Dyslexia - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

DYSLEXIA A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES

J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS

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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1

Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Dyslexia: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-83897-6 1. Dyslexia-Popular works. I. Title.

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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.

Copyright Notice If a physician wishes to copy limited passages from this book for patient use, this right is automatically granted without written permission from ICON Group International, Inc. (ICON Group). However, all of ICON Group publications have copyrights. With exception to the above, copying our publications in whole or in part, for whatever reason, is a violation of copyright laws and can lead to penalties and fines. Should you want to copy tables, graphs, or other materials, please contact us to request permission (E-mail: [email protected]). ICON Group often grants permission for very limited reproduction of our publications for internal use, press releases, and academic research. Such reproduction requires confirmed permission from ICON Group International Inc. The disclaimer above must accompany all reproductions, in whole or in part, of this book.

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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on dyslexia. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.

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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.

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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes & Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health

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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON DYSLEXIA .................................................................................................. 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 The Combined Health Information Database................................................................................. 3 Federally Funded Research on Dyslexia ........................................................................................ 6 E-Journals: PubMed Central ....................................................................................................... 63 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 64 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND DYSLEXIA ...................................................................................... 107 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 107 Finding Nutrition Studies on Dyslexia ..................................................................................... 107 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................. 108 Additional Web Resources ......................................................................................................... 109 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND DYSLEXIA ................................................................ 111 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 111 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine................................................ 111 Additional Web Resources ......................................................................................................... 116 General References ..................................................................................................................... 117 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON DYSLEXIA .................................................................................. 119 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 119 Dissertations on Dyslexia .......................................................................................................... 119 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 126 CHAPTER 5. CLINICAL TRIALS AND DYSLEXIA ............................................................................. 127 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 127 Recent Trials on Dyslexia .......................................................................................................... 127 Keeping Current on Clinical Trials ........................................................................................... 128 CHAPTER 6. PATENTS ON DYSLEXIA ............................................................................................. 131 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 131 Patents on Dyslexia ................................................................................................................... 131 Patent Applications on Dyslexia................................................................................................ 149 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 153 CHAPTER 7. BOOKS ON DYSLEXIA ................................................................................................ 155 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 155 Book Summaries: Federal Agencies............................................................................................ 155 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers......................................................................................... 156 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ........................................................................... 162 Chapters on Dyslexia ................................................................................................................. 164 Directories.................................................................................................................................. 164 CHAPTER 8. MULTIMEDIA ON DYSLEXIA ...................................................................................... 167 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 167 Video Recordings ....................................................................................................................... 167 Bibliography: Multimedia on Dyslexia ...................................................................................... 168 CHAPTER 9. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON DYSLEXIA ................................................................... 169 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 169 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 169 Academic Periodicals covering Dyslexia.................................................................................... 172 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 175 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 175 NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 175 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 177 Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 179 The Genome Project and Dyslexia ............................................................................................. 179

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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 185 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 185 Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 185 Associations and Dyslexia ......................................................................................................... 191 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 192 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 195 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 195 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 195 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 195 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 195 ONLINE GLOSSARIES................................................................................................................ 201 Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 201 DYSLEXIA DICTIONARY........................................................................................................... 203 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 253

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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with dyslexia is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about dyslexia, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to dyslexia, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on dyslexia. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to dyslexia, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on dyslexia. The Editors

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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.

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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on dyslexia.

The Combined Health Information Database The Combined Health Information Database summarizes studies across numerous federal agencies. To limit your investigation to research studies and dyslexia, you will need to use the advanced search options. First, go to http://chid.nih.gov/index.html. From there, select the “Detailed Search” option (or go directly to that page with the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html). The trick in extracting studies is found in the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Journal Article.” At the top of the search form, select the number of records you would like to see (we recommend 100) and check the box to display “whole records.” We recommend that you type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. Consider using the option “anywhere in record” to make your search as broad as possible. If you want to limit the search to only a particular field, such as the title of the journal, then select this option in the “Search in these fields” drop box. The following is what you can expect from this type of search: •

Reconceptualizing Reading and Dyslexia Source: Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders. 16(1): 23-35. 1994. Summary: Among reading professionals, a basic controversy exists between those who conceptualize proficient reading as a matter of identifying words automatically and fluently and those who conceptualize proficient reading as a matter of orchestrating various reading strategies to construct meaning. The authors of this article explore this controversy and further explain and challenge the word-identification view of reading and the resultant assumption that anyone who has difficulty reading words is dyslexic. The authors argue that reconsidering the nature of proficient reading leads to the discovery of the reading strengths of readers who have difficulty with word identification but who nevertheless control the needed strategies to construct meaning from appropriate texts. Their argument is illustrated by a case study of Erica, who was

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diagnosed as dyslexic in the first grade. Retrospective miscue analysis, a tutorial technique used with Erica, is also briefly explained. 4 figures. 54 references. (AA-M). •

Dyslexia and the Multilingual Child: Policy into Practice Source: Topics in Language Disorders. 22(5):71-80. November 2002. Summary: Despite international policies that emphasize the importance of education appropriate to the needs and interests of children everywhere, services to children with dyslexia are inconsistent across and within countries. Educational responses are limited because there is no standard definition for dyslexia. The authors of this article define dyslexia as a disorder in which there are limitations in the development of literacy skills related to phonological processing and deficits in the visual and auditory system functions. A person might have dyslexia in one language but not in another language. The article proposes changes in evaluation and remediation methods that could strengthen educational services provided to multilingual children with dyslexia.

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Defining Dyslexia as a Developmental Language Disorder: An Expanded View Source: Topics in Language Disorders. 16(2): 14-29. February 1996. Summary: Dyslexia has recently been defined as a developmental language disorder. This article reviews the language basis of dyslexia and the current research that supports and extends it. Research continues to indicate that phonological processing deficits lie at the core of dyslexia. However, recent evidence also suggests that these deficits may underlie the difficulties of many poor readers who do not meet the traditional definitions of dyslexia. Rather than collapse individuals with dyslexia and those with low achievement into a single diagnostic category, the author argues that these groups or groups like them may be differentiated on the basis of higher-level language abilities. The role of higher-level language functioning and phonological processing in reading is further considered in an expanded view of the language basis of reading disabilities. The implications this view has for the early identification and remediation of reading disabilities are also presented. 1 figure. 152 references. (AA-M).

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Dyslexia: A Developmental Language Disorder Source: Child: Care, Health, and Development. 26(5): 55-80. September 2000. Contact: Available from Blackwell Science Ltd. Journal Customer Services, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 OEL, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]. Summary: The acquisition of literacy in an alphabetic script such as English makes heavy demands on linguistic skills. The relation between spoken and written language, however, is far from straightforward. This article reviews research that suggests that phonological processing skills are crucial in the translation of symbols to sounds, and the development of rapid and automatic decoding skills. The author examines studies indicating that children whose phonological processing skills are compromised in some way are at risk of experiencing difficulties in the acquisition of literacy. The author notes that these studies support the suggestion that dyslexia lands on the continuum of developmental language disorders. The author relates theory to practice and discusses the responsibilities of health care professionals in relation to the early identification of dyslexia. The author focuses on the responsibilities of speech and language therapy services in the care and management of children with dyslexia. 113 references.

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(Dyslexia) Source: Perspectives: The Orton Dyslexia Society. 20(3): 16-17. Summer 1994. Summary: This article discusses at what age children are tested for dyslexia and the assessment instruments used. The author notes that typical psychoeducational tests are not designed to identify dyslexia; rather, diagnosticians must administer formal tests designed to measure oral and written, expressive and receptive language. The author describes the newly revised Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude that are used to identify strengths and weaknesses in dyslexics. The author includes a list of suggested test batteries that measure various areas of psycholinguistic processing. A final section discusses the uses of testing results to determine eligibilities for special services and remediation programs.

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Researchers: Dyslexia May Be Caused by Flawed Brain Circuitry Source: Advance for Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists. 4(27): 5, 38. November 7, 1994. Contact: Available from Merion Publications, Inc. 650 Park Avenue West, King of Prussia, PA 19406. (800) 355-1088. Summary: This article reports on new investigations as to the role a brain structure abnormality plays in the processing of rapid auditory information, findings that may unlock clues to understanding dyslexia. The new finding suggests that dyslexia may not be solely a visual problem, as many researchers initially proposed; instead, it may be the result of a flaw in a specific brain circuit that processes rapidly flowing auditory information. The author discusses the research that located the brain flaw; timing flaws and reading trouble; behavioral studies of individuals with language and learning disabilities; the historical perspective on dyslexia; studies on the plasticity of the brain; relevant animal studies; and how this information might lead to new treatment approaches.

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Genetic Research Yields Clues to Predicting Incidence of Dyslexia Source: Advance for Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists. 5(2): 7. January 16, 1995. Contact: Available from Merion Publications, Inc. 650 Park Avenue West, King of Prussia, PA 19406. (800) 355-1088. Summary: This article reports on work in which a group of researchers have discovered the location of a possible gene for dyslexia that may one day help scientists predict which children are likely to develop the disorder. The research project evolved to address the abnormally high prevalence rate of dyslexia in families of children diagnosed with the disorder. Topics covered include familial transmission in dyslexia; research on familial connections to reading disorders; autosomal dominant inheritance patterns; the identification of the potentially responsible chromosome; reading disabilities and asthma and/or migraines; and research studies on fraternal twins investigating the prevalence of reading disability when at least one twin exhibited reading problems. The article concludes with the addresses and telephone numbers of the researchers interviewed.

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Learning Disabilities and Dyslexia Source: ASHA. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. 37(1): 63-64. January 1995. Contact: Available from American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). Product Sales, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. (888) 498-6699. TTY (301) 8970157. Website: www.asha.org. Summary: This issue of Let's Talk, an insert from the ASHA Journal, focuses on learning disabilities and dyslexia. Through the story of a youngster with learning difficulties, the author describes how learning disabilities are usually a continuation of specific learning problems from early childhood. Topics covered include the symptoms and characteristics of learning disabilities, a definition of dyslexia and its related problems, early childhood difficulties with speech sound discrimination, the importance of early attention and intervention with any suspected learning problems, the type of evaluation performed by a speech language pathologist, and language treatment options. One sidebar presents the contact information for a number of organizations related to learning disabilities and/or dyslexia. The insert is designed for professionals to photocopy and distribute to their clients.

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Dyslexia May Have Auditory Roots Source: Hearing Journal. 47(10): 8. October 1994. Summary: This very brief article reports on recent research that suggests that dyslexia may stem originally from a malfunction in the brain's ability to process rapidly flowing auditory information. The research showed that in dyslexic children, the left brain hemisphere usually contains fewer than normal of the type of cell that specializes in comprehending rapid sounds. This inability to hear many common components of speech leads, the study found, to a delay in these children's ability to speak and understand spoken language. The article also mentions some theoretical treatment options that could be based on these new findings. (AA-M).

Federally Funded Research on Dyslexia The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to dyslexia. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to dyslexia. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use

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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).

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animals or simulated models to explore dyslexia. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for dyslexia: •

Project Title: A TEST AND INTERVENTION FOR EMERGENT LITERACY Principal Investigator & Institution: Pearson, Nils A.; Director of Research; Pro-Ed 8700 Shoal Creek Blvd Austin, Tx 78758 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAY-2000; Project End 31-MAY-2004 Summary: A National Research Council report on preventing reading disabilities or developmental dyslexia in young children (Snow, Bums, & Griffin, 1998) concludes that the majority of reading problems could be prevented by reducing the number of children who enter school inadequately prepared in at least three critical, and potentially remediable domains: Phonological processing; knowledge about print; and vocabulary. These combined domains are not assessed adequately by existing measures of reading readiness, and intervention activities that facilitate their development are absent from preschool curricula. This Phase I application has two specific aims. The first is to evaluate the feasibility of a test that will assess the three critical domains. Test development will feature state-of-the-art procedures for item selection and evaluation, with particular sensitivity to children at risk for reading failure due to poverty, limited English proficiency, and parental history of reading failure. An initial evaluation of the psychometric properties of the test will be completed by administering it to 300 3- to 5year-old children. The second aim is to produce and complete an initial evaluation of prototypic intervention activities for each domain. The initial evaluation will be accomplished in a pilot study of 30 3- to 5-year-old children at-risk for reading failure. PROPOSED COMMERCIAL APPLICATION: The test and training activities to be produced should be widely used in preschool settings including Head Start centers. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: ANIMAL MODELS FOR LEARNING DISABILITY Principal Investigator & Institution: Galaburda, Albert M.; Emily Landau Fisher Professor of Neurolo; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1986; Project End 04-AUG-2002 Summary: Immune-defective mice and a perinatal surgical rodent model developed in our laboratories, both of which exhibit abnormal learning behaviors, show developmental brain anomalies that are similar to those seen in dyslexics. In the first period of the Program Project, we documented brain, behavioral and immunological abnormalities in an animal model. We carried out preliminary research that suggested a special role of the uterine environment for some immunological and behavioral characteristics. During the second period, we characterized further cellular, connectional, behavioral (including early life experience), and developmental characteristics of the anomalies, as well as genetic influences on their origin and effects of pharmacological manipulations. We also demonstrated the lack of substantial interaction among malformations, immunological parameters, and intrauterine environment. Related research in humans and animals demonstrated that the distinction between defects in low-level sensory processing and those in higher-level cognition is pivotal in determining the pathogenesis of dyslexia. The purpose of the continuation of this program project is to pursue lines of evidence that have been productive and convergent between our line of research and that of our colleagues. Four research projects and 4 core functions will comprise the Program Project. Two anatomy projects will look at the developmental anatomical consequences of minor cortical

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malformations, either spontaneous or induced, on connectionally related cortical and subcortical regions, in an attempt to explain functional abnormalities at both high and low levels of processing. Amelioration of anatomic effects will be attempted through environmental enrichment. A neurophysiology project will examine the synaptic characteristics of these connections, which are likely to be part of the mechanism by which cross-level developmental influences act. A neurobehavioral project will investigate behaviors at multiple levels of processing and the effects of early environmental manipulation. The 2 anatomical cores will support these projects and an especially designed neuroimaging core will be instituted to allow for longitudinal research in living animals and to optimize methods for best demonstrating minor cortical malformations in vivo. A data processing Core will serve all projects. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: ATTENTIONAL PROCESSING IN POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Bucci, David J.; Psychology; University of Vermont & St Agric College 340 Waterman Building Burlington, Vt 05405 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: Deficits in attentional function are associated with a variety of conditions in humans, including schizophrenia, attention-deficit disorder, as well as neuropathological (i.e., Alzheimer's disease) and normal aging. The occurrence of deficits in this context, however, has provided little information about the precise neural substrates underlying attention. Such information would provide insight into the biological bases of attentional dysfunction and possibly inform new methods of therapeutic intervention. Additionally, a better understanding of the neurobiology of attention may help identify the biological mechanisms by which stimuli are selected and gain access to further processing, such as long-term memory. In primates, a cortical network including the cingulate, frontal, and posterior parietal (PPC) cortices has been postulated to mediate attentional function. Indeed, impaired PPC function has been linked to attentional deficits in Alzheimer s disease, Parkinson s disease, schizophrenia, and dyslexia. Recent neuroanatomical studies have now identified a region in the rat brain that may be anatomically homologous to the PPC of primates. However, very few studies have addressed the specific behavioral functions of the rat PPC as it is now defined. Further understanding of PPC function in rats would allow subsequent research to take advantage of techniques more readily available in rodents (e.g., gene & protein expression) to explore the neurobiological mechanisms underlying attentional function. In the proposed research, a neural inactivation approach will be developed to more accurately;haracterize the contribution of the rat PPC to attentional processes. Rats will be trained in a classical conditioning paradigm designed to increase attention to behaviorally-important stimuli. The PPC will be temporarily inactivated at the point in the procedures when attention is manipulated, to assess the importance of PPC function in this aspect of attentional processing. This approach will form the foundation for a more extensive research program which will explore the function of putative subregions of PPC as well as other components of the cortical attention network in different aspects of attention. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: BASES OF NORMAL AND DISORDERED READING Principal Investigator & Institution: Manis, Franklin R.; Associate Professor; Psychology; University of Southern California 2250 Alcazar Street, Csc-219 Los Angeles, Ca 90033

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-FEB-1996; Project End 31-MAR-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): This proposal is a competing continuation of a previous grant, "Perceptual, linguistic, and computational bases of dyslexia." The focus of our research was on using a connectionist model of reading to frame empirical studies of reading acquisition and dyslexia, with an emphasis on identifying subtypes associated with different underlying impairments. During the previous granting period, we conducted a longitudinal study of reading acquisition and dyslexia and behavioral experiments concerning speech perception, spelling, and learning targeted at identifying possible causes of dyslexia. We also completed a major extension of the Seidenberg and McClelland (1980) model to developmental dyslexia and implemented a model of the computation of word meaning from print. The behavioral research suggests that there are phonological and non-phonological bases for dyslexia which produce different behavioral profiles that are stable over time. Overt speech recognition deficits were only observed in a subset of phonological dyslexics with broader language impairments. Thus the studies suggest that phonological impairments can be severe enough to impact reading negatively but leave speech perception unaffected. In the next granting period we propose to conduct new experiments focused on the nature of the impairments in phonology, speech and visual perception that have been observed in dyslexics, the effects of these impairments on reading behavior, and whether different brain activation patterns underlie different subtypes. The research program involves using behavioral experimentation, computational modeling, and neuroimaging techniques to develop a unified account of normal and disordered reading. The studies are likely to yield advances with regard to theories of reading, the bases of reading impairments, basic aspects of normal and disordered speech and visual perception, and the brain bases of reading ability and disability. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPMENTAL CORTICAL INJURY /PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Fitch, Roslyn H.; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 05-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): The central hypothesis of the current Program Project application is that focal developmental malformations of cortex, such as induced microgyria, alter forebrain circuitry during critical periods of development thus disrupting perceptual and cognitive processing later in life. To test this hypothesis, we propose a series of studies that will explore relationships between neonatally induced cerebrocortical microgyria (similar to microgyria seen post mortem in the brains of dyslexics), rapid auditory processing deficits (as evidenced in clinically languagedisabled populations), and cognitive and memory deficits (which may parallel higherorder processing anomalies seen in language disabled populations, e.g., in verbal/working memory). A connection between cerebrocortical microgyria and auditory processing deficits has been repeatedly demonstrated in a rat model, and a relationship between focal malformations of cortex and cognitive/memory deficits is supported by evidence that learning and memory indices are affected by cortical ectopias in mice. On a broader scale, we will address issues of causality using this rodent model. Assessment of causality represents in turn a major strength of animal models over human clinical and imaging studies, which are often restricted to correlational approaches (given ethical limitations on experimental intervention with humans). In using a rodent model, we can experimentally manipulate variables including parameters of early brain injury (i.e., timing, location and severity), as well as

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early hormonal, pharmacological and sensory exposure and can examine how these factors influence the relationship between early focal brain injury and various behavioral outcomes, both across development and in adulthood. An over-arching consideration in synthesizing collective data obtained will be to assess its compatibility with top-down versus bottom-up neurodevelopmental models, as well as to consider the possibility that portions of our findings will be consistent with both. At the conclusion of the proposed projects, we hope to have data regarding: how early focal injury of cortex developmentally propagates to other regions of cerebral cortex and other distal structures (such as thalamic nuclei); how such changes are functionally related to different patterns of processing deficits; how such changes are developmentally influenced by other factors such as hormonal exposure and sensory experience; and what developmental timeframes mediate this process. Such findings in turn may provide critical insights into neurobiological mechanisms that underlie some of the processing deficits associated with developmental disabilities of language. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: BRAIN ACTIVATION IN DEVELOPMENTAL COMMUNICATION DISORDER Principal Investigator & Institution: Booth, James R.; Assistant Professor; Communication Scis & Disorders; Northwestern University 633 Clark St Evanston, Il 60208 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 25-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): The goal of this project is to develop and test age appropriate lexical tasks to differentiate between children who are normally developing and children with communication disorders (poor readers and phonological dyslexics). Poor readers tend to have a history of language problems in semantic processing coupled with deficits in decoding between orthography and phonology, whereas phonological dyslexics have a specific deficit in decoding. We wish to differentiate between these groups in patterns of brain activation during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We propose a chronological age match (12-year-olds) and a reading level match (9-year-old normally developing children matched to older children with communication disorders) experimental design so that we can examine issues of developmental delay versus deficit. We expect that we will able to differentiate between these groups in specific aspects of lexical processing, so our functional activation tasks are designed to examine intra-modal processing (auditory rhyming and visual spelling tasks), cross-modal processing (auditory spelling and visual rhyming tasks) and amodal word comprehension (auditory and visual meaning tasks). We expect that both the phonological dyslexics and poor readers will show abnormalities during the spelling and rhyming tasks in the two modalities, whereas we expect that only the poor readers will show abnormalities during the auditory semantic task. In order to be able to more clearly attribute group differences to lexical processing, we wilt use multiple baselines (simple versus complex) and a parametric difficulty manipulation (orthographic/phonologic consistency in word pairs for spelling and rhyming tasks and association strength for the semantic tasks). This project will provide tasks, an experimental approach, and a method for evaluating differences between groups with communication disorders that could potentially be used as a diagnostic and intervention tool. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: BRAIN ACTIVATION PROFILES IN DYSLEXIA--A MEG STUDY Principal Investigator & Institution: Papanicolaou, Andrew C.; Professor and Director; Neurosurgery; University of Texas Hlth Sci Ctr Houston Box 20036 Houston, Tx 77225 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-2000; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: Functional imaging data we have obtained with the method of whole-head Magnetoencephalography (MEG), also referred to as Magnetic Source Imaging or MSI, indicate that the spatiotemporal profiles of brain activation of individual dyslexic children differ dramatically from those of individual non-dyslexic children during the performance of tasks that entail phonological decoding. The main differences in the profiles center on the degree of activation of the posterior superior temporal and supramarginal gyri, the inferior frontal area, and, most notably, the angular gyrus. Accordingly, our first aim in this project will be to assess the reliability of these preliminary findings with adequate samples of 80 non-dyslexic and 160 dyslexic children. The second aim will be to assess whether, in addition to differences in phonological processing, differences in orthographic and visual form processing, between normal and dyslexic children, contribute to the aberrant activation profile of the latter. The third aim will be to evaluate the hypothesis that the observed reduction of activity of the left temporoparietal area including the angular gyrus, may be attributed to a more general dysfunction of that region that may underlie many of the cognitive deficits associated with dyslexia. In addition to the above aims, we will investigate that possible contribution of attention deficits to the activation profiles and their differences using additional statistical analyses. Finally, taking advantage of the fact that MEG activation profiles are (a) computed for individual subjects, and (b) are characterized by excellent temporal resolution, we will explore the possibility of uncovering subtle differences in the profiles of normal and dyslexic children through the use of fuzzy clustering techniques. Detailed characterization of the spatiotemporal features of individual profiles may become useful in future studies for assessing the effects of intervention strategies on the functional cerebral reorganization of individual dyslexic children. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: BRAIN ACTIVITY IN VISUAL CORTEX PREDICTS DIFFERENCES IN READING: DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Demb, Jonathan; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: BRAIN IMAGING OF CHILDHOOD ONSET PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS, ENDOCRINE DISORDERS Principal Investigator & Institution: Giedd, Jay N.; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: Cerebral MRI will be used to assess brain anatomy and function in normal volunteers and subjects with a variety of childhood onset psychiatric disorders including attention deficit disorder, autism, congenital adrenal U hyperplasia. childhood-onset schizophrenia. dyslexia, multidimensional impairment syndrome.

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obsessive compulsive disorder, Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infection (PANDAS), stuttering, Sydenham's chorea, and Tourette's Syndrome. Quantitative measures of brain structure and function will be compared across age, gender. and diagnostic groups. Correlations between brain and behavioral measures will be examined for normal and clinical populations. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: BRAIN IMAGING OF DYSLEXICS AND DYSGRAPHICS Principal Investigator & Institution: Richards, Todd L.; Professor; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1996; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: The broad long-term objective of this project is to understand the neural substrates associated with dyslexia (reading and spelling problems), dysgraphia (spelling problems only), and the effect of treatment on brain activation. During the previous grant-period, results were obtained to suggest that dyslexics and control children differ in brain lactate metabolism (i.e., production or clearance of lactate) as measured by proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging, PEPSI, when performing a phonological task. Also, a specific instructional intervention that improved phonological performance in dyslexic boys were associated with a reduction in brain lactate changes measured during a phonological task. Specific aim 1 is to develop 5 new language tasks to be used during functional brain imaging for specific aims 2 and 3. Brain activation will be measured using both functional MRI and functional MR spectroscopic imaging (fMRS that uses the PEPSI technique). Specific Aim 2 is to continue research on differences in brain activation during language tasks between well-characterized dyslexics and age- and IG-matched good readers. The proposed research will extend our prior work by 1) using new language tasks (e.g., phonological decoding and morphological awareness); 2) studying both dyslexics and dysgraphics; and 3) presenting the children with tasks that involve both auditory and visual language stimuli (only auditory stimuli were given in their prior grant period). Specific Aim 3 is to measure the effect of two contrasting language treatments on brain activation. We will test hypotheses about whether (a) different language tasks activate different brain regions, (b) effects of specific kinds of treatment age specific to brain regions subserving the language the language skill trained in a particular treatment. Specific Aim 4 is to continue research on understanding both fMRS and fMRI outcome measures that can be used to evaluate brain activation. The fMRS pulse sequence parameters will be further optimized and additional MR-detectable chemicals will be investigated to improve our ability to detect biological markers of both cognitive and non-cognitive brain activation. Specific Aim 5 is to link Projects III and IV through functional brain imaging of phonological memory, which was shown to be our best genetic candidate. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: BRAIN MORPHOLOGY AND NEUROLINGUISTIC ABILITY IN DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Hynd, George W.; Dean; School of Professional Studies; University of Georgia 617 Boyd, Gsrc Athens, Ga 306027411 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1993; Project End 30-NOV-2003 Summary: The overall goal of this twice revised competitive continuation proposal is to further our investigation as to the relationship between variation in patterns in normal brain morphology and the neurolinguistic deficits documented as characterizing

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children and adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Based on the research that resulted from our first three years of funding, we are particularly interested in potential familial relationships that may exist in patterns of normal variation in brain morphology among dyslexics and their affected and non-affected biological parent. Significant revisions have been more accomplished and new data regarding gyral morphology patterns and their relationship to neurolinguistic ability are provided. In a series of ongoing studies, we have (1) established that neurolinguistic and phonological coding deficits seem to characterize the core deficits in our dyslexic population, even when comorbid psychopathology exists (such as ADHD), (2) that reliable measurements ( r greater than.90) of the temporal and parietal banks of the bilateral planum temporale both correlate with and are theoretically related to neurolinguistic deficits and impoverished reading achievement, (3) that gyral morphology patterns in the posterior perisylvian region may be significantly different in some dyslexic individuals, and (4) that there may be a familial link in gyral morphology pattern which may in turn be related to transmission of deficient neurolinguistic processes so commonly reported in dyslexics. Based on the results of our studies to date, we wish to continue our examination of brain morphology variation in developmental dyslexia and its relationship to deficient neurolinguistic and phonological-orthographic coding processes with a particular eye on familial associations. Specifically, we intend to examine intact families (with a diagnosed dyslexic child) and an equal number of intact families with no history of any learning or behavioral problems and examine the familial link of brain morphology variation of the planum temporale, including sulcal morphology patterns, and neurolinguistic ability. Our studies to date would suggest that symmetry/reversed asymmetry (L=R;L less than R) of the plana, or Type II sulcal morphology in the left hemisphere, would be associated with significantly below average neurolinguistic and phonological processes in dyslexics and their affected parent. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: BRAIN POTENTIALS SEMANTIC PROCESSING AND ATTENTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Deacon, Diana L.; Adjunct Professor/Research Scientist; Psychology; City College of New York 138Th St and Convent Ave New York, Ny 10031 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1991; Project End 31-MAR-2003 Summary: The aim of this proposal is to further understanding of the nature of semantic processing in the left and right cerebral hemispheres, particularly as regards the interaction of semantic and attentional processing. The project will attempt to determine how semantic information is represented in the cerebral hemispheres, how the time courses of automatic and attentionally controlled activation might differ between the hemispheres, and how inhibition might differentially operate within and between the two hemispheres. Event-related potentials and reaction time will serve as dependent measures. The data obtained will be relevant to the study, diagnosis, and rehabilitation of individuals with language impairments due to insult to either cerebral hemisphere, as well as developmental disorders such as dyslexia in which the pattern of errors often resembles right hemisphere reading in neurological patients. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: CENTER GRANT FOR RESEARCH IN MENTAL RETARDATION Principal Investigator & Institution: Crnic, Linda S.; Professor of Pediatrics and Psychiatry; Pediatrics; University of Colorado Hlth Sciences Ctr P.O. Box 6508, Grants and Contracts Aurora, Co 800450508 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1988; Project End 31-JUL-2003 Summary: This application is for continued support of the administrative and research cores of the BF Stolinsky Laboratories Mental Retardation Research Center at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center. This MRRC began its operations in 1968, and most of its investigators and core are now housed in a new and larger facility on the UCHSC campus. The research of all investigators that utilize the cores impacts substantially on mental retardation and developmental disabilities. Most of their work is on heritable cause of central nervous system dysfunction, with a primary focus on inborn errors of metabolism and specifically on disorders of mitochondria. Substantial effort is also directed to environmental causes of MRDD, including trace metal deficiencies and viral infections, and how these conditions affect neuropsychological processes and cognitive development. Studies on genetic (metabolic) causes of central nervous system dysfunction focus on glutaric acidemia type I and II (Goodman & Frerman), cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency (Kraus), propionic acidemia (Kraus), and Down syndrome (Patterson & Gardiner)); the primary aim of these studies is to better understand pathogenesis, so that efforts to treat can have a more science-based rationale. Studies of environmental causes of MRRD examine the impact of zinc deficiency in infancy and gestation (Krebs), and of latent viral infections in the newborn period (Crnic) on subsequent cognition. Others focus on developmental (learning) disorders such as schizophrenia (Ross, Leonard), dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism (Rogers & Pennington; early events in neuronal development of the human CNS (Pfenninger); and neuromuscular defects related to sodium channels (Caldwell). Core facilities for which support is sought include: a) administration, b) Cell Biology, c) Chemistry/Mass Spectrometry, e) Large Insert Library Screening, f) Developmental Neuropsychology, g) Animal Housing and Assessment, and h) Instrument maintenance and Glassware Washing services. Core e) is new to this application. We also propose an association with the MRRC at Baylor College of Medicine, in which investigators at each institute can learn techniques from one another and, in some cases, utilize each others cores. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: PLASTICITY

CHOLINERGIC

ENHANCEMENT

OF

HUMAN

CORTICAL

Principal Investigator & Institution: Poldrack, Russell A.; Assistant Professor; Massachusetts General Hospital 55 Fruit St Boston, Ma 02114 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 15-FEB-2002; Project End 31-JAN-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant) Recent studies have indicated that training-induced cortical plasticity may offer promising opportunities for the remediation of several different neurological conditions, such as stroke-induced movement disorders, dystonia, and dyslexia. However, extremely intensive training has been required, and has yielded results that, although promising, fall far short of a full cure. For this reason, there has been much interest in attempts to enhance cortical plasticity, including the use of noradrenergic drugs such as amphetamine in stroke-rehabilitation, and disinhibition of motor cortex in healthy subjects using ischemic nerve block. The study proposed here will investigate a novel approach, exploiting a newly available opportunity to apply

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plasticity-enhancing results from the animal literature to studies in humans. Experiments in animals have shown that cortical plasticity can be greatly enhanced by increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). New drugs, known as cholinesterase inhibitors, that safely and effectively increase ACh levels in humans have recently been developed and FDA-approved. The specific drug that we propose to use is galantharnine hydrobromide (trade name Reminyl). The effect of the drug on cortical plasticity will be assessed using both visual psychophysics and fMR1. The psychophysical measure will be the rate at which the subjects learn to more accurately perform a simple visual perceptual learning task: learning to discriminate the orientation of a grating. The hypothesis to be tested is that learning of the visual task that takes place under the influence of the drug will proceed more quickly than learning that is paired with a placebo. Functional MRI will be used to assess the effect of the drug on cortical plasticity, by comparing the pre-training versus post-training brain activation changes that are caused by learning the visual task while on the drug against those caused by learning the task on placebo. If the novel method of enhancing plasticity that is proposed here should turn out to be successful, then there could be a wide range of potential clinical and practical applications. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: COGNITIVE AND NEURAL MECHANISMS OF ATTENTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Luck, Steven J.; Professor; Psychology; University of Iowa Iowa City, Ia 52242 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1997; Project End 30-APR-2001 Summary: This project will examine the cognitive and neural mechanisms of visual selective attention in humans. Several experiments will assess the role that attention plays when human subjects perform visual discriminations, ranging from the detection of simple features such as color and orientation to the discrimination of complex conjunctions of form and color. These experiments will determine whether spatially focused attention is necessary for performing these discriminations, and the outcome of these experiments will have important implications for the computational role of selective attention. Additional experiments will explore the specific neural structures in which selective attention operates and the time-course of attentional allocation. The allocation of attention will be measured with a combination of behavioral measurements and electrophysiological recordings (using the event-related potential technique). The necessity of spatially focused attention for a given discrimination will be assessed by requiring subjects to perform two concurrent tasks: 1) a primary task that requires the subject to perform the discrimination of interest; and 2) a secondary task that will absorb any available attentional resources and ensure that subjects do not focus attention onto the primary task targets unless these targets cannot be discriminated without spatially focused attention. The neural structures in which attention operates will be assessed by measurements of electrophysiological responses with known neural generator sources. The time-course of attentional allocation will be measured by using behavioral and electrophysiological measures of attentional allocation to track the focusing of attention over time as subjects scan stimulus arrays. This research is relevant for several important mental health issues. Specifically, several psychiatric and neurological disturbances such as schizophrenia are characterized by deficits in attention, and an understanding of the function of attention in normal individuals is important for understanding and ameliorating these disorders. In addition, many developmental disorders such as dyslexia and attention deficit disorder also involve deficits in attentional processes. Reading, in particular, is extremely dependent on the mechanisms

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of attention that will be studied in this project, and the results of the proposed experiments may ultimately be useful for developing treatments for reading disabilities. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION IN KLINEFELTERS SYNDROME & OTHER SEX CHROMOSOME DISORDERS Principal Investigator & Institution: Swerdloff, Ronald S.; Harbor-Ucla Research & Educ Inst 1124 W Carson St Torrance, Ca 90502 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: COGNITIVE/LINGUISTIC FACTORS IN ACQUIRED DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Berndt-Sloan, Rita S.; Professor; Neurology; University of Maryland Balt Prof School Baltimore, Md 21201 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1989; Project End 30-JUN-2003 Summary: Disruption of the ability to read is a common and debilitating consequence of focal brain injury, suCh as stroke. The "acquired" dyslexias, occurring in premorbidly literate adults, can take a number of distinct forms that appear to reflect selective impairment of different aspects of the cognitive operations that normally support reading. The long-term goal of this project is to develop a model of reading that describes those cognitive operations and their interactions. Such a model would have a variety of applications. If specific dyslexic symptoms can be interpreted as arising from identifiable processing deficits within a model, then attempts to remediate symptoms can be focused on the responsible representation or process. Moreover, discrete components of processing that are identified through studies of the patients with neurogenic reading impairments would be likely to be the components that will ultimately prove to be related to identifiable neurobiological processes. The Specific Aims for the next project period continue investigations of the relationships among the distinct processing components that are hypothesized to be involved in reading. Experiments are proposed to extend the focus to investigate the contribution o syntactic and semantic manipulations on reading and writing performance. Three methodological approaches will be used, as in the previous project period. The primary method will be the testing of patients with acquired dyslexia and control subjects on an experimental battery designed to identify selective impairments within hypothesized processing components. A second methodological approach to be continued is the development of targeted treatment studies, in which attempts are made to change specific aspects of patients' processing abilities so that th effects of change on other components can be assessed. A third approach is the development of an implemented computational version of the guiding processing model, so that specific hypothese about the timecourse and interactions of specific components can be explored. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: COGNITIVELY BASED TREATMENTS OF ACQUIRED DYSLEXIAS Principal Investigator & Institution: Friedman, Rhonda B.; Professor; Neurology; Georgetown University Washington, Dc 20057 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-MAY-1997; Project End 31-JUL-2007

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Summary: (provided by applicant): Acquired disorders of reading (acquired dyslexia) are common in patients with aphasia subsequent to left hemisphere stroke. Even when language functions recover sufficiently to enable the patient to return to work, an unrecovered dyslexia often interferes significantly with job performance. Patients who cannot return to work may be left with little to occupy their time; the ability to read for pleasure could make a significant difference in their quality of life. The purpose of this project is to test a set of therapy programs for the treatment of acquired dyslexia, based upon a cognitive neuropsychological model of reading. A comprehensive and detailed battery of reading and reading-related tests is used to determine the underlying impairment causing the reading deficit in each patient. This proposal focuses on three specific deficits: 1) impaired access to the visual word form from the visual modality (pure dyslexia); 2) impaired orthographic-phonologic connections (phonologic/deep dyslexia); 3) poor lector/affixed word reading in text (phonological text alexia)). A set of experimental treatment programs has been devised for each of these reading deficits. These therapy programs derive in part from cognitive models of reading, in part from differences in general approach to treatment, and in part from the results of previous treatment studies. A set of general external probe tests are administered to all subjects before and after treatment There are additional external probes for each of the three deficit types, consisting of a list of words targeted for improvement but never trained. Measures include both accuracy and speed of reading. Group studies will examine the efficacy of treatments that have been successful in prior single case studies, and in some instances will compare the efficacy of two treatments with each other. Single case studies will be implemented to explore new treatment protocols or variations on old treatment protocols. Treatment programs are evaluated for efficacy by comparing the accuracy and speed of reading the treatment-specific probe words pre- and posttreatment, and examining performance on the general external probes pre- and posttreatment. The results of this project will increase our understanding of reading and its breakdown, leading to more effective methods of teaching reading to both normal and developmentally dyslexic children, in addition to providing a scientific basis for the choice of effective intervention strategies for the treatment of acquired dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CONNECTIONIST MODELING OF SENTENCE PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Rohde, Douglas L.; Psychology; Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Ma 02139 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-2002 Summary: (provided by applicant): Gaining a greater understanding of the mechanisms by which we acquire and process language is a critical first step in the development of strategies to aid those with acquired or developmental language deficits. Many direct methods for investigating the neural basis of language are unavailable because, unlike other domains of cognitive psychology such as vision or memory, language has no real non-human correlate. Therefore, we must rely more heavily on computational models, in conjunction with behavioral measures, to induce the workings of the language system. Connectionist models, in particular, offer the potential to provide novel explanations for many critical questions in the study of language, including the means by which children are able to learn language in noisy environments with limited feedback, how learning of a second language differs in adulthood and childhood, and how semantic, pragmatic, and discourse information is rapidly integrated with syntactic knowledge during comprehension. But connectionist models have so far been applied to only a limited number of the many complex aspects of language. The main goal of this

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proposal is to further develop, refine, and evaluate a connectionist model aimed at accounting for a broad range of sentence processing phenomena. Predictions of the model will be tested using self-paced reading-time and possibly eye-tracking measures. The model will also be studied to determine the general principles that characterize its behavior. Additional parts of the proposed project will study the induction of word meaning from large text corpora and explore the effects of experience on second language learning in connectionist networks. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CORE--CLINICAL Principal Investigator & Institution: Berninger, Virginia W.; Professor of Educational Psychology; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1996; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: The Clinical Core, which provided services to Projects I, II, III, and IV, accomplished all its specific aims during the initial funding cycle. For the next funding cycle, it proposes five specific aims. Specific Aim 1 is to continue to ascertain families for Project III, with probands in grades 1 to 9. The goal is to ascertain 50 probands with dyslexia (reading and spelling disability) and 50 probands with dysgraphia (only spelling disability) in each project. Year and test the probands, their nuclear family members, and extended family members (N=500 families and approximately 2500 family members over the next five years). Specific Aim 2 is to modify the phenotyping batter to include only the best measures from the first four years, to reduce the time required to administered it from 4 to 2 hours, and to add measures of morphological processing to use in ongoing aggregation, segregation, and linkage studies. Specific Aim 3 is to triage qualified probands in Project III to the joint treatment/brain imaging studies of Projects I and IV. Specific Aim 4 is to conduct cross-sectional studies of Morphological Awareness and Motivation during the first 3 years and of Math Processes and motivation during the last 2 years in an unreferred sample of students in 4th through 9th grade. Results for the first three years will be used to evaluate the construct validity for morphological awareness relative to phonological, orthographic, and rapid naming processes for reading and spelling in normally developing students, to generate means and standard deviations for grade to use in computing z-scores for morphological measures in the phenotyping battery, to study math measures in a future phenotyping battery, and to study the normal development of motivation for reading and writing as a reference point for related study of motivation in students with dyslexia and/or dysgraphia. Specific Aim 5 is to provide outreach services in the form of (1) a summer intervention program for probands in Project III who do not qualify for or choose not to participate in the joint treatment/brain imaging studies of Projects I and IV, (2) a mentoring program for teachers to learn effective instructional strategies for working with student with dyslexia and/or dysgraphia, and (3) workshops for teachers, administrators, and psychologists to disseminate the research results generated across the projects of the UWLDC and to reduce research findings to practice. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: CORE--STATISTICAL Principal Investigator & Institution: Abbott, Robert; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1996; Project End 30-NOV-2005

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Summary: The Statistical Core, which provided services to Projects I, II, III, and IV, accomplished all its specific aims during the initial funding cycle. For the next funding cycle, it proposes 7 specific aims. The first three specific aims are in support of Projects I, II, and IV. Specific Aim 1 is to evaluate the relative effectiveness of the contrasting treatments given each year in the Project I studies and to compare the dyslexics, dysgraphics, and controls (years 1-3) or the dyslexics and controls (years 4-5) on pretreatment and post-treatment behavioral (years 1-3). Specific Aim 2 is to perform statistical analyses for each of the studies in Project II on development of morphological and grammatical awareness and for each of the instructional experiment in Project II on morphological training. Specific Aim 3 is to perform statistical analyses for Project IV for each year of the study (comparison among dyslexics, dysgraphics, and controls) on pretreatment and post-treatment brain activation on different language tasks). The next four specific aims are directed toward support for Projects III and IV: Specific Aim 4 is to conduct aggregation analyses for Project III. Specific Aim 5 is to conduct segregation analyses for Project III. Specific Aim 6 is to conduct linkage analyses for Project III. Specific Aim 7 is to perform aggregation analyses of parameters of chemical activation based on the exploratory study linking Projects IV (Specific Aim 5) and III (based on aggregation of first funding cycle). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CORTICAL MALFORMATIONS /NEOCORTICAL PLASTICITY Principal Investigator & Institution: Loturco, Joseph J.; Associate Professor; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 05-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): Dyslexia and language learning disorders have been separately associated with both alterations in neocortical function and with focal neocortical malformations. Similar developmental malformations in animal models have been associated with alterations in behavioral and neurophysiological responses to auditory stimuli. A remaining question is how are focal cortical malformations causally related to these impairments. The overall hypothesis of this project is that focal cortical malformations, such as microgyria and ectopias, alter cortical excitability during critical periods in development and, thereby, disrupt the normal pattern of synaptic plasticity necessary to establish normal circuitry and sensory processing. We propose to use electrophysiology to determine how focal cortical malformations alter the pattern of synaptic plasticity in sensory neocortex and how this altered plasticity leads to disrupted cortical responses to sensory stimuli. In particular, we will determine the time course of plasticity alterations, shown in preliminary data to occur in auditory neocortex. We will determine whether changes in synaptic plasticity occur in visual cortex, too. We will determine whether there is a gender difference in response to malformations. Finally, we will determine whether alterations in auditory sensory experience, deprivation, and enrichment modify the shift in cortical plasticity that is altered by microgyria. Results from this study may lead to insight into the pathophysiology associated with neocortical malformations and may suggest methods of intervention to limit the development of neurological impairments caused by focal neocortical malformations. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: CORTICAL PLASTICITY AND PROCESSING OF COMPLEX STIMULI Principal Investigator & Institution: Kilgard, Michael P.; Assistant Professor; Human Development; University of Texas Dallas 2601 N Floyd Rd Richardson, Tx 75080 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-2000; Project End 31-DEC-2002 Summary: The insights derived from neuroscience studies of cortical plasticity have been indispensable in the development of treatment strategies for a number of neurological disorders, including dyslexia, tinnitus, and stroke. However, because most of these studies were focused on relatively simple sensory stimuli, our understanding of the plasticity principles that shape the cortical representation of more complex stimuli, such as speech, remains rudimentary. The proposed experiments document how experience-dependent plasticity improves the auditory cortex representation of spectro temporally complex stimuli and, by advancing our understanding of brain mechanisms involved in the learning of language, will aid in the treatment of communicative disorders. Using simple stimuli, we have demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the cholinergic nucleus basalis (NB) generates robust cortical plasticity that parallels natural learning. The proposed experiments will extend this series by pairing NB stimulation with complex spectrotemporal stimuli. Two different coding strategies, which have demonstrated stimulation of the cholinergic nucleus basis (NB) generates robust cortical plasticity that parallels natural learning. The proposed experiments will extend this series by pairing NB stimulation with complex spectrotemporal stimuli. Two different strategies, which have been proposed to represent the neural basis of memory, emerge with natural learning of behaviorally important complexes stimuli. In the first, complex features are represented by the distributed activity of neurons (coarse coding); while in the second, complex stimuli are represented with specialized filters tuned to specific spectrotemporal transitions (sparse coding). Our preliminary evidences indicates that NB-stimulation leads to representational plasticity that combines both coding strategies. In addition to sharpening spectral and temporal responses generally, NB activation paired with a spectrotemporal sequence created combination selective neural responses that do not exist in naive cortex. These results demonstrate that combination selectivity is not limited to species/specific vocalizations, and representations of the acoustic environment. Our continuing studies will examine several other acoustic stimuli to determine precisely what stimulus features are required to generate each element of representational plasticity observed in our preliminary results. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: CORTICAL SPATIOTEMPORAL PLASTICITY IN HUMANS Principal Investigator & Institution: Nagarajan, Srikantan S.; Bioengineering; University of Utah 200 S University St Salt Lake City, Ut 84112 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 07-FEB-2002; Project End 30-JUN-2002 Summary: (Provided by Applicant): Understanding the relationship between the complexity of human learning and associated brain function is one of the most fascinafing journeys of basic science. In addition to being an important academic question, studies of brain function assocIated with learning have very practical applications for improving diagnosis and therapy of learning disabilities. Learning disability affects between 10-20 percent of Americans with severe socioeconomic consequences on their quality of life and health. This proposal focuses on understanding the neural processes underlying normal human learning of auditory information that is transient and occurs in rapid succession. The most intuitive example of such processing

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is reflected in our ability to learn and understand speech. Deficits in learning such forms of information are associated with dyslexia and language-learning impairment. A few of the currently popular tools used to study the relationships between human learning and associated brain processes are Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG). However, of all these methods only MEG and EEG offer adequate time resolution, essential for the proposed study because brain responses to auditory stimuli typically occur in the time-scale of milliseconds. Data obtained using MEG and EEG is often analyzed without consideration of the dynamics of cortical activity and often simplified source and head models are assumed, Information about brain plasticity obtained in this fashion is hard to understand and interpret. Recently several new methods have been developed to process MEG and EEG data. However, the usefulness of these methods has not been adequately demonstrated on real data. The first specific aim of this proposal is to research and to validate novel analyses methods that will enhance the interpretation of EEG and MEG data. We will use realistic head modeling for imaging distributed sources and account for the spatio-temporal dynamics of brain activity. We will empirically validate the usefulness of these methods to understand the dynamics of functional brain plasticity using computer simulations and experiments. The second specific aim of the proposal is to determine the relationship between the dynamics of functional brain plasticity in spatio-temporal responses to successive stimuli and changes in psychophysical thresholds that occur as a result of perceptual learning. We will focus on learning in rate discrimination of amplitudemodulated tone trains in normal adults as a first step towards understanding learning of simple time-varying auditory stimuli that occur in rapid succession. We will examine and correlate learning-induced behavioral changes with changes in the spatial and the temporal patterns of activity within and across cortical areas. Such a multidisciplinary approach which combines methods of scientific computing and functional brain imaging using MEG and EEG should enhance our understanding of general neural mechanisms underlying human perception learning. These results in normal individuals should provide crucial information for the development, refinement and evaluation of diagnosis and therapy for individuals with learning disability. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF AWARENESS & LINKS TO READING AND WRITING Principal Investigator & Institution: Mc Cutchen, Deborah; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1996; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: Project II continues to develop links between research on reading and writing disabilities and effective classroom practice, expanding its focus to include older students (grades 4 through 9) and morphological processes. Specific Aim 1 is to conduct a series of experiments on the relational, syntactic and distributional aspects of morphological knowledge and their relationships to reading and writing skill in order to provide a basic scientific foundation to inform teacher knowledge for increasing reading and spelling skills of normally developing and poor readers. The project examine the nature of children's morphological processing in reading and writing disability, both independent of and in relation to phonological and orthographic processing. Specific Aim 2 is to conduct a series of instructional experiments on alternative approaches to increasing morphological awareness in normally developing studies in grades 4 to 9. Guided by the results of the theoretical studies comprising Specific Aim 1, the

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instructional studies are designed to increase students' morphological awareness and assess effects on reading and spelling. Central to these interventions are conditions that contrast combinations of morphological, phonological, and orthographic training within developmental designs. Specific Aim 3 is to implement findings for Project II studies in the summer program offered through the outreach component of the Clinical Core for students in Project III. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF LOW FREQUENCY MEG HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE Principal Investigator & Institution: Tepley, Norman; Professor; Neurology; Case Western Reserve Univ-Henry Ford Hsc Research Administraion Cfp-046 Detroit, Mi 48202 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-1993; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: The ongoing objective of our research has been to develop hardware, software, and techniques to expand the utility of Magnetoencephalography (MEG), both as a clinical diagnostic tool, and as a modality for basic studies in the neurosciences. With a large array, whole head neuromagnetometer now available in our lab, and such systems becoming more generally available, but at quite high prices, the demonstration of added utility for MEG becomes even more significant. Sophisticated mathematical analytical techniques develooped in this lab, finite difference field mapping (FDFM) and two dimensional inverse imaging (2DII), as well as several commercial software packages, will be applied to clinical data gathered from potential epilepsy surgery patients, for presurgical mapping and source localization. The results of these techniques will be systematically compared to the standard equivalent current dipole (ECD) analysis, carried out at a number of institutions. A second method of source location utilizing the pseudo-DC magnetic fields arising post- ictally in temporal lobe epilepsy patients will also be studied using epilepsy surgery candidates. DC MEG techniques will be utilized for a continuing study of migraine and stroke patients. During the next grant period the physiological differences and similarities between migraine with aura and migraine without aura (classic and common migraine) will be studied using MEG signals essentially identical to signals measured from spreading cortical depression in animal models. Methods for using MEG measurements for determining rehabilitation and recovery in stroke patients will be developed. In all of the foregoing studies, the nature of the MEG signals detected in humans will be validated using the MEG signals arising from well-established animal models of the same conditions. These studies will be conducted in three species with progressively more complex cortexes, rat, rabbit, and swine. The use of dynamic period analysis (DPA) to produce whole head mapping of the changes in cortical activity accompanying arousal changes and sleep will be studied. 2DII imaging will be used to define active discrete and extended source activity associated with sleep. The spatial and temporal resolution of MEG will be utilized to study dyslexic subjects, and to localize regions of abnormal activity. A series of visual/auditory stimuli involving word, picture, and shape recognition will be used. If successful with young adult dyslexics, the study will be extended the study to children and individuals with other learning disabilities. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR Principal Investigator & Institution: Reite, Martin L.; Professor; Psychiatry; University of Colorado Hlth Sciences Ctr P.O. Box 6508, Grants and Contracts Aurora, Co 800450508

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-1978; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): This training grant has been in progress for the past 22 years in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Colorado School of Medicine. We are requesting 5 years of support for a total of eight postdoctoral trainees, including one position per year identified specifically for research training for a child psychiatrist. During the past 22 years, we have graduated 73 young scientists from this research training program, 23 of whom are M.D.'s, and 54 (74 percent} of whom are still actively involved in research and/or academic careers. Trainee candidates are M.D.'s or Ph.D.'s, including physicians trained in psychiatry, child psychiatry or pediatrics, and Ph.D.'s trained in psychology, anthropology, molecular biology, neurobiology, or genetics. Special efforts to recruit under-represented minorities have been successful, with six minority trainees recruited during the past five years. Our faculty consists of 22 scientists, and the program has been characterized since its inception by multidisciplinary research with a focus on translation of basic science to clinical care. A core curriculum includes bi-weekly Developmental Psychobiology Research Group (DPRG) seminars, an ethics seminar series, biennial DPRG retreats, a career development retreat, a grant-writing seminar, and, for physician trainees, statistics. An elective curriculum is also available. Research training opportunities include training in cognitive, emotional, and perceptual development in normal and high-risk infants and children, biochemical and pharmacological studies of brain maturation, neuropsychological and genetic studies of dyslexia, studies of developmental disability in autism, Down's Syndrome and Fragile X syndrome, early affective regulation of chronically ill pediatric patients, molecular biology of schizophrenia, behavioral immunology in humans and animal models, animal models of mental illness, and magnetoencephalographic (MEG) and electroencephalographic (EEG) correlates of psychoses. Faculty provide access to under-represented minority subjects and special clinical populations, including developmentally disabled, autistic and psychotic children, infant and adolescent populations, children with other psychiatric disorders, research diagnosed psychotic patients, children and family members of schizophrenic subjects, and learning disordered populations. The training program is normally 2 years in duration. Trainees completing this program will be able to assume the role of an independent investigator in one of the multiple areas encompassed by the training program. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF NEURONAL CIRCUITS IN THE AUDITORY SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Kandler, Karl; Assistant Professor; Neurobiology; University of Pittsburgh at Pittsburgh 350 Thackeray Hall Pittsburgh, Pa 15260 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1999; Project End 31-OCT-2005 Summary: (Adapted From The Applicant's Abstract): The long-term objective of this research is to understand the cellular mechanisms by which neuronal activity exerts its effects on the formation, reorganization, and stabilization of precisely organized neuronal connections. The aim of the proposed project is to elucidate these mechanisms in the development of tonotopically organized, converging excitatory and inhibitory connections in the auditory brainstem of mammals. Focus will be on the lateral superior olivary nucleus (LSO), a binaural nucleus involved in sound localization, in which tonotopically organized ipsilateral and contralateral glycinergic inputs converge on single cells. Previous studies have shown that glycine and GABA, the inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult system, are depolarizing in the developing LSO when

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inhibitory connections are being refined. The applicant will test the hypothesis that the depolarizing action of these inhibitory neurotransmitters represents a novel cellular mechanism for activity-dependent refinement of developing inhibitory synapses. They will use an in vitro brainstem slice preparations from pre- and postnatal rats to determine 1) whether the depolarizing neurotransmitters glycine and GABA increase intracellular calcium concentration in developing LSO neurons, 2) whether depolarizing inhiitory synapses act like excitatory synapses, 3) whether refinement of inhibitory connections in the LSO involves the elimination of functional synapses, and 4) whether depolarizing inhibitory connections in the LSO can express activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength such as LTP and LTD. To achieve these specific aims whole-cell and perforated patch clamp recordings will be combined with single cell tracing, calcium imaging and fast, localized photolytic cleavage of neurotransmitters (photostimulation). The experiments will be important for understanding how neuronal activity participates in the formation and reorganization of auditory circuits involved in sound localization. The proposed research may provide new insights into human communication disorders such as speech perception, specific language impairment and dyslexia that result from impaired auditory processing and that likely have developmental components. Understanding the basic cellular mechanisms that rule the development and plasticity of inhibitory circuits is fundamental for understanding the cause of numerous pathological brain states, including epilepsy, that result from an abnormal organization of inhibitory circuits. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL MOTION PROCESSING IN HUMAN INFANTS Principal Investigator & Institution: Dobkins, Karen R.; Professor; Psychology; University of California San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, Dept. 0934 La Jolla, Ca 92093 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1998; Project End 28-FEB-2003 Summary: The ability to perceive visual motion is one of the most fundamental and essential facets of vision. While much has been learned over the years about the psychophysics and neurophysiology of motion processing in adults, little is known about its development in infants. The long-term objective of this research is to characterize the development of visual motion perception in human infants, and to understand how underlying neural mechanisms can account for the progression from an immature to an adult-like state. To this end, visual psychophysical experiments are conducted in infants 1-6 months of age, and the results are modeled in terms of known or hypothetical neural mechanisms. Data are collected from infants using simple observational techniques that rely on the fact that infants preferentially state at a patterned stimulus rather than a blank field and that infants exhibit directionallyappropriate eye movements in response to moving targets. Together, we use these techniques to ask questions regarding the development of 1) direction and speed discrimination 2) motion integration across visual space and 3) chromatic (red/green) input to motion processing. The study of infant motion processing is particularly appealing as much is known about the neural basis of motion processing in adults. Thus, discovering the time course of development for different aspects of motion processing will improve our understanding of the neural development of specific visual areas known to be involved in motion processing. From the clinical standpoint, assessment of motion processing capacities could potentially be used to diagnose damage to motion processing areas during development. For example, there are recent claims that the reading disorder "dyslexia" is correlated with damage to specific motion-

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related areas of the brain. In virtue of such findings, it is quite possible that early detection of dyslexia could be aided by simple tests of motion processing capabilities. In addition, development of motion mechanisms may be particularly susceptible to environmental factors as suggested from studies (in animals) demonstrating abnormal development of motion processing as a result of altered early visual experience. Thus, assessment of the normal development of visual functions, such as motion processing, is likely to play an important role in clinical diagnosis and in monitoring the effects of treatment in infants and children with visual disabilities. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF READING DEFICITS IN APHASIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Greenwald, Margaret; Assistant Professor; Psychiatry & Behav Neuroscis; Wayne State University 656 W. Kirby Detroit, Mi 48202 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1999; Project End 31-JUL-2003 Summary: Reading deficits are very common and persistent following stroke in previously literate adults. Acquired dyslexia occurs in patients with and without other language deficits, but these patients rarely receive dyslexia treatment. Few treatment methods for acquired dyslexia are available, and those treatments that are currently employed are often unsuccessful. One reason for the failure of these treatments is that sources of reading disruption [i.e., the cognitive deficit(s) to be treated] are not specifically defined in the individual dyslexic patients. Progress in the refinement of cognitive theories of normal reading offer hope for more effective dyslexia treatments, in that more specific diagnoses of reading breakdown will be possible: treatment designs can then be focused on remediating these specific levels of reading deficit. The immediate goal of the proposed research is to use a new model of visual word recognition as a basis for diagnosis and treatment of reading deficits in aphasic patients. This new model specifies the critical role of a prelexical Ordinal Graphemic Code in normal reading, and the characteristic error pattern associated with disruption with disruption at this level. New diagnostic methods used to detect this prelexical deficit can now be applied to a wide range of aphasic patients who exhibit similar error patterns in reading. Multiple interrelated experiments will address the following specific aims: 1) to assess in a group of stroke patients with acquired dyslexia the extent to which abnormal function of the Ordinal Graphemic Code is contributing to visual and semantic substitutions in word reading, to errors in orthographic segmenting, and to impaired grapheme-to-phoneme conversion; 2) to assess the extent to which disorders of access to or operation of the Ordinal Graphemic Code in stroke patients are amenable to treatment. Experimental treatment will follow rigorous assessment of reading deficits in aphasic patients with impaired lexical access from print. Those patients with presumed disruption to prelexical ordinal encoding will be entered into treatment, which will measure the effect of systematically varying demand for ordinal encoding in ordinal encoding will also be evaluated, with the prediction that auditory serial letter name cues and/or top-down lexical-semantic cues will contribute to a positive treatment response. The diagnostic and treatment methods advanced here are intended as a model to guide further development and implementation of more effective treatments for language disorders, particularly acquired dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF AUDITORY TEMPORAL PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Gray, Lincoln C.; Professor; Otolaryngology; University of Texas Hlth Sci Ctr Houston Box 20036 Houston, Tx 77225 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-2001; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): This research will use an appropriate animal model to define the behavioral, physiological, and cellular changes that correlate with deficits in auditory temporal processing. We will test the hypothesis that one type of early insult (exposure to low levels of lead) but not another (exposure to loud sound) causes a deficit in hearing rapid changes in sound. Four observations from the literature predict that lead toxicity is a reasonable manipulation for investigating auditory temporal processing deficit. First, lead poisoning causes dyslexia. Second, children with dyslexia have auditory temporal and phonological processing deficits. Third, early exposure to low levels of lead in these animals causes an auditory temporal processing disorder. Fourth, the development of hearing in humans and these animals is remarkably parallel in many aspects, including auditory temporal processing. Signal detection analyses of unconditioned delays in the subjects' vocalizations will quantify the early development of forward, backward, and simultaneous masking, discrimination of speech and speechlike stimuli containing voice- and tone-onset-time cues. Several non-temporal controls (absolute thresholds, frequency and intensity discrimination) will prove the deficits are unique to rapidly changing sounds. Physiological recordings and immunohistochemistry of cells of the central auditory system will define possible mechanisms of the behavioral deficits. According to an important current hypothesis, difficulty processing the basic elements of language (phonemes) is due to a deficit in the perception of rapidly changing sounds. Basic questions about the early development of auditory temporal processing and the insults that can cause a decrement in these important abilities remain unanswered. This basic information will help us understand the effects of common environmental insults and perhaps the etiology of phonological processing deficits (associated with dyslexia in children) that affect between 5 percent and 17 percent of our children. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: EFFECT OF LEAD ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUDITORY TEMPORAL PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Lurie, Diana I.; University of Montana University Hall 202 Missoula, Mt 598124104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 30-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2007 Summary: Lead remains an important environmental toxicant despite it's removal from paint and gasoline in the United States and lead exposure (especially in children) remains a significant problem. The CDC reports that 930,000 U.S. children have bloodlead concentrations greater than 10 pg/dL (beyond a safe concentration). In states like Montana, where mining has resulted in regionally high levels of lead in the environment, there are focal regions where lead levels in children are significantly higher than the national average. Early exposure to lead is known to be a risk factor for reading disability (RD). While there are many reports linking lead exposure to reading disabilities, it is not clear how lead is able to exert its effects on language and perception. Significantly, recent preliminary studies conducted by our collaborator Dr. Lincoln Gray (UT-Houston) indicate that lead-exposed children and animals show deficits in backward masking. Backward masking is the ability to hear a short tone pip that occurs immediately before a louder and longer masking noise This suggests a link between

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lead exposure, auditory processing deficits, and dyslexia because children with dyslexia are deficient in backward masking. These deficits in auditory perception are not the result of general hearing loss and the deficit in basic auditory processing that accompanies dyslexia appears to be specific for temporal auditory processing (how auditory information is processed over very short periods of time). We have discovered that chickens exposed to low levels of lead (<10 Fg/dL) during development not only show deficits in backward masking, but also exhibit significant anatomical changes of neurons and glial cells within the auditory brainstem. We hypothesize that low levels of lead induce neuroanatomical changes within the auditory brainstem that then result in deficits in backward masking. This proposal will determine whether low levels of lead 1) reliably induce deficits in backward masking in lead-exposed children and 2) result in neuroanatomical, changes within the mammalian auditory system that could be the anatomical correlate for these behavioral deficits. The proposed studies will link auditory behavioral data with anatomical changes in order to elucidate whether low levels of lead produce changes within the mammalian auditory system. If so, the definition of a minimal toxic lead level in children will need to be reduced below the 10 p.g/dLstandard currently in use. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: EFFECTS OF SPATIAL ATTENTION IN VISUAL AREAS Principal Investigator & Institution: Duncan, Robert O.; Salk Institute for Biological Studies 10010 N Torrey Pines Rd San Diego, Ca 92037 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 17-JAN-2001 Summary: Spatial attention is the process that enables us to scrutinize one region of visual space at the expense of others. Surprisingly little is known about the neural mechanisms of attention. We will use fMRI technology to investigate the effects of spatial attention in several early visual areas (V1, V2, V3, V3A, V4, VP, MT, and the LGN). First, we intend to localize and further quantify the effects of spatial attention observed in these early visual areas. We will map the retinotopic organization of attentional effects and determine whether the pattern and magnitude of activity observed in the brain correlates with the location and degree to which spatial attention is allocated. Second, we seek to localize the regions of extrastriate visual cortex that respond when attention is differentially allocated to specific object features. Third, we hope to establish a quantitative and predictable relationship between neural activity and behavioral responses during tasks that tax attentional resources. These results will shed light on the neural substrates of attention and will hopefully provide valuable information that leads to a treatment for attention-related ailments such as dyslexia and attention deficit disorder (ADD). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: EMOTION AND RETUNING OF AUDITORY CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Weinberger, Norman M.; Ctr/Neurobiol of Learng/Memory; University of California Irvine Irvine, Ca 926977600 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 20-SEP-1993; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: The primary auditory cortex in the adult is physiologically plastic, rather than static as has been traditionally assumed. Behavioral learning produces shifts of the frequency tuning of auditory cortical neurons toward or to the frequency of an acquired behaviorally important sound. Learning-induced plasticity is due to associative processes rather than arousal or attention, is highly specific to the important frequency,

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is rapidly acquired and lasts indefinitely, as tested for months. Therefore, the basic processing of acoustic frequency is not simply determined by the physical parameters of sound but also by its acquired behavioral importance. Understanding the highest level of the auditory system depends upon understanding how learning modifies auditory information processing. The goal of this project is to initiate the solution of this problem. Specifically, it will determine the effects of learninbg on fundmanetal parameters of response to acoustic frequency: Characteristic frequency (CF), threshold level of the CF (Th) and bandwidth or response at levels above threshold (BW). These parameters provide sensitive measures of information processing -- CF indexes tuning; Th indexes sensitivity; BW indexes selectivity. This will be accomplished by determiing in adult behaving guinea pigs, the response areas (frequency by intensity) of neighboring single neurons before and at various intervals after different types of behavioral training: habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning,instrumental conditioning. Additionally, the rate of development of learning-induced plasticity will be determined. This project will help explain learning effects in the normal human. Moreover, it has significance for understanding the learning that occurs in pathologies and therapies, such as learning to perceive speech following cochlear implants and for recently identified learning-based remediation of acoustic processing deficits in dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: EPILEPTOGENIC MALFORMATIONS

MECHANISMS

IN

DEVELOPMENTAL

Principal Investigator & Institution: Jacobs, Kimberle M.; Anatomy and Neurobiology; Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Va 232980568 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-APR-2003; Project End 31-MAR-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Injury to the developing brain during the time of cortical neuronal migration induces malformation and aberrant cortical lamination. Focal ischemic damage caused by maternal infections, trauma, or vascular disease specifically reduces the malformation of microgyria. This malformation is associated with mental retardation, schizophrenia, dyslexia, developmental delay and epilepsy. Seizures often occur after a substantial lag period relative to the time of injury and are among the most intractable. Most, but not all patients have recurring seizures, and remission is achieved In only a small subset of these patients. Identifying the source of this variability is likely to aid in the evolution of novel prevention and treatment therapies. The goal of this proposal is to identify mechanisms that contribute to the sudden onset and selective spontaneous emission of epileptogenesis associated with microgyria. The hypothesis that the focal loss of a specific group of neurons promotes aberrant development of cortical afferent connections and prevents remission will be tested. Because brain development in ferrets is immature at birth, deletion of selective cellular laminae can be achieved. In addition, the expanded postnatal development of the ferret will allow for greater temporal specificity in manipulations intended to prevent onset of epileptiform cortical hyperexcitability. We propose the following three Specific Aims: 1.To determine in a ferret model of microgyria whether the proportion of animals showing epileptiform activity and emission is correlated with a) the proportion of layer IV neurons retained within the malformation, and b) the degree of thalamocortical rearrangement. This will be conducted using a combination of electrophysiological field potential recordings with an in vitro slice preparation and anatomical tract tracing methods. 2. To identify the functional result to the neurons of the epileptogenic zone of altering the amount of layer IV persisting within the malformation. These experiments involve visualized whole-cell patch-clamp recordings

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of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic currents. 3. To determine whether a spatially and temporally focal blockade of activity will prevent or delay the onset of epileptogenesis. Applying tetrodotoxin in an Elvax polymer to the cortical surface prior to onset will test this idea. The long-term goals of this project are to distinguish anatomical and physiological contributions to epileptogenesis and developmental delay that may lead to unique prevention therapies such as transplantation of particular cell types. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: CHILDREN

ERP

DYNAMICS

OF

LANGUAGE

LEARNING

IMPAIRED

Principal Investigator & Institution: Kruglikov, Stepan Y.; None; George Mason University 400 University Dr Fairfax, Va 22030 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUN-2002 Summary: (provided by applicant): This project will determine it language-learning impaired and non-impaired children demonstrate electrophysiological differences on two levels of auditory processing: subcortical preattentive (P50) and cortical mismatch negativity (at N200) levels. Elongated phoneme training and its effectiveness will also be evaluated via electrophysiological changes in children being trained with software that artificially elongates and amplifies the short phonemes of speech. The research design includes an EEG recording before and after training for each subject. Standard peak analysis and newer analytical methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) and independent component analysis (ICA) will be used to analyze the EEG data. Eventrelated potentials (ERP) for children will be evaluated to identify subjects that could benefit from such training. Finally, the performance of PCA and ICA in extracting ERP characteristics will be evaluated in terms of showing the correspondence between psychometrics and electrophysiology. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FEATURE SELECTIVITY OF AUDITORY THALAMUS Principal Investigator & Institution: Bartlett, Edward L.; Associate Professor; Biomedical Engineering; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-AUG-2003; Project End 31-JUL-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): The overall goal of this study is to discover the representations of acoustic features by medial geniculate body (MGB) neurons in an awake primate. In doing so, we can ascertain how the known cortical representations of these features arise from the MGB representations, given the comparatively large body of knowledge regarding responses of auditory cortex neurons to auditory stimuli. Some deficits observed in humans with dyslexia and schizophrenia have been correlated with abnormalities in the MGB. An understanding of normal MGB responses to stimuli that produce abnormal responses in affected people, such as rapidly changing or multifrequency stimuli will provide insight into the likely causes of neuronal dysfunction. We will study how sound characteristics are encoded by MGB neurons by recording the neural responses of single neurons in response to auditory stimuli. The recordings will be performed in awake marmosets, which are primates that possess a large repertoire of vocalizations that are used to communicate. Since auditory cortex responses have been studied extensively and are generated largely by integrating inputs from the thalamus, we will use auditory stimuli that have been used for auditory cortex studies, such as repetitive clicks, two-tone complexes, and amplitude-modulated tones. Knowing both thalamic and cortical responses, the ways that MGB inputs are combined to form new

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auditory cortex response properties are likely to reveal relevant acoustic features used for auditory perception. The specific aims of the study are as follows: 1) we will test the hypothesis that MGB neurons represent temporally modulated stimuli in a manner that is intermediate between that of the inferior colliculus and the auditory cortex, using separate populations of neurons. One population fires discharges that are locked to the repeated stimulus cycles in a synchronized manner and another population responds in a non-stimulus-synchronized manner through increases in discharge rate. 2) We will investigate the spectral context selectivity of MGB neurons. Using two-tone stimuli, we will test the hypothesis that frequencies that are harmonically related to a MGB neuron's best frequency will inhibit the neuron, whereas the two-tone facilitation observed in the auditory cortex will be weak in the MGB. 3) We will test the hypothesis that the contrasting synaptic and anatomic characteristics of two putative populations of IC excitatory inputs will lead to contrasting responses to tone, two-tone, click, filtered noise, and sinusoidally modulated stimuli in vivo. These two groups of contrasting responses will be differently localized within the MGB. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FETAL CONNECTIONS

AND

POSTNATAL

DEVELOPMENT

OF

VISUAL

Principal Investigator & Institution: Shatz, Carla J.; Professor of Neurobiology; Neurobiology; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JAN-1979; Project End 31-DEC-2006 Summary: The major aim of this research is to elucidate cellular and molecular interactions governing the formation of precise sets of connections during mammalian visual system development. Research is centered on how connections between the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and primary visual cortex are established during fetal development and during the postnatal critical period for t he effects of visual experience. Three interrelated specific aims address the central hypothesis that precise adult connections arise as a consequence of circuit readjustment in primary visual cortex driven by dynamic interactions between neural activity and gene expression. 1. To determine the sign of synaptic input from subplate to layer 4. The hypothesis that subplate neurons, along with LGN axons, regulate cortical activity and during the critical period will be addressed. Ablation of subplate neurons prevents formation of ocular dominance columns (ODCs) and alters the expression of genes considered to be key regulators of synaptic plasticity. Experiments will identify and characterize subplate inputs to cortex using electrophysiological, anatomical and calcium imaging approaches. 2. To determine the functional contribution of subplate neurons to formation to formation and maturation of thalamocortical connections. Experiments will acutely or chronically eliminate subplate neurons prematurely, or alter their excitability, to examine the consequences for ensuing development of ODCs and cortical circuits. These manipulations exploit the fact that subplate neurons have distinct physiological and molecular phenotypes that permit their selective inactivation, activation, or removal. 3. To identify sets of genes expressed by cortical neurons and regulated by retinal activity. These experiments address the hypothesis that there is a dynamic and reciprocal relationship between neural activity and the expression of genes required for synaptic readjustments leading to the final patterning of connections. Candidate genes will be identified via unbiased differential screens for activity-regulated genes expressed in visual cortex during the critical period. Preliminary results using cDNA microarrays have identified a set of 50 candidates-both known and novel. Experiments to extend

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findings, and to test candidate gene function are proposed. Collectively, these experiments should contribute to a framework for constructing a molecular understanding of the critical period in visual system development. Results should also add to knowledge of mechanisms of normal development and learning in children, and to an understanding of causes of developmental and neurological disorders such as Dyslexia, Cerebral Palsy and Autism. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FMRI OF INVERTED VISION--PLASTICITY OF VISUOSPATIAL MAPS Principal Investigator & Institution: Cohen, Mark S.; Professor; None; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-MAY-2000; Project End 30-APR-2003 Summary: Our proposed research will investigate the mechanisms involved in construction of an internal model of space by imposing a gross distortion on incoming visuospatial information and observing various areas of the brain for signs of adaptive plastic reorganization. For two weeks, subjects will wear an apparatus that inverts the visual world. Previous studies have shown that subjects exposed to chronically inverted vision undergo a remarkable adaptation, after which they are able to interact normally with the external world. During our research, the subjects will be observed intensively with functional MRI and behavioral testing. Areas studied will include striate and extrastriate occipital cortex, the superior and inferior colliculi, posterior parietal cortex, and superior temporal cortex. We will obtain detailed maps of the functional organization of these areas prior to inversion, repeatedly during adaptation to inverted vision, and after removal of the inverting device; we will pay special attention to changes in the spatiotopic organization of these areas. This work is designed to identify the site of the neural plasticity that permits adaptation to inverted vision. Plastic changes of the human brain are the essential process by which we recover from injuries such as stroke. Further, the physical plasticity of the human brain can be exploited in the development of training regimens to overcome such debilitating conditions as dyslexia, and following traumatic spinal transection. In adults, there remains sufficient capacity for local reorganization that individuals with severe brain or spinal damage can recover the ability to walk. In spite of the overwhelming clinical significance of the phenomena, little is yet known of the extent to which plastic changes can occur. Knowledge of the nature of plasticity in areas of the brain specifically concerned with external space may help in understanding conditions such as hemispatial neglect syndrome, in which damage to the parietal cortex causes an inability to perceive the left side of external space, and blindsight, in which subjects who lack conscious visual perception can still react to visual stimuli. Such knowledge will also be valuable in preparing humans for space travel, when people must adapt to the loss of gravitational clues to spatial orientation. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: FMRI OF PHONOLOGICAL AND SENSORY PROCESSING IN DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Eden, Guinevere F.; Associate Professor and Director; None; Georgetown University Washington, Dc 20057 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1999; Project End 29-FEB-2004

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Summary: Developmental dyslexia is a common disorder of reading whose etiology is poorly understood. The behavioral manifestations of dyslexia are complex, involving abnormalities in both language and visual perception. It is well known that reading ability is correlated with measures of phonological awareness. Because dyslexics exhibit abnormalities in various forms of phonological processing, this has been suggested as an explanation for their reading disability. While less clinically evident, specific visual processing problems have also been identified in dyslexia and it has been suggested that they contribute to the observed reading disorder. Surprisingly, few studies have attempted to reconcile these two apparently disparate views concerning the etiology of this disorder. Recent advances in functional neuroimaging techniques now provide a way to identify the regional specialization and spatial congruence of the cortical areas engaged in visual sensory and language processing. These new techniques make possible novel investigations of the pathophysiology of the reading disorder developmental dyslexia. We propose a series of integrated studies combining behavioral measures with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the relationship between the disorders in phonological processing and visual motion processing in dyslexia. In the proposed research, functional maps obtained from control subjects during reading tasks will be compared to those obtained in individuals with dyslexia. Our central hypothesis posits the existence of a disorder in temporal information processing in dyslexia that exhibits itself in deficits in both sensory and language processing. In our previous work we have demonstrated a sensory deficit specific to the visual motion processing system. Using similar techniques we now propose to extend these investigations and relate them to dysfunction of phonological processing mechanisms. We hypothesize that we will identify spatial overlap in the cortical areas altered in dyslexia during both phonological and visual processing in the temporoparietal areas, as this area has shown to directly subserve both sensory visual motion and cognitive language processes. Specific questions addressed include: (1) What are the neural systems involved in phonological awareness (segmentation, rhyme generation and coding in verbal memory) and visual motion processing in normal subjects? (2) Do the neural systems involved in phonological awareness show sensitivity to performance rate, modality of presentation (oral versus visual) or response (covert versus overt)? (3) Is there spatial overlap in the neuronal systems involved in the performance of phonological awareness tasks and visual motion processing? (4) Since performance on these tasks reliably differentiates dyslexics from controls, are the neural systems involved differently activated in dyslexics and controls during the performance of these tasks? Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FMRI STUDIES OF MOTOR SKILLS IN DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Agnew, John T.; None; Georgetown University Washington, Dc 20057 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: FMRI STUDIES OF VISUAL MOTION AND ATTENTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Corbetta, Maurizio M.; Assistant Professor; Radiology; Washington University Lindell and Skinker Blvd St. Louis, Mo 63130 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-1999; Project End 31-JAN-2004

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Summary: The long term objective of this application is to understand how behavioral goals and expectations about visual events are represented and used within the human brain. Event-related fMRI methods are developed to distinguish the neural signals representing behavioral goals and expectations from the signals reflecting their effects on perceptual analysis. These methods are then used to study the dependence of these signals on the content of the expectation (e.g. an expectation about the motion of an object or its color), on how the expectation is generated (e.g. from verbal or non- verbal commands, or from instructions presented in different sensory modalities), and on how it is used during visual perception (e.g. to detect a stimulus or to categorize it). This information will advance our theoretical understanding of visual perception and awareness. These studies will also help to elucidate the pathophysiology of clinical brain disorders, that involve attentional and visual perceptual deficits, e.g. unilateral neglect, attentional deficit disorders, or dyslexia. A finer understanding of attentional mechanisms will also facilitate the development of neurobiologically- driven rehabilitative strategies. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: FREQUENCY INTEGRATION IN THE AUDITORY CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Sutter, Mitchell L.; Assistant Professor; Center for Neuroscience; University of California Davis Sponsored Programs, 118 Everson Hall Davis, Ca 95616 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-1996; Project End 31-JAN-2006 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): The goal of this work is to elucidate the relationship between neural activity in auditory cortex and sound perception. The applicant will determine 1) the abilities of humans and nonhuman primates to perceive and integrate spectral and temporal features of sounds, and 2) the relationship of single neuron responses in auditory cortex to psychophysical performance. For Aim 1, human and nonhuman subjects will be trained to discriminate sounds that vary along temporal or spectral dimensions, and for Aim 2, neurons will be recorded in nonhuman primate auditory cortex during behavioral discriminations. Signal detection methods will be used to determine the discriminative capabilities of single neurons, and whether their firing is more closely associated with the physical attributes of sound or the higher level decision to respond to the sound. The data will provide information for understanding the effects of cortical disruptions, as well as basic understanding of temporal acoustic processing. The results are of potential use for treating stroke and dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: GENE THERAPY VECTORS FOR PEDIATRIC BRAIN DISEASE Principal Investigator & Institution: Messer, Anne; Director/Research Scientist; Wadsworth Center Empire State Plaza Albany, Ny 12237 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 20-APR-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: (application abstract): Since the cerebellum develops over a considerable period of time, it is vulnerable to a wide range of genetic, environmental and pharmaceutical perturbants. It is also increasingly clear that the cerebellum participates in both motor and cognitive learning; therefore cerebellar defects can underlie or participate in a wide range of developmental brain disorders including fetal alcohol syndrome, seizures due to brain malformations, hereditary cerebellar degenerations, infantile autism, ataxia telangiactasia, and possibly dyslexia. Because of the extended developmental and plastic time-period, it may also be feasible to treat such disorders by

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enhancing cell outgrowth during infancy and early childhood. However, more knowledge of both the cellular factors that influence cerebellar development, and optimal methods for altering these will be required, The long-term goal of this project is to establish methods to manipulate the cerebellum genetically. This will require both knowledge of the hierarchy of gene expression, and a capacity to deliver and control gene therapies. Experiments in this proposal will encompass both the underlying developmental neurobiology and vector technology to manipulate the genes. initial experiments will test a feline lentivirus as a transfer vector, under circumstances where quantitative parameters of success are available. The mouse mutant staggerer (sg) will be used as a model system, since it shows a well-characterized defective cerebellar development, the gene has been cloned, and many of its morphological, genetic and biochemical effects are already known. The system can then be used to optimize cellspecific promoters and vector targeting strategies. Once this assay system is in place for one vector, it can also be used to test modifications of vector specificity and expression, as well as additional vectors such as AAV complexes. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: GENERAL CLINICAL RESEARCH CENTER Principal Investigator & Institution: Kessler, David A.; Food and Drug Administration; None; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1989; Project End 30-NOV-2003 Summary: The Children's Research Center (CCRC) consists of five inpatient beds, outpatient facilities of two treatment rooms, a consultation room and reception area, office space, skilled research nurses and other personnel to support these resources. The Children's Clinical Research Center, which has been operating since 1964, permits the faculty of the Departments of Pediatrics, Child Study Center, Psychiatry, Surgery, Genetics and Internal Medicine, their postdoctoral fellows and medical students, to conduct clinical investigation in children. The Center provides the environment for studies of normal and abnormal psychosocial implications of organic disease in this age group. Major issues of investigation include innovative approaches in achieving and maintaining optimal control of diabetes in children and adolescents; effects of obesity, normal puberty and diabetes on insulin action and secretion; factors that influence language development and cognitive function in healthy children and children with dyslexia and attention deficit disorder, evaluation of applicability, efficiency and longterm outcome of surgical treatment of childhood epilepsy; the phenomenology and neurobiology of Tourette's syndrome, childhood autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders; the effects of in utero cocaine and other drug exposure on neurobehavioral development of infants and children; investigations into the immunopathogenesis of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; and state-of-the-art advances in the treatment of the critically ill neonate. New initiatives in this proposal include increased research nursing support for child psychiatry-related investigations and the establishment of a direct link with the Hill Health Center, the main community health clinic in New Haven, to enhance minority participation in clinical research. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: GENETIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEARNING DISABILITIES SUBTYPES Principal Investigator & Institution: Raskind, Wendy H.; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1996; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: Dyslexia and dysgraphia are common and complex disorders are common and complex disorders that have long-term educational, economic, and social repercussions. Understanding the biologic basis may lead to earlier and more specific intervention. This project will investigate genetic factors involved in specific subtypes of dyslexia and dysgraphia by evaluating kindreds well-characterized from learning disabilities (LD). There are 5 specific aims. 1. To expand a bank of DNA and cell lines from pedigrees with dyslexia and/or dysgraphia. Ascertainment of probands (500 over the next five years) will be extended to grade 9, for continued recruitment of probands with combined dyslexia and dysgraphia and for increased recruitment of probands with the dysgraphia-only phenotype. 2. To continue to determine transmission patterns of LD subtypes. The language phenotype will be broadened to include morphological processes and the familial aggregation patterns and interdependence of the findings of the previous grant cycle, comorbidity of inattention as a quantitative trait and comorbidity of calculation disability will also be investigated. The LD subphenotypes most likely to have a genetic etiology will be evaluated in segregation analyses to develop models for use in linkage analyses. 3. To detect linkage of learning disabilities subtypes. Candidate regions on chromosomes 1, 2, 6, 7, and 15, already genotyped, will be evaluated for linkage to LD phenotypes and a genome-wide scan will be performed to identify other candidate regions. 4. To perform fine scale mapping of the most promising regions identified in the linkage analyses to enable gene identification. 5. To optimize the UWLDC database and to perform quality control analyses of the data. This Project is carried out in close collaboration with the Clinical Core for the careful phenotyping and with the Statistical Core for all statistical genetic analyses. The goals will be expedited by applying emerging powerful analysis methods. Project III is also linked to Projects I and II in extending the language phenotype to include morphologic processes. Project III is linked to Project IV via an exploratory study of the feasibility of using fMRS measurements as the quantitative trait. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: GENETIC STUDIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Flowers, Donna Lynn.; Wake Forest University 2240 Reynolda Rd Winston-Salem, Nc 27106 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: There is no text on file for this abstract. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: GENETIC STUDIES OF TRICHO DENTO OSSEOUS SYNDROME: DENTAL & GENETIC DISORDERS Principal Investigator & Institution: Wright, John T.; Case Western Reserve University 10900 Euclid Ave Cleveland, Oh 44106 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: This project builds upon a previous study which established the familiality of severe phonology disorders based upon an analysis of clinically affected status. The present study is aimed at refining the phenotype for developmental phonology disorders by examining their comorbidity and phenotypic boundaries with language disorders and reading disorders. It proposes to identify subtypes of phonology disorders and examine modes of inheritance for each subtype, while examining and allowing for gender differences which may exist in many of these disorders. In addition,

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developmental phonology disorders will be compared to reading disorders, or dyslexia, in terms of phenotypic similarities and patterns of inheritance. The validity of family history in predicting later learning problems will also be examined, as will the value of testing battery measurements as predictors of the outcome of therapy for individuals with preschool phonology problems. The goals here are to identify those aspects of performance during the preschool years which predict later speech and language skills, cognitive development, and academic achievement in children with preschool phonology disorders. Emphasis in all of these endeavors is focused on the analysis of quantitative measures of speech, language, and reading. As data collection of readingdisordered families and of longitudinal follow-up measures of phonology-disordered families are still in progress, analytic activity has so far focused on covariate adjustment and admixture analyses of initial phonological measures. These analyses have established the existence of effects of gender and, to a lesser extent, of socio-economic status for these measures. Despite the use of age-specific norms, age effects were noted for most of the measures considered. To some extent, this may be attributable to the lack of available population figures for adult populations, but compensatory strategies in test-taking in adulthood represent another possibility. Approaches to adjust for this phenomenon, such as standardization within developmental epoch, are currently being considered. Other efforts were directed at development and validation of a single score to reflect aspects of oral-motor and language proficiency when different, age-specific procedures must be used. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: GENETICS OF AUTISM Principal Investigator & Institution: Mcmahon, William M.; Associate Professor; University of Utah 200 S University St Salt Lake City, Ut 84112 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: The Utah Autism Program Project aims to identify genetic and non-genetic subgroups of autism by studying possible phenotypic manifestations of etiologic heterogeneity and familial transmission in autistic children and their first-degree family members. Control groups of families with probands affected with non-specific mental retardation or dyslexia are also under study. The investigators have found a high frequency of the MHC C4B null allele in children with autism and their mothers. For the twenty-six probands with completed typing, half have had the null allele. For the thirty mothers typed, 47% have the null allele. This compares with the rate of 20% found in normal controls. In seventeen autistic children with completed HLA typing, 47% have manifest the same extended haplotypes previously found to be increased when compared to controls. A third area of immune genetic function focuses on the hypervariable region of the DR(1 allele. Approximately half of the autistic children have specific alleles that are functionally identical. Other immunologic defects in the population studied have been low levels of IgA in plasma and an increased frequency of the B-cell antigen D8-17 in autistic children. Taken together, the results obtained to date strongly suggest that immune factors are associated with the development of autism. Cognitive studies have demonstrated that mean scores for executive function fall significantly below that predicted by full-scale IQ scores in children with autism. Other studies that are part of this protocol include volumetric measurements of the brain done by magnetic resonance imaging scans. Digitalized data have been collected and are now being processed. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HEMISPERIC: SPECIALIZATION AND INTERACTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Zaidel, Eran; Professor; Psychology; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1983; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: (Adapted from the Investigator's Abstract) The proposed research program aims to unravel the persisting mystery of hemispheric specialization and interhemispheric interaction in the human mind/brain. We will carry out coordinated experiments with normal subjects, hemisphere damaged patients, and split brain patients, using convergent behavioral and physiological methods. The program addresses general issues in cognitive neuroscience concerning modularity, intermodular communication, and control of parallel processing in independent modules. A core set of three lateralized behavioral experiments will investigate (1) hemispheric specialization and interdependence, (2) explicit and implicit interhemispheric transfer, and (3) interhemispheric control of parallel processing. Each experimental paradigm includes an intrahemispheric component for studying hemispheric independence, and an interhemispheric component for studying interhemispheric interaction and control. The same behavioral experiments will be administered to patients with (1) complete cerebral commissurotomy, (2) agenesis of the corpus callosum, and (3) partial callosotomy, both pre- and post-surgically. The first paradigm is dichotic listening to words and accents. It measures complementary left hemispheric specialization for linguistic phonetic analysis and right hemisphere specialization for social/pragmatic aspects of communication. The second paradigm is lexical decision of lateralized targets with distractors in the opposite visual hemifield. It measures independent word recognition, independent error monitoring in the two hemispheres, and implicit priming across the hemispheres. The third paradigm is perceptual matching of letters by shape or by name within and between the hemispheres. It measures the ability of the hemispheres to process information in parallel in complex tasks. Together, the three experimental paradigms developed in this proposal provide a compact but comprehensive and exquisitely sensitive battery of tests of interhemispheric relations. This battery can then be used for studying individual or group differences in interhemispheric relations in normal and pathological populations, such as acquired aphasia, congenital dyslexia and schizophrenia. Results promise better understanding and possible control and reversal of pathology due to abnormal cerebral activation or impaired interhemispheric communication. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HUMAN QTL MAPPING WITH SELECTED SAMPLES Principal Investigator & Institution: Feingold, Eleanor; Associate Professor; Human Genetics; University of Pittsburgh at Pittsburgh 350 Thackeray Hall Pittsburgh, Pa 15260 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-2001; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): One of the most important directions in current biomedical research is the quest to understand the genetic contributions to complex diseases. A critical part of many such investigations is the use of linkage analysis to find possible disease susceptibility loci. Recently, there has been substantial interest in using linkage methods designed for quantitative phenotypes as a tool for finding genes associated with diseases. For example, this approach has been applied to dyslexia, type II diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease. This growth in interest in QTL mapping has been accompanied by a great deal of new work on statistical methods, but little of that work has dealt with selected samples, despite the fact that selected samples are arguably

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more common than population samples in human QTL mapping. The general aim of this grant is to develop powerful statistics for QTL mapping with selected samples, and powerful designs for selecting such samples. The specific aims are the following. 1) Extend the work of Forrest and Feingold (2000) to develop powerful composite statistics and practical sampling designs for concordant sibling pairs, combined discordant and concordant sibling pair designs, and larger pedigrees selected because of extreme trait values of two or more members. 2) Compare the performance of various test statistics for single-proband ascertainment schemes. 3) Investigate the relative power of population sampling, single-proband sampling, and multiple-proband sampling under various genetic models. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: IDENTIFICATION OF GENES INFLUENCING DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Smith, Shelley D.; Professor; Pediatrics; University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Ne 681987835 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-JAN-1998; Project End 31-DEC-2002 Summary: Specific reading disability (dyslexia) affects 5 to 10% of school children, with its effects persisting into adulthood. There is substantial evidence of genetic influence on reading disability, and segregation analysis has been consistent with a major gene influence (Pennington et al., 1991). Analytical and molecular methods now exist for detection of genes of genes influencing complex traits such as reading disability, and we have used these methods to tentatively localize one quantitative trait locus to the short arm of chromosome 6 (Cardon et al., 1994, 1995). However, this locus does not account for the full genetic variation, and other genes undoubtedly exist. We have already ascertained a unique population of 19 kindreds, selected for an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance, that is particularly suitable for gene localization, since the population would be enriched for major genes. We will use both parametric and nonparametric linkage analysis and qualitative and quantitative reading disability phenotypes to localized these additional genes. These phenotypes will include specific measures of abilities that are critical to reading, such as phonological segmentation, phonological coding, and orthographic coding, to determine if these phenotypes characterize a particular locus. A stepwise search strategy will be used, starting with an automated genome screen with markers spaced approximately 10 cM apart and spanning the entire genome. Additional markers will be typed in regions showing indications of linkages, and this region will also be typed in an independent sample of 175 nuclear families in which at least one child has reading disability, to confirm the linkage and determine the optimal phenotype. If further analysis confirms linkage in a region, candidate genes will be identified and mutational analysis will be used to identify functional mutations. Linkage and association analysis will be used to verify that a candidate gene effects reading disability in the 175 nuclear families. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: IERI: SCALING UP READING TUTORS Principal Investigator & Institution: Cole, Ronald A.; Institute of Cognitive Science; University of Colorado at Boulder Boulder, Co 80309 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 27-SEP-2002; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (Provided by Applicant): The proposed work aims to scale up powerful, computer-based learning programs with cutting-edge speech and animation technology. These programs help children with special needs to acquire the foundational speech,

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language, and reading skills necessary for academic achievement, social interaction and self-esteem. The investigators target four populations of students with special needs, representing between 20-25% of all K-12 students in the country, students whose needs are currently not met adequately by the public school system: students with 1) hearing impairments, 2) autism spectrum disorders, 3) English as a second language, and 4) reading disabilities. The impact of the reduced potential of all these students is devastating both to them and to society. Computer-based programs can help these students overcome significant barriers to learning so they can realize their potential. The proposed project would provide students and their teachers with computer-based learning tool that enable significant learning gains whole reducing teacher load. The investigators propose to identify barriers to the widespread deployment and acceptance of these tools and to develop strategies that will enable them to successfully scale up programs using these tools to effect systemic change. The proposed work builds on a strong foundation of theoretical and empirical research by the investigators on learning in areas of speech and language, reading skills, and comprehension, and research and development of human language technologies. Their work has led to the development and successful deployment of computerized language training tutors that use intelligent animated agents to teach speech, reading, and classroom subjects to profoundly deaf children at Tucker Maxon Oral School in Portland, OR, and to students with dyslexia and ASD at schools in Boulder, CO. While educational technology is now poised to advance student achievement in many academic areas, the technology will be useless unless teachers feel invested, competent, and interested in including the technology in their own teaching. The goal of this research is to identify factors which hinder and help in the acceptance and deployment of the software, and to develop a model which will be useful for other researchers and developers in scaling up potentially valuable new technologies in education. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: INDUCED NEOCORTICAL MALFORMATIONS Principal Investigator & Institution: Rosen, Glenn D.; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: Accumulated evidence suggests that multiple neurologic systems are aberrantly organized in individuals with developmental dyslexia, ranging from developmental anomalies of the neocortex to defects in lower level sensory systems. It is hypothesized that these anomalies are correlated, and further that they influence each other in a top-down manner. Specifically, we hypothesize that early focal neocortical injury sets into motion a cascade of events that results in the disruption of connectionally-related anatomic structures - a disruption that may in turn lead to defects in the function of fast components of primary sensory systems. The proposed set of experiments will explore the anatomic substrates of developmental dyslexia - a uniquely human disorder - with an animal model of neonatal focal neocortical damage. This animal model involves the induction of focal neuronal migration disorders by small freezing lesions to the developing cortical plate of the rat. These lesions result in the formation of an area of dysgenetic cortex resembling 4-layered microgyria, and are associated with fast component temporal processing deficits in this animal. It is the goal of this proposal to investigate how early neocortical damage might affect the organization of the developing brain connectionally and cytoarchitectonically, and how to ameliorate the anatomic effects of early brain injury. Specifically, we will attempt to determine (1) the effects of neonatal neocortical injury in different locations on neuronal

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connectivity of the rat, first by examining connections in adulthood and then by determining their formation developmentally; (2) the effects of neonatal neocortical injury on the volumetric and cellular morphometry of connectionally-related and unrelated cortical and subcortical regions by measuring architectonic volume, neuronal size and density, and neuronal activation; (3) whether the reported amelioration of behavior by enrichment is associated with changes in the volumetric, connectional, and morphometric characteristics of the brain, and (4) the effects of age of lesion on the formation developmental cortical anomalies. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: INTERVENTION FOR ADHD PLUS DYSLEXIA: DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Principal Investigator & Institution: Tannock, Rosemary; Senior Scientist; Hospital for Sick Chldrn (Toronto) 555 University Ave Toronto, Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 25-SEP-2001; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Reading Disorder (RD) are the two most prevalent neurocognitive disorders diagnosed in childhood, and they frequently co-occur in the same individual. Despite advances in the development of effective treatments for the two separate disorders, few well-controlled studies have been undertaken to address the question of what constitutes effective treatment for these disorders in combination. Children with ADHD+RD are at risk for being treated ineffectively, even by the best available treatments for the separate conditions of ADHD and RD. which are typically provided independently by health and education agencies, respectively. This is because the best treatment approaches for ADHD do not have any direct beneficial effects on the core cognitive deficits underlying RD. and the best intervention programs for RD do not have any impact on the cognitive and behavioral deficits underlying ADHD. The broad objectives of the proposed project are to develop effective treatments for children with comorbid ADHD+RD by refining and integrating promising intervention approaches for ADHD, RD. and ADHD+RD that are currently being evaluated independently at the University of California (Irvine) and The Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto). These interventions are unique in that they target specific cognitive deficits in ADHD+RD. Specific aims are to: 1) standardize two novel intensive remediation programs that teach specific reading strategies (PHAST') or arithmetic and metacognitive strategies (SCORE) that differentially target specific cognitive deficits in ADHD+RD; 2) standardize the medication protocols for once-daily dosing (OROS-MPH) or twice-daily dosing with methylphenidate; 3) standardize teacher-consultation protocol to promote transfer of specific reading strategies or generalized metacognitive strategies to the regular classroom; 4) estimate intervention parameters (effect size, response rate, attrition rate) from a preliminary evaluation of the relative efficacy of PHAST and MAST in combination with teacher consultation and either OROS-MPH or IR-MPH for improving reading and core ADHD symptoms in children with ADHD+RD; and 5) develop and standardize procedures for implementing and evaluating the intervention in a crossnational multi-site controlled outcome study, including web site development for resource support, video-conferencing, treatment fidelity monitoring, and on-line collection of data. The anticipated outcome is a protocol which is ethically, scientifically sound, and ready to be implemented in a large-scale multi-site randomized controlled trial to investigate the relative effects of these specific intervention approaches on the core cognitive and behavioral deficits in children with ADHD+RD. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: LINGUISTIC PHENOTYPE IN FAMILIAL DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Pennington, Bruce F.; Professor; Psychology; University of Denver Box 101562 Denver, Co 80208 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-1984; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): The proposed research is the competitive renewal of an NIMH MERIT award focused on the linguistic phenotype in familial dyslexia. Our earlier work has clarified both the underlying cognitive phenotype and the genetic etiology of familial dyslexia. We propose to extend that work by examining both the phenotypic and genotypic relation between dyslexia (or reading disability--RD) and phonological disorder (PD), which manifest at different ages but exhibit several intriguing commonalities. The two disorders overlap symptomatically in that some prospective studies of children with PD find they later have an elevated rate of RD and in that retrospective studies of children with RD document elevated rates of earlier PD. The underlying cognitive phenotype that is characteristic of RD, a deficit in phoneme awareness, is also found on follow-up in many cases of PD. Finally, there is evidence that each disorder is under genetic influence and that the two disorders are cofamilial. In sum, there is evidence for overlap at three levels of analysis: defining symptoms, underlying cognitive processes, and familial etiology. We will test five competing explanations for this overlap: 1) that they are the same disorder in terms of both genetic etiology and cognitive phenotype, but that the symptom manifestations differ depending on severity such that PD + RD is a more severe manifestation than RD alone; 2) that they share a common etiology which acts pleiotropically to produce either PD, RD, or both in a given individual; 3) that PD and RD have distinct etiologies, but share a common cognitive phenotype (cognitive phenocopy hypothesis); 4) that PD and RD have distinct etiologies, but that PD accompanied by specific language impairment develops into a symptom phenocopy of RD (synergy hypothesis); or 5) that PD and RD have distinct etiologies, but co-occur in offspring because of assortment (RD individuals are more likely to mate with PD individuals). We will perform four principal tests to distinguish these hypotheses. Specifically, we will test 1) whether there is a common cognitive phenotype by means of a longitudinal study; 2) whether there is a common genetic etiology by means of a linkage analysis of PD families; 3) whether there is assortment by examining parents of PD and RD children; and 4) how PD, RD, and PD+RD segregate in families. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: MECHANISMS OF ATTENTION IN THE ACQUISITION OF LITERACY Principal Investigator & Institution: Posner, Michael I.; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-1989; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's description) This project will examine the role of attention in reading impairment and its remediation. Dyslexia and ADHD commonly appear in the same children; however, the reason for this overlap is not fully understood. The goal of these investigators will be to examine attentional mechanisms in a known population of reading impaired (RI) children and to determine if they reflect deficits in specific attention networks. Whether or not attentional deficits are an important cause of reading impairment, they hope to determine how attention can enhance acquisition of the reading skill by RI children. This work will assess RI and nonimpaired children on three separate component networks of attention: the ability to

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develop and maintain an alert state, goal directed orienting of attention, and conflict resolution. Initial work will quantify these attention mechanisms with a reaction-time test battery that focuses on visual-spatial processes. Additional work will adopt these techniques for ERP studies in the visual/spatial and auditory/temporal domain. Orienting attention to particular aspects of stimuli not only activates domain-general attention networks, but also modifies activity in areas specifically related to the attended information. They will adopt existing fMRI techniques designed to separate attentional modulation vs. stimulus-driven activity and apply these techniques to component skills in the domain of reading. They will examine the hypothesis that reading impaired children have difficulty using attention to modify activity in cortical regions corresponding to critical computations of reading. For example, children demonstrating symptoms of phonological dyslexia may be unable to use attention to modulate activity in dorsal regions (posterior extent of the left superior temporal gyrus). They believe that the focus of the subjects? attention during training will largely determine what is learned and how well it is learned. By encouraging subjects to orient their attention to different information as they learn new reading materials (children learning new words or adults learning new writing systems), these investigators will examine how orienting to different information influences learning-related activity in dorsal and ventral cortical regions associated with reading skill. They will examine how learning to read influences the brain?s attention system. Reports of differences between the effects of brain lesions on illiterate and literate adults give rise to the possibility that learning to read alters the organization of the cerebral hemispheres in a way that will be reflected in the deployment of attention networks. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MECHANISMS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION IN HUMAN VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Blake, Randolph R.; Professor; Psychology; Vanderbilt University 3319 West End Ave. Nashville, Tn 372036917 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1988; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): How does vision specify the objects and events that guide our actions? How does vision interact with other brain systems in this specification? These broad questions motivate the experiments in this proposal. This proposal, the second resubmission of a competitive renewal of the PI's current grant (EY 07760), describes a set of studies using psychophysical methods and novel display techniques to pursue the following research problems: a) perception of shape and figure/ground relations based on edge and contour information specified solely by temporal information; b) influence of auditory signals and environmental context on registration and integration of object/motion information. Specific methods include forced-choice measurement of shape discrimination performance, tracking of periods of dominance and suppression in binocular rivalry accompanied by sound, measurement of direction and/or motion coherence discrimination under conditions where observers are also listening to moving sound sources. Results from these experiments will bear importantly on contemporary theories of feature binding, motion perception and perceptual grouping. In addition, this work broadens the PI's studies to include the role of context on visual perception. It is anticipated that results will point the way to physiological and neural imaging studies of the neural concomitants of visual perception. In addition, the work on spatial structure from temporal synchrony may have implications for understanding clinical disorders involving disruptions in temporal processing, including dyslexia.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MODELING NORMAL AND IMPAIRED LEXICAL PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Plaut, David C.; Associate Professor; Psychology; Carnegie-Mellon University 5000 Forbes Ave Pittsburgh, Pa 15213 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JAN-1997; Project End 31-JAN-2007 Summary: Lexical processing is at the core of written and spoken language. The traditional view of the lexicon is akin to a "dictionary" with entries containing the phonological, orthographic, morphological and semantic information associated with each word. An alternative perspective is that lexical knowledge emerges from the dynamic interactions among distributed patterns of neural activity representing orthography, phonology, and semantics (with morphology reflecting learned systematic relationships among these representations). Computational (connectionist) models consistent with this perspective have accounted for a wide range of empirical phenomena in reading and language. Although highly successful, the models have not satisfactorily addressed cross-linguistic variation, how the orthographic, phonological, and semantic representations themselves develop, and certain specific empirical findings. Moreover, separate models address subsets of the relevant phenomena without clear evidence that their underlying assumptions are mutually consistent. To address these challenges, we propose to develop a single, longitudinal stimulation of lexical processing (Specific Aim 1), spanning early phonological development and lexical/morphological acquisition, reading acquisition in normal and dyslexic children, normal skilled reading and lexical/morphological processing, and patterns of acquired dyslexia in brain-damaged patients. Because developing a model of this breadth necessarily involves some compromise of depth, we also propose to develop focused stimulations, tightly coordinated with the longitudinal model, to address specific empirical phenomena in full detail (Specific Aim 2). Discoveries of critical design principles at this detailed level will be used to improve approximations within the longitudinal model. Focused simulations will address early phonological development and error patterns in child speech, morphological acquisition and generalization, normal skilled reading and acquired surface and phonological dyslexia, and cross-linguistic differences in morphological priming. Finally, we will carry out specific behavioral studies designed to test key assumptions of the framework (Specific Aim 3). Such studies will address the acquisition and generalization of derivational morphology, length effects in word and non-word reading, and the temporal dynamics of morphological processing. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: MODELING THE USE, BREAKDOWN AND RECOVERY OF LITERACY Principal Investigator & Institution: Harm, Michael W.; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition; Carnegie-Mellon University 5000 Forbes Ave Pittsburgh, Pa 15213 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-2000 Summary: This research program proposes to apply a connectionist model of visual word recognition (the "triangle" model of Seidenberg and McClelland, 1989, hereafter SM89) to various aspects of developmental and acquired dyslexias, and explore the impact of various remediation techniques. Contrary to more traditional models which posit the accessing of entries from a mental lexicon, this model proposes that word recognition is a process in which patterns of activation are computed over orthographic,

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phonological and semantic representations. This model raises a natural theoretical question, namely, what is the division of labor between "direct" access to meaning and "phonologically mediated" access to meaning from print. The division of labor within the model is crucial to accounts of the role of phonology in reading acquisition, and to developmental and acquired dyslexias. To date, various subcomponents of the full model have been computationally explored in isolation (spelling to sound, SM89; and spelling to meaning to sound Plaut and Shallice, 1993), and factors influencing the division of labor have been explored with respect to normal reading (Harm, 1998). But no large scale version of the full model has been applied to developmental or acquired dyslexia. Lacking explicit simulations of the role of phonology in both normal and impaired reading, it is difficult to posit effective remediation techniques for abnormal reading in the face of damage. Further, lacking an explicit demonstration of the triangle model's accounts of various dyslexias, it is difficult to assess the validity of the theory as a whole. I propose to combine and extend the various implemented models within this framework into a larger model capable of testing specific theoretical accounts of the breakdown and recovery of literacy. Empirical experiments will be used to test predictions of earlier modeling efforts and constrain model development. This work will significantly advance theories of the acquisition, skilled use, breakdown and recovery of literacy. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MOLECULAR SYNDROMEN

BASIS

FOR

DYSLEXIA

IN

KLINEFELTERS

Principal Investigator & Institution: Korenberg, Julie R.; Professor; Harbor-Ucla Research & Educ Inst 1124 W Carson St Torrance, Ca 90502 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MRS ANALYSIS: READING DISABILITY/ESTROGEN EFFECTS Principal Investigator & Institution: Fulbright, Robert K.; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-1989; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's description) The long-term objective of this project is to use magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to better define the nature of the deficit in reading disability (dyslexia), and to understand how estrogen acts on the neurochemistry of a brain region involved in reading. With MRS and its ability to assess the neurochemical function of key inhibitory and excitatory neuronal systems, it is now possible to study the brain function in RD readers and the effects of estrogen at a cellular and biochemical level. In Specific Aim 1, MRS will be used to measure levels of Nacetyl-aspartate (NAA) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the posterior reading area (parietal-temporal) of nonimpaired (NI) and reading disabled (RD) readers. If there is a decrease in total neuronal density or energetic status, a reduction in NAA levels is anticipated. If there is a specific alteration of energetic status involving inhibitory neuronal function, a decrease in GABA level is expected. In Specific Aim 2, MRS will be used to measure the rate of glucose oxidation in glutamate containing neurons in the left parietal-temporal region of the brains of RD and NI adult subjects during a reading task. The investigators expect to find decreased neuronal glucose oxidation during a phonology task in RD subjects compared to NI subjects, indicating an inappropriately

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low level of excitatory neuronal activity. An imbalance between excitation and inhibition may be a fundamental defect responsible for the impairment seen in RD subjects. In Specific Aim 3, MRS will be used to measure GABA levels in the parietaltemporal region of NI postmenopausal women on and off estrogen. If GABA levels are altered by estrogen, it suggests that the inhibitory neural system may be a link to understanding how estrogen effects reading performance. By applying advanced MRS techniques to the study of brain function, this project is a logical and innovative approach to elucidate the cellular mechanisms underlying a cognitive process (reading) and its impairment (reading disability). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEURAL CIRCUITS IN VISUAL CORTICAL AREAS V1 AND V2 Principal Investigator & Institution: Callaway, Edward M.; Associate Professor; Salk Institute for Biological Studies 10010 N Torrey Pines Rd San Diego, Ca 92037 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1995; Project End 14-JUL-2002 Summary: (Adapted From The Applicant's Abstract) Visual perception is mediated by complex interaction amongst urons in the retina, visual cortex and subcortical brain structured. The importance of vision to humans and other primates in reflected in the enormous percentage of cerebral cortex devoted to processing visual information. Thus deficits in visual processing are particularly debilitating and arise from abnormalities not only in the eye, but also in cortical circuitry, For example, strabismus or amblyopia during childhood can have long-lasting effects on the cortical circuits that process visual information. There is also evidence that some forms of dyslexia result from central visual system abnormalities. The proposed studies are aimed at understanding the organization of neural circuits within and between the visual cortical areas V1 and V2, with the broader objective of contributing to understanding how neural circuits mediate the computations that underlie visual perception. In particular, these studies aim to identify: (1) how local circuits in V1 mediate integration and/or segregation of information arising from "parallel M and P retino-geniculate pathways; 2) whether V1 neurons receiving different combinations of M and P input project in turn to different functional compartments in V2; (3) the sources of local functional input to individual neurons in the deep layers of V1 and whether they correlate with the outputs of each deep layer cell type; (4) the organization of local circuits that mediate computations in V2. These goals will be achieved by using a combination of anatomical and physiological methods in living in vitro brain slice preparations. Neurons in area V1 and V2 will be intracellularly labeled and their axonal and dendritic arbors reconstructed to determine their contributions to local cortical circuits. The V1 neurons will also be subject to EM analyses to identify ultrastructural properties of the synapses formed by the various cell types in this area. Scanning laser photo-stimulation will be used to reveal the source of local functional input to individual superficial and deep layer neurons in V1. Some of the superficial V1 neurons will previously have been retrogradely-labeled allowing identification of the extra-striate cortical areas that they target, while deep layer neurons with the various output patterns will be identified by intracellular labeling of their axonal arbors. These combined photo-stimulation and anatomical approaches therefore allow the identification of functional input sources to cells whose outputs are anatomically identified. These analyses reveal the flow of visual information across multiple synapses, allowing an unprecedented view of visual cortical circuits. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: NEUROBEHAVIOR Principal Investigator & Institution: Denenberg, Victor H.; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: BXSB and NZB mice are autoimmune, with a 40-60% occurrence of neocortical ectopias. The ectopias, formed during embryonic development, are structurally similar to those seen in brains of dyslexics. Further, dyslexics are 2.5 times more likely to have autoimmune problems than the general population. For these reasons, BXSB and NZB mice have been used to model developmental learning disabilities. On tests of spatial working memory, ectopic BXSBs have poorer scores than non-ectopics. Surprisingly, ectopic BXSB mice are superior to their non-ectopic littermates on the Morris maze (spatial reference memory). NZB ectopics and nonectopics also differ on the Morris maze, but for this strain ectopics are poorer learners than non-ectopics. Finally, ectopic mice from both strains show poorer performance on discrimination learning. These combined results show that deficits observed for ectopic and non-ectopic mice differ as a function of memory process (reference versus working), type of test (spatial versus nonspatial), and strain. We attribute the strain differences to the fact that in BXSBs, ectopias occur mostly in prefrontal/motor cortex, while in NZBs, ectopias are mainly in somatosensory cortex. Since both prefrontal/motor and somatosensory ectopias occur naturally and are sharply delimited in extent, BXSBs and NZBs provide an ideal preparation with which to study a known anomaly of human neurodevelopment. We propose to build on this developmental disability model by further studying the consequences of ectopias for reference and working memory systems, and spatial and non spatial learning, in both strains. We will also test mice with induced lesions in different cortical locations, and transgenic mice with bilateral ectopias in prefrontal cortex, to address this issue. Moreover, we will assess the effects of environmental enrichment, and an Fl genetic cross between the two strains. These studies speak to the direct consequences of cortical damage on learning and memory in ectopic mice. Evidence also suggests that early cortical damage induces sub-cortical (thalamic) anomalies which may underlie multi-sensory processing deficits in language impaired individuals. We will address this hypothesis by testing auditory, visual, and tactile temporal processing in the BXSB and NZB strains. We predict these strains will be characterized by deficits in sensory processing specific to rapid rates of stimulus presentation, and moreover, that cortical location of ectopias will not significantly influence this effect. In sum, there are sufficient structural similarities between ectopias in mouse and man, and sufficient behavioral similarities between ectopic mice and humans with developmental learning disorders, to lead us to believe that these animal models are rich sources of information and insight about the human condition. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: NEUROIMAGING LANGUAGE IN THE NORMALLY DEVELOPING BRAIN Principal Investigator & Institution: Dapretto, Mirella; None; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-2001; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: The proposed study will use both functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI and MRI) to begin to delineate the neural systems associated with the emergency of high-level linguistic functions in normally developing children, aged 7 to 14. More specifically, this pilot project has two main goals. First, we will use

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fMRI to qualify and quantify developmental changes in the pattern or cortical activity (in terms of localization, magnitude, spatial extent, and inter-regional connectivity) associated with language processing at the level of closed formal linguistic systems (i.e., phonology, semantics, syntax), as well as with language processing in its broader communicative context (i.e., prosody, discourse, pragmatics). Second, we will relate the developmental changes in the neural networks subserving language processing observed with fMRI, to age-related changes in brain morphometry (in terms of regional volume, gray and white matter concentrations, shape, and asymmetry) as assessed by structural MRI. The findings of the proposed cross-sectional study will form the cornerstone of a longitudinal research program aimed at fully elucidating the neural developments associated with the emergence of mature linguistic competence in normally developing children. Furthermore, these developmental findings will provide normative data for evaluating the patterns of brain dysfunction associated with the linguistic and communicative impairments observed in a variety of developmental disorders (e.g., dyslexia, autism, early-onset schizophrenia). By delineating the relationship among language processing, brain function, and brain structure, this study will begin to bridge the informational gap on the neural basis of language in the normally developing brain. Moreover, the proposed project will highlight how an integrated nature of brain-behavior interactions. At a theoretical level, a deeper understanding of the neural basis of language processing, particularly of how it changes and develops as a function of learning, will enlighten our thinking about the origin and modularity of language. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEUROLINGUISTIC AND BIOLOGIC MECHANISMS IN DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Shaywitz, Bennett A.; Professor of Pediatrics & Neurology; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPEECH PERCEPTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Liebenthal, Einat; Assistant Professor; Neurology; Medical College of Wisconsin Po Box26509 Milwaukee, Wi 532264801 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-JUL-2003; Project End 30-JUN-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): The tong-term objective of this project is to identify the neurophysiological processes underlying speech perception. A defining characteristic of speech sounds is that they are perceived categorically. That is, different acoustic stimuli tend to be grouped into perceptual categories, resulting in better discrimination across than within category boundaries. Our main hypothesis is that the degree of left hemispheric dominance for processing of speech sounds is related to their categorical perception rather than to any special status as speech sounds. We hypothesize that the left hemisphere is specialized for categorical perception of sounds, both speech and nonspeech, whereas the right hemisphere is specialized for continuous discrimination of sounds. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and eventrelated potential (ERP) techniques will be used to achieve five specific aims: (1) Identify brain areas underlying categorical and continuous perception of speech and speech-like sounds. We predict that categorical perception will be associated with neural activation in regions of the left auditory cortex not activated during perception of acoustically

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matched but continuously-perceived sounds. (2) Define the relation between categorical perception of sounds and associated patterns of hemispheric lateralization. We predict that categorical perception will result in greater leftward lateralization of neural activation than continuous perception of acoustically matched sounds. (3) Define the neural processes underlying plasticity of the brain in shifting from categorical to continuous perception and from continuous to categorical perception, through training. We predict that the learning and unlearning of perceptual categories will induce hemispheric shifts in processing and associated activation of neural substrates for category representations. (4) Test the effects of attention on categorical perception by comparing brain activation patterns during oddball discrimination under pre-attentive and under active target detection conditions. (5) Explore the temporal course of activation of brain areas involved in categorical and continuous perception, based on fMRI-constrained dipole modeling of the neural generators underlying each type of perception. Speech perception plays a fundamental role in human cognition. Understanding the neurophysiological basis of categorical perception of speech and its relation to hemispheric lateralization may suggest means of improving the treatment of disorders such as dyslexia, specific language impairment and schizophrenia, and means of improving rehabilitation methods in diseases affecting the temporal lobe unilaterally, such as stroke and temporal lobe epilepsy. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES PROCESSING

OF

INFORMATION

Principal Investigator & Institution: Sussman, Elyse S.; Otolaryngology; Yeshiva University 500 W 185Th St New York, Ny 10033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-APR-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2006 Summary: The broad objective of the proposed research is to provide a more detailed understanding of the stimulus-driven processes that contribute to auditory perception. We will use the high temporal resolution of event-related potentials (ERPs) in conjunction with behavioral methods to compare the outcome of stimulus-driven auditory processes with the perception resulting from attentive processing of the same sounds, across various experimental conditions. This will allow us to evaluate the processing stages between sensory input and behavioral response. There are three main aims of the proposal. One is to determine the extent of processing of unattended acoustic information. Four experiments address this aim. One tests the processing capacity for unattended sounds. Another determines whether the process of auditory feature integration requires attention. A third tests the hypothesis that the auditory system organizes information from multiple unattended sources when attention is directed to a single acoustic source. The fourth investigates stimulus context effects on auditory event formation. A second aim is to understand how attention and stimulusdriven processes interact. Two experiments address this aim. One investigates how perception relates to stimulus-driven auditory event formation and another, the role of attention in auditory stream formation. The third aim is to investigate effects of attention on early sensory grouping processes. One experiment will test the hypothesis that topdown processing can modify the stimulus- driven sound organization. Deficits in central auditory processing are thought to play a key role in many cognitive disorders (e.g., autism or dyslexia). Using electrophysiological measures, in conjunction with behavioral methods, to delineate the stimulus-driven processes that contribute to auditory perception can help advance our understanding of impaired processing, which is essential for developing rehabilitative treatments. Furthermore, because subject

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response is not needed for obtaining the ERP components (such as N1 and MMN), this methodology has the potential to be an important non-invasive tool for diagnosis of central auditory processing deficits that contribute to impaired cognition. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY CONNECTIVITY

2:

ACOUSTIC

MAPPING

AND

Principal Investigator & Institution: Read, Heather L.; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 05-AUG-2002; Project End 31-JUL-2007 Summary: (provided by applicant): A number of developmental disorders are associated with cortical injury that occurs during the period of neuronal migration to the cortex and leads to areas of focal microgyria and molecular layer glio-neuronal heterotopias. These anomalies have been reported in the brains of individuals with developmental dyslexia and have been modeled in the rodent for the purpose of understanding the link between anatomical and behavioral changes. In many dyslexics and other developmentally language impaired individuals, the anatomical anomalies are associated with problems with low level auditory processing. When microgyria are experimentally induced in rats, difficulties performing some learning tasks and in discriminating rapid sound changes are seen that are similar to those in language impaired individuals appear. These results, thus, indicate a causal relationship between cortical anomaly induction and temporal and other processing deficits. Anatomical studies in the rodent show that cortico-cortical and cortico-thalamic connectivity is altered by microgyria induction, as well as cellular changes in abnormal and adjacent cortex and thalamus. This Program Project aims to deepen and broaden our knowledge of anatomical-physiological-behavioral mechanisms in the rodent model of temporal processing deficits. This component of the Program Project grant is designed to explore, at the systems neurophysiological level, the neural bases for the specific auditory temporal processing deficits associated with cortical microgyria. Abnormal cortical electric field responses to acoustic modulations are seen in microgyria, which has led us to the hypothesis that microgyria causes temporal processing deficits in the auditory cortex. We propose to use white noise acoustic stimuli for recording and analyzing cortical and subcortical brain evoked potentials in microgyria animals. These analytic tools are much more powerful than those traditionally employed for human evoked potentials studies and will allow us to characterize specific spectral and temporal processing deficits. Next, we propose to extensively map spectral-temporal features encoding in single neurons of the primary auditory cortex, with the prediction that microgyria animals will show altered features encoding in auditory cortex. Finally, we propose to show that the cellular changes in auditory thalamus associated with dyslexia and microgyria are associated with altered organization of layer VI cortico-cortical connections and thalamo-cortical connections. Identifying details of auditory cortical organizations and specific spectral and temporal processing associated with microgyria in early development should lead to strategies for improved diagnosis and treatment. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: ONTOGENY OF SEGMENTAL SPEECH ORGANIZATIONS Principal Investigator & Institution: Nittrouer, Susan; Staff Scientist; Father Flanagan's Boys' Home Boys Town, Ne 68010 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1988; Project End 31-MAR-2002

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Summary: The long-term goal of this project is to improve our understanding of how children learn about the segmental (i.e., phonemic) organization of language, and to begin investigating what goes wrong in this developmental process for children with apparent delays. Studies with normally developing children are converging on the notion that these young subjects do not have as solid or as precise representations of segmental speech structure as adults do, suggesting that one aspect of learning to talk is discovering this structure in the speech signal. One model of how this developmental task is accomplished is that the weights assigned to various acoustic properties of the speech signal are returned as children gain experience with their native language. This 'developmental weighting shift,' as the model is termed, eventually leads to speech processing strategies that optimize the weightings of acoustic properties that most strongly convey information about phonetic contrasts in the child's native language. The four specific aims of this project test hypotheses derived from this theoretical account. Experiments with normal subjects will investigate the weighting schemes of listeners of different ages for stimuli with different syllable structures and phonemic compositions, and evaluate two possible causes of the developmental weighting shift: developmental changes in psychoacoustic capacities and developmental changes in the way acoustic properties are integrated. Perception experiments involving labeling and/or discrimination tasks will be used to accomplish these aims. Experiments comparing data from normal children and from children who are phonologically unaware, compared to their normal peers, will explore the possibility that their difficulty is related to a delay in the developmental weighting shift. Three kinds of experiments will be used to accomplish this aim: one acoustic analysis of speech samples, three speech perception tests, and five related psychoacoustic tests. Results should have implications for children with language impairments, including dyslexia. This work should lead to a better understanding of how normal children acquire sensitivity to the segmental structure of speech, improve our understanding of the problem faced by children having difficulty doing so, and provide a starting point for exploring the problems faced by children with several types of language impairments. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PHYSIOLOGY OF RADIAL UNITS IN CORTICOGENESIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Kriegstein, Arnold R.; Professor; Neurology; Columbia University Health Sciences New York, Ny 10032 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-APR-1997; Project End 31-AUG-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): During corticogenesis, CajaI-Retzius (CR) neurons and radial gila participate in neuronal migration and the organization of radial columns of neurons. The complex circuitry among these interconnected columns provides the basis for the remarkable computational capacity of the cortex. Dysfunctional cortical circuits underlie a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders including epilepsy, mental retardation, schizophrenia, and dyslexia. However, we have very little understanding of how such specific circuits develop. We have recently found that radial glial cells divide to produce neurons that then migrate along their parent radial glial cell fiber into the developing cortex. This finding suggests that a radial glial 'mother' cell generates and guides daughter neurons throughout their development, and that in the mature brain the family of related, potentially interconnected neurons may underlie microciruits in the adult cerebral cortex. The proposed experiments will examine the hypotheses that radial gila provide pathways for neuronal regulation of neurogenesis and migration and that radial glial-derived cells may form functional radial units in the adult cortex. Clonally related cortical neurons will be labeled by transfecting rat

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neocortex in utero with a GFP-expressing replication-deficient retrovirus. The resulting GFP-expressing radial clones of pyramidal neurons can be visualized in living brain slices. We will use intracellular dye-filling, optical recording of calcium signals, and dual whole-cell recording to examine the functional significance of connectivity between radial gila and daughter neurons and within clones of related cells. Questions we plan to address include: Does coupling of migrating neurons to parental radial glia underlie neuronal migration? Are sibling neurons gap junction coupled to one another? Do lineage-related cell contacts determine the pattern of intracolumnar connectivity? Do CR cells and radial glia signal one another and does this signaling influence neurogenesis or migration? Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PLASTICITY AND THE DECODING OF TEMPORAL INFORMATION Principal Investigator & Institution: Buonomano, Dean V.; Neurobiology; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 22-SEP-2001; Project End 30-JUN-2006 Summary: (provided by the applicant): Information contained in the temporal patterns of neuronal activity is fundamental to neural processing. The origin of the temporal information is generally in the nature of the stimuli themselves, such as the temporal features of speech, but may also be neurally generated at early stages of sensory processing. How is temporal information decoded by the nervous system? What are the neural mechanisms that permit neurons to develop selective responses to temporal patterns on the time scale of tens to hundreds of milliseconds? The hypothesis guiding the current proposal is that local cortical networks are intrinsically capable of decoding temporal information. Specifically, that short-term plasticity produces time-dependent changes in the balance of opposing excitatory and inhibitory events, and that these timedependent changes in network state allow neurons to respond differentially to the distinct temporal features of stimuli. Neuronal responses to time-varying stimuli are determined not only by the strength of their excitatory inputs, but by a balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs, each of which is modulated by short-term forms of plasticity. The projects described here are aimed at understanding how multiple synaptic and cellular mechanisms interact, and the learning rules that govern the longterm plasticity of each process, including short-term plasticity itself. Towards this goal the Specific Aims of the current proposal will include: (1) Characterizing the interaction between short and long-term associative plasticity of excitatory synapses; (2) Determining whether the same protocols that induce plasticity of EPSPs, produce longterm plasticity of IPSPs and/or changes in presynaptically mediated forms of short-term plasticity; (3) Computational analysis of whether the orchestrated regulation of multiple synapse types in parallel - as observed in Aims 1 & 2 - may underlie the generation of interval selective neurons; (4) Experimental analysis of the dynamics of neocortical circuits and the ability of individual neurons embedded in these circuits to exhibit temporally selective responses. Together these studies should contribute to the understanding of how the brain times events, as well as to understanding cognitive deficits that may involve temporal processing (such as some forms of dyslexia), and to the generation of artificial systems capable of complex pattern recognition. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: DISABILITIES

PREDOCTORAL

FELLOWSHIP

FOR

STUDENTS

WITH

Principal Investigator & Institution: Kinsey, Kristofer K.; Psychology; Claremont Graduate School 150 E 10Th St Claremont, Ca 91711 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-DEC-2001 Summary: The research proposed under this fellowship will examine the magnocellular pathway and it's role in reading. In the last few years, there have been a number of reports indicating a relationship between dyslexia and a visual processing deficit specific to the magnocellular pathway (M path). It is not clear how an M path dysfunction would cause reading difficulties, or even if the dysfunction contributes significantly to dyslexia. Preliminary studies from this lab however, indicate there is an M path involvement in specific aspects of reading. Specifically, the M path seems to be involved with global orthographic processing. The research proposed under this NIH fellowship will be conducted to assess the involvement M path deficit has on reading performance and to show the specific reading mechanisms effected by M path dysfunction in adults and children diagnosed with dyslexia. The research project will be conducted in two parts. Part I: The first step to assess the M path involvement in reading will be to evaluate the vascular of currently available methodologies for inhibiting M path processing. The, second step will be to record and compare, in non-dyslexic individuals, neural activity associated with orthographic and phonologic processing tasks under M path inhibition and normal conditions. Part II: To test the hypothesis that an M path deficit is significantly contributing to reading problems in dyslexics, neural activity recorded under M path inhibition will be compared to neural activity recorded from dyslexic individuals performing the same tasks. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PREREADERS READING RELATED PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Principal Investigator & Institution: Wagner, Richard K.; Alfred Binet Professor of Psychology; Psychology; Florida State University 97 South Woodward Avenue Tallahassee, Fl 323064166 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1988; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: The long-term objective of this application is to use advances in experimental, psychometric, and statistical methods to isolate reading-related phonological processes from more general language and cognitive abilities, and to apply the results of this effort to improving (a) the early identification of children at risk for developmental dyslexia or reading disability, and (b) our understanding of causal relations between the development of phonological processes and the acquisition of beginning reading skills. There are four specific aims, two of primarily theoretical importance and two of primarily practical importance. The first specific aim is to determine how prereaders' phonological processing abilities can best be measured in general, and how phonological processing can be isolated from more general language and intellectual abilities, in particular. This will be achieved by comparing alternative modes of assessment and scoring in study one, and by combining an experimental design involving matched control tasks with advanced statistical analyses in studies two, three, and four. The second specific aim is to extend and expand a model of the nature of phonological processing abilities to prereaders. This aim will be achieved using confirmatory factor analysis to test alternative models of the nature of prereaders' phonological processing abilities in studies two, three, and four. The third specific aim is to test alternative models of developing causal relations between prereaders'

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phonological processing abilities and proto-literacy skills. We will achieve this aim using structural equation modeling of longitudinal data from studies three and four. The fourth and final specific aim is to determine when and how best to identify prereaders who are at risk for developmental dyslexia or reading disability. We will achieve this aim using a longitudinal predictive design in studies three and four. Success in isolating reading-related phonological processes from more general language and intellectual abilities has implications for advancing our knowledge of reading disability that extend beyond the proposed studies. Examples include providing more precise behavioral phenotypes for genetic linkage studies and more focused target and control tasks for fMRI studies. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PSYCHIATRIC OUTCOME STUDIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Goldston, David B.; Associate Professor; Wake Forest University 2240 Reynolda Rd Winston-Salem, Nc 27106 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-2000; Project End 30-NOV-2001 Summary: There is no text on file for this abstract. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: READING AND SENSORIMOTOR FLUENCY IN DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Zeffiro, Thomas; Director; Georgetown University Washington, Dc 20057 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-2001; Project End 30-NOV-2005 Summary: The behavioral-manifestations of developmental dyslexia are complex, including deficits in reading, motor control and early sensory processing. Although extensive behavioral research has carefully characterized these abnormalities, the specific neural mechanisms, whose dysfunction may explain the myriad behavioral manifestations of dyslexia, are still poorly understood. While many consider the core deficit in dyslexia to involve dysfunction of language mechanisms, others have emphasized the possible role of failure of sensory processing mechanisms or an overall disorder involving sensorimotor coordination evidenced by deficits in performance of speeded, bimanual movement tasks. One of the more prominent behavioral manifestations of dyslexia is impaired reading fluency, the ability to read connected text rapidly, smooth, effortlessly, and automatically. We propose a series of integrated studies combining behavioral measures with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the relation of reading fluency to mechanisms involved in rapid naming, phonological processing, speeded motor performance and early sensory processing. Our central hypothesis posits the existence of a disorder in temporal processing in dyslexia that exhibits itself in deficits in these areas. In our previous work we have demonstrated a sensory deficit in dyslexia specific to the visual motion processing system. Using similar motor performance and to investigate the relationship of motor control abnormalities to deficits in reading fluency. A particular emphasis of the proposed research will be to identify the degree to which the systems responsible for reading, phonological processing, visual motion processing, speeded motor performance and rapid automatized name share common neural substrates. The proposed studies will provide important new information concerning the neural organization of reading in health and in disease. A deeper understanding of the processes involved when reading fails to develop normally may suggest new approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of developmental dyslexia.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: REGIONAL BRAIN METABOLISM STUDIES Principal Investigator & Institution: Wood, Frank B.; Professor and Section Head; Wake Forest University 2240 Reynolda Rd Winston-Salem, Nc 27106 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-2000; Project End 30-NOV-2001 Summary: In the first five years of this funded project, physiological studies using regional cerebral blood flow, event-related potentials, and positron emission tomography have separately suggested alterations of neural organization, particularly in the left hemisphere, in dyslexic individuals. The current proposal aims to unify the ERP and PET physiological methods as well as MRI profiles into an integrated anatomical and behavioral description of the neurobehavioral substrate of dyslexia. Accordingly, physiological measurements would be made during the performance of cognitive tasks chosen to elicit specific, localized regions of activation. In three groups of subjects (dyslexics and normal readers) with well-documented childhood reading data, four tasks will be measured across these methods. In Experiment 1, a group of 10 will perform two auditory linguistic activation tasks during PET scanning. In Experiment 2, a group of 40 will perform crossmodal linguistic activation tasks during simultaneouS PET and ERP measurement. MR images on all PET scan participants will allow reconstruction and measurement of the temporal plana and caudates to determine the anatomical characterization of dyslexia. In Experiment 3, another group of 40 will perform visual letter and word discrimination paradigms, again during simultaneouS ERP and PET measurement, with MR images for anatomical reconstruction. In Experiment 4, 100 subjects varying in reading disability, their spouses, and 150 of their children will undergo event-related potential measurement during various visual tasks, allowing direct comparison to their parent data as well as to the childhood longitudinal normal, reading impaired, and at-risk samples collected in the first five years of our current program project. We will specifically test the hypothesis of a unitary, underlying physiological deficit manifest in each of these physiological measurement domains. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: DISORDER

RELATION

BETWEEN

DYSLEXIA

AND

PHONOLOGICAL

Principal Investigator & Institution: Tunick, Rachel A.; Psychology; University of Denver Box 101562 Denver, Co 80208 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUN-2001 Summary: The overall goal of the proposed research is to examine the nature of the relationship between two disorders, reading disability (RD) and phonological disorder (PD). Although there is evidence that these disorders overlap at symptomatic, cognitive, and etiological levels, the reason for this overlap is currently unclear. The proposed study will examine overlap at these levels of analysis in a sample of RD and control children, some of whom had earlier PD, in order to further elucidate the nature of the cognitive and etiological relation between these disorders. Four competing hypotheses will be tested through the comparison of group performance on a number of cognitive tasks, and through behavioral genetics analyses. These hypotheses, the severity, pleiotropy, cognitive phenocopy, and RD subtype hypotheses, each posit different combinations of etiological and cognitive influences to account for the shared overlap between RD and PD. Further, several subtypes have been identified for both RD and PD. The relations between these subtypes will be explored in order to determine which

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of the subtypes of each of these disorders are most related to each other. Psychiatric correlates of each of these disorders, and of the overlap between RD and PD, will also be examined in order to further characterize children who meet diagnostic criteria for these disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: RETRIEVAL PROCESSES IN MEMORY Principal Investigator & Institution: Ratcliff, Roger; Northwestern University 633 Clark St Evanston, Il 60208

Professor;

Psychology;

Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-1989; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: The highest level goal of the proposed research is an understanding of the processes and structures of human memory and the processes involved in simple decision making. Investigation is planned in five theoretically related domains. In the first domain, three models of choice reaction time (the diffusion model, the OU model, and the accumulator model) will be tested against data from simple perceptual decision tasks and from higher level cognitive tasks. Second, the models' abilities to elucidate the processes by which information is retrieved from long term memory will be examined. The aim is to see whether the reaction time models can be usefully combined with the new memory models that have been developed recently, and if so, provide simultaneous empirical tests of both kinds of model. Third, relatively little work has been done on testing models for situations in which there are more than two response choices, in part because multichoice models of reaction time are often mathematically intractable and they have many parameters. But with fast computers and large experiments, we will be able to constrain and test the models. Fourth, our work with reaction time models has naturally led to tests of the currently leading models for categorization, exemplar models and distance from criterion models. We plan to examine ways to distinguish between these classes of models and also add to them mechanisms for predicting decision response times. Fifth, we continue work on implicit memory models. Research on implicit memory has usually progressed without any specific models of the processes involved in the tasks used to assess implicit memory. By proposing such models, we hope to raise the debate about implicit memory to consideration of the mechanisms by which priming effects come about. We plan to develop models for the frequently used picture naming and stern completion tasks. Overall, the proposed research represents the interaction of two methodologies: the development of explicit models of processing and representation and the development of empirical tests and data bases for those models. An important theme is the use of new models to serve as competitors for well established views, with the aim of driving research in new directions. The proposed research is relevant to themes described in the NIMH "Decade of the Brain" report to Congress. The broad class of models to be examined can be seen as neurally inspired, and these models have been applied to various pathologies (e.g., amnesia and dyslexia). Future applications of well-validated models could help discriminate such issues as whether memory deficits are due to encoding or retrieval problems or whether rapid automatic processes or slower more conscious ones are faulty. Reaction time models especially might lead to diagnostic techniques that are non-invasive and relatively inexpensive. In general, the more we know about the human cognitive system, the more we can improve and augment traditional diagnostic methods. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: ROLE OF CLASS I MHC IN SYNAPTIC REFINEMENT & PLASTICITY Principal Investigator & Institution: Edson, Eleanore B.; Neurobiology; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-AUG-2002 Summary: (provided by applicant): These experiments are intended to gain insight into the synaptic mechanisms by which class I MHC affects the refinement and plasticity of hippocampal synapses. Because members of the class I MHC gene family are expressed by neurons in many brain regions, the findings may help determine general principles governing activity-dependent events in other brain regions. The specific aims of the proposal seek to: first, determine the subcellular localization of class I MHC in hippocampal pyramidal cell synapses; second, to determine if class I MHC is necessary for development of hippocampal fine structure; third, determine if class I MHC is necessary for basal synaptic transmission in hippocampal pyramidal cells. Thus, the results from these experiments will directly address the hypothesis that short-term changes in synaptic strength lead to long-term changes in synaptic structure. Further, deducing MHC l's role in synaptic refinement and plasticity could provide crucial insight into a number of debilitating diseases for two reasons: first, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases may wreck havoc on the brain via selective targeting of neurons with specific expression patterns of MHC I. Second, a genetic linkage exists between MHC I and a number of diseases with a neurological component, including: multiple sclerosis, ALS, epilepsy, spinocerrebellar ataxia, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: ROLE OF GGF IN RADIAL GLIAL CELL DEVELOPMENT Principal Investigator & Institution: Anton, Eva S.; Assistant Professor; Cellular/Molecular Physiology; University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Office of Sponsored Research Chapel Hill, Nc 27599 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1999; Project End 30-NOV-2004 Summary: Radial glial cells play a critical role in the construction of the mammalian brain, initially, by providing a permissive and instructive scaffold for neuronal migration and eventually, by contributing to the formation of diverse glial cell lineages in the mature brain. Abnormalities in radial glial development, differentiation, and neuron-radial glial interactions lead to aberrant placement and connectivity of neurons and disordered lamination in human brain, an underlying cause of many congenital brain disorders such as developmental dyslexia, epilepsy, microencephaly (small brain), schizencephaly (split brain hemispheres), lissencephaly (smooth cerebrum, without convolutions), macrogyria (large convolutions), polymacrogyria (small cerebral convolutions), and tuberous sclerosis. The aim of this proposal is to elucidate the mechanisms that determine how radial glial cells are established and maintained during embryonic cortical development and transformed into astrocytes once the generation and migration of cortical neurons are completed. To examine the molecular signals regulating this process, we have focused on glial growth factor (GGF) and its receptors (erbB2, 3, and 4). Our earlier findings demonstrate that GGF and their receptors play a crucial role in radial glial cell function in the developing cerebral cortex. GGF expressed by developing cortical neurons promotes neuronal migration on radial glia by promoting its maintenance and its function as substrate for neuronal migration and differentiation. In the absence of GGF signaling via erbB2 receptors, radial glial development is abnormal. Based on these preliminary results we hypothesize that the

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GGF-erbB signaling system is a crucial modulator of radial glial cell development. The proposed studies will test this hypothesis by analyzing (1) the role of GGF and its receptors, erbB2, erbB3, and erbB4, in the establishment, maintenance and transformation of radial glial cells and (2) whether developmental changes in GGFerbB2 signaling system trigger the transformation of radial glial cells into astrocytes. Together, these studies on radial glial development and differentiation will help in deciphering the basic mechanisms guiding normal cerebral cortical development and in unveiling the pathogenesis of various developmental brain disorders where abnormal radial glial development and differentiation results in defective cerebral cortical organization. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION IN NEURON MIGRATION & AXON GUIDANCE Principal Investigator & Institution: Walsh, Christopher A.; Professor; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-AUG-2000; Project End 31-MAY-2005 Summary: This Program Project focuses on the signaling mechanisms that control the directed outgrowth of neuronal processes and the directed migration of neuronal cells. Together these two properties are essential to neuronal function, since the precise location of neurons and proper interconnection of their axons and their dendrites underpins all neuronal signaling and plasticity Abnormal patterns of neuronal migration have been implicated in human neurological disorders associated with mental retardation, epilepsy, and dyslexia, and congenital disorders of mental retardation are increasingly recognized as having major disorders of axonal and dendritic connections. Moreover, cell surface signaling and cytoskeletal regulation are implicated in degenerative disease such as Alzheimer's disease. Finally, proper axon guidance and axon outgrowth are essential to any possibility of neuronal repair following CNS injury. Until recently it has been controversial whether axon outgrowth and neuronal migration utilized a similar set of signals or whether they used fundamentally different mechanisms. However, several genes including filamin and disabled have recently been shown to be essential to proper neuronal migration to the cerebral cortex, as well as for normal axon outgrowth. This proposal contains three projects that examine 1] molecular regulation of neuronal migration to the cortex, 2] molecular control of axon outgrowth in flies, and 3] molecular control of axon outgrowth via ephrins and Eph receptors. The three linked proposals produce synergy by a] exploiting complementary strengths of mammalian and invertebrate genetic systems, in some cases by studying the same molecular and processes in different organisms, and b] utilizing a core to provide modern imaging technology that is essential for all the diverse projects regardless of the organism of study. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: SPATIAL ATTENTION EFFECTS IN THE HUMAN VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Boynton, Geoffrey M.; Assistant Professor; Salk Institute for Biological Studies 10010 N Torrey Pines Rd San Diego, Ca 92037 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 16-AUG-1999; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: (Adapted From The Applicant's Abstract): Behavioral performance in many perceptual tasks is enhanced when a cue directs the subject's spatial attention to the relevant location in the visual field. The neuronal basis of this improvement in

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performance has been studied in the macaque monkey, where the activity of neurons in several visual areas has been shown to increase when a task directs attention to stimuli within a neuron's receptive field. We recently found, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), that spatial attention also modulates neuronal activity in the earliest levels of visual processing of the human brain. Our long-term objective is to obtain a detailed understanding of where and how spatial attention modulates neuronal responses in the human visual cortex (and the lateral geniculate nucleus), and to examine how these attentional modulations of neuronal response improve behavioral performance. We will address four questions: (1) What visual areas in the human visual system are affected by spatial attention? (2) How does attending to different features of a stimulus (e.g. speed, color, and shape) influence responses in the human brain? (3) Does spatial attention modulate the baseline responses of neurons, or does it affect the stimulus-driven response? (4) Can the modulation of neuronal responses by spatial attention in early visual areas predict changes in behavioral performance of an observer? We will address these questions using a combination of new quantitative fMRI techniques, visual psychophysics, and computational modeling. Behavioral deficits in the ability to allocate spatial attention have been found in certain clinical subpopulations including people with developmental dyslexia and attentional deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Our proposed studies will therefore provide insight into the neurological basis of these disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: SPATIOTEMPORAL MAPS & INTERACTIONS IN DIRECTIONAL CELLS Principal Investigator & Institution: Livingstone, Margaret S.; Professor; Neurobiology; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-2000; Project End 31-JUL-2004 Summary: (Adapted from applicant's abstract): Some cells in cat and monkey visual cortex show strong preferences for the direction of stimulus motion. Primary visual cortex is the first stage in the geniculocortical visual pathway where direction selectivity is encountered, so the mechanisms underlying direction selectivity must be found there. This project is a detailed, quantitative receptive-field mapping study of directionselective cells in macaque V1. These studies will establish the spatiotemporal pattern(s) of excitatory and inhibitory ON and OFF inputs to directional cells. Maps will be generated to look at interactions across directional cells' receptive fields, to find out how inputs from different parts of the receptive field combine spatially and temporally to result in directionality. The data will be analyzed to ask which neuronal models could account for this kind of specificity. Direction selectivity is a fundamental property of visual systems in general. In many other sensory and motor systems various kinds of sequence-dependent specificities have been observed. This study offers the potential to understand the underlying mechanism of one such sequence-specific selectivity. Though this is a basic-science level project, understanding this one kind of temporal information processing may shed light on diseases that are thought to involve defects in temporal processing, such as dyslexia and schizophrenia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: SPONTANEOUS NEOCORTICAL MALFORMATIONS Principal Investigator & Institution: Sherman, Gordon F.; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center St 1005 Boston, Ma 02215

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Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: Developmental dyslexia is anatomically distinguished by the presence of focal neocortical malformations and alterations of neuronal size in thalamic nuclei. We suggest that these changes in multiple processing networks are related and further that they influence each other in a top- down manner. Together they contribute to the perceptual, linguistic and cognitive deficits seen in dyslexia. Specifically, we hypothesize that the production of ectopic collections of neurons in the molecular layer of the cortex during development initiates a cascade of events that first alters neuronal connectivity of the dysgenetic cortex and subsequently alters neuronal activation and volumetric and cellular morphometry in other connectionally-related cortical regions and in lower processing centers of the thalamus. It is also suggested that environmental enrichment may reverse some of the local changes present in the cortex. Because of the difficulties inherent in human research, we propose to test these hypotheses by measuring cortical and thalamic connectivity and morphometry in 2 primary experimental and 2 supplementary strains of mice that spontaneously develop early cortical malformations similar in appearance to those seen in dyslexics. The primary strains are the inbred NZB/BlNJ and BXSB/MpJ autoimmune strains, and the supplementary strains are the recombinant inbred NXSM-D strain, and a transgenic strain pie. These four strains were chosen because of differences in incidence, size, and location of the malformations. These differences will be exploited in this proposal. For controls we will use those unaffected mice from the experimental strains, and the DBA/2 strain. Specifically, we will use neuroanatomic tracers to assess the effects of early neocortical dysgenesis on cortical and subcortical connectivity. First, we will examine connections in adulthood and then determine their formation during development. Also, we will measure volumetric and cellular morphometry (using computer image analysis ) and neuronal activation (using cytochrome oxidase histochemistry) in connectionally-related and unrelated cortical and thalamic regions to determine whether these parameters are changed in mice with cortical dysgenesis and whether these changes are related to alterations of connectivity. Furthermore, we will examine the effects of environmental enrichment on local changes in the cortex of dysgenetic mice. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: STRUCTURE/FUNCTION RELATIONSHIPS IN VISUAL CORTEX Principal Investigator & Institution: Humphrey, Allen L.; Professor; Cell Biology and Physiology; University of Pittsburgh at Pittsburgh 350 Thackeray Hall Pittsburgh, Pa 15260 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1985; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: The goal of this research is to understand how visual information is processed in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and its target, the primary visual cortex. Emphasis is on mechanisms that alter cells response timings and on how these timings are used to create cortical cells that encode the direction of object motion. In cat cortex, neurons display different timing delays across their receptive fields; this spatiotemporal (S-T) receptive-field structure helps to make the cells direction selective (DS). The LGN creates most of these timing delays; in particular, it generates long delays that are necessary for cortical cells to be DS at low rates of motion. Work in the cat has revealed basic mechanisms of motion analysis, but the extent to which they are universal, and operate in other species, is not known. We will address this issue by examining neural mechanisms of direction selectivity in the brain of the monkey. Specific aims are as follows: (1) We will determine how DS in cortical cells varies with

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the rate of stimulus motion, to characterize the operating range of underlying mechanisms. (2) S-T receptive-field structure and direction selectivity will be compared in single cells to determine the contribution of S-T structure, and additional mechanisms, to DS. (3) Responses in different positions of these receptive fields will be measured to reveal the range of timing delays present in the fields. (4) To investigate the potential sources of these timings we will measure the timings of nondirection-selective cortical cells that are likely inputs to the DS cells. (5) To determine the potential contribution of thalamic inputs to the cortical responses we will measure response timings and other properties of cells in the LGN and compare them to the cortical timings. (6) In cortex, we will examine laminar relationships among properties such as DS tuning, S-T structure, and response timing to gain insights into potential connectional relationships and mechanisms that underlie direction selectivity. Throughout, we will determine whether long delays exist among cells, if so, at what stage in the visual pathway the delays are introduced. These studies will provide new, critical insights into temporal processing mechanisms in primates. More broadly, understanding how the brain uses timing information is important because, in humans, deficits in temporal signal processing are linked to some cognitive disorders such as dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: STUDIES OF READING AND LANGUAGE PROCESSING Principal Investigator & Institution: Seidenberg, Mark S.; Professor; Psychology; University of Southern California 2250 Alcazar Street, Csc-219 Los Angeles, Ca 90033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-1995; Project End 31-DEC-2001 Summary: This abstract is not available. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: TEMPORAL CODES AND CORTICOCORTICAL COMMUNICATION Principal Investigator & Institution: Purpura, Keith P.; Associate Professor; Neurology and Neuroscience; Weill Medical College of Cornell Univ New York, Ny 10021 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-1998; Project End 30-APR-2003 Summary: The broad aim of the proposed studies is to define the role of temporal codes in corticocortical information processing. Current models of coincidence detection and temporal integration of average firing rates are directly examined with an experimental approach. Pattern recognition and directing attention are chosen as related cortical functions which are likely to select for different processing strategies. Pattern recognition which requires fast, parallel and exhaustive, binding of multiple features within and across many scales is likely to depend on the fast timing schemes identified in coincidence detection models. Directing attention, on the other hand, reflects the deploying of a narrow information channel. This process is likely to depend on slower, serial search schemes that are well supported by rate coding strategies that mark more highly active neural sub-populations. Specific experimental methods are proposed to test the utilization of these strategies by neurons in the awake animal engaged in simple but well-defined behavioral tasks. The significance of these studies is to build our understanding of the nature of temporal processing in cortical dynamics. Knowledge of the mechanisms of temporal integration is the next crucial step in approaching the varied problems of brain injury. Increasing evidence points to the disruption of temporal processing as a fundamental mechanism underlying developmental and acquired cognitive disabilities. Morever, the first hints of therapeutic approaches based

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on models of temporal processing suggest that further detailed knowledge of the timing of information flow in the cortex will assist the efforts to improve the lives of patients with dyslexia, head trauma and stroke. Ultimately, the brain is organized with parallel and vertical subcortical connections (limbic, striatal, thalamocortical) as well as the corticocortical connections emphasized here. The studies proposed will seek to frame the understanding of corticocortical interactions in a context that will support further studies of thalamocortical integration. Building out from this framework will enlarge the possible scope of significance for the treatment of brain disorders. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: TEMPORAL FREQUENCY IN TACTILE ROUGHNESS PERCEPTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Cascio, Carissa J.; Neurology; Emory University 1784 North Decatur Road Atlanta, Ga 30322 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-2001 Summary: The tactile perception of roughness depends on lateral movement between the skin and the surface, yet studies of the stimulus variables relevant to roughness perception have failed to find substantial evidence for temporal factors. This project asks whether the temporal frequency of a textured stimulus affects roughness perception. The hypothesis that tactile roughness perception depends partially on temporal factors will be investigated using three approaches. First, normal human volunteers will perform either of two psychophysical tasks as temporal frequency is manipulated as an independent variable. Next, the representation of stimulus frequency in somatosensory cortical neurons will be investigated. Finally, numerous studies have linked dyslexia to a mufti- modal sensory deficit specific for high-frequency information. In light of this evidence, volunteers with dyslexia will perform a psychophysical discrimination task using textured stimuli of varying frequencies. This project will contribute not only to the understanding of tactile coding of texture, but also to the understanding of sensory differences in dyslexia. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: THE NEURAL BASIS OF RATE CODING IN THE AUDITORY SYSTEM Principal Investigator & Institution: Elliott, Taffeta M.; Ctr for Neurobiology Behavior; Columbia University Health Sciences New York, Ny 10032 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-SEP-2003; Project End 31-AUG-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): This research proposal aims to uncover how the auditory system codes rate as a feature of acoustic communication. Understanding human speech requires judgments based on rapid temporal intervals. A detailed consideration of how temporal processing detects linguistic contrasts will be important to understanding many disorders of language including dysphasia and dyslexia. Xenopus laevis provides a tractable model organism for this objective because of its rich repertoire of vocalizations that vary in the rate of repeated clicks. Tests of behavioral psychophysics will determine whether male clawed frogs categorically perceive the two female calls that differ only in click rate: one call signifies sexual receptivity of the female and stimulates male calling, whereas the other call functions as an antiaphrodisiac that suppresses male calling. Electrophysiological recording in the auditory midbrain and medulla will reveal whether cells are rate-tuned, and whether they form a spatial map of rate. Finally, neuroanatomical tracing will outline the

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construction of rate-sensitive auditory circuits and their influence on the control of vocal production. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: THE ROLE OF VISUAL EXPERTISE IN LETTER PERCEPTION Principal Investigator & Institution: Gauthier, Isabel; Assistant Professor; Psychology; Vanderbilt University 3319 West End Ave. Nashville, Tn 372036917 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-2001; Project End 30-APR-2006 Summary: (adapted from applicant's abstract): Behavioral, functional brain imaging (fMRI), electrophysiological (ERP) and neuropsychological experiments will investigate how letters are perceived. The project is motivated by a framework accounting for specialization for faces and letters in extrastriate cortex by a detailed analysis of the different recognition goals and the information available for the recognition of these categories. The experiments will evaluate the hypothesis that what is "special" about expert letter perception is that regularities in letter style (including orientation, case and font) is used to facilitate letter recognition (access to letter identities). In particular, we will investigate how readers may learn to use the regularity of print to facilitate letter perception at the basic level, how this ability differs from general object recognition strategies and whether it leads to specialization of letter-specific areas in visual cortex. This project has four aims: I) identify behavioral effects that are special to the way experienced readers recognize letters; II) study the basic properties of letter-selective areas in visual cortex with ERP and fMRI; III) use behavioral, fMRI and ERP measurements to investigate the hypothesis that a history of poor reading expertise in dyslexic individuals leads to abnormal specialization of the letter-specific system; IV) test predictions about lesions in areas of the visual cortex specialized for letters in individuals with acquired peripheral dyslexia (pure alexia). This research will investigate how much visual factors alone contribute to specialization for letters. This information is necessary to understand linguistic influences on reading and would extend an emerging framework interpreting category-specific effects in extrastriate cortex in terms of the recruitment through experience of processes best suited for different recognition goals. Understanding what characterizes expert letter perception is also necessary to understand disorders in which this expertise is not acquired (such as dyslexia) or is lost (such as low vision). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: VISUAL AND ATTENTIONAL PROCESSING IN ADULT DYSLEXIA Principal Investigator & Institution: Elswick, Jennifer A.; Neurology; University of Maryland Balt Prof School Baltimore, Md 21201 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 24-AUG-2001 Summary: Dyslexia is defined as the difficulty learning to read despite adequate intelligence, instruction and socioeconomic opportunity. The range of figures given for the prevalence of the disorder is from 3-15%. Many of these children appear to have phonological and/or visual processing deficits that persist well into adulthood. It is important that we more fully understand these deficits and how they affect reading in order to advance remediation and intervention strategies. This study will compare the performance of adult readers with dyslexia, selected on the basis of a childhood history of dyslexia, discrepant performance on standardized reading tests and a specific visual processing deficit, to the performance of normal controls (matched on PIQ) on tasks of attentional and orthographic processing. The first phase of the project will be to obtain

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normative data from a coherent motion detection task, and to select dyslexic readers who demonstrate a deficit compared to the normal distribution. Following the recruitment of matched normal control subjects, the next step will be to assess both groups of subjects' attentive and pre-attentive processing in the visual modality using various types of visual search tasks. Lexical decision tasks will then be administered to both groups of subjects in order to determine the independent contribution of any sensory or attentional deficit to orthographic processing. The final set of experiments will look for differences in patterns of brain activity between the individuals with dyslexia and the normal controls using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) methods. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to fulltext articles. The following is a sample of items found for dyslexia in the PubMed Central database: •

Amplitude envelope onsets and developmental dyslexia: A new hypothesis. by Goswami U, Thomson J, Richardson U, Stainthorp R, Hughes D, Rosen S, Scott SK.; 2002 Aug 6; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=125072

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Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: Evidence from functional MRI. by Temple E, Poldrack RA, Protopapas A, Nagarajan S, Salz T, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, Gabrieli JD.; 2000 Dec 5; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=17674

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Evidence for Aberrant Auditory Anatomy in Developmental Dyslexia. by Galaburda AM, Menard MT, Rosen GD.; 1994 Aug 16; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=44534

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Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia. by Horwitz B, Rumsey JM, Donohue BC.; 1998 Jul 21; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=21181

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Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. by Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Pugh KR, Fulbright RK, Constable RT, Mencl WE, Shankweiler DP, Liberman AM, Skudlarski P, Fletcher JM, Katz L, Marchione KE, Lacadie C, Gatenby C, Gore JC.; 1998 Mar 3; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=19444

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Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.

With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print.

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Physiological and Anatomical Evidence for a Magnocellular Defect in Developmental Dyslexia. by Livingstone MS, Rosen GD, Drislane FW, Galaburda AM.; 1991 Sep 15; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=52421

The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with dyslexia, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for dyslexia (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •

A candidate phenotype for familial dyslexia. Author(s): Wolff PH. Source: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999; 8 Suppl 3: 21-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10638365&dopt=Abstract

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A case of mural dyslexia. Author(s): Mant D. Source: The British Journal of General Practice : the Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 2002 July; 52(480): 579-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12120733&dopt=Abstract

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A commentary on an article published in the February 2003 edition of 'Dyslexia', 'Evaluation of an exercise-based treatment for children with reading difficulties' (Reynolds, Nicolson, & Hambly). Author(s): McPhillips M. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2003 August; 9(3): 161-3; Discussion 167-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12940299&dopt=Abstract

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PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.

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A dominant gene for developmental dyslexia on chromosome 3. Author(s): Nopola-Hemmi J, Myllyluoma B, Haltia T, Taipale M, Ollikainen V, Ahonen T, Voutilainen A, Kere J, Widen E. Source: Journal of Medical Genetics. 2001 October; 38(10): 658-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11584043&dopt=Abstract

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A genome scan for developmental dyslexia confirms linkage to chromosome 2p11 and suggests a new locus on 7q32. Author(s): Kaminen N, Hannula-Jouppi K, Kestila M, Lahermo P, Muller K, Kaaranen M, Myllyluoma B, Voutilainen A, Lyytinen H, Nopola-Hemmi J, Kere J. Source: Journal of Medical Genetics. 2003 May; 40(5): 340-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12746395&dopt=Abstract

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A genome-wide search strategy for identifying quantitative trait loci involved in reading and spelling disability (developmental dyslexia). Author(s): Fisher SE, Stein JF, Monaco AP. Source: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999; 8 Suppl 3: 47-51. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10638370&dopt=Abstract

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A third route for reading? Implications from a case of phonological dyslexia. Author(s): Wu DH, Martin RC, Damian MF. Source: Neurocase : Case Studies in Neuropsychology, Neuropsychiatry, and Behavioural Neurology. 2002; 8(4): 274-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12221141&dopt=Abstract

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Abnormal auditory cortical activation in dyslexia 100 msec after speech onset. Author(s): Helenius P, Salmelin R, Richardson U, Leinonen S, Lyytinen H. Source: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2002 May 15; 14(4): 603-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12126501&dopt=Abstract

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Absence of significant linkage between phonological coding dyslexia and chromosome 6p23-21.3, as determined by use of quantitative-trait methods: confirmation of qualitative analyses. Author(s): Petryshen TL, Kaplan BJ, Liu MF, Field LL. Source: American Journal of Human Genetics. 2000 February; 66(2): 708-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10677330&dopt=Abstract

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Acquired dyslexia. Author(s): Coslett HB. Source: Seminars in Neurology. 2000; 20(4): 419-26. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11149697&dopt=Abstract

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Altered hemispheric asymmetry of auditory N100m in adults with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Heim S, Eulitz C, Elbert T. Source: Neuroreport. 2003 March 3; 14(3): 501-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12634512&dopt=Abstract

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Altered hemispheric asymmetry of auditory P100m in dyslexia. Author(s): Heim S, Eulitz C, Elbert T. Source: The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2003 April; 17(8): 1715-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12752389&dopt=Abstract

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Amplitude envelope onsets and developmental dyslexia: A new hypothesis. Author(s): Goswami U, Thomson J, Richardson U, Stainthorp R, Hughes D, Rosen S, Scott SK. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2002 August 6; 99(16): 10911-6. Epub 2002 July 25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12142463&dopt=Abstract

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An examination of the relationship between dyslexia and offending in young people and the implications for the training system. Author(s): Kirk J, Reid G. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 April-June; 7(2): 77-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11383305&dopt=Abstract

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Anatomical correlates of dyslexia: frontal and cerebellar findings. Author(s): Eckert MA, Leonard CM, Richards TL, Aylward EH, Thomson J, Berninger VW. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 2003 February; 126(Pt 2): 482-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12538414&dopt=Abstract

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Anatomical risk factors for phonological dyslexia. Author(s): Leonard CM, Eckert MA, Lombardino LJ, Oakland T, Kranzler J, Mohr CM, King WM, Freeman A. Source: Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991). 2001 February; 11(2): 148-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11208669&dopt=Abstract

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Anatomical risk factors that distinguish dyslexia from SLI predict reading skill in normal children. Author(s): Leonard CM, Lombardino LJ, Walsh K, Eckert MA, Mockler JL, Rowe LA, Williams S, DeBose CB. Source: Journal of Communication Disorders. 2002 November-December; 35(6): 501-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12443050&dopt=Abstract

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Anterior-posterior beta asymmetries in dyslexia during lexical decisions. Author(s): Duncan Milne R, Hamm JP, Kirk IJ, Corballis MC. Source: Brain and Language. 2003 March; 84(3): 309-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12662973&dopt=Abstract

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Attenuated hemispheric lateralization in dyslexia: evidence of a visual processing deficit. Author(s): Schulte-Korne G, Bartling J, Deimel W, Remschmidt H. Source: Neuroreport. 1999 November 26; 10(17): 3697-701. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10619669&dopt=Abstract

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Atypical brain activation of reading processes in children with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Backes W, Vuurman E, Wennekes R, Spronk P, Wuisman M, van Engelshoven J, Jolles J. Source: Journal of Child Neurology. 2002 December; 17(12): 867-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12593457&dopt=Abstract

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Atypical cognitive disorders in a man with developmental surface dyslexia. Author(s): Plaza M, Picard A, Weber R, Marlier N. Source: Brain and Cognition. 2000 June-August; 43(1-3): 358-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10857725&dopt=Abstract

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Atypical organisation of the auditory cortex in dyslexia as revealed by MEG. Author(s): Heim S, Eulitz C, Kaufmann J, Fuchter I, Pantev C, Lamprecht-Dinnesen A, Matulat P, Scheer P, Borstel M, Elbert T. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2000; 38(13): 1749-59. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11099733&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Facoetti A, Lorusso ML, Paganoni P, Cattaneo C, Galli R, Umilta C, Mascetti GG. Source: Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research. 2003 April; 16(2): 185-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12668226&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory processing in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Heiervang E, Stevenson J, Hugdahl K. Source: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2002 October; 43(7): 931-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12405480&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory temporal processing deficit in dyslexia is associated with enhanced sensitivity in the visual modality. Author(s): Heim S, Freeman RB Jr, Eulitz C, Elbert T. Source: Neuroreport. 2001 March 5; 12(3): 507-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11234754&dopt=Abstract

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Balance and gait in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Moe-Nilssen R, Helbostad JL, Talcott JB, Toennessen FE. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 2003 May; 150(2): 237-44. Epub 2003 April 08. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12682807&dopt=Abstract

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Basic auditory dysfunction in dyslexia as demonstrated by brain activity measurements. Author(s): Kujala T, Myllyviita K, Tervaniemi M, Alho K, Kallio J, Naatanen R. Source: Psychophysiology. 2000 March; 37(2): 262-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10731777&dopt=Abstract

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Behaviour problems in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Heiervang E, Stevenson J, Lund A, Hugdahl K. Source: Nordic Journal of Psychiatry. 2001; 55(4): 251-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11839115&dopt=Abstract

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Brain activation during reading in deep dyslexia: an MEG study. Author(s): Laine M, Salmelin R, Helenius P, Marttila R. Source: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2000 July; 12(4): 622-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10936915&dopt=Abstract

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Brain basis for dyslexia: a summary of work in progress. Author(s): Flowers DL. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1993 November; 26(9): 575-82. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8283123&dopt=Abstract

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Brain mapping in dysphonemic dyslexia: in resting and phonemic discrimination conditions. Author(s): Ortiz T, Exposito FJ, Miguel F, Martin-Loeches M, Rubia FJ. Source: Brain and Language. 1992 April; 42(3): 270-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1606487&dopt=Abstract

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Brain potentials in developmental dyslexia: differential effects of word frequency in human subjects. Author(s): Johannes S, Mangun GR, Kussmaul CL, Munte TF. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 1995 August 11; 195(3): 183-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8584205&dopt=Abstract

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Brain responses to changes in speech sound durations differ between infants with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Author(s): Leppanen PH, Richardson U, Pihko E, Eklund KM, Guttorm TK, Aro M, Lyytinen H. Source: Developmental Neuropsychology. 2002; 22(1): 407-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12405511&dopt=Abstract

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Callosal transfer in different subtypes of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Fabbro F, Pesenti S, Facoetti A, Bonanomi M, Libera L, Lorusso ML. Source: Cortex. 2001 February; 37(1): 65-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11292162&dopt=Abstract

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Can contrast sensitivity functions in dyslexia be explained by inattention rather than a magnocellular deficit? Author(s): Stuart GW, McAnally KI, Castles A. Source: Vision Research. 2001 November; 41(24): 3205-11. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11711144&dopt=Abstract

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Cerebellar abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: cause, correlate or consequence? Author(s): Bishop DV. Source: Cortex. 2002 September; 38(4): 491-8. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12465664&dopt=Abstract

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Cerebellar morphology in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Rae C, Harasty JA, Dzendrowskyj TE, Talcott JB, Simpson JM, Blamire AM, Dixon RM, Lee MA, Thompson CH, Styles P, Richardson AJ, Stein JF. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2002; 40(8): 1285-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11931931&dopt=Abstract

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Change detection is impaired in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Rutkowski JS, Crewther DP, Crewther SG. Source: Journal of Vision (Charlottesville, Va.). 2003; 3(1): 95-105. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12678629&dopt=Abstract

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Characteristics of dyslexia in a Dutch family. Author(s): van der Leij A, de Jong PF, Rijswijk-Prins H. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 July-September; 7(3): 105-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11765980&dopt=Abstract

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Children with dyslexia and right parietal lobe dysfunction: event-related potentials in response to words and pseudowords. Author(s): Wimmer H, Hutzler F, Wiener C. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2002 October 18; 331(3): 211-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12383933&dopt=Abstract

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Children with dyslexia are slow to articulate a single speech gesture. Author(s): Fawcett AJ, Nicolson RI. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 October-December; 8(4): 189-203. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12455850&dopt=Abstract

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Chromosome 6p influences on different dyslexia-related cognitive processes: further confirmation. Author(s): Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Pauls DL. Source: American Journal of Human Genetics. 2000 February; 66(2): 715-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10677331&dopt=Abstract

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Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluation of Japanese dyslexia. Author(s): Shiota M, Koeda T, Takeshita K. Source: Brain & Development. 2000 October; 22(7): 421-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11102726&dopt=Abstract

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Coherence of hemispheric function in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Leisman G. Source: Brain and Cognition. 2002 March-April; 48(2-3): 425-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12030482&dopt=Abstract

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College students with dyslexia: persistent linguistic deficits and foreign language learning. Author(s): Downey DM, Snyder LE, Hill B. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2000 April-June; 6(2): 101-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10840510&dopt=Abstract

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Comments on 'The dyslexia ecosystem': a reply to Nicolson. Author(s): Richards IL, Witton C, Moores E, Reddy PA, Rippon G, Talcott JB. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 October-December; 8(4): 226-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12455852&dopt=Abstract

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Continuing the search for dyslexia genes on 6p. Author(s): Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Golovyan L, Meyer M, Romano C, Pauls D. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 2003 April 1; 118B(1): 89-98. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12627473&dopt=Abstract

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Contrast sensitivity in subgroups of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Williams MJ, Stuart GW, Castles A, McAnally KI. Source: Vision Research. 2003 February; 43(4): 467-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12536002&dopt=Abstract

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Contributions of magnetic source imaging to the understanding of dyslexia. Author(s): Sarkari S, Simos PG, Fletcher JM, Castillo EM, Breier JI, Papanicolaou AC. Source: Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2002 September; 9(3): 229-38. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12350044&dopt=Abstract

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Could platelet activating factor play a role in developmental dyslexia? Author(s): Taylor KE, Richardson AJ, Stein JF. Source: Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 2001 March; 64(3): 17380. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11334553&dopt=Abstract

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Critical response to dyslexia, literacy and psychological assessment. (report by a working party of the division of educational and child psychology of the British psychological society). A view from the chalk face. Author(s): Cooke A; Working Party of the Division of Educational and Child Psychology of the British Psychological Society. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 January-March; 7(1): 47-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11305231&dopt=Abstract

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Crossmodal temporal processing acuity impairment aggravates with age in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Virsu V, Lahti-Nuuttila P, Laasonen M. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2003 January 23; 336(3): 151-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12505615&dopt=Abstract

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Crowding effects on word identification in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Spinelli- D, De Luca M, Judica A, Zoccolotti P. Source: Cortex. 2002 April; 38(2): 179-200. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12056688&dopt=Abstract

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Deaf poor readers' pattern reversal visual evoked potentials suggest magnocellular system deficits: implications for diagnostic neuroimaging of dyslexia in deaf individuals. Author(s): Samar VJ, Parasnis I, Berent GP. Source: Brain and Language. 2002 January; 80(1): 21-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11817888&dopt=Abstract

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Deep dyslexia in the two languages of an Arabic/French bilingual patient. Author(s): Beland R, Mimouni Z. Source: Cognition. 2001 December; 82(2): 77-126. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11716831&dopt=Abstract

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Deficit of visual contour integration in dyslexia. Author(s): Simmers AJ, Bex PJ. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2001 October; 42(11): 2737-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11581223&dopt=Abstract

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Defining dyslexia. Author(s): Duane DD. Source: Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2001 November; 76(11): 1075-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11702894&dopt=Abstract

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Development of early motor skills and language in children at risk for familial dyslexia. Author(s): Viholainen H, Ahonen T, Cantell M, Lyytinen P, Lyytinen H. Source: Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2002 November; 44(11): 761-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12418617&dopt=Abstract

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Developmental dyslexia: genetic dissection of a complex cognitive trait. Author(s): Fisher SE, DeFries JC. Source: Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2002 October; 3(10): 767-80. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12360321&dopt=Abstract

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Developmental dyslexia: specific phonological deficit or general sensorimotor dysfunction? Author(s): Ramus F. Source: Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2003 April; 13(2): 212-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12744976&dopt=Abstract

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Developmental pathways of children with and without familial risk for dyslexia during the first years of life. Author(s): Lyytinen H, Ahonen T, Eklund K, Guttorm TK, Laakso ML, Leinonen S, Leppanen PH, Lyytinen P, Poikkeus AM, Puolakanaho A, Richardson U, Viholainen H. Source: Developmental Neuropsychology. 2001; 20(2): 535-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11892951&dopt=Abstract

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Differential effects of orthographic transparency on dyslexia: word reading difficulty for common English words. Author(s): Spencer K. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 October-December; 7(4): 217-28. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11881782&dopt=Abstract

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Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, Pugh KR, Mencl WE, Fulbright RK, Skudlarski P, Constable RT, Marchione KE, Fletcher JM, Lyon GR, Gore JC. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 2002 July 15; 52(2): 101-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12114001&dopt=Abstract

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Do the reading disabilities of children with cleft fit into current models of developmental dyslexia? Author(s): Richman LC, Ryan SM. Source: The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal : Official Publication of the American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association. 2003 March; 40(2): 154-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12605520&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Author(s): Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Source: Pediatrics in Review / American Academy of Pediatrics. 2003 May; 24(5): 14753. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12728187&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia and familial high blood pressure: an observational pilot study. Author(s): Taylor K, Stein J. Source: Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2002 January; 86(1): 30-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11806878&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia and music: measuring musical timing skills. Author(s): Overy K, Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ, Clarke EF. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2003 February; 9(1): 18-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12625374&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia and the cerebellar deficit hypothesis. Author(s): Beaton AA. Source: Cortex. 2002 September; 38(4): 479-90. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12465663&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia linked to talent: global visual-spatial ability. Author(s): von Karolyi C, Winner E, Gray W, Sherman GF. Source: Brain and Language. 2003 June; 85(3): 427-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12744954&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia: lost for words. Author(s): Murphy G. Source: Nature. 2003 September 25; 425(6956): 340-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14508456&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia: nature and nurture. Author(s): Olson RK. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 143-59. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222731&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia: verbal impairments in the absence of magnocellular impairments. Author(s): Kronbichler M, Hutzler F, Wimmer H. Source: Neuroreport. 2002 April 16; 13(5): 617-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11973457&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia-specific brain activation profile becomes normal following successful remedial training. Author(s): Simos PG, Fletcher JM, Bergman E, Breier JI, Foorman BR, Castillo EM, Davis RN, Fitzgerald M, Papanicolaou AC. Source: Neurology. 2002 April 23; 58(8): 1203-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11971088&dopt=Abstract

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Early reading development in children at family risk for dyslexia. Author(s): Pennington BF, Lefly DL. Source: Child Development. 2001 May-June; 72(3): 816-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11405584&dopt=Abstract

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Early screening for dyslexia--a collaborative pilot project. Author(s): Ball S, Becker T, Boys M, Davies S, Noton H. Source: International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists. 2001; 36 Suppl: 75-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11340848&dopt=Abstract

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Educational support for nursing and midwifery students with dyslexia. Author(s): Wright D. Source: Nursing Standard : Official Newspaper of the Royal College of Nursing. 2000 June 28-July 4; 14(41): 35-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11974238&dopt=Abstract

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EEG power spectra of children with dyslexia, slow learners, and normally reading children with ADD during verbal processing. Author(s): Ackerman PT, Dykman RA, Oglesby DM, Newton JE. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1994 December; 27(10): 619-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7844478&dopt=Abstract

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Effects of a phonologically driven treatment for dyslexia on lactate levels measured by proton MR spectroscopic imaging. Author(s): Richards TL, Corina D, Serafini S, Steury K, Echelard DR, Dager SR, Marro K, Abbott RD, Maravilla KR, Berninger VW. Source: Ajnr. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2000 May; 21(5): 916-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10815668&dopt=Abstract

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Effects of visual training on saccade control in dyslexia. Author(s): Fischer B, Hartnegg K. Source: Perception. 2000; 29(5): 531-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10992952&dopt=Abstract

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Electrophysiological testing of dyslexia. Author(s): Kuba M, Szanyi J, Gayer D, Kremlacek J, Kubova Z. Source: Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove). 2001; 44(4): 131-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11836848&dopt=Abstract

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Enhanced response of the left frontal cortex to slowed down speech in dyslexia: an fMRI study. Author(s): Ruff S, Cardebat D, Marie N, Demonet JF. Source: Neuroreport. 2002 July 19; 13(10): 1285-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12151788&dopt=Abstract

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Errors in a nonlinear graphic-semantic mapping task resulting from lesions in Boltzmann machine: is it relevant to dyslexia? Author(s): Geva AB, Shtram L, Policker S. Source: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : Jins. 2000 July; 6(5): 620-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10932481&dopt=Abstract

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Evidence for a neuroanatomical difference within the olivo-cerebellar pathway of adults with dyslexia. Author(s): Finch AJ, Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ. Source: Cortex. 2002 September; 38(4): 529-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12465667&dopt=Abstract

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Evidence for a susceptibility locus on chromosome 6q influencing phonological coding dyslexia. Author(s): Petryshen TL, Kaplan BJ, Fu Liu M, de French NS, Tobias R, Hughes ML, Field LL. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 2001 August 8; 105(6): 507-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11496366&dopt=Abstract

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Evidence for aberrant auditory anatomy in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Galaburda AM, Menard MT, Rosen GD. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1994 August 16; 91(17): 8010-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8058748&dopt=Abstract

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Evidence for implicit sequence learning in dyslexia. Author(s): Kell SW, Griffiths S, Frith U. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 January-March; 8(1): 43-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11990224&dopt=Abstract

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Executive functioning in adults and children with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Brosnan M, Demetre J, Hamill S, Robson K, Shepherd H, Cody G. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2002; 40(12): 2144-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12208010&dopt=Abstract

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Executive functions in dyslexia. Author(s): Helland T, Asbjornsen A. Source: Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section C, Child Neuropsychology : a Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence. 2000 March; 6(1): 37-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10980667&dopt=Abstract

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Extension of a recent therapy for dyslexia. Author(s): Fahle M, Luberichs J. Source: Ger J Ophthalmol. 1995 November; 4(6): 350-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8751100&dopt=Abstract

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Eye movement patterns in hemianopic dyslexia. Author(s): Zihl J. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 1995 August; 118 ( Pt 4): 891-912. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7655887&dopt=Abstract

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Eye movement patterns in linguistic and non-linguistic tasks in developmental surface dyslexia. Author(s): De Luca M, Di Pace E, Judica A, Spinell D, Zoccolotti P. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1999 November; 37(12): 1407-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10606014&dopt=Abstract

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Eyeblink conditioning indicates cerebellar abnormality in dyslexia. Author(s): Nicolson RI, Daum I, Schugens MM, Fawcett AJ, Schulz A. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 2002 March; 143(1): 42-50. Epub 2002 January 25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11907689&dopt=Abstract

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Eye-hand preference dissociation in obsessive-compulsive disorder and dyslexia. Author(s): Siviero MO, Rysovas EO, Juliano Y, Del Porto JA, Bertolucci PH. Source: Arquivos De Neuro-Psiquiatria. 2002 June; 60(2-A): 242-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12068353&dopt=Abstract

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Failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex in dyslexia. An oxygen 15 positron emission tomographic study. Author(s): Rumsey JM, Andreason P, Zametkin AJ, Aquino T, King AC, Hamburger SD, Pikus A, Rapoport JL, Cohen RM. Source: Archives of Neurology. 1992 May; 49(5): 527-34. Erratum In: Arch Neurol 1994 March; 51(3): 243. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1580816&dopt=Abstract

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Familial aggregation of dyslexia phenotypes. Author(s): Raskind WH, Hsu L, Berninger VW, Thomson JB, Wijsman EM. Source: Behavior Genetics. 2000 September; 30(5): 385-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11235984&dopt=Abstract

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Familial aggregation of dyslexia phenotypes. II: paired correlated measures. Author(s): Hsu L, Wijsman EM, Berninger VW, Thomson JB, Raskind WH. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 2002 May 8; 114(4): 471-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11992573&dopt=Abstract

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Familial delusional disorder linked with dyslexia. Author(s): Gotz M, Edmonstone Y. Source: The British Journal of Psychiatry; the Journal of Mental Science. 1992 April; 160: 573. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1571775&dopt=Abstract

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Familial dyslexia associated with cavum vergae. Author(s): Lampl Y, Barak Y, Gilad R, Eshel Y, Sarova-Pinhas I. Source: Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 1997 May; 99(2): 142-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9213061&dopt=Abstract

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Familial dyslexia: neurocognitive and genetic correlation in a large Finnish family. Author(s): Nopola-Hemmi J, Myllyluoma B, Voutilainen A, Leinonen S, Kere J, Ahonen T. Source: Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2002 September; 44(9): 580-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12227612&dopt=Abstract

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Family patterns of developmental dyslexia, part II: behavioral phenotypes. Author(s): Wolff PH, Melngailis I, Obregon M, Bedrosian M. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 1995 December 18; 60(6): 494-505. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8825885&dopt=Abstract

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Family patterns of developmental dyslexia. Part III: Spelling errors as behavioral phenotype. Author(s): Wolff PH, Melngailis I, Kotwica K. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 1996 July 26; 67(4): 378-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8837706&dopt=Abstract

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Family patterns of developmental dyslexia: clinical findings. Author(s): Wolff PH, Melngailis I. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 1994 June 15; 54(2): 122-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8074162&dopt=Abstract

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Family risk of dyslexia is continuous: individual differences in the precursors of reading skill. Author(s): Snowling MJ, Gallagher A, Frith U. Source: Child Development. 2003 March-April; 74(2): 358-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12705560&dopt=Abstract

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Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: a new perspective on associations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Author(s): Richardson AJ, Ross MA. Source: Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 2000 July-August; 63(12): 1-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10970706&dopt=Abstract

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Fine mapping of the chromosome 2p12-16 dyslexia susceptibility locus: quantitative association analysis and positional candidate genes SEMA4F and OTX1. Author(s): Francks C, Fisher SE, Olson RK, Pennington BF, Smith SD, DeFries JC, Monaco AP. Source: Psychiatric Genetics. 2002 March; 12(1): 35-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11901358&dopt=Abstract

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From attentional gating in macaque primary visual cortex to dyslexia in humans. Author(s): Vidyasagar TR. Source: Prog Brain Res. 2001; 134: 297-312. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11702550&dopt=Abstract

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From language to reading and dyslexia. Author(s): Snowling MJ. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 January-March; 7(1): 37-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11305230&dopt=Abstract

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Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia. Author(s): Horwitz B, Rumsey JM, Donohue BC. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998 July 21; 95(15): 8939-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9671783&dopt=Abstract

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Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Author(s): Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Pugh KR, Fulbright RK, Constable RT, Mencl WE, Shankweiler DP, Liberman AM, Skudlarski P, Fletcher JM, Katz L, Marchione KE, Lacadie C, Gatenby C, Gore JC. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998 March 3; 95(5): 2636-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9482939&dopt=Abstract

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging of early visual pathways in dyslexia. Author(s): Demb JB, Boynton GM, Heeger DJ. Source: The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 1998 September 1; 18(17): 6939-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9712663&dopt=Abstract

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Functional MR imaging to evaluate sensory processing in dyslexia. Author(s): Burdette JH. Source: Academic Radiology. 2002 September; 9(9): 1062-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12238550&dopt=Abstract

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Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia). Author(s): Pugh KR, Mencl WE, Jenner AR, Katz L, Frost SJ, Lee JR, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Source: Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 2000; 6(3): 207-13. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10982498&dopt=Abstract

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Genetic analysis of dyslexia and other complex behavioral phenotypes. Author(s): Pennington BF, Smith SD. Source: Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 1997 December; 9(6): 636-41. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9425598&dopt=Abstract

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Genetic linkage analysis with dyslexia: evidence for linkage of spelling disability to chromosome 15. Author(s): Nothen MM, Schulte-Korne G, Grimm T, Cichon S, Vogt IR, Muller-Myhsok B, Propping P, Remschmidt H. Source: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999; 8 Suppl 3: 56-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10638372&dopt=Abstract

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Genetics of dyseidetic dyslexia. Author(s): Griffin JR. Source: Optometry and Vision Science : Official Publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 1992 February; 69(2): 148-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1584553&dopt=Abstract

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Handedness and dyslexia: a meta-analysis. Author(s): Eglinton E, Annett M. Source: Percept Mot Skills. 1994 December; 79(3 Pt 2): 1611-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7870554&dopt=Abstract

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Handedness, dyslexia and twinning in homosexual men. Author(s): Gotestam KO, Coates TJ, Ekstrand M. Source: The International Journal of Neuroscience. 1992 April; 63(3-4): 179-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1304552&dopt=Abstract

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Helping the child with dyslexia. Author(s): Luiz N. Source: Indian Pediatrics. 1998 March; 35(3): 290. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9707892&dopt=Abstract

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Hemisphere-specific treatment of dyslexia subtypes: better reading with anxietyladen words? Author(s): Van Strien JW, Stolk BD, Zuiker S. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1995 January; 28(1): 30-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7844484&dopt=Abstract

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Horizontal and vertical neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Nichelli P, Venneri A, Pentore R, Cubelli R. Source: Brain and Language. 1993 April; 44(3): 264-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8513404&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired auditory frequency discrimination in dyslexia detected with mismatch evoked potentials. Author(s): Baldeweg T, Richardson A, Watkins S, Foale C, Gruzelier J. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1999 April; 45(4): 495-503. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10211474&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired recognition of traffic signs in adults with dyslexia. Author(s): Brachacki GW, Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1995 May; 28(5): 297-301, 308. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7775849&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired temporal resolution in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Wolff PH. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 87-103. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7686728&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired visual search in dyslexia relates to the role of the magnocellular pathway in attention. Author(s): Vidyasagar TR, Pammer K. Source: Neuroreport. 1999 April 26; 10(6): 1283-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10363940&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired visual word processing in dyslexia revealed with magnetoencephalography. Author(s): Salmelin R, Service E, Kiesila P, Uutela K, Salonen O. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1996 August; 40(2): 157-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8773596&dopt=Abstract

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Implicit learning deficit in children with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Vicari S, Marotta L, Menghini D, Molinari M, Petrosini L. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(1): 108-14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12427569&dopt=Abstract

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Independent genome-wide scans identify a chromosome 18 quantitative-trait locus influencing dyslexia. Author(s): Fisher SE, Francks C, Marlow AJ, MacPhie IL, Newbury DF, Cardon LR, Ishikawa-Brush Y, Richardson AJ, Talcott JB, Gayan J, Olson RK, Pennington BF, Smith SD, DeFries JC, Stein JF, Monaco AP. Source: Nature Genetics. 2002 January; 30(1): 86-91. Epub 2001 December 17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11743577&dopt=Abstract

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Individual differences in contextual facilitation: evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension. Author(s): Nation K, Snowling MJ. Source: Child Development. 1998 August; 69(4): 996-1011. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9768483&dopt=Abstract

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Intelligence and dyslexia: implications for diagnosis and intervention. Author(s): Gustafson S, Samuelsson S. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 1999 June; 40(2): 127-34. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10399495&dopt=Abstract

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Investigation of accommodative and binocular function in dyslexia. Author(s): Evans BJ, Drasdo N, Richards IL. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1994 January; 14(1): 5-19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8152821&dopt=Abstract

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Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome? Evidence from PET scanning. Author(s): Paulesu E, Frith U, Snowling M, Gallagher A, Morton J, Frackowiak RS, Frith CD. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 1996 February; 119 ( Pt 1): 143-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8624677&dopt=Abstract

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Is dyslexia a dyschronia? Author(s): Llinas R. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 48-56. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323159&dopt=Abstract

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Is dyslexia caused by a visual deficit? Author(s): Skottun BC. Source: Vision Research. 2001 October; 41(23): 3069-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11704244&dopt=Abstract

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Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence? Author(s): Snowling M, Bishop DV, Stothard SE. Source: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2000 July; 41(5): 587-600. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10946751&dopt=Abstract

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Is there a deficit of early vision in dyslexia? Author(s): Walther-Muller PU. Source: Perception. 1995; 24(8): 919-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8848361&dopt=Abstract

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Is there a relationship between speech and nonspeech auditory processing in children with dyslexia? Author(s): Rosen S, Manganari E. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2001 August; 44(4): 720-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11521767&dopt=Abstract

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Is there a visual deficit in dyslexia resulting from a lesion of the right posterior parietal lobe? Author(s): Polikoff BR, Evans BJ, Legg CR. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1995 September; 15(5): 513-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8524585&dopt=Abstract

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Isolating the M(y)-cell response in dyslexia using the spatial frequency doubling illusion. Author(s): Pammer K, Wheatley C. Source: Vision Research. 2001 July; 41(16): 2139-47. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11403797&dopt=Abstract

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Katamnestic studies on dyslexia. Author(s): Strehlow U. Source: Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1994; 56(3): 219-28. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8079643&dopt=Abstract

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Krook's dyslexia. Author(s): Jacoby NM. Source: Lancet. 1992 December 19-26; 340(8834-8835): 1521-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1361609&dopt=Abstract

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Language abilities, reading acquisition, and developmental dyslexia: a discussion of hypothetical and observed relationships. Author(s): Sawyer DJ. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1992 February; 25(2): 82-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1583420&dopt=Abstract

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Language abilities, reading acquisition, and developmental dyslexia: limitations and alternative views. Author(s): Torgesen JK, Wagner RK. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1992 November; 25(9): 577-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1431542&dopt=Abstract

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Language development and symbolic play in children with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Author(s): Lyytinen P, Poikkeus AM, Laakso ML, Eklund K, Lyytinen H. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2001 August; 44(4): 873-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11521780&dopt=Abstract

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Laterality and types of dyslexia. Author(s): Annett M. Source: Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 1996 Winter; 20(4): 631-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8994202&dopt=Abstract

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Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision: a subject review--a rebuttal, literature review, and commentary. Author(s): Bowan MD. Source: Optometry. 2002 September; 73(9): 553-75. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12387562&dopt=Abstract

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Left neglect dyslexia and the processing of neglected information. Author(s): Vallar G, Guariglia C, Nico D, Tabossi P. Source: J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1996 October; 18(5): 733-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8941858&dopt=Abstract

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Letter dyslexia in a letter-by-letter reader. Author(s): Perri R, Bartolomeo P, Silveri MC. Source: Brain and Language. 1996 June; 53(3): 390-407. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8798335&dopt=Abstract

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Lexical and semantic processing in the absence of word reading: evidence from neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Ladavas E, Umilta C, Mapelli D. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1997 August; 35(8): 1075-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9256372&dopt=Abstract

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Lexical processes and eye movements in neglect dyslexia. Author(s): di Pellegrino G, Ladavas E, Galletti C. Source: Behavioural Neurology. 2001-2002; 13(1-2): 61-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12118151&dopt=Abstract

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Linguistic and nonlinguistic auditory processing of rapid vowel formant (F2) modulations in university students with and without developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Sapir S, Maimon T, Eviatar Z. Source: Brain and Cognition. 2002 March-April; 48(2-3): 520-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12030500&dopt=Abstract

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Linkage analysis and genetic models in dyslexia--considerations pertaining to discrete trait analysis and quantitative trait analyses. Author(s): Muller-Myhsok B, Grimm T. Source: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999; 8 Suppl 3: 40-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10638368&dopt=Abstract

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Linkage studies suggest a possible locus for developmental dyslexia on chromosome 1p. Author(s): Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Pauls JE, Hart LA, Pauls DL. Source: American Journal of Medical Genetics. 2001 January 8; 105(1): 120-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11424982&dopt=Abstract

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Luminance and chromatic contrast sensitivity in dyslexia: the magnocellular deficit hypothesis revisited. Author(s): Bednarek DB, Grabowska A. Source: Neuroreport. 2002 December 20; 13(18): 2521-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12499860&dopt=Abstract

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Magnetic source imaging and the neural basis of dyslexia. Author(s): Poeppel D, Rowley HA. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1996 August; 40(2): 137-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8773593&dopt=Abstract

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Maternal antibody-mediated dyslexia? Evidence for a pathogenic serum factor in a mother of two dyslexic children shown by transfer to mice using behavioural studies and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Author(s): Vincent A, Deacon R, Dalton P, Salmond C, Blamire AM, Pendlebury S, Johansen-Berg H, Rajogopalan B, Styles P, Stein J. Source: Journal of Neuroimmunology. 2002 September; 130(1-2): 243-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12225907&dopt=Abstract

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Mathematics and dyslexia--an overlooked connection. Author(s): Malmer G. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2000 October-December; 6(4): 223-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11129449&dopt=Abstract

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Metabolic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia detected by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Author(s): Rae C, Lee MA, Dixon RM, Blamire AM, Thompson CH, Styles P, Talcott J, Richardson AJ, Stein JF. Source: Lancet. 1998 June 20; 351(9119): 1849-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9652669&dopt=Abstract

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Methods of investigating a visual deficit in dyslexia. Author(s): Greatrex JC, Drasdo N. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1998 March; 18(2): 160-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9692037&dopt=Abstract

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Minicolumnar pathology in dyslexia. Author(s): Casanova MF, Buxhoeveden DP, Cohen M, Switala AE, Roy EL. Source: Annals of Neurology. 2002 July; 52(1): 108-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12112057&dopt=Abstract

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Misreading dyslexia. Researchers debate the causes and prevalence of the disorder. Author(s): Tashman B. Source: Scientific American. 1995 August; 273(2): 14, 16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7652523&dopt=Abstract

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Mixed lateralization of phonological assembly in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Milne RD, Syngeniotis A, Jackson G, Corballis MC. Source: Neurocase : Case Studies in Neuropsychology, Neuropsychiatry, and Behavioural Neurology. 2002; 8(3): 205-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12119315&dopt=Abstract

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Mono-ocular occlusion for treatment of dyslexia. Author(s): Soothill JF. Source: Lancet. 2000 September 2; 356(9232): 856. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11022955&dopt=Abstract

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Mono-ocular occlusion for treatment of dyslexia. Author(s): Fawcett AJ. Source: Lancet. 2000 July 8; 356(9224): 89-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10963240&dopt=Abstract

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Morphological alteration of temporal lobe gray matter in dyslexia: an MRI study. Author(s): Eliez S, Rumsey JM, Giedd JN, Schmitt JE, Patwardhan AJ, Reiss AL. Source: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2000 July; 41(5): 637-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10946755&dopt=Abstract

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Multilingualism and dyslexia: challenges for research and practice. Author(s): Cline T. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2000 January-March; 6(1): 3-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10840503&dopt=Abstract

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Naming speed in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Fawcett AJ, Nicolson RI. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1994 December; 27(10): 641-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7844480&dopt=Abstract

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Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: evidence from functional MRI. Author(s): Temple E, Deutsch GK, Poldrack RA, Miller SL, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, Gabrieli JD. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2003 March 4; 100(5): 2860-5. Epub 2003 February 25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12604786&dopt=Abstract

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Neural systems affected in developmental dyslexia revealed by functional neuroimaging. Author(s): Eden GF, Zeffiro TA. Source: Neuron. 1998 August; 21(2): 279-82. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9728909&dopt=Abstract

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Neuroanatomic basis of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Galaburda AM. Source: Neurologic Clinics. 1993 February; 11(1): 161-73. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8441368&dopt=Abstract

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Neurobiologic correlates of developmental dyslexia: how do dyslexics' brains differ from those of normal readers? Author(s): Filipek PA. Source: Journal of Child Neurology. 1995 January; 10 Suppl 1: S62-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7751557&dopt=Abstract

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Neuroimaging findings in a patient recovering from global alexia to spelling dyslexia. Author(s): Lanzinger S, Weder B, Oettli R, Fretz C. Source: Journal of Neuroimaging : Official Journal of the American Society of Neuroimaging. 1999 January; 9(1): 48-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9922725&dopt=Abstract

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Neurolinguistic differentiation of children with subtypes of dyslexia. Author(s): Masutto C, Bravar L, Fabbro F. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1994 October; 27(8): 520-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7989856&dopt=Abstract

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Neurological aspects of dyslexia: comment on the balance model. Author(s): Hynd GW. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1992 February; 25(2): 110-2, 123. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1583416&dopt=Abstract

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Neurology of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Galaburda AM. Source: Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 1993 April; 3(2): 237-42. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8513237&dopt=Abstract

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Neurology of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Galaburda AM. Source: Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg. 1992 February; 5(1): 71-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1623242&dopt=Abstract

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Neuropsychological classification and treatment of dyslexia. Author(s): Bakker DJ. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1992 February; 25(2): 102-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1583415&dopt=Abstract

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Neuroscience. Dyslexia: same brains, different languages. Author(s): Helmuth L. Source: Science. 2001 March 16; 291(5511): 2064-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11256391&dopt=Abstract

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No limits. Dyslexia spells trouble. Author(s): Green G. Source: Nursing Standard : Official Newspaper of the Royal College of Nursing. 1994 January 5-11; 8(15): 52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8123517&dopt=Abstract

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Nonconscious reading? Evidence from neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Berti A, Frassinetti F, Umilta C. Source: Cortex. 1994 June; 30(2): 181-97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7924344&dopt=Abstract

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Normal activation of frontotemporal language cortex in dyslexia, as measured with oxygen 15 positron emission tomography. Author(s): Rumsey JM, Zametkin AJ, Andreason P, Hanahan AP, Hamburger SD, Aquino T, King AC, Pikus A, Cohen RM. Source: Archives of Neurology. 1994 January; 51(1): 27-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8274107&dopt=Abstract

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Number words and number non-words. A case of deep dyslexia extending to Arabic numerals. Author(s): Cohen L, Dehaene S, Verstichel P. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 1994 April; 117 ( Pt 2): 267-79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8186954&dopt=Abstract

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Occupation choices of adults with and without symptoms of dyslexia. Author(s): Taylor KE, Walter J. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2003 August; 9(3): 177-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12940301&dopt=Abstract

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On subtypes of developmental dyslexia: evidence from processing time and accuracy scores. Author(s): Sprenger-Charolles L, Cole P, Lacert P, Serniclaes W. Source: Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology = Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Experimentale. 2000 June; 54(2): 87-104. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10881393&dopt=Abstract

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On the automaticity/cerebellar deficit hypothesis of dyslexia: balancing and continuous rapid naming in dyslexic and ADHD children. Author(s): Raberger T, Wimmer H. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(11): 1493-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12849767&dopt=Abstract

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Ophthalmologic aspects of dyslexia: the influence of full prismatic correction of heterophoria on dyslexic symptoms. Author(s): Pestalozzi D. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 397-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323146&dopt=Abstract

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Optometric vision therapy and training for learning disabilities and dyslexia: DVD surgery; curing complications of strabismus surgery. Author(s): Romano PE. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2002 Spring; 17(1): 12-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11874378&dopt=Abstract

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Oral hygiene dyslexia. A fresh approach to a frustrating problem. Author(s): Waese S. Source: Ont Dent. 1996 April; 73(3): 29-30. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9470605&dopt=Abstract

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Orienting of visual attention in dyslexia: evidence for asymmetric hemispheric control of attention. Author(s): Facoetti A, Turatto M, Lorusso ML, Mascetti GG. Source: Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale. 2001 May 1; 138(1): 46-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11374082&dopt=Abstract

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Orthographic analogies and developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Hanley JR, Reynolds CJ, Thornton A. Source: The British Journal of Psychology. 1997 August; 88 ( Pt 3): 423-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9290236&dopt=Abstract

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Otto Wernicke on developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Benton A. Source: Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 2002 September; 11(3): 278-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12481478&dopt=Abstract

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Outpatient treatment of dyslexia through stimulation of the cerebral hemispheres. Author(s): Kappers EJ. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1997 January-February; 30(1): 100-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9009870&dopt=Abstract

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Outstanding questions about phonological processing in dyslexia. Author(s): Ramus F. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 October-December; 7(4): 197-216. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11881781&dopt=Abstract

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Overcoming dyslexia. Author(s): Morris B. Source: Fortune. 2002 May 13; 145(10): 54-8, 62, 64 Passim. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12025354&dopt=Abstract

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People with dyslexia are quite capable of nursing. Author(s): Shepherd K. Source: Nursing Standard : Official Newspaper of the Royal College of Nursing. 2002 May 22-28; 16(36): 30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12056194&dopt=Abstract

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Perception of voice and tone onset time continua in children with dyslexia with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Author(s): Breier JI, Gray L, Fletcher JM, Diehl RL, Klaas P, Foorman BR, Molis MR. Source: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2001 November; 80(3): 245-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11583525&dopt=Abstract

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Perceptual discrimination of speech sounds in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Serniclaes W, Sprenger-Charolles L, Carre R, Demonet JF. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2001 April; 44(2): 384-99. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11324660&dopt=Abstract

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Persistence of dyslexia: the Connecticut Longitudinal Study at adolescence. Author(s): Shaywitz SE, Fletcher JM, Holahan JM, Shneider AE, Marchione KE, Stuebing KK, Francis DJ, Pugh KR, Shaywitz BA. Source: Pediatrics. 1999 December; 104(6): 1351-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10585988&dopt=Abstract

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Phonological representations, reading development and dyslexia: towards a crosslinguistic theoretical framework. Author(s): Goswami U. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2000 April-June; 6(2): 133-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10840513&dopt=Abstract

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Phonological training in children with dyslexia using temporally modified speech: a three-step pilot investigation. Author(s): Habib M, Rey V, Daffaure V, Camps R, Espesser R, Joly-Pottuz B, Demonet JF. Source: International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists. 2002 July-September; 37(3): 289-308. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12201979&dopt=Abstract

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Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: insights from connectionist models. Author(s): Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. Source: Psychological Review. 1999 July; 106(3): 491-528. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10467896&dopt=Abstract

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Planum temporale asymmetry and ear advantage in dichotic listening in Developmental Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Author(s): Foster LM, Hynd GW, Morgan AE, Hugdahl K. Source: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : Jins. 2002 January; 8(1): 22-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11843072&dopt=Abstract

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Planum temporale, planum parietale and dichotic listening in dyslexia. Author(s): Heiervang E, Hugdahl K, Steinmetz H, Inge Smievoll A, Stevenson J, Lund A, Ersland L, Lundervold A. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2000; 38(13): 1704-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11099728&dopt=Abstract

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Poor saccadic control correlates with dyslexia. Author(s): Biscaldi M, Gezeck S, Stuhr V. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1998 November; 36(11): 1189-202. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9842764&dopt=Abstract

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Precursors of literacy delay among children at genetic risk of dyslexia. Author(s): Gallagher A, Frith U, Snowling MJ. Source: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2000 February; 41(2): 203-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10750546&dopt=Abstract

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Predicting dyslexia at 8 years of age using neonatal brain responses. Author(s): Molfese DL. Source: Brain and Language. 2000 May; 72(3): 238-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10764519&dopt=Abstract

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Preliminary evidence of widespread morphological variations of the brain in dyslexia. Author(s): Brown WE, Eliez S, Menon V, Rumsey JM, White CD, Reiss AL. Source: Neurology. 2001 March 27; 56(6): 781-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11274316&dopt=Abstract

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Presentation and task effects on migration errors in attentional dyslexia. Author(s): Mayall K, Humphreys GW. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2002; 40(8): 1506-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11931955&dopt=Abstract

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Prevalence and clinical characteristics of dyslexia in primary school students. Author(s): Roongpraiwan R, Ruangdaraganon N, Visudhiphan P, Santikul K. Source: J Med Assoc Thai. 2002 November; 85 Suppl 4: S1097-103. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12549782&dopt=Abstract

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Prevalence of dyslexia among Texas prison inmates. Author(s): Moody KC, Holzer CE 3rd, Roman MJ, Paulsen KA, Freeman DH, Haynes M, James TN. Source: Tex Med. 2000 June; 96(6): 69-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10876375&dopt=Abstract

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Processing of palindromes in neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Shillcock RC, Kelly ML, Monaghan P. Source: Neuroreport. 1998 September 14; 9(13): 3081-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9804320&dopt=Abstract

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Pseudoname learning by German-speaking children with dyslexia: evidence for a phonological learning deficit. Author(s): Mayringer H, Wimmer H. Source: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2000 February; 75(2): 116-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10620376&dopt=Abstract

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Psychophysical evidence for a general temporal processing deficit in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Van Ingelghem M, van Wieringen A, Wouters J, Vandenbussche E, Onghena P, Ghesquiere P. Source: Neuroreport. 2001 November 16; 12(16): 3603-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11733720&dopt=Abstract

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Pure severe dyslexia after a perinatal focal lesion: evidence of a specific module for acquisition of reading. Author(s): Daigneault S, Braun CM. Source: Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics : Jdbp. 2002 August; 23(4): 256-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12177573&dopt=Abstract

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Rapid auditory processing and phonological ability in normal readers and readers with dyslexia. Author(s): Marshall CM, Snowling MJ, Bailey PJ. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2001 August; 44(4): 925-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11521783&dopt=Abstract

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Re: Critical response to dyslexia, literacy and psychology assessment. Author(s): Patterson F. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 July-September; 7(3): 175-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11765985&dopt=Abstract

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Re: Critical response to dyslexia, literacy and psychology assessment. Author(s): Reason R. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2001 July-September; 7(3): 174. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11765984&dopt=Abstract

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Re: Knivsberg, A.-M.: urine peptide patterns in dyslexia. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 1: 25-33, 1997. Author(s): Stanley O. Source: Pediatric Rehabilitation. 1997 October-December; 1(4): 245. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9689262&dopt=Abstract

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Reaction times and dyslexia. Author(s): Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ. Source: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology. 1994 February; 47(1): 29-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8177961&dopt=Abstract

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Reading aloud and lexical decision in neglect dyslexia patients: a dissociation. Author(s): Arduino LS, Burani C, Vallar G. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(8): 877-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12667524&dopt=Abstract

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Reading too little into reading?: strategies in the rehabilitation of acquired dyslexia. Author(s): Nickels L. Source: Eur J Disord Commun. 1995; 30(1): 37-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7647391&dopt=Abstract

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Reading words and pseudowords: an eye movement study of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): De Luca M, Borrelli M, Judica A, Spinelli D, Zoccolotti P. Source: Brain and Language. 2002 March; 80(3): 617-26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11896661&dopt=Abstract

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Recall of morphologically complex forms is affected by memory task but not dyslexia. Author(s): Service E, Tujulin AM. Source: Brain and Language. 2002 April-June; 81(1-3): 42-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12081380&dopt=Abstract

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Recognising dyslexia. Author(s): Wales C. Source: The British Journal of General Practice : the Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 2003 February; 53(487): 153-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12817374&dopt=Abstract

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Refractory dyslexia: evidence of multiple task-specific phonological output stores. Author(s): Crutch SJ, Warrington EK. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 2001 August; 124(Pt 8): 1533-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11459745&dopt=Abstract

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Reply to Stuart and Lovegrove's question, “visual processing deficits in dyslexia: receptors or neural mechanisms?”. Author(s): Grosser GS, Spafford CS. Source: Percept Mot Skills. 1992 August; 75(1): 115-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1528658&dopt=Abstract

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Response biases in oral reading: an account of the co-occurrence of surface dyslexia and semantic dementia. Author(s): Funnell E. Source: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology. 1996 May; 49(2): 417-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8685392&dopt=Abstract

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Response to letters to the editor by Felicity Patterson, Dyslexia 7:174-177. Author(s): Schneider E. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 183-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222736&dopt=Abstract

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Right frontotemporal activation by tonal memory in dyslexia, an O15 PET Study. Author(s): Rumsey JM, Andreason P, Zametkin AJ, King AC, Hamburger SD, Aquino T, Hanahan AP, Pikus A, Cohen RM. Source: Biological Psychiatry. 1994 August 1; 36(3): 171-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7948454&dopt=Abstract

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Row blindness in Gestalt grouping and developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Lewis JP, Frick RW. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1999 March; 37(3): 385-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10199650&dopt=Abstract

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Scalp potentials evoked by amplitude-modulated tones in dyslexia. Author(s): McAnally KI, Stein JF. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 1997 August; 40(4): 939-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9263956&dopt=Abstract

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Scotopic sensitivity in dyslexia and requirements for DHA supplementation. Author(s): Greatrex JC, Drasdo N, Dresser K. Source: Lancet. 2000 April 22; 355(9213): 1429-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10791530&dopt=Abstract

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Selective magnocellular deficits in dyslexia: a “phantom contour” study. Author(s): Sperling AJ, Lu Z, Manis FR, Seidenberg MS. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(10): 1422-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12757913&dopt=Abstract

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Semantics and semantic errors: implicit access to semantic information from words and nonwords in deep dyslexia. Author(s): Buchanan L, McEwen S, Westbury C, Libben G. Source: Brain and Language. 2003 January; 84(1): 65-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12537952&dopt=Abstract

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Simultaneous activation of reading mechanisms: evidence from a case of deep dyslexia. Author(s): Southwood MH, Chatterjee A. Source: Brain and Language. 1999 March; 67(1): 1-29. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10190998&dopt=Abstract

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Some remarks on the magnocellular deficit theory of dyslexia. Author(s): Skottun BC. Source: Vision Research. 1997 April; 37(7): 965-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9156193&dopt=Abstract

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Spatio-temporal contrast sensitivity, coherent motion, and visible persistence in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Slaghuis WL, Ryan JF. Source: Vision Research. 1999 February; 39(3): 651-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10341992&dopt=Abstract

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Speech perception in children with specific reading difficulties (dyslexia). Author(s): Adlard A, Hazan V. Source: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology. 1998 February; 51(1): 153-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9532966&dopt=Abstract

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Speech perception of infants with high familial risk for dyslexia differ at the age of 6 months. Author(s): Richardson U, Leppanen PH, Leiwo M, Lyytinen H. Source: Developmental Neuropsychology. 2003; 23(3): 385-97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12740192&dopt=Abstract

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Speed of lower-level auditory and visual processing as a basic factor in dyslexia: electrophysiological evidence. Author(s): Breznitz Z, Meyler A. Source: Brain and Language. 2003 May; 85(2): 166-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12735934&dopt=Abstract

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Spelling dyslexia: a deficit of the visual word-form. Author(s): Warrington EK, Langdon D. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1994 February; 57(2): 2116. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8126508&dopt=Abstract

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Stability of gaze control in dyslexia. Author(s): Fischer B, Hartnegg K. Source: Strabismus. 2000 June; 8(2): 119-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10980693&dopt=Abstract

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Standard EEG and dyslexia in children--new evidence for specific correlates? Author(s): Rothenberger A, Moll GH. Source: Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1994; 56(3): 209-18. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8079642&dopt=Abstract

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Structural imaging in dyslexia: the planum temporale. Author(s): Eckert MA, Leonard CM. Source: Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 2000; 6(3): 198-206. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10982497&dopt=Abstract

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Sulcal/gyral pattern morphology of the perisylvian language region in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Hiemenz JR, Hynd GW. Source: Brain and Language. 2000 August; 74(1): 113-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10924220&dopt=Abstract

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Supportive evidence for the DYX3 dyslexia susceptibility gene in Canadian families. Author(s): Petryshen TL, Kaplan BJ, Hughes ML, Tzenova J, Field LL. Source: Journal of Medical Genetics. 2002 February; 39(2): 125-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11836362&dopt=Abstract

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Surface and phonological subtypes of adult developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Zabell C, Everatt J. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 160-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222732&dopt=Abstract

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Surface dyslexia in a Japanese patient with semantic dementia: evidence for similarity-based orthography-to-phonology translation. Author(s): Fushimi T, Komori K, Ikeda M, Patterson K, Ijuin M, Tanabe H. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2003; 41(12): 1644-58. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12887989&dopt=Abstract

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Surface dyslexia in nonfluent progressive aphasia. Author(s): Watt S, Jokel R, Behrmann M. Source: Brain and Language. 1997 February 1; 56(2): 211-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9027371&dopt=Abstract

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Susceptibility loci for distinct components of developmental dyslexia on chromosomes 6 and 15. Author(s): Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Hart LA, Speed WC, Shuster A, Pauls DL. Source: American Journal of Human Genetics. 1997 January; 60(1): 27-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8981944&dopt=Abstract

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Temporal processing and phonological impairment in dyslexia: effect of phoneme lengthening on order judgment of two consonants. Author(s): Rey V, De Martino S, Espesser R, Habib M. Source: Brain and Language. 2002 March; 80(3): 576-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11896658&dopt=Abstract

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The “temporal processing deficit” hypothesis in dyslexia: new experimental evidence. Author(s): De Martino S, Espesser R, Rey V, Habib M. Source: Brain and Cognition. 2001 June-July; 46(1-2): 104-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11527306&dopt=Abstract

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The cerebellum and dyslexia: perpetrator or innocent bystander? Author(s): Zeffiro T, Eden G. Source: Trends in Neurosciences. 2001 September; 24(9): 512-3. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11506882&dopt=Abstract

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The cognitive profile and multiple-deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Ho CS, Chan DW, Tsang SM, Lee SH. Source: Developmental Psychology. 2002 July; 38(4): 543-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12090484&dopt=Abstract

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The definition of dyslexia. Author(s): Thomson M. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 January-March; 8(1): 53-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11990225&dopt=Abstract

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The dyslexia ecosystem. Author(s): Nicolson RI. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 April-June; 8(2): 55-66. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12067187&dopt=Abstract

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The dyslexia ecosystem: commentary 1. Author(s): Stein JF. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 178-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222733&dopt=Abstract

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The dyslexia ecosystem: commentary 2. Author(s): Miles TR. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 179-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222734&dopt=Abstract

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The dyslexia ecosystem: commentary 3. Author(s): Fawcett AJ. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 July-September; 8(3): 181-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222735&dopt=Abstract

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The genetic basis of dyslexia. Author(s): Francks C, MacPhie IL, Monaco AP. Source: Lancet. Neurology. 2002 December; 1(8): 483-90. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12849333&dopt=Abstract

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The influence of color on transient system activity: implications for dyslexia research. Author(s): Pammer K, Lovegrove W. Source: Perception & Psychophysics. 2001 April; 63(3): 490-500. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11414136&dopt=Abstract

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The mismatch negativity in evaluating central auditory dysfunction in dyslexia. Author(s): Kujala T, Naatanen R. Source: Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2001 August; 25(6): 535-43. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11595273&dopt=Abstract

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The perception of “sine-wave speech” by adults with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Rosner BS, Talcott JB, Witton C, Hogg JD, Richardson AJ, Hansen PC, Stein JF. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2003 February; 46(1): 68-79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12647889&dopt=Abstract

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The prevalence of dyslexia among art students. Author(s): Wolff U, Lundberg I. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2002 January-March; 8(1): 34-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11990223&dopt=Abstract

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The role of neuroscience in the remediation of students with dyslexia. Author(s): Eden GF, Moats L. Source: Nature Neuroscience. 2002 November; 5 Suppl: 1080-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12403991&dopt=Abstract

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The role of visuospatial attention in developmental dyslexia: evidence from a rehabilitation study. Author(s): Facoetti A, Lorusso ML, Paganoni P, Umilta C, Mascetti GG. Source: Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research. 2003 January; 15(2): 154-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12429367&dopt=Abstract

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The science of reading and dyslexia. Author(s): Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Source: J Aapos. 2003 June; 7(3): 158-66. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12825054&dopt=Abstract

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The stupidity of Elizabeth Fry--was it dyslexia? Author(s): Miles TR, Huntsman R. Source: The British Journal of General Practice : the Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 2002 December; 52(485): 1042-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12528598&dopt=Abstract

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The timing deficit hypothesis of dyslexia and its implications for Hebrew reading. Author(s): Kaminsky M, Eviatar Z, Norman J. Source: Brain and Cognition. 2002 March-April; 48(2-3): 394-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12030475&dopt=Abstract

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Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Author(s): Ramus F, Rosen S, Dakin SC, Day BL, Castellote JM, White S, Frith U. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 2003 April; 126(Pt 4): 841-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12615643&dopt=Abstract

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Unidirectional dyslexia in a polyglot. Author(s): Mohamed MD, Elsherbiny SM, Goulding PJ. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2000 April; 68(4): 537. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10847799&dopt=Abstract

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Unidirectional dyslexia in a polyglot. Author(s): Leker RR, Biran I. Source: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1999 April; 66(4): 517-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10201427&dopt=Abstract

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Up-to-down reading in dyslexia. Author(s): Altschuler EL. Source: Lancet. 2003 June 21; 361(9375): 2159. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12826460&dopt=Abstract

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Urine patterns, peptide levels and IgA/IgG antibodies to food proteins in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Knivsberg AM. Source: Pediatric Rehabilitation. 1997 January-March; 1(1): 25-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9689235&dopt=Abstract

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Use of temporal envelope cues by children with developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Lorenzi C, Dumont A, Fullgrabe C. Source: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : Jslhr. 2000 December; 43(6): 1367-79. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11193958&dopt=Abstract

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Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Castles A, Coltheart M. Source: Cognition. 1993 May; 47(2): 149-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8324999&dopt=Abstract

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Verbal information processing in dyslexia--data from a follow-up experiment of neuro-psychological aspects and EEG. Author(s): Warnke A, Remschmidt H, Hennighausen K. Source: Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1994; 56(3): 203-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7521558&dopt=Abstract

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Visible persistence in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Martos FJ, Marmolejo A. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 383-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323142&dopt=Abstract

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Vision therapy for learning disabilities and dyslexia. Author(s): Starr NB. Source: Journal of Pediatric Health Care : Official Publication of National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners. 2000 January-February; 14(1): 32-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11141825&dopt=Abstract

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Visual and language processing deficits are concurrent in dyslexia. Author(s): Slaghuis WL, Lovegrove WJ, Davidson JA. Source: Cortex. 1993 December; 29(4): 601-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8124937&dopt=Abstract

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Visual and language processing disorders are concurrent in dyslexia and continue into adulthood. Author(s): Slaghuis WL, Twell AJ, Kingston KR. Source: Cortex. 1996 September; 32(3): 413-38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8886520&dopt=Abstract

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Visual evoked potential evidence for magnocellular system deficit in dyslexia. Author(s): Kubova Z, Kuba M, Peregrin J, Novakova V. Source: Physiological Research / Academia Scientiarum Bohemoslovaca. 1996; 45(1): 879. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8884929&dopt=Abstract

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Visual function, fatty acids and dyslexia. Author(s): Taylor KE, Richardson AJ. Source: Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 2000 July-August; 63(12): 89-93. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10970719&dopt=Abstract

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Visual half-field contrast sensitivity in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Hollants-Gilhuijs M, Spekreijse F, Gijsberti-Hodenpijl M, Karten Y, Spekreijse H. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1998-99; 96(4): 293303. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10855805&dopt=Abstract

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Visual impairment and dyslexia in childhood. Author(s): Ygge J, Lennerstrand G. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 1997 October; 8(5): 40-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10174257&dopt=Abstract

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Visual implicit memory deficit and developmental surface dyslexia: a case of early occipital damage. Author(s): Samuelsson S, Bogges TR, Karlsson T. Source: Cortex. 2000 June; 36(3): 365-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10921665&dopt=Abstract

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Visual localization in dyslexia. Author(s): Graves RE, Frerichs RJ, Cook JA. Source: Neuropsychology. 1999 October; 13(4): 575-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10527066&dopt=Abstract

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Visual magnocellular deficits in dyslexia. Author(s): Chase C, Stein J. Source: Brain; a Journal of Neurology. 2003 September; 126(Pt 9): E2; Author Reply E3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12937067&dopt=Abstract

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Visual motion sensitivity in dyslexia: evidence for temporal and energy integration deficits. Author(s): Talcott JB, Hansen PC, Assoku EL, Stein JF. Source: Neuropsychologia. 2000; 38(7): 935-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10775704&dopt=Abstract

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Visual paralexias in a Spanish-speaking patient with acquired dyslexia: a consequence of visual and semantic impairments? Author(s): Cuetos F, Ellis AW. Source: Cortex. 1999 December; 35(5): 661-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10656634&dopt=Abstract

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Visual processing and dyslexia. Author(s): Everatt J, Bradshaw MF, Hibbard PB. Source: Perception. 1999; 28(2): 243-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10615463&dopt=Abstract

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Visual search performance in dyslexia. Author(s): Iles J, Walsh V, Richardson A. Source: Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 2000 July-September; 6(3): 163-77. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10989565&dopt=Abstract

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Visual-spatial attention in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Facoetti A, Paganoni P, Turatto M, Marzola V, Mascetti GG. Source: Cortex. 2000 February; 36(1): 109-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10728901&dopt=Abstract

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Visuographemic alexia: a new form of a peripheral acquired dyslexia. Author(s): Dalmas JF, Dansilio S. Source: Brain and Language. 2000 October 15; 75(1): 1-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11023635&dopt=Abstract

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Voluntary saccadic control in dyslexia. Author(s): Biscaldi M, Fischer B, Hartnegg K. Source: Perception. 2000; 29(5): 509-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10992950&dopt=Abstract

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Weakness in the transient visual system: a causal factor in dyslexia? Author(s): Lovegrove W. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 57-69. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323160&dopt=Abstract

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What lesson for dyslexia from Down's syndrome? Comments on Cossu, Rossini, and Marshall (1993). Author(s): Morton J, Frith U. Source: Cognition. 1993 September; 48(3): 289-96; Discussion 297-303. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8269701&dopt=Abstract

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Willie the worm and dyslexia: a 17-year follow-up. Author(s): Gentry J. Source: Journal of Child Neurology. 1995 January; 10 Suppl 1: S106-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7751544&dopt=Abstract

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Word length and error types in Japanese left-sided neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Takeda K, Sugishita M. Source: Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 1995 May; 97(2): 125-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7656484&dopt=Abstract

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Word length coding in neglect dyslexia. Author(s): Tegner R, Levander M. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1993 November; 31(11): 1217-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8107982&dopt=Abstract

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Word recognition in developmental dyslexia: a connectionist interpretation. Author(s): Snowling M, Hulme C, Goulandris N. Source: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology. 1994 November; 47(4): 895-916. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7809401&dopt=Abstract

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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and dyslexia.

Finding Nutrition Studies on Dyslexia The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail: [email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.

7

Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “dyslexia” (or a synonym): •

Cerebellar morphology in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Department of Biochemistry, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia. [email protected] Source: Rae, Caroline Harasty, Jenny A Dzendrowskyj, Theresa E Talcott, Joel B Simpson, Judy M Blamire, Andrew M Dixon, Ruth M Lee, Martin A Thompson, Campbell H Styles, Peter Richardson, Alex J Stein, John F Neuropsychologia. 2002; 40(8): 1285-92 0028-3932

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Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Author(s): School of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom. [email protected] Source: Stordy, B J Am-J-Clin-Nutr. 2000 January; 71(1 Suppl): 323S-6S 0002-9165

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Dramatic favorable responses of children with learning disabilities or dyslexia and attention deficit disorder to antimotion sickness medications: four case reports. Author(s): Medical Dyslexic Treatment Center, Great Neck, NY 11021. Source: Levinson, H N Percept-Mot-Skills. 1991 December; 73(3 Pt 1): 723-38 0031-5125

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Dyslexia in adults is associated with clinical signs of fatty acid deficiency. Author(s): University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford, UK. Source: Taylor, K E Higgins, C J Calvin, C M Hall, J A Easton, T McDaid, A M Richardson, A J Prostaglandins-Leukot-Essent-Fatty-Acids. 2000 Jul-August; 63(1-2): 758 0952-3278

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Possible relevance of phospholipid abnormalities and genetic interactions in psychiatric disorders: the relationship between dyslexia and schizophrenia. Author(s): Scotia Research Institute, Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada. Source: Horrobin, D F Glen, A I Hudson, C J Med-Hypotheses. 1995 December; 45(6): 605-13 0306-9877

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Urine patterns, peptide levels and IgA/IgG antibodies to food proteins in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Center for Reading Research, Stavanger College, Norway. Source: Knivsberg, A M Pediatr-Rehabil. 1997 Jan-March; 1(1): 25-33 1363-8491

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Zinc deficiency in children with dyslexia: concentrations of zinc and other minerals in sweat and hair. Author(s): Biolab Medical Unit, London. Source: Grant, E C Howard, J M Davies, S Chasty, H Hornsby, B Galbraith, J Br-Med-J(Clin-Res-Ed). 1988 February 27; 296(6622): 607-9 0267-0623

Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •

healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0

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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov

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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov

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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/

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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/

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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/

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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/

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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to dyslexia. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to dyslexia and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to dyslexia: •

A child reading: some educational and psychological considerations. Author(s): Gopinathan S, Ling QM. Source: Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1979 July; 8(3): 237-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=547866&dopt=Abstract

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A critical review of EEG coherence studies of hemisphere function. Author(s): French CC, Beaumont JG. Source: International Journal of Psychophysiology : Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology. 1984 March; 1(3): 241-54. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6394561&dopt=Abstract

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A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Author(s): Richardso AJ, Puri BK.

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Source: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 2002 February; 26(2): 233-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11817499&dopt=Abstract •

A review of the management of 323 consecutive patients seen in a specific learning difficulties clinic. Author(s): Evans BJ, Patel R, Wilkins AJ, Lightstone A, Eperjesi F, Speedwell L, Duffy J. Source: Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists). 1999 November; 19(6): 454-66. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10768028&dopt=Abstract

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A study and meta-analysis of lay attributions of cures for overcoming specific psychological problems. Author(s): Furnham A, Hayward R. Source: The Journal of Genetic Psychology; Child Behavior, Animal Behavior, and Comparative Psychology. 1997 September; 158(3): 315-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9255959&dopt=Abstract

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Abnormal auditory cortical activation in dyslexia 100 msec after speech onset. Author(s): Helenius P, Salmelin R, Richardson U, Leinonen S, Lyytinen H. Source: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2002 May 15; 14(4): 603-17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12126501&dopt=Abstract

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Alterations in the functional anatomy of reading induced by rehabilitation of an alexic patient. Author(s): Adair JC, Nadeau SE, Conway TW, Gonzalez-Rothi LJ, Heilman PC, Green IA, Heilman KM. Source: Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology. 2000 October; 13(4): 303-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11186167&dopt=Abstract

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Altered hemispheric asymmetry of auditory P100m in dyslexia. Author(s): Heim S, Eulitz C, Elbert T. Source: The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2003 April; 17(8): 1715-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12752389&dopt=Abstract

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An evaluation of a non-visual method. Author(s): Maginnis GH. Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1986 April; 19(4): 215-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3701216&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Facoetti A, Lorusso ML, Paganoni P, Cattaneo C, Galli R, Umilta C, Mascetti GG. Source: Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research. 2003 April; 16(2): 185-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12668226&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory processing and dyslexia: evidence for a specific speech processing deficit. Author(s): Schulte-Korne G, Deimel W, Bartling J, Remschmidt H. Source: Neuroreport. 1998 January 26; 9(2): 337-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9507979&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory processing in children with dyslexia. Author(s): Heiervang E, Stevenson J, Hugdahl K. Source: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2002 October; 43(7): 931-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12405480&dopt=Abstract

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Auditory-brainstem synchronicity in dyslexia measured using the REPs/ABR protocol. Author(s): Lauter JL, Wood SB. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 377-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323140&dopt=Abstract

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Brain activation during reading in deep dyslexia: an MEG study. Author(s): Laine M, Salmelin R, Helenius P, Marttila R. Source: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2000 July; 12(4): 622-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10936915&dopt=Abstract

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Brain responses to changes in speech sound durations differ between infants with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Author(s): Leppanen PH, Richardson U, Pihko E, Eklund KM, Guttorm TK, Aro M, Lyytinen H. Source: Developmental Neuropsychology. 2002; 22(1): 407-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12405511&dopt=Abstract

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Cortical responses of infants with and without a genetic risk for dyslexia: I. Age effects. Author(s): Pihko E, Leppanen PH, Eklund KM, Cheour M, Guttorm TK, Lyytinen H. Source: Neuroreport. 1999 April 6; 10(5): 901-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10321457&dopt=Abstract

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Cortical responses of infants with and without a genetic risk for dyslexia: II. Group effects. Author(s): Leppanen PH, Pihko E, Eklund KM, Lyytinen H. Source: Neuroreport. 1999 April 6; 10(5): 969-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10321469&dopt=Abstract

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Crossmodal temporal processing acuity impairment aggravates with age in developmental dyslexia. Author(s): Virsu V, Lahti-Nuuttila P, Laasonen M. Source: Neuroscience Letters. 2003 January 23; 336(3): 151-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12505615&dopt=Abstract

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Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Author(s): Stordy BJ. Source: The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000 January; 71(1 Suppl): 323S-6S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10617990&dopt=Abstract

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Developmental dyslexia and animal studies: at the interface between cognition and neurology. Author(s): Galaburda AM. Source: Cognition. 1994 April-June; 50(1-3): 133-49. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8039357&dopt=Abstract

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Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: evidence from functional MRI. Author(s): Temple E, Poldrack RA, Protopapas A, Nagarajan S, Salz T, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, Gabrieli JD. Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2000 December 5; 97(25): 13907-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11095716&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia in relation to cerebral dominance and temporal analysis. Author(s): Zurif EB, Carson G. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1970 July; 8(3): 351-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4941969&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia: empowering parents to become their child's educational advocate. Author(s): Linday LA. Source: Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics : Jdbp. 1995 October; 16(5): 359-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8557837&dopt=Abstract

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Dyslexia: verbal impairments in the absence of magnocellular impairments. Author(s): Kronbichler M, Hutzler F, Wimmer H. Source: Neuroreport. 2002 April 16; 13(5): 617-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11973457&dopt=Abstract

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EMG and EEG biofeedback training in the treatment of a 10-year-old hyperactive boy with a developmental reading disorder. Author(s): Tansey MA, Bruner RL. Source: Biofeedback Self Regul. 1983 March; 8(1): 25-37. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6882815&dopt=Abstract

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Event-related potentials and dyslexia. Author(s): Fawcett AJ, Chattopadhyay AK, Kandler RH, Jarratt JA, Nicolson RI, Proctor M. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1993 June 14; 682: 342-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8323131&dopt=Abstract

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Functional MR imaging to evaluate sensory processing in dyslexia. Author(s): Burdette JH. Source: Academic Radiology. 2002 September; 9(9): 1062-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12238550&dopt=Abstract

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Impaired auditory frequency discrimination in dyslexia detected with mismatch evoked potentials. Author(s): Baldeweg T, Richardson A, Watkins S, Foale C, Gruzelier J. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1999 April; 45(4): 495-503. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10211474&dopt=Abstract

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Mental imagery and dyslexia: a deficit in processing multipart visual objects? Author(s): Koenig O, Kosslyn SM, Wolff P. Source: Brain and Language. 1991 October; 41(3): 381-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1933264&dopt=Abstract

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P300 component of the auditory event-related potentials and dyslexia. Author(s): Ortiz Alonso T, Navarro M, Vila Abad E. Source: Funct Neurol. 1990 October-December; 5(4): 333-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2093051&dopt=Abstract

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Possible relevance of phospholipid abnormalities and genetic interactions in psychiatric disorders: the relationship between dyslexia and schizophrenia. Author(s): Horrobin DF, Glen AI, Hudson CJ.

116 Dyslexia

Source: Medical Hypotheses. 1995 December; 45(6): 605-13. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8771057&dopt=Abstract •

Scotopic sensitivity in dyslexia and requirements for DHA supplementation. Author(s): Greatrex JC, Drasdo N, Dresser K. Source: Lancet. 2000 April 22; 355(9213): 1429-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10791530&dopt=Abstract

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Speech perception of infants with high familial risk for dyslexia differ at the age of 6 months. Author(s): Richardson U, Leppanen PH, Leiwo M, Lyytinen H. Source: Developmental Neuropsychology. 2003; 23(3): 385-97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12740192&dopt=Abstract

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The mismatch negativity in evaluating central auditory dysfunction in dyslexia. Author(s): Kujala T, Naatanen R. Source: Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2001 August; 25(6): 535-43. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11595273&dopt=Abstract

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The problem of dyslexia in teenage. Author(s): Frisk M, Wegelius E, Tenhunen T, Widholm O, Hortling H. Source: Acta Paediatr Scand. 1967 July; 56(4): 333-43. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6039046&dopt=Abstract

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The proposed chiropractic cure for dyslexia. Author(s): Silver LB. Source: Am J Dis Child. 1987 May; 141(5): 476-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3578150&dopt=Abstract

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Time estimation deficits in developmental dyslexia: evidence of cerebellar involvement. Author(s): Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ, Dean P. Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences. 1995 January 23; 259(1354): 43-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7700875&dopt=Abstract

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •

Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/

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•

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats

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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/

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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/

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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

•

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/

General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.

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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to dyslexia. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “dyslexia” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on dyslexia, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical dissertations in this bibliography.

Dissertations on Dyslexia ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to dyslexia. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: •

A Comparative Study of Screening Tests in the Early Identification of Dyslexia. by Kirby, Timothy Stephen, PhD from University of Georgia, 1979, 104 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8001014

•

A Comparison of the Phonological Processing Abilities of Two Groups of Disabled Readers (dyslexia) by Manley, Jacqueline, EDD from University of Nevada, Reno, 1993, 106 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9410120

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A Neuropsychological Investigation of Cerebral Dominance and Dyslexia by Mcneil, Susan Elaine, EDD from Drake University, 1981, 67 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8121529

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A Study of College Graduates with Dyslexia by Rose, Zina R., EDD from University of La Verne, 1998, 140 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9839593

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A Study of Critical Incidents Affecting the Success of Learning-disabled Students in Higher Education (dyslexia) by Howard, Priscilla Edwards, EDD from Lehigh University, 1992, 268 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9213002

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A Study of Factors Involved in Early Identification of Specific Language Disability (dyslexia) by Oliphant, Genevieve Griebel, PhD from United States International University, 1969, 216 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7013206

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A Study of Socioeconomic Status, Parental Child-rearing Attitudes and Marital Adjustment As These Factors Relate to the Rate of Progress in Special Education for Dyslexia in a Given Population of Children. by Cavaney, June Gardner, DSW from The Catholic University of America, 1976, 120 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7621868

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A System for Teaching Word Recognition Skills to Children with Severe Reading Disorders (dyslexia) by Steed, Maurine Robins, EDD from Brigham Young University, 1984, 99 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8412468

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Administrative Implications of Assessment Practices in Special Education: Identification of Learning Disabled Children Through Spectral Analysis Electroencephalography and Traditional Psycho-educational Measures (dyslexia) by Flynn, Jane Malin, PhD from University of Minnesota, 1984, 117 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8512071

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An Evaluation of the Psychometric Properties of the Test of Dyslexia and Dysgraphia by Cox, Elizabeth Anna; PhD from The University of Tennessee, 2002, 85 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3059738

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An Investigation of the Etiology of Dyslexia by Dauer, Frank T., PhD from University of Washington, 1981, 91 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8212516

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Application of the Literature on Dyslexia to Individual Case Studies by Dunn, William King, EDD from Saint Louis University, 1982, 84 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8223661

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Assessment of the Cerebral Dominance Theory of Dyslexia As Measured by a Visualauditory Integration Task by Wilson, Robert Frederick; Advdeg from University of Victoria (Canada), 1971 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NK09165

•

Because Clay Has a Memory: Conversations about Dyslexia, Ceramics and Success by Albertson, Constant Kathryn; PhD from Concordia University (Canada), 2001, 379 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NQ63994

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Boder's Subtypes of Dyslexia: Diagnostic Validity, Racial Ethnicity, and Silent Reading Comprehension on Tasks of Aided and Unaided Recall (developmental) by Barger, Frances Charlotte Faust, EDD from University of Georgia, 1985, 145 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8606021

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Cerebral Dominance As an Etiological Factor in Dyslexia (severe Reading Disability) by Anthony, George A., PhD from New York University, 1968, 164 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/6911732

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Children with Reading Disabilities and Word Retrieval Deficits: Picture Categorization, Reading, and Oral Language Skills (developmental Dyslexia,

Dissertations 121

Learning) by Murphy, Lorna Allison, EDD from University of Massachusetts, 1985, 348 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8602665 •

Cognitive Predictors of the Dyslexia Syndrome (reading Disabilities) by Kay, Margaret Joan, EDD from Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1996, 266 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9620281

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Cognitive Style Variables As Related to Compensated and Uncompensated Dyslexia in Emotionally Disturbed Adolescents. by Halitsky, Sylvia, EDD from Columbia University Teachers College, 1976, 190 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7621021

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Conceptual and Symbolization Ability of Boys with Primary Reading Retardation (dyslexia) by Lang, Lois M., PhD from The University of Michigan, 1985, 135 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8600479

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Cross Cultural Comparison of Three Writing Systems with Special Reference to Dyslexia. by Ovitz, Janet Mcdougald, PhD from University of Colorado at Boulder, 1978, 287 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7820544

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Developmental Stages of Word Knowledge in Dyslexia by Abouzeid, Mary Pyman, PhD from University of Virginia, 1986, 275 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8715130

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Differential Diagnosis of Developmental Dyslexia with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (k-abc Reading Subtypes) by Hooper, Stephen Ray, PhD from University of Georgia, 1984, 116 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8411964

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Differentiating Levels of Neurological Functioning in Three Groups of Children with Developmental Dyslexia by Wartenberg, Carol Ann, PhD from University of Georgia, 1987, 99 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8800310

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Discriminating Linguistic Factors in Developmental Dyslexia by Theberge, Raymond Gerald, PhD from McGill University (Canada), 1984 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f2295397

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Dyslexia and Brain Morphology: Contributions to Disturbances in Phonological Coding, Naming, and Reading by Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret Elaine, PhD from University of Georgia, 1990, 180 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9025944

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Dyslexia and the Life Course by Mcnulty, Michael Anthony; PhD from Institute for Clinical Social Work (Chicago), 2000, 201 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9979953

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Dyslexia, a Different Ability: a Phenomenological Study by Lowe, Monique Renee; PhD from Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2002, 197 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3064162

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Dyslexia: a Review of the Current Neurophysiological and Genetic Research, Secondary Comorbidities, and Issues Related to the Possibility of Genetic Testing for Dyslexia by Grau, Lance James; Ms from Sarah Lawrence College, 2002, 34 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/1408523

122 Dyslexia

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Effects of Contour on the Perceptual Learning Abilities of Developmental Dyslexia by Rabin, Susan Fran, PhD from United States International University, 1980, 86 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8104791

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Effects of the Presence of Pathological Left Handedness Indicators on the Efficacy of a Neuropsychological Intervention with Low-achieving Readers (left Handedness, Dyslexia) by Russo, Anne E. Akens, EDD from Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1993, 122 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9329511

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Examining the Reading and Spelling Skills of Slow Learners: Frith's Model of Developmental Dyslexia by Scott, Michael J., PhD from University of Missouri Columbia, 1987, 174 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8818970

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Ffw Language to Reading Effects on Acquired Dyslexia by Olson, Kathleen Marie; Ms from Mgh Institute of Health Professions, 2002, 47 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/1406847

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First Grade Reading and Spelling Achievement in Slingerland and Non-Slingerland Classes (Anchorage, Alaska; Specific Language Disability, SLD, Dyslexia) by Crumbley, Leeann, EDD from Brigham Young University, 1985, 135 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8522569

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Functional Consequences of a Transient Visual Processing Deficit in Reading Disabled Children (transient Visual Functioning, Sustained Visual Functioning, Dyslexia) by Kruk, Richard S., PhD from University of Toronto (canada), 1991, 273 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NN69239

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Hemispheric Specialization for Reading in Subtypes of Children with Developmental Dyslexia by Waldie, Karen Elizabeth, PhD from University of Calgary (Canada), 1998, 243 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NQ31078

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Is Dyslexia a Middle Class Disability? a Critique of Some Definitions by Sporn, Ellen L., EDD from Yeshiva University, 1981, 231 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8205327

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Learning Styles and Attentional Lateralization in Dyslexia by Graham, Norris Arnold, EDD from University of Toronto (Canada), 1993, 180 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NN82823

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Neuropsychological Deficits and Reading Performance in Dyslexia: an Exploratory Study by Rankin, Cynthia Stevens, EDD from Harvard University, 1984, 145 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8421220

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Neuropsychological Processes Related to Persisting Reversal Errors in Dyslexia and Dysgraphia by Brooks, Allison Diane; PhD from University of Washington, 2002, 108 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3072063

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Palmar Dermatoglyphics of Dyslexia: a Test of the Geschwind Hypothesis by Jamison, Cheryl Sorenson, PhD from Indiana University, 1987, 261 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8809883

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Pre-attentive Mechanisms in Dyslexia by Seymour, Anne M; PhD from University of Toronto (Canada), 1988 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NL46368

Dissertations 123

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Procedures to Identify, Diagnose, and Remediate High School Students with Severe Reading Disorders And/or Dyslexia by Bruner, Debra Lee, EDD from Temple University, 1988, 159 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8818757

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Project for Unique Learners in Literacy (pull): Evaluation of Fifty-seven Instructional Techniques Used for Tutoring the Reading-disabled Student (dyslexia, Adult Literacy) by Fisher, Beverly Joan, PhD from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1992, 294 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9305370

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Reading and Oral Language Skills of Young Adults with Childhood Diagnoses of Dyslexia: Developmental and Compensatory Patterns by Ransby, Marilyn Joan, PhD from The University of British Columbia (Canada), 1996, 291 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NN09151

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Reading Fluency in Mild Acquired Dyslexia: a Case Study by Stewart, Kimberly Ann; Ms from Mgh Institute of Health Professions, 2002, 47 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/1406850

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Reading Related Problems of Illiterate Adults (dyslexia) by Hegwer, Marie Louise, PhD from University of California, Los Angeles, 1987, 315 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8727811

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Scholarly Communication in Developmental Dyslexia: Network Influences on Change in a Hybrid Problem Area by Perry, Claudia A., PhD from Rutgers the State University of New Jersey - New Brunswick, 1996, 300 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9618545

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Spelling Error Patterns in Dyslexia: a Study of High-school Aged Dyslexic Boys and Spelling-level Matched Normal Readers by Lund, Patricia Ellen, PhD from University of California, Berkeley with San Francisco State Univ., 1986, 108 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8624991

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Spelling Errors in Dyslexia: a Comparison of Older Dyslexic to Second Grade Normal Children's Misspellings by Moats, Louisa Cook, EDD from Harvard University, 1982, 120 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8223220

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Sub-types of Dyslexia in Chinese Orthography by Ho, Fuk Chuen Jim; PhD from University of New South Wales (Australia), 2001 http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f1099889

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Syntactic Development in Normals and Dyslexics: an Empirical Examination of Two Theoretical Explanations of Dyslexia. by Roit, Marsha L., EDD from Harvard University, 1980, 231 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8013899

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Temporal Acuity in Developmental Dyslexia across the Life Span: Tactile, Auditory, Visual, and Crossmodal Estimations by Laasonen, Marja Riitta; Pst from Helsingin Yliopisto (Finland), 2002, 148 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/f364593

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The Balance Model: Neuropsychological Treatment of Dyslexia by Goldstein, Bram Harold, PhD from The University of Arizona, 1998, 107 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9912150

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The Coexistence of Artistic Talent and Dyslexia by Daniels, Ruth Irene, EDD from Columbia University Teachers College, 1996, 309 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9635966

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The Development of the Concept of Specific Reading Disability from Beginnings in the Nineteenth Century Through the Organization of the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities in 1963 by Dudley, Margaret Carole, PhD from Emory University, 1983, 259 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8316275

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The Dyslexia Subtyping Test (DST): Design and Construct-related Validation (disabilities, Phonologic, Orthographic) by Roberts, Rhiannon, PhD from The University of Arizona, 1995, 260 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9620363

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The Effect of Motor Skill Learning upon Specific Dyslexia by Sinclair, William Andrew, PhD from The University of New Mexico, 1970, 87 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7112797

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The Effect of Phonemic Training on Unskilled Readers: a School-based Study (remedial Reading, Dyslexia) by Kutrumbos, Betsy M., PhD from University of Denver, 1993, 309 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9333368

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The Effects of a Simultaneous Multi-sensory, Alphabetic-phonic, Direct Instruction Approach on the Teaching of Spelling (dyslexia) by White, Nancy Cushen, EDD from University of San Francisco, 1986, 142 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8713031

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The Effects of Concurrent Musical Task on Lexical Decision Performance in Reading Disability (dyslexia) by Schultze, Helen Jacquin, PhD from University of California, Los Angeles, 1986, 139 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8621131

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The Effects of the Accommodation of Extended Time Limits on the Cat-5 for Middle School-aged Individuals with Dyslexia by Joseph, Ruth M., EDD from University of Massachusetts Lowell, 1998, 121 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9826718

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The 'learning Disability' Controversy and Composition Studies (dyslexia) by Dunn, Patricia Ann, Da from State University of New York at Albany, 1991, 287 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9203181

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The Long-term Consequences of Specific Language Disabilities: the Secondary School Years (Dyslexia) by Royal, Nancy Le Sanders, EDD from University of San Diego, 1987, 174 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8710633

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The Neuropsychology of Selective Attention Difficulties in Dyslexia by Micallef, John Joseph, EDD from University of Toronto (canada), 1993, 229 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NN82953

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The Psychosocial Adjustment of Children with Dyslexia by Connolly, Christopher George, PhD from Northwestern University, 1968, 147 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/6906904

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•

The Relationship between Language, Categorization, and Primary Dyslexia by Greenhill, Neil Jon, PhD from The University of Michigan, 1973, 125 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7324576

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The Relationship between Modal Preference and 'dyslexia' by Scher, Goldie Z., EDD from Yeshiva University, 1983, 224 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8404990

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The Relationship between Placement Decisions and Student Characteristics for Public and Residential School Learning Disabled Students (dyslexia) by Kozlowski, John Adam, EDD from American International College, 1987, 104 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8709590

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The Relationship between the Vestibular System, Dyslexia, and Reading in a Selected Population: a Clinical Study. by Keating, Catherine Louise, PhD from The University of Michigan, 1978, 146 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7907103

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The Relationship of Linguistic Awareness to Reading Skill in Children and Adults (literacy, Disability, Phonemic, Language Disorders, Dyslexia) by Pratt, Anne Caroline, PhD from University of Rhode Island, 1985, 146 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/8600694

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The Specificity of Phonological Coding Deficits in Children with Dyslexia by Berkelhammer, Leslie Doris, PhD from University of Georgia, 1996, 95 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9636418

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Training in Phonological Awareness: Comparing Auditory Blending to a Multimodal Approach (dyslexia, Multimodal Approach) by Duchock, Diedra Ann, PhD from Washington University, 1992, 105 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9305263

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Understanding Intergenerational Dyslexia of a Father and His Daughter: a Secondary Conditions Perspective by Kagan, Jennifer E.; PhD from Syracuse University, 2001, 102 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3018954

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Use of Irlen Colored Overlays with Learning-disabled Students (dyslexia) by Jett, Jo Anne, EDD from Texas Woman's University, 1991, 96 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9219644

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Using Children's Errors in Single-word Reading to Explore a Theory of Dyslexia Within the Reading Process by Rath, Kenneth Allan; PhD from University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2002, 165 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3039388

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Vergence Eye Movements and Dyslexia by Riddell, Patricia Mary, PhD from University of Oxford (united Kingdom), 1987, 233 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/D-89452

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Visual Hyperacuity in Dyslexia (reading Disorder) by Parke, Lesley Allison, PhD from University of California, Berkeley, 1993, 230 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/9430632

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Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.

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CHAPTER 5. CLINICAL TRIALS AND DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to keep informed of the latest clinical trials concerning dyslexia.

Recent Trials on Dyslexia The following is a list of recent trials dedicated to dyslexia.8 Further information on a trial is available at the Web site indicated. •

Comprehensive Program to Improve Reading and Writing Skills in At-Risk and Dyslexic Children Condition(s): Dyslexia; Learning Disorders Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Purpose - Excerpt: This project is evaluating programs to improve reading and writing skills in children who have or are at risk for having reading disabilities. The project focuses on children who are at-risk for low achievement in school and on children with dyslexia. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00061412

•

Therapy for Reading Problems in Adults After Brain Injury Condition(s): Dyslexia, Acquired; Brain Injuries; Cerebrovascular Accident Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)

8

These are listed at www.ClinicalTrials.gov.

128 Dyslexia

Purpose - Excerpt: Adults who sustain brain damage due to stroke, head injury, or traumatic surgery may develop difficulty reading. This study examines the effectiveness of behavior-based programs to improve reading ability in these individuals. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00064805 •

Using fMRI to Evaluate Instructional Programs for Children With Developmental Dyslexia Condition(s): Developmental Dyslexia Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Purpose - Excerpt: Dyslexia is a common reading disorder. Specialized instructional programs can improve reading ability in children with dyslexia. This study will use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine changes in the brains of children who have taken part in these programs. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00068835

•

Reading Problems in Children Living in Urban Areas Condition(s): Dyslexia Study Status: This study is no longer recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Purpose - Excerpt: The first line of defense against reading disabilities is good classroom reading instruction. This study describes how characteristics of students, teachers, and instruction relate to academic achievement in inner-city kindergarten through Grade 4 classrooms. Phase(s): Phase III Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00065832

Keeping Current on Clinical Trials The U.S. National Institutes of Health, through the National Library of Medicine, has developed ClinicalTrials.gov to provide current information about clinical research across the broadest number of diseases and conditions. The site was launched in February 2000 and currently contains approximately 5,700 clinical studies in over 59,000 locations worldwide, with most studies being conducted in the United States. ClinicalTrials.gov receives about 2 million hits per month and hosts approximately

Clinical Trials 129

5,400 visitors daily. To access this database, simply go to the Web site at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ and search by “dyslexia” (or synonyms). While ClinicalTrials.gov is the most comprehensive listing of NIH-supported clinical trials available, not all trials are in the database. The database is updated regularly, so clinical trials are continually being added. The following is a list of specialty databases affiliated with the National Institutes of Health that offer additional information on trials: •

For clinical studies at the Warren Grant Magnuson Clinical Center located in Bethesda, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://clinicalstudies.info.nih.gov/

•

For clinical studies conducted at the Bayview Campus in Baltimore, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://www.jhbmc.jhu.edu/studies/index.html

•

For cancer trials, visit the National Cancer Institute: http://cancertrials.nci.nih.gov/

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For eye-related trials, visit and search the Web page of the National Eye Institute: http://www.nei.nih.gov/neitrials/index.htm

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For heart, lung and blood trials, visit the Web page of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/studies/index.htm

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For trials on aging, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute on Aging: http://www.grc.nia.nih.gov/studies/index.htm

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For rare diseases, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the Office of Rare Diseases: http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/resources/rsch_trials.asp

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For alcoholism, visit the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/intramural/Web_dicbr_hp/particip.htm

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For trials on infectious, immune, and allergic diseases, visit the site of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/clintrials/

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For trials on arthritis, musculoskeletal and skin diseases, visit newly revised site of the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases of the National Institutes of Health: http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/studies/index.htm

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For hearing-related trials, visit the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders: http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/clinical/index.htm

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For trials on diseases of the digestive system and kidneys, and diabetes, visit the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases: http://www.niddk.nih.gov/patient/patient.htm

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For drug abuse trials, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute on Drug Abuse: http://www.nida.nih.gov/CTN/Index.htm

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For trials on mental disorders, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute of Mental Health: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/studies/index.cfm

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For trials on neurological disorders and stroke, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the NIH: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/funding_opportunities.htm#Clinical_Trials

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CHAPTER 6. PATENTS ON DYSLEXIA Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.9 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “dyslexia” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on dyslexia, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical patents in this bibliography.

Patents on Dyslexia By performing a patent search focusing on dyslexia, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We

9Adapted

from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.

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will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on dyslexia: •

Analysis of cerebral white matter for prognosis and diagnosis of neurological disorders Inventor(s): Gabrieli; John D. E. (Stanford, CA), Hedehus; Maj (Mountain View, CA), Klingberg; Torkel (Palo Alto, CA), Moseley; Michael E. (Redwood City, CA), Poldrack; Russell A. (Cambridge, MA) Assignee(s): The Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University (Palo Alto, CA) Patent Number: 6,463,315 Date filed: January 26, 2000 Abstract: A method of detecting a neurological disorder such as dyslexia includes the steps of measuring microstructure of cerebral white matter, and correlating the microstructure to the presence of the neurological disorder. For dyslexia, the white matter is confined to temporo-parietal white matter. The microstructure is measured by determining cerebral white matter anisotropy using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI). Excerpt(s): This invention relates generally to the study of neurological disorders, and more particularly the invention relates to the use of magnetic resonance imaging techniques to study the microstructural integrity of cerebral white matter to ascertain the presence of a neurological disorder such as dyslexia or the likelihood of developing such a neurological disorder. The use of diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) for imaging anisotropic tissue such as brain white matter is known. See M. E. Moseley et al., "Diffusion-weighted MR Imaging of Anisotropic Water Diffusion in Cat Central Nervous System," Radiology, 176, 439 (1990); P. J. Basser, J. Mattiello, and D. Le Bihan, "Estimation of the Effective Self-Diffusion Tensor from the NMR Spin Echo," JMR B 103, 247-254 (1994); P. J. Basser, "Inferring Microstructural Features and the Physiological State of Tissues from Diffusion-Weighted Images," NMR in Biomed 8, 333344 (1995); P. J. Basser and C. Pierpaoli, "Microstructural and physiological features of tissues elucidated by quantitative-diffusion-tensor MRI," J. Magn Reson B 111, 209-219 (1996); C. Pierpaoli, P. Jezzard, P. J. Basser, A. Barnett, and G. Di Chiro, "Diffusion Tensor MR Imaging of the Human Brain," Radiology 201, 637-648 (1996); C. Pierpaoli and P. J. Basser, "Toward a Quantitative Assessment of Diffusion Anisotropy," MRM 36, 893-906 (1996); C. Pierpaoli, A. Barnett, A. Virta, L. Penix, and R. Chen, "Diffusion MRI of Wallerian Degeneration. A New Tool to Investigate Neural Connectivity in vivo?" Proc. ISMRM 6th Meeting, Sydney (1998) 1247; and Lim et al., "Compromised White Matter Track Integrity in Schizophrenia Inferred From Diffusion Tensor Imaging," Arch Gen Psychology/Vol. 56, April 1999. DTI provides a novel way to characterize tissues based on sensitivity to microscopic molecular motion of water. Clinical implementation requires strong, fast hardware and careful post processing of diffusion parameters. Diffusion weighted images and derivatives such as the three principal diffusivities of the diffusion tensor are quite specific in reflecting the physical properties of diffusion. Diffusion weighted imaging (DI) consists of estimating the effective scalar diffusivity of water, D, in each voxel from a set of diffusion weighted images. During the time of a typical magnetic resonance data acquisition, water molecules diffuse on the order of a few microns, which is comparable to the dimensions of cellular structures, but significantly less than the dimensions of a voxel. Since D is sensitive to the physical

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properties, composition and spatial distribution of the tissue constituents, the measurement is sensitive to the tissue microstructure and physiological state. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06463315__ •

Diagnostic screening procedure for identifying dysmetric dyslexia Inventor(s): Levinson; Harold N. (600 Northern Blvd., Great Neck, NY 11021) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,706,686 Date filed: October 27, 1986 Abstract: Subjects possibly suffering from dysmetric dyslexia are screened by providing a visual display consisting of a plurality of discrete objects moving in a continuous line between a pair of spaced stationary objects. The subject reads the display from a distance at which normal subjects being screened are capable of seeing not only the moving objects but both stationary objects within their field of vision, and failing to see the entire display are identified as possibly being dyslexic. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a screening procedure and apparatus for identifying children suffering from dysmetric dyslexia. For well over a decade I have employed a technique disclosed in my U.S. Pat. No. 3,842,822 dated Oct. 22, 1974 by which dysmetric dyslexia was attributed to a cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction which I found can be detected by creating a subclinical nystagmus or eye vibration which resulted in the blurring of moving images when engaged in a reading type activity, i.e. visual fixation, tracking and sequential scanning, which induces the corresponding eye vibration or back and forth reading type eye movement. This movement or eye vibration occurs at a frequency or number of beats per second which can be controlled, being more specifically a function of the speed of movement of the material being visualized or read by the subject. Such induced eye vibration is maintained below the normal threshold level producing blurred vision in normal subjects, but which in additive relation to the subclinical eye vibration noted to exist in dysmetric dyslexic subjects, results in a total eye vibration at a frequency or number of beats per second above the threshold level. Accordingly, those subjects experiencing blurred vision during the reading process are automatically identified as possibly being dysmetric dyslexic. After much experience I have discovered that contrary to the earlier thinking dysmetric dyslexic subjects have more than one blurring speed. While they have the same blurring speed as non-dyslexics do, i.e., a sequential blurring speed, in which a whole sequence of objects is seen as a panorama and the entire sequence blurs at once; they also have another blurring speed, which I call the single-targeting blurring speed. This latter phenomenon is a compensatory one, which takes over when the first, i.e., the reflexive, sequential tracking speed, is impaired. The single targeting blurring speed results from the observation that the subjects have an abnormally narrow lateral or peripheral span of vision. That is, they have practically no peripheral vision. This abnormality is observed when the subjects are forced to read a moving display and does not occur when reading a stationary display. For example, if the moving display is a continuous line of several discrete objects, the number of which in the field of vision always remaining the same, the subject would see less than the actual number displayed and when questioned as to the exact number seen, would provide an incorrect answer, since either the initial or the final members of the display (i.e. the peripheral members) would not be seen.

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Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04706686__ •

Dyslexia reading device Inventor(s): Morelle; Alix (215 McDaniel St.-812, Dayton, OH 45405), Morelle; Fredric T. (2636 Troy Rd., Schenectady, NY 12309) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,979,902 Date filed: September 6, 1989 Abstract: Method and apparatus for restricting field of vision so as to provide a dyslexic reader physical means for narrowing field-of-sight concentration in order to prevent eye wander and aid in normal compensatory sight narrowing by the reader. The method comprises an obfuscation of the peripheral field of vision while concurrently focusing or providing clear viewing means in the centralized, enhanced narrow reading field. The aforesaid method is readily accomplished by use of either the pin-hole camera, consisting of a minute aperture in an eye-enveloping, obfuscating field or, more practically, a set of spectacles consisting essentially of opacified or defocusing lenses having with them a centralized clear field-of-vision lens, window or aperture which effectively accomplishes in both eyes of the dyslexic reader what the pin-hole aperture does for a single eye. Excerpt(s): This invention relates generally to eyewear to be used as a reading aid for dyslexia patients, and particularly to apparatus for fulfilling everyday reading requirements of persons afflicted with this perceptual problem. A great deal of conjecture exists regarding the causes of dyslexia, primarily as observed in young adults and school-age children. Older views, which relate the cause of primary dyslexia to a dysfunction of the cortex, have not been adequately borne out in either statistical studies nor postmortem studies. A foremost authority in the country, Harold Levinson, M.D. of Greatneck, N.Y., points out in two significant patents issued to him and his colleagues, U.S. Pat. No. 3,842,822 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,906,644, that significant medical discoveries underlying their inventions indicate there exists in dysmetric dyslexic children, a subclinical nystagmus, or eye vibration. The vibration is at an almost imperceptible frequency or number of beats per second, as demonstrated by electronystagmographic recordings taken when the eyes were closed, to eliminate fixation. It is the Levinson proposition that children suffering from the condition indicated are unable to properly fix vision because of the rhythmic, uncontrollable eye movement. It is further noted that the eye movement is sub-clinical in nature, in that measurement of it requires an electronystagmographic frequency recording under favorable conditions. In Levinson '822, a reading or symbol-recognition test, capable of being administered to a large examination group of children, produced blurred vision only in those of the group who possibly suffer dysmetric dyslexia. The test induces an eye oscillation of a selected extent which is normally below the level that produces blurred vision in those not affected with dysmetric dyslexia. It is used as an effective diagnostic screening procedure, even for pre-school children with cerebellar-vestibular dysfunctions, and who have not as yet had the opportunity to exhibit poor or refractory response to reading instruction. What is hypothesized by Levinson in '822 is that by inducing an eye oscillation of a selected extent and which is normally below the threshold level producing blurred vision in a normal person, in additive relation to a sub-clinical eye oscillation produces an additive effect and exceeds the threshold level, automatically identifying those who experienced a blurred vision as possibly disposed to dysmetric

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dyslexia. Thus, in this particular apparatus, Levinson creates an environment which exceeds the compensatory ability of the dyslexic patient and thus identifies those possibly having the syndrome. It can be seen that the producing of blurred vision is non-therapeutic in nature, being merely diagnostic. Levinson '644, relying on that inventor-author's previously held hypothesis, regarding dysmetric dyslexia, teaches a method which calls for the presentation of reading material in letter or word-size units, one at a time and in reading sequence at a fixed location, so that the child reading is not required to sequentially scan the reading material. The inventor points out that the material is presented in temporal rather than spatial sequence or relation. Thus, there is exhibited only slight or minimal eye vibration which results in minimal ocular overshooting and undershooting and avoids blurring and scrambling, the most common symptoms of the dyslexia affliction. Levinson further teaches that the technique of '644 makes use of a heretofore unknown compensatory mechanism existing in dysmetric dyslexic children, namely a functional narrowing of the visual field so as to avoid blurring. The instant inventors point out at this time that what Levinson observed in his last series of experiments, leading to '644, is the very phenomenon which they have sought to capitalize upon with the instant invention. The significant difference is, however, that the instant invention purposefully narrows the visual field so as to aid the dyslexic patient in making the aforementioned compensation and thus, amelliorates eye oscillation. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04979902__ •

Dysmetric dyslexia screening procedure administered on the internet Inventor(s): Levinson; Harold N. (15 Lake Rd., Great Neck, NY 11020) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,398,729 Date filed: November 18, 1999 Abstract: For a dysmetric dyslexia-identifying test herebefore administered to a mixed audience of children, some being dyslexic and others not, the administration thereof now over the Internet to a dispersed audience preferably consisting of a child in the singular in facing relation to an Internet display module, to thereby obviate by this dispersion any audience-influencing behavior which heretofore affected the test results. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to improvements in a known diagnostic screening procedure implemented by administering a reading or symbolrecognition test that effectively identifies children, even of pre-school age, as having cerebellar-vestibular dysfunctions and, in medical parlance, being affected with dysmetric dyslexia wherein the improvements, more particularly, retain the substantive validity of the test and are in the nature of the administration of the test to the end of contributing significantly to the accuracy of the test, as will be better understood as the description proceeds. It is already known, as set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 3,842,822 for "Dysmetric Dyslexia Screening Procedure", issued to Harold N. Levinson on Oct. 22, 1974, of the discoveries involving children, some possibly dysmetric dyslexic and others not, of an eye oscillation of a selected extent which is normally below the level which produces blurred vision in those children not affected with dysmetric dyslexia but, in those children affected with dysmetric dyslexia, the noted eye oscillation in response to a reading or symbol-recognition exercise is increased to a higher extent which produces blurred vision, while the non-susceptible children continue to read without reporting any blurring. To take full advantage of the benefits of the noted discoveries, it was

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administered heretofore to a classroom-filled audience since to the audience, it was like watching a movie and thus was a pleasant activity well known to each participant. The test results to a significant extent correlated with the conditions of those affected with dysmetric dyslexia and those not so affected but, in practice, there was noted a variation in successive testing of a child participant, the cause of which was not understood. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06398729__ •

Lenses and spectacles for reducing nystagmic oscillations, and a method for achieving this purpose Inventor(s): Bloch-Malem; Raymonde (11 Arlozorov Street, Jerusalem 92181, IL) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 5,440,359 Date filed: February 4, 1994 Abstract: The invention provides a tinted pair of lenses for overcoming the deleterious effects of nystagmic oscillations, particularly in persons suffering from dyslexia, the tinting varying along the lateral direction and extending in each lens over at least two zones, a lighter tint being used in a first zone extending from the lens edge nearest to the nose of the wearer, when the lens is in use, to a position corresponding to the centre of the pupil, and a darker tint being used in a second zone extending over the remaining lens area. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method for improving human vision by reducing nystagmic oscillations of the eye, and to lenses and spectacles for this purpose. More particularly, the invention is concerned with providing a method of concentrating in a forward direction the vision of a patient suffering from such oscillations and thereby to achieve a significant improvement in impaired reading and symbol recognition performance. Dyslexia is a developmental disorder concerning learning or language disability which may be explained by difficulties, in varying degrees, of auditory and visual discrimination, in difficulty in orienting in space and time, in analytical difficulties and in partial failures in short and long-term memory. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05440359__

•

Method and apparatus for determining magnocellular pathway defect and dyslexia Inventor(s): Galaburda; Albert M. (Andover, MA), Livingstone; Margaret S. (Chestnut Hill, MA) Assignee(s): President and Fellows of Harvard College (Cambridge, MA) Patent Number: 5,474,081 Date filed: November 18, 1993 Abstract: A method and apparatus determine defective magnocellular pathway in the visual system of a subject. Such determination of defective magnocellular pathway in turn is deterministic of dyslexia. The invention method and apparatus presents to a subject eye a series of patterns spatially varying in light intensity, such as a checkerboard pattern. Each pattern provides a certain respective degree of contrast between areas of varying light intensity. In displaying each checkerboard pattern, it is alternated with display of its contrast reverse pattern at a frequency between about 0.5

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Hz and about 15 Hz. The temporal frequency from one checkerboard pattern to the next checkerboard pattern in the displayed series of patterns is in the range of about 30 patterns per minute to hundreds of patterns per minute. Response of the eye, such as the visually evoked potential, to each pattern is measured as the pattern is being displayed. And the measured responses are compared to a predetermined range of standard/normal responses for the given displayed patterns. Measured responses falling outside of the predetermined range of standard/normal responses indicate a magnocellular pathway defect, and hence dyslexia. Excerpt(s): In general, the human visual system is formed of two major processing pathways referred to as the magnocellular pathway and the parvocellular pathway. These two subdivisions or pathways remain largely segregated and independent throughout the visual system. The two pathways begin in the retina but are most apparent in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). In the LGN, cells in the ventral or magnocellular layers are larger than cells in the dorsal or parvocellular layers. In the retina and LGN, the magno and parvo subdivisions differ physiologically in four major ways: color selectivity, contrast sensitivity, temporal resolution, and acuity. In particular, fast, low contrast visual information is carried by the magnocellular subdivision or pathway, and slow high contrast information is carried by the parvocellular subdivision/pathway. This functional segregation, begun in the retina, continues throughout the visual system, possibly even up through higher cortical association areas. Therefore, a problem specific to the magnocellular pathway could originate at any level from the retina to prestriate visual cortical areas, and it would be difficult, using behavioral tests, to localize such perceptual defects. For example, development dyslexia is the selective impairment of reading skills despite normal intelligence, sensory acuity, motivation and instruction. Several perceptual studies have suggested that dyslexic subjects process visual information more slowly than normal subjects. The flicker fusion rate, which is the fastest rate at which a contrast reversal of a stimulus can be seen, is abnormally slow in dyslexic children at low spatial frequencies and low contrast. When two visual stimuli are presented in rapid succession, the two images fuse and appear as a single presentation. The temporal separation necessary to distinguish two presentations measures visual persistence, and for dyslexic children the temporal separation is a hundred milliseconds longer than for normal children, particularly for low spatial frequency stimuli. Dyslexic subjects also have trouble distinguishing the order of two rapidly flashed visual stimuli. In contrast, dyslexics perform normally on test having prolonged stimulus presentations. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05474081__ •

Method and apparatus for the amelioration of visual stress and dyslexia Inventor(s): Mumford; Robin B. (29 S. Bay Ave., Highlands, NJ 07732) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 5,420,653 Date filed: January 6, 1992 Abstract: A quantitative visual test measures the rate at which an individual is able to complete a defined visual task, either on paper or on a self illuminated screen. The task involves comparing a plurality of similar appearing numbers to determine if they are an exact match within predetermined levels of time. Inability to complete the test within the predetermined level of time indicates the likelihood that the individual will exhibit

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visual stress and dyslexia. Individuals under such stress are then remediated by the use of adjusted lighting environments sometimes including other visual aids. Excerpt(s): The term dyslexia is used in the context of this disclosure to describe an individual who persistently reads inaccurately and one who has a lower than average recall or comprehension of the contents of what the individual has recently read. In some cases, the individuals are unable to count more than five symbols due to the level of visual confusion. This condition creates a great deal of frustration for such individuals, and is frequently incorrectly perceived as a lack of intelligence. Accordingly, there is a continuing need for and interest in improved methods for the detection and treatment of this and other similar visual conditions. The prior art discloses various different vision tests and screening methods. These tests typically define an individual's ability to read known letters or numbers of different sizes at various distances. The 100 year old Snellen test, which is an example of this type of test, reports an acuity such as 20/10 or 20/20 etc., reflecting the ratio of the distance at which the letters are recognized by a particular individual compared with the standard 20 feet. Screening systems such as the one practiced utilizing the testing machine known by the trademark TITMUS, and other similar systems, attempt to measure the ability of an individual to see gaps which are rotated in successive images viewed by the individual under test. Such tests detect abnormalities in vision, for instance astigmatism or lack of focus. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05420653__ •

Method and apparatus for treating dyslexia Inventor(s): Lawson; Alison Marie ("Rotherfield", Holly Road, Burradoo, NSW 2576, AU) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,443,572 Date filed: September 27, 1999 Abstract: A method for treating Dyslexia in a patient, the method comprising the step of employing techniques to achieve a stable fixation of both eyes. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method and device for the treatment of conditions such as Dyslexia. Dyslexia is a term used to denote a condition of reduced ability to read and write, in the presence of adequate intelligence, conventional instruction and sociocultural opportunity and without any opthalmoscopically detectable retinal abnormality. A proportion of those with this condition also display an inability to listen in the absence of any impairment in their hearing. The condition was first noticed in the 1860's in some patients who had suffered a brain injury. It was later uncovered that the condition was more typically present without brain injury and in far greater numbers than expected. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06443572__

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•

Method and means for detecting dyslexia Inventor(s): Pavlidis; George (Park Lane Apt. 9E, New Brunswick, NJ 08901) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,838,681 Date filed: May 4, 1987 Abstract: The specification discloses a diagnostic device and method for detecting various neurological conditions, particularly dyslexia. Eye movement patterns of the subject to be tested are separated into saccadic movement (both progressive and regressive) vergence, pursuit movements and fixations, and the subject's specific eye movement pattern, as evaulated against a specific stimulus, and normal patterns is used for diagnostic purposes. A variety of eye movement detectors is disclosed, together with a sampling means which evaluates the eye position at intervals of less than 10 milliseconds. A data processing means is used to isolate the significant samples and categorizes the retained data samples into the foregoing eye movements. The eye movement patterns are then evaluated against a statistical data base to determine the kind and severity of the diagnosed condition. For example, dyslexic individuals exhibit a high number of regressive saccades, while drug and alcohol impaired individuals are unable follow a stimulus with a pursuit movement, but must relay on a series of short saccades. Excerpt(s): The present invention is a diagnostic method and device for detecting various neurological conditions, including dyslexia. The device is particularly useful for diagnostic tests of dyslexia based on non-reading tasks, which are independent of reading skills. Dyslexia affects the lives of millions of people world-wide and often has devastating psychological, social and educational consequences. It is also one of the most controversial topics in the fields of developmental neurology, psychology, and education. The controversy arises from the incomplete definition of the syndrome of dyslexia and from contradictory theories that surround its etiology. A major difference between dyslexia and other reading disabilities is that, unlike dyslexia, other categories of reading failure can be predicted on the basis of neurological, intelligence, socioeconomic, educational and psychological (motivational, emotional) factors known to adversely affect the reading process. If, for instance, a child has problems in one or more of the above-mentioned areas, he is expected to have reading problems. The extent of the reading disability is determined by the severity and number of factors that are involved. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04838681__

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Method for evaluating visual acuity over the internet Inventor(s): Pellicano; Russell A. (9680 N. Bayview Rd., Southold, NY 11971) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,386,707 Date filed: November 8, 1999 Abstract: The present invention is a method for evaluating visual acuity of a user, performed on a computer connected to a server via an Internet. After the evaluation starts, the user is asked to provide information including a name, a brief medical history and the eye prescription information. The evaluation of the user is performed by

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providing the reading, color determination, distance, dyslexia, peripheral vision, and depth perception tests. A treatment suggestion is produced indicating that no further action is necessary, medical intervention is necessary, or that a vision problem is detected and may be corrected by eyeglasses. The selection allows the user to select eyeglasses frames, order eyeglasses, and repeat the evaluation after the eyeglasses are received. Excerpt(s): The invention relates to systems for testing vision and dispensing eyeglasses, and more specifically to an interactive system and methodology for conducting vision examinations and prescribing eyeglasses over the Internet. The natural effects of aging and eyestrain induced by long exposure to television or computer monitors can each induce changes in vision that requires correction lenses for the human eye. In most cases, a visit to an ophthalmologist or optometrist for an eye exam generates a prescription for eyeglasses or contact lenses which is then filled by a specialty optical store that enables the customer to select the desired frames for their personal lenses. Today, more and more products and services may be contracted and purchased through e-commerce transactions over the Internet. The Internet is able to bring scarce resources and locally unavailable services to disenfranchised and distant communities. On-line shopping saves time and money when the quality of goods to be purchased is known. Recent developments in e-commerce has enabled on-line shopping with consumer credit cards. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06386707__ •

Method for helping persons with dyslexia Inventor(s): Ahuja; Chetan (1102 McIntyre Dr., Ann Arbo, MI 48105), Strawderman; Jerry A. (12855 Sibley Rd., Springport, MI 49284-9723) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,382,791 Date filed: December 21, 1999 Abstract: The system and method of the present invention improve the visual recognition of a subject. The method uses a series of converging sets of objects (100) and includes several stages with specific types of objects (102) displayed at each stage. The types of objects which are displayed change at each stage as the subject's visual recognition improves. The subject advances through levels in each stage. The levels increase in difficulty as the subject advances through the levels of a stage. As the subject advances through the stages, the objects have more meaning in the area of communication. When the sets of objects are first displayed in the frame (104), the sets are in a spaced apart relationship. The sets are spaced apart either vertically, horizontally or diagonally. The sets are then moved towards each other. As the sets are moved together, the subject compares the objects of the sets and communicates whether the objects of one set are similar or different from the objects of another set. Upon receiving a communication from the subject, the sets of objects disappear and new sets of objects appear. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method and system for improving the optical (eye) recognition of a subject. In particular, the present invention relates to a method and system which uses sets of objects where the subject indicates whether the objects of the sets are the same or different. The method and system help subjects with dyslexia improve their optical recognition which reduces the effects of dyslexia.

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Dyslexia is a well-known human problem. Dyslexia has to do with how a person's brain organizes what the person's eyes see and his ears hear. The most common illustrations of dyslexic perception are where the word is "dog" and a subject sees "bog", where the word is "pad" and the subject sees "dab" and where the word is "leon" and the subject sees "noel" or where the letter "E" is seen as a "3" by the subject. The symptoms are such that traditional methods of teaching a subject to read will not work. For persons with dyslexia, the world they perceive is different than the world people in authority describe. This mixed perception appreciably diminishes self esteem. Consequently, persons who are dyslexic tend to have contact with the social service or law enforcement agencies at an early age. Persons having dyslexia are seldom sophisticated enough to verbally explain their dilemma. This dilemma usually manifests itself in behavioral terms. The persons act out negatively seeking attention hoping the additional attention will help the care giver focus on the true problem. However, the care giver usually focuses on the negative behavior and responds only to that behavior. This sends further mixed messages to the dyslexic causing increased disillusion and a downward spiral of self esteem. A variety of compensation programs have been in place for several years. In some cases, there is sufficient compensatory input coupled with a stimulating, positive, interactively rich environment to allow the person having dyslexia to build compensations for the disability. In these cases, the person is able to maintain a near normal learning curve. The related patent art has described various methods and apparatuses to improve a subject's visual capability and their communication skills such as reading and writing. Illustrative are U.S. Pat. No. 4,353,626 to Harrison U.S. Pat. No. 5,088,810 to Galanter et al; U.S. Pat. No. 5,147,205 to Gross et al; U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,132 to Corder and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,420,653; 5,543,867; 5,686,982 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,883,694 to Mumford. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06382791__ •

Method of and apparatus for multi-modal information presentation to computer users with dyslexia, reading disabilities or visual impairment Inventor(s): Kiraly; Jozsef (San Martin, CA), Ridge; Peter M. (San Jose, CA) Assignee(s): Mindmaker, Inc. (San Jose, CA) Patent Number: 6,324,511 Date filed: October 1, 1998 Abstract: A method of providing language assistance to a computer user with dyslexia, reading disabilities or visual impairment by presenting text-based information via multiple media channels. The method of the present invention includes the steps of: accessing a source of text-based data that can originate from a computer text document, displaying text-based data in a text window with a standard font size, displaying the text-based data in another text window with a magnified font size, sequentially highlighting the text-based data in the magnified text window one word at a time; generating synthesized speech signals representative of the highlighted text; rendering the synthesized speech signals audible synchronously with the displaying of the highlighted text; displaying images that correspond to the context of the highlighted text; and generating sound effects that are pertinent to the context of the highlighted text such that text-based information and corresponding graphical and audible information can be perceived simultaneously by the user. This technique effectively provides multiple channels of information to a user. The present invention is particularly useful for displaying text-based information to users having reading disabilities such as

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dyslexia, or for increasing the entertainment value of viewing a text document. The present invention may be used for assisting users in editing documents and in retrieving information from the World Wide Web. Excerpt(s): The present invention generally relates to the field of computer systems. More specifically, the present invention relates to the field of computer aided systems for computer users with dyslexia, reading disabilities, or visual impairment. Development in software technology has allowed computers to perform a wide variety of useful operations. Depending on the software which is installed within their particular memory storage devices, computers can be used to manage numerous financial transactions of a bank, control the fabrication of items ranging from automobiles down to integrated circuit chips, store addresses and telephone numbers of acquaintances, analyze scientific and engineering data, produce and edit documents, along with transmitting and receiving data. The World Wide Web (also called the "Web") has also been made possible by recent advances in hardware and software technology. By way of background, the World Wide Web is an internet facility that links documents locally and remotely. A Web document is called a Web page, and hyperlinks in the page allow users to "jump" from page to page whether the pages are stored on the same server or on other servers around the world. Since its genesis in the late 1980's, the Web has become extremely popular. Millions and millions of Web pages are now available on the Web, and millions of people access those Web pages daily. One of the primary reasons for the Web's success is that, Web pages, containing both text and graphics, are probably the largest collection of on-line information known to humankind. And, that vast amount of information is easily accessible via a Web browser such as Netscape.RTM. Navigator.TM. or Microsoft.RTM. Internet Explorer.TM. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06324511__ •

Method of and means for improved reading efficiency of persons with specific dyslexia Inventor(s): Nelson; Eileen M. (71 Cathryn Ct., Fox Lake, IL 60020) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,379,699 Date filed: October 3, 1980 Abstract: A method of and structure for improving the reading efficiency of persons with specific dyslexia. The method of effecting such improvement includes providing to the dyslexiac reading material wherein the reading matter has a brightness substantially greater than that of the background on which the reading matter is provided. In the illustrated embodiment, the ratio of the brightness of the reading matter to the background is at least approximately 10 to 1. In a preferred form, the background is black and the reading matter is white. The treatment of the reading problem is advantageously adapted for increasing the reading speed of persons with specific dyslexia. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the diagnosing and treating of reading problems in dyslexiacs and, in particular, to methods and means for increasing the reading efficiency of persons with specific dyslexia. Teaching persons with specific dyslexia to read with at least minimum efficiency is difficult and time consuming. Conventionally, such teaching has been done on a one-to-one basis with the dyslexiac and involves going over and over simple minimum reading material in an effort to build up the vocabulary and

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reading facility of the dyslexiac. One method of assisting the dyslexiac in gaining reading efficiency is to utilize tactile print means in conjunction with visual reading matter. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04379699__ •

Method of measuring dynamic (a) auditory and (b) tactile sequencing or tracking, and diagnosing cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction and dysmetric dyslexia Inventor(s): Frank; Jan (45 E. 82nd St., New York, NY 10028), Levinson; Harold N. (15 Lake Road, Great Neck, NY 11020) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 3,952,728 Date filed: February 24, 1975 Abstract: The discovery that the condition of dysmetric dyslexia results from dysfunctioning of the cerebellar-vestibular underlies the method of U.S. Pat. No. 3,842,822 issued on Oct. 22, 1974, which method uses blurring and scrambling of sequential visual stimuli to identify and measure ocular motor coordination, i.e. ocular fixation and sequential scanning abilities.As an improvement and/or alternative to the above method, the within methods, which also are useful in identifying dysmetric dyslexic children in an examination group, use response to acoustical and/or tactile stimulation, rather than response to visual stimuli, to identify said condition. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to conveniently administered methods of identifying members of an examination group who are possibly dysmetric dyslexic, and more particularly monitors the response to acoustical and tactile stimulation of the group members so as to both provide the identification being sought, and also to obtain a measurement of the impairment or extent of dysfunctioning of the cerebellarvestibular of those members who are identified as dysmetric dyslexic. An impaired cerebellar-vestibular apparatus cannot neutralize or inhibit or "slow down" rapid or fast moving incoming sequential stimuli of a visual nature and thus leads to cortical or perceptual confusion or scrambling. In a screening method using incoming visual stimuli, of U.S. Pat. No. 3,842,822, issued on Oct. 22, 1974, the impairment of the cerebellar-vestibular is manifested by a blurring or scrambling of the visual stimuli under conditions at which "normal" children do not similarly experience these effects. Underlying the present invention is the recognition that a dysmetric dyslexic child, because of his cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction, also responds in a characteristically different way to non-visual sensory input, and so may also be effectively indentified by such response. The methods hereof are practiced using (a) acoustical or auditory material, and (b) tactile stimulation, as said non-visual sensory input. Since the reason for the effectiveness of the inventive methods is the same for both aforesaid forms of non-visual sensory input, the explanation thereof which follows, although specifically related to acoustical or auditory material, is suffice to provide a complete understanding of the present invention. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US03952728__

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Methods and apparatus for diagnosing and remediating reading disorders Inventor(s): Lawton; Teri A. (20220-Q Paradise La., Topanga, CA 90290) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,045,515 Date filed: April 7, 1998 Abstract: Reading disorders are diagnosed and remediated in a subject by respectively measuring and improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of the subject. A background is displayed on a monitor with a contrast and a spatial frequency. A test window is superimposed over the background and includes a test pattern with a contrast and a spatial frequency. The contrasts and the spatial frequencies are within respective ranges which stimulate the visual cortical movement system of the subject. The test pattern is then moved within the test window. The subject provides a signal indicative of the direction the subject believes the test pattern moved. In response to this signal, the contrast of the test pattern, the spatial frequency of the background, or the spatial frequency of the test pattern is modified, either by increasing or decreasing its respective value. This process is then repeated a number of times, cycling through predetermined combinations of test patterns and backgrounds. Contrast sensitivity may be measured to determine whether a child is dyslexic. Repeated stimulation by the methods and apparatus of the invention improves contrast sensitivity, thereby remediating dyslexia and improving reading ability. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to methodology for diagnosing and treating reading disorders such as dyslexia. More particularly, the present invention relates to methods and apparatus for measuring contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination. The present invention also relates to methods and apparatus for improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination. The inventor of the present invention has determined that by improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination by practicing the present invention, children who are dyslexic, as well as children with normal reading ability, may improve their reading ability. When a pattern of light falls on the retina, the image is processed within the retina to some extent Ganglion cells of the retina send signals out of the eye to a relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain. Cells of the thalamus in turn send signals to the visual cortex for further processing. There are two major types of retinal ganglion cells which respectively contact two divisions of cells in the relay nucleus of the thalamus: the parvocellular division and the magnocellular division. Cells in the parvocellular division have small receptive fields and are useful for visual tasks requiring a high degree of acuity. Cells in the magnocellular division, which are about ten-times less numerous than those of the parvocellular division, have large receptive fields and are useful for visual tasks requiring a high degree of movement detection. Cells of the magnocellular division have coarse acuity and high contrast sensitivity. In view of the above, the vision system of a human may be divided into two visual streams. The first stream is a magnocellular stream which detects the movement of an object. This movement stream has a high sensitivity to low contrast (for example, below 10%), to low luminance, to movement, and has low resolution. The second stream is a parvocellular stream which detects the color, shape, and texture of patterns. This second or acuity steam has low contrast sensitivity and high resolution. The acuity stream is most sensitive to contrasts above about 10%. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06045515__

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Screening method for monitoring physiological variables Inventor(s): Weinblatt; Lee S. (797 Winthrop Ave., Teaneck, NJ 07666) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,528,989 Date filed: October 29, 1982 Abstract: A screening method and apparatus suitable for diagnosing dyslexia which includes a television camera for detecting reflected light to track eye movements in response to projected visual stimuli. The loci of said eye movements are superimposed over the visual stimuli on a TV monitor and also recorded. In addition, corresponding brain wave activity can be scanned and correlated with the eye movements. Excerpt(s): This invention concerns a system for diagnostic testing and especially a screening method and apparatus for detecting physiological dysfunctions. In particular, the invention relates to an electro-optical system for monitoring eye movement and concomitant neurophysiological activity in response to visual stimuli with particular application to diagnosing dyslexia. It has been generally recognized that an underlying cause of many learning disabilities is attributable to abnormal sensory integration and the capacity to receive, retain and correctly interpret visual information. Unfortunately, the determination of the exact nature of this disfunction has in many aspects been inconclusive and the diagnosis thereof somewhat difficult to discern. A dyslexic child, for example, typically exhibits an inability to comprehend one or more of the following: sound/symbol relationships, spelling, word patterns, sequences and combinations of letters. Although the problem had been considered as associated with emotional disturbances, biochemical imbalances, maturational lag, and brian lesions, recent studies pointed to a central malfunction in dyslexics, namely sequential disability and/or oculomotor malfunction. The results of such study were published by Dr. George Th. Pavlidis in a paper entitled Do Eye Movements Hold the Key to Dyslexia?, Dept. of Psychology, University of Manchester, Manchester, England (May 23, 1980). Testing methods were developed for measuring erratic eye movement patterns which were found to be characteristic of dyslexics during reading and nonreading sequential tasks. These prior tests, however, were primarily directed to the measurement and recording of very small or micro movements of the subject's eye and involved the use of photoelectric cell devices which were positioned in close proximity to the eye. A disadvantage of those early attempts for monitoring eye movement was that the minute or ultrafine ocular displacements did not provide sufficient information for analyzing the scanning eye movement which was of greater magnitude and occurred under actual reading conditions. Another shortcoming of those testing methods was that the resultant eye movement pattern was not juxtaposed over the visual stimuli so that eye movement could be tracked and recorded for determining the extent of the deviations in eye scanning patterns or other ocular motor malfunctions in response to specific stimuli. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04528989__

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System and method for dyslexia detection by analyzing spoken and written words Inventor(s): Reitano; Carmen T. (192 N. End Blvd., Salisbury, MA 01952) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,535,853 Date filed: August 14, 2002

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Abstract: A dyslexia detection system displays a test word, either alone, or within a sentence. The test subject is asked to pronounce the test word, and to write it on a handwriting input device, such as a tablet. The system analyzes the spoken words, comparing them to sound records in a library of properly pronounced phonemes which make up the test word. The system also analyzes the characters written by the subject, and detects whether any of the characters correspond to a member of a distorted character set containing distortions commonly produced by dyslexics. A summary of errors in pronunciation shows errors in pronunciation as mispronounced phonemes, and errors in writing are displayed as erroneously written characters. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to systems and advanced methods for the detection of various forms of dyslexia, and more particularly to such systems and methods incorporated in existing handwriting and speech recognition systems. Dyslexia is a general term for a family of learning disabilities. Its symptoms include problems in expressive or receptive oral or written language. Derived from the Greek words "dys" (poor or inadequate) and "lexis" (words or language). Dyslexia affects reading, spelling, writing, memory and concentration, and sometimes math, music, foreign languages and self-organization. Dyslexia and other related learning disabilities affect about 15% of the population. Later than expected learning to speak clearly. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06535853__ •

Treatment and pre-treatment of dysmetric dyslexia by improving sequential scanning and ocular fixation abilities and therapeutic compounds Inventor(s): Frank; Jan (45 E. 82nd St., New York, NY 10028), Levinson; Harold N. (15 Lake Road, Great Neck, NY 11020) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 3,940,485 Date filed: November 29, 1974 Abstract: The within method contemplates the administration of a drug, effective as a cerebellar-vestibular harmonizing agent, as a prelude to reading for a patient who is or will become dysmetric dyslexic, the administered drug functioning in a sense like "eyeglasses" to improve the dynamic vision of the patient.In a partially analogous situation, in a person who suffers from motion sickness, commonly known as seasickness, the rocking of the boat or like motion produces an increased or excessive input to his cerebellar-vestibular circuits, with the result that such excessive stimulation causes nauseousness and related adverse effects. In a dysmetric dyslexic-identified patient, while he never experiences symptoms of motion sickness, i.e. nauseousness, during reading, he nevertheless has an overloading and dysharmony (i.e. excessive input) to his cerebellar-vestibular circuits as a result, obviously not of boat rocking or the like, but as a result of a dysfunctioning cerebellar-vestibular, a dysfunctioning discovered to exist in dysmetric dyslexic patients. The administered drug, of the nature indicated, thus by its suppressing and harmonizing influence maintains the input to and within the patient's cerebellar-vestibular circuits at a diminished level which significantly enhances the patient's eye tracking, and thus reading, ability. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method of preparing a patient previously identified as being dyslexic because of dysfunctioning cerebellar-vestibular circuits, for reading activity. Underlying the preparation method of the present invention is the discovery that the condition of dysmetric dyslexia is attributable to a cerebellar-

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vestibular dysfunction. This is contrary to the more widely accepted belief in the medical profession that the condition of organically determined dysmetric dyslexia is due solely or at least primarily to a dysfunction of the cortex. It suffices, however, for the present purposes to indicate that the aforesaid cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction manifested in dysmetric dyslexic children is proved by positive Rombergs, difficulty in tandem walking, articulatory speech disorders, dysdiadochokinesis, hypontonia, and various dysmetric or past pointing disturbances during finger-to-nose, heel-to-toe, writing, drawing, as well as during ocular fixation and scanning testing. Another significant medical discovery underlying the present invention is that there exists in dysmetric dyslexic children a sub-clinical nystagmus or eye vibration at an almost imperceptible frequency or number of beats per second. Here also, for present purposes, it suffices to indicate that the existence of this sub-clinical nystagmus or eye vibration is demonstrated by electronystagmographic recordings when the eyes were closed to eliminate fixation, as this tends to inhibit nystagmus. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US03940485__ •

Use of DHA as a pharmaceutical composition Inventor(s): Stordy; Barbara Jacqueline (Weyvern House, Weyvern Park, Portsmouth Road, Peasmarsh, Guildford, Surrey, GB) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,150,411 Date filed: February 28, 1997 Abstract: Dyslexia or inadequate night vision is treated by administering effective amounts of docosohexaenoic acid optionally in association wit other n-3 essential fatty acids and n-6 essential fatty acids. Excerpt(s): This is a 371 of PCT/GB96/01256 filed May 4, 1996 of the invention. Dyslexia is a major problem of human development. It is a disorder manifest by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunities, and arises from fundamental cognitive disabilities. Dyslexia is four to five times commoner in boys than girls, commoner in children with atopic eczema and asthma than those without, and also commoner in offenders than the law abiding. It is associated with a loss of normal brain asymmetry which is demonstrable using modern brain scanning methods and also on functional tests. It is recognised to be a disorder with an organic basis. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06150411__

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Whole word, phrase or number reading Inventor(s): O'Hair; Mark A. (Shalimar, FL) Assignee(s): The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of the Air (Washington, DC) Patent Number: 4,764,973 Date filed: May 28, 1986 Abstract: The image of a word is taken and the two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform of the image is computed. The transformed image is filtered to the first three

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harmonics, with both real and imaginary components. These components then make up a total of 49 unique vectors which defines a 49 orthogonal vector space. The vector space is normalized to unity and each image of a word or phrase defines a point within this 49 orthogonal, hypersphere. The same process is done to the image for the Fourier components, where there is only 25 unique vector components. Similar looking words cluster in the hypersphere and the smaller distance from one point to another defines the probability of incorrectly recognizing a word. In a study for the case of two through eleven letters in a word using both 49 and 25 vector space calculations, the results show two through eleven words are recognizable using 49 vector space and possibly the 25 vector space. The 25 vector space shows problems with symmetry (dyslexia) in many of the incorrectly recognized words, which was never the case for the 49 vector space. A conclusion is that people with dyslexia might use a different process to recognize words and by using the real and imaginary components, whole word recognition is possible. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to image analysis of whole words, phrases or numbers, including a Fourier transformation and pattern recognition. Automation of businesses is dependent on a machine's ability to recognize the input and act according to preprogrammed instructions. Without an input the process of automation is impossible. Unfortunately most inputs are not in a form compatible with automation. An example is the postal service. The average person does not address his letter with a bar code label format. People address their mail with words written on one side of the envelope or package. No two persons' handwriting is the same and no one can write exactly the same way each time. It is not difficult for the human mind to recognize most handwriting but the complexity to build a computer system to do the same has yet to be achieved. Presently there is no such reading machine which can take a video picture of printed text and identify each word in the picture. The reason for this is the problem of pattern recognition. No two printed words are exactly the same and simply matching the picture of a word to a standard template or model is not sufficient. A one to one correlation is not possible because of all the different types of printing fonts used, the discontinuity within individual characters, the difference in shading between characters, the background noise, and the variation in spacing between characters within words. A pattern recognition system has to identify an input which is similar to a template. An approximation to what is being searched for is possible in some cases but to recognize all the thousands of different words spelled with all the different types of character fonts or handwriting is presently impossible. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04764973__ •

Writing and kinesthetic teaching device Inventor(s): Lang; Boris M. (519 Washington Rd., Woodbury, CT 06798) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,089,126 Date filed: January 26, 1977 Abstract: Write Right Tool is a novel and useful apparatus designed to instill the right habits of writing in the mind and reflexes of a little child (31/2 and up). At the same time, the usual procedure of teaching reading is canceled, making it a by-product of writing. The operation of the tool described below, makes for unusually powerful and prolonged concentration of all involved faculties of the child. At the same time, the use of the tool prevents the often met with complications of dyslexia and the need for remedial courses in writing and reading.The progress of learning follows several stages

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of which the salient ones are:(1) Tracing the components of letters and later the letters proper with a stylus.(2) Tracing the letters with a pencil.(3) Tracing the letters with a pencil using the Write Right Tool.The latter, due to the resistance offered by the tension plate D to the tip of the pencil, induces an exaggerated and determined effort of the child's hand, producing a more prominent and willed imitation of the letter-pattern, thus affording a decisive reversal of the optically reversed image of the letter that the eye naturally presents to the brain. Due to the eye lens, the image on the retina of the eye is similar to the inverted image thrown on the film by the lens of a photographic camera. Only early and emphasized reversal of the eye's image can produce this complicated and hard to evoke correction, impossible without following the principle of the Write Right Tool. When writing, the child vocalizes the names and phonetic properties of letters, which, together with construction of words, by the stimulated effort and enforced attention, induces the most active de facto reading and spelling process. Excerpt(s): Different ages and class techniques may call for varied materials and details of the Write Right Tool design. The following description points out a generally useful and acceptable type of material and manufacturing. The upper plate D (13/4 inch square) also has a hole E in its center for the insertion of the tip of the pencil. This hole is of a truncated cone form with its narrower opening on the lower side of the plate D and the larger one on the upper side of this plate. This form allows a variation of the angle of the pencil's action in relation to the printed page. See section L--L. The underside of the plate A, on each of its four corners, has the elastic bent from the slot to slot, thus resting the underside of this plate on the paper preventing a slippage of the tool while in operation. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04089126__

Patent Applications on Dyslexia As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.10 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to dyslexia: •

METHODS FOR TREATING VASCULAR DEMENTIA Inventor(s): Pratt, Raymond; (Leonia, NJ) Correspondence: Edward D. Grieff, ESQ.; Hale And Dorr Llp; 1455 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW; Washington; DC; 20004; US Patent Application Number: 20020040038 Date filed: September 4, 2001 Excerpt(s): This application claims priority to PCT Application No. PCT/US01/07027 filed Mar. 5, 2001, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/259,226 filed Jan. 3, 2001, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/220,783 filed Jul. 25, 2000, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/197,610 filed Apr. 18, 2000, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/186,744 filed Mar. 3, 2000. The invention describes novel methods for treating and preventing dementia caused by vascular diseases; dementia associated with Parkinson's disease; Lewy Body dementia; AIDS dementia; mild cognitive

10

This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.

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impairments; age-associated memory impairments; cognitive impairments and/or dementia associated with neurologic and/or psychiatric conditions, including epilepsy, brain tumors, brain lesions, multiple sclerosis, Down's syndrome, Rett's syndrome, progressive supranuclear palsy, frontal lobe syndrome, and schizophrenia and related psychiatric disorders; cognitive impairments caused by traumatic brain injury, post coronary artery by-pass graft surgery, electroconvulsive shock therapy, and chemotherapy, by administering a therapeutically effective amount of at least one of the cholinesterase inhibitor compounds described herein. The invention also describes novel methods for treating and preventing delirium, Tourette's syndrome, myasthenia gravis, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, dyslexia, mania, depression, apathy, and myopathy associated with or caused by diabetes by administering a therapeutically effective amount of at least one of the cholinesterase inhibitor compounds described herein. The invention also describes novel methods for delaying the onset of Alzheimer's disease, for enhancing cognitive functions, for treating and preventing sleep apnea, for alleviating tobacco withdrawal syndrome, and for treating the dysfunctions of Huntington's Disease by administering a therapeutically effective amount of at least one of the cholinesterase inhibitor compounds described herein. A preferred cholinesterase inhibitor for use in the methods of the invention is donepezil hydrochloride or ARICEPT.RTM. Novel cholinesterase inhibitors are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,895,841 and WO 98/39000, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. The cholinesterase inhibitors described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,895,841 include donepezil hydrochloride or ARICEPT.RTM., which has proven to be a highly successful drug for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Novel human gene functionally related to dyslexia Inventor(s): Kaminen, Nina; (Helsinki, FI), Kere, Juha; (Espoo, FI), Nopola-Hemmi, Jaana; (Helsinki, FI), Taipale, Mikko; (Heidelberg, DE) Correspondence: Birch Stewart Kolasch & Birch; PO Box 747; Falls Church; VA; 220400747; US Patent Application Number: 20030219787 Date filed: February 12, 2003 Abstract: The present invention describes a novel human gene, DYXC1, which is functionally related to dyslexia. DYXC1 gene encodes a 420-amino acid residue protein. DYXC1 is expressed in several tissues, including the brain, and is localized in the nucleus. In addition, four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in DYXC1 mRNA have been characterized in this invention. The invention provides diagnostic methods and materials for analysing allelic variation in DYXC1 gene. This invention also provides polypeptides encoded by DYXC1 gene and antibodies binding to said polypeptides. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a novel human gene functionally related to dyslexia, especially variant forms (e.g. alleles) thereof that predispose an individual to develop dyslexia. Thus, this invention also relates to the polymorphism of said gene as well as diagnostic methods and materials for analysing allelic variation in said gene. This invention also provides polypeptides encoded by said gene and antibodies binding to said polypeptides. The materials of the invention can be used to study the brain processes such as reading, phonological processing, rapid naming and verbal short term memory. Dyslexia, or specific reading disability, is the most common childhood

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learning disorder. It is estimated that about 3-10% of people have specific difficulties in reading, despite adequate intelligence, education and social environment. Several different theories have been put forth to account for the diverse symptoms seen in dyslexic subjects. At present, it is thought that dyslexia is primarily a phonological deficit, emphasizing the linguistic basis of this condition (1-3). However, it is possible that dyslexia is not specific to language. Rather, it may result from a deficit in processing fast temporal data, be it visual or auditory. This temporal processing deficit would, consequently, manifest itself primarily as dyslexia (4). Available evidence suggests that dyslexia is a neurological disorder with a genetic basis. Functional brain imaging studies have illustrated that dyslexia has universal neurobiological correlates (5). There is extensive evidence of genetic factors which contribute to dyslexia. There are significant differences, however, in the heritability of different components of dyslexia (6). Linkage and association studies have pinpointed several loci for dyslexia. In particular, two loci have been promising. DYX1 in chromosome 15q21 was the first locus to be associated with dyslexia (7), and the results have been replicated in three independent studies thereafter (8-10). The presence of a second dyslexia locus, DYX2, in chromosome 6p21 has also been established (11). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Pharmaceutical composition and method of modulating cholinergic function in a mammal Inventor(s): Coe, Jotham W.; (Niantic, CT), Sands, Steven B.; (Stonington, CT) Correspondence: Pfizer Inc; 150 East 42nd Street; 5th Floor - Stop 49; New York; NY; 10017-5612; US Patent Application Number: 20030008892 Date filed: March 25, 2002 Abstract: A pharmaceutical composition and method of modulating cholinergic function in a mammal comprising administration of a NRPA compound or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and an anti-emetic/anti-nausea agent or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The NRPA compound and the anti-emetic/anti-nausea agent are present in amounts that render the composition effective modulating cholinergic function or in the treatment of a diorder or condition selected from inflammatory bowel disease (including but not limited to ulcerative colitis, pyoderma gangrenosum and Crohn's disease), irritable bowel syndrome, spastic dystonia, chronic pain, acute pain, celiac sprue, pouchitis, vasoconstriction, anxiety, panic disorder, depression, bipolar disorder, autism, sleep disorders, jet lag, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cognitive dysfunction, hypertension, bulimia, anorexia, obesity, cardiac arrythmias, gastric acid hypersecretion, ulcers, pheochromocytoma, progressive supranuclear palsy, chemical dependencies and addictions (e.g., dependencies on, or addictions to nicotine (and/or tobacco products), alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, opioids or cocaine), headache, migraine, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), psychosis, Huntington's chorea, tardive dyskinesia, hyperkinesia, dyslexia, schizophrenia, multiinfarct dementia, age-related cognitive decline, epilepsy, including petit mal absence epilepsy, senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Tourette's Syndrome. The method of using these compositions is also disclosed.

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Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions for modulating cholinergic function in a mammal comprising a nicotinic receptor partial agonist compound in combination with an anti-emetic/anti-nausea agent and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The nicotinic receptor partial agonists (NRPAs) included herein are aryl fused azapolycyclic compounds. NRPAs are not limited to those described here. The term NRPA refers to all chemical compounds which bind at neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine specific receptor sites in mammalian tissue and elicit a partial agonist response. A partial agonist response is defined here to mean a partial, or incomplete functional effect in a given functional assay. Additionally, a partial agonist will also exhibit some degree of antagonist activity by its ability to block the action of a full agonist (Feldman, R. S., Meyer, J. S. & Quenzer, L. F. Principles of Neuropsychopharmacology, 1997; Sinauer Assoc. Inc.). The present invention may be used to treat mammals (e.g. humans) for inflammatory bowel disease (including but not limited to ulcerative colitis, pyoderma gangrenosum and Crohn's disease), irritable bowel syndrome, spastic dystonia, chronic pain, acute pain, celiac sprue, pouchitis, vasoconstriction, anxiety, panic disorder, depression, bipolar disorder, autism, sleep disorders, jet lag, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cognitive dysfunction, hypertension, bulimia, anorexia, obesity, cardiac arrythmias, gastric acid hypersecretion, ulcers, pheochromocytoma, progressive supranuclear palsy, chemical dependencies and addictions (e.g., dependencies on, or addictions to nicotine (and/or tobacco products), alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, opioids or cocaine), headache, migraine, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), psychosis, Huntington's chorea, tardive dyskinesia, hyperkinesia, dyslexia, schizophrenia, multiinfarct dementia, age-related cognitive decline, epilepsy, including petit mal absence epilepsy, senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Tourette's Syndrome with a decrease in the incidence and severity of unwanted side effects such as nausea and/or stomach upset. The present invention also relates to the combination use of NRPAs and anti-emetic/anti-nausea agents resulting in modulation of cholinergic function without nausea. The combination will provide an improved treatment paradigm than NRPAs alone. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Pyridone-fused azabicyclic- or cytisine derivatives, their preparation and their use in addiction therapy Inventor(s): O'Neill, Brian T.; (Old Saybrook, CT) Correspondence: Paul H. Ginsburg; Pfizer INC.; 20th Floor; 235 East 42nd Street; New York; NY; 10017-5755; US Patent Application Number: 20030065173 Date filed: February 14, 2001 Abstract: Pyridone-fused azabicyclic compounds of the formula 1and their pharmaceutically acceptable salts and prodrugs, wherein R.sup.1, R.sup.2 and R.sup.3 are defined below, intermediates and methods for their preparation. Compositions and methods for using compounds of the formula I in the treatment of neurological and mental disorders related to a decrease in cholinergic function such as nicotine addiction, Huntington's Chorea, tardive dyskinesia, hyperkinesia, mania, dyslexia, schizophrenia , analgesia, attention deficit disorder (ADD), multi-infarct demetia, age related cognitive decline, epilepsy, neurological and mental disorders related to a decrease in cholinergic

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function, senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type, Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, obesity, Tourette's Syndrome and ulcerative colitis. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to azabicyclic compounds. More particularly it relates to pyridone-fused azabicyclic compounds of the formula I below Compounds of formula I are useful in the treatment of addictive disorders such as the use of tobacco or other nicotine containing products and also for the treatment or prevention of withdrawal symptoms caused by cessation of chronic or long term use of tobacco products. These compounds are also useful in the treatment of Huntington's Chorea, tardive dyskinesia, hyperkinesia, mania, dyslexia, schizophrenia, analgesia, attention deficit disorder (ADD), multi-infarct demetia, age related cognitive decline, epilepsy, neurological and mental disorders related to a decrease in cholinergic function such as Huntington's Chorea, tardive dyskinesia, hyperkinesia, mania, dyslexia, schizophrenia, analgesia, attention deficit disorder (ADD), multi-infarct demetia, age related cognitive decline, epilepsy, neurological and mental disorders related to a decrease in cholinergic function, senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type, Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, obesity, Tourette's Syndrome and ulcerative colitis. The compounds of this invention may also be used in combination with a antidepressants such as imipramine in order to treat both the cognitive decline and depression associated with AD; in combination with serotonin uptake inhibitors such as Zoloft to treat both the cognitive decline and depression associated with AD; in combination with muscarinic agonists in order to stimulate both central muscarinic and nicotinic receptors; in combination with neurotrophic factors such as NGF in order to maximize cholinergic enhancement; in combination with agents which slow or arrest AD such as amyloid or tau inhibitors. Substances which can deliver pharmacologically relevant amounts of nicotine to the central nervous system are among the most abused substances known. These include, but not are not limited to tobacco cigarettes, and "chewing tobacco" (see J. E. Henningfield, Ph.D, New England Journal of Med., 1196, 1995). Cigarette smoking has been tied to increased risk for lung cancer, emphysema and heart disease and it is estimated 400,000 people will die in 1995 from the combined effects of nicotine abuse in the United States (see J. A. Califano, Jr., New England Journal of Med. 1214, 1995). Nicotine is a highly addicting drug with 40% of those who try smoking later becoming physically dependent upon it. Attempts to quit the use of nicotine, such as in smoking, have been largely ineffective with >80% of such attempts ending in failure. Most attempts to quit end in failure in the first week due to intense withdrawal and craving symptoms. An effective therapy should aid in the cessation or lessening of tobacco use, prevent withdrawal. etc prevent withdrawal symptoms, relieve craving and, simultaneously, antagonize the reinforcing effects of nicotine obtained through smoking. Currently, few therapies are available for smoking cessation and most involve replacement of cigarettes with nicotine in the form of a patch or gum. A high rate of relapse and low overall success in ending nicotine use is evidence of the need for additional and more effective therapies for treatment of nicotine addiction than the nicotine patch or gum. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with dyslexia, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address:

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http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on dyslexia. You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning dyslexia. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.

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CHAPTER 7. BOOKS ON DYSLEXIA Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to dyslexia. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on dyslexia include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.

Book Summaries: Federal Agencies The Combined Health Information Database collects various book abstracts from a variety of healthcare institutions and federal agencies. To access these summaries, go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. You will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. To find book summaries, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer. For the format option, select “Monograph/Book.” Now type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database which is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for books on dyslexia: •

Tackling Dyslexia: The Bangor Way Source: San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 1993. 144 p. Contact: Available from Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 401 West 'A' Street, Suite 325, San Diego, CA 92101-7904. (800) 521-8545 or (619) 238-6777. Fax (800) 774-8398 or (619) 238-6789. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.singpub.com. PRICE: $29.99 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1565933702. Book Code: 429. Also available from Whurr Publishers, Ltd. 196 Compton Terrace, London, N1 2UN, England. Summary: This book outlines the Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System, focusing on providing readers with the tools necessary to help dyslexic children. Ten chapters cover the dyslexia difficulty and the literacy task; the phonological approach, the phonic program, and testing and monitoring work; approaches and procedures for teaching; teaching the phonic program at different stages, including beginning pupils, students who are struggling, and working with poor spellers; lesson planning and sample

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lessons; reading skills and reading instruction; transfer of skills from individual lesson to curriculum work; dyslexic pupils and the National Curriculum (England); handwriting; special topics, including listening, speech, calendar, alphabet, and dictionary skills; and computers in lessons with dyslexic children, including appropriate software. Appendices list materials, games, and books for teaching, and checklists for recording progress. A subject index concludes the volume. 17 references. •

Dyslexia: An Introductory Guide Source: San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 1996. 226 p. Contact: Available from Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 401 West 'A' Street, Suite 325, San Diego, CA 92101-7904. (800) 521-8545 or (619) 238-6777. Fax (800) 774-8398 or (619) 238-6789. E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.singpub.com. PRICE: $39.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1565936043. Summary: This British textbook provides an overview of dyslexia in children. The child with dyslexia has difficulty with learning to read. He or she is also likely to have other associated difficulties such as poor spelling, slow or immature handwriting or an inability to deal with numbers, but the reading difficulty is the principal reason for concern. Fifteen chapters in the text cover the measurement of reading, the types of reading difficulties that may be encountered, the influence of intelligence, the importance of mental age, the teaching of reading, the components of dyslexia, the dyslexic child, assessment of the child with dyslexia, the role of the brain and vision problems as causative factors for dyslexia, the role of phonemic awareness in dyslexia, help for the child with dyslexia, advice for the parents of a child with dyslexia, useful resources and suggestions, and a history of dyslexia. An appendix of definitions, a glossary of terms, and a subject index conclude the volume.

Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “dyslexia” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “dyslexia” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “dyslexia” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •

A Little Edge of Darkness: A Boy's Triumph over Dyslexia by Tanya Faludy, Alexander Faludy (1996); ISBN: 1853023574; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853023574/icongroupinterna

•

A Parent's Guide to Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties (Need2Know) by Maria Chivers (1997); ISBN: 186144026X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/186144026X/icongroupinterna

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A Practical Guide to Dyslexia by Jean Blight (2000); ISBN: 0905858336; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0905858336/icongroupinterna

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About Dyslexia by Priscilla L. Vail, Linda Skladal (Editor) (1990); ISBN: 0935493344; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0935493344/icongroupinterna

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Adult Dyslexia (1994); ISBN: 1897635354; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1897635354/icongroupinterna

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Adult Dyslexia : A Guide for the Workplace by Gary Fitzgibbon (Author), Brian O'Connor (Author) (2002); ISBN: 0471487120; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471487120/icongroupinterna

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Adults with Dyslexia: Aspiring and Achieving by Joan R. Knight (1997); ISBN: 0892140143; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0892140143/icongroupinterna

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Annals of Dyslexia: 1997 (1997); ISBN: 9999065538; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9999065538/icongroupinterna

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Annuals of Dyslexia (Annals of Dyslexia, 1999) (1999); ISBN: 9999357431; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9999357431/icongroupinterna

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Being In Control: Natural Techniques For Increasing Your Potential and Creativity For Success in School. Also For Improving Concentration and Learning in Children with ADHD and Dyslexia by Jason Mark Alster (2001); ISBN: 9659025114; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9659025114/icongroupinterna

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Buzzards to Bluebirds: Improve Your Child's Learning & Behavior in Six Weeks: Help Stop Ld, Add, Adhd, Dyslexia, School Dropouts & School Failures by Allen Crane, Virginia Crane (1997); ISBN: 0943599873; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0943599873/icongroupinterna

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Current Directions in Dyslexia Research (1994); ISBN: 902651297X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/902651297X/icongroupinterna

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Day-To-Day Dyslexia in the Classroom by Joy Pollock, Elisabeth Waller (1994); ISBN: 0415111323; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415111323/icongroupinterna

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Developmental and Acquired Dyslexia: Neuropsychological and Neurolinguistic Perspectives (Neuropsychology and Cognition, Vol 9) by Che Kan Leong, R. Malatesha Joshi (Editor) (1996); ISBN: 0792331664; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0792331664/icongroupinterna

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Developmental Dyslexia (Studies in Disorders of Communications) by Michael E. Thomson (1991); ISBN: 1870332709; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1870332709/icongroupinterna

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Developmental Dyslexia: Neural, Cognitive, and Genetic Mechanisms by Christopher H. Chase (Editor), et al (1996); ISBN: 0912752394; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0912752394/icongroupinterna

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Developmental Neuropsychology 2001: An International Journal of Life-Span Issues in Neuropsychology: The Neuropsychology of Development Dyslexia by Heikki Lyytinen (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 0805896821; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0805896821/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia by Alvin Silverstein, et al (2002); ISBN: 0613516354; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0613516354/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia by Margaret J Snowling (2000); ISBN: 0631205748; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0631205748/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia by Janet Tod (1999); ISBN: 1853465232; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853465232/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia by Pete Sanders (Author) (1999); ISBN: 0761309152; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0761309152/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia (1998); ISBN: 1872972446; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1872972446/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia by Grosser, Spafford (1998); ISBN: 0205275516; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0205275516/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia : A Practitioner's Handbook by Gavin Reid (Author) (2003); ISBN: 0470848510; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0470848510/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia : A Psychosocial Perspective by Morag Hunter-Carsch (Editor) (2001); ISBN: 1861561946; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861561946/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia a Reading and Writing Correction Method by Manilla (1990); ISBN: 0962887900; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0962887900/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Development: Neurobiological Aspects of Extra-Ordinary Brains by Albert M. Galaburda (Editor) (1993); ISBN: 0674219406; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0674219406/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Effective Learning in Secondary and Tertiary Education by Morag Hunter Carsch (Editor), et al (2003); ISBN: 1861560168; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861560168/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and English (Bda Curriculum Series) by Elizabeth Turner, Jayne Pughe (2003); ISBN: 185346967X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/185346967X/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Inclusion: Assessment and Support in Higher Education by Marion Farmer, et al (2002); ISBN: 1861563140; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861563140/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Learning Style: A Practitioner's Handbook by Tilly Mortimore (2002); ISBN: 1861563132; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861563132/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Literacy by Erland Hjelmquist (Editor), Curt Von Euler (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 1861563167; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861563167/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Literacy : Theory and Practice by Gavin Reid (Editor), Janice Wearmouth (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 0471486337; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471486337/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Mathematics (1993); ISBN: 1853792462; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853792462/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Mathematics by E. Miles (Editor), T. R. Miles (1992); ISBN: 0415049873; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415049873/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Maths by Julie Kay, Dorian Yeo (2003); ISBN: 1853469653; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853469653/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Modern Foreign Languages by Margaret Crombie, Elke Schneider (2003); ISBN: 1853469661; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853469661/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties: The Facts by Mark Selikowitz (1998); ISBN: 0192626612; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0192626612/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Physical Education by Madeleine Portwood (2003); ISBN: 185346970X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/185346970X/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia and Stress by T. R. Miles (2004); ISBN: 1861563833; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861563833/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia at College by Dorothy E. Gilroy, et al (1996); ISBN: 0415127785; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415127785/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia Handbook 2002 (2002); ISBN: 1872653324; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1872653324/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia in Adults: Taking Charge of Your Life by Kathleen Nosek (1997); ISBN: 0878339485; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0878339485/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia in Practice: A Guide for Teachers by Janet Townend (Editor), Martin Turner (Editor) (2000); ISBN: 0306462524; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0306462524/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia in Secondary School: A Handbook for Subject Teachers by Mary Flecker (Editor), Jenny Cogan (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 1861562721; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861562721/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia Included: A Whole School Approach (Resource Materials Forteachers) by Michael Thomson (Editor) (2003); ISBN: 184312002X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/184312002X/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia Matters: A Celebratory Contributed Volume to Honour Professor T.R. Miles by Gerald Hales (Editor) (1994); ISBN: 1565933672; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1565933672/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia over the Lifespan: A Fifty-Five Year Longitudinal Study by M. Rawson (1995); ISBN: 0838816703; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0838816703/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain by Maryanne Wolf (Editor) (2001); ISBN: 0912752602; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0912752602/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: A Hundred Years on by T. R. Miles (Preface), Elaine Miles (Preface) (1999); ISBN: 0335200346; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0335200346/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: A Multidisciplinary Approach by P Thomson (Editor) (1996); ISBN: 0748757937; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0748757937/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: A Parents' and Teachers' Guide (Parents' and Teachers' Guides, No. 3.) by Trevor Payne, Elizabeth Turner (1998); ISBN: 1853594105; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853594105/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: A Teaching Handbook by Michael E. Thomson (1998); ISBN: 1861560397; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861560397/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Advances in Theory and Practice (Neuropsychology and Cognition, 16) by Ingvar Lundberg (Editor), et al (1999); ISBN: 0792358376; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0792358376/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: How Would I Cope? by Michael Ryden, Derek Copley (Introduction) (1996); ISBN: 185302385X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/185302385X/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Integrating Theory and Practice by En British Dyslexia Association International Conference 1991 Oxford, et al (1991); ISBN: 1870332474; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1870332474/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Overview, Abstracts and Guide to Books by Oliver P. Moynihan (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 1590334566; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1590334566/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Parents in Need by Pat Heaton (1996); ISBN: 1565937139; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1565937139/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Samuel t Orton and His Legacy by Marcia K., PhD Henry (Editor), Susan G. Brickley (Editor) (1999); ISBN: 0892140208; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0892140208/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Students in Need by Pat Heaton, et al (2001); ISBN: 1861561792; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861561792/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: The Pattern of Difficulties by T.R. Miles (1993); ISBN: 1565932498; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1565932498/icongroupinterna

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Dyslexia: Trials and Triumphs: What Child is He Now? by Annie B. Ashby (1997); ISBN: 0964728109; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0964728109/icongroupinterna

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Early Reading Development and Dyslexia by Valerie Muter (2003); ISBN: 1861563272; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861563272/icongroupinterna

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Foundations of Reading Acquisition and Dyslexia: Implications for Early Intervention by Benita A. Blachman (Editor), National Dyslexia Research Foundation (1997); ISBN: 0805823638; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0805823638/icongroupinterna

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Helping Children Cope with Dyslexia by Sally Raymond (1997); ISBN: 085969772X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/085969772X/icongroupinterna

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How To Reach and Teach Children and Teens with Dyslexia : A Parent and Teacher Guide to Helping Students of All Ages Academically, Socially, and Emotionally by Cynthia M. Stowe (Author) (2002); ISBN: 0130320188; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0130320188/icongroupinterna

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Identification Solutions for Literacy: Dyslexia and Near-vision Dysfunctioning (Key Solutions Series) by Jan Poustie (2002); ISBN: 1901544036; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1901544036/icongroupinterna

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In the Mind's Eye: Visual Thinkers, Gifted People With Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties, Computer Images and the Ironies of Creativity by Thomas G. West (1997); ISBN: 1573921556; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1573921556/icongroupinterna

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Introduction to Dyslexia by Lindsay Peer, Gavin Reid (2003); ISBN: 1853469645; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853469645/icongroupinterna

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IT for Adults with Dyslexia (1994); ISBN: 1853792977; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853792977/icongroupinterna

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Learning a Living: A Guide to Planning Your Career and Finding a Job for People With Learning Disabilities, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Dyslexia by Dale S. Brown (2000); ISBN: 0933149875; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0933149875/icongroupinterna

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Learning Disabilities Sourcebook: Basic Information About Disorders Such As Dyslexia, Visual and Auditory Processing Deficits, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Autism, alo (Health Reference Series, Vol 33) by Linda M. Shin (Editor), Linda M. Ross (Editor) (1998); ISBN: 0780802101; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0780802101/icongroupinterna

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Living and Learning with Dyslexia by Christine Kenny (2002); ISBN: 0953723437; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0953723437/icongroupinterna

•

Living With Dyslexia by Barbara Riddick (1996); ISBN: 0415125014; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415125014/icongroupinterna

•

Make Your Classroom Dyslexia Friendly by Kate Moore (1998); ISBN: 1872406548; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1872406548/icongroupinterna

•

Many Faces of Dyslexia (1992); ISBN: 9992986492; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9992986492/icongroupinterna

•

Music and Dyslexia: Opening New Doors by T. R. Miles (Editor), et al (2001); ISBN: 1861562055; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861562055/icongroupinterna

•

Neglect and the Peripheral Dyslexias: A Special Issue of the Journal Cognitive Neuropsychology by M. Jane Riddoch (Editor) (1992); ISBN: 0863771629; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0863771629/icongroupinterna

•

Neuropsychological Treatment of Dyslexia by Dirk J. Bakker (1990); ISBN: 0195061322; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195061322/icongroupinterna

•

Never Too Late to Read: Language Skills for the Adolescent With Dyslexia: Based on the Work of Alice Ansara by Ann Cashwell Tuley (1998); ISBN: 0912752475; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0912752475/icongroupinterna

•

Overcoming Dyslexia: A Practical Handbook for the Classroom by Hilary Broomfield, Margaret Combley (2003); ISBN: 1861562586; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861562586/icongroupinterna

•

Parents on Dyslexia (Multilingual Matters (Series).) by Saskia Van Der Stoel (Editor), et al (1990); ISBN: 1853590770; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1853590770/icongroupinterna

•

Phonological Dyslexia by Max Coltheart (1997); ISBN: 0863779549; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0863779549/icongroupinterna

•

Reading by the Colors: Overcoming Dyslexia and Other Reading Disabilities Through the Irlen Method by Helen Irlen (2001); ISBN: 0399527362; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0399527362/icongroupinterna

•

Reading David: A Mother and Son's Journey Through the Labyrinth of Dyslexia by Lissa, Ph.D. Weinstein, David Siever (2003); ISBN: 0399529349; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0399529349/icongroupinterna

•

Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis by Andrew W. Ellis (1994); ISBN: 0863773060; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0863773060/icongroupinterna

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•

Reversals : A Personal Account of Victory over Dyslexia by Eileen M. Simpson (Author) (1998); ISBN: 0374523169; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0374523169/icongroupinterna

•

Smart But Feeling Dumb: New Research On Dyslexia--And How it May by M.D. Harold N. Levinson (Author) (2003); ISBN: 0446691178; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0446691178/icongroupinterna

•

So, You Think You've Got Problems?: A Book for Children with Dyslexia by Rosalind Birkett (2000); ISBN: 0905858859; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0905858859/icongroupinterna

•

Specific Learning Difficulties (Dyslexia): A Teachers' Guide by Margaret Crombie (1994); ISBN: 1850984859; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1850984859/icongroupinterna

•

Specific Reading Disability: A View of the Spectrum by Bruce K. Shapiro (Editor), et al (1998); ISBN: 0912752459; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0912752459/icongroupinterna

•

Stile Dyslexia by S. Shuster (1998); ISBN: 1855032449; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1855032449/icongroupinterna

•

Students and Dyslexia: Growing Up with a Specific Learning Difficulty by Marion Farmer (1997); ISBN: 1861560419; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1861560419/icongroupinterna

•

Taking Dyslexia to School (Special Kids in School) by Lauren E. Moynihan, Karen Schader (Editor) (2002); ISBN: 1891383175; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1891383175/icongroupinterna

•

The "O" Book: The Other Sixteen Hours: The Social and Emotional Problems of Dyslexia by Michael Ryan (1994); ISBN: 0892140089; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0892140089/icongroupinterna

•

The Gift of Dyslexia: Why Some of the Smartest People Can't Read and How They Can Learn by Ronald D. Davis, et al (2002); ISBN: 039952293X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/039952293X/icongroupinterna

•

The International Book of Dyslexia, A Cross-Language Comparison and Practice Guide by Ian Smythe (Editor), et al (2004); ISBN: 0471498416; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0471498416/icongroupinterna

•

THE LCP SOLUTION: The Remarkable Nutritional Treatment for ADHD, Dyslexia, and Dyspraxia by B. Jacqueline, Ph.D. Stordy, et al (2000); ISBN: 0345438728; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0345438728/icongroupinterna

•

The Official Parent's Sourcebook on Dyslexia: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age by Icon Health Publications (2002); ISBN: 0597830304; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0597830304/icongroupinterna

•

The Reality of Dyslexia by John Osmond (1995); ISBN: 1571290176; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1571290176/icongroupinterna

The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site,

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http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:11 •

Current concepts in dyslexia. Author: Hartstein, Jack,; Year: 1970; St. Louis, Mosby, 1971; ISBN: 0801620902 http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0801620902/icongroupinterna

•

Developmental dyslexia. Author: Critchley, Macdonald.; Year: 1968; London, Heinemann [1964]

•

Dyslexia and reading disabilities; papers by Richmond Paine, Helmer Myklebust, Deso Weiss, et al. Author: Paine, Richmond S. (Richmond Shepard),; Year: 1968; New York, MSS Information Corp. [c1972]; ISBN: 0842270051 http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0842270051/icongroupinterna

•

Dyslexia and your child; a guide for parents and teachers. Author: Wagner, Rudolph F.; Year: 1950; New York, Harper; Row [c1971]; ISBN: 0060145293 http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0060145293/icongroupinterna

•

Dyslexia. Author: Tomatis, Alfred.; Year: 1962; Ottawa, Univ. of Ottawa Press, 1969

•

Dyslexia; diagnosis and treatment of reading disorders, edited by Arthur H. Keeney [and] Virginia T. Keeney. Author: Keeney, Arthur H. (Arthur Hail),; Year: 1966; St. Louis, Mosby, 1968

•

Dyslexia; diagnosis, therapy, physiopathology, Jan. 1967-Dec. 1969. 162 citations. Author: National Library of Medicine (U.S.); Year: 1966; [Bethesda, Md.] 1970

•

Reading disability; developmental dyslexia. Author: Thompson, Lloyd J.,; Year: 1966; Springfield, Ill., Thomas [c1966]

•

Specific developmental dyslexia and related language disabilities; an interdisciplinary approach utilizing multisensory techniques for remedial language training. Author: Waites, Lucius,; Year: 1967; Dallas, Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Crippled Children [1969]

•

Specific dyslexia and related language disabilities. Author: Waites, Lucius,; Year: 1967; Dallas, Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Crippled Children, 1966

•

Specific dyslexia, "congenital word-blindness"; a clinical and genetic study. Author: Hallgren, Bertil.; Year: 1965; Stockholm, 1950

•

Specific dyslexia; the research report of the ICAA Word Blind Centre for Dyslexic Children. Author: Naidoo, Sandhya.; Year: 1968; [London] Pitman [1972]; ISBN: 0273360930 http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0273360930/icongroupinterna

•

The syndrome of specific dyslexia; with special consideration of its physiological, psychological, testpsychological, and social correlates. Author: Klasen, Edith.; Year: 1967; Baltimore, University Park Press [c1972]; ISBN: 0839107048 http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0839107048/icongroupinterna

11

In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.

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Chapters on Dyslexia In order to find chapters that specifically relate to dyslexia, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and dyslexia using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on dyslexia: •

Parenting the Child with Dyslexia Source: in Birsh, J.R., ed. Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. 1999. p. 465-490. Contact: Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285. (800) 638-3775. Fax (410) 337-8539. Website: www.brookespublishing.com. PRICE: $59.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1557663491. Summary: This chapter on parenting the child with dyslexia is from a textbook that focuses on multisensory language (MSLE). It provides teaching strategies for teachers working with students who have dyslexia and other students who struggle with reading, writing, and spelling. This chapter deals with issues relating to parenting a youngster with dyslexia, including the similarities to and the differences from raising a nondyslexic child. The author stresses the desperate need that parents of children with dyslexia have for sound, realistic guidance. The author also addresses the language problems that often accompany dyslexia. The author covers enhancing communication; working with parents who may also have dyslexia; helping families with organization, time management, and prioritization; and helping parents who feel overwhelmed. Also included in the chapter are a suggested training regimen for professionals, including the knowledge and experience needed to work effectively with parents and families, and a recommended library of key books and resources. 2 figures. 29 references.

Directories In addition to the references and resources discussed earlier in this chapter, a number of directories relating to dyslexia have been published that consolidate information across various sources. The Combined Health Information Database lists the following, which you may wish to consult in your local medical library:12 •

Parent Resources: Agencies, Organizations, Support Groups Source: in DeFeo, A.B., ed. Parent Articles 2. San Antonio, TX: Communication Skill Builders. 1995. p. 213-234.

12 You will need to limit your search to “Directory” and “dyslexia” using the "Detailed Search" option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find directories, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Select your preferred language and the format option “Directory.” Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database as it is updated every three months.

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Contact: Available from Communication Skill Builders. Customer Service, 555 Academic Court, San Antonio, TX 78204-2498. (800) 211-8378; Fax (800) 232-1223. PRICE: $55.00 plus shipping and handling. Order Number 076-163-0732. Summary: This appendix section is from a parent education skill builders textbook. The appendix lists agencies, organizations, and support groups that parents might want to contact as they work with developing communication skills in and with their child. National information and advocacy groups are listed, including groups for consumer information, education, financial aid, home care, legal assistance, nonoral communication, orthotics and prosthetics, psychiatry, psychology, rare disorders, rehabilitation, residential placement, self-help, severe disabilities, sibling support, social workers, and telephone usage for persons with disabilities. Also listed are national organizations for specific disabilities and conditions, including acoustic neuroma, autism, birth defects, chronic dizziness and balance disorders, cleft palate and craniofacial disorders, developmental disabilities, Down's syndrome, dyslexia, dystonia, genetic conditions, head injuries, hearing impairments, learning disabilities, mental retardation, neurofibromatosis, neurological disorders, stuttering, Tourette syndrome, and voice disorders and laryngectomies. The address and telephone number for each organization are noted. •

Brain Connections: Your Source Guide to Information on Brain Diseases and Disorders. 5th ed Source: New York, NY: Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives. 2000. 49 p. Contact: Available from Dana Press. Charles A. Dana Foundation, 745 Fifth Avenue, Suite 700, New York, NY 10151. Fax (212) 593-7623. Website: www.dana.org. PRICE: Single copy free. Summary: This guide lists organizations that assist people with a brain-related disorder or disease as well as those organizations that assist caregivers and health care providers in these areas. The guide lists more than 275 organizations alphabetically by disease or disorder. Listings of particular relevance to communication disorders include: acoustic neuroma, aphasia, ataxia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, deafness and hearing loss, disability and rehabilitation, dizziness, dyslexia, dystonia, head injury, learning disabilities, neurofibromatosis, smell and taste (chemosensory) disorders, spasmodic dysphonia, stuttering, tinnitus, Tourette syndrome, and vestibular disorders. Emphasis is placed on organizations that have a national focus, however, many of these groups sponsor local chapters or affiliates and make referrals to local medical professionals and organizations. For each organization listed, the guide notes mailing address, telephone numbers, e-mail and web sites; also provided are symbols which indicate that the organization offers support groups, referrals to doctors, referrals to other sources of information, regional chapters, availability of literature, availability of speakers, and volunteer opportunities. The guide also describes the publishing body, the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, and provides a list of ways in which readers can support and further brain research.

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CHAPTER 8. MULTIMEDIA ON DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we show you how to keep current on multimedia sources of information on dyslexia. We start with sources that have been summarized by federal agencies, and then show you how to find bibliographic information catalogued by the National Library of Medicine.

Video Recordings An excellent source of multimedia information on dyslexia is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to “Videorecording” and “dyslexia” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find video productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Videorecording (videotape, videocassette, etc.).” Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for video recordings on dyslexia: •

Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Treatment Source: Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 199X. (videocassette). Contact: Available from Films for the Humanities and Sciences. P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053. Voice (800) 257-5126 or (609) 275-1400; Fax (609) 275-3767. PRICE: $149.00 purchase or $75.00 rental; plus shipping and handling; price for 3/4 in U-matic format may vary. Stock Number BA5144. Summary: This videotape program explains dyslexia and the many ways in which it is manifested; the extensive testing necessary to make a diagnosis of dyslexia; and the role of heredity. Treatment builds on the student's strengths, while focusing on his or her weaknesses; treatment may involve neurological, psychological, or neuropsychological aspects, as well as individually-adapted language, auditive, reading, and spelling training programs. The program gives examples of each of these types of therapy. (AAM).

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Bibliography: Multimedia on Dyslexia The National Library of Medicine is a rich source of information on healthcare-related multimedia productions including slides, computer software, and databases. To access the multimedia database, go to the following Web site: http://locatorplus.gov/. Select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once in the search area, simply type in dyslexia (or synonyms). Then, in the option box provided below the search box, select “Audiovisuals and Computer Files.” From there, you can choose to sort results by publication date, author, or relevance. The following multimedia has been indexed on dyslexia: •

Could it be dyslexia? [videorecording] Source: Bright Solutions for Dyslexia, LLC; Year: 2000; Format: Videorecording; San Jose, CA: Bright Solutions for

•

Dyslexia [videorecording] Source: Brooke Army Medical Center; Year: 1971; Format: Videorecording; Fort Sam Houston, Tex.: Academy of Health Sciences, 1971

•

Dyslexia [videorecording]: diagnosis and prognosis Source: a Films for the Humanities and Sciences presentation; a joint production of Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center and WNHT-TV21; Year: 1990; Format: Videorecording; [Princeton, N.J.]: Films for the Humanities, c1990

•

Dyslexia [videorecording]: diagnosis and therapy Source: a presentation of Films for the Humanities & Sciences; a Poseidon production for Channel Four; Year: 1994; Format: Videorecording; Princeton, N.J.: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, c1994

•

Dyslexia [videorecording]: theory, diagnosis, treatment Source: a presentation of Films for the Humanities & Sciences; a production of the University of Nijmegen; Year: 1994; Format: Videorecording; Princeton, N.J.: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, c1994

•

Tangled, dealing with dyslexia [videorecording] Source: a presentation of Films for the Humanities & Sciences; produced with the participation of Saskatchewan Communications Network, produced with the participation of SaskFILM; a coproduction between Heartla; Year: 1996; Format: Videorecording; Princeton, N.J.: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, c1996

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CHAPTER 9. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON DYSLEXIA Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover dyslexia.

News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on dyslexia is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to dyslexia. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “dyslexia” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for dyslexia: •

Finnish researchers say find dyslexia gene Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: August 26, 2003

•

Finnish researchers identify dyslexia gene Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 26, 2003

170 Dyslexia

•

Study sheds light on brain function in dyslexia Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: August 08, 2002

•

Reading help may alter brain activity in dyslexia Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: April 30, 2002

•

Intensive reading program may alter brain activity in dyslexia Source: Reuters Medical News Date: April 30, 2002

•

Negative association seen between dyslexia and familial high blood pressure Source: Reuters Medical News Date: January 07, 2002

•

Link found between dyslexia and blood pressure Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: January 07, 2002

•

Gene for developmental dyslexia localized to chromosome 3 Source: Reuters Medical News Date: October 17, 2001

•

Form of dyslexia linked to chromosome region Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: October 11, 2001

•

Audiovisual training helps children with dyslexia Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: August 20, 2001

•

Dyslexia is based in the brain, study shows Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: March 15, 2001

•

Dyslexia due to neurocognitive deficit varies by language Source: Reuters Medical News Date: March 15, 2001

•

Dyslexia treatment linked to brain changes Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: June 02, 2000

•

Dyslexia linked to a gene on chromosome 2 Source: Reuters Medical News Date: September 08, 1999

•

Gene for dyslexia discovered Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: September 07, 1999

•

Dyslexia linked to brain abnormality Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: May 14, 1999

•

Abnormal cerebellar activation tied to dyslexia Source: Reuters Medical News Date: May 14, 1999

Periodicals and News

•

Dyslexia linked to brain abnormalities Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: June 19, 1998

•

Functional MRI Identifies Abnormal Brain Activation Pattern In Dyslexia Source: Reuters Medical News Date: March 03, 1998

•

Distinctive Brain Pattern Found For Dyslexia Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: March 03, 1998

•

Dyslexia Approach Should Change With Age Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: January 28, 1998

•

Dyslexia Linked to Inactivity in Thalamus Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: November 28, 1997

•

Computer Games Aid Children With Dyslexia Source: Reuters Medical News Date: January 05, 1996

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The NIH Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests.

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Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “dyslexia” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to dyslexia, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/. BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “dyslexia” (or synonyms).

Academic Periodicals covering Dyslexia Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to dyslexia. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering dyslexia that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.

NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute13: •

Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm

•

National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/

•

National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html

•

National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25

•

National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm

•

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm

•

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375

•

National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/

13

These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.

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•

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm

•

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/

•

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm

•

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm

•

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

•

National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/

•

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm

•

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html

•

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm

•

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm

•

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

•

National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html

•

National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm

•

Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp

•

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/

•

National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp

•

Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html

•

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm

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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.14 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:15 •

Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html

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HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html

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NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html

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Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

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Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html

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Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html

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Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/

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Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html

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Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html

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Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html

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MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html

14

Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 15 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.

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Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html

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Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

The NLM Gateway16 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.17 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category. Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total

Items Found 4514 357 929 0 0 5800

HSTAT18 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.19 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.20 Simply search by “dyslexia” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.

16

Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.

17

The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 18 Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html. 19 20

The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.

Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations.

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Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists21 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.22 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.23 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.

Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •

CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.

•

Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.

The Genome Project and Dyslexia In the following section, we will discuss databases and references which relate to the Genome Project and dyslexia. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database is a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders authored and edited by Dr. Victor A. McKusick and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins and elsewhere. OMIM was developed for the World Wide Web by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).24 The database contains textual information, pictures, and reference information. It also contains copious links to NCBI’s Entrez database of MEDLINE articles and sequence information. 21 Adapted 22

from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html.

The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 23 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process. 24 Adapted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/. Established in 1988 as a national resource for molecular biology information, NCBI creates public databases, conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information--all for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease.

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To search the database, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Omim/searchomim.html. Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Submit Search.” If too many results appear, you can narrow the search by adding the word “clinical.” Each report will have additional links to related research and databases. In particular, the option “Database Links” will search across technical databases that offer an abundance of information. The following is an example of the results you can obtain from the OMIM for dyslexia: •

Dyslexia Susceptibility 6 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?606616

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Dyslexia, Specific, 1 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?127700

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Dyslexia, Specific, 2 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?600202

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Dyslexia, Specific, 3 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?604254

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Dyslexia, Specific, 5 Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?606896 Genes and Disease (NCBI - Map)

The Genes and Disease database is produced by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health. This Web site categorizes each disorder by system of the body. Go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/, and browse the system pages to have a full view of important conditions linked to human genes. Since this site is regularly updated, you may wish to revisit it from time to time. The following systems and associated disorders are addressed: •

Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division. Examples: Breast and ovarian cancer, Burkitt lymphoma, chronic myeloid leukemia, colon cancer, lung cancer, malignant melanoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia, neurofibromatosis, p53 tumor suppressor, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, Ras oncogene, RB: retinoblastoma, von Hippel-Lindau syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Cancer.html

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Immune System: Fights invaders. Examples: Asthma, autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, Crohn’s disease, DiGeorge syndrome, familial Mediterranean fever, immunodeficiency with Hyper-IgM, severe combined immunodeficiency. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Immune.html

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Metabolism: Food and energy. Examples: Adreno-leukodystrophy, atherosclerosis, Best disease, Gaucher disease, glucose galactose malabsorption, gyrate atrophy, juvenile-onset diabetes, obesity, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, phenylketonuria, Refsum disease, Tangier disease, Tay-Sachs disease. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Metabolism.html

•

Muscle and Bone: Movement and growth. Examples: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Ellis-van Creveld syndrome, Marfan

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syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Muscle.html •

Nervous System: Mind and body. Examples: Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Angelman syndrome, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, epilepsy, essential tremor, fragile X syndrome, Friedreich’s ataxia, Huntington disease, Niemann-Pick disease, Parkinson disease, Prader-Willi syndrome, Rett syndrome, spinocerebellar atrophy, Williams syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Brain.html

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Signals: Cellular messages. Examples: Ataxia telangiectasia, Cockayne syndrome, glaucoma, male-patterned baldness, SRY: sex determination, tuberous sclerosis, Waardenburg syndrome, Werner syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Signals.html

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Transporters: Pumps and channels. Examples: Cystic fibrosis, deafness, diastrophic dysplasia, Hemophilia A, long-QT syndrome, Menkes syndrome, Pendred syndrome, polycystic kidney disease, sickle cell anemia, Wilson’s disease, Zellweger syndrome. Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Transporters.html Entrez

Entrez is a search and retrieval system that integrates several linked databases at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). These databases include nucleotide sequences, protein sequences, macromolecular structures, whole genomes, and MEDLINE through PubMed. Entrez provides access to the following databases: •

3D Domains: Domains from Entrez Structure, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=geo

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Books: Online books, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=books

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Genome: Complete genome assemblies, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Genome

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NCBI’s Protein Sequence Information Survey Results: Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/proteinsurvey/

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Nucleotide Sequence Database (Genbank): Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Nucleotide

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OMIM: Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=OMIM

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PopSet: Population study data sets, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Popset

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ProbeSet: Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=geo

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Protein Sequence Database: Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Protein

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PubMed: Biomedical literature (PubMed), Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed

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Structure: Three-dimensional macromolecular structures, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Structure

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Taxonomy: Organisms in GenBank, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Taxonomy

To access the Entrez system at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=genome, and then select the database that you would like to search. The databases available are listed in the drop box next to “Search.” Enter “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Go.” Jablonski’s Multiple Congenital Anomaly/Mental Retardation (MCA/MR) Syndromes Database25 This online resource has been developed to facilitate the identification and differentiation of syndromic entities. Special attention is given to the type of information that is usually limited or completely omitted in existing reference sources due to space limitations of the printed form. At http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/syndrome_toc/toc_a.html, you can search across syndromes using an alphabetical index. Search by keywords at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/syndrome_db.html. The Genome Database26 Established at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland in 1990, the Genome Database (GDB) is the official central repository for genomic mapping data resulting from the Human Genome Initiative. In the spring of 1999, the Bioinformatics Supercomputing Centre (BiSC) at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Ontario assumed the management of GDB. The Human Genome Initiative is a worldwide research effort focusing on structural analysis of human DNA to determine the location and sequence of the estimated 100,000 human genes. In support of this project, GDB stores and curates data generated by researchers worldwide who are engaged in the mapping effort of the Human Genome Project (HGP). GDB’s mission is to provide scientists with an encyclopedia of the human genome which is continually revised and updated to reflect the current state of scientific knowledge. Although GDB has historically focused on gene mapping, its focus will broaden as the Genome Project moves from mapping to sequence, and finally, to functional analysis.

25

Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/jablonski/about_syndrome.html. 26 Adapted from the Genome Database: http://gdbwww.gdb.org/gdb/aboutGDB.html - mission.

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To access the GDB, simply go to the following hyperlink: http://www.gdb.org/. Search “All Biological Data” by “Keyword.” Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the search box, and review the results. If more than one word is used in the search box, then separate each one with the word “and” or “or” (using “or” might be useful when using synonyms).

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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on dyslexia can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.

Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to dyslexia. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to dyslexia. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “dyslexia”:

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Other guides Assistive Devices http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/assistivedevices.html Autism http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/autism.html Bipolar Disorder http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/bipolardisorder.html Birth Defects http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/birthdefects.html Congenital Heart Disease http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/congenitalheartdisease.html Developmental Disabilities http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/developmentaldisabilities.html Disabilities http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/disabilities.html Financial Assistance http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/financialassistance.html Genetic Disorders http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/geneticdisorders.html Health Occupations http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthoccupations.html Hearing Disorders & Deafness http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/hearingdisordersdeafness.html Learning Disorders http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/learningdisorders.html Speech & Communication Disorders http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/speechcommunicationdisorders.html Stroke http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/stroke.html Vision Disorders & Blindness http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/visiondisordersblindness.html

Within the health topic page dedicated to dyslexia, the following was listed: •

General/Overviews LD (Learning Disability) at a Glance Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/LDInfoZone/InfoZone_FactSheet_LD.cfm Learning Disabilities Source: National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/factshe/fs7txt.htm

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Understanding Learning Disabilities Source: American Academy of Pediatrics http://www.medem.com/MedLB/article_detaillb.cfm?article_ID=ZZZLYL6YQ7C &sub_cat=547 •

Diagnosis/Symptoms Basics for Parents: Your Child's Evaluation Source: National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/basicpar/bp1txt.htm Diagnosing and Treating Learning Disabilities Source: American Academy of Pediatrics http://www.medem.com/MedLB/article_detaillb.cfm?article_ID=/ZZZFP21YQ7C &sub_cat=105 Do I Have LD (Learning Disabilities)? Problem Signs Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/doihaveld_problem.cfm

•

Coping Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) Source: Nemours Foundation http://kidshealth.org/parent/growth/learning/iep.html LD (Learning Disabilities) on the Job Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/ldonjob_home.cfm Living with LD (Learning Disabilities) : For Adults Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/adults_home.cfm

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Specific Conditions/Aspects Central Auditory Processing Disorder Source: Nemours Foundation http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/ears/central_auditory.html Dysgraphia Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/dysgraphia.htm Dyslexia Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Source: International Dyslexia Association http://www.interdys.org/servlet/compose?section_id=5&page_id=95 Gerstmann's Syndrome Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/gerstmanns.htm Language-Based Learning Disabilities Source: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/Language-Based-LearningDisabilities.htm

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Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Services Source: National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/ideapubs/lg1txt.htm Reading and Learning Disabilities Source: National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/factshe/fs17txt.htm •

Children Kids with Dyslexia Source: Nemours Foundation http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/learning/dyslexia.html Learning Disabilities Source: Nemours Foundation http://kidshealth.org/kid/health_problems/learning_problem/learning_disabiliti es.html

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From the National Institutes of Health Learning Disabilities Source: National Institute of Mental Health http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/learndis.htm Learning Disabilities Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/learningdisabilities_do c.htm

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Latest New Defective Cilia Linked to Obesity Source: 11/06/2003, United Press International http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_14563 .html Dyslexics Unable to Coordinate Sight and Sound Source: 11/10/2003, Reuters Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_14608 .html

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Law and Policy Learning Disabilities and the Law After High School: An Overview for Students Source: Coordinated Campaign for Learning Disabilities, WETA http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/legal_legislative/latham_ld.html Living with LD (Learning Disabilities): Legal Rights Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/legal_home.cfm

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Organizations LD Online Source: Coordinated Campaign for Learning Disabilities, WETA http://www.ldonline.org/ National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities http://www.nichcy.org/ National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke http://www.ninds.nih.gov/

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Statistics What You Should Know about Learning Disabilities (LD) Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/LDInfoZone/InfoZone_FactSheet_LD_QuickLook.cfm

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Teenager Study Skills Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/teens_building_study.cfm Tips for College Bound High School Students with Diagnosed Learning Problems Source: Coordinated Campaign for Learning Disabilities, WETA http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/transition/college_tips.html Understanding Strengths & Challenges Source: National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ld.org/livingwithld/teens_future_understand.cfm

You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The Combined Health Information Database (CHID) CHID Online is a reference tool that maintains a database directory of thousands of journal articles and patient education guidelines on dyslexia. CHID offers summaries that describe the guidelines available, including contact information and pricing. CHID’s general Web site is http://chid.nih.gov/. To search this database, go to http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. In particular, you can use the advanced search options to look up pamphlets, reports, brochures, and information kits. The following was recently posted in this archive:

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Academic Interventions for Children with Dyslexia Who Have Phonological Core Deficits Source: Reston, VA: Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Council for Exceptional Children. August 1995. 2 p. Contact: Available from Council for Exceptional Children. Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589. (800) 845-6232 or (703) 620-3660; TTY (703) 264-9446; Fax (703) 264-9494. PRICE: $1.00 each. Summary: This fact sheet summarizes recommended academic interventions for children with dyslexia who have phonological core deficits. The severity of the phonological deficits varies across individuals, and children with these deficits have been shown to make significantly less progress in basic word reading skills compared to children with equivalent IQs. The fact sheet provides a definition of the problem; classification and identification considerations, including specific assessment techniques to use with this population; and suggested teaching interventions. The fact sheet concludes with a list of print and electronic resources for teachers. Healthfinder™

Healthfinder™ is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and offers links to hundreds of other sites that contain healthcare information. This Web site is located at http://www.healthfinder.gov. Again, keyword searches can be used to find guidelines. The following was recently found in this database: •

Dyslexia Summary: A general overview of dyslexia that includes a description of the disorder, and treatment, prognosis and research information. Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/recordpass.asp?RecordType=0&RecordID=777

•

Sam's Story of Life With Dyslexia Summary: This article is about the learning disability called dyslexia. It tells why what Sam and kids like him see and hear looks different or sounds different than it would to most people. Source: Nemours Foundation http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/recordpass.asp?RecordType=0&RecordID=5860 The NIH Search Utility

The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to dyslexia. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or

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specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. NORD (The National Organization of Rare Disorders, Inc.) NORD provides an invaluable service to the public by publishing short yet comprehensive guidelines on over 1,000 diseases. NORD primarily focuses on rare diseases that might not be covered by the previously listed sources. NORD’s Web address is http://www.rarediseases.org/. A complete guide on dyslexia can be purchased from NORD for a nominal fee. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

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Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/

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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics

Associations and Dyslexia The following is a list of associations that provide information on and resources relating to dyslexia: •

International Dyslexia Association Telephone: (410) 296-0232 Toll-free: (800) 222-3123 Fax: (410) 321-5069 Email: [email protected] Web Site: http://www.interdys.org Background: The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) is a voluntary not-for-profit international organization concerned with the complex issues of dyslexia. IDA membership consists of a variety of professionals in partnership with people with dyslexia and their families. Established in 1949, IDA is committed to helping affected individuals achieve their personal potential, strengthening their learning abilities, and removing educational, social, and cultural barriers to language acquisition and use. In addition, the IDA actively promotes effective teaching approaches and related clinical educational intervention strategies for affected people. The Association supports and encourages interdisciplinary study and research; facilitates the exploration of causes and early identification of dyslexia; and is committed to the wide dissemination of research-

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based knowledge on the condition. IDA provides a bibliography of published materials on dyslexia and a variety of educational brochures and referral services. Relevant area(s) of interest: Dyslexia

Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to dyslexia. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with dyslexia. The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about dyslexia. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “dyslexia” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “dyslexia”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “dyslexia” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:”

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box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “dyslexia” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”

195

APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.

Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.27

Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.

Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of

27

Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.

196 Dyslexia

libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)28: •

Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/

•

Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)

•

Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm

•

California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html

•

California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html

•

California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html

•

California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)

•

California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/

•

California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp

•

California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html

•

California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/

•

California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/

•

California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/

•

California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html

•

California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/

•

Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/

•

Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/

•

Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/

28

Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.

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•

Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml

•

Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm

•

Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html

•

Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm

•

Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp

•

Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/

•

Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm

•

Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html

•

Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/

•

Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm

•

Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/

•

Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/

•

Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/

•

Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm

•

Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html

•

Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm

•

Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/

•

Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/

•

Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10

•

Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/

198 Dyslexia

•

Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html

•

Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp

•

Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp

•

Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/

•

Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html

•

Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm

•

Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp

•

Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/

•

Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html

•

Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/

•

Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm

•

Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/

•

Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html

•

Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm

•

Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330

•

Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)

•

National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html

•

National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/

•

National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/

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•

Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm

•

New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/

•

New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm

•

New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm

•

New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/

•

New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html

•

New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/

•

New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html

•

New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/

•

Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm

•

Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp

•

Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html

•

Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html

•

Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp

•

Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm

•

Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/

200 Dyslexia

•

South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp

•

Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/

•

Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/

•

Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72

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ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •

ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html

•

MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp

•

Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/

•

Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html

•

On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/

•

Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp

•

Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm

Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a). The NIH suggests the following Web sites in the ADAM Medical Encyclopedia when searching for information on dyslexia: •

Basic Guidelines for Dyslexia Developmental reading disorder Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001406.htm

•

Signs & Symptoms for Dyslexia Behavior problems Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003255.htm

Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •

Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical

202 Dyslexia

•

MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html

•

Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/

•

Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine

203

DYSLEXIA DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Abdominal Pain: Sensation of discomfort, distress, or agony in the abdominal region. [NIH] Aberrant: Wandering or deviating from the usual or normal course. [EU] Acceptor: A substance which, while normally not oxidized by oxygen or reduced by hydrogen, can be oxidized or reduced in presence of a substance which is itself undergoing oxidation or reduction. [NIH] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acidemia: Increased acidity of blood. [NIH] Acoustic: Having to do with sound or hearing. [NIH] Acuity: Clarity or clearness, especially of the vision. [EU] Adaptation: 1. The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. 2. The normal ability of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the intensity of light; the adjustment to such variations. 3. The decline in the frequency of firing of a neuron, particularly of a receptor, under conditions of constant stimulation. 4. In dentistry, (a) the proper fitting of a denture, (b) the degree of proximity and interlocking of restorative material to a tooth preparation, (c) the exact adjustment of bands to teeth. 5. In microbiology, the adjustment of bacterial physiology to a new environment. [EU] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adolescence: The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the cessation of somatic growth. The years usually referred to as adolescence lie between 13 and 18 years of age. [NIH] Adrenergic: Activated by, characteristic of, or secreting epinephrine or substances with similar activity; the term is applied to those nerve fibres that liberate norepinephrine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes, i.e., the sympathetic fibres. [EU] Adrenergic Uptake Inhibitors: Drugs that block the transport of adrenergic transmitters into axon terminals or into storage vesicles within terminals. The tricyclic antidepressants (antidepressive agents, tricyclic) and amphetamines are among the therapeutically important drugs that may act via inhibition of adrenergic transport. Many of these drugs also block transport of serotonin. [NIH] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerobic: In biochemistry, reactions that need oxygen to happen or happen when oxygen is present. [NIH]

204 Dyslexia

Afferent: Concerned with the transmission of neural impulse toward the central part of the nervous system. [NIH] Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Agenesis: Lack of complete or normal development; congenital absence of an organ or part. [NIH]

Agonist: In anatomy, a prime mover. In pharmacology, a drug that has affinity for and stimulates physiologic activity at cell receptors normally stimulated by naturally occurring substances. [EU] Agoraphobia: Obsessive, persistent, intense fear of open places. [NIH] Airway: A device for securing unobstructed passage of air into and out of the lungs during general anesthesia. [NIH] Alexia: The inability to recognize or comprehend written or printed words. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Alleles: Mutually exclusive forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous chromosomes, and governing the same biochemical and developmental process. [NIH] Allergen: An antigenic substance capable of producing immediate-type hypersensitivity (allergy). [EU] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Amblyopia: A nonspecific term referring to impaired vision. Major subcategories include stimulus deprivation-induced amblyopia and toxic amblyopia. Stimulus deprivationinduced amblopia is a developmental disorder of the visual cortex. A discrepancy between visual information received by the visual cortex from each eye results in abnormal cortical development. Strabismus and refractive errors may cause this condition. Toxic amblyopia is a disorder of the optic nerve which is associated with alcoholism, tobacco smoking, and other toxins and as an adverse effect of the use of some medications. [NIH] Ameliorated: A changeable condition which prevents the consequence of a failure or accident from becoming as bad as it otherwise would. [NIH] Ameliorating: A changeable condition which prevents the consequence of a failure or

Dictionary 205

accident from becoming as bad as it otherwise would. [NIH] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Ammonia: A colorless alkaline gas. It is formed in the body during decomposition of organic materials during a large number of metabolically important reactions. [NIH] Amnesia: Lack or loss of memory; inability to remember past experiences. [EU] Amphetamine: A powerful central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic. Amphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulation of release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. Amphetamine is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic. The l- and the d,l-forms are included here. The l-form has less central nervous system activity but stronger cardiovascular effects. The d-form is dextroamphetamine. [NIH] Amygdala: Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain, within the temporal lobe. The amygdala is part of the limbic system. [NIH]

Amyloid: A general term for a variety of different proteins that accumulate as extracellular fibrils of 7-10 nm and have common structural features, including a beta-pleated sheet conformation and the ability to bind such dyes as Congo red and thioflavine (Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessel, Principles of Neural Science, 3rd ed). [NIH] Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Anal: Having to do with the anus, which is the posterior opening of the large bowel. [NIH] Analgesics: Compounds capable of relieving pain without the loss of consciousness or without producing anesthesia. [NIH] Analogous: Resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development;. [EU] Anaphylactic: Pertaining to anaphylaxis. [EU] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Anemia: A reduction in the number of circulating erythrocytes or in the quantity of hemoglobin. [NIH] Anesthetics: Agents that are capable of inducing a total or partial loss of sensation, especially tactile sensation and pain. They may act to induce general anesthesia, in which an unconscious state is achieved, or may act locally to induce numbness or lack of sensation at a targeted site. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH]

206 Dyslexia

Anisotropy: A physical property showing different values in relation to the direction in or along which the measurement is made. The physical property may be with regard to thermal or electric conductivity or light refraction. In crystallography, it describes crystals whose index of refraction varies with the direction of the incident light. It is also called acolotropy and colotropy. The opposite of anisotropy is isotropy wherein the same values characterize the object when measured along axes in all directions. [NIH] Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Anorexia: Lack or loss of appetite for food. Appetite is psychologic, dependent on memory and associations. Anorexia can be brought about by unattractive food, surroundings, or company. [NIH] Anterior Cerebral Artery: Artery formed by the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery. Branches of the anterior cerebral artery supply the caudate nucleus, internal capsule, putamen, septal nuclei, gyrus cinguli, and surfaces of the frontal lobe and parietal lobe. [NIH] Anthropology: The science devoted to the comparative study of man. [NIH] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU] Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]

Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Anticonvulsants: Drugs used to prevent seizures or reduce their severity. [NIH] Antidepressant: A drug used to treat depression. [NIH] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Anus: The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body. [NIH] Anxiety: Persistent feeling of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster. [NIH] Anxiety Disorders: Disorders in which anxiety (persistent feelings of apprehension, tension, or uneasiness) is the predominant disturbance. [NIH] Apathy: Lack of feeling or emotion; indifference. [EU] Aperture: A natural hole of perforation, especially one in a bone. [NIH] Aphasia: A cognitive disorder marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or express language in its written or spoken form. This condition is caused by diseases which affect the language areas of the dominant hemisphere. Clinical features are used to classify the various subtypes of this condition. General categories include receptive, expressive, and mixed forms of aphasia. [NIH]

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Apnea: A transient absence of spontaneous respiration. [NIH] Applicability: A list of the commodities to which the candidate method can be applied as presented or with minor modifications. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Aspartate: A synthetic amino acid. [NIH] Assay: Determination of the amount of a particular constituent of a mixture, or of the biological or pharmacological potency of a drug. [EU] Astigmatism: A condition in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical; causes a blurred image to be received at the retina. [NIH] Astrocytes: The largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the blood brain barrier. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with microglia) respond to injury. Astrocytes have high- affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitter, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is not well understood. [NIH] Ataxia: Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharnyx, larnyx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. [NIH] Atopic: Pertaining to an atopen or to atopy; allergic. [EU] Atopic Eczema: Generic term for acute or chronic inflammatory conditions of the skin, typically erythematous, edematous, papular, vesicular, and crusting; often accompanied by sensations of itching and burning. [NIH] Atrial: Pertaining to an atrium. [EU] Atrophy: Decrease in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or multiple organs, associated with a variety of pathological conditions such as abnormal cellular changes, ischemia, malnutrition, or hormonal changes. [NIH] Auditory: Pertaining to the sense of hearing. [EU] Auditory Cortex: Area of the temporal lobe concerned with hearing. [NIH] Auditory Perception: The process whereby auditory stimuli are selected, organized and interpreted by the organism; includes speech discrimination. [NIH] Aura: A subjective sensation or motor phenomenon that precedes and marks the of a paroxysmal attack, such as an epileptic attack on set. [EU] Autoimmune disease: A condition in which the body recognizes its own tissues as foreign and directs an immune response against them. [NIH] Autonomic: Self-controlling; functionally independent. [EU] Axonal: Condition associated with metabolic derangement of the entire neuron and is manifest by degeneration of the distal portion of the nerve fiber. [NIH] Axons: Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron

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cell body. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Physiology: Physiological processes and activities of bacteria. [NIH] Barbiturates: A class of chemicals derived from barbituric acid or thiobarbituric acid. Many of these are medically important as sedatives and hypnotics (sedatives, barbiturate), as anesthetics, or as anticonvulsants. [NIH] Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. [NIH] Basal Ganglia Diseases: Diseases of the basal ganglia including the putamen; globus pallidus; claustrum; amygdala; and caudate nucleus. Dyskinesias (most notably involuntary movements and alterations of the rate of movement) represent the primary clinical manifestations of these disorders. Common etiologies include cerebrovascular disease; neurodegenerative diseases; and craniocerebral trauma. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Basophils: Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes. [NIH] Benign: Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. [NIH]

Benzene: Toxic, volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon biproduct of coal distillation. It is used as an industrial solvent in paints, varnishes, lacquer thinners, gasoline, etc. Benzene causes central nervous system damage acutely and bone marrow damage chronically and is carcinogenic. It was formerly used as parasiticide. [NIH] Benzodiazepines: A two-ring heterocyclic compound consisting of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine ring. Permitted is any degree of hydrogenation, any substituents and any Hisomer. [NIH] Beta-pleated: Particular three-dimensional pattern of amyloidoses. [NIH] Bewilderment: Impairment or loss of will power. [NIH] Bilateral: Affecting both the right and left side of body. [NIH] Binaural: Used of the two ears functioning together. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biological Markers: Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc. [NIH] Biological Transport: The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) across cell membranes and epithelial layers, usually by passive diffusion. [NIH] Biosynthesis: The building up of a chemical compound in the physiologic processes of a

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living organism. [EU] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Bipolar Disorder: A major affective disorder marked by severe mood swings (manic or major depressive episodes) and a tendency to remission and recurrence. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Bloating: Fullness or swelling in the abdomen that often occurs after meals. [NIH] Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood Glucose: Glucose in blood. [NIH] Blood Platelets: Non-nucleated disk-shaped cells formed in the megakaryocyte and found in the blood of all mammals. They are mainly involved in blood coagulation. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Body Burden: The total amount of a chemical, metal or radioactive substance present at any time after absorption in the body of man or animal. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Bone scan: A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Bowel Movement: Body wastes passed through the rectum and anus. [NIH] Brain Stem: The part of the brain that connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal cord. It consists of the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]

Breakdown: A physical, metal, or nervous collapse. [NIH] Bronchoconstriction: Diminution of the caliber of a bronchus physiologically or as a result of pharmacological intervention. [NIH] Bulimia: Episodic binge eating. The episodes may be associated with the fear of not being able to stop eating, depressed mood, or self-deprecating thoughts (binge-eating disorder) and may frequently be terminated by self-induced vomiting (bulimia nervosa). [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal

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functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carcinogens: Substances that increase the risk of neoplasms in humans or animals. Both genotoxic chemicals, which affect DNA directly, and nongenotoxic chemicals, which induce neoplasms by other mechanism, are included. [NIH] Cardiac: Having to do with the heart. [NIH] Cardiovascular: Having to do with the heart and blood vessels. [NIH] Carotene: The general name for a group of pigments found in green, yellow, and leafy vegetables, and yellow fruits. The pigments are fat-soluble, unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons functioning as provitamins and are converted to vitamin A through enzymatic processes in the intestinal wall. [NIH] Case report: A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). [NIH] Caudal: Denoting a position more toward the cauda, or tail, than some specified point of reference; same as inferior, in human anatomy. [EU] Causal: Pertaining to a cause; directed against a cause. [EU] Causality: The relating of causes to the effects they produce. Causes are termed necessary when they must always precede an effect and sufficient when they initiate or produce an effect. Any of several factors may be associated with the potential disease causation or outcome, including predisposing factors, enabling factors, precipitating factors, reinforcing factors, and risk factors. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Cell Lineage: The developmental history of cells as traced from the first division of the original cell or cells in the embryo. [NIH] Cell Respiration: The metabolic process of all living cells (animal and plant) in which oxygen is used to provide a source of energy for the cell. [NIH] Cellular Structures: Components of a cell. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Central Nervous System Infections: Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA virus infections; RNA virus infections; bacterial infections; mycoplasma infections; Spirochaetales infections; fungal infections; protozoan infections; helminthiasis; and prion diseases may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process. [NIH] Cerebellar: Pertaining to the cerebellum. [EU] Cerebellum: Part of the metencephalon that lies in the posterior cranial fossa behind the brain stem. It is concerned with the coordination of movement. [NIH] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral hemispheres: The two halves of the cerebrum, the part of the brain that controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and

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learning. The right hemisphere controls muscle movement on the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls muscle movement on the right side of the body. [NIH] Cerebral Palsy: Refers to a motor disability caused by a brain dysfunction. [NIH] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. [NIH] Child Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders in children. [NIH] Child Psychology: The study of normal and abnormal behavior of children. [NIH] Chiropractic: A system of treating bodily disorders by manipulation of the spine and other parts, based on the belief that the cause is the abnormal functioning of a nerve. [NIH] Cholinergic: Resembling acetylcholine in pharmacological action; stimulated by or releasing acetylcholine or a related compound. [EU] Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Drugs that inhibit cholinesterases. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is rapidly hydrolyzed, and thereby inactivated, by cholinesterases. When cholinesterases are inhibited, the action of endogenously released acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses is potentiated. Cholinesterase inhibitors are widely used clinically for their potentiation of cholinergic inputs to the gastrointestinal tract and urinary bladder, the eye, and skeletal muscles; they are also used for their effects on the heart and the central nervous system. [NIH] Chorea: Involuntary, forcible, rapid, jerky movements that may be subtle or become confluent, markedly altering normal patterns of movement. Hypotonia and pendular reflexes are often associated. Conditions which feature recurrent or persistent episodes of chorea as a primary manifestation of disease are referred to as choreatic disorders. Chorea is also a frequent manifestation of basal ganglia diseases. [NIH] Choreatic Disorders: Acquired and hereditary conditions which feature chorea as a primary manifestation of the disease process. [NIH] Choroid: The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the retina and sclera. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic renal: Slow and progressive loss of kidney function over several years, often resulting in end-stage renal disease. People with end-stage renal disease need dialysis or transplantation to replace the work of the kidneys. [NIH] CIS: Cancer Information Service. The CIS is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER, or by using the Web site at http://cis.nci.nih.gov. [NIH] Clamp: A u-shaped steel rod used with a pin or wire for skeletal traction in the treatment of certain fractures. [NIH] Cleft Palate: Congenital fissure of the soft and/or hard palate, due to faulty fusion. [NIH]

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Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Coca: Any of several South American shrubs of the Erythroxylon genus (and family) that yield cocaine; the leaves are chewed with alum for CNS stimulation. [NIH] Cocaine: An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake. [NIH] Cochlea: The part of the internal ear that is concerned with hearing. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, is conical, and is placed almost horizontally anterior to the vestibule. [NIH]

Cochlear: Of or pertaining to the cochlea. [EU] Cochlear Diseases: Diseases of the cochlea, the part of the inner ear that is concerned with hearing. [NIH] Cochlear Implants: Electronic devices implanted beneath the skin with electrodes to the cochlear nerve to create sound sensation in persons with sensorineural deafness. [NIH] Cochlear Nerve: The cochlear part of the 8th cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve). The cochlear nerve fibers originate from neurons of the spiral ganglion and project peripherally to cochlear hair cells and centrally to the cochlear nuclei (cochlear nucleus) of the brain stem. They mediate the sense of hearing. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Cognition: Intellectual or mental process whereby an organism becomes aware of or obtains knowledge. [NIH] Colitis: Inflammation of the colon. [NIH] Collapse: 1. A state of extreme prostration and depression, with failure of circulation. 2. Abnormal falling in of the walls of any part of organ. [EU] Communication Disorders: Disorders of verbal and nonverbal communication caused by receptive or expressive language disorders, cognitive dysfunction (e.g., mental retardation), psychiatric conditions, and hearing disorders. [NIH] Comorbidity: The presence of co-existing or additional diseases with reference to an initial diagnosis or with reference to the index condition that is the subject of study. Comorbidity may affect the ability of affected individuals to function and also their survival; it may be used as a prognostic indicator for length of hospital stay, cost factors, and outcome or survival. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols

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C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complete remission: The disappearance of all signs of cancer. Also called a complete response. [NIH] Compulsive Behavior: The behavior of performing an act persistently and repetitively without it leading to reward or pleasure. The act is usually a small, circumscribed behavior, almost ritualistic, yet not pathologically disturbing. Examples of compulsive behavior include twirling of hair, checking something constantly, not wanting pennies in change, straightening tilted pictures, etc. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Computed tomography: CT scan. A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computerized tomography and computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan. [NIH] Computer Simulation: Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes. [NIH] Computer Systems: Systems composed of a computer or computers, peripheral equipment, such as disks, printers, and terminals, and telecommunications capabilities. [NIH] Computerized axial tomography: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography (CT scan), or computerized

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tomography. [NIH] Concomitant: Accompanying; accessory; joined with another. [EU] Conduction: The transfer of sound waves, heat, nervous impulses, or electricity. [EU] Cone: One of the special retinal receptor elements which are presumed to be primarily concerned with perception of light and color stimuli when the eye is adapted to light. [NIH] Confusion: A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation. [NIH] Conjugated: Acting or operating as if joined; simultaneous. [EU] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Consciousness: Sense of awareness of self and of the environment. [NIH] Constipation: Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces. [NIH] Constitutional: 1. Affecting the whole constitution of the body; not local. 2. Pertaining to the constitution. [EU] Constriction: The act of constricting. [NIH] Constriction, Pathologic: The condition of an anatomical structure's being constricted beyond normal dimensions. [NIH] Consultation: A deliberation between two or more physicians concerning the diagnosis and the proper method of treatment in a case. [NIH] Continuum: An area over which the vegetation or animal population is of constantly changing composition so that homogeneous, separate communities cannot be distinguished. [NIH]

Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Contralateral: Having to do with the opposite side of the body. [NIH] Contrast Sensitivity: The ability to detect sharp boundaries (stimuli) and to detect slight changes in luminance at regions without distinct contours. Psychophysical measurements of this visual function are used to evaluate visual acuity and to detect eye disease. [NIH] Controlled study: An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. [NIH]

Coordination: Muscular or motor regulation or the harmonious cooperation of muscles or groups of muscles, in a complex action or series of actions. [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Corpus: The body of the uterus. [NIH] Corpus Callosum: Broad plate of dense myelinated fibers that reciprocally interconnect regions of the cortex in all lobes with corresponding regions of the opposite hemisphere. The

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corpus callosum is located deep in the longitudinal fissure. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Cortices: The outer layer of an organ; used especially of the cerebrum and cerebellum. [NIH] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Craniocerebral Trauma: Traumatic injuries involving the cranium and intracranial structures (i.e., brain; cranial nerves; meninges; and other structures). Injuries may be classified by whether or not the skull is penetrated (i.e., penetrating vs. nonpenetrating) or whether there is an associated hemorrhage. [NIH] Criterion: A standard by which something may be judged. [EU] Cross-Sectional Studies: Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with longitudinal studies which are followed over a period of time. [NIH] Cues: Signals for an action; that specific portion of a perceptual field or pattern of stimuli to which a subject has learned to respond. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cystathionine beta-Synthase: A multifunctional pyridoxal phosphate enzyme. In the second stage of cysteine biosynthesis it catalyzes the reaction of homocysteine with serine to form cystathionine with the elimination of water. Deficiency of this enzyme leads to hyperhomocysteinemia and homocystinuria. EC 4.2.1.22. [NIH] Cysteine: A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. [NIH] Cytochrome: Any electron transfer hemoprotein having a mode of action in which the transfer of a single electron is effected by a reversible valence change of the central iron atom of the heme prosthetic group between the +2 and +3 oxidation states; classified as cytochromes a in which the heme contains a formyl side chain, cytochromes b, which contain protoheme or a closely similar heme that is not covalently bound to the protein, cytochromes c in which protoheme or other heme is covalently bound to the protein, and cytochromes d in which the iron-tetrapyrrole has fewer conjugated double bonds than the hemes have. Well-known cytochromes have been numbered consecutively within groups and are designated by subscripts (beginning with no subscript), e.g. cytochromes c, c1, C2, . New cytochromes are named according to the wavelength in nanometres of the absorption maximum of the a-band of the iron (II) form in pyridine, e.g., c-555. [EU] Data Collection: Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data. [NIH] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] Decision Making: The process of making a selective intellectual judgment when presented with several complex alternatives consisting of several variables, and usually defining a course of action or an idea. [NIH]

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Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Deletion: A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA (chromosomes), bringing sequences, which are normally separated, into close proximity. [NIH] Delirium: (DSM III-R) an acute, reversible organic mental disorder characterized by reduced ability to maintain attention to external stimuli and disorganized thinking as manifested by rambling, irrelevant, or incoherent speech; there are also a reduced level of consciousness, sensory misperceptions, disturbance of the sleep-wakefulness cycle and level of psychomotor activity, disorientation to time, place, or person, and memory impairment. Delirium may be caused by a large number of conditions resulting in derangement of cerebral metabolism, including systemic infection, poisoning, drug intoxication or withdrawal, seizures or head trauma, and metabolic disturbances such as hypoxia, hypoglycaemia, fluid, electrolyte, or acid-base imbalances, or hepatic or renal failure. Called also acute confusional state and acute brain syndrome. [EU] Delusions: A false belief regarding the self or persons or objects outside the self that persists despite the facts, and is not considered tenable by one's associates. [NIH] Dementia: An acquired organic mental disorder with loss of intellectual abilities of sufficient severity to interfere with social or occupational functioning. The dysfunction is multifaceted and involves memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, spatial relations, language, abstract thought, and other executive functions. The intellectual decline is usually progressive, and initially spares the level of consciousness. [NIH] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Dendritic: 1. Branched like a tree. 2. Pertaining to or possessing dendrites. [EU] Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Depersonalization: Alteration in the perception of the self so that the usual sense of one's own reality is lost, manifested in a sense of unreality or self-estrangement, in changes of body image, or in a feeling that one does not control his own actions and speech; seen in depersonalization disorder, schizophrenic disorders, and schizotypal personality disorder. Some do not draw a distinction between depersonalization and derealization, using depersonalization to include both. [EU] Deprivation: Loss or absence of parts, organs, powers, or things that are needed. [EU] Depth Perception: Perception of three-dimensionality. [NIH] Derealization: Is characterized by the loss of the sense of reality concerning one's surroundings. [NIH] Dextroamphetamine: The d-form of amphetamine. It is a central nervous system stimulant and a sympathomimetic. It has also been used in the treatment of narcolepsy and of attention deficit disorders and hyperactivity in children. Dextroamphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulating release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. It is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic. [NIH] Diabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders that share glucose intolerance in common. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Diarrhea: Passage of excessively liquid or excessively frequent stools. [NIH] Diastolic: Of or pertaining to the diastole. [EU]

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Diencephalon: The paired caudal parts of the prosencephalon from which the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus are derived. [NIH] Diffusion: The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space; a major mechanism of biological transport. [NIH] Diffusivity: Of a reverberant sound field. The degree to which the directions of propagation of waves are random from point to point. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Digestive system: The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Dilatation: The act of dilating. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Discrimination Learning: Learning that is manifested in the ability to respond differentially to various stimuli. [NIH] Disease Susceptibility: A constitution or condition of the body which makes the tissues react in special ways to certain extrinsic stimuli and thus tends to make the individual more than usually susceptible to certain diseases. [NIH] Disorientation: The loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. [EU] Dissection: Cutting up of an organism for study. [NIH] Dissociation: 1. The act of separating or state of being separated. 2. The separation of a molecule into two or more fragments (atoms, molecules, ions, or free radicals) produced by the absorption of light or thermal energy or by solvation. 3. In psychology, a defense mechanism in which a group of mental processes are segregated from the rest of a person's mental activity in order to avoid emotional distress, as in the dissociative disorders (q.v.), or in which an idea or object is segregated from its emotional significance; in the first sense it is roughly equivalent to splitting, in the second, to isolation. 4. A defect of mental integration in which one or more groups of mental processes become separated off from normal consciousness and, thus separated, function as a unitary whole. [EU] Dissociative Disorders: Sudden temporary alterations in the normally integrative functions of consciousness. [NIH] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Dizziness: An imprecise term which may refer to a sense of spatial disorientation, motion of the environment, or lightheadedness. [NIH] Domesticated: Species in which the evolutionary process has been influenced by humans to meet their needs. [NIH] Dominance: In genetics, the full phenotypic expression of a gene in both heterozygotes and homozygotes. [EU] Donepezil: A drug used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. It belongs to the family of drugs called cholinesterase inhibitors. It is being studied as a treatment for side effects

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caused by radiation therapy to the brain. [NIH] Dopamine: An endogenous catecholamine and prominent neurotransmitter in several systems of the brain. In the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine, it is the immediate precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of dopaminergic receptor subtypes mediate its action. Dopamine is used pharmacologically for its direct (beta adrenergic agonist) and indirect (adrenergic releasing) sympathomimetic effects including its actions as an inotropic agent and as a renal vasodilator. [NIH] Dorsal: 1. Pertaining to the back or to any dorsum. 2. Denoting a position more toward the back surface than some other object of reference; same as posterior in human anatomy; superior in the anatomy of quadrupeds. [EU] Dorsum: A plate of bone which forms the posterior boundary of the sella turcica. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Duodenum: The first part of the small intestine. [NIH] Dyes: Chemical substances that are used to stain and color other materials. The coloring may or may not be permanent. Dyes can also be used as therapeutic agents and test reagents in medicine and scientific research. [NIH] Dysgenesis: Defective development. [EU] Dyskinesia: Impairment of the power of voluntary movement, resulting in fragmentary or incomplete movements. [EU] Dyslexia: Partial alexia in which letters but not words may be read, or in which words may be read but not understood. [NIH] Dysphonia: Difficulty or pain in speaking; impairment of the voice. [NIH] Dysplasia: Cells that look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. [NIH] Dyspnea: Difficult or labored breathing. [NIH] Dystonia: Disordered tonicity of muscle. [EU] Dystrophy: Any disorder arising from defective or faulty nutrition, especially the muscular dystrophies. [EU] Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit. [NIH] Ectopic: Pertaining to or characterized by ectopia. [EU] Effector: It is often an enzyme that converts an inactive precursor molecule into an active second messenger. [NIH] Effector cell: A cell that performs a specific function in response to a stimulus; usually used to describe cells in the immune system. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Elective: Subject to the choice or decision of the patient or physician; applied to procedures that are advantageous to the patient but not urgent. [EU] Electric Conductivity: The ability of a substrate to allow the passage of electrons. [NIH] Electroencephalography: Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain. [NIH]

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Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] Electrophysiological: Pertaining to electrophysiology, that is a branch of physiology that is concerned with the electric phenomena associated with living bodies and involved in their functional activity. [EU] Elementary Particles: Individual components of atoms, usually subatomic; subnuclear particles are usually detected only when the atomic nucleus decays and then only transiently, as most of them are unstable, often yielding pure energy without substance, i.e., radiation. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Embryology: The study of the development of an organism during the embryonic and fetal stages of life. [NIH] Emetic: An agent that causes vomiting. [EU] Emphysema: A pathological accumulation of air in tissues or organs. [NIH] Empirical: A treatment based on an assumed diagnosis, prior to receiving confirmatory laboratory test results. [NIH] Emulsion: A preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Pharmaceutical emulsions for which official standards have been promulgated include cod liver oil emulsion, cod liver oil emulsion with malt, liquid petrolatum emulsion, and phenolphthalein in liquid petrolatum emulsion. [EU] End-stage renal: Total chronic kidney failure. When the kidneys fail, the body retains fluid and harmful wastes build up. A person with ESRD needs treatment to replace the work of the failed kidneys. [NIH] Energetic: Exhibiting energy : strenuous; operating with force, vigour, or effect. [EU] Environmental Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents in the environment or to environmental factors that may include ionizing radiation, pathogenic organisms, or toxic chemicals. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]

Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Epidemiologic Studies: Studies designed to examine associations, commonly, hypothesized causal relations. They are usually concerned with identifying or measuring the effects of risk factors or exposures. The common types of analytic study are case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies. [NIH]

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Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Esophagus: The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]

Esotropia: A form of ocular misalignment characterized by an excessive convergence of the visual axes, resulting in a "cross-eye" appearance. An example of this condition occurs when paralysis of the lateral rectus muscle causes an abnormal inward deviation of one eye on attempted gaze. [NIH] Essential Tremor: A rhythmic, involuntary, purposeless, oscillating movement resulting from the alternate contraction and relaxation of opposing groups of muscles. [NIH] Estrogen: One of the two female sex hormones. [NIH] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Evoked Potentials: The electric response evoked in the central nervous system by stimulation of sensory receptors or some point on the sensory pathway leading from the receptor to the cortex. The evoked stimulus can be auditory, somatosensory, or visual, although other modalities have been reported. Event-related potentials is sometimes used synonymously with evoked potentials but is often associated with the execution of a motor, cognitive, or psychophysiological task, as well as with the response to a stimulus. [NIH] Excitability: Property of a cardiac cell whereby, when the cell is depolarized to a critical level (called threshold), the membrane becomes permeable and a regenerative inward current causes an action potential. [NIH] Excitation: An act of irritation or stimulation or of responding to a stimulus; the addition of energy, as the excitation of a molecule by absorption of photons. [EU] Excitatory: When cortical neurons are excited, their output increases and each new input they receive while they are still excited raises their output markedly. [NIH] Exotropia: A form of ocular misalignment where the visual axes diverge inappropriately. For example, medial rectus muscle weakness may produce this condition as the affected eye will deviate laterally upon attempted forward gaze. An exotropia occurs due to the relatively unopposed force exerted on the eye by the lateral rectus muscle, which pulls the eye in an outward direction. [NIH] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Eye Movements: Voluntary or reflex-controlled movements of the eye. [NIH] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Fatty acids: A major component of fats that are used by the body for energy and tissue development. [NIH] Febrile: Pertaining to or characterized by fever. [EU] Ferrets: Semidomesticated variety of European polecat much used for hunting rodents and/or rabbits and as a laboratory animal. [NIH] Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A disorder occurring in children born to alcoholic women who continue to drink heavily during pregnancy. Common abnormalities are growth deficiency (prenatal and postnatal), altered morphogenesis, mental deficiency, and characteristic facies - small eyes and flattened nasal bridge. Fine motor dysfunction and tremulousness are observed in the newborn. [NIH]

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Fetal Development: Morphologic and physiologic growth and development of the mammalian embryo or fetus. [NIH] Fetus: The developing offspring from 7 to 8 weeks after conception until birth. [NIH] Fibrosis: Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury. [NIH] Fissure: Any cleft or groove, normal or otherwise; especially a deep fold in the cerebral cortex which involves the entire thickness of the brain wall. [EU] Fixation: 1. The act or operation of holding, suturing, or fastening in a fixed position. 2. The condition of being held in a fixed position. 3. In psychiatry, a term with two related but distinct meanings : (1) arrest of development at a particular stage, which like regression (return to an earlier stage), if temporary is a normal reaction to setbacks and difficulties but if protracted or frequent is a cause of developmental failures and emotional problems, and (2) a close and suffocating attachment to another person, especially a childhood figure, such as one's mother or father. Both meanings are derived from psychoanalytic theory and refer to 'fixation' of libidinal energy either in a specific erogenous zone, hence fixation at the oral, anal, or phallic stage, or in a specific object, hence mother or father fixation. 4. The use of a fixative (q.v.) to preserve histological or cytological specimens. 5. In chemistry, the process whereby a substance is removed from the gaseous or solution phase and localized, as in carbon dioxide fixation or nitrogen fixation. 6. In ophthalmology, direction of the gaze so that the visual image of the object falls on the fovea centralis. 7. In film processing, the chemical removal of all undeveloped salts of the film emulsion, leaving only the developed silver to form a permanent image. [EU] Flicker Fusion: The point or frequency at which all flicker of an intermittent light stimulus disappears. [NIH] Forearm: The part between the elbow and the wrist. [NIH] Fossa: A cavity, depression, or pit. [NIH] Fovea: The central part of the macula that provides the sharpest vision. [NIH] Frontal Lobe: The anterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Functional magnetic resonance imaging: A noninvasive tool used to observe functioning in the brain or other organs by detecting changes in chemical composition, blood flow, or both. [NIH]

Gait: Manner or style of walking. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Ganglion: 1. A knot, or knotlike mass. 2. A general term for a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord, e.g. basal ganglia. 3. A benign cystic tumour occurring on a aponeurosis or tendon, as in the wrist or dorsum of the foot; it consists of a thin fibrous capsule enclosing a clear mucinous fluid. [EU] Gap Junctions: Connections between cells which allow passage of small molecules and electric current. Gap junctions were first described anatomically as regions of close apposition between cells with a narrow (1-2 nm) gap between cell membranes. The variety in the properties of gap junctions is reflected in the number of connexins, the family of proteins which form the junctions. [NIH] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body

222 Dyslexia

through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gasoline: Volative flammable fuel (liquid hydrocarbons) derived from crude petroleum by processes such as distillation reforming, polymerization, etc. [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastric Acid: Hydrochloric acid present in gastric juice. [NIH] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gelatin: A product formed from skin, white connective tissue, or bone collagen. It is used as a protein food adjuvant, plasma substitute, hemostatic, suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations, and in the manufacturing of capsules and suppositories. [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]

Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Generator: Any system incorporating a fixed parent radionuclide from which is produced a daughter radionuclide which is to be removed by elution or by any other method and used in a radiopharmaceutical. [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Gestation: The period of development of the young in viviparous animals, from the time of fertilization of the ovum until birth. [EU] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain. [NIH] Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Grade: The grade of a tumor depends on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread. Grading systems are different for each type of cancer. [NIH] Graft: Healthy skin, bone, or other tissue taken from one part of the body and used to replace diseased or injured tissue removed from another part of the body. [NIH] Gravis: Eruption of watery blisters on the skin among those handling animals and animal products. [NIH] Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Guinea Pigs: A common name used for the family Caviidae. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.

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[NIH]

Habitual: Of the nature of a habit; according to habit; established by or repeated by force of habit, customary. [EU] Habituation: Decline in response of an organism to environmental or other stimuli with repeated or maintained exposure. [NIH] Haplotypes: The genetic constitution of individuals with respect to one member of a pair of allelic genes, or sets of genes that are closely linked and tend to be inherited together such as those of the major histocompatibility complex. [NIH] Headache: Pain in the cranial region that may occur as an isolated and benign symptom or as a manifestation of a wide variety of conditions including subarachnoid hemorrhage; craniocerebral trauma; central nervous system infections; intracranial hypertension; and other disorders. In general, recurrent headaches that are not associated with a primary disease process are referred to as headache disorders (e.g., migraine). [NIH] Headache Disorders: Common conditions characterized by persistent or recurrent headaches. Headache syndrome classification systems may be based on etiology (e.g., vascular headache, post-traumatic headaches, etc.), temporal pattern (e.g., cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, etc.), and precipitating factors (e.g., cough headache). [NIH] Hearing Disorders: Conditions that impair the transmission or perception of auditory impulses and information from the level of the ear to the temporal cortices, including the sensorineural pathways. [NIH] Heme: The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hemoglobinuria: The presence of free hemoglobin in the urine. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Hemostasis: The process which spontaneously arrests the flow of blood from vessels carrying blood under pressure. It is accomplished by contraction of the vessels, adhesion and aggregation of formed blood elements, and the process of blood or plasma coagulation. [NIH]

Hepatic: Refers to the liver. [NIH] Hereditary: Of, relating to, or denoting factors that can be transmitted genetically from one generation to another. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Heritability: The proportion of observed variation in a particular trait that can be attributed to inherited genetic factors in contrast to environmental ones. [NIH] Heterogeneity: The property of one or more samples or populations which implies that they are not identical in respect of some or all of their parameters, e. g. heterogeneity of variance. [NIH]

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Heterotropia: One in which the angle of squint remains relatively unaltered on conjugate movement of the eyes. [NIH] Heterozygotes: Having unlike alleles at one or more corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes. [NIH] Hippocampus: A curved elevation of gray matter extending the entire length of the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle (Dorland, 28th ed). The hippocampus, subiculum, and dentate gyrus constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the entorhinal cortex in the hippocampal formation. [NIH] Homogeneous: Consisting of or composed of similar elements or ingredients; of a uniform quality throughout. [EU] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Homozygotes: An individual having a homozygous gene pair. [NIH] Hormonal: Pertaining to or of the nature of a hormone. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Host: Any animal that receives a transplanted graft. [NIH] Human Development: Continuous sequential changes which occur in the physiological and psychological functions during the individual's life. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hyperhomocysteinemia: An inborn error of methionone metabolism which produces an excess of homocysteine in the blood. It is often caused by a deficiency of cystathionine betasynthase and is a risk factor for coronary vascular disease. [NIH] Hyperkinesia: Abnormally increased motor function or activity; hyperactivity. [EU] Hyperplasia: An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ, not due to tumor formation. It differs from hypertrophy, which is an increase in bulk without an increase in the number of cells. [NIH] Hypersecretion: Excessive secretion. [EU] Hypersensitivity: Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH] Hypertrophy: General increase in bulk of a part or organ, not due to tumor formation, nor to an increase in the number of cells. [NIH] Hypoglycaemia: An abnormally diminished concentration of glucose in the blood, which may lead to tremulousness, cold sweat, piloerection, hypothermia, and headache, accompanied by irritability, confusion, hallucinations, bizarre behaviour, and ultimately, convulsions and coma. [EU] Hypotension: Abnormally low blood pressure. [NIH] Hypoxia: Reduction of oxygen supply to tissue below physiological levels despite adequate

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perfusion of the tissue by blood. [EU] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Idiopathic: Describes a disease of unknown cause. [NIH] Illusion: A false interpretation of a genuine percept. [NIH] Imipramine: The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention-deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group. [NIH]

Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]

Immune system: The organs, cells, and molecules responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign ("non-self") material which enters the body. [NIH] Immunization: Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. Active immunization involves administration of antigens or immunologic adjuvants. Passive immunization involves administration of immune sera or lymphocytes or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow). [NIH] Immunodeficiency: The decreased ability of the body to fight infection and disease. [NIH] Immunologic: The ability of the antibody-forming system to recall a previous experience with an antigen and to respond to a second exposure with the prompt production of large amounts of antibody. [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incision: A cut made in the body during surgery. [NIH] Incubation: The development of an infectious disease from the entrance of the pathogen to the appearance of clinical symptoms. [EU] Incubation period: The period of time likely to elapse between exposure to the agent of the disease and the onset of clinical symptoms. [NIH] Indicative: That indicates; that points out more or less exactly; that reveals fairly clearly. [EU] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU] Infancy: The period of complete dependency prior to the acquisition of competence in walking, talking, and self-feeding. [NIH] Infantile: Pertaining to an infant or to infancy. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins,

226 Dyslexia

intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]

Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Inflammatory bowel disease: A general term that refers to the inflammation of the colon and rectum. Inflammatory bowel disease includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. [NIH]

Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH] Insulator: Material covering the metal conductor of the lead. It is usually polyurethane or silicone. [NIH] Insulin: A protein hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, generally promoting the cellular utilization of glucose. It is also an important regulator of protein and lipid metabolism. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. [NIH] Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A disease characterized by high levels of blood glucose resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors are involved in the development of type I diabetes. [NIH] Intermittent: Occurring at separated intervals; having periods of cessation of activity. [EU] Internal Capsule: White matter pathway, flanked by nuclear masses, consisting of both afferent and efferent fibers projecting between the cerebral cortex and the brainstem. It consists of three distinct parts: an anterior limb, posterior limb, and genu. [NIH] Intestinal: Having to do with the intestines. [NIH] Intestines: The section of the alimentary canal from the stomach to the anus. It includes the large intestine and small intestine. [NIH] Intoxication: Poisoning, the state of being poisoned. [EU] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intracranial Hypertension: Increased pressure within the cranial vault. This may result from several conditions, including hydrocephalus; brain edema; intracranial masses; severe systemic hypertension; pseudotumor cerebri; and other disorders. [NIH] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]

Involuntary: Reaction occurring without intention or volition. [NIH] Ion Channels: Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for channel gating can be a membrane potential, drug, transmitter, cytoplasmic messenger, or a mechanical deformation. Ion channels which are integral parts of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors are not included. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH]

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Ipsilateral: Having to do with the same side of the body. [NIH] Iris: The most anterior portion of the uveal layer, separating the anterior chamber from the posterior. It consists of two layers - the stroma and the pigmented epithelium. Color of the iris depends on the amount of melanin in the stroma on reflection from the pigmented epithelium. [NIH] Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A disorder that comes and goes. Nerves that control the muscles in the GI tract are too active. The GI tract becomes sensitive to food, stool, gas, and stress. Causes abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation or diarrhea. Also called spastic colon or mucous colitis. [NIH] Ischemia: Deficiency of blood in a part, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. [EU] Jet lag: Symptoms produced in human beings by fast travel through large meridian difference. [NIH] Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Kidney Disease: Any one of several chronic conditions that are caused by damage to the cells of the kidney. People who have had diabetes for a long time may have kidney damage. Also called nephropathy. [NIH] Lag: The time elapsing between application of a stimulus and the resulting reaction. [NIH] Language Development: The gradual expansion in complexity and meaning of symbols and sounds as perceived and interpreted by the individual through a maturational and learning process. Stages in development include babbling, cooing, word imitation with cognition, and use of short sentences. [NIH] Language Development Disorders: Conditions characterized by language abilities (comprehension and expression of speech and writing) that are below the expected level for a given age, generally in the absence of an intellectual impairment. These conditions may be associated with deafness; brain diseases; mental disorders; or environmental factors. [NIH] Language Disorders: Conditions characterized by deficiencies of comprehension or expression of written and spoken forms of language. These include acquired and developmental disorders. [NIH] Language Therapy: Rehabilitation of persons with language disorders or training of children with language development disorders. [NIH] Large Intestine: The part of the intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water from stool and changes it from a liquid to a solid form. The large intestine is 5 feet long and includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. Also called colon. [NIH] Latent: Phoria which occurs at one distance or another and which usually has no troublesome effect. [NIH] Lead Poisoning: Disease caused by the gradual accumulation of a significant body burden of lead. [NIH] Learning Disorders: Conditions characterized by a significant discrepancy between an individual's perceived level of intellect and their ability to acquire new language and other cognitive skills. These disorders may result from organic or psychological conditions. Relatively common subtypes include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. [NIH]

228 Dyslexia

Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lentivirus: A genus of the family Retroviridae consisting of non-oncogenic retroviruses that produce multi-organ diseases characterized by long incubation periods and persistent infection. Lentiviruses are unique in that they contain open reading frames (ORFs) between the pol and env genes and in the 3' env region. Five serogroups are recognized, reflecting the mammalian hosts with which they are associated. HIV-1 is the type species. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissue. [NIH] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]

Lice: A general name for small, wingless, parasitic insects, previously of the order Phthiraptera. Though exact taxonomy is still controversial, they can be grouped in the orders Anoplura (sucking lice), Mallophaga (biting lice), and Rhynchophthirina (elephant lice). [NIH] Ligament: A band of fibrous tissue that connects bones or cartilages, serving to support and strengthen joints. [EU] Limbic: Pertaining to a limbus, or margin; forming a border around. [EU] Limbic System: A set of forebrain structures common to all mammals that is defined functionally and anatomically. It is implicated in the higher integration of visceral, olfactory, and somatic information as well as homeostatic responses including fundamental survival behaviors (feeding, mating, emotion). For most authors, it includes the amygdala, epithalamus, gyrus cinguli, hippocampal formation (see hippocampus), hypothalamus, parahippocampal gyrus, septal nuclei, anterior nuclear group of thalamus, and portions of the basal ganglia. (Parent, Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, 9th ed, p744; NeuroNames, http://rprcsgi.rprc.washington.edu/neuronames/index.html (September 2, 1998)). [NIH] Linkage: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Liver scan: An image of the liver created on a computer screen or on film. A radioactive substance is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream. It collects in the liver, especially in abnormal areas, and can be detected by the scanner. [NIH] Lobe: A portion of an organ such as the liver, lung, breast, or brain. [NIH] Localization: The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Longitudinal Studies: Studies in which variables relating to an individual or group of individuals are assessed over a period of time. [NIH] Longitudinal study: Also referred to as a "cohort study" or "prospective study"; the analytic method of epidemiologic study in which subsets of a defined population can be identified who are, have been, or in the future may be exposed or not exposed, or exposed in different degrees, to a factor or factors hypothesized to influence the probability of occurrence of a

Dictionary 229

given disease or other outcome. The main feature of this type of study is to observe large numbers of subjects over an extended time, with comparisons of incidence rates in groups that differ in exposure levels. [NIH] Low vision: Visual loss that cannot be corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses and interferes with daily living activities. [NIH] Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphocyte: A white blood cell. Lymphocytes have a number of roles in the immune system, including the production of antibodies and other substances that fight infection and diseases. [NIH] Lymphoid: Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop. [NIH] Lymphoma: A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue. [NIH] Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques. [NIH] Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (magnetic resonance imaging). [NIH] Magnetoencephalography: The measurement of magnetic fields over the head generated by electric currents in the brain. As in any electrical conductor, electric fields in the brain are accompanied by orthogonal magnetic fields. The measurement of these fields provides information about the localization of brain activity which is complementary to that provided by electroencephalography. Magnetoencephalography may be used alone or together with electroencephalography, for measurement of spontaneous or evoked activity, and for research or clinical purposes. [NIH] Major Histocompatibility Complex: The genetic region which contains the loci of genes which determine the structure of the serologically defined (SD) and lymphocyte-defined (LD) transplantation antigens, genes which control the structure of the immune responseassociated (Ia) antigens, the immune response (Ir) genes which control the ability of an animal to respond immunologically to antigenic stimuli, and genes which determine the structure and/or level of the first four components of complement. [NIH] Malabsorption: Impaired intestinal absorption of nutrients. [EU] Malformation: A morphologic developmental process. [EU]

defect

resulting

from

an

intrinsically

abnormal

Malignant: Cancerous; a growth with a tendency to invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. [NIH] Malnutrition: A condition caused by not eating enough food or not eating a balanced diet. [NIH]

Mania: Excitement of psychotic proportions manifested by mental and physical hyperactivity, disorganization of behaviour, and elevation of mood. [EU] Manic: Affected with mania. [EU] Manic-depressive psychosis: One of a group of psychotic reactions, fundamentally marked by severe mood swings and a tendency to remission and recurrence. [NIH] Manifest: Being the part or aspect of a phenomenon that is directly observable : concretely

230 Dyslexia

expressed in behaviour. [EU] Medial: Lying near the midsaggital plane of the body; opposed to lateral. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Mediator: An object or substance by which something is mediated, such as (1) a structure of the nervous system that transmits impulses eliciting a specific response; (2) a chemical substance (transmitter substance) that induces activity in an excitable tissue, such as nerve or muscle; or (3) a substance released from cells as the result of the interaction of antigen with antibody or by the action of antigen with a sensitized lymphocyte. [EU] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Meiosis: A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Melanocytes: Epidermal dendritic pigment cells which control long-term morphological color changes by alteration in their number or in the amount of pigment they produce and store in the pigment containing organelles called melanosomes. Melanophores are larger cells which do not exist in mammals. [NIH] Melanoma: A form of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the cells that produce pigment. Melanoma usually begins in a mole. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Membrane Glycoproteins: Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells. [NIH] Memory: Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH] Menopause: Permanent cessation of menstruation. [NIH] Mental deficiency: A condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury. [NIH] Mental Disorders: Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function. [NIH] Mental Health: The state wherein the person is well adjusted. [NIH] Mental Processes: Conceptual functions or thinking in all its forms. [NIH] Mental Retardation: Refers to sub-average general intellectual functioning which originated during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. [NIH]

Meta-Analysis: A quantitative method of combining the results of independent studies (usually drawn from the published literature) and synthesizing summaries and conclusions which may be used to evaluate therapeutic effectiveness, plan new studies, etc., with application chiefly in the areas of research and medicine. [NIH] Methylphenidate: A central nervous system stimulant used most commonly in the treatment of attention-deficit disorders in children and for narcolepsy. Its mechanisms appear to be similar to those of dextroamphetamine. [NIH] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary

Dictionary 231

arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Micro-organism: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Midwifery: The practice of assisting women in childbirth. [NIH] Migration: The systematic movement of genes between populations of the same species, geographic race, or variety. [NIH] Mitochondria: Parts of a cell where aerobic production (also known as cell respiration) takes place. [NIH] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Modulator: A specific inductor that brings out characteristics peculiar to a definite region. [EU]

Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monitor: An apparatus which automatically records such physiological signs as respiration, pulse, and blood pressure in an anesthetized patient or one undergoing surgical or other procedures. [NIH] Monoamine: Enzyme that breaks down dopamine in the astrocytes and microglia. [NIH] Monocytes: Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate bone marrow and released into the blood; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles. [NIH] Morphogenesis: The development of the form of an organ, part of the body, or organism. [NIH]

Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Morphology: The science of the form and structure of organisms (plants, animals, and other forms of life). [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motion Perception: The real or apparent movement of objects through the visual field. [NIH] Motion Sickness: Sickness caused by motion, as sea sickness, train sickness, car sickness, and air sickness. [NIH] Motor Cortex: Area of the frontal lobe concerned with primary motor control. It lies anterior to the central sulcus. [NIH] Motor nerve: An efferent nerve conveying an impulse that excites muscular contraction. [NIH]

Motor Skills: Performance of complex motor acts. [NIH] Movement Disorders: Syndromes which feature dyskinesias as a cardinal manifestation of

232 Dyslexia

the disease process. Included in this category are degenerative, hereditary, post-infectious, medication-induced, post-inflammatory, and post-traumatic conditions. [NIH] Mucus: The viscous secretion of mucous membranes. It contains mucin, white blood cells, water, inorganic salts, and exfoliated cells. [NIH] Multiple sclerosis: A disorder of the central nervous system marked by weakness, numbness, a loss of muscle coordination, and problems with vision, speech, and bladder control. Multiple sclerosis is thought to be an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system destroys myelin. Myelin is a substance that contains both protein and fat (lipid) and serves as a nerve insulator and helps in the transmission of nerve signals. [NIH] Muscarinic Agonists: Drugs that bind to and activate muscarinic cholinergic receptors (receptors, muscarinic). Muscarinic agonists are most commonly used when it is desirable to increase smooth muscle tone, especially in the GI tract, urinary bladder and the eye. They may also be used to reduce heart rate. [NIH] Muscle Fibers: Large single cells, either cylindrical or prismatic in shape, that form the basic unit of muscle tissue. They consist of a soft contractile substance enclosed in a tubular sheath. [NIH] Muscular Atrophy: Derangement in size and number of muscle fibers occurring with aging, reduction in blood supply, or following immobilization, prolonged weightlessness, malnutrition, and particularly in denervation. [NIH] Muscular Dystrophies: A general term for a group of inherited disorders which are characterized by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles. [NIH] Myasthenia: Muscular debility; any constitutional anomaly of muscle. [EU] Myelin: The fatty substance that covers and protects nerves. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Myopathy: Any disease of a muscle. [EU] Myotonic Dystrophy: A condition presenting muscle weakness and wasting which may be progressive. [NIH] Naive: Used to describe an individual who has never taken a certain drug or class of drugs (e. g., AZT-naive, antiretroviral-naive), or to refer to an undifferentiated immune system cell. [NIH] Narcolepsy: A condition of unknown cause characterized by a periodic uncontrollable tendency to fall asleep. [NIH] Nausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. [NIH] NCI: National Cancer Institute. NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the federal government's principal agency for cancer research. NCI conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://cancer.gov. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH]

Dictionary 233

Neocortex: The largest portion of the cerebral cortex. It is composed of neurons arranged in six layers. [NIH] Neonatal: Pertaining to the first four weeks after birth. [EU] Neoplasia: Abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth. [NIH] Neoplastic: Pertaining to or like a neoplasm (= any new and abnormal growth); pertaining to neoplasia (= the formation of a neoplasm). [EU] Nephropathy: Disease of the kidneys. [EU] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH] Nerve Fibers: Slender processes of neurons, especially the prolonged axons that conduct nerve impulses. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Networks: Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves, a meshlike structure of interlocking fibers or strands. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neurodegenerative Diseases: Hereditary and sporadic conditions which are characterized by progressive nervous system dysfunction. These disorders are often associated with atrophy of the affected central or peripheral nervous system structures. [NIH] Neurogenic: Loss of bladder control caused by damage to the nerves controlling the bladder. [NIH] Neurologic: Having to do with nerves or the nervous system. [NIH] Neurology: A medical specialty concerned with the study of the structures, functions, and diseases of the nervous system. [NIH] Neuroma: A tumor that arises in nerve cells. [NIH] Neuromuscular: Pertaining to muscles and nerves. [EU] Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse between a neuron and a muscle. [NIH] Neuronal: Pertaining to a neuron or neurons (= conducting cells of the nervous system). [EU] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neurophysiology: The scientific discipline concerned with the physiology of the nervous system. [NIH] Neurosciences: The scientific disciplines concerned with the embryology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, etc., of the nervous sytem. [NIH] Neurotransmitters: Endogenous signaling molecules that alter the behavior of neurons or effector cells. Neurotransmitter is used here in its most general sense, including not only messengers that act directly to regulate ion channels, but also those that act through second messenger systems, and those that act at a distance from their site of release. Included are neuromodulators, neuroregulators, neuromediators, and neurohumors, whether or not acting at synapses. [NIH] Neutropenia: An abnormal decrease in the number of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell. [NIH]

234 Dyslexia

Neutrophils: Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes. [NIH] Nicotine: Nicotine is highly toxic alkaloid. It is the prototypical agonist at nicotinic cholinergic receptors where it dramatically stimulates neurons and ultimately blocks synaptic transmission. Nicotine is also important medically because of its presence in tobacco smoke. [NIH] Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Noel: The highest dose level of a chemical that, in a given toxicity test, causes no observable adverse effect in the test animals. [NIH] Nonverbal Communication: Transmission of emotions, ideas, and attitudes between individuals in ways other than the spoken language. [NIH] Normal Distribution: Continuous frequency distribution of infinite range. Its properties are as follows: 1) continuous, symmetrical distribution with both tails extending to infinity; 2) arithmetic mean, mode, and median identical; and 3) shape completely determined by the mean and standard deviation. [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclear Family: A family composed of spouses and their children. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nystagmus: Rhythmical oscillation of the eyeballs, either pendular or jerky. [NIH] Occipital Lobe: Posterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Oculomotor: Cranial nerve III. It originate from the lower ventral surface of the midbrain and is classified as a motor nerve. [NIH] Oncogene: A gene that normally directs cell growth. If altered, an oncogene can promote or allow the uncontrolled growth of cancer. Alterations can be inherited or caused by an environmental exposure to carcinogens. [NIH] Oncogenic: Chemical, viral, radioactive or other agent that causes cancer; carcinogenic. [NIH] On-line: A sexually-reproducing population derived from a common parentage. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Open Reading Frames: Reading frames where successive nucleotide triplets can be read as codons specifying amino acids and where the sequence of these triplets is not interrupted by stop codons. [NIH] Ophthalmologist: A medical doctor specializing in the diagnosis and medical or surgical treatment of visual disorders and eye disease. [NIH] Ophthalmology: A surgical specialty concerned with the structure and function of the eye and the medical and surgical treatment of its defects and diseases. [NIH] Opsin: A protein formed, together with retinene, by the chemical breakdown of meta-

Dictionary 235

rhodopsin. [NIH] Optic Nerve: The 2nd cranial nerve. The optic nerve conveys visual information from the retina to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which sort at the optic chiasm and continue via the optic tracts to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other important targets include the superior colliculi and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the central nervous system. [NIH] Optometrist: A primary eye care provider who diagnoses, manages, and treats disorders of the visual system and eye diseases. [NIH] Outpatient: A patient who is not an inmate of a hospital but receives diagnosis or treatment in a clinic or dispensary connected with the hospital. [NIH] Ovaries: The pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus. [NIH] Ovum: A female germ cell extruded from the ovary at ovulation. [NIH] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]

Palate: The structure that forms the roof of the mouth. It consists of the anterior hard palate and the posterior soft palate. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Palsy: Disease of the peripheral nervous system occurring usually after many years of increased lead absorption. [NIH] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Pancreatic: Having to do with the pancreas. [NIH] Pancreatic cancer: Cancer of the pancreas, a salivary gland of the abdomen. [NIH] Panic: A state of extreme acute, intense anxiety and unreasoning fear accompanied by disorganization of personality function. [NIH] Panic Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder characterized by unexpected panic attacks that last minutes or, rarely, hours. Panic attacks begin with intense apprehension, fear or terror and, often, a feeling of impending doom. Symptoms experienced during a panic attack include dyspnea or sensations of being smothered; dizziness, loss of balance or faintness; choking sensations; palpitations or accelerated heart rate; shakiness; sweating; nausea or other form of abdominal distress; depersonalization or derealization; paresthesias; hot flashes or chills; chest discomfort or pain; fear of dying and fear of not being in control of oneself or going crazy. Agoraphobia may also develop. Similar to other anxiety disorders, it may be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. [NIH] Paralysis: Loss of ability to move all or part of the body. [NIH] Parasitic: Having to do with or being a parasite. A parasite is an animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrients from it. [NIH] Paresthesia: Subjective cutaneous sensations (e.g., cold, warmth, tingling, pressure, etc.) that

236 Dyslexia

are experienced spontaneously in the absence of stimulation. [NIH] Parietal: 1. Of or pertaining to the walls of a cavity. 2. Pertaining to or located near the parietal bone, as the parietal lobe. [EU] Parietal Lobe: Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Paroxysmal: Recurring in paroxysms (= spasms or seizures). [EU] Partial remission: The shrinking, but not complete disappearance, of a tumor in response to therapy. Also called partial response. [NIH] Patch: A piece of material used to cover or protect a wound, an injured part, etc.: a patch over the eye. [NIH] Pathogenesis: The cellular events and reactions that occur in the development of disease. [NIH]

Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Pathophysiology: Altered functions in an individual or an organ due to disease. [NIH] Patient Education: The teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs. [NIH]

Pediatrics: A medical specialty concerned with maintaining health and providing medical care to children from birth to adolescence. [NIH] Pelvic: Pertaining to the pelvis. [EU] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Perception: The ability quickly and accurately to recognize similarities and differences among presented objects, whether these be pairs of words, pairs of number series, or multiple sets of these or other symbols such as geometric figures. [NIH] Perforation: 1. The act of boring or piercing through a part. 2. A hole made through a part or substance. [EU] Perinatal: Pertaining to or occurring in the period shortly before and after birth; variously defined as beginning with completion of the twentieth to twenty-eighth week of gestation and ending 7 to 28 days after birth. [EU] Peripheral Nervous System: The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. [NIH] Peripheral vision: Side vision; ability to see objects and movement outside of the direct line of vision. [NIH] Petroleum: Naturally occurring complex liquid hydrocarbons which, after distillation, yield combustible fuels, petrochemicals, and lubricants. [NIH] Phallic: Pertaining to the phallus, or penis. [EU] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Phenotype: The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes and between the genotype and the environment. This includes the killer phenotype, characteristic of yeasts. [NIH]

Dictionary 237

Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]

Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Pilot study: The initial study examining a new method or treatment. [NIH] Pitch: The subjective awareness of the frequency or spectral distribution of a sound. [NIH] Plana: The radiographic term applied to a vertebral body crushed to a thin plate. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasma cells: A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. [NIH] Plasticity: In an individual or a population, the capacity for adaptation: a) through gene changes (genetic plasticity) or b) through internal physiological modifications in response to changes of environment (physiological plasticity). [NIH] Platelet Activating Factor: A phospholipid derivative formed by platelets, basophils, neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. It is a potent platelet aggregating agent and inducer of systemic anaphylactic symptoms, including hypotension, thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, and bronchoconstriction. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polycystic: An inherited disorder characterized by many grape-like clusters of fluid-filled cysts that make both kidneys larger over time. These cysts take over and destroy working kidney tissue. PKD may cause chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease. [NIH] Polymorphism: The occurrence together of two or more distinct forms in the same population. [NIH] Polysaccharide: A type of carbohydrate. It contains sugar molecules that are linked together chemically. [NIH] Postal Service: The functions and activities carried out by the U.S. Postal Service, foreign postal services, and private postal services such as Federal Express. [NIH] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postmenopausal: Refers to the time after menopause. Menopause is the time in a woman's life when menstrual periods stop permanently; also called "change of life." [NIH]

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Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU] Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Post-traumatic: Occurring as a result of or after injury. [EU] Potentiation: An overall effect of two drugs taken together which is greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precipitating Factors: Factors associated with the definitive onset of a disease, illness, accident, behavioral response, or course of action. Usually one factor is more important or more obviously recognizable than others, if several are involved, and one may often be regarded as "necessary". Examples include exposure to specific disease; amount or level of an infectious organism, drug, or noxious agent, etc. [NIH] Prefrontal Cortex: The rostral part of the frontal lobe, bounded by the inferior precentral fissure in humans, which receives projection fibers from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus. The prefrontal cortex receives afferent fibers from numerous structures of the diencephalon, mesencephalon, and limbic system as well as cortical afferents of visual, auditory, and somatic origin. [NIH] Prenatal: Existing or occurring before birth, with reference to the fetus. [EU] Presynaptic: Situated proximal to a synapse, or occurring before the synapse is crossed. [EU] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Probe: An instrument used in exploring cavities, or in the detection and dilatation of strictures, or in demonstrating the potency of channels; an elongated instrument for exploring or sounding body cavities. [NIH] Prodrug: A substance that gives rise to a pharmacologically active metabolite, although not itself active (i. e. an inactive precursor). [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Projection: A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, whereby that which is emotionally unacceptable in the self is rejected and attributed (projected) to others. [NIH] Prophase: The first phase of cell division, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus starts to lose its identity, the spindle appears, and the centrioles migrate toward opposite poles. [NIH] Prospective Studies: Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group. [NIH] Prospective study: An epidemiologic study in which a group of individuals (a cohort), all free of a particular disease and varying in their exposure to a possible risk factor, is followed over a specific amount of time to determine the incidence rates of the disease in the exposed and unexposed groups. [NIH]

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Prostate: A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the bladder and the urethra. It secretes a substance that liquifies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the pubic symphysis, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the rectum. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Protocol: The detailed plan for a clinical trial that states the trial's rationale, purpose, drug or vaccine dosages, length of study, routes of administration, who may participate, and other aspects of trial design. [NIH] Protons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion. [NIH] Proximal: Nearest; closer to any point of reference; opposed to distal. [EU] Psychiatric: Pertaining to or within the purview of psychiatry. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psychic: Pertaining to the psyche or to the mind; mental. [EU] Psychoacoustic: That branch of psychophysics dealing with acoustic stimuli. [NIH] Psychology: The science dealing with the study of mental processes and behavior in man and animals. [NIH] Psychometrics: Assessment of psychological variables by the application of mathematical procedures. [NIH] Psychomotor: Pertaining to motor effects of cerebral or psychic activity. [EU] Psychopathology: The study of significant causes and processes in the development of mental illness. [NIH] Psychophysics: The science dealing with the correlation of the physical characteristics of a stimulus, e.g., frequency or intensity, with the response to the stimulus, in order to assess the psychologic factors involved in the relationship. [NIH] Psychosis: A mental disorder characterized by gross impairment in reality testing as evidenced by delusions, hallucinations, markedly incoherent speech, or disorganized and agitated behaviour without apparent awareness on the part of the patient of the incomprehensibility of his behaviour; the term is also used in a more general sense to refer to mental disorders in which mental functioning is sufficiently impaired as to interfere grossly with the patient's capacity to meet the ordinary demands of life. Historically, the term has been applied to many conditions, e.g. manic-depressive psychosis, that were first described in psychotic patients, although many patients with the disorder are not judged psychotic. [EU] Psychotomimetic: Psychosis miming. [NIH] Puberty: The period during which the secondary sex characteristics begin to develop and the capability of sexual reproduction is attained. [EU] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of

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literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]

Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Artery: The short wide vessel arising from the conus arteriosus of the right ventricle and conveying unaerated blood to the lungs. [NIH] Pulse: The rhythmical expansion and contraction of an artery produced by waves of pressure caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle of the heart as it contracts. [NIH]

Pupil: The aperture in the iris through which light passes. [NIH] Pure Alexia: The inability to recognize or comprehend written or printed words. [NIH] Purulent: Consisting of or containing pus; associated with the formation of or caused by pus. [EU] Pyoderma: Any purulent skin disease (Dorland, 27th ed). [NIH] Pyoderma Gangrenosum: An idiopathic, rapidly evolving, and severely debilitating disease occurring most commonly in association with chronic ulcerative colitis. It is characterized by the presence of boggy, purplish ulcers with undermined borders, appearing mostly on the legs. The majority of cases are in people between 40 and 60 years old. Its etiology is unknown. [NIH] Pyramidal Cells: Projection neurons in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. Pyramidal cells have a pyramid-shaped soma with the apex and an apical dendrite pointed toward the pial surface and other dendrites and an axon emerging from the base. The axons may have local collaterals but also project outside their cortical region. [NIH] Pyridoxal: 3-Hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methyl-4- pyridinecarboxaldehyde. [NIH] Pyridoxal Phosphate: 3-Hydroxy-2-methyl-5-((phosphonooxy)methyl)-4pyridinecarboxaldehyde. An enzyme co-factor vitamin. [NIH] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Race: A population within a species which exhibits general similarities within itself, but is both discontinuous and distinct from other populations of that species, though not sufficiently so as to achieve the status of a taxon. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Radiopharmaceutical: Any medicinal product which, when ready for use, contains one or more radionuclides (radioactive isotopes) included for a medicinal purpose. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH]

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Reaction Time: The time from the onset of a stimulus until the organism responds. [NIH] Reality Testing: The individual's objective evaluation of the external world and the ability to differentiate adequately between it and the internal world; considered to be a primary ego function. [NIH] Receptivity: The condition of the reproductive organs of a female flower that permits effective pollination. [NIH] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Receptors, Muscarinic: One of the two major classes of cholinergic receptors. Muscarinic receptors were originally defined by their preference for muscarine over nicotine. There are several subtypes (usually M1, M2, M3.) that are characterized by their cellular actions, pharmacology, and molecular biology. [NIH] Receptors, Serotonin: Cell-surface proteins that bind serotonin and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Several types of serotonin receptors have been recognized which differ in their pharmacology, molecular biology, and mode of action. [NIH] Recombinant: A cell or an individual with a new combination of genes not found together in either parent; usually applied to linked genes. [EU] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Recurrence: The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission. [NIH] Red Nucleus: A pinkish-yellow portion of the midbrain situated in the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives a large projection from the contralateral half of the cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle and a projection from the ipsilateral motor cortex. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reference point: The midpoint of a line connecting the centers of the two end faces of the acoustic test fixture. [NIH] Reflex: An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refractive Errors: Deviations from the average or standard indices of refraction of the eye through its dioptric or refractive apparatus. [NIH] Refractory: Not readily yielding to treatment. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Rehabilitative: Instruction of incapacitated individuals or of those affected with some mental disorder, so that some or all of their lost ability may be regained. [NIH] Relapse: The return of signs and symptoms of cancer after a period of improvement. [NIH] Reliability: Used technically, in a statistical sense, of consistency of a test with itself, i. e. the extent to which we can assume that it will yield the same result if repeated a second time. [NIH]

Remission: A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although there still may be cancer in the body. [NIH]

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Renal failure: Progressive renal insufficiency and uremia, due to irreversible and progressive renal glomerular tubular or interstitial disease. [NIH] Research Design: A plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained with sufficient precision or so that an hypothesis can be tested properly. [NIH] Respiration: The act of breathing with the lungs, consisting of inspiration, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of expiration, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more carbon dioxide than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= oxygen consumption) or cell respiration (= cell respiration). [NIH] Response rate: The percentage of patients whose cancer shrinks or disappears after treatment. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retinal Ganglion Cells: Cells of the innermost nuclear layer of the retina, the ganglion cell layer, which project axons through the optic nerve to the brain. They are quite variable in size and in the shapes of their dendritic arbors, which are generally confined to the inner plexiform layer. [NIH] Retinoblastoma: An eye cancer that most often occurs in children younger than 5 years. It occurs in hereditary and nonhereditary (sporadic) forms. [NIH] Retinol: Vitamin A. It is essential for proper vision and healthy skin and mucous membranes. Retinol is being studied for cancer prevention; it belongs to the family of drugs called retinoids. [NIH] Retrospective: Looking back at events that have already taken place. [NIH] Retrospective Studies: Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons. [NIH] Retrovirus: A member of a group of RNA viruses, the RNA of which is copied during viral replication into DNA by reverse transcriptase. The viral DNA is then able to be integrated into the host chromosomal DNA. [NIH] Reverberant: The sound field prevailing in a large enclosure with moderately reflecting surfaces. [NIH] Ribosome: A granule of protein and RNA, synthesized in the nucleolus and found in the cytoplasm of cells. Ribosomes are the main sites of protein synthesis. Messenger RNA attaches to them and there receives molecules of transfer RNA bearing amino acids. [NIH] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of

Dictionary 243

developing a disease. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Saccades: An abrupt voluntary shift in ocular fixation from one point to another, as occurs in reading. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Scans: Pictures of structures inside the body. Scans often used in diagnosing, staging, and monitoring disease include liver scans, bone scans, and computed tomography (CT) or computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. In liver scanning and bone scanning, radioactive substances that are injected into the bloodstream collect in these organs. A scanner that detects the radiation is used to create pictures. In CT scanning, an x-ray machine linked to a computer is used to produce detailed pictures of organs inside the body. MRI scans use a large magnet connected to a computer to create pictures of areas inside the body. [NIH] Schizoid: Having qualities resembling those found in greater degree in schizophrenics; a person of schizoid personality. [NIH] Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by a special type of disintegration of the personality. [NIH] Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A personality disorder in which there are oddities of thought (magical thinking, paranoid ideation, suspiciousness), perception (illusions, depersonalization), speech (digressive, vague, overelaborate), and behavior (inappropriate affect in social interactions, frequently social isolation) that are not severe enough to characterize schizophrenia. [NIH] Sclerosis: A pathological process consisting of hardening or fibrosis of an anatomical structure, often a vessel or a nerve. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Second Messenger Systems: Systems in which an intracellular signal is generated in response to an intercellular primary messenger such as a hormone or neurotransmitter. They are intermediate signals in cellular processes such as metabolism, secretion, contraction, phototransduction, and cell growth. Examples of second messenger systems are the adenyl cyclase-cyclic AMP system, the phosphatidylinositol diphosphate-inositol triphosphate system, and the cyclic GMP system. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Secretory: Secreting; relating to or influencing secretion or the secretions. [NIH] Sedative: 1. Allaying activity and excitement. 2. An agent that allays excitement. [EU] Sedatives, Barbiturate: Those derivatives of barbituric or thiobarbituric acid that are used as hypnotics or sedatives. The structural class of all such derivatives, regardless of use, is barbiturates. [NIH] Segmental: Describing or pertaining to a structure which is repeated in similar form in successive segments of an organism, or which is undergoing segmentation. [NIH] Segmentation: The process by which muscles in the intestines move food and wastes through the body. [NIH] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH]

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Seizures: Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as epilepsy or "seizure disorder." [NIH] Semantics: The relationships between symbols and their meanings. [NIH] Semen: The thick, yellowish-white, viscid fluid secretion of male reproductive organs discharged upon ejaculation. In addition to reproductive organ secretions, it contains spermatozoa and their nutrient plasma. [NIH] Senile: Relating or belonging to old age; characteristic of old age; resulting from infirmity of old age. [NIH] Sensitization: 1. Administration of antigen to induce a primary immune response; priming; immunization. 2. Exposure to allergen that results in the development of hypersensitivity. 3. The coating of erythrocytes with antibody so that they are subject to lysis by complement in the presence of homologous antigen, the first stage of a complement fixation test. [EU] Sequencing: The determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA chain. [NIH] Serine: A non-essential amino acid occurring in natural form as the L-isomer. It is synthesized from glycine or threonine. It is involved in the biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines, and other amino acids. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serotonin Uptake Inhibitors: Compounds that specifically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin in the brain. This increases the serotonin concentration in the synaptic cleft which then activates serotonin receptors to a greater extent. These agents have been used in treatment of depression, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and alcoholism, as analgesics, and to treat obesity and bulimia. Many of the adrenergic uptake inhibitors also inhibit serotonin uptake; they are not included here. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Sex Characteristics: Those characteristics that distinguish one sex from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the ovaries and testes and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction. [NIH] Sex Determination: The biological characteristics which distinguish human beings as female or male. [NIH] Sharpness: The apparent blurring of the border between two adjacent areas of a radiograph having different optical densities. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]

Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU]

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Signs and Symptoms: Clinical manifestations that can be either objective when observed by a physician, or subjective when perceived by the patient. [NIH] Skeletal: Having to do with the skeleton (boney part of the body). [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH] Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Sleep apnea: A serious, potentially life-threatening breathing disorder characterized by repeated cessation of breathing due to either collapse of the upper airway during sleep or absence of respiratory effort. [NIH] Smooth muscle: Muscle that performs automatic tasks, such as constricting blood vessels. [NIH]

Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Social Work: The use of community resources, individual case work, or group work to promote the adaptive capacities of individuals in relation to their social and economic environments. It includes social service agencies. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Sodium Channels: Cell membrane glycoproteins selective for sodium ions. Fast sodium current is associated with the action potential in neural membranes. [NIH] Soma: The body as distinct from the mind; all the body tissue except the germ cells; all the axial body. [NIH] Somatic: 1. Pertaining to or characteristic of the soma or body. 2. Pertaining to the body wall in contrast to the viscera. [EU] Somatosensory Cortex: Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving general sensations. It lies posterior to the central sulcus. [NIH] Sound Localization: Ability to determine the specific location of a sound source. [NIH] Spasm: An involuntary contraction of a muscle or group of muscles. Spasms may involve skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. [NIH] Spasmodic: Of the nature of a spasm. [EU] Spastic: 1. Of the nature of or characterized by spasms. 2. Hypertonic, so that the muscles are stiff and the movements awkward. 3. A person exhibiting spasticity, such as occurs in spastic paralysis or in cerebral palsy. [EU] Spasticity: A state of hypertonicity, or increase over the normal tone of a muscle, with heightened deep tendon reflexes. [EU] Spatial disorientation: Loss of orientation in space where person does not know which way is up. [NIH] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a

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subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU] Speech Disorders: Acquired or developmental conditions marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or generate spoken forms of language. [NIH] Speech Perception: The process whereby an utterance is decoded into a representation in terms of linguistic units (sequences of phonetic segments which combine to form lexical and grammatical morphemes). [NIH] Sperm: The fecundating fluid of the male. [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Sporadic: Neither endemic nor epidemic; occurring occasionally in a random or isolated manner. [EU] Sprue: A non febrile tropical disease of uncertain origin. [NIH] Stabilization: The creation of a stable state. [EU] Staging: Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. [NIH]

Standardize: To compare with or conform to a standard; to establish standards. [EU] Steel: A tough, malleable, iron-based alloy containing up to, but no more than, two percent carbon and often other metals. It is used in medicine and dentistry in implants and instrumentation. [NIH] Stimulant: 1. Producing stimulation; especially producing stimulation by causing tension on muscle fibre through the nervous tissue. 2. An agent or remedy that produces stimulation. [EU]

Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Stool: The waste matter discharged in a bowel movement; feces. [NIH] Strabismus: Deviation of the eye which the patient cannot overcome. The visual axes assume a position relative to each other different from that required by the physiological conditions. The various forms of strabismus are spoken of as tropias, their direction being indicated by the appropriate prefix, as cyclo tropia, esotropia, exotropia, hypertropia, and hypotropia. Called also cast, heterotropia, manifest deviation, and squint. [EU] Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Striate: Recurrent branch of the anterior cerebral artery which supplies the anterior limb of

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the internal capsule. [NIH] Stroke: Sudden loss of function of part of the brain because of loss of blood flow. Stroke may be caused by a clot (thrombosis) or rupture (hemorrhage) of a blood vessel to the brain. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subarachnoid: Situated or occurring between the arachnoid and the pia mater. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Subspecies: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]

Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Supplementation: Adding nutrients to the diet. [NIH] Support group: A group of people with similar disease who meet to discuss how better to cope with their cancer and treatment. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Sweat: The fluid excreted by the sweat glands. It consists of water containing sodium chloride, phosphate, urea, ammonia, and other waste products. [NIH] Sweat Glands: Sweat-producing structures that are embedded in the dermis. Each gland consists of a single tube, a coiled body, and a superficial duct. [NIH] Sympathomimetic: 1. Mimicking the effects of impulses conveyed by adrenergic postganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system. 2. An agent that produces effects similar to those of impulses conveyed by adrenergic postganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system. Called also adrenergic. [EU] Symphysis: A secondary cartilaginous joint. [NIH] Symptomatic: Having to do with symptoms, which are signs of a condition or disease. [NIH] Synapses: Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate through direct electrical connections which are sometimes called electrical synapses; these are not included here but rather in gap junctions. [NIH] Synapsis: The pairing between homologous chromosomes of maternal and paternal origin during the prophase of meiosis, leading to the formation of gametes. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU]

248 Dyslexia

Synaptic Transmission: The communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors. These activated receptors modulate ion channels and/or secondmessenger systems to influence the postsynaptic cell. Electrical transmission is less common in the nervous system, and, as in other tissues, is mediated by gap junctions. [NIH] Synaptic Vesicles: Membrane-bound compartments which contain transmitter molecules. Synaptic vesicles are concentrated at presynaptic terminals. They actively sequester transmitter molecules from the cytoplasm. In at least some synapses, transmitter release occurs by fusion of these vesicles with the presynaptic membrane, followed by exocytosis of their contents. [NIH] Synchrony: The normal physiologic sequencing of atrial and ventricular activation and contraction. [NIH] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Systolic: Indicating the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. [EU] Tardive: Marked by lateness, late; said of a disease in which the characteristic lesion is late in appearing. [EU] Telangiectasia: The permanent enlargement of blood vessels, causing redness in the skin or mucous membranes. [NIH] Telecommunications: Transmission of information over distances via electronic means. [NIH]

Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Temporal Lobe: Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Tetrodotoxin: Octahydro-12-(hydroxymethyl)-2-imino-5,9:7,10a-dimethano10aH(1,3)dioxocino(6,5-a)pyrimidine-4,7,10,11,12-pentol. An aminoperhydroquinazoline poison found mainly in the liver and ovaries of fishes in the order Tetradontiformes (pufferfish, globefish, toadfish), which are eaten. The toxin causes paresthesia and paralysis through interference with neuromuscular conduction. [NIH] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalamic Diseases: Disorders of the centrally located thalamus, which integrates a wide range of cortical and subcortical information. Manifestations include sensory loss, movement disorders; ataxia, pain syndromes, visual disorders, a variety of neuropsychological conditions, and coma. Relatively common etiologies include cerebrovascular disorders; craniocerebral trauma; brain neoplasms; brain hypoxia; intracranial hemorrhages; and infectious processes. [NIH] Thalamic Nuclei: Several groups of nuclei in the thalamus that serve as the major relay centers for sensory impulses in the brain. [NIH] Thalamus: Paired bodies containing mostly gray substance and forming part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle of the brain. The thalamus represents the major portion of the diencephalon and is commonly divided into cellular aggregates known as nuclear groups. [NIH]

Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Thermal: Pertaining to or characterized by heat. [EU] Third Ventricle: A narrow cleft inferior to the corpus callosum, within the diencephalon,

Dictionary 249

between the paired thalami. Its floor is formed by the hypothalamus, its anterior wall by the lamina terminalis, and its roof by ependyma. It communicates with the fourth ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct, and with the lateral ventricles by the interventricular foramina. [NIH] Threshold: For a specified sensory modality (e. g. light, sound, vibration), the lowest level (absolute threshold) or smallest difference (difference threshold, difference limen) or intensity of the stimulus discernible in prescribed conditions of stimulation. [NIH] Thrombocytopenia: A decrease in the number of blood platelets. [NIH] Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Time Management: Planning and control of time to improve efficiency and effectiveness. [NIH]

Tinnitus: Sounds that are perceived in the absence of any external noise source which may take the form of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tomography: Imaging methods that result in sharp images of objects located on a chosen plane and blurred images located above or below the plane. [NIH] Tonal: Based on special tests used for a topographic diagnosis of perceptive deafness (damage of the Corti organ, peripheral or central damage, i. e. the auditive cortex). [NIH] Tonicity: The normal state of muscular tension. [NIH] Tooth Preparation: Procedures carried out with regard to the teeth or tooth structures preparatory to specified dental therapeutic and surgical measures. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Traction: The act of pulling. [NIH] Transcriptase: An enzyme which catalyses the synthesis of a complementary mRNA molecule from a DNA template in the presence of a mixture of the four ribonucleotides (ATP, UTP, GTP and CTP). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Translation: The process whereby the genetic information present in the linear sequence of ribonucleotides in mRNA is converted into a corresponding sequence of amino acids in a protein. It occurs on the ribosome and is unidirectional. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell

250 Dyslexia

to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Transplantation: Transference of a tissue or organ, alive or dead, within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Triage: The sorting out and classification of patients or casualties to determine priority of need and proper place of treatment. [NIH] Tricyclic: Containing three fused rings or closed chains in the molecular structure. [EU] Tryptophan: An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is a precursor serotonin and niacin. [NIH] Tuberous Sclerosis: A rare congenital disease in which the essential pathology is the appearance of multiple tumors in the cerebrum and in other organs, such as the heart or kidneys. [NIH] Ulcerative colitis: Chronic inflammation of the colon that produces ulcers in its lining. This condition is marked by abdominal pain, cramps, and loose discharges of pus, blood, and mucus from the bowel. [NIH] Unconditioned: An inborn reflex common to all members of a species. [NIH] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Urea: A compound (CO(NH2)2), formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids. [NIH] Urethra: The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder. [NIH]

Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Uterus: The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis. This is the organ in which a fetus develops. Also called the womb. [NIH] Vaccine: A substance or group of substances meant to cause the immune system to respond to a tumor or to microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasoconstriction: Narrowing of the blood vessels without anatomic change, for which constriction, pathologic is used. [NIH] VE: The total volume of gas either inspired or expired in one minute. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Ventral: 1. Pertaining to the belly or to any venter. 2. Denoting a position more toward the belly surface than some other object of reference; same as anterior in human anatomy. [EU] Ventricle: One of the two pumping chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary

Dictionary 251

artery. The left ventricle receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the body through the aorta. [NIH] Ventricular: Pertaining to a ventricle. [EU] Vertebral: Of or pertaining to a vertebra. [EU] Vesicular: 1. Composed of or relating to small, saclike bodies. 2. Pertaining to or made up of vesicles on the skin. [EU] Vestibular: Pertaining to or toward a vestibule. In dental anatomy, used to refer to the tooth surface directed toward the vestibule of the mouth. [EU] Vestibule: A small, oval, bony chamber of the labyrinth. The vestibule contains the utricle and saccule, organs which are part of the balancing apparatus of the ear. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve: The 8th cranial nerve. The vestibulocochlear nerve has a cochlear part (cochlear nerve) which is concerned with hearing and a vestibular part (vestibular nerve) which mediates the sense of balance and head position. The fibers of the cochlear nerve originate from neurons of the spiral ganglion and project to the cochlear nuclei (cochlear nucleus). The fibers of the vestibular nerve arise from neurons of Scarpa's ganglion and project to the vestibular nuclei. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the vestibular and/or cochlear (acoustic) nerves, which join to form the vestibulocochlear nerve. Vestibular neuritis, cochlear neuritis, and acoustic neuromas are relatively common conditions that affect these nerves. Clinical manifestations vary with which nerve is primarily affected, and include hearing loss, vertigo, and tinnitus. [NIH] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Visual Acuity: Acuteness or clearness of vision, especially of form vision, which is dependent mainly on the sharpness of the retinal focus. [NIH] Visual Cortex: Area of the occipital lobe concerned with vision. [NIH] Visual field: The entire area that can be seen when the eye is forward, including peripheral vision. [NIH] Visual Pathways: Set of cell bodies and nerve fibers conducting impulses from the eyes to the cerebral cortex. It includes the retina, optic nerve, optic tract, and geniculocalcarine tract. [NIH]

Visual Perception: The selecting and organizing of visual stimuli based on the individual's past experience. [NIH] Vitreous Body: The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the crystalline lens of the eye and in front of the retina. It is contained in a thin hyoid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe. [NIH] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH]

252 Dyslexia

Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] Voice Disorders: Disorders of voice pitch, loudness, or quality. Dysphonia refers to impaired utterance of sounds by the vocal folds. [NIH] Wakefulness: A state in which there is an enhanced potential for sensitivity and an efficient responsiveness to external stimuli. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]

Withdrawal: 1. A pathological retreat from interpersonal contact and social involvement, as may occur in schizophrenia, depression, or schizoid avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders. 2. (DSM III-R) A substance-specific organic brain syndrome that follows the cessation of use or reduction in intake of a psychoactive substance that had been regularly used to induce a state of intoxication. [EU] Word Processing: Automated production of typewritten documents with text editing and storage functions using computer software. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] X-ray: High-energy radiation used in low doses to diagnose diseases and in high doses to treat cancer. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH]

253

INDEX A Abdominal, 203, 227, 235, 250 Abdominal Pain, 203, 227, 250 Aberrant, 11, 28, 56, 63, 76, 203 Acceptor, 203, 235 Acetylcholine, 15, 152, 203, 211 Acidemia, 14, 203 Acoustic, 20, 28, 29, 33, 47, 48, 49, 50, 61, 63, 114, 165, 203, 239, 241, 251 Acuity, 71, 114, 123, 137, 138, 144, 203 Adaptation, 31, 108, 114, 203, 237 Adjustment, 36, 120, 124, 203 Adolescence, 76, 83, 92, 203, 236 Adrenergic, 203, 218, 244, 247 Adrenergic Uptake Inhibitors, 203, 244 Adverse Effect, 146, 203, 204, 234, 244 Aerobic, 203, 231 Afferent, 28, 204, 226, 238 Affinity, 204, 207, 245 Agenesis, 37, 204 Agonist, 152, 204, 218, 234 Agoraphobia, 204, 225, 235 Airway, 204, 245 Alexia, 17, 88, 105, 204, 218 Algorithms, 204, 209 Alkaline, 204, 205, 209 Alkaloid, 204, 212, 234 Alleles, 36, 150, 204, 224 Allergen, 204, 244 Alternative medicine, 171, 204 Amblyopia, 45, 204 Ameliorated, 88, 204 Ameliorating, 15, 204 Amino Acid Sequence, 205, 206 Amino Acids, 205, 234, 236, 239, 242, 244, 249, 250 Ammonia, 205, 247, 250 Amnesia, 55, 205 Amphetamine, 14, 205, 216 Amygdala, 205, 208, 228, 248 Amyloid, 153, 205 Anaesthesia, 205, 225 Anal, 36, 49, 205, 219, 221, 228 Analgesics, 205, 244 Analogous, 146, 205, 249 Anaphylactic, 205, 237 Anatomical, 7, 27, 28, 30, 45, 49, 54, 64, 66, 205, 214, 225, 243

Anemia, 181, 205 Anesthetics, 205, 208 Animal model, 7, 9, 19, 22, 23, 26, 39, 46, 205 Anisotropy, 132, 206 Anomalies, 7, 9, 39, 46, 49, 206 Anorexia, 151, 152, 206 Anterior Cerebral Artery, 206, 246 Anthropology, 23, 206 Antibacterial, 206, 246 Antibiotic, 206, 246 Antibodies, 102, 108, 150, 206, 229, 237 Antibody, 86, 204, 206, 212, 224, 225, 226, 230, 240, 244, 246 Anticonvulsants, 206, 208 Antidepressant, 206, 225 Antigen, 36, 204, 206, 213, 224, 225, 226, 230, 244 Anus, 205, 206, 209, 226 Anxiety, 81, 151, 152, 153, 206, 235 Anxiety Disorders, 206, 235 Apathy, 150, 206 Aperture, 134, 206, 240 Aphasia, 17, 37, 99, 165, 206 Apnea, 207 Applicability, 34, 207 Aqueous, 207, 208, 219, 228 Arterial, 207, 224, 239, 248 Arteries, 207, 209, 214, 231 Aspartate, 44, 207 Assay, 34, 152, 207 Astigmatism, 138, 207, 241 Astrocytes, 56, 207, 231 Ataxia, 33, 56, 165, 181, 207, 248 Atopic, 147, 207 Atopic Eczema, 147, 207 Atrial, 207, 248 Atrophy, 180, 181, 207, 233 Auditory Cortex, 20, 27, 29, 33, 47, 49, 67, 207 Auditory Perception, 27, 30, 48, 207 Aura, 22, 207 Autoimmune disease, 207, 232 Autonomic, 203, 207, 236 Axonal, 45, 57, 207 Axons, 30, 57, 207, 233, 235, 240, 242 B Bacteria, 206, 208, 231, 246, 250

254 Dyslexia

Bacterial Physiology, 203, 208 Barbiturates, 151, 152, 208, 243 Basal Ganglia, 207, 208, 211, 221, 228 Basal Ganglia Diseases, 207, 208, 211 Base, 139, 208, 216, 227, 240, 248 Basophils, 208, 237 Benign, 208, 221, 223 Benzene, 208 Benzodiazepines, 151, 152, 208 Beta-pleated, 205, 208 Bewilderment, 208, 214 Bilateral, 13, 46, 208 Binaural, 23, 208 Biochemical, 23, 34, 44, 145, 204, 208, 244 Biological Markers, 12, 208 Biological Transport, 208, 217 Biosynthesis, 208, 215, 244 Biotechnology, 63, 64, 163, 171, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 209 Bipolar Disorder, 151, 152, 186, 209 Bladder, 209, 211, 232, 233, 239, 250 Bloating, 209, 227 Blood Coagulation, 209, 210 Blood Glucose, 209, 223, 226 Blood Platelets, 209, 244, 249 Blood pressure, 73, 170, 209, 224, 231, 245 Blood vessel, 209, 210, 227, 228, 245, 247, 248, 249, 250 Body Burden, 209, 227 Body Fluids, 209, 245 Bone scan, 209, 243 Bowel, 205, 209, 217, 226, 246, 250 Bowel Movement, 209, 217, 246 Brain Stem, 209, 210, 212 Branch, 199, 209, 219, 236, 239, 245, 246, 248 Breakdown, 17, 25, 44, 209, 217, 221, 234 Bronchoconstriction, 209, 237 Bulimia, 151, 152, 209, 244 C Calcium, 24, 30, 51, 209, 213 Carbon Dioxide, 210, 221, 242 Carcinogens, 210, 234 Cardiac, 151, 152, 210, 220, 232 Cardiovascular, 205, 210, 244 Carotene, 210, 242 Case report, 108, 210 Caudal, 210, 217, 237 Causal, 49, 52, 105, 210, 219, 242 Causality, 9, 210 Cell, 6, 14, 24, 28, 34, 35, 36, 45, 50, 56, 57, 59, 83, 145, 180, 181, 204, 207, 208, 209,

210, 211, 213, 216, 218, 220, 221, 225, 226, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241, 242, 243, 245, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252 Cell Division, 180, 208, 210, 230, 237, 238, 243 Cell Lineage, 56, 210 Cell Respiration, 210, 231, 242 Cellular Structures, 132, 210 Central Nervous System Infections, 210, 223 Cerebellar, 33, 66, 69, 74, 76, 77, 90, 108, 116, 133, 134, 135, 143, 146, 170, 207, 210, 241 Cerebellum, 33, 100, 210, 215, 241 Cerebral, 10, 11, 13, 31, 37, 42, 45, 50, 54, 56, 57, 66, 91, 114, 119, 120, 132, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 216, 220, 221, 226, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 245, 248, 249, 251 Cerebral hemispheres, 13, 42, 91, 208, 209, 210, 211 Cerebral Palsy, 31, 211, 245 Cerebrum, 56, 210, 211, 215, 250 Character, 146, 148, 211, 216 Chemotherapy, 150, 211 Child Psychiatry, 23, 34, 211 Child Psychology, 67, 71, 83, 87, 92, 93, 94, 113, 211 Chiropractic, 116, 211 Cholinergic, 20, 151, 152, 153, 211, 232, 234, 241 Cholinesterase Inhibitors, 15, 150, 211, 217 Chorea, 12, 151, 152, 153, 211 Choreatic Disorders, 211 Choroid, 211, 242 Chromosomal, 211, 242 Chromosome, 5, 38, 65, 70, 76, 79, 80, 82, 85, 151, 170, 211, 228, 243 Chronic, 151, 152, 153, 165, 180, 207, 211, 219, 226, 227, 237, 240, 247, 250 Chronic renal, 211, 237 CIS, 211, 242 Clamp, 24, 28, 211 Cleft Palate, 73, 165, 211 Clinical trial, 6, 127, 129, 177, 212, 214, 239, 240 Cloning, 209, 212 Coca, 212 Cocaine, 34, 151, 152, 212 Cochlea, 212 Cochlear, 28, 212, 249, 251

Index 255

Cochlear Diseases, 212, 249 Cochlear Implants, 28, 212 Cochlear Nerve, 212, 251 Cofactor, 212, 239 Cognition, 7, 14, 43, 48, 49, 67, 70, 72, 76, 85, 99, 102, 103, 106, 114, 157, 159, 212, 227 Colitis, 212, 227 Collapse, 4, 209, 212, 245 Communication Disorders, 3, 10, 24, 66, 74, 92, 129, 165, 176, 186, 212 Comorbidity, 35, 212 Complement, 212, 213, 229, 244 Complementary and alternative medicine, 111, 117, 213 Complementary medicine, 111, 213 Complete remission, 213, 241 Compulsive Behavior, 213, 244 Computational Biology, 177, 179, 213 Computed tomography, 213, 243 Computer Simulation, 21, 213 Computer Systems, 142, 213 Computerized axial tomography, 213, 243 Concomitant, 145, 214 Conduction, 214, 248 Cone, 149, 214 Confusion, 138, 143, 214, 217, 224 Conjugated, 214, 215 Connective Tissue, 214, 221, 222 Consciousness, 205, 214, 216, 217 Constipation, 214, 227 Constitutional, 214, 232 Constriction, 214, 227, 250 Constriction, Pathologic, 214, 250 Consultation, 34, 40, 214 Continuum, 4, 214 Contraindications, ii, 214 Contralateral, 23, 214, 241 Contrast Sensitivity, 69, 86, 97, 104, 137, 144, 214 Controlled study, 111, 214 Coordination, 53, 143, 210, 214, 232 Cornea, 207, 214 Coronary, 150, 214, 224, 230 Coronary Thrombosis, 214, 231 Corpus, 37, 214, 248 Corpus Callosum, 37, 214, 248 Cortices, 8, 215, 223 Cranial, 210, 212, 215, 223, 226, 234, 235, 236, 251 Craniocerebral Trauma, 208, 215, 223, 248, 249

Criterion, 55, 215 Cross-Sectional Studies, 18, 215, 219 Cues, 25, 26, 103, 215 Curative, 215, 248 Cystathionine beta-Synthase, 14, 215, 224 Cysteine, 215 Cytochrome, 59, 215 D Data Collection, 36, 215 Databases, Bibliographic, 177, 215 Decision Making, 55, 215 Degenerative, 57, 216, 232 Deletion, 28, 216 Delirium, 150, 216 Delusions, 216, 239 Dementia, 96, 99, 149, 151, 152, 153, 216 Dendrites, 57, 216, 233, 240 Dendritic, 45, 57, 216, 230, 242 Density, 40, 44, 216, 234 Depersonalization, 216, 235, 243 Deprivation, 19, 204, 216 Depth Perception, 140, 216 Derealization, 216, 235 Dextroamphetamine, 205, 216, 230 Diabetes Mellitus, 216, 223 Diagnostic procedure, 131, 171, 216 Diarrhea, 216, 227 Diastolic, 216, 224 Diencephalon, 217, 238, 248 Diffusion, 55, 132, 208, 217 Diffusivity, 132, 217 Digestion, 209, 217, 228, 246 Digestive system, 129, 217 Dilatation, 217, 238 Direct, iii, 17, 34, 40, 44, 46, 54, 124, 217, 218, 236, 241, 247 Discrimination, 6, 15, 21, 24, 26, 42, 46, 47, 50, 54, 61, 68, 81, 92, 115, 136, 144, 207, 217 Discrimination Learning, 46, 217 Disease Susceptibility, 37, 217 Disorientation, 214, 216, 217 Dissection, 72, 217 Dissociation, 77, 95, 204, 217 Dissociative Disorders, 217 Distal, 10, 207, 217, 239 Dizziness, 165, 217, 235 Domesticated, 217, 222 Dominance, 30, 42, 47, 114, 119, 120, 217 Donepezil, 150, 217 Dopamine, 205, 212, 216, 218, 231 Dorsal, 42, 137, 218, 237

256 Dyslexia

Dorsum, 218, 221 Drug Interactions, 218 Duodenum, 218, 246 Dyes, 205, 208, 218, 234 Dysgenesis, 59, 218 Dyskinesia, 151, 152, 153, 218 Dysphonia, 165, 218, 252 Dysplasia, 181, 218 Dyspnea, 218, 235 Dystonia, 14, 151, 152, 165, 218 Dystrophy, 180, 218 E Ecosystem, 70, 100, 218 Ectopic, 46, 59, 218 Effector, 203, 212, 218, 233 Effector cell, 218, 233 Efficacy, 17, 40, 122, 218 Elective, 23, 97, 218, 245 Electric Conductivity, 206, 218 Electroencephalography, 21, 120, 218, 229 Electrolyte, 216, 219, 245 Electrons, 208, 218, 219, 226, 229, 235, 240 Electrophysiological, 15, 28, 29, 30, 48, 61, 62, 75, 98, 219 Elementary Particles, 219, 229, 239 Embryo, 210, 219, 221, 225 Embryology, 219, 233 Emetic, 151, 152, 219 Emphysema, 153, 219 Empirical, 9, 39, 43, 44, 55, 123, 219 Emulsion, 219, 221 End-stage renal, 211, 219, 237 Energetic, 44, 219 Environmental Exposure, 208, 219, 234 Environmental Health, 176, 178, 219 Enzymatic, 210, 213, 219, 242 Enzyme, 208, 215, 218, 219, 231, 240, 247, 249, 251 Epidemiologic Studies, 208, 219 Erythrocytes, 205, 220, 244 Esophagus, 217, 220, 246 Esotropia, 220, 246 Essential Tremor, 181, 220 Estrogen, 44, 220 Evoke, 149, 220, 246 Evoked Potentials, 49, 72, 81, 115, 220 Excitability, 19, 30, 220 Excitation, 45, 220 Excitatory, 23, 29, 30, 44, 51, 58, 220, 222 Exotropia, 220, 246 Extracellular, 205, 207, 214, 220, 245 Eye Movements, 24, 85, 125, 139, 145, 220

F Family Planning, 177, 220 Fat, 210, 220, 228, 232 Fatty acids, 104, 111, 147, 220 Febrile, 220, 246 Ferrets, 28, 220 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 33, 220 Fetal Development, 30, 221 Fetus, 221, 238, 250 Fibrosis, 181, 221, 243 Fissure, 211, 215, 221, 238 Fixation, 133, 134, 138, 143, 146, 147, 221, 243, 244 Flicker Fusion, 137, 221 Forearm, 209, 221 Fossa, 210, 221 Fovea, 221 Frontal Lobe, 150, 206, 221, 231, 238 Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 10, 32, 47, 53, 58, 80, 128, 221 G Gait, 68, 221 Gallbladder, 203, 217, 221 Ganglia, 203, 208, 221, 233, 236 Ganglion, 144, 212, 221, 242, 251 Gap Junctions, 221, 247, 248 Gas, 205, 210, 217, 221, 224, 227, 234, 250 Gasoline, 26, 208, 222 Gastric, 151, 152, 222 Gastric Acid, 151, 152, 222 Gastrointestinal, 211, 222, 244, 247 Gastrointestinal tract, 211, 222, 244 Gelatin, 222 Gene Expression, 30, 34, 181, 222 Generator, 15, 222 Genetics, 23, 34, 37, 54, 65, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 85, 99, 217, 222 Genotype, 222, 236 Gestation, 14, 222, 236 Gland, 222, 235, 239, 243, 246, 247 Glucose, 44, 180, 209, 216, 222, 223, 224, 226 Glutamate, 44, 222 Glycine, 23, 222, 244 Governing Board, 222, 238 Grade, 4, 18, 35, 122, 123, 128, 222 Graft, 150, 222, 224 Gravis, 150, 222 Growth, 37, 56, 180, 187, 203, 206, 220, 221, 222, 229, 233, 234, 237, 243, 250 Guinea Pigs, 28, 222

Index 257

H Habitual, 211, 223 Habituation, 28, 223 Haplotypes, 36, 223 Headache, 151, 152, 223, 224 Headache Disorders, 223 Hearing Disorders, 186, 212, 223 Heme, 215, 223 Hemoglobin, 205, 220, 223 Hemoglobinuria, 180, 223 Hemorrhage, 215, 223, 247 Hemostasis, 223, 244 Hepatic, 216, 223 Hereditary, 33, 211, 223, 232, 233, 242 Heredity, 167, 222, 223 Heritability, 151, 223 Heterogeneity, 36, 204, 223 Heterotropia, 224, 246 Heterozygotes, 217, 224 Hippocampus, 224, 228, 240 Homogeneous, 214, 224 Homologous, 8, 204, 224, 243, 244, 247 Homozygotes, 217, 224 Hormonal, 10, 207, 224 Hormone, 208, 224, 226, 243 Host, 224, 225, 242, 251 Human Development, 20, 127, 128, 147, 176, 224 Hydrogen, 203, 208, 224, 231, 235, 239 Hyperhomocysteinemia, 215, 224 Hyperkinesia, 151, 152, 153, 224 Hyperplasia, 11, 224 Hypersecretion, 151, 152, 224 Hypersensitivity, 204, 224, 244 Hypertension, 37, 151, 152, 224, 226 Hypertrophy, 224 Hypoglycaemia, 216, 224 Hypotension, 224, 237 Hypoxia, 216, 224, 248 I Id, 109, 117, 187, 191, 198, 200, 225 Idiopathic, 225, 240 Illusion, 83, 225 Imipramine, 153, 225 Immune response, 206, 207, 225, 229, 244, 247, 251 Immune system, 218, 225, 229, 232, 250, 252 Immunization, 225, 244 Immunodeficiency, 180, 225 Immunologic, 36, 225 Immunology, 23, 204, 225

In vitro, 24, 28, 45, 225 In vivo, 8, 30, 132, 225 Incision, 225, 226 Incubation, 225, 228 Incubation period, 225, 228 Indicative, 144, 156, 225, 236, 250 Induction, 18, 39, 49, 225 Infancy, 14, 34, 225 Infantile, 33, 225 Infarction, 214, 225, 230 Infection, 12, 216, 225, 228, 229, 247, 252 Inflammation, 212, 221, 226, 250 Inflammatory bowel disease, 151, 152, 226 Insight, 8, 19, 29, 46, 56, 58, 226 Insulator, 226, 232 Insulin, 34, 226 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 34, 226 Intermittent, 221, 226 Internal Capsule, 206, 226, 247 Intestinal, 210, 226, 229 Intestines, 203, 222, 226, 243 Intoxication, 216, 226, 252 Intracellular, 24, 45, 51, 226, 241, 243 Intracranial Hypertension, 223, 226, 249 Invasive, 49, 55, 226, 229 Involuntary, 208, 211, 220, 226, 232, 241, 245 Ion Channels, 207, 226, 233, 248 Ions, 208, 217, 219, 224, 226, 245 Ipsilateral, 23, 227, 241 Iris, 214, 227, 240 Irritable Bowel Syndrome, 151, 152, 227 Ischemia, 207, 227 J Jet lag, 151, 152, 227 Joint, 18, 168, 227, 247 K Kb, 176, 227 Kidney Disease, 129, 176, 181, 227 L Lag, 28, 145, 227 Language Development, 34, 227 Language Development Disorders, 227 Language Disorders, 4, 25, 35, 125, 212, 227 Language Therapy, 4, 227 Large Intestine, 217, 226, 227, 241 Latent, 14, 227 Lead Poisoning, 26, 227 Learning Disorders, 19, 46, 127, 186, 227 Lens, 134, 136, 149, 228, 251

258 Dyslexia

Lentivirus, 34, 228 Lesion, 40, 83, 94, 228, 248 Leukemia, 180, 228 Library Services, 198, 228 Lice, 28, 228 Ligament, 228, 239 Limbic, 61, 205, 228, 238 Limbic System, 205, 228, 238 Linkage, 18, 19, 35, 37, 38, 41, 53, 56, 65, 80, 85, 151, 228 Lipid, 226, 228, 232 Liver, 203, 217, 219, 221, 223, 228, 243, 248, 250 Liver scan, 228, 243 Lobe, 48, 228 Localization, 22, 24, 38, 47, 56, 104, 228, 229 Localized, 24, 30, 38, 54, 150, 170, 221, 226, 228, 237 Longitudinal Studies, 215, 228 Longitudinal study, 9, 41, 228 Low vision, 62, 229 Lymphatic, 226, 229 Lymphocyte, 206, 229, 230 Lymphoid, 206, 229 Lymphoma, 180, 229 M Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 21, 36, 46, 63, 132, 229, 243 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, 44, 86, 229 Magnetoencephalography, 11, 21, 22, 82, 229 Major Histocompatibility Complex, 223, 229 Malabsorption, 180, 229 Malformation, 28, 229 Malignant, 180, 229 Malnutrition, 207, 229, 232 Mania, 150, 152, 153, 229 Manic, 209, 229, 239 Manic-depressive psychosis, 229, 239 Manifest, 36, 41, 54, 147, 151, 207, 229, 246 Medial, 29, 220, 230 Mediate, 8, 10, 45, 212, 218, 230 Mediator, 230, 244 MEDLINE, 177, 179, 181, 230 Meiosis, 230, 247 Melanocytes, 230 Melanoma, 180, 230 Membrane, 207, 211, 213, 220, 226, 230, 242, 245, 247, 248, 251

Membrane Glycoproteins, 230, 245 Meninges, 210, 215, 230 Menopause, 230, 237 Mental deficiency, 220, 230 Mental Disorders, 129, 152, 153, 211, 227, 230, 239 Mental Health, iv, 6, 15, 129, 176, 178, 188, 230 Mental Processes, 217, 230, 239 Mental Retardation, 14, 28, 36, 50, 57, 80, 98, 165, 182, 212, 230 Meta-Analysis, 80, 112, 230 Methylphenidate, 40, 230 MI, 140, 202, 230 Microbe, 231, 249 Microbiology, 203, 231 Micro-organism, 218, 231 Midwifery, 75, 231 Migration, 28, 39, 49, 50, 56, 57, 93, 231 Mitochondria, 14, 231 Modeling, 9, 21, 44, 48, 53, 58, 231 Modification, 231, 240 Modulator, 57, 231 Molecular, 23, 30, 38, 49, 56, 57, 59, 132, 177, 179, 209, 213, 231, 241, 250 Molecule, 206, 208, 213, 217, 218, 220, 231, 235, 241, 249, 250 Monitor, 144, 145, 231, 234 Monoamine, 205, 216, 231 Monocytes, 231, 237 Morphogenesis, 220, 231 Morphological, 12, 18, 19, 21, 34, 35, 43, 87, 93, 219, 230, 231 Morphology, 12, 43, 69, 98, 108, 121, 231 Motility, 231, 244 Motion Perception, 24, 42, 231 Motion Sickness, 146, 231, 232 Motor Cortex, 14, 46, 231, 241 Motor nerve, 231, 234 Motor Skills, 72, 108, 114, 231 Movement Disorders, 14, 231, 248 Mucus, 232, 250 Multiple sclerosis, 56, 150, 232 Muscarinic Agonists, 153, 232 Muscle Fibers, 232 Muscular Atrophy, 181, 232 Muscular Dystrophies, 218, 232 Myasthenia, 150, 232 Myelin, 232 Myocardium, 230, 232 Myopathy, 150, 232 Myotonic Dystrophy, 181, 232

Index 259

N Naive, 20, 232 Narcolepsy, 216, 230, 232 Nausea, 151, 152, 232, 235 NCI, 1, 129, 175, 211, 232 Necrosis, 225, 230, 232 Need, 3, 27, 138, 148, 153, 155, 160, 164, 167, 192, 203, 211, 232, 250 Neocortex, 19, 39, 51, 233 Neonatal, 39, 93, 233 Neoplasia, 180, 233 Neoplastic, 229, 233 Nephropathy, 227, 233 Nerve, 14, 203, 207, 211, 212, 216, 221, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 238, 243, 246, 249, 251 Nerve Fibers, 212, 233, 251 Nervous System, 14, 51, 132, 153, 181, 203, 204, 205, 208, 210, 211, 212, 216, 220, 221, 230, 232, 233, 235, 236, 244, 247, 248 Networks, 18, 41, 47, 51, 59, 233 Neurodegenerative Diseases, 56, 208, 233 Neurogenic, 16, 233 Neurologic, 39, 88, 150, 233 Neuroma, 165, 233 Neuromuscular, 14, 203, 233, 248 Neuromuscular Junction, 203, 233 Neuronal, 14, 23, 28, 29, 32, 39, 44, 49, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 152, 233 Neurophysiology, 8, 24, 233 Neurosciences, 22, 91, 100, 233 Neurotransmitters, 24, 233 Neutropenia, 233, 237 Neutrophils, 233, 234, 237 Nicotine, 151, 152, 153, 234, 241 Nitrogen, 204, 221, 234, 250 Noel, 141, 234 Nonverbal Communication, 212, 234 Normal Distribution, 63, 234 Nuclear, 18, 38, 208, 219, 221, 226, 228, 232, 234, 242, 248 Nuclear Family, 18, 234 Nuclei, 205, 206, 212, 219, 228, 229, 234, 235, 239, 248, 251 Nystagmus, 133, 134, 147, 234 O Occipital Lobe, 234, 251 Ocular, 30, 87, 135, 143, 145, 146, 147, 220, 234, 243 Oculomotor, 145, 234 Oncogene, 180, 234 Oncogenic, 228, 234

On-line, 40, 140, 142, 201, 234 Opacity, 216, 234 Open Reading Frames, 228, 234 Ophthalmologist, 140, 234 Ophthalmology, 72, 104, 221, 234 Opsin, 234, 242 Optic Nerve, 204, 235, 242, 251 Optometrist, 140, 235 Outpatient, 34, 91, 235 Ovaries, 235, 244, 248 Ovum, 222, 235 Oxidation, 44, 203, 215, 235 P Palate, 73, 211, 235 Palliative, 235, 248 Palsy, 150, 151, 152, 235 Pancreas, 203, 217, 226, 235 Pancreatic, 180, 235 Pancreatic cancer, 180, 235 Panic, 151, 152, 225, 235, 244 Panic Disorder, 151, 152, 225, 235, 244 Paralysis, 220, 235, 245, 248 Parasitic, 228, 235 Paresthesia, 235, 248 Parietal, 8, 13, 31, 44, 70, 83, 132, 206, 236, 245 Parietal Lobe, 70, 83, 206, 236, 245 Paroxysmal, 180, 207, 223, 236 Partial remission, 236, 241 Patch, 24, 28, 153, 236 Pathogenesis, 7, 14, 57, 236 Pathologic, 214, 224, 236 Pathologies, 28, 55, 236 Pathophysiology, 19, 32, 33, 236 Patient Education, 189, 196, 198, 202, 236 Pediatrics, 14, 23, 34, 38, 47, 73, 80, 81, 92, 94, 114, 187, 236 Pelvic, 236, 239 Peptide, 95, 102, 108, 236, 239 Perforation, 206, 236 Perinatal, 7, 94, 236 Peripheral Nervous System, 233, 235, 236, 247 Peripheral vision, 133, 140, 236, 251 Petroleum, 222, 236 Phallic, 221, 236 Pharmacologic, 236, 249 Phenotype, 35, 38, 41, 64, 78, 208, 236 Phosphorus, 209, 237 Physiologic, 204, 208, 221, 237, 241, 248 Physiology, 56, 59, 108, 208, 219, 233, 237 Pigment, 230, 237

260 Dyslexia

Pilot study, 7, 73, 237 Pitch, 237, 252 Plana, 13, 54, 237 Plants, 204, 210, 212, 222, 231, 237, 249 Plasma, 36, 206, 222, 223, 237, 244 Plasma cells, 206, 237 Plasticity, 5, 14, 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 30, 31, 48, 51, 56, 57, 237 Platelet Activating Factor, 71, 237 Platelets, 237 Poisoning, 216, 226, 232, 237 Polycystic, 181, 237 Polymorphism, 150, 237 Polysaccharide, 206, 237 Postal Service, 148, 237 Posterior, 8, 11, 13, 31, 42, 44, 67, 73, 83, 205, 207, 210, 211, 218, 226, 227, 234, 235, 237, 245 Postmenopausal, 45, 237 Postnatal, 24, 28, 30, 220, 238 Postsynaptic, 238, 247, 248 Post-traumatic, 223, 232, 238 Potentiation, 211, 238 Practice Guidelines, 178, 238 Precipitating Factors, 210, 223, 238 Prefrontal Cortex, 46, 238 Prenatal, 219, 220, 238 Presynaptic, 238, 247, 248 Prevalence, 5, 62, 87, 93, 94, 101, 238 Probe, 17, 238 Prodrug, 238 Progression, 24, 205, 238 Progressive, 99, 139, 150, 151, 152, 211, 216, 222, 232, 233, 238, 242 Projection, 235, 238, 240, 241 Prophase, 238, 247 Prospective Studies, 41, 238 Prospective study, 228, 238 Prostate, 180, 239 Protein S, 163, 181, 209, 239, 242 Proteins, 102, 108, 205, 206, 212, 221, 231, 234, 236, 237, 239, 241, 244, 249 Protocol, 36, 40, 113, 239 Protons, 224, 229, 239, 240 Proximal, 217, 238, 239 Psychiatric, 11, 15, 23, 50, 55, 79, 108, 115, 150, 208, 212, 230, 239 Psychic, 239, 244 Psychoacoustic, 50, 239 Psychometrics, 29, 239 Psychomotor, 216, 239 Psychopathology, 13, 239

Psychophysics, 15, 24, 58, 61, 101, 239 Psychosis, 151, 152, 239 Psychotomimetic, 205, 216, 239 Puberty, 34, 239 Public Policy, 177, 239 Publishing, 63, 155, 156, 164, 165, 191, 239 Pulmonary, 209, 240, 250 Pulmonary Artery, 209, 240, 251 Pulse, 12, 231, 240 Pupil, 136, 214, 240 Pure Alexia, 62, 240 Purulent, 240 Pyoderma, 151, 152, 240 Pyoderma Gangrenosum, 151, 152, 240 Pyramidal Cells, 56, 240 Pyridoxal, 215, 240 Pyridoxal Phosphate, 215, 240 Q Quality of Life, 17, 20, 240 R Race, 231, 240 Radiation, 218, 219, 240, 243, 252 Radiation therapy, 218, 240 Radioactive, 209, 224, 228, 234, 240, 243 Radiopharmaceutical, 222, 240 Randomized, 40, 111, 218, 240 Reaction Time, 13, 55, 241 Reality Testing, 239, 241 Receptivity, 61, 241 Receptor, 152, 203, 206, 214, 218, 220, 241, 244 Receptors, Muscarinic, 232, 241 Receptors, Serotonin, 241, 244 Recombinant, 59, 241, 250 Rectum, 206, 209, 217, 222, 226, 227, 239, 241 Recurrence, 209, 229, 241 Red Nucleus, 207, 241 Refer, 1, 212, 217, 221, 228, 232, 239, 241, 251 Reference point, 18, 241 Reflex, 220, 241, 250 Refraction, 206, 241, 246 Refractive Errors, 204, 241 Refractory, 96, 134, 241 Regimen, 164, 218, 241 Rehabilitative, 33, 48, 241 Relapse, 153, 241 Reliability, 11, 241 Remission, 28, 209, 229, 241 Renal failure, 216, 242 Research Design, 29, 242

Index 261

Respiration, 207, 210, 231, 242 Response rate, 40, 242 Retina, 45, 137, 144, 149, 207, 211, 228, 235, 242, 243, 251 Retinal, 30, 138, 144, 214, 235, 242, 251 Retinal Ganglion Cells, 144, 235, 242 Retinoblastoma, 180, 242 Retinol, 242 Retrospective, 4, 41, 242 Retrospective Studies, 41, 242 Retrovirus, 51, 242 Reverberant, 217, 242 Ribosome, 242, 249 Risk factor, 26, 66, 83, 210, 219, 224, 238, 242 Rod, 211, 243 S Saccades, 139, 243 Salivary, 217, 235, 243 Salivary glands, 217, 243 Scans, 36, 82, 243 Schizoid, 243, 252 Schizophrenia, 8, 11, 14, 15, 23, 28, 29, 37, 47, 48, 50, 58, 108, 115, 132, 150, 151, 152, 153, 243, 252 Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 216, 243, 252 Sclerosis, 151, 152, 181, 232, 243 Screening, 14, 74, 119, 133, 134, 135, 138, 143, 145, 212, 243 Second Messenger Systems, 233, 243 Secretion, 34, 224, 226, 232, 243, 244 Secretory, 243, 247, 248 Sedative, 225, 243 Sedatives, Barbiturate, 208, 243 Segmental, 50, 243 Segmentation, 32, 38, 243 Segregation, 18, 19, 35, 38, 45, 137, 243 Seizures, 28, 33, 206, 216, 236, 244 Semantics, 43, 47, 97, 244 Semen, 239, 244 Senile, 151, 152, 153, 244 Sensitization, 28, 244 Sequencing, 143, 244, 248 Serine, 215, 244 Serotonin, 153, 203, 241, 244, 250 Serotonin Uptake Inhibitors, 153, 244 Serum, 86, 212, 244 Sex Characteristics, 203, 239, 244 Sex Determination, 181, 244 Sharpness, 244, 251 Shock, 150, 244, 250

Side effect, 152, 203, 217, 244, 249 Signs and Symptoms, 241, 245 Skeletal, 211, 232, 245 Skeleton, 227, 245 Skull, 215, 245, 248 Sleep apnea, 150, 245 Smooth muscle, 232, 245, 247 Social Environment, 151, 240, 245 Social Work, 121, 165, 245 Sodium, 14, 245, 247 Sodium Channels, 14, 245 Soma, 240, 245 Somatic, 203, 228, 230, 236, 238, 245 Somatosensory Cortex, 46, 245 Sound Localization, 23, 245 Spasm, 245 Spasmodic, 165, 245 Spastic, 151, 152, 227, 245 Spasticity, 245 Spatial disorientation, 217, 245 Specialist, 192, 245 Species, 20, 22, 59, 217, 222, 228, 230, 231, 235, 240, 245, 247, 250, 251, 252 Specificity, 28, 34, 58, 125, 204, 246 Spectrum, 39, 79, 162, 246 Speech Disorders, 147, 246 Speech Perception, 9, 24, 47, 50, 246 Sperm, 211, 246 Spinal cord, 207, 209, 210, 221, 230, 233, 236, 241, 246 Sporadic, 233, 242, 246 Sprue, 151, 152, 246 Stabilization, 23, 246 Staging, 243, 246 Standardize, 40, 246 Steel, 211, 246 Stimulant, 205, 216, 230, 246 Stomach, 152, 203, 217, 220, 222, 224, 226, 232, 246 Stool, 227, 246 Strabismus, 45, 90, 98, 204, 246 Stress, 137, 138, 159, 227, 232, 246 Striate, 31, 45, 246 Stroke, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 25, 31, 33, 48, 61, 128, 129, 151, 152, 176, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 247 Subacute, 226, 247 Subarachnoid, 223, 247 Subclinical, 133, 226, 244, 247 Subspecies, 246, 247 Substance P, 209, 243, 247 Substrate, 54, 56, 218, 247

262 Dyslexia

Supplementation, 97, 111, 116, 247 Support group, 165, 247 Suppression, 42, 247 Sweat, 108, 224, 247 Sweat Glands, 247 Sympathomimetic, 205, 216, 218, 247 Symphysis, 239, 247 Symptomatic, 54, 247 Synapses, 24, 45, 51, 56, 211, 233, 247, 248 Synapsis, 247 Synaptic, 8, 19, 24, 29, 30, 51, 56, 234, 244, 247, 248 Synaptic Transmission, 56, 234, 248 Synaptic Vesicles, 247, 248 Synchrony, 42, 248 Systemic, 39, 209, 216, 226, 237, 240, 248 Systolic, 224, 248 T Tardive, 151, 152, 153, 248 Telangiectasia, 181, 248 Telecommunications, 213, 248 Temporal, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 58, 60, 61, 68, 71, 81, 87, 94, 97, 99, 103, 105, 114, 123, 135, 137, 151, 205, 207, 223, 224, 248 Temporal Lobe, 22, 48, 87, 205, 207, 248 Tetrodotoxin, 29, 248 Thalamic, 10, 29, 46, 49, 59, 60, 207, 248 Thalamic Diseases, 207, 248 Thalamic Nuclei, 10, 59, 248 Thalamus, 29, 49, 59, 144, 171, 217, 228, 238, 248 Therapeutics, 248 Thermal, 206, 217, 248 Third Ventricle, 248 Threshold, 28, 133, 134, 220, 224, 249 Thrombocytopenia, 237, 249 Thrombosis, 239, 247, 249 Time Management, 164, 249 Tinnitus, 20, 165, 249, 251 Tomography, 21, 54, 89, 213, 214, 229, 249 Tonal, 96, 249 Tonicity, 218, 249 Tooth Preparation, 203, 249 Toxic, iv, 27, 204, 208, 219, 234, 249 Toxicity, 26, 218, 234, 249 Toxicology, 178, 249 Toxins, 204, 206, 225, 249 Traction, 211, 249 Transcriptase, 242, 249 Transfection, 209, 249

Translation, 4, 23, 99, 249 Transmitter, 203, 207, 218, 226, 230, 247, 248, 249 Transplantation, 29, 211, 225, 229, 250 Trauma, 28, 61, 216, 232, 250 Triage, 18, 250 Tricyclic, 203, 225, 250 Tryptophan, 244, 250 Tuberous Sclerosis, 56, 181, 250 U Ulcerative colitis, 151, 152, 153, 226, 240, 250 Unconditioned, 26, 250 Unconscious, 205, 225, 250 Urea, 247, 250 Urethra, 239, 250 Urinary, 211, 232, 250 Urine, 95, 102, 108, 209, 223, 250 Uterus, 214, 235, 250 V Vaccine, 239, 250 Vascular, 28, 52, 149, 211, 223, 224, 225, 226, 250 Vasoconstriction, 151, 152, 250 VE, 162, 250 Vector, 34, 148, 250 Vein, 234, 250 Venous, 239, 250 Ventral, 42, 137, 234, 250 Ventricle, 205, 224, 240, 248, 249, 250, 251 Ventricular, 248, 251 Vertebral, 237, 251 Vesicular, 207, 251 Vestibular, 125, 133, 134, 135, 143, 146, 165, 251 Vestibule, 212, 251 Vestibulocochlear Nerve, 212, 249, 251 Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases, 249, 251 Veterinary Medicine, 177, 251 Viral, 14, 234, 242, 251 Virulence, 249, 251 Virus, 210, 251 Visual Acuity, 139, 214, 251 Visual Cortex, 19, 27, 30, 45, 58, 59, 62, 79, 144, 204, 251 Visual field, 57, 135, 231, 251 Visual Pathways, 80, 251 Visual Perception, 9, 31, 32, 33, 42, 45, 251 Vitreous Body, 242, 251 Vitro, 251 Vivo, 252

Index 263

Voice Disorders, 165, 252 W Wakefulness, 216, 252 White blood cell, 206, 229, 232, 233, 237, 252 Withdrawal, 150, 153, 216, 252

Word Processing, 82, 252 X Xenograft, 205, 252 X-ray, 213, 234, 240, 243, 252 Y Yeasts, 236, 252

264 Dyslexia