$ " %& ' ( " & # " " " )*% " # " " && "% " && # +& ) & " # " % & ) " # " " # # # #) # " " # % ,% % , % " " % % # -## & & & # ) , % & & ,% " # & # " & & ," " .% " " ) * " / # # % .% " ) * # & & # 0 " " # " ) , % "" " & " # , " )
*% 1234. " # "" )& " & 1225* ".% " % *""# " # )6 #7888* #. *.$ 9.% " )* ($" :# ; <)(= )>*.*$? * ") @*.> *A "# 788B "7818 )
! " #
!"# $ "%$ " & '"% " ! ! & $
(()#&
*! +*! ! " # $ !% ! & $ ' ' ($ ' # % % ) %* %' $ ' + " % & ' ! # $, ( $ - . ! "- ( %
. % % % % $ $ $ - -
- - / / $$$ 0 1"1"#23."
"0" )*4/ +) * !5 !& 6!7%66898& % ) 2 : ! * & *,#-./012134.155/2015 / - ;9<89"0" )*4/ +) "3 " & 9<89
327(17,$/$520$7,&3/$176)25 +(5%$/7($,15:$1'$ ´'HVFULSWLRQ%LRORJLFDO'LYHUVLW\&XOWLYDWLRQ(VVHQWLDO2LO&XOLQDU\8VH 7KHUDSHXWLF3URSHUWLHVDQG(FRQRPLFDO9DOXHµ
KABERA Justin
[email protected] Unit of Essential oils Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) P.O. Box 227 Butare, Rwanda
UGIRINSHUTIViateur
[email protected] Unit of Biotechnology Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) P.O. Box 227 Butare, Rwanda
NYIRABAGENIAngélique
[email protected] Unit of Biotechnology Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) P.O. Box 227 Butare, Rwanda
Ϯ Introduction The medicinal and aromatic plants have been used from the prehistoric times to present day and have been used in all civilizations. Since the dawn of civilization, the Man used the plants for their medicinal and edible value. By trial and error, he distinguished between the beneficial and poisonous plants. The Man also observed that in large quantities medicinal and edible plants may be poisonous, and learned about the usefulness of plants by observing animals. In fact, the sick animals use certain plants that they usually ignore. Today, this method is used by scientists to isolate active compounds from medicinal and aromatic plants. The earliest written historical information dates back to 2500 B.C. when Sumarian ideograms described the use of medicinal plants such as the poppy as the "the plant of joy"
from 1728 to 1686 B.C. in the Code of
Hammurabi, the King of Babylon. The plants mentioned in that time included the mint, henbane, senna and licorice. With the time, more documents were written by the sixteenth century B.C. The earliest written records of practices were produced by the Egyptians, who were greatly esteemed in the ancient Mediterranean world. The medicinal plants such as fennel, castor oil, opium, thyme, linseed, aloe and myrrh, were mentioned in these records. During the Greek Era, the knowledge on the use of medicinal and aromatic plants expanded in such a way that it conquered skills and knowledge of various cultures. Also, there was an exchange of information between professionals especially between the three great civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and India. In fact, the use of several medicinal and aromatic plants was common in the Mesopotamian, Indian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman documents. After the first millennium A.D., several botanists and herbalists wrote on the usage of medicinal plants. The authors of that time include Hildegarde, Albertus Magnus, Valerius Cordus, Theophrastus, Pier Andrea Mattioli, William Turner Carolus Clusius, Nicholas Culpeper and Friedrich Hoffmann extending from 1098 to 1791. Later, the isolation of chemical substances from plants was commenced by Caventou and Pelletier who isolated alkaloids such as caffeine, while Geiger and Hess isolated atropine and other alkaloids dating up to 1850. Later on, the scientists from the mid-nineteenth century to date have isolated most of the chemical constituents that we know nowadays. Some of these chemicals are still in use in their natural form while others are industrially produced more efficiently by chemical synthesis. The medicinal and aromatic plants are important for human health. It is believed that the herbal PHGLFLQHFDQJLYHJRRGHIIHFWWRERG\ZLWKRXWFDXVLQJVLGHHIIHFWVWRKXPDQ¶VOLIH%HVLGHVWKHXVH
ϯ of medical and aromatic plants has been increasing as an important role that can support the economic system. The medical and aromatic plants for health are used as herbal treatments and therapies that can be new habits for culture. There are several kinds of medicinal and aromatic plants whose infusion or tisane is a pleasant drink having some therapeutics effects such as stimulating, relaxing, sedative, antioxidant and so on. As for this booklet, only five plants namely Citronella (Cymbopogon citratus), lemon verbena (Lippia triphylla), peppermint (Mentha piperita), Rosemary (Rosemarnus officinalis) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) have been chosen thanks to many criteria: their availability in Rwanda and their therapeutic and economical value. These plants can be found at some herbalists that use them for the medicinal and aromatization purposes. Although they are available, the medicinal and aromatic plants are not well known by the general public yet, the reason why this booklet was initiated and written with a maximum of useful information to prospective users. In general, the plant kingdom is divided into several groups, but the botanical classification is beyond the scope of this section. However, the medicinal and aromatic plants can be simply classified as trees, shrubs, woody perennials, annuals and biennials, and climbers. In addition to the therapeutic interest, these plants have got very important economic potentialities. In Rwanda for example, 1 kg of dry leaves of lemon verbena costs 6,000 Rwf (Rwandan francs), equivalent to 10 $US), the same price in Morocco where this plant is cultivated mainly for the export in the United States of America. In Butare, located in the southern province of Rwanda, 1 kg of the dry leaves of thyme costs 15,000 Rwf (about 25 $US) and 1 kg of dry leaves of rosemary costs 6,000 Rwf (10$US). Rwanda is now an affiliated country of several organizations especially the East African Community (EAC) which is the regional intergovernmental organization of the Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of Rwanda and Republic of Burundi. These five countries have the common trait of being developing countries. In addition, the medicine and industrial sector are not developed yet which means that the health care and food security are not well assured. Therefore, this guide booklet will provide the populaWLRQV RI WKH ($&¶V FRXQWULHV ZLWK VXIILFLHQW information on the five aforementioned medicinal and aromatic plants. With this information, the people will know how to use these plants in healing themselves and make money for their own economical development. This booklet comes while the Rwandan Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) is being restructured to become an institution in charge of industrial research for the development. Therefore, it is a good opportunity to contemplate producing these plants on a big scale, to make
ϰ the tea bags meeting the high standards for the sale in the region or elsewhere in the world. In fact, being an exemplary research institution in the region, the IRST aimed at going far in optimizing the quality and the quantity of these plants. Besides, our institution has always wanted to share useful information with its partners but also with other institutions of the EAC and out of the region. It is within this framework that this booklet was written by the researchers of IRST to serve as handbook to all those who are eager to use the medicinal and aromatic plants for their therapeutic and industrial purposes. For each of these plants, the information concerning the botanical description, taxonomy, cultivation, different uses and occasionally the precautions to be taken as well as the pests and diseases were collected and are given in the present booklet.
ϱ Table of contents Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1 Table of contents ............................................................................................................................. 5 CITRONELLA (Cymbopogon citratus).............................................................................................. 8 1. Plant history ................................................................................................................................. 8 2. Description................................................................................................................................... 8 )LJXUH&OXVWHURIOHPRQJUDVVJURZQLQWKH,567¶VJDUGHQRIPHGLFLQDODQGDURPDWLFSODQWVLQ Mukoni (ex Butare)........................................................................................................................... 9 3. Classical classification ................................................................................................................. 9 4. Common names......................................................................................................................... 10 5. Chemical composition of the essential oils ................................................................................. 10 6. Ecology and cultivation .............................................................................................................. 10 7. Uses .......................................................................................................................................... 11 8.1 Medicinal uses ......................................................................................................................... 11 8.2 Economical benefits ................................................................................................................. 11 8.3 Culinary use............................................................................................................................. 12 9. Toxicology and adverse reactions .............................................................................................. 12 LEMON VERBENA (Lippia citriodora)............................................................................................ 13 1. Botanical description.................................................................................................................. 13 2. Mythology and background history............................................................................................. 14 3. Classical classification ............................................................................................................... 15 4. Climate and ecology .................................................................................................................. 15 5. Cultivation .................................................................................................................................. 16 6. Pests and diseases.................................................................................................................... 16 7. Lemon verbena uses ................................................................................................................. 17 7.1 Culinary use............................................................................................................................. 17 7.2 Essential oil and chemical composition .................................................................................... 18
ϲ 7.1 Other uses ............................................................................................................................... 18 8. Peppermint benefits ................................................................................................................... 19 8.1 Therapeutic properties ............................................................................................................. 19 8.2 Production and economical benefits......................................................................................... 19 9. Precautions for lemon verbena use............................................................................................ 20 PEPPERMINT (Mentha piperita).................................................................................................... 21 1. Botanical description.................................................................................................................. 21 2. Background history .................................................................................................................... 22 3. Taxonomy .................................................................................................................................. 22 4. Common names and varieties.................................................................................................... 22 5. Climate and ecology .................................................................................................................. 23 6. Cultivation .................................................................................................................................. 23 7. Pests and diseases.................................................................................................................... 25 8. Peppermint uses ........................................................................................................................ 29 8.1 Chemical composition of the essential oil................................................................................. 29 8.2 Peppermint tisane .................................................................................................................... 30 9. Peppermint benefits ................................................................................................................... 31 9.1 Therapeutic properties ............................................................................................................. 32 9.2 Industrial benefits..................................................................................................................... 33 10. Precautions for peppermint use ............................................................................................... 33 ROSEMARY (Rosemarinus officinalis)........................................................................................... 34 1. Botanical description.................................................................................................................. 34 2. Mythology and background history............................................................................................. 35 3. Classical classification ............................................................................................................... 35 4. Climate and ecology .................................................................................................................. 36 5. Cultivation .................................................................................................................................. 36 6. Pests and diseases.................................................................................................................... 37 6.1 Insects pests of the rosemary .................................................................................................. 37
ϳ 6.2 Fungal and bacterial diseases.................................................................................................. 40 7. Rosemary uses .......................................................................................................................... 42 7.1 Traditional uses........................................................................................................................ 42 7.2 Culinary use............................................................................................................................. 43 7.3 Chemical composition of the essential oil and .......................................................................... 47 8. Peppermint benefits ................................................................................................................... 47 8.1 Therapeutic properties ............................................................................................................. 47 8.2 Economical benefits and production......................................................................................... 49 9. Precautions for rosemary use .................................................................................................... 50 THYME (Thymus vulgaris) ............................................................................................................. 51 1. Plant history ............................................................................................................................... 51 2. Botanical description.................................................................................................................. 51 3. Taxonomy .................................................................................................................................. 52 4. Common names:........................................................................................................................ 53 5. Ecology...................................................................................................................................... 53 6. Cultivation .................................................................................................................................. 53 7. Chemical composition of the essential oil................................................................................... 54 8. Diseases and pests.................................................................................................................... 55 9. Uses and benefits ...................................................................................................................... 55 9.1 Culinary uses ........................................................................................................................... 55 9.2 Therapeutic properties ............................................................................................................. 56 9.3 Industrial uses.......................................................................................................................... 57 10. Precautions.............................................................................................................................. 58 References: ................................................................................................................................... 59
ϴ CITRONELLA (Cymbopogon citratus) 1. Plant history The genus of Cymbopogon has about 55 species; most of them are native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia. The most common type species is Cymbopogon citratus generally known as Lemon grass, native to India and the nearby island of Sri Lanka. It is found growing naturally in tropical grasslands but it is also extensively cultivated throughout tropical Asia. It is wanted for its aromatic qualities that are used in different domains. Etymologically the botanical genus name Cymbopogon is derived from Greek ³kymbe´ which means the boat and ³pogon´ meaning the beard; it refers to the boat-shaped spathes and the many-awned inflorescences which remind to a beard. The species name citratus obviously relates to the prominent lemon fragrance of that plant. Similarly, most European names of lemon grass are either adapted from local names of lemon (Citronella) or are compounds meaning lemon herb. Similar compounds are Russian lemonsorghum and Spanish lemon tea. The various names of lemon are further explained under essential oil of this plant. 2. Description Cymbopogon citratus commonly known as lemon grass or oil grass is an herbaceous, aromatic, perennial plant, with long linear leaves which length is between 90 cm and 2 m rough and cutting board; they are smooth and hairless, white on the upper surface and green beneath. This plant has bulbous stems at the base and it is wrapped in the sheath of the leaves. The inflorescence of this plant is a loose, nodding panicle, of about 60 cm long and reddish to russet in colour. The pedicels are tinged with purple (Bor, 1953).
ϵ
Figure 1. &OXVWHURIOHPRQJUDVVJURZQLQWKH,567¶Vgarden of medicinal and aromatic plants in Rusizi (Western Province) 3. Classical classification Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta Superdivision: Spermatophyta Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida Order: Cyperales
ϭϬ Family: Poaceae Genus: Cymbopogon Species: citratus Binomial name: Cymbopogon citratus Synonym: Andropogon citratus 4. Common names Lemon grass, citronella, Lemon grass or oil grass, fever grass, sereh, citroengras, te limon, zacate limon, barbed wire grass, silky heads, citronella grass, cha de Dartigalongue, fever grass, tanglad, hierba Luisa or gavati chaha (Bor, 1953). 5. Chemical composition of the essential oils The chemical composition of Cymbopogon citratus varies depending on the species and the region. The main chemical components are citronellic acid, borneol, citronellol, nerol, geraniol and traces of limonene. It contains also geranyl acetate, camphene, dipentene, limonene, a small quantity of myrcène isomers and various alcohols like linalool, neomenthol and isomenthol. The leaves and the flowers contain essential oil 0.25%, rich in aldehydes like citronellal and citral (composed by a mixture of two stereo isomeric monoterpene aldehydes: trans-isomer geranial 40-62% dominates over the cis-isomer neral 25-38%). 6. Ecology and cultivation Lemon grass is generally a tropical plant, native to south India and has been introduced and cultivated in the most of tropics regions, including Africa, South America and Indo-China. Cymbopogon citratus need full sun to light shade with a moist loam, well drained soil with organic matter and a pH between 4.3 and 8.4 in general. It is grown in a non rustic soil and in moderate climate in order to protect it necessary from freezing during the bad season. This plant requires a relatively abundant watering. A wet substrate with sandy tendency, preferably slightly enriched, will guarantee an optimal growth of this plant. Cymbopogon citratus can be grown in full ground or in pot without problems. The propagation of this tea plant is done by the division of clumps also by seeds which are not readily available.
ϭϭ 7. Uses The aerial parts and the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus have many uses; it depends the region to region. 8.1 Medicinal uses Cymbopogon citratus has different medicinal uses. The tisane of Cymbopogon citratus is consumed as a tea for anxiety medicine (Blanco et al., 2009) and caused a recurrence of contact dermatitis in some cases (Bleasel et al., 2002). In Brasilian folk medicine, this plant is used for its anxyolytic, hypnotic and anticonvulsivant properties (Leite et al., 1986). The cytoprotective, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties have been shown by various laboratory studies (Figueirinha et al., 2010) to be characteristic of Cymbopogon citratus. Also, Cymbopogon citratus have been used as an expensive remedy against oral thrush in HIV/AIDS patients (Wright et al., 2009). Cymbopogon citratus has other theurapetic properties such as a muscle (with massage oil) and skin toner, revive the mind, aide in the digestive problems, reducing fevers and stomach cramps, reduce arthritis pain, relieve headaches, it is also used against coughing, cuts, asthma, bladder disorders, etc. In addition, lemon grass oil has an analgesic, anti-depressant, antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, galactagogue, nervous system sedative and tonic. The antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has been recognized for many years (Hammer et al., 1999). The antibacterial properties of the essential oil have been studied and shown in two of the three main components of the oil identified through chromatography and mass spectrometric methods. While the citral (geranial+neral) components individually elicit antibacterial action on gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, the other component, the myrcene, did not show observable antibacterial activity on its own (Onawunmi et al., 1984). Cymbopogon citratus is one of the most used plants in various folk medicines for the treatment of nervous and gastrointestinal disturbances. It is also used in many other places to treat feverish conditions (Carlini et al., 1986). The citronellol is another essential oil constituent from the Cymbopogon citratus that has shown lower blood pressure (Bastos et al., 2010). 8.2 Economical benefits By hydrosteam distillation method, the lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) gives the hydrosol, a pure natural water or plant water essence for producing skin care products such as lotions, detergents, creams and facial cleansing toner. Most of main constituents of lemon grass oil are industrial users. As example, geraniol and citronellol are used to make antiseptics, household
ϭϮ disinfectants and some kind of soaps. Lemongrass oil is also used as a pesticide and a preservative product. In already done study, the ground leaves of lemon grass significantly reduce the extent of deterioration in melon seeds inoculated with different fungi compared to the untreated inoculated seeds (Bankole et al., 2005). The main products are organic unadulterated lemon grass oil which is used for industrial purposes and Negros oil, the mixture of lemon grass oil with virgin coconut oil, which used in aromatherapy. 8.3 Culinary use Lemongrass oil is extensively used as an herb in Asian cuisine. It has a subtle citrus flavor and can be dried and powdered, or used fresh. Lemon grass is commonly used in teas, soups, and curries. It is also suitable for poultry, fish, beef, and seafood. It is often used as a tea in African countries such as Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Latin American countries such as Mexico. Generally, the herb tea of lemon grass is used for digestive and sleep disorders. For an herb tea cup 2 grams of dried leaves are cooked in approximately 200 ml of water. The water is boiled the leaves of lemon grass are added. The mixture infuses ten minutes in order to obtain an effective amount in active substances. As for the dosage of lemon grass tea, a cup is either drunk several times per day in the event of digestive disorders or once the evening before laying down it in the event of sleep disorder. 9. Toxicology and adverse reactions Animal toxicity studies have shown that citronella oil has an LD50 in mice of 4,600 mg/kg and in rats of 7,200 mg/kg. A dose of 1 to 4 ml/kg given by stomach tube in rabbits caused paralysis, coma, and death. At least one case of death has been reported in a child who ingested an unknown quantity of citronella oil. A review of five cases of childhood citronella oil poisoning suggests that dilution of the oil following ingestion may be sufficient to treat most cases of ingestion and that emesis may be induced with a relatively low risk of major pulmonary complications (Temple et al., 1991). If spontaneous vomiting has occurred, observation for respiratory symptoms is required. The citronella oil has been reported to cause contact dermatitis in humans. The information regarding the safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking, therefore avoid the use of citronella in this case.
ϭϯ LEMON VERBENA (Lippia citriodora) 1. Botanical description Lemon Verbena is a deciduous perennial shrub. Its scientific names have been changed with the progress of plant nomenclature and includes Aloysia triphylla (L'Hér.) Britton, Lippia triphylla (L'Hér.) Kuntze, Verbena triphylla L'Hér. and Zappania citrodora Lam. This information was published in 2010 by the United States Department of Agriculture. Common names of lemon verbena include lemon verbena and lemon beebrush. It was brought to Europe by the Spanish in the 17th century (Armada and Barra, 1992). This plant reaches the height of 1-3 meters and is characterized by fragrant, lemon-smelling, narrow leaves and small white flowers borne in terminal panicles. The stem of lemon verbena is angular, fluted and branched and its three leaves (hence the name of triphylla) are opposite with very short petiole. The flowers of lemon verbena are purplish pink and generally visible in July and August. They are small, numerous, grouped in terminal spikes. The fruits of this plant are small and contain two seeds. Lemon verbena leaves dry easily and hold their taste and fragrance well once dried; the dried form retains its flavor well. Fresh lemon verbena has a strong, lemon-lime-like flavor, with a fruity and penetrating aroma. This plant has got many names in different countries¶ ODQJXDJHV. These names includes lemon beebrush, lippia, cedronella, erba, ning mang mabinchou, meng ma bincao (Cantonese, Mandarin), jernut (Danish), citroen verbena (Dutch), limou (Farsi), verbena odorosacitronelle, verveine odorante (French), zitronen verbena (German), verbena (Greek), verbena lipia limonit (Hebrew), citro verbena (Hungarian), cedrina (Italian), verbena limonnay (Russian), yerba de la princesa, vervena, verbena limon (Spanish).
ϭϰ
Figure 2: The foliage plants of lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora LQ ,567¶V JDUGHQ of Rusizi (Western Province) 2. Mythology and background history The lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) originates from South America especially Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. It was introduced in southern Spain in the 17 th century and then spread throughout the Europe, North Africa (especially Morocco and Tunisia) and United States of America. Lippia citriodora (or Lippia triphylla) was named Yerba Luisa after Maria Louisa the princess of Parma and the wife of King Carlos IV, the King of Spain, and that it has whorls of three (tri) leaves (phylla). Unofficial importations from Spanish America seldom fared well: when another French botanist Joseph Dombey landed his collections at Cadiz in 1785 they were impounded and left to rot in warehouses, while he was refused permission even to have seeds planted. Among the bare handful of plants Dombey had assembled during eight years at Lima, lemon verbena survived. The first European botanist who publicly noticed this plant was the French Philibert Commerson, who collected it in the Buenos Aires on his botanical circumnavigation with Bougainville, in 1785s. This plant had already been quietly imported directly into the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, where professors Casimiro Gómez Ortega and Antonio Palau y Verdera named it, though they did not publish it, Aloysia citrodora, to compliment the morganatic wife of the Garden's patron Infante
ϭϱ Luis Antonio de Borbon, Prince of Asturias and brother of King Carlos III. Meanwhile Gómez Ortega sent seeds and specimens of the plant to Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle in Paris; L'Héritier published it as Verbena triphylla in his Stirpes Novae in 1784. From Paris John Sibthorpe, professor of Botany at Oxford University obtained the specimen that he introduced to British horticulture. By 1797 the Lemon Verbena was common in greenhouses around London, and its popularity as essential in a fragrant bouquet increased through the following century. Palau y Verdera's dedication was utterly ignored, and when the plant became popular throughout southern Spain as Yerba Luisa it was connected, even in print, with the more prominent personage Maria Luisa, Queen of Spain (Armada and Barra, 1992; Coats, 1992). 3. Classical classification Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta Superdivision: Supermatophyta Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Sub-class: Asteridae Order: Lamiales Family: Verbenaceae Genus: Lippia Species: citriodora Binomial name: Lippia citriodora 4. Climate and ecology The lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) likes cool soils, robust, permeable and is well suited to intermediate to high elevations, located primarily above 2000 meters. Its multiplication is achieved by splintering in autumn, or by layering in spring. The leaves are harvested in good season, dried in the shade in dry and ventilated area. Lemon verbena needs at least 6 hours of sun, and some gardeners found it did better in a traditional herb soil that was on the dry side as well. It started out
ϭϲ in a bed of good soil with compost and organic fertilizer, but did not branch out or start growing until they moved it to their kitchen herb bed where it was slightly dried and had no added compost. Lemon verbena prefers full sun, a lot of water, and a light loam soil. It is sensitive to cold and looses the leaves at the temperatures below 0°C although the wood is hardy to -10°C. The Lemon verbena, if covered with some straw, cut down and kept free from very moist conditions, will also withstand up to a -15°C frost and will make new leaves in spring. The lemon verbena will not survive frost, but in cold climates it may be brought inside. Because it will lose its leaves, it should be kept it a sunny window and water once a week to keep it from drying out. By spring it will have leaves again, and after the danger of frost has passed, the pots can be placed outside, burying them to the rim in the garden. 5. Cultivation The lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) needs an airy and well drained ground. It is a robust plant which is acclimatized to any kind of ground. During the cultivation of this plant, the sand is sometime put in the mixture as well as clay balls. The propagation of this species is ensured by vegetative way (especially by cuttings). However, the layering can intervene in some conditions. In spring, the branches of the mature are bent and buried in a depth ranging from 15 to 20 centimeters. In the field, the density varies from 0.6 to 0.8 meters between the plants on the same row while the distance between the rows is estimated from 1.00 to 1.2 meters which mean an estimation of 15,000 to 20,000 plants per hectare. During the fertilization of lemon verbena, the nitrogen supplement is brought in the form of ammo-nitrate with three repetitions like any other plant. Especially, the lemon verbena needs water after the plantation and the first cut. Lippia citriodora is sprinkled twice per week in summer while in the winter, once per month should be enough (Gomes et al., 2009). 6. Pests and diseases The rust and other fungal diseases have been observed on the lemon verbena. Moreover, the insects like acarids, can also cause significant damages. The red spider mites and whiteflies are notorious for loving lemon verbena and will infest plants unless they are monitored carefully and often. These mites appear when conditions are dry, so the spraying of the underside of leaves daily during dry spells can solve the problem. If the plants are infested apply sulfur. Lemon verbena is attacked also by Stinkbugs. These hardbacked gray bugs cause extensive tip-wilting and they tend to drop when disturbed. In this case, they can be shaken or brushed into a can providing that they
ϭϳ are destroyed before they get away. The spring weather, with a high temperature swing between the day and night hours, and pretty frequent rains, can favour the development of fungus diseases, which should be treated preemptively with a systemic fungicide used before the gems grow excessively. At the end of the winter, a wide range of insecticides are also suggested to prevent the attack of aphids and cochineals. These treatments should be done carefully because they are not done when there are not flowerings in the garden. 7. Lemon verbena uses 7.1 Culinary use The lemon verbena leaves, fresh or dried, can be used to aromatize some culinary preparations (sauces, vegetable marinades, cakes, ices, etc). Its lemony flavour is appropriate particularly for the tisanes, cakes, desserts and creams and beverages. The lemon grass is commonly used by Europeans to flavor fruit-based drinks, fruit salad dressings, fish soups, veggie marinades, puddings, jams, and desserts. It does not tend to lose its flavor during cooking. It can also be used to brighten the taste of fish, poultry, stuffing, jellies, and vinegar. It pairs well with fruits, vanilla, and seafood dishes. The lemon verbena can be used in place of lemon zest in recipes. Virtually, any fruit salad can be enhanced with its finely chopped leaves of lemon grass. This plant makes one of the best beverage teas, especially when blended with mint. Finely, crumbled dried leaves can be added to the batters of carrot, banana, or zucchini bread. They can also be added to cooked rice just before serving. The lemon grass has various culinary uses. About six lemon verbena leaves in a cup of sugar that has been placed in a covered jar or container. This sugar is used to top muffins, fruit, or sprinkle on the top of muffin batter before baking. Because the leaf is rather tough, it is necessary to mince it very fine if it is planned to leave it in a dish, or add it whole and remove before serving. Dried, it should be crumbed before adding to recipes. Simply, the lemon verbena tea is currently prepared in some kitchens of Rwandans as post-meal drink. The water is boiled and the dried and clean leaves of lemon verbena are buried in at the rate of 20 grams per liter (or 4 to 5 died leaves per a cup). The mixture is left to infuse during 10 minutes. The whole task takes less that 20 minutes and the tea is taken before going to bed.
ϭϴ
It can also be used to make a sorbet. To prepare it, 600 grams of the ethylic alcohol at 60°C, 60 grams of dried leaves of lemon verbena, 350 grams of sugar and 165 grams of water are used. The leaves are first macerated in alcohol during 9 days and filtered and then 0.5 liters of sugar syrup are added. The mixture is conserved in hermetic container. 7.2 Essential oil and chemical composition A huge number of chemical components were identified in the essential oil of lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora). The citral (geranial+neral) represents 20-40 % of the total chemical composition of this plant. This oil contents also limonene, linalool, (E)-ȕ-ocimene, sabinene, Į-pinene, myrcene, betapinene, gamma-terpinene, para-cymene, alpha-thujene, alpha-terpineol, nerol, geraniol, linalol, cishydrate de sabinène, citronnellal, 1,8-cinéole, caryophyllene oxide, ar-FXUFXPHQHȕ-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene,
germacrene-' ȕ-curcumene,
zingiberene,
allo-aromadendrene,
beta-
bourbonnene, delta-cadinene, alpha-cedrene, alpha-humulene, gamma-cadinene, spathulenol, (E)nerolidol, cadinol-epi-alpha, geranyl acetate. The GC-MS data revealed also that main constituents of essential oils from Lippia ciriodora include thymol, QHURO Į-terpeniol, 1,8-cineol, caryophyllene oxide, garmacrene-D, carvone and p-cymene (Olivero-Verbel et al., 2009; Argyropoulou et al., 2007; Lawless,1992). At 25% the density of this oil varies from 0.883 to 0.900 while the refraction index and the rotator power at 20ºC vary from 1.482 to 1.492 and from -9º to 20º respectively. 7.1 Other uses The vegetative parts, especially the leaves, of lemon verbena are used for various purposes. When put in the vacuum cleaner, the leaves helps to freshen the house. An infusion of lemon verbena makes a nice skin freshener and toner. The flowers of this species can be used in arrangements. The leaves lend a pleasant sent to bed linens and are great for potpourri. Lemon verbena is a natural insect repellent.
ϭϵ 8. Peppermint benefits 8.1 Therapeutic properties The lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) extract showed a big interest for life. Lemon grass extract showed antioxidant properties that could play an important role in modulating GSH-reductase activity in lymphocytes and erythrocytes and protecting plasma cells from exercise oxidative damage and in decreasing the signs of muscular damage in chronic running exercise without blocking the cellular adaptation to exercise (Funes, 2011; Carrera-Quintanar, 2010). Lemon verbena has been used traditionally by Europeans as a diuretic and a gout remedy, to treat inflammation of the liver or spleen, and even to aid depression. It is also brewed in tea as a home remedy to relieve colds and fevers. By oral way (2 to 6 drops per day), the oil essential of Lippia citriodora is regarded as calming and antidepressive, stomachic and digestion facilitator. It is used as complement of antibiotic to cure the gastro-duodenal ulcers. Externally used and mixed with the oil of massage, it is used for its calming and relaxing effect. The dried sheets of this plant can be employed as herb tea which an excellent drink of sweetness and pleasure after the meal. In the infusion (4 cups per day during 3 weeks), this herb tea is recommended to treat the indigestions, flatulences, the gastralgies, the dyspepsia, the neuroses, the cephalgias, the minor sleep disorders, the ear buzzes, the asthenia, the vomiting of blood, the heart attacks, the epilepsy and the acouphenes. It is also taken as antinevralgic, febrifuge, disinfectant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and cicatrizing. This tisane would exhibit a decongestive and tonic effect for venous circulation to prevent the varicose veins, heavy leg, and hemorrhoids. This plant calms the digestive disorders and thirst; it is used as sudorific in case of the fever and is taken drinks of "comfort", knowing that it has also the capacity to fight the hydroxyls free radicals. It relieves the anguish, the stress, insomnia and the problems cardiovascular, tachycardia and hypertensions. It is also used to make a treatment of Candida spp. overgrowth as it has properties that help eliminate the fungi. Lemon verbena is also claimed to have many therapeutic properties such as the strengthening of the nervous system, regulation of menstrual cycle, to help the metabolism and break down of cellulite; thus the help in slimming. 8.2 Production and economical benefits
In general, on a hectare of well prepared soil, 10 tons of fresh aerial parts, 4 tons of fresh leaves, 1 ton of dried leaves, are produced. As for the essential oil extraction yield, 4%, 2% and 1% were
ϮϬ observed for dried leaves, fresh leaves, and entire fresh plant respectively. This oil has been used in perfumes, colognes and soaps. Lemon verbena is used in creams and lotions and has been considered to reduce the puffiness around the eyes. The price frequently varies depending on the parts or substances of lemon verbena that are sold but also the producers or manufacturers. With the examples below, it is obvious that this plant has got considerable economical advantages. These examples are the following: 1 kilogram of dried leaves cost ¼ DW Royal Palace +HUEDOLVW¶V VKRS JUDPV FRVW ¼ DW WKH Vente Herbatica, NJ LQ %LR FRVWV ¼ DW BienManger while NJ LV VROG IRU ¼ DW Kijiji (Bouches-du-Rhône). The essential oil of lemon verbena has got high records of prices. For example, 5 ml are sold for ¼ at De Saint Hilaire. This plant has been also extensively commercialized inside and/or outside some African countries such as Morocco and Tunisia and seldom in sub-Saharan countries. In Morocco, several hundred of heFWDUHV ZHUH UHJLVWHUHG PDLQO\ LQ WKH 0DJKUHE¶V DUHDV DQG there, 1 kg of dried leaves costs from 5 to 10 ¼$VIRUWKHHVVHQWLDORLOSURGXFHGLQ0RURFFR 1 kg of pure essential oil was sold at ¼LQWKHSDVWWLPH1RZDGD\VWKHSULFHRIWKHHVVHQWLDOoil of Lippia citriodora fell because of the many producers of this plant. The price of 1 kg of pure essential oil spins between 7,000 and ¼ LQIUHLJKW DQGEHWZHHQ DQG¼ LQ%LR ,Q5ZDQGDOHPRQYHUEHQD Lippia citriodora) was introduced and is being propagated in the whole country. In the realm of research, this plant is being studied by the researchers of the Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (I.R.S.T.). It is being popularized and propagated in the four provinces of the country and marketed in urban areas, especially Kigali, Ruhengeri, Butare and Nyagatare cities. These days, the commercialization of the essential oil of Lippia citriodora does not soar yet but the use of dried leaves of this plant is being developed little by little. Being appreciated by the population, especially the urban population, the dried leaves cost between 6,000 and 10,000 Rwf for one kilogram. 9. Precautions for lemon verbena use Lemon verbena is safe for most people when consumed in amounts found in alcoholic beverages. It also seems to be safe when taken in appropriate amounts as medicine. However, there are some indications to be taken into consideration. This plant is not used during the first four months of pregnancy or breast-feeding. The essential oil of this plant can cause skin irritation (dermatitis) in some people. The case of photosensitizing is also possible. For this case, it advised to avoid the exposure to the sun or UV rays after an application of this essential oil. For the person suffering from kidney disease, the use of large amounts of lemon verbena may irritate the kidneys.
Ϯϭ PEPPERMINT (Mentha piperita)
1. Botanical description Peppermint (Mentha piperita, also known as Mentha balsamea Willd.) is a hybrid mint, a cross between the watermint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha spicata). This plant, indigenous to Europe, is now widespread in cultivation throughout all regions of the world. It is found wild occasionally with its parent species. Peppermint was first described by Carolus Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid (Harley, 1975; Linnaeus, 1753). It is an herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to 30±90 centimeters tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots. The leaves are from 4±9 centimeters long and 1.5-4 centimeters broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly hairy. The flowers of peppermint are purple, 6±8 millimeters long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 millimeters of diameter. They are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes.
Figure 3. Mentha piperita in full bloom in the botanical garden of IRST settled at Butare (Southern province
ϮϮ 2. Background history The peppermint is a native of the Mediterranean, but is now also cultivated in Italy, USA, Japan, Great Britain and many African countries. As a medicinal and culinary herb, the peppermint can be traced back to the Ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman times. According to Greek mythology the nymph Mentha was hotly pursued by Pluto, whose jealous wife Persephone trod her ferociously into the ground, whereupon Pluto then turned her into an herb, knowing that people would appreciate her for years to come. It has been cultivated since ancient times in Japan and China. Evidence of use was found in Egypt in a tomb dating back from 1000 BC. 3. Taxonomy Apart from the classification of Linnaeus, other authors cited the name and full classification of peppermint (Mentha piperita). In 1997, Bruneton precised the family name of this plant and clarified the whole classification of it some years later. Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Lamiales Family: Lamiaceae Genus: Mentha Species: piperita Binomial name: Mentha piperita 4. Common names and varieties Among other names, there are hortela, mint, menta, mentha montana, menthe, nane, Lamb mint, Brandy mint, Balm mint, Curled mint, Amenta, Lammint, etc. There are many varieties of peppermint that includes: Mentha piperita 'Candymint' with reddish stems, Mentha piperita 'Citrata' that includes Orange Mint, Eau De Cologne Mint, and Grapefruit Mint with aromatic and hairless leaves, Mentha piperita 'Crispa' with wrinkled leaves, Mentha piperita 'Lime Mint' characterized by a lime-scented foliage, Mentha piperita 'Variegata' which is characterized by mottled, green and pale yellow leaves and Mentha piperita 'Chocolate Mint'. The flowers open from bottom up and are reminiscent of flavor in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection (Huxley, 1992).
Ϯϯ 5. Climate and ecology In 2007, Doug Hocking reported the climatic preferences of the peppermint for good growth. The peppermint grows in a wide range of climates as shown by its popularity in home gardens all over world. Ideally, it requires plenty of sun, growing best in the long midsummer days of the higher latitudes. Ideal growing temperatures for peppermint are warm sunny days (25°C) and cool nights (15°C) . This is why, in the hotter climates, peppermint generally grows better in the more shaded areas of the garden (Doug, 2007). According to the observation of Blamey and Grey-Wilson in 1989, the peppermint (Mentha piperita) typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only by vegetative way, spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions (Blamey and Grey-Wilson, 1989). In addition, Doug précised that the peppermint does best in deep, rich soils of friable texture high in organic matter and a pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5. A high water requirement means that soils must be deep and well drained while holding plenty of water. Outside of its native range, the areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants. In this case, this was considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand, and in the United States and in the Great Lakes region. These observations were drawn out of different sources namely the Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk, the USDA Plants Profile and the "List of invasive species in the Great Lakes provided by Great Lakes United/Union Saint-Laurent Grands Lacs.
6. Cultivation The peppermint is generally propagated vegetatively. During the plantation, it is a good idea to use the plants of choice to be sure of getting the variety you want and the use of runners is recommended. To prepare soil, the digging should be done in plenty of compost and the use of animal manures with weed seeds should be avoided since weeding becomes difficult in an established peppermint patch. Vegetative propagation is achieved by digging up plants in late winter±early spring and dividing them into runners with roots, then replanting. This will prevent the plants from becoming root-bound and prone to disease, ensuring strong, healthy plants for the new season. Planting distance will vary with the type of mechanical equipment used to cultivate and manage the crop. Suitable row spacing is 50 centimeters with runners planted 10 centimeters apart within the rows. Using this system, three rows can be planted to a raised bed. As plantings develop, rows will obviously become a continuous mass of peppermint. The leaves can be harvested
Ϯϰ regularly and enjoyed throughout the summer. It is best when picked early in the morning just before the dew evaporates. To dry mint, the stalks should be cut just above the first set of leaves, as soon as the flower buds appear. The harvested peppermint should be hanged upside down in a dark, well ventilated room for two weeks or more In 1997, Scora and Chang stated that peppermint is a plant that can become easily adapted to a variety of climate and soil. However, this plant obliges some climatic conditions. Peppermint generally thrives in moist, shaded locations, and expands quickly by underground stolons. It grows best with a good supply of water, and is often planted in areas with part-sun to shade. Older peppermint plantings can be divided up every 4-5 years. In peppermint cultivation, the stocks are often used and give true peppermint. The peppermint may be kept from overtaking the herb garden by planting in a bottomless pail, or other container sunk into the soil at least 10 inches. This technique should be a good example for developing countries growing peppermint including Rwanda with regards to space management. The peppermint requires a well-balanced nutrition program. The experiences have shown that an annual dressing of animal manure will supply a good balance of major and minor elements. Care should be taken not to supply excessive amounts of nitrogen. Approximately 10 tons per hectare of good quality fowl manure applied midwinter will provide a reasonable nutrient program. If soil pH drops below 6.0, it may be necessary to apply dolomite or lime to raise the pH to the desired level. For maximum production, peppermint requires large amounts of water compared with other crops. To keep soil moist during periods of high evaporation, plantings should be irrigated at least twice a week and during the growth period in summer, peppermint plants can require up to 1500 millimeters of water. As it is done for other crops, the weed control in peppermint is important to ensure that there is no contamination by foreign and invasive plant material at harvest. Then, the selection of planting areas with low weed populations and a good kill of weeds prior to planting is important. Due to the lack of herbicides registered for use in peppermint, hand weeding should be the most effective form of weed control. Besides the weed control, the peppermint faces various and serious diseases. The use of disease-free planting material and a sound rotation with other crops should help control it. Many diseases affect the leaves and shoots and if not controlled quickly, they defoliate the whole plant. In addition, the peppermint plants can be flamed with a propane gas burner in spring to destroy diseased material before new shoots appear
Ϯϱ 7. Pests and diseases Several insect pests are common on the peppermint, but this plant is also susceptible to fungal and viral diseases. The most dangerous peppermint disease in great lake region is the rust while the pests causing more harm are the same as those identified worldwide. This selective appearance of phytopathogens may due to the climatic and soil conditions available in the region in question. The rust of peppermint is often caused by the fungus called Puccinia menthae. A common feature of rust diseases is the production of large numbers of spores (often orange, brown-black or reddishbrown) in structures known as pustules. These are usually first seen as small blisters, sometimes accompanied by localized yellowing of the plant tissue. The spore mass eventually ruptures through the surface cells. The pustules are most commonly found on the underside of leaves, although sometimes they develop on upper leaf surfaces and stems. The growth of the fungus within the leaf may result in spotting of various colours on the upper leaf surface. The life-cycles of Puccinia menthae can be complex, involving up to five different spore types. The symptoms that develop on individual herb species vary depending on the stage in the pathogen lifecycle. During winter, the fungus survives as tough-walled dark brown to black spores on crop debris, often near to, or within buds on stolons and rhizomes. These germinate in spring, producing tiny colourless spores, which infect young shoots as they emerge through the soil surface resulting in localized systemic infection. Affected stems become abQRUPDOO\ WKLFNHQHG DQG GLVWRUWHG µEXOO shoots or stems) with elongated pale internodes bearing distorted yellowing leaves (Figure 4). Pustules on these stems develop and rupture, releasing large numbers of pale yellow spores (Figure 4). These spores infect nearby peppermint leaves, resulting in the production of distinctive pustules on the leaf undersides containing orange or brown spores (Figure 5 and 6), sometimes with associated dark brown or purplish lesions on the upper leaf surface. The premature leaf death and defoliation occurs when the attack becomes severe. The orange or brown spores infect peppermint leaves via the stomata and this phase of the life-cycle may repeat many times during the summer, representing the most damaging phase of the disease. In the autumn, the fungus produces the over-wintering phase of dark brown to black spores.
Ϯϲ
Figure 4 6ZROOHQ DQG GLVWRUWHG µEXOO PLQW VKRRWV ZLWK VSRUH FOXVWHUV of Puccinia menthae, after early spring infection by rust.
Figure 5: Orange spore clusters of Puccinia menthae, typical of the summer phase of rust on the underside of peppermint leaves
Figure 6: Close-up of spore clusters of Puccinia menthae on peppermint with rust
Ϯϳ The common source of rust is the large numbers of spores produced which may easily be splashed by overhead irrigation or carried, sometimes for many miles, by air currents and the wind during the spring, summer and autumn. The spores of many rust species can also survive for weeks or even months on crop debris, stolons or rhizomes, enabling carry-over between crops. The peppermint rust can originate from the use of contaminated rhizomes as planting material. The rhizome contamination is superficial, originating from over-wintered spores, rather than due to systemic infection by hyphal strands. It is thought that systemic mycelial infection by the germination of the over-wintered spore stage occurs in spring as the shoots emerge. The mycelium of the rust does not persist in the rhizomes. The infection of peppermint by Puccinia menthae requires some conditions. In general, this rust fungi thrive under warm, humid conditions. Low temperatures merely slow down infection and sporulation processes, allowing the fungus to persist until conditions become favourable. A key feature of rusts is that they require a period when there is free water on the leaf surfaces, in order for their spores to germinate and infect the plant. If the temperatures are optimal for the fungus, the leaves need only to be wet for a few hours for infection to occur. For the rust on peppermint, the infection of leaves from spores produced during summer conditions requires the minimum leaf wetness duration of about 6 hours. The infection can occur under a wide temperature range of 527oC with an optimum of 20oC. )RUWKHLQWHJUDWHGUXVWPDQDJHPHQWWKHHIIHFWLYHFRQWURORQSURWHFWHGKHUEVUHTXLUHVµEUHDNLQJ RI the disease life-cycle, careful management of environmental conditions and close attention to crop hygiene. The newly delivered planting material or cuttings must be inspected carefully for evidence of rust. If the disease is found, then the consignment should be rejected and maintain only the rustfree plant materials. If the propagates are from an own stock, it is better to monitor regularly the mother plants for rust symptoms and remove the infected plants. Recently, the experiments have shown that heat therapy of dormant rhizomes at 43oC for 10 minutes should be sufficient to kill various spore forms of Piccinia menthae and reduce the damages caused by this fungus. This disease can also be controlled by cleaning thoroughly the relevant glasshouse or polytunnel and benches of crop debris before introducing new batches of plants, avoiding the periods of prolonged high relative humidity and the overhead irrigation if at all possible, particularly in the evening when prolonged leaf wetness can result. The cultural and chemical control should be used to minimize the risk of disease outbreaks. The fungicides such as Mancozeb, thiram are used as multisite inhibitors and are less likely to result in problems of fungicide resistance and so particularly useful in
Ϯϴ preventative programmes. The use of Prochloraz, Azoxystrobin and Boscalid in combination with pyraclostrobin has also shown good reduction of rust-caused damages. From few last days, other attempts have been done such as the breeding to develop peppermint varieties that are resistant to a range of rust races. Apart from the peppermint rust, there are so many enemies of the peppermint that have been reported in different parts of the world. They were reported mainly by Kalra in 2004, Juronis in 2004, Tzanetakis in 2004 and 2010, Marcum in 2010, Kraus in 2010 and Garibaldi in 2010. The table below shows a list of other dangerous diseases and their respective causal agents and the main symptoms. Table 1: The diseases that frequently attack the peppermint and their respective causal agents Disease category
Disease name
Causal agent
Fungal diseases
Rust
Puccinia menthae
Anthracnose
Sphaceloma menthae
Black stem rot
Phoma strasseri
Leaf blight
Cephalosporium spp.
Phoma leaf spot
Phoma exigua
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe cichoracearum
Ramularia leaf spot
Ramularia menthicola
Septoria leaf spot
Septoria menthae
Stem and stolon canker
Rhizoctonia
solani
Thanatephorus cucumeris Stolon decay
Fusarium
solani
Nectria haematococca Verticillium wilt
Verticillium
albo-atrum
Verticillium dahliae
Viral diseases
White mold stem rot
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Spotted wilt
Tomato spotted wilt virus
Parasitic
Leaf & bud
Aphelenchoides parietinus
diseases
Lesion
Pratylenchus
neglectus
Ϯϵ Pratylenchus penetrans Needle
Longidorus
elongatus
Longidorus sylphus Pin
Paratylenchus
hamatus
Paratylenchus microdorus Root-knot
Meloidogyne hapla
8. Peppermint uses Peppermint has a long tradition of medicinal use, with archaeological evidence placing its use at least as far back as ten thousand years ago. Frequently, the peppermint is used in the form of pure essential oil or the tisane. The essential oil is usually used at industrial level while the tisane is employed traditionally and locally. 8.1 Chemical composition of the essential oil The peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil has a fresh and sharp menthol smell. It is clear to pale yellow in color and watery in viscosity. Various chemical analysis methods analyses of essential oil of peppermint enable to identify its chemical constituents. The gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) enabled to identify more than 25 constituents in the essential oil of peppermint, but some are in the form of traces. The major chemical component of peppermint oil is menthol, menthone (50-80%) but also menthone, isomenthone, piperitone and menthyl acetate are found in moderate amount (Elhoussine,et al., 2010; Baslas et al., 1983; Scavroni et al., 2005). The chemical study carried out by a group of research of the Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) of Rwanda showed that the essential oil of peppermint grown in Butare, southern province of Rwanda contains more than twenty-five chemical constituents among which the menthol was highly abundant (80.79%). The results of study namely the names of chemical constituents and their respective concentrations (%) are given the table below. Table 2: Percentage composition of the oil essential from leaves of Mentha piperita grown at Butare in the Southern province of Rwanda.
ϯϬ Component
Content %)
Component
Content (%)
Hex-2-ènal E
0.058
Menthol
80.79
Į-Pinène
0.351
Isomenthol
0.33
Sabinene
0.11
Neoisomenthol
0.08
ȕ-Pinene
0.401
Pulegone
0.108
Myrcene
0.089
Piperitone
2.567
Octen-3-ol
0.164
Menthyl acetate
2.2
Limonene
0.948
Eugenol
0.062
1,8-Cineole
0.054
ȕ-caryophyllace
0.416
Linalool
0.163
E-ȕ-farnesene
0.271
Isopulegol
0.511
Caryophyllene oxide
0.119
Menthone
4.906
Isospathulenol
0.052
Isomenthone
3.5
Caryophylla-
0.034
4(14),8(15)-diol Neomenthol
0.216
Total identified compounds
98.5
8.2 Peppermint tisane If you would like a refreshing herbal tea that has excellent health benefits, give peppermint tea a place of honor in your kitchen cupboard. The peppermint tea preparation is a very simple task but it has to be performed correctly for the best results. The fresh cold water is used to brew tea. The water almost is brought to a boil, a small amount of it is poured into the teapot and swirled around to coat the sides and then it is thrown away. Now it is time to put the tea in. The basic measurement is one teaspoon of tea per person and one for the pot. So, if you have for example
ϯϭ three people for tea, then you need to put four teaspoons of tea into your teapot. Pour the boiling water onto the peppermint leaves in your teapot. The tea leaves should stay infused in the water for 5-7 minutes considering that the longer it brews the stronger the taste. Afterwards, the leaves (the tea egg, tea bag(s) or tea infuser) are taken out and the tea is ready to drink. Anybody trying this drink will surely love the cool, fresh taste of this tea because it is fruity and refreshing. Besides, its aromatic taste is also a perfect pick-me up any time of the day. It is also a good drink to have after HYHU\RQH¶V meal. However, the peppermint tea is prepared differently depending to the region but its effect to the life is still the same and it is the crucial target of the use of this miraculous plant. One of the most loved peppermint teas is prepared in Morocco where it is a sign of hospitality and friendship and tradition. Because this drink is so popular in Morocco, it is served all day long, after every meal and with every conversation. Moroccans take great pride in their tea and will often ask a visitor among their group of friends to make the best cup of peppermint tea. As for the ingredients of their tea, 10 sprigs fresh peppermint, 3 teaspoons green tea, 3 tablespoons sugar (or more to taste) and 4 cups water are used and the preparation task is also very simple. The water is boiled and a small amount of it is poured in the teapot, swishing it around to warm the pot. The peppermint, the green tea and sugar are combined in the teapot and then it is filled with the rest of the hot water. The tea is let brewed for three minutes, put in a glass and then poured back in the pot and repeat the process. This helps to dissolve and distribute the sugar. The tea is poured and garnished with the remaining sprigs of peppermint. To have nice foam on the tea, the tea is always poured with the teapot a high distance above the glass and if there is not at least a little foam on the top of the first glass, the tea may be poured back into the teapot and put again in the glass until the tea starts to foam up nicely. This tea is rich, free of cholesterol and saturated fats and rich in energy and carbohydrates. The getting of this tea is normally quick since it takes 15 minutes including 10 minutes for the preparation and 5 minutes for the cooking. 9. Peppermint benefits Peppermint (Mentha piperita) are very familiar aromatic herbs grown in several countries of the world for its use in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and perfumery industries. The menthol contained in peppermint has also high antifungal and antibacterial potentials, thus becoming one of the most demanded substances by the scents and essences industry (Souza et al., 1991; Leung, 1980). The intensive cultivation was imparted to peppermint by its essential oil which is contained in the whole plant above ground and more concentrated before the flowering. The essential oil is
ϯϮ extracted by steam distillation from the fresh or partly dried parts of peppermint and the yield ranges from 0.1 to 1.0 % (Pamplona, 1999). This cooling and refreshing essential oil is now widely used in aromatherapy worldwide and has a considerable medicinal and economical impact. Besides, the peppermint is also intensively used traditionally in the form of tisane (tea) for various medicinal purposes in some developing countries.
9.1 Therapeutic properties
Of all the mints, Mentha piperita, the peppermint, is now probably the most used both medicinally and economically. The peppermint oil is considered to be analgesic, anesthetic, antiseptic, antigalactagogue, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, cordial, decongestant, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, sudorific, vasoconstrictor and vermifuge. The peppermint is a stimulant, a tonic, and helps digestive system disorders. Various studies found that, the peppermint is effective for the treatment of conditions such as dysentery and diarrhoea. It is a vermifuge agent working especially well against hookworms, and it is often used to stimulate bile flow. The peppermint's antispasmodic properties have produced a total and immediate resolution of blockage of Oddi's sphincter in animal studies. Because of its anti-inflammatory properties, the peppermint is used to treat the rheumatism (Akah and Nwambie 1994). Laboratory research studies with peppermint have found antiviral, antifungal and antibacterial activity (Oliver, 1960; Elhoussine, 2010). It helps stimulate the stomach, cools indigestion, relieves flatulence, strengthens and soothes the bowels and helps with cramping. The peppermint stimulates also excretion of saliva, the menstruation, the bronchioles and sinuses and warms the entire system. It was found to help with diverticulitis, insomnia, headaches, nausea, nerves, morning sickness and congested lungs. The peppermint Increases stomach acidity irritates mucous membranes and the gastrointestinal tract. The peppermint relaxes the muscles of the digestive tract and thus it is useful for digestion, flatulence, colic, and similar conditions. It reduces the nausea, chills, fever, diarrhoea, heart trouble, convulsions, spasms, and headaches and can be helpful for travel sickness; they also promote sweating in fevers and influenza. The peppermint¶V menthol possesses carminative, antispasmodic and choleretic properties, and is also used as an external analgesic and nasal decongestant. The mechanism behind peppermint oil's antispasmodic effects has recently been determined. The researchers believe that peppermint oil's inhibition of isolated smooth muscle contractions occurs
ϯϯ via blockage of calcium influx into the muscle cells. They hypothesized that the clinical effectiveness of peppermint oil in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome results from inhibition of the hyper contractility of intestinal smooth muscle, thereby returning the muscle to its proper tone (Koch, 1998). Though there have been no human clinical trials on the health benefits or risks of peppermint tea, some believe peppermint tea has healing effects because of the menthol that it contains (McKay and Blumberg, 2006; Cappello et al, 2007).
The pharmacological effects of peppermint and
peppermint oil are useful in a number of clinical situation; the most notable include irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal colic, gallstones, musculoskeletal pain (Merat et al., 2010; Pittler and Ernst, 1998) and the common cold. The peppermint has promising radioprotective effects for cancer patients undergoing cancer treatment. The aroma of the peppermint has been found to enhance memory. As such, it can be administered by instructors to their students before the examinations to aid recall (Brumenthal et al., 2000; Baliga and Rao 2010; Moss et al., 2008). Besides, the peppermint has properties that may relax the lower esophageal sphincter, allowing the contents of the stomach to move upwards into the esophagus. For this reason, the patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) are advised to avoid peppermint, at least in theory. 9.2 Industrial benefits
7KH SHSSHUPLQW¶V HVVHQWLDO RLO is the oldest and most popular flavour of mint-flavoured confectionery. It can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin. The peppermint constituents have a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly menthone (Krieger, 2001). The price of the essential oil extracted from peppermint is estimated at about 130 US$ per liter. 10. Precautions for peppermint use The peppermint¶V essential oil is non-toxic and non-irritant in low dilutions, but sensitization may be a problem due to the menthol content. It can cause irritation to the skin and mucus membranes and should be kept well away from the eyes. It should be avoided during pregnancy and should not be used on children under seven. The persons suffering from gastroesophagal reflux disease (GERD) are not advised to use the peppermint.
ϯϰ ROSEMARY (Rosemarinus officinalis)
1. Botanical description The rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, needle-like leaves. The forms range from upright to trailing; the upright forms can reach 1.5 meters. The rosemary can exceed rarely 2 meters. The leaves of rosemary are evergreen, green above, and white below, with dense short woolly hair, linear, revolute, dark green above and paler and glandular beneath, with an odour pungently aromatic and somewhat camphoraceous. The leaves of this shrubby herb are 2 to 4 centimeters long and 2 to 5 millimeters broad. Its branching woody stems with linear leaves that are green on top and hoary white underneath. The flowering of rosemary, very common in mature and healthy specimens, occurs in summer in temperate climates, but the plants can be everblooming in warm-winter climates. According to the encyclopedia written by Poiret, the flower colors are variable, being white, pink, purple, or deep blue in leafy clusters. As for other appellations, this plant has got various names such as Polar Plant, Compass-weed, Compass Plant, Rosmarinus coronarium and Incensier (in old French).
Figure 7. &OXVWHUVRI5RVHPDU\JURZQLQ,567¶VJDUGHQRIPHGLFLQDODQGDURPDWLFSODQWVVHWWOHGLQ Mukoni (Southern Province)
ϯϱ 2. Mythology and background history Coming from the Latin words ros marinus, the rosemary translates into ³dew of the sea´ and is the native to the Mediterranean coast. It was said to be draped around Aphrodite when she rose from the sea and was originally born of Ouranos's semen. Today, the goddess Aphrodite is associated with rosemary, as is the Virgin Mary, who was supposed to have spread her cloak over a whiteblossomed rosemary bush when she was resting; according to legend, the flowers turned blue, the color most associated with Mary. Many of the historical references and legends surrounding rosemary have grown vague with time and the folklore of the origins of Hungary water has its own legends. At the earliest in AD period, Pliny, Dioscorides (contemporary of Pliny and author of De Materia Medica a work on the use and identification of medical herbs which was the basis of medical practice for the next 1400 years), and Galin all wrote of rosemary. It was cultivated by the Spanish in the 13th century and was a popular condiment with salt meats from the 15th to 18th centuries. This herb seems to be truly a story full of legend and perhaps even a bit of fancy. The rosemary has quite an interesting and varied history; from fairies and witches to weddings and burials. It had had significance in wedding ceremonies. The rosemary was often entwined into a wreath, dipped in scented water and worn by brides at the altar. The wreath symbolized fidelity, love, abiding friendship and remembrance of the life the woman had led prior to her marriage. At that time, the wealthy bridal couples would also present a gilded branch of rosemary to each wedding guest. For this issue, Robert Hacket, in a wedding sermon in 1607 said, "Let this Rosemarinus, this flower of men, ensign of your wisdom, love and loyalty, be carried not only in your hands, but in your heads and hearts´. 3. Classical classification Rosmarinus officinalis is one of only two species in the genus Rosmarinus. The other species is the closely related, but less commercially viable. This is Rosmarinus eriocalyx, a species of the Maghreb of Africa and Iberia. Named by the eighteenth-century naturalist and founding taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus, the rosemary has not undergone much taxonomical change since that time. Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta
ϯϲ Classe: Magnoliopsida Sub-class: Asteridae Order: Lamiales Family: Lamiaceae Genus: Rosmarinus Species: officinalis Binomial name Rosmarinus officinalis
4. Climate and ecology Being originating from Mediterranean basin, the rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) is mainly found in the arid and sunny upon grounds, like the scrublans, the maquis and rubbles. It does not appreciate a too significant dryness but is satisfied with the moisture of the littoral, from where it could hold its name ("dew of Latin sea"). It is widespread between the 650 meters and sea level, sometimes up to 1500 meters of altitude (Zuloaga and Morrone, 1996) 5. Cultivation The rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) is considered easy to grow and is pest-resistant. When grown in a garden, Rosemarinus officinalis can grow quite large and retain attractiveness for many years. It is easily pruned into formal shapes and low hedges, and has also been used for topiary. It can be easily grown in pots, using the upright or trailing selections, with easy culinary access. The groundcover cultivars spread widely, with a dense and durable texture. Rosemary grows on friable loam soil with good drainage in an open sunny position, it will not withstand water logging, and some varieties may be susceptible to frost. It grows best in neutral to alkaline conditions with a pH of 7 to 8. It is propagated from an existing plant by clipping a shoot of 10 to 15 centimeters long, stripping a few leaves from the bottom, and planting it directly into soil. The rosemary is also easily propagated through cuttings, root division, and layering though the most common method is seeds. This plant does best in rather poor, light soil, particularly if limy. To propagate this plant, cut a trunk of 10 centimeters in May or June and set two-thirds of the length in the soil, in a moist and shady location. The division of rosemary can be done in spring or autumn. However, this plant can be
ϯϳ grown by using the seed. If the plant material is the seed, the rosemary seeds are sown in drills 1824 inches apart or in hills 2 feet apart with around 6 seeds per hill. The rosemary seedlings can withstand being transplanted from seedbeds or flats. It is advisable to consult various rosemary companions planting guide in order to decide where to plant rosemary in the garden. To harvest rosemary, the branches are cut as needed for individual dishes.
Figure 8: The seeds of Rosemarinus officinalis (rosemary). 6. Pests and diseases The rosemary resists well to some pests because its woody stems and plant oils are natural barriers to many insect incursions. Caring for rosemary shrubs is usually easy, but there are several fungal diseases that may infect these plants and it is susceptible to a variety of insect infestations. Several of these diseases may actually be fatal for rosemary plants, and are often very difficult to get rid of once they infect the shrub.
6.1 Insects pests of the rosemary
6.1.1 Spider mites The spider mites are a common and severe pest of rosemary, often causing serious health problems. The spider mites are not actually spiders but are members of the spider family. These pests are very small and difficult to see with the naked eye. They are oval in shape and have eight
ϯϴ legs but no wings. They may be red, black, brown, or yellowish-white. The spider mites infest many types of indoor and outdoor plants, causing serious injury to plants from feeding. These spider mites reproduce rapidly and host plants causing significant damage by the time symptoms become obvious to the homeowner. Several species of spider mites are damaging to plants, but rosemary is frequently attacked by the two-spotted spider mite, which is a common pest of many ornamentals, trees, shrubs and fruit trees. The spider mites congregate on the undersides of rosemary leaves to feed. Using their piercing mouth parts, they feed by sucking plant juices, removing chlorophyll and injecting toxins in plant parts which cause small white dots on the leaves, discoloring and distorting them. The foliage of mite-infested plants becomes stippled, yellow, and dry and sometimes the fine webbing is visible. As a result, the rosemary leaves often appear speckled or flecked and can turn yellow. The other symptoms of spider mite infestations in rosemary include leaf scorching and premature leaf drop. Heavy spider mite populations often cause the stunting of rosemary or lead to plant death. Heavy infestations of spider mites can be difficult to control. There are predatory insects that feed on spider mites that can control them. The lacewings and parasitic wasps are two types of natural predators that eliminate spider mites. Also, the miticides are chemical control products that can help control spider mites. The miticides that can be used are AzaMax, spinosad, neem oil soap, insecticidal soap and Pyrethrum-based insecticides and are applied every 5 to 10 days to eliminate spider mites as they hatch. The light horticultural oils are also the products that work by smothering spider mites on contact. Application of dormant horticultural oil in late fall, winter or early spring permits to kill spider mite eggs. When using horticultural oils, the plant must be completely covered for best results. However, there are the pesticide-free methods that can be efficiently employed. The spider mites can be controlled by the management of the plant environment, keeping the air moving, misting and shading, trying glue trap and controlling with water spray. Besides, spraying the rosemary bush down with a forceful stream of water twice each week can help remove mites from the leaves. 6.1.2 Other pests of rosemary
The rosemary is vulnerable faced with the buds. This shrub may be seasonally infested with aphids, whiteflies, spittlebugs and other small insects. However, these insects usually cause little damage. In this case, they can be blast off with a strong stream of water. If the aphids or whitefly infestations are heavy, the insecticidal soap may be used. The spittlebugs, detected by their foam-like
ϯϵ discharge, live on weeds or plants near the rosemary. These insects are harmless but unsightly. The most effective spittlebug control is the removal of the nearby host plants. The adult whiteflies are tiny, moth-like insects about the size of a pinhead that attack also the rosemary. They sometimes cluster on rosemary foliage in large numbers, sucking plant juices from leaf undersides. When an infested plant is shaken, they fly off like dandruff. A minor infestation of these insects will not harm a mature, otherwise healthy plant; but the young plants weaken, and their leaves turn yellow and die. To make things worse, honeydew given off by whiteflies may encourage mold growth as well. To control whiteflies by spraying them with a natural insecticide such as an insecticidal soap or neem product as directed on its label should be the alternative solution. The whiteflies can be controlled in the field of Rosemarinus officinalis. They can be knocked off a plant with a firm spray of water. When there are in large number of whiteflies that are still in their early nymph stages, pick off the heavily-infested leaves by hand and drop them into a pail of soapy water. They can be also controlled with sticky traps that catch plenty of whiteflies and vacuuming tricking. By this last, the neat way to keep whitefly numbers down and have some fun at the same time is to approach infested plants early in the morning with a portable battery-operated vacuum cleaner, such as a Dustbuster Plusä, and sucking the adult insects before they can scatter. The dust receptacle or bag is removed from the unit and placed in the trash or put in the freezer for 24 hours to kill the bugs before shaking it out. The Rosemarinus officinalis is attacked also by the mealybugs. These are flat, wingless insects covered with a white and waxy powder. They collect in white, cottony masses on stems, branches and leaves. As they suck sap from their leaves and stems, plants lose their vigor. They grow poorly and may die if the infestation is severe. The ants are attracted to mealybugs because they excrete sweet honeydew as they feed. The honeydew also encourages mold growth to which rosemary is prone. To control the mealybag-based dangers, the infested stems are washed under the faucet and the bugs are rubbed off or sprayed with a natural insecticide such as an insecticidal soap or a pyrethrum-based insecticide product. The mealybugs are also vulnerable to natural enemies such as lacewings and ladybugs which eat the pests and to tiny parasitic wasps which lay their eggs inside them. The control of this threat may use also natural insect repellents. The pesticides such as Neem Oil Soap, Hot Pepper Wax, and Garlic Barrier all have this potential repellent capability when applied properly on the tops and the bottoms of leaves of the infected plant. The repelling effect will last for several weeks to a month depending on the weather conditions. However, other products such as alcohol or water are used by spraying. Minor infestations of mealybugs on plants
ϰϬ can be controlled by touching them with a cotton swab dipped in rubbing alcohol, which dissolves their protective coat of wax. This may be a too much work if the infestation is heavy.
6.2 Fungal and bacterial diseases
6.2.1 Botrytis blight The botrytis blight is a fungal infection that begins by rotting older leaves near the center of the rosemary plant. It thrives in high humidity, cloudy weather and poorly circulated air, and can quickly spread over the plant. As the fungus progresses, it may appear as yellowish brown leaf spots or water spots on the stems of the plant. When the humidity is particularly high, botrytis blight creates brown or gray fuzz that spreads over the decaying parts of the rosemary plant. If disturbed, the fungus gives off spores that help the spreading of the disease. When left untreated, botrytis blight can overtake an entire rosemary plant and kill it. If the signs of the disease are observed, any infected plants or debris must be removed and destroyed so that the fungal infection does not spread. To prevent botrytis blight, the overgrown plants have to be pruned to prevent them from getting too bushy and plant containers must be placed further apart for better air circulation. In addition, crushed stone, gravel or rocks should be used for mulching instead of organic material, which may contain fungal spores that allow the disease to enter your rosemary plants. 6.2.2 Powdery mildew
Under humid conditions, the fungal diseases such as powdery mildew affect the foliage of rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis). This is a common disease especially when the rosemary is grown indoors. The powdery mildew is a white, powdery fungal infection that develops when air circulation is poor that encourages high humidity. The shady conditions are also conducive to powdery mildew. The powdery mildew does not really kill the rosemary but it weakens the plant. It is best controlled if the humidity is kept at low levels. This can be achieved if the soil is allowed to dry out between watering sessions and if the herbs are exposed to plenty of sunlight. If necessary, a breeze may be created around the herbs using a fan and the herbs may be dusted with sulfur to bring mildew under control. As it is done for any crop field, the macroscopic inspection is necessary. The rose bush must be carefully inspected for signs of mildew. It is more likely to be found on new growth, though it can occur on older plant parts as well. In this exercise, the foliage and the blooms as well
ϰϭ as the leaves are permanently checked. If the infection is identified, the areas that show evidence of the mildew are pruned. If the infection is not as serious, the affected leaves and buds must be simply plucked off. If the mildew is mild or in its early stages, the spraying of affected parts with water to get rid of it may be the solution For more serious mildew attacks, the spraying of affected vegetative parts with a specially-prepared mixture is required. To prepare this solution, a container is filled with water but 1/5 of the space is left for other additives. In this water, ¼ cup white vinegar, 1 teaspoon (tsp) baking powder, 1 tsp cooking oil and 1 tsp dish detergent are mixed in. The container is then shaken thoroughly so that the contents mix well. The affected rose bushes are spayed with the above mixture. It may be necessary to drench the bushes to get rid of the mildew. This treatment must continue for some days until all mildew has certainly cleared off the plant. However, there are more preventive measures such as the selection of the rosemary variety that is suitable for the climate and soil type in question, the plantation of the rosemary in an area that receives plenty of sunlight, the improvement of air circulation around the rosemary bushes and avoiding over-watering.
6.2.3 Root rot The root rot is another disease that can kill the rosemary plant. There are typically two main causes of root rot namely the over-watering and the fungal infection. The over-watering of the rosemary plant robs the roots of oxygen and may cause some of them to die. These roots begin to decay and spread the rot to healthy roots, possibly killing the entire plant. The fungal cases of root rot are caused by dormant fungus in the soil that takes hold when excess water is added to the plant. The high levels of soil moisture encourage development of fungal spores which attack the plant roots. The root rot attacks the plant from the bottom and steadily moves upwards. The root rot may be suspected if the rosemary plant begins to wilt or turn yellow for no obvious reason. The checking is done on the roots and base of the plant and when the plant has the root rot disease, the infected roots appear black and are soft to the touch while stems are discolored. In some cases, the affected roots may break free from the plant when touched. The root rot is typically incurable, so it is best to take preventative measures. It is then advised to water the rosemary plants only when the top soil is dry and make sure that it is in a container that drains well so excess water does not build up. Also, it is careful to avoid heavy application of fertilizer as this encourages fungal spores in the soil and remove all affected herbs including surrounding soil and discard.
ϰϮ 6.2.4 Leaf Spot The rosemary plants may also die as a result of leaf spot. This disease is caused by the bacteria as well as the fungi and attacks the leaves of the plant, turning them yellow or brown. They may also become covered with small black fruiting bodies that contain fungal spores that spread the disease. In most cases, the leaf spot attacks leaves that are already weakened. Moreover, the wet conditions encourage the spread of leaf spot. To prevent leaf spot, the fertilization must provide the soil with minerals. It is not advised to apply water onto the foliage but restrict watering to soil. It is also helpful to apply a copper-based fungicide onto affected leaves before the plant begins growing in the spring. The plants must be shaken so that dead and weak leaves drop off and all dead leaves must be removed from the plant base and destroyed. In general, the fungal infection can be minimized by taking some precautions. This is can succeed in planting rosemary in full sun, thinning foliage to allow air circulation and watering in morning so that foliage dries quickly. The application of fungicides such as horticultural oils can solve the problems. Other fungal problems such as root rot and crown rot occur when soil drains poorly or is wet for long periods. If the rosemary is in a container, ensure the container drains well. When rosemary is in the ground, improve drainage by working organic compost into the soil. Rosemary roots need to dry between watering. 7. Rosemary uses The rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) has got various uses depending to the regions and the traditions. In the time, the rosemary was used as charms for love or cure for thief. Nowadays, the science and technology has revolutionized the use of this plant. It is used for various therapeutic and industrial purposes. This uses was imparted to this plant by its miraculous essential oil that contains chemical constituents exhibiting various properties. This essential oil acts as pure substance after being extracted in various parts of the plant or as an ingredient contained in consumed parts of the plant. Simply, the activity of the essential oil of rosemary is provided to the human body via the consumption of the tisane or other compliments made of this plant. 7.1 Traditional uses In the middle ages, rosemary was associated with wedding ceremonies in various parts of Europethe bride would wear a rosemary headpiece and the groom and wedding guests would all wear a sprig of rosemary, and from this association with weddings, rosemary evolved into a love charm.
ϰϯ Newlywed couples would plant a branch of rosemary on their wedding day. If the branch grew, it was a good omen for the union and family. It was also used for folkloric purposes. The rosemary was used on Saint Agnes' Eve to aid young girls in discovering their future husbands. When the smell of rosemary was pumped into cubicles where people were working, those people showed improved memory, though with slower recall. Rosemary has a very old reputation for improving memory, and has been used as a symbol for remembrance (during weddings, war commemorations and funerals) in Europe and Australia. Mourners would throw it into graves as a symbol of remembrance for the dead
Figure 9. Rosemary remembrance wreaths It was made by forming heavy gage wire into the shape of a heart, twisting it into a circle about 8 inches in diameter, then pinching at the base and the top to form a heart. The slender sprays of rosemary are bound to the heart-shaped frame with florists' wire. The rosemary heart is then decorated with dried flowers and herbs, as shown on the picture. Moreover, the rosebuds, also a symbol or remembrance, add a nice touch. Apart from weddings ceremonies, rosemary was employed as a cure for the common thief. In the 14th century, rosemary root was seethed in wine vinegar and the lotion was then used to wash the feet of a thief. The lotion was thought to sap the strength of the robber so that he would not longer commit robbery, steal or do any further harm. 7.2 Culinary use Both the fresh and dried leaves are used frequently in traditional Mediterranean cuisine. They have a bitter, astringent taste and are highly aromatic, which complements a wide variety of foods. When burned, they give off a distinct mustard smell, as well as a smell similar to that of burning wood, which can be used to flavor foods while barbecuing. The rosemary vinegars are an excellent and
ϰϰ healthy way to dress cold vegetables and salads. A good pleasant-tasting tisane can also be made from the rosemary. The young tops, leaves and flowers can be made into an infusion, called rosemary tea, which, taken warm. This rosemary tea can be used for many medicinal purposes. However, the preparation of rosemary tea varies depending on the region and the purpose. The cup of rosemary tea can be prepared in adding one teaspoon of the dried leaves to a single cup of boiled water. This can then be steeped for approximately ten minutes in order to reap the ultimate benefits from it. Some persons choose to add honey and lemon, which are also frequent DFFRPSDQLPHQWVLQDFXOLQDU\VHQVH)RUWKHDOOHYLDWLRQRIRQH¶VV\mptoms, they prefer to drink it about three times per day or as needed. This gives them a daily dose of all the vitamins contained in this wondrous plant, including vitamin A, B1, B2, K, C, and D. These also contain antioxidants, to help fight free radicals and ward off cancer. Many types of rosemary tea have been prepared and differently named. Besides the tisane preparation, the rosemary and the lamb go well together. It is made in making slits in lamb for roasting and tucking in sprigs of the herb. The larger sprigs are then placed over chops for grilling and leaves are used sparingly in soups and stews. The rosemary is also used in ³ERXTXHWVJDUQLV´ and sparingly with fish and in rice dishes. The dried leaves are used as potpourri and in sachets to scent clothes and linen and deter moths. The rosemary have been successfully used in all that is bread dough, with fougasse, with pizza pie, the apple frost, the roast meat dishes, the marinades the olive oil, the wine, the grasses of Provence, the infusion, aQG³/HWUXFGXFXLVWRW´ 7.2.1 Sun-brewed rosemary tea A. Ingredients - 4 to 6 tea bags or 4 to 6 teaspoons of loose tea - 1 and 1/2 of cold water - 2 or 3 large rosemary sprigs - Ice - Sugar (optional) - Lemon slices, quartered (optional)
ϰϱ - Rosemary sprigs (optional) B. Preparation - For loose tea users, measure tea into a tea ball or a 100-percent-cotton cheesecloth pouch; tie pouch with a string. (Do not use decaffeinated, green or herbal teas.) Place tea in a 2-quart clear glass container. - Bruise rosemary sprigs with the back of a spoon; add to the container. Add water to container; cover. Let stand in sunlight or at room temperature for 2 to 3 hours. (Keep the container away from combustible material. Sunlight coming through glass and liquid can concentrate a beam of light that could start a fire.) Remove tea ball or bags and rosemary sprigs. - Serve sun tea over ice or refrigerate immediately; store up to 24 hours. If desired, serve with sugar and lemon. If desired, garnish each drink with a rosemary sprig. Store in the refrigerator and make 5 to 8 (6-ounce) servings. 7.2.2 Rosemary Tea Bread A. Ingredients - 2 cups of water - 2 eggs - 1 cup of raisins - 4 cups of flour - 1 Tbl crushed fresh Rosemary - 2 teaspoons of baking powder - 1/4 Lb of butter - 1 teaspoon of vanilla - 2 cups of sugar B. Preparation
ϰϲ Combine first three ingredients in a saucepan and bring to a boil. Cook 2 minutes in stirring and cool. Cream butter and sugar, add eggs and vanilla. Stir in raisin mixture alternately with flour. Fill six well-oiled soup cans 2/3 full. Place cans on a cookie sheet and bake at 350 degrees for 2 hours or until done. Cool slightly before removing bread from cans.
7.2.3 Rosemary Punch
A. Ingredients - 2 handfuls of dried rosemary - 2 cups of water - 1 liter of ginger ale - 12 oz of frozen pineapple juice B. Preparation Heat water and rosemary until boiling, and then simmer for 5 minutes. Let cool then strain out the rosemary. Combine with the pineapple juice. Add ginger ale right before serving 7.2.4. Lemon-Rosemary Tea A. Ingredients - 8 cups of water - 12 tea bags - 2 tablespoons of dried and crushed rosemary - 1 and 1/2 cups of sugar - 1/2 cup of lemon juice - 1 liter of lemon-lime carbonated and chilled beverage. B. Preparation
ϰϳ In a 3-quart saucepan, bring the water to boiling. Remove from heat. Add tea bags and rosemary. Cover and steep for 15 minutes. Remove and discard tea bags. Add sugar and lemon juice, stirring to dissolve sugar. Strain tea mixture into a large pitcher. Discard rosemary. Cover and chill in the refrigerator for at least 3 hours or until ready to serve. Just before serving, stir in carbonated beverage. 7.3 Chemical composition of the essential oil and The rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) oil is colorless or yellowish with a pleasant scent that hints of camphor. This plant contains some tannic acid, together with a resin and a bitter principle and a volatile oil. The chief constituents of the oil are borneol, bornyl acetate and other esters, 1,8-cineol, Į-SLQHQH ȕ-pinene and camphene. The rosemary contains a number of potentially biologically active compounds, including antioxidants, such as carnosolic acid and rosmarinic acid. Other bioactive compounds include camphor (up to 20% in dry rosemary leaves), carnosol, caffeic acid, ursotic (ursolic) acid, betulinic acid, rosmaridiphenol, and rosmanol. Rosemary is high in iron, calcium and vitamin B6. The essential oil of rosemary contains also camphene, luteoline, limonene, apigenine, quercetine, diosmine, rosmadial, aleanolic acid, 2-ethyl-4,5-dimethylphenol, n-alkanes, isolalkanes, alkenes and rosmaricine. (Johnson, 2011; Santoyo et al., 2005 ; Rao et al., 1998; Serra et al, 2008; Hui et al., 2010 ; Ibanez et al, 1999; Mounchid et al., 2004; Touafek et al., 2004) 8. Peppermint benefits Like other aromatic plants, the rosemary has the medicinal and economical virtues that have been discovered along the centuries. 8.1 Therapeutic properties The rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis) has a tonic, astringent, diaphoretic and stimulant effect on human body. The oil of rosemary has the carminative properties of other volatile oils and is an excellent stomachic and nervine, curing many cases of headache. When it is used in hair-lotions, it forms an effectual remedy for the prevention of scurf and dandruff. The rosemary helps to relax muscles, including the smooth muscles of the digestive tract and uterus. Because of this property it can be used to soothe digestive upsets and relieve menstrual cramps. The rosemary has shown to exhibit the cancer prevention properties. Several studies done in the last several years showed that the leaf essential oil from the plant sold as a spice for flavoring can help to prevent the development of cancerous tumors in laboratory animals. One study, led by Chi-Tang Ho PhD, professor in the
ϰϴ Department of Food Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey, showed that applying the rosemary essential oil to the skin of experimental animals reduced their risk of cancer to half that found in animals that did not receive the application of this oil. In other studies carried out by the same research team, the animals whose diets contained some rosemary oil had about half the incidence of colon cancer or lung cancer compared with animals deprived of rosemary-based diets. Other researchers done in the University of Illinois in Urbana found that rosemary cut by half the incidence of breast cancer in animals at high risk for developing the disease. The carnosol found in this essential oil is also a promising cancer chemoprevention and anti-cancer agent. There are now hopeful expectations that future studies should demonstrate whether these properties extend to humans as well. A tea made from the leaves is also taken as a tonic for calming nerves and used as an antiseptic. The young tops, leaves and flowers can be made into an infusion called rosemary tea which, if taken warm, is a good remedy for removing headache, colic, colds and nervous diseases. It is careful to prevent the escape of steam during its preparation. It relieves also nervous depression. The rosemary wine, when taken in small quantities, acts as a quieting cordial to a weak heart subject to palpitation, and relieves accompanying dropsy by stimulating the kidneys. The essential oil of the rosemary is also used externally as a rubefacient and is added to liniments as a fragrant stimulant. The results of previous studies suggest that the carnosic acid found in rosemary essential oil may shield the brain from free radicals, lowering the risk of strokes and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The rosemary oil has a pronounced action on the brain and the central nervous system and is wonderful for clearing the mind and mental awareness, while having excellent brain stimulant properties as well as improving memory. The therapeutic properties of the essential oil of the rosemary are also analgesic, antidepressant, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, hepatic, hypertensive, stimulant, sudorific, insect-repellent and anti-inflammatory. It helps with headaches, migraines, neuralgia, mental fatigue and nervous exhaustion. The antiseptic action of the rosemary essential oil is especially suitable for intestinal infections and diarrhoea, it eases the colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic disorders and jaundice and relieves the pain associated with rheumatism, arthritis, muscular pain and gout (Akah and Nwambie 1994). This rosemary helps in case of arteriosclerosis, palpitations, poor circulation and varicose veins. The diuretic properties of the rosemary are useful because it reduces water retention during menstruation and helps obesity and
ϰϵ cellulite. On the respiratory system, the rosemary is was found to be effective for asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, sinus and whooping cough. On the skin, it helps to ease congestion, puffiness and swelling and can also be used for acne, dermatitis and eczema. A very popular use of the essential oil of rosemary is the use in hair care products, as it has a pronounced positive effect on the health of the hair and scalp. It increases the circulation to the scalp and is therefore also effective for promoting hair growth. To have a cup of rosemary tea helps to stimulate the appetite. When two cups of rosemary tea are combined with a half cup of borax powder and use the mixture to rinse your scalp to treat dandruff. 8.2 Economical benefits and production The fresh rosemary is used industrially for flavoring stews, fish and meat sauces. The fresh or dried rosemary makes an interesting addition to scrambled eggs. The essential oil of rosemary is used extensively in perfuming soaps and in the manufacture of eau de cologne and perfumes. It is employed principally, externally, as spiritus Rosmarini, in hair-lotions, for its odour and effect in stimulating the hair-bulbs to renewed activity and preventing premature baldness. The infusion is used as a rinse to lighten blond hair, and to condition and tone all hair. The mixture of an infusion half and half with shampoo is used to strengthen hair. When combined with borax and used cold, the infusion of the dried plant, leaves and flowers, makes one of the best hairwashes known. A good wine can be prepared on the basis of rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis). This wine is made by chopping up sprigs of green rosemary and pouring on them white wine, which is strained off after a few days and is then ready for use. Rosemarinus officinalis (rosemary) is grown at large scale in Spain, Tunisia, Morocco, Italia, France, Algeria and Portugal, mainly for essential oil extraction purpose. En Inde, la CIMAP (Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) a introduit la production de romarin à la fin des années 80, qui s'est développée au cours des années 90Cette production est concentrée dans le sud, dans les Nîlgîri et autour de Bangalore (Farooqi et al, 2005; Panda, 2009) However, the production of this plant has spread around the world and, even though it is still at lower level, is practiced by many countries of Africa including Rwanda. The world production of the essential oil from this plant was estimated between 200 and 300 tons in 2005. The price, as for it, was high; US$ 130.00 for 1liter of pure essential oil.
ϱϬ 9. Precautions for rosemary use The rosemary in culinary or therapeutic doses is generally safe. A toxicity study of the rosemary on rats has shown hepatoprotective and antimutagenic activities.
However, the precaution is
necessary for those displaying allergic reaction or are prone to epileptic seizures or high blood pressure. The rosemary essential oil may have epileptogenic properties, as a handful of case reports over the past century have linked its use with seizures in otherwise healthy adults or children. The rosemary essential oil is potentially toxic if ingested. Large quantities of the rosemary leaves can cause adverse reactions, such as coma, spasm, vomiting, and pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs) that can be fatal. Though these experiments have used the rosemary essential oil to test the effectiveness in preventing cancer, this essential oil should not be taken internally. Even small doses can cause stomach, kidney and intestinal problems, and large amounts may be poisonous; in this case, use a tea instead. It is advised to avoid consuming medicinally large quantities of rosemary especially if pregnant or breastfeeding, although it's okay to use it as a seasoning (Burkhard, 1999; Fahim et al., 1999). When used in large amounts it can have the opposite effect, causing irritation of the intestines and cramps
ϱϭ THYME (Thymus vulgaris) The thyme (Thymus spp) is a huge genus with three or four hundred species including Thymus vulgaris or common thyme. This last is a low growing herbaceous plant, sometimes becoming somewhat woody. It is native to southern Europe, where it is often cultivated as a culinary herb and typically grows as a sub-shrub, between 15 and 20 centimeters tall. 1. Plant history The thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is native to Mediterranean and south European regions. The Romans people spread the Thyme throughout Europe. They used it to purify their rooms and to give an aromatic flavor to cheese and liqueurs (Grieve, 2008). The ancient Greeks and Egyptians used the thyme respectively in their bath and burnt it as incense in their temples and in mummification process. The thyme was also used as incense and placed on coffins during funerals as it was supposed to assure passage into the next life. Etymologically, the term "thyme" appeared in the French language with, initially in the form of "thym". According to certain sources, it is derived from Latin ³thymus´, who borrowed it from the Greek ³thymos´, meaning, in a somewhat obscure way, "size or magnifying glass". Others rather think than the word comes from the Greek ³WK\PRV´ or ³thyein´which means "smoked", by allusion to the fact that it was formerly burned like incense and that one then allotted the capacity to him to move away the poisonous creatures. The reference is probably the strong smoky odor of thyme (Lee et al., 2005). 2. Botanical description
Figure 10. A cluster of thyme grown in the garden of New Life Paradize Cooperative settled in Kigombe (Musanze, Northern Province)
ϱϮ The thyme of Thymus vulgaris, also called Real Thyme, shows some noteworthy characteristics. The thyme is an aromatic, always green lasting, bushy half bush and perennial plant with a woody, fibrous root. This plant can get 20 to 30 centimeters high. The stems are square, green brown, numerous, round, hard, branched, grow upward to form a foliage mound 6-12 inches tall and clothed with tiny, linear to elliptic, pointed, gray-green small leaves which are distinctively revolute. The leaves of thyme are highly aromatic and are frequently used fresh or dried as a seasoning in a variety of culinary applications including soups, stews, sauces, meat and fish dishes. Their aroma reaches their peak just before plants flower. Their whorls of tiny, tubular, white lilac flowers appear on the stem ends. The thyme is hermaphrodite, scientifically meaning that it has both male and female organs, and are pollinated by bees, flies, Lepidoptera (Valnet, 1990). The calyx of thyme is tubular, striated, closed at the mouth with small hairs and divided into two lips, the uppermost cut into three teeth and the lowermost into two. The IORZHU¶V corolla consists of a tube about the length of the calyx, spreading at the top into two lips of a pale purple color, the upper lip erect or turned back and notched at the end, the under lip longer and divided into three segments. This plant has an agreeable aromatic smell and a warm pungent taste. The fragrance of its leaves is due to an essential oil which gives it its flavoring value for culinary purposes, and is also the source of its medicinal properties. The thyme is generally in flower from May to August.
3. Taxonomy Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta Superdivision: Supermatophyta Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Sub-class: Asteridae Order: Lamiales
ϱϯ Family: Lamiaceae Genus: Thymus Species: vulgaris Binomial name: Thymus vulgaris
4. Common names: Other names of thyme are Black thyme, Common thyme, English thyme, French thyme, Garden thyme, German thyme, Serpyllum, Tomilo, winter thyme, Variegated Silver Thyme, Silver Thyme, Variegated Thyme, Thymus 'Argenteus', Thymus 'Argentea', 5. Ecology The thyme is originating in from the Mediterranean countries where it is often cultivated in the gardens. It is spontaneous in subtropics regions, especially in Europe and North America. The thyme is best cultivated in a hot, sunny location with well-drained soil. Generally it is prospers almost anywhere in hot or moderated climate. This plant prefers light, sandy and medium soils or rocky soil with excellent drainage are the best and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The soil should be neutral to slightly alkaline with a pH varying between 4.5 and 8.0. It cannot grow in the shade, requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure. It can be propagated by seed, stem cuttings, or by dividing rooted sections of the plant. It tolerates the drought well. 6. Cultivation The thyme (Thymus vulgaris) pretty much grows itself. In fact, the more you fuss with it, the less hardy it will be. The experimentations showed that the thyme is most fragrant and flavorful when it is grown in dry and lean soil. The thyme plants are usually propagated by taking cuttings and layering. However, if there are no existing plants, the best way is to grow it from seed this will though it takes about a year. In addition, the different varieties will cross pollinate and hybridize, so it may not grow true from seed. The thyme will grow well indoors, if given a bright, sunny window. However, since it survives quite well outdoors all winter, it would be preferable to consider giving it a sheltered location outside, where it can be continuously harvested. In horticulture, the propagation
ϱϰ success represents one of the most important goals for plant producers. The propagation or multiplication of thyme is generally done in spring. The vegetative propagation is preferable to seeding propagation because the seed of medicinal and aromatic plants germinability is very low, sometime less than 50%and, in this case, plant growth can be uniform, standardized and shortened once in the field (Nicola et al., 2002 & 2004). The care of the thyme culture is also necessary. When the thyme is being grown in warmer climates where it can get shrubby, it is better to prune it hard in early spring in order to prevent the plant from getting too woody. Besides, the additional shaping may be done after flowering otherwise all that is needed is to prune by harvesting and to remove and replace any areas that die out. In spring, the thyme seeds should be sown in a seed tray or scatter directly onto the ground with a space from 25 to 30 cm between the seedlings and the plants must be kept moist while young. Once well established, the thyme does not require much watering or any fertilizer. The propagation by root division should be also done in spring. It is done in dividing the root cluster into smaller parts, making sure that each piece has rootlets attached. The cuttings should be used also in late spring to grow the thyme plants. In this case, the shoot tips are inserted into the pots of sand and kept well watered. This plant is generally harvested only very lightly in the first year and all year round, although the best flavour appears in June and July. In winter, the plants stop growing, so the harvest is done lightly. The thyme is said to repel cabbage root flies but to be a good companion plant to other species. Since bees are strongly attracted to the thyme, it can be planted where pollination is required for various plants. 7. Chemical composition of the essential oil The concentration of different constituents of thymus essential oil depends on the climate, time of harvest and storage conditions. In general it contains 1 to 2 % of gasoline rich in isomers. The main components are the phenols such as thymol and the carvacrol in addition to others monoter penes like p-cymene, the borneol and the geraniol. It contains also phenol flavonoides and acids which contribute to increase the properties of the gasoline (Pamplona, 1999). In winter, phenol content is lower while in summer, more phenols (up to 70%) are found, with significant amounts of FDUYDFURO)XUWKHUFRPSRQHQWVLQWKHHVVHQWLDORLODUHWK\PROPHWK\OHWKHU FLQHROF\PHQHĮpinene, borneol and esters of the latter two.
ϱϱ 8. Diseases and pests The thyme slightly fears the pests and the diseases which would lead its roots to be degraded. On the other hand its oil essential with the virtues disinfecting protects its aerial parts. The common garden pests attacking thyme include also the spider mites and various aphids. During the inspection, these insects are seen on new grown plants and on the undersides of the leaves. If these insects are found on the plant, it is advised to knock pests off plants with a heavy blast of water or use insecticidal soap. The thyme is also susceptible to botrytis rot and rhizoctonia or root rot. To help to prevent these problems, it is better to select planting locations with good drainage and plenty of air circulation. In addition, the ants like to build their nests in thyme beds and can disrupt its roots. If grown in damp or humid conditions, molds and rots can also become a serious problem. In this case, the care should be taken that thyme plants are not sitting in wet areas throughout the winter months. 9. Uses and benefits The stems, leaves and flowers of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) have many uses in fresh or dried form. The thyme is an important herb in culinary, medicinal and industrial domains. 9.1 Culinary uses The thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is widely used in cooking process. It is a basic ingredient in Lavantine cuisines (Libanese, Syrian, Palestine, Jordanian, Israel, Libyan, Indian, Italian, French, Albanian, Parisian, Portuguese, Assyrian, Spanish, Greek, Nigerian, Caribbean, and Turkish). The leaves are highly aromatic and are frequently used fresh or dried as a seasoning in a variety of culinary applications including soups, stews, sauces, fish, fowl, eggs, bread, vegetables, mushrooms and courgettes. Its typified taste is different according to the soil at such point that their vdifferent varieties were given the name if country where it grows. It can have a lemon-flovoured after-taste or a perfume of lemon verbena. It gives a Mediterranean look to all the dishes, that it is the tomato, the grill, the goat's milk cheese, the terrine, the pastas and the strewed dishes. It enters the traditional bouquet garni. In marinade, it scents vegetables as well as the fowl and the cooked meats, the fish and the game. This type of use is frequent in the Creole kitchen of New-Orleans. It frequents with pleasure the garlic, olive and sauces and enters the composition of the forcemeats. The thyme also aromatizes the oil or the vinegar heated beforehand. It is also at the liquor base. The thyme is also a food complement. In a regular and significant way, the addition of sweet herbs to food supplies this last with the antioxidants without respond to antioxidant need of the body.
ϱϲ
The herbal tea of thyme is also prepared by infusing 1 to 2 grams or 1 to 2 coffee spoons of dried leaves in 200ml of water have been used for various therapeutic purposes. The preparation of this tisane from the thyme is very simple. The water is brought to the boil and then this water is added to thyme leaves. The mixture is let infuse about ten minutes in order to obtain an effective amount in active substances. As for the posology, the thyme herb tea is drunk several times per day. However, the request for advice from the pharmacist or a specialized doctor about more personalized posology
9.2 Therapeutic properties The thyme has been used as a medicinal plant for a long time. The herbalists of Middle Ages regarded the thyme as a stimulant and antispasmodic plant. When inhaled, it as a remedy for melancholy and epilepsy. Nowadays, different forms of thyme (tisane, syrup, lotion, tincture, etc.) have many therapeutic properties. From this plant, the tincture was made. This mixture contains alcohol with tonic action and it is effective against digestive disorders and in the event of mouth ulcers. It is prepared in using 50 grams of dried leaves with 500 millimeters of brandy in the bottle. The mixture is let macerate two to three weeks and is agitated the bottle every day, filtered and then bottled. One spoon before the meal, however, the tincture of thyme is no recommended to the pregnant women, the children and the people not being able to drink alcohol for medical reason, etc. The thyme inhalation method has been employed to fight against cold and sinusitis. The solution for inhalation is made by the dried leaves of thyme or essential oil (1 drop is enough). As for the preparation of a thyme herb tea in the tank of the apparatus for inhalation, the herb tea must be very hot in order to guaranteeing a good evaporation and thus a good penetration of the vapor in the respiratory tracts of the nose. The essential oil drop can also be used in the place of the thyme herb tea by pouring it in hot water. The thyme is used as a digestive aid, antiseptic and the treatment of intestinal worms. The thymol contained in thyme is active against Salmonella spp and Staphylococcus spp bacteria. The thyme is especially useful for the immune system, the fighting against bacteria, virus and fungus infections. It is effective in the digestive, respiratory and genitourinary tracts. Different forms of thyme such as tincture, tisane and salve syrup fight against candidiasis, gastroenteritis, indigestion, gastritis and diarrhea, cystitis and salpingitis, bronchitis, cough, whooping cough, asthma, flu, etc. The thyme is
ϱϳ also a liver decontamination, promotes blood circulation, stimulates the nervous system, is a brilliant remedy for physical as well as mental fatigue, regulate the menstrual cycle and remove contagions of the reproductive organs. The thyme is a remedy for numerous other complaints including, fever, bronchial catarrh, laryngitis, enuresis in children, tonsillitis, gum diseases, rheumatism, arthritis and fungal infections (Akah and Nwambie 1994). The flowering tops are antiheliminthic,
strongly
antiseptic,
antispasmodic
carminative,
diaphoretic,
disinfectant,
expectorant, sedative and tonic. In conclusion, the thyme is very rich in essential oil and this is the most active ingredients responsible for most of the medicinal properties imparted to this plant. In traditional Jamaican childbirth practice, thyme tea is given to the mother after delivery of the baby; since its oxytocin-like effect causes uterine contractions and more rapid delivery of the placenta, but this was said to cause an increased prevalence of retained placenta.
9.3 Industrial uses
The thyme and thyme essential oil have been used to manufacture various antiseptics, disinfectants, deodorant and mouth washes and provides the medicated properties of many consumer products. For example, the thymol is the main active ingredient in Listerine which a brand of antiseptic mouthwash and one of the most popular mouthwashes sold in the United States The essential oil from leaves is frequently used in perfumery, soaps, toothpastes and insecticidal industries. The previous study on the thyme insecticidal property combined with other plants was done and was successful. The investigations of the Mediterranean plants stated in this study have been carried out so far in France with favourable results in protection of bean from Acanthoscelides obtectus (Regnault et al.,, 1993). The first studies of aromatic plants from Croatian Mediterranean area showed that Thymus vulgaris combined with Origanum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Lavandula officinalis and Rosmarinus officinalis have insecticidal effect on Sitophilus granarius L. and Acanthoscelides obtectus if applied in the form of dry ground leaves, stem and flower or as essential oils .DOLQRYLüHWDO . This study is supplemental to the further investigations of aromatic plant species from this area on growing population of resistant Rhyzopertha dominica as one of the major pests on stored grains. The insecticide resistance in stored product pests has been observed in many other countries in the world (Shaaya et al., 1997). From the complete results obtained, it can be then concluded that plant products on the basis of Tymus vulgaris officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Rosmarinus officinalis can be
ϱϴ applied as an alternative solution in stored mercantile and especially seed wheat protection against Rhyzopertha dominica on small-scale family farms so as to decrease application of synthetic insecticides, and contamination of food and environment. In addition, the syrup from the thyme can be made by using 2 bowls of dried leaves of thyme, 1 kilogram of sugar active ingredients. The dried leaves of thyme are put in a pan and poured in 1 liter boiling water and the mixture ix let infuse during 1 day. The mixture is filtered and then 1 kilogram of sugar is added. The mixture is cooked during 1 hour with small fire and then foamed. The mixture which is already the syrup is bottled as soon as it is cold. This syrup is drunk at the rate of 20 milliliters three times per day. In addition, a good lotion can be made from the thyme and it is frequently used against dandruff. The main components of this lotion are 100 milliliters of apple vinegar, and ten essential oil of thyme. To use this lotion, the mixture of vinegar and thyme essential oil is applied and massed on the scalp. The lotion is let act during 5 minutes then washed with tepid water and a normal shampoo. The thyme is also frequently used for flavoring the liqueur.
10. Precautions It is recommended to avoid the use of thyme in case of allergy. Some people can be allergic to the thyme and other plants of the family of Lamiaceae, the most frequent allergy being that to the mint. The people sensitive to the pollen of birch or celery could suffer from cross sensitivity with thyme. Therefore, when it is used in massage therapy, it would be a good idea to do a skin patch test to determine if the person is sensitive to it. Although a very widespread use did not involve, in several millennia, any adverse effect during the pregnancy or breast-feeding periods, some sources recommend to the pregnant and breast-feeding women, the children and the people who take treatments for the thyroid or suffering the high blood pressure to avoid the extracts and the concentrates made of thyme. For all these categories of persons, the use of thyme requires absolutely the medical opinion. It is not recommended to take of essential thyme oil by oral way, except under the monitoring of a qualified aromatherapist because beyond a certain dosage, this oil can be toxic, according to the experiments made in vitro and on animals. Because of the phenols (carvacrol and thymol), which can irritate mucus membranes and cause skin irritation, it should not be used for skin care products, and in general should be used in low concentrations. The most recommended concentration is 5 % of essential oil in vegetable oils. If there are no proven counterindications, it should however be consumed with moderation because its active ingredients are rather strong.
ϱϵ References: 1. Akah P.A. and Nwambie A.I. (1994). Evaluation of Nigerian traditional medicines: 1. Plants used for rheumatic (inflammatory) disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 42(3):179-182. 2. Argyropoulou C., Dimitra D., Tarantilis P.A., Fasseas C. and Polissiou M. (2007). Chemical composition of the essential oil from leaves of Lippia citriodora H.B.K. (Verbenaceae) at two developmental stages. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 35(12):831-837. 3. Armada J. and Barra, A. (1992). On Aloysia Palau (Verbenaceae). Taxon 41:88±90 4. Baliga M.S. and Rao S. (2010). Radioprotective potential of mint: A brief review. J. Cancer Res. Ther. 6 (3): 255±262. 5. Bankole S.A., Joda A.O. and Ashidi J.S. (2005). The use of powder and essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus against mould deterioration aQG DIODWR[LQ FRQWDPLQDWLRQ RI µHJXVL¶ PHORQ seeds. Journal of Basic Microbiology Volume 45 (1): 20±30. 6. Baslas R.K. (1983). Phytochemical studies of the species of Mentha genera. Part I. Herba Hung. 22:85-104. 7. Bastos J.F., Moreira I.J., Ribeiro T.P., Medeiros I.A., Antoniolli A.R. and De Sousa D.P. (2010). Hypotensive and vasorelaxant effects of citronellol, a monoterpene alcohol, in rats. Santos MR. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 106(4):331-337. 8. Blamey M. and Grey-Wilson C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Médicinal and aromatic plants, vol. 6, pp.18 9. Blamey M. and Grey-Wilson C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Walford's guide to reference material: Volume 2, p190. 10. Blanco M.M., Costa C.A., Freire A.O., Santos J.G. and Costa M. (2009). Neurobehavioral effect of essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus in mice. Phytomedicine 16 (2-3): 265±270. 11. Bleasel N., Tate B. and Rademaker M. (2002). Allergic contact dermatitis following exposure to essential oils. Australas. J. Dermatol. 43 (3): 211±213. 12. Bor N.L. (1953). The genus Cymbopogon Spreng. In India, Burma and Ceylon. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.Soc. 51: 1-27.
ϲϬ 13. Brumental M., Goldbelg A. and Brinchman J. (2000). Herbal medicine: expanded commission E monographs. Newton, MA:LippincottWilliams &Wilkins, pp.297-303. 14. Bruneton J. (1997). Pharmacognosie, Phytochimie et plantes médicinales. Technique Documentation, Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 915-1120. 15. Burkhard P.R. (1999). Plant-induced seizures: reappearance of an old problem. Journal of Neurology 246 (8): 667±670. 16. Cappello G., Spezzaferro M., Grossi L., Manzoli L. and Marzio L. (2007). Peppermint oil (Mintoil®) in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: A prospective double blind placebocontrolled randomized trial. Digestive and Liver Disease 39 (6): 530±6. 17. Carlini E.A., Contar J.D.P., Silva-Filho A.R. , Da Silveira-Filho N.G. , Frochtengarten M.L. and Bueno O.F.A. (1986). Pharmacology of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf). Effects of teas prepared from the leaves on laboratory animals. Ethnopharmacology 17(1):37-64. 18. Carrera-Quintanar L., Funes L.L., Viudes E., Tur J., Micol V., Roche E. and Pons A. (2010). "Antioxidant effect of lemon verbena extracts in lymphocytes of university students performing aerobic training program". Scand J Med Sci Sports. 19. Coats (1992). Garden shrubs and their histories (brief notice oh her gardening abilities):212. 20. Doug H. (2007). Commodity growing guides-Mint. 21. Elhoussine D., Zineb B. and Abdellatif B. (2010). Antibacterial activity and chemical composition of the leaf essential oil of Mentha rotundifolia from Morocco. EJEAFChe, 9 (1):19-28 22. Fahim F.A., Esmat F.A., Fadel A.Y. and Hassan H.M. (1999). Allied studies on the effect of Rosmarinus officinalis L. on experimental hepatotoxicity and mutagenesis. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 50 (6): 413±427. 23. Farooqi A.A., Sreeramu B.S. and Srinivasappa K.N. (2005). Cultivation of Spice Crops, pp. 457. 24. Figueirinha A., Cruz M.T., Francisco V., Lopes M.C. and Batista M.T. (2010). Anti-inflammatory activity of Cymbopogon citratus leaf infusion in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated dendritic cells: contribution of the polyphenols. Journal of Medicinal Food 13(3):681-690. 25. Funes L.L.; Carrera-Quintanar L, Cerdán-Calero M., Ferrer M.D., Drobnic F., Pons A., Roche E. and Micol V. (Apr 2011). "Effect of lemon verbena supplementation on muscular damage markers, pro-inflammatory cytokines release and neutrophils' oxidative stress in chronic exercise". Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 111 (4): 695±705.
ϲϭ 26. Garibaldi D., Pensa P. and Gullino M.L. (2010). Powdery Mildew Caused by Golovinomyces biocellatus on Spearmint (Mentha spicata) in Italy. The American Phytopathological Society, 94(9): 1171. 27. Gomes P.A., Ferreira de Souza M., Teodoro de Souza T.J., Carvalho W.G.O.J., Silva de Figueiredo L. and Martins E.R. (2009). Influence of shade on the biomass and essential oil production of Lippia citriodora (Lam.), Brazil. Biotemas, 22 (4): 9-14. 28. Grieve M. (2008). Thyme. A modern herbal. Hypertext version of the 1931 edition. 29. Hammer K.A., Carson C.F. and Riley T.V. (1999). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. Journal of Applied Microbiology 86(6): 985-990. 30. Harley R.M. (1975). Mentha. In C. A. Stace, ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles. Academic Press, London, pages 383-391. 31. Hui Y.H., Feng C., Nollet L.M., Guine R.P.F., Martin-Belloso O., Paliyath G.,
Minguez-Mosquera /͘M.,
Pessoa F.L.P., Le Quere J.L. and Sidhu J.S. (2010). Handbook of Fruit and
Vegetable Flavors. Hardback, pp. 1096. 32. Huxley A. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. MacmillanIoannis. In Tzanetakis I.E. and Martin R.R. (2004). First report of beet pseudo yellows virus in blackberry in the United States. Plant disease, 88(2): 223. 33. Ibanez E., Oca A., Murga G., Lopez-Sebastian S., Tabera J. and Reglero G. (1999). Supercritical fluid extraction and fractionation of different preprocessed rosemary plants, J. Agric. Food Chem. 47:1400. 34. Johnson J.J. (2011). Carnosol: A promising anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agent. Cancer Letters 305:1 (1-7) 35. Juronis V. and Snieskiene V. (2004). Diversity of phytophagous and pathogens and their damage to mints (Mentha). Medicina, 40(8):779-82. 36. .DOLQRYLü,0DUWLQþLü-5R]PDQ9DQG*XEHUDF9 ,QVHFWLFLGDODFWLYLW\RIVXEVWDQFHV of plant origin against stored product insects. Ochrana Rostlina 33, 135-142. 37. Kalra A., Singh H.B. Pandey R., Samad A., Patra N.K. and Sushil K. (2004). Diseases in mint: Causal organisms, distribution, and control measures. Journal of herbs, spices & medicinal plants, 11 (1-2): 71-91.
ϲϮ 38. Koch T.R. (1998). Pepprmint oil and irritable bowel syndrome. Am. J. Gastroenterol., 93(11):2304-2305. 39. Kraus J., Cleveland S., Putnam M.L., Keller K.L., Martin R.R. and Tzanetakis I.E. (2010). A new Potyvirus sp. infects verbena exhibiting leaf mottling symptoms. Plant Disease, 94:1132-1136. 40. Krieger R.I. (2001). Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology: Principles. Academic Press. pp. 823. 41. Lawless J. (1992). Encyclopaedia of Essential Oils. Element Books Ltd., UK, pp 232. 42. Lee S.J., Umano K., Shibamoto T. and Lee K. (2005). Identification of volatile components in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) and their antioxidant properties. Food Chemistry, 91 (1): 131±137. 43. Leite J.R., Seabra M.L. and Maluf E. (1986). Pharmacology of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf). III. Assessment of eventual toxic, hypnotic and anxiolytic effects on humans. J Ethnopharmacol 17 (1): 75±83. 44. Leung, A.Y. (1980). Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients used in food, drugs and cosmetics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 231. 45. Linnaeus C. (1753). Species Plantarum, Vol. 2, pp. 576±577. 46. Marcum D.B., Perez K. and Davis R.M. (2010). First Report of Powdery Mildew Caused by Golovinomyces biocellatus on Peppermint in California. The American Phytopathological Society, 94(2):276. 47. McKay D.L and Blumberg J.B. (2006). A review of the bioactivity and potemtial health benefits of peppermint tea (Mentha piperita L.). Phytother. Res., 20(8):619-633. 48. Merat S., Khalili S., Mostajabi P., Ghorbani A., Ansari R. and Malekzadeh R. (2010). The effect of enteric-coated, delayed-release peppermint oil on irritable bowel syndrome. Digestive diseases and sciences 55 (5): 1385±90. 49. Moss M., Hewitt S., Moss L. and Kieth W. (2008). Modulation of cognitive performance and mood by aromas of peppermint and ylang-ylang. The International journal of neuroscience 118 (1): 59±77. 50. Mounchid K., Bourjilat F., Dersi N., Bellik A., Aboussaouira T., Rachidai A., Tantaoui-Elaraki A. and Ismaili-Alaoui M. (2004). Toxicity of south Morocco Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil:
ϲϯ antibacterial and histopathological effects. Revue Marocaine des Sciences Agronomiques et Vétérinaires, 24(2):139-145. 51. Nicola S. Fontana E., Hoeberechts J. (2002). Cultural techniques to optimize the thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) propagation. XXVIth International Horticultural Congress and Exhibition. ISHS. 11-17,Toronto, Canada. pp.561. 52. Nicola S., Fontana E. and Hoeberechts J. (2004). Cultural techniques to optimize the thyme (Thymus vulgaris) propagation. Acta Hort. (ISHS), 631:187-19. 53. Oliver B. (1960) Medicinal plants in Nigeria. Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Nigeria, pp. 42. 54. Olivero-Verbel J., Güette-Fernandez J. and Stashenko E. (2009). Acute toxicity against Artemia franciscana of essential oils isolated from plants of the genus Lippia and Piper collected in Colombia. Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas, 8 (5) : 419-427. 55. Onawunmi G.O., Wolde-Ab Y. nad Ogunlana E.O. (1984). Antibacterial constituents in the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Ethnopharmacology 12(3):279-286. 56. Pamplona R. (1999): Guide des plantes médicinales. Vol 2, pp 163-769. 57. Panda H. (2009). Aromatic plants cultivation processing and uses. National Institute of Indestrial Research, pp. 478. 58. Pittler M.H. and Ernst E. (1998). Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome: a critical review and metaanalysis. The American Journal of Gastroenterology; 93 (7), 1131-1135. 59. Poiret J.M. (1804). Encyclopédie méthodique : botanique. Paris, 6:228-229. 60. Rao J.L., Singhraghavan M.B. and Abraham K.O. (1998). Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.): impact of drying on its flavor quality Journal of Food Quality 21 (2):107±115. 61. Regnault R.C., Hamraoui A., Holeman M., Theron E. and Pinel R. (1993). Insecticidal effect of essential oils from Mediterranean plants upon Acathoscelides obtectus Say. (Coleoptera, Bruchidae), a pest of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 19:1233-1244.
ϲϰ 62. Santoyo S., Cavero S., Jaime L., Ibañez E., Señoráns F.J. and Reglero G. (2005). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil obtained via supercritical fluid extraction. J. Food Prot., 68(4):790-5. 63. Scavroni J., Boaro C.S.F., Marques M.O.M. and Ferreira L.C. (2005).Yield and composition of the essential oil of Mentha piperita L. (Lamiaceae) grown with biosolid. Braz. J. Plant Physiol., 17(4):345-352. 64. Scora R.W. and Chang A.C. (1997). Essential oil quality and heavy metal concentrations of peppermint grown on a municipal sludge-amended soil. J. Environ. Qual. 26:975-979. 65. Serra H., Mendes T., Bronze M.R. and Simplício A.L. (2008). Prediction of intestinal absorption and metabolism of pharmacologically active flavones and flavanones. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 16(7): 4009-4018. 66. Shaaya E., Kostjukovski M., Eilberg J. and Sukprakarn C. (1997). Plant oils as fumigants and contact insecticides for the control of stored-product insects. Journal of Stored Products Research, 33:7-15. 67. Souza M.P., Matos N.E.O. and Matos F.J.A. (1991). Chemical composition of medicinal plants of Blazil. Impressa university/UFC, Fortaleza. 68. Temple W.A., Smith N.A. and Beasley M. (1991). Management of oil of citronella poisoning. Clin. Toxicol., 29:257-262. 69. Touafek O., Nacer A., Kabouche A., Kabouche Z. and Bruneau C. (2004). Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil of Rosmarinus officinalis Cultivated in the Algerian Sahara. Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 40 (1):28-29. 70. Tzanetakis E., Joseph D., Samad A. and Martin R.R. (2010). Mint Viruses: Beauty, Stealth, and Disease. The American Phytopathological Society, 94(1): 4-12. 71. Valnet J. (1990). Aromathérapie, traitement de maladies par les essences des plantes, 2ème édition, Malone, pp.70-95. 72. Wright S.C., Maree J.E. and Sibanyoni M. (2009).
Treatment of oral thrush in HIV/AIDS
patients with lemon juice and lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) and gentian violet. Phytomedicine. 16(2-3):118-2.
ϲϱ 73. Zuloaga F.O. and Morrone O. (1996). Catalogue of vascular plants of the Republic of Argentina I. Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae, Angiospermae (Monocotyledoneae), II. Dicotyledoneae. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard., pp 60-74.
Buy your books fast and straightforward online - at one of world’s fastest growing online book stores! Environmentally sound due to Print-on-Demand technologies.
Buy your books online at
www.get-morebooks.com Kaufen Sie Ihre Bücher schnell und unkompliziert online – auf einer der am schnellsten wachsenden Buchhandelsplattformen weltweit! Dank Print-On-Demand umwelt- und ressourcenschonend produziert.
Bücher schneller online kaufen
www.morebooks.de VDM Verlagsservicegesellschaft mbH Heinrich-Böcking-Str. 6-8 D - 66121 Saarbrücken
Telefon: +49 681 3720 174 Telefax: +49 681 3720 1749
[email protected] www.vdm-vsg.de
