
Treatment of Young Adults With Generalized Social Phobia
5
was controlled by developing a written manual ―Intervention in Young Adults with Social Phobia‖ (–IPYASP/IAJFS; Olivares and Rosa, 2005). The treatment sessions were accomplished in spaces adapted for such purpose in the campus of two of the four universities during an accessible schedule for participants, and it was always in the morning. No experimental mortality was produced. All of the experimental conditions were found in 2 treatment groups formed by 5 participants. The subjects were randomly assigned to the two experimental groups, and evaluated before beginning the treatment (pre-test), immediately after finishing (post-test) and after 6 and 12 months (follow-up). The treatment was applied by 2 different sex therapists, with experience in treating social phobia subjects groups.
Treatment The program applied was IPYASP/IAJFS (Olivares and Rosa, 2005) composed of 12 treatment sessions groups, lasting 90 minutes per week. The basic program components are: (i) Educational component. Information concerning treatment content is given; an explicative model of Social Phobia is submitted; subject‘ goals to be achieved are planned (aimed behaviors) and expectations concerning treatment are examined, as well as each one of the aimed behaviors. (ii) Training in Social Abilities. It consists of topics such as beginning and maintaining conversations, assertiveness, living and receiving compliments, establishing and maintaining friendships, and also training in abilities and skills for public speaking; exercises in cognitive flexibility are included and directed to training the subject in developing alternatives. (iii) Presentation. It is the central element of the program. Almost all activities revolve around it. It is applied on live (simulated and real exhibitions) as in imaginary activities. The IPYASP/IAJFS dedicates ten of its twelve sessions to make the subject to be exposed in both training group context, in the clinical environment, and in natural situations similar to those already practiced during training. The exposition is complemented by using an audio-visual feedback in sessions aimed at training the subjects for public speaking; to which feedback from classmates is added (this occurs in all activities and entertainment sessions). (iv) Cognitive re-structuring techniques. The object of this component is that participants learn to identify automatic negative thoughts produced when past situations are evoked; they anticipate social situations which afraid them, or in which they are immersed, causing them anxiety. It is based upon Beck‘s cognitive therapy and it is applied by following a process that includes education, training and application stages of all the training, as well as the A-B-C Ellis form to discuss automatic and irrational thoughts. Lastly, techniques are included to strengthen the effectiveness of intervention, like training on focusing attention and on creating alternatives. Upon finishing each one of the group sessions, the corresponding homework is provided. IPYASP/IAJFS makes it possible to treat/orient/supervise participants in individual tutoring sessions so as to complement group work. In addition, specific instructions for preventing relapses are also included.
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RESULTS Comparative intra-group and intergroup analysis was brought to. With respect to intergroup, we proceed, first, to prove in both groups, the existence of differences in the pretest, by accomplishing a comparison of averages or frequencies of the measured variable type (Student T test or Pearson Chi-Square). Both results, the socio-demographic and dependent variables indicated that there were no significant statistical differences between the two groups; that is to say, the groups were initially equal (see tables 2), which allowed us to effectuate an inter-group evaluation of the post-test treatment and follow-up effects. For this analysis, we did a Student T test averages comparison. We also calculated effect scope – ES(typified average difference, Hedges and Olkin, 1985), that came upon comparing the differences between groups in different temporary moments. Positive d+ values reflect an improvement in the IPYASP group when compared to the Standby List Group. The analyses were carried out by the SSPS 14.0 (2007) statistical package and MetaWin 2.0 (Rosenberg, Adams and Gurevitch, 2000). With respect to intra-group comparisons, we brought to an Anova with repeated measurements of different dependent variables and later, when necessary, we proceeded post-hoc comparisons. Finally, we analyzed the treatment clinical meaning, using two criteria: (1) Stop fulfilling the criteria for social phobia diagnosis, and (2) partial remission of the initial number of phobic social situations indicated by the subjects in the pre-test (between 75%-99.99%). We used Pearson Chi-Square test to analyze this data.
Inter-Group Comparisons The averages and typical deviations are shown in table 2 together with the value of the T test probability for the variables which only measure anxiety and social avoidance. As we can observe, there are significant statistical differences for all of the mentioned variables (except ASPI-Difference in the post-test) between both groups of treatment in different temporal moments (post-test and follow-ups). This data was confirmed by the effect scope (ES) which, as we can observe, is very high after the intervention (post-test and follow-ups). In this same table, results coming from both treatment conditions from other correlatives or related variables such as self-esteem and adaptation are showed. Once again, the data indicates that there are statistically significant differences between both groups (except Self-esteem in the post-test). The ES are high and very high for the IPYASP/IAJFS group after the intervention (post-test and follow-ups). Table 2. Measurement of anxiety, social avoidance, the cognitive component and other social phobia correlative measurements
Measuremen ts of anxiety and social avoidance
IPYASP/IAJFS (n=10)
SPAI-Social Phobia
Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12
SLCG (n=10)
T
p
ES
M (TD)
M (TD)
T
p
ES
123.70 (11.89) 80.20 (22.18) 57.30 (30.62) 59.60 (29.29)
120.90 (15.60) 117.00 (16.68) 117.00 (16.68) 117.00 (16.68)
0.451 -4.193 -5.414 -5.385
.657 .001 .000 .000
-0.192 1.785 2.306 2.293
Treatment of Young Adults With Generalized Social Phobia
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Table 2 (Continued) IPYASP/IAJFS (n=10) M (TD)
SPAIDifference
SPAIAgoraphobia SPS
SIAS
RCSQ
Number of social phobic situations 1
Correlative
Cognitive component
Number of social phobic situations in regard to be related to1 Number of social phobic situations in regard to performance 1 SSPS
FNES
SELFESTEEM
ADAPTATION
SLCG (n=10)
T
p
ES
M (TD)
T
p
ES
Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12
104.20 (12.05) 69.90 (19.43) 60.90 (19.47) 55.80 (26.40) 19.50 (11.66) 10.20 (5.95) 6.40 (3.91) 3.80 (3.61) 70.80 (8.95) 40.30 (12.49) 31.10 (14.70) 27.10 (13.75) 73.90 (3.78) 41.50 (13.93) 32.10 (15.70) 25.70 (16.99) 60.00 (26.65) 98.80 (11.09) 111.80 (16.64) 116.50 (9.55) 7.20 (1.03) 0.80 (0.92) 0.40 (0.84) 0.40 (0.82) 4.50 (0.52) 0.50 (0.52) 0.20 (0.42) 0.20 (0.42)
99.40 (11.28) 90.10 (27.20) 90.10 (27.20) 90.10 (27.20) 21.50 (13.11) 19.80 (11.44) 19.80 (11.44) 19.80 (11.44) 69.60 (5.50) 71.20 (3.32) 71.20 (3.32) 71.20 (3.30) 72.70 (4.03) 63.90 (17.82) 63.90 (17.80) 63.92 (17.83) 73.40 (4.19) 72.60 (3.71) 72.60 (3.71) 72.62 (3.72) 7.40 (1.51) 7.10 (0.99) 7.00 (0.94) 7.00 (0.94) 3.90 (0.87) 4.00 (0.47) 4.30 (1.05) 4.30 (1.05)
0.919 -1.911 -2.760 -2.861 -0.360 -2.352 -3.502 -4.214 0.768 -7.560 -8.409 -9.854 0.686 -3.130 -4.233 -4.904 -1.570 7.081 10.995 13.549 -0.346 -14.719 -16.500 -16.500 1.857 -15.652 -10.371 -10.371
.370 .072 .013 .010 .723 .030 .003 .001 .645 .000 .000 .000 .501 .006 .001 .000 .134 .000 .000 .000 .733 .000 .000 .000 .080 .000 .000 .000
-0.392 0.814 1.175 1.218 0.153 1.002 1.492 1.796 -0.199 3.220 3.583 4.213 -0.293 1.338 2.428 2.089 -0.669 3.017 4.685 5.776 0.148 6.281 7.027 7.027 -0.790 6.669 4.844 4.844
Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12
2.70 (0.94) 0.30 (0.48) 0.20 (0.42) 0.20 (0.41)
3.50 (1.17) 3.10 (0.99) 3.00 (0.94) 3.01 (0.93)
-1.672 -8.009 -8.573 -8.573
.112 .000 .000 .000
0.717 3.427 3.650 3.650
Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12 Pre-test Post-test Follow up 6 Follow up 12
28.20 (1.93) 16.20 (4.66) 11.10 (4.43) 7.40 (6.07) 26.50 (2.22) 15.70 (3.83) 11.50 (5.64) 9.30 (5.10) 21.20 (3.15) 25.20 (3.19) 26.40 (3.23) 26.40 (3.13) 22.30 (4.29) 12.30 (3.52) 8.60 (4.94) 7.50 (5.12)
27.80 (1.62) 27.20 (1.98) 27.20 (1.98) 27.10 (1.95) 26.10 (2.22) 25.70 (2.35) 25.70 (2.35) 25.70 (2.35) 22.60 (2.27) 22.30 (3.52) 22.30 (3.52) 22.15 (3.50) 22.30 (3.33) 22.30 (3.81) 22.30 (3.80) 22.30 (3.83)
0.502 -6.863 -10.476 -9.792 0.385 -7.028 -7.343 -9.229 -1.139 1.928 2.707 2.747 .000 -6.071 -6.922 -7.313
.622 .000 .000 .000 .705 .000 .000 .000 .270 .070 .014 .013 .999 .000 .000 .000
-0.214 2.926 4.468 4.176 -0.164 2.997 3.130 3.933 -0.185 0.822 1.156 1.172 0.000 2.589 2.952 3.113
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SPAI: Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory; SPS: Social Phobia Scale; SIAS: Social Interaction Anxiety Scale *RCSQ: Report of Confidence as a Speaker Questionnaire. *SSPS: Self-Statements during Public Speaking Scale; FNES: Fear of a Negative Evaluation Scale. *IPYASP/IAJFS: Intervention in Young Adults with Social Phobia * SLCG: Standby List Control Group; *n: Number of subjects. *M: Media; *TD: Typical Deviation; *ES: Effect Scope. 1Informed by ADIS-IV Social Phobias Section (DiNardo, Brown y Barlow, 1994) during pre-test evaluation.
Intra-Group Comparisons Intra-group measurements analysis (Anova with repeated measurements and Student T), carried out on both experimental groups, showed that the subjects in the IASP group lowered their scores for anxiety and social avoidance, and increased them in self-esteem variables, adaptation and number of phobic situations, founding significant differences with respect to the pre-test with a very high level of meaning (p .000). For some variables, the post-hoc differences occurred among other temporary moments (see table 3). It did not occur in the control group which did not reach statistical meaning in any of the scales. Table 3. Intra-group comparison and post-hoc tests
VDs
SPAI-Social Phobia
SPAIDifference
SPAIAgoraphobi a
Moment Temporal Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12 Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12 Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
SPS
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
SIAS
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
IPYASP/IAJFS (n=10) M (TD) F; p Post-hoc comparison 123.70 (11.89) 25.534; p= .000 80.20 (22.18) Pret-seg.1** 57.30 (30.62) Pret-seg.2** 59.60 (29.29) 104.20 (12.05) 14.099; p= .000 69.90 (19.43) Pret-post* 60.90 (19.47) Pret-seg.1** 55.80 (26.40) Pret-seg.2** 19.50 (11.66) 13.292; p= .000 10.20 (5.95) Pret-post* 6.40 (3.91) Pret-seg.1* 3.80 (3.61) Post-seg.2* Seg.1-seg.2* 70.80 (8.95) 57.723; p= .000 40.30 (12.49) Pret-post** 31.10 (14.70) Pret-seg.1** 27.10 (13.75) Pret-seg.2** Post-seg.1* Post-seg.2* Seg.1-seg.2* 73.90 (3.78) 52.956; p= .000 41.50 (13.93) Pret-post** 32.10 (15.70) Pret-seg.1** 25.70 (16.99) Pret-seg.2** Post-seg.2* Seg.1-seg.2**
SLCG (n=10) M (TD) F; p Post-hoc comparison 120.90 (15.60) 117.00 (16.68) 117.00 (16.68) 117.00 (16.68) 99.40 (11.28) 90.10 (27.20) 90.10 (27.20) 90.10 (27.20) 21.50 (13.11) 19.80 (11.44) 19.80 (11.44) 19.80 (11.44)
1.676; p= .196
69.60 (5.50) 71.20 (3.32) 71.20 (3.32) 71.20 (3.30)
0.767; p= .523
72.70 (4.03) 63.90 (17.82) 63.90 (17.80) 63.92 (17.83)
2.760; p= .062
1.124; p= .357
1.150; p= .347
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Table 3 (Continued) RCSQ
Number of social phobic situations 1 Number of social phobic situations in regard to be related to1 Number of social phobic situations in regard to performanc e1 SSPS
FNES
Self-Esteem
Adaptation
Pre-test 60.00 (26.65) Post-test 98.80 (11.09) Seg. 6 111.80 (16.64) Seg. 12 116.50 (9.55)
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12 Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
7.20 (1.03) 0.80 (0.92) 0.40 (0.84) 0.40 (0.82) 4.50 (0.52) 0.50 (0.52) 0.20 (0.42) 0.20 (0.42)
22.454; p= .000 Pret-post* Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2** Post-seg.1* Post-seg.2** Seg.1-seg.2* 114, 692; p= .000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2** 132.953; p= .000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2**
73.40 (4.19) 72.60 (3.71) 72.60 (3.71) 72.62 (3.72)
1.116; p= .360
7.40 (1.51) 7.10 (0.99) 7.00 (0.94) 7.00 (0.94) 3.90 (0.87) 4.00 (0.47) 4.30 (1.05) 4.30 (1.05)
0.489; p= .993
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
2.70 (0.94) 0.30 (0.48) 0.20 (0.42) 0.20 (0.41)
14.467; p =.000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2**
3.50 (1.17) 3.10 (0.99) 3.00 (0.94) 3.01 (0.93)
0.824, p = .492
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12 Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
28.20 (1.93) 16.20 (4.66) 11.10 (4.43) 7.40 (6.07) 26.50 (2.22) 15.70 (3.83) 11.50 (5.64) 9.30 (5.10)
27.80 (1.62) 27.20 (1.98) 27.20 (1.98) 27.10 (1.95) 26.10 (2.22) 25.70 (2.35) 25.70 (2.35) 25.70 (2.35)
0.824, p = .492
Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12 Pre-test Post-test Seg. 6 Seg. 12
21.20 (3.15) 25.20 (3.19) 26.40 (3.23) 26.40 (3.13) 22.30 (4.29) 12.30 (3.52) 8.60 (4.94) 7.50 (5.12)
58.427; p =.000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2** 45.033; p =.000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2** Post-seg.1* Post-seg.2** Seg.1-seg.2** 16.994; p =.000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2* 33.615; p =.000 Pret-post** Pret-seg.1** Pret-seg.2** Post-seg.1* Post-seg.2*
22.60 (2.27) 22.30 (3.52) 22.30 (3.52) 22.15 (3.50) 22.30 (3.33) 22.30 (3.81) 22.30 (3.80) 22.30 (3.83)
0.135, p = .938
0.547; p= .654
0.844, p = .482
0.000; p = .999
The number of subjects per group is 10. * p< .05; ** p< .01. SPAI: Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory; SPS: Social Phobia Scale; SIAS: Social Interaction Anxiety Scale *RCSQ: Report of Confidence as a Speaker Questionnaire; *SSPS: Self-Statements during Public Speaking Scale; FNE: Fear of a Negative Evaluation.
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Clinical Meaning The clinical meaning of the changes was determined by examining subjects percentage showing a decrease in feared social situations showed in the pre-test, which implied a 100% remission (Stop meeting the criteria for social phobia diagnosis by the DSM-IV-TR –APA, 2000–), or which is found between 75% and 99.99%. For both criteria, the percentages of improvement were, respectively, 50% in the post-test, and 80% in the both, 6 and 12 months follow-up applied to IPYASP/IAJFS group, compared with 0.0% of the Standby List Control Group for the same measurements. Taking into consideration the first criteria (elimination of the problem), significant differences were found in both groups, in the post-test and during the follow-ups, favoring the IPYASP group [ 2(1) = 6.667, p = .010; 2(1) = 13.333, p = .000; 2(1) = 13.333, p = .000]. Regarding second criteria (remission between 75% and 99.99%), only significant statistical differences were found in the post-test [ 2(1) = 6.667, p = .010] since the number of participants that improved in this range, the Standby List Control Group rose to 20.0% and none of the subjects in the IPYASP/IAJFS group showed improvement within this interval [ 2(1) = 2.222, p = .136, for the 6 month follow-up, and 2 (1) = 2.222, p = .136 for the measurement after 12 months].
DISCUSSION The results found show a significant statistical decrease in the anxiety and social avoidance responses of the group treated in comparison with the control group, both, in posttest and in the follow-ups. These results coincide with those found in adolescent and adult populations (Garcia-Lopez et al., 2006; Hayward et al., 2000; Olivares and Garcia-Lopez; 2001; Taylor, 1996). On the other hand, the results have also allowed us to prove that in the post-test, 50% of the subjects treated did no longer inform us any phobic social situation; in other words, they no longer fulfilled the criteria required for social phobia diagnosis, and the other 50% had reduced the number of phobic social situations informed in the pre-test above 75%. This data improved in the follow-up, exactly as occurred in other studies in which presentation techniques and cognitive restructuring have been applied (see Mendez, Sanchez and Moreno, 2001) and in those obtained by our own group upon applying the IASP (for example, see Olivares, Rosa and Olivares-Olivares, 2006 or Olivares-Olivares, Rosa and Olivares, 2007). On the other hand and due to ―self-esteem‖ and ―adaptation‖ variables, the results also showed higher scores for the subjects treated when compared with those who were not treated (control group). This data coincides with the adult Spanish population ones, provided by Salaberria and Echeburua (1995). Concerning effect scope, we proved that this is very high for the post-test as well as during follow-ups, once again corroborating improvement in subjects treated when compared to those not treated, and these are consistent with those found by our group in previous investigations about the treatment of adolescents from 14 to 17 years old (according to Olivares, Rosa and Piqueras, 2005). The effect scope allows us to conclude that the IPYASP/IAJFS Program is likely effective (see Cohen, 1988). With respect to intra-group comparisons, it must be indicated that the treated group reached significant improvement in both, post-test and follow-up for all variables measured,
Treatment of Young Adults With Generalized Social Phobia
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while the Standby List Control Group did not show improvement any improvement in none of the pre-test or post-test variables. In reference to future investigations, we feel that it would be important to consider the following, among other aspects: To increase the number of subjects participating in order to increase the size of the experimental groups, including new experimental conditions to allow us to test new hypotheses; to present observational measurements to evaluate the effect of more objective treatments, to use parents (couples, friends, etc.) as informers about the changes produced in the subjects, so as to study the social validity IPYASP/IAJFS effects; to analyze the degree of effectiveness upon considering the degree of generalization of the disturbance (see Piqueras, Olivares and Lopez-Pina, 2007); to investigate under controlled conditions the contribution of different components of the IPYASP/IAJFS Program to determine which are more effective for provoking therapeutic change, as well as for analyzing if these are additional or interactive acts in order to try to understand and to explain the reasons under this proved change operates; to study if the effects of this Program are more influenced when applied to a group or to an individual; to analyze the use of audiovisual feedback as compared to peers feedback, etc. Finally, we would like to state that in our case, we have proceeded as opposed to the way previously used for adaptation of psychological treatment in the English-speaking environment: First, the effectiveness was tested in the adult population, and later the protocol was modified for application on the child-young population. Thus, to mention only two meaningful examples: Social Effectiveness Therapy for Children –SET-C– (Beidel, Turner and Morris, 2000) was derived from Social Effectiveness Therapy –SET– (Turner, Beidel, Cooley, Woody and Messer, 1994) and the Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Adolescents –CBGT-A– (Albano, Marten and Holt, 1991) from the Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy –CBGT– (Heimberg, 1991). We developed a specific program for the adolescent population between from 14 to 18 years old, and now we are verifying the validity of our adaptation to young adult population, in other words, the next age generation.
REFERENCES Albano, A.M., Marten, P.A. & Holt, C.S. (1991). Therapist‘s manual for cognitive-behavioral group therapy for adolescent social phobia. Unpublished manuscript. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th. Ed. Reviewed text). Washington, DC: APA Beidel, D. C., Turner, S. M. & Morris, T. L. (2000). Behavioral treatment of childhood social phobia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 1072-1080. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd. Ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. DiNardo, P. A., Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. (1994). Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV (Lifetime version). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation Echeburúa, E. & Corral, P. (1987). Escala de Inadaptación. Unpublished manuscript. García-López, L. J., Ruiz, J., Olivares, J., Piqueras, J. A., Rosa, A. I. & Bermejo, R. (2006). Aplicación de un programa de tratamiento multicomponente para adolescentes con ansiedad social en población joven adulta: Un estudio piloto. Psicología Conductual, 14, 63-73.
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Gilkinson, H. (1942). Social fears as reported by students in college speech classes. Speech Monographs, 9, 141-160. Hayward, C., Varady, S., Albano, A. M., Thienemann, M., Henderson, L. & Schatzberg, A. F. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for social phobia in female adolescents: Results of a pilot study. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 721-726 Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Heimberg, R.G. (1991). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of social phobia in a group setting: A treatment manual (2nd. Ed.). Unpublished manuscript. University at Albany-State University of New York. Hofmann, S. G. & DiBartolo, P. M. (2000). An instrument to assess self-statements during public speaking: Scale development and preliminary psychometric properties. Behavior Therapy, 31, 499-515. Kessler, R.C., Stang, P., Wittchen, H-U., Stein, M.B. & Walters, E.E. (1999). Lifetime comorbidities between social phobia and mood disorders in the United States National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 29, 555-567 Magee, W.J., Eaton, W.W., Wittchen, H.U., McGonagle, K.A. & Kessler, R.C. (1996). Agoraphobia, simple phobia and social phobia in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 159-168 Mattick, R. P. & Clarke, J. C. (1998). Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutinity fear and social interaction anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 455-470. Méndez, F. X., Sánchez, J. & Moreno, P. (2001). Eficacia de los tratamientos psicológicos para la fobia social: un estudio meta-analítico. Psicología Conductual, 9, 39-59. Moreno, P. J., Méndez, F. X. & Sánchez, J., (2000). Effectiviness of cognitive-behavioural treatment in social phobia: a meta-analytic review. Psicothema, 12, 246-352 Olivares, J. (Ed.) (2005). Programa IAFS. Protocolo para el tratamiento de la fobia social en adolescentes. Madrid: Pirámide. Olivares, J. & García-López, L. J. (2001). Un nuevo tratamiento multicomponente para adolescentes con fobia social generalizada: Resultados de un estudio piloto. Psicología Conductual, 9, 247-254. Olivares, J. & Rosa, A. I. (2005). Un estudio sobre los datos normativos del ―Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory‖ en su aplicación a adultos jóvenes españoles. Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológicos. Facultad de Psicología. Universidad de Murcia (España). Unpublished paper. Olivares, J., Piqueras, J. A. & García-López, L. J. (2005). Tratamiento de un adulto joven con fobia social generalizada. In J. P. Espada, J. Olivares & F. X. Méndez (Eds.), Terapia Psicológica. Casos prácticos (67-91). Madrid: Pirámide. Olivares, J. & Rosa, A. I. (2005). Programa ―Intervención en Adultos Jóvenes con Fobia Social‖. Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológicos. Facultad de Psicología. Universidad de Murcia (España). Unpublished manuscript. Olivares, J., Rosa, A. I., Caballo, V., García-López, L. J. & Orgilés, M. (2003). El tratamiento psicológico de la fobia social en niños y adolescentes: una revisión meta-analítica. Psicología Conductual, 11, 599-622.
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Olivares, J., Rosa, A. I. & Olivares-Olivares, P. J. (2006). Atención individualizada y tratamiento en grupo de adolescentes con fobia social generalizada. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 6, 565-580. Olivares, J., Rosa, A. I. & Piqueras, J. A. (2005). Detección temprana y tratamiento de adolescentes con fobia social generalizada. Psicothema, 17, 1-8. Olivares-Olivares, P. J., Rosa, A. I. & Olivares, J. (2007). Validez social de la intervención en adolescentes con fobia social: padres frente a profesores. Terapia Psicológica, 25, 63-71. Piqueras, J. A., Olivares, J. & López-Pina, J. A. (2007, en prensa). Empirical validation of a new proposal about delimitation and operationalisation of the subtypes of social phobia in a sample of Spanish adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self Image. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rosenberg, M. S., Adams, D.C. & Gurevitch, J. (2000). MetaWin 2.0: Statistical software for meta-analysis. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc. Spence, S. H., Donovan, C. & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (2000). The treatment of childhood social phobia: The effectiveness of a social skills training based cognitive-behavioral intervention, with and without parental involvement. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 713-726. SPSS 14.0 (2007). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. SPSS Inc. Taylor, S. (1996). Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatments for social phobia. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 1-9. Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., Dancu, C. V. & Stanley, M. A. (1989). An empirically derived inventory to measure social fears and anxiety: The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 1, 35-40. Turner, S.M., Beidel, D.C, Cooley, M.R., Woody, S.R. & Messer, S.C. (1994). A multicomponent behavioral treatment for social phobia: Social effectiveness Therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 381-390 Watson, D. & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448-45.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
SOCIAL ANXIETY ASSESSMENT THROUGH SELF-REPORT AND AUTOMATIC PROCESSING OF EMOTIONAL INFORMATION María Isolde Hedlefs Aguilar¹ Ernesto Octavio López Ramírez1, and César Jesús Antona Casas2 1
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, México 2 Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Spain
ABSTRACT A sample of 192 university students was divided into two groups. The first group (experimental) comprised those individuals with the highest scores on the ―Fear of negative evaluation‖ (FNE, Watson and Friend, 1969) and the ―Social avoidance and distress‖ scales (SAD, Watson and Friend, 1969). The second group (control) consisted of students who had obtained the lowest scores in both scales. Both groups were required to participate in one affective priming study in order to compare automatic valence recognition latencies using stressful word pairs related to social fear and social phobia, as well as positive, negative, and neutral words. Only the experimental group showed affective priming for social fear and social phobia. The control group showed no priming effect for any experimental condition. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for an integral diagnostic system of social anxiety disorder that takes into account automatic and controlled emotional appraisal of social stressful events.
Keywords: Social anxiety, social phobia, social anxiety disorder.
INTRODUCTION Anxiety consists of a scattered feeling of fear experienced on the cognitive (e.g., thoughts, mental images, memories), physiological (e.g., heart rate increase, sweating, changes in breathing), and motor/physical (e.g., escape and avoidance reactions) levels. Anxiety in itself is neither good nor bad; it needs to be contextualized and its consequences must be assessed in order to address it. Anxiety can take many shapes and be linked to highly varied stimuli. In cases where the anxiety is derived from social situations we speak of social anxiety. Undue social anxiety greatly affects sufferers, since it usually impairs their social performance, fosters subjective unhappiness, and damages their relationships with other people. Social phobia can occur when the degree of social anxiety is such that it plainly interferes with the daily life of sufferers (APA, 2000). Although assessments of social anxiety
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and phobia often employ self-report instruments (e.g., interviews, scales, inventories, questionnaires) or behavioral observation, automatic cognitive processing of emotional information is also quite meaningful. The literature, in fact, confirms an automatic cognitive bias among social anxiety and phobia sufferers. From a cognitive perspective, different emotional disorders involve different cognitive resources. Specifically, anxiety can prompt cognitive mechanisms related to fear while depression is often associated with a feeling of loss and failure (Mogg & Bradley, 2000). Cognitive literature has established a link between many preattention and selective attention information processing mechanisms and anxiety (MacLeod, 1998; Mathews & Harley, 1996; Mathews & Milrroy, 1994; Mathews & Wells, 2000a; 2000b). Depression, on the other hand, activates cognitive mechanisms of sustained attention, usually focusing on autobiographical events and mechanisms linked to the individual‘s memory (Dalgleish et al., 1997). MacLeod, Mathews and Tata (1986) have conducted experimental tests in which spatial attention to emotional stimuli could be assessed through recognition latencies for visual input presented on a computer screen. Typically, the subject was presented with a series of word pairs, one word on top of the other. In the key trials, one of the words signaled a threatening event while the other one remained neutral. Each pair appeared on screen for a brief moment (500 miliseconds) and then gave way to a visual object (a black dot), which appeared where one of the words used to be. Subjects had to respond as quickly as possible by pressing one of the computer‘s keys to indicate the appearance of the dot. Interestingly, individuals with emotional anxiety disorders tended to respond more quickly to dots appearing right after anxiety-related words than to those that took the place of neutral words (for a summary, see Mathews & MacLeod, 1994). Cognitive literature has also recorded biases in the automatic processing of emotional information in relation to different types of stress-inducing events (Mogg & Bradley, 2000). One of the present study‘s main goals is to determine if, during the automatic processing of emotional information, social situation-related words (e.g., those employed in the study‘s social anxiety assessment questionnaires) elicit consistent responses on the part of individuals catalogued in accordance with the scores provided by the questionnaires. If this is indeed the case, this should lead to a more comprehensive type of diagnostic. The subject‘s explicit and conscious responses to social anxiety questionnaires can be confirmed by a diagnostic interview (e.g., ADIS-IV in the case of social phobia; DiNardo, Brown, & Barlow, 1994) and complemented by an assessment of potential emotional cognitive dysfunctional biases that escape the individual‘s conscious control in social situations or events.
METHOD Subjects The sample was comprised of students at the Psychology School of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León (Mexico). Participation was voluntary. In order to be included in the high social anxiety group (experimental group from hereon) subjects had to fulfill the following criteria: a score of 19 or more points in the Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (FNE, Watson & Friend, 1969) and a score of 12 or more points in the Social Avoidance and Distress scale (SAD, Watson & Friend, 1969). In order to select those subjects with the
Social Anxiety Assessment Through Self-Report…
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highest social anxiety scores the established threshold was similar to or slightly below the mean score registered in other studies that tried to distinguish between subjects suffering from high levels of social anxiety and social phobia and those who did not. In terms of the FNE, Heimberg et al. (1990) and Mattick, Peters & Clarke (1989) have set a 22-24 point threshold to determine social anxiety; according to Villa, Botella, Quero, Ruipérez & Gallardo (1998), the mean for social phobia sufferers is 24,79; Oei, Kenna & Evans (1991) have indicated a score of 20,7 (5,1). Ruipérez, García-Palacios & Botella (2002) report a 26,84 (2,03) score for the generalized subtype and a 20,87 (3,87) for the nongeneral subtype. Regarding SAD, Butler, Cullington, Munby, Amies & Gelder (1984) and Heimberg et al. (1990) have indicated a 18-20 treshold. Villa et al. (1998) reported a 18,77 score among sufferers of social phobia, while Ruipérez et al. (2002) reported a 23,31 (5,29) score for the generalized subtype and 12,62 (5,58) for the nongeneral one. Our experimental group, comprised of 10 individuals, showed a mean score of 21,90 (1,66) for FNE and 17,60 (3,16) for SAD. Our control group was comprised of 13 individuals with low scores in both scales. The threshold was 9 or fewer points for FNE and 2 or fewer points for SAD. The average scores obtained by this 13 person group were 5,69 (2, 68) for FNE and 1, 2 (0,72) for SAD. As has been pointed out, subjects were selected after the collective administration of the FNE and SAD questionnaires. One hundred and ninety two people participated: the average age was 19,9 years (1,44; range 17-23); 158 were women (82,3%), 31 were men (16,1%), and 3 (1,6%) did not indicate their name or sex. All participants were first- to tenth-semester students. Those individuals chosen for the control and experimental groups participated in a subsequent affective priming study (see the procedure section; Fazio, 1995) that tried to assess how the emotional valence for a given word (stressing, negative, positive, or neutral) affected the recognition latency for the emotional valence of a second word. The experimental group was expected to display a greater degree of sensitivity toward words recalling social events regarded as stressing by social anxiety sufferers.
Assessment Instruments This study employed the FNE (Watson & Friend, 1969) and SAD scales (Watson & Friend, 1969). These are often used together given their complementary nature (Echeburúa, 1993) and are popular measurers of social anxiety (Heimberg, Hope, Rapee & Bruch, 1988, Orsillo, 2001). FNE centers on the cognitive aspect while SAD evaluates the physiological and motor aspects. FNE comprises 30 items and SAD 28. Both scales employ a true or false answer format and take a very reasonable time span (collective administration usually takes under thirty minutes). Their authors collected data from a university student sample. After one month, the study‘s test-retest reliability results were 0,8 (FNE) and 0,68 (SAD), and both had a 0,94 internal consistency alpha coefficient (Watson & Friend, 1969). According to Turner, McCanna and Beidel (1987), SAD and FNE were developed on a student population in order to asses degrees of anxiety regarding social evaluation and work well with other instruments designed to measure social anxiety, social approval, or affiliation. At the same time, they point out that, even if both scales are sensitive to anxiety, their construct validity and predictive validity have not been properly examined. Heimberg et al. (1988) sustain that they are useful tools with which to assess social anxiety or measure results in social phobia studies. Finally, both scales are characterized by good psychometric
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properties in adolescent and adult Spanish speaking populations (Bobes et al., 1999; GarcíaLópez, Olivares, Hidalgo, Beidel & Turner, 2001; Villa et al., 1998). Because these scales have not been validated in the context of Mexican populations, this study‘s construct validity must focus on convergent validity. The inventory predictions do not go beyond classifying social phobia sufferers. But if these predictions are correct, then the rigorous experimental evidence provided by the affective priming studies (see below) must corroborate the accuracy of the classifications provided by the questionnaires and demonstrate that social phobia sufferers displayed significantly greater cognitive time than non-sufferers. This would be due to a cognitive bias toward types of information relevant to selective attention-related disorders (Wells & Mathew, 1994); documented variables span from automatic rumination to the use of dysfunctional schemes kept in the long-term memory and related to traumatic life events (Williams, Watts, MacCleod & Mathews, 1997). If those individuals classified as social phobia sufferers show different results than those classified as not affected by the condition, then the information provided by the two sources will lead to the same conclusion, thus validating the inventory construct. The emotional valence identification studies employed SuperLab Pro software, which is capable of presenting high-speed stimuli and registering recognition latencies in milliseconds. The word pairs employed in the study are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Word-pairs selected for the social anxiety group. WORD PAIRS USED IN THE STUDY POSITIVE NEGATIVE Happiness – smile Fear – terror Joy – pretty Anger – torture Love – achievement Resentment – damage Enthusiasm – brilliant Evil – weeping Hope – happy Sadness – upset Gift – affection Failure – punch Wish – April Depression – death Win – faithful Aggression – defeat Beautiful – hug Disillusionment – blood Generous – attention Drown – lie
ANXIETY People - criticize Audience - mistake Evaluation - stupid Disapprove - authority Nervous - discussion Defect - discourse Judgment - ridicule Teacher - tension Group - date Meeting - conversation
NEUTER Table - lake Plate – glass Window – ball Cloud – tree Bounce – tennis Pencil – vase Coffee - light bulb Book – interview Leaf – fresh Backpack – frog
The words related to social anxiety were selected from the items presented in the social anxiety assessment questionnaires. The control was that the Spanish words could not contain more than 10 letters or fewer than 4. In the case of word pairs thought to be connected to social event-related anxiety, an effort was made to avoid any kind of associative or topical links.
Procedure Study participants were received in groups of 4, after which the anxiety questionnaires were administered. Once the control (low scores in both scales) and experimental (high scores in both scales) groups had been selected, participants were scheduled in groups of 5.
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Each subject sat in front of a computer to take the emotional valence study, which consisted of three stages. The first stage explained the procedure to participants, who were then were allowed familiarize themselves with it during a practice session. Once this was finished, they went on to do the experimental trials. Each experimental trial involved three stages: during the first one, a black dot appeared in the middle of the computer screen to focus the participants‘ gaze on the place were the words would later appear. The first word was then shown for 250 milliseconds, so that they could read it in silence. After 50 milliseconds of blank screen, the second word was shown and it was up to the participant to decide if it had an emotional connotation or not and press the pertinent computer key. Once this word disappeared, the black dot came back and the sequence started all over again. This task comprised 90 random experimental trials that were completed in approximately 15 minutes. This technique is known as affective priming with emotional identification tasks and uses a variety of stimuli, including words and nonwords (De Houwer, Hermans & Eelen, 1998), slides (Hermans, De Houwer & Eelen, 1994), drawings and pictures (Banse, 2000), and positive and negative smells (Hermans, Bayens & Eelen, 1998) among others (see also Musch & Klauer, 2003).
RESULTS The average correct responses per individual were analyzed using a mixed 2x4 ANOVA. Participants with response errors greater than 20% of the total experimental trials were not processed. One of the members in the control group was eliminated because of errors in the subject‘s responses to the anxiety-related words. The prediction derived from the anxiety inventories was that the 13 members of the low anxiety control group had to respond differently from the high anxiety experimental group ones. Figure 1 illustrates the significant main effect for the group considered in this study.
Figure 1. The group diagnosed with anxiety (right) employed more cognitive time to recognize anxiety words.
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The differential effect in performance displayed by the experimental group would be explained by their susceptibility to anxiety-related words, suggesting a significant main effect given the type of relation between words. This is confirmed in Figure 2, which illustrates performance according to type of relation between words.
Figure 2. A significant main effect is seen when the type of relation is considered. Note that, on average, anxiety words seem to consume more of the participants‘ cognitive resources.
Figure 3. The maximum emotional information processing time displayed by the experimental group in regard to social anxiety-related words.
An analysis of the planned comparisons between anxiety-related and neutral words shows a significant result (F(1,23) = 4,382932, p= 0,047522). The planned comparison between the anxiety-related words and the positive and negative ones also resulted in a significant difference (F(1,23) = 23,94578, p= 0,000061). Given these differences, it becomes important
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21
to find out whether this result is related to the performance of the experimental group. Figure 3 illustrates both groups‘ performances according to the different experimental conditions. A planned comparison solely between the anxiety-related words and the experimental and control groups shows a statistically significant difference (F(1,23) = 6,926400, p = 0,014907). However, when the control group‘s anxiety words are compared with the positive and negative ones, no significant difference can be found (F(1,23) = 3,875856, p = 0,061151). This is also the case when comparing the anxiety-related words and their neutral counterparts: F(1,23) = 3,499103, p= 0,074181. On the other hand, the experimental group shows a significant difference (F(1,23) = 4,529523, p= 0,044249) when comparing anxiety-related words with neutral ones, and also when comparing anxiety words with their positive and negative counterparts (F (1,23) = 23,95612, p= 0,000061). It seems that only the group diagnosed as suffering from social anxiety or phobia showed a cognitive bias involving pre-attentive automatic processing. Interestingly, this group shows a link between anxiety-related words and increased cognitive time. This suggests these participants employ more cognitive resources when dealing with stressing social events.
DISCUSSION The emotional identification study confirmed that those individuals with high scores in the social assessment questionnaires also showed a cognitive bias toward social anxietyrelated words, using more cognitive resources on an automatic processing level. It is interesting that the control group member who was eliminated from the analysis entered the wrong responses to the anxiety-related words. Barring any other kind of explanation, this type of performance is frequent among individuals who suffer from emotional disorders but intentionally omit these sorts of stimuli as a coping strategy. A study based exclusively on the questionnaires would not have detected this condition. The individual could have also suffered from some type of emotional disorder in the past. It should be noted that, from an integral diagnostic perspective, emotional dissociation can be diagnosed using these methods. That is, it is possible that there are patients who, both before and after therapy, will intentionally deny that stressing social situations cause them anxiety. By targeting automatic processing levels beyond conscious control, emotional valence identification studies can show whether a subject is responding truthfully or not.
REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th revised edition) (DSM-IV-R). Washington, DC.: APA. Banse, R. (2000). Affective priming with liked and disliked persons: Prime vivibility determines congruency and incongruency effects. Manuscript submitted for publication, Humbold Universität, Beerlin, Germany. Bobes, J., Badía, X., Luque, A., García, M., González, M. P., Dal-Ré, R., Soria, J., et al. (1999). Validación de las versiones en español de los cuestionarios Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, Social Anxiety and Distress Scale y Sheehan Disability Inventory para la evaluación de la fobia social. Medical Clinical, 112, 530-538.
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Butler, G., Cullington, A., Munby, M., Amies, P. & Gelder, M. (1984). Exposure and anxiety management in the treatment of social phobia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 642-650. Dalgleish, T., Taghavi, R., Doost H.N., Moradi, A., Yule, W. & Canterbury, R. (1997). Information processing in clinically depressed and anxious children. Journal of Child Psychology, Psychiatry, Vol. 38, 535-541. De Houwer, J., Hermans, D., & Eelen, P. (1998). Affectivity and identity priming with episodically associated stimuli. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 145-169. DiNardo, P. A., Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. (1994). Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV (Lifetime version). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Echeburúa, E. (1993). Fobia social. Barcelona: Martínez Roca. García-López, L. J., Olivares, J., Hidalgo, M. D., Beidel, D. C. & Turner, S. M. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory, the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents, the Fear of Negative Evaluation scale and the Social Avoidance Distress scale in an adolescent Spanish speaking population. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 51-59. Heimberg, R. G., Dodge, C. S., Hope, D. A., Kennedy, C. R., Zollo, L. J. & Becker, R. E. (1990). Cognitive-behavioral group treatment for social phobia: Comparison to a credible placebo control. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 1-23. Heimberg, R. G., Hope, D. A., Rapee, R. M. & Bruch, M. A. (1988). The validity of the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale and Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale with social phobic patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 407-410. Hermans, D., Baeyens, F & Eelen, P. (1998). Odours as affective-processing context for word evaluation: A case of cross-modal affective priming. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 601613. Hermans, D., De Houwer, J. & Eelen, P. (1994). The affective priming effect: Automatic activation of evaluative information in memory. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 515-533. MacLeod, C. (1998). Implicit perception: Perceptual processing without awareness. In: F. Kirsner, C. Speerman, Maybery, A.O´Brien-Malone and C. Macleod (Eds.). Implicit and Explicit neutral processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A. & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15-20. Mathews, A. & MacLeod, C. (1994). Cognitive approaches to emotion and emotional disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 25-50. Mathews, A. & Milroy, R. (1994). Processing of emotional meaning in anxiety. Cognition and emotion, 8, 535-553. Matthews, G. & Harley, T. A. (1996) Connectionists Models of Emotional Distress and Attentional Bias. Cognition and Emotion,10, 5-15. Matthews, G. & Wells, A. (2000a). Attention, Automaticity, and Affective disorder. Behavior Modification, 24, 52-70. Matthews, G. & Wells, A. (2000b). The cognitive science of attention and emotion. In: Tim Dalgleish and Mick Power. Handbook of cognition and emotion. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Mattick, R. P., Peters, L. & Clarke, J. (1989). Exposure and cognitive restructuring for social phobia: a controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 3-23.
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Mogg, K. & Bradley, B.P. (2000). Selective attention and anxiety: A cognitive-motivational perspective. In: Tim Dalgleish and Mick Power. Handbook of cognition and emotion. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Musch, J. & Klauer, K. C. (2003). The psychology of evaluation: an introduction. In Jochen Musch and Karl Christoph Klauer (Eds.), The psychology of evaluation: affective processes in Cognition and emotion. New Jersey: LEA. Oei, T. P., Kenna, D. & Evans, L. (1991). The reliability, validity, and utility of the SAD and FNE scales for anxiety disorders patients. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 111-116. Orsillo, S. M. (2001). Measures for social phobia. In M. M. Antony, S. M. Orsillo and L. Roemer (directors), Practioner´s guide to empirically based measures of anxiety, (pp. 165 -187). New York: Plenum. Ruipérez, M. A., García-Palacios, A. & Botella, C. (2002). Clinical features and treatment response in social phobia: axis II comorbidity and social phobia subtypes. Psicothema, 14, 426-433. Turner, S. M., McCanna, M. & Beidel, D. C. (1987). Validity of the Social Avoidance and Distress and Fear of Negative Evaluation scales. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 113-115. Villa, H., Botella, C., Quero, S., Ruipérez, M. A. & Gallardo, M. (1998, noviembre). Propiedades psicométricas de dos medidas de autoinforme en fobia social: Miedo a la evaluación negativa (FNE) y escala de evitación y ansiedad social (SADS). Poster presented at the Symposium sobre Fobias y otros Trastornos de Ansiedad, Granada. Watson, D. & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of Social-Evaluative Anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448-457. Wells, A. & Mathews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: A clinical perspective. Hove: Erlbaum Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C. & Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders ( 2nd.ed.). Chichester, England: Wiley.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
CONTINGENCY CONTRAST IN MATCHING TO SAMPLE WITH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS Isaac Camacho1, Mario Serrano2, and Claudio Carpio3 1
Instituto Politécnico Nacional. CICS- UST 2 Universidad de Guadalajara. CEIC 3 Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (FES, Iztacala)
ABSTRACT To evaluate the effect of the difference in response morphology emitted to sample (SS1 and SS2) and comparison stimuli (COS1 and COS2) on the accuracy index, four groups of university students participated in a successive symbolic matching to sample task. The groups were unequal among them by the morphological difference of the response to SS and COS stimuli. The results showed than in the conditions of similarity between SS1-COS1 and SS2-COS2, but with differences between SS1-SS2 and COS1COS2, the participant‘s accuracy was greatly enhanced as opposed to any other type of difference between the stimuli. Results are discussed by the analysis of the role of the difference in the contingency structures in the development of conditional stimulus control.
Keywords: Matching to sample, contingency structures, university students.
INTRODUCTION Conditional discrimination is a particular type of conditional probability arrangement, which is generally presented in a matching to sample task. In such a task, the discriminative or delta properties of stimuli vary given other stimuli occurring before or simultaneously. Figure 1 represents an outline of the contingency structures, which are the conditional relationships between sample (SS), comparison (CoS), their responses (r), reinforcement (ER) and a time interval between each trial (ITI) that define the task. Learning under such conditionalities is regarded as the degree in which a SS controls the presence or absence of responses given to one of the CoS, this phenomenon is known as conditional control. The development of conditional control has been evaluated by systematically manipulating the value of some variables of interest (inter trial interval duration or response number to sample stimuli). Such variations can be grouped under one of the following criteria: a) between phases (Holt & Shafer 1973; Nelson & Wasserman, 1978; Pilgrim,
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Isaac Camacho, Mario Serrano and Claudio Carpio
Jackson & Galizio, 2000; Weavers, Foster & Temple, 1998; Wilkie & Spetch, 1978), b) between groups (Cooper, 1989; Lionello & Urcuioli, 1998; Lionello-DeNolf & Urcuioli, 2000; Santi, 1982) and c) between groups and phases (Zentall, Sherburne & Urcuioli, 1993). A constant factor in these studies is that, independently of the criteria, the value of the independent variable remains the same for the contingency structures in effect during the task. Contingency structure 1 SS1
r CoS1
r ER ITI
Contingency structure 2 SS2
r CoS2
r ER ITI
Figure 1.
However, difference between the elements that constitute the contingency structures of the task is a condition which has been reported as positive in the development of conditional control, for example when deferential outcomes (Brodigan & Peterson, 1976; Cohen, Looney, Brady & Aucella, 1976; DeLong & Wasserman, 1981) or when different sample response requirements are used (Eckerman, 1970; Lyndersen & Perkins, 1974). In their studies, Eckerman (1970), Lydersen & Perkins (1974) y Cohen, Looney, Brady & Aucella (1976), showed that difference between conditional arrangements established by different sample responding had an important effect on conditional control. Even Eckerman (1970) proposed a model which was based upon differential sample responding. To extend the knowledge on the role of the contingency structure difference given differential sample responding, now by morphology difference, the present study evaluated the effect of morphologically different sample and comparison responding on precision index in a matching to sample task with human participants.
METHOD Subjects Twenty students from the second semester in the psychology school of Iztacala College of Superior Studies (UNAM).
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Instruments A four- responses device was used. Their dimensions were: 52 cm. long by 16 cm. high and 16 cm. wide. The central panel of the device was divided into four 13 cm. portions. At the center of each one of them was a 12 cm. diameter hole and the response device was found at the bottom thereof: In the first hole, there was a button; in the second one, a lever; in the third one, a chain, and in the fourth hole, there was a movement sensor. To record the answers and the stimuli programming, a Pentium II computer was used along with a SuperLab Pro Beta 2.1 program.
Procedure Four groups were formed with five persons each. The assignment of a person in each group was randomly done. The groups differed between themselves from the differentiation of contingency structures. Differentiating conditions refer to the assignment of the same response device or a different device for each stimulus to be used in the task of matching the sample, which necessarily implies an equal or different coordination of the body‘s reactive systems as a response to each stimulus. The subjects of each group were exposed during the same session to two phases: 1) The phase for establishing the response, which consisted in the successive and random presentation of all of the stimuli to be used in the experiment and the specification of the response device corresponding to each one, and 2) the training phase, during which a task for equaling the successive sample was implemented. Group 1. Phase one began with the presentation of the following instructions on the monitor screen: “Hello. The first thing you have to do is get to know the response console in front of you. On the front side of the console there are four holes, inside of each one there is a response device. Each device is marked by its generic name. Now, activate each one with one hand: move the lever, press the button, touch the sensor and pull the chain. When you are familiar with each one, inform the researcher so that the session may begin. During the session different symbols will be presented on the screen of the monitor and what you have to do is to discover which device must be activated when each symbol appears. This is very important because your success on the experiment depends on this. Ready?” Afterwards, the four stimuli to be used were presented at random. The criterion for cancellation of each one was the manipulation of a response device. After each activation of the device, one of the following texts appeared on the monitor screen: a) ―CORRECT, YOU USED THE CORRECT DEVICE‖ or b) ―INCORRECT, YOU DID NOT USE THE CORRECT DEVICE‖ according to the following arrangement: SS1 – press the button, SS2 press the button, CoS1 – press the button, CoS2– press the button. Under this programming, 12 tests were carried out (3 presentations for each stimulus). Immediately afterwards, the following instructions appeared on the monitor screen: ―NOW YOU MUST RESPOND MORE QUICKLY‖. Once again at random, the same stimuli were presented, but now the criterion for their cancellation was the response device activation or a 3 sec time lap. If there was no response during this period of time, a message appeared: ―YOU MUST RESPOND
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Isaac Camacho, Mario Serrano and Claudio Carpio
MORE QUICKLY‖ and the trial was repeated. Without considering the repetition trials, this phase lasted another 12 trials, making a total of 24 trials. Next, phase two started. At the beginning the following instructions were displayed: “Good. Now your task will be to identify which symbol matches other symbols; in other words, which ones are pairs. You must remember which device must be used to respond to each symbol, but now the most important task is to identify the pairs. First, you will see a symbol. Examine it and activate the corresponding device. When this is done, the symbol will disappear and another one will appear. Look at it rapidly (it will only last for a few seconds) and then decide if this second one matches the first one. If you think it does, activate the corresponding device, if you do not think so, do not do anything and it will disappear automatically. In the beginning you will have to guess, but as you progress, the correct answers and errors will be indicated to you upon searching for pairs. Ready? These instructions were followed by the presentation of one of two possible stimuli displayed on the monitor screen, SS1 or SS2 (two arbitrary symbols); the frequency of presentation of each stimulus was 50% of the trials. The response requirement for termination of this stimulus and the presentation of the comparative stimulus was to push the button. If a different device was activated, the following message will appear: ―YOU ACTIVATED THE WRONG DEVICE‖ and the trial was restarted. As a comparison stimulus any of the following stimuli appeared on the monitor: CoS1 or CoS2 (two arbitrary symbols different from SS1 and SS2). The response requirement for the comparison stimuli was to press the button. Sample and comparison stimuli participated in two types of trials: negative (SS1 – CoS2 y SS2 – CoS1) and positive (SS1 – CoS1 y SS2 – CoS2). If response requirement was not accomplished during the first 3 sec of stimuli presentation, it was cancelled and a 2 seconds inter-trial interval would immediately begin (ITI). The presentation of each comparison was done randomly to avoid bias due to the frequency of positive and negative trial presentation. Four types of response were established: 1) accuracy in performance (AP) when a response to the CoS occurred on positive trials, 2) accuracy by omission (AO) when a response to the CoS on negative trials was not emitted, 3) mistake in performance (MP) when the subject responded to the CoS on negative trials, and lastly 4) mistake by omission (MO) when the CoS response on positive trials did not occur. Once comparison response was issued (only accuracies and mistakes in performance), the consequences were displayed on the monitor screen: 1) ―CORRECT: IT MATCHED‖, for positive trials and 2) ―WRONG: IT DID NOT MATCH‖ for negative trials. Consequences lasted 3 seconds. Trials with correct answers by omission and mistakes by omission did not have programmed consequences, and immediately after the comparison cancellation the ITI began. During the ITI the monitor screen remained in blank and then a new test began. This phase consisted of 64 trials. Group 2. Programmed experimental conditions for this group were the same as for the previous group, except that during phase one, pressing the button (SS1 and CoS1), and moving the lever (SS2 and CoS2) were established as response morphologies, this made contingency structures differ due to the response morphology between them, but remained the same inside each one (See Table 1). Group 3. Programmed experimental conditions for this group were the same as for group one, except that during phase one, pressing the button (SS1 and SS2) and moving the lever
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(CoS1 and CoS2) were established as response morphologies, so that contingency structures did not differ between themselves but they did differ inside each one (See Table 1). Group 4. Programmed experimental conditions for this group were the same as for group one, except that during phase one, pressing the button (SS1) and moving the lever (SS2), activating the sensor (CoS1) and pulling the chain (CoS2), were established as response morphologies. In such an arrangement contingency structures differed between themselves and inside each one (See Table 1) For a synthetic design display, see Table 1. Table 1.
PHASE 1
GROUP
PHASE 2 SS1-a, CoS1-a
G1= intra and between
similarity
SS1---a----CoS1-----a-------ER SS2---a----CoS2-----a-------
SS2-a, CoS2ER
G2=
differentiation between/intra similarity
in
SS1-a, aCoS1-a SS2-b, CoS2-
G3= intra differentiation /between similarity
SS1-a, bCoS1-b SS2-a, CoS2-
G4= intra and between differentiation
SS1-a, bCoS1-b
SS1--a-----CoS1-----a-------ER SS2--b-----CoS2-----b-------ER
SS1---a-----CoS1-----b------ER SS2---a-----CoS2-----b------ER SS1---a---CoS1------b-------ER SS2---c---CoS2------d------
SS2-c, CoS2ER d
Measurements The measurement to estimate the performance of subjects was the precision index. This was calculated by using the two possible types of accuracies and mistakes, by applying the following formula: Precision index = AP+AO/AP+AO+MP+MO.
RESULTS The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the different response morphology to sample and comparison stimuli on the precision index in a symbolic matching to sample task with human participants. This objective‘s guiding axis was: in matching to sample tasks, the precision index‘s value depends on the difference between contingency structures.
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Isaac Camacho, Mario Serrano and Claudio Carpio
Between Structures
Similarity
Difference
1
2
Difference
Intra Structure
Similarity
3
4
Figure 2.
Figure 3 presents the precision index for each group. Group 2 had the highest precision index (1.0), meanwhile Groups 1 and 4 followed showing a 0.838 and a 0.83 index, respectively. Lastly, Group 3 obtained the lowest precision index with a value of 0.64.
Figure 3
In regard to the speed of acquisition, Figure 4 displays precision index for each group according to 8 tests blocks. Group 2 obtained a 1.0 perfect acquisition on all blocks. The next ones were Group 1 and 4 with similar acquisition speed. Lastly, figure shows that Group 3 had the lowest acquisition speed.
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Figure 4
One ANOVA 4 (groups) x 8 (blocks) revealed that there is a main effect in all of the groups [F(3,159)=30.250, p<0.001]. Differences were also found during the training period [F(7,159)=6.726, p<.001], but there were no significant differences found in interaction Group x Block [F(21,159)=1.362, p=0.150]. The main group effects showed that there were no differences in the precision index between Groups 1 and 4; Group 2 obtained the highest index; Group 3, the lowest one.
DISCUSSION Studies concerning both differential responses and differential outcomes in conjunction with this study, allows for the proposition that the difference in contingency structures affects the development of conditional control. However, to estimate the total results of this study, it is necessary to make an additional distinction in the contingency structure analysis. Just as it is possible that a certain difference between contingency structures 1 and 2 exists, it is also possible that inside each one certain parametric properties (e.g. physical dimension, duration, position, etc.) of the stimulus and response events that constitute them make another difference. From now on, this difference inside each structure will be called intra structure contingency differentiation and the first one the between contingency structures difference. Taking these two types of differentiations into account, experimental analysis can rest in the following propositions: a) Conditional relationships between the elements in a task are unified conditional structures and are analytically distinguishable, and b) the differentiation between or intra contingency structures in a task, are conditions that affect conditional control development in specific ways. Both constitute the bases for a Contingency Contrast Model, whose paradigmatic cases of empirical exploration are represented through the following contingency contrast matrix: An advantage of this model is that it allows the integration of variables previously manipulated by other authors. For example, the SS‘s physical dimension in regard to CoS (Santi, 1978); the response requirement to CoS (Wilkie & Spetch, 1978); SS duration with respect to the CoS‘s (Cooper, 1989), or the duration of the inter trial interval (Serrano,
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Isaac Camacho, Mario Serrano and Claudio Carpio
Camacho & Carpio, 2006) can be variables from which investigations derived from the Contingency Contrast Model may be done. In addition, this model can make it possible to recognize a functional general continuum, independently of the variable manipulated, instead of favoring micro-theories construction (Cabrer, Daza & Ribes, 1975). From this model and this study‘s data, it is possible to recognize, first, that there is a specific conditional control effect by the differentiation between/intra contingency structures. Groups 2 (differentiation in between/intra similarity) and 3 (intra differentiation /between similarity) can be considered as extreme cases, while groups 1 (intra and between similarity) and 4 (intra and between differentiation) can be considered to be intermediate cases. In the second place, the differentiation or similarity between and intra contingency structures are conditions whose effects are not isolated but interactive. The results of this study suggest that differentiation between and intra contingency structure similarity are favorable conditions for conditional control development, more so than conditions of between structure similarity and intra structure differentiation and of course more than between-intra similarity and intra-between structure differentiation. Even though this study included all four cases identified in the matrix of contingency contrast, it is necessary that in future studies a detailed evaluation of the specific participation of each of the elements composing the structures is conducted (e.g. differentiation due to duration of the sample, due to delay between sample and comparison, etc.). In addition, a promising route of inquiry could be the systematical exploration of variables whose effects are well known in literature (e.g., reinforcement delay). All of this may be seen in the future, for the time being the data in this study ratifies the basic suppositions the contingency contrast model, and, in general, the study presents it as a viable alternative for future conditional control development research.
REFERENCES Brodigan, D. L., & Peterson, G. B.(1976). Two-choice conditional discrimination performance of pigeons as a function of reward expectancy, prechoice delay and domesticity. Animal Learning and Behavior. 4, 121-124. Cabrer F., Daza, B. C., & Ribes I. E. (1975). Teoría de la conducta: ¿Nuevos conceptos o nuevos parámetros? Revista Mexicana de Análisis de la Conducta. 1, 191-212. Cohen, L. R., Looney, T. A., Brady, J. H., & Aucella, A. F. (1976). Differential sample response schedules in the acquisition of conditional discriminations by pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 26, 301-314. Cooper D. L. (1989). Some temporal factors affecting conditional discrimination. Animal Learning & Behavior. 17, 21-30. DeLong, E. R., & Wasserman, E. A. (1981) Effects of differential reinforcement expectancies on successive matching to sample performance in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes. 7, 394-412. Eckerman, D. A. (1970). Generalization and response mediation of a conditional discrimination. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 13, 301-316. Holt, L. G., & Shafer, N. J. (1973). Function of intertrial interval in matching to sample. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 19, 181-186.
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Goeters, S., Blakely, E., & Poling, A. (1992). The differential outcomes effect. The Psychological Record. 42, 389-411. Lionello, M. K. & Urcuioli, P. J. (1998). Control by sample location in pigeons‘ matching to sample. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 70, 235-251. Lionello-DeNolf, M. K., & Urcuioli, P. J. (2000). Transfer of pigeons‘ matching to sample to novel sample locations. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 73, 141-161. Lyndersen, T.,& Perkins, D.(1974). Effects of response-produced stimuli upon conditional discrimination performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 21, 307314. Nelson, R. K., & Wasserman, E. A. (1978). Temporal factors influencing the pigeon‘s successive matching to sample performance: Sample duration, intertrial interval and retention interval. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 30, 153-162. Pilgrim, C., Jackson, J. & Galizio, M. (2000). Acquisition of arbitrary conditional discriminations by young normally developing children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 73, 177-193. Santi, A. (1978). The role of physical identity of the sample and correct comparison stimulus in matching to sample paradigms. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 29, 511-516. Santi, A. (1982). Hue matching and hue oddity in pigeons: Is explicit training not to peck incorrect hue combinations a sufficient condition for transfer? The Psychological Record. 32, 61-73. Serrano, M., Camacho, I. & Carpio, C. (2006). Intervalos entre ensayos de distinta duración en Igualación de la muestra demorada. Revista Mexicana de Análisis de la Conducta, 32, 1-12. Weavers, R., Foster, M. T., & Temple, W. (1998). Reinforcer efficacy in a delayed matching to sample task. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 69, 77-85. Wilkie, M. D. & Spetch, L. M. (1978). The effects of sample and comparison ratio schedules on delayed matching to sample in the pigeon. Animal Learning & Behavior. 6, 273-278. Zentall, R. T., Sherburne, M. L. & Urcuioli, J. P. (1993). Common coding by pigeons in a many to one delayed matching to sample as evidenced by facilitation and interference effects. Animal Learning and Behavior. 21, 233-237.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
MEANING OF LIFE FOR MEXICAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS WITH A HIGH ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN A PRIVATE UNIVERSITY María de Lourdes Francke Ramm and Rodolfo Bello Nachón Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, campus Monterrey
ABSTRACT The XXI Century International Commission of Education, created by the UNESCO in 1998 has estimated that education is going to solve future problems, supported on four backbones: learning to know, learning to make, learning to live with others and learning to be. The last one, ―learning to be‖ invites us to think about the influence we have, both parents and teachers, on children and young‘s‘ personal maturity and identity which allow them to make their life worth living for. From this point of view, and considering the study carried out by Magaña and others (2004), we established the following researching goals: 1) To evaluate the ―meaning of life‖ for Mexican students who are granted by any kind of academic scholarship at the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey; 2) to explore the results related to personal, academic, professional and familial variables; 3) to compare researching results of the previous study made in Mexico, and 4) to analyze the psychometrical characteristics of the instrument used. The study was carried out in Monterrey, Mexico, in 2005. From a total of 4582 financially aid students, it was obtained a 1515 students sample (31%), between 16 and 27 years old, belonging to 34 different careers. Crumbaugh and Maholick ―Purpose in Live‖ test was applied. It was found that 78.9% of the students show a good meaning of life; a 13.4% is located in an indefinite state; and a 7.7% show a lack of meaning.
Keywords: Meaning of life, personal identity, young, university students.
RESUMEN La Comisión Internacional sobre la Educación para el Siglo XXI, creada por la UNESCO en 1998, ha estimado que la educación resuelva los problemas del futuro, apoyándose en cuatro pilares: aprender a conocer, aprender a hacer, aprender a vivir con los demás y aprender a ser. El ―aprender a ser‖ nos invita a reflexionar sobre la influencia Address for correspondence: Departamento Académico de Administración, División de Administración y Finanzas, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey, Monterrey, N. L., México. Phone.: 52 (81) 8358 2000, ext. 4335-4339, Fax: 52 (81) 8328 4090. E-mail:
[email protected]
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María de Lourdes, Francke Ramm, and Rodolfo Bello Nachón que tenemos, tanto padres como profesores, en el proceso de maduración e identidad personal de los niños y jóvenes, que les permita dotar de sentido su valiosa existencia. Desde esta perspectiva, y considerando el estudio realizado por Magaña y otros (2004), establecimos los siguientes objetivos de investigación: 1) valorar el ―Sentido de Vida‖ en estudiantes mexicanos que cuentan con algún tipo de beca académica en el Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey; 2) explorar los resultados en relación a las variables personales, académicas, profesionales y familiares; 3) comparar los resultados de investigación con los resultados del estudio previo realizado en México, y 4) analizar las características psicométricas del instrumento utilizado. El estudio se llevo a cabo en Monterrey, México durante el año 2005. De un total de 4582 alumnos becados, se obtuvo una muestra de 1515 estudiantes (31%), entre 16 y 27 años de edad, pertenecientes a 34 carreras diferentes. Se aplicó el Test ―Purpose in Live‖ de Crumbaugh y Maholick. Se encontró que un 78.9% de los estudiantes muestran un adecuado Sentido de Vida; un 13.4% se ubica en la zona de indefinición; y un 7.7% muestra falta de Sentido.
Palabras Clave: Sentido de Vida, Identidad Personal, Juventud, Universitarios.
INTRODUCTION All the human beings have a common characteristic: Decision capacity. This capacity is granted to us by liberty: it is an essential and exclusive human beings characteristic. It is around 3 years old, when ―Little Socrates‖ began his amazing method of question about all what he had and saw around him. Such capacity is being on practice, projecting it and perfecting it so as to, during adolescence, emerge with intensity from the deep of the young the true life questions: Who am I?, Where do I come from? What am I doing here? Why now and not before? Why in this family? What living for? In few words, we asked ourselves about life meaning, about our own life. According to Frankl (1997), founder of Logotherapy, psychotherapist school based its therapeutical action on a will to meaning search (sense, purpose) of human beings; the “meaning of life” is defined as the motive, reason and what for; the élan which motivates us to reach a goal, or to act in certain way. That is why nowadays it is an essential topic in a world dominated by liberalism, globalization, changes in couple and family roles and values, means of communication, materialism and consumption impact. As Anatrela (2005) affirms: ―the young are looking for meaning of life over which existence is based on...However, they tend to hang on primary rewarding modalities, approaching to ludic life; they need to go on a spree, without knowing why; looking for determinant environments and sensations which seem to be real; they are ambivalent since they want to find the way both to enter and to run from reality. Moreover, he affirms, ―the young of today are like precedent generations: they are capable to be generous, integral with and committed to causes which make them react and respond, but they have less social references and sense of belonging than their predecessors. They are individualists; they want to make their own election without taking care of common group of values, ideas or laws. Their reference points come from everywhere, and they put them on practice. They take kindly to egalitarianism and tolerance, sunk in fashion and in mass media messages, on which they based their standards. They risk of falling in fashion conformism, like sponges
Meaning of Life for Mexican University Students…
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abandoned to be impregnated, instead of creating their liberty from their reasons to live and to love, which explain their emotional fragility and doubt about themselves.‖ On the other hand, Rojas (2001) describes as ―light‖ the current young, in which weak mind, unsteady convictions, lack of commitments, sui generis indifference are mixed; its ideology is pragmatism; its behavior standard is social effect; its consumption is what is on fashioned; its ethics is based on statistics and inquiries, which substitute its conscience; its values are full of neutrality, lack of commitment and subjectivity. From humanistic point of view, Fizzotti (1974) remarks that existential emptiness is one of the most important problems of our society, which is affected by two big wars: destructive ideologies and traditional values alignment. Its alternatives can be faced from a point of view of a person endowed with intelligence, liberty, autonomy and loving capacity, creative responsibility and values. As Zabalza states (2003), ―it is necessary to increase college education impact, not just in his professional knowledge, but in all aspects of student‘s life. It is necessary to promote another proposals oriented to education and growth, which help the student to reach its personal maturity, to explore and to understand completely who he is as a person, the meaning in his life and his responsibility to others. As humanistic sense educators, it is necessary to think about education as an integral educational and growing process in which it is possible and desirable the students find the meaning in their life. As conscious educators of our responsibility in the students formative process, agreeing with Magaña and others (2004), we also request: What happen to the meaning of life of our students? What is the grade of achievement of their life meaning? How many of them have achieved a useful and appropriate meaning of life to promote and to develop authentically? How many do not have a life meaning or suffer an existential emptiness? Is life sense achievement depends on the career chosen, age, average and years of studies?, Could be any similarities between countries and cities?, and Which actions, as educators, can we take when looking the integral development of our students? This new way to see the real world will allow us to find the answer to the question: What is the meaning of life for our students?
OBJECTIVES To value the meaning of life of Mexican rewarded students at ITESM, campus Monterrey. To explore the relation of the results obtained from other variables, such as age, sex, career, accumulated academic average and parents‘ marital status. To compare the results with a previous study made by another private Mexican university. To analyze the psychometrical characteristics of the instrument used (PIL-T.).
Theorethical Context According to Logotherapy, the first motivating force of man is the struggle for finding a meaning of his own life. Frankl calls it ―will to meaning‖, opposing to hedonism principle (or
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María de Lourdes, Francke Ramm, and Rodolfo Bello Nachón
will to pleasure) which regulates the Freudian Psychoanalysis, and the will to power emphasized by Adler psychology. It has been history, through its various happenings, which has showed us the results of different beliefs regarding what is man‘s essence, and which kind of motivation he needs to be motivated. We have passed by ―biologist‖, ―technical‖, ―pschycologist‖, ―economic‖ and ―sociologist‖ positions. Of all these positions, we have convincing facts testifying human beings might not be reduced to such positions. Therefore, due to this situation, based on man and world‘s reductionistic and utilitarian concept, it is needed to change toward a reflection about the immediate situation, in a double sense, according to Noblejas (2000): to come to reality, to be conscious of the own being, as well as a look to find the real meaning; being these two concepts the existential questions on which life and meaning are focused on. The ―existential analysis‖ concept and term was created by Frankl at the early 30s of last century. Its main objective is oriented to a meaning (sense) of concrete life of the individual, that is, the existential analysis pursues to analyze the development and display of the unrepeatable man‘s life in his unique existence. How is singular existence analyzed? Frankl, cited by Freire (2004) establishes a triple circle of insight about the different meanings the word ―existence‖ may have: 1) the existence is a way of being, the human being, the specific being of man; a being capable of achieving what he wants to be; 2) from such capable being, he possesses the capacity to attach to his existence a determined meaning (internal freedom) to achieve to be one or another kind of person. Therefore, man must face his existence in order to (and needing) (will to meaning) look and to find a meaning to his own existence and, 3) to explain the existence from a man‘s spiritual dimensions, in a way man can purely transcend the body and psychic level, and touch himself his internal spiritual dimension. In this way, from essential dimensional, the existential analysis consists of looking and find the meaning of life in and from spiritual dimension. Briefly, and as Freire (2004) remarks, the existential concept includes three meanings: man‘s singular and specific temporality; existence searching of meaning, and ―will to meaning‖. These three concepts concur in a same and only objective: to find a meaning to the existence, to find a meaning to life. Frankl understands by ―meaning‖ to what each concrete situation means for each particular person. Meaning, facing a specific situation, each human being has the almost unlimited opportunity to carry out different and several actions, which Frankl called values. In this way, the particular answer each person gives is what existential analysis knows as meaning. In this context, it is deduced that ―life meaning‖ can not be granted, but to be discovered. In this way, ―meaning‖ concept is construed as to provide a reason, order or coherence to individual existence; on the other hand, ―purpose‖ concept refers to the intention, to the fulfillment of any function, or to any objective achievement. That our life has sense means we have a purpose and we work for reaching it. There is no situation in life that does not have a real meaning. According to what Frankl (1997) affirms, each situation lived by a person becomes the question of his life. We mean, life asks for man, it asks the man, and he answers only one way: being responsible of his own life and with his own life. Life can be answered only from personal responsibility life can be answered. One of the aspects addressed to meaning search and relevant psychological meaning (lack of sense), consists in quantifying meaning and purpose concepts already existing in individuals. The empirical studies made thereof has been based exclusively on Crumbaugh
Meaning of Life for Mexican University Students…
39
and Maholick (1969) test, Purpose in life (PIL). It deals with a one-dimensional scale, designed for measuring the grade in which the individual experiences the feeling of life‘s meaning and purpose. A low scoring would indicate the existence of a series of psychological adjustment problems (p. e., Padelford, 1974; Sheffield and Pearson, 1974). On the other hand, from Frankl‘s and Logotherapy adherents‘ point of view (1997) in studies made both in West Europe and United States, 20% of people suffer existential emptiness. Likewise, Lukas (2003), Frankl‘s disciple, also sustains in these same studies: those who suffer a bigger existential emptiness are College students. Likewise, another element that remarks existential problems predominance in young people from those countries is the fact that the second cause of death between them, are suicides. For the research, it was taken into account the figures obtained from Brand (1991) about the meaning of life of Mexican students. From such research, it is important to remark the following: ―The students who belong to careers named ―Sciences of Man‖ (Political Administrative Sciences, Sociology, Psychology, Law, Communication and International Relations), have the best life‘s meaning in the first year of their career, regarding the other students. But, on fifth year, they posses a weaker life‘s meaning. On the other hand, the students who belong to careers named ―Economic and Administrative Sciences‖ (Business Administration, Hotels Management, Public Accounting, Economics and Industrial Relations) posses, during the first year of their career, the weakest life‘s meaning; but, on fifth year, they have a better life‘s meaning regarding the other students.‖
METHOD Participants A sample of 1515 rewarded students (31%), men (768) and women (747), of ages from 16 to 27 years old, belonging to ITESM different disciplines and professional programs.
Instruments ―Test Purpose in Life‖ (PIL) of Crumbaugh and Maholick. This instrument has the objective to detect the ―existential emptiness‖. The instrument is composed of 20 items, Likert type, distributed in five areas: 1. Meaning of life, which evaluates the presence of a purpose or mission in life; 2. Satisfaction of his/her own life, which comes from life‘s perception: if it is a ―bored‖ ―routinary‖, ―exciting‖ or painful‖ one; 3. Liberty, it refers to self esteem with respect to personal liberty and responsibility; 4. Fear to death related to death preparation and to be afraid of dying; 5. Life’s valuation, which explores if the person considers his life worth living for. The instrument has also a second part of open items to be analyzed by characteristics.
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María de Lourdes, Francke Ramm, and Rodolfo Bello Nachón
Procedure Instrument‘s application was carried out during the 2005 August-December academic semester. All of the students who currently have any kind of scholarship (4582 students) received, by e-mail, the invitation to participate in our study, by answering the test submitted in the Internet during the second week of October. The time for answer the instrument was approximately 10 minutes. From the 1531 inquiries, we obtained 1515 complete (31%) to effectuate our statistical analysis. The results were statistically analyzed by SPSS.13 program (last version available).
RESULTS In table 1, from the applied instrument, results obtained from gross total per each individual are shown. Instrument‘s minimum score is 20 points and the maximum 140 points. Table 1. Instrument’s total score descriptive measures Statistics Average Medium Mode Standard deviation Variance Direction Kurtosis Minimum Maximum Percentile 10 Percentile 20 Percentile 30 Percentile 40 Percentile 50 Percentile 60 Percentile 70 Percentile 80 Percentile 90
ITESM 114.7 118 126 15.56 242.3 -.386 1.685 45 140 93 103 111 115 118 121 124 127 131
According to the lists used by Crumbaugh y Maholick (1969) a score under 90 indicates a clear lack of meaning; from 90 to 105 it is defined as indefinite state over meaning of life; a score over 105 indicates there are goals and meaning of life. The results found were that 78.9% of the students show a clear ―meaning of life‖ definition; meanwhile, 13.4% is placed in ―indefinite state‖, and 7.7% with the lowest scores shows a lack of ―meaning of life‖.
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Histograma resultados PIL en estudiantes universitarios Tecnológico de Monterrey
Media =114.6964 Desviación típica =15. 56485 N =1,515
150
Frecuencia
100
50
0 40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
Purpose In Life Inventory
Graphic 1. shows PIL items total scoring distribution.
Concerning the instrument contents, it was found that some of the students answers reveal upsetting situations: 17.6% is frequently asking himself about why he is living; 20.6% declares to be confused in the way he sees the world in relation to his life; and 27.8% mentions not to be prepared, and be afraid of dying. In psychometrical characteristics analysis, there is a high reliability, with a .894 value in Alpha de Cronbach test. Likewise, in order to observe the dimensions composing the instrument, it was carried out an explanatory factorial analysis, by using the main components method and Varimax solution. Tables 2 and 3 show the resulting components matrix. According to factor analysis, the scale is composed of four components. The first one of the scale is related to ―Satisfaction of life‖ (items 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 15, 17 y 19) exposing the 21.1% percentage of the explained variance; the second component is related to ―Meaning of
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María de Lourdes, Francke Ramm, and Rodolfo Bello Nachón
life” (items 3, 8, 13 and 20) reveals 14.46% of the explained variance; the third component related to ―Satisfaction with his/her own life” (items 4, 6 11, 12 and 16) expressing the 13.1% percentage of the variance; and the four component related to ―Liberty and Life Control‖ explaining the 8.6% percentage of the explained variance. The four test components reveal the 57.31% from percentage of the explained variance. Table 2. Extraction method: Principal components analysis Comp -onent
Extraction sums of square saturations
Initial self-values
% accumul ated
Rotation sums of square saturations
% accumulated
Total
Varian ce %
Total
Varianc e %
% accumu -lated
3 1
Total
Variance %
8.582
40.868
40.868
8.582
40.868
40.868
4.433
21.107
21.107
2
1.262
6.010
46.878
1.262
6.010
46.878
3.038
14.467
35.575
3
1.169
5.564
52.442
1.169
5.564
52.442
2.753
13.108
48.683
4
1.024
4.877
57.319
1.024
4.877
57.319
1.814
8.637
57.319
5
.921
4.388
61.707
6
.877
4.176
65.883
7
.810
3.859
69.742
8
.723
3.443
73.185
9
.695
3.312
76.496
10
.647
3.082
79.578
11
.616
2.934
82.512
12
.565
2.691
85.204
13
.512
2.440
87.644
14
.472
2.247
89.891
15
.436
2.074
91.965
16
.391
1.860
93.825
17
.368
1.751
95.576
18
.338
1.611
97.187
19
.312
1.486
98.673
20
.279
1.327
100.000
Meaning of Life for Mexican University Students…
43
Table 3. Matrix of PIL items’ components Matrix of rotating components
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20 PIL
1 .654 .818 .168 .460 .815 .378 .022 .314 .592 .526 .392 .348 .003 .096 .327 .244 .383 .240 .560 .371 .676
2 .297 .080 .720 .434 .070 .230 .005 .608 .262 .401 .277 .233 .707 .074 .074 .096 .335 .285 .314 .635 .484
Component 3 .206 .134 .137 .477 .087 .601 .229 .138 .510 .376 .524 .486 .014 -.063 -.567 .625 .285 .144 .153 .311 .394
Extraction method: Principal components analysis. Rotating method: Varimax and Kaiser Standardization.
Table 4. PIL descriptive measures comparison Statistics Average Medium Mode Standard deviation Variance Direction Kurtosis Minimum Maximum Percentile 10 Percentile 20 Percentile 30 Percentile 40 Percentile 50 Percentile 60 Percentile 70 Percentile 80 Percentile 90
ITESM 114.7 118 126 15.56 242.3 -0.384 1.685 45 140 93 103 111 115 118 121 124 127 131
LA SALLE 111.9 115 122 15.35 235.7 -0.918 0.949 51 140 90 101 106 111 115 118 122 125 129
4 .051 .075 .135 .060 .112 .194 .578 .117 .209 .050 .177 .235 .009 .737 .312 .171 .233 .535 .260 .166 .385
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María de Lourdes, Francke Ramm, and Rodolfo Bello Nachón
Regarding the personal variables exploration and its relations to meaning of life, there were not obtained meaningful correlations between age, sex, career, accumulated average and parents‘ marital status. If we compare our results with the previous study carried out by another private Mexican university, we find the following: 1. The population of the study is twice the one they obtained (723 against 1515 students). 2. The students inquired in such study are only from first semester. Our sample includes students of all the semesters (From 1st to 9th semester). 3. In general, the descriptive statistical measures are very similar to those ones we obtained. (see table 4) 4. However, we observe higher scores in our students about ―meaning of life‖: Meanwhile, the percentage of our students showing a clear meaning of life reach 78.9%, in the other university this percentage reaches 55.5%.
CONCLUSIONS According to the students participating in this research, the ―meaning of life‖ is very well defined by most of the students (78.9%). Scoring total distribution was clearly higher to the evaluation list available. This shows that young people see themselves as capable and responsible individuals of their own life. However, this favorable result may come from the fact students are participating in a particular situation: all the participants have any kind of scholarship (credit-excellencesustaining-sport-cultural scholarships); therefore, we think this factor could influence the result about the meaning of life. On the other hand, 13.4% belongs to undefined students. We can say they are in a risk situation which could provoke an existential emptiness feeling; therefore, we must consider it the center of attention. Finally, 7.7% of the students who show a lack of meaning in their lives, even though is a minimum percentage, it is a very important one since it may be revealing an emotional disorder. This group of people may consider its life stagnant or boring; they feel vulnerable to face the socio-environmental context in which they are living; they can be oscillating between boringness and desperation, including, consequently, the different aggression, depression and reality escape ways.
LIMITS AND FUTURE RESEARCH We are conscious our sample is exclusively focused on students that count on any king of scholarship from the university. It might be possible to ask us: Any kind of scholarship influences student‘s perception in front of his life purpose? Any personal experience (accident, sickness, economic crisis, non-desired pregnancy, etc.) affects his perception and meaning of life? Also, we must ask us, How much the relationship with themselves and others influences their life meaning?
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On the other hand, it would be interesting to compare students from public and private universities, considering as one of the main factors the economic one. Another interesting subject would be to validate if extracurricular activities during college time favorably influences a clear sense of life in college young people, being possible to carry out a longitudinal research from the beginning until the end of their college studies.
REFERENCES Antrella, T. (2005). El mundo de los jóvenes: ¿quiénes son? ¿Qué buscan?. Jornadas Mundiales de la Juventud de Colonia, Consejo Pontificio para los Laicos, 15-21, August. Brand R., M. (1991). Investigación del Sentido de la Vida, según Viktor E. Frankl, en Estudiantes de la Universidad Iberoamericana. México: Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Iberoamericana. Crumbaugh, J.C. and Maholick, L. T. (1969). Manual of Instructions for the Purpose in Life Test. Saratoga: Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy. Delors, J. (1998). Declaración Mundial sobre la Educación Superior en el Siglo XXI: Visión y Acción, October 9. Fizzotti, E. (1974). De Freud a Frankl. Interrogantes sobre el vacío existencial. Pamplona: Eunsa. Frankl, V. (1997). El hombre en busca de sentido. Barcelona: Herder. Freire, J. B. (2004). Acerca del hombre en Víktor Frankl. Barcelona: Herder. Lukas, E. (2003). También tu vida tiene sentido. México: Ediciones LAG. Magaña, L. et al (2004). El Sentido de vida en Estudiantes de Primer Semestre de la Universidad de la Salle Bajío. Revista del Centro de Investigación, 6, 22, 2004. Noblejas, M. A. (2000). Palabras para una vida con sentido. Bilbao: Desclée de Brouwer. Rojas, E. (2001, 5th. Ed.). El Hombre Ligth, una vida sin valores. México: Editorial Temas de Hoy. Zabalza, M. A. (2003). Competencias docentes del profesorado universitario, Calidad y desarrollo profesional. Madrid: Narcea, S.A. de Ediciones. Colección: Universitaria.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANING OF VALUES IN STUDENTS FROM A UNIVERSITY OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante University of Veracruz, Mexico
ABSTRACT Researchers such as Escamez, 2003; Figueroa, 2000; Grass, 2001; Pereira (2007); Pereira, 2003; Raths, 1967; Ratzlaff, 2000 and the Mexican Association of Psychology, 1998; suggest the educators‘ responsibility of knowing their students‘ values so as to contribute effectively to strengthen them. The objective was to learn about the psychological meaning university students have concerning their values, by using the qualitative technique of semantic networks. The sample comes from 100 Psychology students: 63 women and 37 men; from 19 to 25 years old; from a middle socio-economic level; instrument validated with a sample of 300 university students. The results refer to the analysis of the defining words from both shifts; honesty (100%) is the main word which defines their values. The results coincide with proposals made by Arias, 2000; Diaz Barriga, 2000; Ratzlaff, 2000; Valdez, 2000; Schmelkes, 1996. They proposed personal growth through values, completely aware of respect and tolerance concepts, which are reflected in an ethical, honest and integral behavior in the presence of professional commitment to be practiced.
Keywords: study of values – values of university students – natural semantic networks – qualitative investigation.
RESUMEN Investigadores como Escámez, 2003; Figueroa, 2000; Grass, 2001; Pereira (2007); Pereira, 2003; Raths, 1967; Ratzlaff, 2000 y Sociedad Mexicana de Psicología, 1998; entre algunos, plantean las responsabilidades del educador ante la necesidad de conocer los valores de sus estudiantes para contribuir en forma efectiva a su fortalecimiento. El objetivo fue conocer el significado psicológico que los estudiantes universitarios tienen acerca de sus valores utilizando la técnica cualitativa de redes semánticas. La muestra fue de 100 estudiantes de Psicología: 63 mujeres y 37 hombres; en un rango de edad de 19 a 25 años, de nivel socioeconómico medio, validando el instrumento con 300 universitarios mas. Los resultados hacen referencia al análisis de las palabras definidoras de ambos
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Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante turnos, coincidiendo en la honestidad (100%) como la palabra principal definidora de sus valores. Los resultados coinciden con lo propuesto por Arias, 2000; Díaz Barriga, 2000;Ratzlaff, 2000; Valdez, 2000; Schmelkes, 1996; y Raths, 1967 en el crecimiento personal a través de valores, con plena conciencia de respeto y tolerancia, para traducirse en un comportamiento ético, honesto y solidario ante el compromiso de la profesión que ejerza.
Palabras clave: el estudio de los valores – valores de estudiantes universitarios – redes semánticas naturales - investigación cualitativa.
INTRODUCTION Human beings act by pursuing goals and searching for objectives; freely, they look for a meaning of life, for their own benefit and for their love ones; however, not all human beings accept their own responsibility for their successes or failures, and when people do not have clear goals in their lives, it is difficult to achieve them, causing an internal feeling of emptiness and frustration, which will be reflected in their activities and inter-personal relationships. Kirschenbaum (2000) refers to the clarification of values as a process allowing personal satisfaction and effectiveness by successful results that make people be motivated and consistent with their values in order to make responsible decisions. When human beings do not have clear values, their goals are confusing and their life do not have meaning; existential emptiness causes depression, devaluation, handicap, a loss of interest in improving lifestyles, anguish, mood alterations, psycho-social problems, alterations in their interpersonal relationships and, little by little, an incapacity to recognize their good decisions and limitations which can lead them to a solitary, useless and insignificant life. Values may be considered to be personal constructs that are highly esteemed and appreciated by individuals: those internal constructs that sustain their beliefs and a positive mental attitude (Delgado, 2001; Hill & Stone, 2000); those they would be willing to suffer or to sacrifice them, and even, to die for, if necessary. Thus, all cultures try to establish the best religious, political and cultural values from their traditions, although values concept will depend on the point of view adopted, and its meaning will vary from one individual to another and from one culture to another (Grass, 2001; Pereira, 2003; Ratzlaff, 2000). In addition to permitting teachers to promote human development in their students, understanding it as a process which permits the use of the ability possessed by all human beings and, upon their graduation, the values acquired will concede them to practice their activities as qualified professionals who are competent, socially and humanly responsible; as well as being able to preserve the well-being of their future patients, society and their environment (Escamez, 2003; Figueroa, 2000; Mexican Association of Psychology, 1998). Pereira (2007) and Raths (1967) indicate educators‘ responsibility due to values experienced, since they must promote them and contribute in such a manner so that each student in formation is free to elect his/her own system of values. Their objective is to help students have contact with those things valuable for them, which help them to discover the reality of their professions. The purpose was to clarify their values and once they are recognized and accepted, to strengthen them or change them, if they lack any consistency.
Psychological Meaning of Values in Students From a University of Veracruz…
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Schmelkes (1996), comments that values cannot be studied like a subject, but like a process in every person during his/her different developmental and maturational stages. For that reason, it is advisable to develop processes that let to discover methodological forms which favor a critical and autonomous appropriation of values, because even if they are defined at a personal level, the process of defining them is necessarily social, and it involves analysis, reflection, alternative presentations, a consequences revision; processes acquiring the necessary richness only when carried out in a respectful discussion context, including the opening to inherent emotions. Arias (2000), Calvo & Iriarte (2001); Cortina & Conelli (2002) express that the debate about the formation of values is an old issue, as well as to prove the loss of them among the students. Irreverent and rebellious behavior along with failure and existential emptiness attitudes were found, especially in university students. On the other hand, theoretical discussions also increased in their diversity and complexity, both to explain individual and collective values and anti-values. And a multitude of ethical, religious, moral and political proposals claimed their right to be applied by the society. With the enormous variety of values linked to diverse lifestyles, the challenge of educators increases; however, in order to firmly determine the type of values to be transmitted, it is necessary to reach a position, according to each university mission and available resources. The most important is to act, even if success is not guaranteed; to act with tolerance, that is to say, to construct a space for dialog in which individuality, beliefs and opinions are respected, and to understand that even the most solid convictions submitted as an alternative, may be rejected by someone, but that does not mean it is wrong. Diaz Barriga (2000), Escamez, Garcia & Sales (2002) mention that values formation for democracy implies a culture based on a set of values, attitudes, beliefs and expectations through which citizens and social groups define their positions concerning matters of public interest. The principles to be considered as a guide, in and for cultural values are: liberty, responsibility, equality, justice, honesty, respect and tolerance. The educational system must have as a goal to make the students appreciate honesty as the guiding value of all their other values, and also be clear on the anti-values which corrupt and damage the well-being and development of the community. Valdez (2000) works on natural semantic networks as a valuable technique that provides abundant information within qualitative investigation; it also provides data that is strongly related to the word solicited (stimulus), in order to be semantically interpreted. This investigation followed, step by step, the suggestions proposed by Valdez (2000), in order to learn about the meaning the Psychology students give to value construct, through the natural semantic networks technique, and to describe not only the most important knowledge that participants give to the stimulus word, but may be to confirm that, based on those semantic networks, the behavior of people can be determined.
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Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante
METHOD Participants In this work, the students who participated belonged to the Health Sciences at the Universidad Veracruzana: School of Psychology, Medicine, Dentistry, Dental Prostheses and Nursing in the Northern Zone of Veracruz. They were a total of 300 students, from 18 to 25 years old; both sexes; predominating females; day and evening shifts, and from advanced semesters. The criteria for selecting groups were, 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th semesters and the teacher was allowed to take the survey.
Procedure First, 100 psychology students were worked with, in order to know the meaning of value for each university student; Semantic Networks technique (Valdez, 2000) was used to design the instrument; so, a sheet of paper was handed out with the instruction “Write 10 words to define your values”, and they were immediately requested to place all of the words in order of importance, using number 1 as the most important, 2 the next one, and so forth until all of the words written were enumerated. Upon taking into consideration the two shifts from the School of Psychology, the results were (J= 259 meanings about value); words repeated were eliminated, leaving 128 words defining their values. The value J refers to the total number of defining words that were created by the students surveyed. Then, it was obtained value M, which is the result of multiplying the frequency of each word by hierarchy given by each student, gathering all of the words defining the concept requested as is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Form for words defined proposed by Valdez (2000). Topic: Values Sheet: 1 of 5 Hierarchies:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Semantic Values Ex: liberty
10 x
9 x
8x
7x
6 x
5 x
4 x
3x
2x
1x
/// 3x8=24
/ 1x7=7
/ 1x3=3
/ 1x2=2
/ 1x1=1
//// = 5x10=50
Total Value M
87
Defining words for all of those surveyed students
Value M indicates the semantic weight obtained for each defining word, and having the form filled out, the words of greatest value are used. Later, the FMG average value was obtained by the mathematical rule, taking the greatest value M word, which represented 100%, for example:
Honesty = (195) – 100% Sincerity = (185) - X = 185 x 100 = 95% 195
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In this way, FMG value was obtained, representing the semantic distance between the defining words of the group with a greater value M, which is called the SAM value, used to organize categories. Second: the instrument was once again taken by 300 students in order to validate it, but it was then taken by students of Nursing, Dental Prosthesis and Medicine to obtain the definitive instrument, being applied the Cronbach Alpha test, whose score was .91.
RESULTS The words used as a base were the ones obtained from the sample of 100 Psychology students, finding a global J= 259, from which a J=127 belonged to daytime shift. The greatest semantic richness was found in the afternoon group ( J = 132 ); so daytime shift delineate five defining main words, from 53% to 100%: honesty, sincerity, responsibility, love and simplicity; in addition, higher percentages were observed in the daytime shift with respect to the following values: sincerity (95%), responsibility (93%), love (77%), simplicity(53%), wisdom (45%), liberty (45%), friendliness (36%) and sensitivity (26%) were higher than the other shift. Other words were recorded to define their values, such as: affection (42 %), vanity (32%), tenderness (26%), and work (26%), which are not a significant part of the nighttime shift percentages. It must be mentioned that even if gender and shift were compared separately, the greatest semantic richness was always in the evening shift, whether they were men or women. In this same shift, the words defining their strongest values were: responsibility (57%), respect (56%), sincerity (49%), love (46%), fidelity (44%) and friendship (40%). And two defining words that the other shift did not possess were: family valuation (17%) and altruism (15%). In general, both shifts concur that honesty (100%) is the strongest word which defines their values. The results showed in Table 3 represent the comparison made among males in both shifts. Daytime shift men are defined as: honest, responsible, loving, free and respectful, as the five strongest defining words. The strongest evening time shifts were: honest, respectful and friendly. Table 2. Words defining value in the two Psychology students shifts. Daytime Shift Evening time Shift SAM Love Responsibility Liberty Sincerity Honesty Respect Friendship Kindness Justice Tenderness J = 81
M 332 259 230 207 205 155 96 53 45 32
FMG 100% 78% 69% 62% 62% 47% 29% 16% 13% 10%
SAM Honesty Responsibility Love Fidelity Sincerity Respect Loyalty Religiousness Friendship Family J = 113
M 409 262 209 202 190 188 185 158 147 56
FMG 100% 64% 51% 49% 46% 46% 45% 39% 36% 14%
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Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante
The words that define their values with the greatest difference percentages are: for the daytime shift, men are tender, simple, skillful, creative, sensitive, equal and perfectionists. While the men in the evening shift define themselves as: loyal, religious; they value families, fidelity, altruism, humbleness and joy. Table 3.Comparison of defining words for males in daytime and evening time shifts. Daytime Shift Evening time Shift Daytime Shift SAM Daytime Shift Honesty Sincerity Responsibility Love Simplicity Respect Wisdom Liberty Affection Friendship Friendliness Joy Vanity Sensitivity Tenderness Work J = 127
M SAM 195 185 181 151 104 92 88 87 82 72 71 62 62 51 51 50
FGM FMG 100% 95% 93% 77% 53% 47% 45% 45% 42% 37% 36% 32% 32% 26% 26% 26%
Evening time Shift SAM M Evening time Shift SAM Honesty 520 Responsibility 296 Respect 292 Sincerity 254 Love 239 Fidelity 229 Friendship 208 Religiousness 192 Joy 183 Wisdom 182 Friendliness 161 Simplicity 135 Liberty 103 Sensitivity 103 Family 90 Altruism 79 J = 132
FGM FMG 100% 57% 56% 49% 46% 44% 40% 37% 35% 35% 31% 26% 20% 20% 17% 15%
Table 4. Comparison between females in both shifts SAM Honesty Responsibility Love Liberty Respect Sincerity Tender Kindness Justice Friendship Simplicity Intelligence Skillful Creativity Sensitivity Equality Perfectionists J = 61
M 58 39 37 30 29 24 19 18 15 15 14 13 10 10 10 9 9
FMG 100% 67% 64% 52% 50% 42% 33% 31% 26% 26% 24% 22% 17% 17% 17% 15% 15%
SAM Honesty Respect Friendship Sincerity Loyalty Religion Responsibility Family Love Fidelity Kindness Intelligence Altruism Justice Humility Joy Liberty J = 65
M 111 68 57 55 44 34 34 34 30 27 26 25 24 19 16 15 13
FMG 100% 61% 51% 49% 40% 31% 31% 31% 27% 24% 23% 22% 22% 17% 14% 14% 11%
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Table 4, shows the comparison between women in both shifts. Daytime shift women, define themselves as: loving, responsible, free, honest and sincere. Evening shift women defined themselves as: honest, responsible and loving as their strongest defining words. The following differences were found: Daytime women define themselves as free, friendly, fair and tender according to their values. On the other hand, women from the vespertine shift value fidelity, loyalty, religiousness and family. Lastly, the defining words were grouped into categories, adding the value of all of the defining words that composed a special set of characteristics, getting a SAM value. This group represents the defining words which give meaning to the concept and also to the value there from; considering the defining word with the highest value M will represent 100%. The following values were obtained in percentages by a mathematical rule, being an indicator, in percentages, the semantic distance is being created among defining words forming categories. Table 5. Comparison of the semantic categories of the SAM by gender for the two shifts for VALUE Daytime shift SAM Group Responsibility Honesty Love Liberty Respect Sincerity Tenderness Kindness Justice Friendship J = 10
SAM Group Honesty Respect Friendship Sincerity Loyalty Responsibility Religiousness Family Love Fidelity J = 10
Men M Value
FMG Value M Value 100% 67% 64% 52% 50% 42% 33% 31% 26% 26%
Women FMG Value 259 78% 205 62% 332 100% 230 69% 155 47% 207 62% 32 10% 53 16% 45 13% 96 29%
Evening time shift Men M Value FMG Value M Value 111 100% 68 61% 57 51% 55 50% 44 40% 34 31% 34 31% 34 31% 30 27% 27 24%
Women FMG Value 409 100% 188 46% 147 36% 190 46% 185 45% 262 64% 158 39% 56 14% 209 51% 202 49%
58 39 37 30 29 24 19 18 15 15
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Teresa de Jesús Mazadiego Infante and Socorro Mazadiego Infante
Some categories examples were: within the category of honesty, the following words were grouped: integrity, fidelity, loyalty, kindness, morale and restraint. Within the area of responsibility: hard-working, dedication, perseverance, skillful, adaptable, committed and punctual. Within sincerity: reliable, protecting, true, kind. Within love: loving, passionate, affectionate, tender, romantic. Within joy: wildness, fun, happy, smiling, nice, playful, animated, crazy, cool. Within simplicity: simple, humble, generous, grateful, kind, modest, compassionate. In the category of respect: respectful, educated, equality, patient, religious. In the category of Wisdom: intelligent, capable, creative, perfectionist, imaginative, identify, realist, orderly. In the category of liberty: free, self-reliant decided, courageous, audacious, moral uprightness, independent, fair, not a racist, respectful of laws and society.
DISCUSSION The objective was achieved, since we know what the most important values are for university students, and also what do they mean for them. The results of this study admit the detection of the most important words that define their meaning of values. Knowing the psychological meaning of the values for university students will make teachers to use them to facilitate the development of critical-reflexive thinking and significant learning during their formative years, through activities oriented towards personal reflection and hours of self-analysis work, which will let future professionals to more ethical, entering into professional business. In addition, another reason why university students must be motivated to thoroughly think and consider the alternatives of assuming a value or its anti-value, is so that within freedom of thought, each one is able to deduce and make their own best decisions, strengthen their own values and construct a system to integrate new values. Young persons should be motivated to think more deeply about relevant topics and to make the best decisions by themselves, taking into consideration that those values may not be ours because we are in a changing society, but at the same time that one is training young university students to think for themselves, it can be attempted to teach the best characteristics of virtue, civic, ethical and moral values for religious and democratic traditions, for the family and for social contexts, as well as for the profession that will be practiced, if we want the values we believe in survive. For that reason, Arias (2000), Calvo & Iriarte (2001), Cortina & Conelli (2002), Grass (2001), Pereira (2003), Ratzlaff (2000), Valdez (2000) and the proposal submitted by the Mexican Association of Psychology (1998) agree on the issue that the behavior of university students is determined by their values and anti-values and they feel that the role of teachers is the core of the development thereof. Delgado (2001), Diaz Barriga (2000), Escamez (2003), Escamez, Garcia and Sales (2002), Figueroa (2000), Hill and Stone (2000) coincide that the regulating individuals activities, which govern our culture are: honesty, responsibility, respect, liberty, justice, equality and tolerance. Also, they agree system must be addressed towards honesty, as a guiding value for other individual values. Likewise, this agrees with Kirschenbaum (2000), Pereira (2007), Raths (1967), Schmelkes (1996) and with the proposal submitted by the Mexican Association of Psychology (1998), stating teachers must promote and contribute so that university students in formation are able to define their own personal values, through reflection in a process that
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permits the construction and strengthening of their own values system supported by the teachers. Semantic networks qualitative technique even if it starts incipiently in the 70s by a definition of constructs, is in the 80s qualitative investigation is enriched by the application of natural semantic network techniques. At present, it is the technique that provides the greatest amount of information on stimulus words pretended to be discovered. In addition, the qualitative technique through semantic networks permitted to discover some characteristics of the value network for university students of Psychology in the northern area of the State of Veracruz, related to sex and academic shift surveyed. In this sense and regarding participants‘ perceptions in the value network, it must be mentioned that the results of this study indicate significant differences according to gender, since while men define their values in terms of honesty, responsibility, love, friendship, sincerity, liberty and respect, as the strongest defining terms, women do it in terms of honesty, love, responsibility, liberty and sincerity as their most representative defining terms. Regarding the differences found according to shifts, these were also meaningful, both semantic richness and definitions of the values themselves, as it is shown in the tables. Thus, in spite of its simplicity, this study permits to confirm, based on the registered results, that all the full time university students, must tend toward their authentic development through values, in order to become the professional person that society requires, with full consciousness of respect and tolerance, so as to translate it into an ethical, honest and integral committed behavior within the profession performed.
REFERENCES Arias, S.M. (2000). Formación en Valores. Revista Voces de la Educación, 1, 1, 9-10. Calvo, A.L. & Iriarte (2001). Mundialización y familia. Madrid: Colex. Cortina, A. & Conill, J. (Eds.) (2002). Educar en la ciudadanía. Valencia: Institució Alfons El Magnanim. Delgado, F.A. (2001). Formación valoral a nivel universitario. México: Universidad Iberoamericana. Díaz Barriga, A.F. & García, C.B. (2000). Un modelo de educación cívica, Revista Voces de la Educación, 1, 1, 25-29. Escámez, S.D. (2003). Los valores para la educación en la ciudadanía en el contexto familiar. Valencia: Universidad de Valencia. Escámez, J., García, R. & Sales, A. (2002). Claves educativas para escuelas no conflictivas. Barcelona: Idea Books. Figueroa de K.L. (2000). Formación en valores. Revista Voces de la Educación,1, 1; 5-8. Grass, P.F. (2001). La educación de los valores y virtudes en la escuela. Teoría y práctica. México: Trillas Hill, N. & Stone, W.C. (2000). La actitud mental positiva: un camino hacia el éxito. México: Grijalbo Kirschenbaum, H. (2000). Special issue: From Values Clarification to Carácter Education. Journal of Humanistic Couseling Education and Development, 1, 39, 4-20.
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Pereira, D.C. (2003). La educación en valores a través de la música. Marco teórico y estrategias de intervención. II Conversas Pedagógicas. Vigo: Universidad de Vigo, Campus de Ourense. Pereira, R.M.N. (2007). Educación centrada en valores. Esquemas didácticos de educación personalizada entrada en valores. México: Trillas. Raths, L.E. (1967).El sentido de los valores y la enseñanza. Cómo emplear los valores en el salón de clases. México: Uthea. Ratzlaff,Ch., Matsumoto, D., Kouznetsova, N., Raroque, J. & Ray, R.( 2000). Individual psychological culture and subjective well-being. In Culture and subjective well-being. Cambrige, MA,: The MIT Press, 37-59. Schmelkes, S. (1996). Ponencia presentada en el Foro Internacional sobre Valores e Ideología en la Educación. Organizado por la Secretaría de Educación y Cultura del Estado de Zacatecas y el International Center for Higher and Philantropy of Tucson, Arizona. Sociedad Mexicana de Psicología (1998). Código ético del psicólogo. México: Trillas, 11-19. Valdez, M.J.L. (2000). Las Redes Semánticas Naturales. Usos y aplicaciones en Psico logía Social. México: UAEM.
APPENDIX INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING VALUES DATE___________________________SEX:
F
M
AGE:_______
SEMESTER:_______________________ ................................................................................................................................................... Cross which is closest to your own values: 1 in disagreement; 2 more or less in agreement; 3 in agreement, although...; 4 totally in agreement. 1. At this time... I am certain that my life is full of love. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
2. At this time...with responsibility I will be more perseverant on achieving my goals. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
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3. At this time... with complete liberty I determine my personality, my grades, my life. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
4. At this time... I determine my actions with honesty in order to be upright. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
5. At this time... I am sincere because I speak truthfully and I am reliable. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement 6. At this time... simplicity and humbleness illuminate my actions. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
7. At this time... I respect the decisions of others. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
8. At this time... I let my joy flow in order to fill my life with happiness. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
9. At this time... I recognize that I am intelligent, capable, creative, which allows me to be highly effective and raise my grades. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
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10. At this time... I recognize my sensuality, with all my vital energy flowing through me. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
11. At this time...I feel charismatic and I am accepted by all who know me. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
12. At this time... my sensitivity lets me to live situations that I capture through my senses. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
13. At this time... I trust in my skills to work professionally. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
14. At this time...my friends consider me to be a smiling and happy person. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
15. At this time...happiness invades my heart and makes me feel optimistic about achieving all my goals. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
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16. At this time...all of my thoughts and actions are guided by justice. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
17. At this time... in spite of difficult situations, courage lets me to get ahead. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
18. At this time... I am audacious because I dare to speak and act when others do not. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
19. At this time...I adapt to any circumstance that alters my academic or personal life. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
20. At this time ... I easily identify both, my studies and my personal life. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
21. At this time...I feel triumphant, because I have clear goals in life. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
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22. At this time... I recognize that I am selfish, but this has allowed me to be effective and get better grades. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
23. At this time... I recognize my humbleness, since I do not show off qualities which lead me to success. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
24. At this time...I recognize that I am impatient because things do not turn out the way I want them to. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
25. At this time... I recognize that I like to be direct and say what I think and feel. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
26. At this time... I recognize that I am thoughtful, since I reflect on my limitations in order to overcome them. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
27. At this time ... I recognize that I am funny, since I enjoy life with persons I share time with. 1 2 3 4 ________________________________________________ In disagreement Totally in agreement
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
PROFILE OF VOCATIONAL CERTAINTY IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES: PERSONAL AND SOCIAL VARIABLES Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández Universidad de Sonora Beatriz Olivia Camarena Gómez and Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Sonora
ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to identify the influence of the social and course of study factors on vocational certainty in a sample that includes 392 third semester students from different Bachelors in public and private universities of the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. It was used the Comprehensive Scale of Course of study Factors (IAFC) of Aguilar et al. (1992) version for colleges. In addition, vocational context indicators were included (Gimeno, Rocabert and Lopez, 1996, in Lopez, 2004); as well as school and socio-demographic data. By structural equations a multifactorial predictive model on vocational certainty is created, in which social and course of study variables explain 23% of the vocational certainty variance, getting a good fit. It is suggested the program design of educational orientation through which intervention is developed in socio-labor, academic and personal environments so as to facilitate the academic and professional students‘ elections.
Keywords: Structural model, vocational certainty, social factors, course of study factors, college students.
RESUMEN El objetivo del estudio fue identificar la influencia de los factores sociales y necesidades de carrera sobre la certeza vocacional en una muestra de 392 estudiantes de tercer semestre de diferentes licenciaturas de universidades públicas y privadas de la Cd. de Hermosillo, Sonora, México. Se utilizó el Inventario Ampliado de Factores de Carrera (IAFC) de Aguilar et al. (1992) versión licenciatura, además se incluyeron indicadores de apoyo familiar, de toma de decisiones y de su situación vocacional (SAV-R, Rivas et al., 1996); así como, datos escolares y sociodemográficos. A través de análisis factoriales de ecuaciones estructurales se logró conformar un modelo multifactorial de certeza vocacional donde las variables factores sociales y necesidades de carrera explican 23% de
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Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández la varianza de la certeza vocacional, el modelo presenta bondad de ajuste práctico. Se sugiere el diseño de programas de orientación educativa a través de los cuales se desarrollen intervenciones en los ámbitos socio-laboral, académico y personal con el propósito de facilitar las elecciones académicas y profesionales de los estudiantes.
Palabras clave: modelo estructural, certeza vocacional, factores sociales, necesidades de carrera, estudiantes universitarios.
INTRODUCTION The current scene is distinguished by a quicker and intense social change that affects the family, economy, work environment, politics, culture and in general the daily existence of the people in any environment or social context. Such context is addressed to a kind of professional cultural which implies interest and analysis capacity on more important and significant problems and events of the society in which we live (Fernandez, 2003). However, the researches linked to students‘ problems in Mexico emphasize that there are high indexes of drop-outs, failure courses, course of study change requests, few undergraduates, and an important professional and vocational misguidance of young, mainly during the first semesters of the bachelor (Merino, 1993). What is evident is that a certainty in bachelor election represents a very hard decision, especially in a relatively early stage of the human development; since the student must face such election over an extended and existing educational offer, on myths created regarding the success when they are studied and on a lack of information thereof (Rodriguez, 2002). In this sense, the vocational certainty- understood as the level of decision showed by individuals when making vocational elections- (Gomez and Rivas, 1997) provokes a current educational context problem. Nonetheless, there are few studies in which multiple variables are integrated relating to a vocational commitment established in more integrating models. Therefore, the identification of some factors that may influence the professional elections of the students may increase our comprehension of the vocational development process; in this way, to ease the selection of intervening strategies which facilitate the election process, and allow the candidates to reach the higher students level to be more certain and satisfied when they choose the bachelor to be studied. The problem linked to vocational certainty is of a multidimensional and complex type, according to the studies in which variables like self-esteem, work involvement and control locus (Lucas and Epperson, 1990), anxiety (Daniels, Clifton, Perry, Mandzuk and Hall, 2006; Gonzalez and Maytorena, 2005), making decision styles and dependency (Gomez and Rivas, 1997), general indecision (Dickinson and Tokar, 2004), self-efficacy (Carbonero and Merino, 2004; Gonzalez and Maytorena, 2005; Ramirez and Canto and Rodriguez, 2007), sociodemographic, cultural and familiar elements (Martinez, 1993; Rivas, 2007) have been related to bachelor‘s selection. It has been found that people who are not satisfied with the vocational decision they made, show a lack of information about themselves, about work field, difficulty to solve problems, psychological conflicts, and in general, they are insecure about their skills when making decisions (Gomez and Rivas, 1997).
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The different interpretations depending on the focusing given to the different factors that intervene in the description and explanation of the vocational behavior can be summarized in those that reduce the vocational subject into a socio-economic dimension, or in which, on the contrary, are identified with the personal development (De Leon, Rodriguez, Ortega and Gonzalez, 2006). Regarding this, Rivas (2007) remarks that vocational behavior may be represented as the intersection of factors‘ groups that perform from sociogenesis (factors surpassing the individual), and from psychogenesis (Individual base factors), where each element of such intersection neither has the same weight, nor is stable during person lifetime, nor has an immutable or fixed effect. What is visible in vocational behavior are the concrete selections chosen by the student (selection of school subjects, kind of students, institution, alternative hobbies, among others). The selection represents the final item from a related series of successive decisions that perform as conditioners from ones to others, which may be part of a long and complex process; or such election may also represent a timely answer by a person with poor or no personal meaning. Therefore, vocational decisions imply the person as a whole, since it is a process in which multiple personal, familial, school and labor aspects (Lopez, 2004; Swanson and Tokar, 1991) are interacted and are expressed; for example, in the university requirements there are the school program and problems with the studies; moreover, there are other influencing situations: economical conditions, family commitments, home values, parents‘ expectations, adults models and the identification with them, academic success and work motivations (Valle and Smith, 1993). In this sense, there is literature in which it is stated the governmental school students tend more to fail in their studies. Additional to this factor, Tambutti (1989) says that the university studies coming from a public high school are part of the most school drop-out. With respect to this, Fernandez (2003) indicates the difference of the students from one and other net is a whole set of different socializations characteristics, of forms and way of life, of expectations, social nets, among others; specifically, of different life projects. Making decisions is the process by which it is defined what is wanted to do; the future and goals wanted to be reached are defined. Before making a decision, it is required to look for the necessary information to be prepared in making such decision (Pick and VargasTrujillo, 1990). For such reason, in most of the models that intervene in making decisions, it is assumed the presence of the person who decides, a selection situation, relevant information both internal (personal possibilities) and external (from socio-cultural environment) of the person; objectives, explanation of action alternatives, prevention from consequences of each action and, finally, the establishment of a commitment with the selected action; such election expresses the final process result evidencing a vocational decision as available alternatives (Lucas, 2007). On the other hand, Rocabert, Descals and Gomez (2007) carrying out a research between university students found that a high percentage of the students do not know exactly the specialty they will have to choose; therefore, it is clear that most of the students have some kind of difficulty, either vocational information or knowledge of their own vocational behavior. Likewise, these authors remark the academic performance, the educational experiences, school formation through the options (school curriculum), among other variables used as predictors of the students vocational elections, and in consequence, related to the vocational development.
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Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández
In the United States of North America, Chartrand, Robbins, Morrill and Boggs (1990) developed a model of vocational indecision designed from a series of researches carried out with high school and university students, in a retrieving self-report context, from a factorial confirmatory analysis. By integrating a series of identified variables through different researches like diagnostic categories in bachelor making decisions‘ problems, five variables were specified: self-esteem, anxiety in bachelor making decision; general indecision; bachelor information, and self-consciousness. The results indicated that the five variables model did not posses adjustment goodness, which led to a second confirmatory analysis by four factors model, eliminating self-esteem factor. The reported reliability is high (Cronbach alphas of .73 to .86) per each scale, and from total inventory (.87) . Therefore, this instrument allows to differentiate the individuals who report different indecision level of the course of study. In Mexico, Aguilar et al. (1992) based on Chartrand et al. (op. cit.) model, carried out a study in order to extend the Inventory of course of study factors (last version in four scales), and two more scale were included - self-efficacy and vocational indecision - developed by the authors as a contrasting measure. In a study of concurrent validity (Aguilar, Peña, Pacheco and De la Paz, 1993), the authors report that the scales incorporated showed reliability coefficient from .77 to .89, and that the best scales in predicting dropping-out or not dropping-out conditions were self-efficacy, anxiety in vocational election and general indecision. In this sense, it is pretended to answer the following research question: In a structural model, how the different effects of social and personal (Course of study factors) variables associated to vocational certainty are integrated in public and private university students? Hypothesis of the student indicates vocational certainty of the university students is conditioned to social and personal variables (Course of study factors) being personal variables which mostly impact on the vocational certainty. Figure 1 represents the Vocational certainty model to be proved, formed by latent and observed variables (in the graphics, they do not represent the error terms associated to each observed variable). In this model, Vocational certainty is assumed (latent variable integrated by observed variables, ―difficulty to decide continuing the course of study which I currently study‖, ―I will continue until I finished my bachelor‖, ―that is what I really wanted to study‖; ―I currently do what I wanted‖; ―to be sure I finish my studies‖ and ―to be secured about the bachelor I chose‖) is directly influenced by social factors and Course of study factors (second rate latent variable integrated by first rate latent variables, bachelor‘s information, selfefficacy, anxiety in choosing a bachelor and general indecision). The course of study information latent variable is structured from the indicators: ―to be informed about study plans‖; ―to talk to people from different occupation‖, and ―which opportunities are currently and future offered on the course of study I am taking‖. The Selfefficacy construct was made from observed variables: ―I doubt about my capacity to continue studying my current bachelor‖; ―I have some problems with some subjects of the bachelor I am studying‖, and ―I do not have some skills needed for the course of study I am taking‖. The latent variable Anxiety in choosing the Course of study is structured from the manifested variables: ―stressed‖, ―worried‖ and ―anxious‖ as an answer to the question How do I feel when I think about continuing or not the course of study I am currently taking?‖. The latent variable general indecision is integrated from variables ―confused‖, ―frustrated ― and ―hard‖, as an answer to the question: ―In general, how do I feel when making decisions? . The
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indicators ―perseverant‖, ―slow‖ and ―insecure‖ as an answer to the question: ―In general, when I make decisions, I am...). In the same model, in the latent variable Social factors was made by the manifested variables: ―parents or significant persons occupation‖, ―decision taken by my friends‖; ―to be able to fit some roles‖, ―difficulty and duration of studies‖; ―grade required to be admitted‖, and ―to study near the family residence‖. At the same time, a positive correlation between the latent variables social factors and course of study factors is specified.
Figure 1. Vocational certainty theoretical model that relates social factors and course of study factors in university students.
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Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández
METHOD Participants A random stratified sample of 392 from public university (83.4%) and private (16.6%) inscribed in third semester, from which 49.2% were registered in Social Science and Administrative Course of studies; 32.1% in Engineering and Technology; in Education and Humanities Area 6.9%; in Health Sciences 6.1%; in Agricultural Sciences 3.1%, and 2.6% in Mathematics and Natural Sciences. The female gender represented 52% of the sample, and 96.7% of them are single. The average age of the students was 19 years old (D.E.=1.68 years) who, at the end of the second semester obtained a general average of 83.97 of grade, from a scale from 0 to 100 (D.E.=8.04). The different percentages obtained by kind of university and by the course of study respect the distribution percentages of these two variables found in the population.
Instruments The students answered to the widen inventory of course of study factors (IAFC) of Aguilar et al. (1992) in its version for bachelor, validated by Gonzalez (2002), through the structural equations model (SEM) with public university from the Northeast of Mexico. The version validated by IAFC is an instrument of behaviors self-report and perceptions of the students about the cognitive dimensions of: course of study information and selfefficacy; Likert type scale measurements (that go from ―totally in agreement‖ to ―totally in disagreement‖); and two six points emotional scales of semantic differential type: general indecision and anxiety in choosing the course of study. A five choices answer Likert scale type (from ―totally sure‖ to ―totally insecure‖). These scales allowed to measure the dimensions: course of study factors, self-efficacy, anxiety in election, general indecision and vocational certainty dependent variables included in the theoretical model proposed. Moreover, the social factors variable included in the model was measured through My Vocational Situation scale: ―What I think about‖ (influencing factors) of Gimeno, Rocabert and Lopez (1996 in Lopez, 2004) in a six points Likert scale type (that goes from ―much‖ to ―nothing‖), as well as school and socio-demographic data.
Procedure The questionnaires were applied to the students in an informative and voluntarily manner, in their respective classrooms. It was previously communicated the purpose of the research, and the authorization of the teachers and directors of the institutions was achieved.
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Data Analysis The data were analyzed in the SPSS statistical program data for Windows version 15.0. Descriptive and inferential statistics like arithmetic median, standard bias, frequencies and percentages was used. The analysis of the relations between latent variables was carried out through the structural equations model (SEM, Bentler, 2006) in which it was included in latent variable model and manifest variables. The latent variables refer to constructs or theoretical variables that can not be observed or registered in sight, but they must be inferred from correlations between observed or manifest variables (Corral, 1995, 2002). The model text included the measurement of adjustment goodness between inclusive model (total interrelation of the observed variables) and the restricted model (or proposed model), utilizing the maximum likelihood solution method. In order to compare both models, χ2 statistician is used, in which the difference grade between two models is compared; here, a high and significant χ2 refers that two models are different, in consequence a non significant χ2 must be searched, meaning, its likelihood associated is higher than .05, in such a way the restricted model showed is not different from the inclusive model, in terms of explanatory power. Another indexes used are the Bentler-Bonet Index of Regulated Adjustment (IBBAN), the Bentler-Bonet Index of Non Regulated Adjustment (IBBANN), and the Index of Comparative Adjustment (IAC), included in the EQS (Bentler, 2006) program are empirical adjustment goodness indicators derived from the χ2; these indexes produce results that go from 0 to 1.0, and it accepts .90 as Index of adequate adjustment. Such value is the indicator of the proximity between the saturated model and the one to be tested (Corral, 1995, 2002).
RESULTS Table 1 shows the medians, standard bias, minimum and maximum and internal consistency value of the IAFC scales (Cronbach Alphas that go from .60 to .80), and an alpha of .74 to a total of IAFC items. Even though some authors specify alpha levels higher than .70 as adequate ones (Burns and Grove, 1993), others considered .60 an adequate value (Nieve and Serra, 2003, among others). In Table 2 it is showed the results of the analysis of internal consistency to the scale of social factors that possesses a reliability index of .72. Figure 2 represents the Vocational certainty, social factors and course of study factors structural model in university students, in which the Vocational certainty dependent variable is affected directly and negatively by the latent variable course of study factors latent variable, and there is an indirect effect of the social factors latent variable over Vocational certainty one through course of study factors variable. In this structural model the vocational certainty possesses an R2 equal to .23, which means the model explains 23% of the Vocational certainty variability of a third semester students sample in public and private universities. Course of study factors second rate latent variable was made from course of study information, self-efficacy, anxiety when choosing the course of study and general indecision first rate latent variables. There is a correlation of .44 course of study factors and social factors latent variables; this value is lower than the factorial weights of the indicators and
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Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández
their respective constructs, which is a validity indicator of diverging construct (Corral, 1995, 2002). Table 1. Median and internal consistency of the Scales of Widen Inventory of Course of study factors (IAFC) Scale/Item
N
M
SD
Min.
Max.
392
2.32
1.24
.80
1.11 1.24
2.72
1.95 2.29 1.37
1 1 1
5
.60 0.89
1
Alpha* Information of the course of study Study plans and admission requirements Different occupations To find work opportunities Self-efficacy Lack of capacity for the course of study
384
2.38
I have problems with some subjects Lack of skills for the course of study Anxiety when choosing the course of study Stress when needed to continue Worry when needed to continue Anxiety when needed to continue
388
2.59
General Indecision Confused when making decisions Frustrated when making decisions Hard to make decisions
387
Vocational certainty Doubt about continuing or not to study I will continue the course of study That is what I wanted to study Security when finishing high school I will finish the course of study Security in the course of study chosen
374
2.67 2.65
4.43 4.76
1.09 1.44
5 5
5
2.65 3.06
1.21 1.18
1 1
5 5
2.50 2.33 2.58 1.69
1.63 1.55 1.66
.77 1 1 1
6 6
1.47 1.46 2.44 2.92 0.91 4.17 0.64 4.43 4.06 4.64 4.52
1.46 1.51
.77 1 1 1
1.20 1 0.87 1.23 0.71 0.85
6
6 6 6 .68 1 5 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5
N = size of the sample, M and D. E. = median and standard bias from the sample N = 392. Min. and Max. = minimum and maximum based on multiple-choice answers from IAFC scales. *Cronbach Alpha was used as reliability indicator.
The dimensions that make part of the social factors and course of study factors variables, as well as the Vocational certainty variable that integrate the model posses construct validity or structural validity (Corral, 1995, 2002), which manifests in high and significant factorial weights between each one of the latent variables and their respective indicators observed. The χ2 of the model was equal to 197 with 156 grades of freedom and a likelihood associated equal to .013; the IBBAN is equal to .91; the IBBANN is equal to .97; the IAC is of .97, and
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the value observed of RMSEA is of .02, and in a reliability period of 90% oscillates between .013 and .038 as this value is effectively lower than .05; this model possesses an excellent adjustment under this criteria. Table 2. Median and internal consistency from social factors scale Scale/Item Alpha* Social Factors Parents profess or significant person
N
M
D.E.
Min.
Max.
385
2.94
1.58 2.98
1.85
1
The decision was taken by my friends 1.77 1.29 1 To be able to fit some roles 4.31 1.51 1 Difficulty and duration of the studies 3.13 1.57 1 Grade required to be admitted 2.89 1.59 1 To able to study near family residence 2.60 1.72 1 N = size of the sample, M and D. E. = median and standard bias from the sample N = 392. Min. and Max. = minimum and maximum based on multiple-choice answers from social scale. * Cronbach Alpha was used as a reliability indicator.
.72 6 6 6 6 6 6 factors
Figure 2. Vocational certainty structural model, social factors and course of study factors in public and private university students. The factorial weights are significant to p<.05; χ2 =197 (156 gl) p=.013; IBBAN=.91; IBBANN=.97; IAC=.97; RMSEA=.02. The dotted line (between social factors and vocational certainty) indicate a non significant relation. N=392.
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Daniel González Lomelí and Delisahé Velarde Hernández
DISCUSSION A multifactorial structure of Vocational certainty in students of the bachelor of public and private universities was possible to be modeled. The results of this study reveal the Social factors and course of study factors variables as a whole, explaining 23% of the variance of the Vocational certainty. In relation to course of study factors variable integrated by the Information about the course of study, self-efficacy, anxiety when choosing the course of study and general indecision variables, a direct and negative effect of this factor about Vocational certainty was found, meaning, lower emotional and cognitive associated to the course of study, higher vocational certainty. Similar results are reported by Gonzalez and Maytorena (2005) in Mexican students from a public university. In this study, it was found that the grade of anxiety when choosing the course of study is the factor that best predicts vocational certainty, followed by self-efficacy and general indecision, and at last, the information the student has about the course of study. In other words, the course of study election process shall be more efficient as the student possesses the necessary information thereof, the perception and the skills required for the course of study he is interested on; he shows low anxiety levels at the moment of making decisions regarding course of study election, and he does not have problems in making decisions. All of this gives us a clear scope of the importance to provide the students with information about their social, academic and professional environment during both, this educational formation and previous ones, that can be useful when they make decisions about their academic and professional activity. Likewise, the cognitive and emotional handling of the course of study factors from previous levels when they go to the university. It is required that intermediate-higher and higher educational institutions promote an integral formation that prepare the students to enter into labor world, by vocational orientation programs and professional orientation through which the students are provided with the necessary resources to carry out vocational elections from a wide range of available choices, as well as to provide information about the current and future opportunities. Moreover, it is recommended to promote a higher link between educational institutions and labor market that provide to those interested in going to higher education, an educational offer according to society‘s needs; and to active university students, innovating opportunities of social and professional link (Moctezuma, 2005). Another factor that may influences vocational decision making are social factors, which show an indirect effect on vocational certainty, through course of study factors variables. These results are backed by literature about the subject, which indicates vocation behavior is an individual factors (psychogenesis) and socio-cultural (sociogenesis) relation. In this sense, recent researches carried out with pre-university students samples in an Spanish context, remark a higher individual factors influence and a lower sociogenesis factors influence (Rivas, 2007). The results from structural modeling support the proposed hypothesis, which establishes a predominant influence of the course of study factors (personal ones) over students vocational certainty sample; however, it is important to indicate that such results may be caused by cultural differences. Likewise, the time ones and other factors were carried out affects individual vocational decision, meaning, the social factors are previous to personal factors, since these last ones are present when the student must make the decision, since, as
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Rivas (2007) remarks, each component of that intersection has not the same influence, and it is changing through the lifetime of the person. Finally, it is required to conduct an in-depth study in the psychosocial factors (indicated in this study) which interact with the students‘ vocational certainty grade that will contribute in making decisions related their academic activities, in addition to favor the success and the most pertinence between their skills and interested related to a certain bachelor.
REFERENCES Aguilar, J., Peña, L., Pacheco, J. and De la Paz, C. (1993). Adaptación y ampliación del inventario de la carrera. Revista Investigación Psicológica, 3, 53-63. Aguilar, J., Pacheco, J., Andrade, J., Vargas, A., Gutiérrez, P. and Zetina, G. (1992). Estudio sobre la validez concurrente del Inventario de Factores de carrera en estudiantes de carrera. Monografía. México: UNAM. Bentler, P. (2006). EQS, Structural Equations Program Manual. Los Angeles: BMDP Statistical Software. Burns, N. and Grove, S. K. (1993). The Practice of nursing research: Conduct, critique and utilization (2nd. Ed.). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. Carbonero, M. and Merino, E. (2004). Autoeficacia y madurez vocacional. Psicothema, 16, 229-234. Chartrand, J., Robbins, S., Morril, W. and Boggs, K. (1990). Development and validation of the course of study factory inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 491-501. Corral, V. (1995). Modelos de variables latentes para la investigación conductual. Acta Comportamentalia, 3, 171-190. Corral, V. (2002). Structural equation modeling. In R. Bechtel and A. Churchman (Eds.), Handbook of Environmental Psychology (pp. 256-270). New York: John Wiley. Daniels, L., Clifton, R., Perry, R., Mandzuk, D. and Hall, N. (2006). Student teachers‘ competence and course of study certainty: the effects of course of study anxiety and perceived control. Social Psychology of Education, 9, 405-423. De León, T., Rodríguez, R., Ortega, V. and González, I. (2006). La orientación vocacional y la modificación del criterio de pre-elección de carrera técnica en alumnos de nivel medio superior del cbta n°1, en el norte de México. EDUCERE, 32, 71-76. Dickinson, J. and Tokar, D. (2004). Structural and discriminant validity of the course of study factors inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 239-254. Fernández, F. (2003). El estudio sociológico de la educación. In F. Fernández (Ed.). Sociología de la educación (pp.1-34). México: Pearson Prentice Hall. Gómez, A. and Rivas, F. (1997). Caracterización psicológica y operacionalización de la indecisión vocacional compleja. Iberpsicología, 2, 1-10. González, D. (2002). El Desempeño Académico Universitario: variables psicológicas asociadas. Hermosillo, Sonora: Universidad de Sonora. González, D. and Maytorena, M. (2005). Modelo estructural de factores de carrera, seguridad vocacional y esfuerzo académico. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 39, 39-48. López, M. (2004). La toma de decisiones en los sistemas de autoayuda y asesoramiento vocacional (SAV-R y SAVI-2000): propuesta y validación de un modelo de decisión
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vocacional. Tesis de Doctorado. Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Lucas, S. (2007). Desarrollo de competencias desde la enseñanza universitaria. Armonización con la educación secundaria y el mercado de trabajo, desde la psicología social de la educación. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Psicoeducativa, 5, 125-158. Available in: www.investigacion-psicopedagogica.org/revista/new/index.php. Consultado el día 15 de diciembre del 2007. Lucas, M. and Epperson, D. (1990). Types of vocational undecidedness: a replication and refinement. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 382-388. Martínez, T. (1993). Familia y elección de carrera. Perfiles Educativos, 60, 79-82. Merino, C. (1993). Identidad y plan de vida en la adolescencia media y tardía. Perfiles Educativos, 60, 44-48. Moctezuma, P. (2005). Diversificación institucional y educación superior en Baja California en 2000. Región y Sociedad, 17, 133-164. Nieva, V. F. and Sorra, J. (2003). Safety culture assessment: a tool for improving patient safety in healthcare organizations. Quality Safe Healt Care, 12 (supl), ii17-ii23. Pick, S. and Vargas-Trujillo, E. (1990). Yo adolescente. Respuestas claras a mis grandes dudas. México: Limusa-Noriega. Ramírez, M. and Canto y Rodríguez, J. (2007). Desarrollo y evaluación de una escala de autoeficacia en la elección de carrera en estudiantes mexicanos. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Psicoeducativa, 5, 37-56. Available in: www.investigacionpsicopedagogica.org/revista/new/index.php. Consultado el día 15 de diciembre del 2007. Rivas, F. (2007). ¿Conducta y asesoramiento vocacional en el mundo de hoy?. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Psicoeducativa, 5, 5-14. Available in: www.investigacionpsicopedagogica.org/revista/new/index.php. Consultado el día 15 de diciembre del 2007. Rocabert, E., Descals, A. and Gómez, A. (2007). Los biodatos como indicadores de la conducta vocacional universitaria: elaboración de un instrumento de evaluación. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Psicoeducativa, 5, 15-36. Available in: www.investigacionpsicopedagogica.org/revista/new/index.php. Consultado el día 15 de diciembre del 2007. Rodríguez, J. (2002). Buscando un destino: la elección de course of study profesional. Situación y perspectivas. Enseñanza e Investigación en Psicología, 7, 215-220. Swanson, J. and Tokar, D. (1991). Development and initial validation of the course of study barriers inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 39, 344-361. Tambutti, R. (1989). La estrategia Sigma una forma radical de abordar el fracaso y la deserción escolar. Perfiles Educativos, 45-46, 3-13. Valle, A. and Smith, M. (1993). La escolaridad como un valor para los jóvenes. Perfiles Educativos, 60, 83-86.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING DEMOSTRATED BY PSYCHOLOGY AND ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT1 STUDENTS Jesús Enrique Esquivel Cruz, Ma. Concepción Rodríguez Nieto, and Víctor Manuel Padilla Montemayor Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico
ABSTRACT This research‘s objective was to detect the differences in the learning approach of Psychology students, and Public Accountability and Administration students. The design was non-experimental and descriptive. The Biggs, Kember and Leung‘s Questionnaire of Study Processes (2001) was applied to a convenience sample of 213 students: 100 of Psychology, and 113 of Public Accountability and Administration. The students from both majors showed a preference for a serious approach towards learning and deep motives. Superficial strategies were preferred by Public Accountability and Administration students; and deep strategies, by Psychology students, although the difference in the latter was not significant. The preference of Public Accountability and Administration students for a deep approach was surprising because previous studies consistently show a superficial approach. It was also interesting that these students showed a tendency towards superficial strategies. Results are discussed based on previous studies and theoretical aspects, with the suggestion of further research under this perspective.
Keywords: approach towards student learning, deep approach towards student learning, superficial approach towards student learning
RESUMEN El objetivo de esta investigación fue detectar las diferencias en la aproximación al aprendizaje de estudiantes de las carreras Contaduría Pública y Administración y de Psicología. El diseño fue no experimental, y descriptivo. Se aplicó grupalmente el Cuestionario de Procesos de Estudio (R-SPQ-2F) de Biggs, Kember & Leung (2001) a 1
Translator‘s note: in Mexico, accounting studies are usually coupled with business management studies and the college major is widely known as Contaduría y administración, or ―accounting and administration.‖ Because this particular cultural aspect is central to some of the present study‘s results, Contaduría y administración has been translated as ―accounting and business management.‖ Any plain mentions of ―accounting‖ refer to the discipline as understood and practiced in countries other than Mexico.
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J. E. Esquivel Cruz, M. C. Rodríguez Nieto and V. M. Padilla Montemayor una muestra de conveniencia de 213 estudiantes: 100 de psicología y 113 de contaduría pública y administración. Los estudiantes de ambas carreras mostraron una preferencia mayor por la aproximación profunda al aprendizaje y por los motivos profundos. Sin embargo, las estrategias superficiales fueron preferidas por los estudiantes de contaduría pública y administración y las estrategias profundas por los de psicología aunque la diferencia en estos últimos no fue significativa. Fue sorprendente la preferencia de los estudiantes de contaduría pública y administración por la aproximación profunda dado que los estudios previos mostraban consistentemente una aproximación superficial. También fue interesante que estos estudiantes mostraran una tendencia hacia las estrategias superficiales. Se discuten los resultados encontrados en base a estudios previos y aspectos teóricos, sugiriéndose además, la continuación de investigaciones bajo esta perspectiva teórica.
Palabras clave: aproximación al aprendizaje del estudiante, aproximación profunda al aprendizaje del estudiante, aproximación superficial al aprendizaje del estudiante
INTRODUCTION The theory of student approaches to learning, which addresses complex studying processes in an educational context, has been in use to for the past three decades. It is based on the premise that students will approach the act of studying for a variety of reasons and that said reasons influence the way in which they learn (Watkins & Akande, 1994). The way in which a pupil studies and learns is related to the nature and amount of exercises required in the courses, the educational context, and the pupil‘s own motives, which in turn affect learning strategies. The theory was pioneered by Marton & Säljö (1976a, 1976b) at Sweden‘s University of Gothenburg. The authors were trying to analyze the learning strategies used by university students and find out why the approach employed by some of them worked better than others in an educational context. During their initial research they asked students to read a text and then, following a rigorous interview analysis method now known as phenomenography, set out to establish the different studying categories and the relationships between them (Marton & Säljö, 1976a). The most significant discrepancy in the results lay in whether the students merely read the text or focused on its meaning. The differences between these two strategies gave way to the ―deep‖ and ―surface‖ approach dichotomy. Students using a deep approach were actively searching for the text‘s message; that is, they tried to unravel its main ideas and identify the subject it discussed and the conclusions presented by the author. They also sough to relate these ideas to their previous knowledge. Those employing a surface approach, on the other hand, attempted to memorize facts and ideas they expected to come up in tests and which they therefore intended to reproduce. Entwistle, Nisbet & Bromage (2004) have defined the deep approach to learning as a combination of attempts at understanding and thought processes that lead to the association of ideas and the use of evidence. This attitude allows the students to understand while constructing a more integral kind of knowledge (Biggs & Moore, 1993). It also allows them to remember a large amount of details and facts (Marton & Säljö, 1997). Students using a deep approach are intrinsically motivated (Biggs, 1988a; Entwistle, 2005; Ramsden, 1992); they will theorize about what they have learnt (Regan & Regan, 1995) and put time and effort
Approaches to Learning Demostrated By Psychology…
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into the qualitative aspects of learning (Marton & Säljö, 1997; Trigwell & Prosser, 1991). These pupils will also look for high quality information (Ford, Millar & Moss, 2001; Heinström, 2002), monitor understanding through processes of self-regulated learning (Vermunt, 1998), and enjoy the task while approaching it with the most favorable strategies (Heinström, 2002). The deep approach is associated with a qualitatively high level of learning, since it fosters comprehensive understanding. It also encourages the development of problem-solving abilities, increased mastery over content, high quality inferences, selfmotivation (Spencer, 2003), and positive emotional results (Biggs, 1988a). On the other hand, the surface approach has been associated with the use of factual information sources (Ford et al., 2001), an intent to identify and memorize facts and ideas, and a negative attitude toward the text (Marton & Säljö, 1997), all of which hinders students from making sense of new ideas and appreciating the structure of the principles embedded in the material (Biggs, 1988a; Entwistle & Tait, 1996; Marton & Säljö, 1997). The surface approach to learning has also been associated with teacher‘s firm control of the learning process; tests that focus on knowledge retention (Boyle, Duffy & Dunleavy, 2003); the passive transference of knowledge from teacher to pupil (Biggs, 1996); a perceived academic overload (Ramsden and Entwistle, 1981; Trigwell & Prosser, 1991); lack of personal dedication (Struyven, Dochy & Janssens, 2002); failure to reflect on the content of the text (Marton & Säljö, 1997); extrinsic motivation, and the desire to satisfy course requirements and obtain a passing grade having made the least amount of effort possible (Biggs, 1988b; Biggs, 1999; Entwistle, 2005; Entwistle & Tait, 1996; Heinström, 2002). Both the deep and surface approaches to learning result from a combination of motives and learning strategies, using of several degrees of motivation and a variety of tactics (Cleveland-Innes and Emes, 2005). Students develop a scheme of intent in regard to learning tasks. For example, the speed with which they carry out a course-required activity (Rosário, Núñez, González-Pienda, Almeida, Soares, & Rubio, 2005); whether or not, having received pertinent information from the teacher or coursework material, they still look for additional subject information in order to perform required work; whether they ask classmates for help or work on their own, and whether they adjust to each of the required criteria or only to those they consider important, etc. The perception of the task at hand and its demands become motives for learning (Biggs, 1988a). Students‘ choice of specific working strategies, in fact, responds to particular motives; these reciprocally interact with the educational context and give way to specific learning results (Cleveland-Innes & Emes 2005). In short, a student‘s approach to learning will depend on the context, the content, and the required tasks (Richardson, 1994). Effective learning is the product of a unique combination involving the learning environment and the student‘s favored approach (Woods, Hrymak & Wright, 2001). Because of the teaching context, approaches to learning can vary systematically from one field of study to another (Zeegers, 2002). This has led to an important research field focusing on the differences between learning approaches across the various disciplines. Specialized literature suggests that different disciplines have their own norms, language and practices, which teach the students how to be part of their field (Ballard & Clanchy 1988; Becher 1994; Anderson 1997; Lave & Wegner 1999, quoted in McCune & Hounsell, 2005). Studies carried out in different countries and applied to different fields have confirmed the presence of the deep and surface approaches to learning while providing general and specific patterns (Nelson, Shoup & Kuh, 2005). Entwistle & Ramsden (1983) have compared
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J. E. Esquivel Cruz, M. C. Rodríguez Nieto and V. M. Padilla Montemayor
approaches to learning in the fields of science and humanities. In science, the deep approach would seem to require a type of detailed focus similar to that of the surface approach, while the humanities tend to start with a deep approach because students are required to interpret course material from the start. Australian accounting students favor the surface approach over the deep one, but those learning biochemistry, chemistry, English literature (Eley, 1992), arts and education (Booth, 1999) do the opposite. Accounting students focus on explicit information and its reproduction by focusing on memorization rather than on organizing their time and doing the suggested readings (Chan, Leung, Gow & Hu, 1989). Accounting students are commonly thought to learn a series of rules and tests, which they acquire through a surface approach (Spencer, 2003). Historically speaking, the teaching of accounting has led students to see the field as a mathematical activity where there is only one correct answer and where they should learn exact facts, all of which fosters a surface approach (Spencer, 2003). In a study carried out by Tang (2005), social sciences and administration students scored the highest numbers in terms of the deep approach, while engineering students had the highest surface incidence. Psychology students have shown a more pronounced tendency toward the deep approach than those in engineering and chemistry (Woods et al., 2001) and a higher rate of deep approach strategies than those in business (Smith & Miller, 2005). A Mexican study involving psychology students at a public university in the northern part of the country (Rodríguez, Padilla & Esquivel, 2007) showed a preference for the deep rather than the surface approach. Najar & Davis‘ (2001) longitudinal study of psychology students showed that low grades were linked to the surface approach only during specific periods and that this rate did not change significantly throughout time. The relative stability of the surface approach suggests that students only resort to it when they are in trouble (low grades) and are trying to tackle a course that demands a deep approach. Although approaches to learning in different educational fields and contexts have been amply researched, many areas remain unexplored (Siddiqui, 2006) and this subject has yet to be thoroughly studied in Mexico. The present paper seeks to make a contribution by focusing on the differences between psychology and accounting and business management students, who are traditionally thought to diverge in terms of their approach to learning. The hypothesis was that the psychology students would favor the deep approach and deep strategies while those in accounting and business management would rate higher in terms of surface ones.
METHOD Design This was designed as a non-experimental quantitative (descriptive) study.
Participants Our convenience sample included 213 students (76 men and 137 women) from two schools belonging to a northeastern Mexican university. One hundred participants (21 men and 79 women) were studying psychology: 33 second-semester students, 39 fifth-semester
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students, and 28 tenth (or last) semester students. The average age was 20 years. Accounting and business management students comprised 113 individuals (55 men and 58 women): 27 second-semester students, 39 fifth-semester students, and 47 ninth (or last) semester students. The average age was 21 years.
Instruments Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) designed by Biggs, Kember & Leung (2001) and containing a 5-point Likert scale of 20 items addressing two categories of learning approaches: deep and superficial with four sub-scales. Every sub-scale comprised 5 items and had a Cronbach‘s alpha of 0.62 regarding deep motives (e.g., ―On occasion, studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction‖); .63 regarding deep strategies (e.g., ―I have to work a lot on a subject before I can reach my own conclusions and feel satisfied‖); .72 regarding surface motives (e.g., ―My goal is to pass the course having made as little effort as possible‖), and .57 regarding surface strategies (e.g., ―I only seriously study subjects we have addressed in class or that appear in the course syllabus‖).
Procedure The questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) was applied to all students during a single session with no time limit. Participation was voluntary. The students returned their questionnaires to the researcher once they were finished. The data was then codified by two independent parties and later processed using SPSS.
RESULTS Accounting and business management students scored statistically higher on the deep approach scale than they did on the surface one (p < .000). They also scored higher on the deep motive scale than on the surface one (p < .000). The surface strategies sub-scale was higher than the deep strategies one, but the difference was not significant (p < .346). See Table 1. Accounting and business management students also scored higher in the deep approach scale than they did in the surface one (p < .000). The deep motive sub-scale also scored higher than the surface one (p < .000). The deep and surface strategies sub-scales did not show significant differences (p < .325). See Table 2. A comparison between the two schools shows that the accounting and business management students had higher scores than those learning psychology, though the difference was not significant (p < .182). Accounting and business management students scored higher in the surface approach scale (p < .000). They also scored higher in the four sub-scales, though in the case of deep motives the difference was not significant (p< .864). The difference in the motives sub-scale was significant (p < .000). The deep strategies showed significant difference (p < .017), as did the deep strategies sub-scale (p< .000). See Table 3.
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J. E. Esquivel Cruz, M. C. Rodríguez Nieto and V. M. Padilla Montemayor Table 1. Approaches to Learning Demonstrated by Accounting and Business Management Students.
Significance Surface approach Surface strategies Surface motives Deep approach Deep strategies Deep motives
.000 .346 .000 .000 .346 .000
Accounting and Business Management Mean Standard deviation 27.09 6.249 14.07 3.642 3.02 3.515 30.41, 5.467 13.63 2.934 16.78 3.076
Table 2. Approaches to Learning Demonstrated by Psychology Students. Psychology Significance
Mean
Standard deviation
.000 .325 .000 .000 .325 .000
23.31 12.17 11.14 29.35 12.65 16.70
5.769 3.297 3.461 6.059 3.020 3.636
Surface approach Surface strategies Surface motives Deep approach Deep strategies Deep motives
Table 3. Approaches to Learning Demonstrated by Accounting and Business Management and Psychology Students.
Significance
Surface approach Surface strategies Surface motives Deep approach Deep strategies Deep motives
.000 .000 .000 .182 .017 .864
Accounting and Business Management M 27.09 14.07 13.02 30.41 13.63 16.78
SD 6.249 3.642 3.515 5.467 2.934 3.076
Psychology
M 23.31 12.17 11.14 29.35 12.65 16.70
SD 5.769 3.297 3.461 6.059 3.020 3.636
DISCUSSION The favoring of the deep approach by psychology and accounting and business management students alike was surprising because it differed from the results obtained by Eley (1992), Chan et al., (1989) and Booth (1999), all of whom had consistently detected a preference for the surface approach among accounting students. In fact, the favoring of the deep approach by accounting and business management students does not support Spencer‘s
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(2003) argument that these pupils learn exact facts, a series of rules and tests, and look at their field as a mathematical activity where there is only one correct answer. The cultural context surrounding the institution and practice of professional accounting should probably be taken into account. In Mexico, a professional accountant must also be able to administer resources and understand the continual changes in fiscal laws and rules. Memorizing procedure information is not enough, as they must understand the particular nature of each situation they encounter. We suggest that the continuous changes made to the laws and rules regulating public accounting and teachers‘ awareness of the demands of professional practice lead to the deep motives registered in this study. We infer that the teaching process at this School of Accounting and Business Management goes beyond the repetition of coursework content. Reflection and processes of knowledge integration are encouraged, so they can later be applied to professional practice. The combined preference for deep motives and surface strategies displayed by accounting and business management students could lead to two distinct learning periods. The first would be characterized by surface strategies that might aid the memorization of necessary information and respond to specific types of course evaluation. The second would draw on the deep motives needed to build a personal understanding of the laws, rules, and principles pertaining to professional practice. In other words, the surface learning strategies would enable the students‘ transition into the more comprehensive type of understanding needed for actual practice. Psychology students showed a preference for the deep approach, which is consistent with the results reported by Woods et al. (2001), Rodríguez, Padilla & Esquivel (2006), and Booth (1999), who reported that arts and education students also favored this approach. The psychology students‘ marked preference for deep over surface motives implies that their purpose is to understand ideas, connect them, and make use of evidence (Entwistle, Nisbet & Bromage, 2004); it is by constructing knowledge that they achieve understanding (Biggs & Moore, 1993). Deep motives can lead pupils to theorize on the subjects they are studying (Regan and Regan, 1995) and invest time and effort on the qualitative aspects of learning (Marton & Säljö, 1997; Trigwell & Prosser, 1991). This tendency is consistent with the social expectations and character of the profession, as psychologists need to reflect on and understand the cases they address in their professional practice. The score similarities between deep and surface strategies among psychology students can be interpreted as an awareness of both approaches. This allows the student to decide which one adapts best to the class, test, and coursework requirements. Coursework demands are plentiful and the fact that they are often perceived as excessive leads to particular working strategies (Biggs, 1988a); these allow the student to actively construct the meaning of the subject matter (Struyven et al., 2002). The results of this study confirm that different disciplines have specific norms, language, and practices that enable the student to become part of that field (Ballard & Clanchy, 1988; Becher 1994; Anderson 1997; Lave & Wegner 1999, quoted in McCune & Hounsell, 2005). They also suggest that the cultural context of professional practice should be taken into account. Accounting and business management students obtained greater scores than psychology students in the surface approach scale and the surface motives, deep strategies and surface strategies sub-scales. The hypothesis that psychology students would, in turn, score more points in the deep approach and deep motives scales was not confirmed. However, this should not be given too much importance, as the differences were not significant. The
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theory that accounting and business management students would score more points in the surface approach and surface motive scales was not confirmed either. They did, however, confirm a tendency toward surface strategies. In order to reach a better and more consistent understanding of the learning approaches employed by university students and their differences across disciplines we must also know and understand the institutional, cultural, and professional contexts that surround said disciplines. Further research should continue to employ this theoretical approach, increase sample size, and study populations belonging to other universities in order to confirm or modify the current findings.
REFERENCES Biggs, J. B. (1988a). Assessing student approaches to learning. Australian Psychologist, 23, 2, 197-206. Biggs, J. B. (1988b). The role of metacognition in enhancing learning. Australian Journal of Education, 32, 2, 127-138. Biggs, J. B. (1994) Student Learning Research and Theory - where do we currently stand? University of Hong Kong. Retrieved January 25, 2007, from http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/isltp-biggs.html. Biggs, J. B. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32, 347-364. Biggs, J. B. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: Open University Press. Biggs, J. B., & Moore, P. J. (1993). Process of learning (3rd. Ed.). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Biggs, J. B., Kember, D. & Leung, Y. P. (2001). The revised two-factor Study Process Questionnaire: R-SPQ-2F. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 1, 133-149. Booth, P., Luckett, P., & Mladenovic, R. (1999). The quality of learning in accounting education: the impact of approaches to learning on academic performance. Accounting Education, 8, 277-300. Boyle,E.A., Duffy, T., & Dunleavy, K. (2003). Learning styles and academic outcomes: the validity and utility of Vermunt‘s inventory of learning styles in a British higher education setting. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 267- 290. Chan, D., Leung, R., Gow, L. & Hu, S. (1989) Approaches to learning of Accountancy students: Some additional evidence. Proceedings of the ASAIHL seminar on University Education in the 1990‘s, Kuala Lumpar. Cleveland-Innes, M. & Emes, C. (2005). Social and Academic Interaction in Higher Education Contexts and the Effect on Deep Learning. NASPA Journal, 42, 2, 241-262 Eley, M. G. (1992) Differential adoption of study approaches within individual students. Higher Education 23, 231-254. Entwistle, N. J., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning. London: Croom Helm. Entwistle, N. J. & Tait, H. (1996). Identifying students at risk through ineffective study strategies. Higher Education, 31, 1, 99-118. Entwistle, N. J, Nisbet, J., & Bromage, A. (2004) Teaching-learning environments and student learning in electronic engineering. Paper presented at the Third Workshop of the
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European Network on Powerful Learning Environments. Brugge, September 30 – October 2, 2004. Entwistle, N. J. (2005). Contrasting Perspectives on Learning. In: Marton, F., Hounsell, D. and Entwistle, N., (eds.) The Experience of Learning: Implications for teaching and studying in higher education. 3rd (Internet) edition. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre for Teaching, Learning and Assessment, pp. 3- 21. Ford, N., Miller, D., & Moss, N. (2001). The role of individual differences in Internet searching: an empirical study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52, 12, 1049-1066. Heinström, J. (2002). Fast surfing for availability or deep diving into quality- motivation and information seeking among middle and high school students. Information Research, 11(4). Retrieved September 1, 2006, from http://InformationR.net/ir/11-4/paper265.html. Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976a). On qualitative differences in learning. I Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4–11. Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976b). On qualitative differences in learning. II Outcome as a function of the learner's conception of the task. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 115–127. Marton, F., y Säljö, R. (1997). Approaches to learning. In F. Marton, D. Hounsell, & N. Entwistle (Eds.), The experience of learning. Implications for teaching and studying in higher education (second edition) (pp. 39-59). Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. Mccune, V. & Hounsell, D. (2005). The development of students‘ ways of thinking and practising in three final-year biology courses. Higher and Community Education, Moray House School of Education, University of Edinburgh, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, United Kingdom. Higher Education 49: 255–289 DOI 10.1007/s10734-004-6666-0 Najar, R., & Davis, K. (2001). Approaches to learning and studying in psychology: A revised perspective. Retrieved May 23, 2007, from http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/naj01247.htm. Nelson, T., Shoup, R., & Kuh, G. (2005). Deep Learning and College Outcomes: Do Fields of Study Differ? Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Institutional Research, May 29 – June 1, 2005. San Diego, CA. Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education. London: Routledge. Ramsden, P., & Entwistle, N. J. (1981), Effects of academic departments on students‘ approaches to studying. British Journal of Psychology, 51, 368-83 Regan, L., & Regan, J. (1995). Relationships between first-year university students' scores on Biggs' Study Process Questionnaire and students' gender, age, faculty-of-enrolment and first-semester grade-point-average. Paper presented at the 25th Annual Conference of the Australian Teacher Education Association Inc. Sydney. Richardson, J. (1994). Using Questionnaires to Evaluate Student Learning:Some Health Warnings, Brunel University. Rodríguez M., Padilla V., & Esquivel J. (2007). Aproximación al aprendizaje: punto de vista del estudiante. Revista de la Educación Superior. ANUIES, XXXVI (4), 144, 99-110. Rosário, P., Núñez, J. C., González-Pienda, J.A., Almeida, L., Soares, S., & Rubio, M. (2005). El aprendizaje escolar examinado desde la perspectiva del ―Modelo 3P‖ de J. Biggs. Psicothema, 17, 1, 20-30.
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Siddiqui, Z. (2006). Study Approaches of Students in Pakistan: The Revised Two-factor Study Process Questionnaire Experience. University of Western Australia; 35, Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Australia. Smith, S. N., & Miller, R. J. (2005). Learning approaches: Examination type, discipline of study, and gender. Educational Psychology, 25, 1, 43-53. Spencer, K. (2003). Approaches to Learning and Contemporary Accounting Education. Retrieved November 15, 2006, from http://www.ece.salford.ac.uk/proceedings/papers/ ks_03.rtf. Struyven, K., Dochy, F., & Janssens (2002). Students´ perceptions about assessment in higher education: a review. Paper presented at the Joint Northumbria / Earli SIG Assessment and Evaluation Conference: Learning communities and assessment cultures, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, August 28 – 30, 2002. Thang, S. (2005) Comparing approaches to studying of Malaysian distance learners and oncampus learners: implications to distance education. School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education -TOJDE April 2005 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume :6 Number: 2. Retrieved January 20, 2007, from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde18/articles/article3.htm. Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (1991). Relating approaches to study and quality of learning outcomes at the course level. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61, 265-275. Vermunt, J. (1998). The regulation of constructive learning processes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 149-171. Watkins, D., & Akande, A. (1992). Assessing the approaches to learning of Nigerian students. Assessment, 17, 11-20. Woods, D., Hrymak, A., & Wright, H. (2001). Approaches to Learning and Learning Environments in Problem-based versus lecture-based learning. McMaster University, Hamilton, ON. Canada. Zeegers, P. (2002) A Revision of the Biggs‘ Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ). Higher Education Research & Development, 21, 1, 79-92.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS WHO FAIL Cirilo H. García*, Jaime Montalvo≠ and Karina Castro Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León & Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
ABSTRACT A sample of 249 students from the School of Psychology belonging to a public university was used for this study. From the explanatory failure models used, it was found that using multiple regression analysis, there was no significant or substantial variable that influenced failure. The constructs that did not influence failure were: socioeconomic level, parents‘ mean age, family hardiness, record of academic failure in preparatory school and, labor activities. Lastly, it was found that students do not attribute their failure to professors or to themselves. It was concluded that social educational policies must review their programs and actions in the light of results, including non-conforming products, in this case students who have failed and dropped out of the system. More and better research must be done with a series of models, which should incorporate constructs of the social, cultural and psychological type.
Keywords: failure, university students, psycho-social and socio-economic variables, multiple regression analysis.
RESUMEN En este estudio se usó una muestra de 249 alumnos de la Facultad de Psicología de una Universidad pública. De los modelos explicativos sobre la reprobación que se falsaron, usando análisis de regresión múltiple, se encontró que ninguna de las variables independientes investigadas tuvo algún efecto significativo o substancial sobre la reprobación. Los constructos que no influyeron a la reprobación fueron: nivel socioeconómico, edad promedio de los padres, fortaleza familiar, antecedentes académicos de reprobación en la escuela preparatoria y actividades laborales extraacadémicas. Finalmente, se encontró que los estudiantes no se atribuyen a mismos o a los profesores su reprobación. Se concluyó que las políticas sociales educativas deben revisar sus programas y acciones a la luz de los resultados arrojados por investigaciones como la presentada aquí, incluyendo los productos inconformes, en este caso los estudiantes que reprueban y hasta
*
Address for correspondence: Facultad de Psicología, UANL, Mutualismo 110, Mitras-Centro, CP.64460, Monterrey, Nuevo León. E-mail:
[email protected] Phone: 001-8113197151 ≠ FES Iztacala, UNAM. E-mail:
[email protected] Phone: 001-5554511112
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Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro abandonan el sistema. Se debe hacer más y mejor investigación con una serie de modelos que incluyan constructos sociales, culturales y psicológicos.
Palabras clave: reprobación, estudiantes universitarios, varisbles psicosociales y socioeconómicas, análisis de regresión múltiple
INTRODUCTION Even though higher education reaches 22.00% of the cohort of young students between the ages of 19 and 23 in modern-day Mexico, this is only half of the number of students reached in intermediate countries and only one fourth of the number of students in developed countries (Ibarra Mendivil, 2005). This means that higher education in our country straggles behind other countries (Taméz Guerra, 2005). In addition, only 3 states belonging to the Mexican Republic include almost the 50 % of the student population in higher education (46.80%), covering just only the 38.00% of the general country‘s population (Jalisco, Federal District and Nuevo Leon) (OCDE, 1997). As far as financing higher education is concerned, according to Ibarra Mendivil (2005), the Federal Government invests .60% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while state governments invest .16% of the GDP. According to Aguayo Quezada (2002), in the year 2001 public spending for higher education was 17.00%. With these data it can be stated that it is necessary to make a greater effort in increasing the coverage of higher education with the Federal Government and state governments investing more in the formation of human capital. However, in the population provided with the service of higher education, not all receive the same education in a uniform manner because some fail and others drop out for diverse and unknown reasons. Out of 100 students who register in primary school (Prawda, 1989), only 13 reach college, 5 finish and only 3 obtain their degrees. In that sense, we are still very far from offering the equality in higher education desired for young people. Failure can be examined from different points of view. For example, it can be contemplated from the perspective of social adaptation to norms. Adaptation to norms derived from membership in a group is a psycho-social phenomenon of primary importance. Nonfulfillment of norms constitutes a manifestation of non-adaptation to a main rule of survival within a group or institution. In the case of students at the level of higher education, failure also constitutes a partial failure within the process of social adaptation into a determined social group. If failure is continuous, the moment arrives when the failure greatly affects the future of the person failing because their educational formation is interrupted, since he/she is expelled from the institutional system. However, failing itself probably brings along with it multiple unfavorable consequences. Stigma and/or loss of status accompany students who fail. Also, the students‘ parents, relatives, classmates and teachers consider them to be failures as persons, lacking in intelligence or the will to succeed and they are considered to be second class people. The students who fail have a feeling of being handicapped, of disdain and they have low self-esteem in view of their lack of adaptation to the process. Some believe that families with higher levels of income and higher educational levels, upon sending their sons and daughters to the University, will do so after having equipped them with sufficient cultural capital to be able to fulfill all of the academic requirements and
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demands, even those for passing the examinations taken. For that reason, the socio-economic level, understood in terms of income and education, could be related to failure, and one would expect a lower number of students from higher socio-economic levels to fail. In addition, reproduction strategies of social divisions would interface with the same strategies of powerful families and academic capital awarded by the school to children of those families (Bourdieu, 1997). On the other hand, if a student‘s family is resilient or strong, which is the ability to face ―normal‖ problems that occur in a primary organization, or tragedies or dramatic events, and continue ahead rebuilding itself (Grotberg, 1995), then it could also be thought that students who flunk come from families that have a weak psycho-social ability such as resilience. In addition, if families have students in higher education, but the age of the parents is far from the age of the students, then the ―generation gap‖ will be accentuated in such a way that those students will fail because they do not have the understanding and closeness of parents because their tastes and preferences are very different from theirs. This is all in reference to the characteristics of the students‘ families. With respect to the typology of the students, maybe if they have problems with academic failure in preparatory school or low academic performance on that level, they will also stumble and have problems with subjects in College (OCDE, 1997). For that reason, the academic history of failure would tend to repeat itself. In the same scope of student characteristics, perhaps those who spend time on extracurricular work that is paid do not spend enough time studying their subjects to the extent that it affects them and the failure phenomenon appears (OCDE, 1997). Finally, the internal-external attribution may vary as far as failure is concerned, because perhaps students will adjudge more to themselves as they fail and vice-versa. If failure becomes a constant companion in their lives, then perhaps something is wrong with them and nothing is wrong with the professor, the study plan, the difficult level of the courses. It must be their personal characteristics that contribute to failure. In a study of university students, unsuccessful students attributed their failures to external factors and those who were successful credited that success to certain characteristics that are a part of their personality, to internal factors (Lebedina-Manzoni, 2004). According to that previously mentioned, some questions were developed concerning the intriguing phenomenon of failure by students at the School of Psychology in the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, since the problem directly affects a large percentage of the population (15.00%) (Martínez, 2004) The questions were: To what degree does the fact that students come from families with low internal strength affect failure? Would students who failed in preparatory school tend to fail more often? What type of student‘s attribution is related to failure? Is socio-economic level related to the failure of students in the School of Psychology at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León? Will students who work at jobs more hours a day fail more often? Is failure related to the age of the parents? In the same manner the following general objectives were structured:
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Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro 1. Evaluate the role that some structural, educational, economic and family conditions play in the failure of psychology students. 2. Determine the relationship between failure and attribution (internal-external) in psychology students. The following specific objectives were designed: 1. Determine if there is a relationship between socio-economic level and failure. 2. Define if family hardiness influences failure. 3. Determine if there is a relationship between failure in preparatory school and failure by students studying psychology at the University 4. Find out if there is a relationship between parent age and failure. 5. Identify the possibility of a relationship between the time dedicated to working at a job and failure 6. Find out if there is a relationship between failure and attribution (internal-external).
In relation to that discussed, the problem, its questions, and the general and specific objectives of this section, the following hypotheses are presented: 1. Greater hardiness of the family, lower failure rates. 2. The longer the academic history of failure in preparatory school, the greater the rate of failure. 3. The more time dedicated to working at a job, the higher the number of failures. 4. The older the parents, the higher the rate of failure. 5. High socio-economic level, low rate of failure. 6. Lower failure rate, higher external attibution. 7. Higher failure rate, higher internal attribution.
METHOD Setting and Context The study was carried out during the month of March of 2004, while extraordinary exams were being taken for the fourth and sixth time. The investigation was carried out with most of the students who took their exams for several subjects and they voluntarily answered the questionnaires and scales, in the same classrooms used for taking the academic tests.
Population and Sample The study was carried out on a sample of 249 students (88 men and 155 women, and 6 students who did not answer the question concerning their sex) at the School of Psychology in the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. More than 90.00% of those who took their extraordinary exams answered the questionnaire.
The model with independent and dependent variables is presented in Figure I.
Familial strength
Failure academic history Job history Parental age Socioeconomic level
External attribution
Internal attribution
Figure 1. Falsified model in the study
Academic failure
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Instruments A questionnaire was used to obtain socio-demographic information and variables such as the student age, the age and education of their parents, monthly income earned, the number of subjects failed in secondary school, preparatory school and in college, the number of times they have not passed the courses and the hours per week spent working at a job. A scale was also used to define family hardiness (McCubbin, McCubbin & Thompson, in Fischer and Corcoran, 2000) and another scale for internal-external attribution concerning failing during their studies, developed by the authors of this study. The scales offered the following options as answers: Of course, I believe so, I don‘t think so, Of course not. The higher the score on the scale, the greater the construct. Items belonging to different scales were spread out in a random manner to be answered by participants.
Procedure The independent variables were: socio-economic level, which was determined by the average family monthly income that the students believe is earned and the number of years of study of the father and mother, and a positive correlation was calculated as a pre-requisite (greater than 0.30) between both indicators (the number of years of study of both parents, on one hand, and the average income, on the other hand). The construct of family hardiness was also used within the model, and it was measured through the grade obtained on a scale, validated by exploratory factor analysis, as well as the external-internal attribution. The dependent variable was measured as the average between the number of subjects failed and the number of extraordinary examination opportunities used during their studies for their degree (having assured previously, in the same study, that both indicators positively correlated above 0.30) (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1995).
Research Design A transversal ex post facto design was used in which the Likert-type scales played an important role because they formed part of the survey design used to measure independent and dependent variables.
Data Analysis Techniques Exploratory factor analysis was used as a construct validation technique and multiple regression analysis was used to identify the percentage of variance in the dependent variable, attributable to the model and to know the effect of each one of the independent variables over the dependent one through the magnitude of standardized betas (β). In addition, data were first analyzed without excluding outliers cases and later it were analyzed after ―normalizing‖ the distribution (excluding the outliers greater than -3 and +3 standard deviations on the normal curve), in the independent and dependent variables of the falsified model. Since the findings were different in function of if outliers cases were included
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or not and it was decided to present those coming from the normalized variables through the elimination of outliers cases.
RESULTS First, some socio-demographic data is presented for participants in the survey as follows. Later, data related to the items validated on each scale is added, their structure coefficients, the percentage of variance of each scale, the factor extraction method and the alpha-Cronbach reliability coefficient of each instrument. Lastly, information is described related to the effect of each of the constructs of the model used, over the dependent variable, the lack of multicolinearity between independent ones, shown through indexes of tolerance and the variance inflation factor 84.66% of the participants oscillated between 18 and 21 years, while the mean age was 19.30 and its standard deviation was 1.44. 155 women participated (63.80%) and 88 men (36.20%). Table 1. Scale of teaching external attribution Questionnaire
Structure coefficients
Alpha
1-I have failed courses at College since the teachers do not have the skills to reach correctly. 2-I have failed courses at College because teachers do not explain well. 3-I have failed courses at College since teachers are not very worried about their students understand or not. 4-I have failed courses at College since the teachers are frequently absent. 5-The deficient didactic techniques used by the teachers are one of the reasons I failed the courses at College. 6-I have failed courses at College since the teachers do not teach well. 7-I have failed courses at College since the teachers have little interest in teaching well. 8-I have failed since the teachers of College taught different subjects from those of the programs. 9-I have failed courses at College since the teachers use unfair methods of evaluation.
.70
.85
.72
.54
.51
.64
.81
.79
.56
.51
Percentage of explained variance 42.48
Method of factor extraction Principal axis factoring
Method of rotation Varimax
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Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro
In order to include the education of the parents as an indicator of the socio-economic level construct, the number of years of study of each one of them was averaged, since the correlation was .57. For distribution of monthly family income, according to the perception of the participants, it was found a mean of 8171.24 Mexican pesos with a standard deviation of 5438.99 pesos. For the purpose of data analysis, it were averaged the means belonging to education of parents and monthly family income, due that the correlation between them was .50. 81.00% of the sample does not have a history of failure in secondary school, since they stated that they did not fail any subject. However, in preparatory school the percentage of students who did not fail a subject was only 13.10%, while the percentage who failed between 2 and 6 subjects was 63.40%. The mean of subjects failed was 4.01, the standard deviation was 2.96. The mean age of fathers was 49.01 years, while the standard deviation only reached 5.67 years. The mean age of mothers was 46.67 years and the standard deviation was 5.43 years. Table 2. Scale of internal attribution Questionnaires
Structure coefficient s
Alpha
1- One of the causes I failed some course at College is my vagueness about what I want to do with my life. 2-I failed the course at College because of my low self-esteem. 3-I have failed some courses at College because I do not have vocation to be psychologist. 4-One of the causes I failed some course at College was the lack of motivation to be successful in life. 5-I have failed some course at College since I chose the wrong studies.
.68
.78
Percentage of explained variance 45.87
Method of factor extraction
Method of rotation
Principal axis factoring
Varimax
.53 .81
.52
.80
With respect to the work activity of the failed students, it was found that they worked at a job daily an average of 5.83 hours, with a standard deviation of 1.51 hours. Concerning the measurement of attribution, a scale with 27 items was used, which was subdivided by exploratory factor analysis in two factors: external teaching attribution (Table I) and internal attribution (Table 2). These two factors were obtained in the third factorization and the technique of varimax rotation was used because there was no correlation between the two (.15).
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The mean score for the Internal Attribution Scale was 1.37 and the standard deviation was .4374. In Table 3 the distribution of scores on the Internal Attribution Scale is presented. Table 3. Frequencies and percentages of scores in the Scale of Internal Attribution Grades
Simple frequencies
Simple percentage
1.0000 1.2500 1.5000 1.7500 2.0000 2.2500 2.5000 Total
106 39 26 30 19 10 8 238
44.5000 16.4000 10.9000 12.6000 8.0000 4.2000 3.4000 100.0000
Accumulated percentages 44.5000 60.9000 71.8000 84.4000 92.4000 96.6000 100.0000 100.0000
Table 4. Scorings, frequencies and percentages in the Scale of Teaching External Attribution Grades
Simple frequencies
Simple percentages
1.0000 1.1100 1.2200 1.3300 1.4400 1.5600 1.6700 1.7800 1.8900 2.0000 2.1100 2.2200 2.3300 2.4400 2.5600 2.6700 2.7800 2.8900 3.0000 3.1100 3.2200 3.3300 3.4400 3.5600 Total
12 11 8 7 10 19 5 16 18 20 25 12 10 17 13 12 7 4 6 3 3 2 2 2 244
4.9100 4.5000 3.3000 2.9000 4.1100 7.8000 2.0100 6.6000 7.4100 8.2000 10.2000 4.9100 4.1000 7.0100 5.3000 4.9100 2.9000 1.6100 2.5000 1.2100 1.2000 0.8000 0.8000 0.8100 100.00
Accumulated percentages 4.9100 9.4100 12.7100 15.6100 19.7200 27.5200 29.5300 36.1300 43.5400 51.7400 61.9400 66.8500 70.9500 77.9600 83.2600 88.1700 91.0700 92.6800 95.1800 96.3900 97.5900 98.3900 99.1900 100.0000 100.0000
From Table 3, it can be calculated that 92.40% of participants in the sample don‘t think so and they of course not attribute the phenomenon of their failure to themselves. Only 7.60%
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attribute the responsibility of their failure to themselves because they are the ones who believe so and of course it is due to them. On the other hand, the mean of scores on the External Teaching Attribution Scale was 2.03. The standard deviation was .59. On Table 4, the scores are shown, along with their frequencies and percentages, from the data obtained on the External Teaching Attribution Scale. Table 5. Scale of Familial Strength Questionnaires
Structure coefficients
Alpha
1-In our family, we have a feeling of being strong even if we face serious problems 2-In our family, sometimes I feel that even in hard moments I can believe things will be all right. 3-In our family, although we do not always agree, we can count on the help from each other so as to bear or deal together with the hard situations. 4-In our family, life seems bored, with no sense. 5-In our family, we try together to help each other in everything. 6-In our family, we plan to try new and exciting activities. 7-In our family, we listen each other about our problems, sorrows and fears. 8-In our family, we tend to do the same thing again and again…It is bored. 9-In our family, we like to encourage each other so as to try new activities and experiences. 10-In our family, it is better to stay home than to leave and to socialize with other people. 11-In our family, we work together for resolving problems.
.58
.90
Percentage of explained variance 45.28
Method of factor extraction Principal axis factoring
Method rotation
of
Varimax
.56
.78
.64 .81
.63 .70
.55
.73
.62
.74
From Table 4 it can be deduced that 92.60% of the participants in the study think that the responsibility of their failure is not and of course is not due to their professors, while only 7.40% believe that their failure is and of course is due to their teachers.
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For the Family Hardiness construct, the McCubbin, McCubbin and Thompson scale was used (in Fischer and Corcoran, 2000) and it contained 20 items and exploratory factor analysis was performed (see Table 5). The mean score on the Family Strength Scale was 3.31 and the standard deviation was .56. Focusing on Table 6, we can affirm that 77.00% of the participants in our sample think that there is family strength and they believe that of course it does exist in their primary group. On the contrary, 23.00% affirmed that in their home family strength does not and of course does not exist. Table 6. Distribution of scores, frequencies and percentages of the Scale Familial Strength in the sample Grades 1.73 1.82 1.91 2.09 2.18 2.27 2.36 2.45 2.55 2.64 2.73 2.82 2.91 3.00 3.09 3.18 3.27 3.36 3.45 3.55 3.64 3.73 3.82 3.91 4.00 Total
Simple frequencies 2 4 2 2 3 3 2 4 3 8 4 9 8 9 12 14 13 19 12 9 14 21 15 17 24 233
Simple percentages
Accumulated percentages
0.8584 1.7167 0.8584 0.8583 1.2876 1.2876 0.8584 1.7166 1.2876 3.4335 1.7167 3.8627 3.4334 3.8627 5.1502 6.0086 5.5794 8.1545 5.1502 3.8627 6.0085 9.0129 6.4378 7.2961 10.3004 100.0000
The dependent variable of failure was measured by two indicators: the number of subjects failed and the number of extraordinary opportunities. The mean of extraordinary opportunities was 4.99 and the standard deviation was 3.05. Table 7 shows the distribution of the number of extraordinary exams taken for subjects, with their respective frequencies and percentages.
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Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro Table 7. Distribution of the number of extraordinary quizzes taken
Number of extraordinary opportunities
Simple frequencies
Simple percentage
1
20
10.2564
2
28
14.3590
3
22
11.2821
4
36
18.4615
5
16
8.2051
6
17
8.7179
7
15
7.6923
8
13
6.6666
9
8
4.1026
10
6
3.0769
11
6
3.0769
12
6
3.0769
13
2
1.0256
Total
195
100.0000
Accumulated percentages
The average number of subjects failed by the sample ascended to 3.45 and the standard deviation was 1.63 subjects. As follows, Table 8 presents the distribution of the number of subjects failed as well as the level of frequencies and percentages. As they correlated with the value of .74, the number of subjects failed and the number of extraordinary exams taken for subjects, for the purpose of the analysis, an average score of both was obtained. Table 8. Frequencies and percentages of failed courses by the sample Number of failed courses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Simple frequencies
Simple percentages
21 50 49 39 32 17 4 4 216
9.7222 23.1481 22.6852 18.0556 14.8148 7.8704 1.8519 1.8519
Accumulated percentages
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Table 9 is shown as follows in which the constructs of the falsified model Table 9. Constructs of the falsified model, their standardized betas, t values, significances and tolerances, and variance inflation factor Constructs Socioeconomical level Mean age of the parents Familial strength Academic background of failures in high school Labor activity
Beta
t
Significance
Tolerance
0.02
0.33
0.74
0.99
Variance inflation factor 1.007
0.04
0.58
0.56
0.95
1.049
0.04 0.08
0.63 1.27
0.53 0.21
0.95 0.98
1.052 1.021
0.008
0.12
0.90
0.99
1.006
In this study, their standardized Betas, the t values and their significances, the tolerance and the variance inflation factor appear. As indicators of the socio-economic level construct, the mean education of parents and the monthly income of the family were included. Both indicators were positively correlated to 0.50 and, for that reason, the mean of those indicators was adopted for the purpose of analysis. At the same time, after it was found that the education of the parents (of the father and mother of each student) correlated positively (0.57), thus the mean of education of both was taken for the purpose of analysis. The same process was carried out for the age of the parents, since they positively correlated at 0.78. Upon observing Table 9, it can be seen that none of the constructs of the falsified model had a significant or substantial effect on the dependent variable, on the level of failure of students and there was no potential explanatory overlapping between them or multicollinearity. Table 10 shows the values of explained variance for the dependent variable, attributable to each construct, in view of the fact that multicollinearity was absent. Table 10. Percentages of explained variance of the dependent variable attributable to each construct of the falsified model Constructs Socio economical level Average age of the parents Familial strength Academic background of failure in high school Labor activity
Partial percentages of explained variance -1.10 0.60 0.15 -0.14 0.01
Finally, Table 11 presents the percentage of explained variance for the dependent variable in view of the complete falsified model, formed by all of the independent variables.
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Cirilo H. García, Jaime Montalvo and Karina Castro Table 11. Percentage of Total Explained Variance of the Dependent Variable Attributable to the Whole Falsified Model
Constructs Socio economical level Mean age of the parents Familial strength Academic background of failure in high school Labor activity
Percentage of total explained variance
1.20
DISCUSSION Lebedina-Manzoni (2004) found that students in the School of Psychology and who are successful attribute the result to their own characteristics, while those who failed do not attribute it to themselves, but rather to external sources. However, in the study reported here, students do not attribute the responsibility of their failure to themselves or to their professors. Specifically, only 7.60% of those in the sample believe that ―yes‖ and ―yes, of course‖, their failure can be attributed to low self-esteem, to having made a mistake in selecting their major and due to a lack of vocation needed in order to be a psychologist, as well as the lack of motivation to be someone in life and their confusion upon deciding what they want to do with their lives. Also, in this study, only 7.40% of participants believe that ―yes‖ and ―yes, of course‖ their failure was due to the fact that their professors do not have teaching abilities or that they do not explain or teach well, that they use deficient didactic techniques, that they do not worry if their students understand or not, and they are not interested in teaching well. Likewise, they do not complete the program, they are frequently absent and they use unfair evaluation methods. Sarason (1988) reported that when students take a test in which they have underestimated themselves and one that makes them worry, they are distracted and do not answer effectively and they receive poor grades. More recently, Ford (1993) found that Afro-American students experienced high levels of anxiety on tests in comparison with classmates with good academic performance. Zivcic-Becirevic & Anie (2001) informed that successful students talked about their parents‘ influence, in the sense that students took it into account as far as their parents‘ eventual disenchantment and anger caused by the potential academic failure of their children. Also, in studies with talented students with low grades, there is a focus on the role of the family as the center of support and stimulation of academic activity (Van Tassel-Baska, 1989). However, in the study reported here, students who failed did not report that there was a lack of family strength in their primary group (only 23.00% of them affirmed that the family lacked strength). In the case of students with outstanding intelligence, but with levels of performance below their real ability, measured with a standardized instrument (Peterson & Colangelo, 1996; Emerick 1992), talented students but students with low academic performance, who did not have performance in proportion to their intellectual ability (Gowan, 1955; Emerick, 1989; Bertozzi, 1997) have been found to have an unfavorable attitude towards school and they lack motivation to collaborate within the classroom (Seeley, 1993). Their classmates with good
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academic performance are more persistent than they are (González & Hayes, 1988), they were more ambivalent towards hard effort (Ford, 1993); they have a locus of external control (Freeman, 1994; Ford, 1993), they are not as interested in nor were they as motivated to acquire factual information, as were those students with high grades (Lau & Chan, 2001). Even though this study did not differentiate between students who fail and fall into this category, an unknown percentage of the sample probably belonged to this classification. For that reason, some conclusions of those studies are also applied to the students investigated here, even when the findings derived from those studies were for children and adolescents from secondary school and preparatory school. Guay, Boivin & Hodges (1999) found that students who had social goals as a priority tended to receive lower grades and lower points on achievement tests. However, Wentzel (1991) reported that there were also social goals related to academic achievement, such as seeing oneself in the role of a successful, reliable student who wishes to learn new things and who wants to make things happen. Consistent with the tendency in the investigations concerning this topic, several studies (Albaili, 1998; Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Guay et al, 1999 and McInerney, Roche, McInerney & Marsh, 1997) have found that orientation towards the mastery goals of (e.g., an emphasis on effort, homework and improvement) is associated with a variety of positive academic results, which contrasts with negative academic results related to practices such as orientation towards a performance goal (e.g., one‘s own ability, feedback and a sense of self-value) and orientation towards a social goal. These results concur with the perspective of Whitmore (1980) which stated that students with low academic performance do not find reward in effort and, for that reason, they avoid effort and they redirect their activities towards more gratifying behavior such as athletic or social activities (Albaili, 2003). It is clear that when students value a task, it is more probable that they will perform it, use more effort in carrying it out and they will do it better and, for that reason, it is more probable that they will become students with good academic performance (Wigfield, 1994). Thus, the belief in the importance of a task increases student effort towards orientation and motivation of the achievement goal (Albaili, 2003). In relation to the hypotheses in the study, it can be stated that the findings were contrary to all of them. In no case were Betas (β) significant, as can be seen with the following: 1. The higher the socio-economic level, the lower the failure rate (β 0.02, t at 0.33 and significance > 0.05 [0.74]. 2. The greater the internal family strength, the lower the failure rate 3. (β 0.04, t at 0.63 and significance > 0.05 [0.53]. 4. The longer the academic history of failure in preparatory school, the higher the rate of failure (β 0.03, t at 1.27 and significance > 0.05 [0.21]. 5. The lower the failure rate, the higher the external attribution (β 0.02, t at 0.24 and significance >0.05 [0.81]. 6. The more time dedicated to a job, the higher the failure rate (β 0.01, t at 0.12 and significance > 0.05 [0.09]. 7. The older the parents, the higher the rate of failure (β 0.04, t at 0.58 and significance > 0.05 [0.56]. 8. The higher the failure rate, the higher the internal attribution (β 0.16, t at 1.89 and significance > 0.05 [0.06].
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It is clear that the phenomenon of failure at the university level is a very complex one. It is necessary to continue investigating other constructs, such as academic self-concept, locus of control, motivation of achievement, orientation practices towards the dominion goal and belief in the importance of academic activities. It is also convenient for the pedagogical departments of the University to do research on failure in order to design better prevention and recuperation strategies for those unfortunate cases, and in order to reduce the enormous cost of the phenomenon and in order to decrease the percentage of eventual drop outs.
REFERENCES Aguayo Quezada, S. (Ed.). (2002). México en cifras. México: Grijalbo. Albaili, M. A. (1998). Goal orientations, cognitive strategies, and academic achievement of United Arab Emirates college students. Educational Psychology, 18, 195-203. Albaili, M. A. (2003). Motivational goal orientations of intellectually gifted achieving and underachieving students in the United Arab Emirates. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, 2, 107-120. Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271. Bertozzi, P. G. (1997). Analysis of year by year grade point averages of students identified as academically gifted. Washington, D. C.: Oficina de Educación (Servicio de Reproducción de Documentos ERIC No. ED 413 691). Bourdieu, P. (1997). Capital cultural, escuela y espacio social. México: Siglo XX1 Editores, S. A. de C. V. Bush, W. J. & Mattson, B. D. (1973). WISC test patterns and underachievers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 6, 54-59. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273. Emerick, L. J. (1989). The gifted underachiever: Another look. Preventing School Failure, 34, 6-9. Emerick, L. J. (1992). Academic underachievement among the gifted: Students´ perceptions of factors that reverse the pattern. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 140-146. Ford, D. Y. (1993). An investigation of the paradox of underachievement among gifted Black students. Roeper Review, 16, 78-84. Freeman, J. (1994). Some emotional aspects of being gifted. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17, 180-197. Gonzalez, J. & Hayes, A. (1988). Psychosocial aspects of the development of gifted underachievers: Review and implications. The Exceptional Child, 35, 39-51. Gowan, J. C. (1955). The underachieving gifted child - a problem for everyone. Exceptional Children, 21, 247-271. Grotberg, E. (1995). A guide to promoting resilience in children. La Haya: Bernard van Leer Foundation. Guay, F., Boivin, M. & Hodges, E. (1999). Social comparison processes and academic achievement: The dependence of the development of self-evaluations on friends‘ performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 3, 564-568.
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Ibarra Mendivil, J. L. (2005). Foro: Hacia un Compromiso Nacional para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Tecnología, organized by the Comisión de Ciencia y Tecnología of the Congreso de la Unión, february 23, Distrito Federal. Johnson, N. E., Saccuzzo, D. P. & Guertin, T. L. (1994). Understanding gifted underachievers in an ethnically diverse population. Washington, D. C.: Oficina de Educación (Servicio de Reproducción de Documentos ERIC No. ED 368 101). Lau, K., & Chan, D. W. (2001). Motivational characteristics of under-achievers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 21, 417-430. Lebedina-Manzoni, M. L. (2004). To what students attribute their academic success and unsuccess. Education Chula Vista, 124, 4, 699-708. Martínez, J. (2004). Comunicación personal. Monterrey: Academic Vice-dean, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. McCubbin, M. A., McCubbin, H. I. & Thompson, A. I. (2000, third edition). Index of family strength. In Fisher, J. & Corcoran, K. Measures for clinical practice. A sourcebook. Volume 1. Couples, families and children. New York: The Free Press. McInerney, D. M., Roche, L. A., McInerney, V., & Marsh, H. W. (1997). Cultural perspectives on school motivation: The relevance and application of goal theory. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 207-236. Moffitt, T. E. & Silva, P. A. (1987). WISC-R verbal and performance IQ discrepancy in an unselected cohort: clinical significance and longitudinal stability. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 768-774. Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1995). Teoria psicométrica. México: McGraw-Hill (Orig. 1994). Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (1997). Exámenes de las políticas nacionales de educación. México. Educación Superior. París OCDE. Peterson, J. S. & Colangelo, N. (1996). Gifted achievers and underachievers: A comparison of patterns found in school files. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 399-407. Prawda, J. (1989). Logros, inequidades y retos del futuro del sistema educativo mexicano. México: Grijalbo. Sarason, I. G. (1988). Anxiety, self-preoccupation, and attention. Anxiety research, 1, 3-7. Seeley, K. R. (1993). Gifted students as risk. En L. K. Silverman (Ed.), Counseling the gifted and talented (pp. 263-276). Denver: Love Publishing. Tamez Guerra, R. S. (2005). Sexta Reunión Internacional de Educación a Distancia. Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. Van Tassel-Baska, J. (1989). The role of the family in the success of disadvantaged gifted learners. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 13, 22-36. Wentzel, K. R. (1991). Relations between social competence and academic achievement in early adolescence. Child Development, 62, 1066-1078. Whitmore, J. R. (1980). Giftedness, conflict, and underachievement. Boston: Allyn y Bacon. Wigfield, A. (1994). The role of children's achievement values in the self-regulation of their learning outcomes. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulation of learning and performance: Issues and educational implications (pp. 101-124). Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Zivcic-Becirevic y Anic (2001). Automatic thoughts school success, efficiency and satisfaction of university students. Horizons of Psychology, 10, 1, 49-59.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
ASSESSMENT OF RELIABILITY OF INVENTORY ON LEARNING STYLES AND MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATION (EDAOM) Zaira Vega Valero1, Eduardo Peñalosa Castro, Patricia Landa Durán and Carlos Nava Quiroz Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
ABSTRACT The Learning Styles and Motivational Orientation Inventory (EDAOM, according to its initials in Spanish) is a viable instrument for evaluating learning strategies and motivation for study. Castañeda and Ortega (2004) stated that the reliability of this inventory is high, as well as its concurrent validity. It is known that any instrument of measurement has to have acceptable levels of reliability and validity and, for that reason the object of this paper was to carry out an evaluation of the reliability of the EDAOM with a student sample from Iztacala FES, in order to verify the initial index and establish the inventory‘s subscale index. The results obtained confirm the level of reliability; however, in this application in order to preserve the validity of the instrument, some items were eliminated because they had negative correlations. The data is discussed in the context of the psychometric characteristics of an instrument and items and response choices were proposed.
Keywords: learning strategies, motivation for study, reliability, validity, psychometrics.
RESUMEN El Inventario de Estilos de Aprendizaje y Orientación Motivacional (EDAOM), es una propuesta viable para evaluar las estrategias de aprendizaje y la motivación al estudio. La fiabilidad presentada por Castañeda y Ortega (2004) de este inventario es alta, así como la validez concurrente. Se sabe que cualquier instrumento de medida tiene que contar con niveles de fiabilidad y validez aceptables, por lo que el objetivo de este trabajo fue realizar una evaluación de la fiabilidad del EDAOM en una muestra de estudiantes de la FES Iztacala, 1
This paper was financed by PAPCA 2006. Address for correspondence: Cynthia Zaira Vega Valero, Bosques de Vincenes 4 casa 15,Bosques del Lago, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Edo. de Méx. CP 54760, E-mail:
[email protected], Eduardo Peñalosa Castro:
[email protected], Patricia Landa Durán:
[email protected], Carlos Nava Quiroz:
[email protected]
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para verificar el índice inicial y establecer el de las sub escalas del inventario. Los resultados obtenidos confirman el nivel de fiabilidad, sin embargo, en esta aplicación se eliminaron reactivos por resultar negativos en su correlación, pues esta situación ponía en riesgo la validez del instrumento. Los datos se discuten bajo las características psicométricas de un instrumento proponiéndose reactivos y alternativas de respuesta. Palabras clave: estrategias de aprendizaje, motivación al estudio, fiabilidad, validez, psicometría.
INTRODUCTION Learning styles as motivational orientation for study are very important aspects for understanding processes by which students learn in the classroom, and its measurement is not of less importance since it has been demonstrated that this type of characteristics in students is related to high levels of academic performance (Castañeda, 2004; Weinstein, 1998; Pintrich, 2000). The Learning Styles and Motivational Orientation Inventory (EDAOM) is a viable proposal for evaluating the previous constructs. Although this instrument has been made reliable and validated with a sample of 1500 students on the national level (Castañeda and Ortega, 2004), what we present in this paper is a study on reliability that complements the EDAOM in a sample of first semester students studying psychology in the Iztacala School of Higher Studies (Facultad de Estudios Superiores of Iztacala) of the UNAM. It is known that any instrument of measurement has to have acceptable levels of reliability and validity. In essence, the reliability referred to the non-existence of errors in measurement instruments known as exactness and precision of the measurement procedures (Kerlinger, 1981; Silva, 1992; Coolican, 1997; Namakforoosh, 2000). On the other hand, the validity is the degree to which the test measures what one really wishes to measure. Validity is respect for the instrument and what is required for this is the certainty that it fulfills the purpose for which it was created (Coolican, 1997; Namakforoosh, 2000; Kerlinger and Lee, 2002). The possession of reliable and valid instruments allows for the most adequate explanation of the psychological phenomena of interest. In particular, in the field of education there are different strategies for the evaluation of learning by the student (Winne and Perry, 2000). Many of those strategies consist of inventories that evaluate student learning abilities, motivation, values, goals, different types of knowledge, among others. However, a considerable number of measurement instruments in this area were developed in other languages, under cultural, social, political and ideological logic that is different from ours. For example, Roces, González-Pineda, Nuñez, González-Pumariega, García and Alvarez (1999) translated, checked the reliability and validated the instrument Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) developed by Pintrich, Smith, García and Mckeachie (1991). The translation and adaptation of the instrument into Spanish is called ―Cuestionario de Estrategias de Aprendizaje y Motivación (CEAM)‖. It is a self-information questionnaire that measures student motivational factors and learning strategies. Roces and collaborators (op cit) report that in the original (MSLQ) instrument items were grouped into six motivational scales and nine strategies. The factorial analysis carried out with the Spanish version revealed the existence of six motivational scales and seven learning strategies. However, with the CEAM inventory results were obtained that were similar to those reported
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by Pintrich and colleagues (op cit) for the relationship between motivation, learning strategies and achievement, on different academic levels. Unfortunately, one does not have access to the CEAM since publications to that respect only report the analysis of reliability and factorial analysis but not the translation of the complete inventory. In addition, it is difficult to find studies with extensive use of the same. Since understanding mechanisms responsible for efficient learning continue to be of utmost importance, the Evaluation of Learning Strategies and Motivational Orientation Inventory (EDAOM) (Castañeda, 2004), is a viable alternative for researchers and evaluators in the field of education, not only because it was constructed by and for a Mexican population, but also because it justly evaluates learning strategies and the motivational orientation for studying, which are variables identified as relevant for explaining strategic learning; it has been affirmed that upon understanding this area, this would imply more successful students (Zimmerman and Martínez Pons, 1988), with orientation to better defined goals (Zimmerman and Martínez-Pons, 1986) and with a better designed environment of study (Dembo, Junge and Lynch, 2004). The EDAOM was published by Castañeda (2004) who reported the results of its application on 2995 students and he obtained 0.94 index of reliability. The concurrent validity was evaluated with respect to the general grade average, which resulted in a score of 0.67 and with diverse academic tasks, it was 0.89. In the same manner, he commented that in order to establish the validity of the converging and diverging construct of the subscales, a confirming factorial analysis was carried out with a MRMM co-variance matrix. He found that traits were represented by learning styles and self-regulation of students and methods by the types of processing used in the strategies that make up the styles. Thus, the EDAOM is an instrument that fulfills the desired measurement characteristics of reliability and validity; however, and since it represents a valuable option for investigators in this field, it is convenient to analyze some additional aspects. It is well-known that the measurement characteristics of an instrument are not affected by the particularities of the sample, by its size, by the time it was given, by the investigator who used it, etc. In this case, the study in which the EDAOM was published did not include the report on the indexes of reliability of the sub-scales, an aspect that we consider to be of extreme importance to establish complete reliability. In a preliminary study, the EDAOM was taken by a sample of new undergraduate students registered with a major in psychology at the Iztacala FES – UNAM (Vega, Peñalosa and Landa, 2006) and it was found that the reliability was similar to that reported by Castañeda. However, some inconsistencies were found, such as negative or very little correlation between the items, especially in the section that evaluates the perceived quality of strategies. Due to this, our study‘s objective is to report on the results of a study of reliability carried out to evaluate EDAOM‘s initial index as well as the subscales.
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METHOD Participants 134 students who were in the first semester of their freshman year with a major in psychology at the Iztacala School of Higher Studies, UNAM.
Scenario The instrument was taken in a classroom provided by the school.
Instrument Learning Styles and Motivational Orientation Inventory (EDAOM) (Castañeda, 2004) was applied, which was designed to identify the self-evaluation that students in middle higher and higher education had concerning their learning strategies and motivational orientation to study. The self-evaluations are measured in three areas: a) the frequency with which they use an extensive variety of learning strategies and motivational orientations in their studies; b) the ease or difficulty with which they do it and c) the quality that they report to have with their results. The inventory is formed by 91 Likert type items. For each item, frequency, ease and quality are evaluated and for that reason upon carrying out the analysis of reliability there are 273 items. This inventory contains items that are scored positively, but there are also items that are scored negatively, and instead of adding them, they are subtracted from the score. Those items are: 49, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63, 69, 70, 75, 80, 83, 86 and 90. The response options and scoring are presented in table 1 as follows. Table 1. Response options for any item and score
―X‖ Ítem
A Frequency done by me Always or Half Never or most of the of the almost time time never 2 1 0
B Ease with which I do it Easily With difficulty
2
1
C Quality Very good/positive 2
Very poor/negative 1
On the other hand, the EDAOM is composed of four general scales and 13 subscales. The Styles for Acquiring Information scale evaluates learning strategies on two levels: Selective Acquisition, which includes superficial processing strategies of what is being learned and Generative Acquisition, which considers strategies for deep processing of the information to be acquired. The second scale, Styles for Recovery of Information Learned evaluates two contexts: before different academic tasks and during the exams.
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The third scale, Processing Styles, contemplates two types: the converging style – reproduces the information to be learned – and the diverging style – where students create innovative productions and critically think about that learned. Finally, the Metacognitive and Metamotivational Self-regulation Styles scale is formed by three components: the personal dimension that evaluates the efficiency perceived, internal contingency, perceived autonomy and orientation to external approval; the task dimension that evaluates the orientation of the task itself and that of the achievement of goals and the materials dimension.
Procedure The application of the inventory was during one single 30 minute session. The three persons in charge of applying the instrument received training that consisted of the adequate reading of items and the solution of any doubt concerning the inventory. The tests were applied to a group in a classroom.
Dependent Variable and Analysis of Results Each one of the items was scored. The Cronbach alpha was calculated in order to obtain reliability and at the same time, descriptive statistics were obtained.
Analysis of Results The sample consisted of 106 women and 28 men. The instrument in general obtained a high level of reliability, while that for the subscales were from moderately high to high. The analysis of results considered the evaluation of two of the columns of the EDAOM: that of frequency and that of ease. The third column evaluating quality was discarded for this study, since a great number of items with negative correlations or correlations under .20 and levels of reliability very similar to those reported by Castañeda. The first analysis of reliability of the inventory gave a Cronbach alpha store of .9360, which means that the instrument is 93% reliable. In this first analysis we eliminated 11 items in both columns to obtain a negative correlation or less than .20. These were: 16, 53, 61, 62, 73, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88 and 89. In the second alpha analysis the result was .9656, which implies that it increased its percentage of reliability. On this occasion, no item was eliminated. The final reliability of the inventory was high and the instrument consisted of 80 items that evaluate the frequency and ease of learning strategies and motivational orientation to study. The alpha of the items in the general instrument was higher than .94 (see table 2). The alpha for the selective subscale was .7025 and for the items in this area it was greater than .67. The items that form the selective area are: 2, 5, 13, 17, 25 y 52 (see table 3). For the generative subscale, the reliability was .6274 and for items it was greater than .55 (see table 4). The items in this area are: 20, 23, 26, 55, 56 and 78.
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Ítem 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2 10.1 10.2 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 13.1 13.2 14.1 14.2 15.1 15.2 17.1 17.2 18.1 18.2 19.1 19.2 20.1 20.2 21.1
Alpha .9487 .9486 .9486 .9487 .9486 .9487 .9492 .9488 .9486 .9490 .9483 .9485 .9492 .9488 .9485 .9486 .9482 .9486 .9488 .9489 .9490 .9488 .9492 .9489 .9486 .9488 .9488 .9486 .9478 .9482 .9487 .9489 .9483 .9489 .9487 .9490 .9487 .9486 .9485
Ítem 21.2 22.1 22.2 23.1 23.2 24.1 24.2 25.1 25.2 26.1 26.2 27.1 27.2 28.1 28.2 29.1 29.2 30.1 30.2 31.1 31.2 32.1 32.2 33.1 33.2 34.1 34.2 35.1 35.2 36.1 36.2 37.1 37.2 38.1 38.2 39.1 39.2 40.1 40.2
Alpha .9485 .9485 .9484 .9490 .9485 .9484 .9485 .9486 .9487 .9488 .9486 .9489 .9486 .9486 .9486 .9488 .9487 .9487 .9488 .9489 .9490 .9486 .9489 .9480 .9484 .9490 .9489 .9479 .9484 .9490 .9489 .9490 .9489 .9491 .9490 .9489 .9486 .9487 .9488
Ítem 41.1 41.2 42.1 42.2 43.1 43.2 44.1 44.2 45.1 45.2 46.1 46.2 47.1 47.2 48.1 48.2 49.1 49.2 50.1 50.2 51.1 51.2 52.1 52.2 54.1 54.2 55.1 55.2 56.1 56.2 57.1 57.2 58.1 58.2 59.1 59.2 60.1 60.2 63.1 63.2 64.1
Alpha .9482 .9484 .9484 .9485 .9478 .9482 .9483 .9486 .9489 .9486 .9491 .9487 .9484 .9486 .9487 .9488 .9492 .9490 .9486 .9489 .9490 .9490 .9486 .9486 .9483 .9485 .9485 .9491 .9484 .9486 .9488 .9489 .9484 .9484 .9489 .9490 .9488 .9491 .9488 .9488 .9479
Ítem 64.2 65.1 65.2 66.1 66.2 67.1 67.2 68.1 68.2 69.1 69.2 70.1 70.2 71.1 71.2 72.1 72.2 74.1 74.2 75.1 75.2 76.1 76.2 77.1 77.2 78.1 78.2 79.1 79.2 80.1 80.2 81.1 81.2 85.1 85.2 86.1 86.2 90.1 90.2 91.1 91.2
Alpha .9486 .9485 .9487 .9482 .9485 .9487 .9487 .9486 .9487 .9482 .9486 .9487 .9491 .9484 .9489 .9481 .9486 .9482 .9484 .9490 .9491 .9489 .9486 .9485 .9484 .9486 .9488 .9482 .9487 .9482 .9488 .9480 .9484 .9493 .9490 .9488 .9490 .9483 .9487 .9482 .9486
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Table 3. Cronbach Alphas for the Selective Acquisition Subscale Ítem 2.1 2.2 5.1 5.2 13.1 13.2
Alpha .6795 .6854 .6750 .6843 .6705 .6820
Ítem 17.1 17.2 25.1 25.2 52.1 52.2
Alpha .7025 .6955 .6639 .6564 .6733 .6854
Table 4. Cronbach Alphas for the Generative Acquisition Subscale Ítem 20.1 20.2 23.1 23.2 26.1 26.2
Alpha .6092 .5865 .5886 .5754 .6050 .6077
Ítem 55.1 55.2 56.1 56.2 78.1 78.2
Alpha .6057 .6246 .5680 .5819 .5563 .5770
For the recovery of diverse tasks subscale, the alpha result was .6639 and for the items it was greater than .62 (see table 5). The items in this area are: 3, 7, 28, 31, 34, 79 and 90. For the recovery on exams subscale the reliability was .7145 and for items it was greater than .66 (see table 6). The items in this area are: 14, 29, 59, 64, 65 and 91. Table 5. Cronbach Alphas for the Subscale of Recovery of Different Tasks Ítem 3.1 3.2 7.1 7.2 28.1 28.2 31.1 31.2
Alpha .6129 .6324 .6599 .6511 .6136 .6389 .6413 .6432
Ítem 34.1 34.2 79.1 79.2 90.1 90.2
Alpha .6782 .6503 .6042 .6184 .6324 .6299
Table 6. Cronbach Alphas for the Recovery of Exams Subscale Ítem 14.1 14.2 29.1 29.2 59.1 59.2
Alpha .6951 .6822 .6877 .6715 .6975 .6958
Ítem 64.1 64.2 65.1 65.2 91.1 91.2
Alpha .6640 .6858 .6551 .6693 .6807 .6918
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Regarding the convergent subscale, alpha was .7472 and for the items it was greater than .72 (see table 7). The items in this area are: 6, 8, 15, 19, 72, 74 and 75. For the divergent subscale, the reliability was .7314 and for the items it was greater than .68 (see table 8). The items for this area are: 4, 22, 27, 33, 66 and 70. Table 7. Cronbach Alphas for the Convergent Subscale Ítem 6.1 6.2 8.1 8.2 15.1 15.2 19.1
Alpha .7418 .7473 .7342 .7416 .7269 .7373 .7326
Ítem 19.2 72.1 72.2 74.1 74.2 75.1 75.2
Alpha .7457 .7260 .7423 .7240 .7414 .7507 .7648
Table 8. Cronbach Alphas for the Divergent Subscale Ítem 4.1 4.2 22.1 22.2 27.1 27.2
Alpha .7195 .7093 .6938 .7013 .7203 .7068
Ítem 33.1 33.2 66.1 66.2 70.1 70.2
Alpha .6928 .7031 .6811 .6998 .7359 .7630
Concerning the efficiency perceived subscale the alpha resulted in .7913 and for the items it was greater than .76 (see table 9). The items for this area are: 1, 9, 24, 32, 35, 54 and 59. Considering the internal contingency subscale the reliability was .6322 and for the items it was greater than .57 (see table 10). The items in this area are: 37, 38, 39, 67, 68, 85 and 86. Regarding the perceived autonomy subscale the alpha was .7626 and for items it was greater than .71 (see table 11). The items in this area are: 30, 40, 41, 42, 58 and 63. It was found a negative correlation among the items regarding the external approval subscale. Table 9. Cronbach Alphas for the Perceived Efficiency Subscale Ítem 1.1 1.2 9.1 9.2 24.1 24.2 32.1
Alpha .7785 .7875 .7711 .7812 .7686 .7763 .7904
Ítem 32.2 35.1 35.2 54.1 54.2 59.1 59.2
Alpha .7916 .7679 .7741 .7737 .7783 .7862 .7873
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Table 10. Cronbach Alphas for the Internal Contingency Subscale Ítem 37.1 37.2 38.1 38.2 39.1 39.2 67.1
Alpha .5722 .5879 .5934 .6091 .5728 .5776 .5930
Ítem 67.2 68.1 68.2 85.1 85.2 86.1 86.2
Alpha .6103 .6241 .6044 .5837 .5807 .6140 .6274
Table 11. Cronbach Alphas for the Preceived Autonomy Subscale Ítem 30.1 30.2 40.1 40.2 41.1 41.2 42.1
Alpha .7389 .7402 .7377 .7434 .7360 .7291 .7180
Ítem 42.2 58.1 58.2 63.1 63.2
Alpha .7313 .7378 .7437 .7546 .7490
Table 12. Cronbach Alphas for the Achievement of Goals Subscale Ítem 47.1 47.2 48.1 48.2 49.1 49.2 50.1
Alpha .6470 .6556 .6672 .6574 .7068 .6932 .6656
Ítem 50.2 71.1 71.2 76.1 76.2 77.1 77.2
Alpha .6750 .6386 .6695 .6446 .6546 .6241 .6463
Table 13. Cronbach Alphas for the Task Itself Subscale Ítem 10.1 10.2 21.1 21.2 43.1 43.2 44.1
Alpha .6813 .6779 .6831 .6836 .6554 .6631 .6817
Ítem 44.2 45.1 45.2 46.1 46.2 60.1 60.2
Alpha .6695 .6893 .6849 .6998 .6896 .7125 .7117
Concerning the subscale for the achievement of goals, the alpha was .6984 and for the items it was greater than .62 (see table 12). The items in this area are: 47, 48, 49, 50, 71, 76
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and 77. For the Task Itself subscale, the reliability was .7161 and for the items it was greater than .65 (see table 13). The items of this area are: 10, 21, 43, 44, 45, 46 and 60. Finally, for the materials dimension subscale, the alpha was .5969 and for the items it was greater than .52 (see table 14). The items in this area are: 11, 12, 18, 36, 57, 80 and 81. Table 14. Cronbach Alphas for the Materials Dimension Subscale Ítem 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 18.1 18.2 36.1
Alpha .5570 .5489 .5956 .5928 .5582 .5923 .5955
Ítem 36.2 57.1 57.2 80.1 80.2 81.1 81.2
Alpha .5904 .5931 .5725 .5918 .6112 .5230 .5452
In the beginning EDAOM instrument was composed of 91 items, with three columns of evaluation: frequency, facility and quality. After the analysis of reliability, the quality column was completely eliminated, upon discarding many items by negative correlation. From the frequency and facility columns, only 11 items were eliminated, for the same reasons, and the final version was composed of a total of 80 items. From the four general scales: Acquisition of Information (×= 37.56, s = 5.03) Administration of Memory Resources (×= 34.84, s = 5.93), Information Processing (×= 25.89, s = 6.85), and Self-Regulation, this containing at the same time the person dimension (×= 48.06, s = 6.98), task dimension (×= 31.32, s = 6.11), and materials dimension (×= 16.04, s = 6.24), it was found that for all cases the averages implied that students need to reinforce learning strategies or motivational orientation, although they still do not defect.
DISCUSSION In general, the EDAOM had a high level of reliability and a moderately high to high level for the different subscales. The average score indicates that students need to reinforce their learning strategies, as well as their motivation. After the replication of the study of the metric qualities of the EDAOM we obtained levels of reliability similar to those reported by Castañeda (2004). In contrast to that reported by the author, the column that evaluated the quality that students perceived concerning their strategies had to be eliminated, since they do not fulfill the metric criteria necessary to assure reliability, perhaps due to the lack of congruency between the wording of the item and the response option offered: Very good/positive or Very poor/negative. It is probable that since the items are not congruent with the response options, they are difficult to understand and make selection difficult by the person surveyed, causing the internal consistency of the item to decrease and doubtful accuracy in the results (Cadoche, Stegmayer, Burioni, Bernandez, 1998). Eleven items were eliminated from the instrument, four of these belong to the items that are scored negatively, it is probable that the manner in which they are worded and the
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corresponding choice is not correct. On the other hand, the items eliminated were from different subscales of the instrument, and for that reason it did not affect just one subscale. Due to the differences found in the reliability of the inventory of this study and that reported by Castañeda, some modifications are suggested to assure reliability and validity of the same. For example, the response options to evaluate quality could be: ―I do very well‖, ―I do average‖, ―I do very poorly‖. On the other hand, it would be very convenient to develop questions that evaluate metacognitive and metamotivational self-regulation, since this area does not at present form part of the inventory and its evaluation is important since it is medullar in the Pintrich and Zimmerman model. For that reason we propose the following items: 1. In order to better focus myself on my studies, I set my own learning goals. 2. I continuously review to see if I am fulfilling the goals that I have set. 3. When I realize that I am not achieving a goal, I try to convert it into smaller goals to achieve it. 4. When I study I try to do tasks or exercises to be aware of what I am learning. 5. I normally take notes to better understand what I am studying. 6. I do summaries, outlines, diagrams or synopses. 7. The notes I take are clear and understandable. 8. I write down pending activities and homework in an agenda. 9. I check in the agenda to be sure that I have done my tasks. Finally, we feel that the EDAOM is a useful instrument for identifying variables in students that are critical in their study process, and even when some modifications are proposed in this study to use it within our population, it is important to indicate that it provides us with the possibility of classifying samples of the population and of identifying training needs. From the identification of these characteristics, intervention plans could be created to promote strategies and motivation, central aspects that are neglected in our educational system.
REFERENCES Cadoche, Stegmayer, Burioni and Bernandez (1998). Seminary‘s paper on Surveys on Education, Argentina, http://www.uni.edu.ar/fave/sei/encuestas/index.htlm Castañeda, S. (2004). Educación, aprendizaje y cognición: teoría en la práctica. México: El Manual Moderno. Castañeda, S. and Ortega, I. (2004). Evaluación de estrategias de aprendizaje y orientación motivacional al estudio. In S. Castañeda (ed.). Educación, aprendizaje y cognición: teoría en la práctica. México: El Manual Moderno, pp. 277-299. Coolican, H. (1997). Métodos de investigación y estadística en psicología. México: El Manual Moderno. Dembo, M. H., Junge, L.G., and Lynch, R. (2004). Becoming a self regulated learner: implications for web based education. Paper read it at the Annual Conference of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego.
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Kerlinger, F. (1981). Investigación del Comportamiento. Técnicas y Metodología. México: Interamericana. Kerlinger, F. and Lee, H. B. (2002). Investigación del comportamiento. Métodos de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales. México, McGrawHill. Namakforoosh, M. (2000). Metodología de la Investigación. México: Limusa. Pintrich, P.R. (2000) The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boakerts, P. Pintrich and M. Zeidner (eds.), Handbook of self-regulation. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 451-502. Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A., García, T., and Mckeachie, W. J. (1991). A manual for the use of the Motivational Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, pp. 801-813. Roces, C., González-Pineda, J. A., Nuñez, J. C., González-Pumariega, S., García, M. S., and Álvarez, L. (1999). Relaciones entre motivación, estrategias de aprendizaje y rendimiento académico en estudiantes universitarios. Revista Electrónica del Departamento de Psicología. Universidad de Valladolid. 1, 1, pp. 41-50. Silva, A. (1992). Métodos cuantitativos en psicología. Un enfoque metodológico. México: Trillas. Vega, Z., Peñalosa, E., and Landa, P. (2006). Relación entre estrategias de aprendizaje, orientación motivacional al estudio y diversas tareas académicas. Paper read it at the XXXIII Congreso Nacional del Consejo Nacional para la Enseñanza e Investigación en Psicología. Veracruz, México. Weinstein, C. E., Powdrill, L., Husman, J., Roska, L. A., and Dierking, D. (1998). Aprendizaje estratégico: un modelo conceptual, instruccional y de evaluación. In S. Castañeda (ed.), Evaluación y fomento del desarrollo intelectual en la enseñanza de las ciencias, artes y técnicas (pp. 197-228). México: UNAM-Concayt-Porrúa. Wine, P. H. and Perry, N. E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, and M. Zeidner (eds.), Handbook of self-regulation, pp. 531-566. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Zimmerman, B. J. and Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Developing a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated Learning Strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 614-628. Zimmerman, B. and Martínez-Pons, M. (1988). Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning, Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 3, pp. 22-63.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
EFFECT OF AGE AND TYPE OF SCHOOL ON MMPI-A SCORES IN A 13-18 YEAR OLD MEXICAN ADOLESCENT SAMPLE Emilia Lucio ¹, Quetzalcoatl Hernandez-Cervantes1, Consuelo Duran1 and James N. Butcher2 1
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 2 University of Minnesota
ABSTRACT The question as to whether the MMPI-A can be appropriately used to assess a 13year-old adolescent has been addressed in past research on the test. This study was designed to provide information on the adequacy of administering the personality inventory to 13-year-old Mexican adolescents; in addition, the current Mexican MMPI-A norms were examined to determine their validity when using them with this younger group selected according to the same sampling criteria as the normative sample. A sample of 203 13-year-old adolescents (83 girls and 120 boys) was compared with the Mexican normative sample of 4050. The participants were obtained from both public and private schools (54% from public senior high schools); all participating schools (public and private) were selected to represent the different geographical and socioeconomic zones of Mexico City. Results indicate that the MMPI-A can be used with 13-year-old adolescents as long as they can understand the test and answer it properly. However, some differences between public and private schools on the MMPI-A validity scales were found. It was concluded that reading and comprehension levels likely differ between some of the Mexican schools. Therefore, it would be important to assure that the adolescent can read and comprehend the items at a 6th grade level in order to produce valid test results.
Keywords: MMPI-A, age, school, effect.
Address for correspondence: Estudios de Postgrado, National Autonomous University of Mexico, E.-mail melg
[email protected], Phone 52(55) 56222318, Fax: 52 (55) 5606-2096, Once Martires 91-Casa 5, Col. Centro, Delegacion Tlalpan, C.P. 14000
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RESUMEN Este estudio fue diseñado con la finalidad de dar información acerca de lo apropiado de aplicar el inventario de personalidad de Minnesota para adolescentes: MMPI-A a adolescentes de 13 años. Además se examina si las normas del MMPI-A de la versión mexicana en español son válidas con un grupo de menor edad. Con esta finalidad se compararon los datos obtenidos con el grupo de estudio con los de 4050 adolescentes de la muestra normativa de entre 14 y 18 años. Los participantes del estudio 203 adolescentes de 13 años (83 muchachas y 120 muchachos pertenecían a escuelas públicas y privadas y fueron seleccionados de diferentes zonas de la Ciudad de México con diferentes niveles socioeconómicos. Los resultados indican que el MMPI-A puede emplearse con adolescentes de 13 años, siempre y cuando entiendan el instrumento y lo respondan adecuadamente. No obstante se encontraron algunas diferencias entre los estudiantes de escuelas públicas y privadas en relación a las escalas de validez. Se concluye que los niveles de lectura y comprensión difieren en las escuelas de la Ciudad de México, por lo que es importante asegurarse que los adolescentes tienen que tener un nivel de lectura de 6o. grado para que los resultados del inventario sean válidos.
Palabras clave: MMPI-A edad, escuela, normas.
INTRODUCTION The use of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescents (MMPI-A) has a long history, particularly with youngsters in clinical settings (Baer, 2004). Butcher, Graham, and Ben-Porath (1995) comment on age-related issues concerning MMPI-A studies whereas among the six areas of productive research identified by Archer (1997) we find the establishment of optimal age ranges for use with the inventory. In the development of the MMPI-A in the United States the test developers collected a national sample of adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 (Butcher et al., 1992); however, the authors developed norms alone for the 14 to 18 year olds. On whether the MMPI-A may be appropriate to assess 13year-olds, Butcher and Williams (2000) mention that it is possible to do so if they are mature enough to answer the items meaningfully and if they read at a 6th-grade level. The MMPI-A Report authors also pose the question of the age effect on MMPI-A scores and state that when administering the inventory to adolescents 12 or 13 years old clinicians should be aware of its use with an age group that has a higher incidence of difficulty with the assessment and consequently interpretations should be made with caution; they also point out that the inventory is probably developmentally inappropriate for children less than twelve (Butcher and Williams, 2000). Prior to obtaining norms for 13-year-olds and suggesting separate norms for adolescents 14 and under (Archer, 1997), Archer and Gordon (1994) assessed the stability of 70 MMPI-A modified items by comparing item endorsement frequency and item test-retest correlations in a group of 13 to 17 years old. In their results, the authors comment that such item modifications did not result in significant changes in response patterns. Normative equations on a sample of normal girls and boys ages 13 through 17 years were used by Malinchoc, Colligan and Offord (1996) to develop norms for the Optimism-Pessimism (PSM) scale of the MMPI; their results pointed toward PSM suitable reliability and the scale‘s ability to assess
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explanatory style within adolescents. Janus, de Groot and Toepfer (1998) found no significant differences for age in mean T scores of the MMPI-A between 13-year-old and 14-year-old inpatients; nevertheless, they did find a strong multivariate effect when using Archer‘s MMPI-A norms resulting in lower T-score values in contrast to using the standard MMPI-A norms, and that univariate differences based on norms were found in almost all scales for boys and girls. Another study evaluated the effects of psychopathology and demographic characteristics on MMPI-A scores using multiple linear regression analyses with the U.S. standardization sample (Schinka, Elkins, David and Archer, 1999). Their results show that the Infrequency (F) and Variable Response Inconsistency (VRIN) scales were influenced most by demographic variables; that there was no influence on the content scales except for the Bizarre Mentation (BIZ) scale, and no demographic variable influence for supplementaryscale scores. Gumbiner, Arriaga and Stevens (1999) compared scores of juvenile delinquents on the MMPI-A using the current U.S. norms, the Marks-Briggs adolescent norms, and the MMPI-2 adult norms reporting that in general, the MMPI-A scale elevations were lowest, followed by the Marks-Briggs norms while MMPI-2 T-score means were the most elevated. There are other studies with the inventory where 13-year-olds have been included in MMPI-A norms use or development. Imhof and Archer (1997) examined the concurrent validity of IMM based on a residential treatment sample of 66 adolescents aged 13-18 years. Findings evidentiated concurrent validity of the scale as well as a number of correlate descriptors by means of the other instruments employed, such as the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status-2nd Revision and other standardized measures. In the Russian translation of the instrument (Atlis, 2004), a group of 344 students ages 13-18 from different public schools completed the Russian-language MMPI-A; when scored against American norms average group profiles were within normal limits for basic validity, clinical and content scales. There are few studies addressing this issue among Hispanic population. Negy et al. (1997) studied MMPI-A performance in a Mexican-American adolescent sample of 120 thirteen to 18-year-olds; findings from this study indicated that scores on all scale groups of the inventory differed minimally from the U.S. normative group‘s performance, and that Mexican-American profile varied due to acculturation levels and socioeconomic status. In a related study, Gumbiner (1998) analyzed Hispanic adolescent MMPI-A profiles examining parents‘ education and employment relationship to scale elevations; among other results, the author mentions that boys‘ dislike for school and low aspirations were related to lower education and employment of their fathers compared to those for the normative U.S. sample. More recently, Mendoza-Newman (2000) studied level of acculturation, socioeconomic status (SES), and MMPI-A performance in a non-clinical Hispanic adolescent sample finding no relationship between acculturation and SES and the Lie (L) or 5 scales (MasculinityFemininity) whereas Calderon (2002) examined how bilingual Mexican adolescents performed on the MMPI-A when comparing their levels of acculturation to mainstream U.S. population emphasizing that Mexican-American adolescents do differ from national standardized norm group‘s performance on selected clinical and validity scales once these levels are taken into account. Furthermore, Scott et al. (2002) assessed the Hispanic MMPI-A generalizability in five Spanish-speaking countries recommending further studies to determine appropriateness for adequate norms usage or adaptation.
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The MMPI-A has been standardized with Mexican adolescents (Lucio et al., 1999) and exhibits high test-retest reliability and high alpha coefficients in most of the scales (Farias, Duran and Gomez-Maqueo, 2003). When normative data were obtained in the standardization of the MMPI-A for Mexico (Lucio et al., 1998), the original sample comprised a group of 13year-old student adolescents who were at the end of the process left out to comply with the range of 14 to 18 years old established by the MMPI-A Project Committee (Butcher et al., 1992). There is deep interest in identifying specific adolescent psychopathology since serious emotional problems, such as depression, suicidal ideation and attempt (Gonzalez-Forteza et al., 2002; Mondragon, Borges and Gutierrez, 2001), drug addiction and antisocial conduct tend to emerge earlier in Mexican adolescents (Juarez-Garcia et al., 2005;Villatoro et al., 2005). In addition, 13-year-olds represent a significant group in Mexican junior high schools thus an increasing demand for assessing younger at-risk adolescents within clinicians and school psychologists (Barcelata, Lucio and Duran, 2004). Therefore, the need to evaluate if current Mexican MMPI-A norms would then apply to this younger group which also fulfilled the same sampling criteria as the normative sample did. On the other hand, given the developmental tasks and sociocultural contexts of a diverse and heterogeneous adolescent population in Mexico, there was an interest to assess if there was an effect of age and/or type of school (public or private) on the scores of a composite sample that would integrate the 13-year-old group to the normative sample. Therefore, the purposes of this exploratory study are (1) to examine if 13-year-old adolescents can understand the MMPI-A properly and hence generate a valid profile, and (2) evaluate the effects of age and type of school on the MMPI-A scores in a Mexican adolescent composite sample: the normative sample plus this excluded younger group.
METHOD The research questions are as follows: 1) is the MMPI-A profile produced by a 13-yearold subgroup valid and reliable? 2) Are there mean differences in the MMPI-A scale groups associated with differences in age or type of school in the composite sample? 3) Does change in the MMPI-A scores over levels of age depend on the type of school? 4) If there are significant differences for one or more of the main effects or interactions, which MMPI-A scales are changed and which are unaffected by age or type of school?
Variables For profile validity and reliability, the independent variable is the subgroup‘s age (13 years old) and the dependent variable the MMPI-A profile. For the MANOVA analyses there are two independent variables, age (13 to 18) and type of school (junior high public and private; senior high public and private); dependent variables are the scores on all MMPI-A scale groups: Validity, Clinical, Content, and Supplementary.
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Participants To assess profile validity in the 13-year-old subgroup 203 youngsters participated: 83 girls and 120 boys. As noted before, these adolescents attended the same public and private schools from where the Mexican normative sample was drawn. The composite sample used to assess age and school effect was conformed by these 203 13-year-olders plus the 4050 adolescents from the Mexican normative sample, resulting in a final study sample of 4,253 students from 13 to 18 years old.
Instruments Demographic data were gathered through an ad-hoc form which was completed by all participants. The official translated, adapted and standardized version for Mexico of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for Adolescents (MMPI-A) by Lucio et al. (1998). The translation procedures for the Mexican version followed a strict methodology and most of the scales exhibited alpha coefficients equal or higher than those of the United States normative sample (Lucio et al., 1999).
Procedure Consent was granted from each school‘s authorities and subsequently participants‘ parents. All of the students were given the choice of voluntary participation and were administered the test at their schools in groups of no more than 25 students each. There were at least two administrators in each group to ensure that the adolescents followed instructions properly and to answer any questions on the meaning or phrasing of items. Descriptive and frequency analyses were used with demographic data. To assess profile validity and reliability with the 13-year-old group, the MMPI-A interpretive system developed by Archer (2000) was used along with the corresponding Mexican inventory norms. To evaluate age and type of school effects in the composite sample, MANOVAs were carried out for each MMPI-A group of scales (Validity, Clinical, Content, and Supplementary), calculated separately for boys and girls and using raw scores. All statistical procedures were performed with SPSS version 15.
RESULTS Demographic Characteristics A composite sample of 4,253 Mexican student adolescents was used for the several statistical analyses (48% boys and 52% girls; X=15.5, SD=1.35). Most of the participants were from public senior high schools (54%); all participating schools (public and private) were selected to represent the different geographical and socioeconomic zones of Mexico City. The most common fathers‘ reported occupation was ―employee‖ (35%) whereas mothers‘ occupation was ―homemaker‖ (47%). Almost 40% of the students reported living
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with both parents and siblings. Age and sex sample distribution, and other demographics are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Demographics of the Mexican MMPI-A adolescent composite study sample Boys
Girls
Total
n
%
n
%
N
%
2024
47.6
2229
52.4
4253
100
13
120
5.9
83
3.7
203
4.8
14
412
20.3
511
22.9
923
21.7
15
502
24.8
649
29.1
1151
27.0
16
400
19.8
464
20.8
864
20.3
17
372
18.4
380
17.1
752
17.7
18
218
10.8
142
6.4
360
8.5
Public junior high
381
18.8
488
21.9
869
20.4
Public senior high
1084
53.5
1225
55.0
2309
54.3
Private junior high
323
16.0
289
13.0
612
14.4
Private senior high
236
11.6
227
10.2
463
10.9
Age
Type of school
Profile Validity and Reliability To assessMMPI-A profile validity and reliability with the 13-year-old subgroup the Mexican norms were applied to score the inventory and then interpretive reports were obtained separately for boys and girls (Archer, 2000). The Welsh Code for the male profile was 8970136/245: FL/K: with a mean clinical scale elevation of 50.4 (T-score); for the female profile the resulting Welsh Code was 95768140/32: FK/L: with a mean clinical elevation of 50.5 (T-score). Configural validity and scale interpretation of the MMPI-A for both girls and boys indicate that this group of 13-year-old adolescents has produced a consistent MMPI-A response pattern in agreement with acceptable values on validity scales ―Variable response inconsistency‖ (VRIN) and ―True response inconsistency‖ (TRIN). Both ―Infrequency 1‖ (F1) and ―Infrequency 2‖ (F2) are below T-score values of 53, reflecting adequate profile validity. The ―Infrequency-Lie-Defensiveness‖ (F-L-K) validity scale configuration suggests that the group responded to the MMPI-A in a valid, accurate, and cooperative manner The alpha coefficient of the 13 years old group are very similar to those of the Mexican and North-American normative sample, some of these coefficients are even higher in the 13 years old (tables 2 and 3). Furthermore, the validity scale features produced by these youngsters are typical of normal adolescents at the same time as the configural clinical scale interpretation indicates that the profile is within normal limits and presents no evidence of clinical levels of psychopathology.
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Table 2. Reliability statistics for MMPI-A Basic scales in the Mexican 13 years sample Scale
N of items
F1 F2
33 32
Cronbach‘s Alpha Boys (n=120) Girls (n=83) .56 .55 .70 .75
F
66
.78
.81
L K
14 30
.53 .68
.66 .71
1 Hs
32
.47
.35
2D 3 Hy
57 60
.67 .67
.66 .58
4 Pd 5 Mf
49 44
.69 .55
.62 .52
6 Pa
40
.72
.71
7 Pt
48
.82
.80
8 Sc
77
.85
.86
9 Ma
46
.66
.74
0 Si
62
.74
.72
Table 3. Reliability statistics for MMPI-A Content and Supplementary scales in the Mexican 13 years sample Scale
N of items
ANX
21
Cronbach‘s Alpha Boys (n=120) Girls (n=83) .61 .56
OBS
15
.67
.74
DEP
26
.63
.57
HEA ALN BIZ
37 20 19
.60 .57 .66
.39 .55 .74
ANG CYN CON LSE
17 22 23 18
.62 .70 .64 .64
.66 .71 .73 .66
LAS
16
.52
.47
SOD FAM SCH
24 35 20
.52 .56 .56
.30 .59 .60
TRT
26
.72
.73
MAC ACK PRO IMM
49 13 36 43
.67 .56 .43 .60
.68 .58 .37 .66
A R
35 33
.87 .54
.87 .57
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Means by Type of School Means by type of school are presented (figures 1 to 4) with respect to gender and the different scales group. The means are very similar and all of them are very near to T 50, as could be expected. With respect to clinical scales Sc (8) is the only scale 5 points higher to the normal mean and only in boys.
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
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121
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Effect of Age and Type of School Four 2 x 2 between-subjects multivariate analyses of variance were performed on each of the MMPI-A scale groups: Validity, Clinical, Content, and Supplementary (dependent variables). Independent variables were age (six levels: 13 through 18) and type of school (four levels: public junior and senior highs; private junior and senior highs). Raw scores were
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used separately for boys and girls; order of entry of the independent variables was age then type of school. There were no univariate or multivariate within-cell outliers at p < .001; results of evaluation of assumptions of normality, linearity, and multicollinearity were satisfactory. Using Wilks‘ criterion, all combined dependent variables in the four MMPI-A scale groups were austerely affected by type of school but neither by age nor their interaction; moreover, relatively higher values are observed for the girls than for the boys in the four scale groups. Estimates for effect size (partial Eta squared) are rather small suggesting reduced associations between type of school and the combined dependent variables; as for age, associations were even less substantial. For the first group ―Validity Scales‖ type of school has a relatively stronger effect on girls‘ scores, F (18, 6237) = 6.51, p < .001 partial η2 = .02, than on boys‘, F (18, 5651) = 4.16, p < .001 η2=.01 (Table 4a); univariate analysis on this first group of scales shows that the highest school effect values are for the Infrequency (F) scale in the boys, F (5, 20) = 11.1, p < .001) and for the Infrequency 2 (F2) scale in the girls, F (3, 18) = 14.8, p < .001 (Table 4b). Within the Clinical scales group, the obtained values are more alike for girls, multivariate F (30, 6461) = 2.43, p <.001, and boys, multivariate F (30, 5853) = 2.39, p <.001, with partial η2 values of .01 in both cases (Table 5a). Table 4. Multivariate analysis of variance for the MMPI-A Validity Scales group in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source Wilks‘ df1 of variance Lambda
df2
F
η2
Wilks‘ df1 Lambda
Age
.980
30.00
7994.00
1.316
.004 .981
School
.963
18.00
5651.68
4.161**
Age by School
.948
72.00
10876.10
1.477
df2
F
η2
30.00
8822.00
1.415
.004
.012 .949
18.00
6237.17
6.505** .017
.009 .962
60.00
11557.73
1.432
006
** p < .001.
Table 4b. Tests of between-subjects effects for the MMPI-A Validity Scales in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source of variance Dependent Variable
df
F
η2
df
F
η2
School
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
9.619** .925 11.107** 9.750** 8.511** 3.720 2.145
.014 .001 .016 .014 .013 .006 .003
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3.303 4.941 13.229** 6.530** 14.788** 13.730** 3.454
.004 .007 .018 .009 .020 .018 .005
** p < .001.
VRIN TRIN F F1 F2 L K
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In this second group of scales, tests of between-subjects effects show lower values than in the Validity group; type of school on scales 8 Schizophrenia (Sc) F (3, 20) = 7.00, p <.001 (in boys) and 5 Masculinity-Femininity (Mf) F (3, 18) = 5.42, p. <.001 (in girls) were the highest statistically significant values (Table 5b). Table 5a. Multivariate analysis of variance for the MMPI-A Clinical Scales group in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source Wilks‘ df of variance Lambda 1
df2
F
Η2
Wilks‘ df1 Lambda
df2
Age
.962
50.00
9097.40
1.537
.008
.975
50.00
10041.47 1.103
School
.965
30.00
5853.46
2.389** .012
.968
30.00
6461.05
Age by School
.921
120.00 15490.32
1.374
.950
100.00 15770.39 1.135
.008
η2
F
.005
2.426** .011 .005
** p < .001.
Table 5b. Tests of between-subjects effects for the MMPI-A Clinical Scales in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source of variance Dependent Variable df
F
η2
df
F
η2
School
6.378** 3.348 2.684 6.095** 1.629 6.899** 2.454 7.011** 6.117** 4.008
.009 .005 .004 .009 .002 .010 .004 .010 .009 .006
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1.735 1.681 0.399 3.132 5.416** 2.961 1.345 4.073 1.910 4.624
.002 .002 .001 .004 .007 .004 .002 .005 .003 .006
1 Hs 2D 3 Hy 4 Pd 5 Mf 6 Pa 7 Pt 8 Sc 9 Ma 0 Si
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
** p < .001.
In the case of the Content and Supplementary groups, this difference increases mildly. For the Content scales, multivariate F (45, 5909) = 2.57, p <.001 is found in boys, and multivariate F (45, 6524) = 3.45, p<.001 in girls, partial η2 = .02 in both (Table 6a); the highest univariate analysis values are for type of school‘s effect on the School Problems (Asch) scale in boys (F [3, 20] = 11.32 p <.001), and in girls (F [3, 18] = 9.77 p .<001) (Table 6b). As for the Supplementary scales group, multivariate F (18, 5651) = 3.57, p <.001 is allocated in boys, and multivariate F (18, 6237) = 4.24, p <.001 in girls, partial η2 = .01 in both (Table 7a).
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Table 6a. Multivariate tests for the MMPI-A Content Scales group in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024) Source of variance
Wilks‘ Lambda
df1
Age
.949
75.00 9531.27
School Age by School
Girls (n=2229) Wilks‘ df Lambda 1
df2
1.398 .010
.960
75.00
10522.76 1.191
.944
45.00 5909.59 2.561** .019
.932
45.00
6524.54 3.475** .023
.897
180.00 18788.39 1.203 .009
.931
150.00 18430.61 1.045
df2
η2
F
Η2
F
.008
.007
** p < .001.
Table 6b. Tests of between-subjects effects for the MMPI-A Content Scales in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source of variance Dependent Variable df
F
η2
Df
F
η2
School
2.922 1.317 4.636 7.402** 5.178 6.704** 2.549 0.290 1.445 3.005 2.408 2.876 5.080 11.318** 2.057
.004 .002 .007 .011 .008 .010 .004 .000 .002 .004 .004 .004 .008 .017 .003
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2.127 1.496 2.482 5.817 2.910 5.896 4.417 2.184 4.412 4.481 3.312 5.936** 0.968 9.769** 1.789
.003 .003 .003 .008 .004 .008 .006 .003 .006 .006 .004 .008 .001 .013 .002
ANX OBS DEP HEA ALN BIZ ANG CYN CON LSE LAS SOD FAM SCH TRT
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
** p < .001.
Table 7a. Multivariate tests for the MMPI-A Supplementary Scales group in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source of variance
Wilks‘ Lambda df1
df2
F
η2
Wilks‘ df Lambda 1
df2
F
Η2
Age
0.98
30
7994
1.321
0
0.988
30
8822
0.889
0
School
0.969
18
5651.68 3.570** 0.01
0.966
18
6237.17 4.243** 0.01
Age by School 0.956
72
10876.1 1.249
0.971
60
11577.7 1.080
** p < .001.
0
0
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Table 7b. Tests of between-subjects effects for the MMPI-A Supplementary Scales in the Mexican adolescent sample Boys (n=2024)
Girls (n=2229)
Source of variance
Dependent Variable df
F
η2
df
F
η2
School
MAC-R ACK PRO IMM A R
4.134 10.950** 3.806 8.065** 2.476 3.297
.006 .016 .006 .012 .004 .005
3 3 3 3 3 3
3.217 7.170** 7.769** 5.100 1.870 2.821
.004 .010 .010 .007 .003 .004
3 3 3 3 3 3
** p < .001.
Tests of between-subjects for this fourth group of scales indicate that the highest values are, once again, for type of school over the Alcohol/Drug Problem Acknowledgment (ACK) scale in boys (F [3, 20] = 11.00, p .<001) and the Alcohol/Drug Problem Proneness (PRO) scale in girls (F [3, 18] = 7.77, p. <001) (table 7b)
DISCUSSION Findings indicate the possibility of using the MMPI-A with 13-year-old student adolescents since they understand the test and are able to answer it properly. Given the ability of this younger Mexican adolescent group to produce a valid MMPI-A profile, current Mexican norms can then be used with no problem. The profiles show that most of the differences between means are small; also the alpha Cronbach coefficients for this group are very similar to the alpha coefficients for the Mexican normative sample. Nevertheless, it seems that type of school has some effect on the validity scales, which may suggest that adolescents from private schools could have a higher reading level than adolescents from public schools, and possibly relate to socioeconomic status. This outcome shows similarity to the results of Archer (1997) and of Butcher and Williams (2000). Within the validity scales, the greater effects of type of school within the groups of boys are in VRIN and F scales while for girls the greatest effect is on F and L scales. This may be due to the fact that girls have a more positive attitude toward psychological assessment and respond in a more careful way. It seems that this elevation in the L scale may describe the girls from public schools as more conventional that girls attending private schools. It is important to point out that the same percentage of invalid records in the 13-year-old group resulted in the normative sample from 14 to 18 years old indicating that a great percentage of 13-year-old adolescents do understand the MMPI-A. In the clinical scales group the greatest effects of type of school are found for scale 8 in the boys‘ groups. In this scale the boys from public high schools have the greater mean, whereas for girls the most important effect relates to scale 5, which is not a clinical scale. The elevation in scale 8 within boys may be associated to greater immaturity from lower socioeconomic level and also to the fact that some items within this scale are too large or double negative which make them more difficult to understand. There is an interaction between age and school in scale 4 in the group of boys probably because younger boys from
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public schools who have higher means correlates with the fact that aggression and conduct problems have increased in younger groups of adolescents in Mexico (Villatoro et al., 2005). Among content scales the greatest effect is on school problems (SCH) for boys and girls, suggesting that boys and girls from public schools have fewer school problems since the Mexican public system is more relaxed in terms of discipline and perhaps the have also a lower academic performance. In the group of supplementary scales the greatest effect of type of school is found for to boys over ACK , linked to the fact that junior high boys from public schools have more addiction problems, because this kind of school have less dicipline, while boys from senior private public schools have more addiction problems possible because substances are more readily available for them. Boys from public schools are also more immature. Between girls the greater effects are found on PRO. The girls of private schools have a greater mean on PRO perhaps because their life style makes them more prone to addiction whereas girls from public schools are more aware of drug abuse and that relates to them exhibiting higher means. In general, these results show that the effects of age are minimal and that possibly there is no need to have different norms for the 13-year-old adolescents but rather assess carefully if the items are comprehensible for them and take into account which scales may somehow be influenced by socioeconomic level, such as the Infrequency (F) or Lie (L) scales. The differences related to type of schools by the other hand are more significant and are perhaps related to differences in socio-economical status, and also to a lower cognitive performance, because perhaps these adolescents have less cultural opportunities. Recent data show the largest legal permanent resident flow to the United States comes from Mexico, including a significant number of Mexican adolescents (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2007). It may be more valuable to assess how newly arrived Mexican adolescents compare to their own reference groups rather than to a population they are expected to differ, as it could be the case when using Hispanic MMPI-A norms. These results show that the MMPI-A may be suitable to carry out cross-cultural studies with adolescents who have recently become U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent residence in order to examine the psychological aspects of acculturation processes, as it has been discussed in the literature review. Within clinical settings, the inventory can be used to explore differences in the onset of psychological disorders or the development of psychopathology in Hispanic groups that are imprisoned, have become inpatients at mental health facilities or merely become users of psychological services, such as career counseling or psychotherapy. Further research is recommended with the MMPI-A among different age groups and settings in order to determine conclusively if it is necessary to have different norms for younger adolescents in Mexico.
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Lucio, E., Ampudia, A., and Duran, C. MMPI-A: Manual para la aplicación y calificación. [MMPI-A: User‘s Guide for Administration and Scoring]. Mexico: Manual Moderno. (Original work published 1998). Lucio, E., Ampudia, A. R., Duran, C., Gallegos, L., and Leon, I. (1999). La nueva versión del Inventario Multifásico de la Personalidad Minnesota para Adolescentes mexicanos [The new version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for Mexican Adolescents]. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 16, 2, 217-226. Malinchoc, M., Colligan, R. C., and Offord, K. P. (1996). Assessing explanatory style in teenagers: adolescent norms for the MMPI Optimism-Pessimism Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52, 3, 285-295. Mendoza-Newman, M. C. (2000). Level of acculturation, socioeconomic status, and the MMPI-A performance of a non-clinical Hispanic adolescent sample. Dissertations Abstracts International, 60, 9-B, 4897. Mondragon., L., Borges, G., and Gutierrez, R. (2001). La medición de la conducta suicida en México: mediciones y estimaciones. [The assesment of suicidal behavior in Mexico: measures and estimates]. Salud Mental, 24, 5, 4-15. Morton, T. L., Farris, K. L., and Brenowitz, L. H. (2002). MMPI-A Scores and High Points of Male Delinquents; Scales 4, 5 and 6 as Markers of Juvenile Delinquency. Psychological Assessment, 14, 3, 311-319. Negy, C., Leal-Puente, L., Trainor, D. J., and Carlson, R. (1997). Mexican American adolescent‘s performance on the MMPI-A. Journal of Personality Assessment, 69, 1, 205-214. Schinka, J. A., Elkins, D. A., and Archer, R. P. (1999). Effects of psychopathology and demographic characteristics on MMPI-A scale scores. Journal of Personality Assessment, 71, 3, 295-305. Scott, R. L., Butcher, J. N., Young, T. L., and Gomez, N. (2002). The Hispanic MMPI-A across five countries. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 4, 407-417. Villatoro, J. A., Medina-Mora, M. E., Hernandez, M., Fleiz, C., Amador, N., and Bermudez, P. (2005). La encuesta de Estudiantes de Nivel Medio y Medio Superior de la Ciudad de México: noviembre 2003. Prevalencias y evolución del consumo de drogas. [Prevalence and drug abuse evolution among students in Mexico City: November 2003]. Salud Mental, 28, 1, 38-51. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics. (2007). Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2006 (Annual Flow Report, March 2008). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
RISK SEXUAL BEHAVIOR PREDICTORS IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS J. Isaac Uribe Alvarado1 , Patricia Andrade Palos2 and Ximena Zacarías Salinas3 1
2
Universidad de Colima (México) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 3 Universidad de Colima
ABSTRACT The purpose of this work was to identify the factors which predict the risky sexual behavior in intermediate higher studies level undergraduates in public schools. It was applied an instrument to measure individual, social and cultural factors associated to risky sexual behavior (Uribe, 2007). In women, the results show there is a positive and significant correlation <0.01, about condom use shunning and risky sexual practices,.523; and in men,.332. In gender analysis, the risky sexual behavior predictors in women are condom use shunning, 27.3%, and communication and trust in family, virginity value and attraction for sexual activity explain the 33.5 for this formula; in men, the predicting factors for risky sexual behavior in addition to condom use shunning are the perception of using drugs and alcohol in sexual activity, the communication and trust in friends and the pride for sexual intercourse debut, with a total percentage of 14.6. For both men and women, the main predictor is condom use shunning; however, there are different factors for women and men, which indicate the pertinence of knowing the psychosocial and cultural aspects that influence differently on men and women regarding condom use shunning in sexual activity.
Keywords: risky sexual behavior, condom use shunning, family, friends.
RESUMEN El propósito de este trabajo fue Identificar los factores que predicen la conducta sexual de riesgo en estudiantes de nivel medio superior de escuelas públicas. Se aplicó un instrumento para medir factores individuales sociales y culturales asociados a la conducta sexual de riesgo (Uribe, 2007). Los resultados muestran hay una correlación positiva y significativa < 0.01 en mujeres en el factor rechazo del uso del condón y las prácticas Address for correspondence: Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Colima, Av. Universidad no. 333, col. las Víboras, C.P.: 28040, Colima, Col. México. Phone. 01 312 3161091, E-mail:
[email protected]
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J. Isaac Uribe Alvarado, Patricia Andrade Palos and Ximena Zacarías Salinas sexuales de riesgo .523; y en hombres .332. En el análisis por sexo, los predictores de la conducta sexual de riesgo en mujeres son el rechazo del uso del condón 27.3%, y junto con los factores comunicación y confianza con la familia, valoración de la virginidad y atracción por la actividad sexual explican en un porcentaje total de 33.5 para esta fórmula; en los hombres, los factores que predicen la conducta sexual de riesgo además del rechazo del uso del condón son la percepción del uso de drogas y alcohol en la actividad sexual, la comunicación y confianza con los amigos y el orgullo por el debut sexual con un porcentaje de 14.6 total. Tanto en hombres como en mujeres el rechazo al uso del condón es el principal predictor, sin embargo, existen factores diferentes para hombres y mujeres, lo que indica la pertinencia de conocer los aspectos psicosociales y culturales que influyen de forma diferente en hombres y mujeres respecto al rechazo del uso del condón en la actividad sexual.
Palabras clave: conducta sexual de riesgo, rechazo del uso del condón, familia, amigos.
INTRODUCTION The adolescence, according to some authors, is a transition stage in people‘s life, non transferable for the bio-pschycosocial development scheme, and likewise, it is the period during which biological and sexual maturity is reached, and with that, the reproduction capacity; moreover, in this stage it is established the slow searching of the emotional and social maturity, in which responsibilities and behaviors are assumed, making the person to consider himself as an adult (Dulanto, 2000; Grinder, 2004; Rice, 2000 and Santrock, 2005). The experts commonly describe the adolescence as a personal phenomena; however, this period is also cleared bond to friends, in consequence, it has too an evident distinguished seal as the creator of a new generation (Martinez, 2000). The adolescents must understand as a product of their time, from the culture where they live, their personal history and environment he is developing. This vision supports the scientific study of the stage and it delimits different elements for its analysis and comprehension from diverse conceptual and methodological attitudes, so, it is very important to mention, regarding the adolescent behavior study, that both the family and the school, and especially friends, are elements related importantly to their behavior, specially his sexual behavior, which is also the result, not only of the different biological changes, but also of social and cultural ones. Due to the different concepts and theories both individual and social, with respect to the adolescence, as well as of the information regarding the family and peers influence in the adolescent behavior, it is important to emphasize the sexual behavior, since it is expressed intensely as a result of biological changes, the emotional or psychosocial modification and the social influence; however, it is transcendental to mention that sexual behavior is not object of study only as a part of the person development, but also because of the health implications it creates, which are object of analysis and scientific explanations from diverse psychological differences. Different studies underline the influence, for example, of peers group over the adolescent sexual behavior; Fasula and Miller (2006); Garcia and Silva (2005); Henrich, Brookmeyer,
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Shrier and Shahar (2006); Jaccard, Blanton and Dodge (2005); Marin, Kirby, Hudes, Coyle and Gomez (2006); Sieving, Eisenberg, Pettingell and Skay (2006); Zimmer-Gembeck, Siebenbruner and Collins (2004) agree that friends are very important and influence on having sexual relations, implying the sensible effect of this group, since friends impact on the necessities, motivations and others‘ perspectives; the adolescents, then, perceive their friends‘ necessities and interests as if they were their own. In this sense, Uribe, Covarrubias and Andrade (2007) mention the adolescents can communicate their sexual experiences since they think it is correct; the authors also cite adolescents need to have friends to talk about experiences that could not be possible exposed to other persons, since friends offer reliability, equality and support, in exchange, it is expected the same. It is mentioned such values are the communication support of the aspects that involved sexual life in general. Likewise, Sander (2004) cites society and community (school and neighbors) influence importantly the adolescents behavior, included sexual one, and that, together with age and parents influence, the peers predict the risk sexual behavior development. In this research, the family is considered as a socialization agent, but also as an information supplier and affects‘ creator which allows adolescents develop specific sexual behaviors in this familial interaction dynamic. As regards Chung, Borneo, Kilpatrick, Lopez, Travis, Lui, Khandwala and Schuster (2005); Lehr, Demi, Dilorio and Facteau (2005); Fortenberry, Katz, Blythe, Juliar, Tu and Orr (2006); Raffaelli and Green (2003) and Shira (2003) provide data which indicate the family communication is an element that influences the adolescents sexual behavior, especially the risk sexual behavior development, as well as the early sexual intercourse. They agree the adolescents who perceive a better and bigger communication with their parents tend less to be involved in having sexual activity, compared with those with less communication, who tend more to be sexually involved. On the other hand, Sanchez and Muñoz (2005) mention that, with respect to use condoms in adolescents sexual activity, the attitude of the friends is a better predictor than the one from the parents, regarding its use during sexual activity; this indicates that communication between parents and children is a factor associated to sexual behavior, and that the type of influence is determined by the immediate social context, meaning, the relations and interrelations established by the children with their parents and with their environment. From another standpoint, different studies (Regnerus and Luchies, 2006; HalpernFelsher, Kropp, Boyer, Tschann and Ellen, 2004; Halpern, Hallfors, Bauer, Iritani, Waller and Cho, 2004) mention that the perception of auto-efficacy of the men and women adolescents to communicate with their parents about sexuality, is related to a more favorable attitude and the more frequently use of the condom, which indicates that both the parents and peers are accustomed to be the environment that affects in a very important way the adolescent sexual behavior. In regards to family and friends microsystems, some authors (Fasula and Miller, 2006; Henrich, Brookmeyer, Shrier and Shahar, 2006; Aalsma, Fortenberry, Sayegh and Orr, 2006) mention that communication with the parents is a regulator of the sexual activity before friends‘ influence, since parents and peers‘ influence are commonly opposite. This indicates support relations with parents and peers contribute to reduce the risk sexual behavior. The studies previously mentioned, are evidence that family, specifically the parents, influence their adolescents sexual behavior. This influence not only is coming from the core of the family, but it is also a reflection of a determined cultural context.
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About adolescent sexual behavior environment, an important aspect for studying behavior, as well as for the adolescent himself, due to personal and social implications that he has is the first sexual intercourse, understood as the first sexual coital experience, Wanzhu, Harezlak, Katz and Orr (2002) reported that 43% of the new couples, and the 41% of the relations of stable couples did not use condom at their coital contacts, which demonstrates it is more common the sexual activity without protection in stable couples, which implies risks increase. Likewise, Henderson (2002) mentions that from 18% of the men and 15% of the women that have had sexual activity, the 60% reported to use condom during the intercourse, the most important correlation found was the little monitoring from the parents about sexual experience and the clue to use the condom was, according to answers, to have previously talked to the couple about protection during the sexual intercourse. Fuertes, Martinez, Ramos, De la Orden and Carpintero (2002) found that women keep a more positive attitude toward the condom the, their comfort level and their assertion, regarding protection is higher, compared with men, who keep a more favorable attitude to casual sex, without commitment. More recently, Crosby, DiClemente, Wingood, Salazar, Head, Rose and McDermott (2008) indicate adolescents women who participated in their study, who have sexual activity, show problems to negotiate with their couple to use female condom, being this difficulty associated to the imbalanced power control in sexual relation with men, which predicts a risk sexual behavior; however, Auslander, Rosenthal, Fortenberry, Biro, Bernstein, Zimet (2007) cite that 85% of the adolescents of the study informed they feel more satisfied in their sexual relation when they use condom. The attitudes toward casual sex are associated positively to the sexual risks index in men. Torres, Walker, Gutierrez and Bercozzi (2006) in a study applied to Mexican students adolescents, with an average of 15.5 years old, 10% of the women, and 24% of the men told they had had any sexual experience, and from this percentage, just 39% reported to have used the condom in the first sexual intercourse. The study indicates the sexual life of adolescents is happening under favorable conditions for ITS contagiousness. Sanchez and Batista (2008) mention that for predict condom use in adolescents it is important to find congruence between emotional and cognitive concepts, finding this last component predicts the intention to use condom. Regarding sexual activity in adolescents, Gonzalez, Rojas, Hernandez and Olais (2005) mention that 16.4% of Mexican adolescents has started their sexual life; from this percentage, 16.7% is between 15 to 17 years old, and the 42.9% is between 18 and 19 years old, which indicates higher age more likely to have sexual activity. From the whole adolescents who declare to have had sexual activity, just 37% declared to have used any contraceptive method in his first sexual experience. Likewise, Hernandez (2006), based on the Health National Inquiry, mentions that in Mexico there is a high percentage of pregnancy in adolescents, although the ascendent tendency has been reduced. Colima, as the other States of the Mexican Republic, deal with public health problems, particularly in adolescents population, which affect in their personal, familial and social life; however, there are not official data regarding adolescents health status related to their sexual practices; in addition to this, in the State of Colima there is also a lack of scientific information that measures or explains the way in which diverse factors, both psychological and social and cultural influence in the sexual activity development of the adolescents,
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specifically with respect to the risk sexual relations, meaning, without using any contraceptive method or protection that reduces the probability of unintended pregnancy, or sexually transmitted diseases; likewise, in our context it is required information that allows to know the different factors that explain and might predict the risk sexual behavior, which would benefit the subsequent development of scientific programs and politics proposals directed to prevent health problems in adolescents related to sexual activity. For all of the above and considering the importance of the psychology and public health environment to know specifically about the different factors influence, both psychological and social and cultural that influences the risk sexual behavior of the adolescents, it is proposed the following researching objective: to identify and to analyze the individual, social and cultural factors that predict risk sexual behavior in female and males students of medium-superior level of the State of Colima.
METHOD Participants We worked in a non probabilistic sample in 1406 medium superior level students of public schools in the cities of Colima, Villa de Alvarez and Tecoman, (central zone and coast of the State of Colima) from which 43% were men and 57% women; the age average of the young was from 14 to 18 years old and the mean 16 years 7 months; it was chosen the high school with the higher number of students of each city. For analyzing the results, it was equalized the whole sample, taking as a base the percentage of the men and women students who have had sexual activity, which represents the 22%, later, lost values were eliminated, remaining a total sample of N= 594 men and women participants who have and not have had sexual activity.
Instrument It was applied the individual, social and cultural factors scale about sexual behavior validated by Uribe (2007); it has a total alpha total of .87 and it is composed of 82 Likert type assertions with five options responses, which go from totally in disagreement to totally in agreement. The scale is composed of 11 factors, which are described hereunder: the first factor is the family communication and reliability (alpha= .94), it contains 15 questions, which referred to communication and reliability that adolescents have to talk about sexuality matters with their parents; the second factor, sexual activity attraction, is composed of 12 questions, which measure the attraction for having sexual activity that is experienced by other persons of the same or contrary sex; it has an alpha of .87; the third factor referred to friends communication and reliability (alpha =.87), it contains 12 questions that describe reliable relations between friends to talk about sexual activity subjects; the fourth factor is acceptance of drugs and alcohol use in sexual activity, it contains 10 questions and an alpha of .82; the fifth one is referred to condom use rejection (alpha= .81), it contains 7 questions that express the perceptions of condom use rejection and the belief of a better and higher sensation in
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sexual activity without condom; the six factor is the perception of having sexual activity knowledge, it contains 5 questions that indicate such perception from adolescents, (alpha=.81); the seventh is the sexual activity pleasure, it has an alpha of .73 and the perception of pleasure experienced in the sexual activity is measured; the eighth is the one called first sexual intercourse pride, (alpha=.70), it contains 4 questions with respect to the value adolescents give to the first sexual experience; the ninth is about the permit from parents and peers for having sexual activity, it has an alpha de .70 and 4 questions; the tenth is referred to peers‘ pressure for having sexual activity, (alpha=.71), it contains 4 questions that express how the group of friends pressures on having sexual activity; and last one, the eleventh, which deals with the value of virginity, with an alpha value of .67 and 4 questions that express the value, both men and women give to the women virginity. The risk sexual behavior was measured including students that have or not have had sexual activity, as well as the condom use frequency in young who have had sexual activity, based on the following criteria: value 0= no sexual activity, 1= to have had sexual activity and always using condom, 2= to have sexual activity and sometimes using condom, 3= to have sexual activity and few times using condom, and 4= to have sexual activity and never using condom. The questions were: Have you had sexual relations? Yes ( ) No ( ); Have you used condom when you have sexual relations with your couple? (1) always, (2) sometimes, (3) few times, (4) never.
Procedure First, we established contact with the schools authorities, asking for authorization to apply the instrument in classroom; later, the students were invited to participate voluntarily. The instrument was auto-applicable, and it was guaranteed the confidentiality of them and their anonymity; questions and doubts were responded to those who requested them.
Data Analysis Pearson correlation test was used to established correlations between the associated factors to risk sexual behavior and the risk sexual behavior, and it was carried out a linear regression analysis to know the predictive value of each one of the associated factors to risk sexual activity.
RESULTS The results show the total of participants that have had sexual activity; 54% are men and 46% are women; the men average age for first sexual intercourse is 15 years old and a 1 month, and for women is 15 years old and 6 months. With respect to risk sexual activity is
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outstanding that just 45% reported to always use condom in their sexual activity, and the remained 55% has sometimes or never used it. A 62% reported not to have boyfriend or girlfriend at the moment of the inquiry; however, not all the sexual practices reported have been made with their formal couple, but with another person that may be friend or casual couple. It is observed that a 19% has had already occasional sex. In order to know the grade of correlation existed between each one of the scale factors and risk sexual behavior variable, it was applied Pearson correlation test. As it can be observed in table 1, in which correlation between the factors and risk sexual behavior variable are shown in women group; the family reliability factor correlated negatively with the risk level, as well as the pleasure factor in sexual activity and the pressure form peers. In this group, it is observed a positive correlation moderated between the rejection factor of condom use with the risk sexual behavior variable; correlations between rejection factor of condom use and sexual attraction factors, friends‘ pressure and permission are stood out. In table 2 it is showed the correlations between factors associated to risk sexual behavior and the dependent variable in men group; It is outstanding that risk sexual behavior, significant permission and rejection for using condom factors are observed; which, at a time, correlated significantly with the attraction and sexual pleasure, permission and friends pressure.
Predictors of the Risk Sexual Behavior In order to establish the factors that predict risk sexual behaviors in men and women adolescents, taking into account the existing differences in variables found in correlation analysis, which correlates significantly the risk sexual behavior in men and women who either have or not sexual relations; two regression analysis were carried out. In the first analysis, which includes only women, the main sexual behavior risk predictor is the rejection to condom use; in a second model, it is included, together with this, the virginity value factor; in models three and four, respectively appear the factors family communication and reliability, and sexual activity attraction. All of them, as a whole, explain 33% of the risk sexual behavior prediction (see table 3). In the second analysis, it is showed only the sexual behavior predictors in men. The first model, as the previous ones, shows the main predictor, which is the rejection to condom use; in a second model, it appears pride factor for first sexual intercourse, and in the third model, it appears peers‘ communication and reliability factor. As a whole, the three models explain 14.6% of the variance. It is important to analyze the group differences, regarding sex, since in women they are observed different predictors for men sexual behavior (see table 4).
Table 1. Correlations between factors and risky sexual behavior in women N= 278 Trust in family
Trust in friends
Knowledge
Sexual Attraction
Sexual pleasure
Sexual intercourse Debut Pride
Friends pressure
Permissiveness
Virginity appreciation
Drugs Sex
Trust in friends
,160**
Knowledge
-,080
,137*
-,071
,222**
,130*
-,065
,316**
,205**
,553**
,057
,194**
-,009
,325**
,319**
,138*
,249**
,042
,350**
,329**
,082
,167**
,284**
,073
,436**
,419**
,160**
,243**
-,012
-,002
,042
-,018
,070
,259**
,002
-,207**
-,027
,077
-,030
,197**
,230**
,478**
-,003
,155**
,240**
-,091
,157**
,182**
,437**
,341**
,113
,294**
,226**
,131
,049
,203**
,045
,139*
,150*
,220**
-,084
,203**
,082
-,085
-,091
Sexual attraction Sexual pleasure Sexual intercourse Debut Pride Friends Pressure Permissiveness Virginity appreciation Drugs Sex Condom shunning Risk level ** p<.01; * p<.05.
Condom shunning
.523**
Table 2. Correlations between factors and risky sexual behavior in men N= 316 Trust in family
Trust in friends
Knowledge
Sexual attraction
Sexual pleasure
Sexual intercourse Debut Pride
Friends pressure
Permissiveness
Virginity appreciation
Drugs sex
Trust in friends
,231**
Knowledge
,078
,160**
-,089
,204**
,097
-,045
,280**
,278**
,530**
-,087
,090
-,040
,454**
,295**
,142*
,386**
-,008
,339**
,160**
,204**
,146*
,262**
,216**
,415**
,450**
,162**
,283**
-,105
-,035
,125*
,030
,204**
,063
-,087
,031
-,068
,314**
,193**
,380**
,019
,070
,123*
,133*
,130*
,514**
,353**
,225**
,245**
,341**
,136*
.204**
,163*
,021
,131*
,069
-,064
,106
,150**
-,049
-.072
Sexual attraction Sexual pleasure Sexual intercourse Debut Pride Friends pressure Permissiveness
Virginity -,094 appreciation Drugs -,050 Sex Condom -,123* shunning Risk level -,050 ** p<.01; * p<.05.
Condom shunning
.332**
Table 3. Predictors of risky sexual behavior in women N= 278 Independent predictive variables
R2
Beta
F
Sig.
Condom shunning
.231
83.673
.000
1. Virginity appreciation
.273
.480 .521 -.209 .512 -.198 -.190 .558 -.189 -.177 -.169
52.144
.000
41.257
.000
34.756
.000
F 39.332
Sig. .000
23.776
.000
17.957
.000
2. Condom shunning Virginity appreciation Communication and trust in family 3. Condom shunning Virginity appreciation Communication and trust in family Attraction for sexual activity
.309
. 335
Table 4. Predictors of risky sexual behavior in men N= 316 Independent predictive variables 1. Condom shunning 2. Condom shunning Sexual intercourse debut pride 3. Condom shunning Sexual intercourse debut pride Communication – trust in friends
R2 .110 .131 .146
Beta .332 .366 -.145 .351 -.155 -125
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DISCUSSION In this study, we found that from inquired students, what we call sexual model, coincides with Brito, Guerra and Rodriguez (2003) studies, in which ages from 11 and 16 years old is the average for first sexual intercourse, as well as Fleiz, Villatoro, Medina, Alcantar, Navarro and Blanco (1999) who reported 14 years old average in men, and 15 years old in women, and Gonzales, Rojas, Hernandez y Olaiz (2005), who report an average of 16.6 and 16.7 years old for men and women, respectively. In our study, 15.6 years old for women and men is our average, which indicates that first sexual experience is an important adolescent population percentage, which is carried out at the beginning of the psychosexual development. It is surprising that more than a half of them making in risky situations, meaning, without using condom, which is also cited by Torres, Walker, Gutierrez and Bercozzi (2006) in a study applied to Mexican adolescents students, in which it was found that average for first sexual relation is of 15.5 years old, from which just 39% reported to use condom. From these data, it is important to mention sexual activity, made it under risky conditions, may reflect the presence of important public health problems, due to the probability of sexual transmission diseases, and unintended pregnancies. From the resulted obtained from correlation tests between associated factors to sexual behavior and risk sexual behavior, it is outstanding that risk sexual behavior and the rejection to condom use variable correlate positively, both men and women, meaning, from these date, it is inferred that students show a higher rejection to use condoms, and they do not use it during their sexual intercourse, which coincides with Fortenberry, Wanzhu, Harezlak , Katz and Orr (2002); Henderson (2002); Paxtons (2002); Fuertes, Martinez, Ramos, De la Orden and Carpintero (2002) and Torres, Walker, Gutierrez, Bercozzi (2006) in the sense adolescents that have had sexual relations show unfavorable attitudes, and they prefer not to use condom; likewise, Crosby and cols. (2008) mention, in regards to female condom use, that an influencing variable is the difficulty to convince couples to use it, an influencing factor is the power in the relation; in our study, even if it is true that such variables were not analyzed, we can say that rejection to use condom is related to inter subjective processes of couple relation; in such cases, it is noticeable the importance of investigating by studies that provides elements of those psychological and social processes which influences the rejection to condom use, and adolescents really do not use it during their sexual relations. It is clear correlations are bigger in women groups than men ones, which clearly indicates there is a higher rejection to condom use, and consequently, a higher risk behavior in women than in men. Another important correlation to be emphasized is the existing one between rejection to condom use and peers‘ pressure, which appear both in men and women, as it has been cited by Fasula and Miller (2006); Henrich, Brookmeyer, Shrier and Shahar (2006); Marin, Kirby, Hudes, Coyle and Gomez (2006); Sieving, Eisenberg, Pettingell and Skay (2006); and Uribe, Covarrubias and Andrade (2007), since friends are those with whom we establish affective bonds and relations, demonstrating the influence of this social group on adolescents sexual behavior. In regards to correlations between the factors rejection to condom use with pride for first sexual experience in men, and value of the virginity in women, it is emphasized the importance of knowing the inter subjective aspects owned by each gender that might
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determine the relation between pride for first sexual intercourse and value of the virginity and rejection to condom use; in both cases, gender and culture perspective result in a bigger perspective of how these factors are manifested in later researches. The data that show the risk sexual behavior predictive factors in women, the factor that predicts more is the rejection to condom use; this same factor appears mainly in men; this aspect is outstanding because women show more rejection for condom use than men. Likewise, the complementing factors of the predicting models of the risk sexual behavior in women, are value of the virginity, family communication and reliability and sexual activity attraction; this clearly indicates cultural aspects regarding sexual practices, impact in a different form in women, since the value women give to still being virgin (not to have had sexual relations) is directly related to the culture value given to virginity in women (Uribe, Covarrubias, Andrade, 2008). With respect to risk sexual behavior predictors in men, it is the same as in women: the rejection to condom use factor, followed by, as a whole, first sexual experience pride, peers‘ communications and reliability, that different for women, these factors are not sexual behavior predictors of them. These results clearly show gender differences are important in order to explain sexual behavior. One of the important differences on which differences between women must be considered is their big rejection to condom use compared with men, whose rejection is less. In women, the best predictor is the communication with their parents; this does not apply to men. Te explanation of previous differences is based on Kotchik, Shafer and Forehand, (2001) proposal, in the sense that family and peers‘ influence is important in adolescents sexual behavior; however, such influence used to be different and sometimes opposite; higher peers‘ communication and reliability, lower family communication and reliability. Likewise, women value virginity and men value first sexual intercourse. This reflects the way certain sexuality aspects are perceived in our social and cultural context, since men are more allowed to show off about first sexual relation and to express pride about it to their friends. Sex or the facto to be a man or woman established significant differences in the previous factors, which other studies have also found about sexual behavior (Hansen and Skjeldestad, 2003; Hooke, 2000; Vega, Fernandez and Rico, 2005). These differences in men and women can be explained also like cultural differences, and in this sense, Diaz- Guerrero (2003), and de Pick and cols (2003) proposals reinforce such differences. The above remarks the need to establish researches that take into account the differences of being man and woman, (gender approach) regarding sexual behavior, as well as intervention plans and programs about sexuality that also establish gender differences, since in cultural contexts, like the one these studies were applied, there are significant differences.
REFERENCES Aalsma, M., Fortenberry, J., Sayegh, M., and Orr, D. (2006). Family and friend closeness to adolescent sexual partners in relationship to condom use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 3, 173-178. Auslander, B., Rosenthal, S., Fortenberry, J. Biro, F., Bernstein, D. and Zimet, G. (2007). Predictors of sexual satisfaction in an adolescent and college population. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 20, 1, 25-28.
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In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
PRELIMINARY CONSTRUCT VALIDATION STUDY OF THE REASONS FOR DISCIPLINE AND STRATEGIES TO SUSTAIN DISCIPLINE SCALES IN SPANISH PHYSICAL EDUCATION Juan Antonio Moreno Murcia1, Eduardo Cervelló Gimeno2, Celestina Martínez Galindo3 and Luis Miguel Ruiz Pérez4 1
University of Murcia Miguel Hernández University of Elche 3 Research Department of Physical Education and Sports 4 University of Castilla La Mancha 2
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to adapt two discipline scales (Papaioannou, 1998) to the Spanish educational context. We investigated construct validity and reliability of the instruments designed to measure pupils‘ reasons to be disciplined in the classroom and perceptions of strategies used by the teacher to maintain discipline in the physical education class. Participants were 356 Spanish pupils aged between 14 and 16. Results obtained from principal components analysis with varimax rotation revealed the existence of (a) five factors for the Reasons for Discipline Scale (RDS), that is: identified reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected reasons, amotivation and caring reasons for behaving, and (b) four factors for the Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale (SSDS), that is: caring and responsibility reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected and external reasons and teacher‘s indifference to maintaining discipline. The alphas varied between .86 and .58 for the first scale and between .88 and .70 for the second. In addition, the results showed suitable predictive validity. More studies are necessary to corroborate the results found with different populations and cultures.
Keywords: discipline, physical education, motivation, self-determination.
1
Address for correspondence: Juan Antonio Moreno Murcia, Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Murcia, Parque Almansa 30730 San Javier, Murcia, España. E-mail:
[email protected] , Phone: 968 39 86 78, Fax: 968 31 86 72.
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RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio fue adaptar dos escalas de disciplina (Papaioannou, 1998) al contexto educativo español. Calculamos la validez de constructo y la fiabilidad de los instrumentos diseñados para medir las razones del alumno para ser disciplinado en el aula y la percepción de las estrategias usadas por el profesor para mantener la disciplina en clase de educación física. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 356 alumnos españoles de edades comprendidas entre los 14 y 16 años. Los resultados obtenidos mediante el análisis factorial de componentes principales con rotación varimax revelaron la existencia de (a) cinco factores en la Escala de Razones para la Disciplina (RDS): razones identificadas, razones intrínsecas, razones introjectadas, amotivación y razones de interés para ser disciplinado, así como la existencia de (b) cuatro factores en la Escala de Estrategias para Mantener la Disciplina (SSDS): razones de preocupación y responsabilidad, razones intrínsecas, razones introjectadas y externas e indiferencia del profesor para mantener la disciplina. Los alphas obtenidos oscilaron entre .86 y .58 para la primera escala y entre .88 y .70 para la segunda. Además, los resultados mostraron una adecuada validez predictiva. Más estudios son necesarios para corroborar los resultados encontrados con diferentes poblaciones y culturas. Palabras Clave: disciplina, educación física, motivación, auto-determinación.
INTRODUCTION One of the aspects that has most concerned professionals and researchers in the area of physical education is understanding the cognitive mechanisms related to disciplined and undisciplined behavior in class (Lewis, 1997, 2001; Siedentop, 1991), given that inducing prosocial behavior in children and young people is one of the objectives the educational setting should attain (Anderson, Avery, Pederson, Smith, and Sullivan, 1997). That is why discipline is considered to be one of the most important and difficult educational aspects to deal with in academic environments (Harrinson, Blakemore, Buck, and Pellet, 1996; Mieszalski, 1997; Robertson, 1998). Without discipline teaching would be ineffective (Dreikurs, Grunwald, and Pepper, 1982). According to Edwards (1993), misbehavior in the classroom, and, more specifically, in physical education lessons, prevents class from functioning properly as it causes serious problems (Tinning, 1987), mainly for novice teachers (Del Villar, 2001; Veenman, 1984). As a result, teaching skill in handling pupils‘ behavior in the classroom is one of the most important characteristics that make a teacher either effective or ineffective (Siedentop and Tannechill, 1999). However, many people nowadays have a distorted view of what discipline actually is, as well as a misleading concept of why we lack discipline in an educational environment (Dreikurs et al., 1982). This aspect has led to a recent increase in studies in the educational sector examining the determinants of this behavior. Many researchers singled out motivation as one of the key factors behind it. Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 1991) is a general theory on motivation and personality. In this theory human behavior is triggered by three primary and universal psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. One‘s motivation is dependent on whether these needs are satisfied. The theory also suggests different types of motivation along a continuum varying in levels of self-determination. From less to more self-
Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies… 147 determination are situated amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Amotivated is an individual that has no intention of doing anything, characterized by having no motivation. Extrinsic motivation is broken down into different forms of regulation. The least self-determined is external regulation, which reflects action motivated by external contingencies. Next is introjected regulation, characterising actions motivated by internal pressures such as when an individual is doing something to avoid feelings of guilt. The following form of regulation is identified regulation, which evolves when the individual thinks that the adopted activity is important, and, lastly, integrated regulation, in which several identifications are assimilated and organized into one structure that triggers action. Intrinsic motivation takes place when one‘s action is triggered by the pleasure and enjoyment generated by the activity itself. In this respect, when the most self-determined forms are adopted pupils adopt an activity for their own good and due to the satisfaction the activity generates. The rules of the game are internalised because they are considered necessary to generate challenge and optimum performance and, consequently, pupils behave in the classroom. On the contrary, the least self-determined forms make pupils participate in activities due to external reasons. This is linked with a lack of understanding of the usefulness of guidelines and rules, which are generally seen as imposed. These feelings can lead pupils to abandon an activity and exhibit disruptive behaviors. To understand disruptive behavior it is necessary to develop instruments that can help us understand what is causing it in the classroom. Currently there are very few instruments created to measure pupil‘s disciplinary behavior either in primary or secondary education. Hellison (1995) was one of the pioneers in developing strategies promoting responsibility of pupils. Hellison‘s responsibility model (Hellison, 1995) contains five levels of pupils‘ responsibility, called: irresponsibility, implying lack of control and discipline; self-control, implying the adoption of external and internal contingencies to control behavior; involvement, which includes identified and intrinsic reasons for undertaking an activity and behaving well; responsibility suggesting that pupils choose to behave responsibly in order to develop an integrated personal identity; and caring indicating supportive and helping behaviors towards classmates. Based on self-determination theory and Hellison‘s model, Papaioannou (1998) created two scales connected with disciplined behavior in Physical Education. The first of these scales was called ―Reasons for Discipline Scale‖ (RDS), capturing pupils‘ reasons for behaving well in Physical Education. This contained 26 items associated with six factors: intrinsic, responsibility, caring, introjected, and external reasons for behaving, as well as reasons for not behaving. The second scale created by Papaioannou (1998) was called ―Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale‖ (SSDS). This instrument included 27 items measuring pupils‘ perception of the strategies used by their teacher to maintain discipline in class. These items loaded to four factors named teaching stategies promoting self-determined, introjected and external reasons of discipline, as well as indifference to sustain discipline. Later, Spray and Wang (2001) adapted the RDS created by Papaioannou (1998), to the English context. The English version by Spray and Wang (2001) is formed by 18 items grouped into five factors: amotivation (or lack of reasons), external reasons, introjected reasons, identified reasons and intrinsic reasons for behaving. The alpha reliabilities for these subscales varied between .93 and .64.
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In a following study, Spray (2002) adapted the SSDS (Papaioannou, 1998), applying it to the English context. This adaptation was formed by 19 items grouped into four factors: teacher‘s emphasis on intrinsic and identified reasons, teacher‘s emphasis on introjected reasons, teacher‘s indifference and teacher‘s emphasis on caring and responsibility reasons. The alpha reliabilities for these subscales varied between .85 and .72. In this respect, motivated by the recent increase in misbehavior in educational settings, and in view of the need to develop valid and reliable scales to help us to understand pupils‘ behavior and, therefore, to be able to establish action guidelines, we decided to conduct a preliminary construct validation study of the RDS and SSDS scales in a sample of Spanish adolescents participating in physical education classes. At this point an exploratory approach was adopted to investigate factor validity of the scales. In order to check the convergent and discriminant validity of both instruments, we related pupils‘ reasons for behaving in the classroom and the perceived strategies adopted by the teacher to maintain discipline in the physical education class. Based on the contributions made by Gutiérrez (2000), indicating that there is a significant positive correlation between pupils‘ reasons and the perception they have of their physical education teachers‘ reasons, we hypothesised that pupils‘ intrinsic, responsibility and caring reasons for behaving well would be positively connected with perceptions of teaching strategies emphasising intrinsic and responsibility reasons to sustain discipline. On the other hand, pupils‘ amotivation to behave would be positively associated with perceptions of teacher‘s indifference to maintain discipline in the physical education class.
METHOD Participants Participants were 356 Spanish pupils aged between 14 and 16 (M = 14.99, SD = .72). Of the total sample, 189 pupils were male and 167 female. The sample is formed by pupils belonging to different public and private compulsory secondary education schools in the region of Murcia.
Measurement Instruments Reasons for Discipline Scale (RDS). This instrument measures pupils‘ reasons for behaving well in the Physical Education class (Papaioannou, 1998). The majority of the items in the original instrument were adapted from Ryan and Connell‘s (1989) scale to measure intrinsic, identified, introjected and external reasons for acting, while the responsibility and caring items were developed by Papaioannou (1998) based on Hellison‘s (1995) model. The original instrument created by Papaioannou (1998) was formed by 26 items grouped into 6 factors: intrinsic reasons for behaving, external reasons for behaving, reasons for not behaving, introjected reasons for behaving, responsibility reasons for behaving and caring reasons for behaving. Our version has been called ―Escala de Razones para la Disciplina
Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies… 149 (ERD)‖. The items forming the questionnaire were preceded by the phrase: ―In the Physical Education class...‖. Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale (SSDS). The original instrument was created by Papaioannou (1998) based on the theory and research of Hellison (1995), Ryan and Connell (1989) and Vallerand et al. (1992, 1993) in order to evaluate pupils‘ perception of the strategies used by their teacher to maintain discipline in the Physical Education class. Our version of the original instrument adapted to the Spanish context was formed by 27 items. This version has been called ―Escala de Estrategias para Mantener la Disciplina (EEMD)‖. The 27 items that form the questionnaire were preceded by the phrase ―The Physical Education teacher...‖ Due to the fact that in the Spanish academic context, all qualifications of pupils‘ academic performance range from 0 to 100, all responses were indicated on an 11-point Likert scale anchored to strongly disagree (0) and strongly agree (100) to make it easier for the students‘ to respond in the usual way.
Procedure Following Hambleton‘s back translation strategy (1996), first the items were translated into Spanish and then a group of translators translated them back into English to find out whether they coincided with the items of the original version. Next, the set of items were assessed by three experts in Sport Psychologists the subject (Lynn, 1986). All of them reckoned that the items were relevant for the measurement of the constructs under investigation and they were correctly worded. Next the complete set was given to 45 pupils of physical education from 14 to 16 years, who were asked to evaluate whether the items were comprehensible. No item was found to be either confusing or ambiguous. Finally, after obtaining the relevant authorisation from the parents/tutors of the fastened minors who were taking part in the study, the administration period was specified. Pupils were reminded that the questionnaires were anonymous and were encouraged to fill in the questionnaires as sincerely as possible. The time needed to fill out the questionnaires was 15-20 minutes.
Data Analysis First, the psychometric properties of the RDS and SSDS were analysed, including exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to obtain the factor structure of the scales and internal consistency analyses using Cronbach‘s alpha statistic. Secondly, in order to find evidence of external validity, we performed a correlation analysis between the two scales, due to previous evidence of a connection between pupils‘ reasons for behaving and strategies adopted by their teacher to maintain discipline in class.
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RESULTS Psychometric Properties of the Reasons for Discipline Scale (RDS) Principal Components Analysis We conducted a principal components analysis (Table 1) in order to examine the factor structure of the instrument capturing pupils‘ reasons for behaving well in the physical education class. Only items loading .40 or above were considered in the analysis (Comrey and Lee, 1992). Table 1. Psychometric properties of the RDS Factors Identified reasons It is important for me to pay attention I try to be a responsible person It is important for me to understand where I have got it right or wrong I feel responsible when I am learning It is important for me to do well in class I like to make progress in all the lessons It is important for me to improve my skills I try to be consistent with myself and others It is important for me to be consistent in what I say and do Intrinsic reasons I enjoy the classes It is important for me to learn new skills and games The classes are fun The classes are stimulating Introjected reasons I will feel bad if I misbehave I will feel ashamed if I misbehave It bothers me when I misbehave Amotivation I do not know why I am disciplined I do not understand why I have to be disciplined I really feel that it is a waste of my time being disciplined Caring reasons It is important to me that my classmates understand what is right and wrong I like helping my classmates It is important to me that my classmates improve in class Reliability Explained variance Total variance
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
.45 .65 .67 .51 .65 .75 .63 .64 .59
.81 .50 .76 .71 .73 .72 .71 .67 .79 .70
.63 .52 .75 .86 19.57%
.76 .71 .58 11.64% 10.05% 8.05%
.66 7.66% 56.99%
Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies… 151 In this respect, items 2, 15, 20 and 22 were excluded from the original instrument because the factor loading was below the established .40 criterion. Then we computed another principal components analysis with varimax rotation without these items. Twenty-two items resulted from the analysis grouped into five factors called; identified reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected reasons, amotivation, and caring reasons for behaving, with eigenvalues above 1.00 (4.30, 2.56, 2.21, 1.77 and 1.68 respectively) with a total variance explained of 56.9% (19.57%, 11.64%, 10.05%, 8.05% and 7.66% respectively).
Analysis of Internal Consistency or Reliability The internal consistencies of the RDS subscales were obtained by calculating Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient. Accordingly, alphas were .86 for ―identified reasons‖, .76 for ―intrinsic reasons‖, .71 for ―introjected reasons‖, .58 for ―amotivation‖ and .66 for ―caring reasons‖. Table 2. Psychometric properties of the SSDS Factors Teacher‘s emphasis on caring and responsibility reasons He helps us so that we do what he tells us in the end He helps us to be responsible for our progress He helps us to understand others He gets our attention to make us understand that it is important to do it well He makes us learn how to teach others He helps us to be responsible for our actions He gets our attention so that we try to improve our skills He helps us to co-operate and mutually understand each other He helps us to be responsible people Teacher‘s emphasis on intrinsic reasons He makes the classes fun He gets our attention and makes the classes more interesting He gets our attention and teaches us new skills and games He makes us want our classmates to make progress He teaches the class in such a way that we pay attention and understand what we do right and/or wrong He makes the classes exciting He makes us enjoy the classes Teacher‘s emphasis on introjected and external reasons He makes us feel bad with ourselves when we misbehave He makes us feel uncomfortable when we misbehave He reminds us that only those that behave are considered good pupils He makes us feel ashamed if we misbehave He threatens us saying that we will have problems if we misbehave Teacher‘s indifference to maintaining discipline in class He makes us feel that there is no discipline in the class at all He does not really do anything to maintain discipline He is not interested in discipline in the class Reliability Explained variance
F1
F2
F3
F4
.51 .55 .53 .55 .70 .78 .70 .58 .59 .87 .84 .62 .45 .47 .68 .65 .73 .79 .56 .64 .48
.86 18.94%
.88 17.74%
.76 10.53%
.64 .65 .80 .70 9.75%
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Total variance
56.97%
Psychometric Properties of the Strategies to Sustain Discipline Scale (SSDS) Principal Components Analysis Following a similar procedure with the previous instrument, we carried out a principal components analysis (Table 2) in order to examine the factor structure of this instrument. Items 7, 14 and 19 were excluded from the original instrument (factor loading below .40). We then computed another principal components analysis with varimax rotation without these items. Twenty four items were grouped into four factors (teacher‘s emphasis on caring and responsibility reasons, teacher‘s emphasis on intrinsic reasons, teacher‘s emphasis on introjected and external reasons and teacher‘s indifference to maintaining discipline in the physical education class) with eigenvalues above 1.00 (4.54, 4.26, 2.52 and 2.34 respectively) with a total variance explained of 56.9% (18.94%, 17.74%, 10.53% and 9.75% respectively).
Analysis of Internal Consistency or Reliability Internal consistency analysis of the subscales of the SSDS was obtained by calculating Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient. The results revealed that alpha reliability was .86 for the ―teacher‘s emphasis on caring reasons‖ .88 for the ―teacher‘s emphasis on intrinsic reasons‖.76 for the ―teacher‘s emphasis on introjected and external reasons‖ and .70 for the ―teacher‘s indifference‖ subscale. All the factors forming this scale have a Cronbach‘s alpha or reliability above the recommended value .70 (Nunnally, 1978).
Descriptive and Correlational Data of All the Factors Next the correlations among the scales adapted to the Spanish educational context were computed (Table 3). The pupils‘ intrinsic, identified, introjected and caring reasons for behaving were connected positively (a) between each other and, (b) with the perceptions of teacher‘s strategies emphasising caring and intrinsic reasons to maintain discipline in class. Amotivation reasons for behaving were positively associated with perceptions of teacher‘s strategies promoting introjected and external reasons to maintain discipline and with perceptions of teacher‘s indifference to maintain discipline in the physical education classroom. The descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation), indicated that for pupils there were more identified reasons for behaving (M = 7.88, SD = 1.45) than intrinsic reasons (M = 7.44, SD = 1.84), introjected reasons (M = 6.18, SD = 2.28), caring reasons (M = 6.65, SD = 2.00) and amotivation reasons (M = 4.18, SD = 2.34). Pupilis reported higher scores for perceptions of teaching strategies promoting intrinsic (M = 7.18, SD = 1.87) and caring reasons (M = 7.05, SD = 1.63), than introjected-external reasons (M = 4.18, SD = 2.33) and indifference (M = 3.37, SD = 2.54).
Table 3. Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlations of all the Variables M
SD
Identif. reason
Introj. reason
Intrin. reason
Amot. reason
Caring reason
Caring emph.
Intrin. emph.
Introj. emph.
Indiff. emph.
Identified reason
7.88
1.45
-
.54**
.56**
-.17**
.57**
.53**
.50**
-.02
-.14**
Introyected reasons
6.18
2.28
-
-
.32**
-.08
.45**
.31**
.29**
.15**
.01
Intrinsic reasons
7.44
1.84
-
-
-
-.07
.44**
.54**
.66**
-.00
-.08
Amotivation reason
4.18
2.34
-
-
-
-
-.01
.00
-.04
.26**
.54**
Caring reason
6.65
2.00
-
-
-
-
-
.36**
.36**
.11*
.02
Caring emphasis
7.05
1.63
-
-
-
-
-
-
.77**
-.03
-.08
Intrinsic emphasis
7.18
1.87
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-.14**
-.11*
Introyected emphasis
4.18
2.33
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.55**
Indifference emphasis
3.37
2.54
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
* p < .05; **p < .01.
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DISCUSSION After seeing the results obtained in the studies reviewed and aware of the need to validate the scales designed with samples of different populations and cultures, we decided that the objectives of our research would be to adapt two Greek discipline scales (Papaioannou, 1998) to the Spanish context in order to measure, in the first place, pupils‘ reasons in a sample of adolescents involved in physical education classes and secondly, the strategies used by the teacher perceived by the pupils to maintain discipline in the physical education class. Similarly, we performed a correlation analysis among the factors forming both instruments in order to check the construct validity of the scales. Firstly, the results obtained from the exploratory factor analysis performed on the RDS scale seem to support the existence of five main factors called: identified reasons, intrinsic reasons, introjected reasons, amotivation, and caring reasons for behaving. Unlike our analysis, the original instrument created by Papaioannou (1998) was formed by 26 items (four items more than ours) grouped into 6 factors (one factor more than ours). In this respect, by means of the factor analysis of principal components, we removed one factor from the original instrument ―external reasons for behaving‖ and we slightly modified the rest of the factors. As we have seen, there is more similarity with the original Greek scale created by Papaioannou (1998), due to both the number of items in the scale and the structure of the majority of the factors forming our Spanish version. These factors are similar to those in the original Greek version, except for the first two, since their structure has been modified slightly as a result of the factor analysis carried out, making them easier to understand and their distribution more coherent. However, we are aware of the limitations of our research, since two factors ―amotivation‖ and ―caring reasons for behaving‖ show a reliability or alpha value below the recommended .70 (Nunnally, 1978). We attribute these values to the small number of items forming both factors (number of items = 3). Therefore, based on Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black (1998) and Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), we consider that the internal validity of both factors is accepted and we defend the need to carry out future research with samples larger than those used in order to determine whether additional items are needed in some of the factors mentioned. As far as the SSDS is concerned, the results of the exploratory factor analysis revealed the existence of four factors. After removing three items from the original Greek version referring to the factor ―teacher‘s emphasis on extrinsic reasons for maintaining discipline in the physical education class‖ we increased the instrument‘s validity and internal consistency substantially. Twenty-four items resulted from the final analysis grouped into four factors with a similar organisation to Spray‘s (2002) version, although more complete due to the fact that we eliminated only 3 items from the original Greek instrument compared with the 8 items removed by Spray. The factors are called: teacher‘s emphasis on caring and responsibility reasons, teacher‘s emphasis on intrinsic reasons, teacher‘s emphasis on introjected and external reasons and teacher‘s indifference to maintaining discipline in the physical education class. In short, we would like to state that our Spanish version is related to both the original Greek version created by Papaioannou (1998) and the English version developed by Spray (2002), due to the fact that its organisation of the factors is similar to the second (e.g.: it
Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies… 155 eliminates part of the factor ―teacher‘s emphasis on external reasons for maintaining discipline‖ and it introduces one of the items in the factor ―teacher‘s emphasis on integrated regulation reasons‖) and at the same time, it keeps almost all the items in the original instrument (we eliminated only three items of the 27 in that scale). Unlike the RDS, the internal consistency or Cronbach‘s alpha of all the factors in this second scale showed values above the one recommended, .70 (Nunnally, 1978). In short, our study supported, in a general view, similar factor structure of these instruments in a Spanish sample, but the results also demonstrated that there are limitations when we use different samples of different cultures. Our study indicates that some factors of these instruments can be reviewed to confirm the cross-culturally robustness of our findings. More research needs to be done to establish these cross-cultural differences. In order to check the construct validity of the two instruments, we carried out a study of the correlations among the factors forming both scales. As Cervelló et al. (2006) stated, we believe this is one of the most important elements to bear in mind when attempting to validate a new instrument. The construct validity of a new measurement instrument involves checking its theoretical suitability by establishing relations with other theoretical constructs. The results obtained show how the pupils‘ identified, intrinsic, introjected and caring reasons for behaving are connected positively amongst themselves and, furthermore, with the teacher‘s strategies based on caring and intrinsic reasons for maintaining discipline in class. With regard to pupils‘ amotivation reasons for behaving, they were associated positively with the teacher‘s strategies based on introjected and external reasons and with the indifference shown in maintaining discipline in the physical education class. These data coincide with the hypotheses stated at the beginning of the study and they are in line with the contributions made by Gutiérrez (2000), for whom there is a significant positive correlation between pupils‘ reasons and the perception they have of their physical education teachers‘ reasons. Similarly, different studies carried out in both the educational area (Ames, 1992; Papaioannou and Theodorakis, 1996) and in the sports area (Cervelló, Jiménez, Del Villar, Ramos, and Santos Rosa, 2004; Nicholls, 1989) have pointed out this parallelism between pupil and teacher with different study variables. As a result, according to these authors, pupils in physical education classes tend to adopt the success criteria perceived in their teacher. Therefore, in line with the results found, those teachers concerned and intrinsically motivated to achieve good behavior from their pupils and who encourage participation in activities will develop more self-determined forms in their pupils and, as a result, more intrinsic motivation, which will make subjects take part for their own good and the satisfaction the activity generates. The rules established are internalised and more positive attitudes are shown. In other words, there is more disciplined behavior in the classroom. On the contrary, a teacher that does not care and who is not interested in maintaining order and discipline in class and who also establishes criteria based on competition and public evaluation will transfer his extrinsic motivation or amotivation for discipline to his pupils. Consequently, the pupils will not internalise the rules established, they will compete with their peers without caring about how they win and they will interrupt the smooth running of the class. This will all result in disruptive or undisciplined behavior in the class. To sum up, this research has provided two new measurement scales: on the one hand, pupils‘ reasons for behaving and, on the other, the perception of the strategies used by the teacher to maintain discipline in the physical education class. However, more studies are
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necessary with samples from different cultures or populations in order to corroborate or refute the results obtained in this research and provide valid and reliable scales we can use to discover and determine the influence of motivation on disciplined or undisciplined behavior in the physical education class, so that we can, therefore, establish action guidelines to minimise and, as far as possible, eradicate disruptive behavior and, consequently, increase disciplined behavior in the classroom.
REFERENCES Anderson, C., Avery, P. G., Pederson, P. V., Smith, E. S., and Sullivan, J. L. (1997). Divergent perspectives on citizenship education: A Q-method study y survey of social studies teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 333-364. Ames, C. (1992). Achievement goals, motivational climate and motivational processes. In G.C. Roberts (ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 161-176). Champaign,Za IL: Human Kinetics. Cervelló, E., Jiménez, R., Del Villar, F., Ramos, L., and Santos-Rosa, F. J. (2004). Goal orientations, motivational climate, equality, and discipline of Spanish physical education students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99, 271-283. Cervelló, E.M., Moreno, J.A., Del Villar, F., and Reina, R. (2006). Desarrollo y validación de un instrumento de medida de las estrategias motivacionales empleadas en las clases de Educación Física. Submitted for review. Comrey, A. L. and Lee, H. B. (1992). A first Course in Factor Analysis, 2nd Edn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R.A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237-288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Del Villar, F. (2001). La interacción en la Educación Física. In B. Vázquez (Ed.), Bases educativas de la actividad física y el deporte (pp. 199-225). Madrid: Síntesis. Dreikurs, R., Grunwald, B., and Pepper, F. (1982). Maintanning Sanity in the Classroom. Classroom management techniques. New York: Haper and Row. Edwards, C. H. (1993). Classroom organization and management. New York: Macmillan. Gutiérrez, M. (2000). Aspectos del entorno escolar y familiar que se relacionan con la práctica deportiva en la adolescencia. Paper read it in the I Congreso Hispano-Portugués de Psicología, Santiago de Compostela. Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., and Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River. Hambleton, R. K. (1996). Adaptación de tests para su uso en diferentes idiomas y culturas: fuentes de error, posibles soluciones y directrices prácticas. In J. Muñiz (ed.), Psicometría (pp. 207-238). Madrid: Universitas. Harrinson, J. M., Blakemore, C. L., Buck, M. M., and Pellet, T. L. (1996). Instructional Strategies for Secondary School Physical Education. Madison: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Preliminary Construct Validation Study of the Reasons for Discipline and Strategies… 157 Hellinson, D. (1995). Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Lewis, R. (1997). Discipline in schools. In L. Saha (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the sociology in education (pp. 404-411). Oxford, UK: Permagon. Lewis, R. (2001). Classroom discipline and student responsibility: the student‘s view. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 307-319. Lynn, M. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research, 35, 382-385. Mieszalski, S. (1997). About Constraint and Discipline in School Classroom. Warsaw: WSIP. Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Nunnally, J. C. and Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory. New York, McGraw-Hill. Papaioannou, A. (1998). Goal perspectives, reasons for being disciplined and self-reported discipline in the lesson of physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, 421-441. Papaioannou, A., and Theodorakis, Y. (1996). A test of three models for the prediction of intention for participation in physical education lessons. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27, 383 - 399. Robertson, J. (1998). Effective Classroom Control. London: Hodder y Stoughton Limited. Ryan, R. M. and Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalisation: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749-761. Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing teaching skills in physical education (3rd ed.). Mountain Views, CA: Mayfield. Siedentop, D. and Tannehill, D. (1999). Developing teaching skills in physical education. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield. Spray, C. (2002). Motivational climate and perceived strategies to sustain pupils‘ discipline in physical education. European Physical Education Review, 8, 5-20. Spray, C. and Wang, C.K. (2001). Goal orientations, self-determination and pupils‘ discipline in physical education. Journal of Sport Sciences, 19, 903-913. Tinning, R. (1987). Improving Teaching in Physical Education. Victoria: Deakin University Press. Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., Senecal, C., and Vallieres, E. F. (1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Education and Psychological Measurement, 52, 1003-1017. Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., Senecal, C., and Vallieres, E. F. (1993). On the assessment of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education: evidence on the concurrent and construct validity of the Academic Motivation Scale. Education and Psychological Measurement, 53, 160-173. Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 54, 143-178.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
COOPERATION AND COHESION IN FOOTBALL TEAMS IN COMPETITION A Garcia-Mas*1, A Olmedilla2, E Ortega2,P Almeida.3; J Lameiras3 C Sousa4 and J Cruz4 1
Universitat de les Illes Balears, España Universidad Catolica San Antonio, Murcia, España 3 Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal 4 Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Catalunya, España 2
ABSTRACT Cohesion (the social affiliation inside the team) is the most extended concept for to explain the internal dynamics in the sportive teams; along with the sport cooperation (relation between personal objectives with those of the team mates and the coach). It has two trait-like factors (conditioned and unconditioned cooperation) and several situational others. This work studies the relationships between cohesion and cooperation in competitive soccer teams, and their interdependence. The Questionnaire of Sportive Cooperation and the Team Climate Questionnaire (which measures the acceptance, clarity and perception of the player roles) were applied to 423 Spanish players of soccer (X= 14.8 years; Rank: 12-18 years; and 6.9 years of average practice of soccer). 9.7% were goalkeepers; 40.2%, defenders; 28.4%, midfielders and 9.1% were forwarders. The results showed different values for the cohesion and the cooperation; relationships between unconditioned cooperation and cohesion (role clarity and acceptance); the cooperation explains a percentage of the cohesion, and the cohesion (and its factors) explain a low value of the variance of cooperation; and only the role clarity seems to predict some level of cooperation. These results are discussed both theoretically and regarding to the psychological intervention on the teams.
Keywords: Cooperation, Cohesion, Sportive Teams, Soccer
*
Address for correspondence: Alexandre Garcia-Mas. Facultad de Psicologia. Universitat de les Illes Balears. Cra. de Valldemossa, km. 7,5. 07122 Palma (Islas Baleares, España). E-mail:
[email protected] Part of this work has been done with the help 05691/PPC/07 (Fundación Seneca, Agencia Regional de Ciencia y Tecnología de la C.A. de Murcia, España) and the help SEJ2007-64528/PSIC (Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Dirección General de Investigación, España)
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RESUMEN La cohesión (la afiliación social dentro del equipo) es el concepto más extendido para explicar la dinámica interna dentro del equipo, junto con la cooperación deportiva (relación entre los objetivos personales y los de los compañeros de equipo y el entrenador). Tiene 2 factores (cooperación condicionada e incondicionada) y otros de tipo situacional. Este trabajo estudia la relación entre la cohesión y la cooperación, y su interdependencia, en equipos de futbol soccer competitivo. Se aplicaron el Cuestionario de Cooperación Deportiva y el Cuestionario de Clima (los cuales miden la aceptación, claridad y percepción de los roles del jugadores) a 423 jugadores españoles de soccer (Media de edad=14.8 años de edad; amplitud: 12-18 años; y 6.9 años de práctica promedio en soccer). 9.7% eran porteros; 40.2%, defensas; 28,4%, mediovolantes y 9.1% eran delanteros. Los resultados mostraron diferentes valores de cohesión y cooperación; relaciones entre la cooperación incondicionada y la cohesión (claridad de rol y aceptación; la cooperación explica un porcentaje de la cohesión y la cohesión (y sus factores) explica un bajo porcentaje de la varianza en cooperación; y solamente la claridad de rol parece predecir algún nivel de cooperación. Estos resultados se discuten tanto teóricamente como con respecto a la intervención psicológica dentro de los equipos.
Palabras clave: Cooperación, cohesión, equipos deportivos, soccer
INTRODUCTION The sport teams are special groups, with specific characteristics derived from sport activity, from their yield and their own dynamics (Garcia-Mas, 1997, 2006). Our objective in this article is to introduce and to discuss the comparison of two different concepts and theoretical frameworks, which represent their internal dynamics: the cooperation and sport cohesion. Classically, a sport team is described as a group of persons (players) who work conjointly to carry out a task; they share responsibilities regarding collective results, and they see themselves and others as social entities (Cohen & Bailey, 1997; Sundstrom, De Meuse & Futrell, 1990); but also we can point out that a team is a group of persons who interact dynamically, interdependently, and in an adaptive way toward a common and valued objective, working each player in a special temporary limited framework which belongs to the team (Salas, Dickinson, Converse & Tannenbaum, 1992). These teams posses their own characteristics (Fernandez-Rios & Rico, 2004) that include the physical closeness (McGarry, Anderson, Wallace, Hughes & Fiks, 2002); the auto-organization (Araujo, 2003; Todorov & Jordan, 2002); the identity and difference between teams (Garcia-Mas, 2001); the similarity or individuation of the players (Myers, 1995); the specialization of the playing positions (Tannenbaum, Beard & Salas, 1992); the existence of a shared objective (Orlick, 1978); the interaction (Cratty & Hanin, 1980; Colquitt, 2004), or the interdependency (Chelladurai, 1984; Wageman, 2001). Even though there could be other concepts implied in the sport teams dynamics, such as conformism or cognitive dissonance, in this study have been used the cohesion and the sport cooperation, because of their extended use and implementation in the sport field.
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THE SPORT COHESION Nowadays, there is an extended consensus about cohesion is one of the most important concepts in the small social groups behavior study-in addition to the sociometric analysis (Barrase & Gil, 2004), or from the most recent analysis for quantifying the group agreement (Sanchez & Amo, 2004)- and one of the most valued psychological variables for collective coaches and sportsmen. The study of team cohesion in sport psychology-and in other fields-has been preceded by Festinger, Schacter & Back (1950) definition, which indicates cohesion reflects the sum of all the forces that influences in keeping a team united. In this way, precedent factors of the team union were studied, such as the size of the group (Carron & Spink, 1992); the interpersonal attraction (Lott & Lott, 1971), or the clarity of the roles and their acceptance (Dawe & Carron, 1990, cited by Carron, Brawley & Widmeyer, 1998). However, the most accepted definition is the one from Carron, Brawley & Widmeyer (1998) that indicates that cohesion is ―a dynamic process which reflects the tendency of a group to keep united, not separated, so as to achieve their instrumental objectives and/or to satisfy the affective needs of their members‖ (Carron, Brawley & Widmeyer, 1998, p. 214), standing out already two general categories: the social aspects and the group tasks ones. From this model emerged an evaluation tool, the Team Climate Questionnaire (Form B) from Carron & Grand (1982), in which the factors of the clarity of the roles, their perception (of their execution) and their acceptance developed in the team were evaluated. These factors matched to the yielding findings of the teams‘ field and their possible practical intervention therein. Later, the cohesion concept evolved toward a theoretical framework more related to social affiliation. In this way, the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) was developed, (Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley, 1985; Brawley, Carron & Widmeyer, 1987), incorporating previous concepts (Martens & Petersen, 1971) for the social cohesion; for the task (Carron & Ball, 1977), which possesses a four factor structure based on the difference between social cohesion and the task, and the group integration and the attraction of each one of the members to the group as a whole. Up today, the cohesion model-which has recovered a lot of its original development based on the operationalization of the concept- includes concepts like interaction (Carron, Spink & Prapavessis, 1997); the Team Building, as the only proved way to increase cohesion (Bloom, Stevens & Wickwire, 2003); the communication style of the coaches (Alzate, Lazaro, Ramirez & Valencia, 1997). Moreover, small groups have been developed for the study (Carron & Spink, 1995); it has been related to the leadership (Karau, Michailisin & Tangpong, 2007), or regarding the impact of the coaches style on the team cohesion (Turman, 2003). However, a relevant point with respect to the existence of cohesion in the sport teams is that it has not been proved clearly and directly the existence of a positive relation between a high grade of cohesion and a good team yielding (Beal, Cohen, Burke & McLendan, 2003; Carron, Colman, Wheeler & Stevens, 2002; Fontayne, Heuze & Raimbault, 2006); Kozub & Button, 2000).
THE SPORT COOPERATION The group cooperation and competition was first exposed by Deustch (1949a and 1949b), and it was spread quickly up to the Theory of the Games (Axelrod, 1986; Nash, 1953),
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adapting it to models like the one of the Dilemma of the Prisoner (Thibaut and Kelly, 1959; Poundstone, 1995). By this model, different possible cooperation and competition behaviors between two seemingly common objective players are defined; they are compelled to make a decision with no information about the other‘s decision, and partial information about the other player‘s past interactions, based on the costs and benefits interchange earned by the player just for being a player of the team, relating sport behavior and personal objectives (Miller, 1999). However, the sport cooperation has not been very well studied. Apart from any isolated work in the golf (Johnson, Bjorkland & Krotee, 1984), only Terry Orlick (1978) precociously proposed the opportunity of establishing games and cooperative dynamics during sport abilities learning in the teams. But we know that during the training and competitions, a player copes many times with the decision of adopting a sport behavior which can be more or less cooperative (with his mates, his coach, the tactic or the strategy), or more or less competitive (Garcia-Mas & Vicens, 1994; 1995), meanwhile the other player, or the coach, cope with the same decision. In this way, the basic variables of the sport cooperation concept are, unlike of the sport cohesion: decisions making; the objectives of each player, of the coach and of the team; the common or opposing objectives; the interaction and interdependency, and the information about cooperation and/or competition results (Rabbie, 1995). It can be also understood as the resolution of a conflict between opposed interests (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959; Rico and Fernandez-Rios, 2002), or as a part of the pro-social behavior, like altruism and egoism, the social voluntarism or common properties sharing (Van Vugt, Snyder, Tyler & Biel, 2000). But the need of interaction drives us to frame it in Kurt Lewin field theories, as long as the conscience of the players to have an interdependent destiny, both objective and real, as perceived (Lewin, 1948). However, it is also perfectly known that not all the social cooperative behaviors are exclusively motivated by the obtainment of the own interest, since in certain circumstances, the team players- according to their individual differences (Simon, 1990, 1993)- must suspend in some proportion, the partial or total obtainment of their own objectives, in order to assure the continuity of the functional existence of the team (Caporael et al., 1989). This compel us to consider, together with the above, the existence of a dispositional tendency more stable that regulates, in any way, the cooperative behaviors that can be observed (Meglino & Korsgaard, 2004). Based on this theoretical frame, recently it has been created-using a deductive-inductive procedure-a questionnaire for its study. The Sport Cooperation Questionnaire (Garcia-Mas, 2001; Garcia-Mas et al., 2006) has permitted to know that the sport cooperation is composed of two basic factors that show the tendency or disposition of each player to cooperate in more or less unconditional way (CDI), or to cooperate according to the objectives that may be needed to attain (CDC); and of the secondary factors that represents three sport situations in which the player may show more or less cooperation: 1) with the coach of his team (CSE); 2) with the mates of the team (CSC); and 3) out of the field, both in the training and in the competition (CSF). The competitive teams studied (Garcia-Mas et al., 2006) have showed to be composed of different cooperative profiles of their players, without existing a predominant style or another. However, some studies are still needed for analyzing the relation of the different levels of cooperation of the teams and their yield, considering both individual and collective ones.
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Therefore, it seems clear that the internal dynamics of the sport teams may be represented by different theoretical frameworks, and that coexist in the players mind which composed them. In this way, meanwhile the cohesion represents the social affiliation level (both by the group and the task to be done), the cooperation represents the searching of personal and team objectives, and their combination to create sport behaviors. From our point of view, it may be interesting to study, in competition teams, the relation between the two theoretical frameworks, both global (the concept of social affiliation regarding the objectives obtainment concept by the analysis of the eventual correlations between the respective factors. At last, it may also be interesting to try to find if there is a determination between the two theoretical frameworks, meaning, if the existence of a determined level of unconditional cooperation would lead to the existence of a corresponding level of social cohesion at the core of the teams studies, as it would be possible propose from the theoretical analysis of the two concepts. Likewise, this analysis is relevant since from both theoretical frameworks derived, likewise, different manners to intervene in the team, both from the coach point of view and from the applied psychologist. According to the afore mentioned concepts, the basic objectives of this study are to study the existence and the cohesion and cooperation levels in a group of football teams in competition; to analyze the possible relations that may arise between the two theoretical frameworks and their factors; and finally, to research if these eventual relations posses direction, meaning, if a certain style of cooperation determines, in part, some aspect of the cohesion.
METHOD Material Beginning with the two concepts described (cohesion and cooperation) the following evaluation instruments have been selected: The Team Climate Questionnaire (Form B) of Carron & Grand (1982), formed by 30 items, 10 in each of the three scales from which is composed (role clarity, role acceptance and perception of the role clarity). It is answered in a scale way, Likert type (1=totally in agreement; 7=totally in disagreement). The Sport Cooperation Questionnaire of García-Mas et al. (2006), formed by 15 items and 5 factors, two dispositionals (DDC, conditioned cooperation; and DCI, unconditioned cooperation) and three situationals (SE, cooperation with the coach; SC, cooperation with the fellows of the team; and SF, cooperation out of the play field). It is answered in a scale way, Likert type (1=nothing; 5= much).
Participants The sample of the study was formed by 423 football players in competition, who competed in Spanish teams. From them, 148 (35,0%) competed in infantile category; 140 (33,1%) in cadet category; and 135 (31,9%) in juvenile category. According to the categories,
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the participants in the study were from 12 to 18 years old (with a mean of 14,8 years old, and a standard deviation of 1,8 years). The sport experience of the subjects, with respect the football practice, was a mean of 6,9 years old (with a typical deviation of 2,9 years old). Regarding the tactical position of the participants of the study, 41 (9,7%) were goalkeepers; 170 (40,2%), defenders; 120 (28,4%), central midfielders; and 81 (19,1%), forwards.
Procedure To collect the data, we contacted the responsible personnel of the football clubs, asking for permission to carry out the task. Once this one was conceded, we talked to the coaches of each one of the teams so as to establish the day and hour to apply the questionnaires to their players. Three students of the last course of the College of Sciences of Physical Activity and Sport of the Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, previously trained to collect the data and explanation of the questionnaires, were in charge of the field work, supervised by two psychology and methodology teachers.
Analysis of Data By the SPSS 15.0 statistical program, a descriptive analysis of the variables object of this study was carried out (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum and mode). A simple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the relation existent between the different variables. So as to know the relation between the values of the cooperation scale and cohesion sub-scales, and vice versa, it was used a multiple linear regression analysis. Finally, in order to appreciate the possible differences between game categories, players‘ positions, titulars and benches, it was used the factor variance analysis. All the statistical analysis have been effectuated at a significant level of p< .05
RESULTS In Table 1, it can be observed the mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, mode and number of subjects analyzed for each one of the variables object of this study. First, it can be seen the descriptive values of the cohesion global scale, as well as each one of the values from their different sub-scales. Second, it can be seen the descriptive values of the cooperation global scale, as well as the values of its different sub-scales. In Table 2, it can be seen that statistically there are no significant differences, neither cohesion, nor cooperation regarding the different game categories, players positions, neither between titular and benches of the different teams. In Table 3, it can be seen the correlation values (simple regression analysis) between the cohesion and cooperation variable (r=.415). Likewise, it can be seen the indexes of simple linear regression, between the different sub-scales of cohesion and cooperation, as well as between the different sub-scales of cooperation and cohesion. Although most of the regression coefficients are statistically significant, values higher than 0.500 can be seen
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when variables non conditioned dispositional cooperation and cohesion (r=.564), and role clarity (r=.529), and role acceptance (r=.548) are related. Table 1. Cooperation and cohesion descriptive values, globally considered, as well as descriptive values of the different factors that compose each one of the scales. Mean
Typical deviation
Mode
N valid
Global cohesion
153,39
24,96
65
207
170
363
Role Clarity
51,51
8,29
24
70
58
394
Role Acceptance
50,47
9,78
21
70
53
396
Perception of the role execution
51,04
8,84
20
70
56
406
Global cooperation
63,87
5,77
51
75
61
387
Conditioned Cooperation dispositional
16,50
2,29
9
20
16
419
Situational cooperation with the coach
12,64
1,92
6
15
15
410
Minimum Maximum
Unconditioned Cooperation dispositional
17,30
1,86
13
20 18
422
Situational cooperation with the fellows
8,81
1,19
5
10 10
412
Situational cooperation out of the game field
8,59
1,43
2
10 10
412
When a multiple linear regression analysis is carried out, in which a dependent variable is taken from the values obtained from cohesion scale, and as independent variable those obtained from sub-scales which compose the conditions cooperation (conditioned dispositional; situational with the coach; non conditioned dispositional; situational with the fellows; situational out of the game field), it is only explained a 37% of the variance of the dependent variable (cohesion). However, it may indicate there is a significant linear relation between dependent variable and the independent variable group ([F5,323=39.618, p<.001]. Briefly, in Figure 1, it can be seen the minimum-quadratic regression equation that is obtained from Table 4, in which it can be seen only the constant (p<.01), the conditioned dispositional cooperation (p<.01), the non conditioned dispositional cooperation (p<.001), and the situational cooperation with the fellows (p<.001) show significant statistics values.
Table 2. Average values according to game category, position of the players and titular. GAME CATEGORY
PLAYERS POSITION
TITULAR
Infantile
Cadet
Juvenile
P value
Goalkeeper
Defender
Central midfielders
Forward
P value
Titular
Bench
P value
Global cohesion
152,37
151,31
156,60
,222
143,76
153,68
155,14
154,69
,126
152,76
153,77
,717
Role clarity
51,03
51,22
52,28
,420
49,86
51,09
52,11
52,41
,354
51,05
52,01
,278
Role acceptance
50,15
49,96
51,38
,456
46,63
50,66
51,04
50,92
,079
50,15
50,65
,633
Perception of the role execution
63,23
63,74
64,74
,032*
65,76
63,50
63,45
64,55
,349
64,22
63,29
,596
Global cooperation
51,12
49,61
52,46
,104
48,83
51,04
51,33
51,87
,117
51,10
50,60
,128
Conditioned Cooperation dispositional
16,30
16,38
16,83
,118
16,90
16,45
16,41
16,63
,628
16,56
16,34
,342
Situational cooperation with the coach
12,51
12,66
,536
13,34
12,50
12,38
13,01
,012*
12,80
12,47
,085
Unconditioned Cooperation dispositional
17,19
17,36
17,37
,651
17,54
17,14
17,42
17,38
,457
17,35
17,17
,364
Situational cooperation with the fellows
8,66
8,85
8,92
,160
9,13
8,73
8,75
8,86
,265
8,79
8,81
,920
Situational cooperation out of the game field
8,54
8,48
8,76
,244
8,44
8,57
8,74
8,52
,612
8,60
8,59
,982
1 2,77
Table 3. Simple regression analysis between Cooperation and Cohesion, globally considered, as well as values of the different factors that compose each one of the scales. Cohesion
Cohesion
Cooperation
Role clarity
Role acceptance
Perception of the role execution
Conditioned Cooperation dispositional
Situational cooperation with the coach
Unconditioned Cooperation dispositional
Situational cooperation with the fellows
Situational cooperation out of the game field
1
,415(**)
,903(**)
,936(**)
,896(**)
,067
,319(**)
,564(**)
,461(**)
,222(**)
Cooperation
,415(**)
1
,437(**)
,351(**)
,382(**)
,589(**)
,799(**)
,647(**)
,716(**)
,522(**)
Role clarity
,903(**)
,437(**)
1
,786(**)
,708(**)
,127(*)
,343(**)
,529(**)
,444(**)
,236(**)
Role acceptance
,936(**)
,351(**)
,786(**)
1
,754(**)
-,031
,273(**)
,548(**)
,435(**)
,209(**)
Perception of the role execution
,896(**)
,382(**)
,708(**)
,754(**)
1
,164(**)
,291(**)
,413(**)
,362(**)
,183(**)
,067
,589(**)
,127(*)
-,031
,164(**)
1
,234(**)
,093
,203(**)
,224(**)
Situational cooperation with the coach
,319(**)
,799(**)
,343(**)
,273(**)
,291(**)
,234(**)
1
,528(**)
,583(**)
,309(**)
Unconditioned Cooperation dispositional
,564(**)
,647(**)
,529(**)
,548(**)
,413(**)
,093
,528(**)
1
,500(**)
,064
Situational cooperation with the fellows
,461(**)
,716(**)
,444(**)
,435(**)
,362(**)
,203(**)
,583(**)
,500(**)
1
,276(**)
Situational cooperation out of the game field
,222(**)
,522(**)
,236(**)
,209(**)
,183(**)
,224(**)
,309(**)
,064
,276(**)
1
Conditioned Cooperation dispositional
** The relation is significant at level 0,01 (bilateral). * The relation is significant at level 0,05 (bilateral).
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A. Garcia-Mas, A. Olmedilla, E. Ortega et al.
COHESION = 36,219 – 1,293*DCC – 0,744*SE +5,831*DCI + 4,58*SC +1,061*SF DCC= Conditioned cooperation dispositional SE= Situational cooperation with the coach DCI= Unconditioned cooperation dispositional SC= Situational cooperation with the fellows SF= Situational cooperation out of the game field
Figure 1.
Table 4.- Partial regression coefficients. Dependent variable: Cohesion Non standardized Coefficients VARIABLES
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
2,936
,004
B
Type Error
36,219
12,336
-1,296
,471
-,124
-2,752
,006
Situational cooperation with the coach
-,744
,682
-,064
-1,090
,277
Unconditioned dispositional
5,831
,675
,481
8,638
,000
Situational cooperation with the fellows
4,581
1,158
,229
3,956
,000
Situational cooperation out of the game field
1,061
,754
,067
1,407
,160
(Constant) Conditioned dispositional
Cooperation
Cooperation
Beta
On the other hand, when a multiple linear regression analysis is carried out, in which a dependent variable is taken from the values obtained from cooperation scale, and as independent variable those obtained from sub-scales which compose the cohesion (perception of the role execution, role clarity, and role acceptance) it only explained a 17% of the variance of the dependent variable (cooperation). However, it may indicate there is a significant linear relation between dependent variable and the independent variable group ([F5,325=23.520, p<.001]. Briefly, in Figure 2, it can be seen the minimum-quadratic regression equation that is obtained from table 5, in which it can be seen only the constant (p<.001), and the clarity of the role (p<.001), show significant statistics values.
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COOPERATION = 48,281+ 0,184*CR + 0,092*AR + 0,029*PER CR= Role clarity AR= Role acceptance PER=Perception of the role execution
Figure 2.
Table 5. Partial regression coefficients. Dependent variable: Cooperation Non standardized Coefficients (Constant) Role clarity Role acceptance Perception of the role execution
B
Type Error
48,281 ,184 ,092
2,071 ,060 ,052
,029
,058
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
,261 ,153
23,316 3,054 1,759
,000 ,002 ,080
,039
,494
,622
Beta
DISCUSSION According to the results obtained, we can confirm that the players that have participated in our study understanding cohesion and cooperation as two psychological mechanisms of their team, functioning in a relative independent way. They recognize that their technical, tactic and physical effort depends, in certain way, on the manner they are attracted or near their team mates and coach or coaches, and at the same time it may be determined, also partially, by the mode in which they psychologically perceive that belonging to the team may help to reach their own sport and personal objectives. It is evident, on the other hand, that it would be impossible to propose-even if we suppose the existence of two theoretical frameworks with so different psychological sources- there is not a relation between the sport cohesion and cooperation. In fact, our data show certain relation between them, but their significant correlation level, or even mutual dependency, can not make us to think, in any way, that we are empirically considering two different expressions from an only and same psychological mechanism, inherently associated to the internal dynamics of a sport team in competition. As we will see later on, the existing relations offer, likewise, interesting information about the development of both concepts, from the core of the two sport teams. If we analyze the results, observing separately each one of the constructs, we see they behave in a very different manner. First, the sport cohesion is showed as a group of factors related to the player position in the team that keeps a very close relation between them, behaving almost like a unique factor: equalizing the idea of cohesion of the team with the
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perception and acceptance of their corresponding roles, and which have been assigned (mainly by their coaches) in the tactical functioning of the competition. This finding matches perfectly with the solidity showed in the sport cohesion concept during different situations, sports and cultural contexts since it was paradigmatically established, and it has been showed both empirically and meta-analytically (Beal et al., 2003; Carron et al, 2002). On the other hand, the sport cooperation has a long run and still it is a theoretical construct that needs to be evaluated both empirically and experimentally. The results obtained in this work show that the internal factors of the cooperation do not posses a correlation so high between them as it is in cohesion, and, therefore, we can not consider it in any way, as a unique factor. If we observe closely the results, we see a relation between conditioned and non conditioned cooperation too law and not very significant, which supports the fact that they are really independent factors. There is a relation between the situational factors, but paradoxically- at first-we can see how the non conditioned cooperation is barely related to the cooperation out of the field: it seems to be that the effort given without many conditions, fixes a limit beyond the football kit. Likewise, but maybe stronger regarding the operational explanation of our results, the situational cooperation with the coach is related more to non conditioned disposition of the players than the conditioned one. It seems the players also decide to express their cooperation feelings by helping, following coach instructions, with the possibility to obtain their objectives by the explicit or implicit negotiation with their coach. If we try to review conceptually the relations found in our young football players‘ population in competition between the cohesion and cooperation showed by their teams, we can observe some very interesting point. First, it is very significant that conditioned and non conditioned cooperation show a very different relation from sport cohesion and the factors that compose it are mainly related to the roles in the team, as well as their acceptance and perception. The conditioned cooperation, which proposes that the effort made by the sportsman is related to the perception he possesses about the amount and quality of personal objectives that he can get with respect to the team objectives, is related in a very low manner to the sport cohesion, which is based on the affiliation and attraction senses to the group of players. Even they show negative values when they relate to the role acceptance of the teams. It is very interesting to observe, in consequence, as it seems to perform two different forces, and from diverse direction, not directly compatible, pushing to the same direction: to increase the player effort in the team. In the opposite sense, the other dispositional factor of the sport cooperation, the nonconditioned-which show the behavior in the field and the training without existing any requests as objectives‘ response -is related to the cohesion in a positive way, but always under the frameworks of the general weakness of the group of relations between cohesion and cooperation. Therefore, maybe we are in front of two different ways of expressing the social affiliation-group-inside the team, according to the predisposition of the player to deliver or not his effort and cooperation, according to his personal objectives. On the other hand, most of the investigation in the sport cohesion environment has been carried out from a positive point of view, meaning, accepting implicitly that a higher level of cohesion corresponds to a higher level of team yielding. However, there is the opposite, and recently it has been showed there are also some negative consequences from a high level of cohesion, as it may be the effect over the players, and secondly, over the team yielding, from an excessive pressure perceived by each player from his fellows. (Hardy, Eys & Carron, 2005).
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No less important is that the predictive ability of both concepts between them is very relative, and really hard to explain, due to the levels obtained. At all events, these results help to support the thesis of the relative independency of the theoretical frameworks we are studying, even though the tendencies mentioned before are kept: the existing cohesion in a team seems to depend basically on the level of non conditioned cooperation, meanwhile the conditioned cooperation-in general-and the one established with the coach reduce the possibilities to establish an internal cohesion of the team. On the other hand, the cooperation behaves again differently, since the prediction that may be done from the sport cohesion level is carried out from the importance of the three factors distributed in a very similar way to the roles of the players. Finally, in our results do not appear differences between the frameworks that indicate the evolution of the sportsman career (age, years on the business, position inside the team), not regarding cooperation neither cohesion. We must ask ourselves if these data really imply that there is no evolution of both concepts at the ages considered, or if the dynamics of the team based on sport cooperation and cohesion are established precociously with the team players, who have been developed during a long period of time in a competitive environment, both internally and externally. What does this analysis indicate regarding the panorama of the internal procedure of the sport teams in competition? The sport cohesion and cooperation are two mechanisms of the internal psychological dynamics of the teams in competition, who posses different psychological sources, and that are perceived as such by the teams players. The two concepts are diversely related, and it is clear that they are absolutely not two expressions of the same process. The non conditioned cooperation is closer to the global cohesion concept derived from the interpersonal attraction, meanwhile the conditioned cooperation seems not to have to do excessively with the cohesion, globally considered, and even it is negatively related to some aspects of roles clarity. These data may mean the social processes of roles affiliation, attraction and establishment inside a sport team perform relatively independent from the integration processes of the team, based on the establishment of personal and group objectives from of the players. This must not surprise us, we think, since as we have declare in the introduction, although the paradigm of the sport teams dynamics in the late decades, has been filled almost totally by the sport cohesion concept at this different and successive versions, meanwhile other internal psychological mechanisms, such as the conformism or the cognitive dissonance have been put out of the research field, and, therefore, from the application and intervention.
LIMITS OF THE STUDY This study possesses some limits, being the most important of them the low correlations obtained between the studied variables, since it hinds to reach stronger conclusions from those previously discussed. On the other hand, it shall be very interesting to observe the relations between the sport cooperation and the sport cohesion, (according to the evolution of the theoretical framework, in which affiliation and attraction concepts related to the group and the task to be done are found) to have a more global view of the internal dynamics of the
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teams; and at last, to try to obtain the existing relations from both theoretical frameworks and the different yielding indicators of the teams in competition.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND STUDY DEVELOPMENT A bigger knowledge of the internal dynamics of the sport teams makes possible to detect hints for performing and intervention from the professionals whose responsibility is to make the teams work so as to reach objectives, generally sport ones, even though sometimes they are formative ones. The coach is the key figure in directing the team, but he must no forget the role of direction or co-direction carried out by other members of the technical team. Some of these members work, sometimes, as mediators in coach-players relation, and even in professional teams may be seen as a mean to reach the objectives, especially individual ones, but even sometimes collective ones. In this sense, and taking into account that the most ―altruist‖ cooperation, the most unconditional one it is manifested but just inside the ―football kit‖, has special relevance the technical team mediation. In other words, a professional very well valued (perceived) as highly trained will help to develop behavior and attitudes of cooperation, mainly on those players with a clear orientation of non conditioned cooperation. Likewise, from this applied point of view, it may be proposed the performances directed to the maintenance or to the improvement of the sport cohesion level (clarity and acceptance of roles; and the establishment of limits of each player) must be added to the performances carried out to obtain the maximum conditioned cooperation of the players (explicit or implicit negotiation of objectives), and to reinforce and recompense the non conditioned cooperation of the team players. On the other hand, and since empirical studies leave serious doubts regarding the relation between cohesion and yielding (meaning, sport results), it seems logical to think about developing works, in which the relations between cooperation and yielding can be evaluated. At last, it is possible that the activities scheduled by the coaches for strengthening the bond, out of the sport context (meals for talking, social reunions to socialize, etc.), do not help at an individual and group effort in order to get a higher yielding, and in consequence, better results. The relations between the different groups of cooperation and the sport results, both competitive teams in formation, and professional teams, are, we think, one of the lines of research that might help to decide what is the point needed to focus on.
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In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
BURNOUT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS TEACHEARS IN SAN NICOLÁS DE LOS GARZA, NUEVO LEÓN, MÉXICO Laura K. Castro¹, Karla Rodríguez & Cirilo H. García Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, México
ABSTRACT The term burnout refers to a feeling of failure and to an exhausted or used-up existence, and it is considered as a three-dimensional syndrome in which feelings of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment are present. This phenomenon has become a public health concern and may turn into a menace for teams of professionals whose objective is to help others, as it is the case for the education professionals. An instrument with the aims of knowing, describing and correlating some of the models related to the presence of the burnout syndrome in primary school teachers who work in public schools, was applied in this study. This instrument was a questionnaire directed to the teachers in 123 public primary schools in the municipality of San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, México. The results did not evidence the presence of the syndrome in its three dimensions in the studied sample. However, it is relevant the lack of personal accomplishment in the male teachers (33.61%), while the female teachers manifested as relevant the emotional exhaustion (44.33%). The analysis of this investigation gives us an idea of the importance of preventing the burnout syndrome in teachers.
Keywords: teaching, burnout, emotional exhaustion, lack of personal accomplishment, depersonalization.
INTRODUCTION It is only recently that society has begun to pay attention to the importance that stress has in public health, as well as its negative consequences in different labor sectors, Having previously often been mistaken for laziness, indifference or unwillingness, Stress is the result of the relation between individuals and an environment they perceive as threatening, surpassing their limits, an environment that places their wellbeing at risk (Lazarus, 1984). When an individual is subjected to a continuous stress process a syndrome called Burnout appears. Burnout phenomenon literally means, ―being burnt‖. Several explanatory models have reacted to this term. Freudenberguer (1974) defined Burnout (BO) as a feeling of failure, and an exhausted or used-up life, product of an overburden of energy demand, personal resources or workers‘ spiritual force. For Maslach and Jackson (1981, p. 3) ―It is a three-
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dimensional syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal reduced accomplishment.‖ Emotional exhaustion relates to physical and emotional overburden produced by the continuous interaction the worker keeps with their mates and their customers; depersonalization refers to the development of attitudes and answers somewhat cynical, from the worker to his customers; and lastly, the poor personal accomplishment which leads the worker to a loss of his self-confidence and a negative selfconcept of his job. In the society, the teacher plays a very important role; in several occasions, the teacher is a role model for the student, besides the teaching of an academic level knowledge. The problem is that not all the teachers fulfill these requirements; in a classroom they do not always know how to face the emotional conflicts kids may have, or their mood changes. To fight off this insecurity, teachers center their action in discipline, meaning, in the authoritarianism, in imposing, without observing the appropriate teaching process. Sometimes, the result is emotional exhaustion, depersonalization in dealing with students, a feeling of a lack of personal accomplishment, meaning, they show a burnout syndrome characteristics, expressing symptoms like irritability, anxiety, sadness and low self-esteem. Teachers who show the burnout syndrome usually present characteristic pathological symptoms like: depression or becoming an excessive authoritarian teacher; consequences fall in absenteeism, voluntary professional abandonment or severe relationship problems with their students, among others. The general goal of this research was: To know, to describe and to correlate some of the models related to the Burnout presence in primary school teachers in public schools, as well as to identify the prevalence of burnout dimensions in primary education teachers, such as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of personal accomplishment.
THEORIES ABOUT TEACHERS’ BURNOUT Burnout syndrome appears in professionals categorized as of aid, those who spend a considerable time in intense implication with people who often are dealing with a problematic situation, or where the relation can be polarized with frustration feelings or desperation.
Burnout Term Concept Somewhere in the middle ‗70s, burnout phenomenon was mentioned for the first time. Freundenberguer (1974) began to observe certain exhaustion in psychotherapists of a clinic, and he used this term to describe the inappropriate treatment the professionals gave to their patients. Likewise, in 1975, the same author described burnout as a state of tiredness, frustration caused by life expectations which are not fulfilled. Maslach (1981) made culminant researches in the Maslach Burnout Inventory and its three dimensions (MBI): 1. Emotional exhaustion. 2. Depersonalization. 3. Lack of personal accomplishment.
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Symptoms of emotional exhaustion. It refers to the lack of emotional resources; to feel that there is nothing to offer to others, it includes feelings of depression, which, in extreme cases, can lead to the deterioration of personality, as well as negative attitudes about the person itself, the job, relations and social interaction, associated to a low self-esteem and inferiority feelings, inefficiency and incompetence. It is a burnout core component that can be physically and psychologically manifested. The depersonalization. It is the development of negative and insensible attitudes towards the addressees of the services they render (for example, patients, students, etc.) The lack of Personal Accomplishment. It refers to a reduction of competence and personal accomplishment feelings. It is the perception that there are no possibilities of personal achievement in their job; personal expectations are diminished; including the settlement of a negative vision, rejection of him/herself and of personal achievements; the feeling of failure is imminent, as well as a low self-esteem. Cherniss‘ model (1980) proposes that an individual has to interrelate in his/her job context, his/her expectations and demands, which causes a strong stress on him/her, in different degrees and forms. This tension can be faced in two ways: the first one, planning strategies to solve it; the second one, not finding effective solutions which make the individual show a negative attitude change. This happens in different time situations, and it represents a way of adaptation to stress. Edelwich and Brodsky propose a cyclical and progressive model constituted by four different stages. In the first stage, -―the idealism and enthusiasm‖-, there are activities carried out which begin to be very important and motivating, and lead the individual to false expectations of what it can be received. The second stage ―stagnation‖, produces an emotional shock in confirming that labor expectations are unreal; the worker is ―stuck‖. The next phase, the very core of the burnout, is frustration: the personal effort is questioned in front of obstacles arising from his/her labor activities performance. If he/she does not have personal resources to face the situation, apathy stage finally settles in; manifested as indifference which is characterized by a feeling of emptiness that comes in an emotional isolation and self-contempt manner. Based on the afore mentioned concepts, manifestations of burnout of teachers are presented in the following way: 1. The emotional exhaustion is a dimension experienced by the teacher mainly due to the continuous interrelation with people, including students, parents and executives. 2. The depersonalization comes from the negative manner the teacher is relating to the others and more intensely to those who share his/her profession. Negative attitudes are mostly directed to his/her students, where inappropriate comments and behaviors are done, as well as irritability and a lack of motivation for the academic tasks. Cherniss (1992), Maslach and Jackson (1981) point out that male teachers display more negative attitudes towards the students than female teachers. 3. Diminution of feeling of personal accomplishment. The teacher develops negative attitudes to him/herself and to the work; he/she avoids to get acquainted with his/her mates; his/her performance and labor productivity are reduced, and it is hard to put up with labor activities. 4. The most meaningful aspect of this syndrome is the difficulty teachers face to create new working plans, and the need of giving up their own teaching tasks.
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Intervening Factors of the Burnout There are different factors related to the manifestation of the syndrome in different teacher‘s contexts. a) Social context. During the last 15 or 20 years, responsibilities and demands of the teachers have been increasing. This coincides with a transformation of the teaching process and the traditional agents of social integration; the role of teachers has also been modified, and this is a situation which implies certain uneasiness for many of them, because they either have not accepted that fact or they have not wanted to do it. (Barton and Walker, 1984). Many teachers will have to change many knowledge elements they have been working with during many years and they will have to acquire other new elements they never heard of during their preparation. (Leon, 1980). b) Teaching practice context. Teachers state that one of the factors that hinders the appropriate accomplishment of their job is the lack of material. They feel constricted because they do not have enough didactic material to carry out their tasks; the institution does not have the resources, and they do not have them either, their expectations start to languish, and they enter a disappointment state (Esteve, 1994). Another important factor is the role conflict; according to Travers and Cooper (1997) the conflict can arise when there is no concordance between demands imposed on an individual and his/her beliefs, or when they are under demanded to perform activities they are not prepared to. c) Interpersonal problem context. Caspari (1976) mentions that teachers show a greater emotional exhaustion at the end of school year; due to the exhaustion derived from the responsibility of teaching and disciplining children, than any other variable implied in the teaching level. Gil-Monte and Peiro (1997) mention that continuous interactions with mates or authorities may be conflictive, and if those interactions continue for a long period, or a lack of support from any of them can increase the risk of suffering burnout. d) Personality factors. There are certain personality traits which can increase the risk of suffering burnout. According to Nagy and Davis (1985), the influence of this kind of personality is correlated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Gil-Monte and Peiro (1996) mention that altruist and idealist people lead their job to the best possible development, and they feel it as a personal matter, so, when something does not result as they planned it, they feel unsuccessful, which implies a bigger susceptibility to a feeling of lack of personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion syndrome. Another aspect is the low selfesteem; those individuals have but limited tools to face the problems as they are presented during their professional development, which provokes negative effects about their personal accomplishment feeling (Friedman y Farber, 1992). Leiter (1992) mentions that if the individual does not trust in his/her self-efficaciousness, there is a bigger risk of suffering burnout. Cordes y Dougherty (1993) mention that when someone‘s expectations are not accomplished, he/she will feel frustrated and the risk of burnout will increase too. Finally, there are the emotional demands of the individual; according to Garden (1989) the individual will respond accordingly to his/her demand perception; if he/she perceives too much is being expected, it will be more likely he/she suffers burnout.
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e)Demographic factors. Different authors‘ manifest demographic factors tend to lead to burnout. Depending on the gender, women are more prone to burnout than men, although men have a greater predisposition to depersonalization, older individuals have less risk of suffering burnout syndrome; these individuals have developed a better ability to answers, and their professional expectations have been made more realistic, according to the job they are performing. The authors also mention that younger and less experienced individuals feel more stressed than older ones; married people have fewer tendencies to suffer burnout due to the conjugal support and stability they receive and perceive (Grau y Chacon, 1998). According to Gil-Monte and Peiro (1997) persons who have children can understand others better, due to the family support they keep. Additionally, they mention people with no children are more focused on their profession, consequently, any negative effect can be perceived in a greater dimension than those with children. As stated by Grau y Chacon (1998), personnel with minimum seniority has a bigger risk to suffer burnout, due to lack of experience and expectations about the institution.
Burnout Consequences Burnout consequences affect different aspects of the individual‘s life.
Physical Consequences The physical consequences manifested by individuals are headache, backache or other sore muscles; gastroenteritis problems, etc. (Kahill, 1988).
Psychological Consequences Some of the emotional consequences mainly found are negative feelings emphasized on themselves (Friedman, 1991). Another consequence of negative feelings caused by burnout is mental health deterioration, since it begins with depression, irritability and anxiety (Maslach y Jackson 1982; Kahill, 1988).
Behavioral Consequences Manifestations at a behavioral level showed by individuals include behavior alterations when they interact with other persons, since they become impulsive and easily irritated. Likewise, they manifest compulsive behavior on their feeding habits, they consume drugs, and smoke and drink in excess. Cox,1985). Maslach (1982) emphasizes the existing link between the deterioration consequence of the burnout and the extenuating family conflicts of the affected person.
Negative Consequences the Individual Causes on the Institution There are certain consequences which affect individuals who suffer burnout; the said consequences, at the same time, cause effects over the institution the individual works for. One of them which happen more frequently is absenteeism. Stern (1980) mentions that absenteeism increase is related to a low motivation the worker has to carry out his job, that and a problematic relation with his co-workers, the individual‘s own perception of his/her self-efficaciousness and the lack of material and didactic resources at the moment of carrying out his tasks.
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Hypothesis Based on the literature review and the objectives proposed in the research, the hypothesis was: The age, family demand, labor seniority, social-academic or extra labor charge have an influence on primary schools teachers of San Nicolas de los Garza when burnout syndrome is presented in light, moderate or severe way.
METHOD Context The study was carried out in primary schools of San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, with a sample of 687 teachers, from 123 different primary schools. On March, 2002, 50 pilot questionnaires were applied to 6 primary schools randomly chosen from the San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon population. The instrument was applied from September to December 2002. Data collection was made by questionnaires distribution to each teacher, according to the selected primary school, by previously requesting the Director‘s authorization. Approximately 1 hour was used to apply the instrument.
Population and Sampling A quantitative type study was used. Using the formula Hernandez and cols. formula (1998) we obtained a probabilistic sampling from primary schools of San Nicolas de los Garza, which had a population of 178, working with 123 primary schools of the study sampling, corresponding to 976 teachers, from which 687 persons – 162 men and 511 women- voluntarily participated; 14 cases were not genre analyzed. The names of the primary schools of the sampling were randomly obtained using the STATS Programs 1998) by Hernandez and cols., with a result of 377 day shift teachers; 222 from the evening shift, and 88 from both. The formula used was the following:
n=
400 1+400/N
Instrument The instrument used to analyze the Burnout, consisted in applying to each teacher a 44 reactives questionnaire, which was made using a combination of the collection and adaptation of two ―likert‖ type scales, by randomly distributing the reactives. The Burnout Inventory of Maslach y Jackson (1986) is an inventory of 22 reactives in which phrases regarding thoughts related to different continuous their daily labor performance interaction situations are mentioned to the subjects (Attachment 3). Furthermore, the Brief Burnout Questionnaire (BBC), made by Moreno and cols. (1992), composed of 21 reactives which consider 7 dimensions was used: personal accomplishment, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
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boredom, task characteristics, organizational environment, and the burnout consequences in the life quality of the individual, particularly in his personal relationships. The models used to analyze the dependent variable were classified with their indicators, as follows: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)
Age: the age of the individual; Filial family demand: Number of children; Labor experience: years of working in the teaching profession; Seniority: years the individual has worked in the Institution; Labor charge: Hours worked in the Institution; social-academic labor charge: Number of students; Extra-labor charge: hours worked at home.
Data Analysis An ex post facto type study was performed, and this is essentially an explanatory study. A factorial analysis statistics technique was used to identify if the scales used to measure the ―burnout‖ are unifactorial o multifactorial ones. Additionally, the Alfa-Cronbach coefficient was obtained. An exploratory factorial analysis was carried out in order to observe the models contained in the scale, using, for this purpose, the main factors extraction technique known as ―main axis factorization‖ was used, and the ―varimax‖ rotation method‖, by using a selection criteria for reactives no less than .40. Furthermore, a coefficient of the different indicators was calculated of each one of the models for the validation of the models used, and a z punctuation was obtained of each one of the grades obtained from teachers in order to carry out the comparison among them. The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was used so as to help in information processing. In addition, the analysis of regression multiple method was used to determine all of the total and partial variance of the burnout explained by the models.
RESULTS Descriptive Results of the Sample The results of each model and sample indicator are shown in a general way in Table I. Sample profile shows 79% of the teachers are 36-50 years old; 62% have 2-3 children; 61% have 16-25 years of labor experience; 59.24% have 1-10 years of seniority; 52.40% works 2125 hours per week; 61% have 21-35 students; 35% work 2 extra daily hours; 78% have a steady spouse; 72% has a Bachelor‘s degree, and .87% have a Master degree. The sample shows a similarity in both genders, regarding the age, filial family demand, labor experience and labor seniority models.
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Laura K. Castro, Karla Rodríguez and Cirilo H. García Table I. Sample distribution by personal characteristics.
Model
Indicator
Mean
Age Current age 40 Filial familial demand Number of children 2 Labor experience Years of working in 20.36 the area Labor seniority Number of years 9.44 working in the institution. Labor burden Hour worked in the 29.54 institution Social-academic labor Number of students 29.42 burden Extra labor burden Hours worked at 2.52 home
Standard deviation 6.44 1.25 6.87
Minimum
Maximum
19 years No children 5 months
62 years 5 children 43 years
6.33
1 month
32 years
9.24 8.95
10 hours per week 62 hours per week 10 students 70 students
1.45
No work at home 6 daily hours
Measurement Scale of the Sample The factorial analysis of the dependent variable of the sample was made by the method of extraction “Factorization of principal axis‖ through which just one factor was extracted, conceptualized as ―Scale of Burnout Syndrome‖; the reliability was of .9103, the variance explained of 35.37%, forming a scale of 22 reactives, which were selected according to their factorial load higher than .40. (Rosenthal, 1994). The reactives of this scale with their respective factorial loads are shown in Table II. In the case of Burnout factorial analysis of the teachers, only 1 factor was identified and it was conceptualized as ―Sub-scale of emotional exhaustion‖, with a reliability of .8747, the variance explained of 47.73% , and a 10 reactives sub-scale shown in Table III. Male Teachers and females teachers alike, had a conceptualized factor of ―lack of personal accomplishment under-scale‖, with a reliability of .8669 and a variance explained of 36.79%. In Table IV can be observed a sub-scale composed of 14 reactives selected accordingly to the factorial load mentioned.
Correlation Between Some of the Independent Models and the Burnout Some explicative models were carried out, changing some of the independent models, according to the burnout dependent variable in the sub-scales of male and female teachers. For the male teachers, none of the studied models had a significant influence on the burnout; however, for the female teachers, the model had a definite impact on the social-academic labor charge model, indicating that for women, the number of students has a certain influence on the burnout (See Table V).
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Table II. “Scale of Burnout Syndrome ”. Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Structure coefficients I feel used up due to my job. .566 I feel I am on the limit of my possibilities in this job. .616 I consider that the job I make affects my personal health (headache, .543 insomnia, etc) I feel active after working with my students. .510 I feel frustrated in my job. .574 I feel exhausted due to my job. .634 I think that I have an indifferent behavior with the people since I do this .436 job. To work directly with my students makes me feel stressed. .604 To assist my students all day long is a stress for me. .695 I feel exhausted when I wake up in the morning, and have to face another .624 working day. Frequently, my students have excessive demands and irritating behaviors. .454 I feel that my students blame me for some of their problems .450 I feel exhausted at the end of the working day .666 In my job, I use to deal with emotional problems calmly. .436 My job is repetitive. .409 My job‘s problems reduce my efficiency .606 The job I am doing is different from which I would like to do .454 I feel emotionally exhausted due to my job. .644 I feel very active in my job. .540 I can create a relaxed environment for my students. .455 When I am doing my job, I feel in bad mood .625 In general, I am sick and tired of my job. .694
Table III. “Sub-scale of emotional exhaustion”. Items I feel ―exhausted due to my job‖. I feel that I am on the limits of my possibilities in this job. I consider that the job I do affects my personal health (headache, insomnia, etc.). 4. I feel active after working with my students. 5. I feel exhausted due to my job. 6. Working directly with my students, make feel stressed. 7. I feel exhausted when I wake up in the morning, and have to face with working day. 8. Frequently, my students have excessive demands and irritating behavior. 9. I feel exhausted at the end of the working day. 10. I feel emotionally exhausted due to my job. 1. 2. 3.
Structure coefficients .713 .689 .716 .427 .721 .668 .583 .472 .750 .677
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Laura K. Castro, Karla Rodríguez and Cirilo H. García Table IV. “Sub-scale of lack of personal accomplishment”.
Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
I feel that with my job, I am influencing positively in other people‘s life. I feel identified with my job. I believe that I have an indifferent behavior with the people since I do my job. I like the environment of my job. I think that I treat some of my students as if they were inferiors. I feel that my students blame me for some of their problems In my job I use to deal with emotional problems calmly. I am not interested in my current job. The job I am doing is different from which I would like to do. In reality, I am not interested in what is happening to some of my students. Even though the responsibility of my job, I do not know the results and scope of it. I feel very active in my job. I can easily create a relaxed environment for my students. I have made many things that make my job worthy.
Structure coefficients .562 .694 .534 .482 .505 .466 .553 .588 .640 .616 .505 .599 .618 .513
Table V. Explanatory model of the sample of female teachers
Models Social-academic burden
Adjusted R2 4.6 % Indicator Number of students
Standardized Coefficient t Level of significance (Beta) .218 4.87 0.001
Teachers Burnout Grades Finally, through the grades obtained from each questionnaire, teachers z scores were known, classifying according to Burnout degree: absent, light, moderate and severe. Z scores from -3 to 0 belongs to absence, light emotional exhaustion with a score of .1 to 1.00, from 1.01 to 2.00 moderate and 2.01; the subsequent grade is classified as severe. As it can be seen in Table VI, the degree of the analyzed dimension, more than 50% of the women did not manifest emotional exhaustion (55.67%), whereas 44.33% showed emotional exhaustion in some of the grades. For male teachers, it can be observed that they did not manifest lack of personal accomplishment with higher percentage than women (66.23%), compared with 33.77% that did presented it in some grade. Table VI. Sample distribution according to burnout incidence. Subscale Gender Emotional exhaustion Female Lack of personal Male accomplishment
Absent 55.67%
Light 33.61%
Moderate 6.39%
Severe 4.33%
66.23%
19.20%
11.26%
3.30%
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DISCUSSION During this research, we found some empirical evidences which confirm and/or differ from other researching about burnout. First, the teachers in San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon did not show any significant signs of the syndrome in the three dimensions of burnout. One of the possible explanations of these findings is the one that takes into account the school period in which the research was made, since it was carried out during the first three months of the school year: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of personal accomplishment dimensions did not show up, given that indicators developing burnout were not present (factors of teachers‘ practice, organization, personality, etc). Caspari (1976) mentions that exhaustion manifests itself when school period is about to end. As it can be observed, no significant differences were found in the sampling profile divided by gender, but in the indicator of the hours worked at the institution, (men work more than women) and in hours worked at home (women work more at home than men). It is considered that one of the possible differences of these results is that men work two shifts to support their families, and they are focused on their job at the institutions. Regarding female teachers, most of them work only a shift since they need to carry out other tasks, including the extra-labor tasks to prepare the school material in the institution. In this study, it can be observed that burnout can be manifested in dimensions, as Maslach y Jackson (1986) have mentioned in their researches, but the difference in this population being that there is a relevant dimension for each gender. For men, the relevant dimension is only that of lack of personal accomplishment, whereas for women, only the dimension of emotional exhaustion. Gil Monte and Peiro (1997) results say different, since these two last ones mention that men show more depersonalization than women. The models that were analyzed and their indicators like age, number of children, experience, labor seniority, number hours worked at the institution and number of hours worked at home do not have any explicative influence in burnout of male teachers. However, for female teachers, social-academic labor charge has an influence when trying to explain emotional exhaustion. It is considered that women have a higher emotional implication compared with male teachers, probably because women are emotionally involved with their students, meaning, they keep an intellectual and emotional relation with the students. These results confirm Gil-Monte and Peiro (1996) findings, which mention that the labor overcharge appears as a significant antecedent at an emotional exhaustion level, and their results differ regarding the lineal relation between age and emotional exhaustion. Results for female teachers are considered an alarming figure, due to the tendency they have to show emotional exhaustion. As it can be seen, a third of the sampled individuals showed light emotional exhaustion. It is necessary to take into account the current result, to keep this figure from increasing, and to look for solution strategies to reduce Exhaustion. There are some researches in which it is stated that some labor over-charge indicators seem to have an influence on the burnout syndrome, in any, or all of its three dimensions, as well as some aspects related to the students. Millicent y Sewell (1999) mention bad behavior of the student is a significant indicator of lack of personal accomplishment. It is important to continue researching on different indicators of social-academic labor charge, as important factors for the incidence of burnout.
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It was concluded, in this research, that male and female public primary schools teachers of San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, do not manifest burnout syndrome due to the lack of significant signs in the three dimensions. None of the analyzed models (age, seniority, social-academic labor charge, filial family demand, extra-labor burden) have significant and substantial statistical influence on male teachers. On the other hand, for female teachers the social-academic labor burden appears as a significant model when trying to explain the variance of the burnout. As for labor charge of female teachers, it is important to redefine the number of students in the institutions, so as to avoid Emotional Exhaustion. Notwithstanding the low punctuation of Burnout for male teachers, there is a significant influence on the lack of personal accomplishment, in female teachers; the relevant dimension is that of emotional exhaustion. It is recommended that future investigations evaluate the possible effects that daily interactions of the female teachers with their students have, as well as the personal models (general expectations, self- efficaciousness) in teachers.
REFERENCES Barton, L., & Walker, S. (1984). Social crisis and Educational Research. London: Croom Helm. Caspari, I.E. (1976). Troublesome Children in Class. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Cordes, C.L. & Dougherty, T.W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Academy of Management Review, 18, 4, 621-656. Cherniss, C. (1980). Professional burnout in human service organizations. New York: Praeger. Cherniss, C. (1992). Long-term consequences of burnout: An exploratory study. British Journal of Orthodontics, 26, 1, 75-76 Edelwich, J. & Brodsky, A. (1980). Burnout. UK: Human Sciences Press. Esteve, J.M. (1994). Teacher’s uneasiness. Barcelona: Paidos. Freudenberger, H.J. (1974). Staff burnout. The Journal of Social Issues, 160. Freudenberger, H.J. (1975). The staff burn-out syndrome in alternative institutions. Psychotherapy: Theory, research and practice 12, 1, 73-82 (Reprinted by the Drug Abuse Council). Washington, D.C. Friedman, I.A. (1991). High and low burnout schools: School culture aspects of teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 6, 325-333. Friedman, I.A. & Farber, B. (1992). Professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 86, 1, 28-35. Garden, A.M. (1989). Burnout: The effect of psychological type on research findings. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62, 223-234. Gil, P.R. & Peiro, J.M. (1996). A study over significant antecedents of ―burnout syndrome‖ in workers occupational centers of psychological disable people. Work and Organizations Psychology Magazine, 12,1, 67-80. Gil-Monte, P.R. & Peiro J.M (1997). Work psychological weariness: burnout syndrome. Madrid: Narcea.
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Grau, A. J. & Chacon, R. M. (1998). Burnout: A threatening to health teams. A Masterly Conference in Seminar of Colombian Sectional Association of Health Psychology. Cali: Colombia. Hernandez, S. R., Fernandez Collado C. & Baptista L. P. (1998). Metodología de la investigación. Mexico: McGraw-Hill. Kahill, S. (1988). Interventions for burnout in the helping professions: A review of the empirical evidence. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 22, 3, 162-169. Imbernon, F. (1997). The formation and professional development of teachers to a new professional culture. Mexico: Paidos. Lazarus, R. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer. Leiter, M.P. (1992). Burn-out as a crisis in self-efficacy-conceptual and practical implications. Work and Stress, 6, 2, 107-116. Leon, A. (1980). Teaching profession: motivations, knowledge updating and promotion. Barcelona: Oikos-Tau. Maslach, C & Jackson, S.E. (1981). Maslach Burnout Inventory. Palo Alto. Ca: Consulting Psychologists Press,. 3. Maslach, C & Jackson, S.E. (1982). Burnout in health professions: A social psychological analysis. In G.S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.). Social psychology of health and illness. Hillsdale: LEA. Nagy, S. & Davis, L.G. (1985). Burnout: A comparative analysis of personality and environmental variables. New York: Psychological Reports. Stern, W.A. (1980). Teacher absenteeism at the secondary school level. Detroit, Michigan : Michigan State University. Travers, C.J., & Cooper, C.L. (1997). Teachers’ stress, teaching activity pressure. Barcelona: Paidos
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
EFFECTS OF COUPLE THERAPY ON DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILY STRUCTURE1 Jaime Montalvo Reyna, Carlos García Mondragón Israel Velasco Jiménez, Maria Rosario Espinosa Salcido, & C. Susana González Montoya Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (FES, Iztacala)
ABSTRACT This paper employs a quasi-experimental ABA design to analyze the implementation of Communicative Restructuring (CR) in 15 cases of couple therapy. A semi-structured interview format with a guide was used to measure family dysfunction (FD) before and after the application of the CR. Even though the therapy only targeted the marital holon, the effects of CR seem to have influenced family structure at large, since the degree of FD decreased significantly after the implementation of the technique. The affected boundaries changed from the diffuse to the clear or partially clear, and conflicts tended to disappear. The paper also emphasizes the importance of the systemic principle of totality (if an element in the system is modified this will alter or affect the other elements) and the need to take it into account.
Keywords: Communicative restructuring, couple problems, family dysfunction, family structure, boundaries, conflicts.
INTRODUCTION The couple is generally seen as the basis of the family, while the latter is considered the fundamental cell of society. The structures and processes that originate it are as multifarious as those that take place after its foundation, shaping it through time and in response to specific experiences. Overall, these phenomena constitute types of human interaction and organization. But why is it that human beings (as well as some other animal species) pair up in couples? This question has been historically explored by many disciplines and the conclusions have been varied. From a biological perspective, the goal is that of procreation 1
Research supported by the PAPIME program, DGAPA UNAM. Address for correspondence: Jaime Montalvo Reyna-Ezequiel Chavez No. 8, Colonia Magisterial Vista bella Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, CP.54050, México. E-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected]
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and, by extension, the preservation of the species; according to economics, societies seek to share resources and increase benefits at the same time that they reduce risks. Some psychologists, on the other hand, have portrayed the couple as a vehicle through which partners are able to get around each other and express freely, without limitations. According to this theory, the couple eases the individual wounds caused by an individual‘s exposure to daily life and interaction with the world, providing a physical and emotional space that enables restoration or, as some authors call it, ―sacrifice‖ (Stanley, Whitton, Sadberry, Clements, and Markman, 2006). The definitions of ―couple‖ can be highly varied and cover all practical possibilities, but the concept implies a union between individuals who, even if they belong to the same social group and therefore share a number of characteristics, are still distinct people with very subjective and particular experiences, knowledge, and beliefs. And yet this does not stop individuals from pairing up, at least not on a general basis. This could be the reason why some theoreticians have suggested that factors such as choice of partners, interaction patterns, and development processes determine a couple‘s breakup or end. According to Kershaw (1994), the words and behaviors used by a couple during interaction constitute a kind of hypnotic dance where the behavior of each partner condenses the other‘s focus of attention (p. 19). This process can awaken memories and result in feelings of vulnerability associated to the past. That is, the partners mutually stimulate each other into states akin to trance: attention is singly focused and there is dissociation between thought, feeling, and action. The author maintains that any kind of hypnosis is self-hypnosis and that, for this reason, interaction serves as a catalyst that induces a hypnotic state in each partner. Their attention narrows and this is followed by an interactive sequence in which each partner‘s state of consciousness leads to automatic behaviors that link to those of their counterpart, resulting in reciprocal progressions. Döring (2000) points to the eminently human need to enjoy intimate company, share likes and dislikes, and have a physical and temporal space for personal and emotional life (p. 37), but warns about the risks of basing such goals on fantasies and self-deception, as this can lead to disillusionment. When speaking of a couple, the author does not only refer to partners who live together or share a life, but also those who have a relationship based on mutual support and growth. Those who are more capable of confronting their existential commitment and taking responsibility for it will be the most likely to establish a partnership and, generally, engage in more fulfilling, less dependent relationships that promote the constant growth of those involved. When speaking of couple interaction we must inevitably address the vast amount of infor -mation exchanged by partners, which is why we think it necessary to address the topic of communication.
What is Communication? Much is being written nowadays on the issue of communication and the subject very popular. When we meet teenagers who do not speak to their parents we say that they have ―communication problems‖; we apply this same criterion to a problematic marriage. Every single individual has a personal communication system based on certain fundamental attitudes, stances toward self and others, work, life, and a series of other factors. An
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individual‘s capacity to communicate can go beyond the ability to speak or write well. On the other hand, it is important to point out that a person‘s virtues and overall possibilities of success and self-realization appear to be directly linked to the ability to communicate (Vilchez, 1985). To communicate means to take the other into consideration. This is not about doing one thing or another, speaking or remaining silent; rather, it is an attitude, a basic process we continually implement, an evolutionary reality subject to change, and a learning process. This is why an educated approach to communication plays a fundamental role in a couple‘s process. Communication must be understood as a part of the vast spectrum of human expressiveness that is, in turn, part of our nature. We communicate what and how we are while referencing the culture and social groups to which we belong (Vilchez, 1985). Bornstein and Bornstein (1998) have pointed out that communication among partners can be defined as the set of symbolic means people use to transmit messages. Words and verbal behavior are usually the most common form of communication, but non-verbal behaviors (e.g., tone of voice, body language, posture, gestures) comprise a most important part of this process. Regardless of the type of communication or its content, the symbols must be shared by both parties if the message is to be understood on its own terms. Simply put, misunderstandings are likely to arise if meanings are not shared, as in the case of couples suffering from communication problems. In short, the generic term ―communication problems‖ actually refers to the inadequate transmission of symbolic messages. There is no doubt that insufficient communication presents a fundamental problem in relationships among partners. That which couples choose to talk about and the way in which they do it affect the perceived level of satisfaction in the relationship (Bornstein & Bornstein, 1998). For these authors, communication between partners occurs when the two people involved express attitudes of protectiveness or love toward the relationship they maintain. They also distinguish two types of partner communication: intimate and economic. Intimate communication is related to verbal and non-verbal behaviors employed by one partner in order to send messages to the other; they can include smiles, winks, hugs, and many other ways of expressing love. For most couples without communication problems the intent of the messages is quite clear, but those experiencing problems will often profoundly disagree on the ―intention‖ behind the message and its impact. Rage (1996) has described some of the communicative differences between harmonious couples and those at odds: Although there is no difference in regards to the intent behind the messages, partners who are at odds will perceive each others‘ messages in a less positive light than those who are in harmony. The rate of agreements vis-à-vis disagreements is much higher among harmonious couples. Non-verbal behavior marks a very significant difference between harmonious couples and those at odds, and the latter show significantly more non-verbal negative behaviors than the former. Partners at odds tend to pay more attention to cross-complaints and the messages they send themselves than to the messages sent by the other member.
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Structural Family Therapy (STF) Structural Family Therapy (or STF) was created and pioneered by therapist Salvador Minuchin. Instead of approaching the family as a set of individual aspects belonging to each of the members, Minuchin interprets it as a system where each member can relate to the others in accordance with certain rules, thus constituting the family structure (Minuchin, 1986). Family structure is defined as the ―invisible set of functional demands that organize the ways in which every member of a family interacts. The family is a system that operates through given transaction guidelines and in which repeated transactions establish guidelines regarding how, when, and with whom to interact. These guidelines underpin the system. For example, when a mother tells her son to drink his juice and he obeys, this interaction defines who she is in relation to him and who he is in relation to her in that very context and during that moment‖ (Minuchin, 1986 p. 86). Transaction guidelines regulate the conduct of the family members and are maintained by a pair of joint systems: the first is generic and encompasses the rules that govern family organization (e.g., a power hierarchy in which parents and children possess different levels of authority); the second is idiosyncratic and encompasses the mutual expectations of the different family members. A family‘s structure must be able to adapt to changing circumstances. The continued existence of the family as a system depends on a range of [extant?] guidelines, the availability of alternative transaction guidelines, and the flexibility required to implement them whenever necessary (Minuchin,1986). Minuchin also mentions boundaries between the family subsystems or holons, and these are constituted by rules that decree who participates and how. The function of the boundaries is to protect the system‘s differentiation, as every family subsystem has specific functions and places specific demands on each family member. Minuchin differentiates between internal and external boundaries: the former are those that can be identified by the rules governing the members of the family subsystems, while the latter comprise the rules governing the interaction between the family and the external environment (e.g., other families). Minuchin also distinguishes four types of boundaries: a) Clear: these are suitably precise and allow subsystem members to develop their role without improper interference; they also enable contact between members of one subsystem and another. b) Diffuse: these characterize a family whose members do not know exactly who should participate, how, and when. When something needs to be done, the relationships between members are found to be lacking in autonomy; there is a lot of resonance (the behavior of one person overly affects others) and an exalted sense of belonging among members (barring a search for autonomy); members avoid confronting problems and display excessive ―loyalty,‖ while some holons are invaded by others. c) Rigid: these are inflexible and adamantly opposed to necessary change. This type of boundary results in highly disconnected family subsystems, and members are too independent to display loyalty or belonging.
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d) Flexible: these are malleable and adapt to the needs posed by the development of the system as a whole, as well as the diverse subsystems (e.g., a crisis or the move from one stage of the family life cycle to another). Minuchin has pointed out that the presence of diffuse or rigid boundaries can be an indication of psychological problems in one or several of the family members, whereas clear and flexible boundaries are less likely to foster problems. Montalvo (2000) has studied the ways in which interaction between family members is established; that is, the types of communication that link not only the different holons or subsystems, but also the whole family and external systems. One of his proposed concepts is that of ―hierarchy,‖ or the implementation of power: the establishment of rules under which family interaction takes place, the application of these rules, and the consequences arising from their being followed or broken. Ideally, parents should be in charge of the hierarchy; otherwise, family dysfunction problems could arise. This happens, for example, when a son or daughter is in charge or carries out activities belonging to the parental subsystem, a case usually known as ―parentified child.‖ Another component of interaction structure is that of ―centrality‖: that is, the monopolizing or agglutination of most family exchanges. A single member could become the center of family interaction for positive or negative reasons. Negative centrality takes place when the person at the hub of the system is in said position because of a problem, either physical (e.g., illness, disability) or psychological (e.g., cases of identified patient or ―black sheep,‖ criminality, drug addiction). Positive centrality, on the other hand, is characterized by the central member‘s valued accomplishments (e.g., being the best sportsman, student, artist; being well-behaved, etc.). Commonly, the existence of a central member is accompanied by the presence of a peripheral one, someone with the least amount of participation in family interaction and organization. This can be due to absence (the person is hardly ever at home), lack of involvement on the part of the individual, or the individual being barred from interacting by other members. An ―alliance‖ involves the union of two or more family members who join in order to obtain benefits. ―Coalitions,‖ on the other hand, entail conflict and are meant to describe the union of two or more family members seeking to damage another. While alliances are relatively harmless, coalitions create problems—especially if they are permanent or intergenerational. According to Umbarger (1987), coalitions are specific forms of ―triangulation.‖ An example of the latter takes place when parents who are simultaneously present but in conflict communicate or send messages to each other through a child. ―Overinvolvement,‖ another possible type of family interaction, is characterized by emotional interdependence, which could also have elements of overprotectiveness (e.g., one or both parents being overly concerned about a child) and results in diffuse boundaries between subsystems, to the point of almost erasing personal independence. A number of clinical cases have revealed an interactive phenomenon that could also be seen as a structural element and which Montalvo (2000) has classified as ―parent as child.‖ As the name implies, this type of interaction is characterized by a parent who behaves as a sibling to her or his children, lacks hierarchy, and is under the control of the partner or even another child. The purpose of this study is to test the effectiveness of the Communicative Restructuring (CR) technique in the solving of couple conflicts and establish whether the dysfunctional elements present in the couples‘ families undergo any changes.
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METHOD Sample: 15 couples who stated that their main reason for seeking treatment involved partnership problems at different stages of the family life cycle. Setting: cubicles in the Clinical Psychology facilities at FES Iztacala. Materials: notebooks, pens, pencils, and an audio recorder. Instruments: interview guide, Scale of Individual Psychological Wellbeing and Scale of Couple Psychological Wellbeing. Dependent variables: individual and couple psychological wellbeing, degree of family dysfunction, and complaints. Independent variable: Communicative Restructuring technique Indicators: psychological problems, family structure (centrality, periphery, boundaries, hierarchy, alliances, coalitions, triangulations), dysfunction, stage of the family life cycle, preferred representational systems (PRS), and type of client.
Design The study followed a quasi-experimental ABA design. Phase A: identification of the structure, gathering of demographic data, administration of the scales of individual and couple psychological wellbeing. Phase B: Implementation of the CR technique. Phase A: Examination of the effects of the CR technique.
Procedure Phase A. During the first session the patients were informed about the working procedure (the length of the sessions), and it was explained that two therapists would be present in order to provide better attention. A semi-structured interview based on Montalvo and Soria‘s (1997) guide was administered, and the degree of dysfunction was established by adding up the elements of the structure (Montalvo 2006). This enabled the detection of problematic (dysfunctional) interactions: diffuse or rigid boundaries between holons and/or the external world, hierarchies that were not shared by both parents, coalitions, parentified children, peripheral members, negative centrality, overinvolvement, triangulations, presence or lack of parental alliances.
Phase B. Implementation Of The Communicative Restructuring Technique. During the second session the couples were introduced to the CR technique: it was explained to them how reality is constructed, how it can be of either first or second order, and how it is built based on preferred representational systems (PRS). They were also given rules with which to improve their communication. Explanations included examples meant to improve understanding. The concepts of first and second order reality were illustrated by the using the word ―facts‖ to describe the former and ―reflection‖ (perception, idea, interpretation) for the latter, thus avoiding technical terms and replacing them with common
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words. The patients were also provided with examples or situations that illustrated these concepts using drawings or vignettes.
Representational Systems and the Conception of Reality In order to explain how preferred representational systems are at the basis of the construction of reality, the couples were given simple illustrations and drawings depicting the representational systems taken into account by Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP): the visual, the auditory, and the kinesthetic. The clients were then asked to start a conversation while looking each other in the eye and trying to maintain eye contact. The purpose was for them to identify their partner‘s representational system. If only one member was present, they were asked to remember a conversation with their partner and focus on their eye movements and frequently used words. This led to a hypothesis regarding the other partner‘s representational system, which could be tested later. The next step in the CR technique was to suggest some rules meant to improve interaction and problem discussion. Communicative behavior was emphasized, since it involves words, gestures, and postures. The rules were as follows: Avoid bringing up past arguments when trying to solve a [present?] conflict. This was meant to show couples that there is no point in talking about the past or past events, helping them realize that the present and the future are more important. Attempt to communicate without becoming emotionally upset (angry). This did not mean the clients should remain immune to anger, but that they should avoid arguing when they noticed the first physiological signs of ire. That is, individuals had to identify this initial response in themselves and then ask their partner to postpone communication until they had clamed down. Avoid arguments from spouse‘s family. Once these steps had been explained, the couples were asked to return fifteen days later. In the meantime, they were told to discuss their conflicts and reach an agreement following the previously established rules of interaction.
Phase C. This phase comprised a new evaluation of the couple in order to chart any potential changes in the structure (degree of dysfunction).
RESULTS Classification of Complaints The types of complaints reported during the first sessions were briefly classified. Some couples reported more than one type (see Table 1). Twelve cases (80%) showed at least one change in structure, while the remaining 3 (20%) registered none.
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Complaint type Communication problems Jealousy Differences regarding the children‘s education Separation Addictions
Frequency 8 4 3 2 1
Changes Involving Boundaries in The Marital Subsystem Out of 15 cases that showed diffuse or rigid boundaries, 11 (73.3%) changed to clear boundaries and 1 (6.7%) showed a change from rigid to partially flexible boundaries. That is, 12 of these cases (80%) showed some type of change. The remaining 3 (20%) showed none.
Changes Involving Boundaries in The Parental Subsystem Four of the 15 cases had no children while 8 (100%) had dysfunctional boundaries. Three (37.5%) of them changed to clear boundaries and 5 (62.5%) did not show any change at all.
Changes Involving Boundaries in The Fraternal Subsystem The 3 cases (20%) that had initially shown dysfunctional boundaries registered no change. The rest of the cases showed clear boundaries from the start or did not involve any siblings.
Changes Involving Exterior Boundaries Out of the 7 cases (100%) that initially showed diffuse boundaries, 1 (14.28%) changed to clear boundaries, 3 (42.85%) went from diffuse to partially clear, and the remaining 3 (42.85%) showed no change at all.
Changes Involving Hierarchy Initially, 8 cases (100%) showed that hierarchy was not shared by both parents. In 2 of them (25%) hierarchy moved from one to both parents, while the remaining 6 (75%) showed no change.
Changes Involving Coalitions The one case (100%) that had initially shown the presence of coalitions showed no change.
Changes Involving Parentified Children The one case (100%) that had initially shown the presence a parentified child showed no change.
Changes Involving Negative Centrality Out of the 8 cases (100%) displaying negative centrality, 5 (61.53%) no longer showed it and the remaining 5 (38.47%) registered no change.
Changes Involving Periphery Out of the 8 cases (100%) displaying a peripheral family member, 4 (50%) no longer showed it and the remaining 4 (50%) registered no change.
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Changes Involving Alliances Out of the 11 cases (100%) displaying no alliances, 2 (18.19%) developed new parental alliances while the remaining 9 (81.81%) showed no change.
Changes Involving Overinvolvement Out of the 3 cases (100%) displaying overinvolvement, 1 (33.3%) no longer showed it while the remaining 2 (66.6%) registered no change.
Changes Involving Triangulations Triangulation disappeared from the one case (100%) that had initially shown its presence.
Changes Involving Conflicts Out of the 15 cases (100%) displaying at least one conflict, 6 (40%) no longer showed any, 6 (40%) showed the disappearance of at least one conflict, and the remaining 3 (20%) showed no change.
Stages of the Family Life Cycle An analysis of the stages of the family life cycle in relation to dysfunctional markers before and after the implementation of the CR technique (see Figure 1) shows that, initially, couples with adult children had the highest degree of dysfunction (7). They were followed, in decreasing order, by marriages with small children (6.5), marriages with school-aged children (6.33) and, finally, couples who were still in the courtship stage (4). After the implementation of the CR technique, dating couples showed the most significant decrease in the degree of dysfunction, which went down to 0.25 and showed an overall 3.75 point reduction. Marriages with school-aged children went down to 4.33, showing an overall reduction of 2 points, while marriages with adult children went down to 6, showing a 1 point reduction.
7
6.5
6 5 4
6
4.33
4
3
7 6.33
2.75
2
Before After
1 0
0.25 Courtship Marriage Marriage Marriage stage with young with with adult children school- children aged children
Figure 1. Dysfunction before and after the implementation of CR according to stages of the family life cycle.
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Type of Client. Dysfunction measurements based on type of client were analyzed before and after the implementation of CR: A-type clients showed the most significant difference, followed by Ctypes and then B-types, who showed a difference of 1 point after CR. It must be pointed out that the sample was small and that over 70% of the participants were A-type clients. Table 2. Dysfunction Level Measurements According to Type of Client Before and After the Implementation of CR. Type of Client A (N = 11) B (N = 2) C (N = 2)
Dysfunction Before CR 5.73 7.5 5.5
Dysfunction After CR 2.64 6.5 3.5
Difference 3.09 1 2
Changes in Complaints In most cases, complaints underwent positive changes (see Table 3). Table 3. Changes in Complaints Categories Positive modification Disappearance No change
Frequency 10 2 3
Percentage 66.6 13.4 20
DISCUSSION The purpose of this research was to prove the efficacy of the Communicative Restructuring (CR) technique, and the results show that it led to changes in the family structure, promoting new and more functional behavior patterns. The changes involving major or outstanding complaints are notable since, out of 15 cases, 10 reported positive changes after CR, 2 reported their disappearance, and only 3 remained unchanged. When speaking of ―positive changes‖ we are referring to cases in which clients stated that, even if the main complaint or problem remained unsolved, the couple‘s disposition and readiness to discuss the issue while remaining on good terms had improved, as had their willingness to find a solution. ―Disappearance of complaints‖ refers to those clients who reported that the problem that had led them to seek therapy had been completely resolved. In these cases, focus was placed on the ways in which their agreement could be preserved. Most of the cases showed diffuse family subsystem boundaries before the implementation of CR, which was also the case in Montalvo‘s (2000) study. The stage of the family life cycle that showed the highest degree of dysfunction was that of marriages with adult children, although the differences between this and the other two stages involving children were not statistically significant. This might be due to the reduced size of the sample and could warrant further, future research.
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Three of the couples showed none of the expected changes after the implementation of CR. In one of these cases, the woman reported she had been having many problems with her partner and always cried when talking about her issues, but her partner did not cooperate: he did not attend any of the sessions and did not agree to follow any of the steps required by the technique. Another couple with communication problems attended only two sessions, during which they were interviewed and informed about the technique. They did not return because a strong episode of intrafamilial violence led to their separation. This might suggest that, when there is evidence of intrafamilial violence, the technique could fail to have the desired effects if the violence itself is not directly addressed. Finally, it must be pointed out that this study does view the CR technique as a solution to all possible structural family dysfunctions. Rather, it recommends it as a basis for future intervention. The technique is meant to create and strengthen a favorable environment where the couple can discuss their problems and search for solutions.
REFERENCES Bornstein, P. H. & Bornstein, M. T. (1998). Terapia de pareja. Enfoque conductualsistémico. Madrid: Ediciones Pirámide. Döring, M. T. (2000). Elección de pareja. In M. T. Döring,. (Ed.). La pareja: ¿Un sueño imposible? México: Distribuciones Fontamara. Kershaw, C. J. (1994). La danza hipnótica de la pareja. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu. Minuchin, S. (1986). Familias y Terapia Familiar. México: Gedisa. Montalvo Reyna, J. (2000). Los efectos del uso de la retroalimentación estructural familiar en varias etapas del ciclo vital. Ph.D thesis. Universidad Iberoamericana. Montalvo Reyna, J. (2006). Terapia Sistémica Breve Estructural: teoría, investigación y aplicaciones. Monterrey: Ediciones Cree-Ser. Montalvo Reyna,. J. & Soria, T. M. R. (1997). Estructura familiar y problemas psicológicos. Psicología y Ciencia Social, 1, 32-37. Rage, E. (1996) La pareja. Elección, problemática y desarrollo. México: Plaza y Valdés & Universidad Iberoamericana. Stanley M. S., Whitton S, Sadberry S., Clements M. L., & Markman H. J. (2006) Sacrifice as a Predictor of Marital Outcomes. Family Process, 45, 3, 289-303. Vilchez, L. F. (1985). Conflictos matrimoniales y comunicación. Madrid: Ediciones Madrid.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
HOMES AND FAMILIES: A PRELIMINARY PERSPECTIVE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Jose Gomez Herrera I would give all I know for half of what I do not. DESCARTES
ABSTRACT Studying family-home inter-relationships from the environmental psychology perspective implies tackling several epistemological and methodological aspects. In this paper some preliminary answers concerning the same are provided. In the first place, it is proposed that home-family inter-relationships be approached as a system composed of biological, psychological and socio-cultural components. The family-housing system contemplates objective aspects (daily activities) and subjective aspects (appreciation and affection). Aimed at including the notion of development in the analysis, the reconsideration of life cycles from developmental psychology and the classification of family life cycles from systemic theory are proposed. A proposal is made to reformulate both classifications in the framework of environmental psychology and, consequently a system to analyze dynamic diachronic and synchronic inter-relations in the housingfamily system.
Keywords: Home, house, residential environments, family life cycles.
INTRODUCTION In psychological literature, it is generally emphasized and accepted that the environment is transcendental for humankind; however, rarely is special attention given to the manner in which the physical environment affects our behavior. Canter (1975) used the following allegory concerning this aspect: a fish is the last one to be aware of the fact that he lives in water. Undoubtedly, each of our behaviors is performed in a ―place‖ and this place conditions, limits and, eventually, determines our behavior, our attitude, and our life style. In addition, this ―place‖ is located in time and within a culture. In the study of human behavior,
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psychologists have paid special attention to interpersonal and social transactions. One of the purposes of Environmental Psychology is to rectify this. Environmental psychology has its roots in social psychology and its objective is to explain transactions between individuals and their environment (Levy-Leboyer, 1980). According to Moser (2003), environmental psychology takes the environment and its sociophysical aspects into account and attempts to analyze people‘s behavior in all places where daily life occurs, such as: houses, buildings, offices, hospitals, classrooms, streets, transportation systems, etc. In summary, we can state that environmental psychology studies the reciprocal relationships between individuals‘ behavior and the natural and the built socio-physical environment. Environmental psychology offers possible solutions for solving problems. In an attempt to illustrate this point I will cite some examples, such as the work conducted in France by Gabriel Moser, in which he approaches vandalism of urban telephones (1988), or the one in which he investigates urban stress (1992) or in which he analyzes chance and the feeling of the lack of safety in victims mugged on the streets (1998). Another good example is the investigation by Mercado and colleagues regarding the ability to live in ―social‖ housing in Mexico (1994, 1995 and 2002); or papers by Pool and colleagues (2001) concerning environmental and social identity: the case of the Olympic village in Barcelona; or the investigation by Lawrence in Switzerland (1987) concerning the evaluation of interrelationships between the characteristics of housing and the health of their inhabitants. With these examples it is possible to observe that Environmental Psychology is a science applied to concrete situations and its methodology is applicable only to in situ investigation. In addition, and due to the nature of its object, something which is also shared with architecture, urbanism, geography, ergonomics, and ecology, environmental psychology benefits from the exchange of knowledge with these sciences in an interdisciplinary manner. This reciprocity is equally valuable for those investigations in which the main interest is the interaction between individuals and groups. The initial premise of Environmental Psychology is that behavior, attitudes and appreciation only have meaning within the context of the environment in which they manifest themselves. Human beings are influenced by the place where they live in and, in a reciprocal manner, individuals influence the place. This leads us to affirm that the environment is not neutral; it is formed by the expression of values from a specific culture. We may state that the environment is characterized by the culture of belonging of the population inhabiting it and, reciprocally, human beings acquire their identity from the interactions with their environment, according to the culture to which they belong. This paper is particularly interested in presenting a theoretical and methodological proposal to study the interdependence between the behavior of members of a family and their housing. For this reason, I begin by recognizing that the study of the family-housing interaction involves several challenges. The first challenge consists of characterizing the ―family-housing‖ interaction as a system (Wapner, 1998), and of explaining the dynamic interdependence of its elements, instead of describing causal relationships between variables (Werner and Altman, 1998). The second challenge implies considering the notion of development of each family member as and individual and of the family as a whole. Finally, one must also take into account that the ―family-housing‖ system is found immersed in a
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culture. The tentative response to the first challenge consists of implementing the study of the family-housing inter-relationships as a system. The inter-relationships of the ―family-housing‖ system are structured by biological, psychological and socio-cultural components. The biological component refers to the development and bodily maturity of each individual; the psychological component is concerned with the different levels of development of behavior and subjectivity (including affection) of each family member; the socio-cultural component indicates multiple interfamily relationships as well as interdependency of the family member‘s cultural group. The main characteristics of the family-housing inter-relationships as a system are: (1) Individuals, family and housing define each another in a diachronic process that is simultaneous with a synchronic process. The diachronic process refers to the fact that individuals, families and housing evolve historically and in a gradual manner. The synchronic process refers to the simultaneous and interdependent relationship of the development of individuals, families and housing. (2) The ―family-housing‖ system evolves in a dynamic balance, where change in one of the elements simultaneously modifies the other elements and the system as a whole. (3) In ―family-housing‖ inter-relationships an interdependence between that established and change coexists. (4) Daily ―family-housing‖ inter-relationships include subjective aspects (cognition and affection) and objective aspects (activities). In order to provide a tentative response to the second challenge, which consists of taking into account individual and family development, I feel it is necessary to reconsider each individual‘s life cycles, which are: childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In the same way, and in a complementary manner, I also feel it is necessary to reconsider and reformulate the family‘s life cycle, which is: formation of the couple, birth of the first child, breeding and education of children from infancy to adolescence and departure of children from the paternal home. Reconsideration of both classifications of life cycles has the intention of analyzing the interdependence between individual life cycles and family life cycles in a dynamic diachronic and synchronic interdependence; that is to say, in their historical evolutionary interdependence and their simultaneous interdependence. Individual or family ―daily life cycles‖ are concepts that I use to identify “the repetition of usual daily activities over a period of time.” That repetition of daily activities is not static, rigid or permanent; since life cycles are in permanent evolution, and each individual or family daily activity coexists, in an inherent and constant manner, with that established and changed. In addition, each individual and family activity is found within a macro social structural framework that includes, among other values, customs, economics, religion and politics. The daily life cycle for each individual and the family cycle of life are spread out in an interdependent manner. This interdependency occurs through a set of dynamic bi-directional and reciprocal inter-relationships between daily individual activities and daily family activities, as a group. Daily individual activities and daily family activities are distributed in two dimension of time. The first dimension of time refers to the distribution of activities during a 24 hour day; I
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intentionally avoid referring to the day/night binomial, a differentiation that is only possible with the presence or absence of solar light during a 24 hour period, because, when we are found farther from the equator, the use of time changes and, as a consequence, it would implicitly exclude individuals and families that live in regions found nearer the poles, where dusk and dawn last for months. The second division of refers to macro social assessments, classified in days, weeks, months, years, seasons, etc. With regard to this point, one also has to consider the existence of different criteria, dependent on the cultural group and on geographic location; for example: for Westerners, the year begins in January, for the Chinese it begins in February and for Iraqis it begins in April. Within the time constraints of a normal day, each individual distributes his/her activities according to his biological, psychological and social development. Daily activities distributed in 24 hour periods provide form, rhythm and content to a daily life cycle and the distribution of activities that are repeated throughout the week give rhythm, form and content to a weekly life cycle, etc. As a consequence, each individual has a specific behavior and a personal distribution of his daily activities during a 24 hour day; a daily schedule co-exists in a diachronic and synchronic manner with the daily schedules of the other family members. Each family member lives in biological stages of development, a level of development that defines his/her daily cycle of life and determines her/his inter-connection with the family. The degree of biological development conditions him/her and on occasions determines the distribution of time for her/his activities. For example, a baby sleeps a lot, several times a day, and we can say that he/she sleeps almost anywhere, because she/he is concluding his a period of neurological maturity. An adolescent, sleeps only a little and poorly because he/she is beginning hormonal maturity and her/his interests and social activities are changing. An older person sleeps only a little and poorly and several times a day, and almost anywhere, because he/she needs to rest and recuperate energy frequently, in addition to the fact that she/he usually does not have remunerative employment or a strict schedule. This example clearly demonstrates how several generations live together side by side under the same roof with each individual indicating her/his needs and organizing his/her daily activities according to his/her levels of biological, psychological and social development. There is an inherent interdependence between daily activities and the cultural framework of the social group an individual belongs to with the life cycles of each individual and those of the family as a group. As previously stated, this paper proposes to once again instrument the classification of family life cycles, a classification that is based on children‘s cycles of life. In my opinion, this classification is limited because it does not consider the life cycles of the couple and, evidently, it also lacks the relationship with housing. Concerning this topic, I propose the following re-formulation of family life cycles: • • • • • •
Formation of the couple (only couples who have the explicit objective of having children). Establishment of marital life. First pregnancy Birth of the first child and re-structuring of the couple. Education of the first-bor child and definition of parenting roles. Second pregnancy and re-structuring of the couple and family
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Education of the children (parent and sibling relationships) and re-structuring of the couple and family. Education of adolescent children, re-definition of parenting roles, restructuring of the couple and of the family. Children leave the family home and restructuring of the couple.
Currently, ―family‖ is undergoing an important social transformation in several countries (including Mexico and France) and today it is also necessary to take into consideration recomposed families (families that are formed by at least one divorced person with or without children), parents that adopt (by desire or due to sterility), and it is equally important to consider single parent families (families formed by the father or mother and at least one child). An important example of this latter classification is data from the INSEE (2007), an institution reporting that 18% of families are single-parent families, most of which are composed by the mother and a child, living in residential areas on the outskirts of Paris (la Banlieue). In order to weigh this data, it must be considered that 48% of the Parisian population lives in the outskirts (Banlieue). To begin the dissertation on a tentative response to the third challenge, consisting in consider a ―family-housing‖ system immersed in a culture, I will begin with the following environmental psychology precept: individuals are always in a specific situation and in a specific context. I coincide with Gifford (2002), who affirms that when we want to learn about the behavior of an individual, we need to analyze the natural and built context in which he/she lives and the structural interdependencies in her/his environment. In addition, it is necessary to consider that each individual is initially and primarily socialized in a social group through his family. It is clear that family inter-relations and the behavior of each of its members are immersed in a set of values and customs of the social group to which he/she belongs (Evans, 1994). In that manner, we can affirm that each individual is the product of family values, habits and customs, which are at the same time the reflection of the values, habits and customs of his/her culture. In conclusion, the behavior of every human being is established, controlled, corrected, adjusted and even, occasionally, imposed, initially and primarily by his family. An example of this situation is the refusal of Muslim students, due to a law that was passed prohibiting them to use ―veils‖ (material covering their hair and neck) in French educational institutions. This refusal was argued under the terms that for an Arab family the veil represents a transcendental cultural value and that they would drop out of school before abandoning its use. At this point in this paper, it is necessary to add that the predominant context for the development of daily family life is, a house that with daily inter-relations is qualitatively transformed into a home (in English), un hogar (in Spanish), chez-soi (in French), zuhause (in German), minha casa or lor (in Portuguese), a casa mia or da me (in Italian) or uchi no (in Japanese). As a general precept, human beings are influenced by the place where they live in and individuals influence that place. Authors such as Proshansky, Ittelson and Rivlin (1970) affirm: the environment is not neutral -- it is a vehicle for the expression of the cultural values of its inhabitants. Another investigator adds by stating: and viceversa, human beings construct their identity according to the environment surrounding them (Little, 1987).
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Continuing along these lines, we can add that the ―natural‖ environment is permeated with cultural values and activities of its inhabitants. It is sufficient to mention air pollution to illustrate that nature does not exist as an immaculate reality outside of the reaches of human activity. An extreme example is global warming, caused mainly by the production of heat from large industrial centers, which is modifying global temperature (an average of 4 degrees), affecting all of us, even in the most remote areas of the world where people have never even heard of the topic. Another example is news on French television concerning a child from Breton (an inhabitant in the northern region of France) who found a bottle with a message written by a little boy in Florida, in the United States of America. The news would have been trivial and irrelevant in another situation; but, if a bottle thrown into the sea as part of a didactic exercise for a group of school children arrives in as a demonstration of ocean currents, it is evident that all types of objects, trash, industrial waste, etc. also arrives. This reminds us of and confirms what experts call ―the butterfly effect‖. Returning to our topic, the ―family-housing‖ system has an intrinsic dynamic and bidirectional interdependence. In this system, the decor, furniture and its use depend on the customs, values and needs of each family member. Reciprocally, the characteristics of the house and of each one of its rooms make daily activities possible, difficult or impossible for individuals or for family interaction. For example, the size of the kitchen or the arrangement of furniture makes activities such as cooking, eating or gatherings possible, limited or impossible. As part of my data, I found that in the ―banlieue‖ of Paris, there are apartments with kitchens that have a passage between the cabinets and walls measuring 60 centimeters. Evidently, in this ―kitchen‖ it is impossible for it to be used by two persons at once or for it to be a gathering place. As a consequence, family meals in these apartments are practically impossible. Family Life Cycles
Development of the Couple and Children as a Life Cycles for the House Family System Formation of the Establishment of daily conjugal activities. Establishment and appropriation couple of first conjugal home First pregnancy Couple is restructured. Birth of frst child Couple is restructured. Definition of Modification of house with parenting roles for education of first born. primary criteria on safety, hygiene and infant decoration. Second pregnancy Couple is restructured. Modification of decoration, Restructuring of parenting relationship with furniture and utensils in home, in first child. expectation of arrival of second Establishment of affective relationship of child. first child with brother/sister. Birth of second child Couple is restructured. Redefinition of use and spatial Redefinition of parenting roles for educating reassignment of rooms. and raising children during infancy. Temporary modification of the Establishment of fraternal relationship. use of rooms. Adolescent children Couple is restructured Modification and restructure of Redefinition of parenting roles use and temporary spatial Redefinition of daily individual and family appropriation of rooms. activities. Children leave family Couple is restructured (due to age, health, Modification and restructure of home labor condition, etc.). daily use of house.
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In addition to the re-formulation of family life cycles, this paper tentatively proposes to study the development of a ―family-housing‖ system as shown by the following table. In this table, synchronic development is found on horizontally, and diachronic development is found vertically. On the previous table the squares for pregnancies, the birth of children and the redefinition of the couple are repeated depending on the number of children in family. For example: the average family in Mexico has 4 children (INEGI, 1995) and according to official figures from the INSEE (2007), French families have an average of 2 children. In January of 2007, the INSEE reported that 18% of the families in the Parisian ―banlieue‖ are single-parent families; the same agency reported that divorce is more and more frequent in Paris and that couples last an average of three years; which, for example, implies that a mother‘s bedroom is used in an individual or family manner and the concept of a master bedroom is disappearing and recomposed families are becoming more frequent.
REFERENCES Canter, D. (1975). Environmental interaction. London, Surrey University Press. Evans, G. (1994). Moderating and Mediating Proccess in Environment-Behavior Research. In G. More, and R. Marans (eds.), Advances in Environment, Behavior and Design. New York: Plenum Gifford, R. (2002). Making a difference: Some ways environmental psychology has improved the world. In R. B. Bechtel, and A. Churchman (eds.), Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, pp 255 – 286. Lawrence, R. (1987). Housing, Dwelling and Homes. Design theory, research and practice. London: John Wiley and Sons. Legendre, A. (ed.). (2005). Psychologie et société. Francia, Centre national du livre et de l‘Université de Provence. Levy L. (1980). Psychologie et environnement. Paris, PUF. Little, B. R. (1987). Personality and the environment. In D. Stokols and I. Altman (eds.), Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp 205 – 244. Mercado, S., Ortega, P., Luna, G., and Estrada, C. (1994). Factores psicológicos y ambientales de la habitabilidad de la vivienda. México, D. F., Facultad de Psicología, UNAM. Mercado S., Ortega, P., Luna, G. and Estrada, C. (1995). Habitabilidad de la Vivienda Urbana. México, D. F. Mercado, S. (2002). La evaluación de ambientes institucionales: una perspectiva cognoscitiva. Temas selectos de psicología ambiental. México, D.F. pp. 179 – 186. Moser, G. (1988). Vandalism in urban public telephones. In J. C. Jesuino (ed.), Environmental social psychology, pp. 66-75. Norwell : Kluwer Academic Publishiers. Moser, G. (1992). Le stress urbains. Paris: Armand Colin Ed. Moser, G. (1998). Attribution causal et sentiment d‘insécurité des victimes. Les cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale, 39, 43-52. Moser, G. and Weiss, K. (eds.) (2003). Espaces de vie: Aspect de la relation hommeenvironnement. Paris: Armand Colin Ed.
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Pol E., Vidal, T., and Romeo, M. (2001). Supuestos cambios de actitud y conducta usados en las campañas de publicidad y los programas de promoción ambiental. El modelo de las cuatro esferas. Estudios de psicología, 22 (1), 111-126. Proshansky, M., Ittelson, W., and Rivlin, L. G. (eds.) (1970). Environmental Psychology: Man and his physical setting. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Wapner, S. (1998). A holistic, Development, system-oriented perspective: Child, Cities, and Psychological Theories: Developing Relationships. Berlin-New York: de Gruyter, pp. 278-300. Werner, C. M. and Altman, I. (1998). A dialectical / transactional framework of social relations: implications for children and adolescents. In Gorlitz, J. Valsiner, H. J., and Harlof, G, Mey (eds.), Child, Cities, and Psychological Theories: Developing Relationships. Berlin-New York: de Gruyter, pp. 123-154.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
CORRELATION BETWEEN PERCEPTION OF FAMILY SUPPORT AND PERSONALITY TRAIT IN AN UNIVERSITY SAMPLE Makilim Nunes Baptista¹, Thelma Margarida de Moraes dos Santos, Gisele Aparecida da Silva Alves & Mayra Silva de Souza Universidade São Francisco, & Universidade do Sagrado Coração San Francisco, CA., USA
ABSTRACT Personality is a complex construct and could be influenced by several factors, as social and genetic ones. In order of social factors, the family could be playing an important role in development and maintenance in personality traits. The goal of this study was to correlate the dimensions of the perception of family support inventory (IPSF) and personality traits (Five-Factor Model of Personality). 346 students of a private university located in the state of São Paulo (Brazil) were subjects, aging by the means of 25 years old (SD=6). As expected, the correlations found between both instruments weren‘t high, since they measure different constructs, although related ones. Positive correlations were observed between dimensions of IPSF (Affective-Consistent, Autonomy and Adaptation) with dimensions of big five model like socialization, extroversion, realization and opening. Also, negative correlations between all dimensions of IPSF and neuroticism were observed.
Keywords: family, personality, traits
RESUMEN La personalidad es un constructo complejo y podría estar influida por varios factores, tales como los sociales y los genéticos. Dentro de los factores sociales, la familia podría estar jugando un importante papel en el desarrollo y mantenimiento de los rasgos de personalidad. El objetivo de este estudio fue correlacionar las dimensiones del Inventario de Personalidad sobre Apoyo Social Familiar (siglas en inglés IPSF) y rasgos dde personalidad (Modelo penta-factorial de la personalidad). Participaron 346 estudiantes de una universidad privada, localizada en el estado de São Paulo (Brazil), cuya media de edad era de 25 años (DE=6). Como se esperaba, las correlaciones encontradas entre ambos instrumentos no fueron altas, ya que miden diferentes constructos pero relacionados. Se observaron correlaciones positivas entre algunas dimensiones del IPSF (Afectiva-Consistente, Autonomía y Adaptación) con dimensiones del modelo de los 5
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Palabras clave: familia, personalidad, rasgos.
INTRODUCTION The family organization, whose origin dates back to the ancients of human species, is not restricted to men, but also to others animal species that in the same way ran into another different organization ways, stressing the universal character from family‘s gathering. Etymologically, the word Family (Latin: Famulus = slave/servant) was defined as a group of slaves or servants belonging to someone, showing the possessive nature between primitive people, in which woman used to be submissive to her husband, as if he were her owner and lord; likewise, the sons belong to their fathers, who thought they have absolute rights over them. The possession‘s concept and absolute power are intrinsically connected to the origin and evolution of family‘s institution (Osorio, 2002). The family‘s formation begins by the union between two individuals and becomes more complex when the first son arrives. Traditionally, in most of occidentals‘ societies, the nuclear family arises from two adults independent and different from their original families, who have decided freely to start a relationship, indicating that more affinities they have in common, and more chances their relationship will work. It is noticed that couples with more cultural, religious or even social affinities are easier to be adapted (Cordioli, 1998). Despite constant actual crises, the family shows to be, as their roll in species preservation, a lab of human relationships in which living models are tested and improved; the ones correspond to the best human potentials for the creation of more harmonic and general well-being promoter society. Come into the vital space of family means understand the multiples affections present in the established connections between their members. It is inside the family that is observed the perception of the first loves and hates, by taking place the first personality learning and development (Mc Goldrick & Carter 2001). Fuher & Stansfeld (2002) points out the importance of the family, justifying that this is, according to the occidental culture, one of the few or even the only reference of a child in full age. It seems that first references are formed based on these interactions. The relationships between the family members can help their participants to develop the sense of belonging and competence, acting directly on the individual capacity to control the surrounds environment, by influencing directly the organic and psychological responses (immunity), as well as increasing resources to face crises during life. The familiar support adopted in this study is based on the systemic theory, that present a complex model of family interaction divided in three main dimensions, which makes easier to understand its function: be coherent, adaptable and communicative. Familiar cohesion can be defined as a variation between separation and family members‘ connection, as an emotional link that the family‘s members have among themselves, consisted also in internal coalition between members, links and affairs, friendships, as well as family interests and recreation. Adaptability is denominated as flexibility capacity of the family to changes, justified by power structure variation and relationship rules related to new obstacles or to stressing events
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that could occur, composed by assertiveness, control, discipline, negotiation styles and rules. Regarding familial communication, it is noticed that is composed by empathy, reflexive listening, supporting comments and members‘ capability of sharing feelings each other (Olson, Russell & Sprenkle, 1983). Kashani, Canfield, Bordin, Soltys & Reid (1994) point that children who realize low levels of familiar and social support tend to be more reserved and less active in their environment, more distracted, aggressive, non cooperative, besides being unhopeful; such attitudes can be reflected in their adult lives, likely increasing a mental disorder development, especially affecting the humor. Pardeck et al, (1991) consider also the familiar support has been directly related to people‘s satisfaction, mainly on teens and young adults. The familiar support is related to psychological variables that are present in the relationships between the members, as well as affection expression, attention, communication, affective proximity, autonomy permission, liberty, overprotection, independency and dialogue, among others. The support offered by the family, contemplated in the relationship and communication standards between its members may be regarded as one of the most powerful fainting effects from several stress agents observed in life: controllability perception, stability and belonging sense, self-concept, positive affection and psychological well-being; all of this is related directly to physical and mental health, as well as to the personality structure (Baptista, 2007a; Baptista & Oliveira, 2004; Hagerty, Williams & Oe, 2002). The personality disorders seem to be associated to the familiar conflicts, it is found that adolescents' personality characteristics traits are likely related to family (Johnson, chen & Cohen, 2004; Halloran, Ross & Carey, 2002). However, it is not still well established that family and personality traits are related, since these two phenomenon are highly complex and dynamics, in which the family would explain a part of the personality development (Nakao et al, 2000). Associated to family limited experiences, an individual may tend to develop some peculiar relevant traits to be related to the world, depending on his socio cultural scope. It is understood the person is a unique combination of characteristics or personality attributes named traits. The traits theory focus on describing, identifying and measuring individual differences, considering that one of the psychological research goals deal with establishing laws about what different people would do in different social, environmental and individual situations (McCrae & John, 1992; Hutz et al, 1998; Cloninger, 1999; Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 2000). The Five Big Factors model (FBF) has been researched in many countries, mainly in the sense of representing personality in a less complex and economic way (Bozionelos, 2004; Ross, Rausch, & Canada, 2003). The clairvoyance gather of this model has been also described by researches made in many countries and contexts (McCrae, & Allik, 2002; Friborg, Barlaug, Martinaussen, Rosenvinge, & Hjendal, 2005; Ghorbani & Watson, 2005; Laak et al, 2003). It is interesting to remind that independently from the factors, nomination has been unequal in the different studies, in its groups seems to be equivalent in different approaches to the model. In Brazil the factors were denominated extroversion, socialization, realization, neuroticism and new experience openings (Hutz et al, 1998). Taking into consideration that the individual personality is directly related to characteristics from the noticed familiar support, the purpose of this study is to look for correlated standards between the Familiar Support Perception Inventory (IPFS) scores with the ones from the Five
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Big factors (FBF) model, and even the subjects differentiation in the familiar support compared to specific variables like: age, marital status, gender, related brothers and fathers marriage kind.
METHOD Participants This study was composed of 346 students from a private university located in the state of São Paulo. The average age of the participants was 25 years, with a minimum of 17 and a maximum of 55 with a standard deviation of 6 years; considering 265 (76,6%) females and degrees as follows: Psychology (45,1%), Administration (13,6%), Pedagogy (8,4%) and others like computer‘s sciences, nursery, tourism, interpretation, biology, pharmacy and dentistry as 33,1%.
Instruments Socio demographic questionnaire: The objective is to obtain a larger number of information about familiar identification conditions of the subject; the characteristic questionnaire was composed of the following participant data (Age, degree, gender, marital status, profession and information about where he currently lives) and items which arrange information about familiar composition. Family Support Perception Inventory: (Baptista, 2007b; Baptista & Dias, 2007; Baptista, 2005): this inventory (IPFS) was developed in Brazil by Baptista (2005). It has several valid evidences and has three dimensions to be known: Consistent-Affective (21 items), with 0.91 Alfa value from Cronbach, showing interfamilial positives affective relationships which goes from each other attraction up to verbal expression and non-verbal of tenderness, clarity on the rolls and family members rules, as well as strategic abilities of facing problem-situations. (Examples: people in my family follow rules established by them; there are rules about different situations in my family; I am praised by my relatives); Family adaptation (13 items), with a Cronbach Alfa value of 0, 90, translating negative feelings related to family as isolation, exclusion, anger, shame, fight aggressive relationship and screams, irritation, incomprehension, and also perception of family competition relations, interest and guilt between the conflict members. In this case, items from this factor were inverted since they could be calculated with the same value of the two others dimension items (Examples: I believe that my family has more emotional problems than other families; my relatives just shows interest by others when they can obtain some advantage; I feel anger of my family); and familiar autonomy (8 items), with a Cronbach Alfa of 0,77, showing autonomy perception the individual has from his family, what means confident relationship, privacy and freedom between family members (Examples: my family allows me to dress myself the way I want to; my family make me feel confident in caring myself even when I am alone; relatives let me go out as much as I want). Five Big factor model: The traits described in the five factors model refer to basic humans dimensions in a constant and replicable way. The five big factors model comes from
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language studies of trait descriptors; having made these researches in the last ten years, establishing a reasonable agreement between the area researchers about the five factors solidity. It was considered as the best actual structural model for a personality description available (McCrae, & John, 1992). In a research made in Brazil, collected data from the model based in the Portuguese language descriptors were submitted to a exploratory factorial analyses using many extractions methods. The results obtained were practically identical, independently by the method used. The factorial analyses allowed to identify five different factors that were denominated as ―socialization‖, ―extroversion‖, ―realization‖, ―neuroticism‖ and ―opening‖, with guaranteed measures of 0,88; 0,88; 0,84; 0,80; 0;78 (Hutz e Cols, 1998). The socialization factor refers to an interpersonal dimension, supported by interaction ways, generosity, kindness, donation kinds related to others, empathy, cooperation level and cynicism. The extroversion factor is related to quantity and interpersonal interaction intensity, sociability, optimism, affectionateness, and spiritual mood. The realization factor is related to the organization, persistency, control and motivation for goals reaching degree, decision level, punctuality, determination and objective clarity. The neuroticism factor refers to the adjustment level and emotional instability, psychological suffer level, anxiety, humor, frustration tolerance, emotional adaptation. The overture factor refers to new ideas overture, to the new, not been directly related to intelligence but to exploratory behaviors and necessary evaluation of having new experiences, curiosity, imagination, creativity and strictly related to their own believes.
PROCEDURE After the project was approved by the ethics committee as well as by the university‘s coordinators from the researched ones, the students were invited to participate in this research, by signing a clear free consent term. After this, applied the characterization questionnaire, the familiar support perception inventory and model markers FBF (Five Big factors) in sequence were applied. The research application procedures were carried out at the beginning of the class, applying them collectively in an approximate period of 30 minutes.
RESULTS As expected, moderate positive correlations to the Big Five socialization factor related to the familiar adaptation ones, emotional-consistent were founded significantly related to autonomy and IPFS (familiar support perception inventory) total support as verified at box 1. Against this result, we can realize the positive characteristics the individual presents, regarding the socialization condition, like: interaction ways and donation to others, sociability, pleasantness, kindness, sympathy, care of others‘ problems, cooperation level, empathy, autonomy, showing an intra familiar affective positive relationships, beginning to show interests in others up to verbal and not verbal tenderness expression, in addition to solving problems-situation ability.
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Table 1. Correlation between Inventory Dimension of Familial Supporting Perception (IPSF in Portuguese) and the Big Five. Correlations Familial adaptation Affectivesteady Familial autonomy Total
Socialization 0,36**
Extroversion 0,15**
Realization 0,25**
Neuroticism -0,42**
Openness 0,01
0,44**
0,13*
0,25**
-0,35**
0,15**
0,26**
0,12*
0,23**
-0,25**
0,14*
0,46**
0,17**
0,30**
-0,42**
0,13*
Significance level: ** 0,01 Significance level: * 0,05
Significant correlations were found between extroversion (Big Five) and adaptation factors, consistent-affective, autonomy and total support (IPFS), as showed in box 1. It can be obvious that in the extroversion factor, the most characteristic factors indicate a tendency from the subject to be socially pleasant, warm, easy going and caring, careful, lovely and sociable, in addition to try to offering emotional support. Those traits, associated to IPFS factors, show intra familiar positive affective relationships, affectivity, family inclusion feelings, independency and solving problems ability. Continuing in box 1, it is possible to locate correlations between realization factor (Big Five) and adaptation factors, consistent-affective, autonomy and total support (IPFS). The comprehension factor traits pointed out, show a responsible and honest individual; this factor is associated to members‘ achievement of rolls and rules, decision level, determination, motivation for reaching objectives, like facing family problem-situation, individual autonomy perception before their family, belonging feelings to familiar groups as well as affectivity and feelings expression. There were found negative and significant familiar correlations between the Big Five neuroticism factor and familiar adaptation, consistent-affective, autonomy and full support, IPFS factors (box 1). These correlations indicate that personality traits as anxiety, emotional instability, unpredictability and psychological suffering tend to receive familiar support, translating negative affective intra familiar relationships, meaning, and lack of verbal and not verbal expression of affection, like strategy deficits by facing family related problems situations. The overture factor (Big Five) and the consistent-affective factor, autonomy and total support (IPFS) are also related (box 1). These connections indicate to deal with individuals that believe on their own intelligence or capability and have thoughtful flexibility characteristics, mainly referred to exploratory behaviors and the valorization of having new experiences, curiosity, imagination, creativity strictly related to own believes. Such factors can be related to perception condition the individual has of himself and his autonomy before family, such as familial affection received and problems-situation resolution skills. Making the socio-demographic questionnaire worth, likely used instruments in this study, is possible to extract some secondary analyses important for raising the understanding perception that subjects have about familiar support. As first analyses, it was developed, based on familiar support perception of individuals whose ages ranged 25 or less, and in those of 26 or above, it was observed using T (Student) test as verified in box 2, difference in
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familiar autonomy factor (p=0,04). This result indicates that subjects of 26 or above tend to perceive in a more preeminent way their own autonomy before the family (familiar autonomy). It would be possibly explained, according to development phase and acquired maturity in adult stage. Table 2. Comparison of the family support perception in groups of the same age, marital status, sex, number of brothers and sisters and time for getting married in the participants’ country.
Age Marital status Sex Number of brothers Time to get married in the country
Affectivesteady t = -1,61 p = 0,11 t = -1,49 p = 0,14 t = -0,16 p = 0,88 t = -0,80 p = 0,42 t = -1,87 p = 0,62
Familial autonomy t = -2,08 p = 0,04 t = -1,68 p = 0,09 t = -0,40 p = 0,69 t = -0,12 p = 0,91 t = -0,26 p = 0,79
Familial adaptation t = 0,79 p = 0,43 t = -1,37 p = 0,17 t = 1,37 p = 0,17 t = 0,71 p = 0,48 t = -0,83 p = 0,40
Total family support t = -1,27 p = 0,20 t = -1,95 p = 0,05 t = 0,47 p = 0,64 t = -0,21 p = 0,83 t = -1,72 p = 0,08
When analyzed groups of singles compared to others marital status like married, remarried, widowed, divorced, these ones (other marital status) tend to obtain the familiar support in a more satisfactory way (p=0,05) as indicated in box 2, in total familiar support factor. The familiar support perception was not different, taking in consideration sex, what shows there is no difference in familiar perception when sex is considered. Significant familial perception support between individual that has or no brothers (box 2) were not found. The familial perception support from individuals whose parents have been married for more than 26 years is not different from those married for less than 26, as recorded in box 2. However, it was found a statistic tendency (p=0, 08) in a total familial support perception. It is possible to justify those individuals whose relatives have been married for a long time, who show to posses a better organization perception rolls, as well as familial ones, like strategies for problems-situation family is facing.
DISCUSSION Matching the actual research results, Cerveny and Berthoud (2002) comment that is in the familial unit, based on characteristics and own working rules, the individual develops living standards that can assist him on their affective relationships and social development. For this, the basic functions he should develop are: children developing and growing, their socialization, autonomy and individualization, as well as control capacity limitation, orienting and defending rules. For Mendes (2002), the family has a universal representation of several and essential rolls to form and keep its balance and harmony, besides transmitting moral, ethics, political values and also habits. Seeing like a moderator between the individual and
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society, it is on family core that is learned how to deal with the social environment and how to behave in it, being socialization, the beginning of the adult world (Reis, 1999). It is evident that the family is the first social institution in which the subject participates and from where develop its values, personality and attitude to face the world. The individual who is privileged with familial affections, positives expressions tend to manifest these expressions in their inter-familial and extra-familial experiences (McGoldrick & Carter, 2001). The familial organizations limit and qualified experiences lived by members, taking part from several mechanisms, like: educative style, transmission, values and believes. These mechanisms shape the inserted individual characteristics (Musitu & Cava, 2001). Relvas (1998) points that the family roll, especially in adolescence is centered on assisting and preparing the teen for assuming autonomy, social character adult rolls, relationships, affective and professional life. Baumrind (1996) comments that society expects family are able to prepare their sons for social living, by giving them physical and emotional development, as well as independency. Thompson, Raynor, Cornah, Steverson and SonugaBarke (2001) emphasize that familial inconsistency, more than physical punishment methods has been showed as an important factor in children development of emotional and affective problems. Kashani e cols. (1994) state that children who receive familial and social support low levels tend to be more introverted, offensives, uncooperative, distracted and less active in their environment. Moreover, he shows less hope, what can affect their adult lives, raising also mental disorders probability, especially in humor (Pardeck e cols., 1991). Carvalho and Almeida (2003) say that as higher the social and familial level support, lower will be the psychological guilt. And as lower the social and familial support level, higher is the psychological disorder probability of prevail, independently from stressing vital events. For Dunninghan (1997), the family can be a member resource for growth and development as it can collaborate in its limitation. Weinert and Tiden (1990) consider that positive familial psychosocial encouragement leads the individual to think and believe they are well estimated, beloved, care and valorized in a communication network and mutual obligations. The health and flexible family which encourages its members to adjust themselves to new disciplines, starting with the teenager passage to adult stage, must prepare itself to see him as someone mature, capable, independent and autonomous, someone who is capable of establishing equal and positives relationships (Prado e cols., 1996). For Helgeson, 2003, a family which considers itself as a healthy one, which supports its members and is flexible for changes in their work to reach their necessities allow individual to keep better balance and inner stability. The healthy relationships between family members can help their members to face the belonging and competency development acting directly in their individual capacity for controlling the surrounding environment, and directly influencing him on organics and psychological answers (immunology), like increasing resources for facing life crises (Fuher & Stanfeld, 2002). The family called healthy, along with its children development, according to Relvas (1998), is prepared to be independent, autonomous and for assuming adult characteristic rolls like social, relational, affective and professional. This confirm the hypothesis showed in the results knowing that the group above 26 years old might has responsibility, autonomy and independency, what would indicate that probably the maturity brings a different vision of familial support.
Correlation Between Perception of Family Support…
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Mckgoldrick and Carter (2001) demand that independently subject marital status, since he has received a right familial support, he will tend to adapt himself in a healthy way at any life‘s context. Cordioli (1998), when talks about a new family formation, starting with family origins; he considers that the couple establishes rules and specific rolls which require higher responsibility and personal determination and in consequence, the independence and maturity development is exercised, giving this way more value to familial support received. Mckgoldrick and Carter (2001), Carvalho and Almeida (2003) affirm modifications in Brazilian‘s traditional families have occurred, indicating also changes possibilities, so as to offer familial support to only child who tended before to be overprotected, nowadays he is more prepared for life. It is pointed out that only child option might be directly related to economic conditions and a higher number of women and mothers working, what makes more restrict the family organization plan. Moreover, it is important to indicate that family and responsibility are dynamic and complex, in addition family may express just a percentage in maintenance and development of personality traits (Johnson et al., 2004; Halloran et al., 2002; Nakao et al., 2000). It is also expected that other research come to assist in this study limitation, especially regarding another samples, both the number of participants point of view as research possibilities which involve different familial characteristic subjects.
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Friborg, O., Barlaug, D., Martinussen, M., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Hjemdal, O. (2005). Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 14, 1, 29-42. Fuher, R. & Stansfeld, S.A. (2002). How Gender Affects Patterns of social relations and their impact on health: a comparison of one or multiple sources of support from ―close person”. Social Science & Medicine, 54, 811-25. Ghorbani, N. & Watson, P. J. (2005). Hardiness scales in Iranian managers: evidence of incremental validity in relationships with the five factor model and with organizational and psychological adjustment. Psychological Reports, 96(3 Pt 1), 775-781. Hagerty, B. M., Williams, R. A. & Oe, H. (2002). Childhood Antecedents of Adult Sense of Belonging. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 7, 793-801. Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G. & Campbell, J.B. (2000). Teorias da Personalidade 4ª Edição. Porto Alegre: Artes Médicas. Halloran, E. C, Ross, G. J & Carey, M. P. (2002). The relationship of adolescent personality and family environment to psychiatric diagnosis. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 32,3, 201-216. Helgeson, V.S. (2003). Social support and quality of life. Quality of Life Research, 12, 25-31. Hutz, C.S., Nunes, C.H., Silveira, A.D., Seera, J., Anton, M. & Wieczorck, L.S. (1998). O desenvolvimento de marcadores para avaliação da personalidade no modelo dos cinco grandes fatores. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica , 11, 2, 395-411. Johnson, J. G., Chen, H. & Cohen, P. (2004). Personality disorder traits during adolescence and relationships with family members during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 6, 923-932. Kashani, J. H., Canfield, L. A., Borduin, C. M., Soltys, S. M., & Reid, J. C. (1994). Perceived family and social support: Impact on children. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 819-23. Laak, J., Goede, M., Aleva, L., Brugman, G., Van Leuven, M., & Hussmann, J. (2003). Incarcerated adolescent girls: personality, social competence, and delinquency. Adolescence, 38,150, 251-265. McCrae, R.R. & John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the five factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 2, 175-215. McCrae, R. R. & Allik, J. (2002). The Five-Factor Model of Personality Across Cultures ( International and Cultural Psychology). New Jersey: Springer. McGoldrick M. & Carter, B. (2001). As mudanças no ciclo de vida familiar: uma estrutura para terapia familiar. Porto Alegre: Artmed. McNally, S.T. & Newman, S. (1999). Objective and subjective conceptualizations of social support. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46, 309-314. Mendes, P.B.M.T.(2002). Quem é o cuidador? Em E. L. F. Dias, I. S. Wanderley & R. T. Mendes (Eds.). Orientações para cuidadores informais na assistência domiciliar (pp. 1732). Campinas: Editora UNICAMP. Musito, G. & Cava, M.J. (2001). La família y la educación. Barcelona: Octaedro. Nakao, K., Takaishi, J., Tatsuta, K., Katayama, H., Iwase, M., Yorifuji, K. & Takeda, M. (2000). The influences of family environment on personality traits. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 54,1, 91-95.
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Nunes, C.H.S.S. (2005). Construção, normatização e validação das escalas de socialização e extroversão no modelo dos Cinco Grandes Fatores. Tese de Doutorado. Rio Grande do Sul: Univ do Rio Grande do Sul - Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu. Osório, L.C. (2002). Casais e famílias: uma visão contemporânea. Porto Alegre: Artmed. Olson, P.H., Russel, C.S. & Spenkle, D.H. (1983). Circumplex model of marital and a family systems. Family process, 22, 69-83. Pardeck, J. T., Brown, C., Christian, B., Schnurbusch, M., Shrum, L. & Terrell (1991). Family Structure and Life Satisfaction. Family Therapy, 18, 1, 11-15. Prado, L.C., Waldemar, J.O., Gonçalves, N.T., Fichtner, N., Falceto, O.G., Severino, R.L. & Castiel, S. (1996). Famílias e terapeutas. Porto Alegre: Artmed. Reis, J.R.T.(1999). Família, emoção e ideologia. Em S.T.M. Lane (Org.). Psicologia Social: o homem em movimento (pp. 99-124). São Paulo: Brasiliense. Relvas, A.P.(1998). O ciclo vital da família: perspectiva sistêmica. Porto:Afrontamento. Ross, S. R., Rausch, M. K., & Canada, K. E. (2003). Competition and cooperation in the fivefactor model: Individual differences in achievement orientation. The Journal of Psychology, 137, 4, 323-337. Thompson, M.J.J., Raynor, A., Cornah, D., Steverson, J. & Sonuga-Barke, S. (2001) Parenting behavior described by mothers in a general population sample. Child: Care, Health and Development, 28, 2, 149-155. Wagner, A., Falke, D. & Meza, E.B.P. (1997). Crenças e valores dos adolescentes a cerca da família, casamento, separação e projetos de vida. Psicologia: Reflexão e crítica, 10, 1, 155-167. Weinert, C. & Tilden, V.P. (1990) Measures of social support: assessment and validity. Nurssing research, 39, 4, 212-216.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
SOCIAL REPRESENTATION OF MATRIMONY IN MARRIED COUPLES IN NUEVO LEÓN (MEXICO) José Moral de la Rubia 1 Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Verónica Carrillo Carrillo and Claudia I. Griffens Sauceda, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez
ABSTRACT The objective of the study was to determine the semantic content associated to being married, considering the sample as a social group, as well as to delimit sub-groups of subjects and characterize them by comparing them in psychometric measures related to marital adjustment. A self-reporting questionnaire was administered to a sample of 100 married couples. The questionnaire was formed by a free association test, questions concerning socio-demographic data, sexual relations and nine scales (dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction, sexual dissatisfaction, alexithymia, state-trait anxiety, depression, positive and negative affect, social desirability and marital aggrandizement). An analysis of thematic content was applied to data from the free association test. Fifteen specific categories were defined as well as a residual category with an initial average inter-rater reliability of .81 and a final one of .93. The central nucleus of social representation is formed by couple and family obligations and functions, positive feelings emphasizing love, fidelity values, a family formed by parents and children, as well as values for living together; that is to say, the image of a united, happy family that struggles for its stability through fidelity, and living together in peace and harmony. The 200 subjects, with basis on a cluster analysis concerning the 15 specific semantic categories, were classified into 4 groups: 1) being married because of children, 2) being married for the company of his/her spouse, 3) being married for conjugal and family duties and 4) being married for love. The group married because of love is closer to the nucleus of social representation and reports better adjustment and marital satisfaction.
Keywords: Social representation, matrimony, dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction, sexual satisfaction.
RESUMEN Los objetivos del estudio son determinar el contenido semántico asociado con el estar casados, considerando a la muestra como grupo social, así como delimitar subgrupos de sujetos y caracterizarlos comparándolos en medidas psicométricas relacionadas con ajuste 1
Address for correspondence: Facultad de Psicología, UANL, Mutualismo 110, Mitras-Centro, C. P. 64460, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. Phone and Fax: 001-81-83483781. Email:
[email protected]
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marital. Un cuestionario de auto-reporte se administró a una muestra de 100 parejas casadas. El cuestionario estaba integrado por un test de asociación libre, preguntas sobre datos sociodemográficos, relaciones sexuales y nueve escalas (ajuste diádico, satisfacción marital, insatisfacción sexual, alexitimia, ansiedad rasgo-estado, depresión, afectos positivos y negativos, deseabilidad social y engrandecimiento marital). Sobre los datos del test de asociación libre se aplicó un análisis de contenido temático. Se definieron 15 categorías específicas y una residual con una confiabilidad promedio inicial de .81 y final de .93. El núcleo central de la representación social está constituido por obligaciones y funciones de pareja y familia, sentimientos positivos destacando el amor, valores de fidelidad, la familia formada por padres e hijos, así como valores de convivencia, es decir, la imagen de una familia unida, feliz, que lucha por su estabilidad a través de la fidelidad, armonía y paz en la convivencia. Los 200 sujetos, con base en un análisis de cluster sobre las 15 categorías semánticas específicas, fueron clasificados en 4 grupos: 1) estar casados por los hijos, 2) estar casados por la compañía del cónyuge, 3) estar casados por deberes conyugales y familiares y 4) estar casados por amor. El grupo de casados por amor se aproxima más al núcleo de la representación social y reporta más ajuste y satisfacción maritales. Palabras claves: Representación social, matrimonio, ajuste diádico, satisfacción marital, satisfacción sexual.
INTRODUCTION The image of the relationship of the couple has been determined by society and we retain it as a model to be followed. Montecino (1996) states that gender identities are defined as being a mother for women and being as a son or absent father for men in today‘s world, just as in the past. In spite of a woman‘s growing participation in the work environment she continues to be viewed essentially as the person who cares for and attends to her children and her husband; and, at the same time men, although they participate more frequently in household tasks and in the education of their children, continue to be considered only as providers. The couple emerges as an individual dimension, the sole concept alludes to a set of two units that have something in common, a strong attraction that binds them and keeps them together. The words spouse, husband/wife, evoke the notion of a dyad, of a duet composed of two individuals. With this it is understood that the couple must be complementary and this goes beyond sharing a life in common. It is also understood that the couple is constructed with the condition that the two persons implied visualize the same objective (Perrone, 2006). Marriage is usually viewed as a contract based on social and emotional obligations, since the selection of a couple is based on our ideals of cultural standards and rules more than on our own decisions. Social and family pressure can lead a marriage or a married person to undergo different negative situations, for example to remain married only because of the children in order to avoid conflicts with their environment, to desperately search for a partner to attain social achievement or to remain married throughout his/her lifetime in spite of the fact that life with his/her partner is very unsatisfying (Rodríguez-Salazar, 2001). All of this entails one of the most important problems in Mexican society today -- the rupture of marriages because of a lack of communication, affection and due to infidelity. It is for this reason that among the meanings associated with ―being married‖ it is probable that
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 225 values and attitudes of living together may appear, as well as values of fidelity, trust and respect, which have a special emphasis on the importance of understanding, tolerance, patience, support, loyalty and honesty. Thus, being married implies adapting oneself to another rhythm of life, adopting obligations and functions, as well as values that lead the couple to share a good life together. In Mexico, in 2004, 600 thousand marriages were registered and the average age of the bride and groom was 27.5 years for men and 24.7 years for women. In the same year there were 67 thousand divorces; and the average age of divorce was 34.5 years for women and 37.2 years for men. This means that there were 11.3 divorces per 100 marriages. By state, Chihuahua (28.8%), Baja California (26.2%) and Yucatán (23.4%) had much higher divorce rates. 34% of divorces take place during the first 5 years of marriage, 19% during the sixth and ninth year and 47% after 10 or more years of marriage (INEGI, 2005). One of the ways society determines the behavior of subjects with respect to an object is through constructed and shared meanings. From this perspective, the theory of social representation can be a very useful framework to interpret the meanings associated with marriage. Social representations are cognitive formations produced socially and they are therefore socially differentiated. They belong to a social group that possess a history and an identity and they are relevant with respect to an object in the social life of that group and are formed in verbal and non-verbal communication between the members of the group (Moscovici, 1961). In their study we can distinguish the following aspects: semantic-informative (meanings and beliefs) aspects, value-attitude (values, attitudes and stereotypes) aspects, and normative (standards and precepts) aspects (Moscovici, 1988). These elements, far from being an amalgam, take on a structure within the representation. In our study the object of representation is marriage. The representation of an object, understood as a meaning constructed by a group and associated to the object, has some determiners of a superior order such as values, ideology and group identity, as well dimensions that underlie social thought are known as themata. At the same time, the representation determines social attitudes and practices directed towards the object. From this stems the important theoretical value of this construct that articulates and gives coherence to a very wide group of socio-cognitive concepts (Flament and Rouquette, 2003). In the formation and evolution of social representations, two processes play an important role: objectivization (making explicit abstract elements of the social object) and anchorage (the process of familiarization with new aspects or those that have undergone change) (Moscovici, 1961). One of the functions of social representations consists of being accepted by those involved in the instituted social reality, contributing to the fact that individuals are satisfactorily integrated into the social condition corresponding to their position. This is similar to ideologies, but in a more concrete manner, social representations contribute to the legitimacy of the social order (Herrera, Weisser and Salazar, 2004). There are several methods for studying the structure of representations and one consists of distinguishing the central nucleus of peripheral elements. The central nucleus has rigid characteristics that make it very resistant to change, with strong social determination, being relatively independent of specific social environment. The peripheral system is flexible, dynamic and more permeable to change, it has a more personalized and contextualized determination, allowing for psychological anchorage in the mediated reality (Abric, 1993,
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2003; Casado, 2001). Social representations are a grid for interpreting social reality since they guide the behavior of members of the group and, at the same time, can be modified by changes in social practices (Ortega, 2006). The methodology recommended for the study of social representations is qualitative or mixed and it preferably uses multiple methods, as tests of free word association, semi-structured interviews, projective tests and content or discourse analysis applied to sources such as public documents, speeches, literature and films. Designs of comparisons between groups are also suggested, and longitudinal designs are even used to determine dynamic characteristics (Flament and Rouquette, 2003). Nevertheless, in practice there is a tendency to use transversal designs from only one group to determine the structure of representation, with the limitation of losing dynamic data and lacking differential elements that would enrich the interpretation. The objective of this paper is to study the semantic content associated to being married. First, by categorizing definitions given to the associated words; second, by considering the sample as a social group in order to distinguish a central nucleus and peripheral elements; third, by delimiting groups of subjects in accordance to their communalities in the associated meanings; and fourth, by contrasting gender differences into semantic categories and schema of representation. In the same manner, to examine the difference or relationship between the groups of subjects defined from the shared meanings associated to word-stimulus ―being married‖ in regard to socio-demographic variables, reasons for getting married, sexual behavior and psychometric scales (dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction, sexual dissatisfaction, neuroticism, alexithymia, emotional states, marital aggrandizement and social desirability).
METHOD This is a descriptive-correlated study with a non-experimental trans-sectional design; a non-probabilistic sample of paid voluntary subjects is used. The random nature of sample, the independence of the pairs of subjects and the quality of data are all guaranteed.
Subjects The sample consists of 100 married couples. The mean age is 34 years, with a standard deviation of 10 and a range that varies from 18 to 60 years. The mean and median of education corresponded to preparatory school. 4% studied primary school but did not finish it, 6% finished studying primary school, 24% finished junior high school, 25% finished high school, 15% finished technological studies, 23% finished their college studies and 3% finished graduate studies. The median and mode of the social class one believes he/she belongs to corresponds to the middle-middle social class. 66% consider themselves to be middle-middle, 26% lower middle, 5% upper middle, and 3% lower. The mean amount of time engaged was 3 years with a standard deviation of 2 years, a median of 2 and a range of from 6 months to 9 years. The mean of years of marriage is 11 years with a standard deviation of 9 years, a medium of 8 years and a range of from 1 month to 37 years. 5% of those surveyed have had one divorce before their present marriage. The mean of children is 2 and
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 227 the standard deviation is 1, the median and mode coincide at 2 children, and the range varies from 0 to 5 children.
Measurement Instrument An self-report questionnaire is used, which is integrated by a 5-word free association test that responds to the word-stimulus ―to be married‖, closed questions on socio-demographical data (age, gender, years married and years engaged, studies and social class to which they relieve they belong), reasons for being married, sexual behavior (frequency of sexual relations and masturbation) and nine psychometric scales: Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) by Spanier (1976), Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) by Hendrick (1988), Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction (ISD) by Hudson (1982), Marital Aggrandizement Scale (MAS) by O-Rourke and Cappeliez (2002), Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) by Bagby, Parker and Taylor (1994), Social Desirability Scale (SDS) by Crowne and Marlowe (1960), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) by Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (1970), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) by Beck and Steer (1987), Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS) by Watson, Clark and Tellegen (1988) (See Table 1). In the samples of husbands and wives treated as independent subjects (n=200) psychometric properties of the scales used are studied. Since all of them were developed in English speaking countries and since they are in English, they were translated by a SpanishEnglish/English-Spanish double translation procedure, using two experts, with the exception of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) for which the adaptation for the Mexican population by Spielberger and Díaz-Guerrero (1975) was used. For exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the number of questions was selected from each scale. On the scale DAS two items were eliminated (29 and 32), and on the MAS two items were also eliminated (13 and 17), on the SDS thirteen items were eliminated (1, 2, 4, 7, 13, 17, 18, 20, 24, 27, 29, 31 and 33), and for the others, all were included (see Table 1). In this sample (n=200), the psychometric properties of the measure instruments were good. The internal consistency varied from α=.75 for the Social Desirability Scale (SDS) to α=.93 for the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). The distributions of the scales defined by the simple sum of items was adjusted to a normal curve based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, with p>.05, except for the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) (p=.004), the Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction (ISD), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Negative Affect Scale (NA) from the PANAS (see table 1).
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José Moral de la Rubia Table 1. Psychometric properties of instruments of measurement Scales
NI I
NS
Alfa
Nor.
Factors
I
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS)
32
30
.93
Yes .301
Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction (ISD)
7
7
.80
25
25
.91
No .004 No .014
Marital Aggrandizement Scale (MAS) Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS)
18
16
.78
Yes .931
20
20
.86
Yes .304
Social Desirability Scale (SDS)
33
20
.75
Yes .173
Trait-Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) State-Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS)
20
20
.90
20
20
.93
21
21
.91
N
NA .88 PA
Yes .689 Yes .144 No .003 NA .000 PA .864
N A
A 10 PA 10
10 PA 10
.84
F1 Consensus F2 Satisfaction F3 Cohesion F4 Affectional expression Marital satisfaction F1 Sexual Dissatisfaction with partner F2 Rejection of conjugal sex F3 Sexual avoidance by the partner F1 Being in love F2 Arguments F1 Difficulty identifying feeling F2 Difficulty describing feeling F3 Externally oriented thinking F1 Negation of defects F2 Attribution of qualities Neuroticism F1 Anxiety F2 Control Depression-state F1 Negative affect F2 Positive affect
NII – Number of initial items in the scale. NSI – Number of selected items. Alfa – Cronbach‘s alfa with standardized items. Nor – Probability of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov´s test for the null hypothesis of normality. Factors – Principal axis factoring, rotation by Varimax and/or Oblimin.
Procedures The members of each couple answered their questionnaires in separate rooms to avoid any type of communication. The sample was collected between September 2005 and April 2006 and couples were paid for their voluntary participation (200 pesos per couple). The couples were obtained through announcements on publicity posters and the study was financed by a grant of Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (PAICYT2005). All questionnaires were prefaced by an informative sheet, in which the confidentiality and
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 229 anonymity of the answers was guaranteed, ending with a closed question asking whether the subject wanted to be included in the study or not. The time spent on the questionnaire was approximately 70 minutes. An analysis of thematic content was carried out for the definitions given to words associated to the word-stimulus ―being married‖, by creating 15 specific categories and a residual one. The inter-rater reliability for this system of categories was calculated by the percentages of agreement and Cramer‘s V coefficients between two independent codifiers (Carrillo and Griffens) in a first phase. To improve reliability, definitions were made more precise. Once again inter-rater reliability was calculated, on one hand the two initial codifiers worked together to reach a 100% agreement and they redefined the categories, and on the other hand, an independent evaluator (Moral) worked with the final definition of the categories. The percentages of agreement and Cramer‘s V coefficients were calculated between the dyad of codifiers and the new evaluator. Each category was converted into an ordinal variable by way of the weighted sum of the times it was used in the 5 orders of association for each subject, varying from 0 (not used in any association) to 15 (used in all 5 associations). The mean of these ordinary variables is called range of importance (by category). The number of times each category was used in the 5 associations by the set of subjects is called the frequency of use. To identify the central nucleus and peripheral elements of the social representation, the Vergès procedure (1994) was used, treating the sample as a social group. This is based on the mean of the importance ranges and median of the use frequencies of the semantic categories treated as ordinal variables. The central nucleus is defined by the semantic categories of high frequency of use (>median of frequencies of use) and high importance range (>mean of average ranges). The first periphery is formed by the categories of high frequency of use and low importance range (≤mean of the average ranges). The second periphery was formed by categories of low frequency of use (≤median of frequencies of use) and high importance range. Finally, the third was formed by frequency of low use and low importance range. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to define groups of subjects related to the meanings associated to the word-stimulus ―being married‖. The analysis was applied to semantic categories treated as ordinal variables. The squared Euclidean distance was used as the interval measure of proximity and the Ward method as a procedure for grouping subjects. Differences of frequencies or central tendency between the groups of subjects defined by cluster analysis in regard to socio-demographic variables, reasons of having gotten married, religious variables and psychometric scales were contrasted by Pearson‘s Chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis‘ test, analysis of variance; as well as the relationship by the Cramer´s V coefficient and the eta coefficient. The level of statistical meaning was set with values of p less or equal to .05 and the tendency to the statistical significance was set at values of 0.51 to .099. Calculations were done with SPSS12.
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RESULTS Reliability of Content Analysis On the association test, a spontaneous association of five words was requested for the word-stimulus ―being married‖, then the associated words were placed in order by degree of representative force and each one of them was defined (De Rosa, 1988). After thoroughly reading the content of the definitions given to the associated words, a system of 15 specific semantic categories was created (adaptation, conflicts and violent behaviors, economics, stereotypes and cultural standards, family, children, ideals of marriage, obligations and functions, couple, family patrimony, negative feelings, positive feelings, sexuality, values and attitudes of living together, values of fidelity, trust and respect) and a residual category, using a content analysis of the thematic type. The initial mean percentage of agreement for the total of words in the five associations to the word-stimulus ―being married‖, considering the 16 semantic categories, was 76%, varying from 84% for the words associated in first place to 69% for the words associated in third place. The correlation between the two codifiers, calculated by Cramer‘s V coefficient, varied from .836 for the words associated in first place to .789 for the words associated in fourth place, with a mean of .815. By category considering its use in 5 associated words, the mean percentage of agreement was 75%, varying from 100% (sexuality and conflicts and violent behaviors) to 47% (stereotypes and cultural standards). The definition of nine categories was modified to better delimit the information contained in each of them. Inter-rater reliability was once again calculated between the joint correction of the two initial codifiers and a third evaluator. The mean percentage of agreement to the total of words in the five associations was 89%, varying from 92% for the words associated in second place to 88% for the words associated in fourth place. The correlation between codifiers, calculated by Cramer‘s V coefficient, varied from .951 for the words associated in second place to .912 for the words associated in fourth place, with a mean of .930. Thus, we have a high level of inter-rater reliability. By category considering its use in 5 associated words, the mean percentage of agreement was 89%, varying from 100% for the categories of ―sexuality‖ and ―conflicts and violent behaviors‖ to 77% for ―stereotypes and cultural standards‖. Four categories had percentages under 80%: ―cultural stereotypes and standards‖ (76.92%), ―adaptation‖ (77.78%), ―negative feelings‖ (78.26%) and ―family‖ (78.38%). With redefinition of the categories reliability improved and reached a high level.
Representation of “Being Married” in the Sample Set The central nucleus and the three peripheries were defined using Abric‘s model (1993) and Vergès‘s analysis procedure (1994). The mean of the importance ranges was .94 and the median of frequency of use was 35. In the central nucleus we have 5 categories (obligations and functions, positive feelings, values of fidelity, trust and respect, couple, values and attitudes of living together), in the first periphery 3 categories appear (ideals of marriage, children, family), in the second periphery no category appears and in the third there are seven
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 231 categories (economics, negative feelings, family patrimony, adaptation, sexuality, cultural stereotypes and standards, conflicts and violent behaviors) (See figure 1)
Gender Difference by Semantic Category and Outline of Representation When comparing the categories dealt with as ordinal variables by gender, the only significant difference is found in the category of economy (U=3001, ZU=-4.357, p=.000) in which men associated more content to the desire for stability and economic solvency than women. Range of importance ≥ .94 < .94 Central Nucleus Obligations and functions First periphery Positive feelings. Ideals of marriage. ≥ 35.50 Values of fidelity trust and respect. Children. Couple. Family. Values and attitudes of living together. Third periphery Frequency Economy. of use Negative feelings. Family patrimony. Adaptation. < 35.50 Second periphery Sexuality. Cultural Stereotypes and standards. Conflicts and violent behaviors. Median of frequency of use = 35.50 and mean of the importance ranges = .94. Social representation of ―being married‖
Figure 1. Schema of central nucleus and three peripheries of ―being married‖.
There is a tendency to the statistical significance in cultural stereotypes and standards (U=3653, ZU=-1.921, p=.055), negative feelings (U=3610, ZU=-1.853, p=.064), as well as in values and attitudes of living together (U=3354, ZU=-1.840, p=.066). Women tend to associate more content with cultural standards, such as serving her husband, home and children and, at the same time, there are negative feelings of dissatisfaction, boredom and insecurity. Men tend to associate more content on values and attitudes of living together that include unity, understanding, tolerance and patience. If we calculate the mean of the importance ranges and the median of the frequency of use of the categories by gender for defining the central nucleus and the three peripheries for men and women, only two categories are affected. For women, family appears in the first periphery and for men it is in the third periphery; economy appears in the first periphery for men and in the third periphery for women. There is nothing found in the second periphery for any category.
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José Moral de la Rubia Table 2. Comparison of the central tendency of categories by semantic groups Semantic categories
Group
Adaptation
N
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Conflicts and violent behavior
Economics
Stereotypes and cultural standards
Family
Children
Ideals of marriage
Obligations and functions
Couple
Family patrimony
Positive feelings
Negative feelings
Sexuality
Values and attitudes of living together
Values of fidelity, trust and respect 4
Mean Range 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47
36
97.77 84.71 85.27 81.50 91.02 88.50 89.20 85.50 98.29 84.95 84.80 80.97 89.59 89.97 85.81 91.32 87.65 94.50 81.19 97.21 101.20 78.17 81.69 85.24 98.28 79.83 88.16 80.72 90.53 57.28 135.14 51.56 87.52 155.97 69.29 63.47 88.48 100.59 86.51 83.86 51.87 96.07 109.54 123.53 92.76 87.29 88.81 83.83 88.66 94.09 91.69 82.00 98.78 63.28 79.00 105.13 81.56 70.26 68.54 144.24
Kruskal-Wallis χ2 13.410
df 3
P .004
2.386
3
.496
9.287
3
.026
1.718
3
.633
4.956
3
.175
11.037
3
.012
8.308
3
.040
71.624
3
.000
85.587
3
.000
6.499
3
.090
64.320
3
.000
3.212
3
.360
4.978
3
.173
18.790
3
.000
65.485
3
.000
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 233 Groups: 1 – being married because of children, 2 – being married for the company of his/her spouse, 3 – being married for conjugal and family duties, 4 – being married for love.
Cluster Analysis of the 15 Specific Semantic Categories The 15 specific categories treated as ordinal numbers (from 0 to 15) was introduced in the cluster analysis. The analysis of grouping is done by cases. From the study of the dendrogram, it appears that 4 groups of subjects are defined at a height of between 10 and 15 units, thus the program is requested to classify all of the subjects into 4 groups. These 4 groups are not equivalent to the number of subjects (χ2=16.695, g.l.=3, p=.001). The first group has the most subjects and the second group has the fewest subjects. The groups were then characterized by differences in the average of the 15 specific categories. The groups are named with basis on differential high and low averages. There is significant difference in 8 variables: adaptation (p=.004), economics (p=.026), children (p=.012), ideals of matrimony (p=.040), obligations and functions (p=.000), couple (p=.000), positive feelings (p=.000), values of fidelity (p=.000), as well as values and attitudes of living together (p=.000); and in the same manner the tendency to the statistical significance in one, family patrimony (p=.090) (See Table 2). Group 1. This group includes the greatest number of persons surveyed (65). It has a high average for the categories of children, marriage ideals, economics and adaptation,; low for positive sentiments. It is considered that the basis of marriage is children, the search for balance in the couple, economic solvency, the struggle for an ideal future with stability and harmony, sacrificing or not appreciating positive feelings such as love, affection, and understanding. We can call this ―being married because of children‖. Group 2. This is the group with the lowest number of subjects (29). It has a high average for the couple and family patrimony; a low average for children, ideals of marriage, obligations and functions, values and attitudes of living together, as well as the values of fidelity, trust and respect. It especially values having a partner and having his/her support, not having economic problems, giving little importance to the role of children, obligations and values of fidelity. We can call this ―being married for the company of his/her spouse‖. Group 3. This is the second group in order of the number of subjects (47). It has a high average for obligations and functions; a low average for the couple and values of fidelity, trust and respect. The group associates being married to obligations and functions, it gives little importance to the partner‘s company and to the values of fidelity. We can call this group ―being married for conjugal and family duties‖. Group 4. This is the third group in the number of subjects (36). It has a high average for positive feelings (love), values and attitudes of living together, as well as the values of fidelity, trust and respect; it has a low average for the couple, obligations and functions, economics and adaptation. It associates being married with positive feelings such as love, fidelity and affection, as well as the values of fidelity, trust, understanding, family company and giving. We can call this ―being married for love‖. Groups 1 and 4 seem to be the most opposite as far as meaning associated to being married (children, ideals versus positive feelings). At the same time, groups 2 and 3 appear
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rather opposite (partner versus obligations), although these last two coincide in associating low values to fidelity, trust and respect. There is a significant difference in the level of studies (F=6.575, p=.000) (K-W: χ2=17.458, df=3, p=.001). The difference occurs between the fourth group and the first and third. The highest level of studies appears in the fourth group (being married for love) and the lowest in group 3 (being married for conjugal and family duties), followed by the first group (being married because of children). The association between the level of studies and the four semantic groups estimated by the eta coefficient is .321, thus sharing 10% of the variance. Table 3. Comparison of the mean on psychometric scales for the 4 semantic groups Psychometric scales DAS
RAS
ISD
MAS
TAS
SDS
STAI-S
STAI-T
BDI
PA
NA
Group 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
N 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36 65 29 47 36
Descriptives Mean 104.64 111.28 108.41 119.14 28.17 29.79 29.13 31.92 66.17 59.41 58.47 53.61 66.06 67.97 68.19 77.66 58.77 53.00 58.47 53.06 10.02 9.38 9.35 11.58 40.74 40.14 37.23 36.47 42.03 39.86 38.40 36.64 13.74 12.31 9.91 7.14 31.45 30.79 30.79 32.58 17.25 16.64 15.40 16.50
S. D. 18.720 19.714 18.644 16.218 4.533 4.378 4.514 3.434 23.385 21.437 19.787 21.866 15.066 12.022 15.040 12.778 14.780 16.109 16.004 21.044 3.370 4.032 4.138 4.588 12.063 14.022 9.349 12.314 9.977 11.167 9.280 12.502 10.451 10.991 7.445 9.978 8.051 9.178 6.975 6.600 6.459 7.472 5.988 7.980
ANOVA F 4.950
P .003
Eta .281
6.018
.001
.307
2.810
.041
.216
5.499
.001
.295
1.544
.205
.161
2.574
.056
.207
1.448
.231
.156
2.296
.079
.196
3.955
.009
.253
.443
.723
.087
.662
.576
.107
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 235 Group: 1 – being married because of children, 2 – being married for the company of his/her spouse, 3 – being married for conjugal and family duties 4 – being married for love.
Comparisons of Four Semantic Groups in Reasons for Being Married, Sexual Behavior and Psychometric Scales As the main reason for marriage, 85.5% of the sample indicates love, 5% an unwanted pregnancy, 2% family pressure, 2% physical beauty, 1% loneliness, .5% because they had already given their word and didn‘t know how to back out, .5% because they wanted to get married and didn‘t have a better option, .5% because they were embarrassed by his/her insistence and the other 3% gave a different motive from the 9 reasons specified. 6% add that the additional reason was physical beauty, 4.5% because of an unwanted pregnancy, 3.5% because of loneliness, 1% because of family pressure, 1% because he/she had already given his/her word and couldn‘t back out, 1% another reason different from the 9 reasons specified and .5% because he/she was embarrassed because of the other person‘s insistence. There is no contingency between the main reason for marriage indicated by the subject and the 4 semantic groups (χ2=24.864, df=24, p=.413), or any other reason (χ2=18.250, df=18, p=.439). The joint sample reported the mean for sexual relations with the spouse on an ordinal scale that ranges from 1 (once a month) to 4 (several times a week) is 3.24, in other words, between at least once a week and several times a week, with a standard deviation of .887. The median for sexual relations is 3 (at least once a week) and the mode is 4 (several times a week) (47% of the sample). 7% of the sample reports having sexual relations with their spouse at least once a month, 9% less than once a month, 37% at least once a week and 47% several times a week. 48% of those surveyed have never masturbated after getting married, 9% once, 22% a few times, 15% several times, 3% quite a few times and 3% many times. The median falls at once, that is to say that the frequency of masturbation is very low. There is no difference in the central tendency of frequency of sexual relations (χ2=.526, df=3, p=.913) or of masturbation (χ2=5.876, df=3, p=.118) between the four semantic groups. Significant differences of means were found in 5 variables (DAS, RAS, IIS, MAS and BDI) and a tendency to the statistical significance was observed in two scales (SDS and STAI-T). Based on the test of Least Significant Difference (LSD), on the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS), the fourth group has a higher average than the first and second groups; on the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS), the fourth group has a higher average than the other three groups; on the Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction (ISD) the first group averages higher than the fourth; on the Marital Aggrandizement Scale (MAS), the fourth group averages higher than the other three groups; on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the first group averages higher than the fourth and third groups and the second group averaged higher than the fourth, with the fourth group having the lowest average; on the Scale for Trait-Anxiety (STAI-R), the first groups averages higher than the fourth. The associations estimated by the eta coefficient between the five psychometric variables (DAS, RAS, ISD, MAS and BDI) and the 4 semantic groups are weak and they varied from .307 to .216; that is to say, the percentage of variance shared varied from 9 to 5% (see Table 3). The fourth group (being married for love) has the highest average for dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction, marital aggrandizement and social desirability and the lowest average for
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sexual dissatisfaction, depression and trait-anxiety. The first group (being married because of children) has the lowest average on dyadic adjustment, marital satisfaction and marital aggrandizement, but the highest average for sexual dissatisfaction, trait-anxiety and depression. The second group (being married for the company of his/her spouse) and the third group (being married for conjugal and family duties) are those with the lowest average on social desirability; that is to say, they are more sincere. In trait-anxiety, depression and sexual dissatisfaction, the second is closer to the first; for dyadic adjustment and marital satisfaction, the second group is closest to the fourth (see table 3).
DISCUSSION If we consider that the 100 couples have received socialization in certain similar aspects, because they form part of a culture, are under the influence of the same educational system and mass communication that that frequently talks about a socially relevant topic such as matrimony and what it means to be married, we can talk about a social representation and characterize the same. The central nucleus is represented by meanings such as obligations and functions of the couple and family, positive feelings, values of fidelity, trust and respect, the idea of a primary social structure formed by parents and children, as well as values and attitudes of living together. The most resistant to change and the most defining is the image of a united, happy family struggling for its stability through the values of fidelity, living together in harmony and peace. This representation lacks elements of high frequency of use and low valuation (importance range). For that reason, that which is most present in social communication about being married is given much importance and is considered to be representative. Peripheral elements of low frequency in use, but which are valued as being representative are long term objectives such as plenitude, well-being and stability, considering children as the basis of marriage, as well as mentioning the rest of the family, such as in-laws or grandparents. The first two elements are clearly implicit in the central nucleus. The last element of first periphery deals with an extended family which is very common within the life of married Mexican couples. Economy, negative feelings, family patrimony, adaptation, sexuality, stereotypes and cultural standards as well as conflicts and violent behavior are the most peripheral, least mentioned and least representative elements, constituting the third periphery. Thus the most concrete material aspects, negative feelings, violence and sexuality are linked to the couple, but not in a very representative manner and they can be very easily varied. Specifically, schools, the parishes and mass media transmit this central nucleus of being married, not as the material pleasure of two, but as a social function that must be kept separate from problems and difficulties. It must have good feelings and children play a very important role. Upon considering the gender comparison in the four semantic groups as well as the 15 specific categories of the meanings associated with ―being married‖, a significant difference was found in the category of economics, since men associate more content to the desire of stability and economic solvency than women. Pacheco (2001), when talking about the myth of secretaries in Mexican culture mentions that women inevitably renounce their personal projects and submit themselves to their husbands and children, to dedicate themselves solely
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 237 to domestic tasks. Fernández-Perera (2001), upon confronting the ―macho‖ myth and male chauvinism in Mexican culture, indicates that the role of men is based on authoritarianism, physical and moral violence, labor superiority, power in the family and on many other areas; it continues to be the man who exercises his authority according to models imposed by machismo. The role of men and women is determined by society and for this reason, as time has passed, men are seen as the only ones in charge of the household economy and women are envisioned as those who serve the home; as someone who subjects herself to the interest of those who surround her in the role of domestic service and maternal care, and it is not her responsibility to guarantee the economic solvency of the family. Díaz-Guerrero (2003) speaks of the socio-cultural premises of the roles assigned to men and women in our society; among the premises it is mentioned that men are by nature superior to women, that men must always wear the pants in the family, that a woman‘s place is in the home, and that men must possess all of the power and women all of the love. However, between the associations and their definitions no markedly male chauvinist discourse is observed. The way the subjects surveyed express themselves is more subtle and perhaps implies the usual content of that discourse. A tendency to the statistical significance was found in the categories of cultural stereotypes and standards, negative feelings, as well as for values and attitudes of living together. Alegría (2005) mentions that since childhood women learn all of the activities that are assigned to their gender and they know that they must assimilate them so that as they grow they conform to accepted feminine ideals and, in this manner, the role given women is consolidated. Women tend to more greatly associate the content of cultural standards, such as being at their husband‘s service, the house and children, as well as negative feelings of dissatisfaction, boredom and insecurity to marriage, while men tend to associate the content of values and attitudes of living together as union, understanding, tolerance and patience. Some anthropologists, such as Anastassiou and Pantoja (1998), indicate that the transmission of cultural standards is a role traditionally linked to breeding and women, and from this her key role in conserving the culture of the group is derived; this role is even reflected in the tendency for women to associate more traditional standards to marriage, as well as to the topics of the home and children than men. On the other hand, the tendency in differences concerning negative feelings that are more important for women and values of living together that are more important for men may be attributed to the dynamics of some married couples, reflected in literature and in popular humor such as ―el mandilón‖ (the male weakling), in which complaints and dissatisfaction are found to form a part of the role of the woman, linked to the house, and the request of living together in peace in the man who is usually the object of these complaints and reproaches. Although there is no difference in the composition of the 4 groups by gender, if we observe percentages, there are more men in group 1 (being married because of children), 40% men in comparison to 33% women; and there are more women in the third group (being married for conjugal and family duties), 31% women in comparison to 22% of men. The lack of the sentiments of love and the justification of being married because of children seems to be more common among men and the duties as a spouse and as caretaker of the house are more common among women. This could give us some idea of the underlying the dynamic previously indicated concerning complaining wife and requesting husband. When comparing the reason for being married, the majority of subjects place love in the first place, and there is no difference in this between the 4 semantic groups; however, there is
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a difference in educational level. This is highest in the fourth group (married because of love) and lowest in the third (being married for conjugal and family duties). This can indicate that the reason for being married is similar in all groups, love, but the dynamics of living together generates a differential valuation. People with more education continue to place weight on love above all and the persons with a lower level of education place more social value on spousal and family duties. It seems that people with a lower level of education assume more social values and customary duties and people with a higher level of education are more critical and they have a more individualistic orientation, favoring the personal dimension of love and not placing as much importance on the social dimension of children and the family. Precisely, the group that did not finish primary school has a significantly larger average number of children (between 3 and 4 children (F=3.724, p=.000) than subjects with high school, technical studies and college studies (between 1 and 2 children). The frequency of sexual relations is high, 84% have sexual relations once a week; in addition, this is the same for the four groups. Thus, having sex with their spouse is important for Mexican couples and the meanings attributed to marriage are not of importance in this area. We must consider that the sexual act is the nearest form of bodily intimacy and it is very difficult to tolerate this when there is rejection and indifference. Based on the scores on the Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction, 70% of those surveyed stated that they were sexually satisfied and in the sample there was no case of sexual abuse (Moral, in the press). Thus it appears that there is intimate and satisfying sex. Those who state that they are married for love (group 4) report the greatest sexual satisfaction and those who state that they are married because of children (group 1) have the least sexual satisfaction, thus feelings of love and positive feelings in general play a key role in enjoying sexual relations. At the same time, marital adjustment and satisfaction follow the same relationship. These results confirm that found in neurobiological studies on the bond and sexuality (Gonzaga, Turner, Keltner, Campos and Altemus, 2006). When comparing the 4 semantic groups, a significant difference was found in the mean for the following variables: Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS), Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS), Marital Aggrandizement Scale (MAS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Index of Sexual Dissatisfaction (ISD) and a tendency to the statistical significance for the Social Desirability Scale (SDS) and in the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). These differences allow us to better describe the semantic groups and complement the information supplied by differences in semantic categories, which were developed from definitions given to the words associated to the word-stimulus ―being married‖. Group 1 ―being married because of children‖ is the largest group surveyed and this may best represent the majority of marriages in Nuevo León. From the semantic categories, the subjects in this group are characterized by considering that the basis of marriage is children, by searching for balance in the couple and economic solvency, by struggling for an ideal future with stability and harmony, by sacrificing positive feelings. These subjects place less value on the relationship (RAS), show dissatisfaction with the couple (DAS) and report less sexual enjoyment or satisfaction (ISD). They have the highest level of trait-anxiety with characteristics such as nervousness, tension, preoccupation and restlessness. They have the highest average on the depression scale, showing pessimism, low self-esteem, lack of motivation and somatic problems. They tend to attribute socially desirable characteristics to themselves and deny those that are not approved by society; however, this is the group that
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 239 reports the lowest level of marital aggrandizement. Thus, their distortion in their self-report is a personal evaluation, not an evaluation as a couple. Group 2 ―being married for the company of his/her spouse‖ is the group with the lowest number of subjects. From the semantic categories, the subjects in this group are characterized as placing importance on having a spouse and counting on his/her support, as lacking economic problems, and placing little value on the role of the children, obligations and fidelity. From the differences in the scales, the group shows marital adjustment, that is, the best process of adaptation to living together as a couple, in which consensus, satisfaction, cohesion and affectional expression are the predominant characteristics. Even with the second highest average for marital adjustment, the group also presents traits of anxiety and depression, such as pessimism, somatic preoccupation, nervousness, tension, restlessness, melancholy, despair and feelings of incapacity. The group has a low score on marital aggrandizement and social desirability, which indicates that they do not try to aggrandize the image of the couple, or give false information or deny their socially disapproved characteristics. Group 3, ―being married for conjugal and family duties‖ is characterized by associating marriage to obligations and functions, placing little importance on the company of the spouse and on values of fidelity. The subjects in this group show a slight tendency to falsify information in a socially desirable sense and to deny characteristics that are socially disapproved; however, they are characterized by aggrandizing the image of the couple. Even when it is a group with little marital adjustment and satisfaction, it is the group that enjoys sex the most and they are free from anxiety and depression. Group 4 ―being married for love‖ associates being married with positive feelings such as the values of fidelity, trust, respect, understanding, family companionship and giving. This group shows the best marital adjustment, in other words, the best adaptation process for living together as a couple where consensus, satisfaction, cohesion and affectional expression are predominant characteristics as well as sexual enjoyment and satisfaction. There is a lower rate of depressive symptoms and anxiety. They tend to aggrandize the image of the couple and give their own information in a socially desirable sense. When comparing the 4 groups with the social representation of being married, we find interesting differences. The fourth group, the one reporting more happiness and satisfaction, is the one that is most similar to the social representation. This group stands out because of its positive feelings, especially, love, values of fidelity and living together, as well as low levels of negative emotions. The next group closest to the central nucleus of representation is the third group that gives most weight to family duties and functions. It is a group with sexual satisfaction but not as much marital satisfaction. The second group, the least numerous one, is the one furthest from the central nucleus; it values the spouse as company, seeks economic stability and it is the one that least associates contents related to children, to the values of fidelity and obligations; it is second in the quality of adjustment. The first is the most numerous; it is most defined by elements of low frequency of use, but the central weight (first periphery), such as considering children to be the basis of marriage, associating future objectives to be carried out and stability; giving importance to economic stability and giving less importance to positive feelings; it shows low satisfaction and high levels of negative emotional states (anxiety and depression). When a group is closer to the central nucleus of the representation, there is more adjustment, satisfaction, happiness and fewer negative feelings. However, when a group is further away from the central nucleus, this does not imply less
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adjustment and more negative feelings. It is the accentuation of the role of children taking importance away from positive feelings that generates worse adjustment and more negative feelings and this is the position of the biggest group, which represents to one third of the sample. The most important predictor of dyadic adjustment in this sample is marital aggrandizement, which can be understood more as a bias in self-reports (O‘Rourke and Cappeliez 2002), as a way of facing marital difficulties, close to the feeling of being in love with characteristics of idealizing qualities and denying problems (Moral, in the press). Precisely, group 4 (being married for love), the group most adjusted and satisfied with the relationship, is the one with the highest average in marital aggrandizement and social desirability. On the contrary, group 1 (being married because of children) is the least adjusted and satisfied with the spouse and it is the group with the lowest average in marital aggrandizement, but this is not so for social desirability, where it has the second highest average. Thus marital aggrandizement and social desirability are two different constructs; their correlation is .39, sharing only 15% of the variance. The trans-sectional nature of the design, the lack of comparison groups and complementary methods for collecting data different from the test of free association in relation to the word-stimulus ―being married‖ are limitations in this study that must be noted. All of this data (longitudinal, comparative and multi-method) would enrich the interpretation and allow going deeply into the representation of marriage. In conclusion, the central nucleus of the social representation of being married is comprised of obligations and functions of the couple and family, positive feelings with an emphasis on love, the values of fidelity, trust and respect, the idea of a primary social structure formed by parents and children, as well as values and attitudes of living together, in other words, the image of a united, happy family that struggles for its stability through the values of fidelity and living together in harmony and peace. Four groups can be defined by cluster analysis. The most numerous group is the one that justifies being married because of children. This is contrasted to the group that attributes being married because of love. A third group emphasizes the company of the spouse and a fourth group associates being married with conjugal and domestic duties. The group characterized as being married for love is closest to the nucleus of the social representation and it reports the most dyadic adjustment and marital satisfaction. The group furthest from the central nucleus of representation is the one that indicates that they are married because of the company of the spouse, but the group that is most dissatisfied and most poorly adjusted is the one that is married because of children. The 4 groups differ in their levels of education. The highest educational level appears in the group that states that it is married because of love and the lowest level of education is found in the group that emphasized that they are married for conjugal and family duties. It appears that people with more studies accentuate the personal dimension of affect and the people with fewer studies stand out the social dimension as family duties. So people with fewer studies have more children. In regard to gender differences men associate the guarantee of economic solvency more than women, which emphasizes that the traditional role of the male as the provider is still present in Mexican social thought. From these results it would be interesting for future investigations to analyze speeches on marriage and about being married in schools, parishes and in mass communication to compare similarities and differences, as well as to complete data with an open question survey concerning life as a couple in order to further explore diverse elements of the
Social Representation of Matrimony in Married Couples in Nuevo León (Mexico) 241 representation. It would also be interesting to compare the results with other populations as Mexican indigenous people and with the children of Mexican immigrants residing in foreign countries as the United State of America.
REFERENCES Abric, J. C. (1993). Central system, peripheral system: Their functions and roles in the dynamics of social representations. Papers on social representation, 2, 267-275. Abric, J. C. (2003). La recherche du noyau central et de la zone muette des représentations sociales. In J. C. Abric (ed.), Méthodes d’étude des représentations sociales (pp. 59-80). Ramonville Saint Agne, Francia: Editions érès. Alegría, J. (2005). La sexualidad de la mexicana. In R. Bartra (ed.), Anatomía del mexicano (pp. 273-280). México: Debolsillo. Anastassiou, I. and Pantoja, C. (1998). Rol de la mujer del Siglo XXI. Corriente de opinión, 1, 1-6. Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A. and Taylor, G. J. (1994). The twenty-item Toronto alexithymia scale-I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 23-32. Beck, A. T. and Steer, R. A. (1987). Beck Depression Inventory manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Casado, E. (2001). La teoría de las representaciones sociales. In E. Casado and S. Calonge, Conocimiento social y sentido común (pp. 55-105). Caracas: Fondo editorial de humanidades y educación, Universidad Central de Venezuela. Crowne, D. P. and Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354. De Rosa, A. M. (1988). Sur l‘usage des associations libres dans l‘étude des représentations sociales de la maladie mentale. Connexions, 51(1), 27-50. Díaz-Guerrero, R. (2003). Bajo las garras de la cultura: Psicología del mexicano 2. México: Trillas. Fernández-Perera, M. (2001). El macho y el machismo. In E. Florescano (ed.), Los mitos mexicanos (pp. 231-238). México: Taurus. Flament, C. and Rouquette, M. L. (2003). Anatomie des idées ordinaires. Comment étudier les représentations sociales. París, Francia: Armand Colin. Gonzaga, G. C., Turner, R. A., Keltner, D., Campos, B. and Altemus, M. (2006). Romantic love and sexual desire in close relationships. Emotion, 6, 163-179. Hendrick, S. S. (1988). A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 93-98. Herrera, B., Weisser, B. and Salazar, D. (2004). Imágenes y conceptos de familia expresados en las representaciones sociales de mujeres de sectores urbano- populares de la ciudad de Temuco, Chile. Limite (Arica). Retrieved on July 26, 2007 en http://aridaterra.uta.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttextandpid=S071813612004001100001andlng=esandnrm=iso. Hudson, W. W. (1982). The clinical measurement package: A field manual. Chicago: Dorsey. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI) (2005). Estadísticas Vitales del Estado de Nuevo León. México: INEGI.
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Montecino, S. (1996). Identidades de género en América Latina: Mestizajes, sacrificios y simultaneidades. Persona y Sociedad. Identidad, modernidad, posmodernidad en América Latina, 10(1), 162-173. Moral, J. (in the press). Predicción del ajuste diádico en una muestra Nuevoleonesa. Revista Interamericana de Psicología. Moscovici, S. (1961). La psychanalyse, son image et son public. París: Presses Universitaires de France. Moscovici, S. (1988). Notes towards a description of social representations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 211-250. O'Rourke, N. and Cappeliez, P. (2002). Development and validation of a couples measure of biased responding: The Marital Aggrandizement Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78, 301-320. Ortega, M. E. (2006). La complejidad de un rostro. Representación social de la pobreza: un estudio comparativo intercultural. Trayectorias, 8(20-21), 152-162. Pacheco, C. (2001). Las secretarias. In E. Florescano (ed.), Los mitos mexicanos (pp. 387391). México: Taurus. Perrone, R. (2006). Gloria y miseria de la pareja. Perspectivas sistémicas, 93, 10-20. Rodríguez-Salazar, T. (2001). Las razones del matrimonio, representaciones, relatos de vida y sociedad. Guadalajara: Editorial de la Universidad de Guadalajara. Spanier, G. B. (1976). Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 38, 15-28. Spielberger, C. D. and Díaz-Guerrero, R. (1975). IDARE. Inventario de Ansiedad: RasgoEstado. México: El Manual Moderno. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L. and Lushene, R. E. (1970). STAI. Manual for the StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (Self-evaluation questionnaire). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. Vergès, P. (1994). Approche du noyau central: propriétés quantitatives et structurales. In Ch. Guimelli (ed.), Structures et transformations des représentations sociales (pp. 233-253). Ginebra: Délacheux et Niestlé. Watson, D., Clark, L. and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
MODEL FOR HIV/AIDS PREVENTION BY FORMING PSYCHOSOCIAL COMPETENCIES Ariel César Núñez Rojasa¹, Sergio Tobónb, Diana Arias Henaoa, and Stefano Vinacciac a
Universidad de Manizales, Colombia Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain c Universidad de San Buenaventura, Mexico
b
ABSTRACT In this chapter, we will analyze the strategies for HIV/AIDS prevention, especially on young people, since they are the riskiest group to be infected, due to their life style and practices in today‘s situations and contexts. From the experience of working with young people in the promotion of health, the authors propose a model for HIV/AIDS prevention, based on psychological competencies development and strengthening, which, at a time, is based on the following: (1) to transmit clear and true information concerning HIV/AIDS and preventions methods; (2) to develop high motivation for the use of prevention methods; (3) to develop the necessary abilities to handle risky situations and to put them into practice when necessary; and (4) to confront the environments that favor or block young people from practicing prevention. To undertake these aspects, it is necessary to evaluate the development state of young people‘s psychosocial competencies; to understand and intervene from young culture‘s point of view, and to tackle the dynamics of living with health and illness processes, incorporating prevention as an academic course, as well as parent education.
Keywords: Prevention, promotion, psychosocial competencies, HIV, AIDS.
INTRODUCTION Infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is increasing. According to the latest data, it has been found that between 34.1 and 47.1 million people in the world are infected (ONUSIDA,2006); 17.7 million of those infected are women, while 2.3 million are children under 15 years. In the year 2006, there were close to 4.3 million new persons infected, and approximately 530,000 were young people under 15 years. Since the discovery of this virus in 1983, it is calculated that almost 20 million persons have died, an alarming number that demonstrates this illness is a central public health problem which must be given utmost attention. The regions with the highest number of infected persons are: Sub-Saharan Africa (24.7 million), Southern and Southeastern Asia (7.8
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million), Latin America (1.7 million), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (1.7 million), and North America (1.4 million). This shows that the infection mainly affects people in developing countries. Lately, young people are one of the populations at greatest risk for infection, which is mainly due to the lifestyles in which risky behavior occurs, even though there is information in reference to the possible consequences, as it is mentioned by Nuñez, Tobon and Arias (2006a) and Vallejo; Nuñez, Escobar, Ramirez, Velez and Gallego (2007). It is calculated that young people between 15 and 24 years are the half of the population that has recently been infected by HIV in the world, and more than 6000 young people are infected each day (ONUSIDA, 2004). In 2006, there were more than 380,000 deaths of young people under 15 years old due to the infection (ONUSIDA, 2006). There are diverse reasons why young people are at high risk: early sexual relations initiation (Mejia, 2000; Profamilia, 2005); use of intravenous drugs; lack of information about the virus; poverty and lack of access to protection resources, and especially the feeling that health is an intrinsic and natural process that is part of living the moment, by using the body as a tool and psychological ling to pleasure (Nuñez, Tobon and Arias, 2006a). So far, it is known that this virus is transmitted by bodily fluids, especially blood (blood transfusions and organ transplants) and semen (during unprotected sexual contact) (Ballester, 1997, ONUSIDA, 2006). HIV is also found present in other fluids such as saliva, perspiration and tears, but the amounts found are not sufficient to transmit the infection to other human beings. Taking into account that there has been very important progress in the analysis of blood reserves used for transfusions around the world, the main risk factor for transmitting the disease is by having sexual relations without using condoms; having contact with blood from infected persons and by consuming drugs intravenously with non-sterile syringe. Due to the continuous growth of HIV infection cases, and AIDS development during the last decade, different prevention projects and programs were implemented among the general population, especially young people. However, it seems that those programs have not yet achieved a significant impact in promoting healthy behaviors. For that reason, in spite of preventing campaigns and strategies, young people continue to have risky behavior, increasing the probability of HIV/AIDS infection; for example, sharing syringes, having sexual relations without using condoms, etc. (More examples on Meekers, Klein and Foyet, 2003). Even among university students, risky behavior that may lead to infection by HIV/AIDS is frequent, in spite of the fact that this group supposedly has an adequate information level concerning the matter (Piña, 2004), which has to do with pleasant sexual experiences, which postpone the assumption of risk as something negative (Nuñez, 2002; Nuñez, Tobon and Arias, 2006a; Vallejo et al, 207). This is related to the results of previous studies carried out in Mexico. An important percentage of young people with risky behavior was found, which coincides with other studies carried out in this country (Villagran and DiazLoving, 1999). In this article, a general model is presented to orient the design of HIV/AIDS prevention programs among the young population. This model is based on acquiring and strengthening psychosocial competencies, which are characterized as effective behaviors for dealing with certain situations, such as sexuality, so that they can be practiced by the young with the smallest possible risk to health. An approach from competencies allows having a common language in educational system, organizations and institutions committed to young health
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and, in this manner, to integrate promotional activities within the academic program (Tobon, 2004), by focusing on illness prevention and health promotion, taking into account young‘s cultural and social dynamics, and in addition to conditions, practices and beliefs in the area of the health of young people, which is exactly as Nuñez and Zambrano (2002) state, it deals with the promotion of health and the prevention of illness as processes that run from individuals to socio-cultural internalization. Without a doubt, this implies to visualize the need to focus on Intervention Procedural Models in human health, in pandemic nature problems, such as HIV/AIDS, exactly as it is established by Nuñez and Tobon (2005b); Tobon and Nuñez (2005); Nuñez, Tobon, Vinaccia and Arias (2006), and Nuñez, Tobon, Bañol and Arias (2006).
Effective Interventions in Hiv/Aids Prevention According to Tundra, Izquierdo, Fumaz and Ferrer (2003), up to now, the following conclusions can be reached with respect to HIV prevention effective programs: 1. Traditionally, prevention programs have emphasized on communicating information in educational environments. Basically, the majority of studies indicate that, on this matter, information is efficient, nevertheless only for a better knowledge in the infection of HIV and in the creation of favorable attitudes towards the practice of safe sex. 2. The combination of information and training in abilities development creates major changes on human behavior‘s three levels: cognitive, affective-attitudinal and behavioral levels. 3. In young populations in several countries, the greatest way to be infected is by sharing hypodermic injection. Here, there is a double risk for infection: sharing needles and having unsafe sex under drugs effect. With respect to prevention, it has been found that combining information and developing abilities is useful (for example, clean needles and the use of condoms) to decrease the HIV infection risks. However, there is still no concluding information about its effectiveness in decreasing the risk of unsafe sexual practices in this group of drug users. According to this, we can therefore say there is evidence showing that this combination of information with the development of abilities is the best strategy for preventing HIV infection in young people. However, new studies are necessary to establish the efficacy, efficiency and effectiveness of specific components in the intervention. The mentioned combination, as a mechanism for HIV prevention is an important support for introducing the prevention model based on competencies formation, which, even though they are composed of these two elements, have other components that potentially make them more pertinent in working with young people. For this, it is necessary to keep in mind that the competencies of human beings are constructed from basic nerve processes, which after going through psychological processes such as memory, learning, perception, thought and language, evolve into complex processes such as intelligence, creativity, behavior and personality. Competencies are not permanent and they are not universal, they are developed according to
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social, cultural and economic contexts. For that reason, it is necessary to recognize individual differences between young people and those who pretend to develop a competence.
Hiv/Aids Psychosocial Competencies Approach Different studies and programs for young‘s HIV/AIDS can be grouped into three essential models. The first one corresponds to Bandura‘s self-efficacy theory (1997). In this approach, the main objective is to determine how effectiveness beliefs have an influence on risky behaviors, and promotes appropriate self-effective behaviors, allowing reducing risky activities (Lopez, Salinas and Landero, 1999). The second model deals with reasoned action theory by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980); Fishbein and Azjen (1975). This model involves studying basic attitudes and beliefs for risky behaviors in order to carry out actions to modify and implement new attitudes, searching for a reasoned action of the person who takes risks (Perello and Villagran, 2000). Lastly, we have the psychological model of biological health by Bayes and Ribes (1992). From this approach, some HIV/AIDS risk factors have been evaluated (Piña, Gonzalez, Molina and Cota, 2003). Especially, it has been tried to determine which are the social circumstances and reasons that have an influence on risky behaviors, so as to modify strategies. The psychological model of biological health is considered as a relevant base for the prevention of risk factors associated with HIV/AIDS. Succinctly, the model establishes a psychological health dimension based on three factors: (1) biological states modulated by behavior; (2) people‘s interactive behavior styles, and (3) functional competencies to interact with diverse situations. Within this model, competencies are understood as the abilities possessed by individuals to effectively interact according to requirements established by a situation (Bayes, 1992). This is related to the ability of persons to successfully confront challenges imposed by daily life, which, according to Mantilla (2002), has to do with human development promotion and prevention of psycho-social problems related to the health of young people‘s practices and lifestyles. In this manner, competencies are capacities effectively placed into action due to environment circumstances in which they interact. From this point, it is found that in an analysis of competencies, in order to make a person to confront certain situation, it is necessary to establish the social environment in which the competency will take place, as well as the person‘s internal factors related to that competency, such as knowledge, attitudes, motives, and the procedures execution. Traditionally, in the study of psychosocial risk factors, aspects such as stress, social support, self-esteem and personality have been emphasized. In general, this latter point refers to consistent modes of behavior that are placed into action in certain situations, but that have no explicit effectiveness criteria for the person. Competencies, on the other hand, are performances people possess when interacting with their environment, which are formed in the self-organizing process of human behavior, interacting with the environment; they are used for reacting in an effective manner to certain situations based on explicit criteria. (Bayes, 1992; Piña, 2003) The model of competencies, which in the case of prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, would be placed in the psychosocial area because it links the cognitive-affective
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aspects (psychological) with social interaction (social), it also allows to direct systematically, preventive actions to concrete fields of behavior, taking into account the wide rank of behaviors in interaction with the context in which they occur, and where health and risk experiences are carried out by young people.
Essential Axis of an Hiv/Aids Prevention Model Based on Development of Competencies The approach on competencies is of psycho-social order because it links the psychic (cognitive-affective-behavioral) to social relations and cultural devices that are meaningful for health. This model pretends to develop and strength competencies in young people to handle their own sexuality with responsibility, preventing sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS. Thus, according to Restrepo (non published data), in young people‘s process of developing psychosocial competencies, it is necessary to keep in mind, according to constructivist approach contributions to the psycho-social competency theory, three basic ideas: the importance of collaboration between couples as the core of mechanisms for resolving problems; the importance that the cultural context has for developing relevant learning, and the importance of social interaction in individual abilities development. A program focused on competences formation must (1) intervene in the contexts in which young people live to favor prevention; (2) to offer information about this topic (HIV/AIDS nature, transmission mechanisms, condoms use, etc.); (3) to motivate prevention; and (4) to support abilities (condoms use; postponement of sexual relations when no condoms are available; to say no when the person does not want to have sexual relations, etc.), and to promote people to put those abilities in practice, according to effective criteria. This last aspect is what characterizes any topic based in competencies formation. It is not enough to transmit information and to develop abilities; it is essential to create mechanisms so that certain information and abilities are put into practice in interacting contexts, under certain circumstances and environmental and biological events (Nuñez, Tobon, Vinaccia y Arias, 2006). All of this is related to the concept of life abilities that is proposed by the OMS (1998), and worked on by Mangrulkar, Vincent and Posner (2001), and Mantilla (2002), which explains how adolescents and young people can best confront the situations which can potentially affect their daily life. Those abilities are: knowledge of oneself, empathy, effective communication, interpersonal relationships, decision-making, problems and conflicts solutions, creative and critical thought, feelings and emotions dealings, tension and stress handling. Psychosocial competencies and abilities work for life is based on action plans and strategies development that have been developed in Latin American countries, regarding an integral care program to adolescents and young people (OPS, 1998), emphasizing on sexual and reproductive health (OPS, 1995). Under the criteria of integral intervention in young people‘s health, Nuñez and Tobon (2005a) have constructed a care model for young health, based on health re-conceptualization from human development point of view. That model has the following axis of action: Axis 1: To establish government policies for prevention and promotion. Axis 2: To provide integral health services. Axis 3: To form health competencies. Axis 4: To offer friendly and simple access health services. Axis 5: To empower young
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people to be the authors of the conditions that guarantee their own health. This model is correlated to the articulation logic proposed by Nuñez and Tobon (2005b) and Nuñez and Tobon (2006) in the Mental Health Procedural Model as the path for the integration, research and the clinical practice from a psychological intervention point of view in front of the complex human health problems. The axes previously exposed, must be integrated under the following criteria:
To Communicate a Clear and Truthful Information Psychosocial competencies formation for preventing HIV/AIDS requires young people to structure and to know, in a clear and precise manner, which is the nature of this infection, its risk factors and control mechanisms. Although there has been progress and better information within the community, more information on the topic is still lacking, which must be coming from trustworthy sources that are close to and legitimated for young people. . In HIV/AIDS prevention we have had important progress in establishment disclosing strategies (although a lot is still missing from this field), but we must develop preventive abilities as such, that are put into practice by young people in an effective manner. In Colombia, many of the difficulties of current prevention programs reside in this hollow, since it emphasizes on offering information and not on working on behavior execution as such, under a context of certain reinforcing and facilitating environmental situational risk behaviors. It is necessary to continue giving information. However, such information must be easily understood by young; it must be in comprehensive reading, but specially, it must be reliable. This implies developing interactive, dynamic activities close to their imaginary activities, beliefs and health practices (Orozco y Nuñez, 2001), in which they are brought up to date as to the latest discoveries about the infection, as well as all that concerns the preventive behavior to be followed. Regarding prevention behaviors, young people should not only know which behaviors to follow, but also how to follow them; although sometimes this seems to be obvious, at times. In this sense, it is not sufficient to advise the condom use, but how and why to use it.
To Induce a Strong Motivation Towards Preventive Behaviors Motive is a central component for all behavior, constituting a compelling factor for behavior so as to obtain an immediate or later goal. As stated by Piña et al. (2003), the reasons are manifested by selections and preferences of objects and events. Such selections and preferences increase the probability of risky behaviors for HIV/AIDS infection. HIV/AIDS prevention programs must determine the main reasons for risky behaviors and young prevention, in order to take them into account in the activities. Prevention programs in this field must motivate young people to put on practice healthy behaviors, including two aspects. One is to look for external motivators which compel them towards those behaviors (externally reinforced), and the other is to orient them towards self-motivation in order to have a healthy life.
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Motivation has an essential role in competencies and studies indicate that the best persons for preventing risky behaviors against HIV/AIDS are generally motivated to take care of their health and to prevent infection. This is proved by a research carried out by Piña (2004) among young university students in México. In this study, the predictability was evaluated under several aspects of competencies (knowledge, beliefs, motives and circumstances), concerning four risky behaviors: a) Sexual relations with different couples; b) Frequency of condoms use throughout life ; c) Sexual relations with sporadic couples; and d) the condom use with sporadic partners. Logistic regression proved that motives were the competency factor that predicted these four behaviors. Upon analyzing only one of the risky behaviors studied, it was found that the main reasons for ―not consistently using a condom‖ risky conduct, were the following: a) their partner does not like to use one; b) they did not have a condom with them; c) they have never known how to use one, and d) it makes sex less pleasant. Other researchers have obtained similar results (Anderson, Wilson, Doll, Jones and Barker, 1999; Brigham et al., 2002). The reasons are central axes that measure the risky behavior for HIV/AIDS infection, in addition to health promotion and disease prevention. In this sense, in order for young people to be competent in HIV/AIDS prevention, they must have solid reasons for doing so, and block the possible reasons for not doing it, such as the fact that condom use decreases pleasure. Programs in this filed must be focused on dealing with the reasons which block a healthy life style, and on promoting the reasons that lead to prevent infection behaviors. This implies sensitizing young people about the disease and about how to have safe and pleasant sex.
To Develop and to Strength Abilities for Handling Sexual Behavior It is not enough to intervene in transmitting information or creating motivation contexts for provoking effective prevention behaviors; it is also necessary to possess habits to prevent infection and to use them according to effectiveness criteria. Therefore, the programs in this area must establish mechanisms so that young people may develop necessary habits and act effectively. For example, one practice is the use of condom. It involves knowing how to use it, knowing that it can be used only once, and knowing that vaginal penetration condoms are not the same as those for anal penetration (it requires a finer one). Likewise, it is required that young use it at the right moment. Prevention programs must take action on abilities development. It needs workshops where young people learn to follow prevention behaviors by observing models in videos and in dramatizations. Then, it is essential to ask young people to practice those preventive behaviors. It is also very important for young people to be conscious of likely risky behavior contexts in order to be alert before going to such contexts. This consciousness implies having knowledge about the possible reinforcement of environmental factors, in which probability of risky behaviors increases. For example, many times, condom is not used due to the immediate pleasure of ejaculating within the vagina. Risky behaviors such as rectal coitus or coitus with prostitutes also constitutes significant levels of risk for young people, as determined by Alvarez, Gil, Ramirez and Restrepo (2002) in a study done among university students.
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To Intervene in Risky Situations They are situations in which a person interacts with his/her natural and social environment, giving a bi-directional feedback. In the case of HIV/AIDS, the situations related to the infection are, in general, the relationships of friendship, ―courtship‖, recreation and the search for sexual satisfaction with prostitutes or with strangers. These are the risky behavior contexts in which prevention must be put in practice. In this case, prevention must be based on spaces for interaction which make risky behaviors more probable as well as for situations control, so in this way, the strategies to be implemented must be taken into account. It requires knowing about young people culture, their customs and places where they socialize. Academic environment must carry out a detailed analysis of all possible situations likely to be risky for VIH/AIDS transmission. School-aged adolescents and young people are the greatest risky infection group, (Bayes, 1995). Consequently, mechanisms must be established so that they show preventive behaviors and be able to have access to condoms and to necessary information for practicing safe sex. Risky situations intervention involves research processes and integral systematization, which from qualitative and quantitative tendencies allow a deep and contextual approach to the problems related to young health. There are examples of studies carried out that come from knowledge of the dynamics and meanings of juvenile sexuality (Mejia, 2000) and up to biological and psycho-social factors related to young university students health conditions (Nuñez, Arias and Tobon, 2005), and work systematization processes with abilities for living (Nuñez, 2002; Nuñez, Tobon and Arias, 2006a; Nuñez, Tobon and Arias, 2006b; Nuñez, Castaño and Aristizabal, 2006c); and Botero, Gonzales and Valencia (2002).
General Guidelines for Prevention Programs Implementation To Carry Out a Psycho-Social Competencies Diagnosis To implement an HIV/AIDS prevention project for young people requires knowing exactly the psycho-social skills and the competencies formation in this population related to the infection prevention. This permits to know about aspects to be emphasized, and also the impact coming from other actions of the community, through educational processes, media massive campaigns, family education and information received from groups of couples. For diagnosis, it is important to use qualitative as well as quantitative instruments which facilitate to determine the level of the young person‘s psycho-social competencies and abilities for living, in addition to their comprehension, meanings and accounts respecting these ones, exactly as is shown by Nuñez (2002), Nuñez, Arias and Tobon (2006b). In the qualitative part, young people will be asked to provide certain data concerning their risky behavior as well as prevention measures to be used to confront this health problem, since it will allow them to participate and to be responsible for the prevention processes of the disease and to promote health. In the quantitative part, it is important to use instruments designed to evaluate competencies, which have characteristics that are different from traditional questionnaires for evaluating psychological factors. Although there is still little progress in this area, important contributions have begun to occur, such as the instrument for evaluation of risk factors in
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infected persons by Piña (2003) or the questionnaire developed by Torres (1994) that was redesigned and validated by Piña, Molina and Cota (at the press). The latter questionnaire contains 29 items, with adequate reliability (alpha of 0,754) and validity (it has a two factors and two indexes structure which explain the 54.26% of the variance). This instrument has been used with young people and it evaluates the following competency factors: knowledge with respect to HIV/AIDS, beliefs, motives, circumstances and risk behaviors (see Table 1). Table 1. Examples of risk factors analysis in a psycho-social competency framework. Knowledge -Has the idea that HIV is an uncommon virus. -Does not know about HIV/AIDS. -Knows how HIV can be prevented. -Has sufficient trust in the other person.
Motives: -To have sexual relations with different partners: physical attraction, opportunity, curiosity, excitement, drugs/alcohol. -For not using the condom consistently: he does not like to use it; his/her partner does not like it; he doesn‘t use it for religious or other reasons.. Social situations in which sexual relations can take place without protection: -Possibility of several sexual partners. -Several sexual relationships with the same partner. -Parties, trips, etc. -Relations with unknown persons.
Sexual Abilities: - He does not know how to use a condom. - He/ she is not careful and does not buy a sufficient number of condoms for all sexual relations with the same person or with different persons. -The condom slips off sometimes or it breaks. Note: some common examples of risk factors following the psycho-social competencies model are shown.
To Understand Juvenile Cultures and The Inclusion of Young People in Prevention Programs The definition of what the young population is has several variations according to the approach to be followed. Generally, it is understood that this population is from 14 to 24 years old, although in many cases it includes 12 years old boys and girls, and also persons between 25 to 29 years old. The lower limit is related to sexual and reproductive functions development and the beginning of formal thought. On the other hand, the upper limit has to do with the end of the academic and occupational preparation process which allows people to start working in a determined field of work. In addition, this last limit involves full consciousness maturity as a citizen with rights and duties; the establishment of a solid identity and the mature formation of a family. Thus, this concept can be understood as a period and vital process that runs from physiological maturity to social maturity. Prevention programs focused on forming psycho-social competencies must be based on the knowledge of social and personal concepts that young people have about their body, their sexuality and young culture in which they live and which defines and redefines their life experience. Many prevention programs fail because they neglect this part. This is discussed by Nuñez (2002), upon stating that in young people‘s life and their health, things are complicated by collective and individual appropriations of meanings and attitudes towards
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healthy practices and disease, in which the image of a healthy and vital body is exchanged, but in it is included the acceptance of risk as the mediator of pleasant practices under novelty criteria, experimentation and intensity of them; and this is something almost naturally associated to risky sexual practices and substances use and abuse, all of them considered to be in high correlation with HIV/AIDS infection. With respect to what was previously mentioned, an investigation was carried out among university students based on the depth and establishment of approaching groups (Nuñez, Tobon and Arias, 2006a); its goal was to understand the meaning of health for the students, which included interpreting the meaning of university experiences and health practices, as well as to understand the relationship existing between health and disease, and the meaning of health practices for university students compared with adult models. The study established that health practices and strategies for young university students means living at the university, experimenting with their sexuality, drugs, their body, pleasure and enjoyment; where friendship bonds and closeness are, at the same time, an affinity, complicity and appearance for men and women. Living as a university student is to be in and to live the present. Health is the place to look at your image, to experiment and, at the same time, to take risks that cause pleasure and enjoyment with a young and vital body in action, a body that does not need care. Feeling and living life to the limit of the moment; health is a temporary place and a temporary finding; not something searched for. The soften boundary between care and risky life is crossed, where living the moment is something natural for young people. From the institutional point of view, an external reading, different and far from university students reality is made, blocking their strategies, still assumed as close to adults and family members with a protecting and prohibitive sense anchored in old traditions, customs, careful behaviors, criteria of prejudice and control, being necessary a two-faced strategy is necessary, one for showing and another for being. From this study, it is concluded that it is necessary to establish prevention programs with young people, taking into account their autonomy, their freedom, their life experiences and their own motivation. The language must be constructed from their own language and references, with the goal of finding the best way to orient their own behavior, without imposing outside patterns, which are related to that set forth by Nuñez (2002), regarding the need for recognizing processes of attitudes and behavior symbolic appropriation related to young people health. We face, then, the need to address self-consciousness and offer young people spaces so that they may self-regulate their behavior, far from the control society wishes to impose on them, which they resist, allowing them to assume aspects such as pleasure, adventure and risk, frequently not taken into account in the ―adult‖ language of prevention nor in behavioral technology programs. On the other hand, HIV/AIDS prevention activities for young people require professional psychologists interacting continuously with them and negotiating meanings, goals, strategies and objectives, since psycho-social competencies and abilities development for life is inscribed on their vital process (Nuñez, Castrillon y Bañol, 2002b). All prevention programs must involve the same young people carrying out different activities, as has been set forth in different social programs (Senderowitz, 1997). This can be, for example, providing information in mass communication media (radio, newspapers, Internet and television) and establishing contact with other young people to motivate the condom use to prevent sharing needles.
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In accordance with this, it is necessary to propose more integral work models to young people who are able to articulate human development dimension regarding health processes, on the individual and collective levels (POH, 1995, 1998, 2000) in which it is proposed that for having a healthy development, young people needs: to have had a healthy infancy; to live in safe environments which encourage them and offer opportunities through the family, couples and other social institutions; to have access to information and opportunities so as to develop a wide range of practical vocational and life abilities; to have equal access to a wide range of services, education, employment, health, justice and well-being. In addition, the POH adds the need for a macro-environment that supports them, created by policies and legislation, values of society, models of positive roles and standards of conduct, supported by media. The previously mentioned criteria as regards to the HIV/ AIDS complex problem, and the necessity to consider of young people psycho-social competencies implies thinking, exactly as it is proposed by Tobon and Nuñez (2000), that individual and community health depends on the intervention of multiple hereditary biological factors, social relations, beliefs and symbolic representations facing health and illness, social expectations, housing, food, safety, availability and accessibility to health services, among others.
To Incorporate HIV Prevention as an Academic Program Young people spend an important part of their lives in educational institutions acquiring the necessary knowledge and abilities to live in society and to perform a determined occupation. Consequently, the HIV and AIDS infection topic, and also that of sexually transmitted diseases must be discussed and have an important space as an academic course of study, so that this question can be dealt with and planned by teachers and carried out in a systematic manner. It requires taking into account the fact that infection is a question that transcends the health limits, and it is framed in diverse biological, sociological, economic and political questions. This places the topic in an interdisciplinary level requiring diverse disciplines contributions in which the study plan has been traditionally organized, such as: natural sciences, mathematics, social sciences, ethics, physical education, linguistics and the arts areas. On the other hand, it is important to take into consideration that the psycho-social competency model that we have presented, also requires an academic program to be based on competencies formation from a complex and interdisciplinary perspective. Experience shows that prevention activities using traditional educational approaches based on communicated information and abilities formation, without taking into account context, make difficult to carry out efficient activities for HIV/AIDS prevention, since they do not enact young‘s abilities in real daily life situations in daily life with effectiveness criteria. Readers interested in academic programs designed by competencies can refer to Works by Tobon (2004), in which a series of methodological elements are proposed to carry out this process. In general, competencies formation as an academic course implies to clearly identify and to describe those supporting competencies for young people, parents and experts; to establish the contribution of each area to their formation; to identify how its progressive development will be carried out in different academic levels; to establish standards for evaluating and constructing activities for forming them. It must be promoted teamwork among teachers, as
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well as meaningful interdisciplinary projects for students. In reference to this, it is interesting to summarize an important project that has been applied in Spain as to this subject. It is ―AIDS: to know how to help‖ program that is focused on students, attempting to offer information and prevent contagion through interdisciplinary activities (Prats, 2002).
To Train and to Involve Parents Family and home environments are very important for developing young people psychosocial competencies, in order to prevent HIV infection. Some studies show young who achieve positive, solid and supporting relationships with their parents are less likely to be involved in risky situations (Blum, Beuhring and Rinehart, 2000; Lammers, Ireland, Resnick and Blum, 2000). For example, in a study accomplished in a USA school, sixth and seventh grade students whose relation with their parents was strong, show to be less likely to use drugs, and also to delay sexual activity. (Turner, Irwin, Tschann and Millstein, 1993). Parents‘ participation in sexual education is sometimes hard because of bad communication with young people and due to the lack of training on the topic. Frequently, parents and children try to avoid the sexual topic since for them is uncomfortable (Weiss, Whelan and Rao Gupta, 1996; Bumpas, 1999). Often, young people feel their parents are only concentrated on warning them about sexual relations risk, and many young people do not get along enough with their parents to be able to talk about these topics. In addition, many parents, repeatedly, do not have necessary and adequate information concerning sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS. As a result, it is necessary for parents to be trained in two aspects: (1) the development and solidification of the relationship with their children through respect, understanding, affection and authority; (2) contribution to psycho-social competencies formation of their children by adequate information, motivation, daily abilities, and practices development. The best way for training parents is through formal education, that is, conferences and workshops. Besides that, it must be included pamphlets, manuals and books which clearly describes how to act and react in different situations in reference to this subject. It is important to warn that conferences and workshops and also the documents given to parents must be developed by specialized professionals on sexual education and HIV prevention, so as to avoid social prejudices, taboos, and moral questions influences, which frequently are more harmful than beneficial.
CONCLUSIONS HIV/AIDS prevention programs design must begin with clear theoretical models oriented towards diagnosis as well as implementation of strategies within the population and the evaluation of results. In this sense, the approach on prevention based on psycho-social competencies, according to orientation of the psychological health model developed by Bayes (1995) offers a set of orientations aimed at detecting prevention behaviors, their structural axes (knowledge, motivations and abilities), the likely environments and effectiveness criteria. In this manner, a program based on this model will be focused on forming young people able not just for practicing a profession, but also for life, which must be systemized in
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concrete projects related to the promotion of health and integral prevention, emphasized on parallel processes for psycho-social competencies development and the abilities to live, which include HIV/AIDS prevention activities (Nuñez, Castrillon y Bañol, 2002b). This agrees with Burt (2000) with respect to psycho-social, biological and cultural readings, taking into account protection, risk and vulnerability factors. Facing this, it must be considered, as determined by POH (1996) that tasks applied to young people and adolescents, it must be included the family, the group of couples, the neighborhood and potential social opportunities. Finally, exactly as it is suggested by Nuñez and Tobon (2005a) and 2005b); Nuñez, Tobon, Bañol and Arias (2006), and Nuñez and Tobon (2006), it must be taken care of constructing integrated models of intervention directed towards today‘s huge human health problems, such as pandemic HIV/AIDS around the world.
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In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
STRESS-RELATED SITUATIONS AS PREDICTORS OF ADHERENCE-TO-MEDICATION BEHAVIOR AMONG WOMEN WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES Julio Alfonso Piña López1 and Angélica Magali Torres Plancarte2 1
2
Hermosillo, México Universidad de Sonora, México
ABSTRACT This cross-sectional study was carried out with the main objective to assess the specific role of stress-related situations as predictors of adherence-to-medication behavior in 225 women with type 2 diabetes living in Hermosillo, Mexico, whom responded to a self-administered questionnaire evaluating stress-related situations in three modalities: making decision, tolerance to ambiguity, and tolerance to frustration. A multiple regression analysis (stepwise method) was performed to identify which of those situations predicted the adherence-to-medication behavior. This analysis showed that the stress-related situation in the modality of making decision was a predictor for adherenceto-medication behavior (F [1, 207] = 6.041; p = 0.015). The results point out that experiencing low levels of stress related to making decision facilitate the practice of adherence-to-medication behavior in women with type 2 diabetes and also support the recommendation to monitor psychological well-being related to experiencing stress in patients with type 2 diabetes.
Keywords: Stress, adherence, diabetes, psychological well-being.
RESUMEN Este estudio transversal se llevó acabo con el objetivo principal de evaluar el papel específico de las situaciones relacionadas con el estrés como predictoras de la conducta de la adherencia al medicamento en 225 mujeres con diabetes tipo 2, las cuales vivían en Hermosillo, México, y que respondieron un cuestionario auto-administrado, el cual evaluaba las situaciones relacionadas con el estrés en tres modalidades: toma de decisiones, tolerancia a la ambigüedad y tolerancia a la frustración. Se usó el análisis de regresión múltiple (método 1
Address for correspondence: Guillermo Prieto 18. Col. Constitución. Hermosillo, Sonora. C. P. 83150 (México). Tel: (+52+662) 215-6850. E-mail:
[email protected].
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stepwise) para identificar cuál de estas situaciones predecía el comportamiento de adherencia al medicamento. Este análisis mostró que la situación relacionada con el estrés en la modalidad de toma de decisiones fue un predictor de la conducta de adherencia al medicamento (F [1, 207] = 6.041; p = 0.015). Los resultados indican que experimentar bajo niveles de estrés relacionado con la toma de decisiones facilita el comportamiento de la práctica de la adherencia al medicamento en mujeres con diabetes tipo 2 y también apoyan la recomendación de monitorear el bienestar psicológico relacionado con la experimentación del estrés en pacientes con diabetes tipo 2. Palabras clave: Estrés, adherencia, diabetes, bienestar psicológico.
INTRODUCTION In Mexico, Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease that has been reached epidemic proportions (Landeros, 2000). For its effective control and in order to avoid health complications, it is necessary to promote that patients with diabetes get involved in a set of adherence behaviors in accordance with the instructions provided by the health team, that includes doing exercise, a balanced diet, self-monitoring of blood glucose, and taking medication as prescribed (Ortiz and Ortiz, 2005; Snowling and Hopkins, 2006; Wen, Sheperd and Porchman, 2004). Based in the evidence available, patients with diabetes are not practicing those behaviors as expected (Cramer, 2004; DiMatteo, 2004; Hill-Briggs, Gary, Bone, Hill, Levine and Brancarti, 2005; Maddigan, Feeny, Majundar, Farris and Johnson, 2006). Particularly in Mexico it was found that in a study conducted in a Major Hospital of Mexico City with 150 patients with type 2 diabetes, the percentage of adherence to the pharmacologic treatment was 54.2% (Hernández-Ronquillo, Téllez-Zenteno, Garduño-Espinosa and González-Aceves, 2003), whereas in another two studies conducted in a University Hospital of Monterrey City with 94 patients (Samaniego and Álvarez, 2006) and in a Family Medicine Unit of Chihuahua City with 79 patients (Durán-Varela, Rivera-Chavira and Franco-Gallego, 2001), the percentage of taking medication as prescribes was 55% y 63%, respectively. In a attempt to account for the adherence-to-treatment behaviors in people diabetes mellitus, some authors has been found that experiencing stress is a variable which adversely affect the instrumental exercise of these behaviors (Garay-Sevilla, Malacara, GonzálezContreras, Wróbel-Zasada, Wróbel-Kaczmarczyk and Gutiérrez-Roa, 2000; Lloyd, Smith and Weinger, 2005). Stress is a variable traditionally defined as reaction or momentary state (Surwit, Feinglos and Schneider, 1992), as well as relationship or transaction (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Ortiz, 2006), but in any case appealing to a private processes of cognitive nature —e.g., beliefs, thinking, evaluations, and so on— that suppose later influence how people behaving. With base in the experimental tradition (Kelley, 1985; Levine, 1985; Moberg 1985), in this paper stress is defined as a biological condition that people experiencing in a interactive situation in which it is key the duration and influence of uncertainly, unpredictability, and ambiguity associated to signal events and consequences produced by behaviors (Ribes, 1990). Such situations, in agreement with a psychological model for the research of the adherence behaviors (Piña and Sánchez-Sosa, 2007), keep a narrow conceptual relation with which in traditional literature it is known like personality (Ribes and Sanchez, 1990), defined as
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consistent ways of interaction; this is, constitute the unique, singular and idiosyncratic way which a person faces a situation which it makes contact for the first time with this one. It is role is modulating the opportunity, speed and precision of the behaviors as opposed to a situation in which criteria are not prescribed on how there is to respond. Like such, the stressrelated situations do not identify with actions or particular behaviors, but with sets or collections of behaviors that affect the operation of the different biological subsystems, which they include the endocrine, immune, cardiovascular systems, among others. In order to understand the psychological mechanism underlying adherence-to-treatment behaviors (Sánchez-Sosa, 2002), this cross-sectional study carried out with the main objective of evaluating the effects of stress-related situations on adherence-to-medication behavior of taking an oral hypoglycemic agent or injecting insulin.
METHOD Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample Variables Age Evolution time of diagnosis Glucose level Single Married Living as Married Separated Widowed Non response Education Non education Primary uncomplete Primary complete Secondary uncomplete Secondary complete Non response Activities Home Retired/Pensioned Working for Government Working for Private Company Own business Unemployed Non response
X 56.56 107.30
SD 11.41 79.41
Range 28-84 2-468
174.54
78.97
10-568
N
%
8 155 5 19 34 4
3.6 68.9 2.2 8.4 15.1 1.8
12 57 104 1
5.3 25.3 46.2 0.4
44 7
19.6 3.1
96 51 27
42.7 22.7 12.0
22
9.8
22 2 5
9.8 0.9 2.2
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Julio Alfonso Piña López and Angélica and Magali Torres Plancarte
Participants Previous authorization of the Research and Ethics Committees of the Regional Hospital No. 2 (Mexican Institute of Social Security in Hermosillo, México), this cross-sectional study was conducted between September 2006 and February 2007. All patients in this study were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes by the endocrinology specialist, who later sends them to a different Family Medicine Units of the same institution for attention and following. The study sample was limited to a disponibility of the participants in each one of two Family Medicine Units. The inclusion criteria considered for this study were: a) being female with diagnosis of type 2 diabetes; b) being more than 18 years of age; and c) showing adequate physical and psychological capacity to answer questions. The definitive sample included 225 patients women, with an average age of 56.5 years (SD = 11.41), most of which were married (68.9%), and (71.5%) were six to ten years of education; the rest of socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of the sample as can seen in Table 1. Then, each participant was asked for informed consent using a brief document where the aims of this study were described. Immediately after this participants were asked to respond a self-administered scale and additionally instructions were offered to them about how to respond to it.
Variables and Self-Administered Questionnaire As dependent variable a question related to medication behavior of taking an oral hypoglycemic agent or injecting insulin was used. The question is in a Likert type format with four answer options, from 1 (no day of the week) to 4 (every day of the week). As independent variable the Stress-Related Situations Scale (SRSS-12) was used (Piña, Corrales, Valencia and Mungaray, 2006). Originally the scale was developed and validated in people diagnosed with HIV from a similar geographic and cultural background as the participants in the sample for this study. In order to be used with type 2 diabetes patients, the scale was adaptated to reflect situations relevant to these patients. Estimation of the coefficient Cronbach's alpha showed a value of 0.833 for the adaptated form. The scale consists of twelve questions grouped in three stress-related situations. Each question was evaluated in a ten-point scale, where 1 (it is not a threatening situation) to 10 (it is a threatening situation): Making decision is a situation in which a person is facing two or more situations, or the same situation with two or more simultaneous conditions than: a) they demand an option and the person perceives the demand; b) who demands an option and the person does not perceive the demand, and c) the person perceives a nonexistent demand; a question example was the following one: "In this moment you are receiving medical treatment and your physician give to you several instructions that you must to complete, but other close persons recommend to you an alternative treatment (e.g., naturist medicine). Then, this is for you...". Tolerance to ambiguity, is a situation in which exists a demand to which the person responds, but there is not correspondence between the demand and the consequences of their behavior, because: a) these are independent; b) there are changes in the demand, and c) they become antagonistic or they become unforeseeable; a question example was the following
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one: "Your are under medical treatment but you don‘t know if this will be effective to control the disease. Then, this if for you...". Tolerance to the frustration, is a situation characterized because a person develops some activity and the consequences associated to the behavior: a) are minors; b) are delayed; c) are not granted; d) are retires without reason, and e) a greater execution is demanded to the person; a question example was the following one: "Your are under medical treatment and you practicing all behaviors as prescribed by your physician, but you do not receive positive consequences or support. Then, this is for you..."
Statistical Analysis For statistical analysis the SPSS package for Windows, version 12.0, was used. To data analysis descriptive statistic were obtained; a x2 test was used to prove differences between adherent and nonadherents; an index for each factor was calculated; finally a multiple regression analysis (stepwise method) was used to identify which of the stress-related situations predicted adherence-to-medication behavior.
RESULTS 201 (89.3%) participants responded that they consumed the medication all days of the week —100% adherents—, and 23 (10.7%) some or none day of the week —nonadherents in some level— (x2 = 141,446, 1 FD; p = 0.000). Table 2 reports the global indexes for the three factors: making decision (X = 4.07; range 3-30), tolerance to ambiguity (X = 4.88; range 328), and tolerance to frustration (X = 11.4; range 6-50). The mean values for each factor was low, close to the waited values in making decision, as well as tolerance to ambiguity, but not in tolerance to frustration, in which the mean value was slightly high. Table 2. Mean values of stress-related situations Variables
X
SD
Observed
Making decision
4.0
3.6
3-30
3-30
4.6
3-28
3-30
7.9
6-50
6-60
rank 7 Tolerance to ambiguity
4.8 1 11. 40
rank
6
8 Tolerance to frustration
Possible
8
Finally, as can seen in Table 3, the regression analysis (stepwise method) showed that only one type of stress-related situation in the modality of making decision predicted the adherence-to-medication behavior, with the ANOVA test being significant (F [1, 209] = 6.150; p = 0.014). The explained variance for the joint model was 0.269, meaning that that variable explaining alone 26.9% of the total variance.
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Table 3. Multiple regression analysis (stepwise method) of the adherence-to-medication behavior in women with type 2 diabetes (n = 225) Step 1: Constant Making decision Tolerance to ambiguity Tolerance to frustration Step 2: Constant Making decision Tolerance to ambiguity Step 3: Constant Making decision
-0.150 -0.022 -0.025
t 59.914 -1.931 -0.253 -0.305
P 0.000 0.055 0.800 0.761
-0.156 -0.034
60.274 -2.124 -0.463
0.000 0.035 0.644
-0.169
76.012 -2.480
0.000 0.014
DISCUSSION The practice of adherence behaviors in patients with type 2 diabetes can be modulate by psychological and social variables that includes stress, depression and lack of perceived social support (Fisher, Skaff, Mullan, Arean, Mohr, Masharani, Glasgow and Laurencin, 2007; Glasgow and Toobert, 1988; Lin, Olvera, Katon, Ciechanowsli, Von Korff, Ludman et al., 2004; Polonsly, Anderson, Lohrer, Welch, Jacobson, Aponte and Schwartz, 1995). In this study, most of the patients mentioned that they practiced the medication-to-adherence behavior in a consistent way, which what was predicted by one stress-related situation in it is making decision modality. To speak of making decision supposes to face situations, as much of daily life as other specific related to the disease and the treatment in himself, which the patients evaluate like potentially disturbing. Whereas making decision is a psychological process, when a patient chooses to consume or not the medication, not only depend of the information available, as well as of it is own competential resources to actually translate this information in competent adherence behaviors (Piña and Sánchez-Sosa, 2007). If it is considered that the mean score obtained by the patients of this sample in the index was of 4.07, a possible rank of 3 to 30 points, in general terms can be assured that this group of patients does not perceive experiencing stress at the time of making decisions with relation to the medicationconsumption behavior. Thus, if patients do not perceive or experiencing stress, there is a high probability to the patients adjusts to the requirements imposed by the situation, practicing the medication-consumption behavior in a consistent as well as efficient way. Although in this study did not evaluate the information level on the disease and treatment, we can suppose that the patients of this study have the necessary and sufficient information on both aspects, which to seem facilitate the correct making decision process and to practice the adherence behaviors in a competent way (Miller and Drotar, 2003, 2005). However, this must be taking with caution because it would be necessary to point out that of
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the total of patients, only 71 (31.6%) maintenance his glucose level in blood below 200 Mmol/L, which constitutes, along with glycated hemoglobin, two of the health measures for validate the adherence behaviors (Gómez, Zuñiga, García de León and Couttolenc, 2002; Lerman-Garber, Barrón-Uribe, Calzada-León, Mercado-Atri, Vidal-Tamayo, Quintana et al., 2003). In effect, in other studies have been commented on how, even though patients with type 2 diabetes of both sexes reported that they are 100% adherent-to-treatment, in many occasions the results provided by the traditional clinical measures do not seem to correspond directly with the practice of adherence behaviors (Hill-Briggs et al, 2005; Pladevall, Williams, Potts, Divine, Xi and Lafata, 2004; Stys and Kulkarni, 2007). Despite of the results presented here and of the previous considerations, it is necessary to mention several limitations in our study. First, because one worked with a sample by availability of two family medicine units of an institution of social security, it is possible that by the own characteristics of the participants there has been a slant in the selection of the sample. Second, before the absence of two of the other clinical measures —glycated haemoglobin and blood pressure, mainly—, we cannot to go beyond which the data say by single himself; that is to say, that in terms of self-report most of the participants are adherents to the medical treatment. Finally and in relation to the previous point, the possibility than an over report actually of the evaluated behavior here was occurred. Because the studies on stress and it is relation with the adherence behaviors in patients with diabetes diagnosis mellitus type 2 have been demonstrated contradictory results, as much in which it does to the "sort" of stress which they consider like a his measurement and the evaluation of his effects on the adherence behaviors and the operation of the endocrine system in individual (Lloyd et al., 2005), it will be necessary to conduct other studies in which along with the instruments use we evaluate other measures —pill count or self-record—, with the additional objective to eliminate the sources of error attributable to the instruments (Asimakopoulou and Hampson, 2005). Additionally it will be necessary to fulfill two more tasks, one of which include working with a one more representative sample, incorporating for this intention to people with diabetes of both sexes of other two institutions of social security, and to consider the inclusion of other clinical measures, specifically glycated hemoglobin and blood pressure, with the main objective to demonstrate if in the continuous of interaction the consistent and efficient practice of the adherence behaviors influence on decisive way those clinical measures, and consequently, on the operation of the endocrine system (e.g., Baum and Posluszny, 1999; Gonder-Frederick, Cox and Ritterband, 2002).
REFERENCES Asimakopoulou, K. G., and Hampson, S. E. (2005). Biases in self-reports of self-care behaviours in type 2 diabetes. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 10, 305-315. Baum, A. and Posluszny, D.M. (1999). Health psychology: Mapping biobehavioral contributions to health and illness. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 137-163. Cramer, J. A. (2004). A systematic review of adherence with medications for diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27, 1218-1224. DiMatteo, M. R. P. (2004). Variations in patients' adherence to medical recommendations: a quantitative review of 50 years of research. Medicine Care, 42, 200-209.
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Durán-Varela, B. R., Rivera-Chavira, B., and Franco-Gallego, E. (2001). Pharmacological therapy compliance in diabetes [In Spanish]. Salud Pública de México, 43, 233-236. Fisher, L., Skaff, M. M., Mullan, J. T., Arean, P., Mohr, D., Masharani, U., Glasgow, R., and Laurencin, G. (2007). Clinical depression versus distress among patients with type 2 diabetes. Not just a question of semantics. Diabetes Care, 30, 542-548. Garay-Sevilla, M. E., Malacara, J. M., González-Contreras, E., Wróbel-Zasada, K., WróbelKaczmarczyk, K., and Gutiérrez-Roa, A. (2000). Perceived psychological stress in diabetes mellitus type 2. Revista de Investigación Clínica, 52, 241-245. Gómez, V., Zúñiga, S., García de León, E., and Couttolenc, M. I. (2002). Control of type 2 diabetes. The glucose index as indicator [In Spanish]. Revista Médica del IMSS, 40, 281284. Gonder-Frederick, L. A., Cox, D. J., and Ritterband, L. M. (2002). Diabetes and behavioral medicine: The second decade. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 611625. Glascow, R. E. and Toobert, D. J. (1988). Social environment and regimen adherence among type II diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 11, 377-386. Hernández-Ronquillo, L., Téllez-Zenteno, J. F., Garduño-Espinosa, J., and González-Acevez, E. (2003). Factors associated with therapy noncompliance in type-2 diabetes patients. Salud Pública de México, 45, 191-197. Hill-Briggs, F., Gary, T. L., Bone, L. R., Hill, M. N., Levine, D. M., and Brancarti, F. L. (2005). Medication adherence and diabetes control in urban African Americans with type 2 diabetes. Health Psychology, 24, 349-357. Kelley, K.W. (1985). Immunological consequences of changing environmental stimuli. In G.P. Moberg (ed.), Animal Stress (pp. 193-223). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Association. Landeros, E. A. (2000). Epidemiological review of diabetes mellitus [In Spanish]. Revista Mexicana de Enfermería Cardiológica, 8, 56-69. Lazarus, R. and Folkman, S (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Lerman-Garber, I., Barrón-Uribe, C., Calzada-León, R., Mercado-Atri, M., Vidal-Tamayo, R., Quintana, S. et al. (2003). Emotional dysfunction associated with diabetes in Mexican adolescents and young adults with type-1 diabetes. Salud Pública de México, 45, 13-18. Levine, S. (1985). A definition of stress. In G.P. Moberg (ed.), Animal Stress (pp. 51-69). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Association. Lin, E. H. B., Olvera, M., Katon, W., Ciechanowski, P., Von Korff, M., Ludman, E. J. et al. (2004). Relationship of depression and diabetes self-care, medication adherence, and preventive care. Diabetes Care, 27, 2154-2160. Lloyd, C., Smith, J., and Weinger, K. (2005). Stress and diabetes: A review of links. Diabetes Spectrum, 18, 121-127. Miller, V. A. and Drotar, D. (2003). Discrepancies between mother and adolescent perception of diabetes related decision-making autonomy and their relationship to diabetes-related conflict and adherence treatment. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28, 265-274. Miller, V. A. and Drotar, D. (2005). Decision-making competence and adherence to treatment in adolescents with diabetes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (doi: 19.1093/jpepsy/jsj122).
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Maddigan, S. L., Feeny, D.H., Majundar, S. R., Farris, K. B., and Johnson, J. A. (2006). Understanding the determinants of health for people with type 2 diabetes. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1649-1655. Moberg, G. P. (1985). Influence of stress on reproduction measure of well-being. In G. P. Moberg (ed.), Animal Stress (pp. 245-167). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Association. Ortiz, M. (2006). Stress, coping style, and treatment adherence suffering from type I diabetes [In Spanish]. Terapia Psicológica, 24, 139-148. Ortiz, M. and Ortiz, E. (2005). Psychological factors associated to patient's treatment compliance in children diabetic teenagers [In Spanish]. Revista Médica de Chile, 133, 307-313. Piña, J. A., Corrales, A.E., Valencia, M. A., and Mungaray, K. (2006). Validation of a short scale that measure stress related events in HIV positive patients [In Spanish]. Terapia Psicológica, 24, 15-21. Piña, J..A and Sánchez-Sosa, J. J. (2007). A psychological model for the research of treatment adherence behaviors in persons with HIV [In Spanish]. Universitas Psychologica, 6, 397405. Pladevall, M., Williams, L. K., Potts, L. A., Divine, G., Xi, G., and Lafata, J. E. (2004). Clinical outcomes and adherence to medications measured by claims data in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27, 2800-2805. Polonsky, W. H., Anderson, B. J., Lohrer, P. A., Welch, G., Jacobson, A. M., Aponte. J. E., and Schwartz, C. E. (1995). Assessment of diabetes-related distress. Diabetes Care, 18, 754-760. Ribes, E. (1990). Health Psychology: A conceptual analysis [In Spanish]. Barcelona: Editorial Martínez Roca. Samaniego, R. A. and Álvarez, J. (2006). Illness's control in patient suffering mellitus type 2 diabetes: A Monterrey's sample [In Spanish]. Psicología y Salud, 16, 63-70. Sánchez-Sosa, J. J. (2002). Treatment adherence: The role of behavioral mechanism and some implications for health care interventions. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 19, 85-92. Snowling, N. J. and Hopkins, W.G. (2006). Effects of different models of exercise training on glucose control and risk factors complication in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 29, 2518-2527. Stys, A. M. and Kulkarni, K. (2007). Identification of self-care behaviors and adoption of lifestyle changes results in sustained glucose control and reduction of comorbities in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Spectrum, 20, 55-58. Surwit, R. S., Feinglos. M. N., and Schneider, M. S. (1992). Stress and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 10, 1413-1422. Wen, L. K., Sheperd, M. D., and Porchman, M. L. (2004). Family support, diet, and excercise among older Mexican Americans with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Educator, 30, 980-993.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
RESPIRATORY HABITS, HEALTH AND LIFESTYLE Miguel López Torres¹ Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico.
ABSTRACT This paper remarks the importance of breathing as a fundamental function in the development of physiological and psychological processes that have an effect on the health level of the persons, for the reason that even of its evident importance this variable has received relative low attention or has been ignored in applied psychophysiology. Main characteristics of breathing are explained, as well as the importance and relationships with emotions, and with the physical and psychological health level of the persons. Also, the convenience of research the breathing habits and its correlations with the health level and life quality from a life style perspective are presented.
Keywords: breathing, emotions, health level, life quality, life styles
RESUMEN En este trabajo se destaca la importancia que tiene la respiración como una función fundamental para el desarrollo de los procesos fisiológicos y psicológicos que repercuten en el nivel de salud de las personas, ya que a pesar de su evidente importancia, esta variable ha recibido relativamente poca atención o ha sido pasada por alto en la psicofisiología aplicada. Se explican las características de la respiración, así como la importancia y relaciones que tiene con las emociones, y el estado de salud físico y psicológico de las personas. Además, se plantea la conveniencia de investigar los hábitos respiratorios y sus correlaciones con el estado de salud y calidad de vida desde la perspectiva de los estilos de vida.
Palabras clave: respiración, emociones, nivel de salud, calidad de vida, estilos de vida
INTRODUCTION Upon simple examination, breathing seems to be a relatively simple function to understand, especially at the physiological and cellular level. The general concept that is found in classical manuals of physiology concerning the function of the ―respiratory system‖ and its complementary relation to the ―circulatory system‖ is sufficiently clear, as well as biochemical and neurophysiologic mechanisms related to the auto regulation and automation
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of the capture of oxygen by the lungs and its distribution to all of the body‘s cells through the heart and circulatory system, completing its distribution by the expulsion of carbon dioxide, carbon, water and other residue through the same tract but toward the opposite direction (Guz, 1997; Fokkema, 1999). From this perspective, respiration is the result of homeostatic mechanisms (Poon, 1993) which include the participation of neuronal ponto-medular networks in charge of regulating and adapting to the variable requirements of cellular oxygenation depending on the body‘s metabolic changes. However, these mechanisms only partially explain respiration since as has been indicated by Guz (1997), they would only correspond to automatic reflex or involuntary respiration that is mainly observed during stages of sleep in slow waves or in a coma, assuming that the respiratory ponto-medular oscillator is found intact and adequately functioning. In an article of the topic, Guz (1997) warns that the previously mentioned concept does not explain other important aspects of this activity such as voluntary respiration or the manner in which coordination is established between exhaling, phonation and articulation of language. It also does not explain the effect and correlation on the emotional and cognitive states of breathing. Ley (1994) indicates that the effect of increased metabolic demand (for example, doing exercise) is already recognized, as well as emotion (e.g. anger, fear, embarrassment or sexual activity) and thoughts concerning respiration, but little is known concerning the inverse relationship, the effect that voluntary respiration may have on thoughts and emotions. This allows to widen the respiration concept and consider it to be ―a fundamental behavioral manifestation of the psychological and physiological state of human beings‖ (Ley, 1994) which can be considered as a dependent variable reflecting changes in emotion, cognition, behavior, but also as an independent variable that affects or influences those same processes. Within Psychology, respiration is a psycho-physiological type of variable, commonly found in polygraph records together with electroencephalograms, electrocardiograms, electromyogrammes, and galvanic responses of the skin, among others. However, it is a variable that has received relatively little attention (Clark & Hirschman, 1990) or that has been ignored in applied psycho-physiology (Montgomery, 1994) in spite of its obvious importance.
IMPORTANCE OF AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATION Respiration marks the beginning as well as the end of an individual‘s life. We born with the first inhalation and we die with the last exhalation. It is the core of body‘s functions. The body may be deprived of food or water and a person can survive for days or weeks, but when there is no oxygen for a few minutes, the person dies. Thus, its vital importance can be deduced from good or adequate respiration in the normal development of physiological as well as psychological functions of all the individuals. While at rest, respiration usually has a frequency of sixteen to eighteen breaths per minute. It is very interesting that an average person takes in approximately 500 c.c. of air during a normal inhalation and, without a doubt, during deep respiration, a person can take in around 3000 c.c. of air. In other words, a person can raise it up to six times the normal amount. For studying and analyzing, it is divided into three phases or successive stages (Fokkema, 1999):
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1. Inspiration: It refers to inhalation or the incorporation of air into the lungs, an activity mainly determined by contraction of the diaphragm, stimulated by the phrenic nerve. 2. Post inspiration: Passive expiration or retention: Finalization of the entrance of air because it is inhibited by the phrenic nerve and there is a gradual relaxation of the diaphragm. 3. Expiration: It is the phase of exhaling or expulsing air from the lungs, caused by contraction of the abdominal muscles. 4. These phases are important for the analysis of respiratory problems caused by emotional, cognitive and behavioral variables. But the aspect that is probably the most important for respiration is the double control mechanism, since it is a completely automatic response that can also be controlled voluntarily. No other autonomous response is so easily controlled in a voluntary manner. It is precisely this double control mechanism that allows it to be a dependent or independent variable, according to the manner the design of the study is handled. In other words, Ley (1994) suggests that due to this property, breathing establishes a unique relationship between psychology and physiology.
RESPIRATION AND EMOTION The first observations of relationships between respiration and emotional processes were made in the field of clinical practice and they were gradually corroborated by normal subjects. For example, Suess, Alexander, Smith, Sweeney & Marion (1980) reported a preliminary study concerning the relationship between the response of hyperventilation and a situation involving anxiety (stress) that was carried out with 29 normal subjects, who were individually submitted to an experimental stress condition in which they had to make a perceptual judgment with the threat of receiving an electric shock if they surpassed a certain number of errors. The CO2 level, respiratory frequency, cardiac frequency and the state of anxiety (self-reported) were recorded. A decrease in the level of CO2 was observed along with an increase in respiratory frequency, as well as an increase in cardiac frequency and anxiety scores. Among other things, the results support that hyperventilation can also present itself in normal people in stressful situations and that the evaluation of the respiratory response to stress is essential for understanding how respiratory mechanisms change in order to let respiratory symptoms occur which are produced as a reaction to stress. The authors explain that the respiratory system regulates ventilation to maintain carbon dioxide (CO2) pressure levels and oxygen (O2) in arterial blood at approximately 40 mmHg and 100 mmHg, respectively, at sea level. They indicate that these levels assure good oxygenation as well as an adequate elimination of CO2 and a regulation of blood acidity. They assume that stress causes changes in respiration (increasing it), which at the same time causes an increase in the concentrations of pulmonary CO2 which is a product of metabolism since when alveolar ventilation is greater than necessary, it is not able to efficiently eliminate CO2; increasing at the same time the pressure and an imbalance in blood ph. The authors explain that if the degree of stress is very high and prolonged, this respiratory pattern can have different effects in physiological and psychological levels.
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In that sense, Clark, Salkovsky & Chalkley (1985) present a model that suggests that hyperventilation can play a very important role in causing panic attacks. In this model, it is suggested that an increase in respiratory ventilation that occurs in stressful states, produces a decrease in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and an increase of pH in blood. It is explained that these changes in blood chemistry cause a series of disagreeable body sensations such as dizziness, blurred vision, numbness, trembling hands and feet, tachycardia, nausea, choking and suffocation; these negative bodily sensations are linked to the perception of a threat that causes initial apprehension in the subject, who at the same time increases his/her respiratory frequency even more, creating a vicious circle that, according to the model, end in a panic attack. In the analysis, they indicate that many of the sensations people experiment during panic attacks are more related to an increase in breathing (over breathing), than to the object or situation provoking them. For that reason, they propose that if people are taught to avoid hyperventilation with stress, panic attacks would be prevented. To corroborate this, they designed a respiration technique (called slow respiration) that basically consists of using an audio tape recording marked with a show rhythm that the subjects must match. They designed a study with 18 patients referred from ambulatory psychiatric departments who presented frequent panic attacks (13 women, 5 men). Two groups were formed: situational patients (n=11) and non-situational patients (n=7). Training was given in slow respiration techniques (SR) for two weeks. The results showed a significant decrease in the frequency of panic attacks and a decrease in self-reported fear. The results were the same after a 6 month and 2 year follow-up. In another study, Clark & Hirschman (1990), evaluated the effect of paused respiration (PR) on the indexes and self-reports of affective states in alcoholic patients with high rates of anxiety. This technique also uses an audio tape recording with two alternated tones lasting three seconds each, giving a rhythm of ten cycles per second. The study was carried out with 36 hospitalized alcoholic patients with high levels of anxiety who were randomly assigned to the experimental group (paused respiration) and control (attention). Before and after each session, self-scales of tension and states of anxiety were recorded. The results indicated that the patients in the paused respiration (PR) group had a greater reduction in tension in the self reports on the state of anxiety and skin conductance when compared to patients in the control group. It was concluded that paused respiration is a self-control strategy easily learned and it could potentially be a useful therapeutic tool. The relationship between the sensations of anxiety and hyperventilation was investigated with normal subjects in a study (Peper & MacHose, 1993) with 35 volunteers, 14 men and 21 women, who had an average age of 40.6 years. The subjects were trained in the slow diaphragmatic respiration (SDR) technique, after which the levels of anxiety were measured; this condition was alternated with a phase of respiration with subjective exhalation of 70% air (hyperventilation). The results show that the subjects reported lower levels of anxiety (p<.0005) in the condition of diaphragmatic respiration than in the condition of hyperventilation. The authors suggest that the changes in respiratory patterns may affect levels of anxiety.
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TYPES OF RESPIRATION Thus, two types of well-differentiated respiration patterns can be established, which have opposite effects on emotional, cognitive and behavioral processes. Bacon & Popen (1985) indicate that the respiratory pattern that has been used for therapeutic means has one of the following characteristics: the subject pays attention to the process, breaths (inspires) through his nose, from his diaphragm, with a regular and calm rhythm. On the other hand, we have a pattern of hyperventilation, rapid respiration, suffocated or strained respiration, which has negative effects on physiological as well as psychological levels. Fokkema (1999) defines strained respiration as a natural respiratory pattern (because it is not pathological by itself), that it is not necessarily recognized by the person and that change upon modifying the emotional state, has cardio-vascular implications, and it is associated with social, cognitive, emotional factors, with the defensive behavior and, moreover with inhibition of active behavior. Although this respiratory pattern has been studied in relation to some problems such as stuttering, constipation, incontinence, and an increase in blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver; never the less, this has not been dealt with much as a topic of research in and of itself. In particular, this respiratory pattern occurs in people with alterations in their emotional states such as fear or tension; that is to say, that the emotional and cognitive changes can induce changes in the regulation of the flow of air that is breathed. He explains that when this pattern occurs frequently, it can have some pathological effects. For example, it can contribute to hypertension and diverse cardiopathies. This author proposes a relationship between the physiological responses to stress (changes in the cardiovascular system, an increase in intra-thoracic and abdominal pressure, etc.) with the development of cardiac problems and he suggests that strained respiration can be a bridge between behavioral processes and cardiac pathologies.
RESPIRATION AND HEALTH The relationship between respiration and the development of ―physical‖ diseases has also been studied over the years. Thus, for example, Sitzmen, Kamiya & Johnston (1982) cite studies done in the fifties in which exploration began on the effect of respiration on the body‘s metabolism. They investigated the effect of a decrease in respiratory frequency, learned through biological feedback techniques, for the treatment of pulmonary disease. They found if patients with chronic bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema are taught to decrease respiratory frequency, this would cause an increase in the volume of air breathed, improving the relationship between ventilation and perfusion, upon reducing the residual functional capacity and the prolonged exhalations would allow for different areas of the lungs to empty with some constant exhalations that last longer. The study was carried out with four ambulatory patients between the ages of 50 and 69 years, two with severe chronic pulmonary obstruction and the other two with moderate obstruction. Three training sessions were programmed per week for one month in which 30 minutes were dedicated to giving visual feedback on cardiac frequency, so that the subjects learn to decrease the frequency. After training, three of the patients achieved an important decrease in their respiratory frequency and an increase in the volume of air breathed; the fourth patient presented fluctuations with these measures. As far as the subjective aspect is concerned, the four patients reported
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positive effects. Although this study has methodological limitations, the authors consider the results to be promising but they await further studies for confirmation. In an article reviewing pulmonary rehabilitation in patients with chronic pulmonary obstruction, Celli (1995) indicates that some respiratory training techniques are effective for achieving a decrease in the frequency of respiration, in addition to increasing the respiratory volume in these patients and, for that reason, there is a beneficial increase in oxygenation. However, they clarify that this effect seems to be temporary since there is no other data to confirm long-term permanence. Something very interesting is that it shows that it has been demonstrated that 15 to 20 rehabilitation sessions that include techniques for respiratory exercises, relaxation techniques, in addition to providing patients with reliable information concerning the nature of the problem, are more effective for reducing anxiety in patients with this type of problem than an equal number of psychotherapy sessions. Thus, as Labiano indicates (1996), respiration may appear to be an action that is too simple by itself and of no great importance for a person‘s state of health; however, as more is learned about the dynamic interactions with emotional, cognitive and behavioral processes, the positive therapeutic and psychotherapeutic effects have also been explored. In fact, Labiano (1996) reports that in the field of behavioral medicine, there is a growing interest in the use of different respiration techniques within programs or treatments for the control of problems related to a maladjustment in the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, such as states of anxiety, phobias, asthma, stress, hypertension, stuttering, alterations in muscular tension, circulatory problems, digestive alterations, among others. The therapeutic and psychotherapeutic effects of respiration have also been explored from other theoretical and methodological perspectives. For example, in the field of so-called body therapies, art therapies (movement, drama, music), and expressive therapies, respiration is a very important element. In fact, Buchholz (1994) explains that in Germany there are now many schools of breathing therapy that have been developed based on the work done by Elsa Gindler (1885-1961), whose suppositions were: a recognition of the relationship between the physical, emotional and ―spiritual‖ (although the management of this aspect is not defined or clarified) states; the re-establishment of the body‘s ―natural laws‖; and the development of a ―body-awareness that establishes optimum conditions for continuous respiration. As can be seen, these approaches are very different from the ones that are supposedly dealt with within the field of ―academic‖ psychology and their corresponding psychotherapeutic techniques. However, Buchholz (1994) affirms that this approximation and his respiratory techniques have been adopted by private psychotherapists as a complementary technique for emotional disorders. But it is also used as a paramedical therapy (such as physiotherapy) for the treatment of asthma and chronic bronchitis, and it is used as part of preventive programs for back problems (vertebral column), stress symptoms, cardiac and circulatory problems, insomnia, among others. Moreover, he suggests that respiratory therapy can be considered to be a learning or educational process instead of a direct form of therapy. He adds that due to the stress that is prevalent in persons‘ daily life, it would be of great help to develop greater consciousness and control of respiration. That is to say, that these techniques can be used not only as therapeutic means, but it can also be taught to healthy persons with the goal of achieving better respiratory habits, greater self control, personal development, improvement in life style (with preventive means) or to increase the quality of life. In an attempt to sum up the most important aspects of respiration, Buchholz (1994) proposed the following:
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Respiration is the most basic bodily function. It is more vital than drinking water, eating, sleeping, or any other biological need. Thus, just as we develop eating and drinking habits that can be negative for our wellbeing and health, inadequate respiration habits can be developed causing fatigue, weakness or illnesses. People who breathe correctly have optimum coordination of muscles used for respiration (mainly the diaphragm, intercostals muscles, back, neck, throat and chest). Respiration provides the strength and resonance required for speaking in a loud voice and for yelling. It helps to avoid rapid fatigue, provides flexibility and readiness for responses to changing conditions in the environment. It is eutonic. The effect of respiration is explained by the intervention of the gamma system training for muscular control. Inadequate respiratory habits produce a lack of eutony and flexibility and a change or reduction in these restrictive patterns cause vitality in respiratory muscles and in the entire body , in general. However, more methodologically valid experimental studies are needed to demonstrate the potential of the respiratory process, to study the psycho physiological effects that are caused by different voluntary variations in the same and to demonstrate that these variations can significantly modify auto-regulatory level of individuals.
OTHER TRADITIONS OR PERSPECTIVES OF RESPIRATION It is necessary to mention briefly that there is a great deal of information on oriental traditions and disciplines such as yoga, that have been developed (before its use in the west) with a different perspective concerning the function and properties of respiration (Lyengar, 1997). Private exercises are carried out to help to develop respiratory control (among other things). It is difficult to have a valid and definitive opinion concerning that abundant and very elaborate information since the difference between this oriental cultural approaches is very notorious as far as conceptualization and practical management of respiration is concerned when it is compared with Western science. With all of this, upon performing a preliminary analysis, it can be found many concepts and practices (such as prana and pranayama) with an obvious ideological burden, a mix of religion and esotericism. However, it may be recommendable and productive to carefully review these approaches to explore the possibilities of updating, reinterpreting and re-addressing some aspects of these practices to evaluate them from an adequate scientific perspective.
LIFESTYLES AND HEALTH In their book on lifestyles, Pastor and Balaguer (1999) indicate that in the area of health, the concept of lifestyles was used to refer to behaviors that have repercussions on health problems and an increasing interest has grown in establishing interaction between the health
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state and lifestyle of persons, due to the fact that greater morbidity and mortality is observed due to non-infectious diseases that are related to lifestyles and environmental factors. For example, consumption of tobacco, alcohol, foods high in fats and sugars, in addition to the negligence when driving are related to the three major causes of death which are: cardiovascular diseases, cancer and traffic accidents. They consider a sedentary lifestyle is a consequence of technological progress and an exaggerated lifestyle but it is a factor that contributes to the development and worsening of different physical health problems such as cardiovascular problems, obesity, high levels of cholesterol, osteoporosis and diabetes, in addition to behavioral problems such as anxiety, depression and unhealthy moods or frames of mind. However, nothing is mentioned concerning the relationship between poor respiratory habits and states of health. On the other hand, these authors also indicate (Pastor & Balaguer, 1999) that there are lifestyles which have behaviors that contribute to improving health and the quality of life in people, for example: maintaining an adequate program of exercise or physical activity, having a healthy and balanced nutrition, good personal hygiene, prudent driving, the habit of sleeping sufficiently, etc. The authors affirm that healthy lifestyles result in preventing illnesses and in promoting or improving health, physical, psychological and social well-being. In contrast to sedentary lifestyles, exercise is considered to be a positive habit that contributes to the regulation and control of obesity, hypertension, cholesterol, greatly decreasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and problems, arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis and Type II diabetes, in addition to promoting more positive moods, decreasing depression and anxiety, increasing self-esteem and improving cognition. Upon reconsidering the main variables that have been investigated in studies on healthy lifestyles, they include the following: Alcohol consumption, tobacco consumption, dietary habits, physical activity, consumption of drugs and medications, habits for relaxation, accidents and risky behaviors and the prevention of the same, dental hygiene, medical checkups, leisure activities, sexual behavior, appearance and personal cleanliness, among others. But, once again it can be observed that they do not include explicit respiration habits. As can be observed, respiratory habits have not been included in the variables to be investigated in spite of their very important interaction with physical and psychological states of health. Thus, the following questions spring forth: Can respiratory habits be studied and correlated with the state of health and quality of life from the perspective of lifestyles? In that sense, is a line of research justified? Should it be done? What methodology and strategies of research would be most adequate? Which instruments should be used? As well as other related questions. It has already been observed that there is sufficient evidence to support the importance of respiration in the treatment or rehabilitation of different types of physical and psychological health problems. In view of this, one must question the characteristics of respiratory habits in the population: How do people breathe? What are most people‘s respiratory habits like? What differences exist between different groups as far a sex, age, education, profession, social level, etc.? How are respiratory habits developed? How does one acquire or learn voluntary control of respiration? What correlation does respiration have with the level of health and the level of physical condition? What effect do respiratory habits have on the quality of life? What is the social impact of incorrect respiratory habits? What positive and negative consequences does adequate or inadequate respiration have? As well as many more. These questions may justify a line of research that attempts to answer those questions, through the development of an epistemologically well-founded theoretical framework, as well
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as a methodology (or methodologies) of investigation and valid and reliable intervention techniques that can be applied to a wide range of studies: a) Epidemiological studies on the respiratory habits of the general population. b) Experimental laboratory studies to evaluate the effect and correlation of respiratory patterns on emotional, cognitive and behavioral patterns. c) Evaluations of clinical or preventive applications, for learning and controlling respiratory patterns. Obviously it is very difficult to answer all of the questions set forth in a rapid, sole and conclusive manner. As a matter of fact, the only thing that is attempted here is to justify lines of work inside study respiration so as to evaluate and identify its interaction with emotional, cognitive and behavioral processes.
REFERENCES Bacon, M. & Poppen, R. (1985). A Behavioral Analysis of Diaphragmatic Breathing and its Effects on Periphereal Temperature. J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat, 16, 1, 15-21 Buchholz, I. (1994). Breathing, Voice, and Movemet Therapy: Applications to Brething Disorders. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 19, 2, 141-153. Celli. B. R. (1995). Pulmonary Rehabilitation in patients with COPD. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 152, 861-864. Chi-Sang, P. (1993). Adaptative Neural Network that Subserves Optimal Homeostatic Control of Breathing. Analisis of Biomedical Engineering, 21, 501-508. Clark, D.M., Salkovskis, P.M. & Chalkley, A.J. (1985). Respiratory Control as a Treatment for Panic Attacks. J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 16, 1, 22-30. Clark, M.E. & Hirschman, R. (1990). Effects of Paced Respiration in a Clinical Population. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 15, 3, 273-285. Fokkema, D.S. (1999). The psychobiology of strained breathing and its cardiovascular implications: A functional system review. Psychophysiology, 36, 164-175. Gandevia, S.C., Allen, G.M., Butler, J.E., Gorman, R.B. & McKenzie, D.K. (1998). Human Respiratory Muscles : Sensations, Reflexes and Fatiguability. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiolog, 25, 757-763. Guz, A. (1997). Brain, breathing and breathlessness. Respiration Physiology, 109, 197-204. Iyengar, B. (1997). Luz sobre el pranayama. Kairós: Barcelona. Labiano, L. M. (1996). La técnica de la respiración: Aportes psicoterapéuticos. Salud Mental, 19, 4, 31-35. Ley, R. (1994). An Introduction to the Psychophysiology of Breathing. Biofeedback and SelfRegulation, 19, 2, 95-96. Montgomery, G. T. (1994). Slowed Respiration Training. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 19, 3, 211-225. Morton, A. R., King, K., Papalia, S., Goodman, C., Turley, K.R. & Wilmore, J.H. (1995). Comparison of Maximal Oxygen Consumption with Oral and Nasal Breathing. The Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 23, 3, 51-55.
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Palmer, L.K. (1995). Effects of a Walking Program on Attributional Style, Deppresion, and Self-esteem in Women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, 891-898. Pastor, Y. & Balaguer I. (1999). Estilo de Vida y Salud. Madrid: Albatros Educación. Peper, E. & MacHose, M. (1993). Sympton Prescription: Inducing Anxiety by 70% Exhalation. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 18, 3, 133-139. Poon, Ch. S. (1993). Adaptative Neural Network that Subserves Optimal Homeostatic Control of Breathing. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 21, 501-508. Saroea, H. G. (1993). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Postgraduate Medicine, 94, 2, 113-122. Sitzman, J., Kamiya, J. & Johnston, J. (1983). Biofeedback Training for Reduced Respiratory Rate in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Preliminary Study. Nursing Research, 32, 4, 218-223. Sockrider, M. (1996). The respiratory effects of passive tobacco smoking. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, 2, 129-133. Suess, W.M., Alexander, B. A., Smith, D.D., Sweeney, H.W. & Marion, R.J. (1980). The Effects of Psychological Stress on Respiration: A Preliminary Study of Anxiety and Hyperventilation. Psychophysiology, 17, 6, 535-540.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
PATH ANALYSIS MODELS VERSUS LATENT VARIABLE MODELS: EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH APPROACHES María Noel Rodríguez Ayán1, Mónica Teresa González Ramirez2 , Miguel Ángel Ruiz Díaz3 1
2
Universidad de la República, Uruguay, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, México and 3 Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España.
ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to compare partially disaggregated structural models, using item parcels as indicators of latent variables, and path analysis models, assuming totally aggregated items make up measurements without errors of the constructs. Data come from two empirical studies: one focused on education and another one focused on health, in such a way we can prove the constructs evaluated do not interfere with methodological results showed. The results in both studies are consistent. On one hand, the use of items parcels as indicators of the constructs rather than path models increase the value of the parameters in absolute value, and residual variance is reduced. This is reflected in an increase of the explained variance by the models. Parcel construction method does not seem to be a relevant factor. On the other hand, goodness-of-fit indexes of path models show a better fit. Summarizing, latent variable models would be better fitted to reality, improving the percentage of explained variance, but losing fit due to the higher number of parameters to be estimated.
Keywords: structural equation models, latent variable models, path analysis
RESUMEN En este trabajo se comparan modelos estructurales parcialmente desagregados, empleando agrupaciones de ítems (item parcels) como indicadores de las variables latentes, con modelos de rutas, en los que se asume que los ítems totalmente agregados constituyen medidas sin error de los constructos. Los datos proceden de dos estudios empíricos, uno con enfoque educativo y otro con enfoque en salud, de modo de Address for correspondence: Facultad de Psicologia, Mutualismo 110, Col. Mitras Centro, 64460 Monterrey, N.L., México. Phone: (52) (81)-8333-7859; Fax: (52) (81) 8348-3781. E-mail:
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María Noel Rodríguez Ayán, Mónica Teresa González Ramirez et al. evidenciar que los constructos evaluados no interfieren con los hallazgos metodológicos que se presentan. Los resultados de ambos estudios son consistentes. Por un lado, el uso de grupos de ítems como indicadores de los constructos frente los modelos de rutas incrementa el valor de los parámetros en valor absoluto y disminuye la varianza residual, lo que se ve reflejado en un aumento de la varianza explicada por los modelos. La estrategia de construcción de tales agrupaciones no parece ser un factor relevante. Por otro lado, los estadísticos de bondad de ajuste presentan valores más cercanos a lo ideal en los modelos de rutas. Sintetizando, los modelos con variables latentes se ajustarían mejor a la realidad, mejorando el porcentaje de varianza explicada, pero perdiendo ajuste al estimar un mayor número de parámetros.
Palabras clave: ecuaciones estructurales, variables latentes, modelo de rutas.
INTRODUCTION Recently, the number of articles published in refereed journals, where structural equation models (SEM), are used as analysis strategy, has increased. Structural models offer some advantages over the ordinary linear regression ones. Among them, the following can be mentioned . First, they allow the use of latent variables in the model specification; the latent variables represent the construct with no measurement errors effect, similar to the common factor model in factor analysis; when modeling the relation between latent variables, the estimated effects are not influenced by measurement error. Second, in SEM, error terms are allowed to correlate, thus, unlike regression modeling, colinearity between predictive variables does not interfere in the estimation of regression coefficients . Finally, it is possible to link in sequence the effect of different variables, allowing a dependent variable to become a predictor of another variable, and to estimate both effects simultaneously rather than successively (Gonzalez, Landero y Ruiz, 2008). However, there are issues which need to be resolved in structural modeling. Several empirical studies have suggested the use of item parcels as construct indicators as a parsimonious alternative to latent variable models in which all items of the one-dimensional scale are included in the model (e.g., Cattell and Burdsal, 1975; Bandalos, 2002; Bandalos y Finney, 2001; Little, Cunningham, Shahar and Widaman, (2002); Marsh, Hau, Balla and Grayson, 1998; Nasser and Takahashi, 2003). When a construct is measured by a scale composed by multiple items, different aggregation levels of latent variable indicators can be considered. On one extreme, we find totally disaggregated models, in which each item serves as an indicator. On the other extreme, the totally aggregated models are located, in which it is assumed that the sum (or the average) of all items composing the scale is an error-free measurement of the underlaying construct. If each construct is measured by a single scale, each construct will have only one indicator, hence, the resulting model will be a path model; if, on the other hand, more than one scale per construct is used, the model will be a latent variable model. Partially disaggregated models are placed in an intermediate situation, where some items, not all, are added or averaged, resulting in parcels or composites. These are latent variable models, in which parcels serve as constructs indicators. For a review on aggregation levels see Coffman and MacCallum (2005).
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Analysis of existing bibliography about items parceling shows that some authors have reviewed the effect of different factors on estimates, estimate errors and goodness of fit indexes, e.g., parcel dimensionality (Bandalos, 2002; Kim and Hagtvet, 2003), parcel construction (Bandalos, 2002; Hagtvet and Solhaug, 2005; Nasser and Wisenbaker, 2006; Rogers and Schmitt, 2004), the number of parcels per construct, and the number of items per parcel (Bandalos, 2002; Nasser and Wisenbaker, 2006). The use of item parceling as an alternative for path models has been scarcely studied, and we have only found the paper by Coffman and MacCallum‘s (2005). Among those factors previously mentioned which might affect analysis results, the only one explored by Coffman and MacCallum is the parcel construction strategy. Results from Coffman and MacCallum (2005) show that, both from simulated and empirical data, when using item parceling the absolute value of the estimated parameters is increased, and residual variance is reduced. Residual variance reduction, and hence the increase in variance explained by the model, is partially explained because in path models it is assumed that the variables constitute error-fee measurements of the underlying construct (e.g. linear combination of the items of a one-dimensional scale). The only error component contained in the model is the prediction error (or residual), which represents the model‘s inability to include all the predictive factors, and therefore, the impossibility of perfectly predicting the criterium variable. Latent variable models are composed of two differentiated parts: the measurement model and the structural relations model. The measurement model reproduces how the non-observable constructs are being measured, that is, the psychological concepts based on a specific theory; this is the reason why they are considered latent. The measurement model represents how the subject‘s level in the latent constructs has been inferred by their indicators, which are the variables actually measured. The measurement model also contains the measurement errors which affect each indicator and symbolize the inability for perfectly measuring the latent variables. On the other hand, the structural relations model represents the effect of latent predictors over the latent criteria variables. The latent relations model also includes a term of prediction error for each dependent variable. Since there are two sub-models (one of measurement and another one of prediction) the complete model may estimate more acuratedly which errors are due to measurement (observation errors), and which to prediction (other factors non considered in the model), thus resulting in a more approximate modeling of the real data. If measurement error does exist in a path model, the estimation process will increase the prediction error to account for it, since no specific term of measurement error is available. The path model R2 is an inconsistent estimator of the latent variable model‘s R2 (Bolen, 1989), since the proportion of variance of interest explained in a latent variable model corresponds to latent constructs, without measurement bias. Coffman and MacCallum (2005) results are consistent with Stephenson and Holbert (2003) arguments, who defend that not taking into account the measurement errors will lead to biased estimates. However, according to Bollen (1989), the effect of the measurement error on estimates would not be so clear, and in fact, not considering these errors may produce an increase, reduction or even an invariance of the model parameters estimates. Regarding the indicator grouping strategy, results by Coffman and MacCallum suggest that how the parcels are constructed is less important than the fact that they are used. For psychology and education studies, the methodological subject is very important, and decisions concerning statistical methods may considerably affect the research findings. This is
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confirmed by Task Force on Statistical Inference (TSFI) regarding the sampling, design, measurement, instruments, procedures, data analysis, results and reports preparation (Wilkinson and TSFI, 1999). Nonetheless, such recommendations are controversial (Fidler, 2002) and the effectiveness of guidelines has been poor up to now (Borges and SanchezBruno, 2004; Monterde, Pascual and Frias, 2006). Considering the lack of studies about this subject, this paper addresses the comparison between partially disaggregated structural models and path models. Empirical data were obtained in two studies. The interest in showing two studies, one focused on education and another on health, is to prove that the evaluated constructs do not interfere with the methodological findings showed. In this regard, we will show each one of the studies.
METHOD Analysis and Comparison of Results For both studies, analyses were carried out using SPSS 13.0 and AMOS 6.0 statistical packages. For each model, the analysis process started by fitting a theoretically based model. The effects with no statistical significance on the complete model were dropped and a reduced model was fitted, using item parceling and latent variables. Results of latent variables and path models were compared taking into account the estimates values, its statistical significance (α=.05) and stability, the percentage of explained variance, the residual variance of the endogenous variables, and the following goodness of fit indexes: χ2, χ2/gl, GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI and RMSEA. The estimation method was Maximum Likelihood. In order to improve the exposition of the two studies, method and results are presented separately for each study, followed by a joint discussion.
STUDY 1 Method Participants and Data Collection Procedure The subjects participants of study 1 are Uruguayan students from Chemistry, who participated in a student survey (EEL) in which students‘ motivational orientations towards study, as well as students‘ perception about their own intellectual capability were measured. Among EEL participants, only those who entered the University during 2000-2003, and had at least one subject passed during March 2003-March 2005 were considered. After listwise elimination of missing data, sample size was 587.
Instruments The questionnaires applied in this study were Hayamizu and Weiner‘s (1991) personal motivational orientations scale, and the perceived ability scale of Trapnell (1994), in the
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framework of doctoral thesis of Rodríguez Ayán (2007). The Hayamizu and Weiner questionnaire was already used in Spanish by Cabanach (1994) and by Núñez and GonzálezPienda (1994) and for this study was adapted to Uruguayan culture by the research team. The Trapnell questionnaire was translated and adapted by the research team. The instruments were selected taking into account their theoretical fit to research objectives, as well as the existing information about their reliability, validity and percentage of explained variance. The academic goals scale is composed by 20 items measured in a 5-point-Likert scale, and it has a three-factor structure that measures learning goals, as defined by Dweck (1986), and two performance goals. One of the performance goals refers to normative performance, analogue to the success goals of Alonso and Sánchez (1992). This kind of goal deals with seeking for a positive evaluation from the environment – ―I study because I want others to realize what I am capable to do‖ – and in some cases, with avoiding a negative evaluation. ―I study because I do not want to be rejected by the faculty.‖ These are normative goals, since they are established in regard to social environment (parents, peers and teachers). The second performance goals refers to improvement and personal achievements – ―I study because I want to obtain good grades‖- equivalent to Grant and Dweck (2003) outcome goals. Reliabilities of each sub-scale were .89, .86 and .81 respectively, and the percentage of explained variance obtained by Principal Components extraction was 57.4%. Learning goals correlate with outcome goals (r=0,333), and to a lesser extent with the success goals (r=.189); these, in turn, show a moderate correlation between them (r=.336). All the correlations were statistically significant (p<.001) (Rodríguez Ayán, 2007). The scale of perceived ability of Trapnell (1994) has 4 items measured in 9-point-Likert scale, and it has proved to be as efficient as other longer instruments (Paulhus, Lysy and Yik, 1998). The reliability of the version adapted into Spanish was of .88 and the explained variance percentage for the one-dimension solution by Principal Components extraction was of 73.4% (Rodríguez Ayán, 2007). The details about metric properties of both instruments can be consulted in Rodríguez Ayán (2007).
Variables to Be Modeled The variable to be explained was the ―global performance‖ of the student at time t from his or her entrance at the university, defined as the sum of the standardized scores of two academic performance measurements: grade average and study progress. The study progress was defined as the rate between the number of academic credits earned by the student up to time t and the number of credits that he or she theoretically should have earned during that period, according to the study plan.
Models We started from the theoretical model defined in Figure 1.1a. Direct effects of learning goals, success goals, perceived ability and previous performance over global performance are postulated, as well as effects of the three goals and previous performance over perceived capacity; Considering previous results (Grant and Dweck, 2003; Zusho, Pintrich and Coppla, 2003), as well as relations found between outcome goals and performance by correlation analysis and linear regression (Rodríguez Ayán, 2007), no direct effects of outcome goals over global performance were considered. After estimating the parameters, non-statistically significant effects were dropped (α=.05), repeating the estimation for the resulting accepted
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model. For the first model (model 1) the effects of outcome goals on perceived capacity (γ =.058, p=.323) were not significant; neither the direct effect of learning goals on global performance (γ =.010, p=.470). After eliminating these two effects (model 2) all parameters reached statistical significance. Since outcome goals do not have significant effects, a more simple alternative model was constructed (model 3), in which such variable was eliminated (Figure 1.1b). All parameters in model 3 were significant, with no loss of fit, so it was selected as the final model. The details of this procedure can be consulted in Rodríguez Ayán (2007). In this work the results of the final path model are compared with the results of the analogue model of latent variables. The final model of Figure 1.1 states that success goals, self-perceived capacity and previous performance of the student have direct effects over global performance. Success goals, previous performance and learning goals have also effects over self-perceived ability, resulting thus in additional indirect effects over global performance. Learning goals correlate with success goals and with previous performance. No direct effects of learning goals over global performance are postulated; or any correlation between success goals and previous performance. Parameters were estimated by two strategies. For the path model, the sum of the scale items were used as learning goals and perceived ability. For the latent variables model, item parceling were used to represent learning goals (four parcels) and success goals (three parcels), while the perceived ability was represented by the four items comprising the scale. Parcels were constructed according to four criteria: a) randomly, b) taking into account the items loadings in the corresponding scale in order to achieve balanced parcels regarding itemconstruct relations; c) taking into account the items asymmetry, so as to achieve balanced groups regarding the violation of multivariate normality assumption, and d) regarding items content.
a
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285
b Figure 1.1. Explanatory models of academic performance.
Likewise, for the latent variables model, global performance was considered as a construct formed by two indicators: grade average and progress in the studies.
Results All the informed results belong to the estimation group.
Descriptive Analysis As it was previously mentioned, the sample was composed of 587 students (42% of students entering the university during the 2000-2003 period who had at least a subject passed during the two years previous to March 2005). The group was randomly divided in two samples, estimation (E) and validation (V), composed of 312 and 287 students respectively. The division was at random, so that the socio-demographic variables were evened up in similar composition stratums in both samples. Women proportion was of 75% (sample E) and 73.5% (sample V). The age mean and standard deviation are practically the same: (sample E, M = 21.7; SD= 1.81; sample V, M = 21.9; SD = 1.86). The distribution of the participants by age range is also the same: most of them (sample E, 90%; sample V, 87%) belong to university students‘ typical age (20-24 years old). In Table 1.1, descriptive statistics of the model variables of Figure 1.1b are showed, as well as the results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) univariate normality test. The only
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variables whose distribution comply to normality are perceived ability (p=.057) and global performance (p=.200). The Mardia multivariate Kurtosis coefficient (1970, 1974) was of 6.081. Table 1.1. Descriptive statistics and normality test Variable
Median
Mean
SD
KS
Asymmetry SE = .138
Kurtosis SE = .275
Learning goals
30
28.86
6.63
.106*
-.744
.533
Success goals
8
9.14
4.02
.217*
1.902
4.700
Perceived ability
17
17.18
6.67
.050
-.025
-.426
Previous performance
5
5.56
1.82
.163*
.448
-.548
Global performance
0
0
1.80
.038
-.090
.375
Note: KS = Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error. * p < 0,001.
Structural Equation Models In Figure 1.2, the final model standardized solution for academic performance is showed in its two versions: path and latent variable models. In Table 1.2 estimates and corresponding 95% CI for both models are compared, and in Table 1.3, the goodness-of-fit indexes. Table 1.2. Comparison of final model parameters, with and without latent variables Latent variable model a
Path model Path model 95% IC PP =>LG
NE 1.67*
E .14
.34
SGu=> LG PC=> SG PA=> PP PC => LG GP=> ¨PP GP => PC GP =>
5.45*** .29** .49* .26*** .53*** .03* -.06**
.20 .17 .13 .26 .54 .11 -.13
2.46 .11 .102 .16 .44 .003 -.098
PAVariance
14.0%
2.99
NE .44*
E .15
8.45 .46 .88 .38 .62 .05 -.02
.54*** .21** .08 .29*** .48*** .08 -.14*
.24 .18 .09 .29 .64 .09 -.14 15.6%
GP Variance 33.60% 44.50% Note NE = non standardized; E = standardized; PP = previous performance; LG = learning goals; SG= success goals; PA = perceived ability ; GP = global performance. a Grouping method values (item parceling) balanced according to loadings. * p<.05; ** p<.01; ***p<.001.
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287
a
b Grouping method (item parceling) based on factor loadings. SG= Success Goals; LG = Learning Goals; PA = Perceived Ability; GP =Global Performance; PP = Previous Performance. a
Figure 1.2. Comparison between path model and latent variable model.
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Discussion Overall fit indexes show a good fit both for the path model and for the latent variable models constructed using the four item parceling criteria. The item parceling methods which takes into account the items loadings (method 2), as well as the other based on item content (method 4) are the ones showing the best fit. All the estimates are significant in the path model; considering the four forms of parcel construction for the latent variable models, the effect of previous performance on perceived ability (p=.107; p=.113; p=.103; p=.107), and the effect of perceived ability on grade average (p=.112; p=.105; p=.105; p=.104) do not reach statistical significance. The four models estimated, employing latent variables explain 44% of global performance variance, against the 33% explained by the path model. The results match with Coffman and MacCallum (2005) suggestions, the most outstanding differences result when comparing any of the models that use item parceling (structural equation models with latent variables) with the path models (without latent variables). On the other hand, when comparing the structural equation models containing latent variables constructed by different strategies for items parceling, the differences are not so evident. Regarding model fit (see Table 1.3), even though the indexes for the path model are higher, all models (path model and the 4 estimated grouping items alternatives), show an appropriate fit. It must be taken into account that statistics rised from path and latent variable models are not directly comparable, since they contain different number of variables. Model comparison should be based on statistics referred to the criteria variable should be preferred, such as the percentage of explained variance. Table 1.3. Comparison of models for explaining academic performance Model
Χ2
df
Χ2/gl
GFI
AGFI
RMSEA 90% CI
NFI
CFI
Paths
1.538
2
.769
.998
.985
0 – .104
.992
1
LV 1
194.349
70
2.776
.921
.881
.054 - .080
.921
.947
LV 2 LV 3 LV 4
167.539 200.861 165.933
70 70 70
2.393 2.869 2.237
.932 .920 .933
.897 .880 .990
.054 - .080 .065 – .090 .053 – .079
.959 .918 .930
.958 .944 .958
Note: LV= latent variables; 1 = random; 2 = balanced according to loadings; 3 = balanced according to asymmetry; 4 = balanced according to content; df = degrees of freedom.
STUDY 2 Method Participants and Data Collection Procedure The participants in the study 2 are Mexican university students, from Psychology College, who participated in a health psychology study (González, 2007); whose goal was to propose an explanatory model of psychosomatic self-informed symptoms and to assess it by structural equation models. The structural model in which included social support, self-
Path Analysis Models Versus Latent Variable Models
289
esteem and self-efficacy as exogenous variables and stress, emotional exhaustion and psychosomatic symptoms as endogenous variables, is showed in Figure 2.1a. The sample was gather to be representative of the Psychology College students at a public university of the North of Mexico, with a recorded population of 2410 students. The sample random and stratified, tacking into accoubnt the proportion of students per shift and gender . The resulting sample size was of 389 students. The students were scheduled in order to complete the questionnaire, in a scheduled session for each shift. In each session, it was explained they have been randomly selected for being part of a research study, representing the College of Psychology; later, 80 students who did not attend the meeting , were looked for at their classroom
Instruments Data used in this study pertain to a larger research (González, 2007). The questionnaires mentioned are only those used to measure variables included in the structural equation models showed in the current paper. For selecting instruments, theoretical adequacy with the aim of the study was considered, as well as the information available about their psychometric properties. All the instruments are Likert‘s scales. The core variable in this study was psychosomatic symptoms. The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ), designed by Kroenke, Spitzer and Williams (2002), was used to measure it; the Spanish version available at FAES-FARMA website: http://www.faesfarma.com was used, where its psychometric properties are also included. It consists of 15 items. Rsulting Cronbach‘s alpha for data in this study was 0.71. In order to obtain a measure of stress, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen, Kamarak and Mermelstein, 1983) was selected. The PSS version adapted to Mexico by González and Landero (2007) was used. It is composed of 14 items; for the data gathered in this study, the Cronbach‘s alpha was of 0.83. The factor analysis reveals a bipolar one-factor structure. Likewise, Emotional Exhaustion Scale (ECE) by Ramos, Manga and Moran (2005) was used; it is composed of 10 items. The alpha in this study was 0.89 and the factor analysis confirms a one-factor structure. So as to measure the social support, the 11 item - Duke-UNC questionnaire was used, modified and validated by Broadhead, Gehlbach, Degruy and Kaplan (1998); it evaluates the perceived support. The Spanish version validated by Bellon, Delgado, Luan and Lardelli (1996) was used. The internal consistency for the data in this study was of 0.90; the factor analysis reveals a one-factor structure. Overall self-efficacy was measured with the Spanish adaptation of the General Selfefficacy Scale (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1992); it consists of 10 items. The Spanish version used was validated by Bässler and Schwarzer (1996); it obtained a Cronbach‘s alpha of 0.81. Factor analysis raised only one factor explaining 39% of available variance, and in the confirmatory factor analysis, the goodness of fit statistics were appropriate (Bässler and Schwarzer, 1996). Attained alpha for data in this study was of 0.87. Finally, the 10 item -Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (EAR) (Rosenberg, 1989) was used. The internal consistency reliability found by Vázquez, Jiménez and Vázquez (2004) was of 0.84; a similar value scoring to other findings by the same authors. The study data attain an alpha of .86, and a one-factor structure. Detailed information about reliability and validity analysis of each instrument may be requested to the authors of this work, or to be consulted in González (2007).
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Models Like in study 1, the parameters were estimated by two strategies. The sum of items was used for the path model as psychosomatic, stress and emotional exhaustion measures. For the latent variable model item parcels were used as indicators of the former three constructs. It was taken into account that at least 3 indicators are needed for each common factor (and, in this way, to have an identified model (Bollen,1989; Fabrigar, MacCallum, Wegener, and Strahan 1999), as well as the factor analysis of involved scales (stress, emotional exhaustion and symptoms) indicates one-factor scales (González, 2007); consequently, each one of the scales were arbitrarily divided in 3 scores (3 items parceling); they were used as observed indicators of the latent variables mentioned. For the analysis of the study 2, the base model showed in Figure 2.1a was used. The first model estimated replicated the base model; from the results obtained it was decided to delete, one at a time, those parameters which were not significant. In model 2, anxiety effect over the symptoms was deleted; after this modification, all the parameters were significant; however, the model was susceptible of improvement . For all of this reasons, and considering that the goal of the study was to find out that model with highest parsimony and best fit in forecasting psychosomatic symptoms, we tried to improve the model, by deleting the less contributing effectsin explaining psychosomatic symptoms. In model 3, depression effects on symptoms were deleted. In this way, in model 4, depression and anxiety variables were also deleted from the model, since they just kept a dependency relation to stress, finding that all parameters were significant; however, the goodness of fit indexes were not appropriate. These results are showed in detail in González and Landero (2008) research. Given the aim of this paper, we will focus on the path and latent variable models comparison. The base model composed by 10 variables (Figure 2.1a) was not completely supported by the González and Landero‘s study (2008). It was considered that the complexity of the model influenced in such a way not all the parameters resulted significant. In this way, after initial analysis, the model was simplified, keeping those variables with the highest theoretical support and with the higher effect in explaining psychosomatic symptoms. The model of the figure 2.1b is the one used to compare the path model with the latent variable model.
Figure 2.1. Continued
Path Analysis Models Versus Latent Variable Models
291
Figure 2.1. Explanatory models of stress and psychosomatic symptoms.
Results Descriptive Analysis The sample was composed by 365 students, which represents 93.8% of the estimated sample size. Taking into account that the requisites under which the sample size was calculated were rigid, the final number of subjects results appropriate so as to represent the Psychology College students. The sample is composed by 20.5% men and 79.5% women, which corresponds almost exactly to the distribution per sex in the study population. The average age of the subjects was of 20.48 years old (SD= 3.62). The data are descriptively showed in Table 2.1. Although in the larger study from which the data of this work were obtained, another variables were evaluated; these ones are not included in Table 2.1 (anxiety, depression and coping), neither were included in the instruments description. None of the variables were normally distributed (p<.05 in all the cases). The Mardia multivariate Kurtosis coefficient (1970, 1974) was of 9.220. Table 2.1. Descriptive statistics and normality test Variable
Median
Mean
SD
KS
Asymmetry SE=0,128
Kurtosis SE = 0,255
Psychomatic symptoms
6
6.79
4.07
.132***
.997
1.424
Stress
21
21.93
7.03
.061**
.211
.134
26
26.47
8.05
.053*
-.015
-.743
48
46.16
8.18
.140***
-1.289
1.681
33
32.71
4.82
.103***
-.516
.085
36
35.01
4.37
.173***
-1.181
1.105
Emotional exhaustion Social support General Self-efficacy Self-esteem
Note: KS = Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistic; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error. * p< .05; ** p< .01; *** p <.,001.
Structural Equation Models The standardized solutions for the path model and the latent variable model are shown in Figure 2.2. The proposed model states that stress and emotional exhaustion have effect over
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the psychosomatic symptoms, while self-esteem, self-efficacy and social support are stress predictors. In both models, all parameters were significant. Resulting estimates can be found in Table 2.2, and path model parameter 95% confidence intervals are included for model comparison pourposes. Goodness of fit indexes are shown in Table 2.3.
Figure 2.2. Comparison between path model and latent model.
Table 2.2. Comparison of final model parameters, with and without latent variables Path model
Path model CI 95%
Latent variable model NE E
NE
E
Self-esteem => Self-efficacy
10.07
.48
7.68
12.46
10.07
.48
Self-esteem => Social support
16.29
.46
12.27
20.32
16.29
.46
Self-efficacy => Social support
13.10
.33
8.84
17.36
13.10
.33
Stress => Self-esteem
-.47
-.29
-.63
-.32
-.21
-.34
Stress => Self-efficacy
-.48
-.33
-.61
-.35
-.18
-.32
Stress => Social support
-.16
-.19
-.24
-.09
-.07
-.20
Emotional exhaustion => Stress
.62
.54
.52
.72
.78
.64
Symptoms => Stress
.09
.16
.03
.15
.08
.17
Symptoms => Emotional exhaustion
.20
.39
.14
.25
.19
.51
Symptoms variance
24.30%
39.40%
Emotional exhaustion variance
29.40%
40.90%
Stress variance
41.80%
Note: NE= Non standardized; E = Standardized.
47.50%
All were significant parameters.
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Table 2.3. Comparison of models for explaining psychosomatic symptoms Model
Χ2
df
Χ2/gl
GFI
AGFI
RMSEA CI 90%
NFI
CFI
Path
17.213
6
2.869
.985
.946
.033 –.112
.973
.982
.924
.876
.073 –.100
.903
.926
Latent 179.394 48 3.737 variable Note: df = degrees of freedom.
Discussion Goodness of fit indexes show that both models (path model and latent variable model) are acceptable; differences in fit are affected by the degrees of freedom. The model explained 39.4% of psychosomatic symptoms variance when using latent variables, against 24.3% explained by the path model. The variance percentage increases when using error-free measurement variables. The latent variable model parameters for co-variances between self-esteem and selfefficacy, self-esteem and social support, self-efficacy and social support, and stress effect over symptoms are included inside the confidence intervals of the path model parameters, indicating that estimates, and in consequence the effects variables over other ones have not changed substantially. Only in the case of exogenous effects (self-esteem, self-efficacy and social support) over stress, and stress over emotional exhaustion, the structural variable models estimates fall outside the corresponding 95% confidence intervals of the path model estimates, keeping the direction in each one of the proposed relations. Likewise, the stress effect over symptoms are both, direct and indirect; in the path model, the standardized value for total effect is 0.369 (0.158 direct effect, and 0.211 indirect effect); meanwhile in the latent variable model, the standardized value for total effect is 0.491 (0.167 direct effect, and 0.324 indirect effect). Based on the goodness of fit indexes, it is concluded that both models (path model and latent variables model) are acceptable, even though they are better in the path model. Additionally, in this case the individual adjustment of each one of the models is acceptable, and the increase in the number of variables to be explained is reflected in the corresponding increase in the degree of freedom for the latent variable model.
GENERAL DISCUSSION In this study, the objective was to compare structural models partially disaggregated (using item parcels as indicators of latent variables) with path models. In order to comply with the objective, two study results were showed. After the analysis showed, we can conclude that the results, when comparing latent variable models versus path models, may be related to the aggregation level used (partially vs. totally aggregated models), and not to the constructs which compose the model. Our findings are aligned with those reported by Coffman and MacCallum (2005). In this regard, we can conclude that the use of item parceling instead of path models results in the
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increase in the absolute value of the estimated parameters and a residual variance reduction, which is reflected in a tantamount increase of the variance explained by the model. On the other hand, the goodness of fit indexes of the path models show values nearer to the ideal than in latent variables models. This is influenced by the number of parameters to be calculated, this is to say by the degrees of freedom. A possible explanation of the phenomenon is the fact that the variance-covariance matrix of the latent variables model contains a higher number of observed variables (it is of higher dimension), hence it is more difficult that the structural model parameters will reproduce accuratedly such observed relationships, specially when the covariance between measurement error terms has not been allowed in the model. Considering the above, we recommend that those studies in which only one of structural model types is fitted should consider these aspects for interpretation. In this way, path models may result in a better fit and a lower percentage of explained variance. Meanwhile, latent variable models will achieve a higher percentage of explained variance, but they will loose fit since the number of parameters to be estimated is higher, as well as the number of observed covariances to be reproduced. Making a decision on the type of structural equation model to use is an appropriate strategy only when it is possible to include indicators. There are situations in which the observed variables have their own meaning and their composing elements can not be separated. Examples of this are physiological measures (blood pressure) in the case of health psychology studies, or the average obtained in an academic course, in the case of educational psychology. Finally, we recommend that the process for evaluating a structural equation model should start using path models, until arriving to the most parsimonious model and with best fit; further on a latent variable model should be fited (at least with respect to the endogenous variables). We suggest, when selecting the indicators of such constructs, to assess the convenience of using item parceling versus using all the items that compose each dimension (see Little et al, 2002). In latent variable models, it must be evaluated if the relations between variables preserve the same direction, and if the estimates lie within the CI of the path model parameters. Thus, results can show both types of structural models, indicating the fit and percentage of variance explained in each case, which will provide the reader with a better view of the phenomenon under study.
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In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
RELEVANT FACTORS FOR OBJECTIVES EFFECTIVENESS ACCOMPLISHMENT IN COMPENSATION PAYMENTS: THE USE OF BONUSES AS A PAYMENT FOR PERFORMANCE Sergio Manuel Madero Gómeza and Amaia Arizkuren Eletab a
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey, Mexico b Universidad de Deusto, San Sebastián, Spain
ABSTRACT This study describes and explains how the interest of companies in paying performance bonus (PPB) and information of the current process has an impact on the payment objectives‘ effectiveness (POE). The research was carried out between 419 persons who are executives (11.5%); managers (41.1%), and administrators (47.5%), from which 213 do receive performance bonus (50.8%), and 206 do not receive it (49.2%). Regarding sex, the sample is divided into 66.6% male and 33.4% female. Concerning age, 202 persons are under 30 years old; 141 persons are between 31 and 40 years old, and the other 76 are over the age of 40. The object of the article is to find out if POE shows significant differences between people who do receive the PPB and those who do not. By using variance analyses, there were found significant statistical differences between variables. In addition, to test the hypotheses presented, the results obtained are analyzed from their management‘s point of view.
Keywords: Compensation, Performance Compensation, Human Resources.
Bonuses,
Monetary
Incentives,
Variable
INTRODUCTION A relevant factor for reaching compensations objectives‘ effectiveness: Performance bonus. In the XXI Century, a great number of companies are realizing the structures, objectives and methods used for their operation were designed in a historical time which is coming to an end. Time for supporting companies has started, so that they may be highly competitive, improve their processes and be prepared to face the inherent challenges of the new millennium.
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The environment in which businesses participate at this time is focused on competitiveness, fulfillment and accomplishment in results, as well as efficiency, diversity in the use of tools for improvement1, for correct use of technology (Ulrich, 2000), for environment concern and consciousness of the importance of social responsibility2. For that reason, we feel that now is the right time. It is a great opportunity for compensation area specialists to propose, create and develop clear, efficient, novel, applicable and innovative administration structures that can be adapted to current market demands, which has been called ―the employee decade‖ (Jamrog, 2002). Compensations‘ administration has undergone a series of changes and questions that have been very relevant throughout history, having, in some cases, a strategic perspective as indicated by Gomez- Mejia and Welbourne (1988); Gomez-Mejia and Welbourne (1991), upon comparing several factors related to payments‘ structure, questioning if it is the position or the person that should be rewarded; the performance or experience that should be taken into account for evaluating the achievement of certain goals; if programs are designed for individual or team incentives; if internal equity or external competitiveness are important or not, or if fixed or variable payments need to be focused on. Taking into account the need to know about and design variables in programs for human resources management in the enterprises -such as payments based on yields, also known as monetary incentives, since they are related to performance, productivity and quality- we have been led to reflect and confirm the importance of investigating and knowing what are the most relevant factors in compensation management, so as to take them into account and use them in the best possible manner. In order to develop this article, we have considered that PPB refers to a variable reward based on the evaluation of the performance a person receives at work. Under this wide variety of changes, of enterprising strategies, of the use of different tools for business administration, of intercultural and generation aspects, of attitudes, values and interests, companies are understanding that variable payment systems implementation is becoming more and more commonly used in the daily practice of human resources management (Deckop, Merriman and Blau, 2004).
THE IMPORTANCE OF PAYMENTS In the world of business, very concrete changes have occurred concerning different forms for personnel rewarding, which today are developed in our reality, causing a deep transformation in the payment systems management. For that reason, it is important to analyze and review, in detail, the different applications of performance payments. The goal is to support individual and/or team growth, so as to achieve the objectives. Taking into consideration the fact that compensation management is a key and essential element for the good run of the business, without allowing for the industrial activity, or size, it is important to point out ―an appropriate salary structure reflects the company‘s philosophy on rewards‖, since it shows the importance that must be given to a company‘s salary system. (Stoskopf, 2002), 1 2
http://www.spri.es/aSW/web/cas/servicios/publicaciones/index.jsp, revised on December 12, 2007 http://cemefi.org/spanish/content/view/632/19/, revised on December 12, 2007
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The ways to reward people in companies must be focused on developing a pleasant and positive work atmosphere; its implementation must be designed to bring about constant communication between those involved in the process, from both, employer‘s and employees‘ points of view. Of course, the efficient use of compensations has a basic and important role in the structure of company‘s culture, since it changes the way of doing things, of working and even the way of being and thinking. According to Fusco (2003), presently, business administrators need five tools related to personnel administration. We can mention three of them: (1) ―To access to information related to payments which reflect the current market value situation of company‘s positions; (2) To make the necessary decisions to keep internal equity and external competitiveness; (3) To develop an incentive program to reward work teams for improving the critical objectives of the company‖.
Payment Programs for Performance There is a series of authors showing which payment practices based on performance have been used recently, Aguilar Pastor (2000); Allen and Helms (2001); Ivancevich (2005); Lawler (2003); Scott, McMullen, Wallace and Morajda (2004); Van Neck and Smilko (2002), among which can be pointed out: (1) individual compensations incentives; (2) work teams or groups incentives, standing out those who share savings or benefits obtained from workers‘ active participation in any specific process improvement, also known as gain sharing‖; and (3) those common awarded incentives, reached for all the workers of the company such as: profit sharing obtained in a determined period of time called ―profit-sharing‖; there are also plans for stocks purchasing or acquisition, both, for executives- ―stock-options‖- and for any hierarchical level employees, ―employee stock-ownership‖; and, lastly, non-monetary recognition. In a compensations study carried out in Latin America, Uzcategui and Diez (2005) mentioned that Mexico is the country which awarded the most short-term incentives in 2001 and 2002; it also shows there are different elements interacting in compensations management, having different implications. For example, in a country level there are economic, political and socio-cultural aspects, while on a company level there are corporate culture and organizational challenges. Table 1, showed in the attachments, presents a series of aspects involved in performance measurement process, which are a relevant part of performance bonus payment system. In such model, the importance of keeping a close relationship between performance measurement and incentives programs implementation can be observed. (Rynes, Gerhart and Parks, 2005; Werner and Ward, 2001).
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Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample
Less than 30
Between 30 & 40
More than 40
Less than 5
Between 6 & 10
More than 10
Antiquity in the company (years)
Feminine
Age
Masculine
Gender
Receive PPB
213 51%
146 52%
67 48%
79 37%
88 41%
46 22%
105 49%
62 29%
46 22%
Not PPB
206
133
73
123
53
30
124
43
39
49%
48%
52%
60%
26%
15%
60%
21%
19%
419 100%
279 140 67% 33% 0.746 1 0.388
202 141 48% 34% 21.529 2 0.000
76 18%
229 55% 5.476 2 0.064
105 25%
85 20%
Receive PPB Not receive PPB TOTAL Chi Square df Probability level
213 51% 206 49% 419 100%
161 76% 168 82% 329 79% 3.056 2 0.217
35 16% 29 14% 64 15%
the
More than 10
Between 6 & 10
Less than 5
Antiquity on position (years)
17 8% 9 4% 26 6%
Hierarchic Level
33 15% 15 7 48 11% 44.83 2 0.000
Administrative
Chi Square df Probability level
Management
TOTAL
High Direction
receive
113 53% 59 29% 172 41%
67 31% 132 64% 199 47%
In the performance evaluation schemes it is necessary to first include measurements or indicators of performance and later, to keep in mind a very clear idea of the process to be followed for different payment schemes implementation. Regarding performance process evaluation, we can mention the importance of a clear and transparent development of the basis used in measuring, as well the procedure to be followed, the personnel involved and responsible to carry it out. It is also necessary to take into account the main factors to be
Relevant Factors for Objectives Effectiveness …
303
evaluated as well as their respective indicators. In addition, it is always convenient to keep in mind the communication processes used in performance measurement, since they are the core in boss-collaborator relationship when evaluation is carried out, or when pertaining feedback is given for each worker. We find that communication plays a very important role in the development of the process, since it has direct impact on different levels of the company with respect to the action plans that can come forth; it can also affect improvement programs or programs for professional development. Furthermore, it must have performance evaluation method; for example, if evaluation is made under 360 ° scheme, or under 180° methodology, or of it is a unidirectional evaluation3. Today, monetary rewards strongly influence job‘s appeal for a person. That is why, there are many companies which partially base their compensation systems on salary incentives, as a way to motivate their employees to reach a greater yield and efficiency. Because of that, (Zingheim and Schuster, 2001) state that in the near future it will be possible to find a good relationship between companies and workers in order to help compensation systems be the motor of the success formula. Companies will offer better working conditions and a series of challenging activities, while workers will develop abilities and competencies to be considered during hiring and developing processes, giving them the possibility to perform, in the best possible way, the roles assigned them in different company‘s positions.
THE OBJECTIVES OF COMPENSATIONS Bohlander, Snell and Sherman (2001); Ellig (2002); Fay and Thompson (2001); Lawler (1995); Newman and Krzystofiak (1998); Werther and Davis (2000) point out so as to design compensation systems, there must be certain main objectives: (a) to maintain and retain personnel; (b) to motivate personnel to a better performance in order to achieve their goals; (c) to improve procedures and activities so as to achieve goals and commitment; and (d) to achieve the employee growth to link payments to the development of abilities and knowledge‖. The objectives considered to be analyzed in this article are: (1) to improve labor performance, Werner and Ward (2001); (2) to help in developing competencies and abilities, Lawler and Ledford Jr.(1987); Levy-Leboyer (1997); Murray and Gerhart (1998); St-Onge, Haines III and Klarsfeld (2004); and (3) to help worker labor careers, Judge, Cable, Boudreau and Bretz Jr. (1995). The effectiveness of compensation objectives (POE) will be considered according to associates‘ perception based on the help they received to fulfill each one of their objects from the payment they have. Table 2, from attachments, shows the model used to develop his research.
3
Levy-Leboyer (2000) presents how 360º evaluations can be developed and implemented. On the other hand, Alles (2002) works on his own, by considering competence performance.
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Table 2. Affective / Attitudinal Commitment variable analysis Variables / Questions
Affective / Attitudinal Commitment
1.- I feel like ―part of the family‖ in the organization. 2.- The organization has a great personal significance for me. 3.- I feel emotionally attached to the organization. 4.- I have a great sense of membership in the organization.
Receive bono1 Alpha Cronbach: 0.945 Factor loading -0.775740 Factor loading -0.889943 Factor loading -0.893725 Factor loading -0.879225
Not receive bono2 Mean
F ratio
Significance
3.889671 s=0.0738
3.665049 s=0.0750
4.56
0.033375**
3.821596 s=0.0793
3.650486 s=0.0806
2.29
0.130874
3.948357 s=0.0780
3.771845 s=0.0793
2.52
0.113436
3.849765 s=0.0799
3.587379 s=0.0813
5.30
0.021802**
3.938967 s=0.0815
3.653659 s=0.0831
6.01
0.014638**
1
n=213 2 n=206 *significant at a level of 0.01% **significant at a level of 0.05%
METHOD Next, we will focus on demonstrating the activities from a methodological point of view that are related to the development of this work. The research carried out is not an experimental one; the population includes all those people working in high management, intermediate and administrative positions4, of companies belonging to Monterrey, Nuevo Leon Metropolitan zone, in Mexico. They are from commercial, industrial and service sectors. Without taking into account if they receive or not performance bonus, a favorable sample was taken. Information was obtained by filling out a questionnaire. The scales used to score each variable is Likert scale, from 1 to 5, where ―1‖ pertains to the phrase ―I totally disagree with‖, and ―5‖ pertains to ―I totally agree with‖. 213 questionnaires were answered by people who do receive PPB, which is 50.8% of our sample, and 206 questionnaires were answered by people who do not receive PPB, being 49.2% of the sample; a total of 419 questionnaires.
Participants We immediately analyze the data for the people who answered the instrument, which was given to 419 persons, pointing out that 66.6% are male and 33.4% are female. On the other hand, 48.2% are under 30 years old, 33.6% are between 30 and 40 years old, and 18.1% are older than 40. On respect to the experience or seniority, 54.6% have been working in the company for less than 5 years; 25.1% for 6 to 10 years, and at last, 20.2% for more than 10 4
―High Management‖ pertains to ―General Management‖ of the business and ―Operational Management‖ (including hierarchical second level). ―Intermediate hierarchy‖ are those depending on High Management ; they belong to the third or fourth hierarchical level.
Relevant Factors for Objectives Effectiveness …
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years. Regarding position seniority, 78.5% has less than 5 years in the position; 15.3% has been in the same position for 6 to 10 years, and the rest, 6.2%, has been during more than 10 years. Concerning position level, 11.5% belong to High Management; 41.1% is hired in Operational Positions, and 47.5% belongs to Administrative level. The comparison allows observing differences expected due to the population. Regarding gender, both groups are predominately male; those who do not receive bonus are younger (60% under 30 years old) than those who do receive it (37%). Concerning seniority, the proportion is the same as age, since personnel who do not receive bonus (60%) have less than 5 years in the company, meanwhile, those who do receive it (49%) have more than 5 years. In addition to seniority in the position, the number of people who do not receive bonus is higher (82%) having less than 5 years than those who do receive it (76%). Fifteen percent of High Management personnel receive the bonus, and 7% do not receive it. This data can be observed in Table 3 in the attachments. Table 3. Continuative / Calculative Commitment variable analysis Variables / Questions
Continuative
/
Calculative
Commitment
1.- In this moment, being a member of the organization is a necessity, not a
Receive bono1
Not receive bono2 Mean
F ratio
Significance
Alpha Cronbach: 0.743
2.728873 s=0.0642
3.199029 s=0.0653
26.39
0.000000*
Factor loading
2.957747 s=0.0861
3.446602 s=0.08762
15.82
0.000082*
2.29108 s=0.0874
2.737864 s=0.0889
12.82
0.000383*
2.784038 s=0.0851
3.398058 s=0.0865
25.59
0.000001*
2.882629 s=0.0869
3.213592 s=0.0884
7.13
0.007868*
0.579454
desire. 2.- I feel I have low possibilities of having another job if I leave the
Factor loading 0.693384
organization. 3.- I consider that one of the serious causes of not leaving the organization are
Factor loading 0.813691
the few alternatives of getting another job. 4.- It is going to be very difficult to leave the organization in this moment; even
Factor loading 0.487776
though I would like to do it. 1
n=213 2 n=206 *significant at a level of 0.01% **significant at a level of 0.05%
RESULTS For each one of the items used in reward objectives measurement, a confirming factorial analysis was carried out to simplify the variables used in the instrument, with factorial loads > than 0.80 which allows us to group them into a new variable, which is POE, resulting in a .9176 Cronbach alpha. The first factor in our model is related to monetary compensation, that
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is, a performance bonus payment received by the workers in a company, for which GomezMejia, Balkin and Cardy (2001) mention that there are 3 elements upon considering a total reward package that people have when they provide their services for a company, which are: basic salary, benefits and incentives. The first hypothesis of the research establishes that there is a significant difference in the POE between people who do receive a performance bonus and those who do not. POE average indicator for people who do receive PPB is 3.374 compared with the one of those who do not receive it, which is 3.029. That is why we observe there is a difference between both populations, and according to the F statistics (9.54) and p<0.005, it is estimated the difference between both groups is statistically significant. For that reason we find PPB does help to improve performance, acquire abilities and competencies as well as to promote people‘s stay with the companies. Another factor considered in our model is related to workers‘ perception about company‘s interest on PPB systems; they point out the interest in developing, fulfilling and supporting PPB systems follow-up, in order to support workers who obtain better incomes, as well as to establish PPB clear standards and policies. We realized there is not enough literature about that particular matter; that is why it is a relevant factor for this study. The second hypothesis establishes there is a significant difference in the POE between people indicating enterprises do really have interest on PPB systems and those who do not. According to the results obtained, we observe POE average of people indicating that companies are not interested in PPB is 2.571, while those indicating companies are interested in PPB is 3.896. A difference is found between both, and we can prove it by the F statistic (104.17) and p<0.001. Therefore, we realize that there is a significant statistical difference. It is understood that those enterprises showing interest in developing, fulfilling and following up their compensation systems, shall help to make them be more productive, acquire more abilities, as well as to make them remain in the company, developing and growing as professionals. Taking into consideration some of the different aspects that Hale and Bailey (1998); Mulvey, LeBlanc, Heneman and McInerney (2002) show in their research model how important is for each of the employees to know, to understand, and to possess the different aspects related to payment systems, as satisfaction, commitment and reliability makers. We have included in our model the information factor, which we focus on PPB system. Heneman, Mulvey and LeBlanc (2002); Mulvey, LeBlanc, Heneman and McInerney (2002); St- Onge (2000); Mulvey, Ledford Jr. and LeBlanc (2000) indicate that wide information about payment programs in companies is a strong personnel satisfaction predictor. It also shows it is closely related to retention aspects. The phrase they present is the following: ―Employees know much less about payment processes than the structure itself and its results‖. For that reason, the following hypothesis is related to the PPB process information people is concerned, which mainly consists of understanding and comprehending different aspects related to PPB; PPB operational rules; activities to be carried out to reach PPB, and the follow-up plan. Therefore, the third hypothesis establishes there is a significant difference in the POE between those who do not know about PPB process, and those who really do. For all of the above, we can realized POE average persons indicating they do know PPB system process is 3.771; while the average of those indicating they do not know PPB system process is 2.546, which can be proved by F statistic (73.73) and p<0.001, and for that reason there is a significant statistical difference. This demonstrates the relevance of the processes
Relevant Factors for Objectives Effectiveness …
307
the company has to develop so that PPB can be successful and the expected results can be obtained. The next component is related to the performance measurement process, standing out the importance of the different criteria used to measure performance, the unambiguity of the performance evaluation process, provoking the fourth hypothesis which establishes there is a significant difference in the POE between those who do not know about the performance measurement process who really know it. We observe POE average of people indicating they do know about the process of the measurement of performance is 3.557, while the average of those indicating they do not know the performance measurement process is 2.644 and, for that reason, we can prove by statistical F (72.96) and p<0.001, there is a significant statistical difference. By this, we realized it is relevant to take into account the clear explanation of the processes in the different enterprise activities related to performance measurement and compensation system.
DISCUSSION According to the results obtained during this research development, we can indicate PPB is an auxiliary tool which helps to fulfill with the compensation objectives; however, it is necessary to manage pertinently a series of factors interrelated between themselves so it can be attractive to workers and, therefore, they develop their labor tasks efficiently. We can also confirm that an incentive program is successful if they are taken into account, upon its design and development, company‘s vision, clarity in sending messages, and a philosophy focused on goals fulfillment. (Milkovich and Milkovich, 1992). Most of the enterprises, especially small and medium-sized ones, do not possess a compensation management solid structure, reason why payment programs are developed only to fulfill labor and legal requirements, but without considering other relevant components. In addition, they ignore measurement indicators and the basis for being competitive and improving internal equity. In addition, Hale and Bailey, (1998) indicate it is necessary to assure that employees understand and comprehend different existing company payment programs. For future research, at the time of applying a measurement instrument, it is also important to take into account and to find out if there is a PPB in the company, after identifying and differentiating if persons who take the questionnaire also participate in the PPB, and if they know people who do receive it and others who do not. Therefore, we recommend that this differentiation be made so as to obtain reliable information. On the other hand, it must be considered the fact that the progress found in studies and investigations related to human resources strategic programs, such as diversity in the current labor force management, the focus related to the goals‘ achievement by personnel performance and effectiveness of human resources processes, are topics which can be considered to continue researching about this subject, so interesting for some. Luthans and Sommer, (2005; Richard and Johnson (2001); Richard and Johnson (2004). In Table 4, we show the personnel demographic characteristics from those who do receive PPB and those who do not.
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Table 4. Normative commitment variable analysis. Variables / Questions
Receive bono1
Do not receive bono2 Mean
Normative Commitment
1.- During these days, I believe people change of organization with high
Ratio F
Significance
Alpha Cronbach: 0.712
3.298905 s=0.0679
3.147249 s=0.0691
2.45
0.118536
Factor loading
3.638498 s=0.0758
3.61165 s=0.07706
0.06
0.803945
3.258216 s=0.0885
3.286408 s=0.0899
0.05
0.823268
3.361502 s=0.0864
3.106796 s=0.0878
4.27
0.039311**
3.276995 s=0.0809
3.048544 s=0.0823
3.91
0.048521**
0.145340
frequency. 2.- From my perception, keep constantly changing of organization is non ethic.
Factor loading 0.608159
3.- One of the principal reasons why I
Factor loading
keep working on the organization is
0.640475
because
I
believe
that
loyalty
is
important, so I have a moral obligation feeling of permanence. 4.- Things went better when people stayed on the same organization on most
Factor loading 0.671063
of their professional trajectory. 1
n=213 2 n=206 *significant at a level of 0.01% **significant at a level of 0.05%
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In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
ANALYSIS OF THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN REPORTING AND DOING IN A TASK OF MATCHING TO SAMPLE Hortensia Hickman1, Diana Moreno, Olivia Tena, Patricia Plancarte, Rosalinda Arroyo and María Luisa Cepeda Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
ABSTRACT Recent research incorporates correspondence training procedures as an example of stimuli control. Lattal and Doepke (2001) state that correspondence and conditional discrimination procedures are homologous due to the fact that both contain behavioral relations in different temporalities and because the relationship between two or more stimuli or behaviors in both procedures is a distinctive feature. This paper attempts to explore the functional correspondence between the participants‘ reports of the rule and their performance on a task of matching to sample during training and transference tests. Five experimental groups were exposed to a do-report procedure, where the temporal distance from requesting the general rule of execution and the inclusion of incomplete sentences with different semantic properties were manipulated. Results were analyzed according to correspondence and non-correspondence between execution on transfer tests and the rule of execution reported. This analysis showed important group differences. We propose a methodological matrix that allow integrate research in the area of evaluation and training in doing-reporting in conditional discrimination tasks.
Keywords: correspondence, matching to sample, verbal behavior, non verbal behavior, transference tests.
RESUMEN Investigaciones recientes incorporan a los procedimientos en entrenamiento en correspondencias como una instancia del control de estímulos. Lattal y Doepke (2001) sostienen que la correspondencia y los procedimientos en discriminación condicional son 1
Address for correspondence: Hortensia Hickman Rodríguez, UNAM, Iztacala, Escuela de Estudios SuperioresIztacala,, Avenida de los Barrios # 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla, Edo. Mex. C.P. 54090, México. Phone-fax: 01 (55) 56231298l. Email address:
[email protected]. This paper was done under the auspices of the Program of Support of Professors in the Field (PAPCA ).
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homólogos en tanto involucran una relación entre acciones en tiempos distintos. El presente trabajo evaluó las correspondencias funcionales entre los reportes de la regla de los participantes y su ejecución en una tarea de igualación a la muestra durante entrenamiento y pruebas de transferencia. Se trabajó con cinco grupos experimentales en un procedimiento de hacer – reportar, variando la distancia temporal de solicitud de la regla general de ejecución y diferentes tipos de enunciados incompletos con diferente contenido semántico. Este análisis mostró diferencias entre los grupos. Se propone una matriz metodológica que permite integrar la investigación en el área de evaluación y entrenamiento del hacer-reportar en tareas de discriminación condicional. Palabras claves: correspondencia, igualación a la muestra, conducta verbal, conducta no verbal, pruebas de transferencia. One of the central concerns that has guided the work of behavioral analysts in the area of conditional discrimination and/or stimuli equivalence over the last few decades of the past century has been the possible link between execution in conditional relationships and language or verbal behavior (Sidman, 1971; Sidman and Tailby, 1982; Roche, Barnes and Smeets, 1997; Wulfert and Hayes, 1988; Lipkens, Hayes and Hayes, 1993; Devany, Hayes and Nelson, 1986; O´Donnell and Saunder, 2003). And although the use of conditional discrimination procedures and the evaluation of emerging relationships have allowed for systematic approach with respect to the phenomena traditionally classified as mental—the formation of concepts, private verbal behavior, formulation of rules, thought, etc.-, to date there is no conceptual consensus with respect to the role that language plays in this type of phenomenon. We have Sidman‘s position (1994) as an example, concerning the fact that language would not be a fundamental and necessary element for the configuration of emerging relationships which contrasts with the bi-directional hypothesis of language proposed by Hayes (1991) and, more recently, with Horne and Lowe‘s (1996) naming hypothesis. In spite of the fact that the data gathered to date in this field does not conclusively validate the primacy of one model over another, investigators who adhere to the hypothesis of language or of naming or any of its variants, have used distinct methodological strategies to explain the functional relationship between verbal and non-verbal behavior. Among these are examples of post-session questionnaires or interviews; protocol analysis with the goal of teaching subjects to think out loud during training and tests (Wulfert, Dougher and Greenway, 1991; Wulfert, Greenway and Dougher, 1994); and self-reports with respect to restricted topographies executed during training and testing (Critchfield, 1996; Walker and Branch, 1996 and Plancarte et al. 2000; Hickman et al. 2001). One of the main characteristics of these studies is the analysis of the possible functional correspondence – not necessarily morphological or topographical – existing between language and the emergence of new relationships. In relation to this, attempts have recently been made to include procedures in correspondence as an instance of stimuli control. Lattal and Doepke (2001), sustain that the procedures in correspondence and in conditional discrimination (matching to sample and/or classes of equivalence) are homologous since they involve a relationship between actions at different times. For those authors the defining characteristic of both procedures lies in the relationship that is established between two or more stimuli or actions. For example, to give feedback on correct selection between two comparative stimuli in accordance to the type of sample stimulus by the participant; or to give feedback for correspondence between the action
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and the subsequent report after this (do-report) or between a statement and the action carried out at a later time (say-do). The central element in conditional discrimination as in correspondences is that the effective response is the product of a functional relationship between two actions, more than morphological or topographical actions, allowing one to include the correspondence as an instance of control of conditional stimuli, whose substantial axis is the configuration of two temporarily different responses. On the other hand, it is undeniable that the study of correspondences by behavioral analysts is directly linked to the relationship between verbal and non-verbal behavior. For example, Lloyd (2002) mentions that training in correspondence has been analyzed by some authors, in the terms of behavior governed by rules (Deacon and Konarski, 1987; Ward and Stare, 1990), which has allowed them to explain maintenance and generalization in different sequences of training. We could therefore state that the relationship between verbal and nonverbal conduct constitutes a bridge between the area of investigation of conditional discrimination and the area of investigation in training in correspondences. All points to the need to explore methodologies derived from the field of conditional relationships more systematically with those from the field of procedures in correspondences. In this study the functional correspondence between the report of participants and their execution in a procedure of first order matching to sample is analyzed. Five experimental groups were worked differentiated among them by the temporal distance required to report the rule, as well as by the type of semantic content of sentences to be completed. In three of the five groups the effect was evaluated for acquisition and transference, for semantic complexity of the sentences maintaining a constant temporal distance for asking for the report; while in the other two groups, the temporal distance varied without exposure to incomplete sentences. That previously mentioned was in order to do a possible functional analysis of the correspondences and non-correspondences between verbal and non-verbal behavior.
METHOD Participants 25 students majoring in Psychology in the Iztacala School of Higher Studies in the UNAM, Mexico, participated and they had an average age of 20. These obtained a maximum of two correct answers out of 36 possible questions on the pre-test and they were assigned to five groups with five participants each.
Instruments and Experimental Situation Programming (instructions, arrangement of stimuli corresponding to the experimental tasks and transference tests) and a record of responses was carried out by computer systems, using a program designed in the Toolbook 1.53. Incomplete sentences and the trans-
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situational test were taken on sheets of paper. The training and test sessions were carried out individually in five soundproof cubicles.
Conditions of Stimulus, Training and Tests Each session consisted of 36 tests of matching to sample under the criteria of similarity. Each test was composed of presentation of the sample stimulus in the upper part of the monitor together with three comparative stimuli in the lower part, one was identical, one was different and another one was similar to the sample. With their mouse, participants selected one of the three comparative stimuli. If the selection was correct, a message appeared in the lower part of the monitor for two seconds with the word correct, as well as an intermittent sound; if the answer was incorrect, the word error appeared and there was a continuous sound. At the end of the session, the total score was presented. Different colors and figures were used (three stimuli per dimension) for each phase of training. The criterion used for finishing the training phase was a score of 90% of the correct answers during three consecutive sessions or a maximum of ten sessions.
Figure 1. Shows experimental arrangements and instances of stimulus employed for each training and testing condition. The asterisk indicates the correct comparative stimulus according to the criteria of similarity.
Conditions for the testing sessions were similar to the training sessions, except that they were only informed concerning the total score at the end of the session. In addition, colors and figures were used that were different from those used during the training phases. Figure 1 shows the stimuli used during training conditions and during the transference tests.
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Procedure Five groups were formed according to: 1) the semantic content of the sentences and, 2) the temporal location requesting the general rule of execution (see Table 1). Table 1. Types of incomplete sentences and moments upon requesting the rule
GROUPS
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
INCOMPLETE SENTENCES
TEMPORAL DISTANCE OF THE REQUEST OF THE RULE
1. If the figure above is __ the correct figure below is ____ 2. The figures above can have traits in common with those below. Rule at the end of each 3. The figures above can be different from those training and testing below in ___ phase. 4. Of the three figures below, the correct one is always the one that has ____ in common with that above. 1. The figure that I always choose has ___ in common with the one above. 2. When the figure above is ____, I choose ____ Rule at the end of each 3. To select the correct figure, I am certain that training and testing the figure is ____ phase. 4. I do not choose the figure that ___ 1. My response is correct whenever I choose. 2. My response is incorrect whenever I choose. 3. To assure that my response is correct, I must be certain that __ 4. Whenever I choose _______they tell me that my response is ___
Rule at the end of each training and testing phase
Group 4
No sentences
Rule at the end of each training and testing phase.
Group 5
No sentences
Rule at the end of each training and testing SESSION.
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Group 1. Relationship between sample and comparative stimuli and a rule per phase. At the end of each training session, participants in this group were requested to complete four sentences in writing. The semantic content of these alluded to the relationship between the stimuli. In addition, they were required to write the general rule of execution at the end of each training phase and at the end of each transference test. Group 2. Relationship between stimuli and responses and a rule per phase. For this group, the semantic content of the sentences alluded to relationships between the matching stimuli and the subject‘s response. The description of the general rule of execution was requested at the end of each training and testing phase. Group 3. Relationship between responses and consequences and a rule per phase. In this group the semantic content of the sentences emphasized the relationships between the subject‘s responses and the consequences of these. In the same manner the request for the general rule occurred at the end of each training and testing phases. Group 4. Without sentences and a rule per phase. The training and testing conditions were similar to those of the previous groups, except that no incomplete sentences were presented and only the general rule of execution was requested at the end of each training and testing phases. Group 5. Without sentences and a rule per session. For this group, the description of the general rule of execution was requested at the end of each training and testing session, without requiring incomplete sentences. Pre-test and post-test. The pre-test was used as a way to select participants as well as for an evaluation of their entrance level and the post-test evaluates their exit level with respect to the task. In these tests the correct response was matched to something similar (size, form, color or pattern) and there was no feedback. At the end of the test the number of correct answers was reported. Before beginning the first training session, participants were requested to read on the computer‘s monitor, the general instructions concerning how to use the mouse, how to select the stimuli and the description of contingencies. Once they indicated that there were no doubts as far as the task was concerned, the session began and the researcher left the experimental classroom. Training 1. During this phase there was training on the relationship of similarity in form and the participant had to select the comparative stimulus similar in form but different in color and size. Training 2. During this phase, out of the total number of trials, 80% corresponded to trials in which the correct response was that of similarity in color and 20% corresponded to similarity in form. Training 3. During this phase, out of the total number of trials per session, 60% corresponded to trials in which the correct response was the relationship of similarity in size, 20% was similarity in form and the other 20% was similarity in color. Tests on intra-dimensional and extra-dimensional transference.. At the end of training, the emergence of new dimensions in the relationship of similarity was evaluated, without feedback. In the intra-dimensional test, trials were mixed in which the correct relationship for similarity could be in color, form or size – 33% of trials corresponded to each one of the three dimensions to be evaluated.
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The extra-dimensional test evaluated if the relationship of similarity was maintained with a new dimension for the stimulus: pattern. In this test a mixture of geometric figures and colors used during the training were used as instances of stimulus. Test for trans-situational transference. This test evaluated the emergence of the relationship of similarity considering textual words. Words that made sense were used as instances of stimuli. The arrangements were formed by four words with four letters, each as a sample stimulus and three as comparative stimuli. One of these was identical to the sample word, another was different and one had one letter that was similar. In this test a correct answer consisted of indicating the word that shared only one of the four letters with the stimulus. There was no feedback.
RESULTS Individual data was obtained in the terms of the percentage of correct answers per session in training and testing conditions, as well as the number of sessions required by each participant to reach the criterion for acquisition. Table 2 shows the average percentage of correct answers and the number of sessions during the acquisition phase for each participant in each group. As can be observed, the majority of participants reached the criterion for acquisition in an average of three sessions for training 1 and training 2, while they needed an average of four and five sessions for the third training. On the other hand, the types of correspondence and non-correspondence were analyzed between the execution of tests and the description of the general rule of execution. This analysis was selected since the tests allowed for measurement of the transference of participants to new dimensions of stimuli, thus constituting an evaluation tool of possible linguistic functioning. It must be stated that the criterion for satisfactory transference was when participants obtained 80% of more correct responses during each of the testing sessions. The following was analyzed: a) positive correspondence between doing and reporting (DR), that is, a score of 80% or more of correct responses and an adequate report on the general rule of execution; b) negative correspondence (D-R), a score of less than 80% for correct answers and an incorrect report on the rule; c) non-correspondence between doing and reporting (D-R), that is, a score of 80% or higher for correct responses and an erroneous report on the general rule of execution and d) non-correspondence between doing and reporting (D-R), understood as a score of less than 80% of transference of correct answers and a correct report on the general rule of execution. Figure 2 shows the percentage of correct answers per participant during three transference tests (intra-dimensional, extra-dimensional and trans-situational) and the types of correspondence and non-correspondence obtained from the analysis of verbal reports and execution.
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GROUPS
Grupo 1 (E-E, R x F)
Group 2 (E-R, R x F)
Group 3 (R-C, R x F)
Group 4 (Without txt, R x F)
Group 5 (Without txt, R x S)
Subjects
Table 2. Data on individual percentages and group percentages in training phases TRAINING 1
TRAINING 2
TRAINING 3
% of correct answers
# of sessions
% of correct answers
# of sessions
% of correct answers
# of sessions
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 _ X
97 98 97 98 97
4 3 3 3 3
99 100 94 100 98
3 3 4 3 3
95 93 92 86 90
3 4 4 10 5
97,4
3,2
98,2
3,2
91,2
5,2
S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 _ X
99 97 98 96 99
3 3 3 3 3
99 98 100 100 100
3 3 3 3 3
87 85 100 94 96
4 7 3 4 3
97.8
99.4
3
92.4
4/2
S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 _ X
100 96 96 91 100
3 | 3 3 3 3 3
100 97 100 96 100
3 4 3 3 3
94 97 96 95 96
3 3 4 4 4
96,8
3
98,6
3,2
95,6
3,6
S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 _ X
96 93 96 100 99
3 4 4 3 3
100 98 96 97 93
3 3 4 3 4
51 99 81 95 98
10 3 8 4 3
96,8
3,4
96,8
3,4
84,8
5,6
S21 S22 S23 S24 S25 _ X
98 99 97 100 98
3 3 3 3 3
100 90 99 99 97
3 4 3 3 3
70 99 99 97 77
8 3 3 4 5
98,4
3
97
3,2
88,4
4,6
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Figure 2. Percentage of correct answers and type of correspondence per person or per group during the three tests of transference.
On the intra-dimensional test (graph on top in Figure 2), the majority of participants showed positive correspondences (D-R), that is, percentages of correct answers higher than 80% and a correct report on the general rule of execution. For participants 1, 11, 15, 16 and
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22, in spite of showing high percentages of transference, they had an incorrect report on the general rule and, for that reason they were evaluated as non-corresponding (D). It is important to point out two findings: First, all of the participants in group 2 showed positive correspondence between doing and reporting and second, participants 21 and 25 – both in group 4-, were the only ones who had a negative correspondence (D-R). That is to say, their execution was below 80% and there was an incorrect report on the rule. The type of noncorrespondence by participant 3 seemed to be a special case, since his execution on this test was a score of approximately 10% of correct answers, and he gave an adequate report on the general rule (R). The central graph of Figure 2 shows correspondences during the extra-dimensional test. As with the previous test, the majority of participants showed positive correspondences (DR); however, there were more participants (3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 19, 21 and 22) who in spite of having reached levels of transference above 80%, had an incorrect report on the general rule. That is to say that there was no correspondence between doing and reporting (D); especially in three of the five participants in group 4. As far as the negative correspondences were concerned, only participants 9 and 20 were evaluated in that type, since their executions did not surpass 3% of the correct answers with an incorrect reference to the general rule. Finally, the analysis of correspondences by participants in the trans-situational test (bottom graph in Figure 2) showed clear differences in each one of the groups. In the first place positive correspondences were observed (D-R) in the five participants in group 4, as well as four in group 5. The non-correspondence of the doing and not reporting type (D), were observed in participants 1, 3 and 5 belonging to group 1; and in participants 9 and 10 of group 2. In the same manner it is important to indicate that contrary to intra-dimensional and extra-dimensional tests, a greater concentration of negative correspondences was observed that is to say, levels of transferal below 80% and an incorrect report on the general rule in participants 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13 and 19. This datum appears to suggest that the stimuli (in this case, words) made the transference of the relationship difficult in non-trained contexts and, for that reason, the correct formulation of the general rule was more difficult.
DISCUSSION We feel that the analysis of types of correspondences between non-verbal and verbal behavior (do-report) as far as the temporal distance of request of the general rule is concerned, was suggestive for discussion of emerging behaviors such as those evaluated during the transferal tests. With respect to this, it was found that upon varying the semantic quality of the sentences (Group 1, 2 and 3) there was greater variability in the types of correspondences analyzed, especially during the trans-situational test. This could point towards a possible interference by the texts concerning the evaluation of the correspondences, specifically under the terms of correct or incorrect reference to the general rule of execution. In previous studies we have explored the relationships between execution and selection of incomplete sentences (Cepeda, Hickman, Moreno, Peñalosa and Ribes, 1991; Ribes, Moreno and Martínez, 1995); the relationship between transference and semantic complexity of the references (Moreno, Hickman, Cepeda, Tena and Plancarte, 1997; Hickman et al. 2001); the effects between the density of presentation of sentences and the quality of references (Morales, Hickman, Tena,
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Cepeda and García, 1992). However, it seems that systematic training in the correspondences would be necessary, not only the evaluation of the same as a supplementary measurement, as has been done traditionally in this type of study. The inclusion of training procedures in correspondences such as an instance of conditional stimuli control, exactly as is indicated by Lattan and Doepke (2001), would allow us to describe those procedures in terms of behavior governed by rules and thus establish a conceptual link between these rules and those generated in the field of conditional discrimination; since ―all elements necessary for the development of behavior governed by rules are found in procedures for training in correspondences‖ (Deacon and Konarski, 1987, p. 399). Thus, we consider it important to develop investigations that systematically train and not only evaluate the correspondences between verbal and non-verbal behavior. In the following paragraph we present some methodological possibilities of training.
Devices for Training in Correspondences in Complex Tasks Tables 3 and 4 present some forms for using procedures for matching to sample and the stimuli equivalence, training and/or evaluating correspondences. Table 3 represents training in which there would be no indispensable requirement for feedback, the emission of corresponding behaviors. In Case 1 feedback is circumscribed only towards the emission of non-verbal behavior (Doing), in spite of the quality or verisimilitude of verbal behavior (Reporting). These relationships represent the majority of field studies on conditional discrimination and/or stimuli equivalence where verbal behavior is evaluated or measured in a supplementary manner. This Case is subdivided into two types (Type 1 and Type 2) that allude to the moments in which non-verbal behavior would receive feedback. In Type 1, the participant would issue his non-verbal response, which would or would not receive feedback in accordance to a correct or incorrect selection and the report would later be requested. As far as Type 2 is concerned, the report followed by non-verbal behavior would be requested, maintaining the same feedback requirements. Case 2 represents training that would only be circumscribed by feedback on the report or by verbal behavior, after execution (Type 1) or before execution (Type 2). At least in the review of literature made by us, we have not found investigations that explore the effect of feedback on the verbal dimension or investigations in which the non-verbal dimension acquires a supplementary role. Contrary to the two previously mentioned cases, Case 3 and Case 4 (see Table 4) describe training in correspondences and not only the evaluation or analysis of the same. It is notable that the great majority of investigations related to the study of conditional discrimination and/or emerging behavior have been centered on– with some exceptions – training in the instrumental dimension of behavior, leaving verbal behavior as a supplementary measure.
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Hortensia Hickman, Diana Moreno, Olivia Tena et al. Table 3. Cases in which the correspondence is not a necessary requirement and execution is given in feedback – Doing – or the report from the subject – Saying. CASE 1. FEEDBACK TO DO Type 1 Er
Doing
Reporting
Example I.M. correct
Er
Reporting
I.M. incorrect
No Er
Reporting
No I.M.
No Er
Reporting
Type 2 Reporting
Er
Doing Example
I will choose x or y I will choose x or y
I.M. correct
Er
I.M. incorrect
No Er
Not reported
I.M. correct
Er
Not reported
I.M. incorrect
No Er
CASE 2. FEEDBACK TO REPORT Type 1 Doing
Reporting
Er
Example I.M.
Correct report
Er
I.M.
Incorrect report
No Er
I.M.
No report
No Er
Type 2 Reporting
E
r
Doing
Example I will choose x
Er
Selection of IMx
I will choose x
Er
Selection of IMy
I will choose y
Er
Selection of IMy
I will choose y
E
r
Selection of IMx
No report
No Er
IM= Task of matching the sample Er= Feedback No Er = No feedback
Selection of IMx or y Indicates the sequence between the elements.
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Table 4. Cases in which there is training in the correspondence between doing and reporting or reporting and doing CASE 3. TRAINING IN DO-REPORT CORRESPONDENCE Doing
Er
Reporting Example
IMx
I did x
Er
IMx
I did y
No Er
CASE 4. TRAINING IN REPORT-DO CORRESPONDENCE Reporting
Er
Doing Example
I will choose x
IMx
Er
I will choose x
IMy
No Er
IM= Task of matching sample Er= Feedback No Er = No feedback
Indicates the sequence between elements. Indicates the dependence between elements
Thus, Case 3 describes the training in correspondences between non-verbal and verbal behavior (Doing-Reporting). For this, the correspondence between both behaviors would be necessary for feedback. As far as Case 4 is concerned, temporality would be invested in the two types of behavior, since in the first case the participant would be requested to give the report with respect to what he will do and he would later be exposed to the selection of the instrumental and non-verbal component. Methodological devices are proposals that do not describe each and every one of the possible variables to be investigated between the components in a accurate manner and that form the cases; but that place an accent on the need to explicitly train relationships corresponding to verbal and non-verbal behavior and their temporal links. Thus, for example, there could be training in correspondences under the terms of the qualities of the references of participants in an oral or textual manner, the effects on acquisition and transference of training in correspondences when the report is requested before or after non-verbal behavior; training in the preciseness of verbal or non-verbal correspondences, just to mention a few possibilities. We feel that the previously mentioned examples could constitute a heuristic tool tending to explore the function between that done and that reported in the framework of behavioral analysis.
REFERENCES Cepeda, M. L., Hickman, H., Moreno, D., Peñalosa, E., and Ribes, E. (1991). The effect of prior selection of verbal descriptions of stimulus relations upon the performance in
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condicional discrimination in human adults. Revista Mexicana de Análisis de la Conducta, 17, 53-79. Critchfield, T. S. (1996). Self-reports about performance under time pressure: Bias and discriminability. The Psychological Record, 40, 541-554. Deacon, J. R., and Konarski, E. A. (1987). Correspondence training: An example of rulegoverned behavior?. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20 (4), 391-400. Devany, J. M., Hayes, S. C., and Nelson, R. O. (1986). Equivalence class formation in language-able and language-disabled children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 46 (3), 243-257. Hayes, S. C. (1991). A Relational control theory of stimulus equivalence. In L. J. Hayes and P. N. Chase (Eds,), Dialogues on verbal behavior (pp. 19-41). Reno, NV: Context Press. Hickman, H., Tena. O., Moreno, D., Cepeda, M. L. Plancarte, P., and Larios, R. M. (2001). Análisis de autodescripciones en relación con el comportamiento complejo, Revista Latina de Pensamiento y Lenguaje, 9 (1), 105-122. Horne, P. J., and Lowe, C. F. (1996). On the origins of naming and other symbolic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 65, 185-241. Lattal, K. A., and Doepke, K. J. (2001). Correspondence as conditional stimulus control: Insights from experiments with pigeons. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 127144. Lipkens, R., Hayes, S. C., and Hayes, L. J. (1993). Longitudinal study of the development of derived relations in an infant. Journal of the Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 201239. Lloyd, K. E. (2002). A review of correspondence training: Suggestions for a revival. The Behavior Analyst, 25 (1), 57-73. Morales, F., Hickman, H., Tena, O., Cepeda, M. L., and García, R. (1992). Interacción entre la ejecución en tareas de discriminación compleja y descripciones textuales en adultos. Paper read it in the Primer Congreso Internacional sobre el Conductismo y las Ciencias de la Conducta. Guadalajara: México. Moreno, D., Hickman, H., Cepeda, M. L., Tena, O., and Plancarte, P. (1997). Descriptions function on complex behavior. Paper read it in the 23 Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Análisis. Chicago: USA. O´Donnell, J. and Saunder, K. J. (2003). Equivalence relations in individuals with language limitations and mental retardation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 80 (1), 131-157. Plancarte, P., Hickman, H., Tena, O., Moreno, M. L., Cepeda, M. L., and Larios, R. M. (2000). Correspondence of verbal descriptions and matching performance of Mexican children. Behavior Development Bulletin, 9, 26-29. Ribes, E., Moreno, D., and Martínez, C. (1995). Efecto de distintos criterios verbales de igualación en la adquisición y transferencia de una discriminación condicional de segundo orden en humanos. Acta Comportamentalia, 3, 27-54. Roche, B., Barnes, D. and Smeets, P. M. (1997). Incongruous stimulus pairing and conditional discrimination training: Effects on relational responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68, 143-160. Sidman, M. (1971). Reading and auditory-visual equivalences. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 14, 5-13.
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Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story. Boston: Authors Cooperative. Sidman, M., and Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional discrimination vs matching to sample: An expansion of the testing paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 5-22. Walker, D. J., and Branch, (1996). Effects of cocaine on briefly signaled versus completely signaled delays to reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 65 (2), 375-388. Ward, W., and Stare, S. W. (1990). The role of subject verbalization in generalized correspondence. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 129-136. Wulfert, E.,and Hayes, S.C. (1988). Transfer of a conditional ordering response though conditional equivalence classes. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 125-144. Wulfert, E., Dougher, M. J., and Greenway, D.E. (1991). Protocol analysis of the correspondence of verbal behavior and equivalence class formation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 56 (3), 489-504. Wulfert, E., Greenway, D. E., and Dougher, M.J. (1994). Third-order equivalence classes. The Psychological Record, 44, 411-439.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
SOCIO-COGNITIVE BASIS OF POSITIVE BIAS IN EVALUATING WORK TEAMS PERFORMANCE Eduardo Infante Rejano and Manuel Marín Sánchez and Eduardo Infante Rejano ¹ Universidad de Sevilla
ABSTRACT Considering the anchoring and adjustment effect on social inference judgments (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974) and Chaiken‘s (1987) heuristic-systematic model, the present research examines the role of group design and in-group interaction on individual performance appraisal. Specifically, these variables were analyzed in relation to the emergence of positive bias. It was hypothesized that emotional criteria used by members to form and manage their groups would produce higher positive bias because their adjustment processes were supported by the heuristic processing route. A sample of 83 university students (72.2% women, 27.7% men) was distributed in 30 working groups of various sizes. The mean age was 23.3. Among other statistical procedures, factor analysis were used in order to test the hypothesis. Results seemed to support our hypothesis as to the existence of three different information processing routes in social inference related to judgment according to the previous anchoring effect. As it was predicted by literature revision (Van-Leeuwen and Van-Knippenberg, 2002; Van Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, and van Knippenberg, 2004, Loken, 2006), subjects involved in the central or systematic route estimated their in-group efforts with less positive bias. These findings are discussed in relation to group assessment systems and policies in organizational settings.
Key words: heuristic processing, performance appraisal, positive bias, socio-cognitive processes.
RESUMEN Considerando el efecto anclaje y ajuste en las evaluaciones de inferencia social (Tversky y Kahneman, 1974) y el modelo heurístico-sistemático de Chaiken (1987), la
Address for correspondence: Departamento de Psicología Social, Universidad de Sevilla, Camilo José Cela S/n. 41018 Sevilla, España. E-mail: mmsanchee
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Manuel Marín Sánchez and Eduardo Infante Rejano presente investigación examina la creación de grupo y el tipo de interacción endogrupal en la evaluación del desempeño laboral. Específicamente, se analizo la influencia de estas variables en la génesis de sesgos de positividad. Se hipotetizó que los criterios emocionales utilizados por los miembros grupales para la formación del grupo producirían mayor sesgo de positividad al involucrar una ruta de evaluación heurística. Un total de 83 estudiantes universitarios tomaron parte en el proceso de recogida de datos. La muestra fue dividida en 30 grupos de trabajo de varios diversos tamaños. La edad media fue de 23,3 años siendo el 72,2% mujeres. Entre otros análisis, se realizó un análisis factorial para evaluar las hipótesis planteadas. Los resultados apoyan la existencia de tres rutas diferentes de procesamiento de la información en situaciones de inferencia social según el efecto de anclaje. Acorde con la revisión literaria (Van-Leeuwen y Van-Knippenberg, 2002; Van Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, y van Knippenberg, 2004, Loken, 2006), se constata que Como se predijo, los sujetos anclados en rutas centrales o sistemáticas estimaron con menor sesgo de positividad sus esfuerzos endogrupales. Estos resultados son analizados en relación con las políticas de evaluación grupal en las organizaciones.
Palabras clave: procesamiento heurístico, evaluación del desempeño, sesgo de positividad, procesos socio-cognitivos.
INTRODUCTION Nowadays, most of the organizations tend more and more to promote process work teams, and less organizational leaders. Work complexity and quick changes in environmental conditions obligate the workers to join efforts in the multiple professional work teams (Peiro, Prieto and Roe, 1996). The supervisors or team leaders must expand their functions and to learn to manage efficiently work groups. One of the most important competences refers to performance appraisal, a process that paradoxically continues developing in an individual form not in groups. If most of the experts defend we must deal with labor groups as a whole unified unit, we must control the risk of not considering individual efforts and to reinforce the group results. Due to individual differences between workers, the group members may perceive then, a mismatch between individual performance and group final efficacy calculated by the supervisors. This evaluation mistake could support the broad idea that work teams are non productive, time consumers and a good opportunity for taking others‘ advantage (by example social idleness, ―free travel‖ effects). Some authors alert about consequences of evaluating the personnel wrongly. For example, Larson (1989) concludes evaluating discrepancies between supervisor and individual promotes interpersonal discord and reduces labor satisfaction. This effect is more common when the evaluators keep few contact with their followers due to hard work conditions or inability in directing groups. When supervisor assessment is limited, the self-assessment is showed as viable alternative (Franzoi, 2000). However, the self-assessment processes are also influenced by cognitive bias that must be reviewed. The self-assessments defined as evaluating process used by members of a same group for evaluating their individual or group efforts. The selassessment possesses a series of advantages for personal development, since it makes up a useful auto-analysis exercise, free from stress and favorable for retro-information processes
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(Harris y Schaubroeck, 1988; Berry, 1997; Loken, 2006). Even though its usefulness, the selfassessment is not used frequently, and especially alone, in processes of labor performance evaluation. When the workers evaluate their performance, they tend to show positive bias that protect the self-esteem. Due to self-complacent bias, the subjects select or distort information influenced by previous cognitive variables, like experience, goals, history, etc. Workers and supervisors are ―cognitive losers‖ who dismiss useful information for reaching evaluating agreements. Even more, the more precise subjects in their evaluations used to work more efficiently (Randall, Ferguson y Patterson, 2000). Therefore, it is relevant to increase our knowledge about the variables used by the workers in order to issue their labor self-efficiency judgments.
LITERATURE REVISION Following Hackman‘s (1987) group efficacy model, there are some elements in work team which predispose their performance. The group is inserted in a socio-temporary dynamic system that describes three stages: Inputs (stage 1) Processes (stage 2) Outputs (stage 3). Although the self-assessment process starts in stage 3, when the workers must find out the value of their past group efforts, is subjected to two previous stages (memories, data searching, experiences, goals, objectives, etc.). For example, certain motivating processes may be described in stage 1, such as group goals preparation which defines group design. Utilitarian and emotional groups are distinguished by traditional classifications among work team groups (Munne, 1982; Grau and Agut, 2002; Loken, 2006) according to criteria used by the group for accepting their members. The utilitarian groups are based on variables associated to work (past works, mutual knowledge, individual skills contingent to work, etc), meanwhile emotional variables stand out extra-labor criteria (friendship, interpersonal attraction, informal leadership, etc), so it would be important to expect from those less positive bias. In stage 2, the route for data processing could affect the process of group performance self-assessment. Remembering the Chaiken heuristic-systematic model (1987) widely used in literature about persuasive communication, the central or systematic process of information would take into account cognitive aspects and in-group information interchange when inferring social judgments, dismissing typical emotions and feelings of the heuristic route. We consider that this process depends on the type of interpersonal relations and social interaction processes lived in a work group and reflected in their cohesion levels. As extension of this model, we can think about the existence of a third route of process called mixed route, in which the members will use both kind of data: cognitive and emotional. On the other hand, stages 1 and 2 could be subjected to the influence of certain common heuristics of data processing. Heuristics are simple mental rules and elementary cognitive strategies that may resolve problems. Time pressure, complex environments, relevant information overcharge, as well as limits to cognitive process which obligate the heuristics use in formulating important judgments. One of the most documented heuristics is the one presented by Tversky and Kahneman (1974), denominated anchorage and adjustment heuristics.
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In Social Psychology, anchorage and adjustment heuristics have been proposed for explaining an enormous variety of judgment phenomena and human reasoning (see Mussweiler, 1997). Although psychological mediating mechanisms are unknown, the heuristics influence has been proved in self-efficacy estimations (Cervone and Peake, 1986; Switzer and Sniezek, 1993; Loken, 2006). The heuristic affirms a formulation of critical judgment is affected by taking into account an aspect or a priori stimulus (anchoring), to which initial value is adapted (adjusted) so as to finally issue a social judgment. Anchoring may have a concrete or numerical nature, and a categorical or absolute critical judgment. The explanation of this effect seems to be found in the existence of an insufficient adjustment from the mental value anticipated by the subject toward the data evaluation processed by himself. According to some studies, the mistakes of adjustment appear only when the anchorages are self-created (Epley and Gilovich, 2001). However, this heuristic has been also observed when coherent and acceptable anchorage values are used (Strack and Mussweiler, 1997). To apply anchoring –adjustment effect in group performance assessment includes to consider the existence of certain variables that would serve as evaluation criteria for an individual judgment. For example, selection criterion and formation of each group could be used, effectively, as anchorage value in order to evaluate its efficacy, in terms of affective factors versus utilitarian ones (Munne, 1982; Grau and Agut, 2002). The emotional criteria are usually used between students, due to their tendency to choose friends as work mates instead of ―expert students‖. During in-group relations, the members could process variables which inform about this initial criterion so as to evaluate the effort and goals achieved. In this way, the emotional criteria – although they are very important for reaching labor goals- would not be appropriate, since they deviate the attention from information processing toward variables and non-relating data to group tasks. Literature seems to support the effects of a priori variables about self-assessment. In Parsons, Liden and Bauer (2001) study, the characteristics non-related to work influenced the participants‘ impression, distorting the information to confirm particular goals. The subsequent cognitive adjustment, at the moment of carrying out the judgment assessment, probably would handle emotional variables compatible to previous anchorage- for example, friendship relations kept or lived in group, and consequently, not taking into account nonaffective variables directly related to evaluation objects (created ideas, information interchange or search, formal communication, etc). Therefore, the effect of expectations bias that serves the group is moderated by particular goals preparation (McClelland, 1961; Van-Knippenberg, 1999; Loken, 2006). Devos (1998) has recently found a relation between group assessing bias and grade in which member used specific dimensions in order to establish positive social identities. Some similar efforts are found in Van-Leeuwen and Van-Knippenberg (2002) in order to determine the role of initial group goals in social agreed evaluations. These authors suggest that when there is no a specific group goal, the participants adjust their own performances to those expected by other group members. In consequence, the evaluating bias could be created when the anchoring is situated in certain heuristic routes that deal with emotional analysis or criteria non related to group task. On the other hand, a performance assessment would follow a central or systematic route in social inference processes when criteria related to the task are pondered, and anchoring from
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utilitarian criteria. It is also feasible to consider the existence of a mixed route in which the individuals take into account both criteria type: emotional and utilitarian. According to Van-Knippenberg (1999), the in-group messages may be well processed heuristically or systematically according to social context of the group. Therefore, we can hypothesize that the use of one of these routes will depend of the kind of variables perceived in the group dynamics, such as cohesion, interaction frequency or individual identification with the group. This research analyses the group design influence and the type of interaction lived about individual evaluation of group performance. Specifically, it explores the anchorageadjustment effect over the different route of information processing.
METHOD Participants The sampling was made between 83 university students organized in 30 (micro) work groups of different size (from two to five) in order to carry out a fieldwork about ―Personnel Selection and Recruiting‖. 60 women (72,2%) and 23 men (72,2%) participated in such study. The mean age was 23,6 (Ds= 5,4). All of them belonged to the second course of Labor Relation Bachelor. These work groups are defined as cuasi-formal, temporary and ad hoc. The mean of intra-group contacts was seven monthly sessions, of 3.3 hours each, during three months (with a maximum period of eight months for carrying out the group project).
Variables Group design (anchoring variable): The variable ―group design‖ was operated as the criterion used by members to be chosen mutually and to create the group. These criteria were classified in three categories for describing three type groups: (1) affective groups, when used criterion had an entirely affective nature (friendship, identifications, personal attraction, etc).; (2) utilitarian groups, meaning, when criteria used are related to group tasks (past works, knowledge of the matter, individual competence, etc), and (3) at random, in cases in which there is no mediating logical or apparent criterion (ex. To seat one next to the other in the classroom). Interaction type (adjustment variable): The ―interaction type‖ is defined as the most vivid and/or emotional interpersonal relations nature by the in-group. It was operated through a difference between affective cohesion (emotional criterion in the sociometric test) and the cohesion related to the task (labor criterion). A group could be then to be defined as (1) emotionally cohesive – if cohesion was mostly based on affective relations; as (2) labored cohesive – if cohesion was mostly composed of tasks relations, and (3), a third kind of interaction defined as ―mixed cohesion‖, in which the group feels uniformly united by both type of interrelation (affective and task). For this reason, sociometric measurements were used, as well as other group indicators, such as total number of work hours (sessions number x hours per session x number of work months).
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Positive bias: The positive bias is defined as the difference between individual evaluation of performance and the supervisor (professor). For this investigation, it was taken into account the evaluation referred to group effort, meaning, the grade each member, separately, believed his group deserved, according to the work done and showed. Any way, the individual identification with the in-group was higher than 7 (scale from 0 to 10) in all the groups.
Procedure At the beginning of the academic course, the subjects were encouraged to be part of work groups for carrying out a class project. The students were free to create the groups which must vary from two to five members and to keep impassive through the course. The work period was of a maximum of eight months and during the academic year. The individual evaluations about group performance were collectively obtained in two sessions in the same room for such effect, facilitating the same instructions. The participant subjects were informed about the need to know the evaluation of their efforts as a group, together with other questions related thereof. Before delivering the works, a first session was carried out in order to pick up the criteria of group formation (group design), the successful expectation, group identification (numerical scale from 0 to 10), as well as the size and sexual composition thereof, through direct questions. In a second session, after delivering works, but without knowing the grade obtained, ludic-affective nature limited affirmative sociometric measurements were taken, (“Whom of your fellows would you choose for going to drink something?”), and labor (―Whom of your group’s fellows would you choose for carrying out new class works?”). The first sociometric measurement pretended to evaluate the affective cohesion, and the second, the one related to tasks. None of the participants was informed of the basic objective of the research. It started from initial criterion that forming work groups (group design) would allow to initiate and to feed the adjustment-anchoring processes. Moreover, the students were clearly informed that the evaluations estimated by them would not alter at all the real evaluations given by the teacher.
RESULTS To carry out data analysis, SPSS+ statistics software for PC was used. The group design co-variables and interaction type were included in a cluster of analysis to confirm the existence of the three types of information processing group (cognitive, emotional, mixed). In this way, Table 1 shows the three type of anchoring-adjustment processes individually used for the sampling. As it can be seen, most of the students started to identify affective anchoring-affective groups (77.1%) stimulus, but a 32.8% of them adjusted carried out adjustment by processing labor variables, and a 40,6% finally did it in mixing processing routes. The utilitarian groups were less common (13.25%), and most of them (72.7%) found their own mixed routes adjustments. Finally, all the groups without formation criterionrandom groups (9.6%)-also adjusted information processing mixed routes.
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Table 1. Possible routes of information processing in social inferences
Anchoring Criteria of work groups formation
Goal /Cohesion At random Utilitarian Affective Total Type of route
Mixed 8 8 26 42 Mixed
Adjustment processes Related to a task Emotional 3 21 24 Systematic
17 17 Heuristic
Total 8 11 64 83
Table 2 shows the relations between cohesion variables, age, identification with the group, frequency and positive bias. Regarding sex, the Chi-square value indicates there are no differences between sexes at the moment of creating and maintaining types of group relations
Type of group cohesion
Table 2. Relations between variables of the research Sex Men N 12 Expected freq. 11.6 Mixed % Group 28.6% % Sex 52.2% % total 14.5% N 8 Expected freq. 6.7 Related to the task % Group 33.3% % Sex 34.8% % total 9.6% N 3 Expected freq. 4.7 Emotional % Group 17.6% % Sex 13.0% % total 3.6% 2
=1.254 P>0.05
Women 30 30.4 71.4% 50.0% 36.1% 16 17.3 66.7% 26.7% 19.3% 14 12.3 82.4% 23.3% 16.9%
Age Interac. Freq. Positive bias Mean and Ds Mean and Ds Mean and Ds 23.09 4.90
61.32 33.14
3.765 .264
24.37 6.53
46.95 29.12
2.060 .442
23.70 5.04
102.11 83.32
3.141 .347
F=0.426 P>0.05
F=7.148 P<0.01
F=2.032 P>0.05
Even more, there is no relation between sex and anchoring-adjustment processes, the age of positive bias. The only significant relation fluctuated between group interaction and cohesion type, since the subjects in affective groups interacted significantly more than the utilitarian (standard error of 14,93; P<0,01). In the first table, we also observe how the utilitarian groups slanted less their estimations than those immersed in groups and affective or mixed relations. So as to determine the direct and combined effects of the independent variables with the dependent one, three factorial analysis were carried out (See tables 3a, 3b and 3c).
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Table 3a. Factorial analysis between independent variables (group design and type of ingroup relations-cohesion-) and dependent ones (positive bias) Source Group design Type of cohesion Design x Cohesion Error Total Total adjustment
Type SC III 13,523 29,030 17,730 155,857 1153,170 186,801
gl 2 2 1 76 82 81
Square Mean 6,762 14,515 17,730 2,051
F 3,297 7,078 8,646
Sig. ,042 ,002 ,004
Table 3b. Factol analysis between group design and positive bias
Group design At random Utilitarian Affective
%
Mean
Error
9.6 13.2 77.1
3.457 2.354 3.438
.541 .485 .182
α= 5% Lower limit Upper limit 2.379 4.535 1.389 3.320 3.076 3.800
Table 3c. Factor analysis between in-group relations type (cohesion) and positive bias
Type of cohesion Mixed Related to the task Affective
Mean
Error
3.762 2.026 3.141
.264 .442 .347
α= 5% Lower limit 3.236 1.146 2.449
Upper limit 4.288 2.906 3.833
The initial hypothesis which admitted a significant influence of the group design type and in-groups relations type (cohesion) about positive bias are confirmed. Especially, the final adjustment variable had a higher incidence in judgment errors. The interaction between the two independent variables (anchoring and adjustment) explain a 16.6% of the positive bias variance. According to graphics 3b y 3c, the utilitarian groups showed less positive biases than the affective or at random groups. The subjects who interacted in the labor groups were very cohesive seem to evaluate their group performance more exactly. The interactive effects of these two variables allow to confirm the highest evaluation mistakes happened to those subjects belonging to affective labor groups. However, the highest positive biases pertained to those made by members of utilitarian groups which adjusted their calculations in mixed processing routes. A last reflection about our data may be obtained relating graphically to design type with group cohesion one so as to explain the positive bias. As it is showed in graphics 1, only those subjects involved in information processes compatible with group tasks (high cohesion related to the task) created minor biases, regardless of peer group (anchoring in affective or utilitarian groups).
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VD. Positive Bias
Estimated means 5
4
3
Group design
2
At random 1 Utilitarian Affective
0 Mixed
Labored
Emocional
Type of cohesiveness
Graphics 1. The positive bias depending on the type of processing route and group design.
At the same time, those who, during the processing, belonged to utilitarian groups were able to create realistic and coherent self-assessments. The difference of biases between utilitarian and affective groups was high, reaching the affective groups up to four more times biases than the first ones. Moreover, the utilitarian design groups always created higher labor type cohesion, never were prevailing affectivity cohesion.
DISCUSSION In order to explain the origin of the positive biases in the individual evaluation of ingroups performance, there are two theories that have been applied; both are widely known in the respective literature -the anchoring-adjustment phenomenon and heuristic-systematic model. It was hypothesized that the labor group creation criteria (anchoring stimulus) would be followed by certain information treatment processes (adjustment processes), related to the kind of in-group (and reflected in the group cohesion nature). Consequently, it was supposed that anchoring-adjustment effect would be counterproductive in the self-assessment performance processes when variables non- related to the group task-affects, emotional and subjective factors- are managed. This inferential route was called heuristic route opposed to systematic route. A third information process route was identified in the sampling since it deals with emotional and non-emotional information. The date obtained from the sampling from 83 Spanish university students allowed to confirm the starting hypothesis. In this way, those subjects from affective groups and heuristic information processing were less exact in the self-assessment of their labor performances. It was proved then that the type of route used in issuing social judgments explain the creation of positive biases, being at the same time influenced by the environment or work group environment. However, the results allow to confirm that, depending on the nature and measurement of the variables used, the anchoring and adjustment processes are not phases so coherently united as it was believed. When the individuals must formulate
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important value judgments, it is probably they try to gather all the environmental and temporary-spatial information available and to distort their inference processes regarding anchoring variable. On the other hand, our researching has proved that anchorage-adjustment processes are more appropriate when the evaluation involved emotional aspects and used peripheral routes incompatible with evaluation objectives. In this way, the undefined anchorages (design at random) or affective (design by friendship) created up to four more times positive bias than criteria compatible with the tasks (competences, knowledge, past labor successes, etc.). Even more, the group design compatible with the task served as a base for creating, in all the cases, more labor cohesion which affects the utilitarian groups. The policy agents and human resources directors must consider these results at the moment of leading work groups, especially semi-autonomous work groups. They must be capable of informing carefully about variables and factors on which the assessment processes of labor performance will fall so as to make up coherently work groups and consequently handle them. This strategy seems to claim continuous evaluation processes of two aspects work teams referred to internal aspects (technical aspects of the work to be done) and external (social relations between their members). So, it is not just to evaluate exclusively if the work has been concluded, but how the group interacts and obtains clear labor progress rates. Any way, and following Tindale and Kameda (2000), in this research we have assumed in all the work groups created, high ―social shareness‖, which implies the existence of strong individual, emotional and cognoscitive shareness, regarding peer groups. With this respect, other researches must analyze the role of co-variables such as the membership in the social inference processes. It would also appropriate to prove the association found between anchoring-adjustment process and the peripheral route in non-labor contexts (ex., marriage bureaus) where the affective variables (for ex. First impression, sexual attraction, etc.), the group design criteria would be more compatible with the evaluation objective.
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Grau, R. and Agut, S. (2002). Percepción de personas y atribución causal. In M. Marin, R. Grau and S. Yubero (Eds.). Procesos Psicosociales en los Contextos Educativos (pp. 6572). Madrid: Pirámide. Hackman, J.R. (1987). The design of work teams. In J. Lorsch (Ed). Handbook of Organizational Behavior (pp. 315-342). New York: Prentice-Hall. Harris, M.M. and Schaubroeck, J. (1988). A meta-analysis of self-supervisor, self-peer, and peer-supervisor ratings. Personnel Psychology, 41, 43-62. Larson, J.R. (1989). The dynamic interplay between employees' feedback-seeking strategies and supervisors' delivery of performance feedback. Academy of Management Review, 14, 3. Loken, B. (2006). Consumer Psychology: Categorization, Inferences, Affect, and Persuasion. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 453-485. McClelland, D. (1961). The achieving society. Princeton: Van Nostrand. Munné, F. (1982): Psicología Social. Barcelona: CEAC. Mussweiler, T. (1997). A selective accessibility model of anchoring: linking the anchoring heuristic to hypothesis-consistent testing and semantic priming. Alemania: Lengerich. Parsons, C.K.; Liden, R.C. and Bauer, T.N. (2001). Person perception in employment interview. In M. London (Ed). How people evaluate others in organizations. Applied in psychology (pp. 67-90). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass. Peiró, J.M.; Prieto. F. and R. Roe (1996). La aproximación psicosocial al trabajo en un entorno laboral cambiante. In J.M. Peiró y F. Prieto (Comps). Tratado de Psicología del Trabajo (Vol. 1, pp. 15-36). Madrid: Síntesis Psicología. Randall, R.; Ferguson, E. and Patterson, F. (2000). Self-assessment and assessment center decisions. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 443-459. Strack, F. and Mussweiler. T. (1997). Explaining the enigmatic anchoring effect: Mechanism and selective accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 437-446. Switzer, F.S. and Sniezek. J.A. (1991). Judgment processes in motivation: Anchoring and adjustment effects on judgment and behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 49, 208-229. Tindale, R.S. and Kameda, T. (2000). Social shareness as a unifying theme for information processing in groups. Group Processes and In-Groups Relations, 3, 2, 123-140. Tversky, A. and Kahneman. D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1130. Van-Knippenberg, D. (1999). Social identity and persuasion: reconsidering the role of group membership. In D. Abrams y M. Hogg (Eds.). Social Identity and Social Cognition (pp. 315-331). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SCALE TO STUDY DIFFERENCES IN GENDER IN ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION PROCESSES Ana Lisbona Bañuelos and Francisco J. Palací 1 Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) and Esteban Agulló Tomás, Universidad de Oviedo
ABSTRACT In this paper we analyze the possible existence of policies for worker integration and promotion, according to gender, without taking into consideration the position held. We also validate an instrument for evaluating differences according to gender during the socialization process by following the Taormina‘s Model of Social Organization (1997). In this Model, four domains are proposed that coincide with the four subscales on the OSI Questionnaire (training, understanding, support of co-workers and future perspectives). In the same manner, we have designed a subscale that, in an abbreviated form, has been called the Gender Subscale for the Socialization Process. The degree of learning achieved in these domains is the main indicator of success in the socialization process. The study is composed of two transversal samples and a longitudinal sample. Data was gathered at two different times with approximately one year‘s difference between them. The first transversal sample contains 414 participants and the second transversal sample contains 396 participants. The longitudinal sample contains 118 participants. We can conclude that the statistical properties of this instrument for the Spanish sample, together with the items designed on this occasion, are appropriate and in accordance with the author‘s theoretical proposal, which insists on the relationship and inter-dependence between the different domains. In this paper, we discuss the relationship between the newly created gender variable of socialization and satisfaction and commitment. In the same manner, it we show how gender differences are an additional domain in the socialization process and how this is reflected in increased learning.
Keywords: socialization process, organizations, gender differences, validation.
1
Address for correspondence:
[email protected], Telephone: 34 : 913986264, Fax: 34 913986215. Francisco José Palaci Descals, Department of Social Psychology and Organizations in the School of Psychology of the UNED, C/ Juan del Rosal, 10. 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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RESUMEN En este trabajo deseamos analizar si las empresas difieren en las políticas de integración y promoción laboral de sus trabajadores, en función de su género y con independencia del puesto que ocupen. Tambien se procede a la validación de un instrumento que evalúa las diferencias en función del género durante el proceso de socialización. Siguiendo el modelo de Socialización Organizacional de Taormina (1997) se proponen 4 dominios, que coinciden con las cuatro subescalas del Cuestionario OSI (entrenamiento, comprensión, apoyo de los compañeros y perspectivas de futuro). Asimismo, hemos diseñado una subescala, que, de manera abreviada, se ha venido denominando Subescala de Género del Proceso de Socialización El grado de aprendizaje logrado en estos dominios es el principal indicador del éxito del proceso de socialización. El estudio se compone de dos muestras transversales y una muestra longitudinal. Se han recogido datos en dos momentos temporales con aproximadamente un año de diferencia entre los dos tiempos. La primera muestra transversal se compone de 414 participantes. Y la segunda muestra transversal de 396 participantes. La muestra longitudinal se compone de 118 participantes. Podemos concluir que las propiedades estadísticas de este instrumento para la muestra española, junto con los ítems diseñado en esta ocasión, son apropiadas y, se ajustan a la propuesta teórica de autor, que insiste en la relación e interdependencia de los distintos dominios. En el trabajo se discuten las relaciones entre la variable de nueva creación de socialización en función del genero con la satisfacción y el compromiso. Asimismo, se muestra como las diferencias en función del género son un dominio más en el proceso de socialización y se refleja en un aumento del aprendizaje. Palabras clave: proceso de socialización, organizaciones, diferencias de género, validación.
INTRODUCTION Social changes in the role of women during the XX century cannot be questioned. Thus, the massive entrance of women into the workplace involves one of the farthest reaching transformations in contemporary society. However, numerous studies show evidence of constantly present inequality between men and women in pay, in conditions for access to jobs or in the possibility of professional development, among others. Thus, according to data gathered by the Spanish National Statistical Institute (INE) in a survey among the working population of Spain during the last quarter of 2006, the unemployment rate among women was 11.36% compared to 6.06% for men. In the same manner, the percentage of women directors in companies with more than 10 employees was only 22.09%. These persistent forms of discrimination are explained in social sciences by the survival of beliefs known as stereotypes (e.g., López-Sáez, Morales and Lisbona, in the press) and the inter-relationship between numerous factors that are frequently referred to as the ―glass ceiling‖ (SegermanPeck, 1991; Powell, 1991; Davidson and Cooper, 1992), which is an invisible but unsurpassable wall of procedures, structures and beliefs that make it very difficult for women to have access to decision-making positions or to fully develop their potential.
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In the same manner, from the perspective of socialization, studies have been done on how people learn and internalize socio-cultural elements from their social environment, under the influence of experience and significant social agents, in an attempt to adapt themselves to the social context where they must exist (Rocher, 1990). From this perspective, we are confronted with a profuse and complex investigative task that allows us to reveal how the processes of academic socialization, family socialization, socialization of peers and socialization of means of communication have influenced the configuration of guidelines for differential behavior in accordance to gender and which, at the same time, reinforces discrimination of women. However, the question concerning how aspects of the employing organization affect the socialization of employees by maintaining gender differences has barely been studied in an empirical manner. In other words, we find that authors who attempt to analyze job discrimination among women according to socialization have not paid attention to the effect of that process on the context of organizations; while studies carried out to reveal the factors forming the glass ceiling have touched on organizational aspects such as culture or leadership style but they have not paid attention to socialization within the organization itself. Nevertheless, we agree with Agulló (2003) who indicates that once the academiceducational-formative stage is over, after the family environment and society has provided the elements necessary for individuals to effectively remain in their setting, companies become another significant agent of socialization for adapting people to the social environment. In this sense, we feel that socialization factors in labor can also be converged and their knowledge and analysis can contribute to explaining the inequality of job opportunities for men and women. Specifically, in this paper we wish to do an analysis to find out if companies use--in a more or less subtle manner--different forms of socialization and promotion with their workers, depending on their gender. Within those different strategies of socialization, different types of training can be mentioned as well as possible inequality in treatment by coworkers and supervisors when attempting to promote integration and adjustment of men and women within the organization. For this reason, the main objective of this study is to prove to what extent companies in our sample differ in policies for integration and promotion of their workers, according to gender and without taking into consideration the position held. In the same manner, an analysis will be made of the perception of the men and women in our sample of different possible integration and professional promotion techniques practiced by their companies in the socialization process of new members of the same or those used for promoting workers to new positions within the same. We will also validate an instrument for evaluating gender differences during the socialization process.
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION Job incorporation is done by labor organizations. For that reason, together with the job socialization process, we find ourselves faced with a process of organizational socialization. The organizational socialization process is concealed by the general socialization process of individuals and, in an arbitrary manner, we can establish that it begins when people decide to apply for a position, when he/she sends in his/her curriculum vitae to the organization when
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applying for a job and when he/she goes to an interview. There are organizations that even begin their ―socializing work‖ beforehand. Definitions of the organizational socialization construct are very diverse. One concept with high consensus among authors is that organizational socialization is considered to be a process by which persons learn the values, abilities, expectations and behaviors that are important for taking on determined organizational roles and for participating as active members in the organization (Louis, 1980; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979). It must be pointed out that since the decade of the eighties, the majority of studies on the process of incorporating persons within organizations have taken on a conceptual formula in which the active role of both parties stands out. Faced with very passive worker concepts in which the labor of building an organization was very much like that of a sculptor creating a sculpture from a piece of inert marble—according to the Van Maanen metaphor (1978). Taormina (1997, 2000, 2004) emphasizes the idea that socialization is not only the process by which people learn to work in an specific organization, but it also leads them to accept and believe in the most appropriate manner of behavior within the organization. Thus, one measurement of socialization must indicate if employees accept the different characteristics of the organization. In the same way that socialization in society consists of learning about a variety of new roles (as people mature from infancy to adolescence, youth and adult life) socialization is a long term process and can be measured not only for new employees but for employees that have been with the organization for a long time. The majority of today‘s bibliography on the topic of socialization states that learning is its essential component (Thomas and Anderson, 2005). In the same manner, this concept fits the theories of reduction in uncertainty (e.g. Falcione and Wilson, 1988; Morrison, 1993) and theories of developing meaning (e. g., Louis, 1980). Since the theory of reduction in uncertainty was developed, some authors have emphasized the fact that the fundamental component for the behavior of a new employee is the search for information (Miller and Jablin, 1991; Morrison, 1993; Ostroff and Kolzowski, 1992). That search for information allows him/her to reduce uncertainty, to understand, predict and control his/her environment; and in the same manner it will help him/her to occupy and fulfill the position correctly and integrate himself/herself to the work group and to the organization, making his/her permanence in the same more probable (Morrison, 1993). In relation to these theories, there is empirical evidence showing that learning by new employees is associated with better results (Chao, O‘Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein and Gardner,1994; Bauer Morrison, and Callister, 1998). In our study, as will be seen below, following Taormina‘s socialization model (1997), we share the opinion that learning is a central element of that process. With the idea that learning is an essential component in the socialization process, the authors present questions related to the content of that learning. Chao, et al. (1994) and Taormina (1994, 1997) have each presented models and instruments about the content of socialization and those models have important similarities. Taormina (2004) has made an effort to compare his proposal to that of Chao and collaborators and, for that reason, we will comment on Taormina‘s contribution and this focus will be the one followed by us throughout our paper. Chao et al. (1994) and Taormina (1994) each created evaluation instruments for their proposals on organizational socialization called CAS (Measurement of Content Areas of Socialization) and OSI (Organizational Socialization Inventory), respectively.
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In Taormina‘s model (1997), 4 domains are proposed that coincide with the four subscales on the questionnaire (training, understanding, support of co-workers and future perspectives) and each one of them includes various content areas and, at the same time, each of them operates in a continuous and concurrent manner with the others. Those domains are part of a continuous process of organizational socialization. The theory suggests that the domains are superimposed on each other and they are adjusted within a global process. They are not totally independent and they are not exclusive. According to Taormina, each domain can be understood as a sphere of influence or activity, similar to a conceptual field. Dimensions or factors are found in these domains that are found in the research on organizational socialization, although on different levels. The model also suggests that although the four processes take place continuously and simultaneously, they occur on a variety of levels and/or quantities for different employees and it suggests that the levels or amounts vary over time. We define the four domains proposed by Taormina as follows:
Training This refers to the development of skills and abilities required to carry out the job. This domain was already explicitly indicated by Wanous (1980), Feldman (1989) and Fisher (1986). A person‘s competence, expressed in terms of knowledge, abilities, aptitudes and skills when compared to job requirements such as work load, complexity and other demands by the organization, is essential for adequate productiveness and integration of new employees (Wamous, 1992; Hontangas and Peiró, 1996). Taormina defines training as an act, process or method by which an ability or functional skill is acquired that is required to carry out a specific position. This definition allows us to clearly delimit what training is and separate it from the other domains that will be used by us in this paper, following Taormina‘s theory.
Understanding The term understanding is used by Taormina in a form that is similar to that which other researchers have call ―learning‖ or ―search for information‖ (e.g., Fisher, 1986; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1992). This behavior allows employees to learn about the organization, how to behave and why things are the way they are. It refers to the ability to explain the nature, meaning and what happen in the workplace. It also refers to knowing how to explain the way things are in an organization and why things are done in a specific manner.
Support of Co-Workers This is a fundamental role of co-workers, bosses and supervisors in this learning process. Taormina defines this domain as the emotional, social or instrumental support provided, in addition to economic compensation, by other employees in the organization. Numerous studies consistently indicate that relationships with the supervisor and co-workers can have long-term consequences on the development of employee careers (Jablin, 1987: Wolf, 1989;
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Eisenberger, Fasolo, and Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Staw, Sutton, and Pelled, 1994; Randall, Cropanzano, Bormann, and Birjulin 1999).
Future Perspectives Future perspectives refer to the degree in which employees expect opportunities for promotion and other types of rewards for their permanence in the organization they have joined. Taormina justifies including future perspectives as a domain of socialization in different sources. On one hand, the authors who proposed models for stages already dealt with this dimension, at least implicitly. Specifically, the models developed by Buchanan (1974), Feldman (1976, 1981) and Nelson (1990) included aspects such as the expectation of rewards or the possibility of promotion, training, or permanence when referring to anticipated socialization and they feel that a pre-visualization of a future in the organization must be achieved during this stage. The results of socialization probably depend on employee interpretation of the perception of gender differences, whether it is premeditated or not, and that organizations may be treating their employees in different manners according to their gender. There are probably significant differences between men and women in the perception of the training received, future perspectives, social support. In the same manner, men and women may differ in their subjective evaluation concerning whether others consider them to be newcomers or veterans. Thus, in this paper, together with the socialization domains proposed by Taormina, a new Gender subscale is considered. With basis on Taormina‘s proposal for evaluating the socialization process, we have designed an abbreviated subscale that has been called the Gender Subscale of the Socialization Process. We evaluate the perception by employees of a difference between men and women in this process. For us it is of extreme importance to analyze not only socialization contents, but if these contents are different according to gender, to add them to Taormina‘s proposal. The last result of the socialization process, as far as gender is concerned, is to learn about different or equal treatment within the organization. In some manner, employees learn how they are expected to behave in the workplace if they are men or if they are women. Learning is the first indicator of success in the socialization process. According to Taormina‘s model (1997), the level of training, comprehension, support of co-workers and future perspectives achieved are the result of socialization. To that we will add that the level of learning about differences in a specific organization as far as gender is concerned is another result of socialization. However, other aspects have traditionally been considered to be the result of socialization. For example, reference is made to the degree of satisfaction reached with respect to the job position and its conditions. Other aspects considered are commitment or production. These results are as beneficial to organization as they are to individuals. Different studies carried out by Taormina (2000, 2004) have found that the four domains of socialization were significant variables for predicting affective commitment and satisfaction. In these studies, the Allen and Meyer (1990) scale of affective commitment was used which we have also used in our study. In the same manner, Bauer (2000) finds that the four domains of socialization were able to predict affective commitment, while future
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perspectives also predicted commitment to standards and to continuation with the organization. In the same manner, Bravo, Gómez-Jacinto and Montalbán (2004) have found that the four domains of socialization were significant variables for predicting affective commitment and satisfaction. Job satisfaction is part of the dimension of attitude and it occupies a central place in the consideration of experience of people towards their job. Job satisfaction has been defined as a set of positive attitudes and emotional reactions that the individual has towards his job, constructed from the comparison between the results expected and those that have been effectively obtained for that job (Oshagbemi, 1999). As far as the second result of socialization is concerned: organizational commitment, the perspective of Meyer and Allen (1997) has been adopted as well as their instrument for evaluating the same. These authors defend a model of organizational commitment that contains three factors: affective commitment that refers to the employee‘s emotional ties and his/her identification and sense of belonging to the organization; the commitment to standards that reflects a sense of obligation to continue within the organization and, lastly, the commitment to continue, based on Meyer and Allen‘s (1997) perception of costs associated with abandoning the organization.
Hypotheses First hypothesis: To validate the newly created scale on socialization as far as gender is concerned, appropriate reliability and factorial structure will be analyzed. Thus, it is expected that the new scale will constitute the fifth factor of the OSI Scale. Second hypothesis: It is expected that this newly created scale will be related to the classical results of socialization and will increase the predictive ability of the four original socialization scales. Third hypothesis: This refers to the main result of the socialization process: learning. Thus, we expect that differences related to gender are one more domain in the socialization process and this will be reflected in increased learning. In an exploratory manner, an analysis will be made to find out if there are gender differences in different dimensions of the socialization process.
METHOD Participants The study is composed of two transversal samples and one longitudinal sample. Data has been gathered at two different times with approximately one year‘s difference between them. The first transversal sample contains 414 participants and the second transversal sample has 396 participants. The longitudinal sample contains 118 participants. The first transversal sample was gathered from 22 organizations and the second sample was gathered from 15 organizations from the first sample and from 7 different organizations. The companies are located in different parts of Spain: Ibi (Alicante), Madrid, Tarragona,
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Valladolid and Zaragoza and they pertain to different sectors of activity. In addition, the companies are different sizes, including multi-national companies and small family businesses 55.08% of the participants in first sample gathered are men and 40.6% are women. The average age is 31.53 years with a standard deviation of 8.46. The youngest person was 17 years old and the two oldest people were 57 years old. The second time data was gathered, the participants were 50.67% men and 44.34% women. The average age is very similar to the first data sample: 32.27 with a standard deviation of 8.97. In this case, ages vary between 18 and 65 years.
Procedure As far as the procedure is concerned, questionnaires were administered in each of the companies through a contact person in the organization or by sending a researcher to hand out questionnaires and collect them.
Instruments To measure the content of the socialization process, the OSI (Organizational Socialization Inventory) was used, as proposed by Taormina (1994) and it was translated into Spanish and validated by Bravo et al. (2004). In this questionnaire the author proposes four dimensions: training, understanding, support of co-workers and future perspectives which correspond to the four theoretical domains mentioned by the author. Each one of these dimensions is composed of 5 items with a Likert-type response scale (1= completely disagree to 5=completely agree). In addition, a scale was designed to evaluate gender differences during the socialization process. This constitutes the fifth dimension of the organizational socialization inventory, composed of 3 items. To evaluate job satisfaction, a scale was used that was composed of 4 items referring to aspects related to the job and to the socialization process (Topa, Lisbona, Palací and Alonso, 2004; Lisbona, Morales and Palací, 2006 and Lisbona, 2007). It has a Likert-type response scale (1=Dissatisfied to 5= Very satisfied). Organizational commitment was evaluated by the Meyer and Allen (1997) sub-scales for affective commitment and normative commitment with 6 items contained in the affective scale and 4 items in the normative dimension. The response scale is equal to that used for the OSI. The subscale for commitment to continuing has not been used since other studies have been unreliable (see Lisbona, Morales and Palací, 2006).
RESULTS First, information was gathered for two tables with descriptive statistics and correlations between the different scales used, respectively.
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics 1st Transversal
2nd Transversal
VARIABLES OSI training OSI understanding OSI support of co-workers OSI future perspectives OSI gender differences Satisfaction Affective Commitment Normative Commitment
Alpha
Mean
ED
Alpha
Mean
ED
.883 .776 .796 .659 .883 .709 .815 .878
2.76 3.40 3.51 3 3.46 3.33 3.47 2.89
1,03 .745 .762 .709 1,03 .781 .834 .911
.924 .816 .826 .700 .890 .688 .828 .818
2.88 3.40 3.56 2.99 3.42 3.30 3.47 2.87
1,14 .807 .842 .751 1,10 .801 .856 .943
T1
OSI Training
OSI Understanding
OSI Coworkers support
OSI Future prospects
OSI Gender
Satisfaction
Affective commitment
Normative commitment
Table 2. Correlations
OSI Training
-
,525**
,364**
,381**
,190**
,436**
,384**
,353**
OSI Understanding
-
,343**
,549**
,098*
,493**
,409**
,401**
-
,284**
,159**
,239**
,304**
,189**
-
,138**
,507**
,530**
,464**
-
,164**
,229**
,130**
-
,592**
,530**
-
,656**
OSI Co-workers support OSI Future prospects OSI Gender Satisfaction Affective commitment
OSI Training
OSI Understanding
OSI Coworkers support
OSI Future prospects
OSI Gender
Satisfaction
Affective commitment
Normative commitment
-
T2
Normative commitment
OSI Training
-
,565**
,371**
,431**
,301**
,370**
,403**
,417**
OSI Understanding OSI Co-workers support OSI Future prospects OSI Gender Satisfaction Affective commitment Normative commitment
-
,415**
,539**
,250**
,522**
,483**
,457**
,274**
,247**
,254**
,352**
,290**
-
,081
,474**
,474**
,501**
-
,141**
,197** ,592**
,168** ,530**
-
,656**
-
-
-
The reliability of the new socialization scale for gender is adequate (Alpha= .883 and .890 for each of the two transversal samples). In addition, it was expected that the new
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dimension of socialization, gender difference, would behave as an additional factor within the factor structure of the socialization inventory. To contrast this hypothesis, an exploratory factor analysis has been performed with the first transversal sample, through the method of principal components and with varimax rotation and its matrix of rotated components appears as follows. Five factors were obtained that explain 61.39% of the variance. The first factor gathers the five items from the first dimension: training and one item from the understanding dimension and it explains 28.18% of the variance. The second corresponds to the five items in the dimension of support of co-workers and it explains 10.42% of the total variance. The third factor groups together four items from the dimension of understanding. The fourth factor groups together three items that compose the dimension that has been called gender. Lastly, the fifth factor groups three of the five items from the dimension of future perspectives. See table 3. Table 3. Factor structure of the OSI Scale
Training 1. Training 2. Training 3. Training 4 Training 5. Understanding 1. Understanding 2. Understanding 3 Understanding 4. Understanding 5. Co-worker support 1. Co-worker support 2 Co-worker support 3. Co-worker support 4. Co-worker support 5 Future perspectives 1 Future perspectives 2. Futuer perspectives 3 Gender 1. There are differences in which the professional trajectory is set for men and women. Gender 2. There are differences in the type of tasks assigned men and women. Gender 3. There are differences in the way professional promotion is defined for men and women.
Factor 1 28,18 % .830 .803 .834 .828 .631 .526
Factor 2 10,42%
Factor 3 9,11%
Factor 4 8,50%
Factor 5 5,12%
.584 .697 .727 .640 .528 .619 .829 .845 .706 .765 .658 .729 .891
.881
,907
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It must be pointed out that except for one item from dimension of understanding and two items from the dimension of future perspectives, the factor structure obtained with the first sample of data collected is very similar to the theoretical structure proposed by Taormina (1994). A confirming factor analysis has also been carried out with a different sample, the one in the second transversal sample. The model of four of Taormina‘s OSI factors was tested and compared with the adjustment to a confirming factor model of second order that assumes that all of the items saturate a latent dimension. The hypothesized model of 5 factors was also tested and it includes the new scale of gender differences during the socialization process. Lastly, to improve the models, errors were correlated, according to modification indexes, between items in the same subscale. In Table 4, adjustment indexes for each of the models are gathered as follows. We see that the model including gender, the dimension developed for the study, always has a better adjustment than the model with four dimensions proposed by Taormina. Lastly, the model correlating the five dimensions between themselves is better adjusted when compared to the model that assumes a factor structure of second order for the socialization dimension. Table 4. Goodness of fit indexes by means of confirmatory factor analysis in socialization domains Model 4 factors 5 factors Factorial 2nd Time 4 factors Factorial 2nd Time 5 factors Factorial 2nd Time 5 factors improved 5 factors improved
2
968.02 1081.88 971.20
df 164 220 166
p .000 .000 .000
GFI .824 .826 .823
AGFI .774 .782 .776
RMSEA .104 .093 .103
NFI .811 .824 .810
CFI .837 .853 .837
IFI .838 .854 .837
TLI .811 .831 .813
1103.69
225
.000
.822
.781
.093
.820
.851
.851
.832
543.851
194
.000
.907
.868
.063
.911
.940
.941
.922
534.71
189
.000
.909
.867
.063
.913
.941
.942
.921
We conclude that the statistical properties of this instrument for the Spanish sample, together with the items designed on this occasion are appropriate and they are adjusted to the theoretical proposal of the author, who insists on the relationship and interdependence of different domains. As far as the second hypothesis is concerned, a regression analysis has been made with the first transversal sample. In the regression equation in which we attempt to predict the score for affective commitment using the socialization domains, the results were exactly as we expected in our hypothesis and these relations are positive and significant for all domains, except for understanding, a domain in which relationships are not significant. Upon introducing the gender domain, an increase in the explained variance has been significant. This indicates that the employee‘s perception of no gender differences during socialization is related to greater affective employee commitment. See table 5.
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The procedure has been repeated with the normative commitment variable. In the regression equation in which we attempt to predict the score in normative commitment starting with socialization domains, the relationships found have not been significant except for future perspectives, in which relationships have been as expected. Upon introducing the gender domain, an increase in the explained variance has been significant but negative. Surprisingly, not establishing gender differences during socialization are related to a lower normative commitment. See table 6. Table 5. Hierarchical regression for variables predicting affective commitment Variable
b
Standard error
Beta
OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives
.127 .078 .110 .451
.035 .053 .043 .051
.160* .071 .103* .388*
OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives OSI gender R2 = .318 for step 1. R2= ,016 (p<.05). *p<.05.
.111 .087 .096 .438 .101
.035 .052 .043 .051 .029
.140* .079 .090* .377* .128*
Step 1
Step 2
Table 6. Hierarchical regression for variables predicting normative commitment Variable
b
Standard error
Beta
OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives
.054 -.057 -.005 .178
.047 .071 .058 .069
.060 -.046 -.004 .136*
OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives OSI gender 2 R = ,020 for step 1. R2= ,018 (p<.05). *p<.05.
.072 -.068 .011 .193 -.121
.047 .071 .058 .068 .040
.081 -.055 .009 .148* -.136*
Step 1
Step 2
In order to find an explanation for this result, the analysis has been repeated, but separately for men and women. While it was not significant for women, it was significant for men. See table 7.
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As far as the regression equation is concerned in which we try to predict the satisfaction score in socialization domains, the relationships found have been meaningful and in accordance to the hypotheses formulated, except for the dimension of support of co-workers. With the introduction of the gender domain, the increase in thenormative explained variance was not significant. Table 7. Hierarchical regression for men and women for OSI gender and normative commitment when first collecting data Variable Gender
Men Women
b
Standard error
Beta
-.210 .026
.055 .053
-.221* .034
*p<.00.
Table 8. Hierarchical regression for variables predicting satisfaction Variable
b
Standard error
Beta
.153 .222 .005 .338
.033 .050 .041 .048
.202* .211* .005 .305*
.146 .225 -.002 .333 .044
.033 .050 .041 .048 .028
.193* .215* -.002 .301* .059
Step 1 OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives Step 2 OSI training OSI understanding OSI co-worker support OSI future perspectives OSI gender 2 R = ,341 for step 1. R2= ,003 (p>.05). *p<.05.
A ―t‖ test was carried out to prove the existence of differences between the scores obtained the first and second times with the longitudinal sample. As proposed in the third hypothesis, it is expected that the learning process will have a higher score in the different socialization domains the 2nd time with respect to the 1st time. The results confirm this hypothesis. Table 9. Student test. T1 and T2 gender socialization domains. Gender T1 T2
Weighted Mean 2,6724 3,3736
t -6,053 106,823
df 115 488
p .000 .000
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The fourth and last hypothesis, of an exploratory nature, was analyzed by carrying out an ANOVA. It attempted to prove the existence or non-existence of gender differences in different dimensions of the socialization process. Differences have only been statistically significant for support of co-workers, with women scoring higher than men in this dimension. ANOVA OSI Table on Gender Differences
Training Understanding Co-worker Support Future Perspectives Gender
df
F
p
501 503 500 500 494
1,665 1,469* 5,463* 2,172 .579
.198 .226 .020 .141 .447
DISCUSSION It has been found that psychometric properties of the OSI for the Spanish sample, together with the gender differences scale is appropriate and it adjusts itself to the author‘s theoretical proposal which insists on the relationship and interdependence of different domains. When carrying out the confirming factor analysis we find that the model including the gender differences scale is better adjusted than Taormina‘s proposed model with four dimensions. The perception that no gender differences are established in socialization is related to greater affective commitment, with lower normative commitment and there is no relationship between the perception of gender differences and satisfaction. This relationship is difficult to explain. The lack of the establishment of gender differences is probably related to emotional socialization factors linked to affective commitment. For that reason, knowledge and learning that the organization does not establish differences in socialization appears as a domain that is separate from socialization. The perception that there is no gender difference is probably related to organizational justice. From this perspective the knowledge that the organization does not establish gender differences would be a central aspect of the perception of organizational justice and, more specifically, of the justice of procedures and interaction. The perception of gender differences causes something that has been called distributive justice. This occurs when the results distributing something or when compensations are consistent with certain implicit norms such as equity (Adams, 1965; Deutsch, 1975; Leventhal, 1980). However we calculate that gender differences will be more related to procedural justice and to justice of interaction (Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut and Walter, 1975). Decision-making processes are characterized by procedural justice when the opinion of the other party involved is heard, when this party has some influence on the outcome or when the criteria of justice is followed such as consistence, the absence of bias or correction. It has been suggested that the
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construct of the justice of interaction (Bies and Moag, 1986) is closely related to this. This type of justice is defined as the perception that people have been treated with justice during interactions when a decision-making process takes place. It is achieved when those who have to make the decision treat people with respect and sensitivity and they explain the reasons for their decision. Research has shown that distributive justice is related to results referring to people, such as satisfaction with their salary and procedural justice is more related to results related to the organization, such as organizational commitment (Folger and Konovsky, 1989; Sweeney and McFarlin, 1993). Gender differences in the domains of socialization have only been statistically meaningful for support of co-workers, with women scoring higher than men in this dimension. In other words, men and women perceive the content of socialization in similar ways; however, when fewer differences are established as far as gender is concerned, there is greater affective commitment. The central result of socialization is learning and as the third hypothesis proposed, there is a higher score in different socialization domains the 2nd time in comparison to the 1st time. The results confirm this hypothesis. Relationships between the domains of socialization and job satisfaction have been in accordance to that expected in the Taormina model. For that reason, these results support the idea of the model that success with socialization is learning, which at the same time is related to other indicators such as satisfaction. However, in this case no significant relationship has been found for the gender differences scale.
REFERENCES Adams, J. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 267- 299). New York: Academic Press. Agulló, E. (2003). Un lugar en la empresa, un espacio en la sociedad. Más allá del empleo de los jóvenes. . In F. J. Palací and J. A. Moriano (eds.), El nuevo mercado laboral. Estrategias de inserción y desarrollo profesional. Madrid: Cuadernos de la UNED. Bauer, T.N., Morrison, E.W., and Callister, R. R. (1998). Organizational socialization: A review and directions for future research. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, 16, 149-214. Bies, R. J., and Moag, J. F. (1986). Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness. In R. Lewicki y B. Shepard and M. Bazerman (eds.), Research on negotiations in organizations (Vol. 1, pp. 43- 55). Greenwich: JAI Press. Chao, G.T. O‘leary-Kelly, A.M., Wolf, S., Klein, H. J., and Gardner, P.D. (1994). Organizational socialization: its content and consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, (5), 730-743. Cooper-Thomas, H.D., and Anderson, N. (2005). Organizational socialization: A field study into socialization success and rate. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13,.2. Davidson, M.J., and Cooper, C. L. (1992). Shattering the glass ceiling: The woman manager. Paul Chapman Publishing.
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Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice? Journal of Social Issues, 31, 137- 149. Leventhal, G. S. (1980). What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships. In K. Gergen, M. Greenberg and R. Willis (eds.), Social exchange: Advances in theory and research. (pp. 27-55). New York: Plenum Press. Leventhal, G. S., Karuza, J., and Fry, W. R. (1980). Beyond fairness: A theory of allocation preferences. In G. Mikula (ed.), Justice and social interaction (pp. 167- 218). New York: Springer- Verlag. Falcione, R.L., and Wilson, C. E. (1988). Socialization processes in organizations. In G.M. Golhaber and G.A. Barnett (eds.), Handbook of organizational communication: 151-169. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. López-Sáez, M., Morales, J. F., and Lisbona, A. (2007). Indicadores de estereotipia de género en España. Rasgos y roles. Submitted for review and eventual publication. Louis, M. R. (1980). Surprise and sense-making: What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 226-251. Miller,V. D., and Jablin, F. M. (1991). Information seeking during organizational entry: influences, tactics, and a model of the process. Academy of Management Review, 16, 1, 92-120. Morrison, E. W. (1993). Longitudinal study of the effects of information seeking on newcomer socialization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 173- 183. Ostroff, C., and Kolzowski, S. W. (1992). Organizational socialization as a learning process: The role of information acquisition. Personnel Psychology, 45, 849-874. Powell, G. N. (1991). Women and men in management. Los Angeles: Sage. Rocher, G. (1990). Introducción a la sociología general. Barcelona: Herder. Segerman-Peck, L. M. (1991). Networking and mentoring. A woman’s guide. London: Judy Piatkus Ltd. Sweeney, P. D., and McFarlin, D. B. (1993). Workers‘ evaluations of the ―ends‖ and the ―means‖: An examination of four models of distributive and procedural justice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 23-40. Taormina, R.J. (1994). The Organizational Socialization Inventory, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 2: 133–45. Taormina, R.J. (1997). Organizational socialization: A multidomain, continuous process model. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 5, 29–47. Taormina, R.J. (2004). Convergent validation of two measures of organizational socialization. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 76-94. Thibaut, J., and Walker, L. (1975). Procedural justice: A psychological analysis. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Van Maanen, J. (1978). People processing: Strategies of organizational socialization. Organizational Dynamics, 7, 18-36. Van Maanen, J., and Schein, E.H. (1979). Towards a theory of organizational socialization. In B. M. Staw (ed.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 1, 209-264. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press. Wanous, J. P. (1992). Organizational entry: Recruitment, selection, orientation and socialization Newcomers. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley (second edition).
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
THE LAWS OF PHYSICS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO BEHAVIOR Washington Sandoval Erazo*, and Eduardo Leal Beltrán≠ Escuela Superior Politécnica del Ejército, Quito and Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico.
ABSTRACT The following paper attempts to establish that certain laws applicable to science are also generally applicable to human behavior, specifically the law of conservation of energy and the law of action and reaction (or Newton‘s third law). It also presents an explanation of behavior processes throughout different life stages and their relation to the theory of multiple intelligences, describing individuals‘ potential to develop them through time: the emotional, logical-rational and spiritual intelligences. Parallels are drawn between the aforementioned scientific laws and the psychological principles of andragogy, humanistic psychology, Gestalt theory, behaviorism, and the theory of multiple intelligences
Keywords: Laws of physics, development of intelligences, human behavior.
RESUMEN El artículo trata de establecer que ciertas leyes propias de las ciencias naturales son aplicables para el caso del comportamiento humano. De estas leyes son muy importantes: la Ley de la Conservación de la Energía y, la Ley de la Acción y Reacción aplicada a los seres humanos. También se da una explicación del proceso del comportamiento en las diferentes etapas de la vida y su relación con la teoría de las inteligencias múltiples, al describir el potencial de las personas a través del tiempo para desarrollar las inteligencias: emocional, lógico-racional y espiritual, básicamente se asocian dichas leyes con los principios psicológicos de la Andragogía, Psicología Humanista, Gestalt, Conductismo y la teoría de las Inteligencias Múltiples.
Palabras clave: Leyes de la física, desarrollo de inteligencias, comportamiento humano.
* ≠
Address for correspondence: Graduate department, ESPE, Quito, Ecuador- email:
[email protected] Coordinator, Master in Psicología Laboral y Organizacional, Facultad de Psicología, UANL, Monterrey, México- email:
[email protected]
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INTRODUCTION The story of Newton‘s apple is well known: seeing the fruit fall from a tree, the scientist was able to establish the law of universal gravitation, which affects all material bodies. By the same token, there must be some laws that affect the behavior of all human or living beings. Even though classical administrative sciences hold that there are no laws of human behavior comparable to those present in the life or technical sciences, we think these do indeed exist. However, we have not been able to identify them in the same way that the exact sciences (e.g., physics) have. If human behavior presents constant and invariable processes these could well be considered laws. The present article intends to relate these constant behavioral processes to certain laws of physics based on their remarkable empirical correlation.
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY By observing natural processes we have come to realize that all natural phenomena expend as little energy as possible, particularly in processes of flux or transformation from one state to another. In physics this is known as the principle of minimum energy, better know as the law of minimum effort. For example, rain falling on a given area will move through the pathways where there is the least resistance to water, leading to minimal expenditure of energy. This means that the resulting channels are in the places where the water needed to exert minimal effort to form and transform the topography. Neuroscientist Edelman (2002) states that, with practice, the sensory input that affect execution become limited to those that are deemed strictly necessary (p. 77). Studies have proven that the brain uses the minimum amount of neurons and neural connections (minimum energy) to perform different activities after these have been learned. Now, teachers often complain that students seek to expend as little energy as possible mastering the subjects pertinent to their professional formation and often resort to all kinds of ploys to achieve said goal. This is considered as a distinctive trait among the young. Graduate courses geared toward teachers with university degrees, however, have shown that these students behave in the same way that younger ones and also seek to pass courses making as little effort as possible. All of the above leads us to conclude there is no wastage of energy in nature: natural phenomena or processes utilize the minimum amount of energy and this does not mean that individual expenditure should be the same for everyone—depending on the activity, each individual expends as little of their energy as possible in order to achieve a particular goal. On the other hand, this does not mean that this process does not waste energy, especially if no knowledge has been acquired. One of the major problems facing companies is the resistance to change among their members. This is another example of the law of minimal effort: change would result in new methods, types of software and structure, all of which would require an increased effort on the part of employees. Productivity implies working on the basis of specific, established standards that demand the least input of energy possible. The speed with which an already experienced worker learns to decrease the amount activities and movements in, for example, an assembly line provides yet another example. This law can also explain why there is so much corruption in some countries. When morally lax people ―learn‖ to obtain benefits
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without following the requirements established by the law they grow used to achieving their goals with the least amount of effort. Generally speaking, we seek to expend the least amount of energy possible on a given task regardless of what is considered as an acceptable degree of effort. This can be more or less depending on the individual, but the tendency is always to put in the least amount of effort depending on personal knowledge, abilities, skills, and attitude. The law of minimum effort has been amply studied by psychologists working in the field of adult education or andragogy. Pozo (2002), for example, states that learning in an explicit way tends to demand a lot of energy and the reasons for learning should therefore be strong to overcome the tendency not to learn (p. 173). The obvious question is, why are there people who work more than others, or why are these people not subject to this law? The answer is that they also exert their minimum effort, but their limit is personal and can be compared to the general average. In cases like this it is important to know if the person has a lower- or higher-yield performance in the chosen field of activity; if higher, then this individual is motivated to achieve. Sandoval (2008) has proven the applicability of this law in the men‘s bathroom of a higher-education institution. The bathroom had a hand dryer and a paper towel dispenser: hand drying took about one minute under the dryer and nine seconds with the towels. On a Saturday, out of 143 users none tried the dryer. Less energy is expended using paper towels.
THE LAW OF TRANSCENDENCE Even though people have a tendency to expend the minimal amount of effort we also have a potential for transcendence, which is described below. According to Yavorski and Detlaf (1972), the total energy of an isolated system does not vary, regardless of the transformations that take place within it (p. 63). This means that energy remains constant in the universe: it is not created or destroyed. A human being can see the marks left by a river that has molded and changed the surrounding landscape through time. If the river leaves a legacy for future generations, this would be even more applicable to human beings who, endowed with the ability to think, want to be recognized and remembered even after the cessation of their physical existence. This is why great projects, like the Teotihuacán pyramids, have been and continue to be undertaken. If we take a look at human history we will find that it is strewn with examples of great accomplishments that sought to gain transcendence. Based on our essence as energy and matter, human beings have sought perpetuity throughout history. Our focus on the material aspect and the desire to be forever present has caused us to ignore the fact that our energy is part of the universe and therefore does not disappear: it merely transforms. Our tendency to transcend is reflected in our expectations of an afterlife; even if this conviction is not religious in essence, we generally think that our actions will be the part of us that lasts forever. This law compels all of us to try to be better people, both for our own benefit and that of others. The one thing we do not necessarily know is how to achieve this end and, by extension, attain that type of transcendence. We explore a variety of pathways: some choose religion or opt to serve others, some engage in creative work or search for a guide, and some seek to live on through their children; we desire that our children become what we could not become. This law internally or externally affects the degree of motivation in human beings. It can be found in the highest echelons of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs (1970) and does not
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necessarily require the satisfaction of some of the lower levels. The human being‘s potential to transcend has been studied by the humanistic psychologists Rogers (1995), who states that whenever human beings feel unthreatened or uncensored they will reveal a disposition for transcendence, developing abilities and acquiring knowledge which might help them do so: when listening empathetically to his clients, the psychologist discovers that they learn to listen to and accept themselves (p. 78).
THE LAW OF COMPASSIONATE RESONANCE If you place two classical pianos in a room and play a note on one of them, the second piano will instantly replicate the note played by the first. This physical phenomenon is known as compassionate resonance and was discovered by Christiaan Huygens (1629 – 1695) and is also applicable to human beings in all situations and activities. If, for example, you join a group of exuberant fans during a soccer match, their mood will become contagious even if you do not know them. On the other hand, there could be a dissonant group of people who are excluded by the first group or exclude themselves from it. It is because of compassionate resonance that great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi were able to transmit their mood to a large number of people: they displayed a high level of energy and had developed the ability to transmit it to others. In the field of psychology, resonance happens during what Gestalt practitioners refer to as ―empathy,‖ a phenomenon characterized by feelings of affinity and harmony toward what the other says or does. In Gestalt Therapy, Sacedas (2002) states that projecting oneself onto another person with empathy and understanding is a healthy and functional activity when the individual is conscious of the limits and learns what the differences are (p. 380). An example of the kind of empathy described by Gestalt theory can be seen in the events following the 1985 earthquake in Mexico City, where some civilian groups achieved such solidarity and synergy that they were able to find more victims than the official aid institutions. In their book about neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), Connor and Seymour (1996) point out that some of the behavioral traits that can be directly related to the law of compassionate resonance are attunement, congruence, calibration, and sensorial acuity. Being attuned propitiates credibility because it provides a certain amount of comfort to the addressee and makes interaction flow harmonically; according to the authors, successful people are attuned and attunement creates credibility (p.64). Congruence is a state of unified and completely sincere form of being in which an individual‘s different aspects all work together to achieve the same goal. Calibration means having precise knowledge of the mood of the other person by reading non-oral signals. Sensorial acuity can bee seen as the process through which we learn to make more subtle and useful distinctions regarding the information we receive from the world. ―Mirror neurons‖ offer a possible neurological explanation for compassionate resonance in human beings. According to Rizzolati (2005), vision provides the tool with which to understand others and the mirror neuron system allows us to appropriate others‘ actions, sensations, and emotions.
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LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION In physics, Newton‘s third law states that to every action there is an equal opposite reaction. This also holds true for human beings as the law of cause and effect, but its intensity depends on our internal perception. For example, if a comment, either good or bad, is made about some task undertaken at work, our answer or reaction will depend on our personal appreciation of the task, our opinion about our superior‘s attitude, and our mood, among other things. In some cases these comments might not be taken too seriously. In others they could appear as tragic, or be faced with indifference. An individual‘s response will depend on nature, personality, and the internal and external conditions of the event. The law of action and reaction can be transposed to behavior science by using the system of operant conditioning developed by Dr. B.F Skinner, a professor and researcher at Harvard University (1904-1990). Skinner proved that positive reinforcement will cause a behavior to occur more frequently and the nature of the response will greatly depend on a given individual‘s specific expectations. Baron (1997) has defined operant conditioning as the process through which organisms learn to repeat behaviors that produce positive results or that enable them to avoid or escape negative results (p. 159). At the other side of behavior theory we have the psychoanalytic approach developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), which states that our specific behavior largely depends on the ―action-reaction‖ process of our early years, our particular way of responding to events, our personality, and the fact that the unconscious is the source of many of our reactions. Regardless of extant theories on motivation, we can certainly surmise that the latter depends on thoughts, feelings, values, mental models or beliefs that could be part of the social culture to which we belong, and the image we have of ourselves. All of these factors work alongside external input that produces either positive or negative reactions. According to Chinchilla (quoted in Álvarez et al., 2001), a complete vision of motivation takes place when intrinsic, extrinsic, or transcendental (action) motives generate the response. Unlike other creatures, the human being is capable of benefiting (reaction) from experience, adapting in ways that are ideally suited to the stimuli (actions) provided by the environment. This is thanks to the multiple intelligences discussed in the next section.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCES According to Gardner (2002), intelligences are the combined product of genetic inheritance and individual life conditions in a given culture and time (p.54). According to scientific studies quoted by Fisher (2004), fifty percent is genetic and the remaining half is the product of individual development. Nature has left traces in human development with the passage of time. Lewis (2001) has described an evolutionary model of the human brain. This is based on the idea that the first beings to populate the earth were reptiles, and their brain, known as the so-called Reptilian brain, developed in accordance with their survival needs. Mammals came afterwards and developed a brain that complemented that of reptiles, the limbic brain (or system). Human beings came to possess a more developed brain known as the neocortex or rational brain, though this maintained all of the previous elements. Sandoval (2003, p. 17) states that this same evolutionary process is reproduced in the developmental links of each human being,
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starting in the mother‘s womb and moving on to the family, the educational system, and the organizational system, all of which are influenced by the ecosystem and environment. The part involving the Reptilian brain must be wholly developed before birth, as it controls all basic survival systems. The limbic brain represents feelings and emotions and is developed while in the womb and during the individual‘s first life stages. The neocortex, which is represented by other intelligences, has to be perfected throughout time and via learning processes. Figure 1 charts the most representative types of intelligences: emotional, logicalrational, and spiritual. Learning capacity
% 100
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Figure 1. Curve of the development of intelligences.
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Emotional intelligence translates into the ability to recognize our own emotions and those of others while channeling them in a positive manner. Logical-rational intelligence comprises our ability to solve problems using logic, and undertake scientific research. Spiritual intelligence is the ability to think and act on an existential context by combining knowledge and abilities honed through time. The indication of 100% learning capacity for a given time period does not mean that human beings use all of their potential, only that the corresponding intelligence should have developed with greatest speed and intensity during that period. For example, Figure 1 shows that emotional intelligence (limbic brain) develops even while in the mother‘s womb, and if its other facets are not developed during the child‘s first years it is more difficult (but not impossible) to do so later. Obviously, the time it takes to relearn (unlearn and learn) is longer during periods that lie outside the respective curves. It must be understood that, in some cases, learning periods are different from those shown in the graph. For example, a child could quickly develop her logical-mathematical intelligence while a teenager could take long to mature in terms of emotional intelligence. The emotional and rational intelligence curves cross between 13 and 18 years of age, while the rational and spiritual ones do so between 40 and 45. This might or not be a coincidence, as these ages comprise critical periods in the individual‘s progress. Stages of conflict between the individual‘s interior and exterior [así aparece esta oración en el original: incompleta]. According to the graph, spiritual maturity manifests after 45, at which point the amount of experience is such that personal wisdom has become a noticeable asset. We can thus conclude that human behavior is the consequence of learning, the development of our intelligences, and the interaction between the Reptilian, limbic and rational brains. It is possible to compose a model of human behavior as a product of actionreaction forces in the ecosystem, the family, the educational system, the organizational system, and the individual. Our new global environment often puts us in contact with people who have different experiences, habits, beliefs, and values, demanding better communication and interaction skills. Yet, even in the face of all these differences, we can achieve fraternal and productive interaction when we reflect on all the things we have in common. The curves of intelligence development, feelings, and thought serve as the basis for human behavior across cultures. Gardner (1997) has studied interpersonal intelligence and Goleman (1997) has researched emotional intelligence. For both, empathy is a common factor: it allows us to accept others despite their differences, understand that the varying levels in the development of our intelligences make us different, and realize that harmony is possible if it is based on love and truth.
CONCLUSIONS If research corroborates the relationship between human behavior and some of the laws of physics, this will lead to improvements in people‘s quality of life and increase competitiveness in organizations, especially those in the service industry. The application of the concept of minimal energy to the service industry will allow companies to optimize their processes, allowing the client to spend as little energy as possible in order to be served. The law of minimal effort can be applied to the conceptual and basic planning of new, qualityimprovement processes. In fact, this concept is already used in marketing and urban planning.
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Compassionate resonance, on the other hand, allows us to explain the behavior of different people, both when on their own and in a group. It helps understand aspects that facilitate affinity and synergy, and we recommend it for training courses and entrepreneurial groups. The law of the conservation of energy or transcendence allows us to understand the reasons why human beings strive to leave their trace in the physical world and provides the basis for human development.
REFERENCES Álvarez, S.,Cardona, P., Chinchilla, M., Miller, P., Pérez, J., Pin, J., Poelmans, S., Rodríguez, C., & Torres, M. (2001). Paradigmas del Liderazgo, Claves de la dirección de personas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill. Baron, R. (1997). Fundamentos de Psicología. Mexico: Ed. Pearson Educación. Connor, J. & Seymour, J. (1996). Introducción a la Programación Neurolingüística. Mexico: Urano. Edelman, G. & Tononi, G. (2002). El universo de la conciencia. Barcelona: Crítica. Fisher, H. (2004). Por Qué Amamos. México: Taurus Santillana Editores. Gardner, H. (1997). Inteligencias Múltiples. Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós Ibérica S.A. Gardner, H. (2002). La inteligencia Reformulada, las inteligencias múltiples en el siglo XXI. Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós Ibérica S.A. Goleman, D. (1997). La inteligencia emocional. Buenos Aires: Javier Vergara Editor. Lewis, T., Amini, F., & Lannon, R. (2001). Una teoría general del amor. Barcelona: RBA Libros. Maslow, A. (1970): Motivación y Personalidad, Madrid: Díaz de Santos. Pozo, I. (2002). Aprendices y Maestros. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Rogers, C. (1995). El proceso de convertirse en persona. Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós Ibérica S.A. Rizzolati, G. (2005, October 19). Las neuronas espejo te ponen en el lugar del otro. El País: Madrid. Ángela Boto interviews G. Rizzolati. http://agora.escoladeltreball.org Sandoval, W. (2003, October). Formación de líderes. Nuevos Líderes, 1, 15-19. Sandoval, W. (2008). Mejoramiento de la calidad en los servicios en base a la energía mínima. Unpublished manuscript, Escuela Politécnica del Ejército, Quito, Ecuador. Secadas, C. (2002). Terapia Gestalt. Barcelona: Herder. Yaborski, B. & Detlaf, A. (1972). Manual de Física. Moscow: Mir.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
FACTOR STRUCTURE AND RELIABILITY OF TAS-20 IN MEXICAN SAMPLES José Moral de la Rubia¹ Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
ABSTRACT In this article it is presented a TAS-20 factorial validation study in Mexican population. Two samplings are employed, one from university students (n=381) and another, from two married couples (n=200). It can not be considered as linear structural equations those coming from the same population, in consequence, they are dealt as independent ones. The adjustment indexes are obtained by confirmatory factorial analysis, from adequate to good, used for a three related factors structure. The internal consistency of the scale and its two first factors are high. The third factor shows a low consistency, as it happens in other studies effectuated out of the Canadian population, which may be caused to cultural differences or methodological problems, since this factor concentrates most of its questions written in inverse sense. The conclusion is that it is an acceptable scale to be used in Mexico, and it is proposed to write all the questions in direct sense.
Keywords: TAS-20, alexithymia, confirmatory factor analysis.
RESUMEN En este artículo se presenta un estudio de validación factorial de la TAS-20 en población mexicana. Se emplean dos muestras, una de estudiantes universitarios (n=381) y otra de parejas casadas (n=200). Por técnicas de ecuaciones estructurales lineales no se pueden considerar procedentes de la misma población, así que se manejan como independientes. Por análisis factorial confirmatorio se obtiene índices de ajuste de adecuados a buenos para la estructura de tres factores relacionados. La consistencia interna de la escala y sus dos primeros factores es alta. El tercer factor presenta una consistencia baja, como ocurre en otros estudios realizados fuera de la población canadiense, lo cual podría atribuirse a diferencias culturales o un problema metodológico, en cuanto que este factor concentra la mayoría de los reactivos redactados en sentido inverso. Se concluye que es una escala apta para su uso en México y se propone redactar todos los reactivos en sentido directo.
Palabras claves: TAS-20, alexitimia, análisis factorial confirmatorio.
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INTRODUCTION At early 70s, Alexithymia concept appears in the psychosomatic illnesses framework, but in the 80s, it is recognized as a risk factor not only for physical illnesses, but also for mental troubles related to affects regulation (Taylor, Bagby y Parker, 1997). The alexithymia was defined by Nemiah and Sifneos (1970) as a multidimensional construct that covers four important traits: (1) difficulty for identifying feelings and to distinguish them from affective activation body sensations, (2) difficulty for feelings verbal description, (3) a weaken fantasy life, and (4) a cognitive style from an externally oriented thought, linked to external details, standards and social stereotypes. The first construct measure was the Beth-Israel Questionnaire (BIQ) of Sifneos (1973). Nowadays, the Alexithymia is seen as a personality risk that constitutes a risky factor for suffering intense, persistent and negative affective states, which, in turn, determine somatic illnesses and mental troubles (Taylor et al., 1997). The affective stress, if they do not find their conscious express and are not resolved intentionally, if they are intense and persistent, through a somatic component, alter the vegetative equilibrium, and they provoke dysfunctions in somatic stimulated organs by the autonomic nervous system which in turn, provoke mental troubles related to the affects regulations. The Toronto alexithymia scale of 20 questions (TAS-20) was originally developed in Canada by Anglophone samplings as reviewed version from the previous one composed of 26 elements published by Taylor, Bagby and Ryan in 1985. This revision was made in order to improve its reliability and to eliminate or reduce the scales correlation with social desirability (Bagby, Parker and Taylor, 1994). It has been successfully adapted in different countries, and it is considered the most psychometric measure in Alexithymia. The TAS-20 three related factors dimensional structure has been replicated many times by adjustment indexes, from moderate to good, based on confirmatory factorial analysis. Considering the previous studies from university students and general population samplings (Taylor, Bagby and Parker, 2003), the quotient average between the statistics chi-square from the estimated model by maximum probability, and its freedom degrees (MLχ2/gl) is of 2.47; the Joreskog adjustment index (GFI) averages .90 and its adjusted form (AGFI) .87; and the two variance indexes, the standardized remainders (RMS SR) and approximation errors (RMS EA) average .07 and .06 respectively. The scale average internal consistency, by Cronbach alpha is .78, from first factor .77; from second one, .68, and from third .58. The scale and first factor achieve high values (≥.70), but the third factor, weaken values, (<.60). Only in a probabilistic sampling of general population effectuated in Canada (Parker, Taylor and Bagby, 2003), the third factor shows a high internal consistency (.71). Based on the two samplings, one from university students and another from married couples, this study has two goals: (1) to determine the scale factorial structure, and (2) to calculate the internal consistency and temporary reliability in a 6 months scale and their factors.
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METHOD It is an instrumental study of validation in a measuring scale.
Participants The students sampling is composed of 381 subjects in its first application, and 311 in the second one (retest). In the first application, the age mean was of 17.65 years old, with a standard deviation of 2.32 and a rank between 16 to 36 years old. The 76% was female and 24% was male. The 98% was single and 2% married or common law marriage; . 98% was economically depending on parents, and 2% independent ones. In retest sampling, 75% was women, and 25% men. Like the gender, the rest of socio demographic variables between both applications were equivalent. The sampling of married couples is composed of 200 subjects. The age mean was 34 years old, with a standard deviation of 10 and a rank from 18 to 60 years old. The years‘ mean of schooling was 9.5 years old, with a standard deviation of 2.5. 22% was manual laborer and services; 21% housewives; 18% office employees; 16% hired as bachelor; 10% own business; 5% students without scholarship; 4% students with scholarships, and 4% unemployed people. The monthly average income of working population is of 5,659 pesos, with a standard deviation of 2,445. The 66% was considered as middle class – middle class; 26% middle class –lower class; 5% middle class-upper class, and 3% low. A 5% of the inquired people have had a divorce previous to the current marriage. The media of sons was 2, with a standard deviation of 1.
Measuring Instruments The Toronto Alexithymia Scale of 20 questions s (20-items Toronto Alexithymia Scale, TAS-20) of Bagby et al. (1994) is a Likert type scale with 20 elements of 5 points of rank (from 1 totally in disagreement to 5 totally in agreement), with two points in each polarity and one intermediate. The total scoring is obtained by simple elements addition, with a possible variation from 20 to 100. It shows an internal consistency by Cronbach alpha of .86 (Parker, Taylor and Bagby, 2003), and a temporary reliability of .77 in 3 weeks periods (Bagby, Parker et al., 1994). The scale is composed of three related factors: difficult to identify feelings (DIS) (1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13 and 14); difficulty to describe feelings (DDS) (2, 4, 11, 12 and 17), and externally oriented thoughts (PEO) (5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19 and 20) (Bagby et al., 1994), with adjusting indexes by confirmatory factorial analysis, from appropriate to goods (Taylor et al., 2003). The version used in this study has 6 point of run per question (from 0, totally in disagreement to 5, totally in agreement), with three points in each polarity, without intermediate point, in this way, the potential rank is from 0 to 100.
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Procedures The sampling of students was obtained during the incoming selection process in a psychology college of the northeast of Mexico, and it was applied in July 2003. The application of the questionnaires was collective. In the sampling of married couples, the members of each couple answered their questionnaires in separated rooms, so as to avoid all communication in a psychology college. The sampling was obtained from September 2005 to April 2006, paying the voluntary participation. The couples were obtained through notices, as advertising posters. Each questionnaire was headed by an information sheet, in which confidentiality and anonym of answers is guaranteed, finishing by a closing question if the person wanted or not to be part of the study. For stimulating the temporary reliability, a second questionnaire was applied six months later only to university students, at the classrooms at the end of the first semester, achieving a 82% from the initial sampling (311 from 381 subjects). The TAS-20 scale was translated into Spanish by double translation procedure (EnglishSpanish/Spanish-English) by two English teachers. In addition, the translation was reviewed by psychologists in order to evaluate its semantic adaptation by the construct, and it was evaluated by 30 subjects sampling who finished elementary school studies to judge their comprehension. Finally, based on change suggestions for translation, the author of this chapter fixed the scale definitive format. The factorial analysis is employed for data statistical analysis. The exploratory factorial analysis is effectuated by skewed rotation main axes with a bias rotation, from direct Oblimin method. The saturations equal or higher than .35 are considered as significant. The confirmatory factorial analysis is executed by maximum probability from correlations‘ matrix, leaving the independent remainders, and the related factors. Twelve adjustment indexes are used, their interpretation (Moral, 2006) is specified in+}Table 1. The internal consistency is calculated by Cronbanch alpha, and temporary reliability by Pearson linear correlation. The meaning level of the comparing tests is fixed in .05. The calculations are made by SPSS 16 and statistics 6.
RESULTS Structure Comparison of Three Related Factors in Both Samples The adjustment indexes do not allow to maintain the equivalence hypothesis of correlation matrices of students and couples samplings. When calculating the discrepancy function by the maximum probability (ML) method, the adjustment indexes are wrong. The discrepancy function (5.294), and the non centrality population parameter (10.279) are higher than 3. The deviation indexes of standardized errors (RMS SR =.236) and approximation errors (RMS EA=.233) are higher than .10. The model adjustment is rejected by the chisquare test (χ2=3065.362, g.l.=380, p=.000) and the quotient between statistic χ2 and its freedom degrees are higher than 3 (8.067); in addition, the gamma indexes are lower than .80 (PGI =.493 and APGI=.440). Therefore, we must consider that both samplings come from different populations, being inappropriate their combination.
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Table 1. Interpretation of the indexes of fit of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis Indexes of fit Bad* Good* Basic statistics Discrepancy function (FD) >3 ≤2 ML Chi-square (χ2), degree of freedom (df) Probability (p) < .01 ≥ .05 ML Chi-square/ gl (χ2/df) >3 ≤2 RMS SR > .075** ≤ .05 From non-centrality (average estimations) Non-centrality population parameter (PnCP) >2 ≤1 Steiger-Lind RMSEA Index > .075** ≤ .05 Population gamma Index (PGI) < .80 ≥ .90 Adjusted population gamma index (APGI) < .80 ≥ .90 For a unique sampling Index of Joreskog‘s fit goodness (GFI) < .85 ≥ .95 Adjusted Index of Joreskog‘s fit goodness (AGFI) < .80 ≥ .90 Index of Bentler comparative fit (CFI) < .80 ≥ .90 Bollen Delta (Δ) < .80 ≥ .90 * Values between good and bad fit limit shall be considered acceptable or adequate. ** Notwithstanding, values between .076 and .099 may be even considered as a reflex of an adequate adjustment.
Then, the three related factors structure adjustment is compared, considering the samplings come from two different population. The estimations of all the model parameters are significant. The discrepancy function (FD=1.436), and the non-centrality population parameter (PnCP=.923) are lower than 2, the square root of the quadratic mean of the standardized remainders (RMS SR = .075), and the approximation errors (RMS EA = .072) are lower or equal to .075. Although the adjustment null hypothesis (χ2=831.239, g.l.= 357, p=.000) is rejected because of the chi-square test, the quotient between the statistics and the freedom degree is lower than 3 (χ2/gl=2.328); moreover, the gamma indexes are higher than .90 (PGI =.915 y APGI=.901).
Factor Structure and Reliability in University Students Sample The exploratory factor analysis, by main axes factorization, by Kaiser criterion of selfvalues higher than 1, shows a 5 factors structure which explains the 35.51% of the total variance. Not withstanding, it may be justified the structure reduction to three factors by Cattel criterion (1978), remaining three factors above The inflection point of the stationary curve, which explains the 30.16% of variance. When there is a bias rotation by Oblimin method, over the tri-factorial matrix, the following result is obtained: The difficulty for describing feelings (DS) appears as the main factor (2, 4, 11, 12 y 17); the externally oriented thought (PEO) as second one (5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19 and 20), and the difficulty for identifying feelings (DIS) as third one (1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13 and 14) (see table 2). The third factor, upon show negative saturations, must be interpreted as readiness for identifying feelings.
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Table 2. Communalities and patterns and structural matrix in the students’ sampling (n=381) for 20 TAS-20 questions Questions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Communalities Initial Final .361 .377 .549 .591 .152 .156 .406 .439 .141 .151 .341 .365 .266 .296 .114 .052 .389 .384 .129 .133 .340 .387 .386 .412 .431 .474 .374 .474 .172 .173 .157 .159 .412 .446 .143 .165 .183 .248 .153 .152
F1 .261 .644 -.129 .661 -.067 .168 .006 .081 .249 -.080 .599 .536 .279 .023 .177 .014 .607 .129 .157 -.099
Patterns‘ matrixes F2 F3 -.054 -.468 -.014 -.229 .123 -.380 .084 .039 .386 -.032 -.019 -.518 -.006 -.543 .144 -.085 -.044 -.482 .376 .052 -.001 -.048 .083 -.154 -.110 -.545 .056 -.660 .349 .001 .335 -.132 .070 -.088 .383 .051 .473 .073 .334 -.157
F1 .455 .741 .056 .657 .010 .389 .241 .142 .451 -.041 .620 .616 .497 .318 .234 .126 .657 .170 .203 .024
Structural matrix F2 F3 .127 -.566 .159 -.504 .213 -.360 .182 -.272 .384 -.116 .160 -.585 .154 -.544 .183 -.163 .139 -.577 .347 -.023 .112 -.308 .216 -.411 .097 -.634 .254 -.686 .378 -.178 .377 -.237 .196 -.372 .389 -.117 .477 -.134 .364 -.212
Factorization: Main axes. Rotation: Oblimin. (1) Frequently, I am confused because of the emotions I am feeling. (2) It is hard for me to find the correct words for my feelings. (3) I have physical sensations that even the physicians do not understand. (4) I am capable of expressing easily my feelings. (6) When I feel bad, I do not know if I am sad, afraid or angry. (7) Frequently, I am confused with my body‘s sensations. (8) I prefer things happen by themselves, than to ask myself why they are happening in that way. (9) I have feelings that almost I can not identify. (10) It is essential to be in contact with my emotions. (11) It is hard for me to express what I feel about the persons. (12) The people tell me to express my feelings. (13) I do not know what is happening inside of me. (14) Frequently, I do not know why I am angry. (15) I prefer to talk with people about their daily activities better than their feelings. (16) I prefer simple but amusing shows than deep psychological dramas. (17) It is hard to reveal my feeling deeper, even to my intimate friends. (18) I can feel close to someone, even in silence moments (19) I found useful to analyze my feelings so as to solve my personal problems. (20) To analyze and to look deep meanings in movies, shows or amusements reduces the pleasure to enjoy them.
The factors are interrelated between them. DDF correlation is -.433 with DIS and .165 with PEO, between PEO and DIS of -.294. The emotional factors are more related between them, being more independent the cognitive one. In order to provide more support to the tri-factorial structural model, a confirmatory factorial analysis is applied. The adjustment indexes to 3 related factors model (3D) are higher than those from one-dimensional model (1), bi-dimensional (DDS-DIS and PEO) with related factors (2D), or independent (2I) and three-dimensional with independent factors (3I), in addition to their high significance. The discrepancy function value (FD=.825) and the non
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centrality population parameter (PnCP=.400) are lower than 1; the quotient between the and its freedom degrees (χ2/gl=1.88) are lower than 2; the square of the statistic standardized remainders quadratic addition (RMS SR =.053) and the approximation errors (RMS EA=.050) are lower than .075; the population gamma index (PGI=.960); adjusted population gamma (APGI=.950); Joreskog‘ adjustment goodness (GFI=.923); of Joreskog‘s adjusted adjustment goodness (AGFI=.903); Bentler adjustment comparison (CFI=.904) and Bollen Delta coefficient (.905) are higher than .90 (see table 3). The 43 parameters of the three related factors model result significant (p<.000). This is the way the three related factors structure is confirmed in this 381 students‘ sampling. The three related factors structure (DIS, DDS and PEO) shows some adjustment indexes from appropriate (RMS-SR=.089 and RMS-EA=.055) to good (FD=1.647, χ2/gl=1.660, PnCP=.537, PGI=.949 and APGI=.940), considering men and women groups as independent samplings. In consequence, this solution is valid for both genders. TAS-20 internal consistency by Cronbach alpha is high (.82). The DDS and DIS factors, also show high internal consistency coefficients (.80 and from .78, respectively). Nonetheless, PEO internal consistency is low (.53). Also, the scale was reliable during a 6 months period. The correlation between the two TAS-20 application, by Person coefficient was high (.71). DDS and DIS reach moderate correlation values (.61 and .55, respectively), but the third factors shows a low re-test correlation (.36). The scale mean and its three factors between the two populations are statistically equivalent. Table 3. Fit indexes for 5 models in students’ sampling Models 2D 2I 3D 3I FD 1.32 1.08 1.18 0.82 1.36 501.46 411.30 446.94 313.63 518.64 ML / g.l 170 169 170 167 170 P .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 2.95 2.43 2.63 1.88 3.06 ML /g.l RMS SR 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.14 PnCP 1.07 0.77 0.85 0.40 0.85 RMSEA 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.07 PGI 0.90 0.93 0.92 0.96 0.92 APGI 0.88 0.91 0.90 0.95 0.90 GFI 0.87 0.89 0.88 0.92 0.88 AGFI 0.84 0.86 0.86 0.90 0.86 CFI 0.78 0.84 0.82 0.90 0.77 0.78 0.84 0.82 0.90 0.77 Parameters definition method: Maximum probability (ML), analyzed data from correlations‘ matrix, with all the independent errors. FD = Discrepancy function, ML /g.l = Quotient between the statistic and its freedom degrees and RMS SR = Square root of the quadratic mean from standardized remainders, RMS EA = Mean estimation media of square root of the quadratic mean of the approximation error, PGI = Mean estimation of population gamma index, APGI = Mean estimation of adjusted population gamma index. GFI = Index of Fit indexes
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Factor Structure and Reliability in the Married Couples Sample Upon factorization of the main axes, using Kaiser criterion, 5 factors are obtained, which explain the 45.13% of the total variance. By Cattell criterion (inflection point of the stationary curve), the structure may be reduced to three factors, explaining the 38% of the variance. For that very reason, the three first factors are the ones presenting the addition of their squared saturations in the extraction higher than one. The following is obtained, when factorial matrix is rotated by Oblimin method: The first factor is defined by ten questions. It contains the seven questions of the original solution of difficulty factor for identifying feelings (13, 9, 7, 6, 1, 14, 3); In addition to 3 extra questions, one would correspond to the difficulty factor for describing feelings , (2) and two externally oriented thought (8 and 20) (See table 4). We can called ―difficulty‖ for identifying feelings by superficial contact style with the environment. These ten questions have a .869 Cronbach alpha internal consistency. The second factor is defined by five questions. It contains three of five questions from the original solution of difficulty factor for describing feelings (11, 12 and 17); moreover, it contains two questions that would correspond to the externally oriented thought factor (15 and 16), and it needs two questions (2 and 4) (See table 4). Having negative saturations must be considered as readiness. We may call it readiness so as to talk about internal experiences. These 5 questions have an internal consistency by Cronbach alpha of .730. The third factor is defined by five questions that presents higher saturations and higher values at .35 in the factor, excepting question 10, whose saturation is of .24. It contains 4 of the 8 questions from the original solution of the externally oriented thought factor (5, 19, 18 and 10); moreover, it contains questions that would correspond to difficulty factor for describing feelings (4) and it needs four questions: two are in the fist factor (8 and 20) and two in the second one (15 and 16) (See table 4). We may denominate difficulty for reflecting and for using feelings so as to resolve personal and interpersonal problems. These 5 questions have an internal consistency by Cronbach alpha of .594. If question 10 is omitted (it is essential to be in contact with emotions) because of its low communality, the internal consistency of the 4 left, lightly reaches .607. The three factors correlates between them. The first factor correlation is of -.447 with the second one, and .233 with the third one, and -.152 between the second and third. In this way, the 3 factors solution is recognized by exploratory factorial analysis, even if it is not completely exact. Basically, the first and second factors have extra questions needed by the third one, lightly affecting the interpretation. Nonetheless, the structural model adjustment must be compared by the exploratory factorial analysis. (Moral, 2006).
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A confirmatory factor analysis is applied to see the model adjustment for the original Canadian solution (TAS20-3F). The 43 model parameters are significant. Table 4. Communalities, patterns and structural matrix for solving three related factors in the 100 couples sampling (n=200) Communalities Patterns‘ matrix Structural matrix Initial Extraction F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3 1 .490 .433 .652 .113 .148 .635 -.201 .282 2 .444 .351 .540 -.021 .126 .579 -.282 .255 3 .408 .371 .543 -.153 -.135 .580 -.376 .015 4 .359 .341 .153 -.197 .441 .344 -.332 .506 5 .362 .444 .272 .210 .583 .314 -.001 .615 6 .455 .461 .641 -.113 -.190 .647 -.370 -.024 7 .454 .437 .678 .030 -.017 .661 -.271 .137 8 .286 .219 .473 -.013 -.060 .464 -.215 .052 9 .552 .587 .768 .054 .073 .761 -.301 .244 10 .144 .063 .043 -.012 .235 .103 -.067 .247 11 .447 .457 -.004 -.657 .095 .312 -.670 .194 12 .431 .416 .049 -.621 .004 .327 -.643 .110 13 .642 .642 .742 -.107 .022 .795 -.443 .211 14 .544 .513 .581 -.210 .057 .688 -.478 .224 15 .401 .320 .112 -.507 .001 .339 -.557 .104 16 .280 .219 -.032 -.480 .004 .184 -.467 .070 17 .407 .424 .157 -.563 .014 .412 -.635 .136 18 .257 .268 -.053 -.006 .527 .072 -.063 .515 19 .261 .290 -.155 -.119 .536 .023 -.132 .518 20 .374 .318 .457 -.125 .116 .540 -.347 .242 Extraction method: Main axes factorization. Rotation method: Oblimin. Question
Notwithstanding, the adjustment indexes are somewhat weak, specially because of the whole other indexes for a simple sampling: Joreskog‘s indexes are near to .80, resting under .85 the first one, and under .80 the second one (GFI=.819 y AGFI=.772); Bentler‘s comparative index rests under .80 (.781), as well as Bollen Delta (.785). The variance residual indexes take values lower than .10, even though they rest above .075 (RMS SR = .084 and RMS EA = .091). The gamma population indexes are in an acceptable rank, with values higher than .80 (PGI = .879 and APGI= .848), the discrepancy function with a value lower than 3 (2.115), as well as the quotient between the chi-square statistics and its freedom degrees with a value lower than 3 (2.520), as well as the non-centrality population parameter, with a value lower than 2 (1.372). If we reduce the model to 3 questions or indicators per factor (those with the highest saturation) (TAS9-3F), the adjustment indexes improved enough, reaching from appropriate level (RMS EA=.069, χ2/gl =2.243, RSM EA = .074, GFI=.944 y AGFI=.895) to a good one (FD=.271, PnCP =.146, PGI=.969, APGI=.941, CFI=.941 and Bollen Delta =.942). If we define the model in 4 questions per factor (TAS123F), the fit indexes get worst regarding the previous model, even if they are still from the appropriate rank (χ2/gl= 2.676, GFI=.923, AGFI=.882, PGI=.888, APGI=.828, CFI=.878 and
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Bollen Delta = .880) to a good one (FD=.686 y PnCP =.503). The variance indexes that take values between .075 and .099 would be the less appropriate (RMSSR=.080 y RMSEA=.099) (See table 5). Table 5. Fit indexes by confirmatory factor analysis from different models in the sampling set of 100 married couples (n=200) Fit indexes Discrepancy function ML Chi-square Degree of freedom P ML Chi-square / df RMS SR Non-centrality population parameter Steiger-Lind RMSEA Index Population gamma Index Adjusted population gamma index Index of Joreskog‘s fit goodness Adjusted Index of Joreskog‘s fit goodness Index of Bentler comparative fit Bollen Delta
TAS203F 2.115 420.914 167 0.000 2.520 0.084 1.372 0.091 0.879 0.848 0.819
TAS203Fr 1.684 335.145 167 0.000 2.007 0.071 0.700 0.065 0.935 0.918 0.867
TAS193Fr 1.512 300.890 149 0.000 2.019 0.072 0.652 0.066 0.936 0.944 0.871
TAS93F 0.271 53.836 24 0.000 2.243 0.069 0.146 0.074 0.969 0.941 0.944
TAS123F 0.686 136.485 51 0.000 2.676 0.080 0.503 0.099 0.923 0.882 0.888
0.772
0.832
0.836
0.895
0.828
0.781 0.785
0.855 0.857
0.859 0.861
0.941 0.942
0.878 0.880
Parameters definition method: Maximum probability (ML), data analyzed from correlations‘ matrix, with all the independent errors and three related factors. TAS20F3: FI: 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13 and 14, FII: 2, 4, 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19 and 20. TAS20F3r: FI: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14 and 20, FII: 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, FIII: 4, 5, 10, 18 and 19. TAS19F3r: FI: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14 and 20, FII: 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, FIII: 4, 5, 18 and 19. TAS9F3: FI: 9, 13 and 14, FII: 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 8, 15 and 20. TAS12F3: FI: 7, 9, 13 and 14, FII: 2, 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 8, 15, 16 and 20.
The three factors structure with their indicators defined from the exploratory factorial analysis solution with 20 questions (TAS20-3Fr), obtained better adjustment indexes than the original model (TAS20-3F), being from appropriate value to good one, even though they are lower than the original model, reduced to three indicators per factor (TAS9-3F). The discrepancy function is lower than 2 (FD=1.684), the non-centrality population parameter is lower than 1 (PnCP=.700) and the gamma population indexes are higher than .90 (PGI = .935 and APGI= .918). With appropriate values, the quotient between statistics chi-square and its freedom degrees is lower than 3 (χ2/gl=2.007), the residual variance indexes are lower than .075 (RMS SR = .071 y RMS EA = .065), Joreskog‘s adjusted goodness adjustment index (AGFI=.832), Bentler‘s comparative index (CFI=.855) and Bollen Delta (Δ=.857) are higher than .80, and Joreskog goodness‘ adjustment index (GFI=.867) is higher than .85. If the corresponding indicator to question 10 is eliminated, because of low saturation, the model adjustment (TAS19-3Fr) lightly improves, remaining the indexes from appropriate values (χ2/gl=2.019, RSM SR=.071 and RSM EA=.066, GFI=.871 and AGFI=.836, CFI=.859, Δ=.861) to good ones (FD=1.512, PnCP=.652, PGI=.944 and APGI=.936) (See table 5). As the men and women of this sampling are married, meaning, they are not independent cases, it is done an analysis by separating both genders, since this condition may affect the
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correlation structure of the sampling set. The three related factors original structure parameters (TAS20-3F) are the same as the sampling set, in which all the parameters are significant (p<.05). The adjustment indexes remain from an acceptable rank (PnCP=1.299, RMS SR=.097, RMS EA=.085, PGI=.885, APGI=.865) to a good one (χ2/gl=1.799), excepting the discrepancy function (FD=3.245) that barely remains above 3. If we consider the obtained structure from the exploratory factorial analysis (TAS20-3Fr), the result is a little bit better. All the indexes are located in a rank from good (χ2/gl=1.572, PnCP=.683, RMS EA=.062, PGI=.936, APGI=.925) to acceptable (FD=2.834, RMS SR=.090), not improving if low consistency question 10 is eliminated (TAS19-3Fr). The perfect adjustment to original Canadian three related factors solution (Bagby et al., 1994) is reached, by reducing the number of questions per factor. The discrepancy function is lower than 2 (FD=.451), the same as the quotient between the chi-square statistics and its freedom degrees (χ2/gl=1.489). The non-centrality population parameter is near to 0 (PnCP=.136); the residual variances are lower than .076 (RMS SR=.075 and RMS EA=.067); the gamma population indexes are higher than .95 (PGI=.971 y APGI=.956). By the three factors model with 4 indicators each one (TAS12-3F), the adjustment indexes are reduced, even if they are still in an appropriate rank (RMS SR = .096 and RMS EA = .090) to a good one (FD=1.044, χ2/gl=1.766, PnCP=.474, PGI=.927, APGI=.902) (See Table 6). The internal consistency of 20 questions is of .859; the one of 7 questions which define the original factor of difficulty to identify the feelings (1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13 and 14) is of .858; the one of five questions which define the difficulty factor to describe feelings (2, 4, 11, 12 and 17) is of .706, and the one of five questions which defines the externally oriented thought (5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19 and 20) is of .572. Table 6. fit indexes by confirmatory factor analysis of different models for two different samplings: 100 wives (n=100) and husbands (n=100) Fit indexes Discrepancy function ML Chi-square Degree of freedom P ML Chi-square/ df RMS SR Non-centrality population parameter Steiger-Lind RMSEA index Population gamma Index Adjusted population gamma index
TAS203F 3.245 642.552 357 0.000 1.799 0.097 1.299 0.085 0.885 0.865
TAS203Fr 2.834 561.213 357 0.000 1.572 0.090 0.683 0.062 0.936 0.925
TAS19Fr 2.571 509.141 320 0.000 1.591 0.092 0.664 0.064 0.935 0.922
TAS93F 0.451 89.384 60 0.008 1.489 0.075 0.136 0.067 0.971 0.956
TAS123F 1.044 206.671 117 0.000 1.766 0.096 0.474 0.090 0.927 0.902
Parameters definition method: Maximum probability (ML), data analyzed from correlations‘ matrix, with all the independent errors and three related factors. TAS20F3: FI: 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13 and 14, FII: 2, 4, 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19 and 20. TAS20F3r: FI: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14 and 20, FII: 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, FIII: 4, 5, 10, 18 and 19. TAS19F3r: FI: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14 and 20, FII: 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, FIII: 4, 5, 18 and 19. TAS9F3: FI: 9, 13 and 14, FII: 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 8, 15 and 20. TAS12F3: FI: 7, 9, 13 and 14, FII: 2, 11, 12 and 17, FIII: 8, 15, 16 and 20.
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Managing both populations samplings as independent at the same time, TAS-20 scale is adjusted to a three related factors structure, being the same composition of the three factors question as the Canadian original solution (Bagby et al., 1994). Separately, the adjustment is good for university students sampling. In married couples sampling, defining each factor by 3 or 4 questions, or by effectuating the analysis by separating both genders, the adjustment is also from appropriate to good. The worst adjustment of couple samplings may be due partially due to the evaluation context of marital adjustment that could influence in questions interpretation. The structural model is equivalent in both genders, which together with the mean equivalence between men and women of the total scale scoring, both in students and couples sampling, rejects the critics of a strong gender bias construct (Kirmayer, 1987), specially in a Latin cultural country like Mexico, in which male cultural factor is well enough defined. (Fernandez, Zubieta and Paez, 2001). In the married couples sample, the questions show the weakest contents (lower than .35) in the confirmatory factorial analysis, which are: 10, 18, 19 and 5 that correspond to third factor. In the university students sampling are the questions: 8, 10, 3 and 5. When both samplings are compared at one time, the questions are 10, 8, 5 y 18. So, 10 and 5 are the weakest, both in students and married couples. Both are written in inverse sense to the scale scoring (Alexithymia) and belong to externally oriented thought. The elements 8 (I prefer to leave things happen by themselves, better than ask me why they are happening in that way), and 3 (I have physical sensations that not even the doctors understand) are weak in the students sampling, but not in married couples. On the other hand, in the married couples, the questions 18 (I can feel myself close to someone even in silence moments), and 19 (I feel it is useful to review my feeling so as to resolve my personal problems) were weak, but in the university students sampling. The questions 18 and 19 in the evaluation context of marital adjustment and satisfaction may have a different significance with respect to love the couple. The fact the question 8 is very weak in students‘ sampling, but not in married couples, may be due to a higher passivity and immaturity of these young with respect to other sampling‘s adults. In any case, questions 10, 8 and 5 may be required to be re-formulated for the Mexican culture, especially if it is confirmed they are weak in other populations. On one hand, it is proposed, as reformulations, the direct writing of the questions 10 and 5, which would ease their comprehension since most of the elements are written toward such direction; on the other hand, so as to give a less passive sense and more concrete thought to question 8 (for example, I detest people who breaks the head by thinking about reasons and emotions, instead of accepting things as they are). The scale internal consistency and its two first factors is high (>.70). However, the third factor shows a low consistency (<.60), as it happens in the most of the studies effectuated out of the Canadian population, which may be due to cultural differences or to methodological problems, since this factor concentrates most of the questions written in inverse sense, four of the five questions. The levels of temporary reliability are appropriate and equivalent to those obtained in the first study (Bagby et al., 1994), except the third factor that shows low temporary reliability, as it was observed in previous studies carried out in Spain (MartinezSanchez, 1996; Moral y Retamales, 2000). Considering that inverse writing of the questions
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may lead to an error, and that their internal consistency is low, it is proposed a scale review for future works, with all the questions written in direct sense. The difficulty factor for identify feelings used to have an internal consistency higher than the verbal expression of feelings, but in the university students samplings were the other way round. For that reason, the difficulty to describe feelings comes from the first factor in rotated solution. It seems that in those who wish to be psychologists, the most important and consistent aspect of Alexithymia is not being capable of talking about the feelings. An important limitation of the student is the non-probabilistic nature of the samplings used. Nonetheless, the students sampling is representative of the college from which it was obtained, from a psychology college of a Northeast public university of Mexico. The married couples sampling, as a whole, seem to be enough representative of the population of Nuevo Leon. The mean of school years (9.56±2.51), monthly income average per person (excluded housewives, students without scholarships and unemployed people) (5,658.57±2,444.90 pesos) and number of children (1.97±1.37) from the 100 couples sampling is statistically equivalent to the mean of the population of Nuevo Leon, reported by INEGI (2007): 9.4 schooling (t=.194, gl=198, p=.362), 5,534 pesos of monthly income (t=.603, gl=139, p=.548) and 2.1 children (t=-1.338, gl=199, p=.182). Differences come from divorce and labor occupation. The sampling of divorce TASA (5%) is apparently lower than the regional 12% , but it must be considered that sampling age mean (33.59±10.03 years old) is under the divorce age mean (36 years old) (t=-3.047, gl=199, p=.001), and this 5% belongs to second marriage, when the 45% of the divorced people get marry again, with an average age of 40 years. Probably, this makes the sampling percentage higher than population. 70% of the inquired people are working population, being 21% housewives; 5% students without scholarship, and 4% unemployed. The unemployment percentage is lightly lower than the State one (6%), by a significant difference (χ2=1.418, gl=1, p=.234), but housewives percentage in women group (42%) is significantly lower than the one from State (64%), even by adding 8% female students without scholarship (χ2=8.507, gl=1, p=.004). In this way, the inquiry attracted more gainfully occupied population, and married ones in second time. In conclusion, the Toronto alexithymia scale of 20 questions seems to be appropriate for Mexico, In spite of, it is suggested to study a modified form of the scale, writing all the questions in an Alexithymia sense, and to reformulate element 8. Finally, the purpose of these data is to promote the scale study by general and clinical population probabilistic samplings, so as to obtain construed standards in Mexico.
REFERENCES Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A. and Taylor, G. J. (1994). The twenty-item Toronto alexithymia scale-I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 1, 23-32. Fernandez, I., Zubieta, E. and Paez, D. (2001). To be excited in Latin America. Revista Internacional de Ciencias Sociales y humanidades (Sociotam) XI(1), 29-53. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI) (2007). Vital Statistics. México: INEGI. Kirmayer, L. J. (1987). Languages of suffering and healing: alexithymia as a social and cultural phenomenon. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, 24, 119-136.
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Martinez Sanchez (1996). Adaptation to Alexithymia Scale in Toronto (TAS-20). Clinica y Salud, 7, 1, 19-32. Moral, J. and Retamales, R. (2000). Study of validation of the Alexithymia Scale in Toronto (TAS-20) in Spanish sampling. Revista Electronica de Psicologia, 4, 2. In www.psiquiatria.com/psicologia/vol4num1/art_3.htm. Moral, J. (2006). Análisis factorial confirmatorio. In R. Landero and M. T. Gonzalez (Ed.), Estadística con SPSS y metodologia de la investigacion (pp. 445-528). México: Trillas. Nemiah, J. C. and Sifneos, P. E. (1970). Affect and fantasy in patients with psychosomatic disorders. En O. W. Hill (Ed.), Modern Trends in Psychosomatic Medicine (Vol. 2, pp. 26-34). London: Butterworths. Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, G. J. and Bagby, R. M. (2003).The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale III. Reliability and factorial validity in a community population Journal of psychosomatic Research, 55, 3, 269-275. Sifneos, P. E. (1973). The prevalence of alexithymic characteristics in psychosomatic patients. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 22, 255-262. Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M. and Parker, J. D. A. (1997). Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M. and Parker, J. D. A. (2003). The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale IV. Reliability and factor validity in different languages and cultures. Journal of psychosomatic Research, 55, 3, 277-283. Taylor, G. J., Ryan, D. P. and Bagby, R. M. (1985). Toward the development of a new selfreport alexithymia scale. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 44, 4, 181-199.
In: Hispanic Psychology in the 21st Century Ed: Victor L. Rojas and Maria J. Ruiz
ISBN: 978-1-61761-929-8 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
THE QUESTIONS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF NARRATIONS’ READING Javier González García Universidad de Guanajuato (México)
ABSTRACT In this work, we propose to analyze the use of information requests in a preparation process of the information that four teachers carry out with their students, from the reading of three tales. The sample is composed of 2 courses from two public schools in Burgos (Spain), and two more in (Mexico). In each class we have observed six discussion groups, composed of three children. For that, it is proposed an exploratory study from a systematic observation. First, we offer a didactic sequences qualitative description that show examples of questions preparation process, and it is finished by analyzing and comparing quantitatively, the evolution of the questions percentages. The answer capacity knowledge a child has in this discussion situation, helps the teacher to figure out the kind of support he will need. The results aim at a variety of kind of questions make easier the speech recovery of the children, and sometimes, the comprehension from inferring questions.
Keywords: Cognitive process, teaching methods, information ways, narrations, conjoint construction of knowledge.
RESUMEN En este trabajo nos planteamos analizar el uso de las demandas de información, en un proceso de elaboración conjunta de la información, que cuatro maestras llevan a cabo con sus alumnos a partir de la lectura de tres cuentos. La muestra está compuesta por 2 clases de dos escuelas públicas de Burgos capital (España), y dos más en Tampico (México). En cada clase hemos observado seis grupos de discusión, compuesto por tres niños. Para ello, se plantea un estudio exploratorio a partir de una observación sistemática. En primer lugar, ofrecemos una descripción cualitativa de secuencias didácticas, que muestran ejemplos del proceso de elaboración de preguntas, para terminar analizando, y comparando de forma cuantitativa la evolución de los porcentajes de las Address for correspondence: Phone: 947- 228285, Carretera Guanajuato-Juventino Rosas Km. 9.0, Col. La Hierbabuena, CP: 36 250, 01 (473) 73 3-12-69,
[email protected] ,
[email protected],
[email protected], Universidad de Guanajuato (México), Instituto de Investigaciones en Educación de la Universidad de Guanajuato
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Javier González García preguntas. El conocimiento de la capacidad de respuesta que tiene el niño en esta situación de discusión, ayuda al profesor a decidir el tipo de apoyo que necesitará. Los resultados apuntan a que la variedad en los tipos de preguntas facilita la recuperación del discurso en los niños, y en ocasiones, la comprensión a partir de preguntas de inferencias.
Keywords: Proceso cognitivo, métodos de enseñanza, modalidades de información, narraciones, construcción conjunta del conocimiento.
INTRODUCTION The teachers tend to confirm the dialogue as a basic means of teaching, but they are few who put it on practice. They consider time that can be dedicated to each child to talk is limited, and it must be spent it at the best possible way. The conversation with each child, o in small groups, not only allows to appreciate the infantile difficulties, but also the abilities of the teacher himself, in language use (Borzone, 2005). They listen to the child, and project toward the fact that offers possibilities of extending infantile thought, choosing the most ideal manner to lead each child to widely interpret his experiences. This depends on the knowledge they have about abilities and interests of the child, being opened to all the possibilities and changes. When they formulate questions and comments to extend thoughts, they help the child understands the kind of information his speaker needs, and over the time, to anticipate the kind of questions that could be formulated, and to offer spontaneously the required information. About five or six years old, many children start to acquire consciousness of the needs that others appreciate as speakers, as a result of repeated conversation experiences with adults or with other children older than them. Even though there are children, even older, that have not experienced it because, among other things, have not experienced this kind of conversation (Diez and Pardo, 2000). To achieve these objectives, the core of this process is the relation between teacher and child; it must be useful to share ideas, and to make the child have the perception that it is important for him to understand, to express and to interpret. At the beginning, to obtain such relation depends on the acceptance of the own child and the interest others showed him as a person. As child‘s interest and participation increase in his execution, the dialogue is increasing his possibilities and good use. Here, we see another point of liaison between two knowledge areas of infantile education: identity and autonomy, and expression and communication. To analyze the dialogue construction processes may help us to find a way of selecting strategies that help the child to think and to express his thought by using language. Children may be helped to recognize the kind of answer some questions ways suggest, and to prepare them to distinguish alternative forms. The information request, like communicative strategies, are basic in the use and application of the debate when reading any text. To frequently use the dialogue with children is the most efficient way to help them to develop abilities that could be employed when necessary. The teacher is prepared to evaluate what can be acquired by conversation, and what is helpful for the children in order they ―recognize objectives, steps, by which conversation can be attained.‖ (Tough, 1989, p. 112). The questions have been associated the way we know it. In fact, the philosophy is based on learning to make questions; each one
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constitutes its own knowledge, but nobody can do it without others‘ help (Puig and Satiro, 2000; Signes, 2004). The use of requests is basic on teaching performance so as to encourage the creative dialogue. Each question may be performed as a student‘s guide in order to solve the superior level tasks which would be reached without help. As the student becomes more autonomous in resolving tasks, the teacher has to reduce his help, providing him informative questions that will disappear when the child reaches the individual regulation. These questions are genuine information requests that are part of a characteristic type of speech, the educational one, in which, curiously, who knows the answer is the one who propose the questions. There is an interaction progressive learning between the teachers and students groups. The teachers learn to wait the answers and to formulate just few questions (Gonzalez, 2006a). To learn to wait an answer is hard, many teachers formulate excellent questions, but they “hurry”, answering them themselves (Gonzalez, 2007d). Maybe they are afraid of silence or failure of the children. Some teachers tend to hurry possibly because they do not expect children at that age are capable of justifying their answers. They think ―it is soon for children to argument their answers” (Diez, 2002, p. 145). ―The dialogue, cooperation and construction from previous methods, provide the catalyzer that allow to join two ideas‖ (Garcia and Cubero, 2000, p. 252)
Who interacts with children must offer and adapted support that provides sensible and challenging help; the fact the child has the freedom of getting wrong in a handling way is inherent to the transfer of responsibility. It is necessary an interest center, or a common past in interacting for achieving inter-subjectivity and conjoint problems resolution. The individual acquiring of social practices takes place in a creative process, where the abilities are transformed during the process. When the individuals participate in a social activity they choose certain aspects, transforming what is available for their own use. Just like a meaning of a conversation depends on both, speaker‘s information and listener‘s interpretation, the guided interpretation process depends on the structure provided by the social activity and each individual‘s acquiring. Here is located the influence of types and contents of questions, as it is showed by the researching line of Albanese and Antoniotti (1997) that studies the relation between the dialogue style components and stories comprehension of children, specifically, the ability to precisely retain the stories, when some dialogue components are manipulated. They show the use of questionnaires during the initial stage of narrations increase retention. For that reason, they classify in six types of questions that are happening in a previous reading comprehension. 1. Encyclopedic: They review a concept, idea or new word that influences the development of text comprehension. 2. Verificative: they verify the comprehension level of the speakers. 3. Personal: they request real situations analogue to those of the text, like personal anecdotes or episodes. 4. Inferential: they are requests that organize a logical and temporary sequence of the previous text.
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Javier González García 5. From opinion: open questions that request to be evaluated about what is read or spoken. 6. Rhetorical: at the beginning or end of a topic or content. Their function is to break the ice of an instruction to be followed. Usually, rhetoric begins or ends a discussion.
In other previous work, Albanese and Antoniotti (1992) effectuate a study of children and adults interaction, during a shared reading from a book in pre-school stage, identifying two type of interaction. The narrative style, characterized by a monologue type in which the teacher does not require child participation, distinguished by mainly rhetoric questions. The dialogue style, in which the teacher involves the student in a dialogue, and makes questions that require child active participation during the events‘ narration. Its analysis integrates four parameters that distinguish adult-child interaction: (a) The reconstruction of the story, observed as the way it was narrated. (b) The cognitive adaptation of the child, analyzed from the presence of explanations. (c) The cognitive control over the child, like presence and kind of questions addressed to him. (d) The children‘s participation, taken from contributions from them to the interaction. The results showed the style dialogue use allows a higher lever of comprehension of the narrative style. In addition, the study showed three characteristics, all related to questions use of the teacher that distinguished adult interaction style: The teachers centered in the dialogue formulated a bigger number of questions than narrative style teachers. The big number of questions in this interaction style led to its categorization from a series of components. Those who encouraged the dialogue formulated three kinds of questions: verificative, personal and inferential ones, which were not used by the narrative teachers. The narrative teachers prepared exclusively rhetoric questions. On the other hand, those who encouraged the dialogue used some types: encyclopedic, verificative,, personal, inferential and rhetorical ones. The key is to use a wide variety of questions. Previously, Orsolini and Pontecorvo (1989) had studied the preparation process of inferences in infantile texts comprehension. These authors show that, over three or four years old, a child is able to infer, based on the similarity between the semantic content of the text and his previous knowledge of the world. This is possible since the use of encyclopedic and inferential questions are the key to distinguish four dialogue styles of teachers (Albanese and Antoniotti, 1997). The adult that wants to help the child to comprehend texts, not only needs to use verificative, personal and inferential requests pertaining to an interaction style based on dialogue. To achieve to a relevant comprehension of a text is needed to facilitate the child the access to a knowledge pertaining to the context and content of the story. The encyclopedic
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requests make it easier, being the key during the process of relating the knowledge of the general world to the own one of each story. But the predominant educational style of west schools has been the one Rogoff and Toma (1997) called “Model of instruction transmission”. In this model, the teacher transmits the information, the student receives it and the teacher verifies if the transmission has been carried out. This format is called I.R.E. (Beginning, Response and Evaluations) and usually the teacher begins a theme by a question, from which she knows the answer; an student responds it and the teacher evaluates the answer. The model of instruction transmission includes a series of characteristics: The interactions are basically dyadic, being the teacher a member of the dyad, meanwhile the rest of the class represents the other element. The attention of the children must be centered only in one event en each moment: the action or specification of the teacher. The lessons use to take place out of the context in which the theme usually comes from, contrasting with the information that comes from teaching an informal learning. Usually, the teacher achieves to keep the attention of the students, making quick questions to the students, one by one. Contrary to this teaching model, Rogoff (1993) defines what she called “Perspective of participation transformation”. This model of instruction is centered on the learning through the ideas constructions with other in shared tasks, and in which the roles of apprentices are seen as a “multifaceted participation” during the conjoint activity. The characteristics shown are: The role of the teacher is to guide and to facilitate the participation transformation in activities, but not the complete control, nor just the information transmission. The speech is not a dyadic conversation, but both the students and the teachers are active members in ideas development. Students are encouraged to listen to their classmates, and the teacher provides support so the children learn how to do it. The students make reference both their class mates and their teacher, exploring classmates ideas, and in some cases, leading themselves the discussion. In this work, we propose us to analyze the use of information requests, in a conjoint preparation process, from stories two teachers carried out with their students. For that reason, it is proposed an exploratory study, from a systematic observation. First, we offer a qualitative description through didactic sequences (tables 1 to 5) that show examples of questions preparation process, in order to finish analyzing and comparing in a quantitative form, the evolution of the percentages of questions displayed by the four analyzed groups (Tables 6 and 7, graphics 1 and 2).
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METHOD Sample The sample is composed of four pre-school educational classrooms, divided in two public schools of Burgos (Spain), denominated Group A and B, and other two ones in Tampico (Mexico), groups C and D. The recording of the observations is made to the same students during the last pre-school course; the children are from five to six years old. Each classroom is divided in 6 sub-groups of 3 children. The decision which children are part of each group is responsibility of the teachers; all have been ruled at randomly to choose the formation of each three children group. The children have not showed any reaction in front of the video camera, accepting the presence of a foreign observer.
Procedure The observations are effectuated in audiovisual format at the beginning of December, February and May. The total of sessions recorded are 72, with a total of 11614 conversation shifts around three stories reading. The teachers establish the same activity for all the tree children groups, consisting of: 1) Selection of the text with learning objectives, 2) Each teacher divides the class in three children groups, 3) She reads the selected text and follows and structure freely all the discussion process. The duration of the previous reading has been of 3 to 4 minutes from the side of the teachers; this stage has not been gathered in the analysis, remaining open for other researches. Next, it is established a discussion, which is the analyzed part in this research. Drawings and illustrations have been eliminated, reducing the reading to written text, so as to favor the reaction of the children only in words; the teachers increase the use of different voice resources: inflections, rhythm and onomatopoeic sounds changes, usually substituted by the pauses in order to show each illustration. The way to carry out the discussion and objectives are responsibility of the teachers in order they freely give sense and meaning to the proposed activity. The reference material is three stories. The selection criteria of three narrative texts (Garcia Sanchez and Pacheco, 1978), have followed the criteria explained by Van Dijk y Kintsch (1983): clarity of the superstructure, quantity provided, redundancy grade, subjects’ accessibility degree, resource quality, style, novelty, ethical pertinence,, vocabulary and extension qualities. We have not considered the sex variable of the children, since we are interested in exploring the construction process of the general knowledge, but if we address to differences between boys and girls, then a variable to be studied in next works will emerge. The socioeconomic status of the two schools is similar, inserted in a medium-low class quarters, dominating young parents families. This same study is carrying it out in Guanajuato (Mexico).
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Categorization Process The categorization process begins with the literal transcription of the dialogue between children and their teacher, indicating between parenthesis the prosodic components: pauses, intonation; and paralinguistic: affirmative or negative gestures, fingers and arms signs, head or body movements that transmit meanings through non verbal channels. Once all the records are collected, it is transcribe the audiovisual material, and it is prepared the category system. This one is created from definition and operation of our analysis unit, conversation shift, which is a core unit of observation. Each work session of each story and three children group. The categorization process consists of a first registry in a progressively systemized features list progressively. We try the system categories, in addition to comply with the exhaustivity and exclusivity (Anguera, 1992), are flexible and are totally defined. 1. We create inductively the observation criteria more relevant, from audiovisual material revision. 2. We group these criteria to define different analysis dimensions that we are going to use. 3. We get back to the conversations with these analysis dimensions so as to observe how they internally vary, and we separate the categories which compose them. 4. We compute the analysis dimensions, limiting their criteria so the categories of an analysis dimension are mutually excludable, but not the categories of different analysis dimensions. This allows to observe the multiple categories combinations which provoke the different analysis dimensions, meaning, their multifunction. 5. After the categories systems preparation, we codify each of the recorded session. It is carried out by the main researcher, together with two psychologists, who, ignoring the purpose of the research, issue an objective position. The agreements were about 98% of the statements analyzed by the main researcher and the other two psychologists. Table 1. Initial open request 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177
TEACHER ALL TEACHER ANDREA IKER TEACHER
What do you think about it? (Smile) Have you like it? Yes Yes Who are the main roles in this story?
Table 2. Initial centered request 155
TEACHER
Well, now, you are going to tell me what is the thing that you have liked the most. Who is first?
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1231
ALVAR
1232 1233
TEACHER ALVAR
1234
TEACHER
1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241
SILVIA ALVAR JUAN TEACHER SILVIA TEACHER ALVAR
Well, my mother says that you never say “no” to a man, that you do not… That you do not know That says: “take a caramel",and that you should not go, if not the person is going to kidnap you Of course, he migh kidnap you. Is what your mother have told you about? And if its bad, what? That is why And it is poisoned? What happened if it has poison? If the caramel is poisoned? ¡Ah!, What happened if the caramel is poisoned? Then it sleeps, and it takes a poison that it is bitten, and it is buried.
INSTRUMENTS Categorization System The observation criteria, object of this study, is the preparation process of the information requests or questions. We look at the initial criteria-continuity in order to observe if the questions have served to start or to continue each theme or topic. Let see some examples. The speaker opens the speech through a question or information request, creating a new topic or a new activity. It tends to produce a continuity in the next shifts, the speech is open with the clear intention to continue. It used to be a correct strategy of the teacher, who starts, creates, opens, hurls a discussion topic or theme (Shifts 2172, 2174; 155) There is a contribution to conversation through an open instructional scaffolding. The speaker keeps, develops, extends statements already issued in order to give cohesion, and extend the speech to another speaker, or to the rest of the group. Sometimes, a child imitates the teacher, adopting her role, and making a question. Then, the teacher extends that question to the rest of the group, so as to avoid the students expect she answer the question (Shifts 1238), involving in this way the rest of the group (Shifts 1239, 1241). The teachers create a speech from questions, meanwhile they simultaneously provide effective hints for necessary information. The children are introduced to a speech shared with the teacher. As such, it fits in the educational processed defined by ―ZDP‖, Zone of next development, in which the students knowledge is guided by questions, hints and examples of the teacher in order to obtain depths from which the students themselves seem unable. It is a mechanism that demands an active participation in creating a shared knowledge, instead of being limited to be seated and to listen how the teacher speaks. (Shifts 4423-27) As we can see, the teacher provides a kind of open instructional scaffolding since she is re-positioning the initial request, according to the continuations of the children (Tables 4)
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Table 4. Continuation: request. Conjoint construction 4423 4424 4425 4426 4427 4428 4429 4430 4431
ALICIA TEACHER ALICIA TEACHER ALICIA TEACHER ALICIA TEACHER ALICIA
And if you take a piece of heaven, as it invisible? A piece of the heaven? Aren’t you able? And what for were you going to take a piece of heaven? To be invisible ¡Ah!, to be invisible In addition, the spirit is invisible The spirit? Because it is ghost
Teachers’ Interview For comparing the data observed, we effectuate interviews to each teacher, during the last week of the course. We try to certify the teaching style and previous context from which they came from, as well as the objectives each teacher have aimed during the research. We divided the interview in three blocks (Table 5). In the first one, we analyze the teaching styles of the teachers and how it is put on practice in each discussion and narration. In the second one, we offer information about the objectives‘ script each teacher has aimed to. The collected information contributes with their professional biographical aspects and their implied theories about the use of the reading, dialogue and work team, and what they expect. Table 5. Interview script Biographical part: “The styles’ transmission” How long have you been applying the discussion in class? From which ages? In this school? Do you use work team?, When? Which systems have you applied? How do you use the text books? And the stories? For you, what is a story? What is its use for? How to use it? How have you applied it this time? Contrasting part: “objectives that have been established” Which has been the prioritizing objective of the task? What other important objectives do you see? What do you think you have attained?
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Design After the categorization system and data contrasting through interviews, we analyze and compare quantitatively the evolution of the information sources, displayed by the four groups observed in the conjoint reconstruction of the story. For that reason, it was employed the SPSS statistical program. This study does not have an experimental design, since were used comparison groups, not control ones, since from its objectives is merely exploratory and it requires to be replicated, including these groups, following strictly the intervention and the progress of the children through more frequent evaluations. We begin the observation results exposition, from the global percentages of each group. Next, we analyzed the results of all the categories; first, through a percentage behavior during the three quarters; after, by observing which has been the kind of information of each group with a greater contribution grade to the speech. We expose, as a first approach, the general distributions of the shifts‘ percentages, both comparison between A and B groups (Spain), and C and D groups (Mexico).
RESULTS The teachers request and prepare information from the children statements, basic action of the instructional scaffolding. The continuity of the arguments is favored by the level of inferences use, when it infers the relation between two successive or very near ideas connect the different parts of the story. Group A is the best example of this. It is a key factor to continue the initial answers of the child, giving a vote of confidence which directs his need of telling stories. In fact, to feel he is listened, helps him to be better focused on the next tasks. It is at that moment, when the teacher has brought the ideas from his head, and from which the child could not be disconnected, since “the information and abilities are not transmitted during the acquiring process.― (Rogoff, 1990, p. 250). The questions have been a key factor for participation process. It is important to outstand the little percentage or information requests in the children of all the groups, due to the implied difficulty for them, the identification of the additional information they need. (Tough, 1979). Normally, the teacher who use this participation strategy, 74,1% of the total of interventions with a little descent in A, 65,8% with a little increase in B. It is barely notices in the children; in the group A part of the inexistence practice of the first quarter, and it is increasing up to equalize group B (1,6%), in the last quarter. They are very stable percentages that still look at o a semi-directive participation structure promoted by the both teachers. The results were very similar in the two Mexican groups, even though there is a minor percentage of questions in the children. (Table 7). The teacher, with a great difference over the rest of the participants, is the one that requests the most. It is hard that a child of that age requests information to another. They do it progressively, being more able to integrate their own activity with the other classmates. The requests are almost an instrument exclusively used by the teachers, which leads to another disproportion: the confirmation percentage is little in the teachers. The dominant participation is: the teacher asks, the students answer. The difficulty is to find an average at the moment of opening the questions. We observe how some questions create richer answers than others:
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The children may go from what is happening in their head, contents not pertaining to the previous reading, when the requests are very open, like the question: “Something else about the story?” The open question ―What is the part of the story that you have like the most?”, that we have reviewed as an initial activity instruction, used to be accompanied by a detailed or a very general answer that does not contributes to a fluent shifts‘ debate. On the other hand, a higher shades question, like “Imagine that you are Mary, the invisible girl, What have you done in order to make the rest of the children to be friends?” leads each child to find how to solve a dilemma or problem important for developing the story; it makes the children to be involved in the activity, and provokes new and owned answers. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% QUESTION
40%
CONFIRMATION
30% 20% 10% 0% Teacher A
Children group A
Teacher B
Children group B
Graphics 1. Questions and confirmation percentage – Spain.
70% 60% 50% 40% QUESTION
30%
CONFIRMATION
20% 10% 0% Teacher C
Children group C
Teacher D
Children group D
Graphics 2. Questions and confirmation percentage- Spain.
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It also influences how the teacher centers those short answers from the student. They may be completed or solved their questions, without waiting students‘ answers, or may be derived from such short answers, requesting an argument that guides, shades or complete, in order to construct conjointly an answer similar to the teacher‘s initial request, which, at the beginning, seemed insufficient for her.
DISCUSSION The information requests are ―speech activities indexes” (Pontecorvo and Orsolini, 1992) that serve to construct the necessary continuity in a discussion. The teacher, with a great difference over the rest of the participants, is the one that requests the most. It is hard for a child at that age, to request information to the others. He does it progressively, being more capable of ―integrating his own activity‖ with the one of the other classmates (Diez, 2002). The requests are almost an instrument exclusively used by the teachers. The dominant participation is: the teacher asks, the students answer. One of the key participations is to find an average at the moment of opening the questions. The children may be blocked, or be very moderate when the requests are very wide: “Something about the story?”. It seems the child needs more references, but at the same time the number of questions that need to complete open phrases by a single word must not be exceeded. As a difference between the teachers, the teacher A starts from text information comprehension, its statements are formulated in conditional mood so as to prepare inferences, hypothesis of the text: If such a thing happened, what do you think they would have done or said?, Who would be (which character) who knows about this situation? On the other hand, group B only uses the conditional so the child projects himself in the story, in the information type classified like imagination: What would you have done if you were in that situation?‖. The participation style in the debate of two Spanish groups tends to be asymmetric, but moderate or negotiated, since the children have a wide margin to focus on their answer, and the possibility of valuing others‘ answers. The participation takes some aspects from Rogoff (1993) proposed model: to encourage the students to listen to their classmates, providing support in order the children learn how to do it; and facing continuously certain statements from a speaker with the rest of the group. The students address both their classmates and the teacher, exploring classmates‘ ideas, and leading themselves the discussion, in certain cases. Meanwhile in the Mexican groups, an asymmetric style is showed, with a minor negotiation grade, the teachers expect an only way answer, as indicated in the interview (Table 1). The teachers‘ styles possess the characteristics of the model described by Rogoff and Toma (1997), differentiating between the emergent “Perspective of participation transformation”, and the “instruction transmission model”: The teachers A and B try to follow this transformation tendency developed by Rogoff (1993), achieving multidirectional interactions on time. But the closed control limitations about the topic or information from each shift. In reality, they have never lost the complete control of conversion process. The teachers C and D are in transition from one style to another. They keep the dyadic interactions of the traditional transmission model, so as to respect the questions script proposed. At the beginning of each session, they keep an asymmetric
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interaction style, since they assume the role of initiating the interchange with the same topics from open questions. Once they have intervened in all the proposed topics, facilitate, later, the free expressive development of each child, even the interchange between them. In this process, it is showed that teacher‘s ability is the key to provide continuation to the child‘s initial answers, giving a vote of confidence, which directs his need of telling stories, but without deviating from previous reading. In fact, to feel he is listened, helps him to be better focused on the next tasks. It is at that moment, when the teacher manifests the ideas from his head, and from which the child could not be disconnected, since “the information and abilities are not transmitted during the acquiring process.― (Rogoff, 1990, p. 250). Maybe, each teacher must adopt an active attitude to stimulate creative thoughts. The most correct way is to formulate questions which help children to think about their own answers; for that reason, it seems that using some kind of questions facilitate this task (Albanese and Antoniotti, 1997). The teachers open and close the speech according to students‘ intervention. Their dominant way is the request, contrary to the children, who always contribute with information (See graphics 1 and 2). The teachers open the speech, as the students close it or suspend it; they are continuously re-scheduling the children interventions. This strategy is gradually accepted by the children, helped by the increasing ability of listening. Table 6. Evolution of the questions through the first quarters, Spain CONTINUATION QUESTION TEACHER STUDENT Centered shifts N
Story 1 Group Group A B 77,3% 63,5% 0,3% 1,1% 682 1247
Story 2 Group Group A B 73,6% 67% 0,5% 1,9% 782 1153
Story 3 Group Group A B 72,3% 67,1% 1,4% 1,6% 1061 1042
Group A 74,1% 0,8% 2525
Total Group B 65,8% 1,5% 3442
Table 7. Evolution of the questions during the three quarters, México CONTINUATION Story 1 QUESTION Group Group C D TEACHER 61,3% 71,5% STUDENT 0,2% 0,6% Centered shifts N 542 447
Story 2 Group Group C D 63,1% 70,1% 0,3% 0,9% 767 653
Story 3 Group Group C D 62,3% 72,1% 0,3% 1,1% 1061 1042
Total Group Group C D 62,1% 71,8% 0,3% 0,9% 2250 2342
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Abanese, O. and Antoniotti, C. (1997). Teacher Dialogue Style and Children's Story Comprehension. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 12, 3, 249-59. Anguera, T. (1992). Methodology of observation in human sciences. Madrid: Cátedra. Bakeman, C. and Gottman, R. (1992). Interaction Observation: introduction to sequential analysis. Madrid: Cátedra. Barbieri, M.S., Devescovi, A., and Bonardi, P.A. (1987). The verbal interaction between the child and education during storytelling. In S. Mantovani and T. Musatti (Eds.), Adults and children. Educate and communicate. Roma: Juvenalia. Borzone, A. and Rosemberg, C. (1994). The verbal interchange in the classroom: the children interventions with respect to teacher‘s interactive style. Childhood and Learning, 67-68, 115-132. Borzone, A. (2005). Stories‘ reading in childhood garden: A way for cognitive and linguistics strategies‘ development. Psykhe, 14, 1, 192-209. Bruner, J. (1986). Child speech: learning to use the language. Barcelona: Paidós. Bruner, J. (1991). Meaning acts. Beyond cognitive revolution. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Bruner, J. (1997). The education, door to culture. Madrid: Aprendizaje Visor. Bruner, J. (2004). Mental reality and possible worlds. Gedisa: Barcelona. Diez, C., Pardo, P., Lara, F., Anula, J. J., and Gonzalez, L. (1999). The interaction at the beginning of the reading-writing. Madrid: CIDE. Ministerio de Educación y Cultura. Diez Vegas, C. and Pardo de Leon, P. (2000). Team work at the beginning of writing. UNED. Madrid. Fundacion Universidad-Empresa. Diez Vegas, C. (2002). Social interactions and knowledge construction at reader-writer beginning. A longitudinal study. Doctorate Thesis. Madrid. Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. (1988). The shared knowledge. Madrid: Paidós and MEC. Fresquet, A. (2004). The question as instrument. Basis for curriculum diversification.. Weekly Bulletin of Worldwide Association of Children Educators (AMEI), 191. Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2006a). Group preparation of inferences from childhood stories. Educative Psychology, 12, 2, 67-89. Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2006b). Methodology for group construction analysis of knowledge, from storytelling. [on line]. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 39, 3. Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2007a). Analysis of argument process from stories‘ reading. Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa, XII, 33, 149-169 Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2007b). What do we know about stories as social construction?. Investigación en la Escuela, 62, 2, 79-98. Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2007c). Communication regulation in childhood debates: Spain-Mexico. Paideia, 42, 35-52. Gonzalez Garcia, J. (2007d). The group reading process of infantile stories. Apuntes de Psicología, 25, 1, 25-41. Lipman, M. (1997). Complex thought and education. Madrid: De la Torre. Lo Cascio, V. (1998). Grammar of the argumentation. Strategies and structures. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Mercer, N. (1997). The guided construction of the knowledge. Madrid: Paidós. Mercer, N. (2001). Words and minds. Madrid: Paidós. Orsolini, M. and Pontecorvo, C. (1986). Disputare and construct. Knowledge processes in verbal interaction between children. Età evolutiva, 30, 63-76.
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INDEX A abuse, 238, 252 academic motivation, 157 academic performance, 63, 80, 85, 96, 97, 102, 126, 149, 283, 285, 286, 289 academic tasks, 103, 104, 179 access, 103, 244, 247, 250, 253, 301, 340, 380 accessibility, 253, 337, 382 accounting, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 acculturation, 115, 126, 127, 128 acculturation level, 115 accuracy, ix, 18, 25, 28, 110 achievement, 18, 37, 38, 97, 98, 99, 103, 105, 109, 179, 216, 221, 224, 296, 300, 307 achievement orientation, 221 achievement test, 97 acidity, 271 acquisition phase, 317 adaptation, ix, 1, 6, 8, 10, 11, 84, 102, 115, 148, 179, 182, 214, 215, 216, 217, 227, 230, 231, 233, 236, 239, 290, 366, 380 adaptations, 2 adjustment, xiv, xvi, xvii, 39, 64, 67, 69, 215, 220, 223, 226, 235, 238, 239, 240, 242, 294, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 341, 349, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374 administration, 149 administrators, xv, 117, 299, 301 adolescence, 36, 99, 130, 141, 142, 205, 218, 220, 258, 342 adolescent behavior, 130 adolescent development, 141 adolescents, xi, xii, 2, 10, 12, 13, 97, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133,
135, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 148, 154, 210, 213, 247, 250, 255, 256, 266 adult education, 357 adulthood, 205 adults, 324 advertising, 366 Africa, 243 African American, 266 African American women, 141 African Americans, 266 age, xi, xv, xvi, 2, 11, 17, 37, 44, 66, 76, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 95, 96, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 121, 125, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, 171, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 205, 208, 212, 214, 217, 225, 226, 227, 262, 272, 276, 286, 291, 299, 305, 313, 327, 331, 333, 346, 354, 361, 365, 375, 379, 386, 388, 389 agent, 261, 262, 341 AGFI, 282, 289, 293, 349, 364, 367, 369, 370, 371, 372 agglutination, 195 aggregation, 280, 294 aggression, 44, 126 agoraphobia, 3 AIDS, xiv, 243, 244, 245, 249, 250, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258 air pollution, 208 alcohol, xii, 1, 129, 130, 133, 251, 276 alcohol consumption, 1 alcohol use, 133 alexithymia, xiv, 223, 226, 241, 363, 364, 375, 376 alternative, 103, 262 alternatives, 5, 37, 54, 63, 287, 305 alters, 59 altruism, 51, 52, 162, 175 amalgam, 225 ambiguity, xiv, 259, 260, 262, 263, 264
394
Index
American Educational Research Association, 111 American Psychiatric Association, 11, 21 anchoring, xvi, 327, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337 anger, 96, 197, 214, 270 ANOVA, 19, 31, 234, 263, 352 anthropologists, 237 anxiety, ix, xiv, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 62, 64, 66, 67, 70, 71, 96, 178, 181, 215, 216, 223, 236, 238, 239, 271, 272, 274, 276, 290, 291 apathy, 179 applications, 2, 220, 277, 296, 300, 365 appropriations, 251 Argentina, xix, 111 arithmetic, 67 arteriosclerosis, 276 articulation, 248, 270 Asia, 243 assertiveness, 5, 213 assessment, xvi, 16, 18, 21, 72, 82, 114, 125, 157, 221, 327, 328, 330, 336, 337 assignment, 27 assumptions, 122 asthma, 274 asymmetry, 284, 289 athletes, 173 attacks, 272 attention, 150, 151, 203, 204, 262, 341 attitudes, 49, 130, 132, 139, 141, 142, 155, 172, 178, 179, 192, 193, 204, 213, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 240, 245, 246, 251, 252, 255, 300, 345 attribution, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 97, 174 Australia, 82 authoritarianism, 178, 237 authorities, 117, 134, 180 authority, 18, 194, 237, 254 authors, xiv, 17, 31, 63, 64, 67, 74, 88, 114, 130, 131, 155, 181, 192, 193, 243, 248, 260, 271, 272, 274, 276, 281, 290, 301, 312, 313, 328, 330, 341, 342, 344, 345, 358, 380 automation, 269 autonomic nervous system, 364 autonomy, 37, 105, 108, 146, 194, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 252, 266, 378 availability, 81, 194, 253, 265 avoidance, ix, 1, 6, 8, 10, 15, 228 awareness, 22, 79, 274
B background, 95, 96, 262 bad behavior, 187 barriers, 72 Beck Depression Inventory, 227, 228, 235, 238, 241 beginning teachers, 157 behavioral change, 255 behavioral medicine, 266, 274 behavioral problems, 276 behavioral sciences, 11 behaviorism, xvii, 355 behaviors, xv, 5, 66, 130, 141, 147, 162, 163, 179, 185, 192, 193, 203, 215, 216, 230, 231, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 258, 260, 261, 263, 264, 265, 267, 275, 276, 311, 320, 321, 323, 342, 359 beliefs, 38, 48, 49, 180, 192, 225, 245, 246, 248, 249, 251, 253, 260, 340, 359, 361 benefits, 204 bias, xvi, 16, 18, 21, 22, 28, 67, 68, 69, 240, 295, 327, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 352, 366, 367, 374 biochemistry, 76 birth, 205, 209, 360 Black students, 98 blame, 185, 186 blocks, 30, 31, 385 blood, 18, 244, 260, 265, 271, 272, 273, 294 blood pressure, 265, 273, 294 blood transfusion, 244 blood transfusions, 244 Bolivia, xix bonds, 139, 252 boredom, 183, 231, 237 boys, xi, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 251, 382 brain, 356, 359, 361 Brazil, xiv, 211, 213, 214, 215 breathing, xv, 15, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 277 breathlessness, 277 breeding, 205, 237 bronchitis, 273, 274 brothers, 214, 217 burnout, xiii, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189 business management, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79 Butcher, vi, 114, 116, 125, 127, 128
Index
C cabinets, 208 calibration, 358 California, 225 Cameroon, 256 campaigns, 244, 250 cancer, 276 candidates, 62 carbon, 270, 271, 272 carbon dioxide, 270, 271, 272 cardiovascular disease, 276 cardiovascular system, 261, 273 care model, 247 career counseling, 126 career success, 309 catalyst, 192 categorization, 380, 383, 386 category a, 230 causal relationship, 204 causality, 157 Central Asia, 244 certainty, 102 challenges, 204, 246, 299, 301 changing environment, 266 channels, 356, 383 character, 79, 212, 218, 388 childhood, 11, 13, 205, 237, 390 children, x, xiv, xvii, 2, 22, 33, 35, 85, 96, 97, 98, 99, 114, 131, 146, 180, 181, 183, 184, 187, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 217, 218, 220, 223, 224, 226, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 254, 267, 324, 357, 375, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390 Chile, xix, 241, 267 Chinese, 206 cholesterol, 276 citizenship, 156 clarity, xii, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 214, 215, 307, 382 classes, 12, 148, 150, 151, 154, 155, 312, 325 classification, xiii, 97, 203, 206, 207 classroom, xii, 96, 102, 104, 105, 134, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 155, 156, 178, 289, 316, 331, 382, 390 classrooms, 66, 86, 204, 366, 382 clients, 197, 200, 358 climate, 156, 157, 173 close relationships, 241 cluster analysis, xiv, 223, 229, 233, 240
395
coaches, 161, 164, 169, 170, 172, 173 cocaine, 325 coding, 33 cognition, 22, 23, 205, 270, 276, 297 cognitive activity, 391 cognitive dimension, 66 cognitive dissonance, 160, 171 cognitive dysfunction, 16 cognitive flexibility, 5 cognitive performance, 126 cognitive perspective, 16 cognitive process, 16, 327, 329 cognitive processing, 16 cognitive psychology, xix cognitive science, 22 cognitive style, 364 cognitive therapy, 5 cognitive variables, 329 coherence, 38, 225 cohesion, xii, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 212, 239, 329, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 384 cohesiveness, 173, 174 cohort, 84, 99 collaboration, 247 Colombia, xix, 189, 243, 248, 258 combined effect, 333 common law, 365 communication, ix, xii, 36, 129, 131, 133, 135, 140, 141, 142, 143, 161, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 213, 218, 224, 225, 228, 236, 240, 247, 254, 256, 301, 303, 329, 330, 341, 354, 361, 366, 378 community, 2, 49, 131, 141, 143, 248, 250, 253, 376 comorbidity, 23 compensation, 300, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 343 competence, 71, 146, 179, 212, 246, 266, 303, 331, 343 competency, 218, 246, 247, 249, 251, 253 competition, 155, 161, 162, 163, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 214 competitiveness, 300, 301, 361 complaints, 193, 196, 197, 200, 237 complement, 5, 238 complexity, 49, 291, 313, 320, 328, 343 compliance, 266, 267 complications, 260 components, xii, xiii, 5, 11, 41, 42, 43, 105, 142, 145, 150, 151, 152, 154, 203, 205, 245, 307, 323, 348, 379, 380, 383
396
Index
composites, 280, 297 composition, 214, 237, 286, 332, 374 comprehension, xii, xvii, 62, 113, 130, 216, 250, 344, 366, 374, 377, 379, 380, 388, 389 compulsive behavior, 181 compulsive personality disorder, 3 computer systems, 313 concentrates, xvii, 363, 374 concentration, 320 conception, 81 conceptual model, ix conceptualization, 247, 275 concordance, 180 concrete, 38, 63, 204, 225, 236, 247, 255, 300, 330, 374 conditioning, 359 conductance, 272 confidence, 292, 293, 386, 389 confidence interval, 292, 293 confidentiality, 134, 228, 366 configuration, 118, 312, 313, 341 conflict, 99, 162, 180, 195, 197, 199, 214, 266, 361 confusion, 4, 96 congruence, 132, 358 consciousness, 55, 192, 249, 251, 274, 300, 378 consensus, 161, 239, 312, 342 consent, 215, 262 conservation, xvi, 355, 362 constipation, 273 construct validity, xii, 17, 18, 68, 145, 154, 155, 157 construction, xv, 32, 55, 197, 279, 281, 287, 377, 378, 379, 382, 385, 390, 391 consumers, 328 consumption, 3, 36, 37, 264, 276 content analysis, 230 contingency, x, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 105, 108, 235 continuity, 162, 384, 386, 388 contraceptives, 141 control, ix, x, xv, 1, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 31, 32, 62, 75, 97, 98, 132, 147, 195, 212, 213, 215, 217, 248, 250, 252, 260, 263, 266, 267, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 296, 308, 311, 312, 313, 321, 324, 328, 342, 380, 381, 386, 388 control group, ix, 1, 8, 10, 15, 17, 19, 21, 272 conversion, 388 conviction, 357 cooking, 208 coordination, 27, 175, 270, 275 COPD, 277
coping strategy, 21 corporations, 309 correlation, ix, xii, 1, 67, 90, 103, 105, 108, 110, 129, 132, 134, 135, 139, 148, 149, 154, 155, 164, 169, 170, 230, 240, 252, 270, 276, 277, 283, 284, 356, 364, 366, 368, 369, 370, 373 corruption, 356 cost, 98 Costa Rica, xix, 256 costs, 162, 345 couples, xiv, 4, 11, 132, 139, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 201, 206, 209, 212, 223, 226, 228, 236, 237, 238, 242, 247, 249, 250, 253, 255, 366, 371, 374, 375 creative process, 379 creativity, 215, 216, 245 credibility, 358 credit, 44 criminality, 195 critical period, 361 critics, 374 cross-cultural differences, 155 cross-sectional study, xiv, 259, 261, 262 cross-validation, 241, 375 Cuba, xix, 141 cultural differences, xvii, 70, 140, 155, 363, 374 cultural influence, 132 cultural stereotypes, 230, 231, 237 cultural studies, 126 cultural values, 48, 49, 207, 208 culture, xiv, xix, 48, 49, 54, 56, 62, 72, 130, 140, 142, 143, 175, 188, 189, 193, 203, 204, 205, 207, 212, 236, 237, 243, 250, 251, 283, 301, 341, 359, 374, 390 curiosity, 215, 216, 251 curriculum, 63, 341, 390 customers, 178 cycles, xiii, 203, 205, 206, 209, 272
D dance, 192 data analysis, 90, 263, 282, 332 data processing, 329 dating, 199 death, 18, 39, 276 deaths, 244 decision making, 70 decision-making process, 353
Index decisions, 48, 54, 57, 62, 63, 64, 68, 70, 71, 162, 224, 264, 281, 301, 337 defects, 228 definition, 40, 55, 161, 206, 207, 229, 230, 251, 266, 343, 369, 372, 373, 383 delinquency, 220 delivery, 337 demand, 262 democracy, 49 demographic characteristics, 115, 128, 261, 307 demographic data, x, xiv, 61, 66, 89, 117, 196, 223 demographic factors, 181 demographics, 118 density, 320 Department of Homeland Security, 126, 128 dependent variable, 4, 6, 66, 67, 87, 88, 89, 93, 95, 96, 116, 121, 135, 165, 168, 183, 184, 262, 270, 280, 281 depersonalization, xiii, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 187 depression, xiv, 16, 44, 48, 116, 142, 178, 179, 181, 223, 236, 238, 239, 264, 266, 276, 290, 291 depressive symptoms, 239 desire, 207, 231, 236, 241 destiny, 162 detection, 54, 196 devaluation, 48 developed countries, 84 developing countries, 244 developmental psychology, xiii, 203 deviation, 40, 43, 78, 90, 152, 164, 165, 184, 226, 235, 346, 365, 366 diabetes, xv, 219, 259, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 276 diabetes mellitus, 260, 266, 267 diabetic patients, 266, 267 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 11, 21 diaphragm, 271, 273, 275 dichotomy, 74 diet, 260, 267 dietary habits, 276 differentiation, 27, 31, 32, 194, 206, 214, 307 dimensionality, 281 directors, 23, 66, 336, 340 disappointment, 180 discipline, xii, xix, xx, 73, 82, 126, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 178, 213, 219 discourse, 18, 226, 237, 391 discourse comprehension, 391
397
discrimination, xv, 25, 32, 33, 311, 312, 313, 321, 324, 325, 340, 341 discrimination tasks, xvi, 311 discrimination training, 324 diseases, 139, 273 disorder, ix, 1, 3, 4, 15, 21, 22, 213, 218, 220 disposition, 162, 170, 200, 358 dissatisfaction, xiv, 223, 226, 231, 236, 237, 238 dissociation, 21, 192 distance education, 82 distress, ix, 15, 266, 267 distribution, 4, 41, 44, 66, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 118, 154, 182, 184, 186, 205, 206, 270, 286, 291 distributive justice, 352, 353, 354 diversification, 390 diversity, 49, 300, 307, 309 division, 206, 286 divorce, 209, 225, 226, 365, 375 divorce rates, 225 dizziness, 272 doctors, 374 domestic tasks, 237 Dominican Republic, xix drinking water, 275 drug abuse, 126, 128 drug addict, 116, 195 drug addiction, 116, 195 drug use, 245 drugs, xii, 129, 133, 181, 244, 245, 251, 252, 254, 276 drying, 357 DSM-IV, 2, 4, 10, 11, 21, 22 duration, 25, 31, 32, 33, 65, 69, 260, 382 duties, xiv, 223, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 251 dynamics, xii, xiv, 159, 160, 162, 163, 169, 171, 172, 213, 237, 238, 241, 243, 245, 250, 331
E Eastern Europe, 244 eating, 208, 275 ecology, 204 economic crisis, 44 economic problem, 233, 239 economic stability, 239 economics, 175, 192, 205, 230, 231, 233, 236 economy, 62, 231, 237 ecosystem, 360, 361 Ecuador, xix, 355, 362
398
Index
education, 102, 103, 111, 148, 154, 155, 156, 157, 205, 208, 224, 226, 238, 240, 261, 262 educational experience, 63 educational institutions, 207 educational process, 250, 274, 384 educational psychology, xix, 294 educational settings, 148 educational system, 49, 111, 236, 244, 360, 361 egalitarianism, 36 egoism, 162 eigenvalues, 151, 152 El Salvador, xix election, 36, 62, 63, 64, 66, 70 elementary school, 366 email, 355 e-mail, 40 embargo, 74, 102, 130 emission, 321 emotion, 22, 23, 270 emotional conflict, 178 emotional disorder, 16, 21, 22, 23, 44, 274 emotional exhaustion, xiii, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 289, 290, 292, 293 emotional information, 16, 20, 335 emotional intelligence, 361 emotional processes, 271 emotional reactions, 345 emotional state, 226, 239, 273 emotional stimuli, 16 emotional valence, 17, 18, 19, 21 emotions, xv, 49, 239, 247, 269, 270, 329, 358, 360, 361, 368, 370, 374 empathy, 213, 215, 247, 358, 361 emphysema, 273 empirical studies, xv, 38, 172, 279, 280 employees, 301, 303, 306, 307, 337, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 356, 365 employment, 115, 206, 253, 337 employment relationship, 115 emptiness, 37, 39, 44, 48, 49, 179 encouragement, 218 endocrine, 261, 265 endocrine system, 265 endocrinology, 262 energy, xvi, 58, 177, 206, 355, 356, 357, 358, 361 engineering, 76, 80 England, 23 enthusiasm, 179 environment, 2, 5, 11, 48, 62, 63, 70, 103, 130, 131, 132, 133, 146, 170, 171, 177, 183, 185, 186, 201,
203, 204, 207, 208, 209, 212, 213, 218, 224, 225, 246, 250, 253, 266, 275, 283, 300, 310, 335, 341, 342, 359, 360, 361, 370 environmental conditions, 328 environmental factors, 249, 276 environmental stimuli, 266 epidemic, 260 equality, 49, 54, 84, 131, 156, 354 equilibrium, 364 equity, 300, 301, 307, 352, 354 ERD, 149 ergonomics, 204 estimating, 283 estimation process, 281 ethics, 37, 215, 217, 253 Europe, 39 evening, 50, 51, 52, 182 evidence, 149, 157, 260, 340, 342 evolution, xvii, 128, 171, 172, 205, 212, 225, 377, 381, 386 examinations, 85 exclusion, 214 execution, xvi, 161, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 246, 248, 263, 311, 312, 313, 315, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321, 322, 356, 378 executions, 320 exercise, 156, 173, 208, 260, 267, 270, 276, 328 experimental condition, ix, 1, 2, 4, 5, 11, 15, 21, 28, 29 experimental design, 2, 4, 386 experts, 130, 149, 208, 227, 253, 328 exploration, 31, 32, 44, 273 exposure, 192, 313 expressiveness, 193 expulsion, 270 external environment, 194 external validity, 149 extraction, 89, 90, 92, 183, 184, 283, 370 extrinsic motivation, 75, 147, 155 extroversion, xiv, 211, 213, 215, 216 eye movement, 197
F factor analysis, xvi, 41, 88, 90, 93, 154, 227, 280, 290, 296, 327, 348, 349, 352, 363, 367, 371, 372, 373 failure, xi, xiii, 16, 49, 62, 75, 83, 84, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 177, 179, 379 fainting, 213
Index fairness, 353, 354 family conflict, 181 family development, 205 family environment, 220, 341 family history, 2 family income, 90 family life, xiii, 4, 195, 196, 199, 200, 203, 205, 206, 207, 209 family meals, 208 family members, 194, 195, 206, 212, 214, 218, 220, 252 family relationships, 205 family support, xiii, 181, 211, 217 family system, xiii, 142, 203, 221 fantasy, 364, 376 fear, ix, 1, 4, 12, 15, 16, 270, 272, 273 fears, 12, 13, 92 feedback, 5, 11, 97, 175, 250, 273, 303, 312, 316, 317, 321, 322, 323, 337 feelings, xiii, xiv, 147, 170, 177, 178, 179, 181, 192, 213, 214, 216, 223, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 247, 329, 358, 359, 360, 361, 364, 365, 367, 368, 370, 373, 375 feet, 272 females, 50, 52, 184, 214 FES, xi, 101, 103 fidelity, xiv, 51, 52, 53, 54, 223, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240 Filipino, 141 financing, 84 first dimension, 205, 348 five-factor model, 221 flexibility, 194, 212, 216, 275 fluctuations, 273 focusing, 5, 16, 63, 75, 76, 245 food, 253, 270 football, 163, 164, 170, 172 forecasting, 290 formal education, 254 formula, xii, 29, 129, 182, 303, 342 fragility, 37 France, 204, 207, 208, 242 free association, xiv, 223, 227, 240 freedom, 38, 54, 68, 214, 252, 289, 293, 294, 364, 366, 367, 369, 371, 372, 373, 379 frequencies, 6, 67, 91, 92, 93, 94, 229 friendship, 51, 55, 250, 252, 329, 330, 331, 336 frustration, xiv, 48, 178, 179, 215, 259, 263, 264 fulfillment, 38, 84, 300, 307 functional analysis, 313
399
G gastroenteritis, 181 gender, xii, xvi, 51, 53, 55, 66, 81, 82, 120, 129, 140, 141, 142, 181, 187, 214, 224, 226, 227, 231, 236, 237, 240, 289, 305, 339, 341, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 365, 374 gender differences, xvi, 140, 141, 226, 240, 339, 341, 344, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353 general knowledge, 382 generalization, 11, 313 generation, 11, 85, 130, 300 genre, 182 geography, 204 Germany, 21, 274 Gestalt, xvii, 355, 358, 362 Gestalt theory, xvii, 355, 358 gestures, 193, 197, 383 GFI, 282, 289, 293, 349, 364, 367, 369, 371, 372 gifted, 98, 99 girls, xi, 113, 114, 117, 118, 122, 123, 125, 126, 220, 251, 382 glass, 340, 341, 353 global warming, 208 globalization, 36 glucose, 260, 265, 266, 267 goals, x, 5, 16, 35, 40, 48, 56, 58, 59, 63, 97, 102, 103, 105, 109, 111, 156, 192, 213, 215, 252, 283, 284, 286, 287, 296, 300, 303, 307, 329, 330, 357, 364 good behavior, 155 government, iv, 84, 247 grades, 57, 60, 68, 76, 96, 97, 183, 186, 283 graph, 319, 320, 361 gravitation, 356 group cooperation, 161 group identification, 332 group identity, 225 group interactions, 336 group membership, 337 group processes, 173 group size, 173 group therapy, 11, 12 group work, 5 grouping, 229, 233, 281, 287 growth, x, 37, 47, 192, 218, 244, 300, 303 Guatemala, xix guidelines, 147, 148, 156, 173, 194, 282, 341 guilt, 147, 214, 218
400
Index
H haemoglobin, 265 hair, 207 hands, 272 happiness, 57, 58, 239 harm, xiv, 193, 194, 217, 223, 233, 236, 238, 240, 358, 361 harmony, xiv, 193, 194, 217, 223, 233, 236, 238, 240, 358, 361 Harvard, 157 headache, 181, 185 healing, 375 health, xiv, xv, xix, 130, 132, 185, 189, 204, 208, 218, 220, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 255, 258, 260, 265, 267, 269, 274, 275, 276, 279, 282, 289, 294 health care, 267 health problems, 133, 248, 255, 275 health psychology, xix, 289, 294 health services, 247, 253 health status, 132 heart rate, 15 heat, 208 hedonism, 37 height, 233 helping behavior, 147 hemoglobin, 265 heuristic processing, xvi, 327 hierarchy of needs, 357 high school, xii, 63, 64, 68, 81, 95, 96, 113, 117, 125, 133, 141, 226, 238 higher education, 70, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 104 hiring, 303 Hispanic population, 115 HIV, xiv, 141, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 262, 267 HIV infection, 244, 245, 254 HIV/AIDS, xiv, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 258 home value, 63 homework, 2, 5, 97, 111 Honduras, xix honesty, x, 47, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 225 Hong Kong, 80, 99 hospitals, 204 House, 81, 208 household tasks, 224 housing, xiii, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 253 hub, 195
hue, 33 human activity, 208 human behavior, xvi, 146, 156, 203, 245, 246, 355, 356, 361 human brain, 359 human capital, 84, 308 human development, 48, 62, 246, 247, 253, 359, 362 human immunodeficiency virus, 143, 243 Human Kinetics, 156, 157 Human Resource Management, 308, 309, 353, 354 human resources, 300, 307, 336 human sciences, 390 humanistic psychology, xvii, 355 husband, 212, 224, 231, 237 hygiene, 208, 276 hypertension, 273, 274, 276 hyperventilation, 271, 272, 273 hypnosis, 192 hypothesis, xvi, 70, 76, 79, 148, 182, 197, 218, 228, 306, 307, 312, 327, 334, 335, 337, 345, 348, 349, 351, 352, 353, 366, 388
I IASP, 2, 8, 10 ideal, 233, 238, 280, 294, 378 idealism, 179 ideals, 224, 230, 233, 237 identification, 18, 19, 21, 62, 63, 111, 196, 214, 331, 332, 333, 345, 386 identity, x, 22, 33, 35, 147, 160, 204, 207, 225, 251, 337, 378 ideology, 37, 225 idiosyncratic, 194, 261 image, xiv, 223, 224, 236, 239, 240, 242, 252, 359 imagination, 215, 216, 388 immediate situation, 38 immigrants, 241 immunity, 212 implementation, xiii, 160, 191, 195, 199, 200, 201, 254, 300, 301, 302 impulsive, 181 in situ, 204 in transition, 388 incentives, xix, 173, 300, 301, 303, 306 incidence, 76, 114, 186, 187, 334 inclusion, xvi, 216, 262, 265, 311, 321 income, 84, 88, 90, 95, 255, 365, 375 independence, 195, 219, 226
Index independent variable, 26, 88, 95, 116, 122, 165, 168, 262, 270, 271, 333, 334 indication, 195, 361 indicators, x, xv, 61, 64, 67, 68, 88, 93, 95, 172, 183, 187, 279, 280, 281, 284, 290, 294, 295, 296, 302, 307, 331, 353, 371, 372, 373 indigenous, 241 indirect effect, 67, 70, 284, 294 individual character, 218 individual characteristics, 218 individual development, 359 individual differences, 81, 162, 213, 246, 328 individual personality, 213 individual students, 80 individuality, 49 individualization, 217 individuation, 160 industry, 361 inefficiency, 179 inequality, 340, 341 infancy, 205, 208, 253, 342 infection, 143, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253 infectious disease, 276 inferences, 75, 333, 380, 386, 388, 390 inferiority, 179 inflation, 89, 95 information processing, xvi, 16, 183, 327, 330, 331, 332, 333, 335, 337 information seeking, 81, 354 informed consent, 262 inheritance, 359 inhibition, 273 initiation, 244, 258 injury, iv insecurity, 178, 231, 237 insight, 38 insomnia, 185, 274 inspiration, 271 instability, 215, 216 institutions, 66, 70, 187, 188, 207, 244, 253, 265, 358 instruction, 50, 380, 381, 387, 388 instrumental support, 343 instruments, xii, xiv, 3, 16, 17, 102, 115, 145, 147, 148, 154, 155, 163, 211, 216, 227, 228, 250, 265, 276, 282, 283, 289, 291, 342 insulin, 261, 262 integration, xvi, 31, 79, 161, 171, 188, 248, 339, 341, 343 integrity, 4, 54
401
intellect, 297 intelligence, 37, 84, 96, 215, 216, 220, 245, 296, 361 intentions, 141 inter trial interval, 25, 31 interaction, xvi, 4, 12, 31, 122, 125, 131, 160, 161, 162, 178, 179, 182, 191, 192, 194, 195, 197, 204, 208, 209, 212, 215, 247, 250, 261, 265, 275, 276, 277, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 334, 352, 354, 358, 361, 379, 380, 389, 390, 391 interaction process, 329 interactions, 116, 162, 180, 188, 196, 204, 212, 274, 353, 381, 388, 390 interdependence, xii, 159, 175, 195, 204, 205, 206, 208, 349, 352 interface, 85 interference, 1, 33, 194, 320 internal consistency, xvii, 17, 67, 68, 69, 110, 149, 154, 155, 227, 290, 363, 364, 365, 366, 369, 370, 373, 374, 375 internal validity, 154 internalised, 147, 155 internalization, 245 Internet, 40, 81, 252 interpersonal relations, 48, 247, 329, 331 interpersonal relationships, 48, 247 interpretation, 226, 240, 344 interrelations, 131 interval, 10, 25, 28, 32, 33, 229 intervention, xi, xiii, 5, 6, 13, 61, 111, 140, 159, 161, 171, 172, 201, 245, 247, 250, 253, 255, 275, 277, 386, 389 interview, xiii, 4, 16, 18, 74, 112, 191, 196, 337, 342, 385, 388 intimacy, 238 intonation, 383 intravenously, 244 intrinsic motivation, 147, 155 invitation to participate, 40 Ireland, 254, 256 irritability, 178, 179, 181 isolation, 179, 214 Israel, vi, 191, 364 issues, 114, 126, 127, 142, 201, 280, 295
J job position, 344 job satisfaction, 346, 353 jobs, 85, 340 Jordan, 160, 175
402
Index
judgment, xvi, 271, 327, 330, 334, 337 judgmental heuristics, 336 junior high school, 116, 226 justice, 49, 54, 59, 253, 352, 353, 354 justification, 237 juvenile delinquents, 115, 127 juveniles, 256
L labor, xi, 61, 63, 70, 83, 177, 179, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 208, 237, 303, 307, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 341, 342, 375 labor force, 307 lack of control, 147 lack of personal accomplishment, xiii, 177, 178, 180, 184, 186, 187, 188 landscape, 357 language, 75, 79, 115, 193, 215, 244, 245, 252, 270, 312, 324, 378, 390 languages, 102, 376 latency, 17 latent variables model, 284, 294 Latin America, 244, 247, 301, 310, 375 laws, xvi, 36, 54, 79, 213, 236, 355, 356, 361 LEA, 23, 189 lead, 147, 224, 225 leadership, 161, 329, 341 leadership style, 341 learners, 82, 99 learning, x, xi, xvi, 35, 54, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 110, 111, 112, 150, 162, 174, 193, 212, 245, 247, 274, 277, 283, 284, 287, 295, 297, 339, 342, 343, 344, 345, 351, 352, 353, 354, 357, 360, 361, 378, 379, 381, 382, 389,390, 391 learning environment, 75, 80 learning outcomes, 82, 99 learning process, 75, 82, 193, 343, 351, 354, 360 learning styles, 80, 103 learning task, 75 legislation, 253 leisure, 4, 276 level of education, 238, 240 liberalism, 36 life cycle, xiii, 203, 205, 206, 209 life experiences, 252 life quality, xv, 183, 269 life style, 203 lifestyle, 267, 276
lifestyle changes, 267 lifetime, 63, 71, 224 likelihood, 67, 68 limitation, 217, 218, 219, 226, 375 line, 69, 155, 276, 356, 379, 390 linearity, 122 linguistics, 253, 390 links, 18, 212, 246, 247, 266, 323, 359 listening, 213, 358, 389 literacy, 391 literature, 203, 226, 237, 260, 321 living standards, 217 location, 206, 315 locus, 62, 97, 98, 157 London, 157, 209, 354 loneliness, 235 longitudinal study, 76, 390 long-term memory, 18 Los Angeles, 354 love, xiv, 37, 48, 51, 54, 55, 56, 193, 223, 228, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 361, 374 loyalty, 53, 54, 194, 225, 308
M maintenance, xiii, 172, 211, 219, 265, 313 major depression, 1 majority, 148, 154, 237, 238, 245, 317, 319, 320, 321, 342 Malaysia, 82 males, 51, 52, 133 management, xv, 22, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 156, 274, 275, 299, 300, 301, 304, 307, 354 manipulation, 27 manners, 163, 344 MANOVA, 116 marital life, 206 marital status, 37, 44, 214, 217, 219 market, 70, 300, 301 marketing, 361 marriage, 192, 214, 224, 225, 226, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 336, 365, 375 married couples, xiv, xvii, 223, 226, 237, 363, 364, 365, 366, 372, 374, 375 MAS, 227, 228, 234, 235, 238 mass communication, 236, 240, 252 mass media, 36, 236 mastery, 75, 97 materialism, 36
Index maternal care, 237 mathematics, 253 matrix, xvi, 31, 32, 41, 103, 311, 348, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373 MBI, 178 meals, 172, 208 meaning systems, 173 meanings, 38, 50, 193, 224, 225, 226, 229, 236, 238, 250, 251, 252, 368, 383 measurement, xi, 10, 29, 67, 90, 101, 102, 103, 149, 155, 173, 228, 241, 265, 280, 281, 282, 293, 294, 295, 296, 301, 303, 305, 307, 317, 321, 332, 335, 342 measurement bias, 281 measures, xii, xiv, 12, 23, 40, 43, 44, 102, 115, 128, 132, 148, 159, 215, 223, 242, 250, 265, 273, 283, 290, 294, 296, 354 media, 72, 211, 236, 250, 252, 253, 328, 365, 369 median, 67, 68, 69, 226, 229, 230, 231, 235 mediation, 32, 172 medication, xiv, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266 medication adherence, 266 medicine, 262, 265 membership, 84, 304, 336 memory, 16, 22, 245 men, x, xii, xvi, 4, 17, 39, 47, 51, 52, 55, 76, 86, 89, 105, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 181, 182, 187, 212, 224, 225, 231, 236, 237, 240, 252, 272, 291, 327, 331, 340, 341, 344, 346, 348, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 357, 365, 369, 372, 374 mental disorder, 218 mental health, 126, 181, 213 mental image, 15 mental model, 359 mental retardation, 324 mentoring, 354 messages, 36, 193, 195, 307, 331 meta analysis, 173 meta-analysis, 12, 13, 337 metabolism, 271, 273 metacognition, 80 metaphor, 342 methodology, xix, 117, 164, 204, 226, 276, 296, 303 Mexican Americans, 267 Mexico, v, vi, x, xii, xiv, xvii, xix, xx, 16, 35, 47, 61, 62, 64, 66, 73, 76, 79, 84, 113, 116, 117, 126, 127, 128, 132, 141, 142, 143, 189, 204, 207, 209, 223, 225, 243, 244, 259, 260, 269, 289, 296, 299, 301,
403
304, 313, 355, 358, 362, 363, 366, 374, 375, 377, 382, 386, 390 middle class, 365 minors, 149, 263 mixing, 332 model specification, 280 modeling, 70, 71, 280, 281, 295, 296 models, xi, xiii, xv, 62, 63, 67, 83, 135, 140, 157, 162, 177, 178, 183, 184, 187, 188, 212, 237, 246, 249, 252, 253, 254, 267, 279, 280, 281, 282, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 342, 344, 349, 354, 369, 372, 373 mood, 12, 48, 178, 185, 215, 358, 359, 388 mood change, 178 mood disorder, 12 morale, 54 morbidity, 276 morning, 5, 185 morphology, ix, 25, 26, 28, 29 mortality, 5, 276 Moscow, 362 mothers, 90, 117, 219, 221 motivation, xi, xiv, 38, 75, 81, 90, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 110, 111, 145, 146, 155, 156, 157, 179, 181, 215, 216, 238, 243, 248, 249, 252, 254, 297, 337, 357, 359 motives, xi, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 246, 249, 251, 359 movement, 27, 274 multidimensional, 62, 297, 364 multiple regression, xi, xiv, 83, 88, 259, 263 multiple regression analysis, xi, xiv, 83, 88, 259, 263 multiples, 212 muscles, 181, 271, 275 music, 274 Muslim, 207
N naming, 312, 324 natural laws, 274 natural sciences, 253 nausea, 272 Nebraska, 156 negative attitudes, 179 negative consequences, 170, 177, 276 negative emotions, 239 neglect, 251 negotiating, 252 negotiation, 170, 172, 213, 388 neocortex, 359
404
Index
nerve, 245, 271 nervousness, 238, 239 network, 55, 218 neural connection, 356 neurons, 356, 358 neuroticism, xiv, 211, 213, 215, 216, 226 New Jersey, 156 newspapers, 252 NFI, 282, 289, 293, 349 Nicaragua, xix normal curve, 88, 227 normal development, 270 North America, xix, 64, 244 novelty, 252, 382 nuclear family, 212 nucleus, xiv, 223, 225, 226, 229, 230, 231, 236, 239, 240 null hypothesis, 228, 367 nursing, 71 nutrition, 276
O obesity, 276 objectives, xii, xv, 48, 63, 85, 86, 146, 154, 159, 161, 162, 163, 169, 170, 171, 172, 182, 216, 236, 239, 252, 283, 299, 300, 301, 303, 305, 307, 329, 336, 378, 382, 385, 386 obligate, 328, 329 obligation, 308, 345 observations, 271, 382 obstacles, 179, 212 obstruction, 273, 274 old age, 205 omission, 28 operant conditioning, 359 opportunities, 64, 68, 70, 88, 93, 94, 126, 142, 253, 255, 341, 344 optimism, 215 organ, 244 organization, 156, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 352, 353 organizational justice, 352 organizations, 339, 341, 342, 344, 345, 353, 354 orientation, xi, 61, 70, 97, 98, 102, 103, 104, 105, 110, 112, 172, 238, 254, 354 osteoporosis, 276 outliers, 88, 122 overload, 75 ownership, 301
oxygen, 270, 271
P pairing, 192, 324 Pakistan, 82 pandemic, 245, 255 panic attack, 272 paradigm, 171, 325 Paraguay, xix parallel, 255 parallelism, 155 parameter, 292, 295, 296, 366, 367, 369, 371, 372, 373 parameter estimates, 296 parameters, xv, 279, 281, 283, 287, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 367, 369, 371, 373, 380 parental involvement, 13 parenting, 206, 207, 208 parents, x, xi, xiv, 11, 35, 37, 44, 63, 65, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 95, 96, 97, 115, 117, 118, 131, 132, 133, 140, 149, 179, 192, 194, 195, 196, 198, 207, 217, 223, 236, 240, 253, 254, 283, 365, 382 Paris, 207, 208, 209 partnership, 192, 196, 310 passive, 75, 278, 342, 374 path analysis, xv, 279, 295 path model, xv, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294 pathways, 356, 357 peer group, 334, 336 peer influence, 141, 143 peers, 11, 130, 131, 134, 135, 139, 140, 141, 142, 155, 283, 341 perceived control, 71 perception, 147, 148, 149, 155, 266, 341, 344, 345, 349, 352, 353 perceptions, xii, 55, 66, 82, 98, 133, 145, 148, 152, 174, 296 performance, xv, xvi, 7, 9, 15, 20, 21, 28, 29, 32, 33, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 115, 127, 128, 147, 149, 173, 174, 175, 179, 182, 283, 284, 286, 287, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 323, 324, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 337, 357, 379 performance appraisal, xvi, 327, 328 perfusion, 273 permission, iv, 135, 164, 213 permit, 134 perseverance, 54
Index personal, 105, 147, 206, 236, 238, 239, 240 personal accomplishment, xiii, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 186 personal achievements, 179, 283 personal communication, 192 personal history, 130 personal hygiene, 276 personal identity, 35, 147 personal life, 59 personal problems, 368, 374 personal relations, 48, 183 personal relationship, 48, 183 personal responsibility, 38 personal values, 54 personality, xi, xiii, 57, 85, 98, 113, 146, 156, 179, 180, 187, 189, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 245, 246, 260, 359, 364 personality characteristics, 213 personality disorder, 213 personality traits, xiii, 180, 211, 213, 216, 219, 220 persuasion, 336, 337 Perth, 82 Peru, xix pessimism, 238, 239 phobia, ix, 1, 3, 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23 physical activity, 276 physical education, xii, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 253 physical environment, 203, 204 physical health, 276 physics, 355, 356, 359, 361 physiology, 269, 270, 271 piano, 358 pilot study, 12 placebo, 22 planning, 179, 361 pleasure, 38, 134, 135, 136, 137, 147, 236, 244, 249, 252, 368 poison, 384 polarity, 365 politics, 62, 133, 205 pollution, 208 poor, 63, 96, 104, 110, 178, 276, 282 population, xvii, 2, 10, 11, 17, 22, 44, 66, 84, 85, 99, 103, 111, 115, 116, 126, 132, 139, 140, 170, 182, 187, 204, 207, 221, 227, 244, 250, 251, 254, 276, 277, 289, 291, 304, 305, 340, 363, 364, 366, 367, 369, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376 Portugal, 159 positive attitudes, 155, 345
405
positive correlation, 65, 88, 135, 148, 155, 215 positive mood, 276 positive reinforcement, 359 positive relation, 161, 215 positive relationship, 215 posture, 193 poverty, 244 power, 11, 38, 67, 132, 139, 194, 195, 212, 237 pragmatism, 37 precedent, 36, 161 predictability, 249 prediction, 19, 135, 157, 171, 281 predictive validity, xii, 17, 145 predictors, xii, xiv, 63, 129, 135, 140, 142, 259, 281, 292, 309 preference, xi, 73, 76, 78, 79 pregnancy, 44, 132, 133, 141, 142, 143, 206, 208, 235 prejudice, 252 preschool, 389 pressure, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 170, 189, 224, 235, 265, 271, 272, 273, 324, 329 prevention, xiv, 63, 98, 143, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 276 preventive programs, 274 primacy, 312 primary school, xiii, 84, 177, 178, 182, 188, 226, 238 priming, ix, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22 Principal Components Analysis, 150, 152 privacy, 214 private schools, xii, 113, 117, 125, 126 probability, 6, 25, 133, 139, 218, 244, 248, 249, 264, 364, 366, 369, 372, 373 problem behavior, 142 problem behaviors, 142 problem-solving, 75 procedural justice, 352, 353, 354 production, 208, 344 productivity, xix, 179, 300 professional development, 180, 189, 303, 340 professions, 48, 189 profit, 301 program, ix, xi, 1, 3, 5, 11, 27, 40, 61, 63, 67, 96, 164, 172, 191, 233, 245, 247, 253, 254, 258, 276, 301, 307, 309, 313, 386 programming, 27, 358 project, 215, 250, 254, 331, 332, 378 projective test, 226 promote, 111, 260, 341 promoter, 212
406
Index
properties, xvi, 18, 22, 25, 31, 149, 150, 151, 162, 227, 228, 275, 283, 311, 339, 349, 352 proposition, 31 prosocial behavior, 146, 336 protocol, 11, 312 psychiatric diagnosis, 220 psychiatric illness, 376 psychobiology, 277 psychological distress, 127 psychological functions, 270 psychological health, xv, 246, 254, 269, 276 psychological phenomena, 102 psychological problems, 3, 195, 196 psychological processes, xv, 245, 269, 391 psychological states, 276 psychological stress, 266 psychological variables, 161, 213 psychological well-being, xv, 213, 259 psychologist, 90, 96, 163, 358 psychology, ix, xiii, xix, xx, 23, 26, 38, 50, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 86, 102, 103, 104, 133, 161, 164, 173, 174, 189, 203, 204, 207, 209, 265, 271, 274, 281, 297, 336, 337, 353, 358, 366, 375 psychometric properties, 12, 18, 149, 227, 289, 352 psychopathology, 115, 116, 118, 126, 128, 241 psychosocial factors, 71 psychosomatic, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 364, 376 Psychosomatic, 241 psychotherapy, 126, 274 public health, xiii, 1, 132, 139, 177, 243 public interest, 49 public schools, xii, xiii, xvii, 115, 125, 126, 129, 133, 177, 178, 377, 382 Puerto Rico, xix pulmonary rehabilitation, 274 punishment, 218 pupil, 74, 75, 147, 155
Q qualifications, 149 qualitative differences, 81 quality of life, 220, 274, 276, 361 questioning, 300 questionnaire, xiv, 102, 149, 223, 227, 229, 242, 259, 343, 346 questionnaires, 149, 228, 312, 346 quizzes, 94
R race, 255 radio, 252 rain, 356 range, 2, 10, 17, 70, 116, 149, 194, 226, 229, 236, 253, 263, 277, 286 ratings, 337 reactions, 15, 345, 359 reading, xii, xvii, 105, 113, 125, 230, 248, 252, 358, 377, 378, 379, 380, 382, 385, 387, 389, 390 reading comprehension, 379 reality, xv, 36, 38, 44, 48, 186, 193, 196, 197, 208, 225, 252, 279, 300, 388, 390 reason, xi, xv, 1, 36, 38, 49, 54, 63, 85, 95, 97, 101, 104, 111, 153, 192, 196, 204, 224, 235, 236, 237, 244, 246, 263, 269, 272, 274, 281, 300, 306, 307, 320, 331, 341, 342, 352, 353, 370, 375, 379, 381, 386, 389 reasoning, 330, 391 recalling, 17 reciprocal relationships, 204 reciprocity, 204 recognition, ix, 15, 16, 17, 18, 274, 301 recommendations, iv, 265, 282, 295 reconstruction, 380, 386 recovery, xvii, 107, 297, 377 recreation, 212, 250 reduction, 267, 342 redundancy, 382 reflection, 38, 49, 54, 131, 196, 207, 334 region, 148, 208 regression, xiv, 115, 134, 135, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 183, 249, 259, 263, 264, 280, 283, 349, 350, 351 regression analysis, xiv, 134, 135, 164, 165, 167, 168, 259, 263, 264, 349 regression equation, 165, 168, 349, 350, 351 regression model, 280 regulation, 82, 99, 103, 105, 111, 112, 147, 155, 269, 271, 273, 276, 364, 376, 379, 390 regulations, 364 rehabilitation, 274, 276 reinforcement, 25, 32, 249, 325 rejection, 133, 135, 139, 140, 179, 238 relapses, 5 relationship, xv, xvi, 44, 86, 103, 115, 140, 142, 173, 178, 192, 193, 205, 206, 208, 212, 213, 214, 220, 224, 226, 229, 238, 240, 241, 252, 254, 260, 266, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 301, 303, 309, 311,
Index 312, 313, 316, 317, 320, 339, 340, 349, 352, 353, 361 relationship satisfaction, 241 relationships, xiii, 203, 204, 205, 207, 312, 313, 316, 320, 321, 323, 343, 349, 350, 351 relatives, 3, 84, 214, 217 relaxation, 271, 274, 276 relevance, 99, 172, 306, 336 reliability, xi, xii, xiv, 23, 41, 64, 67, 68, 69, 89, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 114, 116, 117, 118, 131, 133, 135, 140, 145, 152, 154, 184, 223, 229, 230, 251, 283, 290, 306, 345, 347, 364, 365, 366, 374 religion, 205, 275, 357 religiousness, 53 remission, 6, 10 replication, 72, 110 reproduction, 76, 85, 130, 267 reserves, 244 resilience, 85, 98 resistance, 356 resolution, 162, 216, 379 resources, 16, 20, 21, 49, 70, 79, 177, 179, 180, 181, 192, 212, 218, 244, 264, 307, 382 respect, x, 6, 8, 10, 31, 39, 47, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 63, 66, 85, 90, 102, 103, 120, 130, 131, 133, 134, 140, 147, 148, 151, 154, 161, 164, 170, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 245, 251, 252, 254, 255, 294, 303, 304, 312, 316, 320, 323, 336, 344, 351, 353, 374, 388, 390 respiration, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277 respiratory, 269, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 respiratory problems, 271 restructuring, 10, 22, 191, 207 retardation, 324 retention, 33, 75, 271, 306, 309, 379 retention interval, 33 rewards, 300, 303, 309, 310, 344 rhetoric, 380 rhythm, 206, 225, 272, 273, 382 risk, 36, 44, 80, 99, 116, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 177, 180, 181, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 258, 267, 276, 308, 328, 364 risk factors, 246, 248, 250, 251, 267 RMSEA, 69, 282, 289, 293, 349, 367, 369, 372, 373 robustness, 155, 296 role conflict, 180 rolls, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219
407
S sadness, 178 safety, 72, 204, 208, 253 saliva, 244 sample, xi, xiv, xv, xvi, 101, 102, 103, 105, 148, 154, 155, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 235, 238, 240, 261, 262, 264, 265, 267, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 321, 322, 323, 325, 339, 341, 345, 346, 348, 349, 351, 352 sampling, xi, 113, 116, 182, 187, 282, 331, 332, 335, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 371, 372, 374, 375, 376 satisfaction, xiv, xvi, 4, 48, 77, 99, 140, 147, 155, 172, 174, 193, 213, 223, 226, 228, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 250, 306, 328, 339, 344, 345, 346, 351, 352, 353, 358, 374 saturation, 370, 371, 372 savings, 301 scheduling, 389 schema, 226 scholarship, x, 35, 40, 44, 365, 375 school, x, xi, xii, xiii, 26, 36, 61, 63, 66, 76, 77, 83, 85, 86, 88, 90, 96, 97, 99, 104, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 130, 131, 134, 143, 148, 157, 177, 180, 182, 187, 188, 189, 199, 207, 208, 226, 236, 238, 240, 254, 274, 296, 375, 380, 381, 382, 385, 391 schooling, 365, 375 science, 204 scores, ix, 3, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 40, 44, 77, 79, 81, 91, 92, 93, 114, 115, 116, 117, 121, 122, 128, 152, 186, 213, 238, 271, 283, 290, 351 sea level, 271 search, 36, 38, 194, 201, 224, 233, 250, 330, 342, 343, 357 searching, 28, 38, 48, 74, 81, 130, 163, 238, 246, 329 secondary education, 147, 148 security, 4, 265 sedentary lifestyle, 276 selecting, 50, 96, 289, 295, 378 selective attention, 16, 18 self esteem, 39 self-assessment, 328, 329, 330, 335 self-concept, 98, 178, 188, 213 self-confidence, 178 self-consciousness, 64, 252 self-control, 147, 272 self-determination theory, 147
408
Index
self-efficacy, 62, 64, 66, 67, 70, 141, 189, 246, 289, 290, 292, 293, 330 self-esteem, ix, 1, 6, 8, 10, 62, 64, 84, 90, 96, 178, 179, 180, 238, 246, 276, 289, 292, 293, 329 self-evaluations, 98, 104 self-interest, 174 self-monitoring, 260 self-regulation, 99, 103, 111, 112 self-reports, 240, 265, 272, 312 semantic content, xiv, 223, 226, 313, 315, 316 semantic networks, x, 47, 49, 55 semantic priming, 337 semantics, 266 semen, 244 semi-structured interviews, 226 sensation, 133 sensations, 36, 272, 358, 364, 368, 374 senses, 58, 170 sensitivity, 17, 51, 58, 353 separation, 201, 212 severity, 296 sex, xv, 5, 17, 37, 44, 55, 86, 118, 132, 133, 135, 137, 141, 142, 143, 217, 228, 238, 239, 245, 249, 250, 276, 291, 299, 333, 382 sexual abuse, 238 sexual activity, xii, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 254, 270 sexual behavior, xii, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 226, 227, 255, 276 sexual contact, 244 sexual experiences, 131, 244 sexuality, 131, 133, 140, 142, 230, 231, 236, 238, 244, 247, 250, 251, 252 sexually transmitted diseases, 133, 141, 246, 247, 253, 254 shame, 214 shape, 218 shaping, 191 sharing, 162, 213, 224, 234, 240, 244, 245, 252, 301 sheep, 195 shock, 179, 271 sibling, 195, 207 siblings, 118, 198 signals, 358 signs, 187, 188, 197, 383 similarity, 154, 314, 316, 317 simple linear regression, 164 simple sampling, 371 simulation, 174, 296, 297
skewness, 296 skills, 5, 58, 62, 64, 68, 70, 71, 89, 142, 150, 151, 157, 216, 329, 343, 357, 361 skin, 270, 272 slaves, 212 smiles, 193 smoke, 181 soccer, xii, 159, 160, 358 sociability, 215 social activities, 97, 206 social anxiety, ix, 1, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 social attitudes, 225 social behavior, 162, 174, 175, 255 social change, 62 social class, 226, 227 social competence, 99, 220 social construct, 390 social context, 54, 62, 131, 331, 341 social desirability, xiv, 223, 226, 235, 239, 240, 241, 364 social determination, 225 social development, 206, 217 social environment, 218, 225, 246, 250, 283, 341 social evaluation, 17 social events, 17, 21 social exchange, 353 social group, xiv, 49, 84, 139, 161, 192, 193, 206, 207, 223, 225, 226, 229 social identity, 204 social influence, 130 social institutions, 253 social integration, 180 social life, 4, 132, 225 social order, 225, 247 social phobia, ix, 2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23 social problems, 48, 246 social programs, 252 social psychology, xix, 204, 209, 353 social relations, 210, 220, 247, 253, 336, 354 social relationships, 354 social responsibility, 300 social sciences, 76, 183, 253, 340 social security, 265 Social Security, 262 social situations, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 16, 21 social skills, 13, 250 social skills training, 13 social stress, ix, 15 social structure, 236, 240
Index social support, 213, 218, 220, 221, 246, 264, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 344 socialization, xiv, xvi, 131, 211, 213, 215, 217, 236, 339, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354 society, 224, 225, 237, 238, 340, 341, 342 sociocultural contexts, 116 socioeconomic status, 115, 125, 128, 382 Socrates, 36 software, 13, 18, 332, 356 solidarity, 358 solidification, 254 solvency, 231, 233, 236, 238, 240 somatic preoccupation, 239 space, 49, 192, 212, 253 Spain, xvii, xix, 1, 2, 15, 243, 254, 299, 339, 340, 345, 374, 377, 382, 386, 387, 389, 390 spatial information, 336 specialists, 300 specialization, 160 species, 191, 212 spectrum, 193 speech, xvii, 4, 12, 377, 379, 381, 384, 386, 388, 389, 390 speed, 18, 30, 75, 261, 356, 361 sports, 155, 170, 175 SPSS, 13, 40, 67, 77, 117, 164, 183, 263, 282, 332, 366, 376, 386 stability, xiv, 76, 99, 114, 127, 181, 213, 218, 223, 231, 233, 236, 238, 239, 240, 282 stages, 206, 344 standard deviation, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 152, 164, 214, 226, 235, 286, 292, 346, 365 standard error, 286, 292, 296, 333 Standard error, 350, 351 standardization, 115, 116 standards, 36, 213, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 236, 237, 253, 306, 345, 356, 364, 375 statistical analysis, 263 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 13 statistics, 37, 67, 105, 119, 152, 165, 168, 183, 286, 287, 290, 292, 295, 306, 332, 346, 347, 364, 366, 367, 371, 372, 373 stereotypes, 225, 230, 231, 236, 237, 340, 364 sterile, 244 stimulus, x, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 49, 55, 226, 227, 229, 230, 238, 240, 312, 314, 316, 317, 323, 324, 330, 332, 335 stock, 301 storytelling, 390, 391
409
strategies, xi, xii, xiv, 2, 62, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 110, 111, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 152, 154, 155, 157, 179, 187, 217, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 250, 252, 254, 276, 284, 287, 290, 296, 300, 312, 329, 337, 341, 378, 390 strategy, 112, 149, 162, 216, 245, 252, 272, 280, 281, 294, 336, 384, 386, 389 strength, 85, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 247, 275 stress, xiv, 16, 177, 179, 185, 189, 204, 209, 213, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 271, 272, 273, 274, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 296, 328, 364 structural equation modeling, 295, 297 structuring, 5, 206, 207 student motivation, 98, 102 subjective well-being, 56 subjectivity, 37, 205, 379 suffering, 267 suicidal behavior, 128 suicidal ideation, 116 summaries, 111 superiority, 237 supervisor, 328, 332, 337, 343 supervisors, 328, 329, 337, 341, 343 survey, 50, 88, 89, 156, 240, 255, 282, 340 survey design, 88 survival, 84, 256, 340, 359 susceptibility, 20, 180 Sweden, 74 Switzerland, 204 symbols, 27, 28, 193 sympathetic nervous system, 274 sympathy, 215 symptoms, 178, 239, 271, 274, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 296 syndrome, xiii, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 187, 188 systems, 204
T tachycardia, 272 tactics, 75, 354 talent, 310 teachers, x, xiii, xvii, 35, 48, 54, 66, 71, 79, 84, 89, 92, 146, 148, 155, 156, 157, 164, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 253, 283, 356, 366, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386, 388, 389
410
Index
teaching, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 89, 90, 96, 146, 147, 148, 152, 157, 177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 189, 312, 377, 378, 379, 381, 385 teaching abilities, 96 teaching strategies, 148, 152 technological progress, 276 teenagers, 127, 128, 142, 192, 267 teens, 213, 255 television, 208, 252 temperature, 208 tension, 18, 179, 238, 239, 247, 272, 273, 274 testing, 296, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317, 325, 337 test-retest reliability, 17, 116 theory, xiii, 146, 149, 157, 203, 209, 225, 324, 342, 343, 354 therapeutic change, 11 therapists, 5, 196 therapy, xiii, 21, 191, 200, 266, 274 thinking, 54, 81, 228, 253, 260, 301, 374 thoughts, 5, 15, 59, 99, 182, 270, 359, 365, 378, 389 threat, 271, 272 threshold, 17 time, 103, 104, 105, 110, 149, 150, 155, 203, 205, 206, 207, 224, 225, 226, 229, 231, 233, 237, 238, 261, 264, 313, 324, 341, 342, 343, 346, 351, 353 time constraints, 206 time pressure, 324 tobacco, 276, 278 tobacco smoking, 278 tones, 272 torture, 18 total energy, 357 tourism, 214 toxic substances, 3 tradition, xix, 260 traditions, 48, 54, 252, 275 traffic, 276 training, xv, xvi, 5, 27, 31, 33, 54, 105, 111, 162, 170, 174, 175, 245, 254, 267, 273, 274, 275, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 321, 323, 324, 339, 341, 343, 344, 346, 347, 348, 350, 351, 362 trait anxiety, xiv, 223 traits, xiv, 103, 211, 213, 214, 216, 220, 239, 315, 358, 364 trajectory, 308, 348 transactions, 194, 204 transcendence, 357, 358, 362 transcription, 383 transference, xv, 75, 311, 313, 314, 316, 317, 319, 320, 323
transformation, 180, 207, 300, 356, 381, 388 transformations, 242, 340, 357 transition, 79, 130, 220 transition to adulthood, 220 translation, 102, 103, 115, 117, 127, 149, 227, 366 transmission, 139, 193, 218, 237, 247, 250, 381, 385, 388 transmits, 381 transportation, 204 trends, 127, 142 trial, 19, 25, 28 triangulation, 195 triggers, 147 trust, xii, 58, 129, 138, 180, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 251 tutoring, 5 type 2 diabetes, xiv, 259, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267
U uncertainty, 337, 342 unconditioned, xii, 159, 163 undergraduate, 103 unemployment, 340, 375 UNESCO, x, 35 unhappiness, 15 uniform, 84 United Arab Emirates, 98 United Kingdom (UK), 81, 157, 188, 337 United States, 12, 39, 64, 114, 117, 126, 127, 208 universe, 357 university students, ix, x, xvi, xvii, 2, 15, 25, 35, 47, 49, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 74, 80, 81, 83, 85, 99, 244, 249, 250, 252, 286, 289, 327, 331, 335, 363, 364, 366, 374, 375 Uruguay, xix, 279
V vagina, 249 valence, ix, 15, 17 Valencia, 4, 55, 161, 172, 250, 255, 262, 267 validation, xvii, 12, 13, 71, 72, 88, 112, 148, 183, 241, 242, 286, 339, 354, 363, 365, 376 validity, xi, 101, 102, 103, 111, 148, 154, 155, 157 valuation, 39, 51, 236, 238, 239
Index values, xiv, 102, 154, 155, 204, 205, 207, 208, 223, 225, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 263, 342 vandalism, 204 variability, 67, 320 variable, xvi, 229, 260, 263, 339, 340, 350 variance, xi, xiii, xv, 41, 61, 70, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 96, 103, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 135, 150, 151, 152, 159, 164, 165, 168, 183, 184, 188, 229, 234, 235, 240, 251, 263, 279, 281, 282, 283, 287, 290, 293, 294, 295, 299, 334, 348, 349, 350, 351, 364, 367, 370,371, 372 variance-covariance matrix, 294 variations, 25, 251, 275 varimax rotation, xii, 90, 145, 151, 152, 348 Venezuela, xix, 241 ventilation, 271, 272, 273 veterans, 344 victims, 204, 358 Victoria, 157 video, 249, 382 videos, 249 village, 204 violence, 201, 236, 237 vision, 130, 179, 218, 272, 307, 358, 359 visualization, 344 vocabulary, 382 voice, 193, 275, 382 voluntarism, 162 vulnerability, 192, 255 Vygotsky, 391
411
W wages, xix Warsaw, 157 waste, 150, 208, 356 weakness, 170, 275 wear, 237 web, 111, 300, 391 weeping, 18 well-being, xv, 48, 49, 56, 212, 236, 253, 259, 267, 275, 276 wives, 227, 373 women, x, xii, xiv, xvi, 2, 4, 17, 39, 47, 51, 53, 55, 76, 86, 89, 105, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 219, 224, 225, 231, 236, 237, 240, 243, 252, 258, 259, 262, 264, 272, 291, 327, 331, 340, 341, 344, 346, 348,350, 351, 352, 353, 365, 369, 372, 374, 375 work activity, 90 work environment, 62, 224 workers, xvi, 177, 181, 188, 301, 303, 306, 307, 328, 329, 339, 341, 343, 344, 346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 353 working conditions, 303 working groups, xvi, 327 working population, 340, 365, 375 workplace, 340, 343, 344 writing, 310, 316, 374, 375, 390
Y young adults, 1, 4, 213, 266
