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Languages of the World/Materials

442

Tajik

Shinji ldo

full text research abstracts of all titles monthly updates

h L/NCOM webs op www.lincom-europa.com

2005 LINCOM EUROPA

Published by UNCOM GmbH 2005.

Contents Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 0.1. Standard Tajik ............................................................................................................................. 1 0.2. Language contact......................................................................................................................... 1 0.3. Speakers....................................................................................................................................... 2 0.4. ' Tajik' .......................................................................................................................................... 3 0.5. Orthographical changes ............................................................................................................... 4 0.6. Pre-Soviet Tajik in written records .............................................................................................. 6 0.7. Transliteration............................................ .................................................................................. 7 0.8. Notes on the text .......................................................................................................................... 9

0.9. Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 9

l. Phonetics and Phonology ....................................................................................... 11 1.1. Vowels ....................................................................................................................................... 11 1.2. Consonants . .............. ......................... ... .................. .... ...................... ...... .. ........................ ......... 13 1.3. Phonemes in speech ................................................................................................................... 14 1.4. SyUable sttucture ....................................................................................................................... 14

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (http://www.ddb.de)

1.5. Word stress ................................................................................................................................ 14 1.5.1. Stress-repeUent morphemes ................................................................................................ 14 1.5.2. Stress-attracting morphemes ............................................................................................... 15 1.5.3. Otherissues......................................................................................................................... 16

2. Morphology ..................................... ...................................................................... 17 2.1. Nominal morphology................................................................................................................. 17 2.1.1. Nouns .................................................................................................................................. 17

Printed in E.C. Printed on chlorine-free paper

2.1.1.1. Number ........................................................................................................................ 17 2.1 .1.2. Gender.......................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1.3. Definiteness.................................................................................................................. 22 2.1.1.4. Case.............................................................................................................................. 25 2.1.1.5. Possession .................................................................................................................... 26 2.1.2. Pronouns ............................................................................................................................. 27 2.1.2.1. Personal pronouns ............................................ ............................................................ 28 2.1.2.2. Honorific expressions .................................................................................................. 29 2.1.2.3. Demonstratives ............................................................................................................ 30 2.1.2.4. Reflexives .................................................................................................................... 31

2.1.2.5. Interrogative pronouns and question words ................................................................. 32 2.1.2.6. Other pronouns............................................................................................................. 33 2.1.3. Numerals ............................................................................................................................. 34 2.1.3.1. Cardinal numbers ......................................................................................................... 34 2.1.3.2. Fractions....................................................................................................................... 35 2.1.3.3. Ordinal numbers........................................................................................................... 36 2.1.3.4. Classifiers..................................................................................................................... 37 2.1.3.5. Arithmetic vocabularly ................................................................................................ 37 2.1.4. Adjectives ........................................................................................................................... 38 2.1.4.1. General remarla ........................................................................................................... 38 2.1.4.2. Comparison .................................................................................................................. 39 2.1.4.3. Intensification and disintensification ........................................................................... 40 2.1.4.4. Adverbs ........................................................................................................................ 41 2.2. Verbal moipho1ogy .................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.1. Past and present sterns ........................................................................................................ 42 2.2.2. Person and number ............................................................................................................. 45 2.2.3. Non-finite forms ................................................................................................................. 46 2.2.4. Copularverbs ...................................................................................................................... 49 2.2.5. Aspects ................................................................................................................................ 52 2.2.6. Modality.............................................................................................................................. 52 2.2.7. Verb Paradigms .................................................................................................................. 53 2.2. 7.1. Simple past form .......................................................................................................... 53 2.2.7.2. Past imperfective form ................................................................................................. 54 2.2.7.3. Past perfect form .......................................................................................................... 54 2.2.7.4. Past progressive form ................................................................................................... 55 2.2.7.5. Present progressive form .............................................................................................. 56 2.2.7.6. Present imperfective form ............................................................................................ 57 2.2.7.7. Futureform .................................................................................................................. 58 2.2.8. Principal mood categories................................................................................................... 58 2.2.8.1. Inferential ..................................................................................................................... 58 2.2.8.1.1. Inferential past form .............................................................................................. 59 2.2.8.1.2. Inferential past imperfective form ......................................................................... 60 2.2.8.1.3. Inferential past perfect form .................................................................................. 60 2.2.8.1.4. Inferential past progressive form........................................................................... 61 2.2.8.2. Imperative and optative................................................................................................ 61 2.2.8.3. Conditional................................................................................................................... 62 2.2.8.4. Speculative ................................................................................................................... 63

2.2.8.5. Intentional .................................................................................................................... 65 2.2.9. Participles as predicates ...................................................................................................... 65 2.2.10. Causative voice ................................................................................................................. 67 2.2.11. Passive voice ..................................................................................................................... 67 2.2.12. Negation............................................................................................................................ 68 2.2.13. Auxiliary verbs ................................................................................................................. 69 2.2.13.1. Modals........................................................................................................................ 69 2.2.13.2. Other auxiliaries ............................................................................... " ........................ 70 2.3. Adpositions................................................................................................................................ 71 2.4. Word formation ......................................................................................................................... 72 2.4.1. Noun formation ................................................................................................................... 73 2.4.2. Verb formation.................................................................................................................... 74 2.4.2.1. Prefixes ........................................................................................................................ 74 2.4.2.2. SuffiXeS ........................................................................................................................ 76 2.4.2.3. Transitivization ............................................................................................................ 76 2.4.2.4. Compounding............................................................................................................... 76 2.4.3. Adjective formation ............................................................................................................ 77 2.4.4. Adverb formation ................................................................................................................ 78

3. Syntax ................................................................................................................... 79 3.1. Copular and verbal sentences .................................................................................................... 79 3.2. Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 80 3.2.1. AND ..................................................................................................................................... 80 3.2.2. OR........................................................................................................................................ 80 3.2.3. BUT...................................................................................................................................... 81 3.2.4. Other conjunctions .............................................................................................................. 81 3.3. Subordination ............................................................................................................................ 81 3.3.1 . Relative clauses .................................................................................................................. 81 3.3.2. Participial modifiers ............................................................................................................ 82 3.3.3. Adverbial clauses ................................................................................................................ 85 3.3.4. Converb construction .......................................................................................................... 85

4. Sample texts .......................................................................................................... 87

::~: ::;~:i:l::~:~;;·;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :~ 4.3. Exceipt from a news report (2003) ............................................................................................ 88

5. Appendices ............................................................................................................ 89 5.1. Abbreviations .......:.................................................................................................................... 89

Introduction

5.2. Transliteration............................................................................................................................ 89

References .................................................................................................................. 91 Index .......................................................................................................................... 99

0.1. Staodard Tajik Tajik is a South-West Iranian language that is genetically closely related to such major languages as Persian and Dari. In the beginning of the twentieth century, Tajik was considered by a number of writers and researchers to be a variety of Persian (Halimov 1974: 30-31, Oafforov 1979: 33). The popularity of this conception ofTajik as a (less prestigious) variety of Persian was such that, during the period in which Tajik intellectuals were trying to establish Tajik as a language separate from Persian, Sadriddin Ayni, who was a prominent intellectual and educator, had to make a statement that Tajik was not a bastardized dialect ofPersian. 1 The issue of whether Tajik and Persian are to be considered two dialects of a single language or two discrete languages2 has political sides to it (see Perry 1996) with which I am not concerned in this book. The language that this book describes is modem literary Tajik which is referred to in the Soviet linguistic literature of Tajik typically as 386oHH a,na6HH X03HpaH 3 TO'I;HK, although I often mention features of the colloquial language. 0.2. l.aoguage contact Tajik has been influenced lexically, morphologically, and syntactically by Uzbek, with the speakers of which Tajik speakers have been in intense contact for centuries.4 According to Tajik historian Gafurov (1952: 99-110 cited in Tursunov et al. 1995: 37-38), the close relationship between Uzbeks and Tajiks dates back to the sixth century. Arabic influence is also highly conspicuous in Tajik, as it is in Persian.s Tajik has also been under strong Russian

2

In his article ..,S....b J uiO Jf./Jo'.,.> that appeared in the journal ,;.;u_,......... [nthaad dolli1], 1928, No 4-5. This statement is cited in Halimov (1974:31). Studies pertaining to the association between Tajik and Persian include Amanova (1991), Kozlov (1949), Lazard (1970), Rozenfel'd (1961), and Wei-Mintz (1962). The following papers/presentations focus on specific aspects of Tajik and their bistoricallmodern Persian counterparts: Cejpek (1956), Jilraev (1962), Lorenz (1961, 1964), Murav'eva (1956), Murav'eva and Rubinl!ik (1959), Ostrovskij (1973), and Sadeghi ( 1991 ). In this book, I mostly neglect recent trends in Tajik orthography which are not yet certain to gain long-lasting currency. The numerous studies on Turlcic/Uzbek influence on Tajik (and vice versa) include Axmedf.anov (1970), Borovkov (1952), Doerfer (1967), Ido (2004), Junusov (1968, 1970), Lehr (1984), Lorenz (1970), Muruvvatov (1966, 1970), Muxtarov (1958), Muxtorov and Qosimov (1961), Narziqulov (1968), Rastorgueva et al. (1964), Soper (1996), Tursunov (1995: 37-41) Tursonova (1971), Yunusov (1966, 1971), and Yusufov (1969). In linguistic studies of Tajik, discussion of Arabic influence is usually confined to philology because Arabic had ceased to be a strong source of influence several centuries before literary Tajik was established in the nineteen-twenties. Some of the small number of studies that discuss Arabic elements in modem Tajik are ruuraev (1970) and Berdyeva (1970a, 1970b). Jilraev (1970) is concerned with the lexical features of the dialect ofTajik-speaking Arabs.

2

Tajik

Introduction 3 6

influence, which is most prominent in the Tajik lexicon, for at least a century. The following words registered in Muhammadiev's (1975: 16-17) dictionary of synonyms exemplify the hybrid nature of the lexicon ofTajik that resulted from this multitude of influences. 'army' 'army' 'armed forces' 'army, troops' 'army, military camp'

Russian Tajik Arabic with Tajik bound morphemes Uzbek/Turlcic Mongolian/Turkic

0.4. 'Tijik' The term 'Tajik' has had several different referents. The following passage from Chvyr (1993: 246) illustrates the changes in the referential domain of the term. 11 First, the term Tajik did not emerge as a result of the self-identi.fication of a Central Asian people, but as a name given to them by the Arabs. People ofTurkic origin later used the term to define aU non-Turks, namely all Farsi-speaking Muslims wbo, in those days, were widely regarded as Arabs. [ ...] As we shall see, some relics of this use of the term continued until the 20th century. But even starting in the 11th century, the name Tajik was broadly applied to the Persians as the vehicles for Islam in Turkistan.

There are also a sprinkling of words of Chinese origin such as "'Ii 'tea' < Chinese ¥ 7 that entered the Tajik lexicon presumably through Uyghur and/or Uzbek. 8 0.3. Spcabn Most Tajik speakers are in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; within Uzbekistan, Samarqand and Bukhara are particularly densely populated by Tajik speakers.9 However, the total number of Tajik speakers in these countries has never been definitively determined, partly because principles on which Central Asian people identify themselves have varied from religious to regional and linguistic ones (Bartol'd 1964: 528-529 cited in Komatsu 1996: 244), and also because political and pragmatic considerations had an effect on their self-identification (see Atkin 1992:48-49, Chvyr 1993, Komatsu 1995:266-268). 10

1

10

Works related to the Tajik-Russian contact/influences include 1he following: Jusufov (1968), Kalontarov (1955, 1964b), KuJiina (1966), Sarofov (1961a, 196lb, 1964, 1968), Tilavov (1958), Xolmatova {1966), Xolov {1970), and Yusufov (1971). Contrastive Tajik-Russian studies inchide Abdullaeva (1970), Artykova (1957), Koroleva (1969), Mixajli~o (1958), and Sadykova (1958). ProooiDiced /fi'a 1/ and romanized as cb8 in pinyin in present~y Mandarin. (However, the initial consonant seems to realize as an apical post-alveolar affiicate in young speakers' Standard Chinese of Beijing (see Lee and Zee 2003: 112).) According to TOdO's (1969:221) reconstruction, -lwas /till with a plosive in T6ng and was /fa/ with an affiicate in SOng. In Pulleyblank's (1991) reconstruction, -l- is /drW or /drt:/ in Early Middle Chinese, !trfiB:/ in Late Middle Chinese, and /~'/ in Early Mandarin. See ~eyblank (1991:2-3) for his periodizationofChinese. Tursuoov et al. (1995:46-51) liSt Uzbek words that they consider to be Chinese in origin. Some of these, such as.-- 'noodles with minced meat', are found also in Tajik. The 26,500 (according to Gao 1985: 1) or approximately 33,000 (according to the 1990 eeosus in Zhongguo da bai ke quan shu zong bian ji wei yuan hui 1994: 33 1) /tu4sikf people in China are speakers of the Pamir languages /sariqul/ and IWU7J (Gao 1985: 1-4). /tu~, which is a Sariqul word, is referred to as 11}/Xd 4 t ..t in pinyin. In pinyin, /sariqul/ and IWU7J are saJlb)lr f1 .1. ,4- ~ (written also as s616ikuold ff-'t~~. sdld.b1lr~~-~. etc.) and wDJ4n 1Uf, respectively. The first of.th~ languages, which is called CapHJCYnii in Tajik, is referred to in English texts variously as Sarikoli, Ssrykol, and Sluiqul. The second, which is BaxoHii in Tajik, appears in English writings as Vathi, Wux, Wathi, or Wakhao (see, for example, Schwarz 1984, Payne 1987:514, and Menges 1989:67). In addition, according to Atkin (1992:49), "there are a number of small ethnic groups in Tajikistan which are ... not recognized by the regime as full-fledged nationalities ... For official purposes,

Obviously, the term 'Tajik' has been defined on various bases at various times - the bases range from linguistic to regional and religious. Since a linguistical1y defined group rarely coincides completely with a religious group or a group that is regiona11y defined, referents of the linguistic Tajik, religious Tajik, and regional Tajik explained above comprise different (but intersecting) sets of individuals. For example, there has been such an expression as 'Tajik-speaking Uzbeks' where 'Uzbek' was used in contrast with Shiite Iranians who migrated to Bukhara and who, according to Chvyr, called themselves 'Tajik' or 'Pors'. 'Tajik' 12 refers to people from the caliphate. in Historical Chinese, namely *. This diversity in the referents of 'Tajik' is present today- a Sariqul-speaking Ismailian in T~ortan may refer to herself as a Tajik (/tu<&kf) and be identified as a member of tljlke z6 .¢tf ~--. or the Tajik nation, by the Chinese government, while a Shiite whose first Ian-

*,

11

12

1hey are counted as Tajika, regardless of how they descn'be themselves or the language 1hey speak as 1heir mother tongue". There are other theories concerning the origin of 1he teno ' Tajik'. Menges (1989: 65) writes the following: "Tajik is a term which probably goes back to a ralher old Persian designation of the Arabs, Tui. Later, 1his teno was used throughout Central Asia in a much broader- sense, meaning ai1 people of Muslim faith, regardless of nationality. Thus it also came to be !mown as IA-sby (Ts-sbib) in China, where it is used in the same vague sense, sometimes meaning Turkistan, at other times the realm of the caliphate." Another theory relates~ ' Tajik' with~ 'erown' (Akiner 2001 :7). Explanations of the meaning of tljlkdin some Chinese sources as well as a venc in To"U«, a popular poem by I'ynpyxcop (in Hxnoc. 1981:91 c.i. AF), are premised on 1his theory. k would be represented as d8sbf in present..day Mandarin pinyin, but 1he pronunciation of 1his word in Middle Chinese was k /daj/ *' /dzrjX/ (/r/ in the second syllable indicates that the preceding phoneme /d71 is retroflex), aecording to TOdO's (1980: 383, 396) reconstruction. Pulleyblank (1991) reconstructs the pronunciation of*-*' as the following. For *-.,/dab/ and /daj'/ in Early Middle Chinese and /t.fia'/ and /tfiaj'/ in Late Middle Chinese; for *,/zik/ in Early Middle Chinese and /$fii~k/ in Late Middle Chinese.

*

4

Taji.k

guage is (Bukharan) Taji.k may call himself an Iranian13 while referring to Tajik-speaking 14 Sunni Bulcharans as Uzbeks. Chvyr (1993: 247-248) illustrates the use of'Taji.k' today thus: Historically multisemantic, the word Taji.k is now used rather loosely in different parts of Tajikistan. Some population groups regard themselves as Uzbeks who speak Taji.k and there are Uzbek-speaking groups who call themselves Tajiks. There are also groups who speak Taji.k and who identify themselves as Tajiks, but who, surprisingly, call their native language Porsi (Farsi or Persian). In today's usage of the term in English, 'Taji.k' refers most often to one group of Sunni Iranian speakers in Central Asia. 'Tajik' in this usage is defined linguistically (as well as with geography and religion) and hence usually does not include Pamir speakers who are nationals of Tajikistan in its referential domain.

0.5. Oriboplrpbical dllllgea One of the most important tasks in which Taji.k intellectuals engaged themselves immediately after the foundation of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Tajikistan was standardization of the Taji.k language. As Lazard (1970: 71) writes, "In the twenties and the thirties, linguistic activity in Tajikistan was mainly devoted to the practical work of standardizing the language 15 an~ its orthography first in Latin, then in Cyrillic script". The Tajik alphabet in Latin script, 16 used in printing apparently in the first was ofmodifications, number a which would undergo 17 late nineteen-twenties. Tajik written in Arabic script was still very much in currency in the nineteen-twenties, during which period Latin script and Arabic script were mingled on pages ofTaji.k journals such as raiJIIari doni$. Some of the issues that intellectuals brought up in the course of the standardization of 1 Taj~ included the following: I) the creation of a literary language which would be simple 13

14 15

16

17

11

This is because it is believed that 3poHH~B, or Iranians, in Bukhara have migrated to Bukhara from Iran mainly in the 16th and 17th centuries. To make the matter more complicated, it is not uncommon for Bukharan Tajik speakers to use 'Uzbek' for self-reference. For a detailed account for the Latinization of the Tajik alphabet, see Jahangiri (1997). Asimova (1982) chronicles the transition of the Tajik alphabet from 1920 to 1940, when the Tajik alphabet was Cyrillicized. Kalontarov (1964a) contains material concerning the Cyrillicization of the Tajik alphabet. Perry (1996) covers more recent events involving the writing system ofTajik. Huseynov (1970), which I have not seen, appears to be a summary of his presentation on the development of literary Tajik in the nineteen-twenties. See issues of nhuti dOIJii for the Latin-based orthography in transition. Yunusov's (1981:90-116) bibliography lists an article related to the Central Committee of the new alphabet of Tajikistan (I< O'l'lery 1.(1< uoaoro antj>aaHTB T8AKK~CHCT11Ba) and an article about the problem of orthography (MacLa~Iau HMIIO) published in as early as 1923 and 1926, respectively. According to Grenoble (2003: 153), "in 1927 the decision was made to cease using Arabic script in favor of the modified Latin alphabet''. The first time the Tajik alphabet in Latin script was printed was perhaps when the alphabet appeared in several pages of the journal rabsari donil in 1928. The intellectuals' writings on standardization ofTajik are compiled into ho~im (1930).

Introduction S and accessible to the masses (a'lo-zoda 1930:4, Jahangiri 1997:24), 2) determining the dialect or (Iranian) language on which it was to be based, and 3) making the language a component of the specific identity of Tajikistan. The second was the issue that provoked a heated debate. The dialects of the centres of Taji.k culture such as Bukhara and Samarqand were natural candidates for the basis of standard Taji.k. Although the dialects were highly Uzbelcicized, which was not a welcome feature for a language that was hoped to constitute part of the identity of the newly founded republic of Tajikistan, the odds were in Bukharan Taji.k's favour -the Bukhara-Samarqand dialects eventually became a basis of standard Tajik. This is due at least partly to the fact that Sadriddin Ayni, the scholar who dominated the academe of Tajikistan since the establishment of the republic, was from Soktare in the province of Gwluvon, which is some 30 km west ofBukhara, and was educated in Bukhara. Melex's (1968:22 cited in E!niyozov 1977: 20) dialectological work also suggests the influence of Aynrs own dialect on standard Tajik; "a comparison between the (H!duvon dialect and the literary language shows that, in both the domain of phonetics and the domain of morphology and vocabulary, they possess an immense unity'' (my translation; see also Jahangiri 1997:24-25). It was not long after the Taji.k writing system in Latin script had stabilized that the CyriUicization of Taji.k took place, namely in 1940. A number of changes, most of which were relatively minor, were made in Taji.k orthography in the period between 1940 and the nineteen-nineties. A set of orthographical rules of literary Tajik was established in 1953, in which the Russian letters <~ and were introduced and Russian loan words started to be written 19 in accordance with Russian orthography. The commission of the Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature compiled a new edition of the modem literary Tajik orthography in 1967 (K.a.lontarov 1967). Major changes in orthography took place in the nineties when several letters were abolished in the alphabet. Words borrowed from or through Russian were no longer written in accordance with Russian orthography and w was withdrawn from the alphabet 20 In the current orthography, which was adopted by the government on the third of September, 1998, and was published in 1999, ~. ~. , and ~> are absent from the alphabet and no> is used specifically for representing Arabic 'sin and bamzab in word-medial 21 and word-final positions in Arabic loan words, e.g. ...C.)'ll 'responsible' . The letter ~ in . As a position, intervocalic in or, as orthography new the in rendered is loan words 19

20

11

and <11> bad been written as and , respectively, in Tajik (see Kalontarov and Niy021' 1943:8-9). For example, 'New York', which is spelt &IC-IIopJC in Russian, is now spelt IbiD-~ in Tajik (Oiimov and Aliev 1999: 15). Before these changes took place, the 'sign of division' (anoNATH VAOII) w was inserted between a coosonant and an 'iotated' vowel in native words and Russian loan words, e.g. .liiiiiM 'river', which is now spelt . .. The word-final w in Russian loan words, which were spell in accordance with Russian orthography, was omitted when it was followed by a vowel in compounding or suffixation, e.g. JIOIID 3e6o 'beautiful piano' (Russian pour. ' piano' + izafet particle -B + 3e6o 'beautiful'). , which is not used in the cWTent orthography, was used in loanwords. This orthographical change rendered the explanation of ~> given in Rastorgueva (1992: II) outdated. She stated that ~> I) represents no sound in word-final position, 2) indicates a syllable boundary in word-medial position, and 3) lengthens the preceding vowel when it appears between a vowel and consonant.

6

Tajik

Introduction 7

result of these changes, the number of letters in the alphabet decreased from thirty-nine to thirty-five. The letters that are used in the orthography published in 1999 (Olimov and Aliev: 1999) are shown below with their new names. Note that the order of the letters in the most recent Tajik alphabet has diverged from that of the Russian alphabet (In previous orthographies, the modified Russian letters such as and were appended to the alphabet in the Russian order.) Aa

li6

BB rr FF

~ Ee

aa

JICz

a 6e

33 HB

If

Be

a RA

R lbr

re re ,lle Ae ito liCe

3C

.K.I

Ke

~

I<.C

JJ.n

ne we He

MY Hu

Oo liD

0

~

Pp

pe

-q;-.

Cc TT Yy

ce

Illm

x.e qe -.e me

TC

1>

1>C

y

3

'9'y

f2

33 IOJo Jia

~

Xx

oe

cpe

qq

Ay ita

xe

The majority of the Tajik examples cited in this book are from the latter half of the twentieth century. Accordingly, Tajik examples in this book are written mostly in accordance with the orthography set in that period. Kalontarov (1974) and Maniyozov and Mirzoev (1991) describe the orthography of the period. 0.6. Pro-Soviet Tajik in writtal m:ords The varieties of Iranian that later became the basis ofTajik had been spoken varieties until the renovation and foundation of the Tajik language started in the nineteen-twenties? 3 Prior to the ~on of the literary Tajik language, Iranian speakers in Central Asia had used literary Perstan (as well as Uzbek, the literary predecessor of which is Chaghatay) for writing. As a result, not much data on Pre-Soviet Central Asian Iranian varieties are available today.14 There are works published in the nineteen-twenties (the formative period of literary Tajik) that contain references to some of these varieties, which even then were called dialects of Tajik. Works from which observations and data on Tajik dialects in the nineteen-twenties can be retrieved include Zarubin (1928), which contains texts of the Tajik spoken by Samarqand Jews, ~ v~ous articles published in raiJBari donij, many of which cite words and phrases from TaJik dialects. Small quantities of dialectal Tajik data are found also in non-linguistic 22 23

24

The letter <J>, by which the phoneme /e/ is represented, is also called BOB-H wawn 'latent wlw' in Olimov and Aliev (1999:9). Grenoble (2003: 152) dates the foundation of literary Tajik to a much earlier period: "A Tajiki literary language was originally founded in the ninth centwy ... This literary language did not, however, ~ widespread use. Instead, Classical Persian was used as a written language, and was the pnnc1pal governmental language". Grigor' ev (1861 ), Sem&lov (1900-190 I), 'Erfin ( 1925), and Voxidov (1971 ), which I have not seen, seem to be some of the small number of sources of such data. Hojiev (1966, 1968, 1987) a_na1yses Tilhali abli Bwcoro (1913), which was written by Minosiroji Hakim (1877-1914), ananve of Bukhara.

works such as P~va (1925), Amitin-~apiro (1926), and Paper's (1982) study of Judeo-Tajik texts in Hebrew script 0.7. Trmslitrntioo In order to facilitate easy visual recognition of Tajik examples and to ensure high readability for anyone who is familiar with the Cyrillic alphabet, Tajik texts and sentences in Cyrillic script are not transliterated in the main text However, a note of caution is necessary regarding the 'buffer' sound /j/ that appears at morpheme boundaries. Some suffixes such as the first person singular and third person plural agreement suffixes /-am/ and /-and/ are preceded by the phoneme /jl when they are suffixed to a stem ending with , , and , and hence are phonologically represented /-{j)am/ and 1-G)and/, respectively, as can be seen in the following examples. We·K)'H~

we-~~

/me-kun-and/ imp-do-3pl 'they do'

/me-ge-jand/ imp-say-3pl 'they say'

In representing such morphemes in isolation, I use the letter db for the 'buffer' consonant. For example, the third person plural agreement suffix in isolation is represented not as -aHA-'~ but as -(l)lulA, though its representation in actual text is either ~ or .DJ.A as in weK)'IIIIIJ{ and ~ In the table below, morphemes that have more than one orthographical representation or (allomorphic) form are shown with their representations in this book. In isolation -(I)IM -(l)rr -(l)am

In actual words ........... ....... -fir

-.m,-ar

-(i)ulos -(l)rroa -(l)amoa

-4MOB, -liiiOII

-(l)oa -(i)oaoa -(l)yK

-oa. ~ -)'M, -10M

-(1/a)y -(r/1/a)oa

-y, -tO, -rty -oa, -roa, ~ -aoa

-aroa. -.roB ....,., -liiiiOII ~.aoa

In isolation -(I)a -(I}~.A -(I)IK -(I)Ill -(I~

-(l)u» -(l)oaa -(I)or -(l)o-(•)1

... ................

In actual words

--.-lilt

-a, -liB -....~

---.--osa,
........

In the references section, I use the transliteration system for the Russian alphabet set by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), with modifications. The Cyrillic <X> remains as x in my transliteration and is not transliterated into h or ch as the ISO system suggests. Cyrillic ct> and will be 4 and y, respectively, as can be seen in the follow~g table. The letters in parentheses are used in transliterating Russian loan words in Tajik.

8

Tajik Introduction 9 As Ji6

BB

rr

~

Be ~ )1(]1

33

a b v g d e yo (e) f z

HH

AI KK 1In MN HB ~

y (j) k I m n f

Pp Cc Tr Yy

r s t u

Xx

X

'b1. Liw LJ. 33 IOto

(c)

JI.

~

Oo

0

QQ qq Illm

Ilo

p

~

(y)

e yu (ju) ya (ja)

~ ~

The transliteration of non-Russian Cyrillic letters in the Tajik alphabet is shown in the chart below. Pre-1940 Latin alphabe~

01.0127 li

In this book

Gt li

Qq

Qq

Do

Oil

Hh

Hh

C(:

Jj

In reference to Tajik papers/books published in Latin script, I retain their original spelling and letters, including the following. Pre-1940 Latin alphabet

In this book

Ji6

BB

BB

)1(]1(

Zz

Zz Cc

qq Illm

Cc

FF

~

s~

01.01

01.01

Vowels are inserted into the names of Tajik authors written in Arabic script in accordance with the orthography of Modern Standard Tajik (Kalontarov 1974, Maniyozov and Mirzoev 1991). The Tajik for ' the Tajik language' is shown below in different alphabets.

25

A set of orthographical rules published in 1929 (..._.... f ~~ .s~l (.ri>') ·.;~• .s~li 1929: 3) set down that capital letters should be used at the beginning of a sentence and at the beginning of a proper noun. However, the adoption of this orthographical rule by rabBari dolli~o the magazine in

26

Z1

which the set of rules was published, was slow. In 1939 and 1940, this character appeared as<{)-> in a few tables of the new Tajik Cyrillic alphabet This letter was initially~> . See moksimdf(1929: 1-2).

Arabic script Cyrillic script Transliteration in this book Pre-1940 Latin alphabet

.,S...b.;,4J 3800HH TO'I;HI(A

zaboni toj iki zaaoni t~iki

Uzbek sentences, terms, etc. in Cyrillic writing are transliterated into Latin-based writing in accordance with the current orthography set in Rahmatullayev and Hojiyev (1995). Chinese and Japanese words are transliterated respectively in pinyin and the modified Hepburn Romanization. 0.8. Nofic8 Oil the 1r:D Example sentences are taken from my field notes, Rustamov and Gafforov (1985), Arzumanov and Sanginov (1988), Rustamov (198 1), Nemenova (1955), Rastorgueva (1992), and Ahmedova (2004), unless stated otherwise. Attention was paid (particularly in §2) to present grammatical explanations with the simplest possible examples to facilitate the reader's easy understanding of each grammatical element. This book is not written to fit any particular theoretical framework. I have tried to restrict my use of linguistic terminology to that used in traditional grammar, which I hope ensures the general accessibility of this book. 0.9. Aclmowlcclganada I am very grateful to a number of people who have assisted the preparation of this grammar. Jamin Johnson provided me with his Unicode font with a comprehensive range of Cyrillic letters, some of which he created specifically for this book. Alan Libert read the entire manuscript and offered valuable comments and suggestions. The input of Sarvar Rahmatullaev and Ibrohim Mahmudov was both helpful and substantial. My foremost gratitude goes to Fatima Ahmedova, who painstakingly went over the manuscript, corrected errors, and made many important suggestions which contnbuted much to its improvement I am particularly appreciative of her critical comments and detailed suggestions on how to explicate some grammatical issues, and I adopted many of her suggestions. She also provided me with excerpts from Tajik linguistic works that I was not able to obtain. Some of her input and suggestions are indicated in the main text Needless to say, I assume full responsibility for any errors of fact or judgement in this book. I would like to acknowledge the encouragement and support of Hugh Clarke and Yasuko Claremont who provided me with an excellent environment in which to work within the Department of Japanese and Korean Studies of the University of Sydney.

1. Phonetics and Phonology Fitrat's (1930: 13-14) booklet, which is one of the earliest Western-style descriptions ofTajik phonology, identifies thirty-one phonemes in Tajik. The booklet classifies the phonemes by voicing, length (for vowels), places and manners of articulation. A much more detailed description of Tajik phonemes appeared a decade later in Buzurgzoda (1940), which makes numerous references to pronunciation in dialects. There exist a handful of instrumental studies ofTajik phonemes (e.g. Sokolova 1949, Fajzov 1983, 1985), but, to my knowledge, there are no studies in Tajik phonetics that take advantage of the sound spectrograph.

1.1. Vowels Tajik vowel phonemes are shown in the table below.

High Mid Low

Front Central Back Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded u

e

e a

Tajik linguists customarily make a distinction between 'stable' (yctyBop) and 'unstable' (uoyctyBOp) vowel phonemes. The stable vowel phonemes are /e/, /~, and /e/, which in native Tajik words correspond respectively to Early Modern Persian long vowel phonemes /~, /AI, and /o/. The unstable vowel phonemes are Iii, lui, and /a/. The following is a typical account for the two groups of vowel phonemes that is encountered in the literature ofTajik linguistics. The firSt of these groups consists of vowels whose values are relatively 'stable' in various phonetic environments. On the other hand, unstable vowel phonemes undergo qualitative and quantitative alterations (T8Fb~8 cucpaTmO MHK.IlOpii) as the phonetic environments in which they occur alter. According to Tajik linguists, unstable vowels become 'short' and are sometimes elided in unstressed open syllables (but not in stressed syllables or unstressed closed syllables). Bobomurodov (1978: 7) exemplifies this with superscript letters: cr.. ' body', c':ua 'speech' ,~ 'rice'. The vowel phoneme /if, the value of which Comrie (1996: 708) identifies as [i], has various allophones, but, according to XasWev (1983: 71), all of them are within the front and high range (in the vowel space). Some early works on Tajik phonetics (e.g. Buzurgzoda 1940: 34, 42) identify [i:] as a separate phoneme, which they typically represent with i, while acknowledging that in some dialects (e.g. Samarqand and Xujand dialects) [i) and [i:) are not phonologically distinct Xaska§ev (1983: 63), on the other hand, states that no minimal pairs where vowel length is phonological can be found in Modern Tajik.29 28

29

Tan.HpOT 'change' is spell Tari!HpOT in the current orthography. Nemenova (1955: 528) notes that, in usual (fluent) pronunciation, <1>> in such words as 6a.ll 'then; afterwards' and l>lliU}'II 'known; evident' where it is preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant, lengthens the preceding vowel. Provided that Nemenova's description is correct, this

12 Tajik

Phonetics and Phonology 13

According to Bobomurodov (1978: 6) the three rounded vowels differ in their degree of roundedness. In the pronunciation of lei, the lips do not protrude as much as they do in the pronunciation of lui. He ·puts the rounded vowels in the following descending order of roundedness: lui, lei, 1~1. The letter db, which is called 'accented Iii' (H-H 3&,n8HoK), represents a sound that is phonologically not distinct from Iii. Despite its name, db is not necessarily accented. The letter is utilised primarily for making an orthographic distinction between the derivational suffix -1 (see §2.4), the second person singular subject-verb agreement suffix -a, and the izafet particle -11 (see also §2.2.7.2). The OCC\DTence of db is confined to word-final position and is replaced by when it is followed by a suffix or compounding morpheme. The replacement of db with can be observed in the following pair of example sentences in the latter of which the izafet marker -a is suffixed to a..61 'literary'. 33008-H

1.2. CcmoNota Tajik consonant phonemes are shown in the table below. Following the IPA convention, where letters appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. LabioBilabial dental Plosive Nasal

Fricative

t

d

Velar

Uvular Glottal

k

q

g

7

n

m

r

f

v

s

z

Affricate

....

.,.&1-H

b

Trill

tongue-iz literary 'literary language' 33008-H

p

PostDental alveolar Palatal

Approximant Lateral Iapproximant

f 3 f ct

X

..

h

j 1

TO'UD<

tongue-iz literary-iz Tajik 'Tajik literary language' and db represent ljil after a vowel. The phoneme lei, like Iii, has different representations in the Cyrillic-based orthography. While G> is used specifically for /e/, <e>is used for both /e/ 30 and its 'iotated' variation, namely /je/. is read /jel word-initially and post-vocally. The phonemes and their orthographic representations is vowel Tajik between correspondence summarized below. Phonological Orthographic Examples lei, /jel ce lsel'three', e.uDI /jelim/ 'glue' Iii, ljil , Jl6pu librat/ 'example', ...,_. lafzoji§l 'increase' lei G> YJJOX. lez:Jh! 'explanation' lui YIP luzr/ 'apology' lei 6ycalbesal 'kiss' /jal BBJ:r /nijat/ 'intention' /j~ ~ /j~ 'memory' /ju/ JOBOBii /jun~nil 'Greek'

Following Xaska!ev (1983: 51-52), the voiceless alveolar affiicate [tS), which was typically represented by in the pre-1989 orthography, is not included in this inventory of consonant phonemes, because this non-native phoneme is not nativized and is often replaced in pronun32 ciation with /s/.31 The glottal stop nl is written with <,.>, which appears in words of Arabic 33 the articulation of If/, the tongue is In 'ain. and bamzab Arabic to corresponds origin and raised towards the forward part of the hard palate, to both sides of which the sides of the grooved tongue touches (ibid: 182). The use of /y is limited and is commonly substituted for by let/, hence, for example, the additional entry 11o11r9 /micta/ for MIDIIl /~ 'eyelash' in dictionaries such as Kalontarov (1955:229). The affiricates /'{/and let/ are articulated with the 'front part of the tongue' (KliCMH nemu 3a6o8) touching the front part of the hard palate near the alveolar ridge (Xask~v: 78-79). The tip of the tongue does not touch the alveolar ridge 4 and is lowered (ibid:79) in the articulation of the affiicates.l Word-fmal geminate consonants in Arabic words borrowed into Tajik are de-geminated, e.g. Arabic;;,; /fann/ > Tajik . . . /fan/ 'science'. However, many such words revert to their original forms through word formation and suffixation, as Arabic lfannl does in Tajik tuBA lfanni/ 'scientific', which is an adjective derived from +as with the suffix -(a)I (§2.4.3). 31

For example, such Russian words as

C7'V1I(HI, IUIPX,

and

Ilt:Mt:HT become

/istansa/, lsirk/, and

lsementl or Is~. respectively, in Tajik pronunciation.

appears to make vowel lengthening one means by which such words as ~ 'bad' and &:... are 30

distinguished from each other in the type of colloquial speech that she describes. The orthography of 1991 (Maniyozov and Mirzoev 1991:7) prescribes that should be read /je/ in word-initial position, after a vowel, and in Russian loan words where the letter is pronounced [is] in Russian. It also prescribes that, in words borrowed into Tajik from or through Russian, Russian orthography apply independently of the Tajik orthography. For example, dlo>, rather than <~!>.appears for Russian /jot in some loanwords, e.g. to.. 'iodine'.

~ is called anowant cana 'sign of stoppage' in the orthography of Maniyozov and Mirzoev (1991:10). n Arabic • Jumzab and t 'am represent a glottal stop and voiced pharyngeal fricative, respectively. Pharyngeal fricatives exist in Tajik dialects. They are sometimes associated with the Tajik dialects of Central Asian Jews but are also found in a number of other dialects (see E!niyozov 1977: Chapter 2). J.< In my audio data of Bukharan Tajik, /'If and /rtf auditorily approximate to the Japanese alveolopalatal affiricates [()!:]and [Jz], respectively. 32

14 Tajik

Phonetics and Phonology 15

1.3. Pbooemes in spcedl Examples of regressive and progressive assimilation include the regressive devoicing of /z/ in loi83I:YP 'mentioned' > /maslrur/, regressive voicing of lsi in aoocry30p 'founder'> /as'Jz~r/, bilabial articulation of In! (i.e. [m]) in 3llll6ap ' barrow' > /zambar/, fricativization of lc¥ in IIIIQIIa 'plan' > /naxfa/ and 11111;1.' 'time' > /va'1J), and word-final devoicing of fbi in ac6 'trade; profession' > lbsp/. Some examples of epenthesis and elision: COX'NOB /~nl 'building' > l~nl and ~ lduzdl 'theif' > /duz/. Metathesis occurs in such consonant clusters as /br/, l fxj, l fll, lzrl, and /fv/, e.g.... /afv/ 'forgiving' > /avf/ and ~ /ahv'Jl/ 'condition' > /avh'Jl/. The Russian phoneme /a/ in loan words is realized in Tajik as /'J/ in various environments, e.g. Te8T]J 'theatre' > /te'Jtir/. 3'

1.4. SyUablc sUudure A native Tajik syllable has the syllable structure of (C)V(C)(C}, i.e. V, CV, VC, vee, eve, andCVee. o-00-Jtii IDH·pa 8p-JHID

op-Jy XHIDT-pe-Jii

mr6().po

IUfl'66..B

book-obj 'the book (direct object)'

book-iz I 'my book'

KBM6JI-oB

ryclrr-b-MA?

Kamol-ov (Russian gen.pl.) 'Kamolov (surname)'

said-2pl-q 'did you say?'

MaR

O,lliM-e

man-a 'a/some man' 1.5.2. Strca .ur.ctin8 motpbc:mca There are also morphemes that attract stress. Such stress-attracting morphemes include at least the negative D- and the imperfective aspect marking ~ (and probably also the imperative &t-).

'welfare' 'syrup, juice' 'value, price' 'desire, wish' 'casting of bricks'

Bi-myA neg-became.3sg 's/he did not become'

1.5. Word 1Cre8s The word stress generally falls on the final syllable. However, there are a number of exceptions to this general rule, many of which result from the stress-shifting functions of some morphemes.

Mo- also attracts stress but there are contradicting descriptions on how strongly its stress-attraction operates. For example, Rustamov and Gafforov (1985: 54) assigns stress to 110-, as in the following example. u6-XOHJ:1·8M

1.5.1. SCraHcpclkm morpbcmea There are morphemes that repel and shift stress to their preceding syllables. Such stress-repellent morphemes include the copulae -(I)IU, -a, 8CI', -c:u, -q/~ -(l)ugt direct object marker -po, izllfet marker -a, indefiniteness marker -e, Russian suffixes -oJt, -aa, -o.n, -oaa. etc. in surnames and patronyms, and the interrogative particle -M1.36 was

CTYAem.....

student-cop.! sg I 'I am a student'

" 36

OIIX,O

T811a6a-rOH~

they student-pl-cop.3pl 'they are students'

See Oafforov (1979:48). A number of works in Tajik linguistics list more morphemes, such as pronominal clitics (see §2.l.I.S), as 'morphemes that are not stressed'. However, my audio data contain some instances where some such morphemes receive pitch accent, which renders the morphemes perceptually (uncle-lsg) 'my paternal prominent. For example, in the two occurrences of unfocused uncle' that I measured, the third a was higher than the second a by approximately 10Hz and 20

Hz.

imp-read-lsg 'I read' However, according to Rastorgueva (1992: 10), ~receives only the secondary stress, with the primary stress falling on the agreement suffix, e.g.: .e..rnp-iM

imp-take-lsg 'I take' There are also contradicting claims regarding stress placement in the juxtaposition of the two stress-attracting morphemes. Buzurgzoda ( 1940: 64) writes that, while in literary Tajik and a large group of dialects, ~ that follows D- receives stress, in a part of south-eastern dialects the stress moves to D-. u-u6-paB-BM

neg-imp-go-lsg 'I do not go'

Bkto-paB-YM (South Eastern dialect) neg-imp-go-lsg 'I do not go'

16 Tajik

On the other hand, Nemenova (1955: 532) writes that aa-- receives the (primary) stress while an additional stress falls on the last syllable.

ai-we-mp-AM neg-imp-take-1sg 'I do not take'

Thus, there appears to be no general agreement among Tajik linguists regarding stress place-ment in cases where we- occurs or where aa-- and we- co-occur. 1.5.3. Otba- issues In the simple past form, two patterns of stress placement may be observed.

rY
6M~·eM

said-Isg 'I said'

came-l pi 'we came'

ry
OM~-eM came-1pl 'we came'

Stress may be used to distinguish a verb in the conditional mood from the same verb in the imperative mood, which are segmentally identical. paa-~

go-3sg 'let him/her go'

p3B-8.a go-3sg 'if s/he goes'

Some Russian loan words may be nativized to be subject to Tajik word stress placement principles. Nemenova (1955: 532) presents the following as an example: aproJDJ:i
'ice cream' 'post'

> marozina I maroznf > ptl$ta

2. Morphology Megerdoomian (2000: I) describes Persian mo!J)hology as "an afflXal system consisting mainly of suffixes and a few prefiXes", which description also suits Tajik morphology. The morphological segmentability of Tajik words is !Ilarkedly high compared to words in the Indo-Iranian predecessors of Tajik, which makes Tajik morphologically more agglutinative than inflectional. 2.1. NomiDal. morphology 2.1.1. Nouns 2.1.1.1. Numba: The native suffixes -xp and -(rlila)oa (i.e. -oa and its allomorphs -roa, -IJOB, and -&1) are the primary means of marking plurality. The latter suffix has weak productivity in modern literary Tajik where only -xp possesses high productivity. Among nouns pluralized with -(rlifa)oa, those ending in take -roa, while those with final or take -&1 and those with final or take -11011. -xp

-(r/1/J)oB

KHr06-xp book-pi 'books'

31lH-oJI

reonor-xp geologist-pi 'geologists'

6o(io.eB

woman-pi 'women'

grand father-pi 'grand fathers •

6a'la-roB child-pi 'children' oxy-IJOB roe deer-pi 'roe deer'

-xp is suffixed indiscriminatorily to all types of nouns. On the other band, the majority of nouns to which -(rlifa)oa is suffixed denote ani!llllte entities. Nouns to which -(rlifa)oB is suffixed include also nouns for body parts, plants and vegetation, astral bodies, and temporal units, as well as nouns with the suffixes -oop, -cop, and -6op (see §2.4.1) (Rustamov 1981: 73). ,!I,aCT-oR

'llliDM..OR

hand-pi 'hands'

eye-pi 'eyes'

.o.apax1'-0B

ca6Ja:JOp-o& green meadow-pi 'green meadows'

tree-pi 'trees'

18 Tajik

Morphology 19 ma&GI night-pi 'nights'

Cln'Opa-roll

star-pi 'stars'

Some words in the Arabic plural are used in Tajik with a sense different from that of their 37 singular counterparts, e.g. ~ 'side' and IIIJXlt 'environment'.

However, the pluralization of nouns denoting animate entities with -{rllh)oa is very often a matter of stylistic preference. Different writers may use different plurality markers for the same noun. There is a general tendency for writers who place high value on the language of classical literature to prefer -{rllh)os to -IS>. 6a'I8-IS)

6a'l&-r08

child-pi 'children'

child-pi 'children'

Singular

tapacp

Broken pl.

..rpocp

Tajikpl.

~IS>

'side, direction' 'sides; environment' side-pi 'sides'

The plural suffix -11110, which originates in northern dialects, is used with proper nouns and kinship terms. It is used with the name of a person to refer to the family or a group of people of which the person is a member.

Words in the Arabic broken plural may be considered singular and be redundantly pluralized with the Arabic sound feminine plural suffix -OT or/and with the Tajik suffix -IS>. This practice is particularly frequent in the colloquial register.

xa6ap '(piece of) news, information'

Cacpap-BBO Safar-pl 'the family of Safar' or 'the group (e.g. staff) to which Safar belongs'

Broken pl.

ax6op

Double pl.

ax6op-OT(-IS>)

'news, information' 'news, information'

~ll,ltOB-BBO

Ahmadov-pl 'the Ahmadovs' In the colloquial language, persons.

-11110

is also used to present individuals as members of a set of

It should be noted that many nouns in the Arabic plural have acquired the status of singular nouns with collective meaning, which often justifies apparently redundant pluralization of nouns in the Arabic plural. T8IIDCHJI

Oibc,Jo,

0JIHM<{oH, (sa)

KapHM-BBO

'arrangement, formation'

(RG: I OI)

Olimjon, (and) Karim-pl '(a group consisting of) Oyqiz, Olimjon, and Karim'

Oyqiz,

CHp

maxc

Broken pl.

'secret' acpop 'secrets; mystery, secret'

amxoc

Tajikpl.

C~IS>

WBX<>-IS>

secret-pi 'secrets'

person-pi 'individuals, persons; people'

'individual, person'

T8IIDCHJI-OT

Double pl.

TaiiDCHJI-~IS>

'organization' 'organizations'

Arabic broken plural marking coexists with Tajik native plural marking in some words. Singular

Arabic pl.

This is the case also with a small number of Tajik nouns to which Arabic pluralization is applied. Arabic -OT (which has the variations -~ and -1101' in Tajik) is suffixed not only to Arabic loan words, but also to a limited number ofTajik words.

'people; individuals, persons'

37

There appears to be a trend towards more frequent use of Arabic broken plurals such as YJIYII (plural of HJDof 'science'), E)'IY6 (plural of JCHT06 'book'), 111)'11110 (plural of moHp 'poet') in the Tajik writing of today, particularly in the literary register (Ahmedova: p.c.).

20 Tajik JJ.ex/JJ.ex;J. 'village' JJ.eX:-ot 'countryside'

Morphology 21 ca638 'verdure, green grass' ca63a-110r 'vegetables'

There are a few instances where Arabic broken plural marking is applied to Tajik words, e.g. ~ 'expert, master' and ~ These are found in poetic or archaic style and are considered to be outside the norm of modern literary Tajik - 8CODIUII is not registered as an entry even in comprehensive Tajik dictionaries (e.g. Rahimi and Uspenskaya 1954). The use of the Arabic (masculine accusative/genitive) plural suffix -1111 is also obsolete and is confined to a few archaic or poetic words. MYcoci>HJrRB

M}'IIJIJJHM·RB

visitor-pi 'visitors'

teacher-pi 'teachers'

The use of the Arabic dual marker -dB is confined to the register of poetry/belles-lettres and is replaced by -x,o in other registers. Tap~

side-dual 'two sides/parties'

ntpaq,..x,o side-pi 'sides'

J(,8BC-da

1(,8110-X,O

bracket-dual 'pair of brackets'

bracket-pi 'brackets'

II~ JJ.acJ!rap-](.0-R five notebook-pl-iz 'five thick notebooks'

Feminine

five notebook 'five notebooks'

thick

moRp 'male poet' moRpa 'female poet'

TaJia6a 'school-boy' romr6a 'school-girl'

Some native Taji.k (proper) nouns have adopted the Arabic feminine suffix -a.

(Ahmedova 2004)

Numerals precede nouns in their 'singular' forms to specify the numerical values of nouns. (The numerical singularity of the referent of a noun can be denoted by the co-occurrence of the noun witho: 'one' or the indefinite suffix -e, (see §2.1.1.3).) ~.llacllntp

rac

2.1.1.2. Geuder Tajik does not have grammatical gender, but the natural gender distinction in Arabic is retained in some loan words denoting professions/occupations.

Masculine

J.ll$ap notebook '(a) notebook(s)'

0:

However, one may encounter exceptional cases where this is not the case, e.g. cc 6apoJJ.apoa (three brother-pi) 'three brothers' (Att.Ha). There are also a small number of words, such as ~ (lit 'seven brothers') 'Ursa Major', in which old pluralization is fossilized. Numerically qualified nouns can also be pluralized if they take a modifier in the izafet construction (Ahmedova 2004).

Masculine

The 'singular' form of the Tajik noun, much like that of the Turkish noun (Lewis 1967: 26), denotes I) a category or 2) an individual member of that category and is neutral in terms of number. Hence the plural interpretation 'apples' of cc6 '(an) apple(s)' in the example below. TaHX,o JJ.e:U.OR-<>B.llap 6o30p cc6 we-cllypYn·8RJ.I. market apple imp-sold-3pl only peasant-pi in 'Only peasants were selling apples in the market'

rarro6 one book 'alone book'

rarro6 book '(a) book(s)'

Feminine

Rp)i3-a Firtlz.fem

Xypme,1.1 Xuded Xypme,1.1-a Xuded-fem

The natural gender distinction may be retained in Russian profession/occupation names. Masculine

UROHep

Feminine

IIROHep.D

'male pioneer' 'female pioneer' The native Taji.k method of distinguishing female profession/occupation names from their male counterparts is to compound profession/occupation names with :taa 'woman' and .10'D1IP 'girl'.

22 Tajik Masculine Feminine

Morphology 23 Koprap 'worker' KopraJXilll kOprapJO'XTIP 'female worker'

'laBOR

'youth' '{1180113811

noun phrases ending with a pronoun or a pronominal clitic, such as D'1'0&I uaa 'my book', Sll'l'06Im 'his book', and IB'I'06a ~'each other's book'.)

'lliBO~

IOfT06-H

'young woman'

2.1.1.3. J)cfinitmc:ss There is no unanimous agreement among Tajik linguists as to how definiteness and indefiniteness are fonnally distinguished in Tajik, though it is generally accepted that the object marker -po and the suffix -e are involved in marking definiteness and indefiniteness. The account of (in)definiteness marking provided here is mostly based on Rustamov (1981: 80-92) 31 an~ Usmanov's (1979) account summarized in Ahmedova (2004). Let us start by illustrating encode &owyalbndl 'indefithat morphemes the1r account for the suffix -e. They identify two niteness' and wyaltndi 'definiteness'. These morphemes are written as -e and -e (which are called 'articles' in the Tajik linguistic literature). Accordingly, -e and ~ are gl~ssed tentatively as 'a' and 'the', respectively, in this book. -e2 is used only 'with th~ head of a relative clause (§3.3.1).

K8JJOR-e x.aBJIH·H courtyard-iz big-a 'a large house'

ma&K.O&ap-e JCHT06-H xy6-H book-iz good-iz interesting-a 'a good (and) interesting book' In a highly literary style, -e, may be attached to the modified noun. MYTPH~

Ho6HHO

musician·a blind 'a blind musician' -e, can be used with proper nouns as can be seen in the following example where -e, is attached to a noun phrase whose head is the proper noun AAHR.

mro6-e, (kH lll)'MO .llO,ll·e~ book-the that you gave-2pl 'the book which you gave'

6y.ll HH3 6y.ll, xop-e x.ap k.8.!1.8p fYJI ,nap fYJIHCTOH also was.3sg flower garden every much flower was.3sg thorn-a in (Usmanov 1979:39 c.i. AF)39 AAHH-H 6e'lopa-R yue,llBop-e HJO 6y.ll was.3sg also hopeful-a Ayoi-iz poor-iz 'There were so many flowers in the flower garden, there was a thorn as well; There was a feeble, hopeful Ayoi as well'

On ~ other hand, -e, marks indeftniteness and is suffixed to noun phrases, giving them the reading of 'a' or 'some'. mro~

book-a 'a/some/one/any book' Nouns to which -e, is attached are usually in their singular forms. Map,ll-e man-a 'a/some man'

Hem-e kindness-a 'a kindness'

~

~Qnpa-e

water-a 'some water'

drop-a 'a drop'

-e, can co-occur with a noun phrase consisting of a noun in the plural and an adjective, in 40 which case, -e1 intensifies the quality expressed by the adjective to which it is attached. xycycHJrT-x.o-H a'OI~ ,llapaxT-oH surpnsmg-a feature-pl-iz tree-pi 'trees have very interesting features'

Usmanov (1978) is a contrastive study of (in)definiteness marking in Tajik and English.

.llOP-aH.Il have-3pl

(A lllyx:YxJI c.i. AF)

The use of -e, is largely confined to the literary register. In the colloquial language, -e, is replaced by o: 'a', whose semantic content as a lexical item, i.e. the numeral o: 'one', is lost (or abstracted) in this usage (Usmanov 1979:11 c.i. AF).

mro6 one book 'one/a/some book'

0:

-e, is attached not to the modified noun but to the modifier in the izafet construction. In other words, -e, is attached to the end of the entire noun phrase. (The suffix -e is not attached to

)I

xy6-e

book-iz good-a 'a good book'

39

40

Map.ll one man 'one/a/some man'

0:

This verse belongs to Albdl (F838J1Hi1:78 c.i. AF). This explanation is based on Usmanov (1979:66) as summariz.ed in Ahmedova (2004).

24 Taji.k

Morphology 25

Jk and -e, can co-occur.with a noun phrase to 'emphasize' the indefiniteness and singularity of the referent of the phrase. .a:

Map.zt-e

one man-a 'a man'

.11:

Map.zt-H

~

beautiful-a one man-iz 'a handsome man'

2.1.1.4. c..c The historical Indo-European case distinctions have disappeared in Tajik, in which nouns are not inflected for case. However, in colloquial Tajik, a series of postpositions/suffaxes fonns the following paradigm that may be seen as a case system. This paradigm is confined to the colloquial language and is outside the nonn of literary Tajik.

mro6-po XOR book-obj read 'read the book'

mro6-e XOR read book-a 'read a book'

JCHT06

.ztK.Il-8M Pycraw-a Rustam-acc saw-lsg 'I saw Rustam'

mro6-am PycnM-a Rustam-gen book-3sg 'Rustam's book'

book read 'read (a) book(s)'

According to Usmanov (1979: 80 c.i. AF) an object marked with both -po and -e refers to an ' indefinite entity in a definite group of entities.

Definiteness may also be marked by BB or oa, whose semantic contents as lexical items ('this' and 'that', respectively) are, according to D.furaev (1972: 165-166 c.i. AF), weakened (or abstracted) and which are used as definiteness markers.42

--

p&q!T PycTiw went.3sg Rustam 'Rustam left/went'

XOB

KlfT06..o.po mp take book-a-obj 'take one of the books'

-41 (zero morpheme) -(I)a -&

Nominative Accusative/Genitive Dative Locative

Indefiniteness of nouns can be marked also with such pronouns as G'OII (see Ma"sumi 1959: 179-180), ._,... (§2.1.2.5), --..ow .a: (lit. 'which'+ 'one'), and JJIII-U..OW (§2.1.2.6), all of which can be translated as 'a' or 'some', e.g . .D'OII Drr06 'some/a/any book', D.AOM .MIIpA 'some/a man', and~ ur 'some/a bed'. The object marker -po, which is realized as -(l)a in colloquial Taji.k (see §2.1.1.4),41 is attached to direct objects which are definite. Compare the following set of examples where only the object marked with -po is definite.

HR

mro6-JUt

PycTuf-6a

cl>HpRCTO.zt·aM

Rustam-dat sent-lsg 'I sent (smt) to Rustam'

R8BHmtarft

this book-Joe write.ptpl '(it is) written in this book' The accusative case marker -(l)a, which serves also as the genitive case marker, is the 43 colloquial equivalent of the literary Taji.k object marker -po. An argument may be made for the inclusion of the comitative or instrumental case with the postposition ~ 'with' to this colloquial Tajik paradigm.

M88

uyaliiDIM

artl

OMB.zt-8M

teacher with came-lsg 'I came with the teacher'

I

Co.ztmC. a:J Apo6a-e 6epya owa.zt. came.Jsg Sodiq from out cart-a (Usmanov 1979:123 c.i. AF) .ztaBK.Il. ran.3sg •A cart came out. Sodiq ran after the cart.'

41

42

oa nac-u behind-iz that

apo6a cart

.R.astorgueva (1m: 41} writes the following: "The southern and central dialects of Tajikistan (Kulyab, Darvaz, Karategin, Vanob, Gissar} offer an exception to this, since there the postposition -po or its phonetic variant-s- are [sic] widely used parallel to a mainly in words that end in vowels: 11101111pa (occasionally 1110111p0} rap 'take the comb'." Provided this is the case, it exemplifies the process of grammaticalization where demonstratives become definite articles (Hopper and Traugott 1993:8-9, 166}.

IQUilDI D'llt MaR HR-a this-ace pencil with I 'I wrote this with a pencil'

R8BHmt·8M

wrote-lsg

In some dialects such as the ones in the Ferghana valley, this paradigm of case marking is extendable to incorporate more 'case' morphemes, some of which may be products of the language contBct between Taji.k and Uzbek (the locative -» shown in the paradigm above 44 may be one such morpheme).

43 44

I refer to literary Tajik -po as the object marker, distinguishing it from colloquial Tajik -(l)a. See, however, Mwuvvatov (1970:260}.

26 Tajik

Morphology 27

2.1.l.S. P088C81iao The izafet construction and the use of pronominal clitics are the two primary ways of expressing possession in Tajik. In the izafet construction, the possessee, to which the izafet particle is suffixed, precedes the possessor. ~B

NaH

acap-J~,
work-pl-iz they 'their works'

AAmt work-iz Aynl 'the work of Aynl', 'Ayni's work'

acap-x.
work-pl-iz Ayni and Garurov 'the works of Ayni and Gafurov'

Pronominal clitics are suffixed to the possessee. The 'buffer' sound /j/ (represented in the table below as db; see § 0. 7) is inserted between a vowel other than /a/ and a pronominal clitic that follows it lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

.zzyxrap-x.~· IOf1'06.aloB girl-pl-'gen' book-3pl 'girls' book'

OHX,O

book-iz I 'my book' acap-B

mf06..am book-3sg Ayni-'gen' 'Aynl's book'

Aibm-s

Focus appears to affect the speaker's choice between the two possessive expressions, i.e. the izafet construction and the use of pronominal clitics.* If the focus is on the possessor, the izafet construction seems to be the preferred way of expressing possession. On the other hand, if the possessee is focused, the use of a pronominal clitic seems to be preferred to the izafet construction. mro6-H (N8H}F ryN 0JYJ18·8CT lost become.ptpl-be.3sg book-iz I 'MY (not someone else's) book is lost'

~I)IM ~l)rr

my.zta-acr ryN [KHT06)raN lost become.ptpl-be.3sg book-lsg 'my BOOK (not, e.g., notebook) is lost'

~i)lm ~l)woa

~l)lrroa ~i)lmoa

mro6-au book-lsg 'my book'

work-3sg 'his work'

acap-x.~mDOB

py-mu

work-pl-3pl 'their works'

face-3sg 'his/her face'

acap.am

There is one more construction for expressing possession. The construction consists of a 01111 and a personal pronoun (i.e. Mill, -ry, y, .al, 110, mywo, or oa,o). Expressions in this construction may be rendered into English as possessive pronouns (IDiot:, yOill'S, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs) (Ahmedova 2004). JCHT06 10 this book from 'This book is mine'

HB

.,

The ~uffix :(1~ whi~h is apparently the 'genitive case' suffix explained in §2. 1.1.4, may be used m conJunction With pronominal clitics!'

41

The use of the 'genitive' {1)1 with a first or second person possessor (i.e. the use of IWI3, '1)'.1, etc.) seems to be no~-standard, but OCCW'S in my Bukbaran Tajik data, e.g. Bukbaran Tajik waH-a x.awcolieu (1-gen ne1ghbour. lsg) 'my neighbour' . This construction is in conespondeoce with a ~ssiv~ co~ction in Uz~k, e.g. Uzbek mening bamsoya-m (I.gen neighbour-lsg) 'my neighbour , which could be ascnbed to language contact between Tajik and Uzbek. In certain literary registers, -po is used as an equivalent of the 'genitive' -{l)a, e.g. AIDD1po acap(aw) 'Ayni's

work'.

OIHI

TY

from that-iz you 'yours is lost'

OB-B

UIB

that-iz I

aCT

cop.3sg

ryN

my.zt

lost

became.3sg

2.1.2. ProooaDs A number ofTajik pronouns are used both (pro)nominally and adjectivally. A pronoun used adjectivally, like a numeral but unlike a regular adjective, precedes the noun that it modifies. Compare the indefinite pronoun 6G3e which is used adjectivally and precedes the modified

46

Ahmedova (2004: p.c.) called my attention to the association between focus and possessive expressions. The function of intonation and the presence/absence of the -{1)1-marked possessor in the representation of focus is not entirely clear.

28 Tajik

Morphology 29

noun OIIIDIOII 'scholars' with the adjective IICIIOUi that follows the same noun in the izafet construction. fiG3e OJIHM-QH some scholar-pi 'some scholars'

OJIHM-QH-8

BC.BOidi

scholar-pl-iz islamic 'Islamic scholars'

Note that the form of the first person singular pronoun MIB to which the object marker -po is suffixed is not •MaBpO but 1111p0.

2.1.2.1. Penom1 pnlDOIIIII lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

MIB

TY

y ..t, oa YO, YOJ:P, IIO&i

mywo, mywoxp, ~

010',0,

Jllb,o, OBOB47

MO,zt3p-8M

'I ' 'you (thou)' 'slbe' 'slbe, it' 'we' 'you' 'they'

The first and second person plural pronouns YO and :mywo started to take the plural suffixes -&1 and -IP after the eleventh century and in the nineteenth century, respectively. The attachment of the plural suffixes to YO and mywo entered the norm of the literary language as late as the beginning of the twentieth century. The set of personal pronouns (~OHHIIIHHX.OH maxcll) and that of demonstrative pronouns ('(OHHIIIHHXOH mnopaTII) intersect, the elements in the intersection being 811, oa, and their pluralized forms (see §2.1.2.3). The third person singular y is used for humans, while 811 is used to denote both humans and non-human entities. Bd is used also as the demonstrative 'that' in colloquial Tajik.

mro6 book 'that book'

... that

XOHa 811 that house 'that house'

rycp-r-aM, IIIi-a, TO'(HICB-ita (Bukharan Tajik)

today asked-lsg imp-know-2sg-q said-lsg vsy-obj Tajik-obj 'I asked (him) today - I said: "do you know", what-d'ye-call-it, "Tajik?'"

lA-po

BB

DC -

3800HJilJIHOC

this person linguist 'this person is a l.inguist' There is another honorific third person singular pronoun, namely !MDOB, an old third person plural pronoun that was in wide currency before the twentieth century. 3lllOB cpapyY.ll~

slbe ordered-3pl 'slhe deigned to say' 3moa has a religious connotation that was strengthened in the early part of the twentieth century, after which its use seems to have been largely confined to religious contexts, where

could be used as a common noun designating a religious person.48 The honori.fic use of (pro)nouns in Tajik, including obsolete ones, is summarized in the chart below. 3lllOB

Addressee-controlled Referent-controlled

The use of OBOB is limited in modem literary Tajik.

1\CC..ztop-IIJl

2.1.2.2. HODOrific expn:aioos Honorific expressions in modem Tajik involve the alternation of pronouns (see also §2.2.2). Politeness, formality and seniority are some of the main factors that affect the use of honorific expressions. The second person plural pronoun mywo is used as the honorific form of the second person singular pronoun TY· Apparently recent practice is to capitalize the first letter of mywo when it is used as an honorific second person singular pronoun. Phrases such as (x,au)lm uc 'this (very) person' and (x.au)oa DC 'that (very) person' are used for the honorification of the third person singular pronouns y and 811. The use of 811 can be impolite to the referent under certain circumstances. In the following example taken from spoken Tajik data, the third person is referred to politely as BB DC by the speaker.

Personal pronouns can take the izafet particle -a.

47

JI.'Jr:r

mother-lsg 1-obj friend imp-have-3sg 'my mother loves me'

In colloquial Tajik, 811 is used, as Lewis (1967: 77) says about a word with a similar function in Turkish, "to take the place of a word that the speaker cannot for the moment recall" as in the following Bukharan Tajik example.

IDq)YJ DYPCR.n-aw, we-.noa-H-MH

TY-• 6e11opa you-iz poor 'poor you'

MIIHI MBCKHH

l-iz unfortunate 'unfortunate me'

48

lsg (humbling) 2sg (exalting) 3sg (exalting)

See Hojiev (1987: 123-124) and Oafforov (1979:57) for more detailed explanations ohm011.

30 Tajik

Motphology 31

Tajik also has humbling expressions. Using the first person plural pronoun wo as the humbling fust person singular pronoun is associated mainly with academic contexts. The use of such derogatory terms as ~ 'slave' and DIOIIIa 'obedient servant' for humbling self-reference appears to be obsolescent in modem Tajik. ltaQl.ztap slave in .IUIA-'DI

MaKTa6·H Map.ztoua-po ce pYJ three school-iz men's-obj day one (Mirzosiroji Hakim 1913: 102 c.i. Hojiev 1987: 124)

.lk

saw-lsg 'I saw the three boys'/men's schools in one day' Note that the subject-verb agreement suffix is the ftrSt person singular....,, despite the 'third person' subject~ 'slave'. 2.1 .23.~

In addition to BB 'this' and oa 'that', the personal pronoun .U can be used colloquially as a demonstrative pronoun (see §2.1.2.1). The following are examples of the adjectival and pronominal uses ofu. BB

O.ltaM

O.U.8M·X.O man-pi this 'these men'

BB

this

man 'this man'

BB

mrOO

The prefix~ can precede BB and oa, which yields x,uam 'this same; this very' and I.IMOII 'that same, that very', respectively. There are also several compounds in which u. oa, and "1)'11 'such as, like' serve as components. These compounds, all of which would be translated into in English approximately as 'such', 'so', or 'as well', are 1fYBIIII/'IyBoB and

~ Ra•.IIH.lla neg-see.ptpl such book-obj never 'I had never seen such a book'

"')'BBB mro6-po x,apno

this book cop.3sg 'this is a book' Ha and OB are pluralized with the plural suffix -xp (§2.1.1.1), i.e. BB1CP 'these, they' and OB1CP 'those, they'. Demonstrative pronouns usually do not take the izafet particle, but oa takes it in the a ORB construction(§ 2.1.1.5).

1lymm and '1)'11011 can be further compounded with u and oa to form BB"')'BBB and OB'I)'IIOB.

21.24. RefleUvea The only reflexive pronoun that is widely in use today is xy~ '(one)setr. Examples in which the pronoun is used with different antecedents in two different expressions of possession (§2.1.1.5) are shown below. Note the last example where the reflexive pronoun has a third person singular antecedent but does not take the pronominal clitic ...am.

self-lsg 'myselr

X>'J'·B MaH self-iz I 'mysetr

X>'J'·aiDOB self-3pl 'themselves'

X>'J'·H OHXO self-iz they 'themselves'

oaap.u. mro6-u xy.l{-am-po s/he book-iz self-3sg-obj brought3sg 'slhe brought her/his own book'

BB

oa-a Jdt ? a .zta4>Tap-x.o notebook-pi from that-iz who this 'whose are these notebooks?' I 'to whom do these notebooks belong?'

aaA

o&-B ldl ? a from that-iz who 'who does (it) belong to?' I 'whose (is it)?'

6a MaH Km"OO·H X>'J'·po Bait to I s/he book-iz self-obj 's/he showed her/his book to me'

a

oa-a wau

acr

cop.3sg from that-iz I '(it) belongs to me' /'(it) is mine'

was-lsg

rycpy-au.zt I<8C x,uam this very person said-3pl 'this (very) person said'

xy.I{·IIM

8CT

6yn-aw

HBIDOHTI.OTI.

showed.3sg

The reflexive pronoun is also used as an intensive reflexive/pronoun. X>'J'·B MaH HH·po self-iz I this-obj 'I did it myselr

Kllp.zt-aw

did-1sg

32 Tajik ~·am

Morphology 33

we--o--u

self-3sg imp-com~3sg 's/he (herself7himself) comes', 's/he comes alone (with nobody else)'

Kd can also be pluralized, but its pluralized form ab,o is not a question word but an adverb which means 'very long time ago'.~. which is exemplified below, consists of"'IIIIIA and the suffix -yw (§ 2.1.3.4).50

In the writings of Sadriddin Ayni, the reflexive pronoun often co-occurs with the plural suffix -xp, to which the third person plural pronominal clitic is suffixed: xy,._x,o.moa 'themselves'. The occurrence of pluralized ~ with a pronominal clitic is widely observed in the north-western dialects, particularly in Bukbara and Samarqand (Ma"sumi 1959: 191). A comprehensive grammar (Rustamov and 6afforov 1985: 163) lists X)?t xcm, and umn.a as reflexives, but the last two of these have limited currency and are used mainly in literature, and particularly in poetry.

:um-po

6a

.ll8CT·H

.lzyiiiM8H

self--obj to hand·iz enemy 'he yielded himself to the enemies'

DJYMO .!lap CHH
.llO.Il gave.3sg

In modern Tajik, um is used primarily with the meaning of 'relative(s), kinsfolk'.

2.1.2.5. IDtarogative JliOOOUII8 8Dd questioo wards Interrogative pronouns ('(OHHIDHHX.OH caBonft) in Tajik are d, 'II, ~. and JllW)U. Interrogative pronouns and question words that are orthographically represented as single words are listed below.49 d 11:)'-.o Q,Jpl

ail

•who?' 'where?' 'which?' 'when?'

'II 'llpO

....... ~

'what?' 'why?' 'how many?' 'which ... (in an ordinal series)?'

The interrogative pronouns d , 'II, ~. and D,qOM can be pluralized with -xp (§2.1.1.1), yielding DIXP, 'DUP, ~. and~. respectively.Ka,qoy is pluralized in isolated cases (Rastorgueva 1992:50). ONa.ll7 who came.3sg 'who came?'

D-X/) OW&,Il·8H.Il7 who-pi came.3pl 'who (plural) came?'

QAOII-X,O.JIMOR

D,AOM-X,O.JITOH

which-pi-t pi 'which of us?'

which·pl-2pl 'which of you?'

d

49

There are also a number of interrogatives consisting of more than one orthographically separate word such as 'Ill '!Up 'how?; in what manner?', and 'IIIJIMIP 'how much?'.

'II

X8pH.Il·ft? what bought-2sg 'what did you buy?'

nyn? uapx-am 'IIUJ,I{ price-3sg how many money 'how much is it?'

.llep MOH.Il·ft'l why late stayed-2sg 'why are you late?'

NO.Il8~3T

'llpO

Dl Nyp.ll7 mother-2sg when died.3sg 'when did your mother die?'

2.1.2.6. OdapWOUII8 Words that are traditionally called indefinite pronouns in English, e.g. something and IJI1yt/liDg, are mostly written as combinations of separate words in Tajik orthography, e.g. +uoa ac 'someone', .G'Clll 1IJD 'something'. One of the limited number of indefinite pronouns ('\O~OH uowyaAm) that are represented as single words in Tajik orthography is &Me 51 'some', which is used both pronominally and adjectival1y. fiD»x.o rycl>'r-8H.Il [...] some-pi said-3pl 'some of them said ... '

6la.:Je M8C'Io8JI·X.O some problem-pi 'some questions/problems'

Another indefmite pronoun that is clearly a single word is ...... 'somebody'. . _ . seems to be used only pronominally.

tuou·po .lliiCITHp xap.lla·8H.Il someone--obj capture.ptpl-be.3pl 'they have captured someone (I have indirect evidence)'

30 51

For readers who are familiar with Turkish, ~ may be comparable with kllfmCJ. lia.:te and lUIIG are identified in this section not as adjectives but as pronouns on the basis that they take the object marker oopo.

34 Tajik Morphology 3S Indefinite pronouns can be formed by attaching the particle IJDI- (with a hyphen) to inter· rogative pronouns (§2.1.2.S), e.g.,IDDot-'dl' 2 'something', lrll»-d 'someone', KJDfooDI 'once; sometime' (used also adverbially), IJDI-1[)"¥1 'somewhere', and Dlf-KIUliOW 'some, certain' (used adjectivally).

0 I

(Typc}'H30.aa c.i. RG: 170) aalipoa ~H waJDHHa somewhere-iz automobile destroyed became.3sg 'some part in (lit. somewhere of) the automobile broke down'

The pronoun J',IIA 'all' can be used adjectivally. KBC-<>H

I,IIIA

person·pl all·iz 'all of the people'

BaiO'

time all 'all the time I always'

English pronouns such as eveJYoneand nothing are expressed as two separate words in Tajik. ~

~

xac

IP'I

JCll

every who 'everybody, whoever'

every person 'everyone' 'IH3

no/t thing 'nothing'

XP'I i.s used also adverbially. Note that verbs co-occurring with IP'I 'no(t)' take the negative

.u:

11

12 13 c:c 14 'lOp s lllll'l IS 6 mam 16 7 ~ 17 8 JgiiDT 18 19 9 $ 10 .-r. 20

2 3 4

my.a

J',IIA•R

aon.catP 1I.Y

~ ~

c:e::wm. .ap.-r. ~

IIIOID,IA

x,tl(i~ li:,D',IUilf,

By.WIX.

6acr

21 22 23 24 2S 26 27 28 29 30

6acly.u: 6acJy 1(y 6aclyce 6acly.ap 6aclyJWI'( 6actymam 6actyxMn 6Bcry JgiiDT

6acty$

so

60 70 80 90

'IIIII ~

IIDCT

~~ ~ ~

cl

1,001 1,917 10,001

101 125 2S2

(.u:) QII..Y .u: .u: ~ 6acJy lllll'l

1S,349 SSS,444

~x,aopy~-.umyllifx,

tens thousands

1IPNJ

~ IDII'lOXY 1l.Y

~ Dlll'¥l1Y lllll'l

~

40

100 200 300 400

soo

(.o:)~ ~ ~

~ ~

600 ~ 700 ~ 800 ~ 900 ~ 1,000 (.u:)~

x,aopy.u: .u: x,aopy ~ ...,~

~~-

x,aopy ~'liD)' 'lOp hundreds millions

~0

IOIJiliiiOID,O

MBUBOB 'million' and~ ' milliard' are loan words from Russian. There are some archaic numerals, including 1f.YU1Ct (or~) '200', mpacr '300', 6caap '10,000',JYPYP ·so,ooo·,- '100,000', and~~ ' 1,000,000'.

prefix g ..

XP'I Y·po

Ba-JXH.ll·BW

no(t) s/he-obj neg·saw·lsg 'I never saw him' 2.1.3. NumcnJ.s 2.1.3.1. Clnlioal DUIDbcn The numeral system is decimal. Digits are connected with the coordinating clitic -(1/a)y, thus: 6Rcry ~ 'twenty· five', CHJO .I1C 'thirty·one', 'IR1I)' IIY 'forty·two', nllll'{oxy ce 'fifty·three', ca.tJY 6Hcry lUIIIli' 'one hundred and twenty·eight'.

'

2

2.1.3.2. Fractious A fractional number (mywopu xacpft) is represented lexically with the preposition a 'from' put in front of the denominator and the numerator in that order, e.g. a .ap .u: .t/4, a IJIII'll(y •%•, which in tum may be followed by the noun 11J1CM 'part, unit'. lUI(n' ~ I;IICII·H Cl)'JleHT-<>H·R MO ll'l>nO'IH·11HJl student·pl·iz we honoured-cop.3pl from seven five part·iz 'five sevenths of our students are honours students'

a

A fraction the numerator of which is 1 can be written as a single word consisting of the 1 1 1 denominator and the numerator, e.g.~ (seven+one) ' !,', ceo: (three+one) ' / 3'. ' / 2' and 53 1 ' /4 are rendered as 111111 'llalr and "'IpB (four+one) 'quarter', respectively. The denomi· nator and numerator cannot be juxtaposed if the numerator is 2 or above - •naaw (five+two) is incorrect.

In Bukharan Tajik, DDI'"'III very often undergoes reduplication, e.g. MyJtncapu nax.'(aJbc 6yxopou KHM•DNOW'DI rycln'am '[a book] called muxt8Sari lshjayi Buxoroi something' (referring to the title ofMahmudov and Berdiev 1989). sJ

~and 'IOpB were Spell~ and 'IOpUK, respectively, in the previous orthography.

36 Tajik

Morphology 37

liMBOn-am a third-iz property-3sg 'a third of her/his property'

CCIJ[-H

BYII first part-iz '(the) fii'St part'

IQfCM-H

A decimal fraction (xacpH a1omopa) is represented in the same way as a vulgar fraction (x.acpH 6 o.zudl), e.g. a .JUm. mam ' /1o'. Decimals are read with the coordinating clitic -(1/a)y inserted between the whole number and decimals. CIIJl-y

Jll(

one hundred-co ' 122.6'

6scr-y

.zzy-10

twenty-co two-co

a3

JllU.

from

ten

mam six

A percentage is written with tom 'percent', e.g. ~+om 'S%' . (.Ztlp~ 'lit. in hundred' may be used in place of {lam, e.g. ~AlP ca.A 'S%' .) Jll(

CIIJl-y

one hundred-co ' 122.6%'

6scr-y

.zzy-10

twenty-co two-co

a3

.ltlU.

from

ten

'first' ' second'

CeJOU

'third' ' twentieth'

6Hcryv

ce -taP cryJleHT JllU. cap acn Jll(

1-yv 2-IOU 3-Jou 20-yu

' 1st' '2nd' '3rd' '20th'

There have been changes in the orthography of ordinal numbers since the Cyrillicization of Tajik, which involved the alteration of the letter <1> in the suffix into . As a result, a few ordinal numbers have alternative spellings. One may therefore encounter various forms of a single ordinal number. For example, ' third' has been written variously as caou, c:dlyu, cauyu, and c:auyw, the first of which is the current spelling. There were also different spellings for the abbreviated version of 'third' that were orthographically acceptable, e.g. 3-JOM and 3-u (Kalontarov and NiezT 1943: IS). In some texts -m1 is suffixed to ordinal numbers for 'emphasis and stylistic lustre' (Rustamov and Cafforov 1985: 154), e.g. .D)'UIIII 'first' and .JUIXYMIIB ' tenth'. Unlike cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers do not precede modified nouns but follow them in the izafet construction.

~ X.el}'M

A)' ~IIHCl n~.-craryn

For various units/items: .zzy .-oaa ce6 IIOH3JllU, ~ TplllCI'Op

mam l1lpUI XOIDOK Jll(

2.1.3.3. Ordinal numbcn Ordinal numbers (myMopax.oH TapTH611) are formed by suffixing -{l)yw to cardinal numbers, .II<)'M

For humans: For animals: For botanical items:

mam tom percent six

3 A mixed fraction such as 5 /s is read with 6yrya 'whole' and the coordinating clitic -{1/a)y, 3 e.g. ~ 6yeyBy a ll',llmrce '5 /s'. However, if the fraction is a 'half or 'quarter', the integer and fraction may be juxtaposed as in the following examples: uy 11101 'one and a half, ~ lllDI (or~) 'two and a half, J{.yiO 'IOpB 'two and a quarter', 'lOp)' CC'IOpB 'four and three quarters'.

AYDI

2.1.3.4. Clusifien Some of the most frequently used numeral classifiers, many of which (such as cap 'head') are also regular nouns, are shown below.

~ lQIHJl

'three students' 'ten head of horse' 'one bundle of wood' 'two bunches of onions' 'five bouquets of roses' 'two apples' 'fifteen tractors' 'six stacks of bolok(a forage)' 'a lump ofsugar'

The classifier -TO, the alternative spelling of which is -'13, is the general classifier for count nouns and is suffixed to cardinal numbers, e.g., p,yro DT06 'two books', ~~ 'five notebooks'. When Jro/--m is suffixed to an integer instead of a numeral, a hyphen is inserted between the integer and the classifier, e.g. 2-TO DT06. Count nouns do not need to take classifiers. It is therefore possible to rewrite ~ )I(Oia Tf.D' 'five seeds' as~ T)'Dol and also~ up6y3a 'ten melons' as .~Um.up6y:Ja. Although nouns the numeral values of which are specified appear in the 'singular' form as a rule (§2.1.1.1), those denoting humans (i.e. nouns that take the classifier IIII(Nip) may be pluralized even in the presence of a numera~ e.g. 611Cl' aa+aP ~ 'twenty students' (note the plural suffix -{rll/a)oa attached to C1)'.111C1rr). 2.1.3.5. Aridmc:tic vocabuJarty A basic arithmetic vocabulary is given in the following list.

'+' 'sum' 'summand'

&1IOiall'll ~

.-.

:I,OCBIIII ......

' difference'

:I,OCBIIII Tllpi.

.~

'minuend' 'subtrahend'

lip*"""P•

...

'x' &1IOiall'll 3lp6 lJ'P(:IIIIJis.pC) ' product' 'multiplier' ~90JIII6 'multiplicand' ~a•. ta9p)'6

.

uowa:m Tllpi.

............

'+'

uowa:m~

'quotient' 'divisor' 'dividend'

lJ'P(:IIIIJI ~

~ TIIP'N"W"a..

38 Tajik

Morphology 39

'='

r.rycod, 6epo6ap .....,., myuopa 'bracket' &1lOMIIIB

'number' 'integer'

fiHHo-H

Equations are read as follows. Note the izafet particle -a suffixed to._... 'sum; addition', 1'11111' 'subtraction', 3lp6 'multiplication', and~ 'division'.

15 + 12 = 27 27 - 12= 15 3 X 7=21 21 +7=3

DOB3.1lllll. ._,.. .llYJI03,llllll. 6apo6apH 6Hcty

x.a4rr'

6RC1)' x.a4rr' npl;ll .llYJI03,Il8ll. 6apo6apB DOH3J:III.X. ce ap~r/sap6a uqrr 6apo6apB 6Bcty .IK 6HC1)' .IK ~ uqrr 6apo6apH ce

2.1.4. Adjcctivca 2.1.4.1. Gcucnl IaDmb

DIIOII aCT

cop.3sg

~6a ... from old to new 'from the old to the new'

83

B8A .ll8p IOIDVIOIC. near-pl-iz slhe in village 'her/his relatives stayed in the village'

JIII:WK-oB·B

MOH;A·8B.Il

stayed-3pl

2.1.4.2. Coolperison

Adjectives (cscllano) in attributive position appear in the izafet construction where they follow the nouns which they modify. JCHro6-x,o-H book-pl-iz 'new books'

IIU

book-iz new 'new book'

BU

new

The comparative degree (,uapa'I.8H M)'IC.OHcasR) of an adjective is expressed with the suffixation of -Tip to the adjective. For example, suffixation of -T11p to aan 'good' and DJIOII 'big' yields lllf3TIIP 'better' and DJIOB'l1IP 'bigger', respectively. When the comparative form of an adjective is in predicate position, the preposition 13 'from' precedes the word whose referent is compared with the referent of the subject. 13 myMO 6a con I from you to year 'I am older than you'

MaH

TPH6yaan-x.o-a tribunal-pl-iz ' courts martial'

MO

Adjectives, unlike nouns, are not pluralized. However, dividing lines between lexical categories are elusive in Tajik as they are many other languages. In Tajik, adjectives can generally be used as nouns, in which case they can take plural suffixes.

In Arzumanov and Sanginov (1988: 166), wycod ' equal' is used in place of 6lpo6epa (equal-iz).

JCHro6-H

HHcnrryT-H

building-iz institute-iz we big 'the building of our institute is large'

'figure'

x,lp6l military

M8KT86-H MO liS

nynrr-a wyrncap-a ~ dictionary-iz concise-iz Tajik-English 'concise Tajik-English dictionary'

DIIOIH'IIp-aM

big-cmp-cop.1sg

aCT

M8KT86-H myMO DIIOIH1Ip

cop.3sg

school-iz we from school-iz you big-cmp 'our school is bigger than your school'

Comparison can be expressed without -Tip in the presence of 13.

Bukharan Tajik often allows adjectives to precede modified nouns, e.g. .~tacona xypc ' a ten-years (lit. decadal) course' . Adjectives that precede modified nouns are found in compounds, e.g. the adjective V"''''DM ' new to the literary world' (as in BaBHC8B.Il8H BaBJQIJI&M 'budding litterateur') where au 'new' precedes ~ 'pen, pencil', the noun J1UPY3 'New Year' s Day' where au 'new' precedes pYs ' day', and KUOBrUJ 'boastful' where DJIOII 'big' is compounded withrao 'talk'. Examples of adjectives in predicate position are shown below. XOH8-H

MO

DIIOII aCT

house-iz we big 'our house is large'

cop.3sg

M8KT86-H MO liS

M8KT86-H myMO DJIOII

school-iz we from school-iz you 'our school is bigger than your school'

big

aCT

cop.3sg

The perfective gerund of the verb .QAliB ' to see', ~ may be used in expressing compari-

son. XOBa 13 B8A XOHa ~ this house from that house see.ger 'this house is bigger than that house'

HH

DIIOII-TIIp

aCT.

big-cmp

cop.3sg

HBc&rr6a 'with regard/respect to' and 11a31p 6a ' in view or may be used in place ofl3.

40 Tajik Morphology 41 Ka6HHeT-H study-iz

.z~eKllH

BBC&rr

dean

regard

6a Ka6HHer-H to study-iz

M)'.IIHP-H manager-iz

Kacl>eJIPa

faculty

plosive represented by <6> (or before a voiceless consonant) is attached to the reduplicated part.

~6y.z~.

wide-cmp was.Jsg 'the study of the dean was more spacious than the study of the head of the department' xo6rox.-am B83lp 6a xo6rox.-H nemTapa-am ~-'l'llp sa bedroom-Jsg view to bedroom-iz previous-3sg good-cmp and ocy.JUH8p acT. (AHHii) quiet-cmp cop.Jsg 'This bedroom of his is better and quieter than his previous bedroom'

HH this

Adjectives in the comparative degree may (uncommonly) precede modified nouns. [ ...] c:anvrap ~ x.aM [... ] hard-cmp punishment even 'they give even severer punishment'

If the first syllable ends with <6> in the orthography, this letter is retained in the reduplicated syllable even when it is followed by a voiceless consonant.s4

The superlative degree (AapattaH OJ!fi) of an adjective is expressed with the suffixation of -'l'lpBB to the adjective. An adjective with -T8pllll in attributive position either follows the modified noun in the izafet construction or precedes it. Ba:3Hcl>a-H U)'li;IDoi-T8pi-H

U)'li;IDoi-T8pl

'whole, all'

Ba:3Hcl>a-H MO

KliJIOH JIYPYCT

xympf-T8piiii-H

.IIYXTap-X.O

beautiful-spr-iz girl-pi 'the most beautiful of (the) girls' 2.1.4.3. Iot.eosificatioo and disinteosificat Tajik adjectives can undergo '(dis)intensification' which is particularly common with, but not limited to, colour terms and adjectives expressing qualities of humans. The degrees of 'intensity' are called .z~apa'lax.OH raltpHK.Hecil 'non-comparative degrees' in Tajik. An adjective is intensified with the reduplication of the onset and nucleus of its first syllable. A bilabial

>

6~-6yrys

'whole, all, entire'

'big' 'clean' 'correct'

> Dllllll-KMOH ' very big' > 10111Ja-TOJa 'very clean'

>

~-,~~ypycr

'very correct'

An adjective is disintensified by suffixation of "'1'06, the present stem of the verb "l'06Iwur 'to shine; to gleam', or the diminutive suffix -'ilL "'1'06 is used with adjectives expressing colours

and human qualities while

-'Ill

is used exclusively with colour terms. "'1'06 and in which case...,. precedes "'1'06.

-'Ill

may be

u..~ in conjunction with each other,

JlymaH6e DOOB-'l'lpBB maxp-H To'lHICHCTOH acT Dushanbe big-spr city-iz Tajikistan cop.Jsg 'Dushanbe is the largest city ofTajikstan' The nominal use of superlative adjectives is common due to the wide currency of the 'adjective-spr-iz noun(-pl)' construction.

'very blue'

Full reduplication of adjectives is also possible, e.g. DJIOH-DOOB 'very big', .JUIPOG-.-po9 'very long; very tall'. A somewhat less standard method of (partial) reduplication involves the use of .ss

MO

important-spr duty-iz we 'the most important duty of ours'

a6-Ka6y.z~

If the coda of the syllable is a dental plosive, w is used instead of <6>/m>.

TOJa

duty-iz important-spr-iz we 'the most important duty of ours'

>

'blue'

Me-J~Hx.-IIHJl

imp-give-Jpl

'very yellow' 'very black'

'yellow' 'black'

3ax.J1P 'yellow (complexion)'

>

3apA

> 3ap.IX'ill

'yellow'

3ax.&p'lll

> 3ap.aro6 > 3apAVI'06

'yellowish' 'yellowish' 'yellowish' 'yellowish'

2.1.4.4. Advabs There are many lexical items, particularly adjectives, that are used adverbially, but adverbs that are used exclusively as adverbs are small in number. They include adverbs derived by the suffix -(I)IB such as TUIIIIIIIIII 'approximately' (from the noun TaXMBB 'conjecture'), certain reduplicated words such as ~lQICTll 'slowly' (from the adjective/adverb CD;BCTa 'slow; slowly'), and adverbs proper, i.e. underived adverbs, such as~ 'yet, still', u:aya 'now', and x.auema 'always'. See §2.4.4 for more details on adverb formation. S4

ss

In the writing ofMupmaKap cited in Rustamov and Gafforov (1985: 139), this intensified adjective appears as au-a6)?l, reflecting the regressive devoicing of lb/ by the initiallk/ of~Intensification of adjectives by partial reduplication is widely used also in Turkic languages. Compare, for example, Uzbek qizil' red' > qip-qizi/'very red' and to'g'ri' cnrrect' > to'pps-to'g'ri ' very correct' with these Tajik examples.

42 Tajik

Morphology 43

Past stem

......,Aep owa.ttau intentionally late come.inf 'to be late on purpose' --liJYMYP.A8H one by one count.inf 'to count one by one' ~ '1;8.1106 Ra-<>N&.ll8•8CT yet answer neg-come.ptpl-be.3sg 'the answer has not come yet'

Adjectives (except those with -'J'IIPIIII) can be used as adverbs. Bail: BD ONa,ll s/he new came.3sg 's/he has just come'

XOR,A8R XYJl.A8H ryctmm pactmm

p.

'to read' 'to eat, to drink' 'to say' 'to go'

xo~

xyp.--

ry~

Present stems are derived from infuritive forms not as regularly as past stems are, because unlike past stems, whose final sounds wand m share an etymology,S6 present stems reflect complex verbal morphology that existed (and was subsequently obscured by phonetic/phonological assimilation) in the history of the Iranian languages. However, a certain degree of regularity that has resulted from this complex morphology is identifiable in a number of present verb stems, as can be seen in the chart below (based on R.astorgueva and Kerimova 1964: 8). For example, both IDJIIIOC- , which is the remnant of the Old Persian suffix -sa (ibid: 8).

'to know' 'to read' 'to see' 'to have' 'to take' 'to cut' 'to build' COXT8R 'to bum' cyrrau 'to recognise' mHHOXTilH 'to ask' nyp<:H.A8H 'to sell' 4.JypyxT&R 'to kill' IC)1liT8H 'to stand' HCTO.A8H 4_lHpRCTO.A8H 'to send' 'to give' .AO.A8H 'to put' HRX.O.AaR 'to open' K)'DIO,ll8H 'to order' 4_lapNy.AaH 'to say' ryctmm 'to wash' myCTaH 'to beat' KYctmm 'to sweep' pyctmm 'togo' pactmm 'to become' DJY,llaH 'to weave' 6o4mm

.AOBHCTaH XOR.A8H .AH.A8H ,AOUITllll mpactmm 6ypR.A8H

6apo,Aap-8N 1181'3 Ne-XOR-a.A brother-lsg good imp-read-3sg 'my brother studies well' oax.o x,aw JDF.H11P 3HHllar11 k8p.A8H we-xocr-au.A they also good-cmp live.inf imp-wanted-3pl 'they too wanted to live better'

2.2. VerblliDOipbology 2.2.1. Put 1011 prc8Cilt BfaDs Each Tajik verb has a past stem (acoca 38NOHH ry3anrra) and a present stem (acoca 38NOHH x.ooapa). The past and present stems of~:~~p»B 'to do',~ 'to arrive', ~ 'to see', and J'1llllltna 'to take' are presented below.

<m>

Infinitive Past stem Present stem

db

The past stem of a verb can be derived by removing the final sequence .a from the infinitive form (i.e. the citation form) of the verb. In other words, the infinitive form of a verb consists of the past stem of the verb and the infinitive suffix .a. Every past stem ends with either w or m . The final <.-> in the past stem is preceded by a vowel or either of the voiced consonants
and , while the final m is preceded by a voiceless consonant.

<6, a.+>

56

Present stem .AOBXOB6HB,Aoprap6yp-,6~ C03-

cysDJHHoc-

nypc4.JypYmK)'DIHCT4_>HpRCT,llCX,-, ma.HRX.K)'Dio4_>apwory(l)mY(I)-

KJ6py6paamaa-

6ot-

Both w and m originate from the old participial ending -18 (Rastorgueva and Kerimova 1964:8).

44 Tajik

Morphology 45 'to measure' 'to tie' 'to revolve'

~-

Present stem

68BJIII'l!M-

Group2

Tajik verbs can be classified into two groups according to the manner in which the present and past stems differ from each other. I base the following classification of Tajik verbs on Rustamov and Gafforov (1985: 173-174). Let us begin with looking at the first group ofTajik verbs. This group consists of verbs whose past stems are present stems with additional sounds, i.e., the past stems of verbs in the first group are differentiated from their present counterparts by the presence of some additional sounds. Several examples where such additional sounds are bold-faced are shown below.

Group 1

NYPABH A8BR.Il8H

6o4>Tau HCTOABH

'to die' 'to run' 'to weave' 'to stand'

Present stem MYPAa&-

Past stem NYPA· .QilBJIA-

6ocP-

6oqrr-

HCT•

KC'J'OA·

COXTaH ryqmm pa4rraH .!1H.I(8H

'to read' 'to eat/drink' 'to reach' 'to bloom' 'to kill' K)'DlT8B IDHKOIPT8K 'to split' 'to fall' acln'oABH 'to put' BHX.OABH cilapBCTOA8H 'to send' 'to know' AOHHCTaH HKI"8pHCT8H 'to look/glance' XOR.Il8H xypABH paCHA8H IDYJCYcln"8H

Present stem XOB· pacmyxycp-

Past stem XOBA· xypApaCJIIAmyxyctrr-

KyDJ-

K)'llll'-

xyP-

IDHKOIP-

IDHKoclrr-

actn-

~-

BHX.-, ae~cil&pHCT• AOB·

HBX.O.Acllapu~-

HHI'8p-

AOHIICTHKI"8piiCT-

Unlike verbs in the fll'St group, verbs in the second group have past stems that are not present stems to which certain sounds are attached. Below are some examples of verbs in the second group.

C03-

IJ(A)paa6HR-

Past stem COXT· ryctrrpacln'.ztH.I(-

Rustamov and Gafforov summarize the types of discrepancy that are observed between past and present stems of verbs in the second group - the discrepancy derives from 1) alternation of the consonants ' and x, 2) consonant alteTnatioo, 3) vowel alternation, 4) combination of vowel and consonant alternations, and 5) historically distinct stems used for a single verb. Examples representing these different types of discrepancy are shown below (taken from Rustamov and Gafforov 1985: 173-174). Present stem Type 1

COXTaH nyxT8H

AYxTaH As can be seen in the table below, the additional sounds can be divided into several types, based on the sounds that they comprise. A few of the additional sounds, namely -A and -&Jt are suffixes that are productive in Modern Tajik in deriving past stems from foreign nouns, Uzbek verb stems, etc. (see §2.4.2.2).

'to build' 'to say' 'to go' 'to see'

Type2

68CT8B ry38lllT8B

AODJT8H

Pacln'BH Type3 Type4

TypeS

XOCTaH 6ypASH B8MYA8B 6y1l8H KapABH ryqmm myABH AOABH AR.Il8H 0Wli,A8H

'to build' 'to cook' ' to sew' ' to tie' 'to pass' 'to have' 'to go' 'to want' 'to carry' 'to seem' 'to be/exist' ' to do' 'to say' 'to become' 'to give' 'to see' 'to come'

C03-

n83$-

Past stem COXT· nyXT-

68R.Il-

pYxT· 6aCT-

ry38p-

ry38IIJT·

AOppaa-

AOIDTpacln'XOCT· 6ypA-

xo~-

6apRaMo(it)6om1<)'11-

IJ(A)maBAe~-• .zmx.6HBo(A)-, 6ae-

88M)'11-

6yAKapA· rycln'my1lAOA· AR.IlOMliJl·

2.2.2. Penon IDd D1llllb« Tajik utilises subject-verb agreement morphology where personal sutflxes are used to mark the subject's person (m~c) and number (DJYMopa). There are several paradigms of personal suffixes of Tajik agreement morphology (referred to as T8CpB4l 'conjugation' in Rustamov and -utA, respectively, after verb and Gafforov 1985). --. 4.A. and-... replace stems ending with a vowel, inserting the palatal glide /j/ between the suffixes and the stems (see §0.7).

-.w.-....

46 Tajik lsg 2sg 3sg l pl 2pl 3pl

Morphology 47

.... -a

Copula -(l)lw

-eM

-eM

-eM

~/-eTOB

-eJ{ I -eTOB

~

-(I~

-aQ

-(~

For the present stem -(I)eM

-·

For the past stem

-A

-cr,acr

-(I}I.A

terms cuctmm 4Je1.mm 38NOHH I)'38lDTII, cnct>am cl>e1.!JJ!H 311MOHH x.oonpa, and cuct>am ct>cwnm 311MOHH oiaB.!l8,s? are used tentatively in this book, because the participles are probably better characterized in terms of aspect and modality than in terms of tense.

Gerunds

Examples of agreement morphology with the present and past stems and the copula are shown below. Koprap-oa 6a laBOLt we·p~. worker-pi to factory imp-go-3pl 'Workers go to the factory.' C'l)',lleBT-OH 6a paAoa pa~ student-pi to district went-3pl '(the) students went to the district' HH KHT06 acr. this book cop.3sg 'This is a book. •

Participles

(AS:l73)

(AS:328)

ap.-.

Infinitive Perfective Progressive Past Present Future Progressive

llllp»

llllp» (literary)

...,....

KYJIIIII» (literary)

MC:Dp)lllril

ltllp»~

KYJIOII (less productive)

~ ltllp»~

llllp» BCI'O,lll1ll'il

The infinitive form, which is used for vocabulary entries in dictionaries, consists of the past stem and -a&. There is also a form that is called the brief infinitive (wac.z~apu wynacap) which is formally identical with the past stem and is used mainly with modals. Past stem Infinitive

Kllp.ll-

Kap.aas

'to do'

paCR.Il· pacii,!I,IIB

'to reach'

(AS:l85) The perfective gerund consists of the past stem and -a. The perfective gerund is formally identical with the literary past participle.

There is an honorific expression (see also §2. 1.2.2) that involves alternation of agreement suffixes. A third person singular subject may take a third person plural agreement suffix when honorification is applied to the subject. JC;alpar ~: (...) Highness ordered-3pl 'The prophet deigned to say:(...)'

x,awema .11ap XOHIHIO{ Ba KOp-X,o-H husband-lsg always in house-cop.Jpl and work-pl-iz wai.D,a-'l)'ibta·po Dp.lla MCoDIHH-aQ Q
Or.ta,llaH Past stem Perfective gerund

nytnH.l1aH 'to cover/wear'

nyum.n-

OMII.Il&

~

The progressive gerund has two forms. One of the two forms consists of the present stem and the suffix -(l)oB. The number of verbs that frequently occur in the progressive gerundive form with -(i)oB is limited.

IIIUI,Ip4M

2.2.3. Noo-fiuite forma Verbs (~o) occur in several non-finite forms: the infinitive, gerunds (i.e. verbal adverbs), and participles (i.e. verbal adjectives). The term 'gerunds' here refers to verbal adverbs, which are also called 'converbs' and 'adverbial participles' in various grammars. In the chart below, the verb Dp,A~~B'to do' is shown in different non-fmite forms. The terms for the first three of the participles, namely 'past', 'present', and 'future' participles, which are based on the Tajik

'to come'

OMa.zt·

Present stem Progressive gerund

pa4>TaH paa-

'to go'

ry.pnu

'to say'

ry. ry&l

paBOII

The other, more productive, progressive genmd is a sequence of the perfective gerundive forms of the main verb and the auxiliary verb 'to stand'.

BCTO_..

ry38IDT-

XOR.IlaR XOR.Il·

ry38.11ITa JICTO,IUl

XOH,IIa~

l)'33IDT8H

Past stem Progressive gerund

s7

'to pass'

'to read'

Direct translations of these terms would be, in English, 'past tense verbal adjective', 'present tense verbal adjective', and 'future tense verbal adjective', respectively.

48 Taji.k.

Morphology 49

The past participle consists of the past stem and ~. HaBHmTaH

Past stem Past participle

'to write'

HaJIHDJT-

HaBHIIITIIIil

oaap.naa 'to bring' OB8p.AOB8p.u,u1l

The literary past participle is identical in formation to the perfective gerund.

Past stem Lit. past participle

OMll,llaa OMll,llOMB,Zta

'to come'

~

'to cover/wear'

IJYu!lr.Anytmf.Aa

The literary present participle is formed by the present stem and -(i)IQL Kap.Aaa Present stem Lit. present participle

'to do'

rycl>T&H

IC)'B-

ry-

IC}'HU.llla

~

'to write'

J(,8118M-po IIIIIDCTa 6a M&H .Aapol Kap.A held out.3sg pencil-obj break.ger to I 'having broken the pencil he handed it to me' /'he broke the pencil and handed it to me'

Progressive gerund

.A)'XT8p mro6 XOB;IUliiC'l'O,A'a aorax.oa xo6 Kap.A suddenly slept.3sg book read.ger girl '(while) reading a book, the girl suddenly fell asleep'

Literary Past participle

J(,8118M-H IIIIIDCTa pencil-iz break.ptpl '(the) broken pencil'

Progressive participle

.A)'XT&p-H xoa.. aero• read.ptpl girl-iz '(the) reading girl (i.e. the girl who is reading)'

'to bring'

HaJIHDIT-

oaap.naa OBap.A-

IIICHaBHIIITIIIil

MCOBap.ztld

HaBHmT8H

Perfective gerund 'to say'

The other present participle consists of the imperfective prefix 110-, the past stem, and -artt.

Past stem Past participle

verb is typically reduced to such syllables as /sod/, /os/, /sal, and /is/, and can even be reduced to one consonant: lsi. This reduction yields, for example, such forms as pa4K:o.A&Cipa4>coc (literary Taji.k. Jllltta acro...-cr) in the Samarqand dialect, pa4>ca (literary Tajik Jllltta acro-) in the Baysun dialect, and pact>coamcr (literary Tajik petra ~) in the 58 Filmandar and Kosataro! dialects (Rastorgueva 1964:88-90, 95-97, E!niyozov 1979:28, 30). Participles are used extensively in expressing aspect, which will be explained in the remaining part of this section.59 The perfective gerund (e.g. up.-) and the progressive gerund in -a~ (e.g. 1a1p.111a IIC'l'O,A'a) are formally identical with, but syntactically distinct from, the literary past participle (e.g. ...,_) and the progressive participle in -&IIC'l'O,A'a (e.g. ...,_ IICI'O,IIa), respectively. See §3.3.2 and §3.3.4.

The future participle consists of the infinitive and -a, i.e. the past stem to which -a1 is suffixed.

Past stem Future participle

xyp.Aaa 'to eat/drink' XyP.AXyPAUII

,AapoM&Jl8H 'to enter' .AapoMa,n.AapoMII,ItaB8

Finally, the progressive participle is a sequence of the perfective gerundive form of the main verb and the past participle of the auxiliary verb 11C10,JUU1 'to stand', e.g. Jall)ka IICl'Ok& 1

2.2.4. CopuJar wrbs The inflected forms of the copula (68R.llam xa6apll) 1er are usually suffixed to the complement.

llllpka JICI'O,It-G1I.

Infinitive Past stem Progressive participle

Kap.Aaa Kap.A-

'to do'

XOH.A&H XOH.A•

'to read'

Kap,Aa~ /

XOH.A& IIC'l'O,A'a I

KapAa~

XOH.A& IIC'IOf8l1t

This form, which is essentially two juxtaposed non-finite forms, is considered in this book to be a single participle. This is partly because IICI'O.¥B. unlike many other auxiliary verl>s (§2.2. 13.2), has been grammaticalized and has become a bound morpheme in a large number of dialects, including the dialects on which standard Tajik is based. Hero~ as an auxiliary

sa A yo1111g Bukharan informant educated in U:zbek was oot aware of the existence of the verb 8CTO,II8II in XOII,IIIIl ~ (§2.2.7.5) aod DpJUl ~ which in Bulc.harao Tajik have the forms of xoJW[D'I'ac and u(p)A&IIITIU'H, respectively. Asked what verb could be in them, be answered 11111111r111 'to sit', which seems to be used in place of the auxiliuy IICIO,IUIII in a number of dialects including Bukharan Tajik:. ~9 The system of aspects and moods ofTajik presented in this book is based on my analysis, which is not in full compliance with that of existing grammars.

50 Tajik

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

Morphology 51

...

-(I)IM

-cr,IICT

~

~

-(1}1-..

' lam'

'you are' 'she/he/it is' 'weare' 'you are' 'they are'

Below are examples of the copula with various complements (noun phrases, an adjective phrase, and a prepositional phrase).

y

cty,llelll'-UI student-cop.lsg 'I am a student'

Xypc8H.Il li:x ccp,3sg slbe joyful 'slhe is joyful'

cty.lleRT-8 you student-cop.2sg 'you are a student'

011)(0

M8H I

ty

.llap CHB~ class-cop.Jpl they in 'they are in the classroom•

The copula in the third person singular is ICI', which is written ~arately ftam the ~~g word (complement). Acr usually occurs in the form of-crafter~>. <1>, or tp, 6'.g.l1yJt(;f. wr (liyxopo + aCT), IDICl' (Kii + aCT), and ycr (Y + aCT), though this is not an absolute rule. The occurrence of ICI' and -cr is not obligatory in colloquial Tajik (§3.1), as can be seen in such cases ~ HB ICB'l'06 (IICT) 'this is a book' and the use of ac instead of BCCT (see below). The copula ts attached to personal pronouns in the same way that it is attached to other (predicate) complements.60 lsg

M8R81

2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

tyl

Bali ICI', ycr

MOCM myMQCA

OHX,OIB,l{ or OHX,O~

'(smt/smo) is me' '(smt/smo) is you' '(smt/smo) is her/him' '(smt/smo) are us' '(smt/smo) are you' '(smt/smo) are them'

ty-11, M8H HCTO,Ila-aCT py 6a py-H KH Arap HB stand.ptpl-be.3sg you-cop.2sg I this that face-to-face-iz If (A3Ca.vapxarm6aGyxopo2003) ty-A. XJIM nac HH then this also you-cop.2sg 'If this (person) standing before me is you, this (person in the portrait) is also you.' (A painter replying to a model suspecting the portrayed person to be not her.)

There are two different verbs for ' to be', namely ~ 'to be/exist', which does not have an infinitive form and is used only in the present tense, and~ 'to be/exist'. The inflection of ~ and its negative form are shown in the table below. In northern dialects, ~ may also be used for the second person plural. The verb also has a cliticized form, namely (-)leT. In this book, I distinguish the cliticized verb used as an auxiliary with non-finite forms of verbs (e.g. §2.2.7.5, 2.2.8. 1) from the copula ICI'. Accordingly, I gloss (-)leT as ' be' and ICI' as 'cop'. The inflection of(-)acr, which is mostly identical with that of the copula, is shown in the fourth column of the table.

lsg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

This usc of the copula may be easily understood by 8lllllogy with equivalent constructions in Uzbelt and 1\u'kish: Uzbek mt:IJJilan 'is me/1', sensan 'is you', Turkish seosin ' is you', biziz 'are us/we', etc.

~ ~ ~

~

~

cty,lleHT M8H student I 'I am a student'

'I am/exist' 'you are/exist' 'she/he/it is/exists' 'we are/exist' 'you are/exist' ' they are/exist'

Cliticized form -(I)au

Negative form

(-)leT, -cr

BCICT

~

aecreu

~

IICCl'CA

-{1-

~

-·

&ecTIIII

accrii

li:,IC'l'IIM

be.I sg

nymalb.loH &ecTIIII neg.be.lsg remorseful 'I am not remorseful' ,llap Mara:JRH Me88 ~ fruit be.3sg store in 'there is fruit in the store'

(Rastorgueva 1992:61)

Attention must be paid to the cliticized verb (-)lcr occurring after a non-finite form of a verb because its form varies after a vowel, e.g. pa4n'aR1liCI' or pacPtaHHCT (pa4rramt + (-)aCT), COXT88CT (COXTa +(·)aCT), XOH,Il8HifliB,Q or XOH,Il8H~ (XOH,IlaRft + -(li)8H.Il), and XOH,IliiiiHDI or XOH.Iliii!HDI (xolf.ll8Jdl + -(li)aM). ~. which, unlike ~. has both a past stem, ~. and a present stem, 6om-, is the other verb meaning 'to be'. Cty.lleHT 6y;1tG.t was-1sg student 'I was a student'

M8H

ety,lleHT aa-6y~-IM neg-was-lsg student 'I was not a student'

M8H 60

li:,IC'l'IIM

52 Tajik

Morphology 53

U8,llap-8M M)'81VIHN MOoOOm~

22.7. Verb Pwadigms The verb paradigms presented here reflect the situation in literary Tajik. They do not represent colloquial (northern) Tajik verb paradigms, Soviet studies on which are summarized in Soper (1996: Section 2.2.3). The verb used in verb paradigms in this section is, unless noted otherwise, J::IIIWIII 'to do •.

imp-be·3sg father-lsg teacher 'my father is a teacher' U8Jl8p-8M M)'8JIJIHW ~

father-lsg teacher neg-imp-be-3sg 'my father is not a teacher' The archaic~ may be used in poetry in place (imp-be-3sg).

of~

(be-3sg)

and~

2.2.5. Alpects Tajik has aspectual oppositions between PERFECT (which is called 'anterior' in some works) PERFECITVI!, IMPERFECITVI! (which has HABITUAL as one of its subdivisions) and PROGRESSIVE. Some of these aspects are morphologically more readily identifiable than others. For example, the imperfective aspect is marked by the prefix ~. while the progressive aspect is indicated by the auxiliary verb BC1'0AUI 'to stand'. The working definitions of these aspects, which are presented below, are adopted with few modifications from Bybee et al. (1994). The PERFECT aspect expresses a situation that "occurs prior to a reference time and is relevant to the situation in the reference time" (Bybee et al. 1994: 54). The PERFECITVI! aspect is used for "narrating sequences of discrete events in which the situation is reported for its own sake, independent of its relevance to other situations" (Hopper 1982 cited in Bybee et al. 1994: 54). (Note that the perfective aspect is distinct from the perfect aspect.) The IMPERFECITVI! signals a situation that may be viewed "as in progress at a particular reference point, either in the past or present, or one viewed as characteristic of a period of time that includes the reference time, that is, a habitual situation" (Bybee et al. 1994: 125-126). The HABITUAL aspect, which is a subtype of the imperfective aspect, is used to express a situation "characteristic of an extended period of time, so extended in fact that the situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental property of the moment, but precisely, as a characteristic feature of the whole period" (Comrie 1976: 27-28). The PROGRESSIVE is used when an action is viewed to be "as ongoing at reference time" (Bybee et al. 1994: 126). 2.2.6. Modllity Traditionally, four main mood categories are identified in Tajik grammars: the indicative mood (cHFaR XJl6apR), the imperative mood (cHFaR aMpR), the 'condition and wishing' mood (cHFaR mapnuo xolCJIIIDWl.!lll), and the 'probability' mood (cHFaR 3x;I1Dion1l), the last of which indicates a statement based on indirect evidence, i.e. inferential and reported/second-hand information. The present grammar distinguishes six principal mood categories, namely INDICATIVE, INFERENTIAL, IMPERATIVE, CONDmONAL, SPECULATIVE, and IN11!NTJONAL (see also §2.2.13). These mood categories and their expressions will be explained in §2.2.8.

2.2.7.1. Siqlle put furm The simple past (38MOHH I')'38IUTlUI a83,1lHX/o.ll.zdl) form, which is used to refer to a completed action in the past, consists of the past stem and a subject-verb agreement suffix.

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

up...up-

DM up,IIICM up.J!M I DIMC'I'OII ~

MO 6a maxp pear.q~ we to city reached-lpl 'we reached the city'

In the colloquia1 language, in certain contexts, the simple past form can also express an action which the speaker thinks is very likely to take place in the (near) future. Such an action is usually one that the first person subject (i.e. 'I' or 'we') intends to perform in the immediate future. For example, the following sentence may be used when the speaker intends to walk off from where s/he is in no time. This sentence could be translated as something like 'well/now I'm going' or 'I'm otr.

petHM MaR went-lsg I 'I'm ofr I 'I'm going' The colloquial example below may be used when the speaker thinks that the company he is in is about to walk out of a certain place, e.g. a house, someone's company, a shop, etc. ~-MA?

went-1pl-q 'are we {going, ready/about to go}?' I 'shall we go?'

54 Tajik

Morphology 55

2.2.7.2. Put impcrfcdive form The past imperfective form expresses a situation in the past that is aspectually imperfective.61 The Tajik name for the past imperfective is 38MOHH ry38IDT3H lUIXOnil. The past imperfective form of a verb is the past stem to which an agreement suffix and the imperfective aspect marker wo- are affixed. I4CAJWM

lsg 2sg 3sg 1pi 2pl 3pl

~

lloleiiJIIIJ' M"'IIIWM

DpAil6m

ap.-6y.Jpl ...,.~ , DpAil~

...,... ~

The form is primarily a perfect aspect marker (see §2.2.5). As can be seen in the following examples, the reference time is not confined to the past

~ l ueDMeTOB

a.w:ap..,.. XOHll MeX)IOR·X.O x,&CT•IlRJl, KliA:x,o long time ago be-3pl house guest-pi (XaJcmt KapHM c.i. RG:218) ~ ())IIWl come.ptpl were-3pl 'there are guests in this house - they have come a long time ago' )lap in

An example from the Soviet era, which is in fact a very good exemplification of the imperfective aspect, is shown below. In this example, workers' working for twelve to fourteen hours daily is seen as characteristic of the pre-revolutionary period.

nem front

ap.-6)'»111 ap.- 6y.Jdt

1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

83

from

PeaomoiUIJI-H OKTJ16pt. Koprap-oR revolution-iz October worker-pi

.zzy&Ol)tax,-'IOp.llax. COaT

)[Gp

MCHIIpJ.t-IIB.A

PYle

KR rytJ", ran-x,o-e-po x,&MOR .ztap 'U\800 x,aM that samelveryword-pl-the-obj said.3sg that answer slhe also in (NR:573) 6y)t .ztap na6-H .ztapt.e rytra lip-iz river say.ptpl was.3sg in 'In the answer he also said the same words that he had said on the bank of the river'

twelve-fourteen hour work imp-did-3pl 'prior to the October Revolution, workers {would , used to} work for twelve to fourteen hours daily'

6a BaH 110-~ arap MliH ~-po slhe-obj imp-saw-1sg to s/he I if 'ifI saw him/her, I would tell him/her'

110-rytHM imp-said-1 sg

In old texts, and very rarely in modem poetry, the suffix -B (unaccented) is used instead of MOo for the first person singular and third person singular and plural, e.g. IJYilCI'J'Ud 'I would ask', ~ 's/he would ask', and ~....- ' they would ask' (Arzumanov and Sanginov 1988: 191).

this

~

daily (AS: 190)

The past imperfective form is also used in both the antecedents/protases and consequents/apodoses of conditional sentences.

HH

In colloquial Tajik, the past participle with -artl replaces the literary past participle in the past perfect form, thus: ~ 6y.l{ (lit. Tajik ,q~pii,Aa 6y.IV 'it had tom', 6lcra 111f.1'11116y)l (lit Tajik 6lcra m:y;JUl6y.z() 'It had been tied/locked', etc.62 This 'past participle+ 6y.ztBB' form is also used in conditional sentences. 2.2.7.4. Put progJcaiYC form The past progressive form consists of the progressive participle ending with -a, the past stem of 6y;IIIIB ' to be/exist' (i.e. ~). and an agreement suffix. This form expresses an action which is ongoing at a reference time in the past and ttatlslates typically into the past progressive in English. The past progressive is caUed 1}'3MJ1'11H .eypR ~Wtop (wyaJilul) in Tajik. The verbs ~ 'to stand'. BBIDICI'1Ill 'to sit'. and .-mrna ' to have' cro not appear as the main verb in this form.

2.2.7.3. Put pcdect form The past perfect form consists of the literary past participial form of the main verb, the past stem of 6y.- (i.e. 6y)l-), and an agreement suffix. The past perfect is identified as a tense category in Tajik grammars and is given the name 38MOHH ry38IDT3H .eyp 'distant past tense'. 61

Accordingly, the past imperfective form also attracts 'past' and 'past progressive' interpretations in English, e.g., flupMap.A-e cuop-H apo6a-u $BJ71Yr Me-pa
62

An informant suggested that the ... ~ and - d ~constructions contrast with each other in that the former expresses an event (dynamic) whereas the latter expresses a state of affairs (stative).

56 Tajik Morphology 57 lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl .Aap in

llllp.qa ~ 6y.qaw

x,aMlllHpll nap [m x;u.am JCH cap-am-po 6apnonrr, ~ naJUIY-.IDD side-3sg in sister as soon as head-3sg-obj raised.3sg saw.3sg that {X.alCHM KapRM c.i. RG:223) UJWI,IIa~] laugh.ptpl-be.3sg 'As soon as she raised her head, she saw (that) the sister beside her (was) laughing'

llllp.qa liC'I'()» 6y.llllp.qa JIC:'l'O.Qa 6)'.l

Dp»IIC'I'O» ~ llllp.qa ~ 6y.liM l llllp.qa llllp.qa BCro,llla ~

JCY'fa 6aponap-aw-po street brother-lsg-obj

~...,.. BCro,llla

aero» 6~

JW.II·BM,

saw-lsg

m that

6o with

pa4lmc.-am com.rade-3sg

~

was.3sg talk.ptpl 'I saw my brother in the street when be was talking with his comrade'

2.2..7.6. l're8eat impelfrdiye form The present imperfective form is composed of the imperfective aspect marker Me>-, the present stem of a verb and an agreement suffix. The present imperfective is called 38MORB x.ooupa-o.IBHlla in Tajik. lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

2.2..7.s. Praa:lt pn:rg~essiye form The present progressive form consists of the progressive participle ending with -a and the cliticized verb (-)lcr 'to be'. This form expresses an action ongoing at the present time and is called 3BMOHR X.03Hp8R .118BOM.Ilop (M)'aiUH) in Tajik.

1sg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl MBH

llllp.qa BCTO,IUUIM

ap» B.CrO.Ad llllp.qa IIC1'0,IUUICT llllp.qa ~

The present imperfective form is used primarily to encode the imperfective aspect in the non-past. The situation denoted by the present imperfective form is therefore not bound to the present, as in the sentences such as the following.

...,.. ~ I Dp»IICIO.IUICTOII

...,..IIC:'IOAUB.A M8JCT)'6

Kacmdt Bonra 6a 6axp-H Caspian Volga to sea-iz river-iz 'the Volga runs into the Caspian sea'

.napi.e-H

11U111111a IIC'lO,JUHM

write.ptpl-be.lsg letter I 'I am writing a letter'

x.appY-Ja 6a MBH xa6ap-x.o-s nyx-ra-e, KH PY-H A3 to I daily skilled-the that news-pl-iz from face-iz s eer. (AAHA c.i. RG:223) ~ ~. xop-a Mo os IWUIP xy6 work we that value good neg.be.3sg reach.ptpl-be.3sg 'According to the daily expert information that I am receiving, our work is not so good.' The present progressive form in an embedded clause may express an action ongoing at a reference time in the past. In such a case, the verb in the matrix clause is usually a perception verb such as M.lllllll 'to see',~ ' to listen', .J¥)BIICTIII 'to know', or~ 'to think'.

~

(NR:570)

imp-pour-3sg

This form also expresses a habitual situation. M8H

llap

M81CT86-H MHCRa

scbool-iz middle in I ' I study at a secondary school'

IIC>-XOIHM

(NR:570)

imp-read-lsg

Depending on the context in which it is used, the present imperfective form can also be used to express an action in the future. M8H

6a

JCHT06XOHa

Y>pU-4M

(NR:571)

imp-go- Isg to library I 'I shall go to the library (e.g. tomorrow)' Note that the verb Jlll)llriiB 'to have' does not occur in the present imperfective form, i.e., it does not take the prefix MC>-. 63 However, compound verbs that have~ as one of their

63

For example, 'I have a good wife' would be 11111 , . . . _ xy6 .,.,_ (I wife-iz good have-lsg) without t4e prefutatioo ofwo- to the verb.

58 Tajik

Morphology 59

components, such as IIIIUPB ,liiOIIr'l'llll 'to conceal', as well as the verb ~ 'to keep/detain/stop', can occur in the present imperfective form. IIIIU,OII

uc-~

secret/hidden imp-have-3pl 'they conceal' 2.2.7.7. Pulure form The future form, which is characteristic of the literary registers, consists of the finite form of the verb xocraa 'to want' (§2.2.13.1) and the inftnitive form of the main verb from which -aa is removed.bt As its uti.lization of the modal verb XOCl'lll suggests, this form could be thought of as expressing the mood of desire that implies the future tense (see also Palmer 2001: 104-106, Bybee et al. 1994:254-257).

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

~~

~DpA

XOIMDM XO~KJIM xo~~

XOJ:,III,A ~

6a TypKHll xox.....,. pa(rr to Turkey want-Jsg go.binf 'I will go to Turkey' 2.2.8. PriDcipM mood c:ategorica The expression of Tajik modality is connected with the expttession of tennt; and a..~.ect. Accordingly, both this section and §2.2.7, in which there are various ootes on bl~lity, should be consulted for a comprehensive account for modality in 'fajit. 1~ verb 1lW,ed :itl. the verb paradigms in this section is, unless noted otherwise, np.lt8K 't't) do •. All&the exampfeJJ b~ the last one in §2.2.8.2-5 are taken from Arzumanov and San~ ( 1988: 181-182). The indicative mood is negatively defined here as lacking any of the marlcers of modality that the other mood categories call for. 2.2.8.1. Infereotial A modal opposition that pervades the verbal system of Tajik is the opposition between the indicative mood and the mood of indirect evidence, which I call here the inferential mood. The indirect evidence that the speaker possesses may be inferential, reported, or second-band information. The inferential mood is expressed in Tajik typicalJy with the literary past participle and the cliticized verb (-)lcr 'to be', e.g. ~. ~. Dp.llll ~. and DMil ~ ~· The inferential signals that the speaker's proposition is based on inference drawn from a certain situation or on hearsay (reported/second-band information). In 64

This 'brief infinitive' form is called Mac.Aapn uyxT&cap in Tajik.

other words, this mood signals that the speaker bas indirect evidence that supports hislber proposition. 2.2.8.1.1. Infereotialputform The inferential past form consists of the literary past participial form of the main verb and the ctiticized verb (-)lcr 'to be'. What I call the inferential past here is :JaMOHH fY38IDT8R II8JCJlll in Tajik, which roughly translates into English as 'transferable (or narrative) past tense'. 1sg 2sg 3sg I pi 2pl 3pl

...... ...,... ...,

ap~

ap~

~ l ap~

~-

The inferential past form is used to encode the inferential mood. The inferential past form is used when the speaker narrates a reported event or a past event the information about which slbe has indirectly gained. (NR:576) OHX.O 6a paJtOH·X,O·H AHfllP ~ Me·IJ·.!IIIA, KH imp-say-3pl that they to district-pl-iz other go.ptpl-be.3pl 'they say that they have left for other regions • <<8810" x,8M 6a cy6x, RBJ'OX, ICllp,llll rytr: xy.ll 6a COaT-H said.3sg time also to morning to watch-iz self look.ger (NR:576) '10pbll810> 'IOp-y COaT H83JliDC ~. become.ptpl-be.3sg hour four-co quarter near 'looking at his watch he said: "Even the time has become close to dawn - it is quarter past four"'

Note that, in the example immediately above, the speaker learns the time's having become close to dawn not directly by sensing time, which is humanly impossible, but indirectly through (looking at) his watch. In this case, the time that his watch displays serves as indirect evidence that the time bas become close to dawn (inference drawn from the situation). Tbe inferential past form also expresses a present situation resulting from the action/event which the verb denotes (in this case the form may be thought to be aspectually perfect). t.fY8JlJIJIM·aMOH 6a MocJCBa petra.ecr to Moscow go.ptpl-be.3sg teacher-lpl 'our teacher has left for Moscow' In poetry, the literary past participle in isolation (i.e. without (-)lcr) may be used instead of the inferential past form in the third person singular. In the colloquial language, the past participle ending with -adl may be used in place of the inferential past form (see also § 2.2.9).

60 Tajik

Morphology 61

maxtip-x,o 6a ropRidi o..rDpjll'ldl (Pax,Jill ~llliJin c.i. RG:215) qyum because miner-pi to darkness be accustomed.ptpl 'Because the miners have been accustomed to darkness'

2.2.8.1.2. Infermtial put imperi'ccUve form The inferential past imperfective form consists of the prefix ~. the literary past participle, and the cliticized verb (-)leT 'to be'. The inferential past imperfective is referred to as 38WOHH I)'38IDT8H ){,ID:OJD"HH au,nA in Tajik. lsg 2sg 3sg 1pi 2pl 3pl

~w

.......,.. ~

\IC:KJiMICV ~~ ~

wop.....

Morphologically, the inferential past imperfective form is, as its name suggests, a combination of the inferential past and past imperfective forms. However, the status of this form in the tense-aspect-mood system is not entirely clear. Explanations given on this form in different grammars are not in perfect consistency with one another, though they seem to agree that the form encodes the inferential mood. However, unlike situations expressed by the inferential past form, situations expressed by the inferential past imperfective form are not confined to the past (in terms of absolute tense). In other words, they appear to be neutral in regard with absolute tense. .!lap N81CT86-H NO KOHilepf ~III)'AlHICf cpap.no school-iz we concert imp-become.ptpl-be.3sg tomorrow in 'there will be a concert at our school tomorrow (I have indirect/hearsay evidence)'

The inferential past imperfective form also appears to express, as the past imperfective form does, a situation in progress or a habitual situation in the past (see §2.2.7.2). 2.2.8.1.3. Infermtial put pa{cct f0111l The inferential past perfect form consists of the literary past participial form of the main verb, the literary past participial form of6y.QaB (i.e. 6YA&), and the cliticized form of the verb x,acr 'to be' (i.e. (-)lcr). The inferential past perfect is called ry:JaiDTaH .zzypH HIIJQIA in Tajik. lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2p1 3p1

~~

The inferential past perfect form and the past perfect form both express a situation that takes place prior to reference time and that is relevant to the situation at reference time. The difference between them is that the former is modally inferential. ICOp lt,8NHR 6ap 6ono-H fCH this very work top-iz imp-became.3sg that on (NR:577) ~ x.aN ...-r ~ n~W~p-y nHcap also make war.ptpl were.ptpl-be.3pl father-co son 'it became evident that even father and son have quarrelled over this issue' (An inference drawn from the present situation.) Ma"WI)'M

2.2.8.1.4. IDfamtial put progreaive form The inferential past progressive form consists of the progressive participle with -«, and the literary past participle of 6y.- (i.e. ~) to which the cliticized verb (-)lcr 'to be' is attached. The inferential past progressive is called ry:JaiDTaH .zzypH .naaoN.ZlopH (wyaltmH) ll3lQlA in Tajik. lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

ap..-6y~ l upA&6~

....~

~~~ upA&~6,_

DpA& ~6)'AUCT ~~~

~BCrO.AJC)y-.. / ~~~ ...-~~

The inferential past progressive differs from the past progressive only in being inferential in modality.

2.2.8.2. Impa-aaivc .... opClltiw The imperative mood is expressed by the present stem to which an agreement suffix is attached. 6&- or 6y- is optionally prefiXed to this form in the literary register. 2sg 2pl

(6a)r.ya (6a)r.yae,A I (6B)KyBeros

'(thou) do!' '(you) do! '

These are made negative with the negative prefix aa- or, in poetry, ,..., e.g. ....,..,.. 'do not go' MHyB 'do not do'. The negative prefiX and 6&- do not co-occur. The imperative also exists for the third persons.

DM& 6y;l8ll ~~ ....~

Ne-myA,

evident

3sg 3pl

(6a~

(6a)l:yBur,A

'let her/him/it do' 'let them do'

The same form with a fust person (singular or plural) agreement suffix expresses the optative mood.

62 Tajik lsg lpl

Morphology 63 (611)1:yaaw (611)lyacll

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

'let me do' 'let us do'

ICH [ •••) 68-ry-ew, opt-say-1 pl that 'let us say that [...]'

2.2.83. CooditiaiW The conditional mood is expressed in the following forms. (See also §2.2.7.3.) 1) The present stem of the verb + an agreement suffix. This form is called aopncr in Tajik grammars. lsg 2sg 3sg 1pi 2pl 3pl

(611)Kylw.t (611)1:yai

(611~

Me-asap-aM imp-bring-lsg go-lsg if 'ifl go, I will bring'

arap

piiHIU,

3) The imperfective prefix 1110- + the literary past participial form of the main verb + the present stem of~ (i.e. 6om-) +an agreement suffix. MC:a~p.U 6omuf MC:a~p.U 6omlt ueup.~~a~ ~6ouR:w

ueap.lUl ~I ueap» 6omeroa

UCDMil~

KJn'06-x,o-po Me·OBBp.ll BH ~ ~ this book-pl-obj imp-brought.3sg s/be imp-go.ptpl be-3sg 'if slbe went, slbe would bring these books'

8aA

The verb~ (§2.2.4) in this form functions as a conjunction and marks contrast.65 6a xoaa oM~m-ew, Wapacp ~ .llap Mo in be-3sg to house came-lpl Sarif we 'we came home, whereas Sarifremained in the club'

Dp,llla~

6om-e,zt Me-osap-~m saA pe4rra imp-bring-3sg be·3sg s/be go.ptpl 'if slbe has/is gone, s/be will bring'

1sg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

(611~

(611)r:yBcu (611)r:y&Q I (611)KyBeroa

ap»6omuf ap»6omlt ap»6omi,A ap»6ouR:w up» 6olnc:A I DpA& 6omeroa

ICJI)'6 MOfUl. (AS:208) club stayed.3sg

In colloquial Tajik, the conditional mood form combined with ~ in the third person singular inferential past form yields the interpretation of inferred obligation. MO IIIIIIBO-QI 6)'.-..er w8Klj'6-po BH we write-lpl was.ptpl-be.3sg this letter-obj ' we are said to have to write this letter' 2) The literary past participial form of the main verb + the present stem of 6yAur, i.e. 6om- + an agreement suffix.

4) The progressive participial form of the main verb + the present stem of~ (i.e. 6om-) + an agreement suffix.

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

ap»~6omuf

Dp)Ul ~ 6omlt DpA& BCTOA& 6oma.IJ:

Dp.IUl ~ 6omeu DpA& BCTOA& ~~ Dp,Aa BCTO,Aa OOmeroB

ap»BCTO»~

BaA JCHT06 :1011,111a ~ 6oaJ..eA, xanan obstacle be-3sg s/be book read.ptpl 'if s/be is reading a book, do not interfere'

aa-pacoa-e.ll neg-touch-2pl

2.2.8.4. SpecaWive This mood expresses a degree of uncertainty, which in English can be expressed typically with such words as probably and may (well). The following three forms are used to express this mood which I call speculative here. 65

In much the same way Turlcish ist: and Uzbek bo '/sa do.

64 Tajik Morphology 6S 1) The past participle in -ilrii of the main verb + X/IIC'r (§ 2.2.4) from which x,a is removed: 66 1sg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

BBlt XBT BUBJDra IICIO,A:II1H:T slhe letter write.ptpl-be.3sg 'he may (well) be writing (a) letter(s)'

~

ap)IIII1ET.ii ~

2.2.8.5. lntmfional The future participle in predicate position typically assumes the mood that expresses one's intention to perform the action denoted by the verb. This mood is expressed by the future participle of the main verb + X/IIC'r 'to be' or its cliticized form (-)lcr. In the colloquial language, the latter part of the this form, i.e. X/IIC'r or(-)lcr, can be absent

~

Dp.A11111C'1'CA I DMJI'IIC1'CTOB

~

BBlt ~ slhe come.ptpl-be.3sg 'probably he has come' I 'maybe he has come'

MBH

6a Tomo

2) The present participle in~ and -ant of the main verb+ :r,JICr (§2.2.4) from which x,a is removed:67 ~

MCDpN111C'l1t ~

Other forms in which the future participle is in predicate position, which also express the mood of intention, are exemplified below.

IICDp,A1111Cl'eU

Yeap.!81111CTC,ql ~ ~

3) The progressive participle in -v8 of the main verb + X/IIC'r removed:

" "

aMMO pa4lTa Ha•TaBOHHCT·BM. ~ go.ger neg-could-lsg was-lsg but go.ptpl 'I intended to go, but could not' I 'I had the intention of going, but could not'

M8H

...,.....

MBH

petnd

my;Jt-Uf.

became-1sg go.ptpl I 'I became willing to go' I 'I decided to go' (lit. 'I became intentional in going')

(§2.2.4) from which x,a is

J
DpAa BCI'0)$8111CT111

say.ptpl was-t sg day-iz rest-obj yes tale-iz 'yes, I intended to tell the story of the day-off'

DJIAa Bcro,AU1IC'lil up» IIC'J'C),qJU1IC DpAa~

DpAa~ / DpAa~ Dlp,Jila BCI'O~

This form bas a brief form that seems to be outside the curtent literary norm: lsg ll:lpJIIIRII, 2sg ~ 3sg llpAiniCT, lpl Jr.11MUW. 2pl ~lliPJIIII'CTOII and Jpl Dp,liii'CII. This form has a brief form that seems to be outside the current literary norm: 1sg ueap.IIJirell, 2sg ~ 3sg IIC'aiiMJIIliCT, lpl ~ 2pl ~.ISU"mlll, and 3pl ltCIDp,UI'CB.

:r,acNIII

go.ptpl

MBH

aai 6axoaa ~ slhe to house go.ptpl-be.3sg 'probably he will go home' I 'I suppose that he will go home'

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

P+ralll

be-lsg ~ 6a Tomo go.ptpl-be.lsg to Tokyo I (Colloquial; see §3. 1) P+ralll 6a Tomo MBH go.ptpl to Tokyo I 'I intend to go to Tokyo' I 'I am going to Tokyo' to Tokyo

1sg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

(NR:583)

2.2.9. Participlca .. predicates In Tajik, participles, i.e. verbal adjectives, are very similar to adjectives in their functions and distribution, except that participles can introduce relative clauses. Participles, with the exception of the literary present participle, also do not occur in the comparative and superlative degrees (unlike gradable adjectives). Participles and adjectives are not pluralize
However, they sometimes cross boundaries between lexical categories to enter the category of noun, in which case, naturally, they can be pluralized, e.g. ~ IIOJUIPIID 'what her mother has gone through' and........- 11111)'1111,11111 My&m 'what/things that Mubin saw and heard'.

66 Tajik

Morphology 67 69

J;ICr/(-)KT 'to be'. For example, the verb forms expressing the speculative mood in §2.2.8.4 can be regarded as participles serving as predicatives with x,acr. One of the reasons why the description of the use of participles as predicat(iv)es is sketchy, or at _least unsystematic, in this section, as it is also in many grammars of Tajik, is that the functions, forms and even the number of participles are subject to dialectal variation. For example, Bukharan Tajik, like a number of other northern dialects such as Panjakent and lstaravbn (formerly Oroteppa) dialects, does not utilize the participle that is called in this book the literary present participle {E!niyozov 1977: 66-67). On the other hand. the utilization of participles as predicat(iv)es, which is incorporated in the literary language more as a patch than as a system, is a characteristic most salient in northern dialects. Thus, the verb system of northern dialects is not compatible with that of literary Tajik, which. however, has had a tendency of adopting characteristics of northern dialects. For this reason, it is not always clear if a participle used as a predicat(iv)e is indisputably literary/standard or dialectal or colloquial or even dialectal and colloquial. This lack of clarity is reflected in the unsystematic description of participles in predicate position in grammars. This gives literary Tajik verb system a somewhat erratic look, as is noticeable from the notes on the future and past participles in §2.2.7. There is in fact an extensive series of verb paradigms that can be drawn from dialectal data, which is radically different from the one explained in §2.2.7 and §2.2.8. I refrain from presenting a description of the verb system of northern dialects here, because this book is not a dialectological work. I restrict myself to providing some references for this topic: Soper (1996) is a great help in gaining an insight into the verb paradigms of northern dialects. 70 Oafforov (1980) extensively discusses participles used as predicatives in dialects. &niyozov (1977, 1979) is a concise summary of previous scholarship in Tajik dialectology. Rastorgueva (1964) contains a detailed and extensive survey of dialects. 69

10

Rastorgueva (1992: 81) writes: "All participles with the -rii suffix are widely used as predicates (particularly in the colloquial language), both independently as weU as in conjunction with the copula. [ •.•): HH OA8M 83 maxp OM&Aarii 'this man bas come from town' and Aapam IIYnotAarll 6y.11'herdoorwas locked". Below is a basic tip for understanding the use of participles in northern dialects, which ~ anyone reading Tajik literature will no doubt come across. Northern Tajik participles are best understood by analogy with Turkic participles. The rule of thumb is to equate the past participle in Tajik with the Uzbek participle in -<JaD (or the Turkish participle in -~ which expresses the inferential mood in the past tense. On the other hand, the future participle in Tajik may be equated roughly to the Uzbek participle with ·IDOQChi (or the Turkish participle with -&Ef). These rules work in the majority of cases but not all. Tajik

Jlltrad go-ptpl

Uzbek

Turkish

~

became.3sg

ket·IDOQChi bo'l-di

go-ptpl

become-past.3sg

gid-ecek

ol-du

become-past.3sg go-ptpl 'slhe became willing to go'

2.2.10. Causative voice The suffix -(l)oa derives causative verbs from present stems. Some causative verbs are listed as vocabulary entries (i.e. transitive verbs) in dictionaries independently from the verbs from which they are derived.

Present stem Present stem (Causative verb) Infmitive (Causative verb)

cllax.MH.IlaH

pfH,nau

'to understand'

'to grow'

cllllli.M· cllllli.M-o&-

PY·

~

~

py-&1-

'to explain'

'to grow/raise/cultivate'

Observe the example below, where xo6o&.Aaa 'to put to bed' (the causative ofxo&!.Am 'to sleep', whose present stem is xOO-), is used. (AS:200) 6a11a-am-po ~ Mo.ztap child-3sg-obj put to bed.3sg mother 'the mother put her child to bed' In the majority of causative verbs, is inserted after the causative suffix -(l)oa in past stems. This does not affect the function of the suffix or the forms of the present stems of the causative verbs derived by the suffix. Compare the two alternative forms of the verb for 'to boil' (transitive) derived from the intransitive verb~ 'to boil', the present stem of which is

"$1-. Infinitive Past stem Present stem

'\YnJOH.llaH '\YnJOHA· '\YnJOH·

'to boil'

'\YnJOHJIJI.aH

'to boil'

'19mOHJIJI.·

.zymou-

Double causatives are possible and are marked by the reduplication of the causative suffix, namely -(l)oaoa ( may follow this suffix as it does -(l)oa). (AS:201) c118X,MOIIOIIlt·aHA. 6a KapHM Xa6ap-a ABPJ3a·po caused to explain-3pl news-iz yesterday's-obj to Karim 71 '(they) caused (someone) to explain yesterday's news to Karim' 2.2.11. p~ voice The passive voice is expressed by the literary past participle and the verb my.-. 'to become' (or, less frequently, rap_. ' to tum').

11

Asked to specify this 'someone' as Fotima in this sentence (that is, to produce the Tajik translation of '(they) caused Fotima to explain yesterday's news to Karim'), an informant (from KO!ob) inserted 6o _..~(lit. 'by means ofFotima') immediately before 6a IC8piDI.

68 Tajik

Morphology 69

COXT&H xo~aH 'IH,ll8H

'to build' ' to read' ' to pick'

' to be built' 'to be read' 'to be picked'

The negative fonn of the verb ~ (§ 2.2.4) is used for the negation of copular sentences. The negative fonn of X~~CT may be replaced by ac, which seems to be coUoquial (see also §3. 1). 1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

(AS: 198) open.ptpl became.3sg school village in '(a) school(s) was/were opened in the village'

.ll&p

IOUWIO"

MaJCTa6

J[)'DIO.Ia

lll)?t.

(AS: 198) ~ J[)'DIO.Ia XO~-e.A open.ptpl want-3sg become.binf school village in '(the) school will be opened in the village'

.llap

JC,JIIIIJJO"

Mu:r&6

NaB

whe_;;

m

~B

C1)',1leHT·X.O

student-pi cotton from side-iz 'cotton is picked by students'

'IH,lla

MaH

Me-mas-~

myM<>-po D-mpH4JT·aM letter-iz you-obj neg-took-1 sg 'I did not receive your letter'

MaJCiy(i• H

IICCI' IICCTQI

BeClQ lleiCniQ

C&p,llOp-H CHH4J

BCC'l'IM

(NR:569)

C&pll.op-H CHH4J BC

leader-iz class not I 'I am not (a/the) class leader' (Bukharan Tajik) r&H.IIa BC work-pi bad not 'things are {okay, not bad} '

KOp-o

pick.ptpl imp-become-3sg

2.2.12. Neptioa In sentences with verbal predicates, negation is marked by the prefix aa-. 1Ja.. precedes the imperfective prefix 110-.

IICICTJt

leader-iz class neg.be.lsg I 'I am not (a/the) class leader'

The neg~tive. pre~ aa- is attached not to the passivized verb but to III)'AUI. The passive co~tructlon 1S not m common currency in colloquial Tajik and is rarely used in Bukharan the '-a + ~J.taH' co~truction is reserved for aspect marking (see §2.2.13.2 and TaJik, Ido 2002). The agent 1S marked With m "JliiP8ta in the passive construction. D8XT8

BCCTUI

2.2.13. AuxilWy vat. 2.2.13.1. Modals 73 Tajik grammars list four modal auxiliaries (~oH MO.IlanA), namely TUOIIIICTIII, XOCDB, 6oacriB, and IDOIICTUI. TIIIOIIIICDB 'to be able to, can' and XOCTIB 'to want' do not have causative or passive forms. TIUIOBBCTUI is preceded by the main verb in the perfective gerundive fonn.74 Ha•MCJIUOII·~

&a-Me-,llOH·aM

1fPIIlj

ncg-i.mp-know-1 sg 'I do not know'

give.ger neg-imp-can-3pl 'they can not give'

lfa.. is attached not to the main verb but to the auxiliary XOCliB in the future fonn (§ 2.2. 7. 7).

pa4n' neg-want-3sg go.binf '(s/he) will not go'

aa-xox.-~

n 7 •

72

For example, 'the book is read' would be expressed as JCHTOo xo11,11anc 'someone (unspecified agent) has read the book' in the inferential past in Bukharan Tajik.

See, however, abo §2.2.13.2. There are many Olher constructions in which DME~~CTE occurs. For example, in poetry, ~ may be pm:eded by the infmitive form of the main verb. In some registen, the present stem of TUOIIIICTIII to which the imperfective prefix MO- is attached can co-occur with the 'brief infinitive' (Mac,napH HOIQIC or Nac,napu MJXTaCap; see §2.2.3) of the main verb. The brief (or occasionally full) infinitive of the main verb can co-occur with inflected TUOIIIICl'U. Finally, there also exists a construction in which TUOIIIICTIII and the present stem of the main verb with an agreement suffix co-occur, e.g. lloiC'IU08Q 11MBCCJ11 '(you) can write'.

70 Tajik

Morphology 71

The modal auxiliary xocraa, as is explained in §2.2.7.7, expresses desire and is used as the 7 'future tense' marker in the literary language. ' lioacTaa 'to be obliged' and IIIOIICI'III 'to befit' occur only in the forms of 6oQ and lllOIQII respectively. &oQ and ~ whose respective English translations are usually mustand IDJJybdperilllps, both precede the main verb. MaR 00Q 6a ID)'MO JDC must to you one I 'I must tell you one thing'

r)'-DI qm-po thing-obj say-lsg

BCro,JUIB

~ ~ ~

mpatua

.....

~-

l'UII!1UI

'to stand' ryJ8miiii 'to carry (off)' oup.qiB 'to become' DlfJI'Otraa ' to stay' P+ru 'to come' 'l'IIIOK JDIPJ'III 'to take' AO.-a 'to go out' ~_.. 'to see' cap AO,IIIB 'to revolve; to stroll' IIIIIIDCI'UI (lllllllliiiB)

Modality

'to pass'

"

Most of these auxiliaries ex_ist also in Uzbek.

(Rastorgueva 1992:87)

23.Adposiliooa Tajik has both prepositions and postpositions. The principle prepositions include the following. 'to' 'with' 6ep 'upon, on' 6apoa 'for'

6a

6o

6apoa MHJlJiaT-H NO nation-iz we for 'for our nation'

(AS:206) ~~ ~ NO PlllUDI, 6a XOHa·H come.ger stand-2pl to house-iz we Rahim 'Rahim, ((habitually) drop, keep on dropping} in at our house!'

Xocr111 can co-occur also with the infinitive form of the main verb, in which case the main verb precedes xocna, e.g. petrlll :IOCT and petraa IIIC:XOI,IIK (which corresponds to XOI,IIK petr).

IcypT&-po ~ AJI.It'IM dress-obj wear.ger saw-lsg •I tried on the dress'

Jll)?t4M (NliB) X~ read.ger became-lsg I 'I finished reading'

parts.

75

taP-croA

The auxiliary f'IIPIItraa 'to take' also follows the infmitive form of the main verb, in which case it encodes the continuative aspect. The use of ~ 'to become' as an auxiliary is potentially confusing, since the '4 ~·construction in which it occurs is formally identical with the passive construction. For example, x~ ~ in isolation is ambiguous as to whether it means 'to fmish/complete reading' or 'to be read'. However, in most cases, the degree of ambiguity is not as high as it theoretically could be thanks to subject-verb agreement morphology. For example, the following example is unlikely to induce the passive interpretation 'I was read (by someone)' .77

These auxiliaries immediately follow the perfective gerundive form of the main verb. The type of information that they encode is typically aspectual, but may also be modal. Some of them even encode the semantic roles of the arguments of the predicates of which they are

Aspect

~

(Rastorgueva 1992:86) AQA-aM Semantic role Nu,ona-po xoa.. read.ger gave-lsg article-obj 'I read the article (to someone who is semantically a beneficiary)'

'to bring' 'to throw'

'to go' 'to finish' 'to give' 'tosend' 'to let out; to launch' 'to sit'

y

slbe laugh.ger sent3sg 'he burst into laugh'

(RG:I85)

2.2.13.2. Oda llllilimea Tajik has more than a dozen other auxiliary verbs, the exact total number of which is uncertain. This uncertainty derives from the fact that the majority of the auxiliaries probably came into existence as a result of language contact between Tajik and Uzbek/furlcic. The use of such auxiliaries is naturally particularly salient in northern dialects, the dialectal peculiarities of which tend not to be dismissed as non-standard (see §2.2.9). The number of verbs identified as auxiliaries therefore varies from a grammar to another, reflecting the grammarians' judgements as to what peculiarities of northern dialects should be considered to be within the literary norm. Some of the auxiliary verbs listed below cannot be safely assumed to be within 76 the literary norm. Comprehensive dictionaries list many of these. Rastorgueva (1954: 562-563 or 1992: 84-87) gives a number of examples to describe the information that each of them encodes.

6yJIAUI

Aspect

77

6e

.., ., TO

'without' 'upto; until' 'in,

'from'

6a Naxra6 pi$' went.Jsg slbe to school 's/be went to school'

Bali

In young Bulcharans' Tajik language, in which passivization is rarely used, the use of the •.,. IIIYJIIIIII' construction specifically induces the aspcctual reading, e.g. co:na IIIYJIIIIII 'to finish/complete building'.

72 Tajik

Morphology 73

In poetry, a 'from' can be reduced to 3 and be prefixed to the word following it, e.g. 3-1111 a6l6 (from-this reason) 'for this reason'. In the colloquial language, ...-(p) Is often used to mark nouns and noun phrases bearing the semantic role of 'goal', e.g. loWI .liiiiP T~ ...,..... 'I go to Tashkent' (AS: 226), Willi (Bukharan Tajik) '[he (polite)] gives

IIC.AOA8B,.

2.4.1. Noun formltioa Nouns that designate occupations and professions are derived by such suffixes as the ones listed in the table below.

me [money)', and Willi,. m(y)Yo ( ...] ry(rraM (Bukharan Tajik) 'I said to you[ ... )'. Tajik ~ars usually include 'compound' prepositions such as the following in the set ofpreposrtlons: .rdp ., 'except (for)', a pYa 'according to', OBJ( 6a 'about', .JUIP 6opell 'about, concemmg', DCID., 'before', etc. &poa. which can take pronominal clitics (e.g. 6lpnauoa ·~~r them'), is often included in this group. In the literary language, there is only one postpoSition, namely 6eplm 'like', though Tajik grammars customarily count also the object marker -po as a postposition. \) 6yn6yn

-rop/-IOp

-6o3

.....

Kopnp 6o£6oa XH3Matrop J(JIMopOOs XH3M~

'worker' 'gardener' 'servant' 'gambler' '(white-collar) employee'

KOp 6oF XH3M8T JC:HMOP XH3MaT

'work' 'garden' 'service' 'gamble' 'service'

Suffixes which form nouns that designate places include the following and -IDIB, -6op, and

Me-xoa·a.n (Barakaeva 1968:43) nightingale like imp-read-3sg 'slbe sings like a nightingale' 6.piiB

-~

There is another postposition in the colloquial language, namely~ 'with'. M)'K.&Wlac Ul1l Kop rcap.n;-aM Muqaddas with worked-lsg 'I worked with Muqaddas'

-{a}croll

'9'36elaiC'IOB 'Uzbekistan'

-
~

-oop

rymop

'highlands' •flower/rosegarden'

Y36eK ~

ryn

'Uzbek' 'mountain' 'flower, rose'

The following derive abstract nouns.

In northern dialects, 6a is used not as a preposition but as a postposition/suffix {Eniyozov 1977: 92). The postpositionallsuffixal -6a in Bukbaran Tajik often marks nouns bearing the semantic role of'location' (see also §2.1.1.4).

Kop aee! Kop Bee AHrnnAa-&. work neg.be.Jsg work neg.be.3sg England-ba 'There's no work! There's no work in England.'

-rap -0011

... -d -BID

-op

~erA

6a'llll1l .D;OHBID ry4mJp

(Bukharan Tajik)

There are cases in Bukbaran Tajik where even 6epoB is used as a postposition. m(y)Mo XJlWYH tiepoii-MH xaT Ha-HaBRCTIIID'I"CT7 (Bukharan Tajik) you that very baroi-q letter neg-write.ptpl.be.2pl 'Is it for that reason that you {are not writing, do not write} (an) e-mail(s)?' 2.4. Word formation Taj_ik bas dozens of native and non-native derivational morphemes, the principle ones of which ~ explained in this section (see Bobomurodov and Miiminov 1983: 95-97 for an exhaustive list of derivational morphemes). They include both productive and unproductive morphemes. Compounding is also a highly productive device for word-formation in Tajik.

'friendship' ~CT 6aqa 'childhood' .noR'knowledge' 'speech, conversa- ryctn"tion'

'friend' 'child' 'know (present stem)' 'say (past stem)'

Diminutive suffixes also derive nouns.

..... .....

--

.D;yXTap'D

6y:DI'D 38IWt

'little girl' 'little goat' 'little woman' (colloquial)

38B

'girl' 'goat' 'woman'

COli

'shadow'

.n;yxnp 6p

X,U. 'and; too, also' is used as a prefix to derive nouns. x,IIICOll

'neighbour'

Other morphemes deriving nouns include the ones listed below.

74 Tajik

--

Morphology 75

....,.,

WHCJIII&

-.opt -(A)or

xypooopa x.aboaor

•IUIT

'liiM'bBIT

-~

CHC~

-11011&

aBI')"DDTTIIOI

-Gt

xyPoc

-(I)a

~

-(Ji)u

abu

~uop

'copper utensils' 'confection(CIY)' 'foodstuffs' 'animals'78 'society' 'inkwell' 'thimble' 'food' 'band; palm; paw' 'spectacles'

WHC

mupa JCYpoK

x.aboa '\11M'& CHex,ll

asrymr xyP~

ab

'copper' 'sweet syrup, juice' 'food' 'animal' 'totality; sum' 'blackness; ink' 'finger' 'eat (present stem)' 'five' 'eye (lit); substance'

Compound no\DlS have components from various lexical categories, though major sources of components are nouns, adjectives, and verb stems. In some compound nouns, components are p~t. in juxtaposition, while in some others components are connected with the coordinating 79 cbtic -(lla)y or the compounding particle -(l)o-. urro6xoaa 'library' QI!Jia 'Sunday' ~ ·conv~tion'

puyoJi 'visit, trip' alpCyUII

'preface, foreword' lllllp6aplm"

'milk rice porridge'

mro6'book' JllC 'one' ry4IT- 'say (past stem)' pas- 'go (pr. stem)' cap 'head'

xoaa 'house' maH6e 'Saturday' I)'- 'say (pr. stem)' oit- 'come (pr. stem)'

map 'milk'

6ap~

CyxaH

'speech'

u-

6o30p-uooop qoA-ooA

..,... typ-lt. b~

'(a) market(s) and stuffi'sucblike' 6o3op qoii 'tea and stuffi'suchlike'

'to pick up, to lift' 'to go/come out' 'to enter, to go/come in' ~MI,llaB 'to bring in' ~B&p.AliH typ
6lpoMII,!lllH

'to go down, to descend' 'to let/pull down'

As is clear from the examples shown above, typy, +m.n, and typ- designate "motion directed downwards", while 6ep- and .nap- respectively designate "motion directed upwards or outside" and "motion directed inside" (Rastorgueva 1992: 83). Though orthographically not a prefix, 4lepo 'back, backwards' "designates motion around something" (ibid:83).

+-Po mpuclmur

'market' 'tea'

(verb: .napoMa.ttaB) (verb: ci»ypoMMliH) (verb: .ABpOMa.ttaH)

003-a.-ramr

All in~ 'zoologist'. This clitic, which exists also in Uzbek, is used when the speaker presents the referents of two constituents connected with -{.,.)y as belonging to the S81lle (cognitive) category.

's/be goes in' 's/be did not go down' 's/be does not go in'

On the other hand, verbs derived by b- and ~. as well as those derived by 6ep- and .napexcluding the five verbs shown above are 'split' by ua- and ue-.

.~tap-aa-ue-mp-a.~~

71

'to cover/embrace/grasp'

The positions of the imperfective prefix ue- and negative prefix a- in the verbs derived by the derivational prefixes listed above vary. As a rule, the verbs ~. ~ .JUIPOIIII.P.naB, 6ep.-mrras, and 6epo~~~~p.n~~B 'to take out', as well as verbs derived by 80 typ-Jt. follow ua- and ue-. Incidentally, these are all verbs of motion.

,~tap-ua-mpn
19

'to have' 'to come' 'to come' 'to bring' 'to come' 'to bring' 'to have' ramraa 'to turn' .nomraB 'to have' X9P.AaH 'to eat/drink'

+m

t-Po

2.4.2. Vab fOIIDitioo 2.4.2.1. PrdUca The prefixes &lp-, .nap-, typ-/~, b-, and ~ derive verbs from verbs. The ftrSt two of these are of prepositional origin (§2.3), whereas b- originates from the adverb 6oo 'again'.

,AOmTaH OMI,llaB OMI,llliH OB&p.AliH OM&JiliH OB&p,AliH .AODITIIB

~may be replaced by the word from which it originates, namely +YPf.n (alternatively (Zehnl 1987:194). +YPY.A) 'down, downwards', the brief form of which is

~nee•

A noun can be followed by its duplication with 11- or o- replacing its initial consonant which gives the noun the interpretation of' ... and suchlike' or 'stuff like ... '. This process, ~hich is common in a number ofTurkic languages, is colloquial.

a-

6ep-

80

(verb: .~tapmpnci»TaH) (verb: .~tapmpncfmu) (verb: 6ooramras)

'it did not light/flash/bum' 'it does not light/flash/bum' 's/he did not go back'.

Ma"sumJ (1959: 192-193) writes that, in modem Tajik:, Yo- and sa- are inserted in verbs with~ and 6ap- that indicate influence/effect and state, but are prefixed to those that indicate action and movement.

76 Tajik

Morphology 77

2.4.2.2. Su1liua The suffix -(a)A derives past stems of verbs from various lexical items including nouns, Uzbek verb stems, etc. (see Rastorgueva and Kerimova 1964:9-10). ROM HOM-II,A ~

Reduplicated noun: ~J111Cfap~ Preposition + noun: .-p11131P~ O:Dp,OII Numeral: Lit. past participle: OKYJaa ap,oa Tu;~Dp,OII ldeophone: Verb: BCCT J"11IWW..''IB

'name' past stem 'to name'

While -(a~ derives past stems, the suffix ~ derives present stems. Present stems derived by -oa can in tum form past stems with the suffixation of -JIA.

2.4.2.3. TDositivizltioo The suffix -(l)oa (§22.10) forms transitive verbs from intransitive verbs.

xo6Dp.UB

xo6lwa

F8MJ1III

-oaa

Jl9CTOIIIl

-YBII.A

8110JCJIMIII.A

-rya

ryJJryB

-HOC

ywe.oop cpoR.Il880C 6oaJ<JJ

....x.w-

'to put to bed'

6eaJ()I

aoxym li',IMJIIMOR

C4ma

~JWPIItru raM~ rao~ nnaap~

WftiiYI' rap~

woric + do conclusion + bring eye + put memory + take grief+ eat/drink word + hit clean+do evident + tum

'to woric' 'to accomplish' 'to eye/look (at)' 'to learn' 'to grieve' 'to speak' 'to clean' 'to become clear'

'tradition' 'house' ' leather' •grief, sorrow' raM 'friend' Jl9CT 'relation' 81101(,8 'flower; rose' ryn ' hope' ywe.ll cpoR.Ila 'benefit; profit' 'intellect; mind' aK)l 'intellect; mind' aK)l •delightful' xym •time, period, era' 38MOR

amaHS

xoaa 'lapM

'few' 'few' xym 'pleasant' xy.ll'self pax 'stripe' 81

ran 'word'

mmcacra

JlJIJl

DMI'UI 'tacitum'

KaY

Jalllc:IUIO.A 'semi-literate'

KaY

xy;J;Kop 'automatic'

mpap,oa

'traditional' 'domestic' 'leathern' 'sad' ' friendly' 'related, connected' ' pink; scarlet' 'hopeful' 'useful; profitable' 'clever, wise' 'stupid' 'joyless' 'contemporary'

Compounding and derivational affixes are used in adjective fo~ation. Some adjectives compounded from components that belong to various leXtcal categones are shown below.

ll)'IIIPS' •beautiful'

'IIDDIIIIA()XTIU I

Adjective:

'18pMIIB

-11111

~/6a-

'sleep' 'to sleep' 'to sleep'

Ul'ilOII

....

~

piX-piX

Some other verbs that occur frequently in compound verbs are rapa4nu 'to take', .AO~ 'to give',~ 'to have', i5traa 'to fmd', 3WB 'to hit', XS'P.zUIII 'to eat/drink', and COXTUI 'to build'. Compound verbs are formed with a variety of lexical items, as are shown below. Noun:

amaRad

xoaarll

...,.,

'to sleep'

xo6

-(a)I

.....

2.4.2.4. CompouDdins Compound verbs, particularly those formed with the light verb up~ 'to do', are numerous in Tajik. For a number of verbs formed with ap,.a, there are corresponding lexical verbs.

'to grope' 'to bear in mind' 'to unite' 'to accustom' 'to knock' 'to disappear'

2.4.3. Adjcdive f<Mulltion Adjective-deriving affixes are listed below.

'prize, reward' present stem past stem 'to reward/award'

Present stem Present stem (Transitive verb) Infinitive (Transitive verb)

hand-hand + do in + view + have one+ do learn.ptpl + do knock-knock+ do neg.be+tum

'striped'

DIIIDCJ'lWIII

' broken-hearted' "'U,C))II''Drr 'experienced; travelled'

'break (lit. past ptpl)' '18XOH

'world'

C8BO.Il ' literacy'

PY 'face' ICOp 'work'

pax 'stripe' 'heart'

ranrra 'revolve (lit. past ptpl)'

The compounding particles -(1~ and -wa- appear with some reduplicated nouns serving as adjectives.82

11 1:1

E.g. II.'OFCX!II pax-pu: 'striped paper'. . . . . can often be replaced by 6e, which, however, IS wntten separately from the reduplicated

__ .

nouns, e.g. XCJ~6a xea.

78 Tajik

.....

paaropaRr xenuaxen

-(i)o-

'varicoloured' 'various, diverse'

p&III'

xen

'colour' 'sort, kind'

Adjectives can be combined with a hyphen or the coordinating clitic -(1/a)y, e.g. ll'tiJIYOIIIO c:ailal 'socio-political' and II'(IBYolkaCcll 'social and political', both of which are combinations of~ 'social' and ca&:ll 'political'. Below is a similar example. wymiCilJIOT-H

'UWlJI·Tap-H

III;IIIC(WI-W)'

cBcl

difficulties-iz serious-cmp-iz economic-co political 'more serious economic--political difficulties' The suffix • derives adjectives from numerals combined with nouns, e.g. ~ 'decadal, ten-year' ~ 'ten' + ~ 'year' + -«).

3. Syntax 3.1. Copular .ad vat.iiCOteooca Complements precede the copula (§2.2.4) in copulae sentences. In the following examples of copular sentences, the complements are a noun phrase, adjective phrase, and prepositional phrase. (M&H) cty.lleii1'4M I student-cop.lsg 'I am a student'

cacile.llOP 6an&Hll tree-iz poplar tall ' the poplar tree is tall'

llapaxT·H

2.4.4. Advab formatioo As is explained in §2. 1.4.4, in general, adjectives are used as adverl>s and vice versa. On the other hand, there are motphological devices reserved specifically for adverb formation, though their productivity is limited in Modem Tajik. The suffixes -(i)aa and -o derive adverl>s from items belonging to various lexical categories including other adverbs.83 -(i)aa

acocaa MY8aJCJ(,&T8B

-o

acno roXI>

'fundamentally' ' temporarily' 'never' 'sometimes'

acoc MYBaJCJ(,&T

acn rox.

'foundation; basis' 'temporary' 'essence; origin' 'time'

ICl'

cop.3sg

,llap XORa ICl' slhe in house cop.3sg 's/he is in/at home'

BaA

The occurrence of acr/~ is not obligatory in the colloquial language. J
HH

this The suffixes sometimes derive synonymous adverbs from a single item, e.g. II)T.IIU; 'absolute' > Y)'lliUP 'absolutely' and ~ 'absolutely'. Other adverb-forming suffixes include the suffix -e, which appears to be slightly colloquial, and -BOd.

-e -BOd

'a little; somewhat' lCAlW 'backwards' ax.JJ6

'value, worth' ' back'

.ll&lleM xyp3aR (Bukharan Tajik) father.lsg joyful 'my father is joyful' Tajik is a so-called pro-drop language where subjects are often absent in sentences.

Reduplication is a productive means of deriving adverbs from various lexical items. 'sometimes' n:3-'rC3 ' frequently; soon' ~ 'gradually' 'one by one' ro~-ro~

---

'time' Noun 'sharp; fast' Adjective Te3 paqm 'go (gerund)' Gerund 'one' n: Numeral

rox.

Some reduplicated items are connected with the compounding particle -(l)o-, e.g., capoc:ap 'entirely, from the beginning to the end' (reduplication of cap 'head'). 83

-(l:>c- is another common derivational suffix for forming adverbs. However, unlike adverbs derived by -(l)ur, adverbs derived by -(l)osa are often adjectives too, e.g. COADPBil 'truthfully, sincerely; truthful, sincere' (from the adjective COJtB: ' truthful, sincere').

pa4rr-eM went-lpl 'we went' I 'let's go' The interrogative particle -lodl, which is Uzbek/Turkic in origin, is a yes-no question particle. It is used to ask the addressee about the truth value of (the proposition of) a sentence. KJIT06..po XOR.Il·e,n-Jd? book-obj read-2pl-q 'did you read the book?'

80 Tajik

Syntax 81

However, in the colloquial language, the scope of interrogation can be altered by moving -wl from the sentence-final position to other positions in a sentence. This can be observed in the following Bukharan Tajik example copied from §2.3. m(y)wo XJIMYH 6apoH-Y11 X8T aa-BJUIHCT8Dl'TCT'?84 (Bukharan Tajik) you that very baroi-q letter neg-write.ptpl.be.2pl 'Is it for that reason that you {are not writing, do not write} (an) e-mail(s)?' 3.2. CoordiDatioo 3.2.1. AND The conjunctions (n~o) u, I.IM ••• I.IM -· 'both ... and .. .',and the coordinating clitic -(1/a)y connect various elements as well as sentences.

myMO Ax,y8,ll-po ,llH)l-e.ll, a ae? you Ahmad-obj saw-2pl or not 'did you see Ahmad or not?' I 'did you or did you not see Ahmad?'

3.2.3. BUr gh . 1 Common adversative conjunctions are UIIC, 11o010, fiua, and J~CEBB.. Thou . not a s~ e word, (•) ~ 08 101 'whereas (the fact is that)' also introduces sentences With adversative propositions. wo 6a 6ooop pactrr-ew, .ue Ho.!XHJ18 we to market went-lpl but Nodira 'we went to the market, but Nodira didn't'

Y

JCHT06 • .z:taclrrap OBap.ll s/be book and notebook brought.3sg 'she brought (a) book(s) and (a) notebook(s)'

M)'8JIJJHU 6a CHHcp ,napoM8,Zl .. A8pC cap teacher to classroom entered.3sg and lesson head 'The teacher entered the classroom and the lesson started.'

my.ll. (AS:231) became.3sg

waa I.IM mro6, I.IM »eypH8ll-po 088p.ll-8M I also book also magazine-obj brought-lsg 'I brought both the book and the magazine'

(NR:593)

3.2.4. Otbe.r coojuoctioos . • and Other conjunctions commonly used in Tajik include a ... a ... 'netther .. ., nor ·. ·. • • (TIIIX,(l(~) ·- 6uJ:B -· 'not (only) ... but .. .'. The compound Ul'IJIII& otherWISe also conjoins sentences. 3.3. Subordination 3.3.1. Relative clauacs 87 la . Tajik relative clauses are post-nominal and are introduced by the re tive pronoun D1 'who/whicb/tbat'.ss The noun phrase restricted by the relative clause takes ~. (§2.1.1.3), which is glossed as 'the' in this book.

3aA:Ha6, OM8Jla&-aT HIIF3-Y pacpTaH-aT 68,Zl-.llHJI. 85 {Ynyr3o.z:ta c.i. RG:241) Zaynab come.inf-2sg good-co go.inf-2sg bad-sfp 'Zaynab, your coming is good and your leaving is bad, indeed. • 3.2.2. OR. The conjunction a is the Tajik equivalent of English 'or'.

xa6ap-e, [101 6o p8,Z1Ho .llO.z:ta my.ll], news-the that with radio give.ptpl became.3sg x,&Ma-H wo-po XypcaHJl IalpJl. (AS:249) all-iz we-obj joyful did.3sg 'the news that was given on the radio made all of us joyful'

a may be optionally followed by 101

orBBDI.

JleHHH 6a nHp8Map.ll~, (DI 6a Y Ta6aCC}'M Me-JCapA], imp-did.3sg Lenny to old man-the that to he smile HHrOJt.xap.zt. (Usmanov 1979:127 c.i. AF) looked.3sg 'Lenny looked at the old man who smiled at him.'

Me-pu-ll a HH 'lO we-ucr-A? (Rastorgueva 1992:102) imp-go-2sg or this place imp-stand-2sg 'are you going or staying here?'

Ty

you

a ae(-wl)? attached to a sentence may be translated as 'or not?'. ..

lilpc.- 'for' is used as a postposition in this Bukharao Tajik example. An informant from Xujand objected that 6apoH should not be used as a postposition, suggesting that the sentence should be

"

Tajik has a number of sentence-final particles such as -.IIQ, -All. and -"'! that, like Japanese sentence final particles, mainly express modality. See Xalilov (1977) for a detailed discussion of Tajik particles.

aa-paclrr86 neg-went.3sg

When the relative clause modifies the direct defmite object noun phrase of the main clause, the direct object marker -po follows ~•.

m (y)MO 6apoH UM}'B·MH XliT H8H8BHCT81In'eT?. 16

Note the 'gap' in this example. . In the colloquial language there exist clauses that precede modified noun P~· See § 3.3.2. a See also the next section(§ 3.3.2) for another type of relative clause coostrucbon. 87

82 Tajik

Syntalt 83

~~~~. [m

III)'MO

HaBHIDTa

6y.ll·e~, waa mpHcfn'-aw

letter-the-obj that you write.ptpl was-2pl, I 'I received the letter that you had written'

(AS:253)

took-Isg

The .role o:.the h~ noun in.the relative clause is marked with a personal pronoun or pronommal cline that ts coreferntial with the head noun. 89 MO Jl8p OB Me-XOH-eM] (... ] loWCT86-e (ICH it imp-read-lpl school-the that we in ' the school in which we are sllldying'

(Rastorgueva 1992:106)

6a JCJrr06xoHa lll)'.lllll1l]-po JCJrr06-x.o-a [XOB» read.ptpl become.ptpl-obj to library book-pl-iz we (AS:2ll) rapJlOH,Ila JlO)l·eM. return.ger gave-Ipl 'we returned the read books (i.e. the books that had been read) to the library'

Mo

The literary past participle (in ..) may be used in place of the past participle in-arlin relative clauses.

Jl8p K86HHeT·H JliiPCICIOp aCT. (AS:212) I(Jilll1IOX. ~] [83 study-iz director cop.3sg come.ptpl in from village man-iz 'The man who came from the village is in the director's study'

0)l8M·B

The following is an example of a non-restrictive relative clause. BaA·po Cape3 Me•HOM·8HJl]. JCYn·e x;ICT, (KH llOMHp lake-a be.3sg that it-obj Sarez imp-name-3pl Pamir in 'There is a lake in the Pamirs, which is called Sarez. •

.L{ap

(AS:34)

hrtic:ipial modi:6as Th~e. are relative cla~s other than those introduced by a . Relative clauses ending with p~c~ples ~ollow m~fied noun phrases in the izafet construction (see also §2.2.3). The past participle wtth -arlts the most commonly used of all the participial forms in relative clauses. 3.3~

wocr. x.awco•·H neighbour-iz we.cop.Jsg kerchief buy.ptpl girl-iz 'the girl who bought (a) kerchiet{s) is our neighbour'

(AS:2ll)

Jl8p XOHa acT. ICJrro6..B (AJt.M8Jl ~] house cop.Jsg in book-iz Ahmad buy.ptpl 'the book that Ahmad bought is in the house'

(AS:212)

,L{yxTap-11 [pYfiwon J:apiJAVI]

BaA JCBT06..a [ xy.ll-am Dpii,J(II1I]-po 6a MO Bl!IIIOB JlOJl. slhe book-iz self-Jsg buy.ptpl-obj to we showed.Jsg. 'she showed us the book that she bought' BaA JCBT06..a (DpQIDI·am]-po 6a MO HHIDOB JlOJl. to we showed.Jsg. slhe book-iz buy.ptpl-Jsg-obj 'she showed us the book that she bought'

In other

[Jlaw 6a .!laM ry.~~pUJ.Aa] continually pass.ptpl train-pl-iz '(the) trains that pass continually' won-x.o-a

(AS:212)

(A. ,L{ex.om)

(AS:212)

[6a

PoccHa

taP&cro...-mw•"UQQ]

(AAml)

send.ptpl-become.ptpl Russia goods-pl-iz to '(the) goods/commodities to be sent to Russia' UOC3Jl·X.o-B

words~ Tajik ~ploys the 'pronoun-retention' strategy (Comrie 1989: 147-149; Song

2001:218-219) m expressmg the role of the head noun in the relative clause.

It should also be noted that a number of literary past participles have been lexicalised as adjectives and nouns, e.g. ry.wma 'past (adjective); the past (noun)' and OQIUl 'coming (adjective); the future (noun)'. In the Tajik of today, the productivity of the literary present participle (in -(l)laAa) is lower than that of the other present participle (in ~ and -8111) in the formation of relative clauses, in which the former is often replaced by the latter. The following four examples are taken from Arzumanov and Sanginov (1988:213-214). noe3Jl-x.o-a

An example where the verb in the relative clause is passivized (§ 2.2.11) is shown below.

19

"fYrauommo ~-aw] 6Hc..ep.IIH.Il (AAHft c.i. R0:254) (83 hear.ptpl-lsg many-<X>p.3pl from TOtapoUo story-pl-iz 'The stories I heard from TOtapoUo were many'

){,Hxoa-x.o-H

[83

Mocoa

~]

from Moscow come.ptpl train-pl-iz '(the) trains that come from Moscow' taP&cro,~~a paJtoa waxry6-x.o-a [6a send.ptpl district to letter-pl-iz '(the) letters to be sent to the district'

wc:my,JIIarll]

become.ptpl

Relative clauses ending with -uil can precede modified nouns. This is a characteristic which is prominent in the colloquial language and which could be ascribed to the Uzbek influence on Tajik.

84 Tajik (mywo-po wemJIJIOrurii) O.llaM-X.O you-obj recognise.ptpl man-pi 'the men who are your acquaintances'

Syntax 85 (YJI)T'JO.Ila)

In northern dialects, notably in Bukharan Tajik, relative clauses with -ctl regularly precede modified nouns (ldo 2001:100, Ido 2002:57-58).

nacona nporpBMa-iia TUoiOW a(p~ cryneHT-o decadal programme-obj finish.ptpl student-pi 'students who completed the ten-year course/programme'

3.3.3. Advabial claulc:s There are a large number of subordinators that introduce different types of adverbial clauses, the entire inventory of which is not provided here. They include: .u;Je a 'when', 3ep0, 3epO a, 'lfYBDI, 6BBo6ep JDJioa a 'because', TO, TO a ' until', uem a BB m 'before', and ll"llp 'if. Examples of adverbial clauses of time, cause, and condition are provided below. 91

Bu:rc a maxp-po TaMomo Kap.llB we-ranrr, when city-obj watch.ger imp-turned.3sg xac-e 6a Bait poeT OM8.118 nypcH.Il (AS:41) person-a to s/he straight come.ger asked.3sg . . 'When he was busy seeing the sights of the city, somebody came up straight to him and asked'

(Bukharan Tajik)

PyCTaM-a IIDBCI'II1I xar-am-a r(p)ll(t)nnr O.z18M (Bukharan Tajik) Rustam-gen write.ptpl letter-3sg-obj take.ptpl man 'the man who received the letter that Rustam wrote'

XaT-e-po, KH MBH HBBHC·BM, OOJm XY.Il·BM (...) XOH.Ila .z1HX.· BM, letter-the-obj that I write-lsg must self-lsg read.ger give-lsg 3CpO JCaC-H .llliJ'8P"e X8T·R M8-po XOH.I18 Ha-Me-TBBOH-8.11 (AS:59) because person-iz other-a letter-iz 1-obj read.ger neg-imp-can-3sg 'The letter that I write should be read by me because another person cannot read my letter'

PyCTaM-a xar-am-a r(p)a(t)nnr O.llaM, Rustam-gen letter-3sg-obj take.ptpl man Byxopo-6a llltUUIIIIWB Capaap-a xoHem pa4rr (Bukharan Tajik) Buxoro-to/in sit.ptpl Sarvar-gen house.3sg went.3sg 'the man who took/received Rustam's letter went to the house of Sarvar's who lives in Bukhara'

Arlp x,aMa·H )'3B·X.o-H X,JICC•H 0.118M H8f'3 HHKHDlocll eqrra if all-iz organ-pl-iz sense-iz man good develop.ptpl 6om-811.1l, Bait 6ex:rapxop we-teyB-8.11 [...] (AS: 100) be-3pl slhe better work imp-do-3sg 'If a man's sensory organs are all well-developed, he works better'

A relative clause with the future participle is shown below. The future participle appears not to be used widely in relative clauses and is, in most cases, interpretable as an adjective. JIK nuena o6-a [lljDIIJAIBi]90 osapn one teacup water-iz drink.ptpl brought3sg 'slhe brought one teacup (teabowl) of drinking water'

Finally, some examples of relative clauses with the progressive participle in ...a are shown below.

3.3.4. Coovab ooostroction . The perfective gerund ending with..._ (§2.2.3) is used to form the converb <:<>nstructlo~. <se;; also Rastorgueva 1992: 79), which Turkic languages such as Uzbek and Turkish also utibse. See also §2.2.3. Ax.M8.11 6a Mara:JHH·H KH'I'06qlypym1l Jllltra, Ahmad to shop-iz bookselling go.ger ICHT06-x.o-a BBB xapH.z1. (AS:218) book-pl-iz new bought.3sg 'Ahmad went to (the) bookshop and bought new books'

O.llaM-11 (~~) man-iz read.plpl 'the man who is reading' XaT-B [xOB.A&~·aM]-po 6aponap-BM HBBBmTa-aCT. (AS:214) letter-iz read.ptpl-1 sg-obj brother-! sg write.ptpl-be.3sg 'my brother has written the letter that I am reading now'

91 90

Compare this with Turkish i~lc su(drink-ptpl water) with the same meaning.

The translations of these examples belong to Ahmedova (2004).

n Hence the suggestion in the literature (e.g. Perry 1979) that the utilization of gerunds/converbs with..._ in Tajik bas been induced by the Uzbek influence on Tajik.

4. Sample texts 4.1. Magazine article (1929) Typographical errors in the original text, which are noted in footnotes, are corrected in this text.

lolfDT dtir Latin in

Bl.iOOji alphabet-iz

·i··

dar in in this

tvrtij• Turkey

vaqt-bo-ji oxir,

dar turldja,

B8

time-pl-iz last

in Turkey

to adopt.inf-iz

JotjnJ jak Latin one

sol year

pur full

so

savod

~uda

literacy

become.ger

cahor moba.ji four

school-pl-iz

national

lotinl 250

monthly-izLatin 250

604 604

bazor

odam thousand man

in,

qajraz

118T0mada ast go out.ptpl be.3sg

,,111akt8B-bo.ji millr'

dar

new-iz

~ud

with

mentioned in

nav-i

alphabet-iz

becarne.3sg

darsol-i 1928 darkurs-bo-ji in year-iz 1928 in course-pl-iz

mazkilr

tatBiq kardan-? alitiKJ.ji

dar sol-i in year-iz

other. from this

bazor

tai8B8

BO

student

with

993

thousand 993

alifiJo-}i'

loti.ni savadnok

~uda-and

bama.ji

savod

jofta-gon

alphabet-iz

Latin literate

become.ptpl-be.3pl

all-iz

literacy

find.ptpl-pl

BO

a/ifBo-ji

nav,

754,993

nafaJ4

with

alphabet-iz

new

754,993

person

nm1-1 onho so

ali!Bo-ji

Ja1Jma bee

half-iz they

alphabet-iz

old

with

dar maktaB-bo-ji mill!

bar

in school-pl-iz

every year

national

sol

me-so~-and imp-be-3pl

jak

in no way one

ki

~

that

more from

savod

na-do~t-and

literacy

neg-had-3pl

500

bazor

500

thousand person man

loti.ni savodnok

~uda

me-B81'0-jand

Latin literate

become.ger

imp-go out-3pl

8Z

nafar odam

BO

with

( alifiwji loti.nidar turkija 1929)

The Latin aJpbabct in Turkey Recently, in Turkey, one year has passed since the adoption of the Latin alphabet. In 1928, 250 thousand men have become literate in four-month Latin (alphabet) courses. Aside from this, in the same year, 604 thousand and 993 students have become literate in the 93

94

Spell 'kordani' in the original text. Spelt '754,993nnafar' in the original text. The figures, which I leave as they appear in the article,

do not seem to add up correctly.

88 Tajik Latin alphabet at 'national schools'. Those who are literate with the new alphabet total 754,993, more than half of whom bad no literacy in the old alphabet whatsoever. At national schools, 500 thousand men become literate in the Latin alphabet every year.

5.1. AbbreYillioDs

4.2. Excerpt from. specdl (2001)

3a6ou-H 1anguage-iz

nap in

3aOOH·X.o-H .llHJ'8p Tajik encirclement-iz language-pl-iz other 03Moam-J~:o-H 3uen-e-po a3 cap fY3apoHUna-acr. (Rahmonov 2004-06-10) trial-pl-iz many-a-obj from head pass.ptpl-be.3sg 'The Tajik language, in the encirclement of other languages, has borne many trials' TO'tHICft

5. Appendices

HX.OTa·B

43. Excerpt from. DeWS report (2003) ,nap J~;on-u l(03up <yxopo-u mapuct>» x;tqrra-e .o: 6op 6a in state-iz now Bukhara-iz noble week-a one time to 336ou-u 9J6e1Cft 6a mpaliC·B 1500 uycxa WIJ> maxp-u Syxopo language-iz Uzbek to circulation-iz 1500 copy in city-iz Bukhara 'IOD Me-IDIIJI-~. (~~I J ....1J• .r'J~ .. ~ jl ~ .SI}~ 2003-11-13) print imp-become-3sg •At present, Noble Bukhara is printed once a week in Uzbek with a circulation of 1500 in the city ofBukhara.'

• 0 II ()

ace binf caus c.i cmp co com cop

dat fem gen ger imp

inf iz

Ungrammatical Phonetic representation Phonological representation Orthographic representation literally locative object marker optative personal communication plural present participle yes-no question particle sentence final particle singular something someone superlative

lit

accusative brief infinitive causative cited in comparative coordinating clitic comitative copula dative feminine genitive gerund imperfective infinitive izafet

loc obj opt p.c. pl pr. ptpl q sfp sg smt smo spr

Ahmedova (2004) Arzumanov and Sanginov (1988) Nemenova (1955) Rustamov and (iafforov (1985)

AF

AS NR R(;

5.2. Trauslita-ation

Aa :66

BB

rr

.li.Il Ee

aa

X. 33

Taj a b v g d e yo

Rus a b v g d e

f

f

z

z

HB

t:m

y

e

Jln MM

Taj k 1 m

Ha

D

~

f 0 p r s t u

KI

Oo liD Pp Cc TT Yy

Rus k 1 m n f 0 p r s

Xx ~

qq IIIm

Rus

X

X

Fr

c

RA

~

~

~

§

! ~

~

99

:x.x. l('l

"ht. y

Liw

b&

Taj

Taj

33

e

t

lOio

yu

u

jiJI

ya

6 ju ja

~ I

q Q

h

Rus

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AH T8)(JXH1rCKOil CCP, 7.

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KaJontarov, Ya. I. ed. 1967. JlOIDCAH TV.pHpH HSBH HJOJOH 340oHH 8Jl86HH JClX111p6H TO'U/L ,lzymaa6e: )tOBHID. Kalontarov, Ya. I. ed. 1974. Jl}ftTII HMJJoa »OoHH f41(a6HH TO'iHZ ,lzymaa6e: Hptoa. Kalootarov, Ya. I Niyozi, S. 1943. Jl)'TBTH op/Jo1p8(JJ1. Orammo6o.z~: Hampaiml)tiiiiJia'THH HB3,llll CI<X PCC TO'OOCIICTOH. Kerimova, A. A. 1995. 06 OCHOBHWX upoueccax pa38JmU COapeNeHI!oro 'TIWICJO(CXOI'O mn-epaTy))HOI'O li3YJCa. Bonpocy13NX03HJlED«, 3. JJ8-J26. Kerimova, A. A. 1997. TlWm!J(cJCHii li3WL IN Rastorgueva, V. S. l Mo!kalo, V. V.l Edel'mao, D. I. eds. I~· JbNJaJ JDI/)8 {Hpllllcxae 13/JXH 1: ~~4l(BNe apaacXHe 13/JXH) Mocoa: HB.zlpHL Komatsu,~· 1995. -:=-..,~ ..-~?;;.? A.-'!"~7 ;;y A.~~Mt M IIG~. IN Hara, Teruyuki l Yama~, Masayulci. eds. 1995. x 7 7nJf.Jt (III/I;{ 7 /n -tN-$.2) . .t.:t:: JA.:t:t:. 250-274. Komatsu, Hisao. 1996. -'tftn rltr 9 T - ~ & 9 +- r 1 - Fn}fl/.. .t.:t:: .t.:t:.k•ll:~*· Korol eva, A. I. 1969. Onpe.z~eneHW! - aenpHJiar&TCIII.HWe 8 pyccxoM 8 'TIWICJO(CXOM JllWJCaX. IN 1969. flpolpllMM8 Ha}"liiOi/ KOHr/JepeHilHH DpeDOJliiB8Tenei/ H SCIIHpiJHTOB, DOCBIIIleHHoi/99-oi/ t'()Jl()Nl(IIlle co JlHIpo11;4t:HHI B. H. Jle/IHBil. )zymBH6e: .z:tniH HM. T. r. WeneDO. I 5. K OT'Iety 1(1< aoaoro an~ TIJVIQOO!craaa. 1923. IN 1923. Ilac~eHHocn. 8 peMWOrua, C6. 1. Mocoa; JleliHIUJla,A. 200-101. Kozlov, G. I. 1949. PBliiH'IliJI we:auzy Ta,!tllaDCcno. a nepcqcJCHW li3WDWH. Mocxo6CDiil Jla, cnnyr B<JcTOK06e,J(eHHI, I 5.

•

Kuroyanagi, Tsuneo.l984. --:1v:/ TllnJI. .t.:t:: .k . . ..... KuJiioa, E. N. 1966. MCCTHWe nexcaqecme 38HMCTBOBBHWI8 pyccr.oli pe'IH llaiTCIIeii y 36em CT&Ha 8 TIJVIQOOICT&Ha IN 1966. Kap/713Cxu oepaupecoy(imarMcxu M~)'3()acxu1111l1TBHC17l'lecxu KOBf/>ept:IIIUlL ¢IJ>YH3e. 80-82. Lazard, Gilbert. l:r'O..P~i~ and Tajik. IN Seboek, ThomAS A. ed. 1970. Oureot issues ia l.iaguistics (vol~ 6): Liaguisacs m Soutb Wcst Asia 8JJd Nortb Affica. The Hague; Paris: Mouton. 64-96. Lee, WBJ-Sun I Zee, Eric. 2003. Slalldard Chinese (Beijing). JoiJJ7J8! ofthe fotmJatiOIJ4! PboDetic ASS()CiAJiOD, 33, I. 109-112. Rachel. 1984, Deverbal compounds in Tajik and Persian. Folia Slavics, 7, 1-2. 204-211. LewiS, G. L. 1967. Turkish gT8J11DJJir. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lorenz, ~· 1961. Untersuchungen ilber die Verschiedenheiten im ~schen und persischen Satzbau. WlssenscbJJIWcbo Zeitscluift der Humbo/dt-UDivenitit Berlin, GeseUsc/Wts- UJJd SpracbwisseoscbJJJWcboReihe, 10. 542-544. ~ ~ 19~. Die partizipialen Wendungen - eio Unterscheidungsmerlanal des Ta#ikischen gegenuber dem Persischen. Mitteilungeo lks /JJStituts fiir Orieotforsc/JUDg, IJeU/Sche ' A.bdemiederW~zu&rlin, 10,1.133-139. Jostituts des Mittei/ungeo Sprachen. iranischen in Einfluss Tilrlcischen Zum Lorenz.~· 1970. fiir OrieotforschUDg, Deutscbo .4¥11(/emie der Wisseoschalteo zu BerJio, 16. 75-83. Mah.m~ov, M.l Berdiev, B. 1989. ./IyFaTH MJ'XTSC8pH RIV{'(Il)(OHSyxopo. .ltymaa6e: )tolllruJ. Mah~ttan, Shahrzad. 1994. PersiiUJ. London; New York: Routledge. Maniyozov, Abduqodir I Mirzoev, Abdusattor. 1991. Jl}ftTII HMJJO. ,lzymaa6e: Maopacjl. Mact.anaa HMno. 1926. ,l(oHHJD BS oMj':Jrop, 3-4. 3-4. Ma"sumi, N. 1959. Qqepi:J(o OI/Jlfia HllXHIIIOfPH »OoHH «a6HH rooua. Orammo6o.z~: Hampaem .ltaanmt TO'OOCIICTOH. Megerdoomian, ~e. 2000. PersiiJD compuiBtiooal morphology: A 1111ificatioD-bas«/approach (Memoraoda m computer 8JJd cognitive scieoce MCCS-(}().320). Las Cruces: Computing Research Laboratory. Melex, N. A. 1968. FIDt(p;yBaacKHi/ roB<>p Tti,I(IDD{CKoro 63IJKa (Ano~. JQliQl. JIHCC). JleHHHrpll,A.

Lehr:

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Mitzosiroji Hakim [Mirzo Sirojiddio bioni Xoji Mirzo Abdurtahim]. 191311330 h. Tuha5 abli Bwc()IT). Kogon: Matbaai sangii Kogon. 'Milr.ljli~o. G. S. 1958. Dp~ nocrpoeHHJI conocraaHl'eJII>aoli MopcjlonomH pyccJCoro a 'Ul,llliHI(CXoro li3WJCOB. IN 1958. Ha}"liiU xoar/JepelllJHI, noc~eHHu neBHBCJJ:HM JllliM. 22-24 liiiP· 19.58 r. Tt:3HCN .JIDMII.LIOB. Cramora6a.a: TrY HW. B. H. JlCHHHa. 65-66. ~. 1929. .,S...b.,:.N~~.:.~. ~_,..._,[nrbBariOODif],l,I6. 1·3. Muhammadiev, Mardoo. 1975. JlynrtJ111)'XT8caplT CHBOil1DDCOB 3116oHH ro'Uf]dt )zymaa6e: Maopscjl. Murav'eva, L. 1956. Apna:m. B coapeMeHHoM ~cxoM a nepcllJlCKOM .li3IJK1JJC. Kaa)l. .IIJICC. Mocua. Murav'eva, L. / Rub~ik. Ju. A. 19S9. Apnoon. 8 coapeMeHHOM Tll,llliiOil(CXOMa nepcqcJCoN • 3WJCaX. Kparxae CO<J6D(e1/HI Hacnnyrs BOCTOKOIJ¢/leHHI, 29. 75-87. Muruvvatov, 1. 1966. 08JI6a 6alo3e NBC1>8JIBli.OHN}'HOCH6BTX.OH l&OOJOI TO'UWI 88 Yl5ed (Aap BCOCH NBTepH8Jlll meaax.oa TO'OIKOHII ~H a-rpocjla AH.!tH'loa). IN 1966. Te:mCJCOH MUpj3aJCO .Jl1IP KOHf/>ept:BIIIUH KJJJDIH OIIIIMOHH "(8//()H. )zymaa6e: All> PCC TO'OOCIICTOH. 75-76. Muruvvatov, J. 1970. )toap 6a wyHOCH6anl 386oHII TO'UOOI aa y,6eldl ()tap arocK waTepH8Jlll meaax,oa TO'OIXOHH BHJIOJ1111.Aa.o;ir\oa). IN Oafforov, R. / JOraev, 0. eds. 1970. MBCT.~UIU.0/1 IUeBIII11/IHOCHH TO'lHX." '{HJVlH / • .ltymBH6e: )toiiHlll. 258·274. Muxtarov, D. M. 1958. Cnoaoo6pa30BBH11e 1 )'36eJCCXOM li3WJCe acjlcjiHXCBNH Tll,llliiOil(Cl:oro li3WXB. Tpy/lH Ys/Jexcxoro rocy.Jlllj)C771eHHOTO YHHBepCHTeTB HM. A . HaaoH (Hoau cepu), 77. 27-44. Muxtorov, J./ Qosimov, V. 1961. KeJIHJIIIOOt.OH 386oJOI Yl5eldl aa 3JCBHB8JICHTX.OH ono Jl8p 3800JOI 1'0'11001. IN 1961. lia'h3e MJ1C1,1JJJIV{OH 340oH .. 14/(aOHiTH TO'lHJ(. CaNapJC,BHJI: YI!HllepC1ITe11l )taananol CalaapJC,BHJ16a HOWH A. HaaoA. 103-117. Narziqulov, A. 1968. H~oa cjlpaleono11111 3800HH ro'IIOOI-y,6eldl. IN 1968. MllTt!liH&IIJ(OH KOB~BIIIUH XXIV HliiLHH x,ai/8TII ~poH . . MJ711111HMOHH YHHJJepcHTt:TH ,l(BSR8TIIH CaMaplf;4JIJlOa HOMH Ammrep Haaoi1 83 p}'H H'fJJOH xop)(OH H!Ddl-n;u;HJCOTi/ .JIBp COIIH 1966. CaMapJC,BHJI: YHIIBepcHreTH ,ltaanaTHH C8MapJC,BHJ1 6a HOWH Anllwep HaaoA. 48-49. Nemenova, R. L. 1955. Kpanadi oqepx rpBMNBTHlCH Tll,llliiOil(cxoro li3WXB. IN Kalontarov, Ya. I. cd. 1955. Jl)'TBTH M)'XTIJCIIpB ro'(IIXil-pycA. Mocxaa: Hamps CTII)taantmiH Jlynrrx.oa Xop~ aa MHJinA. 52S-616.

Olimov, Abdurahmon I Aliev, Mahmadnazar eds. 1999. HMnoa »OoHB ro'Uf]dt )zymBH6e: Hptoa. Ostrovskij, B. Ja. 1973. Mopcjloaonoi'H'Iecme cxeww nmepwopcjlew nepcqca:oro, .lllpH H 'I1I,PJII:CI:OI'O li3WJCOI. Hapo/lH A3HH H At/JpHXH, 2. 135-140. Palmer, Frank Robert. 200 I. Mood arxl mod81ity (2nd «
96 Tajik Perry, Jobn R 1997. Script and scripture: The three alphabets ofTajik Persian, 1927-1997. Joumal of

CeDtra!AsillDStudies, 2,1. 1-18. P~ereva, E. M. 1925. Hcxoropwc III]lY cpc,li;H OCCA/IOro HICeiiCIIlUI TypxCCTaH&. liJORJ1tm:m. C'/1<1ult:-A3HIUlXoro rocyJlllpCTBeHHoro J'1IH11CPC117l'JT11, 11. 81-98. TamxcRr. Pullcyblank, Edwin George. 1991. Lexicon ofreconstrvctedpronunciation in early Middle Chinese, lste Middle Chinese, BDd esrly Msndsrin. Vancouver: UBC Press. ..J..LJ y .;..1'1.st.»l (.;Jy) ·.):lt.l .s~M.uli. 1929. .,t.;!.J~..I(rah6ari donij], 4. 1-3. Rahimt, M. V./ Uspcnskaya, L. V. 1954. .IJ}'F87H ro'U£XI/-pycll. Mocxaa: Hampum .l{&a118111H li~H XopB'Oi .. Mwudl. Rahmatullaycv, Shavkat I Hojiycv, Azim. 1995. O'z/:Jek ti1ining imlo Jug'Bli. Tosh.kent: O'qituvchi. R.ahmooov, E. S. 2004-06-10. 4>11pJCBBT J(IICTHH MHili18T scr. Rastorgucva, V. S. 1954. Kpanodi O'lcpx ~moot TIWICHXCKOro 11:n.uca. IN RahimT, M. V./ Uspenskaya, L. V. 1954. JlyriiTII ro'Ulldi-pycil. Mocxaa: HampHem .l{IIBII8111H JlyraTX.ou Xopii'Ol .. MluviH. 529-570. Rastorgucva, V. S. 1964. Om.n ~aoro H3yYelllll 7"88lXllXCDDC roBOpO& Mocxaa: Hayxa. Rast~va, V. S. 1992. A short sketdl ofTsjik gnunmsr (Translsted byHedJert H. Psper). Research Insbtutc for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University. Rastorgueva, V. S./ Bakaev, C. X. /Isaev, M. I. / Kcrimova, A. A. / Pirejko, L.A. 1964. THml SYI3N'IHIy IljJilllCJCHJC HBpOJIOB coMrCxoro C0/0311. Mocxaa: Hayn. Rastorgueva, V. S./ Bakaev, C. X./ Isaev, M. I./ Kerimova, A. A. I Pirejko, L. A. 1970. Different types of bilingualism among Iranian peoples of the USSR. IN 1970. Internstionsl con.gress ofsntbropologicsl snd ethnologicsl sciences (7th, 1964, Moskva). Moskva: Nauka. 715-721. [the English ofR.astorgucva et al. (1964)] Rastorgueva, V. S. I Kerimova, A. A. 1964. Ca~~a ~xoro rJTaroJ18.. Mocoa: Hayxa. Rozenfel'd. A. Z. 1961. Ta.amoccxo-nepcBAcKHe li3Wltoawe OTHomeBHI. Y'lellJJe3ai1Jicsa Mocxoscxoro lYJCY/l8pCTIIeHHoro J'HHMPCitTeTII, 294. 12-42. Rustamov, Sarofiddin. 1981. HeM. .l{ywau6e: .l{oHHJD. Rustamov, Sarofiddin I Oafforov, Razzoq. 1985. Fp8NNaTIIJ(BH 8/lBOHH J(03HpBH ro'UIJ( (T(en.tui 1): oHCTIIJ(B B8 MOJX/xmOI711. .l{ywau6e: .l{OHHIIJ. Sadeghi, A. A. 1991. .,S....LJ .r}!.,.. J~ .siMJlJ• .,..,~;.:.;lu 4 [11J8jalle-ye zabins~JenlsJ], I 5-16. 1-2. Sadykova, K. N. 1958. ~ DOA/IeJU~.Qero a pyccxow H '111,AmDCCKOY cWJCc. IN 1958. Hayrmu IOH~ DOCB.mleHHU DeHHBCDIJII/HD(. 22-24 sop. /9.58 r. Te:JHCNJlOUBJIOA Cramma6a.A: 1TY 101. B. H. JICIDIHL 66-67. Schwarz, Henry G. 1984. Tajik IN Tbe minorities ofnorthem Chins.: A surYey (Studies oo Esst Asit Vol 17). Bellingham: Western Washington University Center for East Asian Studies. 217-227. Sem!nov, A. A. 1900-190I. MsTCpHBDN JliU H3)"'leJDU Hspt:'IHI ropi/N)f 7"88lXllXOB ~CH7pllJIJJfoif A~ l-2. Mocna. Sokolova, V. S. 1949. 4>oaeTHXs T8,llXl/Xcxoro 1361K.B. Mocoa; Jlelllllii'p8A: lf:wn'em,crao &JCaACMHH H&yiCCCP. Song, Jae Jung. 2001. Linguistic typology. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Soper, John. 1996. LoaD S)'Dtu in Turkic sndIranisn (Rel'ist:d BJK! edited by ADdras J. E. &x/roglegeti). Bloomington, Indiana: Eurolingua. Sarofov, N. 1961&. EaJ.:Je Y8CI.a/I&Jr.OH ¥.86yJDIIt8llliM&X.OH co11C'111-HRrepBIIIUIOIWIA. IN 1961. Te:JHCJCOH Mlnpj3a.l(O Jl1IP JrOHi}epelllUWI HJIMHH 0/IHMOHH 'fiUJ()H. Crammo6oA: ACZ> PCC TO'UDCHCTOH. 188-189.

References 97 Sarofov, N. 1961b. HlmoDocjiH TapKH6H JI}'IUHH 386oHH 8Aa6HH TO'O!J( &SlUlco6Hlt81ll1M&Jr.OH coBC'rli-HRrCpiiiiiUIOII8llli. IN 1961. lisT.:Je MIIC1>IIJIIVCOR 380oH B8 8Jls6H4m :rt?'UIJ(. CaMipiWf.A: YID!BepcHMTM.l{aanarKH CaMipl(.aHA 6a HOMH A. HaaoR. 137-144. Sarofov, N. 1964. l>a1>3C xycycJDTX.OH X8JUIM&X.OH coBC'rll-mrrq>HIIIUIOHanR. IN Niezmuhammadov, B. N. ed. 1964. lis'1>3e MIIC'b8J18J(OR 380oH111HHOCHH ro'UIJ( {Ma'lMJ'BH MBICOJIBJ(o). .l{yuw!6e: HampHem A«P PCC To'OIIQICTOH. 47-52. Sarofov, N. 1968. .l{oHp 6a xycyclm1!6a1>3C DliiDIU.OH coBC'rli-HilfCPH&UHOHanR. IN Tohirova, Q./ Tursunov, M./ Zikriyoev. eds. 1968. MBK,OIW(OOHI/Os6n3eMBCM118J(oa386oH111H110CIIH'1'0'liiL 11eiDIHo6oA: BasopatH waopa~u X8IIJQI PCC To'OIIQICTOH. 37-50. Tilavov, B. 1958. K aonpocy nepeaoA& nocnoa10.1 Hnoroaopox (c pyccxoro S3WIC8 R& Ta.IIJQD(cmlt). IN 1958. HBJ"''OU JrOHt/Jept:Hl(Jll, DOCB.mleHHu neHRHcKHMJlHIM. 22-24 sop. 19.58 r. Te:JHCN J(OICI18/lOA Craluma6a.A: 1TY HM. B. H. JlcHHHa. 58. TOdo,Akiyasu.l969. i/llll':S*-11. ! Jk: ~~til~. TOdO, Akiyasu. 1980. 'tiiiii#IIJt - .f n NX.19.1lfJt-. .t.:t:: ~~Ut' . Trask, Robert Lawrence. 1993. A dictiODBty ofgTBI111lJ8ticsl terms in linguistics. London; New Y ort.: Routledge. Tursonova, H. 1971. OHA 6a nap&JIIICJibl{.O Alp ~pa3COJIOI'Hll aa 38p6y101~oH ro'O!J(ll-y:Kieldl ()lap acocH <>-H C. AliHR). IN Sermuhammadov, B./ Jillaev, 0. cds. 1971. ApJIYTOR D. .l{ywau6e: ,l{oiDIDJ. 138-1 SO. Tursonova, H. 1979. TBJll(lliC1f ~ORCJIBHR t/Jp83COROT713MX,OH DBp81111t:JIR 380oHJCOR roruail BB j:J{ieKil. .l{ywau6e: ,l{oiDIDJ. Tursunov, U./ O'rinbocv, B./ AJicv, A. 1995. O'zbt:Jc sdsbiy tili f8rixi. Tashkent: O'qituvchi. Usmanov, K. 1978. He~~:oropwe ~}'HJCUIIOH&m.HWe oco6eHHOCTH1'8.1XlKHXCKOro 8pl'llltM a CODOCT8BIIe!DIH C apt1110lelol aarmdlcJCOI'O CWO ( R8 MaTCpHane IUIBCC006pa3}'10~ (Hc'lliCII.ICYWX) cymccnsBTCIIhHhiX). IN Sijaev, Begmurad Sijaev~ ed. 1978. Haocrp8HH1Je I3NJal B T8,llXl/XCIOil By,I111TOpHH (TCOpHI H l1p8Jt'T1/X11). .l{ym&H6e: ,l{OIDIDJ. 63-73. Usmanov, K. 1979. KaTeropHll OnpeAeneHHOCTH-HCOnpeAeneHHOCTIIIOieHH CyWCC111lfi'tiiJ>Horo a coapeMeHHOY TIWICHXCXOM H aar11HCJCOM cwxax. KaBABA&TCkU ,li;Hcce)7!'8UHll. .l{ymau6e. Voxidov, A. 1971. HcJCorowc oco6eHHOCTH pasaiiTiill nexcHJCII 1910-x roAOB ~c~:oro mrreparypHoro cwxa. IN 1971. Te:JHCN AOICI1MOB IVasyrmo-Tt:Ope17T'IecJrOil JrOHI}epe/IIUIH DJXXfJeccopcxtrnp<$0)l81111Tt:J1JCJrOI'O COC1'BB8. Cawapl(.aHA: roc. DCA. HH-nl HM. C. A.liHR. JJ- )2. Wei-Mintz, Jacqueline. 1962. Dis/ectal difkren«s between three si8Ddsrd vsrieties ofPersisn: Tebnn, Kabul snd Tsjik. Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics. [Mimeographed) Windfuhr, Gernot L. 1979. PCTSiao GrllD1IIJN: History IIIJd Sf8te ofits Study. The Hague, Paris, New YOlk: Mouton Publishers. Xalilov, Abdusalom. 1977. /(HCCB'I8J(oJ1Bp386oHH 8)laOHH JC03HpllR ro'(Hlr. .l{ymau6e: .l{OIIJIIII. Xaska!ev, Talbak Nabotovi~. 1983. 4>oamrxBH 3BOoH11 8)la6HH JC03HpllR ro'Uilf (l(HcMH 1: CB/lOHOIO{O B8 JQIMCOJIBJ(O)• .l{ywau6e: Y.l{T 6a HOMH B. H. Jle!DIH. Xolmatova, S. D. 1966. Mopq,onofli'ICCKHA cnoco6 nepe.Qa'lll pycciCJIX npe41HXC&m.HWX rnaronoa ua ~CJOdi OWJC. IN 1966. HB)"lHBI JrORt/JepetcrJHI MORO,I/NX yveHlilX, DOCJW:IleHHU 50-nertDO IknBJrOil Ora{jpt.aoif COllH8/IHCTH'ICCJrOifpeBOIUOIIHR (Te:JHCIJ AOICI14110B)• .l{yuw!6e: 1TY 101. B. H. Jle!DIH&. 63. Xolov, M. 1970. K81111M8X.OH pycilaa coBCTii-IIHTCpH&UHOIWIA Alp pow&HH <<.l{OX}'li.A8>>-H Ca.IQ>IIJUlHH A.liHR. IN 1970. Uporp8MM8 B8 re:JHCJ(OR KOHI}epell1Q{IH HJIMHH M)'BIIIIJIMOHH t/Jsxym.TeTR t/JIIJIOROI7lllf TO'Uilf B8 IUspl( 6sxrrm.na 6s 100-conBI'HH pji3H T8B8JIJ1)'/lH B. H. .lleHRH. .l{ywau6e: Y.l{T 6a HOMH B. H. Jlemm. 49-50.

98 Tajik Yunusov, A. 1981. TtUpJDCH36fioliill10IOCIDITO'O/X." llmuo'WW''W'K 8,466/ltr(Con:;coa /861-1971). '(.luwH I. ,lzymaa6e: Klrro6XORAH AaaJiaTIIH PCC TO'OOOIClOR 6a HOMB A. ~A. Yunusov, M. 1966. Kamow!.oH ys6erdi.Aap poNllllll C. AAHA <. IN 1966. Te3HCJCOH M.,.p~o Jl8fJ xoaflepellllJIIH HIIMHll OJIBMOBB 'f/JBOH. ,lzymm6e: A
Index agglutination: 17 Arabic: I, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21 aspects: I, 49, 52; continuative: 71; habitual: 52,57,60;Unpcrfective: 15,48,52,54, 57, 60, 63, 68, 69, 75, 89; perfect: 52, 54, 55,59,60,6l;pcrfective:3 9,47,48, 49, 52,69, 70,85;~ive: 14,47, 48,49, 52,54,55,56,61,63,64,84 Buk:haran Tajik: 4, 5, 13, 26, 28, 34, 38, 49, 66, 68,69, 72,79,80,84 cases: §2.1.1.4.; accusative: 20, 25, 89; comitative: 25, 89; dative: 89; genitive: 20, 25, 26, 89; locative: 25, 89; nominative: 25 Chinese:2,3,9, 94,96;Mandmin:2,3,96 clitics: 14,23,26,27,31,32,34,36 , 72, 74, 78, 80,82,89;prono01UuU: 14,23,26,27,31, 32,72,82;coonlinating:34,36,74,78, 80,89 copula: 14,46,49,50,51,66, 79,89

58; inferential: 52, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68; intentional: 52, 65; optative: 61, 89; 'probability': 52; speculative: 52, 63, 66 Mongolian: 2 negation: 15, 34, 51, 61, 68, 69, 75 number: dual: 20; plural: 7, 18, 19, 20, 23, 28, 29,30,32,37,39,46,51,54 ,61,89; singular: 7, 12, 19, 20, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 37,46,50,54,59,61,62,89 Pamir:2,4,82 participles: 46, 65, 66, 82; future: 48, 65, 66, 84; literary past: 47, 48, 49, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 68, 83; literary present: 48, 65, 66, 83; past: 47,48,49,55,58,59,60,6 1, 64,66, 68, 77, 82, 83; present: 48, 64, 65, 66, 83; progressive: 48, 49, 55, 56, 61, 64, 84 Persian: I , 3, 4, 6,11, 17, 43, 94, 95, 96,97 registers: 19, 20, 23, 26, 58, 61,69 Russian: 1,2,5, 7,8,12, 13, 14, 15, 16,21,35,

Dari: I

Sariqul: 2, 3 thematic role: 71, 72,82 Turlcish:20,28,33,50,62, 66,84,85, 94 Uyghur: 2 Uzbek: 1,2,3, 4,6,9,25, 26,41,44, 49,50, 62,66, 70, 73, 74, 76, 79,83,85,88,95 verbs: ctiticized: 51, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65; copul.ar: 69, 79; finite: 46, 48, 51, 58; intransitive: 67, 76; non-finite: 46, 48, 5 I; transitive:67, 76;infinitive:42,43,46,47, 48, 51, 58, 69, 70, 71,89 voice: causative: 67, 69, 89; passive: 68, 69, 71, 82 Wakhan:2 6yAaB:45,51,54,55,56,60 ,61,62,63 scroAaB: 43, 44, 47, 48,49,52,55, 70 xOCT&B: 45,58,68, 69, 70 DJYAaB:43,45,68, 70,71

definiteness: 22, 24, 81; indefiniteness: 14, 20, 22, 24, 27, 33; -e,: 22, 23, 24; -ez: 22, 81 English: 2, 4, 22, 27, 31, 33, 34, 38, 47, 54, 55, 59,63, 70,80,96 focus: 27 gender.fenOOxUne: 19,21,89;~ine:20 g~ds: 46,85;pcrfective:39,47,48,49,69,

70, 85; progressive: 47,49 honorifics: honorific: 29, 46; humbling: 29, 30 izafet: 5, 12, 14, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 36, 38, 40,65,82,89;consttuction:21,22,26,27, 28,36,38,40,65,82;partic1e:5, 12, 14, 26, 28, 30, 38 Japancse:9, 13,80 modality: conditional: 16, 52, 54, 55, 62; 'desirability': 52; desire: 14, 58, 70; Unperativc: 15, t6,52,61;HKlicative: 52,

95

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