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This book it in oopyn,ht. SUbjeclto .latutoryaorptlon and 10 tM provisions or releYll.nt eoIle<:tive ticenllin,.,reernenl&, no reprodllClion or any P'ln TnIIy like pbce without tbe "";!len pennislion orCarnbridae University Preu. Fine published 1990 Reprinled 1993 Fine P'lperback edition 2002
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Contents
Nous Oft amtribltton Pnfau
, • 3
,.ix n nv
LUI 0/obInn;itJtions
,
Law, eocietyand Athens STUJaN TODD and PAUL MILLETI'
,. .,
Th~ p'urpoee of evidence in Athenian courts STURIS TODD
Fowl play: lCUrioua Iawauit in c1. .iCII) Athena PAUL c:.uTJ..U)G&
• 5'
Plato and the Athenian I,. of theft
63
TaEvoa S4UHDI!U Veutioua litigation in ct...ical Athen.: sykophancy and the eykophant
83
.O.IN OSlOaNJ.
Sb
The ayltophant and .ykophancy : vexatious redefinition?
'°3
DAVID HAaVEY
6b
The law of leubris in Athens mar. PISHD
"3
The Sokmian la... of Ju.brU
'39
OSWTNMUUAT
7
The .acia1 contnl of adultery .t Athene
,.7
DA'91DOOKO
8
Sa1e. credit and exchange in Athenian It. and eociety
'67
PAUL MILLETT
/I4nnc<,
'95
GIouary-ltuk% : IlTUHINTODD
"5 ft.
,
Notes on contributors
i. Univcnity Lecturer- in Ancient History and Fellow of Clare College. Cambridge. He h.. publiahed -.idely on Greek history and hiatOitogl'phy. and is the author of leversl standard worb on Spartan history, rrK* recently H~lknUf;c mid Romatt Sparta; A Tak of Two Cjt~s PAUL CAaTLltDGJ:
(1989) (with A. Spawforth). DAVID COHaN ia Ae.Jciate Professor of Rhetoric in the University of California at Bettelcy. He hu written T1Ieft j" AlMnian Law (19B3), and
• rutr of artaclcs on Athenian legal and 1Oci.1 history. He
i, at pretent
preparing I Itudy or Late, Viok~ tJnd Commumty in Cltun'CQ/ Athens for Cambridge University Prest'. Key Themes in Ancient Hiltory
s.m..
NICk FlSHIt. is Lecturer in Ancient History It the Univenity of W.lce, Cardiff. He is the editor Social Va/ues i" CkuncaJ AtJuo,u (1976), and i. It preeent writing. book on Hybris .
or
DAVID Hnvu is Lecturer in Cluaica at E:r;etcr Uni~ty. He hu written
widely on many upectl of Athenian aoci.1 and politica1 history, and wu joint editor with Paul Cardedae of CRUX. Essays p~unled to G.£.M. ck S,~ . Croi:cOflIriJ $eW1Ity-jiftJI birtiedoy (IC}8S). He ill currently preparing.n edition of Herodotu' Lydian LotIo,. PAUL IULUTT ill University Lec:turer in Ancient History and Fellow of
Downing College, Cambridge. He ha written eeveral article. on Athenian .ucial utd economic hiatory, .00 iII.t prcacnt preparing a boolr. for Cambridge University Pre. on u"J;", o.nd lJomJUJi". in Anci.mt AtAnu.
is Fellow utd Tutor in Ancient Hilltory at Balliol College, Oxford . He ia m authority on archaic Greelr. hiatory, wclllr.nown • the author of &Jrly GNu (JC}80)j he ill at praent undertaking a major Itudy of the OS"''!N lIun""
Greelr. S)lIt/>OIillM during hil tenure of a Britieh Academy Rese.rch
Readership.
,
i, TutoriaJ Fellow in Ancient Hiatory at Corpua Chriati College. Oxford. He II the author of Demos: 1M Dist::l1f.Jn'Y ofCla.uicaJ AttiM (11)85), of Clo.sticaJ Landscape with Fiprrl (11)87). and of I number of articla on Greek art • .-rchaeotogy and history. IOIIN OIlOINI
it Profe.or of Greek It the UniveTlity of Newcutle upon Tyne. Hi. plnic:u.... interul it in the /..atJn of Plato. a translation of which he has publilhed in the Penguin CI. .ic:a series (1970). and on which he hu written extenaivcly. He it al praent writing a book. PIo.to', hrud'Co* (to be published by Oxford University PtaI).
TUVOI SAUNDUS
it
in Ctasaice .t Keele University. An earlier venion of 'Evidence in Athenian Courte', hi' fint published pipet, . . . ,warded the ~ Grote Prize of the University of London for 11}88. He it now prepann, , book on 1Jat SJw;j,e of ~an Law (Oxford Univenity
STarMIN TODD
P-l·
Lecturer
Preface
Thil it • boot about IepJ tUtl, and how they 11\81 be ueed .. documentt in writing. hiItory of mety. It has its origin in I Kne. of teminan on 'Law Ind Society in Chpnl. Athens', orpn~ by Plul CartJedge and Plul Millett under the .uspica of the FlCUlty of Cluaiea at Cambridge in Ifj86I,. The ecope of the book is roughly that of the aeminu...mc., but inevitably then: have been .orne changes, both 10l8t:l and pins. John navia had hoped to pracnt a p-pet' on the proto-history of Greek law, but other commitments prennted thil. Douglae MacDowell delivered. pllper on the Athenian oiAot, which hal aince been published eleewhere (1989). Trevor S.unden, on the other band, was WLlbk to take part in the Kminan beaUle of aabbatiad leave in the United Statal : we are pi eI l ed that he hal l:8iCed to publiah his paper in this volume. The chapten which make up the book were for the moat part delivered I I independent papen. The exceptKmi were those on Iykophancy by Robin Oabome and David Harvey, and on ltuInU by Nick Filher and Murny. In each of the.e cues. both papers were delivered at the wne meeting. with one tpeaker praenting I point of view to which the other
0..,"
.............
The uticleI in Ihilcollectton, then, wen: conceived .. tepante mtitiea; and they are intended to be ICC iblt: .. luch. Nevenhele. the book . . (OT 10 we hope). unity ... whole. II does not daim to bt. lyuematic tteat*. covering all or even all the main upecti of Athenian law ; it ill rather • .me. of caIe..atucfia of method, outlining different ways in which the available Athenian lepJ texts can be read. It will 100II become dear to the ruder that the contributors do not hold tdentic:al opinionl. In lOme cues, indeed, the papen prmnt "ert different viewpoinu: Huvty, for inItanc:e, argues that Owbome', '...uti.ed' picture of the I}"kophant remain. at best not proven. But thilaon of dil'gleelDent in. book of this kind abould be acen ... merit rather than • defect. There art however two pmuppolitiona which all the eontributon aIwt;
M
,
lUI
Prqaa
and it it theIe which k-nd In underlying unity to the book. Both Ire implicit in our .... bride. In the fint pt.c:e, this is. book about the relationahip between law on the one hand and lodet'lind politics on the other: historiana of ancient Greece have in the pat tended to treat theR I I two teparatc iaNes: but we believe that the two ...bjecta Ire inter-related, 10 that the Rudy of one ahould illuminate the atudy of the other. Secondly, the book fDeUel on 'c1aaaical Athena' rather than on 'ancient Greece'. Thit lroee partly out of conventence : when the orpniaeta oriainally invited contributiona to I aeriea of teminan on 'ancient Greek law and tociety', the raponae waa overwhelmins. From the United Ki,.clom llone, almoat thirty .cholara replied with offen of pa.pen, rneali"l I pneral pelception that thia wu In important combination of topica. Confining the aeries to cta.ical Athent, from which the bulk of our evidence ia derived, restricted the tnlterial to I'IWlIItable proportionl. But thert it • atcOnd, more significant reaaD11 for the concmtrattoa on d ie,1 Athena. All our contributors bcltcve that dl.caI Athenian law ia beat atudtcd in ita own naht, .. the IepII)'ItCm of I unique aocial and political entity, nther than .. part of • cenenJ Itudy of the development of Greek IepI docuinea. This ia • contenrioua ~e, and .ame of ita implieationa are conadered in the fine chapter, which iuelf lerYei I I In introduction to the main themc:t of the book. For the moment, it ia enouch to . .y Ihll recenl worlt Oft GreeklepJ doctrinft .... lended 10 become abetnct:andourcontributonahareabiutowankthec:oncrdc. We po , win face more evidence for the workinp of the ieplayscem of d kal Albene in the cmtury ~:ao than for Iny other pt.c:e or period in the ancient Greek world, with the ~ble exception of Gr.eco-Roman Egypt. Thlt is not to ..y that Iny of our contributora would with to 'let the IOUrces apeak for thelUtelva': Athenian IepI tHta require .. careful intetptctation .. Iny of the litctllry IOUrta which the ancient historian baa to \I.e; IOmC of the problema involved arc d~ in the COUI"IC of thia book, But with such a wealth of tnlterial available, it ICtil" pervtI"IC not to \I.e it. Our u.c of the term '1ep1 text' ia deliben.tely bro.d. We have not l'eltricced our attention to the texU of kpIlt1tutca: lew of thc.c aurvive from clue;""1 AthenI, and their importance within the Ieplayscem ia debatable. lnetcad, the tenn ia uacd to denote Iny text which hal lepl sipifie:ance. Mo.t notable of cow.e ia oratory; but other p t a cited throughout the book include phi&oeophy, amMituttonal history, bapiy, c:omedy, 1)'Iie poetry and inac:riptiona. It baa to be admitted that tbeac can IIIIX*' problems oI.cc ',"licy 10 thole without ayattmltic knowledte of the d 'n! world. Simiarly, 1cpI terma and concepta tend to be unfamiliar even tocta.icalcholan. In order to aaaiat readera aero. a ranee of dt.ciplinea, the contributors have tdopted I deliben.te policy of providinc beckgTOund information whae it necnxd MC I rry. A1lp ,sroiGreekarctnnalated,andtranalitentio.. arcrivcn for worda and phrua for which there ia no prcciac EDllish equivaknt, AU worda, phl"MCl and concepta that lten»cci to IX*' potential problema have
'''' been pthered in a.1oeury at the end of the book; page referenca hive been added. to enable this toteI'Ve:. an index. But the gio.ary is intended to have. value of ita own, independmt of ita function within thEt book : we hopt thlt it will prove helpful to readm who may be baffled by the teehnical terms in boob and articles about Athenian law. For thli leMOn, tevenl important lenni which (u it happena) are not mentioned in the text of the book neverthelela receive entries in the Ikleeary. Many people hive helped in the conception and production of thit book. to whom the editon are IIIOIt aincerely grateful. IndividuaJ debt. art: ac:knowledaed by the various contributors. but _ editors ~ would like to thank in particular • number of law,eli who gave us advice on matten outside our apc:cUli:It knowledse: Graham Davies on ancient Near Eutem law; Neil Duxbury on IepJ h.iatory and philoeopby: Katherine de Garna on kpI anthropotogy; Jenny McEwan on English p~dura1law; and Ted Powell on the law and itt enforcement in medteval Enaland. Theyahould not be held raponaibte for 1ep1 CrTOfI on our part. Two people cielcnc our ptitude in a more pnttalway. The inapiration for the theme of law and IOciety came from the work of John Crook, whoee I..auJ tutd /...ifo ofRt1tM mIIy be talr.en u. model for what the orpniKn of the aeminu hoped to achieve. Ourolhu principaJ debt is 10 Sir M08e$ Finley. He received the idea of a Kminar .m.es revolving around Athenian law and IOciety with enthuaiam, to deliver the opening ""per, and .dvi8ed ua on me fonn that any reaulting publication should take. Sadly, hil death during the summer of 1086 deprived ua of htl promiled ""per. It iI therefore fining that thil book ahould be dedicated to hil memory.
aa.eed
P.A.C., p.e.M., S.C.T .
M
w
Abbreviations
Nok : Abbrevitliont of periocHcall follow the conventiOfll of the relevant volume of L'Altrth pIIi~. the Kholarly _nn\LI) of record which regularly devotes. Kdion to 'Loi, grecque'. KOCH, T . (1880-8). ed., COffIiCOrYM Atliconmt FnvIfWJfta. ] Vo". Leip&ig
CGFP
AUSTIN, C., (1973) ed,. Com;icmlfMl ~amtJrJ FrcvIMfItG itt PaY,yril &/InfG . Berlin 6: New York
OK
DiaLS, H. .. KRANz, W. (1951-a, 19S4). ed,., ~ Fraptnlu tk, Vonolratiw. sth--7th edna. Berlin S!.LIGNAN. E.R.A • • JOHNSON, A. (1930-S), edt ., n,. e"cyc:.dia of Me Social &KnUI . IS vol,. New York JAcon, F. (19:1J-S8). ed .• CM F~,.te d«,mchi. ,dtnt Hi,toriJur. Berlin & Leiden SILLS. D. (1968-79). ed., brtnnationGi E"cycfo.. Ptudia of 1M Social Scintccs , 18 vols. London &: New Yo'"
ESS FGH lESS
IJG
LSI OCD OCT
DUUTI:, R . o HAUSSQtJLLIU, B ... RIINACH, Th.
(ISgI-8). edt .• IWcwt1 des I,.,criptioru JuridiqlUs Gn!cqaus . :I vols. Pari, ZIIGLU. K. AI SoNTHIIMU, W. (1975), edt., Der KkiM Pmdy. 5 volt. Munich LIDDELL. H.G., Scorr, R ... JONES. H .S. ('1940). eds .• A GruIt-E,.,ruIt uxiam. C}th eeln. Oxford (with Supp. 1968) H.uoiOND, N.G.L.• ScULLoUD, H.H. (l!ml), ed• . , 'lJit' OxfonJ Clauical Dictimu,,'Y. :and cdn., Oxford Odord ClaMical Text
.4b6o,
PCG RE
..
e.,,"""
KAssIL, R. 6: AUSTIN, C. (1983-), edt., ~1IIe CoMici GnJui. Bulin II: New York PAULY, A.F. YON, WlltoW,\. G . • Kaou., W. (1894••,.). ...... &~ .., a,.,.udon AJtm~. 66 voII. in 34
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Law, society and Athens STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
THE STUDY OF ATHENIAN LAW In what tumed out to be hi. t..t book, Moeea Finley (J985 : C}9-to) devoted 1eVen1 pagel to 'the problem of Greek law'. In doiDl'" he WM returning to one of the earlie81 interatl of his career (el. Pinky 1951 and 19Sa) . It would perMpi be fair to dacribe Finley, along with the cluaicist and mciologist Louis Gemet. 1 . . pre-eminent arnons the very few exponenu of the 'law and 1Ociet)" approach to Greek law for which we are pleading. It is mikirc. therefore. that both Gemet and Finley in major worD lamented the lack of attention wbach the tubjcct hu received from the ICholarly world. In the introduction to hiB fint volume of e.ay., Gemet (1955 : t) complained that Greek law W1IIltUditd by two grouP' oruy: philologilta, who toot no inteIUt in quationa of 1Iw; and Roman Iawyen. who were CORItrained by inappropriate Cltego1ies of thought. Borrowing an apt phrue from Hans-JuliUl Wolff. Finley (JC}8S : 99) deKribed Creek la. . . 'notoriou8ly • ttepchild in modem ItUdy'. One miaht pemap. take Finley'. point, and abo the metaphor, I . . further. The problem of Greek or, to be more precile, Athenian law (lee teetion II of thiI ch.Ipter) ia that it is not limply I Acpchild, but. Itepchild ~er.wed by .vua! overbearing (not to ..,. ugly) siRen. It is not juat that .more wort necda to be done, thoush it hal to be admitted we the Attic: Ontora, the c:entnllOUtc:e for Athenian t.w and legal plocedure, remain relatively under·re.earched. 2 Rather, the relationahip between Athenian t.w and other kindred aubjects need. to be re-eumined. Indeed, part of the iC!M)t• • For. _ .
. I iIItroducrion to Gemel'1 orork, _ H......... t/. (1971 : -,6-106) .
• At, ' ......... dalOnlon • .,...... w Mof''-I1II*'.lbefol.ortbc:mtutJ •.c. • :: F edwitb ............. ofG...... · ' ) . Aa.~i't ........ tIMn.a-
'-th-, •
1917: ' F"t iIUit... t.....t5o,, · "..a.d·..AIMu(i .• .• ....u.Ifda). tIw: :"'.... . t jtli• • ,,"-,-mC ",· •• _icl8dIG._loanec:n~(_tIw ....... t.,0eb0mc .,..,..abyCanledp 1911). A.-- iC G.ner'.1abai III conlentap... _ ..et .... . oftlw.....,I;,, ·1 0'U .... bet. _boot...tdli .. _nt . . . . ..
'
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STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
for the low acholarly profile of Athenian law may be that it h.. traditionilly been Itudied on the basil of quationa and catepSe. of thautht derived from. inappropriate diaciplintl. Thit point deIerva to be diacuued in more detail. considering the relatton.hip of Athmian law first with Roman law. then with Greek la•• and finally with law in JCner.J.l
J
ROMAN LAW AND ATHENIAN LAW
The Iep.laytterrw of the modem west are divided broadly into two groups: the civil-law lyRetni of France. Germany and the built of continentaJ Europe; and the common-law ayatema of England and the United S~tel . There are of COUrte eJ:ceptiona: Sc:otallw for inatance ila hybrid. containing elementa of both a,..tema (Robinaon. Fergua &: Gordon rgB5 : 258.-79. J77-405) . The influence of Roman law in continentaJ Europe iI not aurpriling. Civil la•• after all. derives ita name from the ;fU citJik, the 'li. that pertaina to citiuna', of ancient Rome. The connecting link between Roman ita citljk and modern civil I.." is the codification of Roman la. in the Nme of the emperor JUitinian in the linh century A. D. The body of tall illUed under Juatiniln il described collectively .. the CtwpIlS IlIri, CiviIU (corpuaof civilla.), although it wa never u complete and ayatematic as the name lUQuta. Moat important ".... the Dipt, al-o commonly known .. the Pandeeu. *ued in 533. an authoritative compilation of ncerpta from the I~ing c1. .K:al juriata of the IeCOnd and third oenturie. A.D. The Institute. (allo SJJ), an introductory tmbook for law studenta, ..... likewite made up of qUOUitiona from similar but older wotb; and the Corput wu completed in SJ+ by the promulption of a ttcond Code of imperial conatitutioRl (i.e., Itatute law), luperteding an earJier Code of S29 (tee Wolff 19SI: IS8-76; NK:holu u~6.a: J~4S) . Roughly half a millennium later, in the eleventh .nd twelfth centuries, the Digat began to be adopted u the buia of study by the eihuging law schools of northern Italy, moat notably that of Bologna; and the prestige of thae lIw achooll attracted atudenta not only from haly ilK'lf but from the whole of northern Europe, in particular Germany and France. Univenity-tr.ined lawyers, therefore, studied law according to categOl'te. of thouaht derived from Justinian. They took what they had Itudied bad to their own kingdoma, where it aeemed 80 much more aophilticated than the local cuatomary law thlt they appHed it in their pleadinga and their judgententa. Thil Plooua culminated in what i, caUed the Reception, by which a revived Roman lIw ... 'received' (accepted) .. the basis of national law in pllc:e of local CUltom. 4 J
4
In .... foUoon, empMlilMi been pl8cedoariutioaofmcnftCelll worton Alhenien .... For a •• <11 ........ lilt (but without COi......) 01. nwlerieII ~ dowa coe .lipS, _ c.lhoun It 0.' n ('ip7) . A f1.il'tlwr tilt. co.ua. the~t. lipS-C. I96s, -rbd-.d in Iu. I' n (.961: 6o)h10), akbouP the Oil" "ion Gf th. bibliotuyh,.. ntb«~. FIM' detQ of !be Reeept;o.. of " - n in ... tie ... Eurot-, _ Viqr.wf '901). witt! Woiff (11,151 : 1""'~), N~ (.961 : 45-54) III'Id Ihb· 1-', FIfIIM It GonIon ('98s:
,,
J
In Enafand on the other hand the situation _
diffcnnt . ROllUlnist idea
were not unknown (Vinogradoff UJ09 : 91""118; Nichol.. 11J6:a: 46), but there wu no Reception. Instead, it wu C'Ultomary llw, extended and made uniform ('common') throuChout the country. that formed the basi. of Englith (and indirtttly American) common law (Robineon. Fergul &: Gordon 11)85: ao8-S8). Nobody h.. ever satisfactorily explained why the Reception Ihould have happmed throughout Continental Europe but not in England; but it .houJd be cmphuieed that the .prud of Romanilt thinking "'II • gndual proc:eaa, and ita progreu WII detennined by complex factors (Wolff 1951 : 18)-206: Nichol.. lC}6a: 48-50) . Reception took place more easily within the Holy Roman Empire than outside it, beeaule the Digat preeuppoeed the
jurisdiction of the Emperor. Where customary law was alrudy pelc:cived to be sufficiently alphisticatcd to meet the needs of IOciety, thit will have reduced the pressure fM change. The way in whicb the law .11 taught m1y allO have played. PIIrt : English lawyers have traditionally been trained by practiaing lawyen at the Inra of Court rather than by academic Ilwyel'1llt univel'1litiel or
Ia. IChoola. It was therefore predicuble tMt Roman I.w would hne tradittonally Md a firm hold on the 1ega1lCholarlhip of amtincntal Europe. What is It firll. aight more lurpriaing it that Rorun la. baa had a conaiderable impact on English IepI thinking allO. This m.y in Pin. derive from the Iheer dominance of Roman la. I I an effort in systematic thinking : whether we agree or disagree with it. we cannot eet ...y from it. ROl1Uln law remaina I traditional though declining component in Ia. degreea in English universities. 5 But the dominance of Roman law may.1ao be connected with iUl own inherent ambiguitiea : difftRnt sidel in the same dispute can both look back on Roman Ia. I I their spiritual progenitor. Thomu (1g68 : 1-]) for inatanCt: uaes Roman IIW ofthe cluaical period. before Justinian in order to attack the Reception: he praiaes it I I a creative Iystem in which ruling. were made to meet practical probkma. rather than I foeail in which doctrines are CJl:panded with ruthleas logic to COVff future eventualities. Thia is the language in which the c:atC-bued common lawyer bentes hta code-baaed civil-law coUague; and it il done by appealing to Roman law. The dominanc:e of Roman law in Anglo-American I I well II Continental legal .cholanhip therefore helps to uplain the mditionally low profile of Athenian law U In intellectual di.cipline. Thil was by impliation the thruat of Fin~'llament : the study of Greek law ia a 'atepchild' in the tl!nllC tMt it 71-1.11). For. CIIIIIpUIliwe pUspccbft. naminia(the l'ft!ejItioG lII'i ...".lItbft"than Roman law. _ W~ 1974. , R _ law in EfIIIIDd 11M tnditiou1l,. been IItIIdied from • .uietIJ' It.eoietical pc: ........ ti.e. 1hDooc •• form III bcat.e ito nkllllCfi to E~ law;' purdy itKcIlectu.l. Tho juriopruckDtiaI tndirion boo been ,..ma.1Iri) 1tnIrIf. ODord • • • •=-eeI by - . I III the boob in the lAIr sm.: Hen .96 •• s..- 1965. Ita 1080. '11M! ~Iootioo"'ip bet.oed ....... d juriJoprudmca ADd Nt . law ;. ..... d f\OI"dIer in _tioft III III thio
rurilprucSmet.
a. ......,
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4
STEPHEN TODD.&I'Io PAUL MILLETT
hal had that of Roman law. a ttepmothcr. The Itrength of chi, link can eMily be demonstrated, in terml of the ratricted opportunitie. for the fottntt both in employment and in publication. The number of tcholua Itudying Greek law hal never hem Wwe: and many of thcte, at leut on the: Continent, have held poetI in departmentl of Roman law. H.,...Julius Wolff, for iflltll'lCe, the molt: diltinguiahed German ICbolar of his mention in the field, wu Profe.or of Roman lAd Civil Law at Freibu'l; Arnaldo Bttcardi, the moet eminent contemporary Italian expert, is ProfelClO'C of Roman Law Ind Director of the I.ituto di Diritto Romano in Milan. The context in which a ICholar worb will nece lrily have implicatioN for his metboda of Itudy, The reetrkted opportunitie. for publication are even more atriking. TheTe are perha.,. four joumala which might be expected to show I specillist interest in article. on Greek Ilw: none of these, we note with tcglet, is publiahed in an EngJish·apeakingcountry,6 Of the four, the Belgian TijdJcII,jft vorw&dt"p' st:ltwJeNis (TR : sometime. known by itaahemative French title • the IWtnu d"iswind.. droit or RHD) Ind the French&tnu hi.Jt~M droi,/ra,,{aU cl i'raFlfl!r (RDFE) Ire both concerned with lepl hiatory in general: the IIUer contlihl few Irticle. on Greek law with the exception of I very uadul critical bibliosnphyof the aubject, which appears Innually, edited molt recently by Alberto Maffi. The other two journals however do Ipccialiae in ancient law : these an the French 1Wv... ;"tCrw4tio1U'lk #hJ Jroiu J. I'/J"h'qu;,i (RlDA) Ind the German zaudtri/t der SafJipy-Sti[t.,,,,ji4r &clltJ~Jdridr'e (ZSS : IOmetimes ZRG) . For the Greek Ilwyer, RlDA would It fim aight appear the bett prospect, Each iuue ia divided into three or four teetiohl: the ancient Orient; c1uaical and hellenistic Greece (combined or ICpAtlted in different yean) ; and Rome. But the relative me of each eectton it Itriking: we conducted a rough survey of the thirty.three volumn of the third aeries IvaiJ.blc to us (1954-86); we counted both number of articleslnd number of ~, and the two ICII of ligures varied by only three or four percentage poinll in each CIIC . During that period the ancient Orient filled. roughly 25-30 ~ cent of the whole ; Rome filled 55-60 pet cent; and Greece (even Idding d_caland hellenistic tognher) was confined to I mere 10-15 ~ cent. The picture becomes even aharper with ZSS, which does indeed publilh work on Greek law. But ZSS it divided into 'hree aimultancoua acrtc., independently edited, with one volume of each appearing Innuilly : Roman law, Gcnnan law, and Canon Ilw, If In article on Greek law is published, it willlppe&r in the RoInaniJtisclie Abtnil4"1' Thia baa I powerful aymbolic aignificance, The dominance of Roman Ilw therefore help' to explain the 'ltepchild' . .tUl of Greek law. But it hu alto had an effect on the ...y in which Greek law it lIudied. A, Gcmet (1955 : t, cited lbove) compllined, when Roman lawyer. Itudy Greek Ilw, they tend to impose inappropmte categories on it,
• n •• o I _ ... o",oimpli6c:Mion,t the potnl mnainI: it • imp
AI.
_itit,iOiatM.alincn-oItmcn1d . UMed ~ to pION_ - ' fXI tt. ..bjcQ, 81d 'hIe 10 name • .,m.JiM journal publilhed in thiI COWIU"J.
eYen . . . . joumeJ., both in llritaia. in lbc
,
s This is best iIIullnted by examining the structure which authors of systematic textboob have given to the;r work. Sir Henry Maine, who introduced to thia country the compantive study of ancient law,' obtetved in a famous phrue th.t in the early atagca of legal development ',ubstantive law [is] secreted in the interstices of procedure' (Maine 1883: 3&j; lee further n.n below). To the modem mind. this may Kern lurpriaing: we would tend to . .urne that .ubttantive ilIw (,wluit are my rights and my duties?') has a logical priority ove!" proceduraJlaw ('how do I go about defending my rights?'); after aU. you need to know whit your right. are before deciding whether to go to court to protect them. Thil, however. has not alwaY' been 10. In Athens, 10 far u we ClIO tell, proceduralllw held both. chronologicallnd a logical priority: the reuon for example why the Athenian.
had no proper concept of. distirtC1ion between ownership and pomlllion is that they Md no procedure whm:by abtolute ownenhip could be ueerted; instald, they had only I aeries of procedures by which you could ' ncrt a better right than I ptrticular opponent. 1 Procedures Clme firat, and I lubltantive right could only exil' where there wu I procedure lvailable co create thlt right. Now thia of coune hu implicationl for the Itructurc of textboob Ind genenJ worb of reference. If we Ire correct in applying Maine'a dictum to Athena, then I general textbook on Athenian law ahould give priority to legal procedure rather than to lubstantive law. There are not very many luch textboobi' I tota] of aeven may be listed . Theec:, Ire, in chronological order : Beauchet (1&J7), 10 Lipeiua (1905- 15), Vinogndoff (lgU), Bonner & Smith (1930-8), Ham.on (1q«)8--?1), MacDowell (1978), and Biacardi (1982). Vinogradoff and Bonner &:: Smith are to lOme utent attempting a different influmce 011 Maine of s.Yip,. and the biMoric:aI a:hooI of GmNn Iawyen i.an imponGlt tDf*:; but it • bc)OiIOd tbe teOpe of thill chapter, and ;t don not IUbItantiall,. ~ lrom Maine'....... oritinaIity: f...
~
,.!hIt
rm.wc _
lot eiflC.'t .
""OfI_ "heR, numbcrof..y.-ful " - t iatrodudioN, mlnyoflMm anic:1eo in
• W,. ...
a .." . ~iM or .-nl
~ to the 0 . II wwId (W,...: 1'16, d . n.:a6 bdow; W... 19)3: M.eDoweIII,sB); ben..... of their~ty, t1Ie.do not ban to , _ the poooltn, of Oi,' .... their IMta"iaI ifI tbt _ ..,. . do tlw fulI«eIc teldboob. AIIo d!l!nillf of
r ·... lefu ..MX .... tlwmtrieu.nIF '6 1epIlOpicsintlwlWldatdCl I· ca.ldietionariea. TIM: articlm ifI the OCD (2nd . , 19711) 8ft -=fill for immediMe mermet, but they ..... amenPJ too brief to be ofl'f'll~. TIM: nttria ift R£ (1194-1971) .... for dw: moat pen Itip/J tedtniQI , tboo.ttb --....It)' comptebel.,;".....t oflm de:6tUti". pm..p. Itw: moat thouch ~ tlw - - deled, ue tbc pieI:a in the FrendllWcoa cdit~ by " s.,tio (1&75-1'19) : _ , . of ~ Iftn: tbe ~ of EmptR Caillcmcr, himMK
r;:;;::::'
tlw IUla of, _ _ of Imponant abort ItUo!ieI (Caillcmcr 1865-'71; d . Caillcmcr .879) . .. Bmdwt _ _ the fine writer to be iflltiaud ifI tlw 1Ub;K't, IN!: 110 earlia- --'- ... ttw: Gmtpoel ' ....t 'bility rcquiI"edof Ilutbcd. Efta tlw,.eatmaaual by Meia-.
Sc:b6.MM lb. it better deecribotI •• - t of)epl~.
M
w
6
STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
10ft of uerctee; and da.cu.ion of their work will be poet:poned until eection III of thit chapttt. Thitleava us with five boob to consider. Lipe.ius' interesta 8t 6,.. siaht appar to be procedul'IIl, but he ... in fact wriri"l not _ much I work on procedural law .. I catalOlUe of lepl
proc:cduret : the eecond volume, which iuelf appeared in two parts (Ig08-U) and together it lancer than the other two volumea combined, contiItI of I eeparate .cudy of eVf:r! attested type 01 plcsecution, c:alllOlued in terma of the prtUdil'l8 fhlCittnte. As Gemet complained (193& : a66-8), 1M result is brilliant on questions of detail but conveys no unified conception of ho.. Athenian law hanp totJdher. 11 The remainil'l8 luthan IU adhere more or less closely to a pattern derived not from Atheniln but from Roman law. 8eauchet indeed confinea hil Ittention ruthlCII.ly to 'private IIw', I category unknown in Athens, Ind one which he hirnaeif found it incraaingly difficult to lUltsin throughout four volumes (Harrison 1C}68: vi-vii). Biaeardi'. introduction (ll)8a: 6) prottIU . .iMt his predec:! 110ft' use of inapproprilte Roman categories; but he then devotea 19 p.ga to aoufCel of law, 37 to public: and 159 to private .ubetsntive law, with only 19 pqea aJlowed for lepl procedure and I further 36 for the early history 01 criminaillw. Similar priorities Ire displlyed by Ham.on: aubatsnrive Law takes up the first of hi, two volumea, and .... originally intended to fill the fint baH of the eecond volume: alao (Hlrrison 1971 : v-v;) . Much of Hlrri_n'l vocabulary i.similarly derived from Roman Ilw, which ,t timea relUlti in, certain obecurity. The wort i. indispenuble to lheapec:illi.t, but rarely conlulted by more general readers. A reaction . .ifllt Hlm.on', uncompromising lusterity came from MacDowell, who had himeelf been the literary executor for H.mlOn'. poathum. OUIleCOnd volume. MacDowell'. own book .cudiou.ly Ivoid. the technicil tenninolOS)' of Roman IIw: it is sdmil'llbly lucid Ind accnaible to the non...pecis1iat. Indeed, MacDowell (1978: 9) virtuilly rejectl on principle the UK of other Iepllystems for compantift evidence, preferring to devote hi. lteentton to Athens itlelf. But we may doubt whether such I mlnifesto can rea1ly be maintained . Historians who reject the explicit Ute of com~l'IItive evidence tend in practice to Ute it implicitly and subcon.adously; and for I BritWa hi.corian, the natural .cuti"l-point is In lms1pm of English, p<*ibly Seou, and I bit of Roman law. The plan of MacDowell'. work it indeed very similu to that of HsrriIOn'. : the: only majorchsnte" the addition of an introductory eection on the development of the courts (57 ~); subatsnrive Ilw (136 pqes) once spin fills the bulk Of the book, and is spin considered ahead of procedure (57 pI8CI). To sum up : our eociety'. emphasis on subltsntiYe and in particular private aubetsntive Law should not be regarded u somehow 'nstul'lll' and thereto«
.1
=
II 1.ipINI' _ _ YOIwne {ltoS-1S).it.If t..ed on MlaM Ie''', of Mein". Sch6muut , ..... He may•• Gemcc (1,]Ia: s66) • I., ha¥e bftn 10 _ CSIeIM • ,.;.one, of th. -'itr ~of IcpI ~ (d . ... IOiboYe).
7
intrinaially correct i it i. an aaumption derived indirectly from the priorities of the Roman jumb. The hiRomn of • legal lyStem earliel' than, Ind conaequently independent of. clasical Roman Ja. wuld perhape look instead to othet'" ancient lodeties to gain an undentanding of other poseible Cltegorlea of thought. The immensely autivc work of Maine (esp. 1861) on ancient law, though by flO means as unaophisticated as .orne of hie modem critics teem at timet to imply, is now rather dated. 12 Much the ..me must now be laid of other early schoW. in the complntive tndition : Fuate! de Coulangn (Iu... with Momigliano & Humphn:)'II9BJ) and Glotz (1904. 1906. 19:18) . The moat recent extensive work. thlt of Diamond (1971) i. weakened by. certain economic determinism; and for our pUfpoecs it focusee on communities considerably more 'primitive' than any of the Greekpokis. But it would perhaps be worth strengthenill8 the Iinb between Greek 11w Ind the IegalIY'tems of the ancient Near Eastern kingdoms, about which we an relatively well-informed (Driver lie Miles 1952-5 j Boecker 1980). Indeed. as a c:orrective to the Romano-centricity of European legal thought. the perspective of independent modem .pceme such as hlamic (PClrlI979) or Communill (Huard 1970) law should not be ignored . Islamic law for instance consciously and deliberately seeks to impose a panicular social and religious framework upon society; and in Communist law the court has an overtly political r6le. Both cases may .upply closer analogies for an ancient Athenian court than does modem European law (at leut in the eyes of modern European lawyera). Similarly our understanding of the law-code of Solon may be illuminated by consideration of ancient Ncar Eastern codes: luch code. were 'intcntitial' rather than 'elthau.tive' (Sawer 1965: 58); their ~le WIt to fill in gaps in prc-cxiating customary law rather than to replace it . Their fUnelion \Va therefore Car closer to tha, or statute in a common-law ly.tem than to that of a modem civil-law code.
II
GREEK LAW AND ATHENIAN LAW
The study of Greelr. law, as a ditcipline distinct from Athenian law. WIt invented by Ludwig Mitteilat the end of the nineteenth century. Before that date, attention had been focutcd on Athens, as the.ou~ of vinl1.llly all our literary evidence. During the nineteenth century, however, two new bodies of non-litcnry evidence began to come to the attention of ancient legal hiat.1
p.ua..J.rI,.~,
when '''wed '""" UI Alhenian pe.lijHClift, " Maine'. emphai.on h.1 appliation to one Mptd ollM law in In:icnI Greece, die orifine ollM putltift C:Olltept of 'c:rirnt', lee Calhoun 19J;1 (mon: renenU" Calhoun 19M). Maine hia.elf b..t IItI'iUntIJ tittJc to ..,. otbouI mcitnI Gn:oece, in ~ ol inleral in lepI mel ooeial IbM mtetd f. be,ood ano;icnl Rome (c., . Maille .171; 1175 ; l88l). h....,.be!hat I.bedu_1Iti.: iiplttol cl8.ica1 Alherw pro'ftd _ . "II to bia-wly~."ti"taDptt_nt MaiM wilt. Fea"l'tl" 1969: U'1""SO). On lMotbttMnd, MaiM'lempl' • oa die iaipGiWletolpiooedureinewlylewba afcen beerI WI __ ctr critieioed , but ...... to. beao refuted .. Mai.... belief lbat ouch fNoc:aIun _ fomwliMi:, notthac i t _ i ' I"unt (_~lbcd*'-ioa in Sewer 196s : ~) .
dIe"""'*f'l ollepl C'f'OIutioa (_ Stria 1980: ~l. Fill" it. unIIIot
UI
1,_.
<_
.aaS.
M
w
•
STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
toriant: iMCriptionllJ and papyri. I. Of Greek iRlCriptionl, only • few ate of much 1qa1 a&,nificance in the narrow ia*, and the m;onty even of theee came from Atherw i.lf; but the picture was diHerent with the papyri. For reuons of climate, virtually aU the pepyri thlt hllVe IUrvived have been found in EtJpt, a country which wu fim opened up to Weetem IChoian by the cunpaigna of Napoleon; by the end of the nineteenth century, ICholan h.d begun to be deluged by Greek doc:umentary papyri, Iecotdm, the .ctivitin of the non-native population of Egypt during the millennium that it wu under GBeCO-Roman rule. IS Mineil .... one of the 6m)qa1 hiltoriant to realiK the ~bilitiea of this material; and it wu he who reveaJed a very Itriki", pher.omcnon. Juat aa Greek rather than Latin remained the normaIlllfIIUaIe of the irnrru,r.nt populatioo of EuPt (indeed, of the eutem Mediterranean in pneral) even under the Roman empire, 10 the law which wu there Ilpplicd at rround level mowed far grt:Ittt conceptualaf6nitiel with what waaknown of Athenian law than with the civil law of Rome itacU. Mittcia (1891) deecribed thit aa the lurvival of Greek Vollrndu (' popular law' in the face of the official Roman lWicJundrt ('imperial law'). Milleis and his followen" concluded that Greek law ahould therefore be aeen aa an entity in in own right, ranging in time from HOI'Ilft to the Anb conquat, and covering the whole of the Greek..puking 9JQf'1d; diffttencel bet"cen the law in Hornet'. in cluaiCiI Athena and in the papyri ahould be wen .. local varianta It particular It'8ft of development. Mineit' t.hait was persuuive and, for more than half a century, commanded very wide if not total »CC:eptAnce. It formed the baaia of many important worb, including for inatanct Fritz Prinpheim', book on the I,w of ..Ie (Pringaheim 1950). It WH, indeed, in an extended review of Pringaheim', book that Finley (1951) mounted one of the fint lienau, challenses to the vllidity of the concept of Greek law. Finley" major objection wu that ItItementl,bout Greek law were of two kinda: thole which had to be qualified
,
•
out of ojllcnee to allow for exceptions to the rule; and thote which were of such a genera] nature that they became banal (aee further Finley 1986: 134-
woman in clauical Athena (or.t lease, the 10ft of woman who i. mentioned in our IOUrces) had far leu control of her property than did either her Homeric predeceuor or her Hellenistic aucceuor. The detaill of thilue vnll act out by ScM", (1979 : d. Ste. Croix 1970), and lOI'IIe of the underlying re&lOns are explored by van Bremen (lgB3). But an important further contribution haa been made in a paper by Mochujewaki (lgB3), a firm believer in Greek law, who haa done much to ieolate tlu:»e features of the I...... of marrittge whkh remained constant throughout the Greek world from thOle which did not. h is certainly a vaJid and often I fruitful exerciae to undertake a comparative study of a legal ilUltitution in different pam of the Greek world. But it i. danguoua to go further than thit, for two re&lOOI, In the first place, there it a put temptation to use what we know about Graeco-Roman Egypt to fill in the COIUIlderable gaP' in our knowledge of c1...ica1 AthelUl, .nd viu twna j thia point it well made at the ouuet by both H.rrieon (,g68 : vii) .nd MacDowell (1978: 8). But clueical Athena and Graero-Roman Egypt Ire the two areas about which we are relatively well-informed : if we wi.h to diacu.. the leg.1 .yatema of other /IOki,I' or the early law of Athena, II we.re dependent almoet " After Athm., thee! • ~al JIOIil iboul whidl_ k_ molt iI ol c:ou... Sputa. and S~n . .
"tII.
"- bem the ....bjeo:t ol. reccm book by M..:DowtU (19M). T'hia book 1tp' ..... bnft attempt, but it UltimatEly fw ..... Oft the 1.0;:1. ol E.ickl\iC'e. M..:DowEIi iI fineUy driwn.1o do ...Iut 1M ' - hitMdf llharply aiticiled EIK.buE (1978: 8) : 1M &Ill in the PIN by ~ that '•• wwti,. h)'Jl'Cllhnil, it _Id ruUy be: 1xtta to _ that s,.n... 1.0... _ II"IIIdI the _ _ • Athmien ..... Oft all topicoI .•. Oft whldI_ ani: no!: told that it differEd' ('9M: 15.). SeE
thEaif ' ,_byCerdedp(I916: 10P-3}. II Earty Greel .... "- reccndy been the..,b;ect ol ... impolWll book by Gaprin (19M, with M'l IW. byTCNW !l)9Ob). 'IlIililfull of pntinaIl and poo......iftobws.Mior., _
me
-.bIy iA)ikCi uille thE m.tiouIbip bd: in. thE -tr biIIt«y ol....;ci"l ...s the on,u. ollaw. But.DIlEG....... '-to Rlyfo.-JU. iafoc >MM'" 01'. f .... dIanc:e ""',,_ in Homn-, on. 1ifth
"'*".....
=
_ .:we.......
w
10
STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
entirely on a combination of anippeu of information and aueaawork·by·
...Joty. A IeCOnd problem concema the rea.tionahip between law,lOCiety and poli· rica. For thole who accept the ptopoeition that 'a... ia an entirely autonomow activity, there ia no dif6c:ulty here : it becohiel perfectly legitimatc to UlUmc. in default of hard evidence to the contrary. that the functton oIa named iRati· tution in a democrattc f10lU like Athena will have been e.entially the ..me u ita functton in a dynaatic . .te like PtolemaM: Egypt. But the moment we admit that law hu an orpnic relationahip with ittlOciaJ and political contm: (ICC the diecuaeion of the word '1f(MfOS' in lCCtion III of thia chapter), then we must admit aJ.o that the practical difCCfC_ between pJ.cc. and aao. time were probably gruter than the continued UK of the ..me Icpl vocabulary might imply. CI. .kal Athenian law (or inatance appean to have paid more attention to waY' of calling to account public: officials (for ddaila. ICC Robetu 19b) than toenaurinc the orderly devolution of propeny·rightt. For thit it hu been extentively crittciaed; but the Atheniana would preeumably have replied that the function of law in a dcmocrKy ia to protect the wuk qaiDlt the eKC I CI of the auong. and to prevent lOcially indefensible concentntiona of landed prop. erty. Are we rcally to UlUn1C that the ..me applied in an oliguchy NCh .. fifth-«ntury Thebes, let alone in a monarchy ItICh u the Ptolemaic king· dom?l. Thc chan,;ng lOcial eontcn of a singlc kp1 concept (hubris) in archaic and cJuaical Athena il eumined in thc papers by Fither and Mumy which together make up chapter 6 of thia volume. The quettion of Greek law and itt conceptual ntidity hu tended to divide Enclish and American Kholara warkinc in the subject (rom their continental European collequea. But their mcthoda and intertIU have divided them still further. Ensliah and particularly American Kholara have traditionally ahown a great intereat in the Iqa1 runificationa of inacriptiona. atemming in part from the work of the American School at Athena in eKcavati"l the Agora. with rqular publkationl in the journal H~.pnia and ita Suppkmenta. Another major American ~iality hu been conatitutional history, with important recent publkationa by Stroud (11)68). OttwaJd (1969. d . n .33 below: 11)82;
....) ond _
('''7) ."'
._id ...,.1lUIapI_'
• AllMaiul homicide lew, UId to pnenI ~ to the • • the Onlon (4:~ao I .e .), the oaJy period for wbidI_ hrrc 8CIequ.te irlfu; ..... ,. " 11_, ia _lIpinioh, P'..a.dJ' th.ctivenitywbicb inlpimt, _lib n.wph;_townte hiI t - (4:.Jao), , __ 'Ifhich 'FF ,., ,,...., the 1UIYi"."4 ., to ~ ......d , ., '~ft,"",,0It'-differenl1epl., IIwhidlwerc u-nto_.llterdwlllOddoi AriotDde'l COIII"""i" ~ 01 difleruII,..., in the S 1911, ia hiI -'uI edition md COl._mary on 1M fnr 1UIYi..u.; f'411W_, ~ ...... fMai the w.._ 01 the u,., thai: ~ belieftd then _ 111M " II' -, ,"",nd bet •• thelepJ.,.,.oIdwGnet~to;.tifJr 1 rn_Glthu.m'Greftlaw'. BIII _ GI IM .... . , - - wtIicb The.t wi .. ~;. m. GI CIrtIIIip : ... _ to -WdIM: he ~ .1' •led thle to be • GreeII,..1 • II. pwh+1ipificant tMt: 1M impWw IwhiM SnIcy', thM (.917: 1+6) ' AthmJ _ . repubtic. DOC. 1 EIIC,'''-Jd "'" COlIN fI'IIII1 (19I7:~) __ di", H. S. Maine', A, "'Ill~' (.e n. IlI). POi' Sealey', - - ' ' ' ' furdw II.]' below.
",''in.
*",
,ut,.M.a,k
book..-.
" ,
"
A fair impreaaion of the work now being done by continental acholua may be pined by consulti.. the S.Y"fIIOSion volumel. Thett contain the proc::eed~ inp of. conference on Greek and Hellenistic lepl hitl:ory, held at roughly triennial interval••inee 1971 at. range of venues in Gnmany, Italy, France, GIftCe and Spain. Four volumes hnc ao far appeared (Wolff 1975', Biscardi 1979. Modrxjewakj & Lid» 19Ba, and Dimakia 11)83): they reveal I contidenble interest in HorneT and in the papyri, and much attention i, aIao paid to legal conceptslnd doctrines; but relatively little it aid about the IOciII context of Greek and afrntioli cI. .ical Athenilln Jaw, The w.continuity between EngJish-speaking and continental European tcholanhip ii, fortunately, by no mean. complete. There ue I few Engtlah. apeaking acholan who work on the law of the P'lpyri : Naphthali Lewis for inatance it both an expert papyrologist (Lewis 11)83). and abo (it is iOlerating to note) one of the few Engliah-speiling acholan to have contributed I pa~ to one of the SymfIotion volumes (Lewis (982). Similarly, there are I few
Continentll dolan ioterated in fields which hIVe traditionally attracted their Ens1iah and American oolle.gue.: Ebe.-hard Rutchenbu.ch fOf eumple i•• tpecialitt in among otheT thing. contututionallaw (e.g. Rutchenbuach 11)66. 1978). And theft are one or two achola,. who are equally at horne in both intellectuaJ world.: MogeN HaMm. for instance. hal publiahed in both Germln .nd Englilh in addition to h~ native Oaniah. But it ~ Itriking. and a maner for tealet, that only thret of the eighty.four papen in the four publ.hed volume. were deliveTed by Englith.tpeakina aeholtfli 21 it • even more rqrewbk: that no Syrrrpotion volume hal ever been reviewed in an Englilh-epeaking journal. zz
III
ATHENIAN LAW AND THE STUDY OF LAW
The I1nal relationtohip to be diaeuaed i8 that between Athenian law and law .. an intellectual diaeipline. The word 'law' is notoriously difficult to define, and jurisprudentl from Austin to Hut have bartered rival uWy.ea for genetationl. (For discueston of the theories of AUltin, Keleen and Hart, !ICC Ru 1980: a uaeful introduction to the thought of HtTt and hia predecee.on i. found in MacCormick 11}81 .) For the ancient Greek world, the problem iI compounded by the dUller of meaninp that hang around the word noMOI. Although the common rendering of *"'101 u 'law' it often appropriate, alternative translations offered by the
'97' -
11 The .......... s, , . S French, 10 GamIn, 3 ItaIim; S) • . '974 - 5 French, 3 Ga_, II le.liIa; S, • ., . 111977 -.1 EnctiIb. II FreadI, 10 Cua_.)ltaliM; .9) J ... '979 -I EncI-, 7 French, 8 German, S luIi.1n;,r.;a, l,..anot total of J E,.tiah. Prada, ]1 Gau_. met :u ltalim. There. _ inctia«ioa m. the pieture Ill&}' be ~tocta.ace : two .-pen-.edeli.utd by' at-' IF M. . 1ChoIaI. illlt)8.11and fOW" in 19Is (_ r« I , U' L ~, bat _I..e .... ill RDFB 60 (I"") S4I-9 UIci 6] (I,aS) 46H1. I t 1'bit . . hndoue ... 1 __ •• b.M 011 up.......' ;1 (m. of L ........ Pi.), and dIcft dIIJ d"'.a.... e be _ptiolIIt.
aa
,.Ia!
1
u
STEPHEN TODD AND PAUL MILLETT
greIIt lexicon of Liddell, Scott 8r.Jonee (LSJ) nJIIe from 'uaage' and 'cuttom' to
'ordinance' and '"'tute', with the apparent underlying ICI* of 'that which is in habitual prKtice. nat or Pl' ion·. Zl NOIItOI a1ao has the ICnse of 'tune' or 'melody': a favourite 1OUfC'e of puns in Plato's NOMo; or iAfDI (700b, ~ae, 7J4t. 77Sb. 7'#). In fact thcLaw, Bini I powClful impraaion of the n.nge of acti.itiea in the poIU potentially under the control of ,..:;0;1 in one tense or another (Saunden 1970: 5-z.). Aaoneof thechancten in thedialogue ismade tomnark (714b), 'lOme people lIy that there are_ many kindt of laws (MI:.,,,.. ftJl) u there are of politicallyaU"ma (polilrim),; and this finda a practical expreaaion in the tendency for 9fOI"CIa compounded with NOIIiIOI to be adopted u slopnl by oppoting political grnupinp at timea of conftict: the Uo""Mi" ('equality of .....;iCf~) of the democrata wa matched qainet the eIWItOMiG (lit. 'podoo::wi', but with the overtonea of'law and order') oftheoliprcha. Need· leu lotay, it ia this meeting of I.w, society and politics in the idea of rwmoJ thlt makes it In Ippropriate choice _ the title of this collection of eaaya. For the moment. however. we are concerned with Ilw not 10 much u In entity in ita own ",ht but u an intellectull diacipline : should we study Athenian law in the way that I modem atudent of 1111' evlluates his own legll 8yltem, or does IUch In approach raise misleading qUealKmS' The questions raited by lawyers in this contot are broadly tpeaking either normative or juNprudenlial. JUNprudenec: in the modem RI\Ie i, the phiiOlOphy of 1111'; and this hu made up I major atnnd of modem work on Athenian la., rnching back It leut .. far .. Dlrate (dig]) . The central intt!rat of Vinosr-doff (19:1:1), U indicated by hit title 71te Jllrispnuhncr of 1M Grult City, lay in ditcuMing Gret!k attitudet to'" u revealed in the work. of the philoeophen. 24 He was follo~, perhap' lea lucceafully, by J. W. Jones (1956). It is however alwaY' difficult to IfMwer the queetion, wht!n ia , philoeophcr lpeakina for himleU Ind when i, he reflK1ing tht! values of 8OCit!ty (d. Harrison 1957)1 The IlUljority of English lawyen Ind judges have at leul Q
For. d~ wWlI
iWpeCl
to r:oodem
~
0I!be.-it ~ betaee..
..,,.Oft
.... . . - and ..... _ ChO.tie lola. ~iI_f!IlOI_bibt... the-m..,ol _ and the ....i' e ol itt f 'bte WIt. ower Some reoenI itenw _ refcrmi to hy G..... (.017: 19""a6); for. _ detaiW o.w.Jd (.916: ' " tIw incIa l .tI. _ ; _ tilil book _ further below). o.r-Jd •• ear\ier ...... ('969) ~ - " ' . A,i, •. II' of. AI...... Do: " ••~ do::w •• a..,eeial mention here: o.twIId belieYw that the _ 01 the 1_ _ (-.ith itt o.c.1O!XI oI'f:\IIIom') to cIenoh ..... 1ilItUU. iJi ~ 01 the .tUc:h • laid down,). _ . dltbaau act 01 poIitiI:II poIieJ. to be Mlributtd 10 11M: late 1iDh-century KIeWtbaMi. Thi& theM i:: hipIJ COIdmrioUl, but f_ wouW MQ,. the ftI&tion&hip bet am. poIitic& and the law which • implic:il: -.ithiJi
mo..
n.,.
-tier._ rthatc:_
o.tw.Id'. titk.
at ViI ...,,:dolf do;:djo led the
*',__ -'"1 _
1""1.
manner
book (for which _ tht deWkd ~ by Adad .gal) 'to tht dw MCvnd iJi • ",ojcued multi·""'1IInIi tlaImenl 01 the
-IIOI"J' 01 Ruck:lphc Darate'. It _
o.ttaw. fl/1f4 ..
jc-.J,..,., Vohame 0. (.90: ft_i&pita:). 10 _
Tr:iIIoII~: • third 7JwM.dWl4I,.u" '.-o{W,_ ~. but thi& hid not '1'1 :.ed by the rime ol Vi,..."dolr. deIth in 14p5. Viuat. vf iJi .. .c' pi to .cc_ik the "",,0IC:h0l fit... with the abjlc'*W ollll-.. _01 hiacriti:c:l n.: .. abo¥e): .1IUda.wo."", (if, ,i&te:I) would ..... COIlIititIIted thc blP,- awt ol tbt n'OiUlionioc &o:hooI
pi""
'l1l:I' .
(Ip) b&::I ...... with
:'
_..mi..,
<.e
,
l.mD• .,a.1y tJrfJ AIMtu
IJ
tome familiarity with the idea of Bentham or AUltin; but
though Plato'.
new. on the nlturt of jUlti« art interesting in their own ript, they art a
radieally unufe guide to the attitudea of Athenian juron. The relatton&hip between Plato'a idea and the realities of Athenian jUllice is examined by Seundera in chapter .. below; there is hen: a distinction which many ICholan (Jones in particular) have failed adequately to maintain. LIter work hu to lOme extent avoided thit problem by focusing on epic: and tneedy .. a source for more wideapre.d viewe of the nature of justice. Thit hu raulted in a aeriea of thought-provokinc Itudtea, focusing in particular on the meanin! of the term dUti. Although conventionally I«n . . the Greek equivalent of'juacice', the word. almoet .. many-aided .. .",.", (d. above) . 'Risht', 'punishment', 'court-cue' and 'law court' are all poI*iblt renderings, dependi,., on the context. Z5 Ahhoup our appreciation of the aubdety of the Athenian coneept of justice has been enhanced by thae ItUdiea, again the queetion arises: in I society where there Ire noapecialiat judges, to what extent are va1uea Ind Ittitudes shared at different kvels of society (Dover 1974 with the reKtiona of Adkins 1978)1 There baa u.o been a teareh for jurisprudence in itt older KnK of ancient iegaI textboo.... One of the notable features of Athenian law is that our ma.t valuable evidence conaitta of published vt'l"Iiona of speeches delivered by litigantt in court ! we do not normally heat the othet- aide of the cue, and COMequently any statement of fact or of law is at leaat potentially unreliable (for the probleme involved, see Todd 19901 fonhcoming) . The moM perceptive critic of rhetorical miarepraentation has been William Wyw., in his monumental c:ommentary on Jueua (1904); Wyae .".. riptly auspicious of lueua' honesty, if perhaps too confident of hia own ability to disentangle the truth behind the orator'alies. Z6 Cartledge in chapter 3 of this book e:ll:plora the limitt of lqitirnate inference in I cae which at first aight appean particularly unpromising because of the fragmentary nature of the text concerned. Beauee of the difficulties involved in interpreting the oratOR U aoul'Cel of law, aome ICholan have yearned for a dear, unbiued statement of the t.w of Athena; and the publication in 18c}1 of the newly discovered Aristotelian tteatiee .on the AJJt,n,Um Cmutihltimr (Ath .PoI.) seemed al first to have annered their pnyen. But theAth.PoI. is a curious work. It divideainto two pam: a aummary of the deveiopment of the conHitution g followed by an analyaU of contemporary c:onatitutional administntion {which here includes the lawcourtl}. The fint half appears to be derivative, and combines in. fairJy • Apia. die
m '
• bibljo •• .,..-., •
' ri :
for 1Idtctioa, _
GImtr (loS, : ..... 0). 'The
fuD·-.m INdy of the ida of ;u.x:. by HPdocl: (,,,.) iI pa IwplIOO preaerupiId with the m
of ethical thoupt, ia the _ WI)'. other .moa.. (d . • . 1.1 iboft) """ been preoccupied with tnciI. the 1Up; d ~Iion of AtbmiIn Inr. 'The inIIe of cantil'NiI} iI p (a ia the .tIacIieI by AAiat ('960; 197.1)' hrtiwIIrIy 1M brief buI wide, , .... ' . · w.vl4iIlbyGoldbiD(.t)I6: )rl) . • W,.IIhouIcI_be __ · !.the _ _ alpa.ttw ....... ~ia£.,.w. 10 Alt i=elnr, in Whiblc(i a II . III Cr...t ShMiW. CW,. '9,6). ~
riWIrd" •
1
14
STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
random falhion tome important new information with JttIII ellon of f.ct . The aec:ond half i. prob.bly the author'. own work, and is SCnerally reliable and of considerable hilltorical value. t7 Bonner & Smith (d. ieCtton I of this chapter) appear to have hued their textbook, coneciouaIy or otherwile, on theAth.Pol. Their first volume (1930) it an extended meditation on the Itagea by whtch the conttitution developed . In chooailll thil appf'OKh, they appear to have been Itronaiy inRuenced by the AJIr.Pol., the diKovuy of which was aufficiently recent for it still to be idealised. The fint halr of the AIlt.Pol. conaiau of a aene. of eleven auettalive consUtu.tionlJ chanca. culminating in the democntk re8toration at the end of the fifth century - a pattern which Bonner & Smith follow cloeely. But, u alrady noted. molt of OIJr detailed information about Athenian law cornea from the Oraton of the fOlJrtb century, .nd the fint half of the A1Jt.Pol. ")'I nothing about thill period. AI a result, the lpace devoted by Bonner &: Smith (1930) ill in approxitl'll.tely inverse proportion to the amount we know. Their accond volume (1938) would eeem at fint light to haVe overcome thit problem : rather than a chronological.equence, it it organieed u a aerte. of topics, in much the ..me way u pan two of the AlJr.PoI. But there the i !l!n.blance ends : wherus M .Pol. concerned with foorth-century inttitutionl, Bonner &: Smith begin virtually eVery chapter with Homer, and tl'KC the development of each inacitution down to the foom c:cntury. To a IarJe extent, therefore, they are repeating the pattern of their fint volume and limply filling in lOme PI'" Bonner &: Smith it an important and lIill a uaeful work; but for a general book on Athenian law ita penpective it dittorted. 't1toIe modem lawyers who believe that law mould be normatiVe haVe tnditionally rquded Athenian law with great diatute. on the grounda that the courta did not do their job properly - and the job of a coun, U We aU know, ill to enforce the law u it ltanda. An attempt hu been made to defend Athenian law from this critician, by 1llJUina: that the COUrti did in fact adhere to the Itrict wordina: of their atatutCi (Meyer-Laurin 196s. followed by Wolff, e.g. I97Sb : I1)i but ill our opinion thil attempt baa proved unauec:ellful (ace the criticiama by Finley 198s : loa). It teemS better to accept with Gemet (19SS: &" fint published in 1937) and Paoli (1933 : fi6.-.7:a) that Athenian courta were more conc:emed with dispute-aettlement than with the enactment of jUllice in our objective .enae (thua. recently,
w.
Oobome
.08s).
The mention of diapute-aettlement bri"" UI perha.,. to the heart of the matter. For the phrue 'diapute-aettlement' belonp to the tenninoiogy of the anthropoJogiat; and one of the centm themea of thit book it a p~ for the
'5 .udy of Athenian I.w to k>oeen lOme of ita linb with 'law' and to strengthen ita linb with ltpl anthropology. ZI Thil iI not the place for an extended turvey of the hillory of IepJ anthropology ... ditcipline. Neither of WI would have the specialist com· petence to perform that task; and ICveral excellent introductiol'll to the aubjed: are available elaewhere,29 Nor it this book an appeal to anthropology .. the ar.wcr to all our prohkrn.: that would be ISurry-eycd. But it ia an attempt to shift the perspectives from which Athenian law h.. traditionally been studied . Law and lepl procC81 in Athens were embedded in 1Ociety. 10 that questions about Athenian law atc in the Jut reeort anthropological qUClltKma about the Athenians. Throughout much modem work on Athenian law then runs the implicit or expraeed ueumption th.t the fifth-century comic poet Ariatoph.Des was naht in his critique of Athenian democratic juatice in the WarpslO (412 •.c.), .nd chit the Athenian legall)'ltem "'.. indeed inherently flawed (d. the quotatione' cmbled by Powell 1988: :aw-3OO). And yet the Athenians teem to have been hippy to ret.in it with only minor alteratione until at leul the end of the democracy, more thin. century after the producteon of the Warps ,l' Instead, thia is • plea for co-operation , We believe that the study of Athenian law hu much to gain from an ....anneal of the question. whkh .nthropologists uk about Law; and that anthropologisu in toor tum may benefit by conaidmng matm,1 from put: .. well .. from contemponry tocietiea, We end this IeCtion with a few illuatrative .uggeationa of the benefita which might be gained by both aides in this reLationahip, One of the notable penpectivesof recent Iega] antbropoklgy is the insistence • The tenn 'kpl -thfOf'C'lol,' '-e Iobould be W;en 10 inchKle II.. Iepl ...cioIotY, Strictl)' 1IpCUi,., kpl antlloOf>Olot, ......Id CO¥a" It", IqaI .,.-.... of C'OI'Iemponry 'primili"' ...:idia, ....t Iepl.' I~ of 'otd¥anced' ->etia. 8uI the dillitoction ioo in many . .,.. ... unral ...... (Good)'. WMI .')68 , a,..s). Sowtf 096$, ift h;' ~ imroctII<:tion to Ierl 103 . +'*", nrora _ both Icplanthtopoltow (.g6s' a7'""i7) _ . . , IlIICient kpI h*ory ('965' ~) . ~ ioo l-tlll eoIleccionohniclain Auben 1969, .-bo himNU lib !I that the talk of tho: lep!aJciolotiM ioo ftKnIwl)' dacriptm • ..t... _ the Iawyff. 16k;' aIwa,.. to _utmt ~ (Auben 1969: 9-14) . • PnfM~ thot cIaoral aa-Il iatrodllClion to IcplIMtu"""*"" •• d*ipli .... ioo that by sa.Robem 1979. At.. to be I6tIDItWlCndrd aft two Ibort ~oIlhe ....... ic:aI deo-tlop •• "t 01 the Mlhject, both oI.t.ich mlrodua: • coIIcction of ana. on IepI ......,. , Robnu .... in e-y IglJ MId s.l1y H~ 1fI!5b in Humphreya 19151' H~ ioo ...... oIlhe few _1U ...... . , , ' .1 1CboI.. to hrn: held • joint appointsnent in a..ics and Anthropolou; ad her wort CIa A·............. eambiDeI die I'l1O cl*ipmc. in l,.mcw.rty fruitful ...}". HQ~_Ao.d.to II Ie (Nn; bee). 19151) iooUnfommMclyl fti")'diffiroh periodical 10 lay
't"'.,
.....
~.
_oc-,
There .. III iu..... r.ot Oft the Wcut» by MIICDoweIl '97' • .u-tf (prrhapo ""i& tty). -;or .... '....... iIii (d. MIICDoweU 196] ; ttJ7S). II There .. clear eo iclenee few _wtitutioMl cballe mA.... d tht eftd 01 the fiftb and duri. . the fourdI crnturica •• c., but then • no lien m.t tht Athu_1I ~ ftPUCIiated their dc_A IepIl)'llem belen the........ . .. 01 the ~ • I K)ItaIf. For the eoicle _ _ dcuiIa of die ct....... _ RhocI. (lgIo); tbar ~ ild--..s by Oatwald (1916' 49H:Lfl. " _ ('917' 9f-1"'4) and s.Jq- (1917: IJ+-I), but _ of t~ Ill... ...... ' f t buI: fti")' ctiffermt inlerprttItionI bia yet o' en 4ed . . .111 Ketptance.
:III
"
16
STEPHEN TODD
AND
PAUL MILLETT
that I.Iw and politics are not wpante ueu of activity but poles of a continuum: a clear and re«nt opDllition ia riven by Moore (1978: 181-213). In Western politiea1 theory, on the other hand, t"VC!' aince Montcaquieu formulated hit theory of the tripanite IlCpaRtion of poWeel in the eighteenth century, thCl"e hu alW1yt1 been a aerong Itnat that the legialallU'e (in Britiah tetmI, parliament), the executive (the government), and the judiciary ought to be independent bodies. Then have even been aUempts to rad thia doctrine baclr. into the ~tcnt Greek world (e.g. Friedrich 19].4), relying moat hclvily on An-otle'a diatinc:tion between diktidSftrl (bcilll an Imrnbly.mcmber), orlWtitt (beins a public official) and Jiluufttt (aiuins .. a judge) .»: But it ahould be remembered that ancient political thcoriau hMI no rcaon to rcprd MonttlQuicu'. theories .. nonnative;JJ moreover, Aristotle'. purpoee in Ihi. IW'Fge lies in cluaifying the lunctiona that go to malr.e up a full citizen, and nowhere doca he .uggest that thcte powen ought to be cxen:itcd by different people. Ncve1'thelna, the influence of Montcaquieu remains I I an unltated premiac in much modem criticism of Athenian law. The Athenian . . ump-tion, that their Ilwcourla did Ind indeed should play s political rOle, is explored throughout the calyt1 in this boolr.; but aU too often, !lehola" hive . .umed without af8Ument that the ~ of I proaecution for politicil enda Will eomchow I mitulC. A aecond pcrapective conccma the deciaion to proeecute and Ihe choice of procedure. Thcac Ire imponlnt questions even in I modern atate: Moore (1978: 54-81) diacullCS the use of legal rights III b.rgaining-counter, where the threat to pl'OlCCute may itself be uacd .pinat the potential defendant to elicit conccuiona which are not formally connected with the CAlC. The papera in Nader & Todd (1978) consider the reuonl which govem the would·be proeccutor'a choice of procedure : is this determined by the nature of the tcaourca which form the aubject of the cue, or by the relationship between the paniciplnts, or by more complex facton? Questiona like thit Icquire panicular point .hen applied to the aocicty of the Athcnianpolis, which was ICCn by its memben II a lKJi1tfmia - a community of intCTCItl. In order to prcacrve that ICflIC of community, dilputes arrived in coun only after IWitiu , IY, 1197b]~] (who toO."U _ the peripbnUI '" I¥" ,.......... ab .. ;d~ ",60.1... : , and "'dj~) . FOI"diKwNon, _ Joh_ -91+. 1"be of ~ A"'ode inlo the eatq<w'" wt by Morrt.quieu _ ._ d_ lombiy by HMem (1974: J I-II). MOR TeCadJ,., bo."cr, HIMm 1911 !sa tun-If arrued on otbet If'Cl\lftdllbat foulth-«nlUf}' AtbcniIuIt did d\m; 10 • doc:triftc of ICJIV8lioa of poae.. : be bet'"" thai: 1"- bodies eharpd 'Irith uli. ckc __ (the -blJo _ tbe eouru) 'ftft ripll,. differmlial:ed from 1"- wbaee funmoa _ to pt'opott uutiati~ (Ibe fIriIkIi or public of6eiall, lind thebli or eoo.rnriJ). In It.;., " - a ;. folklwecl by Sea\q' ( -917: 146-1). In our opiftion thiI • miltakm: whekver the formal diIti~ bell::CII bodies of 1 0 " , - , effective _",It:ion 01 poaal rcquireI ririd.,..cion of P"""_; ,bul the ~ 011" Athcniul '-II I (rcM;ricud) _Icctioa of thOle aIrndy UItiUcd to aUcnd the DbI)'. Bin even if H.,.... ;. heR, donn.. of MpIrtIrion ;. wboU,. diffeftflt ~ thai: of MonlelipJlcu. H_.!IOt qun" thd lhe AthcnianI diatinpilhed beI.",n poIitAI-.d jo,Idicial dc :;'·",·IIIiIIWIc: 'keqI poliIIc:io out of the aa-u' •• dillilOCtiftl,. modem akopn.
II Arile . JJ
.w.cr
_Iimpl,. _ICC'
h.
1
'7 .ttenlptl at
arbitration. fonnaJ and informal, had failed (Ke Finley 19IIS :
1Da-J); and yet PIUSCCUtione, even for offtnCCI against the community, Wtte normally undertakm only .t the initiative of private individUlIs. 'the function of conftict is. third aru in which anthropology hat much to contribute to the ltUdy of Athenian law. Should diapules be teeD . . . pathoqieal symptom - tomething wrong with IOciety - or is conftict nee try in order to maintain equilibrium? Thit question hat been poaed in I veryltrikina manner by Simon Roberta (1979: 11-16), and applied to the enforcement of law in late medieval England by Powell (1CJ89). It liet at
lOci"
the centre of the dispute (not, we hope. itaelf • patholosica1 tymptoml)
ber.-ecn Osborne and Harvey in their papers in IhiB book. Theee an simply three iJlustrationa of the ways in which recent work on Iep1 anthropokIaY may help to iIlumifUllc our undentanding of Athenian Ia... and 8Ociety. But the anthropologist too may stand to pin from consideringtbe law of put IOcietiel; and we hope that this volume may prove u.cful in this context, together with two other recent collections of papen, thoee edited by ao.y (11)83) on • range of watem I!IOciettes, and by navies&: Fouracre (1g86) on mediev.1 Europe. Two areas in particular may be noted. One of the perennial problems faced by anthropologists conceml the relationship of the raearcher and hi. informllntl: if you uk people questiON, they will tend unconac:iou.ly or otherwite to give you the 10ft of IRIWefi they think you are looking for. Perhapl the fint anthropo1ogist to reaJln* thit problem was MalinowRi (Jcp6), himeelf the IeCOnd founder of legal anthropoJosy after Sir Henry Maine. MaJinowUi Ittempted to counter the problem by using not .imply informanta but extended fieldwork and obIervation. At fint light, the ancient historian .ppean to be at a disadvantage u regards IOUtceI: unlike the Inthropologiu, we cannot cfOM·question our informantt to obtain the information we want. But pandoxically, this can iteelf be an advant.ge _Published Ilwcourt .peechea an: by no means tnnsparent IOUtceI, but they Ire aimed at their original hearen or naden. instead of being repeatedly extemporiaed for our benefit; and one type of diatortion il thereby removed. There are of coone corresponding diffkulttei : a written .pe«h cannot contradict any falae inferences we may dnw from it; and the relationehip between what is ..id in court Ind what is done in lOCiety nileS a further complexity, which is examined by Cohen in chapter 7 of this book. But the contrat between the two type. of informant may illelf be instructive. The IeCOnd problem conc:erna tnmlltion, I question which is dilc:useed by Todd in chapter 2 below. Even in a aociety like AtheDl, where there was relatively little technicaJ Iepi VOCIIbuJuy and the languase of the .tred. wu it8e1f the Jancuage of the law, words neverthelae had connotations whtch are not nee rily carried by auperficia1ly limilar terDII in other lOcieties or other Ianguaga. The problem of tranelation iI in many '")'I cloeely connected with that of the infonnant . When Llewellyn &: Hoebel (1941) pioneered the Ute of the 'trouble er.e' (i.e. the .udy of individuaJ CIIeI of ditpute-eettlernent) II a
w
18
STEPHEN TODD
AHD
PAUL MILLETT
method 01 I! arch, they were try;nc to get ,w'y from the danger 01 directive quationirll, bued on Ilepl framework which would make KnK to I modem lawyer rather than to I Plaina Indian, and which would tend to elicit p«ciK:ly tho.e Innen which the Plains Indian thoutht dw the modem lawyer withed to hear. Llewellyn Ind Hoebel were by no melns wholly auccaeful. They tended to romanticiat their lubject, and It tima their Ittitude to their informanta il curioUily unaophilticated : for instance, they intilt that Idultery ... uncommon lmong the Cheyenne on the groundt that their informanta Kldom rderred to it, without raising the poIIibility that there mipt be tUIOnI for eithtt tht community or the hulband to tum I blind eye (Lkwellyn & Hoebel 1941: 169-211). Nevertheleaa, the book remains a cluaic in lepl anthropology. The Itudy of trouble-cuel il now widely ~ed; and the luetttt of their book, and in particuilif the fact tht.t Hoebel wu an anthropologist Ind Llewtllyn I jurist. did I great deal to make Iega] Inthropology In intellectually respectable subject lmong boch Inthropologilts and lawyers. More r«ently, the problem of tramlltion hu become Ihlrply focuted UI central iuue of Inthropological method, in the courae of I long. running d~t between Max Gluckm.n Ind Plul Bohannan. BOMnnin (1957) first raiKd the question, when he critict.ed Gluckmln (1955) for hil UK of Western legal categoriet to interpret African trilMl la... : in Bohannln'l eyes, Well:em law ...... IS much I 'folk aystem' .. WII tribal IIW, Ind the former ahould not be given privileged ItitUi IS the 'analyttcal system' uted by the anthropologist to interpret the latter. Then: il I Itrikirll parallel here to the problem of legal history raised by Maitland in his lelDinal study of early medievil English law (Pollock & Maitland 1968: Uc}-32) : if we orpniK our diKuaaKm of I put legallY'tem according to the categorietl which made Knlle to its own contemporaries, we Ire in danger of rendering it incomprehenlible to ounelva; if we re-organiK it according to the categories with which we ourxlves Ire flmiliar, we may very likely m* the priorities which ita practitioners thought imponant. But that perhlps bringt UI back in I circle to the qumion of Roman law from which we started.
,
2
The purpose of evidence in Athenian courts' STEPHEN TODD
I PeTMpe the lTeatest danger which faces the .tudent of Iny foreign Legalayttem is that of uaimil.tion. To 80me extent, indeed, this problem is inherent in the need to traOllate. For inaunce. Athenian Jaw has an inatitution ClUed the diltast#ritm, which for convenience we deecribe u. 'lawcourt'. Thoer: who man the diluutnWm an: Clllled diluutai; but here the aetnantic: IClip is more obvtous, for we have. choice between two possible Engliah equiVilenta : ' j u . ' (but with I footnote to uy WI in many waY' the diluutai were c:1oaer to I modern jury), or else 'jurors' (again with I footnote to explain that they aleo performed the func:tiona which we would ueociate with the judge) . Now the difficulty of translation it an obvtoUi point; and of coune no profcaional ct..iciat is likely to forget that there is no pTeciIe English equivalent of the dMtutes . But the problem runs deeper thin thi. : indeed. the more obvioua the translation, the more insidious the tendency to auimilate . It is easy enough to remember that the diltastes is neither precilely. 'judge' nor I ' juror', But every time that we tnnallite diJunteritm U I 'court'
r-s..
th.
, A ...... of pa!pIe haft lI 'ft dnfta of paper. and offn"C'd o;ritio:i.n .nd . . . . . 'jo • • : the putieipanq in tt.e Cambridr Ancind H;'ory Saninat, and ,.nio;ularly my fd'--cdiluoi Paul Cartkdp MId PtuI MiUdt; Jenny McE....., no...t- M.o.o-U, Pet~ Rhoda -:I GerUrd 1116r; and the _~ mHeCI of Cam~ Uni\'Cnity p,--, My lhmb ... due to tMm all, ewn....tlm I haft d ' ,reed with their edYict, I FOI" typicII t pie of IUd! aickia.. , _ Ummli 19)' : 79, 'S ; " u.o 80mwi' 19O5: I I- I), . . . die belief daat~ ... _ " 'cnCII! to ICCUR thc'ob;tdivc_of juItitt', . . furtba' _iDa "' of thi. p.pa' (on the ... of IIwo .. ~""') and the .............. of Meyer-lAurift I~S in _ _ III of chapl:~ I .hove,
,
"
~
STEPHEN TODD
The purpose of this paper is to queetion one of thelot modem auumptions : that Athenian mm1","S were the equivalent of modem witneaaes, and thl.t therefore their function waa to tell the truth. This uaumption is in my opinion incorrect, or It leut over-limplified; and it hu led either to misinterpretation or ehe to frank incredulity when faced by the Ipparent irrationality of Athenu,n practict. For moet of the time, I ahln be concentl'llting on the uae of witneaeeti but eomething will be laid about other forma of evidena IS wen. To help u. identify lOme of the uaumptiona which we .hall be meeting. I begin with I brief aummary of modem prKtice. Then Ire of courae certain differencea in the treatment of evidence between civil-law and common-law countriea, and therefore between the lIIumptiona of Fl'llnc:o-German and of AngJo..American acholara. Neverthelesa the differem:ea Ire not great; and for convenience I .han therefore concftltrate on Englith law, although notins characteristic differencea where they appear. The function of evidence in Englith law i. to enable the court to get at the facta. In a cue for breach of contract, for in.tance, it i. the .ubstantive rulta of the law of contrKt which determine what are the facta 'in iasue' (that ii, what points either .ide needa to prove in order to win: only what it relevant to theat points may be produced IS evidence); the law of evidence determinea how tbeet facta an to be proved (Phipeon & Elliot 11)87 : IS; Croaa, Wilkina & Tapper 11)86: :a). It would not be true tOIlY that every "urtion produced in court needa to be proved by meana of evidence. The court takea 'judicial notice' of any point of law; the judge is presumed to know the law already, and he never hean evidence on the .ubject_ Some iaUti of fact may aleo be the aubject of judicial notice, in patltcular 'notorioua factt': for instance •• court in 1857 decided perhaps ruhly - that it waa a matter of common knowledge. which therefore did not require evidence. that one of the purpoec-a for which the Univenity of Oxford exiata ..... the advancement of learning (Oxford Poor Law Rate Cue, 1857, cited by Croaa, Wilkins &: Tapper 1C}86 : 45). In addition to judicial notice, facta which Mither lide wilhtl to conteat can be proved by 'formal admiaion' of the parttea. And there an certain facta which it would be difficult or imJK*ible to prove directly, but which may be proved by means of 'preaumptiona' or inferencea that lTe deemed to be legitimate : for eumple. if in civil proceedings I can prove that you have been convicted of a crime, then the court will infer that you committed that crime, until and unlea you an prove that you were wronafully convicted (Civil Evidence Act J¢8 III. cited by PhiptOll & Elliot 1CJ8'7 ! 78). With the.e qualificationa, however, it would be reasonably accurate to lIy thl.t any contested fact need. to be proved by producing evidence (Croll. Wilkins & Tapper lC}86 : :10-1). The law of evidence deala with four queltiona : the burden of proof, the level of proof, the method of proof, and the weight of proof. The phraae 'burden of proor is ahonhand for the question, which party haa the job of proving nch conttlted fsed In I civil court, the rule is lhlt
" ,
" whichever aide wantl the court to act must persuade it to do 10, and whichever tide produca an un .tWD muac justify it. In I criminal court, the gt!'ltnl rule is that the proecculion hu to prove everything; but there are some atatutory exceptions 10 thi,: for iOltance, if I defendant plead. not guilty by reason of insanity, it is his job to prove that he i. insane. rather than the prosecution'. job to·dilprove it. The level of proof required to sustain that burden i, different in civil from in crimina] cue.. In I civil case, matten must be proved on • btlanee of probabilities; in I criminal cue, they mUlt be proved 'beyond «alIOn.ble doubt', The question, 'has the evidence reached this level?' i. the question of the weight of evidence. to which we ,han shortly return. 11tere are in English law five main method! of proof: testimony (the evidence of • witncu, delivered onlly, on oath, Ind subject 10 croe&examination); heaRlY (the quoted ttatementl of those who are not fonnally w1rneue. and cannot therefore be cross-examined: hearuy is generally excluded in crimina] cues because these are heard by a jury); documtnts (which may thtmttlva be tither hearaay, if ulltd to prove the truth of the contents of the document, or elee rtal evidence, if ulltd to prove that such a document exiltl); things (physical objecu produced in court, tometimes called 'real evidence'); and circumstances (foren.ic evide~ in a criminal trial ia usually circumstantial). Teatimony has in thil country traditionally been regarded as by far the moet imponant of these live: Bentham for instance (cited by Honad 1981: 172) de.cribed witneaes as 'the eyes and ean of justice'. The reaon behind the high statua of teatimony ia simple and aignilicant: Iawye:ra believe that (with appropriate ....quard.) it ia the moat reliable . .y of getting at the truth. The oath provides a unction which turns diahonaty into perjury (Murphy 1988: 410); croaa.examination ia 'a powerful and valuable weapon (or the pUrp1llel of testing the veracity of a witne.a and the IICCUracy and compktt:nt:ll of hia Itory' (Lord Hanworth, Muter of the Rolli, quoted by Phipson & Elliot 11}87: 117); and the main objection to heanay ia that it deprives the coon of the opportunity to examine the demel;nour of the witnell duril'l(l: his evidence (CI"08I, Wilkin. 6: Tapper 1986: 10']). English law hal alway. Ulumed that oral evidence i. the mOlt reliable method of Jdting at the truth. Recent criminol~ca1 research h.. indeed cut corwidenble doubt on this uaumption, ~nicularly in the area of identilication: the teRa available to fot"'eNic acience have been .hown to be vutly more reliable (lee Comith 1968: %7M, and more genenlly Greer 1978). NevertheIe., the . .lUI of wit,.. rna in Enp.h Iepi procedure h .. in practice remained almoet IS high IS if their reli.bility had never been challenged: it illittle more than • decade since the Court o( Appeal lim lMued Nlee limiting the I1It of uRlUpportcd tatimony .. evidence of identification (Devlin 1979: r843). There are of COUtK certain types even of oral evidence which are notoriouaJy untrultWOrthy, and which. trained lawyer or expertelK!ed judplearns to treat with acepticiam. The jury however in a crimina] trial cons1ata of
1
as
STEPHEN TODD
lIy-people. Rather thin take the riU. thlt the jury might be ....yed by unrru.tworthy information, Enclith courts hive prderml to prevent the jury hearin&' such information alloptber. Thill ill thought by certain tcholan (Comiah tCJ68 : 87 : PhipiOR &: Elliot 1087: 4-5) to be the main reuon behind what are called the 'n.Ua of evidence': in other wonk, exduaionary rula laying down the IOrt of evidence whkh the jury must not be allowed to hear. Thae rules deal mainly with categone. of information ($Uch a previous convic:tiont) 01'" catepriel of evidence (ho.r that information hal been tmwnihed, e., . he.nay Ind opinion); lOme of the rules however are pulOftl.l, and impinse upon poupa of witneaes who are thought likely to be unreltabl.e (for imtanee, courts hive traditionally not been permitted to conv;ct on the bMia of the unsworn evidence of you..., children, unlel' thil evidence .... corrobonted: and even when children were on OIIth, judp have b.d to warn juriea that it .... unufe to accept their evidence without corrobontion).J The weipt of the evidence iI for the jury (or in a civil cue the judge Ictina; a the judBC of fact) to decide. Nevertheleu. within the liR'lita of the IUbitantive ruiea of law Ipploprilte to the cue, it iI the evidence which iI decitive. If the aide charted with the burden of proof produces inluffident evidence (in the ju.'. opinion) to aupport • /WitIuJ /acV cue, then a a matte!" of Ilw he will.tttp the trial. The importance of evidence in EngliUt law, and partkularly of the examinstion of witneuet, can be mown by three obeervariOIUl. Fint, we ahould notice the .mountof IpKe dedicated to it in the standard advocates' handboob : Lord JUltice Wrottlesley (a he liter became) apent In entire book on 1M Ex~ ofWitrunel iN Co.u1; Ind Richlrd Du Cann devoted three of the twelve chapten of hia Art of 1M Advocate entirely and I further two lubttantially to thil IUbject (chapten 6, 7, 8, '00 5, 9, respectively). Secondly, then: il the order of eventa in I cue: the advocate mould not nonnaIly.rate a fact until he ha proved it by mealUl of evidence.4 Thirdly, one of the favourite tactics of defence lIwyen in criminal triall iI to attack the perlOnai credibility of the proKcution'l chief witnell : OevORl (1978: 157""9) recounta I cue in which a defence lawyer IllCC Ifully needled an 'of6ciOUI buraucnt' into patronising the court: and it ia aatandard defence betic in rape CueI to IUgat that the complainant brought the an.ck upon honeU. In French and German IIw, the relative poaition of the Varloua forma of evidence illljptly dilferent. There ia no formal ~ of CUI II examination, u there iI in Engliah la." where • barrister iI obliged to cro.-eumine oppoaiRi witrte*S on each and every point whkh c:on8icta with the version of the facta that he or abe ia praenling in chief : if you fail to do this, you are taken I 80th ~ ~ _ been fonnallJ aboIiIhId by fl.4 01 tM 1918 CrimiIMl JUIticc Act, but it II IliJl too e:arly to _ ...tw effect the m...p. will ha'l'e in pnctice.
tbM_. to..,.,..,.
• [)Q C- (1964: 60) poiftttout tMt, when tM .... QCMe incroduca hiI_, he ctoe.w withoo:lt
edliftrtwWlr :'i but caII..,;dc:1I('!
tbiI ..... hellhould Il0l .... ..., -mon ....~ he will
'*
'3
to have conceded the point. Conaequently there iB in both French and German law. greater reldineu to admit hearsay; and there it. genera] prefcrc~ in both countriea (and in France lm:tutOry prd'erence) for documents ahead of '"tneeses (Honori r9~h: 181-5): a French court may decline to order testimony to be given if it leela that the written evidence i. lufficient. Then: it no lay jury in eithu country, and 10 the court .Ilow, itacU conaiderably wider diacution: it can hear - or rather 'ca1I', because civil·law countries uac the inquilitorialaystem of justice in which it it the judge and not the advocate who eumines 'lritne!llel- whatever evidence it chooeea. For our purposes however we can ignore the differences of detail: it is enough to say that in both common- and civil·law countries the function of evidence i, identical, to get It
the truth; the di£fcrence is one of method : how best to achieve this aim? And in prutice the differences arc often not that greJlt: it ill only in very unusual circumstances, for inatana:, that a French or German coun would accept hearuy without independent corroboration (Honor~ tC}8t: 1&). II
Traditional interpreution of the Athenian law of evidena: reata on the unstated ueumption that an Athenian witneM had the Arne primary function u • modem witneM : to tell the truth. But it is clear even on a cursory examination that Athenians did not use witnesses in the way that we do.5 Cuet in Athens an: won and lost not on the quality of your witnesses but on the quality of your speech (Leisi 1907: 1I)}. The order of events within the speuh is significant: whereas an English barrister examines his witneeeee and then builda their evidence into hia cue, an Athenian litigant giVICll hi. own version of eventa, periodically ca1ling witnesees to corroborate what he has Mid 110 far (Bonner 1905: 54). Indeed. out of 404 occasions in the extant apeec::hes on which witnesees.re produced, there is only a handful of cue\! in which diacUllion WII preceded by testimony,6 Moreover. while Englilh advocates' handboob devote themselves to the tec:hniques of croeaexamination, an Athenian witneas wu not normally examined, and indeed after approximately)8o •. e::. he could not be eumined ac all: before that date. , Th. poiM'" b«n rremtl)' and powerfully mMk in an important paper by 5"')' HUtIlphreya ('91sc), which • in my opinion by far the beM ...a.bIc won on Athenian wi1_. Humpb~ becinI from the obkI '11ion It.t III Athmiin wi_ it pri!nlrily • IlUpporta' of hit lilipnl; -'" _ the main r - . for Ih. in _ of lhe mcmp! 10 perpetuate, in ......icI:)' in tnJIIition from ~ 10 c:it}'. the _lit of proof ippiopiiMe 10. commUtlit)'; and thi. pncraIlbait ;. ....pponed by • dcWlecI -r-it of the diff,""" I)'IIN of people ...... ipptU • witJ in AthnUan Q1UI't8. 'The .c.ninc.point of III')' ~;. the _ . tNt of Humphrqi: !be wil = .wpportco"; andillhouih I h...~cSe.elopecl thilob.ec.iCionin differemdirectiona. 1 _ IFciC daJ 10 her .mele. I hope that our pc:!lpCti." will prtn'Cc:om)Mmnlt.-y iCId not
¥lIa.
- .
per.
;. Dem. ~II .JO-'. 5o:YenI other eumpIa aft poeIibk (An6ot. 1.1'::11-16, Oaa. KDlI.~ • ....:I L,.. a..:a6); in - " i..cancc fol~ b)' • cI:ioc: ·x. wbidr Ioob. if it _,. bet.ed on~ion fnIm ....... drc:wit_Md IUd. But in!be.b.enoc of the wi1_. - - . on1iiraty;. impoeliblc.
, TIac only cataUI _
tntimoa,..
1
STEPHEN TODD
2.f
he delivered an oralltatementj after ii, he attetted to a written depoeition prepered either by himaeU or by the lilipnt on his behalf.? Furthermore. although in EncliIh coum penonal au.cb on wilnetea are common, there are in the Attic Oraton very few attacb on the credibility of the opponent', witnclK', or attempb to defend your own wrtne.es ...intl such attacb. In ..vera! cuet a witneta is named u the raJ inatiptor of the opponent'. cue (Mew in (AWl y,7-8, HierokJa in IMe\UI nt.a:a-s, and Kriton in Oem. XL.S?-9), and frequently the opponent ilau.cked for having aubomed fabe w i t _ (e.g. Lys. XXIX." hoc. XVIII.Sa--'7, Oem. XlX.al6) . But othel"Wiae pertOnalau.cb on witnesael are rare indeed (excluding for obvioua reuons diJuIi ~ritm, actions for fat.e witMII, in whach the former ..ntnHl h.. now become the defendant, there art: only three poeeible eumpln : Lya. 1'11.87, Dem. XXXIY. I8-ao, and perhape Oem. XXVII.SI). ChaBCteru ...ination it aimed either at the opponent himaeU or ... inat the SlIrupro; who make epeechtt on hi. behalf. The traditional reaponleS to these diffen:nces between Atheni.n .nd modem practice hue ranged from the a priori to the incredulou. (the exceptMm, above, i. Humphreys IC}8SC) . Let u, cofll.ider the former firat . It j, the duty of an Athenian litiaant to produce hi. own witneaes, .nd the court giva him no powen to do 10. Nobody ku been .ble to find the equivalent of a IlIbpwna in Athenian law. Thi. i. not:, admittedly, for wlnt of trying: levertl scholan (Lei,i 1907: 4B-s6; Bonner tit Smith 19J8 : lJ6) have argued that then: mutt hue been aSIl~M. .ornewhen:, becau.e no .yatem of juatice can function without one. Bonner tit Smith try to dilCOver the swbptwna hiding behind either the eXOfftOSia or the dilti lipomarturiou . But neither of theM: procedura enables alitis-nt to force an unwilling witneu into court . By uaing the exomosia ('oath of denill') you could compel a reluctant witneM to make one of three ch0ice8: rither to testify to a text you had prepared, or to deny knowledge on oath, I or elae to ply I fine of 1,000 dnJleJtlMi (Lyk. 1.20 with HarrilOn 1971 : 1]9-40). Thi. threefold choice il cloeely related to the proceu of Itktnuis (.ummona). but it ia not cleaT whether Itktnuis ia the name of a aeparate procedure or (more probably) the method of imp<*ng the fine on a man who rduleS either to witneta or to deny knowledge. The procedure of exomosia and/or IrkklUis ia used with lOme frequency by Demoethenea and hit contemporaries, but in the v..t mljority of <:UeI it appeara that the potential witnaa it already preaent in court : even when thit it not made explicit (.. it ia in Lyk. uo), the apaker clearly expecu the aituatton to be immediately raolved (e.g. Oem. ux.a8), in I way that , 1M implicatioN of lb. dIancr ere d~ funlwr in wction III of Ih. peper • • Tbne altemMi¥ft ere of COlII'M iuoomplclC; bul tbet • no r - . 10 Irruc Ir priIIri thai the wit _ _Wi..-ad -r. 'I do blow. but the l..:tIucnot .. )'011 .....,. (diUlLeiIi 1907:67...d MKDowdII971~ *'43; H.m.o. 191" I.... ill'chtly o:IUlw-j. ThGr (1983 : JJ.t-S) dnoa-d 1ft ljA ..... I",", Stymphl. 0III1i1l1. . p.raUd .....~ : tile ...n- _ • ,.;ma... daoi«. tnd it iI dear beyond doubt heR thai: b. aJtm.thoa _ b. 'rkW. The "nili •• e of lb. polnl. d~ in wction 1'1' of dI. peper.
"Wi
,
71w,.~ of ~
as
i" ~ """',
would ~ impouible if the wrtnCII WU not preeent.' But if this impraaion is COllect, then it suggests th8t ~OlAA;iWiaJltkkllSil was not UIed, and ptthaps could not be u.ed, to force an abient witne. to Ittend court. IO The JjJ,J /ipofruutIlriott, on the other hind. was Ipparently ueed to punish I wittxa who had failed to attend. The details hen: are obicure, becaute we know of only one cue where its ute was Ittempted, 100 thlt ui\luccesdully and probably unlawfully (Oem. xux.I8-2r) ; indeed the evidence for tbedilti IipoIftartllrioN iI 10 poor Wt Gernet, the Bud~ editor of Demoethenel' apeeches, could UJUe pllusibly that the procedure never actually existed (Gemet 19591: 19 n.2). But even if Gernet i, wrong here, it eeemslikely thlt the diU ~ could only be used .,.inst I wilnas who had first promiIed to appeu snd then gone blCk on hil contract. Thisst least is how the ancient IexiCOlRPhcr Pollux (vm.36) interpreted the term. Apollodoroe in Oemo.thenet XLIX ccrtsinly takes trouble to emphaaisc thlt Antip"'ncs the dellulti", witnesl b.d previously snd repcsledly (pIuuJron aiel) promieed to Ippearj 10 there eeema no good tuIOD to reject Polluz', statement here. 1i Concerning the ~ible ute of I JiM blabc, (printe .:bon for da~) spinst a defaulting witnas, our information iI even IIlOI'e scmty. Apollodoros claims thlt he inatituted lOch I cue in the afttmUlth of hisdilti lipomtuturiou; but it toUnchi .. though he did not have a very good cue, and it is by no means clear that the alleged 'damage' rCllted on anythiRl more .ubatsntial thin Antiphanes' breach of his putative aa:reement to give evidence. What i. dear, at any nte, iI that none of t~ procedures could be used in the wly that we
.,uhpoana. At the other atreme, the rtsponlC is incredulity. Athenian law, like English
ute
law, had desrly-defined exclusionary ruae. of evidence; but ",heTea our rules are conc:emed with calc80rtc. either of cvidcocc: or of information, the Athenian rules were concerned with Cltegoriel of peopte: .taves, women lnd • The only appermt accpcion 101M rule. D«n. Jl%KJI .11'-lO, wbcft tM IIpedcr lhralaoo 10
., _ _ P_, who ' - ..,..eady ato-..ded f.- AtheN; but t.khoup r - • dncribed •••;Ii til "'Iat. he . . . . in ~ CCN._. poIenU.I ckfmdlnl (17): and no! clnr in which apKi.,. he. 10 be 1U1!IIIIOMd • .. II. clnr that ill _Iituationt lID AIhcniaft ~ eaulel be CGII"I'rI'rd to lift cridcntt. A INa who bMI been I'fric:e coaric:ud by tIiItI 1M' I.... of Vri-. f_ could raw. IO.-if)' on ...,...to.qucm oc: ' l1li (H)1I. r..iN$} '. , tu) , bocIIIIC. thin:I oud\ _ .. iction _Id IeId 10 - ' c : ___ (_ of e:itiIeoI ricfoca) ' the impl~ • Ito.! w i I _ could no! adMl • • rm-. Bill lhiI mI)' of _ rtf« only ID ~ who CUI be -..,eUed by. , .. -'1«"""": i.i. (if the ... I«I), W. who _ ...., pi __ ill a:ooat. II 800=, .. Smitla (1,)8 : lJ9"'4l) do rqm tbia a t . - by PoIlwI, and ..crt 1M. the diU
ic.
.it,
.....dU.IfJImICIIII.'....
.1_
'it ..... _ ............. ...,. whobMI.ecei""'" ..._toli"~. 'II'bcdan-« DDt be bMI B*Ic my ....... to do lID. In tbillhcJ rM)' line hem _.i~ by their ... , . . . . . " . " i ' my ctec.. j.I'tiriaI I)'IlftII nectkto be ... tocornpcl .ili to IItead (1,)8 : .)6). MeeD_pcD (1978: :143) foDowt Bon_ .. Smith bm, mill alia Ha,' I (1911 : '41-a), who ..... ,," do. DDt ...... to t. ;. binw:If lID oId'initdJ.
m.
Mere I ."HI ph .j.(.tIISC: la.)..,......lOfoDowl.NI.StnithandM..,DoweU, but . . . . .tot. tbe pi.ticaI imf'K'I clthai formal ...... cI comptl!oion:'in pi'l,d,c Iitipt;ta h.d to ,,,willett h.wido ......could "" trwIed to~' (Hwnphoe). ItSse: lal D.17).
.i.
1
s6
STEPHEN TODD
children could not be witnelltS.ll: (I thould add here that Athena did have a rule forbidding hearuy; bUI the reuon behind thia rule wu not in my opinion the ume u our own, and win be dttcullCd liter.) If the function of a witneat is to tell the trulh, then the exduaion of women doa not make 8mIe, putkularly bealuac: women were not debarml from giving evidence: they were, if challenged, permitted to take an evidentiary oath (tlthoup this did not make them wit~) . The fK't that thit oath wu t.ken in public weakena Mr.cOoweU·, augation (1978: 3.43) thlt the reuon women cannot be witne.a it that it would be socially improper for them to appear in court. U Children timilarly could not be witnalel; and aupeticially here the reuon might be that they could not be truated to telllbe truth. But an adult could apparently be a witnea to what had OCC\Irred during hit minority (inferred by Lipe,iusI9IS : 87,. n'32 from Oem . xux ..,); and it aeema sn unn« arily tortuous e.planation to ..y that. child could be truated to perceive the truth but not to delCribe it (u Leili 1907: 12 followed by HarrilOR 1971: 137 n.2). SlaVCI aleo could not be witneuea, but their atatement. were admillible .. evidence if delivered under torture with the consent of both parties. Mlc, Dowell (1978 : 3.45) IUggests thlt the reaon for the torture it that the Illve wouki nonnaIly belong 10 one of the litipnta and would therefore be .lraid to teIIify llpinat hit owner, and that the need for COMent WIS thlt a Illve WII v.lulble propeny. Both parta or this eaplanation are I believe ineof1'eet (1IeC
tedwn IV below). Altonishmcnt if not incredulity ia the final relction of the two ItIndard Engliah textboob on Athenian IIw : Hatriton (1971 : 137) describes the Athenian ruin of evidence .. an 'unresolved parada.' which 'mull IOmetimn have lpelt lubstantial denial of justice to litigantl'; Mac· 11 II uwd to Ix I~r wr wome.. and ".vacould Ix witnc.n,'1 k..t for rIM jHOiKution, in homieick _ : but rhi. i. _ _ a;~ered 6oubdu1. Lipei.. uped rhe! both calC'1ocia Wftt permitted : _va on rbt bien 01 tneraI r lIS in Antiphon (191 s : 87] n.~): and WOIhen on rbt beN. 01 Oem. IU.YlI.68-73 (19IS: '74 n.]O). Le* foUowed him on both counlt. MlmittedJ)' with tome hetitation (.iAn.... 1907: U .... I': _va 1907: »-6). Bonner "o.t1u Ibo.ed condlllliftl)'!hat the r 1ft Anliphon 60 not bar !he ~ 'III'hkh Lipti.. heel pIKed upon them (in Am. Y, for \Wed 01. i. clnd,.. non-tcdlaiol IJ'ftOfIJnI for '10 denounce', Bonner 6: Smith 19l': UN): BonneT him.elf on tM otha- hand beIie¥ed that WocI.ul_re.trru.iblt (Bonner 1906. Bonnet 1911..... ~ in Bonner 6: Smith 193' : UI-]). More rectntl,. tlO.t1Ci ""cDowdI (l96l : '06-7) bet thown diet Oem • • '""" ill M belt iftcoadu.i'fe. -.d in liIiIIlxilfoUc wed b7 Harrilon (1971: 1)6). (On the inabilit)' 01 ...", and IIlbtn to " " - in '-Kick - . ' " _ Carey 1918.) It it Pf*iblt wt _"' were al\owed to IpPeV both .. wi" III , ..., _ .. ~Q in diJwi • ...,. ....., _ _ amine _itime rncIe, in the lacer Iowtb centufJ': and mil 1M)' indeed proYide. ~ ind~ thai: bWiitional--a.i.....iont 'ftft bqinnine to break down, ifOlllJ' inrhiutltricud _0I1nr (Gemct 19U: 16....). fint pOlb" h:l .. GenIct 1950: d, _ ptICftll, Gemet '9llb). lur !hil deduetioa dependl..., l1li tM CMe 01 Lanpil, cletc:ribed .. UI_kr jn Oem. PKlY.5 : ..., it ill It IeIIt Pf*ibk thM tM.ord heft_ 'a.......e'. If 10. lIM riP' 01 ....... to witl If! and_ in. wch _ , and .... IM....-nt for the 6edine 01 ~ ,allt to tIw ......tod. On .... , fm ad _ funher 1'1.1)
_.wi"
........
,ft _,..... i_.
rw:...
_Ye
U For the ".,..Iar .......... _ 01 ..... chi~ and alms in court 'j" • tec:hniealtr d.incuilhable from . . ; , _'. let Bonner (1905 : '7. d . )10-4) .
~
ont,.
'7 Dowell (1978: 143). with. certain characteristic drynesa, describes the rultt .. 'remarkable'. III In 0«1« to resolve this pandOJl:, I IUggett that _ should re-examine the function of. witness. Witnnln dearly do play.n important r6le in Athenian law: they are cited on more tban four hundred occuionl in the one: hundred for-enlic speeches, .t.n average frequency of six lets of witnessee per hundred Itttions of text. It it • ratioruliution of the problem when Leisi (1907: 11:1) says that wit~ wen: unimportant - and still morc 80 when he offeta as an cllplanation of thit'the notorious duplicity of the Athenians' (Leisi 1907: Ila,
d .•180 11,,), I hive IpokeR of the r61c of Athenian wilnesen; bul this term i. perhaps misleading. Athenian witneucs fulfil two rOles. One of these roughly cotTeIpond_ to that of • modem wilnas: his job i. to tell the truth, and the court is intereeted in what he says. But the eecond r6le is to UI • more .Iien onc (to deKTibe it &8 'more primitive' would be to beg the queltion, below): the function of a witness is to support the litigant for whom he appears, and the court is interested in who he is (Humphreys 1985e). Even outside the lawcourt, there is a strong idea thlt the martNS is not simply an obeerver but in lOme sense a pattiaan. In the work of the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, manus and its cognltes are used in I consistent and Itriking way: they Ire regularly found with the meaning 'somebody (or aomething) which supports my argument at this point' (e.g. Hdt. 11. 18.1; Thue. 1.8.1); but the term is not used to de&eribe 'sources of information' in a neutm context. For this purpose Herodotus uses aIwi, 'word of mouth', 'oral tndition'; and when Thucydides diacu5les his methods of research, he speW of Cfose-examining ton allan, 'other people' (I.aa.a). The Penguin translates this III 'eyewitnesses', which is the word which we would naturally use in this context; but Thucydides like Herodotul appears to have thought that mortus was the wrong word to describe IOmcone who Will not at that moment aupporting anybody. In his paper on Athenian methoda of proof, Soubie (1913: :&a6) hu made the interesting obeervltion that the torture of slaves is not 10 much a legal III a IOcio-political problem. Thil can be Ipplied more widely. Witneaeing in Athenian law is a ritualised aocio-political act of aupport. (I uee the term 'polittcaJ' here: in I broad sense, becauee it is dear that this was a privilege open aJ.o to metict and even to fMeignen.)14 That it Will an act of support. we have already teenj each litigant produced his own witneaes, Ind there was no If
A lilt of cqmpleI it ri"" by LeiIi (1907: 7). Evm if _ diKount hit two leU 01. Olynlbian wi' I, (If! dw I'Wlodo tb.t • lb. d.tc (343 • .e.) they.we prob.biy in p ion of cifiaen.ripta .. ~ (Ae.:h. ".154; Dan. lUX . • ,f6), tbete In.un efIOI.1Ib deu _10 P"O"' dw poim (I TMIIfVI in I public: CIK, Dan. 1Cn'.6~; and in pri..1tc _ . AIJi" _t ~ in 'IOC. If'+'1 •• 6, and I metic in Hyp. AIAIi .... WI )4).
w
as
STEPHEN TODD
~ , That it ..... in lOme KOIe a political M:t i, cle.r from 11IOC. XVlll . SI-:l, whttt the f~ th.t KIIllimakho. hu Kted not only .. p1OKCutor
but .. witnea i. used to demonstrate thlt he i. a sykoph.ntj from Ariltophana EUksitJllOlUai 561-2, whe.e PJ'U.IIOR treats the verb mart14ni" ... comic .ynonym for sMltoplumtm. (on which lee the papers by Otbome .nd H.rvey in this volume) j and from the existence of KVeraI lead CUnei, dedicated by ptotpeCtive litipnta, which can down de.truction not only on the writer'. opponent but also and by name on his witnm~. (e". Jordan 198s: no. 9) . Like .U politica1 acta, witnaaine is a privilege, .nd therdore carne.. risk - the risk thai you may be puniahed by diIti ps__ IWm.non if you are found to hive given falae evidence. The oraton and the rhetorical theoriata repeatedly uaociate the M:t of witneaaing with worda describing 'riaIt': ltitu/"ftOS (Ant. Tetr, lI,d.7, Oem. XXXlV.19, d. Arist. I, ll7Sba7-9), III1/1OdiIfOl (Iueua Xl1·4), and Irll/¥1ltJUutOS (Oem, XUIJ .lo, XLv. ll)· The element of risk i. pretumably the explanation behind the rules of exclUlion: it i, not Ihlt women and ,Iavet cannot be truated 10 tell the truthj but thai they cannot lUltlJin the privilege of witnesting becaule they do not have the capacity to be sued by diU psewJoMarturiorJ . This il clear from the fM:t that women can talr.e In evidentiary oath (not subject to dilti pmulomar,uriml) ; and .1-0 from Plato (L.mw 937). who IUggnu, prHumlbly .. I refonn of current Athenian practice, that women and ,I.vea .hould be permitted to witneat. provided they could .upply .utetiea to 'ppcar It a tubaequent dilti pseudomam.riMt . What. witneat i. doing ilsupporting hi. principal by offering toshate in the dan,en which the laner fac:ea. Thi, may help to explain two further peculiaritlea of the Athenian law of evidence. In the first placc, Athenian law like English I..... excludea hearsayj and both allow ctrtain exceptiona to this rule, for instance in the cue of IItIItementa made by people who have aince died. The reuon for the English rule is that hearsay i. untrustworthy: the .uthor of the original Itltement is not on oath and not lubject to crau· examination. An exception is permitted in the cue of dying declaration., becau.e (or 10 it is conjecturally believed, Greer 1978: 165) people.peak the truth It de.th. It h.. often heal .ugested that the rationale behind the Athenian rule was the ..me (thua Bonner 1905 : 2<>-J, in the COUI'1le of a general .ttempt to match Athenian 10 Anglo-American rules of hearaay), But dying declarationl in English law Ire very tightly defined : in. cue in the lilt century, • young woman with her throat cut duhed out of a room in whK:h she had heal alone 'llrith her boy-friend, and exclaimed, '0, dear aunt, tee. whal Harry hu done for mel ' before expiring (R. v. &di"IfUId, 1879, cited by Phipeon & Elliot 11)87: aac) ; the court ruled that this wa inadmiMible u evidence, becaUIe the girl had not had a 'aettled hoptle.a expectation' of death. In Athenisn law, on the other hand, any lltlltement made by a deceued penon is admi.ible; this can hardly re8ec:t a belief that people apeak the truth
*
RIle,.
" ,
because they are going to die at lOme time in the future I Presumably, therefore, the reuon behind the Athenian rule i. that where possible the original authOf' of the atatemcnt ahould run hia own rin. But IC1:OIldly, it it important not to over-emphuiae the witneaa'a initiative : hia onu to ahare hia principal'a danger remaiM only an offer, and it ia for the opponent to decide whether to take that offer up. It ia often claimed that Athenian witncuca could not be croea-cxamincd. Like moat generalisationa, that ia not quite true; and in tbia cue the truth ia more revealing. In the period before approximately 380 a.e., the fonnal poeaibility cxiated to croaa-cxaminc witncaaca. We only hear of one real iNltance when thia right was cxctciaed, however, and that over an entirely non-controveraial matter (to attest a document, Andok. 1.14). There is alllO one parallel in comedy (Ar. Wasps cP]-6). where Bdclykleon, acting on bebalf of tbe ailent defendant (a dog), inteuOgJtea the cheese-grater. Here again the evidence elicited ia hardly controvem.lj indeed, it adda notbing 10 tbe plot, and ill comic purpoee ia presumably tbat of incongruity. Around 380. the right of crGel-examination was eUectively aboliahed by the awitch from onl to written evidence. ls And nobody, it aeems. felt that they were tOling anything by the change. This is a significant point: it implies that the right had not previously been extcnaively tned (Bonner 1905: 56, againat the implicit luggestion of ThQr 1977 : 319) . At
II 11lc "'ift from onI to wT'ittm evidmcr at AthmI_ 6nt diKu..t by Bonner (1905 : 46-1). He _ ink."'" primarily in tM date at .h~h lbe ~ lcook pl_; and h;'~Iueion. that il ~rmllII'OW>d ]80, hi. been ,-nUy KCCpkd . Bonner _ not himM:lf parttcuwly I~ed in the raeon for tl-oe c. . . .' bul be acapud IhI: claim of DenI. lU..... 6 Ib.I i t _ inlended 10 prnenl ....1 the wit_ Mod Mid in _ of • W'-qUCflI dill . I . u - been...... ed: foo- iMta""" lhac it : lOa: M..,Dow.tIl un8: '"43) . A simil., and 10 ...bmit ttM:ir initial 10ftJUI1 tUtcmcnh of (1919) .... even sugeated thol both reform. ." 10 1M: dated • bul mit cannot be proved. attn<."tivc to I\ogaI !h.I. flpidly j~,.. concept of lhe thl: _y in whid! Alhmilnl viewed _ of lhei, cowt·
AI YIhM:
: iti
not
cieri!. 1919)• • • document. AI IhI: _ _ it!
M
w
JO
STEPHEN TODD
the trial, the witneu h.. only offered him.eIf"1 potentill.dvenary, Ind the penon to .tuck it the oppoeing litipnt. If you want 10 take up the wilnell', offer, you do not croeI-eUIIIine him or 'lII";nlte hia chancter; inatead, you bring I dilll psnulotlttJrtl4rimt , Now Ilhouid lIy It thia point that the model I 1m Ittemptingto conatruct i. neither wholly new nor wholly revolutionary, The 1'6le of the witneaa .. lupporter hu recently been explored by Humphreye {_(}Sse) ; even before that, Prinpheim (1951) had suggeated thlt the original functton of the witneaa in both Grttee Ind Rome WII not to hear, see Ind say, but to let Ind intervene; Ind I raembllnce h.d It timet already been noted between the idea of the ..,itnell II supporter Ind the mediaevll concept of the oath-helper or compurptor, I witnal who nean not to the facu of the cue but thlt his principal'l Dlth i. 'dean', 16 Scholl"' hive occasionilly suggnted thlt lOmething like compurgltion h.d exi.ted in the primitive ataget of Athenian l.w : 17 Gemet: (1937) had argued that this might help us to undemand the procedure called diQlfUlrt,m'tJ, widely used in fourth-century inheritanc:e-cues; chi. wu lipecial plea, in which the defendant produced I formal witneaa to block the plaintifr. claim, An explanation in this form , however, tends towards the 'myth of the primitive .urvival' , .1 When you deacribe I procedure or In inatitution in Athenian law .. 'primitive', you tend therefore to imply that it hid loal much of it. importlnce, WII perceived to be anachroniltic, Ind would soon be lbolished, Asa supporter, the witness WII indeed pllying In Indent 1'6le; but he is not I 'primitive lurvivIl', Indeed HumphreY' ( 198sc: )n Ind n.J3) doubta the relevlnce of oath-helping to Gemec'l theais here. She rightly points out that there it no evidence that oath-helping II luch hid ever exil1ed at Athent: Ind she strongly criticiaea the Ule of explanatory models baaed on 'primitive survivIls', preferring to speak insteld of the co-existence of alternative methoda of proof. It would be: going fir too far to claim thlt the modern concept of the witness played no plrt in Athenian law. lnatead, I would suggest that the two (undiana ('who you Ire' and 'what you ..y') continued together in IIndem throughout the clauiCiI period, often in harmony, IOmetimea in oppoaition; and thlt where there wu oppoaition, it ... often the 'alien' (to UI) concept which proved the stronger. There doea not teem to me to hive been much of a development from a 'primitive' to an 'advanced' view of the witnell during our
" Admittedly !he p.nllel it Ml"" ,,!vee,
..;ct_ _
not ...........,. on -'a : _
"" •• acept in aen of homidck, 11ft Athenian
furdIcr
'
of lb.~ , • 5nmh ('9ll: ' 1M' 1 Ind • J'f
" Or lhat ;1 ailCed in otbtr Greek,..a: . . JIO*ible _ _ ... K)'IM. II Note dllt IepIllllthropolopg arc .,.ticu*", critbI of expianll.ionII hIKd on 'primilive IlUmvall': _ Robtm (' 979: etp. 11+-91 ; l!IIl), MIl Humphrryt (cited below),
J'
period. But then, I believe in a gencrlllly static rlther than. developmental model of Athenian law. 19
IV In what remains of this paper I I should like to outline I01TIC possible developments of what I have said. in three areas: the frequency of witoelleS; the Clulific:attoR of evidence; and the rOle of the dilt; psnuJoma" ..rion . From what has already been diKueeed, it will be dearth't _ cannot limply add up the number of witnaees in I speech and use this as • test of the lpeUeT', verKity. Harvey (ICJ8S : 9:1) IUg:cstI that 'the production (or
non-production) of witnestel' should be UKd to teet the strength of allegations of bribery. But it is rarely dear what. witness i, witnessing to: depotittons are not nonnaIly quoted in the speecilea, but are represented by. lemma such IS marturia {'evidencel; and in the standard introduction Iuzi mo; Jt.aki touton IftCJt1IfFW {'call me witneuea of theac thingsl the word touton ('of thete things') may have referred to anything or nothing of what hu jUlt b«n said . Moreovtt I Athenian law has no rule that evidence muat be relevant to a fact in issue. presumably because 'who you are' matters more than 'what you uy'. Indeed. a speaker with a weak case might well try to bolster it by producing la~ numbers of witnesses to confirm uncontested points. This may be the reason why witnesses in lueus IX appear more thin twice as frequently as they do in Iny other lpeceh of baws:20 William Wyse, the great editor of lucus, was a CIIptioua critic; but he regarded the speaker's cue in lueuslX IS weak even by lucus' own atandarda (Wy.: 1904: 636) . On the other hand, there are lOme constructive things to be said about the relative frequency of witnCMes in different tpetthes. There is a striking difference between the use of witncseee in public and in private disputa. The following figures are very crude, and Ire subject to an poeeible qualifications ; but they are I think neverthelcu significant. In the varioua impeachmentprocedures (ma"gtiia, ~utJlIlNoi and apopIIasis - fifteen specc:hes), witncstlCt are called on ].3 occuions per hundred leClions of text; in the two procedures used against illegal proposals (grapIti pamfltlmOft uaed apinst dccrttl, and ~ lftA:wn mi qitctkion titLi"ai used against laws - aill: speeches in all), thia figure faUa to a mere 0+ In both typesof case the level of witneuea it low, perhaps because potential supporters would normally appear as sUMgam;; in ,. n..t _, I tend 10 bdWte that the~ inAthmian ..... Irom theardWcperiod 10 the mdof !be den_..., wen COIIIidenbI, . . dr.tic: tMn the _joriIy of edtolIn «(oIJoowi.. Glols 1904) he"" bclie ..:d : .m..x AIbmian ..... _ an. 'primitm', and IMe e'-ic:al I.. _ '''''anocd'then .... been e1aimed. To liM:{ Dlmt - bul only 10 IboIl DlCflI - PI}' raclinc of A~)epI ~ _ eirni ... 10 that of Se.Jey (1'&7: I.... ). A low IeYeI af daodopmmi _ detec:ied by H...at (1976) in the pcoc:edureaf .~« -_..,.~ ; eirniJuo picNn apptMI in the rUatioMhip b.u=,!itenoey and the ..... (_ n. 15 .bo¥r): I hope 10 1_ ~ III crnter koncth in lhe fuIun: . • I_Ill-a....fQ,5witl 1111I per hIIndred-*-: tbe _ _ frecr-I_ I • • ,"lwiIh '7.• mel II . • 1rith '7.0. F« the ficurm which folkrw, we p. 19 below.
...
deft""
M
w
3a
STEPHEN TODD
the procedura agaiDlt iIIep1 propout. it i. extremely k>w, perhapt, bec:a~ the place of witne.ea is taken by IIwa and decl ees (6.7 per hundred teetiona) . Of the private apeecha, on the other hand, the frequency in contractual disputes (thirteen apeechea) is 8.a; and in the twenty-five apea:hes concerned with family property it reaches 13.8. Humphreya (1985<:: 3a5""49) has eumined the types of witne.ea who are uaed in di.putes; &he has conaidered in mort detail eleewhere (Humphreya 1986) the uae of kin .. witneMel in thoae ditputea whtc:h directly involve family relatKmlhipt, : one of the thi"" you are doing by producing relativa (often named) .. wilnelm is aeelr.ing to convince the jury that the family conaenaua is on your aide. 0( the whole COrpul of forensic: speecha, only one ... written for • nonAthenian court. That ia boc:. XIX, in which the speaker is trying to prove a will before a court in olipn::hic Aifina (on the legal problems of this speech see Wolff 1979: 15-34). But lllOC. XIX, uniquely among fully praeTVCd apeechea in family property disputa, contains no witneseea whatever. I b.ve nocertain explanatKm of this fact; but it rnay be tut the lKICio-poiiticaJ inacitution of the witnell played leal of a r6le in an oligarchy than in a democracy. To speak. of the Athenian cllaaification of evidence is perhapa misleading. Ancient rhetorical theorist. spoke of piJtm. and to tranalate this .. 'evidence' or I I 'proora' is to beg .he qumion : a benet' tenn might be 'supporting argumenta'. PiJtm fall into two group':,ukil nltelthrtoi, which the antor himself has to discover and develop; and pUt~jJ atelthrroi. which require no auch akill on his part. The fonner compriae a wide range of probabilityargumenta, Ind thc:le are the real interest both of the orators and of the rhetoricians; but I &hall aay little about them. My concern here il with the piJtm atelthttOi. Aristotle (Rllet . I, 1375124-5) liata five of these : laws (including allO dec:.eea), witnmel, agreements or contracta (thia appears to mean private documenta in general), torture (the atatementl of mves), and oatha. 21 It may come u a aurpriae that laws are considered II a fonn of 'evidence', rather than beina: the rules according to which lhe facti u attmed are 10 be judged (thus HarrilOn 1971: 134-5); but laws are cited by the litiga.na rather than by the court, .nd they have perauuive not compelling force. u Indeed, Lylr.ourgoa can even cite foreign law, not for comparative purpolel 10 elucidate the law of Athena, but in order to MOW what 'good law' ia (Lyk. I . I~. d . alao Oem. XXlV. IJ9-41) . How are we to make aenae of AriRotle'aliat? I would auggeat that it falls into two groul». One group coMiatl of laws and wito II a and private documentl : theae carry 1 riK, but require no conaent ; and litipntl make frequemuae of
."uJ.-
II RMI. '"" AJu . lU'f-JmI, 1431 bl-T +lu.. "- doe =IL' • • ci .1IimiIar liM, wbic:tI he dnmbeI ('.upplcmcnta:J') ~ (14llbl) : he itdudn _. , ton\aft and -m. Iddinc aM per-' .tioM bot doe If! ..... , but he omitI the ..... ...:I doe ",i..te II
-.
SoubM (1973 : lis) ipGbof 'pnrtillfthe ....' • • ..,.... to '",owj•• the &M:tt': but ..... rou '" doq';' really ....... the la• • • _ _ of proof.
J3
them. TIlt riP. for the wimeea hie been explained already; private documents were normally attested. U and the: witneu to the document illimilarly Iilb)e (_ in Dan. XLV-XLVI, dilcu.ed below) j in the cue of • law the risk ia the litipnt'., beclUIC to cite. DOn..exWent Jaw te.. capiul crime (Oem. XXVI.a.t.). The KCOnd group conaia of torture and Mthl : the.: can be uaed only with the conKnt of the oppc»ing litipnt; but if this COOIt11t hu been received, the evidence once riven carries no riak, and ita validity cannot be impac:hed by lepl procell (Leiai 1907 : 16-17 on tbeOllth). ThiI is.hy. woman can swear an evidentilry oath but cannot be. witneM : to be. witneM. UN: would need the Cllpacit)' to be tued iN to swear an oath Ilhe need. merel, the .reement of both partia, beau.: the OIIth cannot give rile to. diM plnuIoIruuturion . Thil diatinction between riU.,piOcedures and c:ontent-proceduretl may allO help to explain the vexed problem of torture. It i, • commonplact: in the oraton thai the ltatementl of slave. under torture coMtitute the higheSt form of proof; and yet the procas WM apparendy never used . Part of the difficulty here hal been. failun clearly to analyee the problem. If you are certain that. man i. either guilty or has guilty knowledge, then it illogically ddenaible (if cruel) to uae torture to exact a confesaion or denunciltion : he clearly hal tomething to hide. But to torture a 'wilMII' is irntional : he is Mither motf: nor IaIlikely to tell the truth It Iut than It fint,15 a point which,... already obvioua to Antiphon (V.31-3:&), the fint of the canonical Onton. SlavC8 and alteRa in the former category were certainly tortured (a dmiled list is given by TutMiewicz rC)63), and this (.'OUld be done 00 the initiative of the proeecutor without the need for the COnllCot of the defendant, in this cae: the dave himtelf; this is hardly remarkable, and creatC8 no problem. But to torture a alave in the KeOod category required the COD*ent of both putiea. Now on forty-two occaiOM in the oraton we find the challenge, either 'torture my mves for evidence' or 'let me torture youn·. Forty timts this chalLenge ....
=
v ~e doni_ . . . --uy d ...... lip in die phK',", ol.no- (doe....ty... Flia. beinfdle_.bouUolb.nHn. 8ORMt" '9"S: )9-40) , La.i ( .9"7: 73)" ·tM'I_ ..bo..,..t to wit.- the dni....m,-up oil .nu r.w I c:ontnd l'-eby IooI! on 1M duty 10 will to thai document in -.Jrt if rIftd be. I doubt myeelf if •.u. _ I IcpI obIiption. but iI: urtainIy bew: be.tn ............ pnc:tioe. E_ lhouP '\, ___ panted ~ pri'rillpd __ to written dDcummt. m the lien fourth Clmlury (in.... , .••. (we n .11 abow:), fr.w " I' ........ . I plliariff who -..Jd pnooktee I -'«en C'OIItnn could .... \M af I
_.0
.w
I
, ' ", If kd..up poacu:llllft. for wtaitt. M..,no-n 1918: III pYa dcceiII) , ~ lbe oouru _ to ~..-iMd ckeM' ,__",ic_ of the w.attn witbaut dIe ..pport of the ..... ...t (d. Dan. DZ .... . -..,). The eff_ olli1:eney, lrVen.lhiI period. did not rut! "'J '*P (d. n·'s ""') . .. W _ '*' GIlly be ..... in tt- procedura where the penalty ill .... (AM. r.w I; ... (Dan. uz. ,..,., .....):-.-their .... ........uljtod., ofpapc:,I, ill I ., r1:iitric.ud, tbory _ P'7 I eu r.w I be. ".. ill P '_biy tbe paint af ftIIo... a .. refann, tbIII . _ n _ ..... Ibauld be .)~ ... to " - if tbq CUl funieh _aiw CI- 917 , ciled . . . .) : tbe -me. we a I,d.d _ ~ tho: _ a.y , but to if ... ill HIII'·'('97' :
"tIiIW,.. )
•
,
_."'1ed. :,..'E(=:::~S
_.....
. ..... dIe
M
w
3+
STEPHEN TODD
flally rejected ; twice (IIOC. XVl1.l5-r6, Oem. 100(YII,...,.) it wu accepted but not carried through. Z6 The problem of torture may be distilled into two questions. In the fint placc, why could the sbtemme. of a1aVet only be admitted unda' torture and with the content of both litipnttl And RCOndly, why did the procedure excite 10 much noise and 10 little action? MacDowell (1978: ~5 , cited above) offen a twofold explalUltton of the fint que.tion: torture i. uaed to overcome the alave'a fear of hi. matta'; and COnatnl was needed bec:aUle the .Ine .... valuable property. But thil iI a ntionaJiuticm : it suggesu that you Ire primarily internted in what the alave h.. to IIYi and thil.imply eucerbatet the teCOnd problem : if MacDowell ia right, why wu torture ntver uaecH Soubie (1973: 226) iI surely right to say .that part of the reuon for the use of torture iI socia.political : torture i. needed to emphuiae to all concerned the status-distinction between slaves and citizeN. There may also be the fetling that giving evidence ought to be, risky buuneaI: since a .Iave ... in no dlnger of I diu puildomtJrlwrimt, it wa. only right that he should luffer lutomatically. Ant. T~tr. n .d .7 complains thlt to accept without torture a denunciation of hilkilleT by a mortally wounded alave iI to .Uow him to lpeak aAiMUMf, 'without ri.k', Why then wu the challenge to torture neveT carried through? Headlam (1193) IUggsted I brilliantly economic.llnswer, thlt thil illimply I function of our IOUrceI. Torture, he Irgued, ..... a fonn of trill by ordeal : once the ICCepted, the ,Iave'a evidence would conclulively Bettie the challenge whole dispute, and there would be no need for a trial; if no trial, no lpeech ; and that. according to Hcadlam. iI why we hive no recorded instances of the challenge being Clrried through . UnfortulUltely, however. in several extant chaUtngn hypothetical Irnngementa Ire made for recording the ,lave', st"emenu and producing them in court . Thia point wu immediltely nolic:ed by Thompeon (I&x) ; and Headiam'a attempt to guard hit Ranb proved unsucceatful (Headlam 1894), All subsequent ICholart have rejected Head· Ilm'l theory (e.g, Bonner 1905: 72.; Lipsiu. 1915: 889 n .91; HurilOn 1971 : 148 n,l; ThQr 19n : 2.05-'7). Nobody howeveT h.. produced I lltisfactory a1temative explanation, despite the attempt of Thiel (1C}66) to tee the armrer in tennI of 'of6cill' and 'unof6dal' viewpoinu: he cited for compariaon public attitudet to the deterrent-effect of capital puniahment in thoee contemporary countriet which still reuined it, The definitive account of the .ubject i. that of
W.
a . thrn: exceptionilO Ih.".. (AnOM . l .fI4, Ly'"
110 Macno-tl (1971 : S46.nd n.$59)" 1. 111, and P.Cky . 1416), Bllt in lheee _
tbmt.1IO Wen 01. chaUmce, and tbmt dDea not _ 10 be an, -.:110 pin the 0ppoli.ent', COIIltIll. Indftd, the context in IlIt"'" CMn ill iDquiIitoriaI and IIOC ¥:IWCI_riII: the ItItI itmnduetinc In infttliption on ib 0WfI wthclrity. on- _ ebould ~Iy then:fon: be -.imillted to lhe firat fI"OlIP, in nidi the pa-. IOrtIIftd ill belined to ha¥e pky bo ....... Certainly tMy hi.... 110 bcari.. ""the cr-ion oItbechtl~ 10 tortllre in the repItr 1Id-nal pnlCCdllra. for the Iattet', Oem. xa.'01I.)6 • MWtIy clOfteh• ..., : .-hen. fiPt: ill about to bqm, I man IIeftdI lUI ..... iaco the _ to - . - dti:amI (i.e,. _ witt ); thit iInpIia that he l"Aidl> the aIaft biulltlf _ iMCSeq_ c..icIocnee for pnctieal ~.
,
JS
Thilr (1977), n which conclusively demonstrates that.1I the commonpllCtS in the oraIon about the high value of evidence obuined by torture are .imply play.acting : to say that 'w1tneseel have often been convicted of perjury, but tlaves under torture have never been .hown to be lying' (bacus VlII . I:I , Oem . xxx.37) ill. tautology, becauae there is no procedural opponunity whereby the ItltemeJtu of tlavCI could be tested (Thilr 1977: 310) ; moreover, the cha1tenge to torture i.always drawn up in luch. form as to guarantee rejection (for details, see Thilr 1977: :a33~I) . But this ill to answer the question 'how~' not 'why~ '. To understand that, we n«d to compuc torture with the other content-procedure, the oath. In an Athenian court, any litigant who wished could awnr In oath himaelf 01" impoee one on his witneeeesi but thill had no more than penuuive effect . If however you aceepted the opponent', challenge to Iwear an OIth, then this evidence had compelling force, because there was no procedural meana of muting the ttatement made on oath.U The p.rallel with the challenge to torture will be obvious. And like the challenge to torture, the challenge to IWeu an oath was aJwaya app.rendy rejected - with one intriguing exception. The politician Mantin WH once sued by the brothers of his estranged wife P1angon to admit the paternity or her two IOnl (who were, accon:!.ing to Mantias. illegitimate) . Mantin, we are told, agreed with Plangon to settle the cue out of court : he would leave 30 mna on deposit in heT name; he would then challenge her to lwelr to the truth of her claim ; she would refuse the challenge and drop the cue; and on refusing she would collect the money. The achcmc bKlr..fired, because Plangon double-croeeed Mantiaa and accepted the chanengt. (Or at least, 10 we are told: the epeU.er in question is Manti.' IOn by a accond marriage, and he it; hIIrdly imparlisl.) But Plangon'a oath this is the tigni6cant point - WH, if not formally then in practice, decisive evidence: Mantin could no longer deny the facteal1eged in the oath, because he had challenged her to awear it; he wu therefore forced to admit p.tcmity.29 ,. h • •
fact lb.t • book of lb.
, ..... by • and in German Hermann
7S.....
in Dan. u .:l7. ~bl)'thedfect
•
..
cIdi¥el" W€.did: in
w
J6
STEPHEN TODD
The reuon in the conK'Rt-procedura why the challenge is alwaya fonnullted 10 u to be ftjected is that litipnte are afraid of being atuc:k with whatever evidence cornel up. My final mnarb concern the diIti ~ritm. The fim point to be made about thia proceduft i. thai it is not atrictly an action for 'perjury' (although fOt' the purpoee of shorthand it is sometimes convenient to use thia term), Athenian witneuea aft not normally on Glth, ex.cept in special cues : ,.jtnc:a.CI in homicide lriala. fOt' instance, were obliged to join in the indictment, which itself took the fonn of an oath (the Jk:c:oosia) j and even in othtt CUCI witnaeea under certain circumaunca could swear an oath to strengthen the penuuive power of their testimony. The terminology throughout the onton, however, ia consistent. Somebody who .weara a fallot oath is deecribed I I epimltos ('perjured'); this wu an offence against the soda, but the offender could not be pro I ecuted , Somebody who riVtl falK witneal ia decribed upseuOoMdrtlll'Oll ('Calse witneu')j the god. have no interest in the miner (indeed, the goda have no r6le in guaranteeing the truth 01 tCitimony), but the offender wu li,ble to, diu pulUiomdrtllriori . This obanvation may help to explain what ie going on in the: eJUI".osid (cL Ketion II above) . H.rrison (J971 : 144) aeeme to IUggeat that you are forcing the witneu either to tatify to. deposition prepared by yourself, or to deny knowled,e on oath,
in order that if he denica knowledgt: you can then lue him by diJei pseudomar,urimt; this view is tentatively ICCCpted by Humphreys (I~SC: 3u). But this cannot be right, because if he swearl the oath, he will not be a witneu, and the:refore he will not be liable to diU psnuioManllrKm .30 Instead, I tugpt, you are forcing the potential witneu to declare openly which side he is on. Thia is why the .ltemstivca.vailable to him are incomplete : it does not matler that he: hu no opportunity of replying, '1 do know the facta, but they are not I I you allege' (d. n.8 above); he h.. to support one party or the other. If a convK:ted defendant brought a diM ps~lldomartllrion, this could under C'tftIin circumatances, it 'ppcan, annul the verdict apinat him)1 Unfortunately the details are far from clear. The central problem conCCTlUl. fragment of 1'heophrutc.' lAws, quoted by a acholiaet: on Plato, Laws 937 : 'verdieta do not become atfadileos (annulled) in every type of trial. but only in x~";as (usurptotion of citizen mtua) and pseutloMarturit;m (falK witneu) and Ide","
Jo
_cb.nee with il. The. litter ol eoune would be the natunl mult if IlitPI found hm-lf pnxedunlI)' unabll: 10 refute tM contmU ollltetcmmC ruck under oath dIer. ebaI\euct. Aada. 1.67 for ~ attaebtM I"lftlcitrant Hq Ilnd..... butti_1'IO hint IbM
he eat! be pRIICCUkd.
II
"ia, ...
II i. pottibk that the m~ diJti • •ktU i; , or pci",c .mon for •.... bomata 0( UMd for thie purpow: if )'OU wuc .... '111 (b)' diJtj p..,' :0"""') in wit! = of blYi,..,;YCII I . or impropn- ewidalCc. you cou1d tben piot:rid (by diJtj 'I'~'" 10 IOCCI* your IIWlldenl ol blYi.. lllboiutd I'" C'l'ick_. and Ihia ~ .w:tory wou1d mebIe you to ~ the oricinaI _ . But mil i. ooUr ~, and lhe aipificatM:t ol diIIi~""" iI whoIl,~ ; LeiIi (lf107 : I~I) inIiItI ~1 tbIt it _ _ hi,.. I'I'I(ft tban • lptCiIIiMd ada for clunapt. perjury'. _
con..xu...
....,.)
,
J1 (inheritances) .' In the fint placc. we do not know whether TheophrutOl is
talkin& about Athena here; and KCORdly, even if he ia, the lentence makes no lenIe , n
It .lItriking that 1.I.e witnea was dealt with by .diAi (. private suit) nther than by. public "aphi,ll Many .cholan have tried to avoid the implications
of this. Li.-iua for instance (1912 : 78:1) argued that inttead of • dilti psnuitmuu1uritm you must have hMI the option of bringing I tmfJIti sdoplltmtias (public luit for nulicious proeecution) but for thi. there is no evidence whatever. Bonner &: Smith (1938 : 26:1-3) claim that the dilti PI~ritm wu really I 'criminal' procedure: and Leiei (1907 : 1:10-) uguel that the penalty must have included a fine payable to the .tate ntbeT than . imply compenu.tion payable to the opponent.)4 It seems better to admit the obvioua: pmulomartllritm wu an offen« against theoppc»ing litigant and not against the COIln; and it was. matter in wbkh the IlIle took no interest. At first light, the etymology of the term psclldomcuturimt would suggest • primary concern with what the witness hid said. Psnuks, after all, melllS 'f'I.e'; .nd in the classic cae of diJti pseudomlJrtllritm, in ...hich Apollodoroa PrOeecuteti StephanOll for hit evidence on behalf of Apollodoroa' atep.fathcr Phormian (Oem. XLV-XLVI), the plaintiff certainly claima thlt Stephanot' testimony had been untrue. But it it dear even from thi. cue that the word psnuhl could be uaed to dCKJibe not only untrue but allo illicit evidence: one, at leut, of the grounda on which Apollodoros claima that the evidence t..d been p$eutUl wu thlt it was inadmisaible, becauae it wu hearaay (Oem. XLVI .S-8 with Leiti 1907: I:U ). Moreover, Apollodoro.' argument to prove tNit StcphartOl' tt:stimony had been untrue i, II folloW$ : Stephanoe has lestified to a fact which strictly .peaking he cannot have known (INit a document which he had not opened contained what il purported to) . But Stcpht.nos WII not an important witnesa in Phormion', original cue ; and had :II
Clearly the ftI'did: to be annulled iI that 01 the oritinaJ m.I. lot illlWl« .1f1IIt/W-.a..s. Bul Ihi on.;naJ trial caukI _ hrn. been • tIMi JIMw' ...taio;b. _ -uable only • • MOitoO'fi • .wr- ilthe _tIOC 01. pfOOI!du~ (lib . . . .,,"" = ,.,... and theJrWllti~) bul 01 • c... 01 pRII'Cdura ('ttoinheritInca'); H .. , ..... ( 1968: 1,51 ntl) lIItcilliptllo 6nd all. otbu.itc u..uated diJtI o\kPvw tum", behind
a,.......
_ ..... ,..:tioIs.
--,un,.
I _ - n,] or .... I), buitho! lat in both I i= .bfttn',...taIed ............. ,01' ... _ I' (i.t., . £'£hric). TlM: moM _ I and _eomprehenlivt: _menl 01 0-,'_1 ilthatol Behi'H1d ('97,f). bul I i - tho! neture 01 _ U 'M /ICC !he qllIIiOIl • likd, 10 rnnain
ICad'-.
.i'
.!be .l'nrrr. __.il,
n AJ-t "'who IfIPCU in otbeI- _ _ '* oI.il in Alhenia\ kpI ptoceedir¥ _ (_,mm itil notable lIMit the Ktion,..m.. ItInw _ . public: ptaaodun: (lhef'"lllltl 1M *u,IIIMa). Of _ _ the expIMarion ..., be pMlyfunerionaJ : . HaIr ..... poiftII_ ('97' : .1)8 n.5). '1itipM who b.d bemeonricte6 in . . lbwiiOI • the ~_ 01 • frwdulmt _ , _ raipt wdl hPe Nffa-ed"';"';' ( _ 01 c:iIi.ft ......). in wbida _ hiI Oiilt optio. -..Id '-" bea to ..... fn.nd to brin& .1"'fI4I on lUI beMIf. But!hilil hardly. _'film upki..ion (by no _ _ all iibwntft drlendlnu ....tfa-ed .-;.); and lhI t". c 01.1"'141 .... _ (_ oI.iu ccnIinIy.,.,. to , . . die liM with .bull 01 • 1"'141 1M' "" ...... :M Leiaj', . . . - .. lUI the diJti,.' ,., ..... caukI be broupl bt lhI winner 01 the ori;iooaI trial , wM had.,. ~tIw.. wfIend liD ctano.;e ~ but thiI ...... = tho! ro-ibilltt 01 ' - . I .. iIItdleet\IIII ~'.
):
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STEPHEN TODD
it occurred to him that ApoUodor'Ol would object, Phormkm need not Mve caUcd StepbanoB to teItify. It is hard to e.cape the CODclualoo that Stephanoa WfII doine what witn es rqululy did; in other woe dII, that nobody normally bothered too much if a wime. testified to lIOIIM:thing that in ttrict logic he could DOt know. Finally, it is clear what has rally anno)ed ApoUodor'Ol: Apollodorol' oritinaJ ditpute with Pbormion concerned family piOpCily ; Stcphanoe is a marNcc-reJation of ApoUodOf'Ol, and it tbcrcf~ no direct
rcl.tive of Phonnion ; and yet Stcphanoa hu nued and backed Phonnion'. lick of the family . So even in thecuc where the c::oneept of the witneau the meanI to truth is .t ill "Oi'lt*, it is fighting. kJeing battle .gainst the concept of the wibtm _ alUpponcr.
,
1Tw JItU1»N rf nJidftIu iN AIAtM_ aJtUU
Appendis: The frequency of witn FIWIW'f£Y in diffi,~,.t onuon Speeeha
An_ ..........
L,... L,....... IMKl.ta
1-
.
".
Lmcd> II
',""""" ." • ",,,. , "• ,, ,,. .,0
,,6 .,0 .,0 .6,
Witne.e.
f..qumoy
how often alled
per 100 It
•
.. , 9 9
"... - , u,.....,., '" . .," ." ... D
DemoIthentl· '" t public tani-publK:lJ
,•
••
bet include :
9
'9 ,6
11u: toW ewpus of f~ onlory :
'OJ
Procedure
....
s"""'"
J9
-- ,., -- ,., -- ,., --- ,...,• -6.0 , .0
u ·9
0.,
6·9
•••
.6.0
u ·S
6.•
Witneu •
PtJJIic prouare,: ApinR propoula 6 1267 S _ 0.4 4"4".~ end 2f"11J1uJi - . Mi~U"'" tlJri,.Qi (but DOte Wt 8S lawtldecr!tl cited _ 6.7) Impeachmenr. 15 1166 39 J.J 6';,. Y_. 5 ntlttlNGi. end 4l1/JOJMtlIfts
*"
Priwlu~s;
Cor.tr.a.
IJ 6u 51 _ 8.2 5 tpeeebet about buWIk!ent, S about ahtppilll, end J fOf dunap Femily 25 1IM;.6o IJ .8 9'" tt~ha.bout pardianlhip, 12 (at. hoc. XIX) about inheritance, end 401hen
JIfOPC",
• Thcllbbie,iabw ·1aIIi-public·.wed todmol:e tbo.~ .... :hcswhidlbaft benlcrwped wid! doc pc;.... .. ' ill ""';ri", _ ipca and' h II a!ition.. buc which were fwpublic pc y' . : un(4 ,: 4U),L..,n(~IMdUll(rr.,w.-.iu) .
.,iau
M
w
3
Fowl play: a cun'ous lawsuit in classical Athens (Antiphon XVI, frr. 57-9 Thalheim)· PAUL CARTLEDGE
I
At • date towards the end of the fifth century I .e . Antiphon oompoeed I fOTeMic ontion. of which. venion wu delivered before an Athenian People', Court. in indictment of, Of defence apinat, onc EruistntOi on I chtirge
concemi"l peafow!': Thil may have been juS!: one epilllOde in I long-running
up of inteTfamilial conflict (below, eections
and v). At all events, the ancient equivalent of • 'aoap opera' was just what the officially appointed jurymen-judga and the infonnaJ cunmG of bystanden hoped. to witnetl or participate in during. trial held in the Agon of Clusical Athens. J Judging by the IlUbject-mattu of the lawsuit under IilCrutiny in the pramt CMIIY. there is every n:a;m to tuppoee that.1I hopes Wert well satisfied in this panrcul.rcue. However, Antiphon'. AgoilUl' Enuistmtof Ihould not be doeeJy studied IOkly for its potential cntertlinrnent value. The dC(:eptively .imple qUeltion 'why did Antiphon file hill peacock report?' masks I aeries of ever mote deeply lignifiCllnt question. about Athenian politica, law, culture and .ociety. By whom, why and how were the legal proceedings initiated, and on what charge PRCieelyl Why ... the cae allowed, or forced, to come to trial rather than eettled out of counl How and why were peafowl deemed to be fit matte.. for litigation? Why were they, or the suit, considered $I) important ·that the RrVi~ of an Antiphon were found nc:ce-.ary or dai,..bld In what capacit)' euctJy did Antiphon render thoee 1HVic:es1 And 10 on . III
I See Appax!u. for test and tram'''ioa of the 'f•• momll' in Tbalheirn', TeubneT edilion (J.eipsic 1914). Tbr titk. priqtcd by 1lIdhcim ;' tUm from IPlut.iMOf". 'lld (n .... below); H_pobatioa fr. 6 •• . - in includi.. the dc6niie uticle ('the' pafowl- omitud in the tnt of 51 and 59). whid! _the merit of dnwi.. MteMioa UI the';nplarityof lIM bird.. On the tille, UHI.,. on the ~ of~ . . . funber eoection. beler.. I On the . . . of the mal, MNn of the aait and dour. UHI Antiphon', r6k, eoection.; for • t t "lItifi ioa of EnIiItntoI, lCCtion n . J 'SoIp-opa.,~ , H~ 19IIlb : 1; d . Fn:anIa 11)46: :aa (litiption Iopp IkIt to lIM 'unUilinfdnmllio:: _ .... the Athe.....). 1'he_ of byIunden (""""n.,kI/ou.) : Ben
m.
-=
•=
19115 : I . '«*jon(,t) ... c:ouru: CmIp 1916: 108-9.
•• M
42
PAUL CARTLEDGE
MOlt of thole or eimilar quutiool carmot, unfonunately, be anI'IIIeled unequiVOClllly, kt alone: definitively. l'hia ia partly for aheer t.ck of the relevant ftctual information. In the tint pt.ce, dHpite the fame achieved by the tpeeeh in antiquity, three 'f,.-menta' are all that IUrvive from it today ; the iofllS auppoeedly verbatim quotation amounta to 00 mort than two len· tence8 of thirty-two words all told,· Moreover, .we do DOt know for certain the identities of either proeec:utor or defendant : that ii, we do not know which Erai8tnta. wu involved, whether he wu p1'n Ie cutor or defendant, or who his opponent ..... We know neither the precilC charge nor the type of action brvutbt by the plaintiff. The catalogue of our factual iporanc:e embnca aiM) the date of the tn-I.nd - not necmuily the same thing - the date at which Antiphon'. apeech wall put into circulrition in written form. 5 Such irnoranee i, not bllalful, eapeciaJly. it is lri~ly invincible. But it may alao be poaitively salutary, if it compels concentration at least u much on the wider aocio-polidcal context and meanilll of the calf! Don the biographical and legal minutiae. Btlidet, we do in fact know mouth of the likely chief acton in the peafowl drama, VIP. to a man, and enough about Athenian politics. la....., culture and aociety in the later fifth century to be able 10 make tnOft thin. little IetIIIe of the plot. Above all, though, the very idea of. major court-cae revo1vinc around peafowl counsell us to continue the quest for cnlichtmment. lince ... the work of meciiaevalm. .nd early moderniac. h.. conclusively demonatrated, obKure, bizarre and seemingly inexplicable legal cuatOtnl may yet be made intelligible in lei .... of • culture'. 'lMtftaJiti or mind«t, and lepl records CIIn prove uniquely v.luable IOUrca of hiacorical inaiJht. 6 In ahart, the Antiphontic pafowlsuit demandt to be rncued from ita pretent condition of near-oblivion for the light it CIIn.hed on the history of CI Ilical Athen., not leat on the __ talitl of that 10 ua irreducibly .Iien, and even by contemporary Greek ..ndarda highly exceptional, deliJOClltic polity.
II Our ditcUUion opens with politica• • Irnoet inevitably. For an Athenian People'. Court (diltastmcm) wu DOt only. juridical and theatrical apace, but a1.o and awntiaUy • politically defined artnI . Like all ancient Grttlt . .tet, t See AJlpmdix. Of W epeech', _imt reputmon (PhIl.) M.. Iud (- Vit. Ant. ao) ..mn: 'Hit _ Mlmind tpeed.- an! ~ OIIIhtotk., . . . .' EnuUtNIW ___ 1M'. ,Itt 1'H/tIel. Oft.,' 1'111' "'. andAl.i....' (pra.)Dt..adww,.,.IIII"lli.. dw_'tnofll"';'~ I" .' Of the. only wlh,iilt ileKWI'! f'~ .9¢; OIlW . .· meliliolled 01 tho! four _ Sealey '917: .6. n'47. 0.. tho! Villi by (l'Mardll _ _ '*- and
.... _Ii,.,."..,. , M . ~ •.
".,t.
I Antiphoa or hil din. (on tho! -client m.tloMtIip _ tat bdow and n.)9) ....... _11 hrtt withecllo put copin iftlO cin:u1Mion i... =d'-ttly",1tT the 1riaI. ~ il at.. ma.1 .... Kquiaecl (_ "'001111). BUI in the ~ portuIMed for lbe lrial (wttioft w) mort ~,. - . =-Id hit.... preoecup;c.d Antiphon _ . tMJ did Cieno ill tM We 60. (in. letter 01 1IIid.flo • .c., All. 11.1.). Cic. d~wiIb ... ·pubr h r'!he ~of _ 01_ tpCcd_1w W 6c1:i"... in 6]1. flApl ~ and .nc· I" FUItd .. c:owu.p. Iw..: 3; d . on dIe-..tt/IiU cor ......... Stone '917: eft. 8. t.. .. and ...eod, in ..:lion. in c:ocnpwatin pe.iptdiwc :
pc''''''''
""",,,,.'11:
' .c.
.,
FottJi ploy: a cunotu IGamu' jJl classical AIIwtu
the Atheni.n democracy did not, and would not h.ve wanted to, rccogniae the modem theout:ica1 DOlton of the 'IICpUItion of powen' of government and public admini.u'.tton. 1 In the Athenian dmtoIeratia of the fifth century •. c., both in constitution.1 theory .nd in everyd.y political proia the tkmoI (People) eJ[erciecd the /trams (aovcrcign power) in .11 three epheree of Icgialation, executive acllon and jurisdiction. e Even Aristotle, who w.. far from being • convinced dcmocnt, uw no rtuon to indict the Atheni.n dcmocncy on dat ground. Indeed, etruggling .. ueuaI in the Politics to render hcurittica1ly fmile the often hazy perceptions implied by popular linguistic Aristotle concluded that the citizen (polites) of a Greek ..ate wu best defined u the rtScvantly qualified .dult ma1e who w .. entitled to participate both in Itmu (decision-making, epecificalJy judicial) and in arlchi (of6ce-holding, including membership of. judicia] body). Moreover, he concededrca1ieticaIly if allO rather ruefully - that hie refined definition applied mOlt cloecly to the citizen of. democratic .tate (such .. Athens), u oppoecd to the citizen of an oligarchy in which the active exercise of citiun-rights depended crucially on a citiun'. wealth.9 ThUI, the pan "ion of citizenship in democratic AtheNl should in theory have implied the opportunity to take part in the administration of legal jtmice .. well u to legi.late and to execute political dcciaions. In prKttcc, of all Greek dcmocracica it wu the Athenian that mOlt fully mcuurcd up to Aristotle'e ideal definition of the citizen .. 'magistrate' (both in the ancient Roman ICt\IC of executive oHice-holder and in the contemporary sense of civil law-officer), DOl only in ita d.y·to-d.y workings but .lao in ita civic idcolOlJY. 10 One illustration of that ideology may .uffice here. So attached wu the good Athenian citizen to hi. juridical function in life that he might still ding on to his juror'. identity·token ep;"aJrimt) in his grave, perhaps thereby hoping in due couree to eccurt • place on the subterranean jury·panel drawn up by Rhadamanthy •. 11 The institutional baanof th.t juristic ch·i c ideology wu laid down mainly in
uuce.
Lot Roy
t..ct...n. 1975; D.... 11113 ; D.""" "
FoulXf'e 19116: ap. all ' How"u, on tho:
t£ndenc:y f ... nceptional people ...d beha'liour 10 be OOtli ItPfftoCnl.ed in ...,..,;.,;,.Iepl_ch 01 all kindI_ Moore 1984: St; HId '. rbttoricII o:.w Ihould nat be miIubn fOf • o:.w-hiIIIory'
(DowF 1974: 13)· , FOf Montatquicu'. _ _ f t DDfItn"bution 10 th;. ~ _ briefly ShecUrtoa '961 : ~I ; on the I.... WiJllhip bd .... theory and ~ pnelicc, bow,,", _ M8ia 11113: I' ('m'lJ1'J
myth') ; d. hanid: 11117 . • ~ IIJ7a : 147; SiJdloir 1918: 1:1-3; _further chapter I, leCtion III HId n.3l, .boW'(. , DdWtiGn: ArlIt. Pol. IS75-u-:Jl, u75b5""7; d . 11)10: 1J.r41, with Johneon 1984; ..t, 'Of tho: wit.. olip1:bX Sp.ru (which Iec:bd " I !.or judiciary), Ste. c:rog 11J7a: :MIr50. It See ~ SIndaIr 1981. CornP'"' and conm.: Waltman • Holland 1918: CIp. al~ (WaItm.n on 'chanrint moda of political perticipation' in moduli danoa . . .) . II Kroll I,",, : 9 ('ETfil tcMt.y it;. herd to thinIr. 01, ~ ...... OfNiate tymboI of *II Atbmim', ~,.of . ......01 •.........t indar-..Mic lO,a_I'); cf. H _ IIIIJC: l]4and 11. 19.
_li_
u..,.
1
44
PAUL CARTLEDGE
the lite 460& and the 4501 by the reforml Ittributed to Ephialte. and Perikle.. 1% A generation liter. by..mich time Atheniuw born duri", the en of monn had rtaChtd the qualifl'inl minimum. of thirty. the active "'etC;" of the political riptl of citiRnlhip It Athenl WM intimately ?SSClCilted with from the publK: coffen on the Inn~l1y recruited IerVing for pay panel of 6,000 dilttutai (judp .. well .. juron) who .ulred .t need the varioua People'. Couru.13 So complete and familiar did the UIOciltion of ide. become that in -p] Ariltophanes (CIotuh ao6-8) could make ODe of hill COIIlie ct..ar.eten pretend not to recocnile • map of Athen. bee.UK he could lee no diAtutai depicted on it. Indeed, in the foJlowing year he went 10 fll II to create an entire comedy. W..... the compnhensibility of which depended largely on the ludtence'. having. quite c:be familiarity with not jult the idea but .110 the proc:edura of the diJuutnia. The importance of WaJPS II evidence for the intimate implication of litigation with democntic: politica Cln hardly be mt.ed.14 For prumt PUrpoK'l. thouch, the play hal. precitt, bioB"'phK:.1 relevance I I well .
(IIIIis_>
III At line 1}8 of Wasps a certain Demo. i. invoked .. heiDI bios (' beautiful,), that i. .. the muculine, homocrocic equivalenl of, maiden', beins eonaidend nubile. U Given the peculiarity of hill nune (below). there can be no doubt but th.t thill Arialoph.nic: DemOi it identical with the 'Demo. .on of Pyrilampn' 01 Antiphon fro 57. From that fragment we learn thlt it was Demos who was keepiDf or rearing or nurturins (t,.".v;,.) the peafowl in litiliOUI question, and it would tberefort be mott economical to -.ume that it was ,Ito he who was either plaintiff or defendant in the cue and he who commileioned or otherwiIe IOlkited Antiphon'l Alainst Bnuirtra'os . But linc:e the me»t eeonomicaJ hypotheeea Ire not neu lI .rily the COITe'Ct hypotbeeet, I lelve thole itauea open for the moment and put on to rev1ew whit we know lbout Demos lpart From h .. involvement with peafowl, beariDf in mind throughout th" lCCtion the IOlemn warniDl that 'political prwopography is a type of study which requira , hiBher desne of caution than any othu historical field' . '6
"
.
Dcmot (literany'People') was very oddly named -much more 10, one might add, than the Athen"n who in roughly the .7osI4601 "'aa given the companbly novel name Demokn.tn. n However, the thinking behind the ehoice of nomenc:lature ... lurely the aame in both cua. naIMly the desire of their rapcctive fathen to m....e a public statement of democratic political intent. If the WaJIn reference to hia IuJIos status could be uKd strictly u. chronological indicator. Demos Mould have been no more than about twenty in 422 and 10 born no earlin than about w . But lince Aristophanes elected to use his naIM at leut partly ror the .....e of a double pun on Umos (the funnel of a judicial voting-urn) and tkmM, the chronological implication cannot be prmed. More likely, he wu born rather earlier in the 4408, during the intense politK:a1 competition between PerU.let and Thoukydides IOn of Melesiu which culminated in the ottracism of the latter in (probably) 443. IS AI there illOme reuon to IUppoee that his rather Pyrilampes might have wished openly to di..x:iate himself from Thoukydides and to Ulociate himaelf with the politic:a of Perikles on the qutltiona of relatioRa with Persia and the chanc:ter of the Athenian Empire, a auitable explanation of Demoe' remarkable name would be that Pyrilampet chose it u a mtaRa of proclaiming himself a good Periklean . 19 However that may be, the habit of politica1ly motivated nomenclature was without question deeply inp'ained in the Athenian, u it wu in other Greek, upper cluees.20 In the cue of Demos, we have to dea1 with a lOCialatntum very dOlt to the lummit of the Athenian 'top drawer'. Thus in the standard work on the Athenian propertied dua of liturgy-payen and champion raa:bone-ownen (Davies (971), he duly findl his place in the entry under Kritiu, the extreme pro-Sparun oligarchic leader of 404-403, and more precieely in the aedion coverins the family of Plato, III the ac<:ompanying alemma, incomplete and hypothetica.l though it is, is designed to iIIualrate (Fig. f). For a Nater of Pyrilampea, Demo.' paterntlaunt, beeame by way of her daughter Periktione, Demos' tint cousin, the maternal grandmother of Plato. Periktione, moreover, after bearing Plato and hia three siblinge to Mi. IIICIMUft 01. Oo:a .... _ : H _ 1916; Sinclair 1918: I and a . l ; a . H _, Wa """'" • Dt Pol 'v /WIt, I.ibMy. . . Ett-Jity ;" AIKinot ..J Net." ."'111"#...' ~t (CopcnhItm 1919) 4 and n. lI . Oft the 01. 1M term ~ SedeJ' ,917: gS-un with the prduable _ Q t ;11 o.tw.ld 1916:
" 8irthcL1a &Del
e-xy'
coi.....,
c:oat,_
1$ ft .4J .
II
Soutceot lot "".i«II: .
.. " -. Vii. Hw. 6 (18k
bear. ddeaded by Thouk.
1
PAUL CARTLBDGB
Kriboo (III)
I
I
I
Glaukon Kritiou (III) .. H (iii, of Pyrilampet)
KallaitkhlOl (III)
I
KritL(,V)
Ariltoo (I) .. Periktione (2) .. (2) PyriIampca Antiphontol (I) .. (I)H (F)
I
~
I
I
GIaukon.
I
I
i
PlIco POCOQf
I
Antiphon (II)
PyriIam~
DEMOS PYRILAMPOUS
Atitton, wu wer rmwried to her own ITUltenW uncle Pyrilam~, who thereby became Plato'a stepf.ther .. _II II Demos' father, while Den\OI' CQUlin became simultaneoutly hti Itepmother, ThilIOrt of complicated in·muriate. e.pecia11y betwem uncle .nd niece, WII thorouKhly typical of the Atheniln Elite, heine pnctiRd chiefty inorder to prevent the dilpenal of Iarp ancc bal e.tIta and 10 pi crve property· power,ll It is lelicctable, therefore, that _ know 10 little .bout the patriline of Pyrilampel and DOt even the nunc of his lint wife, the mother of OemOl,2Z We do, however. know enough fOl" Oavietl (1971 : 329) to be.bIe to ltate th.t PyriJampes .prang from. 'rather shadowy family of considerable wealth'. For the puIion for hone·racing exhibited by his f.ther Antiphon could only have been indulged by • pell Dr of that degree of inherited or tcquired wealth which led Davies (1971 : xxy-xxvi) to make competitive hone.railing (hippo. " ....a) one of hit criteria lex including. family in hill p ...lo",...phy of the Athenian,,~,'ied
ca,
PyriJampes. howeoer. WII no Lord Derby. In piKe of Irippotmphia he enpced rather in onritltotroplria (bird.fancying). In italf there WII nothing particularly remarkable .bout that, The Atheniana .t IarJe Itepc .n extraordinarily catholic range of native and exotic .vifauna for ludic. gw,ta.tory, amatory and other purpoaet. U But what diltircuiahed Pyrilampel uniquely Soutce 01. .,.: 0..- 1971 : P9-JO tIlL" "£54' 'r Auio:II, cd. J. K.irdIner (bo....her PAl '~). UlICh nim_,.: ~ It6II: 2]; d . n, •...,..., 1972: 2.' &')9 (Pyt. mel P.-iktiaM). P'OfIGI)-.,-w II Mbeat: Dnim .1)1,: .... 117"«1; ill the C .... -'ot rmenDJ: Lane Foa 1915; ~ (01 FI . . : Goody 1916: c.,. '5· a 1 . - _ 01 ~ AtMaian . _.. _ : Rae, I '973: 5]7; Sdwp' '9T7. D hlIIn,t .,.. : 376 (AtM ; : - ' 8inb • 'pod .dl 1ft flA' the biod dd d 01 the A* ;- p"p'''..... is! the oaItIIrJ' •.c.' - but lee _end at _riuw 1'. bekrw); Pollard 1m: ..... dIl.o: (~{l 11'-:), 1U (foodlaCl epon). n(peu); Kocb-HemICIIll)Il : ap · 97-105 (__ .~;.wben.'ItI:pdJy,Pyri! FII' P b-lllletivall'). aJ
h
Fowl /JkIy : 0
~
'_nti, i" c1oujr:01 AlAtm
"
was the face: that the birda he fancied were peafowl . His motivCl for doing 10 will be canvaued below (sw.ion IV). Here, the cireurnstancu in which he came by his initial breeding pair(l) are our immediate concern. On the buis of an Ariatophlnic pl"'ge linking peafowl with enYo)'ll from the Great King of Penia (Achamians 63, produced in 415) it h.. been IUggated that Pyrilampcs could have received his fint lpecimens through I chlnnel opcn only to a very few privileged Atheniana, namely as Imbusadorial gifts from the Gmt King himsclf.14 This ill plauaible enough in 10 far as it is ItIted in a Platonic dialogue named after another of Demos' couaina (Oumrn'des IS81) that Pyrilampcs had made mlny amb'Mldorial journeys to the King and othera in Alia. Indeed, it is by no meana unthinkable thlt it w.. as a member of the famous peace-making legation headed by PeriklCl' ?SScciate Kal1i.. in about ..50 that Pyrilampcs wu preaented with his original pcafowl.15 Chronology, moreover, does not rule this hypothesis out of coun . By the time Antiphon composed hill Against Erru;stratos the peafowl aviary founded by Pyrilampcs had allegedly been open to the public lor more than thirty yel", (fr. 57) . That allegation il unlikely (for rhClorial rcuons) to be very wide of the mark; and linee Antiphon was dead by the end of "lI, Pyrilampcs' first pni'owl should have relched Athena no later than +41 or W ·" Enough has been nid, it is hoped, to demonltrlte that Demo. wu In Athenian of the very highest socill and economic rank and to aitulte him within a focus of politics and diplomacy - the 'Penian Question' - that w .. central to Athenian public life throughout the fifth century and beyond. We shall return later (section v) to ccMidcr hi, poeIible rille in the peafowl drama. Now it g time to traMfer our Ittention to ErasiatratOi. Since a humble and undistinguished Athenian is most unlikely to have beconoe entangled with an adversary of Demot' or Antiphon', (below) stature and calibre, and lince the name Eruiatratoe is attested Yery rarely indeed in ClueicaJ Athena, the choice in identifying our Eraaistratoa lies effectively betwctn just two men : Eraistratoa (1) and ErastatratOl (III), who were grandfather and gruldaon rClpectively (Fig. 2}.Z7 Once again, if we Ire ao Hal_efteo' 1978: 159-60; Som_ein 1930: 160. Com~ Ilnd CUtlnAl lherifu receil'Cd by b. _ DcmoI in 1M J9CII (bem.. n.,6) and by T ;.....,..,. in 367 (which helped....,..re h. cuevtion: ScaIey 1917: 88 1M n.71). u TMneture. lim;tIf, and wryeziaerll:eol.r- (or P _ ) 01 Kill_are rn-.i'ldy ronuovoeniaI, buI_ Hill 1951 : J++, Inde!< •.6" 5 (.-.iblc nidenee) , with Hoi..,. 1916; Badian 1917; md for Pyr:.,.,..bIe penicipetioa. ~ 1973 : 597'"1; Holotecier .971: IS~ . • GiYftl Athenian rhoHoIiaII _'lntiolwo, the pcsfowl will not ha" hem (WI diep"y for IIntdI QIOft than thirty pan. aDd (WI the ilWkpmdo:ilt ....,.nmta for the ~ 01 tIM: triIJ pramted below (action 't") the......, -.lei !one t-a "'''....ed in JIbout +45. rIt IrypotIwti ;...t • lew yea ... Iftn- Pyr. MIl brouiht bd; lUI orifinal peir(.) from Su.. Pyr. lind .. ' - ' unlil-P4 (when he _ wounded" Ddion : PIut. Mtw. s8ld) but prot.bly not kq: tM.eefut. I> Alta DPM '97' : 5'""' (P.... IWI). 'piopoeed with __ than the ....... ew. ,e'. EnMtn!ot (U) it ruled 0111 01 COl li~lItioa by hit.., - too J'OUtlfto hi" bftcI, priow:ipel in I trial that
"
.a
PAUL CARTLEDGE Er . hdoi (I)
I Phaiax (I) I
I
I
H(f)-H(M)
I
LMId'rna (I)
I
ERASISTRATOS(III)
looking in the richt quarter, we have to do with a top-notch amb 'dorilll funily of both economic: and political diatinction. Indeed, the compuability between the families of Demoe. and EruistntOl extendt, u ItypotUn, to their continuity of high-profile political statUi during a period in exc:e.. of a century.ZI In light of the usua1 effects of partible inheritance Ind the tendency for inter- and in-marrying ariatoeratic families to fail to reproduce tbem.elvcs either politically or phyaically for more than a couple of IUtC.ltionl, IUch prominent continuity ia quite mnubbk.29 Jt UJUCS. baidea brute physical fertility. political ekill and economic adaptability of the hicheat order. especially in the radically un.table conditiona of the fifth century I .C. at Athena. Not the leut relevant of thOM: c:ondition. wu the riae to effective political power of the Athenian tkmos through the Aratos it wielded in the dWukria (above, aection II). A cloeer identification of our Erasiltntoa may be poacponed until the very end of thiaeuay. Meanwhile. theactentton iaclaimcd by the only othcr known human actor in the peafowl play. Antiphon inevitably comes fil"lt in the Uws of1M Teft! Omton' included in the corpua of Plutarch'. writinga. u he wu the earliat in what by the aecond century A. D. wu accounted the Clnon of 'Clataical' Attic onton (.~s) and apcechwriten (lofoI,apIror).lO In hit brief life of Antiphon the unknown author doea cite CaeciliUl, a respectable Sicilian Greek literary critic of the Auguatan en who had tried to lift the genuine from the . puriou. in Antiphon'. attributed corpua of lOme aixty worn.)l But that . till did not live the author from comprehenaively confu. ing our Antiphon (IOn of Sophiloe of the deme Rhamnou. ) with two of hi • • m known contemporary homonynu.lZ
•
., • )I
»
CICCIIfnd _ lam then 411110 (date 01. Anliphoa's 6eath) . .... (or Et.iItntoa _ 01. Emon (PA 50*7). tbtft it llllthiftc &pat from Ilia _ to COftiIftl bim with tbiI fllf1ily • TIM fanailiea 01. Kriti .., Solon and rt.to 'torcdw:r Jirid • family liM atteICCd in AIbcna for juIt under Ihree buAdred yean' (0.". 1971 : JU), while the linc oI.lbo! ErMiImtoi eneom.,_ _ hwM!red yean. PlIaiu __ b 1' 100 : Kicnaat I97J: 5,..,.... CompIre HopkiN and G. p, s.,.rt(WI, ill Hopkina I9IJ : dw. _, . (PM.JMcw . • , ....)4b: 011 !he coI~ .. I whole lee Gomme '945 : 56 n.J ,IM-*-w"): K. J. Dovet- in. Go =me,~, ar Dovet-I970 l aI6n . •. On ..-.fly. M. F~. KJmw P..Jy I. 911-9. that he cnatul or decilivdy Maped!he C - 01. Tm it doubled by Knmedy I96J: laS and II. I. B_ ,187: 9411.; o.-Id 1986: J5~1 ud lI.sa. Sa: furtba- tal UId lI.b , bdow.
e.,.
c-w..
,
k
.
Such lamentable iporance is panly attributable to the lite development of the biot'lphic:al genre in Greece, too lite to provide reliable dltl rvm on famoua fifth-ccntury Athenians like Perik1es. n But in Antiphon'. cue the metal ignorance w .. aggnVlted by the einguJar Chancier- of his political and litigious activity. Thit he appeal'S conliltently to have preferred to conduct in the Athenian equivalent of amoke-6lled back rooms, I"'Y from the normally mand.tory glan of public n:posure on the .pealler'. rostrum on the Pnyx M in • courtroom in the Aeon.)4 It is therefon: probably no accident that, detpite his undoubted wea1th, our Antiphon dOd! not appear in Davies', proeopog... phteal register. However, even though biographical reconltruction i. probLem.lic, the ancient claim that Antiphon wu the first Athenian pItos to publiah his speeches after the fact botb is plaUlible in itself and offen an important clue to the chronology and significance of his intellectual and political trtjectory.35 He was born probably uter rather than before Yet he it not reliably atteated until 42t, the likely date of the Peisandros in which the comic playwright Plato (fr. I03K) referred to him unflatteringly u 'greedy for money'; and none of his turviving writings can be dated much if at all before .po.)6 On the principle of Occam's ruor, the timing of Antiphon's first public notice should indicate that it wu in the .p.OI Ind not before that he inaugurllted the practice of circulating commissioned forenlic speeches in written form and thereby invented I peruliarly Athenian literary genre. For that innovation to be made sucee.fully, severa] tlcton had to conspire: tuf6cient development of literllCY and of the rhetoric:aJ art; sufficient demand at Atheni for the kind of expertiae embodied in published umplet of the rhetorician', art; and tuffictent appreciation of rhetorical Rill on the part of thoec Athenians who were likely to judge the penuuiveneu of .peechet compoeed by profeuionallogognlphcrs like Antiphon. Penuaaive speech of iuelf "'f" no new desideratum in the fifth century, nor wu it then desideTlted only in Athen •. 37 But in the 'city of wordl' it had b«ome a deaideratum of I uniquely intense Ind peculiarly Athenian kind, entailing nothing leu tban 'a change in attitude toward. the UIC of word. in
w,o,ra-
.so.
n Mumitll:iailO '97'; c..tIedte '917: 56. u 1111 dw J.pidary ptn. of B_ {'88?: 931. "Irie er im Dunkel bleiben -.oike, 10 ill: er ts
the hI'! I __ ,......Iivty.,. ito
~iellCi":
.j.... of'.
C' ; ht _ 'p..twlilef' (Kenned,lm: Batanan .966: 800)
tu.~.
J' Soun:a ...... Aatiphon'. priority ~ cited by II_ (.ss,: 95~) . FOI' wbM foUow. ift the _ _ ..,. B_ 'II?: 91-len: I>o'I'U '9SO: A.AlIIIh.A" ill C - , Aad,CWts" DoYu
.981 : I~, I~I; HeitKh .,&4: do. 6; 0ItwUS 1916: 359'"64. Oa hiI rbatoriI:8I rer:Iuoiquc, _ n. 46. '" 'nMn1M1'- _ _ _ _ . ' . in W..,. 1)01-2, ........ lin Alitipho;. ie " wwith'tba hip-m.., - &bout 1'brpUdau.' (o.twaId 19I6 : ~: r:f. Carter 1916: 65). CbtihoolatJ of • 1·I : o.-r '950 ( ·s i.tt._1' n " UclplledaiftAnt:.ccrtaiftlypnuine .... un
tofU/I) . n So t fi '-11916 1"-1; 811l1tOa 198:.: do . • •
M
w
so
PAUL CARTLEDGE
thia period'" and a privileai.. in the laWCOUttl of 'artificial proofl' CpUtm ftltlt"'NOf). that ia rhetoricallUppottinc IrJUmenta. over 'inarti6ciaJ' (IIU.... not) onet Nch u txculpltory Githa and evidence given under torture (d. chapteT 2, Kdton 1'1). Antiphon ..... probably not the 6m to compote aptechea profe.ionally for othen to deliver. doubdeu largely unaltered. in the Athenian lawcourtl, let alone the 61"1t ontor to write out the text of a apeech bdo~ delivery." But very probably he ..... indeed the nm to publiah commillioned tpeecha, making them available to the I1UTOW circk of the lettered and ~red ~lite. AI Mlch, hit prlCtice Itrortlly panllela that of the IO-CIiIIed 'SophiM.a'. Since about 4So thetIC mainly non-Athenian inteUectuala had been telling privauiy what they claimed to be their unique technical expertilC for practiCiI political purpnln to the .elect - ohen young and arittocratic - few. who both could afford and increasingly felt thlt need for their instruction. 40 In 413 Ariltophana testified obliquely to their IUcceli by vtcioualy aatirising Sophiltic methodl in the CImuiJ. But liready in 427 the Sicilian Sophist Gorgia b.d reportedly dazzled a mind public audtence of mainly poorer Athenian citizena by the Iheet' rhetomal po-...er of alet-pi~ antion (Plat. Hipp. Ma. a8ab; Diod. XII.S3.2-S - 8aA 4" &); Ind in that ..me year, if we may credit Thucydidet (111.38, tip . 38'4-'7), Kleon had taken to tuk pretty much the IUfte Athcniana f01' tMir readi_ to be awayed by the deceitful devemeu of tongue-twitting intelled.uala, meaning Sophiltl. 41 ThOle lut two references happen to concern the Athenian Aaeembly. but the importance of rhttoric and the Itraros of the dmtos were no Imaller in the tiMastm'a than on thlt Pnyx, and the courta were proMbly luffed by much the same aort of citizens, if I01neWhat poorer on avenp. u thOK who regularly .ttended the Aaembly (participation in which _ not remunerated before 400 • .C.) .4Z By -P7, then, our nee I ary conditions for the publication of forenlic apeechea had been IItia6ed. But are thlty alao IUU;cient conditionl? More preci.ely, wu Antiphon motivated IOlely and merely by merttnary STeed, u • GoIdhiU 1916:
~h ,
)
(ct.pt~·litkl •
..oa; d. LanD 1979: np. ch. :a ('11 diecono t il '"""- .,e,. .~ .,t.6; t>o¥er 19Mb: "p •
1ibto1; B\Won 191" "'P... ' 'I. 16, ,.. ; .nd _
"'-r
..._ .
"Kennedy 1,6) : }-''', ~I ; •....,.. I'ClimllU'ld c-ttuat') . • P",odeic:k (1917) di.mh f..-. .he ....,..... Wi_II .. - _ _ B. c-in, C '" 6a (1,sII1 .,.tI - th8I Antiphon of RIIannow _ idallical wilh 'AlIliphon .M SafIh;.e' I.... DiN-K.....) aM ~ that lhe f _ uu,lII rhdorie . but COI _ _ the IitnilariIJ bc!atcn the profCeeiM" of Sophilt and ~; d . Aat. E",IIytJ. ]05e. wilh Rankin .913 : 97 (Sophillh • rbetoriciaM nther !han p.i".,~'x .. . toAtnJ de Romillr .gII). o.t.aIcI {1,B6: 363--.1 caubou.Ir favours the iclmti&c.tion of theM: two AnliphoM • • 1 do . • , GOIJiM .1 Alhaw , WoodNff .,sa, 3"" . o.cwakl .,a6: '"4N. 'nIue. NOd K'-' , MICIeod 1978: esp. 71; _ .... below, n ..... ... Sealey 1917' 16-7; SinclUr 1918: "3-35' 'Tbc ctw.ctm.cion - eM' nlhcr ~rt -of Philokleon..nd fcllow·juron ill W.... m.... on no_III be ,*"Iilerall,.. "-blr' r-! ' Markk ,,as,
h.
1
S' Plato Comic:uI perhape ecurriktully IUggested, or did he entertain I hidden, political-aenda .. well? That i8 to IIY, wu hi, publishing u well .. writing of lawcourt lpeechCl above ,II • wly of conducting high (or low) politics by indirect, forensic mean.? It i••IWI~ dangerous to .....nne consistency and principle of Iny politician. even I bad.room one ; and the dangcn of anachronistic IeCOfld sight Ire: notorious. But in 411 Antiphon did emerge quite conspicuously .. one of the moving .pirita and luding theoreticians of the narrowly oligarchic countcN'tvolution (mt'tastasis) of the Four Hundred: the Ip«'Ch he wrote - and, for once, neccanrily deljvered - in llelf.dcfencc againat • charge of high treuon arising out of that coup adequately proves that.4] Moreovet'", there i, in whIt i, preserved of that bmoul but ul\lu«:e8lIful apetth • pl ...ge which, correctly read, teem. to demonstrate the existence of that hidden -send•. The KCuution that he had regularly composed speeches for other. to deliver in ooun and had made material glIin from the practice"'-
thllt he does not deny, in 'Pite of the Athenian public'. ambivalent attitude tow.rd. the trade of JotograpItia ,45 What he does deny i. that through hi. speec:hwriting (and. we may add, speech-publi. hing) he had aimed to bring about the coup of 411 . He denies thi., however, in a revealing w'y, indulging in hi. favourite argument from probability46 while simultaneou.ly giving it a brilliantly ironical and indeed IOphistical twi.t: i. it likely, he in effect lib, that I.hould have wished for an oligarchic r4ime, when under that oligarchy my speechwriting ability WII politically unuuble, whereas under the preceding democracy it had made me uniquely inAuential? The pride of a maater of his craft-akill (leAh";) .hina through this disingenuou.ly rhetoricaJ plea, and Thucydida. (vllI.68,2) WII no doubt ju.tified in treating the .peech .. a whole I I a masterpiece of oratory. But few Atheniana .ining in judgement on Antiphon in 411 / 10 will have b«n awayed by that panicular argument, and no more .hould we allow ouraelva. to be in the relative calm of our studiea or libraries. In truth, behind the coup of 411 there lay a decade or more of patient preparation, in which the r6le of Antiphon, a major one, had been to lend or perhaps more often hire out hi.
the.v.
.1 ThUC)didn (nn.68.I-a) bath idtatme. ADt . • the eoup'. priIM mover and pn;.. defCMe 1f'MCh; n . A. AM.tuU in Gommo:, And~ III Oovu 1')8. : I~aol . Tbc b4M IIIfYiftnt f •• mcnt of ......... btuI'lC kno-a. the Pm UI_t _ _, on. plpynII now in ~, _ 6,. publilllCd by J. Nicole in '907 but iI ~ .ad in Thalbc:ino; d . W. S. FeIJUIOII ~ eoDdemaalion of AII.ip!xm' in Mil.".l G. GIDtI, :I (pan. 19):1) I:
voa..
J.f9'"'66.
.. But Nicole', reMontion - 'My KaIKf'I claim tlIII: ••• I.d'.tnt) per cent. my 1ft' -;. bath pel OIflflLkaDJ W....iiut (Cemet 19:13 : 16!;-6. eitint the IutOpI)' of V. Martin) and ~ impwwDk (LipIiuI'9IS : 1)06 11..191. MIid.-'. ' ... and dill: The Four HIIIMlred pra6ted by tbiI' (194' : ~I ;. no betm. ., Bon.... 19:17 : &-:J; Llveacy 1964; Do¥er I " ': IS5""9 ; 1974: 1.5""'6; c.re,.&:Rrid I9IS : ¥ii , 1]'"".1; ~ 1911: 186 ..... D-94.. For tha 'rida ,.icc, of ~ cia,. attUled in Aollipboa'. _ worb' (LIoJd 1979: 10 11.,'051_ K I . ~y .t63: ,aN], Is.-'/', :10]-4; DIM HeitIch '914; S. UIhcr in &twaniI • UIioa' I9IS: "'P. 5""'6. 'I1IiI pIrticulIr PIor _ not of ....... to ADtipboa.
.,so.
1*'\'_
,
,a
PAUL CARTLEDGE
exptrti.e u lepl consulbnt and gholtwliter to 'front mtn' of varioualy oliprchic penuuKm. In puticular, hit ....pport will have been caBed upon by members of the upper-claaa I)'R\pobc IfOUpi mown HomcriClI!y uhetairftai ('comradely For IIlK:h men were regularly - and not necemri!y unju.t1y - -=Iectcd .. WJeU in the count by opponeata whom they then vehemently - and not neee uily jUltly - countercharJed with being suloplumttli (maliciou. or ve:utioua pruecuton) and~' (mil-leaden of the People) ; .nd Thucydidel (vlll .54.4) .pecifia the function.ll concentntion of theae '1WOm brQtherhoods' (nNl'.lMOlial) al thit period on la..uiu and electiOnl to office. 41 The a - , at lafJC _ dimly aware of Antiphon'. behind-the-ecenet and aubvenive machinationl, and the politically conedoua democrata hated him for it. But in the .hort run at any nte. the tkirtOttl (ckloel he II ) of Antiphon triumphed over them. 4I Such wu the aubtle political operator who IICripted
band.,.
the ApitU' El'tuiltmttn. IV
Leaving Antiphon the ghoMwriting lOjOJ,up/toI on one aide, we p ... from Pf'OIOPOII'aphy to peafowl, the final ingredient in our bird'. nest IOUp.
JUIt
one pqe of the omnium llliherum entitled Dnpnosoplriltai ('Banqueting
Sophi. .'), which .... compiled at Aleu.ndril by Athenatua around A. D. aoo, preaetVea the largeat collection of literary dau on peafowl in CII.......' Greece : whence, for iDltl.rK:e, Antiphon fro 57 (from Athen. IX.39?Cd). Moat of thi. page, however, il devoted to philological muainp on the noteworthy fact that the Athenisna both pronounced and .pelled ~, their loin-word for 'peecnck', with a rough breathing on the lut . yllable to reprueot the ob.olete ~ .ymbollnd aound (d. Latinpaw). There could be no more graphic illuatflltion of the peacock'i iilemediable foreipnea, and more apeci6cally ita oritntalitm (the bird it I native of IOUth India), to Athenian eya and can." It wu perba", therefore mainly to Ivoid the Itigma of barbarism that Antiphon in hit IpCCCh Ivoided uting the word altoscthcr and aubRituted Of • •
ainWaiI...
1ilJi: Calbowl 19.]; A. AI'od'Ne; in ~_. AfldI'fWa II Oovu 198. : '97' : .S~. '97 -'- n.l) (with rc'r . by J. K. om., C J 41 ('9nl
taI-J, ; d . c:on-
11)&7: 6; J_ 19$6: '&0). '~]. Sytophlrq: belcnor, below. ".69. • Acconlinc to TtNc,diclel (l'UI.M .I), Ant • •wltic:tecI h. per-a public: "" 1.... __ ,...neI,b .die (J4t1l .)-.. .. r'tioutof_roepl"rion (....)fat.i .M#• . n. _ cuetM. of.. t ' , ....,. aDd ~ It 111.3705 (..-.:h of K__ • 4*7) • ]76-1). Coai=ti.... of Ant.: 8
ft.6]. '0.
m
"
. . ..
t
:
m
--'1 noI coilicidenal •
Die. '.
.. P. 0Iantnine. It; iO",io- .,.,..,.. ",qu. HU..n •• _, tf (r.;. '910) u '.; d . HdIa '9" : 3Ss-63 (kindly bnIupt 10 my.-ice by RobM s.n..) : KcUer '913 : I ~; &.ier, RB lUX. 1 ('931) '4' ..... ' ; Pon.nt 1971: 91-) - f1Mtber orcithololical . . ill J. Ia •• nor "'"".'.,. w.u (HfncIheId .910); d . 11.. o.wm., n.r 8IiM W.ul Ih,. (Oxfont 1916; H."._t A04th .911) '99 (.. a eli evolutionary ap .....ion of the; d',tail).
_n.
1
FOfAJi play: a
at""'"
lawsui, j" dasur::al AtAtlU
53
• kind of plain man', Greek periphrasis, poiltiloi omitltt S ('spangled
birdal Specimens of peIICowl may in fact hive been fil"lt inh'oduced to the Greek wtIrld on the eastern Aegean i.land of SunOl as early .. the eighth century • .e .so But they remained an extreme rarity, at leut in Athen., down into the fourth century (Antiphanes ap. Alhen. IX.3971) ; .nd the pafowl of Pyrilam· pea wen: aimOlt certainly the first 10 be accorded reaident alien Itatul there. 51 Quite certainly. they we1"C the only onea kept by an Athenian in alOft of aviary lMI.,.... regularly opened to the general public, even if jUII on the lint day of each lunar month. This prompts I question .. to the motives of Pyrilampea Ind, sinee he continued the practice, of hi. ton Demos. Partly it Wit. miner of 6lthy lucre (IMrmtDtUmos). So grtlt were the rarity and conaequent prestige-value of peafowl·fancying anywhere in ClINical Greece It this time that, according to Antiphon (fr. 57), 'many people in their yearning (potltos) for I light of the birds travelled from (a fir IMld a) Spana and Tbeaaly Ind spared no effort to get hold of eggs' - perhlpt by foul melM as well as fair. It ia poaible that an entrance-fee wu charged for admiaaion to the lviary, but in any cue the eggs will not have been given away gnJhs (except perhapt to penonal xenoi and any other higb-mtua individuals to whom Pyrilampea and Demos wished to payor return a favour) . Indeed, to IUCTlltive and extensive was the 'buai_' side of the enterpriae that a valuation of no lea than t , 000 drachmas could be placed upon a - presumably breeding - pair {Antiphon fr o S8) .n At that rate juat twenty pain would have placed Dernoa comfortably within the mimated tax·bracket for the ccmpulaory liturgH: payments to which only aome ]00-400 people at Athena were at any one time liable.!J This is an intriguing and unjustly neglected ramification of fifth-<:entury Athenian economic diversification and development. But the significlnce of thne peafowl waa not confined to the economic sphere. From Plutarch (lJfe of PeriAk, 1]. 15) we learn that in contemporary comic drama Pyrilampea wu .. MmocIocoe. FGH S41.a; d . Imboof-Bluma' • Keller 1889: pl. " '49; Shiplc-y 1987 : 18 and n.67. ' I II wwId awe- IhM tIM: Gtftk kl lll ', ' -too tokl tIM: CIIutionary talc of tIM: Athtnien .n.tocnt Hi~ (Hdt. "I"t . I)O . I; dnmatic dete ' ..570) _ llna.~ of itt llitimae toOb in the Indian .tory of the Danci,. Peacodl, TIIiM •.." '9U: 19,..s. A~ I •. 4. ~-Allltin (f",,",~, l ¢ ) iI ~ the a.lieII: Atbmian mttml'C III. lhe bepi..- of peWwI. p A~-dwte : Adian Hi". M . Eg.proOuc:tlon , Arile. HUt. M . "'. 9, 56+uS-:J1 (qllOCed .,. Athm. lX,)Q7b) ~ an annu.l dutch 01 • round ~. Valwotion , the ~ MS racli,., " 0,_ dnchrn.·. ie riPt.,. tej«ttd by 'nIalhei1Jl ; S. Spj.OpO....D. and E. V..... pwl. 8mb of tIw ~ A,mr IPri.-. ton '985) I aft tMn:fDn! doubly ~ to rq>OrI 1M ...Juation 01 • ~ . bird .. 10,_ dnm.-. PoIlvd ('917 : 9') ti- tIM: CXIi.«ot ficutt but ,.......,. IIr,d.....Iti· INtel ic .. 1M equl",,1eM oIl.,ooo.t 1977""""'. IJ On the titurpe _ _ (nit . J-4 talenr. mifliaollfD). KC D.... 19'. : e .... ~) . The AchmiaiI. citiRn body proa.bly _ fell below .u dIM the 400 or .u ftftb.cnttury liturv-~ (~ _ • · ~1. _
".a•.
ao._.
54
PAUL CARTLEDGE
teptetCnted u dilpatching peafowl u iove-Jifts to aid and abet the extra· marital dMOWJ of hil cornrw:Ie (htdirol) PerikSes. POiaibly Plutarch ... right to dilmiaa the vuy idea U ICUrrilou.tandu, but it does at leat Ihow that lOme c:onnc:ction could be eugated to the public mlnd betwu:n Perikkl, Pyrilampa, politiCi and peafowl. That connection, IUrcly, wu their common involvement in Penian o,tpoIitiJt (above, leCtion III) . For the on,itlwJlrophia of Pyrilampet (and Dentol) " beat explained u an exotic equival~t to the It~ of Pyrilampet' father. that il to ..y. u a species of c:onlpiCUOUI CONUmption conceived u a politica1 investment d~ to .ecure a return of favour (..mit) from the Athenian dDrttu. S4 It " true that exhibiting peafowl onc:c a month WIll not on a par with, "y, winning the four-hone chariot-race at the quadriennial Olympic Games (u Alkibiadea moet famoua1y did). But replar public d"play of that exotic bird. would conatantly hllve reminded AtheniaN of Pyrilampa' IUCC lul diplomatic dealings with the Great King of Peraia and thereby have helped to maintain hiland Demoa' elevated publi<: ItItUi and high political profile.
V The dramatic ICene h.u now been let, the principal droMotu PtnotrM introduced, the aalient exhibita reheareed. It renuin. now to let them all in litiaioua motion in luch a WlY" to account adequately. in terms of what we know of Athenian law, culture, tociety and politiCi in the late fifth century • .c ., for the one acan::ely dubitable fKt in hand, namely that Antiphon wrote a lpeech EnuillmtO$ which he later put into wider public circulation to eventual critical acclaim. To berin with. it it reuonable to infer from the political Ind lOCial eminence of the ramiliet moat directly concerned that we are not dealing here with a one-off and purely penonal diapute. Far more likely this wu but a lingle epiaode in one of thoae long-running feuda involving 'yar after year of provocation and retaliation' that were 'a coNpicuoua phenomenon of the upperd ... aociety with which, in the main. extant Ani<: oratory it concerned,.n In fllCt, the Atheniana collectively enjoyed or suffered. HeU....wide reputation for litt,iouaneu. However. their adminedly heavy commitment to the lawCOlIrtI WIll due neither to lOme ingrained trait of character nor yet to administrative laxity but rather to the unuaual degree of compLexity and differentiation of Adlenian aociety and ita radically democratic political coMtitution.$6
Api'"'
... On tudI poIitit;aUy motinted apmditurc (II . . . .) in ...... _ 0....... 1911 : np. 97'-105 (.,.,.,,..,...) . BUI _ alIo below. 11.71 • .. Do¥er 1974: III; d . GokIhili 1916: I). PIaIo (u.. 6Nc) MJaIC;c.11y ~ ~.
tapebel' wid! ,,_ (ciYil
dIy·life .,. in wIlidl other
.,...bk
~) • • ~
!MIl _ _ eYU}'
oWriot to
of wuf... pet'Uw to and INn each
~
b7 -.:I and deed' (ttuII. Semdm 1970) •
... AUepd nai'l'lfy
~:
i~
At. a...G aa6-1, 'II'ith Dcrwer 19611 : MI Ik .; 'l'hut. I.n-I: by J_ 19,$6: 1)111.4 ; _1"IIllMr Sinclair 1911: 110-11 .
1
FCNJI "foy: a ('llriosu fauma' i" classical AIlMo"s
"
Thus the courts, II we have seen (section II), were I thoroughly politiciec:d forum, the proper arena for ceruin types of political contest, in which buainca proeecuted .1.0 in the A..embly Ind elsewhere WII naturilly earried
on. It WII almost inevitable therefore that public men such II Eru~tratOi (lor Ill) and Demos IOn of Pyrilampcs Ihould hive pUflued their emuloulltriving for 'honour' (t;",e), whIt Aristotle (Eth . Nic . IOCJSbu)-31) characterised IS 'virtually the goll of politicillife', in I People's Court. There men of thit ItImp conducted their penonallnd political agon ('contcat', but also specifically '11W!luit') before I jury dtemed to stlnd for the dnnos of Athens, whose judgement II to both fact Ind law was final, and whose verdict served IS I public measure of the relative time of the opposing Iitigantll. 57 Even if the developed fourth-ttntury procedures of public arbitration designed to encourage and facilitate out·of·court settlements had been aVlilable, it i. unlikely that either ErllittratOl or Demos would have wished to IVlil themselves of them. 51 The wonder, in brief, ~ not that EruiltfitOl, Demoslnd Antiphon became IIOmehow mutually entangled in a lawsuit. The problem rather for UI, .. in I ditrerent sense it WII for the original jury-panel, il to decide why a charge Ihould have been brought concerning of all things pelfowl . In order to rnolve this, we must consider whIt type of suit wulodged, Ind by whom, Ind thus whether Antiphon's speech WIS written for delivery in penon It the requtllt of I relative or friend Of on commission for delivery hy I client (who might also be a penonll friend or political ally), Ind whethet it was a spe«h of prosecution or defence . Taking the last point first, the obvious plsce to begin is with the title of the lpeech I I tranlmitted by the ancient sources. Ancient titular clueifications, which are known to have ~n recorded at early .. the fourth century, Ire unfortunately notoriously unreliable; and in the cue of theA,airm Erasistratos the title II prcscrved ~ anywly crucillly incomplete. lince neither the type of luit nor the chlrge is lpecified . However. the Utle of pros ('Againlt') in the title given by both the luthor of the Plutarchln ~s of tilt Tm Drawn (Mor. 833d) and Ad;'n (Hist . An . v.al = Ant . fro 58) il likely to be correct, which helpfully narrows the range of formally possible procedures and charges. Either Antiphon's lpeech wu written in proeecution of EruistratO! in I non-delictull private luit (diu) involving some property of (or claimed by) the plaintiff. 59 Orit was written in defen«: of a litigant accused by EruilltltOl, f7
SuiYiftt m
"\II
for
n.w: Dower
1974 :
u~;
Sle. Croi. 1981 : 80, 551 11.)0. Litiplton •
of it: Dower 1974: IS1; o.bome 198sb: 4B-sS •
-= pncnlly
• Arbilntion, etc.: ~I ; FiIIJey 19115: arbitration
Ham- 197' ; briefly M..:DoweIl 1978: th. 4. np. 01 die .... aM _Mill for flIWty implied by
I~ r~' ~).
" On It. .., IuIUJldiW prw d_inelion .uiWlU on ipt:IICb·ritln ac 319-90).
-=
R...eMnbtDc:h
'969:
ap.
1
JC)a
(_ilh _
56
PAUL CARTLEDGE
in • 1m; V or .nother kind of public Nit. of h.ving commiued a crime eomehow allepily affecting the public weal. 60 The former altemati.,e, if indeed tuclt I Nit (diAi /HOI) actually exiated. ill hardly .ppropriate to. cue cmtrins on peafowl . The only W'y. therefore, to uphold the view that E......rato. ... the defendant in I printe auit ill to auppote. imp'-uaibly, that /HOI ill an error 1(11" /tata in the tranamitted apeech.title. Thlt, in effect. ill the line taken by, for eumple. the Loeb editor of Antiphon (Maidment 11)41: 303-4). On thill intcTpretation of the ICeftlrio Eruistntol wu acc:uaed by Demo. of the theft either of peafowl or of eggs. IE ill, I IlUppoae. conceivable that Demoa could and would h.ve I.unched • priYltc lUit lpinet .Iongatanding opponent on IUCh. charge. the pcna1ty for which in the CaIe of plOpeity deemed to be worth more than SOO drachmlll could be dellth or rettitution of the property together- with. fine p.yable to the plaintiff of double theclaimed value of the .olen gooda. and poaibly five daY' and nights of public ridicule and phyaical dilcomfort in the stocb .. well. 61 It ill not 10 easy, however. to lee why in thoee cifairMtances Demo. should h.ve 10M to the lengths of commis.ionina: ••peech from Antiphon - unlell Antiphon agreed. to Ippear u. 'MtufOl'Ol (aupporting advocate) becauae he ... IOmehow re'-ted to Demoe (whose paternal snndf.ther wu .110 named Antiphon. though the name it not IUtcommon)6Z or agTeed to do 10 for lOme other
~rMmll
or political reuon. But the lut augntiOfl, It Iny ... te,
involving • public Ippearance in court. would IeefI\ to be ruled out by Antiphon'. prdermt behind·the-acenell mode of operation. On the other hand. it ill Intecedently fir more likely that a court cue involving Demoe and Antiphon would h.ve been inttigated by the lodging of. "apIri (Iitmlly 'writ') or lOme other public action. in other worda, th.t Eruiltrato. had broulht IUCh .n action apinat Demoa. For by 10 doing he could have claimed 10 be lCtina: u • public-'pirited citizen on beh.1f of the community at Ilrge rather thin for the ..1le of .ny purely pef'lOnal.nd priv.te advantage or redrell ••lthough he would .Iao have been careful to Ilreaa hi. penonal enmity tow.rdt Dernoa 10 u to Ivoid the countercharge of .yb . phancy or malicioua prosecution. 6J Fittingly, the penaltiell .riaina: from a IUcceuful public Iction tended to be more seYeR than thOle resulting from a diM .uit, while the financi.1 and political rewuda for the prau cuto, were 10 III
I'll)'
Yiew Gommc (1956: 634) _
trdH)' IniItaUII ill IUppoai,.. tholt Ant. fIi_uted
E. . '1ato. (I) in bi...,", bcMJf. 'I On ill mstten rqsnItac tbdt ia Atbmian law. '"' Cohc!II9Il. who dmia. tOIotlooe.tlaIl)" tha theft aiMed al"flltllor theft but c:orently - . - the likdiIoood 1"- 1Urnn.ry. 1Idl·be!p p'ocilduft; _kl-....Ily be pmltrftd 10 litiption •• _ of maliation met red~. N Thiipollibility_. a lIed to "'" by Ds'lid Harwey; n. Hulllf'lwc,. 19M: I .... (pMrikin. "'PfI'OI'W'I in tlot ()(IUrU); ...:I Todd, tbiI ¥Ohmot: dlapcer a (wit_ rmrrsIly • IiIpporun). But apart troll! their (Il0l WM H _ ) _ _ md IlUI rrisI, !ben: iI IIOIbiac to ......
~t
u.- r.o ADtipboM.
!oJ On~,
'"' tM pspen by o.bome - ' Harwey in lhiI ~ (where tbiI poim iI IlOl implieMiom, _ o.bornc
It . . . betaa" them); on choice of p'ocedura - ' tbtIr poIitica~
'915 b.
"
57
commemurately greater. At the ..me time, however. the risks in bringing I public: suit were a1to tet higher in order to deter Clpricious proeecutions : I di S bout failure might lead to 10. of full citizen rights on top of • heavy
fine." On my view, therefore. which gives pros ita natural meaning, much the more likely t«OMtructed KClUlriu hu Eruiltrltoe proaecuting Demos in I high.lllltua, high·rip public Iction. But on what chlfld None of those for which we have specific evidence thlt the gmpIri procedure wu available and uaed in Cluaical Athena fitl eu i!y or obviously. cue involving peafow1.63 But there did cltilt two further public procedurel akin to the f"lPIti. the cul"lCter and function of which may be germane to Eruiltnt08' preoccupation with Dflnoe and 'hil' peafowl. For bothphasis and tJ/KJI'apAi alleged the wrongful private pan -ion or exploitation of public property and oUtted large financi.l incentives to I luccnaful proeecutor.66 The surviving '{rag. mrnta' of Antiphon', speech Ire compatible with this interpretation, which, moreoVeT. yield, , far more aatiafaetory explanation of Antiphon's rlile in the affair. To judge from the wording and emph..is of the two longest suppoeedly verbatim quotations, Antiphon't client wu explaining to the diluutai why what he consittentiy called the 'tpangled bireD' could not be given even more publicity and generalacceaaibility than they already were. They could not be kept in the polis - a term which could mean either eomewhere in the city-centre of Athenl or apecificIUy the ucred citadel of Athena, the tJIt~ poIu" - beauliC then they would 8y a....ay, unleu their wings were clipped ; but to do that would be to destroy the IOUrce of their beauty. That it a poaible defence against a claim that the peafowl mould hive been exhibited in tome public space, poseibly the aacred Akropolia itacl£. The most atraightforward b ..il for tuch a claim would have been the view that the birdt were in lOme relevant 1ICD.e public property, adVUleed on the grounda tha.t it "'as in hil capacity u ambastadorialllCrVant of the Athenian demos that Pyrilampea had received hi' initill specimena. Atheniln II"", it "'ould be added, did not recogniac poue"ion u eometbing deeerving protection in and of itaclf, let alone p:l ll ! 5fion for . mere thirty or 110 ~,.., and had only the haziest notions of ownership. Moreover, although the extremely high monetary valuation of a pair of peafowl could coneeivably have been cited by Antiphon in order to diK:iedit the mercenary motivlCl of a pM ' t cution by ErumratOi of Dcmoe for wrongful potu lion of public property,6I the aJleged tum would quite certainly hive been gritt to the mill of Eruiatntot wen: he trying to convince a .. ~ 1916: 11-17; MKDowdlI971: 6.t-s. 7M· If
8ridty, o.buone 11)85b: ss-6.
'I).
.. H~ 1971 : 111-17 (.... " :111-21 (JrMJU) : QIbocne l,s,b : ......, (COftlInETlti,. at 47oatt..P- ;.,01 _ _ _ 01,...) . ., ~. n. IS.,; d . ~ 191,: 101>-1 mel nil. +t-5 (IoIU I'IDI ftpla:ed in i,*"pcioal by
_ ' I ,., -a..tr ct), 107·
II Fortbe-M
MjH
'II. .
in.p/tMUtt..~
_ _ halfaitbejH mck.
1
58
PAUL CARTLEDGE
jury of on the whole pooiei citixns that Demo. .,.. mUinc privlte IUper-profiti It the npenee of the Athmiln . . . . . Let UJ IUppoee, then, that Eramtrate» brought I pItosis or ~ .,.inll Demoe conc:emina 'bU' peafowl. Why, finally, did he think the game worth the candle? Did h .. confidenc:e in h"cue Ikm wholly or in part from its intrintic meriul From hi. own IUthority and Kill U Ilitipnt, or tholle of hil witne.a and pes-hapl tpeeehwriterl From luch non.LegaI or extra-1egI1 facton .. the perceived relative ItIotu'of himaelf Ind Demott or the immediate political climate and circumlllnca~ Or wu it from lOme combination of all or .orne of thae variables~ An unim~hable anawet' of tour. eludes u•. But tincc the peafowl had been in the: '.mily of Demo. and on regular public display duriOCa period of more than thirty yean already, it would not amn unr~~ to lUiBut thM It Ieut the timing of the proeccution w. determined by the immediate political climate and circumatancel. In about 417 a particulariy dwp bout of intetr'lttine strife among the ladi"l political group- It Athen8 had retiulted in the C»tnci.m of the dnrrtWOfOJ HyperboIDII. M Our Eruiltrate» was probtobly either ·uncle or nephew of the Phaiax who at leut accordina to one account wu ttntrally involved in that C»t...a.m.70 He would thu. have been well situated and lUitably motivated to take ..:lvan. of the witchhunt directed by dntagogoi in 415 ..-in-. .utpected olipreb.. Of .,.iut peraonal and political enemiet; who might plaUlibly be repraented u clolct oligarcha .nd even potential dictaton.'l Demoa' e»tentatiou. wealth and family connections (It any rate by hi. flther'. ItCOnd marrillge into the oligarchttally minded ramily of Plato) made him peculiarly vulnerable to an alLegation of thi. nature; indeed. the charge would derive no little support from the fact - if it i. I ract - that Antiphon, by then Mlrcly actively oligarchic, was used u consultant derence lawyer and speechwriter. It may not be otioec to add that the very chancter and lIIOciationa of the pelicock might pllUlibly have been adduced in COITObontion of DemoI' alleged oJipn:hk or dictatorial tendencies.71 Equally conducive, I aubmit, to the timins of the putative pf'OlCCUtion were .. A. And'-m~, Andnwct81 Do-ver 1911: IS...... On ·cklh4Oiua· pncnlly (not. wwd uted by nue.), 1ft Finley 1961 f 'ltNCtUnI tlnnmc in d~ lYMan') . .,. (Andolridet) 11': PM. N~ . 11.10 (citint .""Ihority n.c.,.hn.to. ff. 1)9 Wchrli) ,AA. I}: d . A. AndN'Wft m GomrM, A....... u 81 I>oo..r .911 : 151-9. 11 "Thue. "'.60.1. with Sartr 1967: d . K. l . I>oo..rm Gomlm, Andr. . . 81 I>oo..r lin'll: ]37 (by 415 ·1" AIlotnl.ne 1....6td o/iprdIy and tynnll)' indiffCftlld.,. • ttw _ ittw.it of dt_ . . .y') ; Tvplin 1915 (0 I . " 01 t)T. .ny). n Of Dtmot· poIiticai inclinatioM It lUIy time IMIlIWIc ia known for ermin, but in 431 .. _ ~ wilh ltllpidity in I comed, ( EupoIia&. 317 Koc:Ir;) , wbicb iI_ ~blt witkh. beitw t~11I non· or rom anti-dc:",oc;lIlic. ~ •• dlancter: A.... H~,. All. '-14 (.....my i.. '-':«m, YKt): oritnuliam, 1ft .berN, nn . ~, 49. Dt:IIMOIMtc chanenp to _ta:tioutft.unti..,01 prMltwalth : Dawiel19I1 : 115. (Mm ,;..... Oi' 'WI oflbil..,er in Odonl, 1 _ lOkI thM in IUl ~ vi• • is! Rtpubtinn Spain _ _ ., o .... l1Ihip of pttfowl_ taken. 11ft infallibae .... of hi. atlti.Rtpublican I)'IftpIlbid and Mlf6cWnI..lor '1oa( ;W«nIftlCe.)
,
k
Fowl play: G clfritnu I_II;t i" clauicol Atltm
"
the boundleeely optimiatk mood of the Athenian muses in or ahout 415. and the redirection of Athenl' foreign policy and exponential increase of her military commitments which Rowed therefrom. Not only did the Athenians then renew overt hostilities with Sparta in the PeioponntM: by violating Sparta'. own territory (Thuc. VI . 10S.:I) and undertake concurrently what was virtually a ICCOnd war in Sicily, but they also abandoned their longstanding dikntf! with the Great King by aupporting a highly placed Persian rebel in the Aegean thealre." Under the new foreign policy dispenaation Demos could be portrayed by Erasistratol as not simply anti.democratic but al.o proPersian. For Demos was quite prob.bly • hereditary ritual friend (patdJros :cellOs) of Dariu. II, and it was an obvious .nd easy calumny 10 misrepretent that relation. hip as one of political collaboration .nd sympathy.74 Finally, whichever reconstruction of the trial'llICCnario il preferred, one further piece of evidence may IUpport the dating of the tri.1 to 415 or there.bouta. In early . pring 414 the Birds of Aristophann wu produeed at the City Dionysia festival. The play begins with it. heroes aeeking refuge from Athenian dil1.mteria (linea ]8-41 ; d . the coined word apelimta. 'jurorphobies', at line 110) ; and although there is no peacoclr. in the chorus of birdl which gives the play its name, that ie mainly becauee Arittoph.nes chooeea not to treat the peacock as • bird It .11 but rather to distinguish generically between the two. Yet he does 10 in I teemingly gratuitous manner on two teparate occasionl (lines 10:1-] . :l6c) . which suggesta that in 41914 peafowl were on hie and his audience'. mind . It is not therefore inconceivable that our peafowl cue, surely a famoul publK: event, actually ilUpired Ariltophanes with the leading idea for his comedy.n VI
M ulu. l, the outcome of our trial il not known, but one thing .t leut is certain. DeffiOl did not . uffer irremediable harm at the hands - or rather voice - of Erui,tratoa, .ince he was alive ......ell and politically active as late as ]90. Indeed, lOme yean before then, when the Atheni.IU' .ttitude ta ...... rd. Perai.a had nec:lllrily become concili.tory, he had followed in hi, father'. footstep' on the ambusadorial trail to the Great King (now Artaxen.es II) in TI Andok. UI . ~, with A. AncIftwa in Goaunc. AndRww 6: Do¥U '91' : ,7'-,8. J69 (Athenian MlpporI of Amtw . . bMI prot.bIy bepn by 4'4) : d . Badian '917: 35 .nd n.b . .. Herman '917 ' AppmdUi: A induck. • handful of ouch ___ inYOlrins • Greek .nd • Pnwian Grm. Ki.. : d" bdaw. n.?6 (Demoa aDd ~ II) . For -...bIe ____ ion. of ....AtbeniaI ac:timx. in tho: ...... _ Herman '917: '57 aDd lie. 15«. 6 (wtnb .....1Iinc relp«ti.el, ~ ·the tn.iJ:or' aM ..... iouidee 'tbe ~ of DO') . .. Sooi_~ ('917: ao6) • anll that the Alfl/tMI ~ 'may well hue been ddi.eoed within • yew or twa before the ~ of Binls' but maMs lin other - ' o n bec:. them aDd. I feel. t.u. the pM, •• ;,pt·1 playful I......'.. 100 w "_Iy.
n'
1
60
PAUL CARTLEDGE
Aail.76 So petMP' Antiphon'••peech Mel helped to win the dly for him inc. 'PS. That would at leat be perfectly conIiatent with Antiphon'. general reputation for ouUUnding logogriphic Hill and with the parttcular fact that he euhlequendy made a written venion of hia speech .vailable for different audlencet .mongat whom it wu rated one of hit four mc»t virtu<*) product:ionJ. What, then, became of our Eruistratoal As a tailpiece I offer a speculative and unoriginal, but none the leaa richly .uggative, identifiCition. A further judicioua Ullt of Occam'. razor yielda. perhape better than even chance that our Eruiltrate» Ihould be identi6ed with the ErailtratOi who in 404-403 briefly lorded it over Athens u a member of the brutal, oliprchic juntlolater justly ill-funed. the 'Thirty Tyrantl'. T11f the peafowl litigant and the tyrant ~ indeed one and the arne man, then our Eruiatratol ErumratOi (III). rrandton of EraaiatratOi (I) and nephew of Phaiu; - would join the ranb of the Athenian one-time ~ who are known to have Ihed an extreme democratic perwna and ernerJCd in oliprchic plumage durina the unprecedentedly topey-turvy decade between the exile of Alkibildn in +15 and the iRltalI.hon of the Thirty.n Aa IftOther politically motivated litipnt WII to point out lOme ycara later. thoee who have suffered punilhment. loa or dilhonour have an interest in oliguchic revolution (L)". xxv.8 ; d . Dover Il}68b : 49). However, EraaiacratOi' oligarchic metimorphOlii would not hive bcc:n IChieved without a high degree of irony. For the junta of 404-403 Willed by I relative of hi. old foe Demol, namely Kritiu. and one of the Thirty'l repreaaive meuurel wu to ban the teaching of the art of rhetoric:: (Xen . Mem. 1.:l.31 ; d . Vickera 1t}88 : 7 .nd n . lI) - the very art by meana of which Antiphon, despite his disingenuous dilC'llimer. had contribuled 10 much towarda the fint violent IUbvertion of democracy in.p I. On the other hand, if our re<:onltructed ICCfllriO iI on the right linea, it WII .110 precisely through Antiphon's deployment of thlt an thai Eruiscrate» had .ulfered I grievou. diminution of tiIni in about <415. So perhaps hilsuppon for the Thiny', b.n was eapecially vociferous.79 Much will .IWII)" remain unknown or uncertain in deuil about Antiphon'. Api,", Erasjllraun concemi", (tM) Pctl/otd. BUI if thi. HIlly h.. illuminated the pcculilfly intimate and intenle connection between politici .nd litigation in democratic Athenl, baa rendered lOmewhlt leu outlandish the ,. L)'I. )Ul(.15 (It Blbylon): d . Hohttttn 1971 : .... no . II : WiewbOfer 1910: II ; Vtcbn 1914: SuaUII I9B6: '94 and ft .~ ; Herman 19B7 : 65-'7. TI Xen. Ikll . lI.p. witb I>uiet 19'1" 511: but bach Whiltbewi (1910: 110 Ina. 51) IIIId o.t..Id ('916: Ill) remain ......,..-riDc:at. "NIIIiI , • • ailltly NId ...... OIiw11y PbrynikbooI aM Pc .."dr .. : L)'I. D'I'.9, _h Doooer 196Ib: 500-' : A. A.Joohuu u. eom-. Andftwu I: Doooer 1911: 590 116. (Within moft Nemt "'."'1011 tM ....l:itn III N.-tini aM o.-&d. MwIer _ Ilo mind.) 'If AriMotle (RtI.H. 1.11 , 'l7Ob)0-'7Ia1) ~ 011 the .P'::" to be _word from ~.eil.e and _petition and ul'lderli:nu 11M: puTiarIar pI we III • ria..,. in 1M c:owtt: d . AMiphorI 'the Sopbitc· (but _ ~, n.40) ... • 1.35....1.11 (enmir,
6. very notion of. major politiCiI tri.1 revolving around peafowl, and h.. done justice to the aorta of factort that have to be taken into account in any attempted explication of the nexul between peafowl, pro.oposnphy and plcadiDB. it will hive eerved itt author', purpoec.1IO
APPENDIX : ANTIPHON na . 57-9 nPOI EPAl:IrTPATON nHPI mN TAOH
57. 'Avn¢vn6t ttil ~ 16yoo;.av ytyowmu tx
xo,
~ JU)Lf:tcOo.~ WY ~ ~v.
mol lit 1fK
~
u6Uw
l.iyw¥ ~, . d t~ MtlOI. ~v ~ IW.l.I.v roiH; 6gn~, otXt\OCh'tGI ~. tcv lit Wv ~ UoU,&lI. 'to Mlloc; 6cpa~ ' Ut ~ ~ 00 ..... Ul. x6Uoc; Lmv. m' ~ 'tO~. 61:, M xed ~ 6ta, tv l4I at'RjJ A6y!p M).Iv ~v ' Al.M f&h' ~ 6 j30u~~ . ~ 6'
las
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51.
~
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Ionv ~ huxl. IIGt umu Am. n; J97CO,
xed tOot ~VY ~ X\lJw¥,
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~l.6yqJ~ .
'A. tv ~ AcU'DutH. A. v:u .
". ~d-vtl toil ~ 'A. htqlMQllOdm:ov.
Harp.
n. There it. ~h by the orator Antiphon whith . . the title Cortanrint P~fl/r1wI. In the apeeeh itatlf then: t. no mmtion 01 the word 'P'*"""'*', lhoup he ohm refm to the 'spana1ed birch', 1'hne he MY' wen: kept by Demot IOn of Pyrilampa. and mlny people in their yarninc for I tight of the bird. travelled from Sputa ~ n - i y and tpaftd no eUo" to fCt hold of egt. Repnlifll their .ppeannee he writeI : 'If one: were to bring the binla down .nd ~ve them in lhe polis, they would 8y dea",way, But if, to prewent IIw, one were to d ip their wires, the IOUrce 01 their beauty would be 1emond. FOI' it i, in their winc-feathen, and noI in their bodily form, tha1 me;r beauty reaidea.' To.bow that the ....t of them w .. indeed agcrIy IOUfht afteT, he ..Y' aptn in the __ apeeeh : 'On the lim d., of every month anyone who wishea illldmitted. But on aU other d.ys abIoIutel, no intendi", visitor iI eVeT rJiowed in. And that hal been the _ , noI jUlt.nee yaterday or the day befOR, but for JnOI't th.n thirty years.'
,s. 1'bey pt.ced • VIlution 01 f , 000 dnclunaa on I mrJe-femaie pair, .. Antiphon .)"1 in the ~h Api,." ErMlftTUW .
". 'Siptly' inecead of 'bceonUnc' (il ueed by) Antiphon in the~,., htV-J. il)' an.. bee.w. . . litipnt end hie .huMI,'. IUmIbIy hie '"',,' ...... too l ). _
wi~
_
and 10 pre-
• After ibi Oi itillllll pramwioa to the CIIDbridp Ano:iaIl HiMory SenUner, .",MI•• 01. IbiJ . . , . . . mod in BriItoI., l.-dI ad Ozf«d. To tt-e who offend in _ . '"I, met IIIpeCieUy to Dawid H.-.ey, O...id LcwiI, P... I MiUdt end Sttrl'ID Todd, 'lObo aiOciwd the pnlukimlh •• ilte.. dnft, I am deeply indebted. But I, ..ot tiaey, "" '" " , t JI for ~ fb.aI~.
_''''lWiiti
.u
4
Plato and the Athenian law of theft· TREVOR SAUNDERS
'En cettc mltim, lei Lois devicnnent presque un modtle de confusion ininlclligiblc'.
In the Laws of PIIIO, three elderly gentlemen go for I walk in the mountains of Crete. One i. effectively Plato himself. in thin disguise: as In 'Athenian Stranger' ; the others I r t Kleiniu, I Cretan •• nd Megillul, • Sputan. As they walk. they fall to di8CUssing planl for the foundation in the south of the island of a 'practical' utopi., Magne!ia. second-best to tluit of the &public in being governed not by the personal discretion of philOflOPher-ltings bUI by the rule of law. In furthcTlfICC of this project they formulate I new, radical penology; and by drawing on and adapting the laws of Athena they equip their proposed state with I model penal code in which thlt penology i. meant to be embodied. Certain part. of this code deal with theft. What does Plato make of this extensive and imponant area of law~ What are hi, reactions to Athenian practice, and why .nd how does he modify it?
J
THE PLATONIC LAWS OF THEFT, NAKED
For the ..ke of clarity, I first set out the bare provisiofU of Plato's la~ of thdt, without reference to historical Athenian law, and aharply shorn of their contextaand the lIOIOetimealengthy explanatory and exhortatory maner which penetratea and surrounds them. In thi, naked form, they ~rtainly seem to justify Louia Gemel'a deapairing a.! ..ment. I
'I'IUt _ y " • .tichtly ..:Iapced wnion ol_ ct..ptn ol ~ '.I'.....t QoM (CY.nndon PraI, fOl'thcornincl . I 11m .,.utili to doc editon 01 N_ fOf ¥alu.ble 1IUQ'at..... repl'di,. ....bRUIee and pi .-ion, and to tloc l...ritutt for Ad....,.;ed Swdy, Pri_on, where in ltoe IIIIMnft _ol19l61 tItU4ied and ...-ote ........... eonditto.... Unettribllttd mcrellen an to tloct-. AIl tnnMM......... tu..n f ....... T~ J. ~PIUI. Ttw z..a-.. TrwtukI"." ...fA _1,.tJOdw;tioH (hnpin a . •, HIlIf.......CNtb 191Ol. C'TTnor 1. Saunckra 't?O, IIId 8ft reprodIxcd ( _ with IIIltbt Ihodi6eMiontl by penm.ion ol hftcuin Boob Ltd.
" •
64
TREVOR SAUNDERS
Pass. A.' &ai~ (854d,-8SSlU) I man ;. ca. tommittmc -=rikp, and he • I a1ave (n"") or I fOtee..« (U?IN), I bnnd 01 hia milfortune Ihall be made on hit fKe and banda, and he IhaII be whipped, the number of IIIhea 10 be decided by hia judfet. 'nw:n he Wli be thrown out beyond the boundarin oIlhe lmel, naked ...• If I citDen (JIoIi,~.). e'tffthown 10 be felpOlllibk for IIUdII deed, •• , hit penalty "10 be dc.th, ••• [and he will be] hdd in cnominy and banilhed from beyond the border. of the lUte . I(
.1
i i.
h I _ " 1M ~,.., (BS7aH>J) Apia,
J.w and IepI penalty Ibould apply to a thtd
(~) .
no matt« whether h" theft " rrnt Oi' .wI : he nna.t lint pay lwice the value of the acolen anicle, if he Ioaea laud of th" kind. and h8t aufficient aurpllJl piopaty overlUld abo.e h" fann with whidl to make the reply ...ent; if he .... not. he mUlt be kept in p'iIon until he JIll,.. up 01' prnuacte. the min who ... hMI him c;:onvicted (10 1et him off] . If a man it convicted of ace.1i~ (AA:Jt!I) from publ'c .ou.reea, he.hall be freed from priaon when he baa either pusuaded the lUte (10 let him off) Oi' p&id b-ck twice the QDO\,Int I
involYed.
PtuUJltl c: 'DiwtirrisJwd'tMft (9,.,b6-C:J) If .. .
_neoItf
pieb up an object of no pal value IUId taka d home, and he it a
Ilne, he tboWd be IOUndly beatm by any pamr-by who "not Ie. than thirty )'Urs a free man (~lftdwrw). in .dditm 10 briac tbouchl uncmdemanty (_kIItMrw. litentlly 'unfree11U1d lawtaa, he mull ~1 lhe pellOll who left the article ten timn itt value.
01.; if he it
Aus. D : T7wftl}'rowt pt'ivate IOWIUS (9)p6-g).,al)
When one min hanna another by theft or • •nee and the darntp it extenaive. the ~yment he mUea to the injured pat}' tboWd be larp, but IN'I'II1Jer if the damare it COrDpanlively triml. The cardinal rutt ahould be that in evftJ' ~ the auln" to vary in p'CJ9C)rtion to the damar done, 10 tIw the 1011 is cured. And each offender it to per an .sdil~ paWt)' appropriate to hill crime• •..
U III'I)'OM IIoK:C fully ph cutes in coun I fOi'eiper Oi' ~ve on. dwJe 01 theft of __ piece of public ptopaty,' dec:iIioa mutt be rnched. to the fine 01' penalty he ___ lei pey • •• U. cirisen •.. it COIi.ricted 01 phlbdeli", or ~ hit htberland,
..ru.p..
"e, •• ..-illlol tWt,ItI¥I, . . . . . below, pp, .HI,,.., (93;te6). Ny heft. wider ndetu_ til. tWt • ..t oIl1akhy.ct. 01 wbieb tloeh -W be thea. t)'picaI euMpIe. At.., tWt
I ".. • J The ~
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"*rd~ : _'rlI'Clel"'I"jl
.
mil
b.rdIy be
, .'_01~·. 9""r
w
's whether he ill cauahl red·handed (tp' OIfttJpM»fJf) or not, he mUll be punithed by death
When they (the Serutinecn, Itoi nlb_l hlve ..1 in judremenl, either privately and individually. Of in lIIIOciation with collcllUei. on thoee It the end of their term of office in the IeTVice oilhe lUte, tMy must make known, by poIrinc written noIice in 1M maRet-place. what penalty or line in their opinion eac::h official oucht to Pfly. Any official who ref_ to admit that he IWI been jud(ed imputially Mould haul the Serutineen before the Select Judget. and if he ill deemed inDOCalt of 1M ac:euu.tiOlUl he should aeeuM: the Serutinecn themlc:lveI, jf he 10 wilhea. But if he it convicted, and the Scrutineen had decided on death .. hit penalty, he mutt die (. penalty whkh in the nature of the cae cannot be inc« NI): but if hit penalty it OM that it it po.ible to double, then doubk he must ply.
II
EXPULSION OF THE BOGUS LAW
The punlca arc obvious. After the ttTlightfOrwJrd 11.. of sacrilege (.). we have the very different set of provisions in ., which are explicitly at.ted to
Ipply whatntttthc amount of the theft, whether the IkItut:e i. public or private (or indeed.-cred. u Kleinias noln, 8S7bS). without mciologial ditrinction between offenders. or any reprd to motive or cil'CUJllltancQ, A further set of provWioni appliea in c to the removal of property of little value which it not in
the immediate cuRody of ill owner. D preaentl another law, reatricted to theft frompn'vate pereon•. S IE praenll yet another, ratricted to theft from public IOUrca. Finally, , preaumably embraca inter alia theft by official., preaum.blyof public money or propertYi but at fint sight it differs from IE in not making the death penalty mandatory for the citizen. Thia ia a diMipated and unhelpful mode of laWJiving. Plato ia capable of better. For ineCAnce, in the lengthy aequence of important legislation which occupies approximately the lut two-third. of book IX then: ia evident s!riving for order and clarity. 6 Even in the leu complicated leCtiona of hit legal code, in which the offences spill forth in only Iooaely 'Y'ten'lltic .equencc and are often diamt.ed quite briefly, Plato uuaUy round. off hit treatment of one before embarking on another. The fragmented nature of hi. law of theft is wholly exceptional. What accounll for itl The key it the Itructun: of the Laws and ita pena.I code I I s whole. By the end of book VIII lOme 40 offencea have been dealt with ; many. II the Athenian Stranger notes in the opening pa.rII!1Iph of book IX, concerned .,ncul• 'I1w do. F I" ~ theft.,.....-ed below, pp, 71-9· I
9Ue6 ....... ' _ _ ' - - ',
_ndi,..
(i)~. (ii) (ni) _ h . and the "F. ~- 0( (iiI, _ ill deeemd· order 0( ~ ; the . . - _ of (il _ ill lKnIdi.. Of'dtt. f~ by 4 brid' "11 1;'" (iii) ;.. CGmpa bile princ:ipled aequmee of ....loc ..... cIeaIm, with till 'r8ridiea 01-'1,
I The!lCftCn.
irIr
on..-w _;
66
TREVOR SAUNDERS
tural alflin and were relatively trivial. In MHne cateI the range of penalties wu left open-ended; but the molt IWingeinc penalties, notably delth and exile, have not even been mentioned, let alone made mandatory. Now, however, more terioua crimelue in J>rOIPC!Cl: 'MCri1eae. and all the otbeT limilar crimes which art difficult or imposaible to cure' (8,504&). The law of lIcrilege (A and related material) follows ac:c:ordincly; a deecription of procedure in capital c:aeea en.ues. Subventon and 11 eaeon are then deKribed; both naturally attrKt the death penalty. Finally, we are told that a 'aingle law' of procedure (86ses--8S7aI) should apply to aU three offenden, tempJe... robber, milor. and aubverter of the laWi of the . .te. We now encounttt paM'le • . Ita openinc wonk are obvioualy intended to link it clORly to the lIWi of IUbveraioo, treuon and ucrilep. In thoee cues, a 'tincle law' pretcribed a tincle legal procedure and MOde of PIlIfWtWU,d .7 Similarly, a 'tingle law and kpl peNhy' i. to apply •...in·, this time to all thieves without diatinction (8S,.3-..) . The connection ilalightly atrained, in that the law of sacrilege, at lcut, did provide for variation of punishment, .. between citizen and non-citizen; but the tingle law of theft permita no van.tton whatever. at any rate in the KfIIIt that all thieva without exception pay double. Now this latter propoul is a very odd one. u Kleiniu immediately complain. :
How on earth can we be .mo., tir, in uyine that it make. no odds .metheT his theft is latp or amaIl, or whether it conoes!Tom NCr'ed 01" eecu1ar .aurea? And what IIbout all the other diHtreflt circutn.tanca of • robberyl Should not a Iqislator vuy the: penaltift he infI:ictt, 10 thaI he can aJPC with the variety of theftsl The Athenian Stranger lI1lilinaly agreea : for this eumple hu .hoWD that the businn. of laying down la... hal not yet been ' properly worked out' (8S?C). The three interlocuton have not yet achieved their aim of becoming legiala. tora, and aome funbeT explanatton ia needed of how to legialate for ucrilege, all theft. and all acta of injUltice (8S9b). In abort, there ia a Itrong preaumption that in formulatina: _ they have in aome way lot the law of theft
........
The function of. now emergea quite clearly. It i. merely to terVe u a foil to
the lone and crucial penolQlical ncunua on which the Stnnger immediately embub. with the purpoee of showing the proper way to prescribe penalties.The courw of this excursus is aerpentine. and bedevilled by textual crueaj but ita central conduaion is certain enough, namdy that punishment ahould never be inflicted vindictively or retributively. but al __ ,. for the purpoee of the 'cure' of the criminal. Certainly, an injured pany i. alnyaentitkd toeuct rec:ompenae from the offenderj but that ia not afJnt4l meaaure. Effective 'cure'
• 's'e,s...(j; but __ "'" _ I
'$9'
DOt 'P'" . t . . . . . . . .. ~ . SttcnylUlftmaty ill ~('970 :
(1.,taI). T'be _
but 'thaII'.
J6?-91. which itt..d oncnydeuiled
nh1abIt oIf'tm\t ~ .. by SchttpwlMl(19I4).
1
anal,..
PltJto tmJ ,It. At~ lam of ,/wit
demands accurate ditgnosie of the criminll's 'unjust' l»ychic stste; and his penalty, ,..hich is distinct from the recompense he h.. to pay, mult be carefully talkulsted to fit his state of mind, in ordeT that it may be 'cured'. Hence the elsborate diUeRntiations of punilhments found throughout Plsto's penal code.' It follows thst Plato would never tolerate III"" of theft without I lingle such differentiltion. The Is"" of theft in Im2age I is therefore bogua. It is I piece of coat.trailing,10 deatined to be corrected Ind lupeneded . When, after the laws of homicide, wounding Ind ....ult in book IX, Ind the lengthy theodicy that occupies the whole of book x, ""e come It last to the genuine IIWI of theft in boob XI and XII, their defective predeceuor h.. been entirely forgotten . When the 'normal bUlineea' of legillation il resumed It the ltart of book XI, Pll2lIC c occun within two pagel; it il prompted by a diecullion of the unsuthorised removal of buried treuure. TWftlty paget later coma plllige D; it il plrt of a tePferolised description of the vlriOUI waY' in which one penon may hum another, a deKription apparently Itimulated by a set of laws relating to certain highly ~cijic ways of inflicting injuries, i.e. by drugs etc. Puuge ~ appean after a further eight pIIeIi the mention of Herma, I god who delights in theft, bringl that topic into Plato'l mind. Puuge, then occurs after only I further ,ill: ~, in connection with the duties of Scrutineen. In 111 these CIICI Plato proceedl by I looae ueociation of idea: he Illowa one topic to trigger another. Seen in this light, hil untidy mode of presenting his law of theft lw I certain rationale, or at least an intelligible smesil. It ii, however, nee 'fy to lpend a little lorogu in the company of palllBe I . For Dlvid Cohen, in two recent publicationt,ll tHea it v~ aerioully indeed. He believes it to be the definitive Itltement of eertain plrtl of PlatO'1 law of theft, Ind to embody its central principle, 'one IIW, one penalty'; other Plselgel are to be interpreted in harmony with it. This luempt to iron out the uplkit and implicit diacrepanciea between I Ind every other P'II ge teftRI to me unconvincing. 11 (I) Cohen does not ell:plain certain IUlpicioUl, or It leUl striking, diecrep. anciea between I and the law of Athena on the one hand, 10 fir u we know it, and between I and the laws of Magnesia on the other: (i)
Indefinite impr'-onmcnl un(il ~yn>ent 01 a fine - \lAllaily bul not alway.
.hen the I1Ite i. ittelf the agrieved party - .. certainly known in Athenti but it known in the law of theft. U But thil of COUfW" In ~t_~:x
"not
, How PIIItG IUppcIItd!be pMlI. oil pu_ment couldc...-, brvu clelei,ellCt lpan . it too
Mue 10 diKtM ben. " Thia .. nDI I . . . . ail
=
s..re
ian : d . t .l . Veri,. '9:16: 18, n.90 ('AnknOp#unppunkt'), and
Knod! IP: I i rKu....,mf).
11 Cohen l,a., and 108) : ap. 116-30. H... die IinlIO ~ atmnpIed al)"llmlatic ttuct, of PIIItG'.... of theft in .. rdecioa 10 Alb d," P , • _ .elton .. oa>ture. U Nat . . . toe-. he "'M ... D (and,) tIIlittly. '11 iI nDI until 941 (IJ tMt 1M promiItd COI · ' l1ltionoftWI(IStb1 6...uy_'(UI ). IJ H... iooll 197' : 141-4; Rhoda 1971 : 151; MKDoweU l"a : '66-?, 'S7.
1
68
TREVOR SAUNDERS
siw"tio; and even if the proviIioa dKi DOt .pply in thlt law, Plato may be m.U.i"l an innovatm. (u) Formal 'ktti"l olr (aitksU, DOt ttY!: the word occurs in I) by. victorious lilipnl. of an imprilolaed perlOIl uMble to PlY • fine, _ms .milarly uMntited. It it, howe.ti, not wholly unlikely in pncticaI tenr\I.14 and PIaIO m.ly!!pin wish 10 innovate, by builda. it into hit 1._. (iii) The ftfttTIl atTar..emeul. foc the tualboo of judcantnt in M~, in diapultl between private pellO.... make no provision what",n for imprDon. ment (9Sb-c), nor indeed, .. we h.ve Mm, dota lUIy other P I" rtllti"l .ptcific:aIIy 10 theft. (iv) Howtwu, thoR ~t.tionf; rqardinc inabiltty 10 pay. fil\t who.:h octur only ;u. before F II • I (but which m.ly refn only to tatI in which the lUte it the 'ii.icvtd party) do indeed aptcify 'lq imprilonmmt open to public view, .nd v.rious humiliation.' (8SS...c) . This auaau IOmtthing like the ttocb; but it i, turtly implausible to tuppwc lhat auc:h upoetd confinement, thouch long, wou~ Iaat inddinitely, It the pleaurt of the vktoriout proecaItor - who is DOt even mentioned, let Iktnt riven licmct to 'let ofr. (a) In •• the private pro.ecutor .nd the mte art obvioullly both injured pllttit8. In. PI.tonK: .tllte, it it wholly unlikely that the penalty would not be more llevere for injuring the ltate than for injurins I priv.te penon (lite 8S,.I0 . (3) Cohen takes the word which in • I translate 'from public IOUrcea'. dnrtosiai, u referring merely to 'thdt of priv.te property from public pllC'Cl'. But the pa.lge clearly implies that the public it the i"jr4Trd /Hlrty; the location it not at i.ue.'! Moreover, if that it all derwJsiai meana. there would be no aepante provision here, in a law which i. obviously intended to be com· prehen.ivt (u Kleiniu noted), for theft from public aourcea, In omission whkh in I PI.tonic state i. inherently unlikely, The vagueneaa ol'in a public way' it an Plato needa for the purpoee of wh.t i. a non·law .nyway. (.) MOlt crucially, Cohen (11)83: 118) IUppoeet th.t Plato .ubKribea to 'one overriding principle : one Law and one penalty for theft, regardless of amount or circumatances'. But th.t would be quite .Iien to the elaborate .ttention Plato frequently para to such conaidt11lt1ona, u determin.nll of peMlty, elsewhere in the code. Indeed, he would .bominate the principle; 16 for u a tool of reform it i. blunt. Plato i, anxious to fit penalty/cure.. to the precise mental.tate, character and circutnltlnce of each individual criminal. n 14 In .pIe ofdw irnplicWonl of Dem. lOU'l. u5, 135; eI. ~ 1936: 3]9;0, hmch 1909: 71 n.l. Aitkm., of o;oulW u..::...u in ~ Ia_. It M~DowdI (.91.: "l') riplty....- that the cont,.. between 'pes "dm the rna who ' h.cI himconYined' and 'hM ... pe....ded tbettate' dinchmtbe matter. Cohm (.913 : .:10-11 _ DO conllkt between. (allqedJy whoUy about priftle pcopc.ttllUld, (public P'OfH'ity) . • t Pea u.o Scboped"J (19&+: 101). Note how Is')bc ~ 't¥U}' ['fIriety of] tWt', "'" Itlopn : it .,. C'OftIIIka mint, and lib _ I t (tI> ks aWaJ "'1"/0$, 17911, ' _ I t Df t"feI'}'
reqw..,,...
tJpc'), of penaItim • ., 93J&r9J41;: d. the _ ....'d (Of pte • • g", of dill' je IIId preeoeri",ion. (e .I.) I66d ff.1UId 17k (eI, Pt..trw a~7ab). We may..-bly II1Jmc dIlc the ...... ~ of wc:h F I" kw the 1a1ot without MIdI...,...: the M., 11 ' 10 juton..., to ~ in the "irit of the former (el. 711b and 176de).
I" moOt"
1
.
That penalties should vary freely , often at the diacretion of the judges, it eMentia1. • is therefore fUtly inconsistent with Plato', radial and reformative penology, in particular with itl fundamental distinction between rcc:ompente
and 'curt'. Perhaps that ill why Cohen does not notice the possible aigni6C1nce in I of the word 'fil"ll' [the thief mUlt pay double). ConcciVibly, the double ill merely rtcompente; 'second' would come punisbment/cure. But u Plato haa not yet df1lwn the dittinction between recompense and cure. and a i, to be abandoned anyway. he limply drops the point. ·1 To be l ure, I gap in • law does not rule it out u ,law; but the oddity of. 'first' without I 'second' needs to be accounted for .
So I again conclude that, UI serioulatatemcnt of Platonic law, ~. is fundamentally vitiated both by ita context and by it. content . Contrary to hi, uau.a1 practice. and uniquely among the ail[ puaageI,'9 Plato provides no expluution or jUltificatKm - becauae none i, avail.ble. On the contrary, he indicatCl that. is quite unutisfictory. ztI lt is therefore pointleu to .ttempt to !'«Oneile the other pw.'gee with it. We now tum to paaugCl A .nd c-,.. CIa..: eumin.tion of them in their CORtext demonstrata th.t the conaidention which control. their form .nd content,.nd theirdifferenca from Atheni.n l.w, is Plato'a new penology. We aIi.lI, however, be handicapped by the fact that although the corpul of the Athenian oraton is huge and amstitutCl the main source of our knowledge of Greek I.w. no surviving lpeech deala with theft : we h.ve only incidental referencea. Further. the laws of theft aeem not to hive been enacted a.single unified corpus, but at different dates and piecemeal, without regard f(Jf overall contistency. At .ny rite, they exhibit con.iderable Vlriety .nd intricacy. III
THE PLATONIC LAWS OF THEFT, CLOTHED
Passage A: Sacri/rge (85Jb,-8SSll4) Like the Athenisn oraton, Plato doel not define sacrilege, but it aeeml to me certain that he means It leut broadly what they meant; if hi. understanding of it had been .ubst.ntiIUy different, he would hive explained ju.t how. In spite of Cohen'l ueeful review of the evidence,2.1 I .m not pemwled that Lipsius ~ if. don eoMM itKlf 10 reconIpenIe , .moo. contndiclionl wilb A and c-f' remaiD: DOtably, recompnee in 0 RmW only .....Ie reeompcnK, not 6ouble, Ind in Aand Kan alfender can hardly be uecvIed tIIItd 'bpi in prieon liII M pe,..' (I) . (EnaJand ('93.), on 1571-5, .,..1hM '&nt' 'mara aIf 1M _ 01 the man -.bo can pe), flWlllhat of lho: man-.bo cannot'. Pcrhaf-; bul 'fint' . I~, not an .!lmlMi"".} " Eueplr, diwpyoo''''of ~ by oflie;"", and 1M 'PPI09'W"_of I .,... . Oeub WDleaOI:, ..-e limply Wen for JntIItd . • a . 1M ~'Iaw of ~, which ii, hoac. t. , unIIlilfldOl)' not 10 much in iucK. bec:a.t it . . . c:apIaaIrion : ~3d, with n:lde, n.fl, ,8Sb. II 1913: 93-100; d . 131. PoIhP: TIll. 40 indieM.. the c~ _ llI'f¥Iti (I 'public' 1UiI, which oouId be broucfIt by anr-, .diItinct from. diJti, which _ open 10 lbe injured pirt)' only).
I' Note that
wbcft--.
=
70
TREVOR SAUNDERS
(1905-15 : ..,...a-J) was far wrong in taking the word to mean 'theft of ucred objectl from ucred placa'. By 'ucrtd objecta' I mean va/",abh ucred objectl (statUti, arms, money, impJemenu etc. of precio\ll meul or other material), 22 not the trivial thi. like wood and water mentioned in the iDllCriptiona Cohen manhalla (1913; 99, d. (I) on loa). Aa he "ya,n 'The ". tandard cue" of hinoIulia II theft of ucred propeny from templea ia clear, fOf' thia is the type of cue deacribed in what Athenian evidence then: iI.' I have little doubt that theft of auch objectl from anywhere would indeed conatitute ac::rilesc: ;14 but normally it it in templea that they Ire found. Given the oratora' lICk of ineereat in the preeiae ddinition of offenca, thit ia about u f.r u we can go; and Plato makes the aame IllUmption u they do, namely that one jult doea know what
n.
Itinontb'Q &II The Athenian Stranger introduc:a (8Slb-8S+') the law of ucrilege by explaining that alave$ and foreigncn are likely to be the mo.t frequent offendm. The reuons Ire payehological, and are expraaed partly in medkal terma ; not hav;ng had the education enjoyed by citizeM, they.ill be open to the 'diaeue' of wiahing to commit and aimilar crimea. which are 'hard Of impoaible to cure'. The penaltiel now foUow ; they iRCOI porate briefly their pt)'cholog;callpenolotrcaJ jultificatlonl ;16
mil
(a) A ,law oropwillW,.tbould have ,brand of hit 'milfortune' (._,o.\onI, i.e. hia criminality) put on face and bandI, be whipped .. much .. hi. ju . deeidc, and be thmwn naked oul 01 MflMlia. For peThapa by paying that penthy he will beeome 'better', 'havinc been rude: ratrained' (rojIirllM). No diu impoaed by law aims at evil, bul uaaaJly make. the punished perlOn 'rithn better or 1_ wiclted'. (b) A citi.m .00 doca 'euch • thinc'l1 mUll be rcprded .. incur.ble, turfer de.th ('1caaI: of evik'), and by being thruat out of aigtlt beyond the borden of the .ute in ignominy tene .. an eump1e to others. The juati6cation advanced for infcrrinr incur.bility it that in 'pile of hia education Jnd 12
Ii.,.tlM robeI mentioned in Oem. 0
", hypotbelil l--' .
.u 1013: IIJ; d . 1M -.reel 01\ 96, ap. Oem. 1,,," . 6+
Cf. Cohm 1013: 97'-100, ..,. Xm. H~ 1.1.n . u He tpeab II IS3dJ-6 ol I law _ _ ~ _ _ , wbidI pioWbl,. _ 'pillafi", ol tclt",I~I" but could mean timpl,.'pilJacinl ol ~ objeeu'; It IWl7'"tu __ probably haa the Iatter_. To judp from 9UID-9S6b, the obja:b to be IGund in M-cn iln temple. will DOC be ftIuab1e : the)- will be cheriahed mel protl'tUd prKiKl)- ......- thq arc Tn hiItorie.J Illata, 01 cou. . , they needed protectioa DOC only few that ~ bul beeau.c ol their IIMtr t-*ary ftIue . • IWh-lS,Sa. IISbl CIIUI!ly reveaIa IbM tlM law ~ ucriltp 'by ~ and by _!th'. If GIo.ed illUMdirttely (IW) • 'h..,i", eommined one 01 tlM pat IIId \l1IIpftbbIt: _ 01 illjUitict in,.ant to ,oo. ew pvmu ew "Itc'. Cobea (1013 : .11) n,htly ~ 1Me. Ihieft.oI public piopm)' ,110 commit phllMSa' (MmoJ tbeic' fllherland <~J. He cwld ha.,., oil ..sded 9311, ~ we It..-n that pvmu arc '1Ibri_', and 16)b, where the killer perent.!iabk 10 ,wi. . penaltioa of AinonoU. - . . . . he bM 'pI\lndeftd ' <_HI' lhe _I from tu. b :;alti ; IikewiIe the 'IOhaawy killel'0I1 parcM .1131 ·6cpi i. ...• tlM body oll pvmt ol it. _1. The P. in ~ _ tlMn toembnce DOC only---'" • IUd! but thrit from public _I'0Il and pen ol tbc IiIw ollMlllicMk, DOC to tpeU. oIl1\1bllllion and 1:1 1M (I.¢b-8S'1l).
It
hoi,..
..u-c
in...,
,
k
7' nurture be ha not rdraincd from thegn.test evilI. In thort, tbedttenoinant of penalt)' is ptycllolocical ueetItIltfIt of curability.
The addreu 10 the person tempted to commit ucrilege runa in full: My dear fellow, thit thine that at pramt drives you 10 ..mlqre is neither human nor divine. It it I tort 011'*1 (o."ltrw). in.e __ fetult of KU of injuatke of long lIfO 1M! mnlined unpurilied (mt/rDrlOfr) by Rlm i Zi it lravel, around workinc deatTUetion (GlikriotUs). and you Ihould make every cHon 10 uke pree8IUiont .,.irwc it. NO'tII', taU note what tbelt precauIKmllre. When any of thete thouthta mien your head, _k the rita that free I man from pollution (~uiJ) , _k the ahrine. of the
pH who Iven evil (1Iwci apol,ff/XIiof) ••oo luppliCite them; _II the company 01 mm
who have • reputation in your community for belna: ";rtuous. Listen to them .. they ..y that every man Ihould honour what is fine and jUIC - try to bring yourself to uy it tOll , But run ...y from the company of the wicked, with never. t.ckward If by doing 1M you find thlt your diteue abateltomewhat. _D and rood ; if nOl, then you ahould look upon death .. the prderable ahematin, and rid younelf of life.l'1
".nee.
A considerable commentary could be written on this remarkable puuge: hue I try merely to extract ita lignificance for the penalties Pllto prescribes. It il fundamental thlt It lOme time injuSh'u h.. been committed, for which the injured pany, whoever he ii, hu not received recom~ in the form of purifiCilhon. We are surely in the realm of homicide, at' at least of 80me equally .maUl offence;lO the injured party is probably a murdered penon whOle killer hu not given satisfaction to him or hil ret-tives in the form of purifiCiltion, at' perhaps exile or death. Hill resentful desire for recipf'OCll jtJatic:el 1 in the only form available to him hu .. its tool the 'itch', oistros. to commit aacrilege: it is a tool that may be wielded either by himaelf or by a surrogate, perhaps the furies (cl. Euripida, lT 1-456). Neither dead men nor SUf1'Ogl.tea are Iftm ; but they Ire not gods either. They belong to lOme aintster intermediate world, where, having 100 trK" of the original offenders, they at' nther the itch - It ill wander round blindly trying to inflict reciproalluffering on IIOmebody. no matter whom ,lZ That luffering i. not just the itch itaelf: it is thepunilhmnr, for the offencca which the itch prompts the penon to commit. This theme is an old one. Jl The crudely vindictive reciprocal jUlltice which the oistros-wieldera seek to • Oismu : 'itch', '~J'lVlIinr'; d. 78~. 1MIonu 91b, nt-dnu ,....xl. 1Sld. " 85+1)1-<5' OnwtedWcal~ _Pula 11)8). e.p. 109(~). aI-o}, )71("u"; ii ,0.). »0(, hI . ). ,. E., . OD pet"- (88oc ft,; rootulilvioJ",. SIn.. ): d . UdwraIdII.i and iIIIu r. JK_M.i of tM ptoptott of _jar erimi.w. (fno:). ,. Tlae fwy of W 6aod _ ill important in "-0', bocIUc:idc. law: I16sd 86£11. J:I PIMo it ob"rioutly.....-e of the kitId of ...~' of do!t.ed rdifiorI .eptcwnted for eumple bJ the •• ("biftcIiftc ipdII') plM:ed ill tombe, wt.o.e opemion clcpeaiSecl on the _pm. thee I 6aod mill', ...... CIOIdd be dioemd to taztoeU daoeen .". o:wacn.: _ 6.·,~, Md ~ T:r6 "x fcu,. tablett') ill renenl. Much .. he de .... _ _ IIUI:b pno;ticet (9)'-), he iI p.epwed to npIoic bit cnm mdI the beIieb which intpiR
-w..
R.,
JJ
.....
,,*__
'Dr
Henidotuf IM39; DI:sn. :an'.UI; [)oyu '¢h: IP, oa ac...ir '451-61 ,
7J
TREVOR SAUNDERS
enforce it of coune sro-iy _ju.t, in the ICI»t that the penon ~kd by the urge to commit ucritege hM done nothinc to de.erve it. M The temptation comes to him involuntarily, like a diee"ei and a dil! 'eo: it precl.ely what the oiItrw iii for Plato aceb in thia pFlIl&e to marry relicion and medical penoiOlY. lJ Relition and medicine had a noticeable overlap of vocabulary and concepea, notably 'purification' (Parker 1983: ch.7, eap. ':It)-:u). Plato exploita the overlap for hit own purpoet:a. If theoiltrw to commit ucritege it a mental diM ... , it may be cured by mental regimen :" 'not on1y muat the tempted paton leaort in pioua faith to purifieatory and prophy1acric: ritea of religion, but he mUit UIOClate with good men and .y what they .y, that ewelyone mUM honour what ia fine and sood. In other worM, by echoing the moral doctrinea of pod men a tempted penon can diminish hia moral dieeaw; fM we all tend to believe what we ounelvea aay.J1 Social. relicioua. and mental rqimen ahould be rCIOned to cuntively and prwpectively, in the hope that it may prevent the offence. In effect the cure for thew,"" ia limply I particular application of that reaimen which i, ,ubmiaaton to the educ:ationaJ and relilioUi influences which bear on the Mape.w. at every tum . Plato blends relip>n. ptyehology and medicine : the oil'"" of religious thoupt - the 'i'itA,,;,u of paychology - the NIJIOI of medicine; for, .. we know from the ~,menu] dt.eilel Ire, )ikephyaical dil! I, phy.icalconfiguntionaof a phy.tcaJ .ou!, and are cunble, .. they are, by the appropriate type of
'I!
..........
"m
A man who find, neverthete. that he baa the urge to commit ucrilege had better die; for it ia better to dte ainte.. than to luUer the pains of sin after death (9S9bc) . Does that mnn he ,hould commit auicidel If 10, he will be jultified by the aecond and/or third of the criteria given in the law about ...ieida: obedience to a legal dceiaion of the ltate. and the compuwon of aome excruciating and unavoidable disuter (,Mlti: 873c6) . For aacrilege j, a miafortune (I.....,....U). which il branded on the face and handaoi the a1ave or foreigner who commits it - a miafortUM in the mae that wickedneaa ineluctably entail, lufferiOl; hence one never really wantl to be wicked. and if one duet 80 want, it must be 'involuntarily', in the Socratic eenac: .11 After aU thi', it i, euy to tee why Plato regardl a citizen who commits ..mI. II incunble. The penalty ia the I&JRIC I I in Attic law: death without
011"'_
II • -m ..-iNlUtt that Plate dieI_ hi..-l' from th. inju.cioe: it bode.... I'ICitbcr to ttw wofId of mm (wbrft theR • potentiality lor pod) ... to tbc wwid 01 rodI (llfbo do_C'riI): d . 93]1. Tbe.:.r-., •., •• d '1\U'd' in the.' ..eof tt.mp: but _ _" to tab _ l O t of it. juM • _ .... the ·. . . . illl _ . of the n...nu (....). to lOhich ~ (19'1). on c:ompaftfthe·. . . .li... oUtru. N TIM medical contmt (II;'CUQ at 'ndl, .54"], .... ~ )10 In medicine, I"- •• fIIrIi-n allcpmm, • .,.u.t cInrp (n.-. a,.-d. d. R4 I r't :M
'S4b.
ot05d 401b).
111 cammitteft, lhia. c:alled .,allilll for r- OWl! pi ............. (Enpmd (19'1). 01I'$4n. tplenclMIIy ..... the point:', curiout recipe for inINc:ini beW'.) • 0 . 881~, the • .,.,.,,..., at w .... from the ~m 01. pemIl. and hrtu '913 : 111-9. J61. Ieack to nU.ery: .'!oj 'L' snb 8 •• ...,. c: d. 573bl and z-, 7J+11 H. J7
ou",
1
7J burial in the atalt;" but while Attic law alto confiKated the offender', property. the peculiar conditions of land-tenure in Magnaia forbade it, .. Plato 10ft on to explain immcdiltely. ~ When he deKriba the pena1ties lOl' .taw. and foreignen he apltcidy (and incredibly) enmsr that they may
make 'better', Such perlOIlI have DOC been upoKd to the Magneaian education, and cannot be &aid to have betrayed it; there remains tome hope
ItrVe to
that the pain and ahock of puniahment will induce ..If-controI. 4 ' We cannot lIy euctly what the 'writing of the misfortune on face and handa' means; presumably it is tome 1011 of tattooing (Jona 1987: 146-9. esp. 00·39. H. 58). Expulaion naked beyond the confines of the country might be enough to kill. But even if the man lurvives, and i. cured, M.gneaia itaelf. apparently, will not benefit, aince he will no !onser be raideDt in it. At any rate, • metic (an .Iien regilterN u reaident in Athens) would have suffered the same penalty ... citizen (Lysiu v), and 10 too pmlumably would an itinerant .Iien (and perMP" .lave - we limply do not know).4Z So formally the foreigner in is puniahed JCII leverely, though more elabom:ely, than the foreigner in Alberti; and thi. innovation is • direct couequence of Plato',
M-cnem
""",I..,..
Pats. c: 'DimillisMd' tluft (914b/~~)
When in p'suge IE Pllto deall with theft from public aources, he detc::riba the thief of I amaU piea of public property .. simply 'the thier, but the thief of a tubttantial piece .. 'the remover of whit he hal not deposited' (94lcS-dI). He thua brinp theft of public property undu the general prohibition of 'removin« whit one hal not depoeited' (Sw), which is in tum connected with the celebrated maxim, 'don't move what ia not to be moved' (684e, s..u). On the aamc srounda, juat before pep age c, the simple removal, .. di.tinct from outright theft, of loat or lbandOned property ia limillrly forbidden (913-91411). Such property i. under divine protection, and the cue of Iny man removing valuable treuure·trove muat be referred to Delphi (with I hint that aornc awful divine puniahment IWaita him) , Plato then, in p'·lge c, Ippliea ~ 1.1.n, M.IXI .iliG I. s .63, Lyt:; , I..ocnw, 65, Cohea .913 : 101 n.n, d. Pubr '91] ' .,.. ft. H _ ( .97fI: 4J-6)....-thu ............ -..c IiIbk 10 • •, ': d . PP' 1S-'7 below on •....... wl· lheft. U~ 1905-15: 443 a ." and
" Diodon. SiNIuI :uJ.as ; Xcft.
CoI:M:JI.9IJ: I(D-) .
.. ISS' ff: er.cepI ia eeruia. uua. _
(1s6c-e).
0WQer'. fmUtJ·
M.. .'...... foree_I •
are inllXnolb~ ff'OUl &he
•• AI 'W3 . 1wd 10 (Urt' 1MJ refer 10 It.ICtioaI al .ana. but 'impoeible 10 CIlft'tolbc. alan- (d, '5414). la Ihcf,alpubtic",opc") _ _ _ lhe_,.nem: _ _ mel b,• ..,un puaWlw:d _W¥ftdylheac:il ' •• (, ,,'). Ihoucb p!I,e;"d, bow iII_1fI ..... , bu& it ill ceruinty. and W1ec ......Iy. iaopIied IbM tM pun" , nom 01 _ ... iIia:.. i1C1lft: Mldt gtS'l. a Then i1.1111Cd to unCfonnity al p Ktiee . U"- M iIinena& _ • miIom 01 s _ 1riIh wbicb Atherw bid. t. cv:dd Slid '""-:If in &he _ pwiIKn, •• ...... : UbIe to· .....,. p,r ' • , ....lIuut trW . AI..., nIot, 11M pe....... al itinennIa 1M -ud t.rdIy be • ., thea tbeI of It. c:iIiIm - ' mttit.
jIMficiaI.' __'
.an.
'4
TREVOR SAUNDERS
'the tame rule' to every object, grat 01' 1IIlA11, tut hal been 'left' or 'ioat': if a dave rcmovea it and takea it home,4J and it ill nruJlJ, he muM be whipped by any p' er-by over thirty yean of tee; if a free man doel 80, he mUlt be ecx:ounted 'ungendeman1y and no eJwer in ..,,', and he mtdt pay the PC:"8OlI who Left the object len times ita value. ('The ratrictKm 'I0I&l1' KernS to apply to both thefta, though the Greek ill not quite clear.) Plato then deecribee the procedure under which ownenhip may be Itttled in cue of diapute
(9 14C3....u ). One it perhaps left to a.ume: that removal of I tJOIuabh object would be dealt with by IOn'tt further regulatton, but none ia given; or perhlpa Plato belteva he h.. already dealt with the point in the proviaiona about tlftlUrej moet probably, he "ould deal with it under rqulartheft (p"'. 0). For the apparent restriction to 'amaU' makea JOOd pl'Ktical aenae. On the whole, one dOd! not ' . ' I large object of IOInt value. like a "'lOR or. plough, except by outright theft - "hich ia provided fOl' under the relevant Ilw of theft from private aourct8 (D); and even if one '''-:s' aornethirc automobile. luch IS a pig, one does not ablndon ownenhip, but aearches. But if one inadvertently Ioaes .omethirc trivial, or delibentely Je1IVCI it tomewhere for lOme: reuon, intending to collect it "eer, iu ttatua will not alwaY' be etear to the finder: ill it just 'left', or actually abandoned? To Ippropriate it, on the blithe _umption 44 that the ~ haa effectively relinquiahed ownerahip, is neither theft nor not_theft:·s it betokens.orne minor paychic injustice, which may be cured by a beating for a tlave, and for a free man by IOciaI diagnlce and repayment on alC&le which in point of the multiple ill Jarge (ten times), but. sinceex ItypJot~n the object ia of amall value, will not amount to much. 46 Plllo'a diaeuetion of'IOit property' ia aurprilirc1y lengthy, and thia may be lOme: indication that he felt he .... aupplying. liP in Attic law, in which, U Cohen·7 hu pointed out, the concepti of 'appropriating' and 'stealing' tend to mc:rgt, the word 'loae' being uaed ambiguously. Plato 1Ucc:eeda in dfect in inventirca formal category of 'diminished' thelt; and hia rulirc consideration ia that to find and appropriate a arnall thi .. ia te. 'unjlllt' than to find and appropriate a large one IUcb I I treasure (wbe.e the .umption of abandoned ownership i. implaulible), and Ie. unjust than rqular theft by force or fraud. Again, payc:hological considerationa aeern to have led to innovation and
mann .
.., A.Cobm_ (1913: 116), takiai home IN)" be ' ... ubjeI;tioe ~forlW>ility'. Tbe lialO'U CUI..,. he it _ ~lNt·lCalO.;"'f« "~', wi • . ; bile the: pkIi;' ' - pIwIoibk it ct.c ..ic:le it (in _I) in hit t -. .. One earl ~ IiM'~: d , 9.)hl-] . .. ~"~C;.-ftDedion with the (ctet.t:abIe) Im·fold liM fOf pi..- rbdt (_ p. 75 n.SG briow). or 1111) : 6rI. 116 on Dun. 1tZf?IG5. L,... DJl[. II, AriM. """ "" 9Sabll , Hetiod WD)4I.
= ,
.,he
w
75
PMS. Do' 17ttft frotttr fWitxJu ~tuS (W#6""'9J4t:6) Whenever onc: man commitl theft or violence .,.i"", another. he must pay compenNtion up to the point at which the harm it cured. A further penalty .oould be auffeml or paid; it is to be calculated in the light of • number of et.bontely debited plYChological conaidentions, C.B. overp.uuuion of youth, pleuure, pain, envy, anger. This penalty it not for the uke of the put crime, but to cncounge 'abatement' of the offender', 'mwortune' (nmrpltom, i.e. hi, criminality; d . p. 70) . It is quite dear WI the puaage legialatea for theft from private IOUrees, that the injured party is to receive .imple (but full) recompente, and that any extra payment it curative." No upper or lower limit is preacribed: apparently the ICI.lc of lhi. 'extra' it to vary open-endedly in direct proportion 10 the Ieriouancse of the paychic ItatC . Here then is ""hat we need in I Ilw of theft: recompeosc and CUR:, firmly distinguished. At the end of the P"uge Plato indicates that the legislator mUlt aketch, for the guidance of judges, the ~ of penaltiC:8 that Du,ht to be im~ on the variou. categoriel of theft and vio~ . This apparent promiae to relate tpecific pe:na1tie. to lpe:cifie crimes ta never fulfilled, at leat in the ~emattc form suggested. At any rate, Plato obvioualy enviuged slaw of theft which i. more finely graded than that of panagee . , What wu the law of Athens on private theft? Certainly a dilti .~s uiated;'" the penalty varied according to whether the stolen anide wu recovered by the owner or not, If it wu, the offender paid the injured pany twice the value in addition; if not, he paid the article'. value, pius that value multiplied either by two or by ten.50 The coun .110 had discretion to order five daya and nighta in the stocb in addition to the payment, by way of inflicting aociaI disgrace.s l In certain circ:umaunc:ea$2. it wu permissible to re.Gn 10 .. II ;' noI . .led 10 whom the ' attlI' ia paid, ....hetber 10 Iht injured f*t)' or 10 tIM:.me; but .aAo.,., 93JC'9 • • a Ill .., 10 tbe mjutrd putT. 'tI'bo n«i¥et ptl 11iCnt 'riPl up 10' (bul not bqoncl1) fun ~ion. Nor;' aD indielbon ai- of tIM: q.1 proo::edu~ : one Iimpk diU . . . ., prink lUi! for theft. Of Dan. 1Plf'I" 14. Cohen .91,), 6.... On tIM: JIC*Ob&e cQcer\C'e 01 • ..-.101 • ..,., 'rom,m...k - - - . _ Oem. un.. ,. Cobm 19I3: .....-cJ. M.Dowt1lI9l4: 131)-30. Harriaon .C}63 : I07 n • l . " Tho WIt of Dna . ""' .... ' OS .. y. 'Ieyo'; buI-.wo' (d .• • 41 .......1d......, ...... poei . ..... of lhe mjurul pat)' the_ in both~, and HrrPtlll' emcndatiooltotlllt dfed MI btm un;Oft· ..." .,topud. HUe+u , 'ten' ~Id not be 100 '""" NIed ovt : _ Cohen (.91): 6.... ). " Dan. 1Plf'I. 'OS , 114- TMoript nf tIM: plO. iIi.... ., ~ by Rhoda (.91. : 161). On !be ......ion of the IIOCb, _ Barbn (19.)6: ]JI-9) . • Day.cirtIC tWI: o f _ tUn 50 • .• theft 01 toqu.;pr~••~•• 't nf. nNe biper than 10 dr. from barboun or ~ theft of miIIorartic_"-etrtaiti pubGc: pIIeet: Dan. ul" .60. In... .
_met.
a-
11],-1.,1_ . .....90. AndI. I. 91. A P. 51. I. M.o..-lIl97f: I~, Ha.n '9;06: .)6-5.).
ct. MoDan. UJ •• a6. ~.u. te.dincthe ~ Iothethicf. 'Thetpuial promion rclMi,.
of ' - • A I. thai the kind of tbef. IKWIMIIy deIIt .,.;th by. tIiIti ,.,.. _ (>a.jed IRIt by.a.kb alone ; d . CoIIuII')Il: 90. Red·hI..dect""',. haw: befta the ddi.... ct...railtk 01 theft ift _hleh MIl_help folJo.ed by the . . . . pt'ftIhy _ pc-r"ble: Cohn>
10 tIM: _
1')1] : 51-61 . bald. M8cD0weU 1914: I~I . aecutiool _ diMillcd,. "",_.1.
ea ..... 191+, bo.e.a . ....... tbat-rr
TREVOR SAUNDERS
j'6
delreee of Kif-help. (a) One could art'e8l (~) the thief and take him to the board olofficiaJl called 'The Eben', who kept him in priaon till the Vu10Ul
trial; the penalty on conviction ... death. (b) Thieves who wen: caught red·handed (ep' aNtop/totOt) and confe.ed pilt were sumlDllrily executed by the Eleven. (c) In the cue 01 theft at niibt, or when force was ulted on the perlOli of the owner, the lamr could kill the thid with impunity. Thill mixed picture ill presumably the rault of an historical prace• .5] I uaume, but cannot prove, thlt the n.treme tpecificity of the provisio.... for tboae tueI which may be called collectively '-anvated' theft (...c above) indicates that this part of the law i. a relic of unl'fttricted Klf.help : becaUK thae partic:u1M thdll were 'eo ter1ou.' or 'eo euy' (MacDowell 1978 : l,.a), or becauee tMy were conntcted IOcia1 problemt, or for all theae reuona, the law still permitted, or had at tome point reintrodua:d, tell-help - but telf-help reatricted to theft at ,"",I, owr unai" srmu, from cmai" places. In the abtence of a confesaion, there had to be trial; and the inftiction of the penalty had to be in the hind. of officiala, not of the arrester (except for thdt.t night, and when force w .. uted) . Thcfta not meeting thelle criteria would pte. sumably have had to bedealt with by a normal diu ~s, which I tue to have been introduced either before or .imultan~y with thoee ratric:tiona.'4 Now if that ffCOnltrUctKm it nibt, and if one may argue from Plato'l lilence on the topic of 'agnvated' theft,5J he hu .chieved • radical timplification of
Athenian law. He h.. puahed it even further in the direction in which it had already BORe naturally, of relying on public triata rather than on Kif-help. He hu swept away molt of the Athenwn apparatUi of KIf·help againtt private theft,56 and with it the poeaibility of the daath penalty fOt' the thdt of quite trivial things and in lpecial circumttanca. He probably limill the injured party'l recompente to timpk damages, and certainly abandonl the lingle inflexible penalty a.arded in the diJei It~J, a fine calC1.1lated in terma of a fixed multiple of the vtlue of the theft.57 Crucially, he lubetitutet: opnt-n.thd Cf. RlMChenbuKh 11)8.t. Cohm 1933 : 75. Gernn 19Stb: CIf' . 19+-5. 399: d . in renenl Lam ( 1968: a86-94) . .. Oem. llXIT. IIJ-I40 fwwbM it w...... attrilMc.mwt of the rqo.U.Uon. for agnYaCed mal 10 Solon . • 1 One aIicM incIicolioa IbM _ can.a ........ ;. tbM Ploro.Y' 'red.h.aDdecI_· ;. ;' ,clo.._ to Ibeft flWll public ~ (F I' I) , and _ _ prob.tNJ _ .. Jtwti-i that irftIennt 10 pri.-lhefI: ..... If 10, tbm jJi_ ih importance in Athenian IfIIJIInted Ibeft • .....1IUd lhefl be Iakea 10 hII"" been dloypal • • apwale caIfSOl'7. M CI. Cohm 1913 : I _ I , ~ ' " two uoeptioew: the nicfK..ime t!aid and the., ~lltI , '~of dotb,, ' (1ft CohctI'93): 1')-8) _ y be kiJW <s,,.be). Yet even hen.here wthe _ IeftdelKy to be ~ ill tbt IKlOpc: a1w-t to alf·brIp: tbt thief bu I .. be ~ '"'-,., ...... , and the , . . . k• ....,. be killed ~""~ . Cohen ( 1933 : 7-'3) bu. ~ of the m.tKon of " - ...... _I" to AHie 11•. JI
y
n ;.
too....,.
...n. _ eid>a" tW• • ·..adint an _ _ ', or af I . , 'Il0l ..adi. an IICiIMU'. la the I _ . w ",-,-and~eech ou6e .. atUn.k( .......u)oflbe penaky to be • .vded in _ of oonvic:tion, and the coun bid to IdotIt _ or the othef. In tM litter, the penalty _ bed by b ... ~ Pbto don DIJt opecif) paadtica in h. oode, be IIka _tif for pnted, but ialtrikincl7 inaiIum on tlwdiecmion to be.no-:t to tbtjltrort lOb.
" In Athen..
"
n penaltjCl, not neC( uri!y related to the v.lue of the thdt, but adjusted to psychic statet! and calculated to promote each criminal', aelf-control. sa The diacretionary period of five daY' and night. in the ltoeD .110 disappears; but it could no doubt be used if the court decided it would constitute In effective cure. In short, the crude two-fold distinction of Attic law between 'simple' and 'agnvlted' theft. and the crude alternativee - stocb .part - of • fine or de.th," Ire largely replaced by. single category of theft from private lOurces, and by. 'ingle Iliding acalc of penalties bued on motives and psychic Itltes. E: 17uft from public sources (904 ,b~~~(JJ) and Pass. p ; 17uftfrom public sources by officials (fM6d:l-f:4J P4l$~
A brief prelude to It decries crimes of violena! and theft, and the belief that since the gods commit them they mUlt be legitim.te. PI.to then argues ..
follows: (i) The pilfcreT and the "eIIt« Ihid deenve 'the "me' diAl, penaltyljustice. (ii) F(}r'the former "-Itokn with 'the ume' Iovellult, not , but with Iell JIO""f'r, dJnuJMiJ; whmat the latter rommiu injuatice, or is unjult, (u/iui, to the full . (iii) ne~.... ifo~~~ the II. dananck I InK!' pena.lty for one thid thin for lnather btauw the: one would prot.bly, Uos, Mill be: curable, the: othe:r not. (iv) The law don IlOIlO demand becI\IIe of the amount of the lheft. (v) A .law: or fOieirnn is prob.bly cur.bIt. mel the ptnllty mutt be ••• ened open-endedly;' citiwn iI incuflble,lU'Id mUlt therdore d~ .
To ..y the lent, the train of thought is curiou• . How can the penalties be 'the ..me', when .. we Ielm in (v), they are to be differtnt~ In interpreting thil puuge it i. etIIenti.1 to rtll*, thlt, contnry to wh.t the reader of (iHiv) i. tempted to thin .... , the pair of thieves in (iii) i. "'" the pajr in (i) and (ii), the pilferer .nd the greller thief, but the pair in (v), the citizen and the non-citizen.6I The argument hinga on 'tbenfore' It the start of (iii). The pmakin, pnMIInIbIy without bei.limited to IC'CCpIq one 01 the two acm.ta (3?6-. ond d . Gcnoet '9,.b: ClWI-CXUI'). TIM: Atbcniuo diItl ..... ..em. to n...c bftn an ·ati....tal· lIIit (Dem. :on. 114) : the atimMe (prealrMbI)' 01 the dilputed ob;ect', ....Iue) IIdopted by the coon _ tbc - . of the kilt of the IMlltiple. If PIIto pumined t*';1 in trialI for pc i..te lIw:fI: (9'-tbc and 9s-tba....,. - Aat iI). Iw: limita iacmplo,ONOIK to the 'NOnt of ~UM4>t"'" and enm.tI the "",t of ~ to ttw: infonrw:d ;...dtc,...1d of the juron. To IhII: atent, be Ihirt. ffOll'! an ad.u"" to an inqu;.itorill.,..rem. M..... of.l., all of c, iUMI
I.'
piftof.,_ontheflccofit r' .... ;ef.bo.e.ul76d7'""C3 . .. S ,huilu,.,."'u"a, 9)41', d . 'ON in A(I), p. 70. .. In Adw:M, deMh of dw: ofteadu- pR!',.,b'y lobbed the injured put)' of In)' 'cltn' ~F z,.: the deIdI _ tn. only 'IItioIeetioi,'. P1Ito,.,...,.men him hill (1impIe) reeomper.e: 9334, 'Iboorc all', • J lind Cobm', Mtnnpt (19113 : III~) 10 .... u thiI obviouI difficuky, in dfecllO flXl)INOile. with., Urd 10 follow, for bow (:III _ maiet (on the priQCipIa 01.) tIw ' _ ' penMy, 'rtprdIeeI of _ and ~'. and .. ttw: _ time llhetply ¥It)' pmaltieI (deeth eto;., in ~) '-wnr to intemIl-.l_', ., JIIRifldebledlOPtuf -P. J. RbocIetUldDtJ. G. F. PoweIllorthil-A - ....
""'/MM#I,
,a
TREVOR SAUNDERS
pilferer h.. the tame IUit • the greater thief, but continaently enjoyed te. power or opportunity to indulge it (ii). So he too is 'fully' unjUlt, and incur· ablt; hence he delervesthe arne penalty II the ocher (i) . 71unfon~ variationa in penalty will not depend on the comparative amounta of the thefta, but on lOme other conaideration, namely whether the thief. c:urable; on th. criter· ion, the non-citiun is probably curable, the citiun is not. The doctrine itl hanh : any , theft, however tiny, from the raoun:u 01 hia own atate by a cittacn bctolr.ena ineducability and therefore incurability: he is plundering and violatina: the fathtriand. 6Z The baait of differentiation of punithment is therefore aocioltJ8ical, .. in uerilqe. No mention of recompcn.c • rMde, nor of the kga1 procedure to be uecd; poeaibly there would be a ,roplti ,/opts; under the provisiona of ?67bc. Nor • the point of the atipulation. 'whether Clopt red·handed or not', made c1ear.6l What, in Athena, is the counterpart of this law~ At first light, it il the I'r.J#>Iti ItJopcs tkmosiort JJrrmflltOtJ, the public auit for theft of public money (or objecta?): this charge could be brought at their 'audit' or 'acrutiny', n.tlu'"tJ, againat officials about to demit office: the penalty wu I nne of ten times the Imount Itolen. 64 Yet Plato, in PII '1" ", h.. his own lpecill pro· ccdurca for the conduct of ludita : the Scrutineen Ire to judge the conduct (prc:eumably inc:luding financia1 conduct) of officiall at the end of their term of office, and can apparently impoee any penalty including delth. 65 Obvi· oualy .r. ia not in conftict with these provisiona, and could indeed provide the ju.tification for impoaing the death penalty in .. on officials judged at scrutiny to have atolen public propcrty;66 yet itilCOpC IeetnI far wider, covering all theft of all public property (tkmoIion, 94ldS, d . es) in genenl . and embnc· " 942&';' CI. AriM . • nothi"..
,. " IlubaS: the thief of three _1M~rlled half..... would Ittck.t
S« CohnII913 : UN. J.uepea tba if ••• ~ 1nno11l00n (ae below) , Iw -.iahed to mille deer thIt ;u.t • (br impliulioa., _ pp. 1M .bowl_ D, lhe lime Inc:! circulnlllnC:ft of the offender'. dttlKfPf 60 _"feet lwont of 1liI1MMIl_. .. Cohea 1913 : 49-51,"". Pol• ., . .-5, 54. .1, Dnn. ~ . 111, U1 , d. Aach. 111 .11-], Andok. u
I. 7+ (who .od."';";", • d;.qualification from
lOme
ritiRft
riP").
M.c:00wdI {1984:
belicYa the".... o:ouJd be 1Iroufht other lhan It the -til. AnocheT"... (if indftd it m.ed.1 ......1LC1l1ed theft olllCftd ptOjXllt, _~ U_RtoI, fOl".hit;b &Ito the pnWtJ mIJ"'~ been ten timeI the tum It ~ : Ant . II . Cl. 6 , Dnn. Xllt . ~], UlV. III , Cohen 1913 : I _ I . It _1lIO ~ble topt_uU , 1t Ult time , by_of UI ·impacb· nwIIt' or 'denunciltioG', ft· . _, befcn dwMli or~ (t .•. H _ 1975. a.e 1431 : ill th.cwnc citlin' the dtMh penalty on 6nemuld be"", J. S« inac-al H _ (19751 and Rhodn (1979): the ddli'* aft r:c:wnple:x I!Id r:ontrovft'IiIl. On ..n.tiont u. pen.altia, _ Cohen ( 1913: 51 ... 56); I"'~ followed H ...... 1975 : lJ-6. (A. Pibm (191]: 45"1) poin" out, I'IIto .... ~ ~jUl .,,_ : no doubt he mi.atrulced alCh QemoCiltic procedUl'ft, and thoupt hie wIec:t bodt of Sc:rvtinftn, mon: lUiuohk for the imponant and ..-iaIited job of officiall : d . Hyp. 1'\'.1-3. Morrow 1960: .I19-~, etp. 11M·) U EvidmtIy on IheU own IUthority. unlike ia A~ wben _ were refITTed to 1;CIIIn.; d . .I~JOI
eumi.w.
n.64, on ftUl
."IUI .
.. EepecWlt. tbe immediately preeedinr (on embelein
etc.,.
Ii_.
941'14)1, _,,*,11 mieckll _ _ rl by of~
1
79
ing, among the potential thieves. the categories of foreigners and ,Iavea, to whom acrutinies Ire irrelevant, since they could not bold public of6ce . • Kerns then limply to deal with theft of public property by • private penon, whether citizen, foreigner or ,live. Cohen ( rC}8J : 49 n. 46) reports that 'no text dacribes theft of public property by. private citizen [in Athens}'. If the lacuna is not limply I lacuna in OUT IOUrccs hut an indication of • pp in
Athenian 11",,67 then Plato, aru:iou... alWlye to provide fully againat offences agaiNt the commuJlIII interest, lupplies the need. So. includes theft of public property by officiala;" • deal. with theft of public property by priVite penons; D" eaten for thefl of private property by private penona.
IV
LEGISLATION AND PENOLOGY
What emerges from tbeae lengthy complexities? In sum, thlt Plalo has both abridged and opanded Athenian law, partly in order to rationalise and airnplify, but thieRy under the guidance of • penology hued on the psychology of the criminal. Once the law in a baa been ruled out .. unutialactory, he can be teen to meet ita deficienciea by providing a graduated eet of penaldea for a variety of thefts exhibiting psychic 'injuatit:e', on an U«nding tale: c . Mild 'injUllice'" catem:llor in I new formal catepy: quasi-theft, which be timply the pidi"l up of 801M trivial thine whic:h the thief fondly hopa hat
been abandoned, PtfllJl~J : Slow :
whippi",. F,~n'u"f : rqNlItXm for uwmtlnnanli~ .nd tenfold RPI')'meDI HI depoaitOf. II it auf6cient to ret)' on IOCiaJ preelUre and a tlap at the offender'a pocket, D. N()I7ft(J/ 'injUltice', abown in theft by private pntOnl from private 1OUrc:ea, be of variable iDtetllity : the oflendel' may be you", Ind ove. penuackd by the folly of aomeoM elw, or be I victim 01 hia own fool;'" emotr.on. and deeirn. hrtai~s : SlIted without lOcioJorical di.tincrio .... : IUfferins Of fines graded open~edJy in dil-ect .otio to the ~ of the viee and ill ptelUmed c:unbiJity. hychic di.onSer thllt becomet the Nnale determinant of the -mty Of mild __ of the penalty (but IfOl of the amount of the reeocnpenIC). Practically the entire Idf-help proc:edure apiMt theft 01 Athmian law ;. thrown ou·rbo.rd, and with it ~t of the d;ff~t;'t""" of punilhmenta depmdinc on c:onIiderations 01 the hour and location 01 the theft, and the value of the Ito&en object. • . &ri0.4 'injustice' ia dtiplaycd in theft lram public .uun:ea. It is ho ...em not cakulated by relerenc:c to the ¥a/ue 01 the tboth. The detenainanta 01 peyebic I
., otmou.Iy IUCh off_ bMI to be c:akf'ed Iw _...t-, p«hap. by. diItI (or I'f1!IItIl) ~"
.. It
Of
by.r-14/ ,.,.,.
..
. "'hi
, i..depcndently of...,~ (Mldit, lC!'\Itin,) .
~"'C_ (.911: ua) abouI: .(public popat,), tMt'nod;"inction ilmade • • • betw ....... tWt by ofl • .. and tWt by pri_ cit' w ', thouP true, Mrdly rnmer., in -riew of r .
1...
Noc ~ c:«- .913 : " ' and '''9) I, ... hieh .boIdd _ be ...... Iopd;er' with. (public pope.IJ). II (1aI-a), ill diwCjwd of I) (pri_ ptope.t,).
w
80
TREVOR SAUNDERS Ibh: and heoce of penaIty.n: .........ti.. j ... INM.: llaWlil and '01 ....en who Ilal fRlm public -.an:eI.n: 'prot.bly' curable, but c:itiuw.n: QIIt, PntJ/tia: SltIw ad foi •.,." : wffmn, or fiat cakulated opeo-endedly, .100.
death.
Oti:Mw:
11ae law _ _ to cover &I11heft 'rom pubtic ICIW'CeI by all peitoE. whatevet-. No It'p&I'atc pro~""'. iNIde lor 6nlnew malf-.- 01 officialI, but the law 01 a would juatifJ or demand the deeth penalty Il audit (_ .). 50 *beI u Attic law permitted dath or &net, probably 8iXOI~ to prOCtdure, Plato __ to pennit, to jucIp from a, only the (OI ...er. ia
Eis..,,..
d, Very trriotu 'injUlticc' it uhibited in 1Kfilcre; it • tnced 10 an O\'eipo*cr· ....,. ....... daift, whM:b coma from II)I!Ie ....pmwunI but DOt divine IOUfU. Elaborate advice t-d Oft rdiaion, PIJ~ and roedicine it!liftn prophylactically. I'nttJJtWl: Slaw aNIPtv.iIf,: brandinc and expulaion naked, Ci",-: death, expulaion from illite. IUjIpi
A.
In A, c, and z the penaltiea ue differentiated by lOcio-politial rrouIMi in c folCicnen are brKketed with citiaena .. free, and ue thertf~ not to IUffer the deandatton of a whipping. but with a1aves in A and z, in which the cimen ia itolated .. I particularly heinou. offender apinst the soda Ind the lUte that nurtured him, TbcR is I genenJ tendency for incurability to be more rueli!)' ....med. and for penalties therdore to incttale, in proportion to the grandeur of the intereat offended: individuals (c and D), lUte (IE and .), godI (A).70 Although the Attic penal code ... certainly capabie of diatinguiahing fOf'fNlly between voluntary and involuntary ICtI (e.g. in homicide), the Ilw of theft, 10 far II we know, WII framed without rcf'erence to intent i that ia to IIY, it ....med that everyone knows roughly and intuitively what theft objectively iI. and left the lubjective elementa, intention. and excuaea, to be argued out in the If! ~eches delivered at the trW.1t In th;. ieapect it mull have been typtcal of a JmII many offtnoeli and indeed the lack of any mtTft\Ct to intent in any Athenian law of theft ia natural enoup.; one can euily kill without wiahing 10, but if theft mean.aomething like '.tealthy removal of another'. propt'i ty', then it ia difficult (thollIh not impoaaible) to elaim that one did tAG' involuntarily. However that may be, Plato doa for thdt what in principle he doea for hia
" ct. alt
"51.
n.e opeA elide. Iii 01_ F
Iq ...,
1••eRi, ........ tIO _
u-.inty
about what their lpplieetioft wwkI hrre been in 1M_lice. Cotnp.e tIM tirIp 01 baiwion in I (d.' ,'pntt} weIl'~, 94M3) widI tIM Utili iolkicllcc in I (1S4C4)' Sec CoheA (.913: ~I) . If, (90),AII. I'bI. imp. . tMt tIUeYW hoouled by • • ,I bcfOit tIM EJr,n weft killed if they aw:iil,.tmiited tbc ubjecti .... Kt, ~ if IMJ .h. ~ .......... MId aa.. rl pauiDeIy buI: miIubnly dlOl ,tit thI ob;ed _ MiNI', wi " .), tlIn iA • • 'i... 1iability' ..,F!' d. and _ - ' d atbcr hi.... 10 dar.y tlMcieed . . , IOpt. trill (10 _kI it .... --a,. be _ _ '), ... __ 1Upp/y ."....fedt lide 10 0.. ~ _ .. '" I,d to (Ob;ec:ti.... IW:IiliEy -W be .... cp; . $ to. IM~ _fa _ty d.... bpl~ tr-.tf.heIp.) If _iMeedo..~, ...... PIMo·. 4' eo .. the __ ... ., ", .. ia cPF • to Itria Mbility. tbolition '" • •,1 for !heft b IMWwlt b I~' _ iI ........ c:akWMiaa '" _ '" miAII.
u". = .
n
,i..
,"obi
"*
a.- ......
"*
,
k
8. penal code u • •hole: he provides an outline of the contiderationl jurymen should beat in mind when reaching verdicts and eentencing ,72 The dilcmion of Athenian jurymen to formulaic their own criteria would hive been far gtelter. Not that Pl.to it interested in exCUIeI or aggravation. U IUeb, ... meana of arriving at reciprocal justice; hit IOlc concern, recompenee apart, is to establish curability or incurability, and if the former appliea, to estimate that punishment which will be the mO&t effectivc cure. For efficient treltment of • diseue demandt it. efficient diagnoeis. Here u eillewhere hi. aUention to mental lUtes it in advance of Attic: law : he builds them into his oode. Cohen (1983 : 119) rightly .tate. PlIto', position, that 'the legislator', evaluation of an act must not be based upon external circumatanca. hut tither the moral ISUIte of the actor', But he it quite wrong in suppoling thlt thi. approach 'jultifiel the principle of uniform pena1tics', or 'one law, one penalty'. A. my l ummary of PI,to'. I,,, of theft ,bows, PlIto applies. if anything, I more complicated, or rather a more flexible, range of penalties fOt' theft than Attic law. Hil Ilw il 'one' only in the 1erl8e that it provides for penalties in accordance with a single criterion : the relative intensity of the 'injustice' in the offender'a lOul. Cohen (1983 : tl9-ao) allO detecta 'competing motivation', in that Plalo'l 'philosophical theory' conflicu with his 'larger political concernl'. He cllims 'clear inconsistency' between hi. penology and the provisiona that 'two similarly situated offenders may meet with vastly diff«ent fatee depending aimply upon the fortuity of elI;ternal circumstances; how much property they have, whether or not IIOmeoRe else is willing to lend them the money, whether or not they are let off by the injured party. etc.' It it helpful here to remember Plato'l firm diatinction between backward-looking recompense and forward-looking curative peDlilty. If x i. prepared to aupply money 10 y to eDlible y to pay recompense, that is not a penal matter. Only if y cannot pay a fine intended as • penalty would his baiiing-out be inconsistent with Plato'a penology, and then only if the bailing-out were a gift and not a loan.7J Plato legialates {Ot' theft in a decidedly broken manner, lOt' which the artistk structure of theLaws may in part be to blame. Naked, his acattered proviaiona are a puzzling and incongruoua collection. Garbed in his penology, and after the expullion of the rogue law of I, they arc an impreasive uray, with a clear and c:onaistent rationale. I lind no .ign that they were conceiv.e d and written by someone whoee mental powers were failing. Plato the statesman and legislator is firmly in control, and knowse.uctly what he ia doing. He taltca Athenian law I I buic; he exci_, he lupplemenu, he re-ahapa; and he n Secapedally9)4bc (thecoMinuetion aI D). NOb: toDthebrid III - oml alan i",mtionIllUlr alcnUod • .,..,. : thr.l~ mu.Ktoabow&iaKti",'kwp"'p II of ("') tbeft'. "The ._;,,1 of ...1m donn to hne been IItOIm if ~ ill to bepu.nilbed MIM Ihid' ill (9S5b; d . Cohee .911 : It-6). n On t.;Iu.,.-t. _ 85Sb. UnqualiMd 1omUIt-off ill fauN:! only in I .
pada_'_
82
TREVOR SAUNDERS
'PUce. it to a reforminc 'medical' penotorJ. It is ~pI a tribute to the quality of the hlitortc:al model that, phiJoeopher of Plato', penuuion can see fit to retain many of ita contours. Indeed, htl procedure in the cue of theft is fundamentally the same _ in the other parts of his Iepi code.
1
sa Vexatious litigation in classical Athens: sykophancy and the sykophant ROBIN OSBORNE
I
WHAT WAS A
SYKOPHANT~
General ruaories of c1..uc.1 Greece ignore the .ytophant: .ykophltlta do not get into the irtdellea of Bury', Hutory of Gruu (t:vcn .. revised by Moll'. ed. 4. 1975), Hammond'. History o/Gruce (ed. 3. 1986). DlVin' Dnnocracy tmd Ckutical Greeu (1978), Homblowet", T1u GruA World (1C}83) Of' 1M Oxford History of tlte Classical World (tCJ86) . Even in boob tpeci6cally .bout cluaical Athens they make but a Seeting appearance : Jones' Alltneian Dmtocmcy (1957) has two rcfennca, Connor', Nrw PoIi· ticituU (197.) one, Ostwald', monumental From Popular Sowmpty to 1M Sowmpty of I...aw (198(1) dcvotca omy two paragnpht uprettly to thtm in more tIuIn 500 pIgI:S ••nd Sinclair', ~ muJ PartidptJliM (t!J88) baa one pangraph and haU-.-dosen puling rderencft. The implierotion would Kern to be that none of theee ac:holars reprd, the .ykophant u •
It.
significant actor on the of Greek history, or even of Athenian dcnOOCiacy. Woru on the Athenitn legal .)'Item, on the other hand. givt .ykophlnts • prominmt, or even I very prominent place. Bonner and Smith devoted I whole 3S-~ chlptn to them (1938: 39-74), .od then: i. , five-piKe diecuMion in MacDowell', Law i" C/4uical Allt~"s (1978 : 6:1-6), quite ,part (rom the monograph on them by Lofbc:rg (1917). More imporunt than the Ienath of these diecuee.ion., however, is the interpreu.tive tendency lying behind them j for these writers, syltophaney wu , 'curse' (Bonner & Smith 1938: fig), , 'disease' (Lofberg 1917: 2.3) and, more importlntly, , profeaaion (Lofbcrg 1917: ~). The generally sttepted poeition is neatly summed up by Rhodes (lgBl : +44-5) when he defines the .ykophant in the foUowing way: 'nJwp/umUI . .. is 'pplied frequently by Aristophanes Ind later Athenian write... to the men who took IdVlntage of the Ilws Illowing prwecution by Iw boaIcuii.c1lOS on Npublic" charges ... to mike. profeaaion
"
.
"
a.
ROBIN OSBORNE
of proKCuting, in order to obtain the rewardaoffeud to lucceMful proeecutOfS or p8ymenta from the victima or their enemiea . .. ' .1 In thil pipet I eJu,1I niK objectione to both the genenl and the lpecialiat treatments of the Iykophant. Againet the general nadition I will argue that I)'kophancy was vitally important to the nature and running of Athenian democracy; and apinsc the: tpecialitt tradition I will maintain that there were no Iykophanu, in the Knee that there was no el. . of people who could be eIIUed profelllional proeecuton motivated purely by pecuniary conliderationa. Central to thit enquiry it the problem of defining the Iykophlnt. The term IfIltopIea,It#1 it widely used in a pat variety of contexts, but it i.always a tenn of abUle, with no atraightforwatd polite equivaknt. Cluaical authors invariably employ the tenn in an argumentative contut. The historian', problem is how to tell whether thil Iykophant invoked by comic writen and forenaic onton il anything more than a straw man, whoee features it il expedient to attribute to real opponents. Just .. a portrait painter', image of an individual may give no emphuit at all to thoee physical faltura which cartooniata delight in emphuiaing to exoea, 10 the historian who limply reproduces a tendenttout caricature it failing to exelciae properly critical historical judgement. It it not difficult to write a history of the \lie of the word ntAopIImtl#l: the problem it how to tell anything from that history lbout the work-ins of the Athenian Lepl . ,..tem and Athenian toc:idy. The great Victorian expert on the onton and the Athenian courtl, Charlce Rann Kennedy, described the: aykophant .. 'a happy c:ompound of the c:ommon barntOl', infonnet', pettifogger, bul)'body, rogue, liar and danden:r' whote methodl ifK:luded 'calumny and conapirxy, falae ac:culltion, malicioul prol ecution, threau of legal proceedinp to extort money, and generally 111 abuK of legal procell for miKhieVOUl or fraudulent pUrpotel' .t At I deKTiption of the figure evoked by the oraton thit it fine, but more rttent acholara, .hile quoting Kennedy with Ipproval, have attempted to reduce this compoaite deac:ription to a 'core' meaning. Yd how Ire primary ueca of 'INlropI!mtt#I' to be distinguilhed from aecondary? Arbitrarily to iIOlate certain ICnteI of the tenn .. primary can only lead to circularity of argument.) 1 Cocr!ptn BonIlCf" Smith 19JI :+I'lt _onlywbcn mm m8de. profnlionol' pi .....ll00n lot hanc:MI pin that public opinion ___ Ie, SIKh ptr_ weft known. "eykophum~ ... ' ; IlIMI aJeo Sinclair t,al: 7). More btuDdy, Harvey (1915 : 71 n,7) 1I'ritn: 'Tk I)'kophaM _ . piof . .... ~. inforawl'....t pi ..... utot.· Cant..- FiIIMr 1976b: 36-7. who, in the '-lbontrfttmmtol~. 1I'ritn :·AtptdaltrnII.J t P' ..k •• _oppMdto_yoM ia.ohcd in pi ~lItioM 01' wtUc:h _ .....'Si, '-p,,"o.ed,· l In Smith '143 ..... ·SU.....k.· ....t ill Kmaedy '''':Ms. lal!ntfilh writi.. olthuiltttcnth c:ftItIIrJ ' I)'mpbant ' _ \lied botb in iu' in' __ 01 ·; ........ _ · -' in iu modomI_ 01' 'Ilacterer'; tberuftet' the __ oI ',nfonnt'l" is nrc Qcepf in w, ~d ' ~1I1 AlhcbI. ~ __ ol .f\Mtem" is .m.ty founcl ill I..tin New Comed, (tnd ~ the - ' I lion of infOII md fIett_ ill MeundcrfT.uJ Kock) . For the _'0. ditidc betwao, infonni.. ....t Luu". in. noa'. -COCIIJ*I: Hill, ~. IIft. IVab: ·He . .. _ way,w (. teU tab and eeicophInIa 11ft •• .) to detbn to tt. kina whit be .... hard.' I T1wn iI -.thine c'-to."titio",.......·both ia LofbtTr'II_emnd ( 0917: ia) thac ·It _ _ raJ that ... the tcnn (l)'cophantJ c:amc to be ...cI fot III ~. HhUe. IIICh
iti,.
1
8,
Vt%am.u Iiriptiorr;1I classical AtM1I1
The definitions of the sykophant given by the anton themeelves are persuuive definitions aimed at furthering the speU.er'. argument, and they cannot aerve u a secure lltarting point for an historical enquiry into what a .ylwphanl ...... 4 1 want to ,tlrt not from the lena in which .ykoph.nl i. defined, but from those where the meaning of .ykophant is auumed, .nd in particular from metaphorical UKI of the term .ykophant. Communication itlelf is endangered if an .uthar or 8pCIker i. r.dicllly redefining the lenni he employs in his metaphon, and there i. thnefore IOR'IC justification for believing that in the metaphorical UIC of • term an irreducible core of ,ignificance iI uncovered. That the umc fcaturesare in quCltion in all the metaphorical rdeiences to ,ylwphantic behaviour further Itrcngthena this belief. Plato, in &public I, hu Thruymakhos expoatulate, 'You are a .ykophant, in theIe argumentl, Socntcs', after Socntes pulhes the logic of Thrasymakhos'ltItementl harder than Thl1llJlllAkhoe wiahes, to bring out implicationa which Thruymakhoe is unwilli"l to CIpOUIC. I n the enauing diecualion ThnI)'mIkhoe retrests to. poeition with which he defies Socri.tes 10 quibble (~ pltml~"), and Socntcs prottltl that he would no more try to play the syJw.. phant with Thruymalthoe than he would try to lhave alton, 5 AriItotle mUcs • similar point in a more general context in the Topia, where he writes, 'Similarly too if he Iw made allltemcnt, when the IUbject which ill being defined bean ICvcrallC_, without di.tinguillhing them; for then it iI uncertain of which aenM: he h.. given the definition, and it iI poIIIible to make a sykophantic allegation on the RfOUnd that the dcscription does not lit everything of which he h.. given the definition'; .nd .-in, 'It i. poMible to make a IJlwphantic allegation api.nsc one who h...paten metaphorically, reprnenting him .. hiving URd the word in itiliten1ItMe. 16 The metaphorical UIC of 'lJkophant' i. not confined to philoaophcn: DemoIthenes, a frequent \dIU of the word. comments, 'But it might be claimed that I'm being Iykophantic: on tbil point', after a detailed quibMe about the euct wording of • law and ill impiicatioftl.' All thoee metaphorical UICI focUl upon e>rUnIioa in lbe.- of the term .... no part in tho. otudy'. and, .....,..;.1Iy i....... of tho.- of '.,koph&nc'in the ~ priYItc: Oi.tioIlIt, djec:o tlld below, in the claim of 8oMn- A
--:
Smith ('93" 7") ti>M 'In the _re of the _
• Seee·l· L,.. U't.],
[~J
ijwp ..... q eoWd ftftly .....il
~
of
LYU .J+, AeIeh. 1I.14S (~bdow) , Lyk.l .ll .
11f!t, lit ~, h ~~. :W"S' dcv, • ~l' 601ciI ~ au......,.v; dvu ph 06¥. ""'. oW. y6Q III: It ~ no 10li ~ ~ « ~b. ~ ~¥; Wto,: W¥ ,. h~~ 06 ... ...,.. ~ 6qxona iMo.. ~ ~ ~ IIOl ~, If n ~. )+1<:31 : 01.:& yOq &t 1It:, " -, oh.lICI¥~.(U, tfN:rq turQdv bnll'9«y)Joyw. "'"
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1)9b~ : ~6l.al d""6q.~ !N~¥o:xWo;:~!a\6&.WDv y60 W¥ 6Qcw b oW:~."" 6I:p"" 'Ie ~v tb;: oVx
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..
.ana drv .., ~ &U~.
1J9b:M-6 ~ yQQ h6tplW 6l I&Ol . . . . . '4 ogo¥ ~ avl....,.ntlb ~ . . . . . d(rIp6-tu. 016 y6Q ~ 6lqh4 6qaoo. , Dem. lCUII.6. : 4ll&"", Ala OIIIiOOfO.LGE ...... w 1CQ4.,.... eoc..... e Mcnander h . 6lS Kocl ; 'The .... area c Ii,. Wi 1M the _ whoobatril*tbe .... too ImlPUIouily appeantobl: ~,
w 1C(nI,\
,,*i~ ~.
86
ROBIN OSBORNE
eaptiOUlnell, quibbling which pulls apart the argumenta of othcn in an overpncite and litcnliatic way. The connotations are by no mct:n. totaJly negative. DetnOItbencs anticip.cca criticism in order to diurm it, but he i. clearly not afraid that the poeIibility thac bis argument will be IICCn U aykophantic iteelf decoY' hi, point. Plato acknowlcdp that Socratca' mcthoda miaht be held to be aykophantic, but thit is prelum.lbly not meant to make the readeT ridicule Socratic dialectic or disregard Socntcs' particubr arguments here. The aykophantic allegations rcfcncd to by Aristotle draw attention to features which he docs think it important to avoid lime they are 1QUn:d of obecurity and confuaion. Cltva' IpCCCh clearly WII enough to raile the ftas 'sykophant', but that Ras did not render the clever point made
ineffectual. If we can trust the ancient In:ica, 'being .ykophantic' wu allO used metaphorically in I rather diUerent way which aleo foc:ueca on the 'niggling' upect of .ykophantic activities. The Etym%fiaIm Mapum and the Souda both claim that 'Plato Ind Menander' u.ed the verb ~ardei,. in the sense of to teaK: or atimulltc Kxually.a u chit it true, Plato and Menander were in part playing on the verbal and metaphorical connection between lip and female genitala, but they may al.o hive been a1ludins to proc:cdurca chatKIerittic of thole labelled aykophanta. Skill in lpeakins, ignored by modem definition. of the .ykophant, i. central not only to this metaphorica1 UK of the term but alao to ltoc:ratca' definition in the tptteh AlaifllSt Eudtyttos. ''I'hoR who are clever at apeaking but poor', laocratea claima, 'arc particullrly keen to bring .ykophantic: allcgationa, and their favoured victima art thoec who arc incapable II or&tOI'1l but able to pay out cuh . 09 Thil definition is very much in the intcrata of the rich man who fcan that he wiUloec the argument, and it accma to have bcc:ome .tandatd to all• •ykophancy in any cue where a poor man WII involved u plaintiff. 10 Nevcrtheleaa, thi. cllim that the aykopbant is a bt.ckmailer who brings I ptOlCCution lDlely for the reward, either in or out of court, hu been emphuiaed in modem acholarly treatments of the aY"ophant . • .,topbanl' (1COloI. 0(
~
o¢6v' doly· I> 6'
6oUn'
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~ .,:'om:III).
,:c.I M....-
133.41 .nd SoIicb . .... ~IY boIh claim lhe! 'Plaia' and of lMtuy tqc,m~ Kod: _ _ that the l'IaIo in ~ • not !he philoeopNr bul P!.to dllt eomic poet (PIMo Com~ ita. 155) and conjemmalhM P\uo mel MmMder...,. Iw"..-d not ~y buI ovx6:tny, cWac HISJdlha.t.y. 0VII6ta. AcBtr (&d UDt:.. LciflSilI915) .... ~.,wgattl ref_to P!.toRq. )4Od (Ibove 11,5). intended, but 10 my mind nodoi. . . 1dded IOWI F ... bylUt.titutintlMtu ~forVUiiO+U'dl. . .. I~. lW.5 ~ ~., buxaqo6oly 0( ~., I'h 6cl1llOl, txo""' tit ,,'It6fy, ~ ~I'h died." ~6lXQftIa"'ftld.y· 10 Comp.n Meftltldrt G«wtoi tr.t ~ (fr.93 Koct) : "I'M UI)' 10 daot>M, GorJiaI. C'I'CII if whit be .,. .. juII. hDp&e .y Ibe only . . - tilt opeaQ up iI 10 fd ~. and doe man - ' - cIodIa are u..-tbere .. eallecIltykophant nom if ill face be is Ibe one who ........ W.Oi,eeI· (nao''''W{hlIW. ton, rovri«, ~, ' .1&6:tv ~ 6(xOlO · ~ y6Q J.tyQY I MIlO fI6vou"fOllLtd' ~, toO).atId., I aol ~ I EI)'IIg'
Mawodtr
'* !be verb iJI!he _
pooI'''''.
&eo.;: I> W ~ I f:xa,w aol.d:lCU, .
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'7 In various p~urC8 in Attic law the luoceuful prosecutor wu financially rewarded (Osborne Il}8sb : 44~) . For an assessment of sykophancy the most important of theee procedum is that known as pluJSu (denunciltion). Connectil'll sykophants with pIuuis is cmouraged not only by the p<M8ible etymologica1 connection betweenp/liUU and the '.phant' of '.ykophanl', but al80 by the frequent linking of .ykophlnte and plltuil in one of the culielt IOUtceI to mention .ykophantl, Ariatophancs. 11 When Dikaiopolil in Ariltophanes' AAJltmrimu aeta up hi, own privatea,ora (market), he Innounces 'Let no .ykophant come here, nor any man from Phuis','Z and I,ter in the play • • ykopbant does make an .ppellran~. to denounce the Megarian for illegal trading (a true alleg1ltioo).11In the BinU ArUtophlnell again makes fun of the irritltton Clluaed by aykoph.nt., and although no particular legal action is specified the putative defendants.re once more non-Athenians. I. Pltasis may alao be in qUeMion.t the opening of Lysiu' lpeechA,anut 1M Com-ulkn, whCf't the speabr c1.ima Ihlt the Counc:il, however much it regard. the com-eeIJen. guilty, aJlO regards thOR who accuse them ...ykophants. 1S It ia difficult to the .icnificance of these genenl ....temmts connee· ting .ykophants withplttuil. We know Iittk about actual cues olphasi' and have no .,.y of teating the ilUlinuatiOM of AriNophanes against the evidence of ~utiol\ll brought under thia procedure. Ariatophanea cm.inly impliea that thOR who bring pNueis are a nuiunce, but he doea not imply that their p/Jauis an: groundl_ i the prOKCutora may obeerve the letter rather than the .pirit of the II." but there ia Ippan:nt legal ju.tification for their actiom. The opening of Lyaiu XXII implies that Athenians were inclined to unjutti6ed Rtlpicion of thOR who acroted the com-tellen (by pIuuis?), rather lhan that thoee who brought pNuftl wete unjultified. 16 Oraton and comic: writen frequently imply that .ykophants made money II·
II The eli '
om,io:Al impeDetnbiliry '" tJ.e ~ Mel ic. -wen .~ in tJ.e late fiftb
cmtury mipt • Awl that doeft or _ _
..n,;nal ~ .JUt... (. ~
i ..'f'OIri.. 6p1J
....t.tdI nmed ¥aJItiout Utipnc. lb. eobriqo.Iet. II Iu . .WI. Ps-6: tvwoe« I""In ~ do(_ I ~. 61J.os: 6ow;; ~ 11m' ~. ~_ 'from the _ ~ the RiYef!'h.il· afIII_ mnnaIIy UKd in the bird' 10 n:fcr to pinc.. 1J .WI. II, 'l ... joUy-n .... IO~ "-'little piIp--ipxk, did )":'Utoo' (10 ~,:o(vvv ..,.~to& / ...,),qw. MOl oil, and ~toI '"-- HiUfthoI to __ Iiboor' (1&Ol1ltr' 6&l N'-qxoo; Iyxc .... . -•• J. A._opt _ .... pu.. at ! D1l&n)' ~~""'_dcarlym~. -I6fiPII .:as6.BinU6II . •4 Birdf 1410-6,. Note tbet AriItofII- could joke IbM the ~ __ produc1 uniqwto Atbnai,.WI. 904'f L,.. un.1 'Gentlemea~, I11III)' ba'ft_ up to me m 1m_ .. tbIc 1_ ptlljlO8inf to _ _ tIM: corn«Uen i.. the Council. pointiac _ that you nprd tt.o.c orbo bri. (hal. , .... them CYm if you thlak lbeJ art b!. tIM: ........ So 1 will"- apIaia ......... _pdled ... to _ _ them' (JIIOUo( 1* ~.6fIac,.y. i 6116qcs:~.
pM...,.....
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"w6:, ....
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88
ROBIN OSBORNE
out of their piOlCCUtionI. 11 Occaicmally the .ykophant it clearly alleged to have brouaht hil pro cution merely in order to tuch an out-of-court tettlement for • .urn of money. Phodoe.oo the Soud. quote. lingle line from Ariltophanel' Jolt plly the Daitaln in which 'beint I Iykophant' iI eocilted with 'thrutenilll. demanclinc mOlley, md 8ecc:inc'." Similuiy. when in
Ariolophaneo' W.a/t.\ (85<>-959) 1M oykophont _
.. one of . - d....
out of hillivelihood when the pd WftlJth rqaiM blight, 1 take it thlt the IJkopbant iI impoverilbed not, or DOt only, becauee he it hillllelf one of the wicted no Ionaer a1Jowed to proIpCT, but bec:Iute there it no khlcer ICOpe for IICCUIinc men who In: rich in the hope thlt the;r SUi1ty c:onec:ienc:a will make them PIIY their ac:c:uecr off; (or now that Wealth hal hit . t bKlt only the
cood are rich. The c:1euat
~ CMe8
of IUeged .ykophantic: bt.c:ltm.il in the &fth ",ntury c:onc:cm Nw.. and Kriton. Our 'infonNItion' on the payment of I lIrge IUrn of money by NiIti.. to. potentill piC*CUtor coma tolely from I pllage of I comedy by Tekkkide. quoted by Plutlreh, and IfIUIbly it tell, 118 more lbout Nikia' comic: /I"JOfUJ than about anythina ebe. I' Kriton', employment of • c:ounter-eykophant to protect him.elf Ipinat venttout litiption it the IUb;ec:t of • more trustworthy KeOUnt in Xmophon', M~ttttmJbilitJ and it will be nee IlIry to enmine it in deuit liter. AlJu.ioni to, and ~ tpecific aJleptioni of, 'yltop"'ntic blaclttnlil occur in fourth-c:entury anton, but the pereenuge of referenct:l to Iyltophlncy which tum on blackmail illmIlI. Sykophmc:y figures prominently u an evil in hocratea,20 but the cloleat he c:omeI to rnU.ing I blackmail.negation it in the tpe«h Agaitut KAJIi1ruJJtJwn. The centre of the defence is the .negation thlt K.l1imaIthOl' pt'cleclltion c:ontnvcneI the Amneaty .... w of Arlthinol (403 • .c .), but the ,peaker Do cWm. both t"'t he was not lUilty of the crime aJI~, Ind thlt KlllimaithOi iI going apiNt In earlier Igreement to aettle out-of~rt for I IUm of money. The background to the cue ill u follOWl : the tpealter hid been with the ariIIon bGsilnu Pltroklea when P.troldes tei&ed aome money from fUlIi· .7 CI. 1M . . . NlaUKG I1IIJ'rophmcy prcrri~ • Ii~ in~, BmIs '41~ ,
, ..S~ · II Ar. fr. 1'9 ...... : 1orIO¥, t - M l l -' ,lpuO.ow, ~~co6Yquoted by PhotioIand the Souda .. t". oIioaa .. PIutardro,l.i,/ufNi/Mu +.5 (TeIekIcicIee fr .4' KodI): 'SoKhariklelpeid up loodr. IOaphim ~thllbe_lM6ntdUWhil_dwrhldbouPt. Ni ....' _ Nimlp"'400dr., but I _ hiI friend ItId to it ;. oaIy cIecmc thM I .a...ukI keep _ , eMIl thouP I know_II why he IP" it.· (X.,~ tilt" 06.- ~ ~, lv' crow.. !iii >.tnt,
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CCi4l11be iP..-ed by
10 AI-'l .Uf.S _ XY.I6,., PUI.6.t, Uf.S, I].
1
So rnUhot on the grounda that it wa public propeny. After the resto1'1ltion of democncy KallimakhOl brougbt I cue against Patrokles and tettltd out-ofcourt for t,ooo dr. Subeequently KaJlimakhOl brought an allegation apinst one L,.imakhCM (pn:eurubly in the tame connection) and lettled with him for zoo dr. The proaecution of the speaker followed . The apeaker dairna to have I witnal to an agfeement with K.llimakhOl that KallimakhOi would drop the pl'OeecutWn for I payment of 200 dr., and claima thlt even this agr«nlcnt wu only made beClluae K.llimakhot had eo publici8ed hi. cue that thoise who heard him had Itrongly advised the apeaker to Bettie out-of-court. When KalJimakhoI continued to pre. his charga, the apeaker put in I special plea (mmruut"ria) that the prior Igfeement made the proaecution illegal. By ftiling to cha1le~ this plea with I charge of false witness K.allimakh08 effectively conceded ita validity; nevet'theleas he then proceeded with exactly the ..me charge again, u it appears, and in the cue from which we have hia speech tried an injunction (paragraplei) on the grounds that the proeecutton breached the Amnesty. Then: ia • very great deal in this aff.ir which I~tel' speech does not 1'CVcr.!. If one takes a view aympathetic to the .peaker and, with Newlin in the Loeb CI. .tcaJ Library, tranal.tcr. 'to act as a .ykophant' as 'bt.ckruil', and 'lOme of thoee acquainted with this man' as 'his friends', then a claaaic cue of sykophantic blackmail is produced, But if one takes a view sympathetic to Kallimakhos, noting that he was the injured pany (the eaaence of hia story is nevel' denied) and had not reneged on his out-of-court Rttl~u with Patroklea and LyaimakhOl, whereas the speaker had taken refuge in the A,nnesty, then it is not at aU dcr.r that the aimple veraion of the story of the originaJ out-of-court settlement can be swallowed whole, still leu that the insinuations about the way in which that aenlement was brought about can be ac«pted at face value,ll Allegationa of blackmail (u oppoeed to limply making money by proaecuting)u are no more frequent in Demoathenes and Aeachines, and a1l the cues where blackmail is dearly in question concern men who brought charges againat full·time politicisns, Although the speechA,ainsIAml.ilon is full of insinuation and alluaions it brin" little detailed evidence in .upport of it. interpretations of Ariatogeiton'. behaviour, It cannot be denied that Ariltageiton frequently threatened to bring proeecutions. but it ia anothel' maner to decide _hethel' he did 10 timpIy in ordel' to get paid ofr, The best that Demoathenea can manage in the way of blackmail allegationa is vague, 'he took
I, AI 1_ _ nw, SI-a ~. ~ of hrtinc wiu-d faIedJ 10 ....' Ii>. ,m', beiItt cSe..s oaIy 10 ba" the aid Pf06uo;:cd atm. ~ 1IJIeld!1iIa'- that he _ OM of • "'1' . . . IIUIIIber of wih to thiI 't.ct', &nd lhiI micbI • AI the! the _ _ no! quilE • IMXi_ lep".'lc. iI. ct. Dem. Imt.u.a.
a
e.,.
1
90
ROBIN OSBORNE
IOmdhing', 'he enpsed in every improper behaviour imlfrinablc, attacking allotted ~. beainI and eucting paymentl'. Zl The: cue of Theokrines iI more complex. Mikon, against whom he brought • jIlttuis which he dropped after Mikon had patel him 300 dr" wu not. politician. But althouah we do DOt know • much _ we would like to about Mikon, he cmainly came from a teeptx:table family which was involved in public life at 1eMt to the extent that his brother ... priat of Dion,-aoa and honoured by the Paraloi, probably for eenic:e • financial officer of the .tate trireme the p~ .U The other pro mutionl brouttJt by 11leokrines mm· tioned in Oemoetbena LVIII are I, nee uily political, "afJIti ,pGmNOi:wlI apiRlt the f8ther of Eplkhara. in which 'I'heokrines -=ured a conviction after the defendant refuted to tettle out-of-court for 10 ta1enll. and a IUbeequent and ret.ted cue apiMt • POlycuktM (p<*ibly the politician PolyeuklOl of Sphettol), Itttled out-of-court for 300 dr. AI theM: latter prOM:cutiona were political, M) it is alia fM*ible that there were political overcona to the proeccution of MikoD. Theoluina' IUcceM in teCUring • conviction with. huge fine of 10 takntlilhould not be litbtly diunillc:d. The burden of the ugument 10 far hal been wt neither the metaphorical u.e of the term. .,.kophant not the apecific allegations mIIde -rinK individual ''Ykophanu' IUppon thOle modem dolan who identify the Iykophant by hill pecuniary motivation. It ia to be noted that onton make claima that prOlCCuton are employing bribery and blackmail without ...oeiating Iykophancy with thia cb.lrge. There are lOIDetima good reaaona for this: the claim that othtt po OICCUton have been paid off may be part of altrategy designed to indicate that the current proeccutor ill not alone in thinking that the dercndant dcacrva to be brought to court.2J But this explanation will not apply in III CUCI. There teemI, for example. no good reuon why the general allegations of blackmail and bribery made in the speech in defence of PolyatratOi (LY" XX.7. IS) ahould not employ the word Iykophant, which occur. elsewhere in the IPCCCh (I 12) without refC1'eDOC to money paeaing. Similarly ThcomnestOi a1lcgea that StephanOl ..... hired to ptOkCute ApollodOtOl and did it for the money without ca1ling him a sykophant ([Oem.]Llx.IO), although Apollodoro. himaelf ill happy to bandy that charge ""iolt Stcphanoe later in the cue (ux. 39,43.44,68). Z6 u Dem. UY.47 J.cIIWrr im6tpcou, XXT.SO W;: at ~ ~ cJMCIC\,tw., cduir¥, ~&, ... ~, d~06~.
to PriIIt JG ii' 410.16-17,
U
t-.nd '" hrUoi IG ii' "$+.1,6-7. See 0.. . 1971: 57-8.
L,.. xxn:. l-a'i had.~_peopIelO'"tht:w_.ni."".ed i... W.~, 9
....
For. '-Ielllllrlber ttuntened uwt -ned that they _1eI..:..-~. Noot 01 uand I take that to be ...... th-t 1ft)' aecutllion ill true : for if P'hilolnta
.,... ... *' ___, ~
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MUC"~Y· " o66c4
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~ cbIol'Gc ,I\(, h 6A~ o6oct Wtx6'ou' d. ~ 11'\ .oU6; .... 'EqyodJovo;: d~ 1ft. s,.... oh 6Y 00-. oloo;: t'~ 1bca).16:~ ~ JW",~. ) " ct. (Dem.) l.f1I.60for. btIebnaiI dLlrrewhid; . . mt,...·~.
"
But if IabellinglOmeotle I tykophant did not imply thlt he .... penon who brought charges for money, what did it imply? In attempting to anawer this quatioo we an in • much auonger pot,ition for the fourth century, with iu wea1th of forenlK UKSof the lenn, than for the nfth century, when mott of our evidence few IJkophanti C011lCI from comedy - and indeed it i. not impoeaible Ihlt the ue of the term changed aJightly from fifth to fourth century (lee below n . .5-4). Here I wit proceed by looking in totnt detail.t I tendentious definition given by Acechinea and by examining the uacs of the alleption in the nemo.thenic corpuI.
In the False Emba.uy speech. Aeechinetl rounds at one point on the pj(ll~cution claim that, just as he, AetChinee. had urged that Timlrlr.hos be condemned on the evidence of ~ (rumeu..), 80 Aeechinca too lUnda condemned by his own bad rtputltion. In hie reply Aeachines .uempte to tepante hie own argument in the cue of TimarkhOll from that which is being w.ed against binuelf,t7 He c:Iaima that phemi and sulwplranh'tJ are two very different things: phnM is when the majority of citizens. of their own accord and with no ulterior motive, pall on an allegation; rtdoplt_tiD, which is whit hie opponentl Ire now eng.gcd in, il when one man mikes I Illnderou.t attUIItion in the AM!mbly or Council. Two fnturn. of thie Ifgument should be noted: tim, thlt AelChi.nes Cln .uggest thitpAemi and SIIItopIumtUJ Ire 10 cloK together that they need to be carefully diltinguished (c:ynictIlly one might lIy thlt p/tnni it whit I ute 100 stJu:,p/ltU'tUJ whit my opponent UKI); IICCOnd, that the motive and poaible financill col'llidet1luORI of the stJtophcutks Ire not invoked It .11, Not only does the tllegation of aykophanc::y evidently not require insinuatiol'll of monetary greed U I motive, but AelChina lCtuaUy fo.goc:a the opportunity to make luch. Iugeltion, Thilil CONIittent with the company wh"=h tykopbancy keepI in the Tinurkhos lpeech: there it i. ueociated with COIrae behavtour, cockine8f, IW:UriOUlne8l, coWirdlineu, thameleunea, and not knowing to blUlh It what is bue, ZI None of these ill quality an Athenian would be proud to hive attributed to hirIllleU, but none of them involvea crimina] behaviour; Aeechinet' use of 'aykoptw1t' it consistent with u.age in the Demotthenic corpus, 'Claims that the tpeaker'. opponent ila .ykophant are commonplace' (Carey and Reid IC)8S: I&}) but they occur with f.r greater frequency in lOme epee<:hes th.n othen, and in partkular the fnqlKnC)' differ. between 'printe'
and 'puhlic' cues and between .peechea for the proeecution and for the rI
Aedr.. 0.145 : Rtcm,i·A~,6n~~"""xal~. "", ""yO(oo6 _.....a:&ofIo).6. &.~ .. 6lb6c) ; tv lou I&(II~ . ~ 6'cMWv Wcqow ~c ,il ~. fta1 """ kmv, hnt 'lib Jd~ .... JIOlL. . ~ hi JI'I"q'Ca .. ~.~ 1tnI nvO /hi; ~ ~". ~ 6·tcm". &nno ~ lOUr;: ~ IMjo 01.... ~!IIcl .. tv U! w"> bcxl.~ 6lo6c:w;.. ; ~ U! ~ ISoultp 60 ~j!60Utl uvd. IICd I'h' .-.. ~ &6otAn ... ~. aiJv 6l ~ ..ciw 6; ~ ~ JI~II,~, !iii o6v 06WU1' r4 w6. VI. ..w_ ~
............
-re
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,
k
~
ROBIN OSBORNE
defmct (for the raw data lee the lilt of teatimonia concluding Harvey'l ~Iy below). Fourteen 01 the thirty-two 'private orations' do not uee words of the Iyltophant root It all. When: we have the speech of the pl'Iliccution in a diItl, no aUeption of Iykophancy on the opponent't (that it, the defendant'l) part is made. Accordinely there are no uaes of 'sykophant' worda in DelnOlthena lotYU, xx:nn. XLVI. XLVII . ~. L, (.IY, or LVI (and only one trivial instanct in tM a"tiJoIU tpteCh (Oem.] XUI). In (DemOlthena] UII, the tpeech of the man reaponeible for bringing the 4fKWIapIti (denunciation) from which the particular daapute at iaeue in this speech ariaea, the speaker is at painl to point out in the fint eentence that he is NOt heine a Iykophant. Two of the five pr~ I! cution speeches which do ute the word are not in fact diJtoi (LVIII" In nuJftxis, ux a "atJt;). and all five be10nc to acquencea of legal Ktiona: XL v is I proeecution for FIlIe Witnell, thlt ii, effectively, an appeal, and hence a lpeech by the originll defendant; XXXIX and XL are two of a lone series of lpeechea in I complex of cues apparently begun by the man who " the defendant here. TIw: UK of Iykophant in thete lpeeches il thus COnliltent with the pattern in lCtUaI defence speecheI : five of the eevt:n defendant'ltpeechea (xu, u, UI, LV, LVII) UK 'lykophtnt' words; only the two inheritance speeches fail to employ the charge (XUtl and XUY) . Similarly all but one of the injunction ~1 lpeechn Ide '.ykophant'; th_ Ire In lpeec:hn to eItIblish that the cue " inaclmiaible, and hence lpeeches by Ihe original defendant . .iOlt the original ProleC\ltor. The cxccptiontllpeech which docs not UK 'aykophant' it a reply to an injunction, and henet a apeech by the original proeecutor (xxxv). The pattern in the OrItionl delivered in connection with 'public' cues it very different . As it illustrated by the Thcokrincs and Ncain CUt:I mentioned above. Ploeecuton in tbae cues are quite prepa.mI 10 al1cse aykophancy. DemOIthenes himtelf Ulf:llykophant more or s liberally in hit prolecutiom of Mctdlai. LcptiRCI, Ariltocntca and AriIt-.eiton; only Androtion and Timocntca t:ICIpc. Nor did thoac who p'Mtcuted Dcmoachena himaelf let him t:lClpe untarred.19 A dear picture of the ute of the charte 'aykophant' emeigH from the DcmOlthcnic COrpUI. Plow:cuton in private CUCI avoided the 'sykophant' words altOlClhet : unlcaa they wen enpsed in a prolonged Itrugle with the defendant in which they themselves had been pIC I eC'lttcd, they had little cauae to allege that the defendant wu a aykophant, and they may hive tried to avoid putting it into the dikata' heada that they might thcmlClvea be bc;ng tykophantic. Dcfcndantl in IIJCh caaea, on the other hand, a1moat invariably a1lqed that the prtJlecution wu aykophantic. and they did ao both in bringins injunctioN .nd in mUJne their main defence. By conlTMC, in ,.atMai and other cuea where the pro.ecutor ..... not himtelf the injured party but wu
"
claiming to Kt for the public good. the aller-lion of .ykophancy was thrown around by both piC I ecution and ddencc ,like. 30 It ahould by now be clear that even Rhodes' rather cautiou. ltatement of the traditional view of the aykophant it seriously mitleading. 'Sykophant' wall applied to men who took advantage of the"w. .110""118 volunteer Plo&cc;Ulton
in order to obtain te1ft.rde or payments, but it Wat by no means applied nduaively to them. It "'at applied to II"Y prORCUtcw, and it implied not that the proeecutor w.. Kting for corrupt motive" unle. tlult was additionally llpeCified, but rather that the pfOKcutor did not have. good case, that hi, cae depended on improbable uaumptiona. empty Ulertiona or over-meticulout quibbling. 'Sykophant' was • tenn with some abu.in content, liable to be IItrung together with other terms of abuee. but to allege cluit someone "'II • sykophant wu not to prest. very aenous charge. Dtmoathenes does note the fact that Ariatogeiton had been convicted of sykophancy, but he does 10 in I virtual parcnthaia, and Apollodoroelcavea the allegation that Kallippoe h.. ICkd II ••ykophant to the penultimate word of the speech apinst him.]1 To uy that 'aykophant' wu a relatively mild tam of .buK • .till not to tell the whole .tory. It ......lso an ad Itoc allegation. A proec:cutOf showed himaelf a 'Ykophant by bringina a particular p,oeecution, not by adopting any particular kind of proeecution as a profeaaion. AU the orators uae pam of the verb 'to Kt u • I)'kophant' .nd the .batnct noun ·,y\ophancy' much more frequently than they UK the noun 'sykophant', and only laocntea, in hit epideictic not his foteMic speechea. talb of aykophanta in the plural with any frequency.)! IKlttltes xv. aSS taIU of the 'genua of .ykophanta', but there is no ttM:e of the profesaion of sykophant in the onton,]) and the very cuet moR frequently alleged in the modem scholanhip .. profeuional.ykophancy • Fat the effective dioti.Dmon bd .. eo;u " ... \,,; and JiJuJj _ ~ '91sb. J. Dem. :nY,'9, (Onn.] LII.3). Ct. Diphilollr. )",-11-, from ""' ~J: 'H~". man .m.:. can""'" lift witloou1~.. trouble. 00,...... know whM I ....nP H., ..... rithniipCnd hI. niPtt on pdt}' biola........ or ~ or bc~ ttw. .m.:. do MICh thinp, or 1ICti..... ;ylopbantm lbe...,.... atbari. . f_ .itt III . w~ ........ct;'. rid of a11_bacvm. ' (o6x t~ ~ tftY 4Yru MIIOG 11'¥O1; I wiwv ' ~; &)J,.' ~ Ixn' ~ ~v - . ~ f\ "IOI.~dv, I f\ ,.., ~ mVm lIOI.'NVIiv _v, I f!
m_
OIIIit1¥l.m:v*"'~,f\~v ' ~ . w~~.,tvos:.)
D
JJ
n .. L,a." 111*& o l _ pen of tIM: vab, • O".Inio, ,bra of die abitlK"l bOUn
' . ' . tic, _ _ 01. ..•• ,'=,..,inthe ....... ,_lia~ofl '._I.intheplunol. 18Oa _ _ 3I6_ooI_ penoolilM:vnb, lI_ooIilM:.t... .., noun, 4 _of wi ; .....UJ mthe ....... 1nd 14 of ........" . in the plunl (all tM" . ,\ ..,. come mlbe cpideic:lic (Hillioi. vm or H). ~ 11M _ _ _ of !be ..,,-b, S of the IIbIinc:t noun&, II of milM: ..........., _ lofw,.,,,,,,,;mdlCpIunI. The nc-hcnic rorpua "100 _ _ _ part of the vnb, II nou ... 19 m ilM: .,..,.... , • II of ',L,,. mtIM; plun!. On 'the w.--,' ("roo.,",*", 011.,.0:",") ofIOnn,] UXOC .I, lU..9 let: the autiouI b ........" of Bow.... Smith 19)1: 54 and D. ) (c:omr.: c.,.". Reid I9IS: 168). 10 line miMed CaIhaua .91): ......, .... : tlw f .... of the _ dnnead .... hi. . ~ than that Boiotoa ,_iwed help and advice &om. IfOUP of fricCHiio. whetbnro.....n,. ~ ...,..,. at _ . Ii .. m lhe IpMbn lara . . to pui til. advice iD • bed
, '.'_11', .,ki.....'"
ofw" ...,
of.JOt'.·""'"
Thit..-- _
.....
1
94
ROBIN OSBORNE
VIInish on c10ee examination. J4 ThWilaocratea alludea to the,,'GfJ/ta; and diluU Kallimakh08 brought, but the fact is that lR can only be lure of hia involvement u proeecutor in I lingle complex of cuea in which he himaelf WH. or could tuc:ceMfully repreKnt himtelf u being, the injured party. Theokrinea made three proeecutiont that we know of. two of them directly related to the ..me affair, and the third ~bly involving pIIrt of the ..me family. Arittogeiton wu certainly aloud-mouthed politician, who lpecialilitd in alleptioRi nther than proeecutionl. but Quintilian acquired from aomewhere I high opinion of him U In orator, Ind we mly be over-influenced by the fact that an that aurvivea to us are three tptechea made againlt him.)5
II
THE IMPORTANCE OF SYKOPHANCY
The tylr.ophant thus diuppeara before our eyes. but the phenomenon of .ykophancy, of vexatious litigation. remains. When a man stand. up in court and call. hit opponent a .ylr.ophant he is not claiming that he i. bringing the prosecution to make monty, but he i$ claiming that the man i.a pts'. cau.ing him .00 the court unncc try trouble. That the AtheniaN felt the need for a apedal term for the wxahous litigant impl~ that aome Athenian. at leut believed that there WIt an amount of litigation which caused more trouble th.n it WH worth. At lea.t .. early .. IMJCTlltea, the e:Ullence of three different ways of proKCuting the vexatiou. litigant at Athens was taken u evidence for the ale of the problem;J6 but it alto heara witneaa to the difficulty of dnwing the line between proper and improper. or vexatiout. ptoltcutiont. One aspect of this problem i. the difficulty of preventins tylr.ophantic Ult of measures .,.inlt lykophant.,31 but a 8CCORd, and mort significant, liet in the intimate
.. I..ofbnor JI
"'7 ImOmlioualy rvuP' the information on four vet)' well known proeecuton dubbed ' I)'kophants' by Ihcir"" .." .....c. (wt-..-., a . , we have) in a chapter he mtilin 'Typal AthmWll)'aIpbang'! QuiMitiln, /tu'. Or-. XII .'O.U: ' I ..... _1Ie"I'etaI «fton - Lykourp, Arilcoce1toc1 WId IIRIIII and Antip/'lon who weft artier than. them. n- mipc bcdelc:ribed _ men of the lalne f.mity but with differenl indirid.... cbandera' (11_ p/vrimoII, L)'WI'IIlIft, AriIc~ d hi. prioreIla-eum, Anliphonb: qw. \II bomineI inter Ie ~ tirnikl, difkr'entil diuriI
.
~) .
,. ltoe. X1'.]I}-'''' MIC~U ")71:66. Boaner" Smith 1938 : 6J-71 . ForWl,.. of PIQued ... . .inal.ykopNnll_ (Arill.] All. Pol. US, 59-3 and d . lP-l' It _ UAnpldcly uadnt wIw)'OU had eo 60 top: c:onricted of.,.up •••c,. Cauiroly it __ "": ity the_thai dim frequency of (~ul) t;Uption or 1M receipt oUdemand for nate)' weft in
.
to _ 't- ~.bout iafOOQlCtt • of ~r: but it iI _. it ia .-.lble dMot the
.nee
,
k
"
connection between litiption and the proper functioning of Athenian
d<mOCn<)'.
A strone link bet .. een .ykophancy and democncy baa been noted bye.rlieT IChoian. but they differ on how to evaluate thit link. Ehrenberg, in hit only mention of tykopbanu in From Sobt to Socrau, (1973 : ;u5-16), writes : Whm more and more poIitic:aJ deci.ion. ~ Pili to be m.de in the cou.rtI, the WIly _ ptepated lot' the rule of the tnUIaI, in both ecclai.. and i;OUrD. This _ .... lIlhe ume time that the frontier zone between lep1ation and juritdktion vew narnno- and ..,ue •• f.a which led 10 In incr inc pe;r1 beinc played by the profCllional informers, the I)'kophantl. In the 10..- run it dtttroyed the Yery bMiI of the polis IS. stale founded on Ia....
On the other hand, Finley, in 'Athenian Demagopes' (197. : :all, wrote : If Att.er.larply CKaped the extreme formt of.uuU 10 common dwewltelc, 1M could not
ete:ape ita Inw:r manifatationl. Athenian politics had an a1I-or-nothinc quality.
The objectift on acb aide _ not merely to defat the oppoeition bul10 nutb it, 10 behead it by dcItroyiDl itt laders. And ohm enouab this pme _ played within the atdeI, as. num'" of men manoeuvred for leaderatUp. ~ chid technique the poJtticaI trial, and the chief metnnnentalitia 'fI'CfC the din....dubt and the I)'Nphanta. That 100, I would UJUc, weft ttruetun.lly • ~ of the t)"tan, not an lICCidental 01" avoidable nc'eliCelioCe.
w.
A1tbough both Finley and Ehrenberg invoke sykophancy, they both fOCUl on • very narrow Ira of 'Ykophantic activity and are more concerned with the: world of AriltOfreiton thin with sykophantic alleptioM brought !!pi.,.t private individuaJa in the dibatcria,lI But just .consideration of only part of I
the evidence for I)'kopfwltic Ktivity lead. to a plrtial Ind milk:lding definition of the term I)'kophlnt, 10 it lead. to an inldequate -ament of the importance of ,ykophlncy within Athenian lOCiety, Ehrenberg and Finley trat atucu on political 6gura u centnl to the political importance of aykophancy, but othen hive ItraIed the lipificance of .ykophantic aUkb on the rich. Humphreyt (tC}8Jb: )0) writes: 'the
.u
Jl
~ cia nat rr:fer 10 the .roe """-. mel hence die ,",,,ihition mipt be thM ttlrw AI. . . . . . . tJw....ua. cauld brine ""lJIt lail ill tlUI..,.-ny. H _ "97+: Ucllim. that 'the introductiDa of tbeJNlltl,... anced nathrr t)1Il' of I' • hzwl , tbedti.no. who _lei Ilftderub lOKI forlnOMJ'" piGpoMI &nd let .... _ be
c:UrJ-,.a""
011 other am.m.' pi'r - .... but die nidalClt .. cita in atppon of .biI it ~. 1 - - . YUI ,IJ9-)O it _ned wilh tboMo who '" .. diUlu or attend tfIc
inlaibed
'rlw_,
A oW)' &rid a-:t paid for ..... to, nat witt. [fIlII·time poIita.n.) and 60 I .....,. who mab tfIciI" IiYmf ill the QobIy &nd before tfIc_~'. ApoIlodotoa ([Oem.) ux... ..]) . . . . that Stc~ ... it _ . fllll·time poIitirian (rlIr.) bul .IJkophont, and rbIII: be ...... aJ"IIWId tile 9, hi', Piaduc .. (""-). brinp,1 " , .' mel"...., for pey, and putt bia _ 011 odteq' pi.,. h, but dIIio doft, lICIt _ ...... die &.ucr actiYicy it ..... jo .. ·S caDiurbiSll ',y' ,"-'I'. r~ and Ktaipbotl_ nat c.Dcd.,kopheng is! the F va merrillr 10 tberr poIitial: ~rity (Dew. D!?], ....66,_,lOl,ao]; "-'It. HU·n) , and tIM: aDuIiou 10 ~'. eoa-rir:tioa for"..,..,. I • it __ c _ted with the w.beeqwat 1M. of hit .,.".......ic: ........ 011 pi .... iudI.idIWI (Oma. U"f'.+O-"I) .
acm.-
--.of 'beiat
H -',rztcnded
the piitlM)'
i-.oI·.,upheooc'-'dbe_
:.ebleoat,-If.m.,.f... ........,_
I.lJbplwnl'.
M
w
96
ROBIN OSBORNE
deve.
typical victim of the aycophant wa thoucht to be the rich quieti.t or ally rathe!thin an active member of the polittcal ~Iite·. Carter (1986 : 129) tbi. poIition in aying, 'Sycophanta preyed etpcciaIly, pet'ha~ exclusively, on the rich . . •', but he fail. to lee the Unponanc:e 01 thit for democncy becauee he never namina hit convktioa that the sykophant ... primarily interelted in hush·money. Thus, concemina; Lytia VlI, he write. (10?-8): "The prwecutor dearly depended on the defendant'. fear and diaJike of IaWlllita or any kind of pubJM: bualne.: such a man would be prepared to pay a .ycophant to desdt. The fact that on thit OCCIIIion the ., c:ophant wa miItUm in his victim doea not alter what ii, on the evidence of Lyaia' tpecclaee. a 'rUle.' Tbac the victim of a aykophantic: proettUtion iI wea1thy does not entail that the proeecutor brinp his cae in order to cxtnct lOme of that wea1th. The wea1thy man acquires a whole variety of abiliriea and powua by virtue of hit wealth. Groce uw the relevance of this and bepn hit account of the womn, of the dibateriee at Athena with the obIervation that 'To make rich and powerful criminala effectively amenable to jUMic:e hu indeed been found 10 difficult cverywhet'e, until a recent period of history, that we mould be IUrprised if it were otherwiae in Greece. 'It To be wealthy in c1_kaI AtbeN ..... to have privileged accaa to political and IOci.aI powcr. There can be no doubt at all that politica throughout the cl.Mic:a1 pet"iod .... dominated by the walth)', and that it ..... M) dominated at every • • and every level, even in offiea that wen: in theory equally open to all (Daviee 1C}81; Otbome lC}8sa: 66-4). But to be wea1thy ... alto to incur
obliptiOfll, lOme enforceable. like the obliption to perlonn liturgiet, othen more a matter of aocial expectations and the maintenance of atandina; and atatul in the polis u a whole. the deme. and in other diviaiOOl 01 the demos. The r6le of a)'kophantic: proaecution within democracy muat be leen againat this bac:k8fOund of varied obliptiona, dutia and opportunitiet. The duaic cue of I rich Athenian troub~ by aykophanttc allegation. it that of Kriton. In theMt1ftOlabilio Xenophon relata how Kriton complained to Socrata that a man could not 'devote hilMtlf to his own affai...•. 40 Certain men. he alleged, brought cues (diJeai is the word uaed) againat him becauae they knew that he would fIIther p-y than hive trouble. Socrata recommend. that Kriton procure a human guard-dog to ward off thoee trying to wrong him.·' They find Arkhedemo., a man 'very aood at .peaking and acting'. but
poor (and thus • man who hu just the qualities ltoerltes attributes to tykophantsl) . Kriton cultivates Arkhedemoe by providing him with produce from hie own eetates and by inviting him to ucri6c:cs and 80 on, and in return when men make sykophantic aJleptions againet KriloR ArkhedCll'K» investi· pta them, finda out whtte they thCIDH)vCI have contravened the la. and who their enemies are, and thrutena to piell ecute them unl_ they terrain from proteCuting Krilon. Modern d~ of thit anecdote have tended to regud Kriton u the lamb-like victim dacribed by Aristophana in the Ktti;atl, 4Z but he am be teen in I rather different perapective. Kriton it unaabamedly, and compla. cently. Idf-centred. He wants to opt out and live in hit own little world. He will do anything for. quiet life, and will not involve hitnlelf with the lOCietyof which he it; part. He hal no ICTUpla about using h. walch, presumably inherited, to buy himeeU into. partkular ..ay of life in which he does not have to wony about the laws of the city. Krilon'. attitude emerges very dearly from the dialogue which Plato named after him : there Socntes cxpr HI hit raet'Vltions about ftecing pmon by inugining what the L..... (p"'60hified) milht say 10 him. but Kriton can only think in terms of the poeaibility that Socratea might fear that, if he fled, aykophanta would atud: him and oblige him to spend all hia money to get rid of them . Kriton reaalura Socrates that aykophanta are cheap (Placo, CriID 4¥-4sa). KritoD is propoeing to uae hm wealth in order to evade the ta_ of the city ; when Grote wrote that in Athens 'the rich and great men were not only insubordinate to the magiatratea but made a parade of ahowing that they cued nothing about them', he might have been thinking of Kriton. Kriton'a employment of Arkhedemoe merita further eumination. Somewhat coyly praented by Xenophon in the Memorabili4 pa·'st, Arkhedemos is almoet certainly the blear-eyed Arkhedemoe of comedy, ainsled out for his deprllViry by AriltOphanea and &aid by Eupolia to be of foreign extraction. Lysiu accuses him of public fn.ud and makes UIOciating with him I IOUrce of ahute against the younger Alkibiadea:tl In the He/k,,;u (1 .7 ..a) Xenophon hiDl8elf pramtl Arkbedemos as the champion of the people, looking after 1M diobelia and reaponaible for setting on foot the proeecution of the generals afler ArginOUMai with an alleption of peculation against the genma] Eruinides. Arkbedemol' reputation for havinS corrupted the people by tail e went before him into the fourth ccntury (Aeachines 11.76. 139 ; d . Plutarch "a8,pt,OVIi lit dxd... 00...0.0 tbi"06 lid ... o.\Y6vo. 6l.lO ~ IfQ6nIa q(vmea..". Mal ~cr6W¥.m d_wO 6IiIov' ~... yOf cr6tOY ~~~ . q ~. KIfiIItu ~ (Oaoruo adcb ',. Kkon) : 'You Ioot.bout for_ atden ....lao .... ,M depr.ued and .. teI~ ttiff of publlc buIi~' (lIGl ~ ~ ait¥ ~~ ~ tcm... ~. I ~ Mal iii! :IrO.~ MOl ~ ta ~ ,.crm). Coub ... dae _ 01. dae -'-P i..... 1ft PhilippOdca Ir. ao) K...... : 'The ~ of ~..,.jll to....,.1IOfter than I Iunb if YOU';"'e hUn. CO!,1ple of hondrtd~' (6 ~ litlNllOlf'di"TIK ~ &60 f 16jkuy baoI.v 4qY(ou~ . 8"'~ : Ar. F,.. Ul, d . EupoI_ &. 1111: ..... ; Ikptl'ity : AT. F,.. ~5; fomp birtb ; Eupolia &. 10 &...., Ly.. laY.sS.
miJMI of I abeep... rich. _
q
98
ROBIN OSBORNE
Mor. 57Sd). The man behind whom Kriton ahelten wu thus a man extremely lCtive in politics. He uaed hil willi apeaki,. to check the exceuive power of ricb men in • way not unlike tbat in which othen tried to UK their ontorical wll to make Kriton do hit civic duty. Kriton diverted to hi, own UK the powen that were otherwiae deployed in the KtVice of the whole city. He did 10 by IpplyiD8' to the individual Arthedemo. the tort of petronagt which politicians of the Kimonian mould had beltowed on whole communities. Kriton managed to protect himaelf, to KCtIft hit poeition u an island beyond the reach of the city ,nd ita laws, only by perverting both traditional and 'new' method, of pining politkal influence and IUpport to hi, own penonal ute. 44 We know of no parallel for Kriton', use of Arkhedemo., and we may 'Ulpect thlt the ttory of Kriton and ArkhedtmOl may have been improved in the telling. But the r6le of ,ykophantic prOltcutione in making life difficult for wealtby men who refUltd to perticipate in the democratic working of lOCiety i, clear from other cues- one thinks of DiotnetOi who fled Athens to get free of Iykophantic ,linden, or of Ilkhomakho. who felt compelled to practilC oratory in order to meet I pfOltCUlion.4S It becomes a forenlic topos (e.g. Lys. xxv. 16) for a rich man to lIy that he hal performed liturgies and public servicet in order to Itore up credit against the time that he might have to fa« the dik.uts. Kriton wu not the only rich man who tboucht money could buy off juati~ : men offered money both to prclltcutors and to wit~ (cf. the deni,1 at Lys. vu .:u). Kriton'. Ittitude i. preciaely that.hand by all who preferred to reach out-of-court settlement., by fair mean. or foul. Modem schol.n have often . .umed that when out-of~urt Kttlementa were reached this wu because the ptOKcutor had brought the charge in the expectation, or It least the hope, of ICttling out-of-court. But some thought nted. to be devoted to thoae who pey up. By definition the penon who Cln pay for In out-of-court acttlcment can also anord the beat legit aid and Idvice in defending hitnltlf. Despite this he chOOItI to duck the charge. While we Clnnot judge the justice of .uch CatltS, we would clearly be grouly over.implifying if we ...umed that the prosecution invariably had a weak cue. A mill who ptORCuted by dilt; was claiming that he himsel£ wu the injured party, llJId u .uch he had at leut IOtnt right to accept out-of-court payment in ICttlement of his grievance. ThOR who threatened IrtJp/lai or other public Ictions and who dropped proltCUtioM for peyment were in a tither different pc»ition, but they ahould not be condemned .. blackmailen without further qumion. Such ptOKcuton were often exploiting men who both .htlnk from involvement in government and ignored, to a greater or IalCr degree, the la",. of the city, IIId they were compelling them either to re-enter the public ltIge ,. See furttwr MiI1dt I~ : 1tt-19, and mon smenUr Oft tnlditional and '_ ' poIila, Con_ 1971, who d _ _ ArUoed "_" J5 n. I, and theTe"l'Kwby J. K. D."I'ieo, c..: =n 47 ( '915)
m·
.. Ly. . ...,11.9, Xm. OiL = .., XUI-$. C01l11_ tho: c:ommon Yinr thII the Sophillf. owed lheir ~ 10 the dcmmd from tho: rid1 101' ~ tnininf ia order IN! they could IMinuin IMir poIilic.l i~ in denwc.lCJ .
1
.
and ritk having to IUrrender mme of their raGUrcea to the city ,oriO refute to
enter and have tome of their walth priVltely taken from them (d. lllOCrl.tes xv. 318). Even the vexatioUilitipnt who withdrew hit actioD for. payment ean be Ketl to be pre.uriling non-partkipantl into an a.arena. of the eontndiction of tJying to maintain ,uch • positton in the democratic polis. ~ Sykophantic alkptionl were an important dcmottltic mechanism of IOC:W regulation; by them the rich were prevented from using their wea1th in an anti·tocial . .y, and were aI.o prevented from withdrawinc their means from public lefViee. The .ykophant accomplilhed at an informal level what the atidosU alto aimed. to achieve, the transfer of wee1th in accordanct with
public activities (Gabriet.en 1987). Victima and opponents rcpreecnted veutious litigant. .. politica1ly over-active and endeavoured polemically to ..en the pomtive value of political inactivity,·7 but for all Athenians the threlt of aykophantic alleptiolU _ • conabnt rmUndcr of the rule-bound nature of ra.idence in a community. and of the impoeaibUity of being. good Athenian limply by avoiding making enemies. The onion commonly UIOciate democracy with the rule of law: that rule depended .. much upon bad pt'll"ututioN .. upon
sood ona. 4I
This poaitive view of the aykophant hu been in part anticipated by two previoua worken in the field: Moen FinJey and Solon (or ae leat the Solon of tndition). Finley'a conviction that 'conflict ia not only inevitable, it ia. virtue in democratic politics, for it il conftict combined with coment, and not conamt .Jone, ",hich prCKTVa dcmocrac:y from eroding into oligarchy' (1974: 23) undcrllcs my own Vtcw of aykophantl u it docs Finley'. view of demagogues; but Finley aeema to tee aykophlntt toldy. or It least primarily, u directly political actoB, important in rcdrctai"l power in and betwcen politica1 groups. I too want to Itrcu that aykophantl had a atructural part to play in democracy, but in addition to cmphasiae the rOle of tykophancy outaide the narrow Ira of dehata in thc Aeaembly and indictmenu for unconatitutional propoaah. 'Solon' made the aykophant central to his political thought. He said that the .. One mipt , iHi"1 eN. fr • • en. _ . quoud by Pluwdl, I.i/I rf N __ S, from the GNrpi,
.Jtbouth,.o..;.t HII'ftJ' ' - pcIinted QUI. to me. tile panll.J ill not .... cuc:t 1IfW. I.. mcodcm
Britain the clc.M equmJmt to the q-kopb1nt ill ~ fWa,ided by tbc .......,.,..,. of the bNoid ,... r4Z" . .. As. "-<:. '9'. Lya. 1
.In',
6Itr1Jlll(lQdq: oull1096wc"., hla:dQitaG, W4l T•.wlom 660 .... 6ya,-flii').
at ,a
100
ROBI N OSBORNE
bat city to live in wu the one in which thOM who are not wronged attack and puniah WI'OI1B-doen .. much .. the Wloropd do (Plut. Solo" 18.S)' The onIon, by contrast, frequently take the (let that the proec:cutor was not hirnHlf wronged U I lip that the PIOKcution il lykophantic. 49 Syltophantic Ittac:b on rich non· participanta Ire very much. in the spirit of the 'Law of Stili,' ucribed to Solon by which thOle who do not take an Ktive part in politics IoIe their politicsl ,;pta. In Plutlrch'. Life of SoItnt (5) Analthanit likens Solon'alawa to apiden' wtbl, llyil1B that they would trap the weak but be broken by the rich and capable: but 'Solon' c:laima thlt he h .. made breakil1B the law unprofitable for all. Sykophanta wnt to play I major pilrt in bringing 'Solon',' ideal world to put. 'Solon'l' ideal world and the democracy founded on conflict were no more to all Athenians' lute than they are to all English people" tute. The importance of conflict to democracy ia brought out very dearly, however, by what the Thirty Tynnta felt they had to do about ,yltoph.ntl and about 'Solon'. Aa part of their move to Itt up the 'Inceatral conatitution', the Thirty rqlClled not only the II. . of Ephialtea and Arltheatratoa about the Areopagitea, but allO thoac of Solon'.la. . which were lubject to disputed interpretation and which therefore gave contiderable IICOpe to the dibsta to eJ;CTci8e power,5O They publicly proclaimed that their motive for so doing wu to abolish a route and method for reuoning by which aykophantic ausca were mlde ; Ind they 11.0,
.. their very 6nt let, rounded up and had executed 'those who lived from Iyltophancy and were burdensome to the Italoi It.athoi'. $I Thi' WII a .. Set note..s Ind.1Io Xm. AI_. 11.9. 1, Dan. 101 ...... , JCIX\'1 .5J. XlUUll..~S· ,.. [Arilt.) AtA. PoJ . J5.~ : 'So It fiT'll they~ modcrue towvdllhe ciliRnl Wld IMCkI claim to be admi ....eri"" the .-raI_itlition, they ".hONd the .... (Ii Ephilltealnd Arthealn· 1010 about the AleoptCitea from the AreopecuI, and aboIiIhed thoee a.- of Solon that ~ 01 diapo.lted intclPlttation WId ended the lOver. power IMt bo)' with the dikuu, on the IIWndt thu they wen: UN IWine the COIIIIillltion and it beyond dilptttt . For example , they made a IiWI .bIe to live hit PI.' ty 1<1 an)'O"ll! he . .nted without qllliifkation, I ullo.i,., the additionll diffiatltin that be could not do 10 if he weft mad , &mile, or II'*" the inftuence of. _ 1 0 .. to den)' IC!IIpe for In IUd: by 1)"CI'Jphant&' (to ph W, ~ ~ ~ ~w.U; ~ It(It JI~ ~.n" rirv ~ l104ulov, xa1 ~ t' '~tOU It(II 'Avxanomou~wiIs lflql niIv 'AqeoI!:llY\niIv IU;l9d).ovq 'Aqdau JIQyo\o xa1 tWv ~ 8oup,-ro 6oot. ","011" "'I(~ tip, It(II to ~ 6 "" tv 100;; 6IxacmW;; ItOrilVOCl'l', ... ~ xa1 1lOI.O\iYu~ fh91'"t4Wlulw, rirv JlCW,ma.-, olav IUQl wiI ~ 10: 4v te6.n ItUQuw kOI._'~ ~ ~
mW,.,
6t ~~, tb;w
ktvwV"
tdt ~ ~
J'IIQI»' ~ '(VWI&Xl~, ~ &wo; tdt~wt.;;~I~ . FOIInh-«ntlll)' 11wot . . tW lip this IfIIImcftl, .... frequmlIJ d-.:u. the.-d for It.. to be cle... WId llne~ in order to limit the jMlWUi of lhea.. 1ft (AriIt .)AtA. All. 9.1, AriM . RJwt. '35ofU6-:J1 , l35ofht-u, PIII:. IWitictn 19ofI'1~195'7, Ph.at. Ufo D/ SDItM I . .... WId d . ANt. All. ,173h+I-117ofUl . II Xm. HrII. 11.3. 11: 'Fin! of oJl they _tel tboM: whom all knew to live from.,.opItanq in 1M GernocracJ .... who wen-but Ge,_lie to the , . -....,. .. WId UNMkmlled than 10 dnl:h . The MCo\IQciIM _ happy to eozMkmu them, and _01 tboM: who knew thai. they t"--lYlS were not: -tI people were wOliitd.' (bmw. ~ IIiv ~ m.lt~ ft6coo. tv Tft ~ ~ ~ xa1 100;; xo1oi~ It(\~ ~ ~,
t"""
w
,,
••• politically Uhlte move: it COlt nothing, for no one courted the abusive title 'sykophant'j and it attracted wider support from thoee who had been penuadcd tIw IYkophantic attach had been responaibSe for cau.ing a1liQ to revolt and thus the war to be 1oR.51 Xenophon and [Ariatode) ..y that the attack on .ykophants wu initially popular with the 'Council'. the polis and thoee 'confident that they themKlves were not (aykophants),.53 But in I situation where prOKCuton were Ii.ble to be called .ykophanta there was bound to be • problem of limits : where was the line to be dnwn between proper and imprope1' litipObl AI the attack. inevitably extended to penonal cnemiee and to men held to be lIaJoi leagatltoi the lCtion lO8t ill popularity; the charge of .ykophancy was bound to be no more luaceptible 10 cloee definition than Solon', ambiguoua lam.54 Despite the f~e of legal monn, 111 that had occurred was that the power of the courtt had been transferred from the hands of dikuu adviaed by (vexatiOUl) litigants into the hand. of ••mall group of men who WeR • b ... unto lhemaeivel. Ironically, but not inappropriately, L)'Iw (XlI .S) ails the Thirty themKlves .ykophants. Scholan from Ariltotle on have been inclined to ridicule the tradition thlt Solon made h~ la. . deliberately open to a range of interpretationa, and have prefetTed to ICe the 'open texture' of Solon'. la. . . . a chance product of the pr ssage of time." Some caution i. required, however, before jumping to th.t conclusion. One of the most notable things about.1I Greek law. from the very be(inning it the way in which they focus on procedun and do not concentrate either on defining criminal activity or on eetabliahing fixed penalties for fixed crimes (Gagarin 11)86). The focus on procedure gives l.w a focua on the control of relationa between pel'8Ollt within the community. It it e1earfrom hit own poema that the Solon of hiacory WII very much concerned with the regulation of relationa between citizena within the polis . U it i ••ccepted that con8kt ha. . vital r61e to play in the defence of democracy, then we .hould ,lao contempllte the poeeibility that the connection of the Thirty with the 'clarification' of the law WII not purely accidental, and that the democratic
.n
Xlt'f.19 (!he dcfucc: of 1M 'oIiprd1'). For .,.....,...ncy _ N. . .
•
.......
o:baIy ~ 10 tIw
.,.au."
.. For An.tode_IW. 'I'M II' _HI it funba-
- 41010.
the a11ia in prwnI_
10:11
ROBIN OSBORNE
overtonet of Solon'. lepl lepey might be put of hlltory and not just • pan of tradition.S6 ",Mono of tm. paper _ rad I9I1ftRinan in ~ and Oxford, • . 0 . to riw lAw and Soeiecy Mmi.., in Cambrioc!t<. For..mr:., ~ and criticiIm I _ !midi illldebted totllethrucdicon, CoIitIAUItia, Drrid","", o..id '-il. RGbert p.m,
H .... earlier
Aator. Powell. Chrilll: .... , TupIOn MOl DaYid WbitebMd .
Sh The sykophant and sykophancy: vexatious redefinition?' DAVID HARVEY
Robin Osborne', contribution to thi. volume i. acholatly. provocative and quite unaykophantic. on any definition. We are in IIreement on many iaues; above all. that Ito boN' ;kllOS _ indeed. vital clement in the Athenian denloCiKY. As the luthcw of theAtMnaion Pblitfta aid (IX,I), the right ofJw bouJommoI to take action on behalf of an injured penon wu amongst thoee reforms of Solon from which the common man gained moat (a-.otilotlJt4)i and no one would dilpute that'lfMK euch proeecuwr. plwccutcd thwe whom they believed to be guilty, and for public-.pirited motives' (Adkins 1976: '09) · 1'tteR i' l howt:vet'. much to be Mid in f.vour of the traditional view of the Iykophant u one who .buIed the rights of Ito ~. I shan begin by diKu8ling our toUrca: then I .hall review Osborne'. argumentt in more O'C Ie. the ordlCl" that he deploy. them.
I
SOURCES AND PROBLEMS
SevenJ. major diffic:ultiee obetTuct our enquiries. FiBt, all our witnesees arc member. of the upper cI•• - • 'amil;'r phenomenon. IOf" it w .. only the rich who bad the INure nee 'ry for writing. But in the cae of aykophancy, this I
I ..
b 1
teed to
ftummIUI
f,iellllk mil
c:onc.pe. far
their betp. M)' fMftily __ cd with
jH...... r ... Marpnt McKR piG'idoId _modMion ia Chfonl: Dr Robia o.boo •• _
me ·r e " of biI,..,. with.taUnblc.,-d. I _ JnhIuI for uitic:iilnillild \JtlIao kiD of help &om On Paul CanJedrr, G..fh.., dot &c. Croia, Su BnwMI, Pau! Millett..oct 1'Tof_ D. M. MKOowdl.
~~1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"~· ~ '95': :J+M (I wry
:
-_:
1
AAinI.
. Other _mmr.
,Mt'
l..ofberJ 19 " ~: EhRnba'r
'973: 8J-1P: H......" 1971: 6o-a,
"3
"
104
DAVID HARVEY
ill an even greatn ob.uclc to our undentanding than uauai, since it ... prea.ely the rich who ~ attacked by .ykophantt,l Th. ia bound to rault in • lCrioualy unbalanced picture. and IDly indeed be thought to undermine my ugument .t tome pointl. Furthermore. our evidence coma overwhelmincly from the Onton, and lOme resuges in Ariltophana: notoriouIly unn:Ji.ble and lIippery material (Dover 1971-: ch .l, esp. 18-33; d. o.twald 1C}86: aog). When I dient of Lyaiu (xUI,67 [651> blithely aIIUl'a the jury that there is no ~ to CO into detail about 'the vaat number of I)'kophantic cues that AcontC» hu brought', we may Iutpect th.t Lyaiu i. inventing molt of them, though there is no reuon to doubt hi.taatement that AgontOi WII publicly convicted on. charge of s~titJ (.ee lectton II below). The word lIlAopIraJIttS and itt cognattl an not uled by Herodotus or Thucydides. It i, not .urprieing that they an abeent from Herodotu., uaykophancy hardly impinge. on his world. But why not in Thucydidtl~ True. he tell. us Ie. about internal politicllt Athens than we would like to know: but it is IUrely aurpmina: that he doe. not \I.e the 'I)'lr.ophant-word.' in hi. dncription of the aftertnlth of the Henu and Myaeriel affair, I pu"ge that contains I number of wcwdl UIOciated with I)'kophantl eleewhere.) Nor, IpparentJy, do the lIfOr"d. Ippearon inlCriptiont. Perhtpl it was too undipi6ed and lbulive I word for official documentl, and for Thucydide.' tNk . Xenophon admit. it, but he is Ie. of I litenry PUriM .• Thirdly, we very rarely hive I ptirof proteCution and defence tpeeeha. So, when I litigant calli his opponent I Ifkophant and deKribei his activitie. in the wont p<*ible light, we never hear hit advenary'l version. Fourthly, it would help if we had apeec:hel lmi"B from cues ipinlt Iykophant. (IeCtion II below). But we do not. Lyli.. wrote I tpeech Ipin&( the phiJOIOpher AeKhinel, ICC'Ofding to Diogmel lAertiOi (11.63), which it probIblytbtaourceof hie fr. l (Gemet & BizoII9SS-9, II : 24,.....s - Athenaioe xlII.6ue). 'I think it would be difficult', 11)'1 the lpaket', 'to find 1 more tykopbantiah (~_ft'xkltnaft) cue than this •.• I would never have itntgined that 1 pupil of Socrates, who gop around delivm"B 10 nulny KIlIIOni about jUltice aM vinue, would behave in the ume wly .. Iny
8-,..,
:U9-41O Filher 19J6b: 35-'7 (lucid mel im.._aial); c.mr 1916: 1)-4, 1051, 111-16. al; 0ItwtkI19I6: ~:t. aot-II, al3 , ..... GetM 11J6J : 47-11. 1:t6-J! it kmwn to me only from KJmw P-'Y ..... oS) , J '''''~,. RlfuUICW to o.bofnt without. dateueto hilc:onlriburionto llIit ...... I Ste.CnU Ina: )6] n .lo; AdkinI 1916: ]01. )16. 311; d. o.tw.Id 1')16: :t1~I1, ..... Xu",_ (lHU.n.] .al., Uy.,. .....,...,..... WI!rt. pMllill tbelwi (~) 10 die' , 1, I_(m " ,....,...... IbyI..afberJ1917:aJ.'to ..~blMdlet:dlUiW: ~I .'; IiIDi1IriJ Ionner 19&7: 66). On + ' 1% rll' _ St.e. CnU I". : ]711; DoMr ' f
"'-S' .,. d. ( " ,s7"; } _ Jo" ••"( , 39' s , ]; "I.) : I ow. _ _,Ie . _ . (53.1; n.:IeI bIIow): . . . .tMnM;.nd itI_ P' .! (aI .• , 5].s, 60...): ..... (sI.:tI: I., ,..,. '974:
' ... ,'
J ....
1ft
(60 ... ): . . ~IJ ill.nd ....1 _ (s7.sbU, aI. I, 39.1, 5]. 1, ".:tbU, 60..., 60'4"", 61.a, 41. ADd .! ill wIric:h." F1_ _ YeI'f lldift. • See Treu ..., Xc ,'e : ~ ill RE IXA.S (I~) : 1¥-190I, willi bibliot:. • '901 ; Im~ .....
-diac to PIu!.dI (AIiWo. XD.. 71, !hi. _ _ cp'
"_I'll
1
"5 common criminal (ponnotatof kDi adiAofatoi).· Entertaining awff, but it teU. us nothina about IYkophancy. Fifthly, we do not know about the origin of the curious word suJtophoNkS. EtymoJosy would not explain everything (a lilly bugger is no longer I simple Bulprian her'etic), but it oua:ht to be enlightening. The ancient notion that I Jdo..pIum~s i.. man who revealt (pllaiMr). fig (swlml) alwa)"l BileS' smile, no doubt beelu.e the obvious way to reveal I fig is by removing I fig leaf. Ancient etymol0gie8 are unconvincing and mutually contnMJictory : they apak of an othc. wile Unluested ban on the expon of figs,' or illegal fig-picking, or
even the plymetlt of fines and wee in figs, wine and olives- in which case why oinophanta or ebiophantl~ Modem efforta Ire no hippie...6 There is one tina] obstacle to our enterprise : the howling gap between the fint appearance of the .ykophant, and the fiAt appearance of the sykophantword. in lumving literature. Ari.toph.l~' Knigltu allude. to I fig-joke in Kratinoa in I context referring to bribery : the Knitfrts was produced in 414 ' .e ., to Kratinoa' joke is earlier than tlult. The word itlelf il firat aUetted in Aristophane8' ..4dumtia1U of ~S, or in the Old Oligarch, ",hichever ",.. written firat .' Osborne does not aerioualy intend us to regard the .ykophant .. the ClUtion of Solon (pp. ~Joo), but the notion of Ito boult.wnntos was (AtIr . Pol. 1X. I)j 10 we have eome 170 yean of .ilence.' There are five IUtl which might be thought to fill the lacuna,' but they Ire insecure or problematic. This lack of early material is particularly not
,n
• n._.cory would be _
pw.;bIe if OW" _ did noc ""' .... n ic 10 the ..... ollltltiq"ity (PM. ~ nrt.a; .:hoI. Ar. """,. 1.54); """" (ochol. PlaIO, ~ . )4Od;.sc... S'JJO, EtyIII. AI.",. 73)'41 ) _ _ n";!b dw dileo.,., of the fir. • 8ft ~s.,tlo 1'1.10 : '574 n •• ; l.oIbnw '9'1 : ";;""iii; RE "'... . ('93') : .o:a8-Jo; B . :q 19.5°: Pf; FriIIIL .960-'710: 8,8-19; Chantn.i.ne 1968: 1M.9, '"""'" of_hom ' - much beau 10 oft.... The ....ncty of '""'~ 10 be found in pt"u...:h ...d the loWe. implia IbM no "neqW..-..:al information _ ....H.bIe 10 them. which • Ue_ that the word _ • fairly early coit.... S ' toob liQ. c:omio:compound (M ..... '983: 53); but, if .., ho-. did it tet:bnicoJ lepltaml It cannoc be. """,,plion ol·...u, 'reqllCfttly brinp ,...u', lot- ......iItic • I'I~. k;ndly explained 10 me by Dr C . C. HOITIICb. The
,+...,..
becu_.
,'..o"" '_ .....
"'nat
con,_IM. -nh lip iI_ cvn6ned to the comic porta and Ilk loa. When Ariotutloi: m:ired to Khalkil .... the AtbeniaM abotald 'lOin ~ pbiloaopby', be alluded to the pet pel .... IUpJII}' ofl)'kophanb III AtbenI by punni,. Oft Honwr'...... d'qi ..... - ~on 6r' (b. 667 il<-; ewy..,. .,n.lu). I Tbe 'Old Oliprdt' ([Xen.] AlAN.) ba been dmd _ aTly_ +43 I .C. and _late _ 40.5. Sle. Cmil! 19'7): 30'7-10 ,e.ie •• ~ and incli_IootirdIt.p.f. Api ... an early dMe, 10(..,. 198) : 4H. I MaT 1913: it. lliou1l}' COftIICIdt .,-kop/IaDu wiIb thote who laid infomwtion about men wbo Imported """uibelld coocII in cit_ICC of the Meprian dtaa:(I); d . Bon __ " Slnidt 19)1 : 44""5; SU, Ctoia una: )8J-6. If, bowfiu, the .... of nidtnee fonn_liet-d.tc bckno-) WIi _pud, the atJUIIWftt# riI#1ttio .......... JIJ['I.~ with Lobd uloc.; KntuoIFGriI):1.4 '110 (_ PI,,\. MI,. • •9 ; Prr. XXlt'I'1I .4; Diod. lUl .J9.a-J . Camr 11)86 : 105 iI iDo:IiMd to _ PhIwdt'. 0Wft cSoubta about dw rnditlon . PNt.r.::h _ doe W. ShMplct leo ... ""'" ~ me with I print=OUl of tho: Indw T ...tU...., .. 1 m..."eited only Iboec lbetmu tod . '1 PIutardt -Y' that the . . . . 'employed' (riAmD) • to attKt. ~ cit.... ; ooe wbctha- ~
-ua-
me arne..:
n
•
fr.,
_"n
106
DAVID HARVEY
lamentable, aince it prevent. us from gruping the oricinal nlture of the crime . of l..Joat>Iumtia .
II
THE CRIME OF SUKOPHANTIAIO
For .ykophancy ... a crime; and that it fatal to Osborne'. thetit. If a plaintiff failed to RCUre one fifth of the jury'. votes, he _liable to. fine, .00 in MJme caa pvtiallOil of citizen npu: he ... prot.bly not permitted to bring any similar ClIIet in the future, II It it&t thitltage, it ICtm•• that the acquitted man eould retaliate (but only if he wilhed: Lipeius 1908: 450-1) . V.riou. procedure$ were open to him (lee Bonner 8t Smith 1938: 6]-6, 70"'1 i MacDowell 1978: 6S) : ,,-apAi. 12 jnoboli 13 andpluuu, 14 and at certain periods at.o eUo",eIiD, 15 efuuixil and GfNIIOIi. 16 It is heeaUIe. convicted IYkoph.nl ... a criminal thlt Peieetairoa ,dviles the IYkophint in Ariatophanea' Birds to tum to a Lawful profeuion (np 1iiMiimon, I....s-SO, with punning reply). 't'Mre ought IUrely to h.ve been _ legal definition of ,ykophancy, even if it lacked the preciaion chIC a modem lawyer might deaire. Our texta make weh a bewildering number of mnarb about whit a aykophant it that it i, difficult to find it,17 Lipaius (1905-15: 449) offen the moet prohlble definition. 10 'I'M ..bole of th~ wction _ oa. ..trice from I>t' dr Su. CnD, who hi how £ttl not 'apoI. .bIe fOO' UN...., in....t.teb it .... beflIlMed . 10 Lipiu. '905-'5 : 449: Bonner. Smith 1911: M ; M.:Oowdllonl : 6+- Harrilon 1971 : 81 dillcmt. Setsp. n'"'pt...d .... ~ (S ,cd,·M-.k 198, : f" •. 4 - Scho!. Oem. UII.] wilt. PGUII>! ~II.SJ ) ; fOO' ... I:DmpIe 01. ........ itnpoKd on tbe man btcau. 'be tried 1(1 1)'kophuII', Hyp. &umt. 34. II L)". K.1II .67 (65) , Itoe . n .ll.; Nnvrr in I>arembaJ-SIsIio rr. l , 1575-6 ; Lipliu. '9OS-15 : ......51 , lAne in RE IYI.. I (19) 1) : lOll-I; HIIITiIon 1971 : b-) ; unc:onrincintfy denied by
Cn'W'\cy un'll.
n AllIN. XU!!.s ' ,_. n.314' L;p.n. '90S-": u;t-14, ~; Bonner a. Smilh 111)8: 67-70: H.m.on 1971 : 61-1. I 'II'ft with o.bomt (n.]7) and Rhodn I~I : 5.17 dwt il iI puulint; tIw NAN. _ 1(1 . , !hit • muimum of thftt "h'4li could be broutbl -UIDt ..... mizen.,· mel. muimum of tbnt metict. Pualill( fOO' two , -M: (_) A .,klpMM nil.! .! 10 be.we to ",_oM. Could. mdic brUIi .,,-.,Itil The modttll I r . _ 1ft - H.n.oa 1971 : 19]-6, ClIp. 194 11.1; MKDoweIl 1978 : ,6, 78. ~; WbiubNd 1977:,...-6: 1lI1.!1. 1981 : 5'7. 655; bvtoaly illacepliollll_. If 10, it iI .urpriIinc that cm.n and mclic -un. _ icknticaI . (6) Sinet the number 01. ritiaenI 1"=""1, ..... wded UN lIumber of mclics, thiI-.Jd imply, _ !bet tnetice weB tu ICtift • cit;" in .,to;pharlcy, bw thlt they '"" _ Kti.... - """ ocI6er ..... dtN IOIIInben drcPF 1.1 in doc f-o. Cl'IItUrJ' when theM.N. _ written. (WhiIebmd 1977 : 97"'"1, 1,59-60). Soallro(tllllei" I~l: I II hid Ilrady. a cd tbM Iht AIJIN. ' mI)' ba¥t ~ throutb cardIM~ ofittlepl_n:e'. Thu.OwboilOC" lr 1M . . . . (11.]7) wbtleb} the mttict b Clif the 'lictiml, _the 1(:CUItft, _ ftI)' llU'Ktift. F", non·AtheniIn vic:limt., Athent , lee Plilt. KiM. K. .9 (. hnian); E!IpO& pee f, .9\1.81-105 (a EpidIuriaa). LofbaJ 1917: 90 n .. . iI_tW..:tory on lb_ poia• . 1.1'kPf : LipMut 1905-IS: ]1)-14, .... ; Bonner.!knith 1918: 41; MacDowell 1978: b-J , OtbacM p.87. ThI: .......-u of U - MtCh • Har,illll (1971' 111-'9), who deny that ~ tpirIIl.,.~huIta,.., refuled by Cohea 1973: 1t-9a. It IU' .. _ : 1_. n '114; Li~ 1905-15 : 101, ++\I . " &"Iri';, _ . " I : Dan. I.nll,lo-ll: MIcl>oweU 1971 : 65 .• _ _ \. Oa the difIadty of fltIdint. dmr definition, Bonner '917 : 6:J-4; ""- • SI'IIirh 19)1: .p-J; CnwIq '970: 1+-9]; Hat ... 1971 : 6o-a ; Otbac. 11.]6. MliCDowI!II 1971 : 654 bcIina theft DWJ 111ft bft-n DO Icpl defiDition , bw .... whit -,. 111ft counted • ~ eoidt,,,, .
,h."",
.und
_ ......
",
'"7 Gnoi"pumt oder U:icAtsi_ : in othet" word. (I take it), when the cue came to coUrt, the proeccutor could provide no proper evidence, witnCS11C8 or proofs, 10 that it became clear that he had cithu hoped that his victim would pay him not to go to Jaw. or th.t he ... bringing the cue tolely in order to obtain the proeecutor'. share of the fine (tee p. Il:l below). A clear example of tbis tense Ippean in Hyperides, who NYS that one Teilit had brought I CMe in the hope of pinilJ8 three-quarten of Euthykrates' property - 4S talents. I hu~ lumbut he had bttn puniahed 'because he had tried to sykophant' his victifN (Eun. 34V 1 Sykophancy, then, was .crime. That alone makes it impouible foro.bome to rehabilitate the .ykophant in the way that Finley (197+) rehabilitated the dem.soguc.
111
A DIRTY WORD
But whatever their original legal me.ning, the Iykophant-worde came to be u.ed in I very wide range of Knees. Definition is never I simple proeHl (Robinaon 1954), and the .yltophant-wordl arc not aimplc conceptt. In the
fint pllCC. they are value-words, and eecondly, even if they originally had • 'core' meaning, by the time they surfaced in litenturc they had certainly loet it (Oobome p. 8<). By calling the .ykophant-wordt 'value words' I mean, of COUnIC, that they are pejorative words indicating that the penon who is UlUtg them diupproves of what he. refcrri"l to. But like many value-wordt, they CUT)' a dcecriptive content .. well (Hare 1952 ; esp. J 11-26) . So to call a man a sykophant i. not limply a way of being rude, it conveys I certain amount of inform.ation. No one in real lire would aay 'I'm a nJwpiIaffl(!S' , jmt .. no one nowadaY' would .tlte on his plliport that his occupation wu Jerry Builder or Confidence Tricbter. When the man in Ariatophancs' BiRb docs 10 (14Ja), that in itICif. a joke. The . ykophant in the Pllltus , it should be noted, MY' bcnJomai (goB) - in other worda, he. claiming to be a bouk:wMMS . In th. respect, saJtopIItlIItcs it unlike, Sly, sopIIiJus, or~, which ltIrted life reepectlbly. 19 And this is another ruaon why it is impoesible to rehabilitate the sykophant. SuItop/ItlIIkS it not only I dirty word, but it frequently found in the company of other words of ill repute. The .ykophlnt i. unfeeling (Oem. XVIII.28c}), unju. t ([Arilt.] Virt. (!t Vi,. 125Ib2-]: Oem. XVIII. 1I2, XLI .2J, u.16, UI.JJ ; Diod. xx. lo.3: 11tOC. XVIII. 14, 55, XXI .S; Lys. XXI .17, xxv.a6, frs. 1 . 30, 4J: Xen. H(!II. II .J .n 1M: Mem . IV·4· 1I; P. Mich.Zen. S7.J), alwneful (AeKh. 11 .145: Ar. EltJtkI. 560 : Oem. XIX .an, XXV.9bU: Lys. fr o 1.1), impure (Oem. xxv.63), unrestrained (Plut. hlop . XXV.S), lacking in " SMIonaer" Scnitb 19)1: ~O ; it iI noc alfWPlti MDph"lMl. It A 01 CiMUJ a ..... ..-., a.te.. • 'aopIUatic:aI . ......... : ...... , _ '1eM!er of b people', but _ acquired itt ,.IOde'1'.l pejolati.e_.
1IfI#ItU-. _
lirenlly
loS
DAVID HARVEY
lelf-control (IIOC. XV . 2~), an impc»tor ([Ariat.] Vi" . ~r Vir . nSlba-]). urwocable (Oem. XXV.S2; IIOC. xv.]oo) • .twneJe. (A~. 1.105; Oem. xxv.41 . XXXVII.]). brazen (Oem. xxv.9. ]5. LV.:aS: Pluto AIItib. XIII .S). unmanly (Ae.ch. 111.2]1), roode. (Oem. XXV.S2). unholy (Ae.ch. "'5). fooliah (Plut. AlJtih. XlII.S), impious (Oem. XXV .S2, SJ. 6J), lieentiOUl (AeKh. I.J2; ANt. Polit. IJQ.4b21), implaable (Oem. XXV.S2), UngnciOUl (Oem. xxv.JS). oppn Iliv~ (Xen. HeU. 11.) . 12) •• maligner (Dem. XVlII. I89. 242. 317, xxv .83). diapating (Aach. 1.1°5: Oem. XXXVI . 58). harmful (IIOC. XV.316), defamltory (Dan. XVlII.9S. 256, XXV·S2, XXXIX.34) •• Ihouter (Dem. XXY.47, 49. ux.4]; Plut. PItoIt. . XII.3). coward (Aeac:h. 1.1°5). alanderer (tee p. 113 below). vexatiOUl (Oem. xVUl. I89). ill-willed (Oem . XXV.82. 11OC. xv.:a88) •• pen«Utor (Oem. XXXVl.S2; LV.3S). deceiver (Oem. LVIII.40; lueu. XI.4; Ly.. 14 [ef. Oem. xxv .41 plotter and perjurtt (Etym . MGp. 7]3.54: Oem. XXXVII . ]. XXXlX.]4. XL.43. LV.33. LVII.S7: Hyp. Atlwn. 26; IIOC. XV.2]0, XVIl.46, XVllI.S1 [d. p. 1t3 below): Oem. xxv.]S). bold (Ae.ch. 1.IOSi Oem . xxv.97: boe. xv.]16), malicioua ([Ariet.] Vi". ~t Vito 12Slba-J; Menand. 11v:opII. fr.l: Phn. Pelop. xxv.S). wicked (AeKh. 1.105; Ar. Adram . 829, 909. 9]6, Birds 1413. Plait." 879: Oem. xxv.+6, +8, 52, 82; Diod. xu . n .2; 11OC. xv .]13, 317; Plut. Mor. 998b ; d . 11OC. XV . I~) •• n evil meddler (AlA . Pol. xxxv.J: 11OC. XV.224, ns. ]00; Hesykhia. I. V. ,tfJropIImIt~.), mi.;:hievoul (Ae..::h. 11. 1+5; Dem. XL.+3; Pbto &p o 3+lab). aceuned (Oem. XVIII.2n) •• flatterer (Ar. fr .539: Menand. 'l7e«JfJt. fr . l: Theopomp. F :as.), ICffttner (Oem. xxv.9.47), Itirrer-up (Ar. Peaa 654), chatterbox (Ar. Adtam. 933, Peace 653, Her. Krit. 1.+: d. HeaykhiM I . v. ''''''''mlt~,). lbuaive (Aeach. 111 .215; Oem. xvtll.138, XXV.+I, IoVII .3+, IoVIII.40) • • man who treata people outrageoully (hoc. XlI.I+2, xv.JI8), filthy (Oem. XVIII.:a8g, XXV.+I), blooct.u.ined (Oem. xxv .8+). miunthropic (Dem. XVlII .1I2; boe. xv .315), wretched (Alexia fr.182: Ar. A.dIGm. 517). 1 villain (Ar. Birth 1+63, EltAk1 . +37, hlla 652; Schol. Phd. JI; [Ariat.) Vi" et Vito 12S1b~3; Eupolit PCG 99.85; Lya. 111.+4), I.wl,. (Oem. xxv.19), I buaybody (Ae.ch. 111.172: [ANt.] Vin . et Vito 12S1ba-3; Her. Krit. 1.+) , cruel (Oem. xxv'+S, 83, 8+, C)6; hoc. xV.Joo; Schol. Ar. P1.,t . 854). gruping (Oem. LV. I: Plut . Sol . v.4), meddlelOme (Ar. PI.". 913; boe. xV.a30, 237: Menand. Periltei,. ]7+: Plut. Mor. 5231; Schol. Oem. xvm.9S).' beamiteller (Plut. AJltib. XlII .s), caUler of confuaion (Ar. Pella 654 with IeboJ.; Oem. xxv.So; Diod. XI.]7.S, xV.+O.li lace. xvm.+J). bold (Ar. ruIL,. 560; Oem . xxv.9i lueua XI.13: 11OC. xv.Jl7, xvlII.n), rough (Philippidea fr.29). hubriatic (Aeach. 11 • • 81; [ANt.] ElMt. tJd Alex. r424h13; Oem. xxv '+'rSO. UII.I ; D»od. XII . 12.2), unhealthy (Ar. Adtcmr. 956: Oem. LVlU. 12). treachttOUl (Her. Krit.- 1.+). worthl,. (boe. XV.317). envtoua (Oem. XVIII.lal, XXV.S2, XXXlx.34; Died . XU.]2.2. ], XX.IO.J; hoc. xv.16J i Krate-ro. FI2 [- Plut. Arirt. XXVI.2]), • lover of blame (Dem. XVlII.242). of quarrela (IIOC. XV.JIS. 317; SotuIG 11330), of flub-finding (Etym. MtIp . 73J.SS), of litiption ([Ariat.) RJut. tJd Alex. I........JI). of rivllry (Ly.... 1.5),
n.
,,
·..
of mcdd1inB (Lyt.:. 1.3). an intimidlcor (Aeteh. 11.18., 183; Arist. PtJi. IJ04bu; Oem. XXIII, IS •• 80, xxv.52, XXXIX.Z; Diod. XX,IO ... ; 1IOC. XXI.S; [Plato] AlItih. 1I.I.p.I), difficult (Oem. xvlU.:aS6; hoc. xv.Joo, 313), ralle (Aeach. 11.$. t'JOt t83i Oem . XXI. 13.i. xxv.g. SOi Diod. 1.77,4; Lys. Xlx.51; Etym. MtII". 733.39-40: Hcsykh .•. v. ~mtres; SotuitJ 111330) and cruel (Oem. X'flll.:ln, :175. xxv.63. 83. 84; boc. xV·lIS)· Above 811, theaykophantilptmeiGl, plain bad, awordueociated with himat IeaIt 6fty UIDCI. 2tI So cLoee1y, indeed, that acc:on:Iing to Plutarch (f¥IoA. x.3), when the notoriouI Ariltogeitonl i rqiatend for military Ief'Vice hobbling along on ••icko, and wilh hi. Iep in bandages, Phokion said: 'Entn him ... /IOftnOI' -. pun on 'unfit for military aervic:e' and the traditional epithet of the I)'kophant. Moreover. Theopompoe (FGrlIIIS'1 10) _Uta us that Philip of Macedon founded. city in Thr.ce which he populated with aykophanta and other evil typeI, to the number of some two thouund: itl name wu Poneropolil - Croobville. or High Wyckedombe (Lofbcrg 1917: 94 n.41 rightly charM:' ten.e. this 'information' .. prq:aterous and Ariltopbanic). Indeed, aykophantt an: ueociated with varioUl types of rogues : with thieves. burglan. cut-purees. mugen. temple·robben. kidnappen and piRtes (PhIlO RIp . S7Sb; Ar. rule!. 438. Pif4t. 3~1. 869. 909. 935. Ir.S39; Diphiioe Ir·32; Theopomp. n81; Hyp. Ly• • 2). And they are at.o COIDplired with a amall menagerie: with bClltl in gcncnl (Oem. xxv.8). and specifically with monkey (Dem. XVlII.2.p). wolf (Xen. Mem. 11.9.2. 7; Dem. xxv.40; Mcnsnd. MOtfO!'. +40 - 60]). foa: (Andok. J.99; Dem. XVUI.2.p). dog (Dem. xxv.;fO with Osborne n. 41), snake (Dem. XXV.S2, 96. d. Plautus. Pam. 103a), KOIpton (Eupolil fr.231; Dem. xxv.sa) and poisonoua spider (Dem.. xxv .9fl). Now of COUI"IC I am not ..ying that this abuaive language ..... alWIIY' juati.6cd; but if we clear away all thill muclr:, then we are not limply re-a ! ..ing the aykophant'a r61c: we are destroying an e.ential part of the ...y in whieh he w.. perceived by hiscontcmporarica. The muck iI... it were, part of the picture. Clean it ....y. and you have not restored the picture to itl oriainaI condition : you have ruined it.
IV
FAMILY RESEMBLANCES
Baidca being pejorative. the IJlr:ophant-woroa are not limple concepti. They carry an aaknoention of ICDIICI. of which any one may be prominent, or any • AeIch. 11.99; AnI . \'.10: Ar. "".31 ••• 169. iPO. 93" 9S1:AdtJW. EQ\'.3; (ANt.) RIwt . 1....3s; Oem. :trnJl.2+'. DII.IU, ltlI\'·9. 39, ~t 49bU. SO, 53. 1:1, 97 bU, 1lL\.:t). U.I, L\'D.)S, ulu.s7,)I, ofD: ScbDI . Daa. :trnD.95; Diad. :at.lS.S; I~. :n.llI+:lS4o "'fl, 2+'. 3140 316, :no.¢. :nm.5". 55; L,.. \'11.1, lIX"t".1.f, "'. I.S; M - MI. ? .....;,.. 3n (._ed); PIut. NiA. 11'.5.""". lI.3;,...... : "p. FGrlIII5 P'IO _; XftI. M_ . 11.9.6. ' ..... t.d'aan ___ ",,"'j• • k-o .. __ II 1tftN" _ _ ....... Wl~~i. d . . _. II _wed~bydw..,..~", tbeirlOCilil iafcrion: Neil 1901 : ao6-a (cMIcIJy
«I..un.
mjptelren 011 0.--.): Su.Cn:U 1972: 351-9, 31)-5: Dowr '974: 5a-J, 6+-5. II AI ' si- .... 1IIIifor...t,. bod,..-: Dem. lDIY, 1IlI"n, DNr. n, Ptvt. IW. lI.3. 1l.9 'frith Nor.IIIb.
1
no
DAVID HARVEY
one may be dropped, in any particular conteD:. Not every ium in the bundle it preten! every time the wordI arc UKd. Wittcen-tein'. notion of family r: I :mblanca (19S8: IeCtton. 66-7) may be helpful in this context. Z1 It is beeatue .ykophancy is I word of thil type that it is impolloible to lind I neat, abort delinition. Attempult auch definitionacan be found in the Incient lexica : the Sowla (SI330) defineI nJIofJIItmkirt .. 'to KCUae.omeone fillely'; Heaykhioa ..,.. that the is 'a falll!: accu.er, an evil meddlu'; are hoi .pnefl1lfWft~', people who threaten abutively; ,.JtopIumtill is "'kdal;a, IIanderouI talk. The ICholiat on Oem. XVIII .9S exPWNI : ,~, ta wed not only of the liar, but alao the man who is a btKybody ~~) with reprd to thinp th.It do not concern him, and who,,)'11 bad thinp (pG",'O): All theIe an: inadequate. The Iaic:I al.o tell ua that nJr,opIItmtft" meant 'to tdle erotically', but that iI dearly a mistake - the definition, I mean, not the paltime.ll Modem attempta at I In.appy definition fail: u e.g., 'one who brinp a fa. lCCUUlion. UlU&l.ly for filthy lucre' (Rouae 11198-9. V1l : 398): but the accuu.tione of the I)'kophant were not alwa,.. falae (p. I u below) . I have therefore adopted a different approach. J hIVe gone through the testimonis (eome five hundred) and picked out !.hOI!!: that eeem mOlt uld"ul in clarifying the concept - for example. where the author is genenli.ing, or waci.ting an idea very cloaely -.rith Ihat oIl)'kophancy. 1 am aware thlt thit method may be lubjective Ind imprecise, but when my condulione are compared with Osborne'., the raulu may be of IOTnC inttreet.
ndtop/uM",
.....,._IiIi u.o
V
MONEY-GRUBBING
Half I dozen major characterutice of the eykophant emerse from th. cxcrciac. The fint iI ""*"tary 1ftOliwJtion. Since o.bome denia thil, I willaddu« the evidence: the job of the sykophant is to brine a c:twwe epinIt the innocent that is wb.t brinp him molt profit (L,... xxv. 3). Another speaker ..,.. that he paid one Kallimakhos I eum of money not to bring s c:eruin mattu to court (leoc. XYJu.9-10). Then he goee on : 'but 10 that he Ihould not be able to eykophant me: apin . •. '- in other wordl. the caeh .ettlcmcnt il referred to .. aykophanc:y. (AI then il no preelll!: Englilh equivalent, 1 trane1ete the Greek verb nJIofJIItnltft" u 'to Iykophant I perIOD'. It takes the ac:cuatin: - wbat _1) hoc:rltee ..,. thlt those who have go in for eykophancy
nothm,u
II Wilta " ·Il',"f'ieM IlIl tbiI_ wicWy _rued: _ "' ... KnuI)' 1915: 153. 16], A4: 8rand 1979: 77-9. 113. 116, 1)0-1 . II ou. - I i , raitoWIaiti.- 1ft 1CbaI. "'-to".. )4011; s-.M "3)s: &,....M.... 733 ·39. $+- Erotic tiekk: s-M '13at, &y..M.... 733-47-9: o.bo1_ p.t6wida a.I . M E.a. N,"," 1ft D........s.pa 1574: 'W ._, ~ • The bar mlttlll t f ·til. efw~ 41a: e.l. 80m Wi . . . . . 'tie: ,II..... Some r± In. (e.l· 8a "" '917:". SO: ~ 1917: $9-68).,..01 diffatl" 'tJp.· OI''UMti·of.,bpt ta l I .... !IOt Nn! dMllUdrt., ·SCMjoeI if joeriS 1, • AdbIaript/JpointI_tMt,~DW" _ _ p..* . . . . dIIt.,traFt \IIIlIIUypoor_ (el. o.bcw .. p.I6), riliI _ _ 1ft f.ct ... HC.lia, I doubc m. .... of
_*
".s.
d·n,..·.
,.were
"
'"
(XXI.S): i.e. to make money. He add, that people who want to aykophant act apinat men whom they lee to be rich (XXI.S). DtmOethcnetl ueoc:i,tes I)'kophanting with begging for and eucting money (XXIV -41). and deacribea the notorious Aristogeiton as looking for eomeone to intimidate and exact money from (xxv.52). He ,I.o NY' thlt the aykophant prolcanes by gnzpIti and by jlluuis for cub (LIX.43, diuniued on inadequate grounds by Osborne. n·38). Cumulatively, theR te8timonil.uggest that making money was perceived u an important chancteristk of the .ylr.ophlnt, Z6 though not. nK"U'ry one. How did he do it? 'Oa:ui.onany', Osborne writes, 'the aykophant i, dearly aJlqr:d to have brought his proteCution merely in order to reach an out-of· court .etdemmt for I sum of money' (p. 88). 'Occuionally' i, an underStltement: I find thirty-four dear exampln of the prKttcc,Z1 There Ire ,1110 five to 'demanding (aitnn) money', without further CXplanatioDi l.8 the phrue 'he will bring them to I ltate of fur and extract money from them' in Demoethenea xxv.52 KemI to be the key here. 'Demanding' or 'extracting money' meaN demanding hUlh-money : the Iykophant promita ha. vK:tim that If he ciVCII him lOme cub. he will not take him to court - blackmail, in fact." In Osborne'l view (p. 89), the Demoetbenic lpeech . .iDlt Ariatogc1ton (xxv) 'brings little detailed evidence' in aupport of ill insinuations, and ill alleptionl are 'neue'. Yet in aection 47 the jury a. reminded of how Ariatogeiton told thuismwelill apinlt Hegemon: how he pvc up the"qItai apinat Demadel j how in the cue of Apthon the olive-merchant he lIhouted and 8Cfeeched and went iotI imI (,hullo hullo hullo'), u";. at meetings of the I Embly that he should be tortured: then he pocketed aCfftain IlUm and kept quiet when he ,.. acquined; he threatened Demokles with an maregelia and then what did he dol The lui: pbrue il marvelloully vague (puhap' I call for audience pattici~tion: d . Be,.. 1985). but .11 the reat it prec:iae and detailed enough - though whether it it true it another matter. thai! wen 'frvoa tfte citJ nther tb.n nan! AtUe.' (J .6-'7), de.piIe At. 1'wt« "" L,... D . n .
mettne:a
AtbeoUa lIOCieIy _ _ complu tN.n. tho •• Many ..ho IiYed in the city bed fM'ml in tho: -..ntryaiok (e.,. L,.. •. 11) • .ad ......y ...tIO.,...,., rna aUcht Ii...., in .M city (Owboioe .9Isa ........ ap. I-U, 4MO.~, .IM; H_ 1917: 64..;m n·4'l)· ao In Atilt . . . - ' ".,.. (tp.t-S) the '7'nphnrt IJIclai... tMt M _Id II« chance IU. oeeu"'-4 'for Wultta _If, ....s.J1 tho: Ii.Iphium of B.uo.· - or __ woWd _y, 'for.n tho: tel in a.m.'. Thildoa; not ind ..... that Ai.opI.... 'il COMtnined to MImic lbat matt •...,. lIIOCi,"..-.: II« the mo.t inopoi~lt' (~ 10n6: J111 . rr Aadol. ' . ren , lOS; Am . ". ~; 1u.16rit'1.J 4)9; fro l',; n.m.. UY.47. SO, sa; lCiI:lm".:ao; LYU.606U ; LYUI .6/IU, 8-'J.16, aa.." Jam, :J..t-5,.p. 0 ; Hyp. LyA. a; 11OC . .... 114 ; .....11.7. 9-10; laI. IJ-I.; L,... "".2»-1, )9: D .1; D ...as : Pbilippida com. b. "'); Tdckleidelcom.
nrral'"
fr o.1:
x.... M_ . 11.,.1.
• Oem. XX'I'.S'" (O,b",,,", p.9D with ...all. u"".an, XX'I"4" L.... II.64: L,... XX'I' .) . 1_ the tam .....'" IIMIMY' lor jWjuoenu to • .,.topbant (11- to brine _ _ • .n,..d {hI to drop _ _ on whic '" M bed embwbel {Bonner 'p1: 66; Bonner II Smith 19)8: 54. 5&-4]1 . • kIdok. 1.99; Dnn. lUI ,'9; IIDIX. aS; &.n.JJ; LT.6; L....,I.6a ; UlI: .l9; 1 _ Xl .ll ; flOC . :nil.",: laI 'J, '9; ml .• 6; L)'I. laI" 7; D::I"t'.• ; lIJII'tI.'"4 ; Me_ ..~u , Gtorz. 11-•• ; PIal", <MC ; Xm. lid. II. ] .U; Oil . .. .11 ; Syrttt.
en.
,.,.)0.
IU
DAVID HARVEY
I would argue, therefore, that Osborne haa undencated the frequency that there with which .ykophanta are smciated with blackmail. But I are many p''Stgee where .ykophanta are !laid to hive 'taken money' where it is difficult or impollible to ace juat what they are being accuaed of. Sykophanta could make money in at leat three One wu by extracting hueh-money (n.a7). Plutarch revtalt one mean. by which a Iykophant mjpt Jd. hold of a guilty aecret: by reading a deceued person'l coueapondence ( E _ s xvl.4)' Some have wondered whether there wu much point in making luch an .. ,«ment: the aykopbant could always pall your KCtet on to someone elw, and M could piC lecute you. But ance people did pay up, the aykophant muat have promiaed not to reveal your Kerel to I third party (Bonner 1927: 67-8: Bonner &: Smith 1938: 54). 5«ondly, there are thOle CUCI where the pn:Jsecutor ... entitled to • fine (p. t07 above) .)O MacDowell (1978: 62; cf, Sind.it 1988: 73) that thetIC mUll have been the kindl of cue for ",hic:h volunteers came forward mOlt relldily, He it IUrely right, though lurpriaingly our lOurcea nrely an. that a Iylr.ophant ... motivated by a de.ire to pb his &hare of the fine (only Hyp, Eauer! , ).4; Oem. LVIII. I), 6+). However, when I sykophant a1ludell vaguely to • sykophant'. monetary motivCl (n ,a8), no doubt he often haa thil in mind ," Thirdly, the Iylr.ophant could make money by ,1'OIUMti,., /I«JIIle for a lu (Oem, XXI , IOJ, Lt, 16, uX'4J ; Aeech, 1.20; Bonner &: Smith 19J8: 55), pruumably beauac he _ an abler apcaker than the man who hired him (Dem.. XXI.103), A number of atatementa about money Ire ambiguoUi and could refer to any of thetIC three method. (c,g. L,... xxv.as: Oem. Lvu.60), Sometimca, no doubt, the apealr.en deliberately uacd vague phruea, beauac they had no evidence to back up their lIftc&ra. J1
-vee
WI,...
II,..
VI
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYKOPHANT
Let UI tum now to the other chancteriatica of the lIylr.ophant, Sylr.ophlncy is frequently uid to be a matter of bringinglalu c/etups. There were occaaiona (Osborne p , 87) when allegations made by Iykophantl were in fact true. Never mind: that was not how he WU UIUIUy perceived : pllSlges in the OratOtl make it clear that hiaKCUaationa were normally thought of u a pack of lies: and this image is perpetuated by Diodorua and the lexicographen,)) Thirdly, sop/Iish'caJ tpIibbii"l, to which Oaborne giVCl pride of place, In the • See e., . Bon..... Smith U))s: 40-' ; o.tw.lcl.9I(I: aQ9, UJ ; eont.., o.borne 19Isb : 44-3· JI PIatoappootd elth. pncii«, and iMTOcl...ced if: itItO hi. '>deaI' tuU ~ 745.1, 9a8bc) : 1M pnII«IItGI' P balf 1M liM. J.I
JJ
Otborne'. ~ • _ (l'fttly ~ by pun ,ea COI_''''''I bIId.mIil wheR tbe lI)'topMnt wwda an; IIGI UMd (p .go). F.... charpa: A_h . ,1.5, 39, "J; Oem. 11'1'111,95 wfth Sdtol ••• 1, ; lCC'. J ; (..\' 111 . )0"": Diod. 1,77, p: EtywtNIIp , 733 ,39: He.ykhio. ..... , * ' r_UJ : SotMIG "3.)0, '1P: Scho!. Oem. 1m1l.95. Ct, Plut. Nu . 1,lCCI'I'.5. Aclki.. 1976: d puu it _II : 1M wwd 'ai.-eal smuaI iJn~ of ~ for....w. filet alltptioM. but ___ aIao 10 be ."Ii1atM 10 decry any behllYiour which 1M writer IcpI . . . . KOItIIcImly in .1epI_IlUt',
dec..,i,.
,
k
., first book of Plato', RepJlblic, Thruymakhos says that Socntes is sykophant. ing him not only because he believes he is indulging in logical quibbles. but .lso because he i. attaclting him. '00 you think I'm drli~rate/y maltreating you~' ub Socrates (;M117) - just IS in the AristotelianProbkms (9SU:r4) the aykophant always does wrong ell prrmoias. deliberately, with malice .forethought. The pasugn in Aristotle's Topics cited by Osborne (n.6) .Ito refer to fraudulent quibbles. arguments that cheat by exploiting ambiguities, or by confu.ing metaphorical expresaions with literal ones (ace ,110 SopIr. EI . 1,.b8-U; Topics 157U(~J3; cf. RlId . 1402114.). Here the meaning of quibbling or IIOphiatry merges with that of fallacy, f,lsityand malting I charge again. one'. opponent. In other words, the quibblinK notion overlaps with the faJs~ notion, and bila of the attacltint notion that we will examine next . We find the lime uaociation of ideas in non-philOlOphical texta: when Epameinondu waa put on trial over a technicality, Plutarch call. the charge a saJwpira"tnruJ (P~IDp. XXV.4) .14 Founhly, then, sland~rolU attack. Osborne (p . 9t) lays lOme strCSl on Aeschinet' contrast betwecnpllemi, gossip, and su/wpJItJntia (n. 14S) though I find it forced and awkward (,pedantiach und nicht glficklich', Wankel 1976: 899; d . Crawley uno: 86) : all they have in common is that they involve allegatiofll. N. we might expect, Ariatode is more sensible about the close ~Iationship between hatred (eJrhtAra, ",isos), alanderousattack (diaboli) and aykophancy (RIter . 1381.11-7). But we may agTte with Aeschines (11.145) that diaboli is the aister of sultophant;a: reckJess abute is characteristic of the aykophant, in the assembly and in the couns (Oem. xxv.41) . This is HesykhiOl' Jrata/a/ia (po 110 above) . It ill allO what liet behind Aeschinet' surprising Itatement (1I1.~31) that Homer calls Thcrsites a coward and a sykophant. A glance at lIi"d 1I .2.11-n will make it clear thai what Aeschines has in mind is Theraites' aggressive abuse : he wu immoderate in speech, he wu always qUlrrelling with thoee who hsd more conventional hair-styles, he shrieks and he shouta : Odysseus teUs him of( for his offensive abuse, and wallops him. Everyone says that thill is the best thing Odysseus h.. ever done : 'that" teach him (Thenites) to upbraid kings with hi, insulting words'. Fifthly, the sykophantf~"tly taUs />«JPk to court . This ill rarely lIated explicitly (Oem. XXXVI.S)-4, XXXVIII.3: Dein. 11.12.), but the rderenento Iykophancy .. a full-time occupation or .. a 'trade' (section VII below) are sufficient to indicate ita impomnce. The modem word for it is
JI
Quibb!int; An.. Ewd. EtA. ualbM: /"wI. 14$6&4"7. NOI\· phi~N;r.1 u.mpa: Lyti. UoIt . ).; Dan. xn .• 8. For an uunplc, _ tmlDNrlDll EWffj", SInd rt, 5 M~ "~h (I am inMbtcd 10 Dr P'III Cankdre 1« lhe ~). II ;'lIUtpriei", thM lhe &nuIlJ ('1)*4) apsb of • fflI'IIle aykopbanl (V'~"-til) : pmuoJM an iRlllk aimed.t _ wooII"n in comedy.
1
114
DAVID HAR VEY
'Nikomakhoe, you ahould have bf'OUlht forward witnt8ltlat the time' (L}'I. VII .20 ; d . Oem. LVII .4Q); or, 'but that ... twenty yean ago' (Oem. xxxYJ .a6-7. 53). If men do noc COQteIC clwgea immediately, but later, they are reprded u sykophanta andPOJlt,!Ii (Oem. xu.a]). My family chuacteriltka, then, are monetary motivation, (alae charp, aophittic quibbling, abusive attKb. the raking up of the past. and the frequency with which the sykophant rtllOrtl to litigation. It goea without ..ying that he must also be afltullt IjIetUtn (Oebome p. 86) . Homer.)'I that the prota.ykophant Thenites 'knew manyworda' : K'COrding to lsocratee, everyone knows that aykophanta are clever apeakers, and this ia how Kriton's aide-kick Arthedemoe is dekribed. 36 For if the aykophant'a victim called his bluff by going to court, the sykophant would incur hetivy penalties if he failed to obtain the requisite numbet' of votes (p. 106 above) . What would the sykophant hive to uy for hi1l'lltU in replyl The answer will be found in Aristophana' PI"U" 900 and 907-3 - but it i. important to note the increduloua and setptical reactiOlll of Dibao.:l1 in DemoRhenea LVIII .6]-4, where hit Irgument is rejected ; It Lycurwu- 1.]-6; in the panegyric in Pllto'. Laws 73od; and of COUfK in Oabome'. pape:r.lI VII
WERE THERE PROFESSIONAL SYKOPHANTS?
Osborne men. (p. 93) thlt 'there il no trace of the profeuion of the Iykophant in the OratOrl'. I would diapute thia. laocratel.)'I that L}'Iimakhos hu chOien 10 live from sykophancy (xv. 164). Demoethenes alleges that Theokrinea and his frie:ndt make a living from .ykophancy. Ariatoseiton, he U)'I elsewhere (xxv.8a), likn to ICe everyone involved in law.ui~ and malicioua pfOleCutiona: that'l his substitute for farming, and for buaineu : for (lCdiona 51-3) he is not involved in any enft, rarming or buaineu himIClf, but tpenda all his time on aykophantic pursuita. According to Hyperidee (LyAoplinm a), Arilton went Ifound threatening everyone with lawsuits, and if they did not pay him, he would bring them to trial : but if they~ prepared to pay him, he would let them go, and he would give thecuh toTheomneatoe. With this cuh, Theomnestoe wu able to buy alava whOle activitia provided him with rood, and he paid Arillon one obola day for each alave, which in turn enabled Ariaton to be an lJdtolllJtos IIIJtopIulllt~s, a non-atop aykophan' - a fudnating and unuaually detailed picture of one way the 'trade' worked. The. atltementl may be untrue, but they had to be plau&ible to a large jury . They aurely constitute more than a 'trace' of aykophancy u a profeaeion in the flitMIll.Jll ; hoc. 101:1.5 (cIn'. k,.,ur ; d . Phil. hlop. xJrr,s); Xen. AI_. 11·9'4 Urr-, .., . I , /ttftII ); Plato Rq . J75b ; d . o.bome p.l)6. J'/ Adki .. 1976 : )01-10, 316-17 ctnw.annlliool to tM.; 0Ib0r1M! (ft.") doet not. '" o.boc ... (ft.,,) cita Plut. 1isal"" nvu.l: '. nay 1wIl_ Myc. crnI, " ~ dcmou It), it MrmI, mUll hive IlJIr;opban... But P\uWdl _ _ 1'* it ill 1WfZu.y attri· bvt~. lICIt: 1ft attractive one (d. Mor. 91~. 8og.c). J6
1
us ,tao Xen. Hell. lI.l. la,
Orators (see
cited by Osborne, p. 100; d. Andoll.
1·99)· All this atrongly luaests that Amtophanes' jokes mUlt hIve hId some b ••i. in rea1ity. In the Birrh I Pcisetairot congratulates the .ykophant on his tdJrtti (trade) and uU him whether this illhe jobn he works II . 'Yes,' he repliea, 'you _. I've never learned to dig.' Peisetairoe points out that there are other respectable professions from which. min fIlIIy earn his living (1422-35)' Then the .ykophant prote!lta (and this must be • joke : Ehrenberg 1951 : 3+4 tHea it aerioualy) that aykophanting is the bios that he bu inherited from his grandfather- hi, way of life and, presumably, his means of livelihood - and he Clnnot diagnce his family name. InPlut",! (1}06-8; cr. 931) the .ykophaot tell, KaTion that he u. not. farmer, he is not .n emporos (trader), and be hu not learnt I craft. 40 He is. voluntary prosecutor; he speaks u though that is an activity comparable with farming or trading (d. ElcJdes . Sb-3).
Could peoplc really makc a living from aykophancyl Or are thc Orators exaggerating, Arialophanca fantHising, and Xcnophon merely rcvcaling hia upper-cl... bias? Krieon ")'8 that Iykophanu were 'cheap' (PJ.IO, c,;,o 4Sa); DemOlthenel (xxv.so, Lvtu.63) and laocrates (XV1II.IO , 14) agree. There are a number of pauagea that state exactly how much money a sykophant took, though no jury could check the accuracy of such information, and thc comic 'cvidence' should not be taken too seriously. The smallest sum ia one mina, and the commoneat two, but we also hear af larger lumlluch II tcn minu, thirty min.. and even thrcc talents. 4 ! What was 'cheap' for a man like Kriton or boc:n.tes w.. not cheap for thc ordinary Athcnian: if we acttpt Marklc'a calculationl (1985 : 29]-,]), two minas was four·fifths of the annual income of an unskilled labourer in the tate fifth century. U thc alleged figures are not cntirely phoncy - and thcy too had to be plausible - thcn thfft or four deall a year should have brought in a comfortablc lum. But what we are told about StephanOl (Dcm. L1x.39, 68) reveals another pouibility. At fim, according to hil prosecutor, StephallOl had no income apart from whit he could earn II. sykophant (contrast here " Sykopbancy iI ctIled 111"1" ha'e (BinI. '430; d . '450; L)'I. OY.3), III rrroriG I' Dem. n . ISI, and the nrb.'r ,... .-cd ha'e, /JinI.r '4JOlnd. Dem. xn.IJ. Theplac:c wlwu people III ~ it an npI1mo.., and mil iI turdy the iUplanalion 04 the ~ ,,~ al Oem. XlDllX.I and XL.9. On lb. I ..,.u ..nh o.bome n .) ] . _ lpillltc.,. CaIholI... '9'): aM,~, 79'""'11 ; d. 8onnn'&. Smith '9)1: S4' 'C.,..' (BonTllT '9:17: 68) illbrttnwonltban 'dubt'. For Il"NPoI.,topbanb aI~Iyah8ri",ou, profiu, _ Oem. LYOII.40. WhetbeT 1I)'IIopbmo;y_ I ultJJroi .. I diffft'elli matIer. Pf'O: pn.wroa in k . BinJ" and 1101:. n 'lI4; _ , .... Ihe~ II pt"tw 90S. Dem. OY' SI .
to,-,..· .. n
..
•
_ _
~muathl'n:bealf....u;..withthial
_pitA.
01
it: nat only do OY'S' andl~a:holi_
and,.."
903"5, bile XXII •• I90 Il1o I'ftSllI die lJkophInt'ICIlim 10 be 1tJJ~,.., I .., (Iinc: 900). The imIcc allhe.,topblllt II I (OY 'Sa) come. from Eupotil fUJI . 'I1tttt "", renwbble _ _ al the kiIIohip be,a ... CredonlOf}' and Wined, (DoYu '974: 3M) . 11M! opecified: Imina : Tdekleida fr'4" DenI. '.'1111 . ]4 ; a minu : Dem. Lyou .)a, hoc. VlU.7, '0, Pbi.IipyicIea fT •.,; 4~ : TdctkideI fr ... l: 10 minaa: 1101:. nlll·7: JO..o-: 1_. XXI. I" L)'I. XX'rI.:I.f (JO mi .... -=II ffOln ... unopecified nllmber 01 pt ..... oc:no); looFldIletcn: Eupnlil fT. 99.~ CGF; I talmr: AI. KiaIiPIu 4J9: (""".) Akw. 8.pa; J taImta : Oem. lDIX'fIlI.:IO.
'onowu..u__
116
DAVID HARVEY
Hlnten 1987: s9-60 with Osborne n.38). but then he bought the gllmorous Neaira, Ind her immoral camings helped to maintain hil household. In other word., Stephlna. hid I K'COnd. if noc I third, IOUI'CC of income - he 1110 lent money at interne (Oem. XLV.6c}-?o). Such • aitUlition may well have b«n rIlOI'e common than our aourt'ea .uggea:! men who are alleged to 'live off aykophmcy' might often have b«n rnaking money in lOme other wa)'l, from a farm, for enmple, or a .lave workahop: aykophancy wu only their mMt compiOlOJU activity.
VIII
THE EFFECTS OF SYKOPHANCY
Finally, the effecu of vitilitiption. Kriton, you remember, a rich tlPraptOIf, employed the ahady41. Arkhedemot to deal with aykophanu (Xen. Mem . 11.9; Osborne pp. ~). But that wu not the only poaaible strategy. Xenophon offera lola two ocher vignetta. Kharmidea in theSymposilll'l'l (Iv.30) wu alwaY' afraid of burglara and aykophanll when he wu rich; 10 he~t"~ the ayltophanu - he cultivated them, or buttered them up - prHurnably with gifll, monetary or otherwilt. hkhomakhOi in the OiiortomJros (XI.2I-S; briefly. Oabome p. 98) had naively hoped that hia pr08perity would make him a.aJo,Jcagatltos, but found that it in fact expoeed him to attacb by aykophanu. So he took up oratory . and practilCd it at homej he would even get membcn of hia houlthold to proserute him. and Ipeak in hi. own defence. and vice veraa. The point of the excrcitc wu that, if he were ever hauled to court by a aykophant, he would be capable of putting up a good defence (d. hoc. XJU.S). The.e two anecdote. ahow that we ahould not take Kriton'a adoption of a hit·man u a typical atratcgy. 43 Indeed, aince Xenophon tella Kriton 'a atory in lOme detail, it ia p~umably unuaual j and within the urm circle, there were other methoda of dealing with Iykophanu. Oabomc'a final and, in my view, least convincing argument, i.that, broadly apcaking, aykophancy wu (to use the terminology favoured by Sellar and Yeatman) a 'Good Thing'. 44 Otherwise a rich man like Kriton, "Y' OaborM, could evade (p. 97) Or ignore (p. 98) the Ja'q of the city: 'the threat of aykophantic allegation. w... constlnt reminder of the rule-bound nature of ~idmcc in a community' (p. 99). If we ..y that aykophancy might deter the rich from bnalti'W the 11'q, rather than evading them, then to that extent Adkina, Oaborne, Solon and I are in "Icement. But Oabome allO maintaina thll .ykophancy 'made life difficult for wealthy men who refuaed to participate in the democratic worltinga of 1IOciety' (p. 98); auch P"1KcutOri 'were compelling thoec rich men who &hr.nk from U 'S"-dy': J tpft with (}tbome (pp.9?-I; d . e..... .986: III-Il), . . . . . . . . e., . Calhoun 1944: 41. whoWil Artbedei._·poor but hoaat' .neI, llPf*eiltly withou. iron)" 'thit wonhy rmtltman·. Calhoun _._.tIly daeriba Kriton·lllrIlqy .. ·firhti... 1he ctenJ with fire'. oJ ' U~· (e..... 1916: I'S) nt'-Ihan 'common' (Calhou.n .944 : 4l) . .. Two of the aIOIt d.aillUiIhed b~ produced by 0rK1, lhe coIJep ol1rhirlr. the Rqiua hof-. of Hwooy It Oxfonllre _t-..
w
"7
involvement in government 10 re-enter the public stage' or else to forfeit some of their wealth (p. 98). These arc the 'rich apmgmo"d of Adkins (1976 : 317. 319) and Carter (1986: 99-130), Here we part company, for I Cln find little. if .ny. evidence for thi • . In particulu. the fragment from Ariltophann' FCU"JtUn (fr .100) i. not even In inexac::t paraUel (Osborne n ...6) to 'prtSllurUing non-pllrticipantl into an awareness of the contnldiction of trying to mainain luch • position in the democratic polis' (p. 99) . Plutlrch cites the lina in the context of Niltiu' withdrawal from the command of the Athenian troops at Pylas (Nile. VIII). 'I want to rann,' aaya one character (A) . 'Who's stopping you?' asks another (I). 'You (plural),' replies A: '10 I give one thousand drachma if you111et me off the arMai.' 'OK ,' uya . : 'that makes two thousand together with Niltiu' drachm... • What does 'If you'l rdease me from the arlthai' mean1 4J Character A cannot have been chosen by lot or elected to of6ce againat his will, since candidates were not drawn from the entire citizen body I but only from those who had put their names forward .46 Like Nikiu t he must already hive been elected or allotted to some I~cific magiatflC)', and he is uking to be relieved of it, ju,," u Nikiu had been relieved of the command at Pylae. Part of the joke would seem to be thlt Nikiu i, repreaented u hiving bribed his way out of the genenlship, whereu we know from Thucydides (Iv.28) that he withdrew from it in the Auembly. I t who is IIddraeed in the plural, is presumably the leader of the chorus, one of the Farmen. There i. in fact plenty of evidence that viti litigation did mJt lead to participation in demOCiltic politics. Oaborne's own example is Diagnetos in Lysiu xvlII.g. the brother of Nikiu,47 who wu 10 slendered by sykophantl that he withdrew into exile - not the m08t obvious wly of re-entering public life. Eleewhere, Lyaias (xxv.106) lpeab of the Athenians eher ,p I condemn· ing men to exile and diRnfrenchi.ing them. u. result af the Ictivities af three Iykophlnta (Ant. V.78; Aeach. 11. 12,..) . Aeachines also refen to men '.y1r.oOIl Carter IC)I6 : 'J...ne.: 'The I)'kophamca.i ..... to bot: ,1Me to mit.. yOf _ (11M: f.onncr·.) nllme wMn!he'" ere dnwn liP.' BUI tbe fnlnlCnt hardly penn;u IUCh pm:_ interpretation ; the I. . hIo." appumdy b«n dnwn lip .. ~ ~ fOf thiI. which it nu! foe In IIncknhondi", 01 11M: ..."ki.... 01 the Atheni.n democ:I..".. it ........ in ...... bIe. Headlatn .89. : Jl-4 ....... that c-andidatlln: fot t .... ,.""U w.. CVII'I,w-y (but _ refilled by MKGn:cor in the acond edition of hit book 1'1/>-7)) _hereu euMtidatuft foe miDorollkc _~, thou«h the ItIk miPt if '""' ry oompcl!rlm to _ (94-5: no elidalClt). Hipen 19S:1: :la7 belintd thlt andicbNre fOf office ""'Y h,~ bem voIuDt:.y ita _ i. .,....,.... but that oompuhic>n _ peo-hapi IV! I ery to fillihe chid" IinanciIl pc-.. Sindeir 1988 : '09-11, 19S alto beliews in...-olllntHn, with 'little: pr-.n: in the ~ of 1M botJi. TlM: feet thM jurymen wen: chotm from tt- who put tbnr name. f... wd - WId..,. _ offcrecllO ICtncI them to do 110 (Mirtle 1935) - waau thlt the _ _ tNr of mapa.eiet. '1 NikiII_ ~ioatIly walth, by Atbmiwt .,nd", (O,via 197' : 4OH), tnd ••illCll: he
_eo,er.
,!tad, .
mmo..
_ alto timMI , WI Mieal WJtt foe rykophanu: PIIIt. Niit . 1I.s-6, .,11 ..... (dtronoloficlily -"-d), DIU; a..,.Niit . t!lCnus . 1.1. Since IWU KWld.with ThIX . it IooU _ if Niltill' 'comic pc._w' (o.bome p.SI) ' - _ b.iI in retlity . For Iykopt\Intjc MtacU oa lUI brother, lIN: the_ PW •• &ph.
"'.+3.•,
u8
DAVID HARVEY
phanled out of the ttate' (poiitfta; m.n6), and there are other eumplea." Ariatogeiton, saya DerDOIthenea (XXT.83), alwaya demanded the death penalty in the courta, and he wu not the only one (d. e.•. Lya. xxv.a6). The death penalty will have created a dead Athenian, who will hardly have taken a very lively part in political affain; whereu the tArut of the: mth penalty it likely to have driven a man into exile ntha' than into politic.. At a local level, one AntiphilOi contrived to expel ten demeamm of Halimoua from their deme (Oem. LVlI.60) : again, not an obvioua method of forcing them into politic.. Another apeakn complains that hia opponentl'are drivine me right out of my deme with their aykophanting' (Oem. LV.3S). Furthermore, far from benefitting and vitaliainlJ the democracy, aykophancy i. Mid to hlVc had prteillely the oppoaite effect. Sykophanta are a«uled of having turned the rich qaintt the ckrrtos, of making them oligarcha, and of cauaing stam and the overthrow of deihoCi»cy, Sykophantic activity, say Lyaiu (xxvlI.a6) and Demc.thenet (xxv.so, d . sa), Ieada to Ilmi,." laocntea, admittedly not the moet unbiued of writen, cwma that aykophantl reproached the most IUpectable citizena with being oligllrcha and t..konizera (XV.JIS: d. Lya. Xl(V.a7). Arillode, a more reliable IOUrce, tella ua that rtvolutiona in democraciea are cauaed by demagoguea who make men or property band together, IOmetimea becaule they .ykophant them (Politics 1)04b_~,
1)051)-7).
Converaely, there are examples of men who wt~ politically active,so but found their actiolUJ curbed or fruatnted by aykophanu. The politimna moet frequently affected were the strolegoi, the sencnla (d. Sinclair r988: 146-sa). There are aevenl inatlnea in Plutarch (Nil. XXII.a, d. "'4-S, IV.2-4; AJltib. xxxlv.7; P1roIt. XII.3). DemoIthena (XXUI . IS) apeaks of intimidation of s'rttte,oi by aykophant., which reduced them to inactivity. Ariltogtiton, we are told, h~ the S'rtttqoi for money, and when they refused to give him any, he said they wert not fit to be lavatory-inspecton, let alone genenla: and he cxtended hia activitiea to the mqiatntea choeen by lot (Oem. xxv'49""so). Plato'a timarchic man (RIp . S53b) devotes hi! life and hi! money to the city, or holdJ a strttteria or lOme other great magillracy - and then ia taken to court and ruined by lOme aykophant (d. [Plato] AJJtib. Jt.lpa; Diod . xx.lo'3-4) ' 1111.11 sykophantl frequently drove rich men
OIl'
.. E.• . AMok. I.IOS; PIMoRlp. 533b. (Plato) Nlib . 11. '..-; Diod. D'4". I. 'The Old Olipreb (1. 14) aIIo apcsU of mom lrom !he Athenian cmpirt beint driftll into aile by AthetW.n ,ykopbana. LolberJ 1917: sN au. At. K1rqII" s,S9"6). wbic:h DlCd not aIhMk 10 an aile, PIli!. AIw. men to PlIIWda', own lime• .. For I)'kophanttin!he Athenian empire_Old OIiptdII " 40~. 8Wrlr l+:t:a with MacDowdl 1971 : ns-6, L,... 1ClT. 19, hoc. D .).I (I .....iciout _A.t;on all)'koplwr.... ,ad okmt· ppa): o.twtId 1,&6: 1100-11 , o.bome p. IOI . Sy\opIwIIt ill ~ Ainoe: Dorm. L'ftIl '3,..,s. Accotdi..., to DiodonM, l)'kopbtntt'" --.I t .... in Syrxu. (11.1.17-5) tnd lhe f'eIOPOM_ (."'4". 1). to . , 'politially ..:ci'tt', I do not mean 'merely C8Ilini one', ttOIl in !he ~bly or 011 tile boWl' (AdkUrt 19'1'6: 319); I rria' to _ l'OIikw::u_': Finlty 196s; PerlmaD 1963: H _ 1933" 1933b; Sincltit 1918: 34;8, 13~S, SI.-,S·
Bo,'
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... of, rather than into, politics; and their attacks on active politiciana hindered their conduct and deterred others from involving themselves in public life. IX
EPILOGUE : THE CROWN OF TAMARISK
Osborne treats us to a story about Solon , Anakhanis and the spider's web (Plut. Solo,. V' 4-Si p. roo). But the context shows that Plutarch's 'Iaws of Solon' are the measures that he took to prevent tyranny. and had nothing to do with the introduction of the voluntary prosecutor. A better story. which encapsulates the traditional view of the sykophant, can be found in Diodor08 (XII. n.I) . The lawgiver at Thourioi decreed that those convicted of sykophancy should walk around wearing a garland of tamarisk, so that it should be obvious that they had been awarded the first prize for wickednm. Some men found themselves unable to cope with this disgrace and committed suicide. Subsequently all the sykophants were sent into exile; and &0 the state was relieved of a great evil, and enjoyed a malum'os bios - or. as we should uy, everyone lived happily ever after. 51
TESTIMONIA Squ. re brackets indica.le a ,ykophant wonU. AIUC H1NE S I . I . 3 ,~.
183 ; nt. 6+, 17a, ANDOIllD U I .
~16,
p~
which rden
3a, 105. 107; ;u6, a31, ~S6 .
II . S.
86, 93, 99-101 , 104-5.
10
, ykophancy but doe. not
39, 66, (93),
99.
UK
Ihe
u.... 145. 170, 177, 181 ,
(U.I).
ANTIPHO N (Tetral. l.i . I)); V.78-30; VI '4) ' .... tSTOPHANU Atllonlimu SIS-::I3, 5S9, 7~S-6 , 818-a8, 8+0 , 904-S8; Birds (68(1)J , a8S, 1+10-61), 1+79. [1694-9J ; Ell.1!1~s . 431>--9, +sa. S6~3; Kniglltl [asUsJ , [)ooJ, +)7-"", [sa9), [uS6); P~(JC~ 191, 6S~4 ; PI"tIlS ) D- I, 8SCI-9S8 , 97D-1 ; Wosps
1+5-6, 897. [10),......] , 1094-{!· Fngmenta (the fif1t figure rdef1 to Kock O\P, the figure in bracketl 10 KISKI· Aultin PCG) : +D (-) (Amphiomos); 100, loS (_loa, 110) (Gto,.,;) : aJ9 (-u8) ([Joitoks) ; 009 ( - +S4> (Ptlrull'oi ); S39 (-S5::II) (T~'-sseis) . Scholi. on Birds 38, Pilltus 31 , 8S4; Hypoth. to Birds III (OCT) 1-~. Cf. Vita AtUroplu2I'ris aMI (PCG lII.a, p.a) ,
JI I hope 10 dillC\lll thit peW-I" eltewhere. Diodorl», by. chrono\osical minoo;le, IUribUIt:a the
..... of Thoonoi, founded in +43 '.e. , 10 thE airth-cenlury Kluorona.. . The Ilw-gi~r ito gn>er.lly ~Iie ..ed 10 tlaYe been ProtI(oru : 1ft l'Iatvey 1966 : sSg n.lo; Muir Iq.III -lhou(Ib Aristotle dca not, .. Muif ~ witb n.:l4 impliel , «fer 10 the odder enactment..
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DAVID HARVEY
Ali STOTLf. Elh.Eud. II . U:ub5-7; PMI. '45613-7: Pol. fl. u68b21- S; {v. 13o,.h»31 . 130SI~J; Prahl. 9Sau-6; Ilkl. fl . 138:1a1-7, '40:laI ..-6; Soph.EJ.. 174b8-u; Top . VI. 139ba3-14021, VIII. IS721~33; (rr. 667 RmeJ. [AIIISTOTLI:) AIII.Pol. (IX. I). xxxv. z-3. XLIII.S. UX.3; RlIet.ad Alex. 14a~a6-3a; '4Z4bll--4, 14-442-30-5; Virt.1'!I Vito uSlb:l--3. COM IC fIIAGMENTS (figures refer to Kock. unles. otherwise indicated) Old comedy Epicharmos 84 CGFP "" P. Oxy. Z4a9 fr .7 ; Eupolis a31 (PCG 2-45). PCG 99. 78 (~mo,) ; PCG 259 (Prospaltioj); Kratinos 69-70 (PCG 70) (Etu7ltnidts); Plalo 14 (Amphianws) . ISS (Fob. inc.); Telekleides -4'; Ad~p . 7. Middle and new comedy Ab.ia ,8a (Poietai); Diphilos 3:1 (PCG 31) (Emparos). (Euboulos 74 (PCG 7i») : Menander (ed.5.ndb.ch) EpitlY/>Ontts :118. Geo'J'Os h.l, Pen"keir. 373-8. Samia 578, 'l"'MrJpJwr. h .l . Fab.inc. KOne SiS. 919; Gnomai m<Jnoslidrm ....0-603: Philippidl:$ :19; Adesp. :151 . Uncertain date Adesp. 90S, 11 86. DE INARKHDS
I.
6;
fI .:I.
D£MOSTH£NES V. 6; VII. 21; IX. 56; XII . 9, 19 ; XVIII . 95, 11 :1-- 13, 118. 121. 138, 189. 192,212, :13:1-5. IJ9, a42, :149, 256, 2.66, a7S. a89, 3'7 ; XIX. 98, au; xx. 6a, 152; XX I. 103, 11 6- 18.122, '14 ; XXIII . IS, 61 . 67.180, ' 90; XXIV.] ,,...8. 14. 66. aOO-I, a03; xxv. 8--9, 18-19. 35-7. 39-4 1. 45-P. 63, 8:1--4, 96-7; XXIX. n. 25 , 30. ii, 55; XXXII. 26-8; XXXI II . 2., 16. 37; ltXXn' . 40: XXXVI. ), I 2, 14, 21. a4, 26-7. 5:1--4. 58, 60; XXVII. a-3, 8, I) , 17-18.14, )5. )9-'P , 45. 49, 51-) ; XXXVIII.). 16, "UI; XXXIX. 2, 25-6. 3i; XL. ), 9, 4]; XL I. 23: XLII . 13: XLV. 47 ; LI. 16 ; LII . 33; Lillo I; LV. I-a, 6, 9, It-3. 16-9. JJ, 35: LVII . )2, 34. +4. 49. 57. 60; LV III . 2, 6, 8-13. :13. a6-9. 32-7. 40 • .p-). 62-5; uX. 39.43-4. 68; Prooim. xxxv. z; Epist . 11 .9. DIODOROS 10·3- 4·
I.
17.", 901.5. IV. 8.5; XI. 87'5: XII . 12.2.24.2-) ,39.2-3. xv. 40.1; xx.
olocuns LAF.RTIOS II . 63.
HU.AKL£ IOE S KUTIKOS
I.
4 (Pfisle r ).
HVPUE 1DuAthenog. 25--6: o,moslh .); l::uJeenipp. 3J-4; Lykophr.
2.
ISAEUS I. ..1. So; XI. 4. '3. 31. I SOCRATES VIII. U3. 129""30, 133; XII . 9. 13, '401; xv. 8, 11. 013, 88. 96, 163-4. '74-5. 24-5, 2.)0, ~)7. 141-2.. z.lI8. 300, 3~, )n-~o. XVI. I-a, 41, 46; XVII . .p, 46. 56; XVIII. 2--3. 7. 10. '4. :12- 4. 37, 43. 51-a. 55. 64; XXI. 5, 8. 100It, 13-14. 19· KRATUOS FGrH 3.. 1
f 11
(= Plut. Arilt. a6.1-4).
LYKOURGOS I. 3-6, I). 31. LYSIAS I. +4; III ..... ; IV. 14; VI. J I ; VII. I. 10-1, 38-c]; Xli. 5; XIII. 67. 76; XVIII. 9: XIX. 9,51; xx. (7}, 11; XXI. 17; xXU. I; XX IV. a; xxv.). 19. a.-7; XXV!. 14; XXVIII. 5--6, Frr. 1. 1- 2,43 Thalhcim ... 38. I-a, 21 Ge rnet-Bizos. PLATO Crito +4e-4Sc; &p. I. Hod- J4IC; VIII. S53b; 7iSa; XI. 928bc.
[nAToJA/Ii.
II .
1,,2a, Copyrighted Material
IX .
575b. Cf. Lows v. 7Jod.
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,LUT.uCH 0·9 .hove) Akx-Mr 7+5 ; ~biotks IJ.S. 19·7. 34.7; ArUkUks 16.2; o,-lItnws 14.4; &--.r 16.1-+; KiMtm 10.9; NiJtUu 2'5-6, 4.20-5.1. [8.41.
c-,. Nilfitu
fY Crumu I. :lo-J with Mor. 54lef. 84"b; hloPJ,tu 25.1-,; hrillu 37.4: I'ftDItitM 10.3. 10.9 with Mor. l88b. n .J, 16.2. 29." JI.J; SoIoIr [18.6-71. 24.2: nil II Off J7· I-J; Monziia 18~ , S2J.b, 9S~, 998ab. U.2 j
TH.O'.U.STO.a.ar. ZXlII. 4: XX". 5. TR.O'OIIlPO.FOrH 115 F 110, aSl, J17. :' :'"O'RO" HdI. II, J. la, n. J8; MnIf. II. 9; ,,.. 4.11; Oil. Xl. al; S".",. IV.JO.
[UNO.HON] AM. Pol. (,Old OIipreh11. 14 .
... Yal P.c.iro Zen. ua (as. • . c.); 6aS brd c . • . c.). 1-5; P .Mkh.Zcn. 57 (J.+8 •.c.) 1-5: WiJcken UPZ I. In (20]11 • .c.)]-8; IIJ (ISh.c.), 3-18; P. Tcbt. 41 (1I8J .C.), D-<'1i 789 (c. 140 • .c.), ~4· L&:UCA • • CHOLlA, dc. (moatI)' ~ea) Sc:hoI. Ar. PI..hu JI, 854; Scho!. Oem. nm. 95 . Scbol.. PlMo /Wp. ]4Od; EIyM. Map . 7J3'J9'"57 I.¥Y. cnnco+avrta, ~: Faw. J9J LindNy: Haykhiol I." . ~. ovxo+anlll. O'U~ i I.a-o. FGrH 334 Fn; Phi1omnacOi FGrH 527 Fl; Plut. SoIott :&+1, Mor. saJab; SoHdg E3JI~2, SIJ:l4. IJ:a.r3J.
w
6a The law of hubris in Athens' NICK FISHER
I Ttlit piper examina the operation of the law of lrubriJ in classical Athena; the PIper by o.wyn Murray in Ibis volume con&iderl the la. in the archaic period. and comparable laws ellewhcre. While my viewt on the tnditional probIemI of this law. its date and the interpretation of the term ltubris. will become dear I I am centrally conccmed with the balic pandox poKd by the Itw', operation in deRltKuttc: Athml: thia paradox it tut, whereas the law appears to occupy • high profile in AtheniaN' conaciousnaa of their legal I)'Item . . . whole, and playa. large part in their defences of ill r61e in the preecrvation of demomK:)' and ftlbility. there i. liule evidence (though not as little IIlOmdima stated) we the law wu IctUIUy much uted in the coum. At we thaU tee, then: 11ft • number of good rcuons why in many, or mOlt, cues where an K'tion for Iud"" might lie I litigants might chOOM: to excrciK dull wide choice which the.,.mn offered, land bring an action other than that oIl1u#wU. Thus. pandox, and. question: did the law of llubn's ICrvC. uaeful purpoee in the Clultcal democl'K)' We pClIIm the text of the law .. it stood in the founh century; the initial phnee, which it.n that it of(u. by way of explanattoD of the ofrence, ruM : 'If anyone commits IIt1bris against another, whether child or woman or man, whether free or .lave, or if he doe. anything outrageou. (,pal1l.no...on) apil\lt anyofthac,let anyone who withes (llobouk 'kIlOS), of thole Athenianawho are entitled, bring an indictment fIratJti) before tM: judga (tM.mtOtMtm)' (Dem. lOO.47) . I hold, but donut arpe here, Wt the law, and probably It Ieut this initw phtMe of the text, ... an integral JMlrt of Solon', innovative introduction of
r
... tbe""'··i ·.thcc..mbridp ·,...... tbdulpter ... o.wyn Nwny'. .............. doe editan, ...... CanJedp. hvI Millom, - ' Sccphm Todd, for . . , bdpfuI • a f oa the dnft.... "'-'" all to o.wyn Munay Iw much 1limu1Mi,. r .• -,., , .. --. ... _fricadlydi=.,Willat.
'1_~IO
I
a . . ,. 0Ib0a_ '9isb, .......
"3
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NICK FISHER
the volunteer prosecutor and the popular law court, in order to restrain the excesses of the rich, and to instil a greater sense of justice and community values in the city (d. Murray's paper).J Other cases, such as adultery and theft, where a public interest seems to have been perceived in addition to the wrong to the individual, support the view that the introduction of the graphi system, and the prosecution by 'anyone who wishes' (ho boulomenos), cannot be explained solely in terms of the need to protect defenceless victims.4 A useful starting point is provided by the ancient traditions which oUer explanations of Solon's introduction of the graphi procedure for offences against individuals. For the Aristotelian Constitution 0/ the Athenians the purpose was to 'enable ho ooulomenos to &eek justice/revenge (timorein) on behalf of those wronged' (Ath .Pol. IX. I), said to be one of the three elements in his political reforms that most favoured the people (demotikotala); which does not explain the reason for the public concern in such cases of wrongdoing. But the fuller version in Plutarch is more suggestive: man has been Itruck or Irl~ated with force 0'1" lunered dlm.ge, it was permiued to anyone who was able and who wished to bring a graphi and prosecute the offender, 8in« the lawgiver corrt(:lly aimed al accustoming the citizent to feel and Iympathise with one another as if they wue parts of one body. When asked which seemed to him to be the best managed of the cities, he $lid it was that city in which those who had not been wron~d were no less ready to prost(:ute and punish the wrong-doers than those who had been wronged (Solon 18).5 If I
Now there is a distinct possibility that such traditions have some basis in a belief in the Solonian origin of the law of hubn·s and in readings of Solon's poems - where we do find some sentiments which are not very dissimilar in spirit from these;6 but for my purposes here it is more important to see that these statements accord perfectly with the justifications of the law of hubris and its importance in the judicial system that we find in the fourth century. The basic notion in Plutarch is that some offences against the individual must be corrected in the public interest; and Plutarch sums to have particularly in mind violent offences againsl the person, and hence above all the graphi hubreos. This fundamental point is spelt out explicitly and repeatedly in the many lawcourt speeches which, starting from the point that the criminal 's offences would have [aid him open to such a charge, dilate on the public nature of the law of hubris. I For further argumentl for I Soloniln dlte, against the fifth-century date argued for by RUKhcnbuKh 1965. Ind C",lrin (' 979' 3).4>, d . Humphreys (.!}8)I: 3J&-q). and Fi,he, (forthcoming: ch.a) . MacDowell (1976: ~) ugues for • aixth -cenlury date, without eommilling him",lf 10 Solon. On the meaningof/X'ra-.on (Irlnsgr-eaion of lI"Iy lOCiallmo.al norma, not of Iny apecilic ItoWle). d. Ostwald (r!}86: 11'-19) . • Cf. Humphrey, ( I~ l a: 339), and Fisher (forthcoming : ch.a), apintt e.g. Ruxhenbuech ( 1Q68: ·47- 51), Hurieon (1971: 76-8). ! On Ihese pusagQ, cf. O.borne ( 1'}8sb: ,,0-,,). Also relevant i. the alkt'ed Solonian law fo.biddinl ncutralilY in lime of ,Iasil, and Plutarch', eommen,- on il (&loll 30. ' ); ICC Manyille (,~ : 20'7- 19). , Cf. VlulO$
(1 1}46~
6Q-7o).
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1M law ofhubris iN Alhem
'"
Many of these puugea will be diac:uued later. Firet it will be advisable to give a brief account of the way hubris ia interpreted in our forenaic texta, of the types of acta which are envisaged aa in principle lading to actions of hubris, and the evidence for actual cases. Let us atan with the latter. Despite some statements to the contrary,' there is, as Osborne'a catalogue shows (JI)85b: 56, d. alao So), one hubn's charge which certainly came to court, one which wu started but then dropped, and there are also a number of possible CHea. The certain ca!e concerns the allegedly villainous Diokles of Phlya. laaeus, auacking him for his depredations against his relatives' propertiea, mentiona that at one stage he shut his brother-in-law up in a house, perhap. in In attempt to kill him, and Ichieved hia atimia - dishonourable deprivation of citizenship; Ind concludes that 'though he haa been indicted on a graplJi huiJnos, he has not yet paid the legal penalty' (vllt.4t, d. also VIl1.+4, on I proa«Ution impending against him) . The exiatence, known to lexicographers and aimilar late sources, of another of laaeus' speeches, Against Diokles on hubris, suggests that he wu subsequently brought to court on I graphi hubnos, in which the locking up and deprivation of citizen atatus - i.e. the infliction of the most severe dishonour on a citizen, thereby rendered unable to bring a case himself - was probably the central feature.' The other cue is the admittedly unusual one of ApoUodorOl' objections to his father's allegedly forged will, depriving him of the bank and imposing the marriage of his mother to Phormion: the purpose wu clearly to move the issue towards one court or another, and at that time private auits, diltai , were temporarily unavailable ((Oem.] XLV.3-S)' But the notional basi. of the cue must have been the inault to hitmelf of such a acttlement of the property and marriage to an ex·slave (however ludicrous that could be made to seem in view of the fact that he was himself the son of an ex.slave). This, which haa not always been acen by modem scholars, is made virtually explicit by Demosthenes in the speech he wrote on Phormion's behalf (Oem . XXXVI.30).9 The more doubtful cases are, first, the possibility of a political trial in the aftermath of the ",1 I revolution, the prosecution by Sophocles (probably the tngedian) of PeisandrOl, for SO outraging Euktemon that he forced him to commit suicide (Ariat. Rhet . I, I 374b35-'75U) ;10 then there are a number of cases of violent assault at festivals, referred to in the Meiditu as parallels to Meidias' auack, which may have been graphai or may have used the proboli procedure for offences at festivals (on which d . below) ;11 there is the (1976: aq) illmnic:ally CCK'IftI. but perha~nver·c,ulioul :· ) do nlll know of any quite cenl;n cue in which I penon _ f(lf1Tlally fou nd .,.ilty of 1t.JwU in an Albenian I.....-court·. The Oiokltll:Uewu te1Uinly brought,.m! may well hive produced ll:OfIvic:tion. Cf. a110 below p. '34. I Cf. 1 _ VlIl.4o-,¢ (and Wyte 1904: b'-a). £1'11. 5-6 (TIWbeim), Baiter,Sluppe (,850: 1)0-1) • • nd Ouits ('97': 3',..'4) . • Neith« Gtprin ('979: :alo n·4) , nor Dover (1974: 54 n. ,6) quile brinp Ihi. out, .,.hUe oVet'.emph..i';"Ilhe IbnortNlity of the _ . It it to be noI~ tNt heR IOOcitiKn ttoItlU it at iuJue; d . Murray , below p. ',.0. '0 CI. Jameeon (1971: 555'"1)' II CI. Dem. Jal.]~, 7.-6, '75-81 . ,
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Lytlianic cue .,aiMt Teisis, alleging. honifically brutal revenge whipping, which may poaibly be a hbriJ charge, but, like many another, may be rather a dilti QiluillJ (a 'private'action for 'battery', for which the defining criterion w.. llriking fiT1t);11 and, finally, there an a few even more obecure CUC$ where many charges are poMible, and, of course, a pat many threats, in comedy .. well .. in ontory, to bring a ~ hubmn which ended in a different, or in no, charge being brought. u II
If one ub, then , what ia the buic criterion in these fairly disparate actIthat would enable a charge of hubriJ to be consideml, there is one clear answer, which , it seenu to me, fita eXictiy what the sources conaiueDtly ..y (above an Oem. XXI Mftdill' , lice. xx LoIeJIit~J, Oem. uv Ktmott and a number of puuges in Arillotle's RUtoric) . It is surprising that, dClpite this unanimity on the part of the sources, very different viCWI have often been taken by modem scholars. The view I hold ia that the euenee of hub"', is the deliberate attack on the timi (honour) of another. That is, it is constituted by intentional, often gntuitous action, frequently but by no meana alwayt violent, and specifically designed to inftict shame and public humiliation. Thil, u tan readily be lten, does account for all the actUil or threatened legal caaea, and can indeed explain the Ulel of hubriJ in Solon'a ponnt about the crisia racing the poli, and his legal, economic and political refoma; and it ia spelt out, u dearly I I one could wish. in Ariuotle's definition in RAet. II, and in Oem. XXI.7I-6. Thi. view of the I.w of hubri, hu been taken by the majority or schol.n in the field, from Cope and Li.-iu. to Ha",i.en and MacDowell ; 14 u I ahall argue more fully elsewhere, it does alao explain the uaea of the concept of hubris in the whole range of Greek. literature, in Homer and tragedy, I I well I I in Demosthenes. But those who have not accepted thit interpretation of forensic hubris have had their reasone, and their explicit or hidden Ulumptiona, and they merit a little examination. The mOlt recent anicle on the law, by Gagarin, tuuting the position of Hitzig, looks briefly at some of the pauagea bearing on the interpretation of legal hubris, finda them 'confticting', milSeS, or perhaps " Lya. Ir . XVII (GenwUBi.oI). MOIl (e., . Gemn," ed. II : :104') JO for, diIti....,..,: but ...inet !he phrMe 110 pM . . . I~. d~ one con lid the f-et tllM the tpHkH al the _ ii, frimd al the yictim . II (Dem.) l.Ui • • 6, {Rin . l.a3, Ar. WMI" 14'7"'49. ao.a, '&97""Joa, Bird. IOJ5-57,
E.,.
"Hldl886-93 6 . " Lip.iUl (1905-IS : .-0-9): ~ (18n) I: a39-40: Thalhcim mRE I.y. HIIbrrN GrGp4i: M _ (1939: 38-•• ): HlrriMm (.1)68 : .68. Ip) : M.:eo-u (19']6: 1971: I~Jal : Filber '9?6f.: Dover (1971 : )4"'9) : CantarelLa (19I3: 85-96) : C. ('914: 99). MIC~I'1 inl'"l'f«llion al 1t.1wU f _ rmn: on the ltat., al mind 01 the man commini"" II"""', ·II.... ftIet"JY or power and mieulilll it·, mine mher rmn: on the inter\lion lpeeifically to il*lh and the rifma al dilhonour Ktuned: my maka it eMier to.- """y 1whrU_ IUCII lleriout lOCial Ind rnortl offenee, and the IUbjeft of llepi Kl'ion thai: coukl CIfT}' tIw
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datil penalty.
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. denies, the clear concentration on the presence of the intention seriously to insult and on its effects in shame, and puts in its place .. the criterion distinguishing hub"'s from ' l~r' assaults the notion of 'serious and unprovoked assault'. 1$ One explicit argument is that to prove in court the presence of a 'hybristic ,tate of mind', the intention to insult, was too difficult; underlying this seems to be an assumption that ideas such as 'dishonouring' and 'infliction of shame' are too vague and subjective to be used as the agreed criterion in a legal charge, and that the degree of force or violence deliberately applied is a more satisfactory, more objective and more patent criterion. What is wrong with this account is, fint, that while it does, as we s hall see, identify a problem, the answer offered fits neither those texts which give extended discussions of the nature of culpable hubris, nor the range of acu which, according to the 8Ourcn, led or might have led to a graphi hubuo$ (and Gaglrin's accusations of 'conflicting evidence of the orators' are captious, and disappear on close examination); and second, that it under-rates the central importance of the concepts of statUI, of honour and shame, in discussiona of the aims and eff«ts of social actions inside Greek communities. The use of the turns atimia, epitimoi, etc., to indicate citizen rights is merdy one of the more striking examples, which i! directly relevant to the one secure cue of agraplti hu~s (that of Diokles), and may have been to many othen!l. Another, more popular, line has been to take the element of public interest or concern u the determining criterion. This line has been followed , in various forms , by Partsch, Latte, and Wolff, 16 but the fullest exposition, and indeed in many ways the most inleresting treatment so far of the grtJphi h"b~. was that of Gernet in his '1917 Parie thesia, who makes his Ulumptions helpfully explicit. He raisee, more than any other critic, the right questions ; but, at a time when he was himself 80 heavily influenced by the sociological theories of Durkheim and Mauss, and by the work of Glott (1904) , he came up. I think, with the wrong anawen, through over-emphasis on the collective and the religious in place of outraged individual honour Y Gemet accepted that many texts in the fourth century do focus on the intention to insult as the commonest distinguishing mark; but, he argued, they do not all do 80 consistently or coherently, and their accounts do not inspire confidence. A different account was n«essary, in his view, to explain the underlying rationale, the collective 'repr&entatioos', that apparently G..,rin '979; d. Hittig '907. Giprin i. 1110 ptobtobly in8ueneed by the deli~ 10 lind I apecifie let of ~ II .. hi<:h the".aplti AIIbow, .... hTJe!ed, in the belief lb.1 alepl .)'Itan lhould pennit only one procedure for tach offence : J fully with Osborne '9IISb dUll the Athenian I)'Ikm made. virtllC of 'open tUI\IrC', of a1Jowill( I choiee of procedUTCIlo luit a variety of lOci.. and political. ncedti . .. Putao;h '9;>0, followed by Laue (,968: aS3), Wolff in LtIlriJloot dff AlIA W,I, (Zilrieh • Stvttprt, 196s) I.V. H~ GnrpIti. 11 Gcmet (191-,b : cap . •8),-<,17). On 1M p~ of Ihi. wan in Gcn\C1" denlopmenl, c:£ • • J.o Humphreya (1978 : n-87), R. Oi DonaIO, in Gemcl (1gB]: 403-5), uad briefly, intheC'Olltnl of Ihe,l,MbrU I... , Gamer (19117: ]4-6).
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enabled tbe Iegialator to frame such. law, even though Ister advocates and philoeophen could no lonpr fully recover it. Gemn'. ~tiollll of incontittency and incoherence .hould be raitted; like O.,.rin'. (whotakee much from Gemet) many of them amount in fact to the obtervation that a In age gives. in IICCOr'dance with ita fOl'enaic or theoretical argument, a partial. not a complete, ac:count of what nuka an act 'ud"';! . Thia il not aurpriai.na:. since, on my view, the concept it certainly complex, involving .. it does in ita full form types of behaviour, a type of intention, and the corresponding dfecta or rautta. Thua, for e:umpk:, where a p.-.,e that 'miking free men' can be ac:cepted .. a definition of hubris, thit dOH not prove that it could be conaid«ed the only addition r.ec ry, nor that tbe author (Aristotle, Ilkt . II, 140:1&1-3) wu contradicting wbat he ..id elaewhere or th.t he wu unable to diatinguiah hllb,u from Diluia . Nor does it follow from the ditjunctive account offered at RMt. I, 137.... 13-5 -llriking IOmeone iahllbri, only if he does it for a reuon, such u dilhonouring him, or pleating bimteU - that the concept it hopelelily confURd, or that Aristotle contradicu himtelf : in lOme cueI the effect of the: diahonouring, in others the gratuitoua nature of the agent delighting in hit infliction of pain and thame, may be UppermOlt, and contribute mOlt to mwng it actionable ItIlbris. But the 'pleasure' involved in striking is surely the plcuure of treating othen with contempt. or the pleuure of Mdi. m : .nd hence inluitina: intentionl, or.t leut contemptuoul indifference to the honour of otben, are in fact preeent in both halves of the disjunction. II Apin, many of Gemet's ,ccUNtions of incoherence directed It different placa in the Meidias .perch concern the accomPlnying circumatancea - drink, anger, put hltredl, the preeence of other people and 10 on - that can m.ake acta eeem, in their felt contnta, more or Iell hybristic . Here, in fact (XXJ.36-4I, 7a-4, and 175-81), Demoethenel' anal,.et are interesting; they merit a moment'. conaidention, and to be pla«d in a broader context. There are in Demoethenes two very full, and different, deecriptions of iIIepl hybristic acta, which .hare the daim to be claaaic cues of haJnU: of these, one fita the category of upper-d . . , aympotic, lI .. brU, the other nther the catqory of lOber, deliberate, ptuitou.....ult on an enemy. Which would be thought to be the more ·ctu.ic', or the more dreadful and anti-democratic, might vary - and in a forensic cue would natunlly depend on one'. forensic need.. In the .peech .,.inst Konon (Lav), DemOithenes emphuilea not only that Konon , his ton and hit friend. were groeIly drunk on the evening they laid into his dient, but a1lo th.t they were regular nIIIfPOtDi (drinkina-companione) of long standing, much given while drinking to violent and indiacriminate ...."lta, to oblcene mock-initiation ritea, and thu. to committing IrNbris against poorer, Ieaa 'gentlemanly' (.aloi lulptlror) citizens than themtelvea. Drunken hwbris, that i • • would eeem a natural and normal
II,.
II Tbm: an: aIeo cont\..ed ~ 01 thiI F 99 ft. I) . lIifbt11 m-.i.. my,"",,).
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in G...,m (1979: :131) tnd Cole (191+:
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,,. type, charKteriatic of the upper clue, and benet wall especially what the law ... dcaiped to Itop. 19 On the other band, Meidiu ....ulted DemOlthenca when 80ber I which Dcmoathma argua made it lea excuublc; for he offers I variety of contrati.ng cue. where drink, angff and other paeiOM, and IOcial ae«inga offcn:d mitigatioDl (thue confirming, to tome extent, the prevalence of luch forms of drunken, contemptuOUl violence), and yet, he claims, IUCh cues wen: ript1y judged banbJy in many inatancea by the Athenians. Clearly it i,
pt.uaiblc, and the natunl coune for Demosthenea in thia cue, to ..y that behl:viour like Meidiat' premeditated and blatantly public acts of ""btU, culminating in hit ...ult at the DionYSll, ... the wont of .U types. if not nee rnly the tIK.* typical. Despite Gemet'. accuutions of IOphistry Ind contradictkm -.pinlt thac ugumentattona. if we put together the varioul types of acta and contab deecribed throughout ~h XXI, we ICe careful distinctions being drawn. The "Dlit CMe a. the Meidiu-type. Mter it come cuet of hybristic ....ult• • helt drink played. part. which can thcmaclves be further lubdivided: into cues (like Kteaiklet', ISo) where it was felt the drink wu merely I mult for the deep-rooted desire to ....ull and humiliate his enemy, unprovoked: cues
where drink helped to induce thoee naturally and habitutJly inclined to . . .ult to do 10 iNultiOtJly (Konon, or the Euaion cue, 7.-6); and even CUCII where
drink - or drink allied to love or other puaion - can induce an ...... ult that curies no Ierioua intention to inault, and no IIIIhris (el. the cue of Polyzeloa, Jfkt.1). Thut, IUtnIJling up, lOme drunken v~1mc:c can be described .. ICal'CtIy hybriaric: .. all; other inetanl.'U mly reveal. apontaneoua intention lCriotWy to intuit; other CMCI ~ more deeply hybtiltic, bcauac a precxiatins Cicaire to .ttack an enemy finds cxpreuion, or • hlbituat delight in insulting IOciaI inferion ia gntifiecl; but on thia view cues of lOber, premeditated and contcmptuoua _ulta c:onatitute the wont IIMbns of alt. zo
III However, with a echolu of Gcmct'a atanding, and thia ·mcthodolop:.Jly remarbbte book' (Humphreya 1978: 8S). one ahouldaho pay attention to hia ahemative view, and to hit . .umptionl, even after hia criticiama of the 'repracntation' of lll11wU 110 well founded in our texts have been rebuucd . He . .ttl explicitly that it would be IUrprising if the hallmark of IIubrU wert • "Oadle.-cb.d·_Ceny.Jcid.,.s;OQ II ·'endtbard' ;Ui.c' . 'AdIu., Mil1ft}' (.,.): • GerDit ... _
....,1. -' MI' -"" 1990). Fisher 1_. .. . , ipintI: ....... die 81h;_ fttftIlioft of the ...., 10 _
i •
of
d. bow, •• MIIITi)', be&ow, end further, tliPdJ differuJt, w;ummta. F " . ;: cia. a). Whe« •• die r .. far the in! . • ...... ill the .... in Saba', ..... iadle' . 81periadit_tllba.anind...... tJ.t .... W_mini 'IiIftIth.I: in ~L
_;
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.... ;e""tMallOpc ... ' . . . . · Itbe;1 111='11 M .. N(mtfhu.DDdoubc.fn:aodwn dIa! 1beir I i)....... (Dem.) 1.111 . 16, '" _thIt ~lIf'endl .j'.... intruode rni;tH be 1:iIIeII1O·beA.6rU if be _ tn., mel DOl if be were tine.
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'preoccupation with dishonouring': 'But if the society was relatively uninterested, in general, in offences suffered by an individual, how could one hold that it would be especially revolted by an element in the outrage that is even more subjective?' And of Oem. XXt.7:1-6, he writes: 'Nothing makes it easier to understand , despite what he is saying, the antithesis between the individual and subjective notion and the objective and social notion of the injury - and that the first could not be a basis of the second.' Gernet's aim seems to be to look back beyond the 'rationalising and incoherent rationales' of the fourth century to the earlier 'reprbentations' which, according to him, still leave their traces in Demosthenes' and others' intuitions; even 80, it seems a remarkable generalisation, only explicable in terms or the views he held at that time about archaic Greek society, that . offences against the honour of individuals could not arouse much concern in such a society and its iaW$. That view seems much less plausible now. The supposed dominance of the gene and other kinship organisations in archaic Greece would appear to have been greatly exaggerated;21 and many works have laid proper emphasis on the concepts of honour and shame in the treatment of Greek values in texts and institutions from the lfiad onwards, aided by much comparative material from other Mediterranean societies. l l It now seems clear that we should not speak of the subordination of the interests and feelings of the individual citizen to those of the wider kindred or the growing city, but rather of the close interrelationship, and interdependence, of individual. close family (oikos, ankhisteia) and city; an important aspect of this interdependence is that attacks on the honour of the citizen bring, in addition, shame on his close relatives and friends, and lesser shame on more d istant kin and friends; and successful attacks of a particular type (say drunken or calculating assaults by rich on poor), if uncontrolled by the collective action of the city, may affect in turn many another, or as Solon put it, 'thus the public evil [produced by too many acts of hubns etc. leading tostasisJ comes home to each individual, and the courtyard doo!"! can no long~r keep it out' (fr. 4.26-7 West). Gernet, like others, sees problems for the 'intention to dishonour' view in D e mosthen~s' observations on the difficulty in making clear to an audience the real horror of the dishonour and indignity of some acts of hubris ( X)O. 72). Gerner seems to see in this passage only the inexpressi ble, instantaneous intuition of the man who feels himself outraged, which can not be made apparent in its full horror to anyone other than the victim, and therefore could not be the basis of serious legal actions. But that is not Demosthenes' point; he is arguing that what is at the time quite clearly grossly in!uhing behaviour, as is made clear through language, gesture, look, and type of blow - and i9 perfectly clear also to all the witnesses - is harder to recreate fully for the benefit of a jury at a much later date. Demosthenes, like others, find s no ~I
B(lumOl '976, Rouu.el '976: on Ihe ... ay offence. commilled by and on individual, may hive been handled In AlhclII even beforc Sulon, d . HumphreYI' (19831: 1] 1-'1). n E.g. Finley 1978, Redfield '975, Adkinl 1971. $ Irluu (1<)86 : ]1-6). Dlvit (1917: 89-10'),
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'3' difficulty in supposing that the infliction of dishonour, espedally in public, is. deep personal blow , which will arouse the alarm, sympathy and fear of neutral by-standen, and encourage them to give assistance (~th~n) at helpers, or as witnesses, out of self·interest as well IS pity. Indeed , Gemet't preferred solution, that originally, and still in the 'inttincts' of fourth-century orators, the essence of indictable hubris was the attack directly on the collective interests of the community and its religious principles, lacks textual support in any source from the lixth to the fourth centuriee . Zl None the less, a strong public intelUt does of coun.e exist in repressing acta of hubris i and the Ipeechea make it very clear what is meant by asserting that they constitute a danger to society. All the speeches that discuss the danger of hubns are in essential agreement. What we have of IlIO(:rates' s peech Agaimt Lokhites starts from the view, directly contrary to Gernet's, of the supreme importance of offences against the person (soma): 'you know that one's person is the thing closest to home (oikewtatorr) for all humans, and that it is to protect it that we have established the laws, that we fight for our freedom, that we care passionately for our democracy, and do every thing else that we do in our lives' (xx. I) . The s peaker pointl out the public nature of suits involving assault, and especially of the graphe hubmn i and then argues against the obvious point that the injuries sustained were not serious: if no hllb,js had been pres.ent in addition to what w.. done, I cert.inly would nOI have appeared before you. But .. it is, I nave come 10 oblllin juetice from him, not for the Mke of the general damage arising from the blows, but for the uke of the ailteia .nd Ihe ati...ia, [o~ the- .....e- of .... hich it il C'!ip""i"'y Ipprop~iltc fo~ fue men to become Ingry and to III.in the greatest revenge (s) . He develops at length the arguments that small offence!l cln leld to major, disastrous political consequences, that acts of !tub"', can affect one', aff,ira, can dellroy houaeholds, and ruin cities; and, not lurprisingly in a speech of the 3C)01, he aaaociates Lokhites. as a rich young !tubristes , with the hybriatic outrages of the oligarchs of 41 J and 404. 24 At the same time, if len explicitly, the speaker of Lysias Iltlrts with the bland, if unprovable, aascrtion that only in the case of adultery do the laws of all Greek atates give equal opportunities to rich and poor victims alike to take revenge : 'so it is that aU men regard this hubris to be the moat frightful' (i.e. all cuea of hllbn's are very serious, but that committed againat the aexual honour of the householder and his house ia the moat grave) .U The much later apeech against Konon concentrates equally on exciting the jury's pity and anger at the physical and emotional sufferings of the victim and on encouraging the jury to believe that it is in their own
,n
II CI. ..1to Glmet' ( IC)II7: ) ...s). U
cr. StraUil (1986; a6-7, s6-g). on 1M u!leof ",eh dua·baed ...gumc:nt. "tet tM Peloponne·
lim Wit. ",hile noti"l, with a rcrcrmce to Dover (1974; 110-11). lhal l\lth Ircumenta.~ found It ocher periocb ...dl. II On the Itwbn'r invol.,ed in adultery, Ind t.,idtnct: for.penalli" in other Gncll1tat", Cole '9&+, and Cohen (19&+ : 151- :1). See further Cohen'. _ y in thilvolumc:. Copyrighted Material
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interutt to check the anti-eocial careen, the random, drunken thugu)', of Konon and hia wealthy co-aympoe;aeta. Z6 Aac:hinet' apeech Apitut Tim4rMos e1aboratea the vlew that all forma of /e"bris were incompatible with citizenship in a democ:rac:y. Z7 The moet important tot on /e"bris in the whole of Greek literature, the Meidias, it the one which explores the public nature of the offence beat, U it abo poICI moet lharply the problem of the effec:tivenell of the Ilw. From the countlea P'M'P that could be cited, I may here mention, fim, the aequence early on (.p-6) where the public interett in vuioua auita ia dilCUlled, and the climax ia re.ched with the ,.,aPIti hllbnot j the c:onduaion ia that all Kta involving lotte (bia) were public offencea, directed &pinat thoee not involved u well u the victiml, and in pinic:ular thlt the "apIti hubm:ll orfers the chan« of I public prtll eocution 10 Ito boado"WMS, bUl ruervea financial penaltiea only to the city, bec:luae the min who hu commiued hld1ris hu wronged the city u well u the victim. and the victim ahould be content merely with the ..tillaClion of revenge. U Second, the aequence of Irgumenta from 130 onwards. when: the long catalogue of Meidw' crimea of violence, insult, intimidation, hit legal chicanery and hil gangs of witneues Ire Slid all to provide good cauae for (ur 10 each one of the rest of you , 1ryi"l10 live: at best you can on your own indi.ndual r~rta . And iI i, for this tf:1IOn that you bind yourac:lvn together, 10 thl1 when: nch of you may be inferior to tomeOflIe ehe in friendt. or in pm ions or in anythint eltc, you may by bandi", together be stronger than nch of IUCh people, and
put In end to hilltubris (140). A c:omplri80n with the most notorioulhubrisltS of ,II then c:omplimenta the , uttesa of earlier Athenilnl in exiling Alkibiades becauae of hi, multiple acta of hulwis , despite his many lubetantill inherited Ind penonal Ittributes Ind qualities, and urges thlt Meidill, who hu the viu with none of the vinuea, be given the same treltment. Overall, finally, the luccesaful career of I wealthy hubn·sles like Meidiu i, Slid to threaten the IleCUrity of all citizena, and their confidence in the laWi and the detnOttlCYi hence it could end in the establilhment of an oligarchy, and the collipee of any protection for ordinary citizen., under. rtgime which would regard Iny expreuion of freedom by any one of 'the many' II in itaelf an act of hubris (108-120) . Thul Meidiu il presented .. I major public enemy, bec:auae of hia act, of hubris againat hia » CI . c.rey 4:
R~d ( '!lSs : 74-'7) 011 Oem. UT. I. On tMae IfJUlnmll, d . Dovn (1978: J.t-9). ZI n;. m~ to by Gamer (.!lS7 : )4), in d~ of Gemet', ~OII the ,..p4i; but he dilmiMft OmlOIlbmn' IIf'IUlI'"It.. In '~y biMed ItUmpt •.• to pin the apnpethy of the audience . •• merely of the two __ c:oGlI.1Oo11t111ithntn in boch ICHtiA and delibert"ve _ory _ (harm bocb) pri\'lllelindiri.tOllll and pubUd_'. GllTOt!' milan the ttOlni point tllll conneetl tbe Demo.tbma F r wiCh lbe otbcrt, the nnphaM OIIlhe _, in wbieh the.-uk OIIW iJldMdual-,.,emlirIdy be fdt to thmtten lhe
V
paHF.
I.'OIJUIIQn
'*.. _
h.
intern!.
1
'll
fellow-<:itizcne, and Demostbenea presents himself, with unusual dirmnets, ... repracnutivc of the people in bringing him 10 it. iU'Iief: . If the aense of hubris and the lubfltantial1y political purpoee of the ".aplti /t.,breos are now dear. we may uk how fir it succeeded in maintaining the Itrecta and hoUKI of Athena relatively free from hybristic violence and insults. and reatnining the expressions of contemptuous hostility and exploitation of membeR of the dnrtoI that many wealthy and powerful Athenians may hive wished to indulge in. Although it is widely held thlt Ihegraphi Irubmn wu rarely ueed in the courts, it i, difficult to Il!IICU this claim with Iny precision. The Clltalogue of known graphai and dikai in Osborne {198Sb : 55-58} mcntiona two cues of hubris, u againat. for example, two of 'being an alien', unia, four of 'battery', ailteja, and three each of 'slander', lIa1tegoria and of deliberate wounding, trauma tit prrmoim. Osborne clutiously excludes the many caeI cited by speech-title only; on the assumption thlt these Ire prohlbly not III incol'Tect, it is It leut worth mentioning the five further cases of ~apllai hbrros thus Ittested,Z9 in Iddition to the possibilities diecuased lbove, None the ICII, I number of reuons can be given why litigants who claimed to wilh to puniah a cue of hubris preferred in practice to adopt I different remedy, Many actual victima of hubris may have wished to pin a financial rewlrd besides revenge. IS well .. to avoid the financial penalties that could result from a grossly uMueceasfulgraphi, or from a withdrawal of the charge before trial; equally important. u emphuised by Osborne. may be the awareneu of the grapIti u a major, public, trial of strength where the shame of failure wu the greatC'r, Further, if prosecution were being eonsidered by eomeone other than the victim, the riak of allegations of aykophancy might ~1I have been • deterrent, granted that Athenian attitudes to the motives of those who brought plOleCUtiOM in the courts were shot through with contradictions and au.picion,30 Fina.lly, the need to demonstrate , before a jury some time later, and with pc:rauuive witnCNCI often avail.ble to both sides, that p.tent, aenoul, insult had been inflicted lNy have penulded some to seek I different ch.rge, (The difficulty of jmJ'f.Ii", the atate of mind of the .ccused, emphuiaed by MacDowell (1976: ~), seems to me of lcae significance, since in moat cues the intent to insult would not be open to aeriou8 doubt,} It may not be
It"""'
at Am , fr, :mil (Baita-&uppe) 'C- of Iu0riI .pnlt 1M fJft' boy' (1M word iI • tut of HII]IOkntioa 1M! rdel10 Ic)thileak) : L,... fr. Llmll (8-S) pllueibkllUpplemmt ia
me ·C-of..-.v.,u- K.ru.' 1nd froCIU't' (B-S)'CIKof IIwbri,.p1llC SoItmOl' ; Ind Dein, 'rr-wo. for ...... .,.u. p . . -' Ind 'Dd'_ of Epikhara .p1llC Pbilotada' on 1M _ ch&rp, indudecl in me liltof 'lP'\uine priYatc ..-cha' (M , d . Donr 1968b: II-n) in Dioa,HaI, o";,,, 1:1 : III (lid noo _ o I 'cSclibcntc woundi. .' pt'OYMIc nooof our bnc aeeI of dnmkm diIpvIed 'Ift-objc:cr:o' -. 'P'\Mailft' boy, NICS ."".~ (Lyt, III ,tid ,... ) ; to brinr IUCb 'eak, bnrd, lib bomic:idc _ , by the Are;';""OI, il _ _ OM needed 10 Ihow. - - ' iaIkted wida.. poll ; me rdIti'tC fTcqucno;:y of tho. -=bon ""'no! be determined richn-• a . no..... (1974: "7"""9'), PiIIIer (1')761>: n-,), o.t.or- (lglSb : S<>-]),Ind me _,.. by 0wb0J ... NICS H.rYCJ ia !hit 'IOhJmc.
r.pcmc-
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NICK FISHER
coincidence thlt the one cue that CfttIinly did reach I court, Ind mly have IUlined I conviction, that broutht against Diokles, involved the indubitable form of 'dilhonour' constituted by legal dtimid.
IV Evidence of I chlnge in the Ilw - the introduction of the proboIi proceduremly IUggHt thlt lOme of the difficulties of the llubri.r law were recognised . According to Demoathenet (XXI.14?), 'thia law' - preaumably the law enabling the proboli pr~ure to be used for groeI offencea against individual. committed at major public festival. (when drink might be flowing. and where the humiliations inAicted were especially public) - did not exist in the late fifth century, when AUr.ibildes punched hia fellow...uOfYIOJ Taureu.l l It might, then, be auggeated that at some point, for example It the restoration of the democracy in 4°3, it WII decided to increue the attractiveneas of bringing .uch CIICI to court and the likelihood of convictiona being achieved. by encouraging the victims. or any othen who were willing, to win the initial advantage of a lwift, preliminary vote in the lSumbly, many of whOle members would be lik.e1y to have witneued the event . and whoee memoriet would be frelh. AI WIS the ulual rule in thedemocncy, the final decilion wu left 10 a court .11 Such an addition to the 1a_ IUggeatl that aome c:onc:ern had betn fdt thlt the Ilws dealing with such outrages needed Itrengthening, perhaps in the intereats of preventing disruption of the festivals u well u of dealing with particularly inaultinlJ crimet. But that the law of IIubri.r may hive needed thia reinforcement, and that many lidg.nls. for fully understandable reasons, often choee a lesser charge, does not meln that the law of IIubri.r wa. a f.ilure . Theproboli WIS intended to help it to work more efftttivdy in ceruin important cues. not to replace it generally ; and the continued existence and recognised importaRct! of the graplri gave a legitimacy and a IOlidity to the rhetoric with which litiganta pleading a wide variety of cues were able to enhance the illegal humiliations they had allegedly been aubjected to. In other worda, llubri.r wu not only a term of very Itrong moral weight for UII: in condemning such imulta (with, it may be, lOme religioua overtones on occuiona);3) but lince it wu the title of the mOlt serious crime in the area of offences againlt the per'80n, the argument that great Je"bn, had been committed. Ind agrophi Jeubmu could have betn brought, teem. likely to have increucd. the average jury'slCOlI: of angt:r and J' Cf. MKDo_tI ( un8 : '94-7 ). lZ On th~ principle in the ckmoc:rIcy. uod tho::...- it radn, d . • bo¥e all the won: of H _ (e.l . •913': '39-40, ' 55-60); while the ~I ~, and indeed lhe phoci.. formulation, III the ~lationMip belwUA ~bly m4 Ia.-.;ouTU remain alike COllt~, lhe very wick (and final) powu. III the QlUTU'~ not in diapute. U The reliplui MpeCU of Meidi.' offera! at the fmaiyal an: not apIoilcd _ inaMkmly_rnis/lt have bun up«Ied (d. 5'-5, 914, ,a6-?), hOI" ialltthriJ ueed n .plicitlyof thelllfence .pnll the p;\I. Cf. •Ito Ooftr '974: as" m4 Oft the (ratly euqenlecl) '~lipNI' owe,ltHoa III IIJ1briI , d . Fiaher (1918.nd 10000000i,.-, 1990).
1
."
17w low of hub", i" Athttu
outrtge, and, in itself, to h.ve incrustd its rudinees to convict and .pply eerioua penalttea for hybristic beh.viour. wh.tever the charge. This tK1ic teemI admirably exemplified in the lpeuhes ...,illSt Konon .nd Lokhites (.nd perhape also the Lytiu fragment . .inst Teilil). rr 10, .w.rene. of that poetibilitiea may.lso have played lOme pan in deterring some potential offendcn from such behaviour. l4 But, of courae, hybriltic behaviour wu scarcely eradicated ; drunken fights over M,ajroi (call-girb) or boys, general fights at sumpositJ or in the strecta, drunken . . .ults on enemies or paM ..-by, deliberate. sometimes vicious. sometimes homicidal, attac:'" on enemies, .11 seem to occupy. not inconsider.ble part of the 'coMpicuou.' behaviour of the wealthy and politically active da c. that maR of our sources concern; and often, not surprisingly, and for a v.riety of reaIOns, conviction of .uch offend en, and execution of judgements, were difficult to achieve (and in many cases, of course, the outcome of a tri.1 il not known to ua).15 Do we, though, have .ny reason to suppose that any hubris'tJi were actually damaged by any accuaations relying on, or rhetorically malr.ing UIIC of, the~ hubnos? Diolr.Jes the villain of baeus VlII may well have been incommoded, or even punished, by one or more of the charses brought again.t him , including the "apIti bbn04. 16 Othu intuesting cues, where some progren may poseibly be made. would IIeCI11 to be thoee of Meidiu .nd lOme of the comparable CIICI DemOithenea mentions in his speuh. It might be fooliah to believe.1I that he of IUccc:uful prolccutiona of men for hubris against Ilaves (49). of cuea where people avoided laying handa on thoee they might have been thought to hive had ground. for 80 inaulting because they were deterrtd by the exi.tence of the laWi and the sp;rit of the democracy (6~5), of other cuea of proboli for wronsdoina at the festival. where cuea involving little or no hubris were talr.en eeriou.ly. and one taken to involve con.iderable bbris brought death (175-81); and one mUlt note other t:UCII where he eeclnS to compl.in that the courtaare more lenient to rich offenders than to poor (36-41, 18a-3; d . • Iso [Andok.) tv. zt-]) . But there may well be lOme evidence here that proeecutions for hybriltic behaviour, or the fear of them. did occuionally produce significant raultl. The cauu dum of Allr.ibiades at least, mentioned by Demosthena (143-50) u by many other IOUrcea, provides IOlid evidence th.t. politician of the highett birth. wealth (It lent at fint), and natural qualitiCi of ch.riamattt: Jeadcnhip, generalahip. rhet:orical powen and charm. wu datroyed, above
II,..
of"""s to nob an nnorional. r _ by findint hybtiotic ckmc_ ia. nridy of off_: .....y -P'm aft Ji-' in Fithcr (fOf1bcomi,..: da.3). Same CO_lice th.t _ pa.ibiJity of • ~ he "n _ thoutht to be • eeriaua dcteilUitmiptbefowMl ia.tbelek ..... p II I.of Ar*~(n. '3 aboYc),npccWlyin _ahU •• IIKtiaa ofdw oober B4efykkop tou. th..- of the an.ion: 'HIlbrisP For lhe pch • ...., daa't pIe.e brint th.t _ _'. aDd ... off.... 10 miN: (WI any rum. (Ar. WaqIS "41~. and d . Powell 19118: 316-17). IS Cf. F __ (1976b : 37-45). o.bcwne {Itlsb: sol. CaIhowo 19"7. " DaYiea (1971 : 31]-14). :If
o . alia Dcm:r (1974: 54). OI'!Idoe _
1
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NICK FISHER
.11, by hi. incurable blnis, or, more fully, by his contradictory impw.ea to win honour .nd power from hi. city and simultaneoualy to treat iu citiant .nd their religiow .nd moral values with contempt, and where convenient with violmce.l1 Cun of IIJdnU Karl to have been notIbie in the late 6fth century ([Xen.], AlII.PoI. 111.5, and d. perh'J» the cue of Sophocles and Peiundl'Ol); even if Alkibisdes evaded conviction on auch a chatJe, the damage done to his career (and to Athena) by the accumulation of pl.uaible accuutions is patent, and thereafter let an example for other auch politiciant operating in the restoml democrK)'.lI The cue of Meidiat hirnlelf, however, teemI in itKlf the atroncest evidence of the unfettered opportunities for wealthy, unecrupulow men with good connedions to Rd away with repeated actI ofll.mris in fourth-century Athent; it wu., pretented by Finley (11)81 : 85-6), .. J»rt of the obvioualy correct argument that achievement of the ideal of equalitJ before the law .... , and ii, extraordinarily difficult for democracies to achieve in practice, and that even Athen., .mong Incient MJcicties. lacked the technica1 IRKhinery, Ind the con.ment hardneaa of will, to deal with auch an obRinate villain . Finley'. strictures on modem achow. fOl" dismissing thisapeec:h 'u an unfiniUed draft of.n undelivered .peec:h' Ire, It !cut in.arne cues, unf.ir; that view of the apeec:h eeema cle.rly well· founded, in the light both of the intema1 state of the text. and of the allepliona in Ae8Chinea (111'52) and el_here th.t Demoathenes 'aold the cue' to Meidiu for 30 ",nai: Ind, u .orne ac:hol.rs have reooa:niaed, this makes the apparent aequence of events no k:eI interesting, .nd .t fint 'i,ht no Iaa deprnaing, than the alternative. las plauaible, view that the apeec:h wu delivered, .nd that DernoHhenea••t lOme point in thc trial, Ic:c:epted • mere 6nancia1 penalty and atopped prootedinp. Th.t ia, on the view I accept. Demoathenea, after yeara of nultreatment It the h.nda of Meidiu and his brother and the final inault .t the Dionym., won • vote in the lIIembly on the proboIi charge; he had anyway prepared, over. period of years, • tnueive invective against Meidiat, to be deli~ in court (and, no doubt, some of this found ita way into the ..... "'bly .peeeh .t the twoboIi heann, It lcut); but, before the cue c.me into court. he qTeed to drop the cue for ]o",,,ai, .nd even.a atill allowed his .rgumenu to EO into 'circulation' in Athens : hence it has come down to ua. J9 So, it would seem, Meidiu got .way with it .,.in . Precilely why Demosthenes settled out of court cannot be known; the rel.tive importance of the fear of Meidiat and hia frienda, doubts .bout the poesibility of. conviction, hope for. """'rocIanIwrtt to atrenathen his poaition
,
k
'37 in the foreip policy debates, or desire for. quick cuh lettiement, cannot
begin to be unravelled. One may note, on the one hand, that Meidiu survived.
befHdcr.tonu. sacred delegate to the Delphic: AmphiktKmy,
in 340. and to leave hil toni iltu,.;c.i but .1.0. on the othet'. tMc Meidi..' reputation mutt hive tuffered IOJDeWhat by the vote in the'll mbly.1O that he preferred to pay than fllCe anodter trial and ~blc penalty, and that Den)Olthenei probably reckoned that renewed expowre, to the reading to
tlltates: 40
public. of hit crimes would do Meidi.. more hann than the rnnindet" of the lettlcmmt thenby risked would further hann hilnKlf. On the pe...anal level DemoRhcna achieved at leut. minor victory; and Meidiu' Clpacity to insult and d.m.aBt: other citizens might h.ve IUnned IOmething of. blow, even if he WII far from ruined . The Athenian Establishment. like many another I for.lI its bitter internal vitupention, could lOItletima teem to outsiders a doted circle of friends (e.g. [Oem.] LVIII): but what may Kern like an illicit and hypocritiCiI dOling of ranb and collusion in criminality might at 'UII on lOme occuiona be, or be intended to be, • tettlement that conatituted tome of Ilatu•• nd of wellth, and peThap. of the opportunity to commit further crimea, on the part of the man who paid up. Control of the wealthy and detennined wu bound to be difficult ; and the contradictory attitude. to the rich on the part of the tkmos included aome vicarioua admintWn for their 'goinp-on', which only comedy could afford them an opportunity to fantuise themaelvea enjoying. 41 None the leas, among the mechanWni, both legal and aoc:iaJ, for persuading or compelling the rich and powttful to .pend lOme of their wealth on the community and not on their pleuul'el,4l and to treat fellow-citizena with decency and not with contempt, the law of IIflbris aurely played a major r6le ; its exi.tenct gave the opportunity to litipnta to aJwpen and intenaify their .ceuution. of diagraceful, oligarchic and contttnptuoua inaolena:. whatever the actual charge. and thereby to reinfon:c the coha.ive, egalitarian, ideology of the democracy. The law of Iul#ms no doubt did not work u well u it .hould have, or u Solon may have intended it tOj·] but there ia good reuon to IUppoee that, even if not uled all that frequent1y, it played. considerable part in malting the daily lives of many M)rl of. diminution
M
w
Copyrighted MaterIal
1)8
NICK fi S HER
Athenians less fearful and less oppressed than they would otherwise have been .44 offen~n -vinic che ~non in UK in Ptolemaic Alcundril (ct. PI.tech 193.0) included - in addit ion to I vulety of fairly preeillC provisiOfl.l lgainll _lIlta, threltll .... ith In offen,ive weapon, violence committed when drv.nk, II night, in a temple, and 10 on _ Ila... 1(fliMt /rubril 'of I type not covered in the written code', with ~nllti~ tixed It dOllble tht danuges IlISC5Rd ; th;' WIS I 'p rinte' dilli , not I public action , with la.sc. penalties. The differen<,:e:l b!:twNn thit law lnd lhe Atheniln may wtll be the ' (Jul! of wnscioul reflection; One may in iactlU'pttl that the Aleundti ln legilbtors disliked the extremely democratic feel of the Athenian I..... , Ot tOOllght thai. Ina int imidating Ia.... migh t Ictllany prod u~t mote proIC'Cutions and wnvictiont, or evcn both.
.. The law of
Copyrighted Material
6b The Solonian law of hubris OSWYN MURRAY
In the pteceding chapter, N .R.E. Fiaher ha dilculled the way in which the blw of It..brU was perceived in CI_ical AthcRI, and the extent to which it functioned u an Ktive plrt of the legal system: I wish to roneidtt ill purpoee in the ArdWc period. and to try to reconstruct the intentions of the lawgiver by letting the Athenian law on hubris in the wider context of Ifeh.ic lawgiving and archaic 1Ociety. Many of the reuons why I reject the lf1Uments of Gemet and othen 8pi1ilt the attributton of the I,w 10 the euly lixth century will become clear in the coune of the argument; but I .hould perhlpl begin by ..y;ng tIltt I ICCq)t the conclusions reached by Fiaher (above pp. 134-8): and I therefore think it more important to place the I,. in ita archaic context than to UJUc in detail against an alternative interpretation. [hqin by drawing out two pointl already IMde by Fi.heT : In the Clulical period, ItubrU in ita legal acnae i. seen u. comentone of the deiilociitic legal .ystem, even though the evidence IUggesta that few cues were accu.l1y bf01J8ht to court . Thi, emphui. on the importance of the crime clearly SOC' back to the origins of the bw, since its prosecution lies in the public: amtI .. s tmtJ!i not I diU. On the other hand, the offence itself concerns the intentional in8icting of atimia (dishonour) Ott Q1f iruJividNtJJ : that is of caune the centnJ plndox noted by Gemet and others. The question of the lawaiver's intent is cJaecJy bound up with this curious combination of public interat and private wrong. Secondly, I DOte the clwacterietk pro61e of the offender in cues of lI ..bris . Aristotle _,., 'jt is the young and the rich who sre eepccUlly IIl1lnUtai (thaec who commit 1I11hris), becau.e they think that thereby they at.o.r their auperiority' (Rlv,. II, 1378b2B-9); and thit :. tion is weUsupported in the evidence. Not on1y is Meidia the archetypal pIotuios (rich man), but the whoLe of Demoethenet XXI is built Ir'OUnd the typical relationahip between wealth and bybristic behaviour. As for .tbe young, again the speech against Konon (Dem. LlV) tete out to argue from an .oceptecl c:onnection of hybrietic
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OSWYN MURRAY
behaviour with the nIIft/JOIi4 (drinkins putiel) of the: young u ~. (adolete:ent male.) to the que.tion of it. limit., and. the d~ulnt'll of I mature man of over fifty continuing in .uch behaviour; the Illticiplted re!lpoMC of the defence t. bind on the naturaillal of young men enpcing in wch drunken ncaJ*lel (etp. uv.uV In addition to the It'gumentl put fonrud by Filher, theft I CUi'll to me one importlnt difficulty in the view that such a law could hive been pliled in the age of the CI. .icll demoaw:y. The Ilw leema to be primarily concerned, not with puticulu typeI of action Ind the damIge reaulting from them but with the intention behind them. III intention to ClUIe dwne (disti."ti) Illd the: contequent loa of honour (timi) .2 It t. not euy to lee how Nch conc:cptI relate to the interest. of Athenian law of the Claslical period . It ill true that the idea of atimia in plrticullt' i. important in the law of the fifth and fourth c:enturiet, but u I legal concept that is already well-defined. 1 It wu connected with the increasing emphaail on the definition of the Iep1ltatUiof citi&enahip, and it referred to the lou of certain citizen rightl I I a pen.alty for various offenc:ea, e.pecilily for being a public debtor;4 more aeriouIly,. man could be deKribed u atimoJ if he were completely deprived of citizenahip, or were in danger of havina ht. claim to citiUNhip rejected in the COUrtl. In other warda, in I legal context, tJliMia refers 10 the qat ltatus of III individual .. eitiRn, nthu than to hia lOeiaJ lundins or h. honour in I more aeM.aJ aeMC: 'atnma WII the penalty par ~"u/Jtftct whach an Athenian might incur in his capacity of a citizen, but not for offern:ea he had committed U I private individual' (HlNen 1976: 74). The idea of llawonlrllhrU concerning the tiIrti of In individual in Iny aellle other thin that of ht. ciriaen righta Ie m .. contrary to the conceptiolll prevalent in Athenian legillation of the Cluaical period : IUch I II. would have had to enviuge I lituation involving the treatment of free men U if they were .laVeI, or citizem II if they were foreigners, or .LaVei (who Ire . pecifically mentioned II within the ICOpe of the: Law). if they werewhat? By the CluIic:al period the: ..... hal disregarded (or ia in ptoeca of diaregare'. lhouch it .,.;p. f,1l oubidc tM ..,t..tn: 01. IlI11wU in tho Iepl _ , lbe
M""me.
for i~
T1we. Yi .aII.I) ; _
port,.yed rot......,. (19')011). Wft'e
in
JIi :
eM
in
I
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I ThiI iI moll cleutJ broupt aut in Atilt . • t . I. "]7'-")-"$ : ii. 1378ba)-6: 1 _ 1'iii.4" : Daft. JaI .71. I For thil ....1 uuce. I iidKt from the many F lea cit" in Weithpi' (11)15." 177""lI5): Ly.. Ja' . .. . '7: Dan. :ot. Is6: U!·ll-l. '7. 9.-1, "1: DJI.34: am.61: XlUY.46. 50, 101 : XXVI .Ii : "Yi".45: PbIto, Z - • .8goc; L~. I" LJoc,. 4" : Hyp. fr o 17• ., J_: compai'C, 01. tho s,.n-, Thuc. 1'.34.1. TIM htncIemmuI dilcullion of 1epI""'" ia Hlrwen (1976: m. nt) . • On tM e.ttjOiia see 1.7M. I FOitthepncticeofd..... di• • S. · n,.. .... _M. I'oJ. 7 ...
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'.' committed apinat I citizen in order to dishonour him is CIop.ble of be;ng brought under the ICOpe of another law such II aiUia (HUuh). Thil semII to me the fundamental reuon why 10 few cues of lud"';,s" actually known from the Chadal period: dam.ge to the timi of • citizen of the Athenian demo....ey can only be achieved by due lepl procna, Of" by physical acta already within the ICOpe of other laws. The two certain coun cues of hubris about which we have reuonable evidence teem to confirm this analysia, for both can be c:onItrued u stucki. not on IIOme ariatocratic conception of the honour of an individual, hut on the actual citizen ltat .... of the wronged individual. In laaeUi VIII.4t I Dioldes of Phlya hat in8icted atiMia on his victim by actually willing him up. that ill (praumably) by depriving him of hilcitizen sUtUI and treating him IS. slave. In the cue brought by ApollodofOl, the claim i. thlt. forged will has involved the apeaker's mother in marriage with an ex-slIVC, Phormion:' the fact that the argument i. 10 patently ridiculous in the cue of • family itaelf of ,live extraction merely reinforces the impreaion thlt only threats to the citizen statUI of an individual Ippeared now to qUllify a formal ah1rtia. The arne dif6culty in definina: the loea of tiN involved may be lten in the anemptl of DemOIthenet to lugsett thlt office-holden hive lOme: tort of aptcill protection under the law of "ubrU, a claim that it dearly not lupported by the eumples he adduces (Dem. xxl.36--.P). ' In contrut, the concepti of haJwis and tiwti were fundamenul to the lOCial and political life of Archaic Athens. Solon'l poenu identify clearly the caUIe of the IOciaI unrest in the " ..btU and Aoros (insolence) of the wealthy. 7 Theae are appropriate objects for the anention of the lawgiver : it is the tuJr. of ~ ..1fOfJIii (good JOvemment) to put an end to Aoto.s and to weaken hllbriJ. On the other hand honour is related to aoctaJ Ihilul : geras (cf. above) Ind timi are not to be apportioned equally: pve 10 lhe'-' .. muchFCU" it fitting, neilher taki",lwIY from Iheir tiwti I'ICH" g;rinr them too muchi while to those who had PO"eI and were blceled with wealth. for I
thae: I took CIft thai dwy tbouId luffer nothina unteemIy. (fr. 5. 1; West)
In this fragment it is remarkable that even the tkmos his timii but Solon clearly recogniaea thlt different IOciaI ell' CI P'Ju II it to diffeTent degreea. In the Solonian COIUtilution tiwtL w .. for Ihe fint time 1eplly defined, in the rightl to office allocated to different groups on the bais of a property quaJi6cation : each ct... (t~lcn) hid italppropriatc 6trtU. Moreover, it wu poeIible to change one'a ulcn, at le:ut upwudl, u the dedication quoted by AUI. Pol. 7 demoMtntea.' It is therefore clear wt the concept of gems or Iimi. graded KCOIding to IOciallll.tWl, exilted in Solonian Athens, and thlt Solon qillated in the interat of .uch distinctioRII, though we may be • Dan. n.,.)-5ilWt'lf.)Oi _F __ 8bowep. l:ao5. 1 'I'lIey ........ in fr-4.I-9, l4 Well and fr.6.) i d . fr.4C.:a; fl . II, 16. • TIae of dU. Wi I.·,;' - . i n , We it ;. pe• • _ lib.,. to be Ifm the PaWIi Wan; for otber piubkaa _ _ uw. n, _ Rhoda (1911 : 14H).
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uncertain how far Solon's new legal definitions corresponded to older, less formal categories. Moreover, if it were possible to rise in timi according to the Solonian code, it must also have been possible to conceive of losing time. To say that the time in question is a legal status, not a social quality, would be to offer too rigid a distinction between the world of the lawcode and the Archaic society, whose preconceptions it serves to mirror and protect: in the shame culture of early Greece, honour and the possibility of dishonour are closely rdated to social and political status with their attendant rights and duties. A lawgiver might well wish to legislate to prot«t the individual from loss of time. Hubris in Solon's poetry, as in the later legal texts, designates behaviour intended to have an effect on the social fabric, by depriving those of whatever class of their due time. But what is the context in which such hubris is likely to occur? Solon connects the hubris of the wealthy with their feasting : 'they know not how to restrain their koros (d. above) or to order their present euphrosunai in the quiet of the feast' (fr. 4.9-1 0 West) . In Archaic poetry euphrosune is a word designating the delighlS of the sumposioll; Solon combines Ihis with images drawn from Homeric feasting, and Odysseus' description of his own palace (Odyssey XVII. 2.64- 71): the doors of the court are not able to keep out 'the public ill', 'but it jumps over the high barrier and pursues a man, even if he fl ees into the depths of the inner chamber' (fr. 4.2.6--9) . The imagery mixes traditional Homeric language with the concerns of an aristocracy whose distinguishing mark lies in the forms of commensality characteristic of the Archaic wodd.'1 The threat of disorder arises in two directions: the failure to 'restrain their koros or to order their present euphrosunai in the quiet of the reast' seems to imply, not merely disorder in the context of the sumposion, but an extension of this disorder outwards into Ihe community. The response will be an invasion of the inner space of the aristocracy by the public ills. The sumposion itself is a rule-bound area; one of its most striking characteristics is the eagerness of participants both to isolate themselves from the larger world of the polis, and to create an alternative set of nomoi. 10 On the other hand, drunken violence is a tttegnised characteristic of its proceedings : in the words of the fourth-century comic poet Eubulus, the first three kraters (mixing bowls) belong to the well-ordered sumposion; 'the fourth krater is ours no longer, but belong! to hubn's', and from then on various types of disorder are the rule. II In fact, in both the Archaic and the democratic periods there is linle sign of cities attempting directly to regulate activities within the sumposion , Such
• On Ihis.ubjecla«: funhcr Mumay I9B J Ind the -Y' in Murray (1990). 10 Sec ",pet;a!!y Pelliw' (1 990). II Eubulul fr.BJ K_I-Au lti n - 94 Kock , in Alhcnaeul 11.)6b-c:; let: MutTll.y (19113 '
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PSS[J(;lattoRi au included among thoee whoec rules are granted legal.tatul in the Solonian code:
If. deme or p/lt'OIOftI or to~s or ~Uzi t or nlls;toi or ltoMotapitoi Of tltituOtlJi (various types of NIOciation) or pirattl or ttlden make .moncemen" amorc themtelYet. theee aba11 be binding, unkM forbidden by the publtc: writinct. (!'JWr,' lU.fll . U ... )
A1thoulh the Greek text g corrupt and difficult to restore, the praence of types of IlIKiation connected with the sumposion is certain ; the Oigett quotation te taken from Gliul, who quotes thit puuge: in relation to the T~lvc Tabla, and specifically refen to privilega granted the« to 'sodoks who belong to the same coIlqi_. which the Greeb call • lutaima', There are however traces of legiallltion concerned with Iympotic activity in onc area, the quation of who might or might not drink wine. The matter i. dilCtlllCd in Athmacua x .4291 b. In I number of cities cilnen women were forbidden by custom or law to drink wine ; Muu1ia, Miletus and Rome are mentioned ; in Rome freeborn malea were ROC permitted to drink wine before the. of thirty, .nd • little later AtheMeua (x . ~b) eilet Plato'e Laws 11.666., which enviuga a eimiLu prohibition before the. of 18. 11 Thcec III,.,. end CUltome ceeentially concern rcat:rictione placed on full mcmbenhip of the srmrposiolt. excluding citizen women and those considered IS minora. A t.w of ZllcukM IlIlegedly went further, in preecribing thet wine muat be mixed with water, on pain of death, unlCli it were being used for mcdkal reaaone. 1l Apart from thac areas it ecenll clear that the internal cll/Jllrw~ni (cf. above) of thcsumposion was no direct concern of the city . 14 This flet conlruta with the wiUingnae of the Archaic city to legislate in other areu of aristocratic ditplay. Sumptuary legislation in the archaic period ICC"" indeed often to have had a IOcilll rather than a nKH'tl purpose, in ICCking to limit those rituala of coRlpkuous conlumption which ICrved to distinguilh the ariatoeracy from the community, and which were intended to dilplay their ",calth and powff. In one IUch area C . Ampolo hu recently made a comprehentive wrvcy of Archaic Greek ta,.,. concerning public display al funerals in relation to the La,.,. of the T'WClve Tablea (Ampolo 19&4a). From Ihie it il clear that there ie a wide.pread tendency to limit euch armocratic activity at funerale. From hit liat l.eleel two eumpla. The first ill the flmous cue: of Athens: the 'II... of 11 SeeT-,,(lp). II
'Jlac probibitioa 011 InViJU _ , •• ...cI a. , ..rio in the Twdwoe T .... (Cic• • , .. JI .s.t-60) 11M,. .... be nk.aid bcn: ; rM t.ttc.. at a.t (if it ___ driN:i..
fOWIdt) _ lICIt .11•• cd It SpirtI, ill COCIIJ . . to Atbmt. ~iat to Kriti. fr.' WeIC. au. die Ita_a .... I'RI1 ..... to funenry ~ if AII'IpOIo (,9141: II • ..t8) • ripe to _ . . . J '.,. widI the GfUl "",.;' On Rom.n cow .. _ "'"'- die cited ill Murray (1915 : '" • . )f). I. ~ AtheM. ~bIy ill _daac:c with • _ . die 1m GI' . np'-ed die hirirIt of eo . . Ill. fixed price (Ad;.IW . 5cu) : it • likely. Iw=eou. tt.t th .. men tel public felCi..u nther tbai rio. a ·la..
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Solon' regulated displays at the funeral in detail, in relation to the numbers and activities of female mourners, funeral banquets, the procession, the tomb, sacrifice, clothing, oUerings and the presence of strangers. IS The second case is that of Mytilene, where Pinakos limiled participation in the funeral. 16 Such sumplUary laws may serve a variety of social purposes: in Rome for instance they seem to have had the general aim of limiting aristocratic display in Ihe interests of maintaining a cohesive group mentalilY and so protecting the privileges of the aristocracy. 17 But in Greece Ampolo is surely right to connect such Jaws with the development of the polis, and the desire to limit public displays of power and wealth by the aristocracy.18 II is in this context that a Solonian law of hubris fits bellt. One or the d isadvantages of the sumposion as a social ritual was that, while it created internal forms of bonding important to the maintenance of aristocratic control , this process was invisible to the external world . Consequently the komos, the drunken revel through the streets which terminated the sumposion, was an essential element in the sympotic life-style, and a necessary corollary as a public display of aristocratic self-definition; and, as the public aspeCI of the SU fi/pasion, the komos was more likely to provoke legislation by the city. Archaic Mytilene in the age of Alkaios and his companions is once again the obvious parallel: Pittakos imposed double fines for violence committed when drunk (Atist., Pol. II, 11.7ibl8-1.o). I have argued elsewhere that this is to be connected with the alleged activity of the Penthilidai, who roamed the streets beating passers-b y with clubs; for that is surely the characteristic activity of a band of drinking companions intent on displaying their power over the people through the komos. 19 Such activity in turn provides a hislorical background to the deliberately ' hybristic' pattern of behaviour which Demosthenes attributes 10 Meidias. Nubris , conceived of as drunken violence committed in relation to the sumpasjon, in the Archaic period is not mere drunken assault ; it is part of a patlern of behaviour intended to assert the supremacy of an aristocracy over its rivals ; it involves the deliberate dishonouring of those who are not members of the group in order to reduce their time in the community. It was such considerations which made Solon regard hubris as a threat to Ihe structure of a community based on carefully regulated grades of time, and which therefore caused him to define it as a public crime to be granted .special Slatus under the procedure of the graphe. One small indication seems to me to support this characterisation of the law U The passages arc ciled in Ruschenbusch (1966 : fro72): Dcmclriu$ of Ph.leTOn diSlinguithed. law of Solon .boUI funer.lland mourning .• nd .Ialer 1,10' eon~rning thc lomb ilKlf, perhlpa correctly. I. Thi. is mcnlionw in 1m ume famous puugc citw in Ruschenbusch : Ci~ro, ck leg. 11.16.66. I> Sec Bon.mente . <)80, Ckmcnle 1981, Miles 1987. ,. Am polo 198.-; I « . 1110 marc ~ncraHy AmJlC'lo ,QII.. b .nd Conol; ,<)80. 19 Pol. V, 1] lIbl] ; IICC Murray (.983 : 168 ).
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of lIubris. To fourth-century commentaton it wu already a mljor problem that Itllhris could be committed against a)aves u well u free persons : Demoethenea makea great play with this in the Meidiulpeech (XXl.47-so),M and reprda it eomcwhat implauaibly u a demonstration of the p/liJ"thropia (hllflWliwianiam) of the Athenians. On any account it is odd that the,,-aplri procedure ,hould even hypothetically be Ivailable to protect the timi of a .Iave, even if we ruy perhlp' doubt the daim of Demosthena thlt runy have in fact been aeeuted for this offencel But in the context of the aristocratic world, and especially the SlmIposion, the protection of ,lavel takes on a different significance. In the sumposiotl the tIlave, both rule and female, plays In tllefttW r61e II KrVant, II companion and II entertainer : the wine·pourer, the flute-girl, the dancer, are ,II, despite their servile statua, accepted in the group; hetairai in particular are I neee BUY accompaniment, and a penonal p1l11 "ion. Phyeical violence against IUch people wu common enough, .. Aristophanea' Wcups or the . peech against Neaira show (Warps 1}41-87i Oem. LIX.33). In this context to dishonour I slave may in fact be to dishonour the muter, and at lent it isliltely to lead to wider consequences : we know of one llerioua act of lI",bris II a result, when aomeont struck In 0'*110" IMSMOtMIU who wu trying to abduct (or rescue) a Hute-girl .... but , "y' DemoetheDes, he had an ellCUI!Ie, for he w.. both drunk and in love (xx1.)6, 38) . It i, in IUch a context that aJavea too may poI8eII timi, in relation to that of their masten. Solon', concern for the position of slaves in the law of hubris relatea to I more general intereat in the proper use of slaves in the context of the aristocratic life-style. It il likely enough that the pot,cllion of slaVe! wu largely confined to the ariltocracy in this period i but the specific laws agailUlt a ,lave .tripping naked Ind anointing himaelf in the palaistm (wrutling. IChool), or becomingtheerastes (lover) of or pursuing a free boy, show amore preciae concern with relationship' within the world of aristocRotic truphi (luxury) (RulChenbuach IC)66 : fro 74) .
The world of hadnU is one where the spheres of public and private are not clearly Ileplf"lte, in which the public order of thepoJjJ wu threatened by forms of violence which a later generation might come to regard .. belonging to the private Iphere of the ari.tocratic Jumpwion. The concern of the legi.lator wu only partially with the individual honour of the victim of '",bris , far more with thedangen to the community which were polled by. whole nexus of behaviour on the pan of both victim and agg,el8Qf. It is thus that we can perhlp' dispel the worries of Gemn and others about the existence of .uch concern with the rights of the individual in an age of collective repreaentatiOnil.21 • Sec ... A.m. 1.17: the wbiect iI dearly. rhdorical • •• II Men,. thana 10 the .,.niripum in the Cambriclrt eeminN' I' which 1m. clMop{U _ fin!: t" «d in M.dI 1')17. for !brir commenta and ~; and apea.1I,. to m,. ftllow apam- Nid: Fither for II'IUdI bo:lp bvth -'>eo- and Iakr.
7 The social context of adultery at Athens DAVID COHEN
Before examining the norms, values. and loci,1 prxtica chllt define the social conCn! of adultery at Athen•• few remarks about the IepJ regulation of adultery Ire appropriate. In my opinion. fund.menul milunderstanding prevail, in the Kholarly literature on the Athenirln la... of adultery. The traditiona1 view holds that moidena at Athcna wa not defined in tmnl of the marital relation, hut included illegitimate interc:oune: with any female membeT of the family - mother, lister, daughteT, etc. This vicw, which would make Atbent unique among early Western and Nelr Eastern legal l)"ItCmI, reeta upon blatant misinterpretationa of certain crowl p,.agel and I conlu.ton u to the diatinction bttwem prohibitory norms and acuaing condittona. Space does not pennie. full prtttntl.tion of the evidmcc htte, 110 I will simply ·u:rt that in ct. .ical Athena the ..... defined moieNia .. adultery, thlt it .... tuUal violation of the mariu) relation . Athenian Ilw thua defined adultery in the ume wly as biblical, Allyriln. Blbyloniln, Ind d_ical ROmln law, and, like thole IepIIYiteme, permitted the hUlb.nd to lubject theadultenr tUen in the act to ceruin summary procedures. In Atheniln Ilw thit meant thlt the adulterer (lftOI'·chos) wu dauified U I IeClAou'l/OS. I Cltegory of offenders INbject to the procedure of afHJIOIi or lummary lnut and. poeaibly, IUtnmary execution. Understanding lIfIDicJuia in thilltgl1 context pmnitl I hypothetical recon.ruction 0( the llatute on adultery : If IOIUeooW tate. In IduIterez- let him do with him whatever he plaia or like him 10 the E1enn. If he..tmiu h.,.uk dnth ill the penalty. but if he dmin it kt him be broutbt into court • ,. When he: hII c:aucht the adukem-, it shall not be lawful lor the one who hal caucht him 10 continue \ivins with h. wik, and if he: don to he Null _ h. ciYic riP"; and it thaD not be lawful for lhe woman who " taken in adultery to .ttend publK: .-c:rilic:ft;; and if the don .ttmd them, let her auffer whltever may be inftK:ted upon her, acept dellth, with tepI impunity.' I A detailed ..,...oltbeeiOck • lor lhiI ~ion oltbc Ia.of .duJtery rrwybe found ill
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DAVID COHEN
What acholars of Greek law orten forxct ia that reconatructing what pena1tia the Illtutes provided ii, in itaelf, not particularly interesting. The bare statutes tell UI relatively little about the law u applied, interpreted, vio"ted, and avoided in the aocialsr-cem of which the t.w is but one part. In othu words, one muat move from the Iqpl poaitiviat interpretation of the criminal law u a td of prohibitory rules that impoee ordu upon aociety to an understanding of legal norma IS but a part of the complex Itructure of IOcia! practica through which a social ordu ia maintained and reprodl,!ced. Building, then, upon this nsrrowly lepl exposition, I tum now to the broader social and ideological context of which the la. and practice of adultery form a pan. The modem Anglo--American rudu, accuaIomed to the deueaaing lepl and social significance of adultery, may wondu why thil partkular sexual delict Ihould provide the focus for invntiption. Fint of all, one should note that, although in modem westun eociety it i. npe which hIS become the pre-eminent or p.radigmatic aexual crime, in Athens this wu apparently not the cue. Apart from exceptional circumstanca such u tyranny or the ..cking of a city in wartime, we hear relatively little about the rape of free Athenian women, Ind the natute of the statutory provisions i. IIOmewhlt ohacure. Structur.l facton .rising from the lOCi.1 organilltion of modem Meditu· ranesn societies may sccount for the relative infrequency of npe in luch societies, structural f.ctors which .Iao hold good for clUlieal Alhen•.' For present purposes, however, it suffica to note thlt, whereas modem Ilw foculeS upon coerciVe, non-consensual sexual tranaaetionl, making rape the pre-eminent sexuII delict, Athenian law accordl thil place of honour to adultery, which il clearly the paradigmatic sexual offence in the Athenian orators, tragedy, Ind Old Comedy.3 Further, this preocc:upation with adul· tery alao chsrlcteriaea modem Mediterranean eocietin, and the following .nalyais will diacull why thil should be the cue, Ind will relate the context of adultery to more general problems conCffning women, the funily, and sexuality. In sketching this toeial context, the seemingly b.nal questions of how snd why furnish a convenient ltIrting point. H, IS much contemporary acholarship holdl, women were Itrictly confined to their houaea, watched by their hwbandl. and accompanied in their every movement by relatives or allVes, how did they form aduiteroul relationships and then consummate them~ Further, why did men and women run the conaiderabk: riab that adultery ent.iled? Aftu aU, u L)'iu' ontion, em tJr~ Mllrd~rof Eratos.Jterws , makn dear, tome hUlbandt, at least, were not loath to exen::ile the .ummary procedures provided by the law, and othtt pa.agel atteat to the ill-treatment S"'littki Oft . .~ ill (onlanpor...., ,..tu", !uropaoll ~ia. aut that Ihil ",,"em IMylrill hold. for ltaly,nd c~ hlft fu lower ..tao( (I'ftouled) ~ dwI do. for nampE, Britain Ilnd Wdt GemwlY. I . . . of )'01.1"1. unmuried -ooilit'ft It fnti ..... pa.,.. • prominent r6k in 1M plot. 0( leftI'"II cornedi" of MrM"". bul il iI often no!: dear wbdMr 1M lO\III ~ion rcalIy_ bIoKd upon force or i,limply rdnnd 10 .1Ud! in ork to helP... .e lhe tcpUtMion of d~ pt.
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'49 which adulterers were likely to suffer if apprehended . Indeed. the question of motivation arises with particular force for men, since, according to many scholars, the only significant romantic attachments for men were homosexual, and sexual gratification, in this slave society, was ubiquitous and cheap. Indeed, if Andromache', description of her life in Euripides' Trojan Wmmn is taken as typical , one wonders why and how adultery happened at all, let alone achieved its pre-eminence in the pantheon of sexual misconduct: I made good repulltion my aim; I was fairly sueceaeful; but now I hive lost what 1 gained. As Hector's wile I studied Ind practised the perfection 01 womanly modesty. First, if I woman don not stay in her own houte, thit very fact brinp iII·flme upon her, whether thc it It fault or not; I thcreforc gaY!: up my longing to go out, Ind Itlyed It homc; and I refused to admit into my house the Imusing gossip of othcr women ... Before my husband I kept I quiet tongue and modest eyc; I knew in what matten I should rule, Ind wherc I ahould yield to hi•• uthority.~
Such statements are all too often regarded by scholars as representative, yet the y contraat markedly with the many assertiont of the sexual intemperance of women and the frequency of adultery one finds in the sourCe!. As a character in Euripides' Sthene!Joea, mouthing a commonplace, puts it, 'Many a man , proud of his wealth and birth, has been disgraced by hi. wanton wife.' What accounts for the antithetical descriptions of the married woman and her rale which one find s throughout the classical sources? An examination of this ambivalence about the characterisation of women may serve as a first step towards understanding adultery and the context in which it occurred . Conflicting characteri8l.tions of women in the ancient lQurcet!l have caused considerable confusion, which scholars have dealt with in two waY'. The more primitive method denies the force of the antinomy, explaining it away in some fashion . Thus, Flacelihe (1f1>5 : 55) accepta the Andromachean typology at face value : Whereas married WQmen aeldom croued the threaholds of thcir own fmnt door, . dolellCent girls wcre lucky if thcy wcre .1I0wed 15 far I t thc inncr couny.rd tince they hid to stay where they could not be seen - well aWflY evcn from the male memben of thc f.mily. He admits, though , that Aristophanes presents a very dif£erent picture of Athenian women, but concludes (1965: 69) that this mult represent a change towards greater freedom in the late fifth century - a rather desperate expedient, since we have almost no evidence befo~ the second half of the century. More recently, Gould (1980) and Humphreys acknowledge the contradiction, but Humphreys rather unsatisfactorily contents herself with commenting that, 'This contradictoriness must be to some extent a product of the nature of our sources, which are heavily dominated by cultural themes in which women are seen through a grid designed to fit men .'5 Gould, more • Eur. T", . 643- 56, triM. Vel1acotll97S:~. J Humphrey. 19B3b: 49; am/ra Hcndtnon 1975 :
~.
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aensibly, tries to relate the contradiction to profound cultural conflicta conttrning women and their aexuality, conflicta expreaaed with particular force in myth. These conflicta ariee out of a central cuhuraJ ambiguity about women and aexuality, baaed upon a dynamtc of dependence and hatred, desire and fear, which, it will be UJUed below, is typical of Mediterranean lOcieties. A aatisfactory explanation, however, must go beyond the realm of myth, important u that may be, and attempt to explain the. contradictiona in terma of what Giddent (11)84: th. I) calla the 'atructural properties' of aocial ayatema. Looking at aimilar difficulttea that have ariaen in describing the toeial r6le of women in the contemporary Mediterranean world may prove helpful in addreMing this task. AnthropologilU, predominantly male, had ktng formulated a view of Mediterranean women as ateludtd, powerlHa, and ieollted from the life of their aocltty. A later generation of researchen, however, challenged this widely accepted thetis. Clark, for example. in her aocialanthropologica1 study of a modem Greek village, acutely formulates the contrut between thc.e diffumt interpretations of the r6le of women in tradition.] Mediterranean societies :
When ....e began our field study at Meth.",. it wu lOOn evident that cbaraderiaationtof Greek women in tome of the ethnognphic .,.;aunt. did not fit the wOhlen we were mtQUnlerifll" While ....e had read .bout povrCTI_, tubmiMive femUei who contidued themlClvCl monlly inferior to men, we found pb)'licll.ly and IOciaIly .boill WOIIkIl who had • pal deal lOllY about what took pllC'e in the va• . The lOcia.l and eeonomic anain of teverwl houteholda were actually dominated by older women, includi"lIM haute of vii. official,.' CI.rk'a explanation of this contradiction foculel on the way in which the gender and maritalltltua of the reaearclter largely determine the information to which he or abe has ac:ctII . 1 A aignificant body of recent re.earch has confirmed theat findinga, revealing how conceptualisations of the r6le of women vary M:COrding to the penpective of the infonnant and the rhetorical nature of the context in which the view is uplc:wc:d. Both penpectivea mit within thi,IOci.) context, and both reflect the values and norma of the lOciety. What is misguided is to try to identify one u 'COrred.', on the IMUmption that auch norma and values mUlt form a coherent 'sY'tem', free of ambiguity, ambivalence, or conflict. A further aourte of difficulty in anthropological asu ..menu of women in Mediternnean aoeietiea ariaea from the related problem of failing to differentiste fint-hand obeervation from informants' accounts, based as they often are upon the conacioUi and uncoll8cioua manipulation of nonnt and cuhuraJ ideak 10 u to convey a particular point of view. In a.. ing the IUtUi of women, as well as rellted queatiOlll like aecluaion, c1. .icaltcholan have perhaps often fallen prey to the aame trap, • Clan 1913. See . . . the pio_crine wtie1c 01 E. Friedl, 'The lX"ition of _ : appeanncc and rulit}" NftltJ~ QMrrc.fy 40 ( 11)67) 97-101 (repr. ia Dubid 1916: .p-sa). J For 1M _ recenl ltudia on Ibil qucttion. ~ Whitehad. c--)' 1916.
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failing to distinguish between ideology and (sometimes conflicting) normative ideals on the one hand, and social practicet on the other,' Too often normative ideals are taken IS objective structures which determine behaviour, rather than as what Bourdieu calls 'official representations of practiccs', which are manipulated according to the strategic exigencies of particular practical contexts.'-iI Seeing the way such norms operate as an element of social practices illuminates tbe otherwise perpJexing contradictions. The two Athenian authors who were most acutely aware of tbe problems of women in their society, Aristophanes and Euripides, wue also fully cognisant of such contradictions. That is, the contradiction between conflicting normative idealisations of woman : desire and fear, dependence and hatred, Medea and Andromache, and the further conflict between those positive and negative ideals on the one hand, and the life of the society on the other. Euripides in Medea, Troja" Wom~n, 8acchae, Hippolytus. and other plays deliberately embodies in drama these conflicting positions. In Me/anippe, a play noted in antiquity for its collection of antithetical characterisations of women, one character thus exclaims, 'The worst plague is the hated race of women.' ' Except for my mother I hate the whole female se,,:10 On the other hand, in the same playa woman asserts that, Women manage homes and preserve the good! which Ire brought from abroad. Houses where there it no wife arc- neither orderly nor p~perous. And in religion - I take this to be impanaot - we women play a large pan .. . How then ClIn it be just thlt Ihe lemale sex should be abused? Shan not men ceue their foolish rcpmachcs, cease to blame all wOmen aliI.. .. if they meet on.. who;' bad?11
The way in which Euripides repeatedly plays upon the conflicts inherent in these view9, stereotypes and ideals should have indicated to e1uaical acholan that great caution is required in evaluating the portrayal of women in Athenian sources. He depicts I society whose values reRect profound ambivalence about women and their sexuality, and his conscious dramatic mlnipulation of ideologically determined stances shows the way in which neither Andromache's speech, nor nominally non-fictional accounts like that in Xenophon's Oeconomicus, can be tallen at face value u reflecting 'how it really was'. 12 If Euripides used this conflict as the fuel of tragedy, Aristophanes no leas brilliantly pla«d the "me antitheses and ambiguities at the centre of some of his most serious comic creations. In Lysistrata. Ecciesiazusae , and Thesmop/roriazusae much of the sexual humour derives from the wlY in which he exploits the contradictions between the cultural ideal a.nd real life, between I The I00I1 penetntinglnal)'litof 1M manipulation of IIICh Cllqori~ ill Boordieo 19n: J6;3.
58---7 I, • caic: atlldy.
9 BOllfdicu. 1917: t h oa. 10 EU.f. 'n . w6. 500. tn",. vcn_, I91S: 97. II Tnllllition by Vel1.acott I97S: 97. 1'heK mw-. .. pre.erved 'rcuprmcd in ;.oiated ucerptI , bul they can never1MIaa KfVC to ~aetnpHfy EuripidQ' employment of antithetical vie. . of women in hie play.. Familiar inau.1\Cft abound: e ., . M ...., HippoIytlU, and Hecuba. II To tl"ltlliatelootcly Leopold von Ranke'. 'wit ~ eiJentlic:h rewam·. on whicb lee the critique
by Finley ICJIIS : +7"'66.
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woman u men think lhe ibould be, woman as men fear lhe is, and the mothen, maidera, wives and wid,"" of everyday exiltence, If the conflicting ponrayall of women in the lOurCft an reflect something about the norms and valuCi of duaica1 Athens, how it one to relate theee producu of ideology to the lOcial practica which they inform? It wu IUggated above that in order to illuminate the motivCllnd conduct aeociated with adultery one would have to broaden the enquiry to include the sexual r6le of woman. Now, uling comparltive evidence, the ICOpe of the di8cuaion mult be funher eXPlnded to cover the broader normative context encompuaing femlle sexullity, that ii, the related antinomiet of honour Ind lIlame, public Ind private, Ind the lOCialand ICxual r61e. ueociated with them. One may begin by briefly aketching lOme of the central featurel of the ayatem of honour and ahame u it appliea to texuality in modem Mediterranean toeietiea. IJ The crucial point here is that the honour of men ia, in large pnt, defined through the chastity of the women to whom they are rellted. Female honour largely involve. aexual purity Ind the behaviour which .ocill norm. deem necessary to maintain it in the eye. of the watchful community. Male honour receive. the active r6le of defending that purity. A man'a honour is therefore involved with the sexual purity or his mother, sitten, wife and daughters - of him chutity is not required. The vigilance of men is necesaitated therefore by the free play which social norma give to the expression of muculinity through the seduction of the women of others, and Iiso by the view of female texuality which posita thlt women need to be protected from themselves u well. Aa Pitt-Riven puu it,
n the inevitable COfftllte of Ihn eonceptulHudon, Ind the notion ia not, perh.ps. diapleuing to the mile who m.y ~ in it an tnC1)I.Irarement of lIuu.1 (Of}queat. Thu •• In honourable woman, bom with Ihe proper tmtiment 01 ahame. llrivn 10 n!>id the human eonl.:" which mipat expolC her to diahonour; the Clnnot expect to auCCftd in Ihn .mbition unaupponed by maJe authority. Thit fact giva juatificltion to the uuge which maket the dettived huaband. not the Idulterer, the object of ridicule .nd opprobrium ... 14 The fnilty of women
Aaaocilted with these beliefs il the felr and hltred of unbridled female sexuality, which only the fon:e of &oct.1 convention and male vigilance can restrain . Since the cxprealion of this aexu.lity in illicit WIlY" may bring humiliation Ind dishonour to a family and lineage. women arc dangerous and are often teen al the ICxual embodiment of the daemonic. The violence with II The Ct'MBI intrrpH1.tion of honour and WIM in MeditetrlnQII -=ietiu loIloW'I that propoeed in II.ICh d_~ lIudiu .. PiIl·Riven 1977; d . Pm.iln,. 1966. wbieb itw:luda Bourdiw', d_~ _y 'The KfltilMnt of honour in Kabyle -=iety'; and D.... 1977. Of courw. the kind 01 onl ftlieBliMtion for wb~h D..... hat bHri mt>Ned it • dln,cr in thit am : IH Hen:feld 1910. But Henfdd, on the other hand , iI_~y n:prded .. .00. too fir in hit C8mpliln lor ~ pmic:uIariMn : .e, for t/M: molt r«:mt cor.pat.. 01 opinion on honour Ind wnw, Gil~, D., ed., no- _ ~ rad tlw U,,;ty'" tJw Mfiliurro'Won (Wqhincton, D .C. 19117), I tpec:iaI iMue of !.IIIiI',itclJl AoItI\ •.,.....,;,I. I< Pitt.RinB '977: 1).
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which tranegre.ions are punished expraKS thi! implicit hOitility. for, as it is uau.J1y put, the dishonour can only be washed I"Y with the blood of the tranegreaon. Thus. 80urdieu notes the proverbial uying in KabyUa that 'Shame is the maiden', and women In: often called the 'cows 01 Satan' or 'the
dcvil'a lnarcI',lS This nexus of honour and lexullity characterises Athenian society IS well. A. one of the peg 'ges from Euripidea quoted above puts it. 'Many I man, proud of his wealth and birth, has been disgraced by hi, wanton Wife.' This is not &imply. literary formula, fOf" in the Attic ontOf'l it ill not uncommon to anack an opponent by uferring to the unchastity of hi! women . FurtheT, numerouaorationt mea] the wly men feel dishonoured when their women are compromited. For example, the cuckolded husband in Lysiu' On tile Munh,. of EmtostM-I claims that the adulterer he killed diagr.~ hit children and humililted him by entering his houle and leducing hi. wife. Indeed. the code of honour and shame i.enahrined in the Jaw of homicide, which allows a man to kill anyone found having intercourae with hia wife, mother, si.ter, daughter or legal concubine - preciaely thaec relationahipt which Pitt-Riven li.ted in the pa.age quoted above. In .uch a law rape, &eduction, and adultery are an implicitly included. From the standpoint of honour luch Icgaliltic definition. are unimportant, for any act of intICTCourae with a woman whaec IICxual purity mUit be protected can be avenged with blood. 16 The Athenian code thus embodies the principles expreseed in the customary Itw of the Bedouins, and ...hich Itill peniat in many Mediterranean communities alongside the nationallcp.1 codes which now prohibit IUch vengeance. Whether among the Bedouin, the Sarabtaani, or in clUlieal Athena, the need for luch rules is appucnt, for they define the circumstanca. under which such killings mUit be accepted by the family of the victim 10 that blood feud may be avoided . 17 S~ does not permit a full dllcuuion of the way in which the IICxual purity enjoined by the code of honour and .hame i. defined, embodied , and protected. The diacu..ion will inatcad focus on one important facet of the eocial ""lea CORnected with honour and shame, namely the !Sexual upect of the dichotomy of public and private Iphere8, uprcsacd Ipatially in the related dichotomy of inside and outtide. It may be helpful to begin by contruting ancient and modem vicwa, and then move to conaidcration of lOme confuliona in c1aaical acholarahip which comparative evidence ean help to dilpel. In traditional Mediterranean aocictia the general identification of the public sphere with men and the private sphere with 'WOmen is familiar and requira littLe elaboration ." Men arc ueociated with commerce and politica, the marketplace. cafl. 6clda, and 10 on, the women with the home. The man'. r6Ic rcquira him to be outaide; • Xenophon puts it, men who auy at home
ac.e
II Bowditu 1977: ........5:1. ,. Coben 1914: 151. " For I.dluin .... _ Owihoc! 1971 : 100t-:l): for tnditional AlbMian U"","HIt1IIa.., H.tuc:k 19st : :l1:a-13. Tbe SuM I ~i.-illbed;"" ,.!beIo-Ir. 1II See, ddlniti" CI I t o ( the ICOIIMICtioIl bct==• .,.tiel ~Iat_ and boQour, in PcriItiaay 1966: d-J).
c.,., .....,.,,'.
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during the day art contidtrtd womanith (Ote. 7.2; 7.30). The woman'a r61e, on the other hand, requires her to ltay indoors. As Bourdieu pub it : The oppotilion between the inlide.nd the DUuiele .. . is COtI(:,etely u.pre_d in Ihe deu-cul diltinction between the feminine 1t'eI, Ihe boule .nd ill pnkn, .nd lhe mueuline .ru, the pl_ ol-.nbly, the lI'MlIquc, the caff, etc, In the Kabyle rill. the two i f n i ' " dittinctly tCpInte , .. •9 The house it the domain of KUecy, of intim.te life. Honour require. that it. IIndity be protected, and the mere fact that atnngerl pin entrance to it, avoiding the vigilantt of male memben of the ramily, itself calls the chastity of the women into question, Any vioL.tion of the house itan attaclt on the honour of ill men and the chllliey of ita women, even if the intruder be only a thief. The IItparation of women from men and the man', public aphett within thit protected domain i. the chief means by which sexual purity il both JUarded and demonstrated to the community.20 As it gtnerally ucOlniRCi, theK dichof:omies - publidprivate, inside/out.ide -1110 eh.racten.e lOciety in dlUical Athens. Xenophon and [Aristotle], for example, expound It length on how by their very natures men Ire l uited for the outaide, women for the inside.:' Apart from Andromache'l eloquent ttllimony 10 the connection of honour and seclulion, hUlblnda in Ariatoph.nea typic.l1y grow .nrry on diKOvering that their wives hive been out, .nd their immedilte IUIPicion il of Itxual tranagrtMion (e.g., 1Jresm. 414, 519, 78J) , In &clesi(UustU a wife, reprolched by her hUlband when abe returnl from usilting a friend in childbirth, ub him, ' Do you thinlt I've been to Itt my lover (moichDl)? ' (520 Ind d . 1008) ,U Not only ought women to remain within, but they mUll 1110 guard themselves from contact with any men who pus by or call for their hUlbanda, ThuI, in Theophrutu. (Cflar, 28.J), in.ubing I woman by Slying she Iddresses tha.e who pus by on the street, or that &he Inswers the door hendf, or that abe talb with men, Ire .11 roughly equivalent to ..ying 'Thil house ia It
Bourdieu in Pmlliany 196(1' UI . Bourdieu 1m' 41-'71 , ISH7 IUminn the lIuidity of optntion of lUeh within the cornpla poollrm of eocial and political ",nteain, rhetoric, and.niorl . 5ft lito M. Hcn:fdd . 'Within and without , tIM: ellqory of the MFmtlkM in the rthnornphy of modern GIftCe', in Dubilch ,916: .u 5-3) . On men who are ridiculed forllUlyi .. lround thl t - , _ M.tIer 1974 : I I" ; Ntd. for lnomparMive penpec!i ..... , Grqor
eaiecone-
1985 : 1) . .. 5ft Campbe:U 1964 : 1'5,
:to) , J6I-7+ )Ol-itO;
Du Bouby '974 : I"I-:aoo ; Hindman I9IJ '
7 1-1 75. I!
Xm. OK. 7. t7-+0; [Arill.] On. I.H .
u HandllWl 191] : 16.t~ nota dial in Pouri (GIftCe) the men alway.. FE~t their _omen of Iyi .. ; bIIt bow It. .,., they to ¥ilit a ncicbbow for a dIN acqIt by -)'inc, lnIly or falwly. that ,hey he" to bOliO_ IOnIeIhi. . ' MOIl of 1M fll-nbk .niritin for ..... he" are covcml by lift _ a ntCcwity _hicb becoma a 10ft of n:fIn . What ~ ill" comp/ic:IIi«I ..... of tuUal poIi,a _belcb, _,." jH " I tpbm: for Ihmllcl... Ih-.h the rwc and the lie. whlc:h lhe men know and KCtpI but, throuP their "SF icion and quacioainc, 111mIf'C 10 limit and control. Handman noca thM lyinc in ci",,",*_ whcft tbIft ill no .,pMlot bmefit from dotnc 10 amJIlo be, for many WOI'Im , a Wly of Iad;nc • life of tbeit OWD,
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limply a brothel', or 'They couple lik, dogs in the Itreet.>1J Lysin. in • rhetorical variation of the familar topot , emphuillel the honour of women woo bad led luch orderly lives tNt 'they are uhamed to be teen even by their kinamen' (111 .6). Apin, IUcb normative judgements of women'. conduct teem
typic;al of many Mediterranean communities. To name but one of mIIoy
aueh examples, DlVit. in his scudy of the modem Iulian village of Pilticci, nporU that. 'St:venl men told me tb.t I wu the first man not their kinsman to croM their threaholda.114 This statement ii, of coune, no more true than Lyai..• rhetorical "'Ucr'lion of 'proper' feminine modesty. Some IChoJan, however, have taken statements like those of Lyaiu u veracioua descriptions of actual conduct, using them to IUpport their ponDyal of the i80t.ted and KCluded Athenian woman. How, tben, can one distinguish ideology and IOcial practice in luch puaagea? The problem with the ancient evidence is that it it like I jigsaw puulc where most of tbe pieces are missing and the picture on the cover of the box hu inconveniently been lost . Evidence from lOCi.1 anthropology, in my opinion, can provide different potMIible ' pictures' in the form of models of lOciai .ystem• . The model which an provide the moM pbulible explanation of the evidence we do have can therefore help to reconstruct. the eocial practicee which produ«d it. AI.. first step tOWllrda such a reconltruction, I have very briefly sketched such a model sbove, and, .;th further ebbontlon, I believe it can provide the bais for. critique of (!emin important misconceptions concerning the public/private dichotomy and the r6le and statu. of women. To begin ';th, then: is • marked tendency to uke the public/private dicbotomy IS an abeolute ontological ategory.nd hence to confuse sepantton and eecluaion. That is, it does not follow that because, genenlly speaking, the man'. sphere ill public/outside, and woman'. is priv.te/inside, women live their lives in total iaolation from all but tbeir slaves and tbeir family . Separation of .pbern of activity doea not imply pby.ical aequettntion, and, conaequently utter subjection, IS doea ICdusion. While it is undeniable that women did not oper.te in tbe public and politic.llphern in the way tbat men did. it does not netw.rily follow that they did not have public, aocial, .nd economic spheru of their own, nor that the&e categoriea were not fluid .nd manipulable U oppoetd to rigid .nd eternally fixed . Scbobn 100 often . .ume this to be the cue, howevft", milled by the well-known, ideologically determined tata like Andromache'• • peech Of Xenophon'. picture of the ideal wife, and do not attempt to ICIt critically the validity of thea models. Thus Flacel~ (1965 :55) a.umed that women never left the houte and adolacent girls never even reKhed the courtyard. Or, more recently. TyrTClI uncritically acceptI Xenophon'. ideali8ed deaaiption arguing tbat 'The outer door of the :u CamPWCI'-lciafonnant'l_ inWilliame 1967' ?6-'7, 'Arood cirl walks;" lhe_
mel do.n't . . to cbM't . . . her.'
iil)_ •• .
1'be b..:I _. Ihe
me. 10 talk 10 c.t.)bocI), evm if I
" 0 ..... 197).
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house is the boundary for the free woman. Segregated {rom women of other households, with only female relatives by marriage and slaves for company (one wonders how the relatives got there!]' women tended to the domestic chores of running the house for their husbands. >25 Walcot also speaks of the seclusion of women, but he is sensible enough to note that 'we have no way of being certain how rar social reality corresponded to the social ideal of female seclusion'.2.6 I, however, would argue that we do have a way of making such distinctions, for social anthropological studies of modern Mediterranean societies show that the pattcrns of male-female role divisions in classical Athens are typical products of forms of social organisation prevalent in traditional Mediterranean communities. 8e<:ause of the tendency to view Greek society as somehow isolated from the rest of western civilisation scholars like Eva Keuls27 tend to view such patterns as unique, bizarre, or even pathological, when in fact they are quite normal aspects of certain kinds of social systems. It is within such an intellectual framework that the significance of adultery in Athenian society becomes clear, for it is the larger structure which makes the sexual purity of the wife of paramount importance for the reputation and standing of a family. In taking separation 10 imply seclusion, the prevailing view tends to ignore a considerable body of evidence which indicates that Athenian women participated in a wide range of activities which regularly took them out of their houses. These included working in the fields (Ar. Peace 5)5, Oem . L-VII.iS), selling produce in the market (Oem. L-YI1.3O-1, 3-4; Ar. Acharnians -478, Wasps i97, 1)80-5, Lysistrata 445, T'hesmophon·C1Zusae iOS, 440), acting as a nurse or midwife (Oem . L-VII .)5, is; Plato, Theaetetus li9) and many other such occupations. There is no need to list all [he passages on the various economic activities of women, for they were collected as long ago as 1922 (Herfsl 19.:2). Such a pattern, of course, is just what one would expect in a poor region like the Mediterranean, where most families could not dispense with the labour of women and children. Aristotle makes this point with considerable force in the Politics, when he says that in a democracy it is impossible to prevent the women of the poor from going out to work (1)0017, 1):I)aS-7). Athenian law, moreover, made it a delict to rebuke any citizen, male or female with selling in the marketplace (Dem. LVIJ.3O-1). Married and unmarried women often worked outside their homes because economic survival required it. As will appear, however, whether in classical Athens or the modem Mediterranean, there may be a wide discrepancy between economic realities and ideological statements about what sorts of things women ought to do. As soci.al anthropologists from Malino~ki on have recognised, howevcr, informants often offer such normative ideals as matterTyrr(1l ''}84: 45; d . R. Padd. 'Women : mode! for poe.snsilJll by Greek daemons'. in Cameron & Kuhrt '98) : 8: 'confined to th( innum(lll! part of the mudbrick dom(uic house: with only limitrd exit (Ven from th( private hom(: l6 Walcot .9IJ4 ; d. Humphrey. .9IJ3b: 16; Gould 19l1o. l1 E.g. Kculs .9IJS. ~
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of·fact deecriptKma of how thif181 actually arc. In Malinowaki', cue, his invcstiption of inctat among the Trobrianders taught him that failure to appreciate this rhetorical fact could result in a mueive miaconstrual of the pattemt of 1Oci.1 behavtour.18 In Athena, women', activities which took them out of the house wen not cxclUlively economic. They might include going to their favourite IIOOthuyer (Theoph. CIIor. 11.9"'"10; 16. (30)' participating in a sacrifice (Ar. AclramiafU aSJ). OT in religious festival,. Ind«d. married women alone arranged for major fCltiva1s like the Thesmophoria (Iueus VITI.I9-ao; 111 .80; VI.oW), and hiatoriant have failed to explore the toei,) implicatioNi of the fact that Athenian women', networks were organised enough to cury out the full range of Ktivities aMOCiated with luch an undertaking (including election of officials, reheanaJ., luppliesand finances, ttc.) . Further, as i, the rule in many Meditnnncan communities. apart from the _althy, women were also reIpOnIible for bringing water from the weiland wuhing clothea in the fountain (Ar. Lymtrota 3aMI; Eur. Electro locrl1, Hippolytus 130). n They visited husbands or relatives in priaon (Andok. 1.-48; Lys. XIII.39--4I: Plato, Pfltutio 6oa), participated in funeral procaeions (Oem. XLIII .63j Lys. 1.8), went to the public batm, appeared before arbitrators (Oem. XL. Il), attended the public funeral orations (Thuc. It ... s.a) and were brought by their fathers, huabands, or 1081 into court to arouse the sympalhy of the judges (Aesch. 1I.1,.a, Isa; Plato, Apology 1-4C-3Sb; Oem. Xlx.110: xxl.99, 186: xxv.S.. : uv·3S : Ar, Wasjn sllB-9, Plutus 380). They participated in wedding feuts where the bridesmaids danced and male guesta might talk. with the bride (Hyp. Lycoplmnr. 3.. : laaeus vlII.18; Ar. Achan,ians 1056, 106, -8 : Eur. /. T . 11-40). Husbanda expected their wives to go out, and those wealthy enough gave them alaves to accompany them, u ThC'Ophrutus' IItire of the parsimo. nious huaband reveals (Orar. aa. 10, 11) . The pueagn just enumerated indicate that , although women did not particifnte in exclusively male activities like war and politics, they were not confined in their houleS in 'oriental a«lusion' (aa some scholars rather romantically think of it, having little idea that, in fact, 'orientala«lusion' also includes activities like carrying water, visiting frienda and neighbours, and 10 on),)O never aeeing anyone outside their immediate family . Ind~d . one of the most important activities of women included viailing or helping friends and relatives. As men had their circle of friends, there is conaiderable evidence to indicate that, u in modern Mediterranean societiea which alao separate the male and female .pheres. Athenian women fonned intimate friendships, particularly with neighbours. and visited one another frequently- whether to • Malin.owMj 1P9: 5o)'-'7a';¥idIy por1...,. bow fOftUn.a.~ 1M: .... Ihoo .... .mdcnl brout;hllhia diotiDdion boIne to him bdOft he bod publiahed h. _ n l of 1M ..,11.... ] ]if~ of 11M:
TI'ObriaDdenI. ,. See . . Keu .. 1915: "33, XI See F~ 1969 on WOi,kn in Iraq; and for • claeriptioro of Ilk' _ I line of WOiIIlm in ~"""Iy -ime! with notioJ. 01 'orienta! wduaion', _Akorki 1916.
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borrow food, uten,il" or. drell, or limply to chat (Theoph. OJ• . 10.13; Ar. &chn'lUIUGe 460, LyliJtrdta 300j Oem. LV. aJ-4j LIII.4; LV1I1.40; Lyl. xxxlI. roj Eur. Electra 1130)' In Athenian drama, the commonplacecondem. naliOM of women', exceuive go.eiping and viliting imply that IUch activities are all too common (ace, e.g ., Atu/t'OtNtIdv 950). Tbit intim.cy of neighboura, attested in a varietyof IOUfCa, conatitutesone of the conlexta in which adulteroua relation.bipe could ariac. In Demolthenes LIIl, for example, a man describes hit intilNlte friendabip with a neichbour and reporta that when he went away on public or private businesa he left hit houae and financial affaira completely in the hand, of hi' friend . Ckarly thit cloee friend (JIo- oiUioJ: 4) had.ccaa to the houae and muat Mve been well acquainted with hia friend'a wife. Such occurrmca wue no doubt a common phenomenon thlt gave rite to the aentiment reported by Aristotle that it it particularly euy to have an adulteroua relatKm with the wife of • friend or neighbour (N.E. 1136aS;M.M. 1188bI7). What made it particularlyeuy wu that dOle frienda had acceII to the hoUle and were already acquainted with their friend', wife. ThUl, Electra commmta in Euripidea' play tMt, 'When an adulterer corrupu hi, neighbour', wife ... (hel it forced to marry her ... 'In. aimil.r vein, Demoathenel notea tMt the la.. permita a man to kill even hia friend, if they commit h",briJ against or .educe the women of bia family (XXIII .53-6) .'1 The uaociItion of adultery with neia;hbours ia common enough in the ancient world, aa the Commandment not to covet thy neigbbour', wife makea clear. Adultery aerved .. a foc:ua of obanaive aexual feara in the ancient and modem Mediterranean precitely be<:auae women regularly engaged in activitka which brought them into lOme IIOrt of contact with other men . In a race-to-face lOdety, u anthropological atudka reveal, thit contact ia moat intimate, and mo.t unavoidable, in the neighbourhood.l1. One posaible objection to thia interpretation ia that certainly aomc Athenian families could afford enough a1aves 80 that the women anJd atay at home. Athenian and compantive evidence, however, augeau that they may 'ftll have none the 1m purtued relatioMhipe with other women in aocial and public religioul networks e:l.tending beyond their familiea. Whether in ancient Rome, or in the Theamophoria at Athena, or in the Church organiutiona of the Andalulian communities atudied by Piu·Rivera, it i, women of the upper anata who figure moat prominently in women'a n1lea in religioua life. Moreover, what Maher, in her excellent atudy, w~ and P"'Pd'ty in Morocco , terma 'Oltentatioua aecluaion', primarily oecura among a few 1'tOIIW1J1IJt· "·ch~J and other middle ct.. familiea where the huaband ia anxloua to demonatrate that he haa enough money literally to iaolate hia wife. Even there, however, this normally only occura in large citiet when • 'IJrOfnaJ\ baa married a man who li'o'es far from the village where she grew up, and hence finda herself iaolated from the supportive network which suaWna most II HIIbrI', Nt •• ~ IRIIII connotation bm:: tee CoMIII9I7: M . U Sec Freeman 1970: Handman 191] : 10s-a5: Dv IouIey 1974. 16Ir"~,
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'59
women. J ) Likewise, in his dassic study of Portuguese rural society Cutildro notes that, 'The wife should remain seduded It home. This is only possible among the wealthy, however. Wealthy wives are much more restricted to their houses, and the layout of these houses makes their sedusion even greater.' Though Cutileiro does not seem particularly aware thlt he is citing normative precepts rather than social descriptions, bis further comments reveal tbat these arrangements do not imply real seclusion, for be adds that such women devote their time to 'needlework, churchgoing, <:barity work, visiting, and last, but not least, sheer idleness'.:H Not having to work outside the home, or, better yet, work at all, is a great mark of economic statu!. As dassical scholars have typically assumed that separltion necessarily implies sedu!ion, 90 earlier ethnographic accounts often built upon similar premises. ls Recent studies of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, Turkish, Iraqi. Lebanese. and Moroccan aocietin have shown, however, that such assumptions may be wildly ina<:curate. 36 The paper by Clark on gender-bias quoted above represents an attempt to show some of the reasons for such confusion . To take but one further example, one might refer to the artide by Lloyd and Fallers on sex-rOles and the publidprivate dichotomy in Edremit, Turkey. In this paper, while confirming that the 'world of women ... in Edremit is the private world of the house and the courtyard', they document the wide range of women's activitin and relationships and the autonomy of the women's sphere. They employ thC$t observations as the basis for a reevaluation of the thesis for isolation advanced by Forster in his study of Italian towns:
Whit he (Forster) meant to suggest was thlt men', monopoly of the town's public space mlde it possible for them to inlerlCI .. . uncncumbered by the contingencies of their individUl1 tin. with women . It mUllt follow from thi. , he Ippllrentiy relSOned, that the women we~ pining aWIY, each in her own home , aWliting the return of Iheir II Mahcr 1974: ::a-), 61, "7, IS~I; d . Willilmll!P1 : 67, 8). MilMr'l\.ulmmlaltoOuvulatht importance of ditlinguishing occlusion from tep!lrltion. S«luaion, in IhoIe: few caea where il doelliterally OttUT, tends 10 reduce the woman 10 111111' of ulteTlubjection. Separation. on the other hind , cven in lII)Cietiet. like thote 01 rural Iraq or Saudi Arabia in which it it vcry lirielly rnlorced , allows women IlIlUluin Ihcnadvel in utrrwive lupponive lOcial networ[q : Fcmu '969: Alt(ITkI 1986. ,.. CUlileiro 1911; 107. 55 Many luch ethnogrlphic: ~nt, are bQed ncl ... ivtly on .... hlt mille informants told Ihe milt InthropolO(i.at about women whom ht had no opportunity to obtcrve or tllk with ; tee e.g. M. Berger, 1M Arob World Today (New York I¢I.) 1I1}-1.I.; E . MIl'll, &doui" 0/ lite NrtnJ (New York 1967) 10)-7. Earlier Inlhropologisb, bec.aUte rompliclted nctworu 0 1 wOfMn'l rtlationa 'III'ere not aCttMiblr 10 thcrn (owing 10 the very facl olteparation), often IMUmed thlt loch networu did not trill.nd that Kplration meant virtual illOlltion. MOIl dillialacholara teem 10 ptTSiat in this vicw, bultee Walcot t984: 38; 'men and women in the Groxk wodd led teplnlc and distinct livn'. »Portugal: CUlileiro 1971 . Spain : Pill·Riven 11,171; Froxman le)7o. haly: Muaapini 1963; Dlvit 1973. Grtect: Campbell 1964; Du Boul.y '974; E. Friedl in DubiKh 1986: ....sa; Handman 19B]; R. Kennedy, 'Women', friendahipa on Crete: I paychologk.1 ptt'tpt'Ctive', in DubillCh 1986: 11.1-]8. Turkey: Lloyd'" F,11ers 1976: Stirling IgM. Lebanon : Wi1IiUIII 1967; Fuller 11)61. Inq : FtTlIU l¢g. Moroceo: Maher 1974; Boutdieu 1m; Petr.non 1971.
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lord and millie!' •.• Now thil," _ hne Ihown, iI hOI the cue in Edrtmit. If rtbtion. 'more ""Ie. U't fe.tively unencu.mbcmI by thtir relation. with femUc., it iI.tao the cue tht.t IrrrWes' rel"ionI with taeb other _ami.fly, if in Je.er dllsee (.tnee nwle authority and p1lIIU#On of publM: Ipece do inhibit _CMnen', movemenb), free of..we interfermce. Our point is "'" the familiar one that _omen, ",bmileiyc in public:. """"It to inlluenee their (ate by domatie Khaninc, manipulation and henpeck"". Our point it rather tht.t womtn in Edremi1 hayc an inttiturionaJ atrvcture and.,. of tolidarity of their own, panik! to thole of men whic:h them, ",batand'" field fOf' ICI(·.-nion ,nd. ~y<:hoIo(icaJ independence of men •.• n
am
Thne conclu.ion. rcpluent. widespread pattern found in mOlt traditional Mediternnean IOcieties, In IUch communities the l(1[ual politica of apace and labour are far more complex than the thesia of teClution and iIolation would allow. Aa Bourdieu (in PerUtiany 1C}66: :au) llya of Kabyle society,
tIIajrrt_,.
The fountain iI to tM women .hat the (~Iy) iI to the men. It it there th" they exc"'"'" ne. . and catry on theU roe.tP ... It is commonly _med that in Nonh A.friclll aociety the woman is thut up in the boote. In ftlel ttlil is completely untrue beeaute 1M peuant woman aiWl)'l won. out of doort. Moreover. it thouLd be mnem~ that the boote beinr the domain of women the men '"' to tome dttrree excluded from it ... Men.ho remain too much in the house during the dayttme U't IUlped • . •
Thillatter point ia no Ie. true in dueical Athena (Xen ,
Lloyd. & Palirn 1976: a60.
,. h"'- 1911 : 60. Por juM dIM~, men in AtMn. an oftm portnyecI_ tJ cI-.iththe tnlltWCMthi_ of their wiYft, the·~ of tM t - ': IN e.,. Xm. Ore. 4.
" M modaflllllt"". . . .iallNd_ and the~from mill)' anc:imI tI.,ei_ alib mW: de." _CMlICn art the primary 11ft'" of -=ill COIIh'OI i. mIIIrint thet other - I l l y ...tthin , , - boondarin: EUI. Mill . ..........
-= e.,.
,
k
••• conflict fCIOlvcd? In fact. it is not resolved, but Tither consciously manipulated in I eerious game that is played according to I complex set of rules and prohibitiolll. 4O Some examples may help to clarify the point. Mothers in tbe Lebanele vill.ge of Harouch say of their daughters that they never leave the bouee. This is the cultural ideal dictated by the code of honour and wmc. according to wbich the honour of a woman ia mcuured by 'the c101enese she keepe to her houae and the distance me maintains towafda strangers'. Thus one mother NY., 'We an: btu in the houle and we hive nothing to do with anyone; we juat ltay in the houae and ICe our neighboul"I. >+1 One wonders bow the neighboun got there. A. Bourdieu reportl of Kabyli., the hour of cuaJ, during the hell of the day, 80rt of'dead' time. The Itrettsare deeerted. the men are resting where they work, and
i,.
No one can lIy whether the public Ipt.ee of the vill-,e belangt to milD 0'1' to woman. So eKh of them t.b. eire not to occupy it; there illIOmdhinc IUlpiciooiaboul anyone who VftItura into the .reelS It thlt hour ... Furtive IMdowI a1ip Ie".. the ttl'fft from one to another : the women, equally unottupied, take advantage of the limited prlU nee 01 the men to meet together or viait one mother. 41
nou.e
In prKtice, what sutemmta to the effect that the women nevet" leave the hOUle in flCt mean ia that they never leave the house without a purpose, a purpoee that will be regarded as legitimate in the eyes of the watchful community, for example, going to the fountain, going to work in the fields, visiting a neighbour, etc. 4) But, .. WiIIi.ms (1967: 77) notes of the girla of Harouch, 'I have watched our neighbour'a daughter dump a full water jar behind the subles ao that abe can briakly Kt out for the tower while the boy aile likea ia on the road.' As another acholar puta it The vuy fact that theft ia a wdl. reeopUed diridinr line belWttn the two
It:Xet
eacmden an IlmOIphen: of anful intripe or ftirtation in ditcuiae. which in it.,lf providea iu own form 01 vilJaae retteation. Yount' mm lUnd ai1entl1 on the vn-andah and look down on the fountain when: the girla tean to 6U their pitchers. The younl tim, in their tum, make more trips to the fountain than nee_ry.t4
Tbeae dacriptiona recall the women of Athena described by Ariatophant:l : the wives in the &ckria:nuar (5:&0, 1008) and '11IenrtOfJ/toria.nuoe (414, 519, 785-800) whoee huabanda find them out of the hOUle and want to Ir.now what they have been doing. "The huabanda Ir.now that they go out, but they ahould not be p.ruJ
to have been out, pantcularly not at an inappropriate time or without an appropriate pUrpoee.45 Or the woman in Peau, peeking out of the door to lee the man abe adrnitu walking down the Itrcet (978-85); the young girl waiting at home for her lover while her mother ia out (Ecc1esitUJUar,
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DAVID COHEN
9Z0); the man hanging around outside the house of a married woman waiting to catch another glimpse of her at the window (17Iesmophoriazusae 840); or, finally, the daughter in Acharnians (Z53) on the way to a sacrifice with her mother and father but conscious that she is on display to prospective suitors.46 These are examples from literature, of course, but, as Dover briefly notea, auch women 'may be much nearer the norm of Athenian life than those cloistered ladies who were embarrassed by the presence even of a male relalive'.47 Because of their preoccupation with the lives of the wealthy, however, many scholars have not thought through the implications of such evidence for their general position on 'Athenian women'. I n fact, such bils and pittes of evidence from Aristophanes offer bener evidence of women's daily life than do the set·piece speeches of a Medea or Andromache, or Xenophon's idealised vision of gentry life. Of course such passages are part of a comedy, and of course they were written by a man. But a portrayal of women talking at the fountain in the morning is not a product of comic distortion, though some of their conversation, with its often grotesquely exaggerated sexual humour, may be. Moreover, vase paintings and comparative evidence support the accuracy of the description, which, though the product of a male imagination, derivcs much of its force from the plausibility and verisimilitude of its social setting. It bears repealing thai Aristophanes' dramas are not an unthinking product of male ideologies, but rather a conscious manipulation and satire of them . The catalogue of womcn's treacherous ploys in Thermophoriazusai (335-5 t, 383-431), (or example, transparently functions in this way. In short, I would argue that Aristophanes offers considerable insight not only into Athenian sexual politics, but also into the perceived social practices that form the practical basis of such politics. Further, as this discussion shows, comparative evidence from modern Mediterranean communities can playa crucial Tale in distinguishing these types of social action . The same duality, the same manipulation of categories and behaviour as described above for the social sphere also applies to economic and political activities. Bourdieu (1977: 39-51), for cxample . shows thc way that among the KabyJe norms and definitions in the contexts of kinship, marriage alliances, legal disputes, and feuds are articulated in a rhetorical manner so as to meet Ihe strategic exigcncies of the occasion. Or, for example, in Lebanon, oil>
'1
The dynamict of luch behaviour .re illumill.lted in the trutment of female modesty by AntQUn (1968 : 681-3) : The .bandonment of (I norm inl pan,culu I ct;ons may be justified explicitly or implicitly by the relliutioo of the lame norm in I wider contert. ThuI, Ilthough girl. are no{ .Uowe
.., the women of Harouch daim that they only wort in the house - • rate occu.rrence that ila great.ign of statuI, But once Williams met one of the girl, who had previously told her that abe orny worked in the houae coming back from I day of labour in the fields : 'BeJon I even had • chance to .peak, abe hastened to explain that the hMI lOne out to IUpcrvitc the hired hands for In hour ... She told me then .. abc had done many lima before, Wt her work it "only in the hou.e'" (t¢t7: fr7j cf. 79) . Stlltements by author. like Xenopbon about women'. work hein, confined to the houte ahould be taken in the ..me litht. Indeed. Xenophon'. deac:ription dearly applies to the wealthy family with. hOll of eervante. Aristotle',statement that the wives of the poor-must go out to work reveals the underlyins eeonomic necessity dUll touched the built of the population. That in Athena, too, ItItUi concern. were connected to such economic dittinctiOl1lIPpean clearly enough from the law, alluded to .bove, that prohibited anyone from dcniBnting an Athenian man or woman fOf" worki"l in the market place. The lOCiaJ reality behind fluch legialation appears from Ariatophanes' use of comic licence to deride Euripides because his mother -aId produce in the aeon (Lymtrata 560; nullfO/JlroriculUM 8.0) . A further.".y in which confusion u to the nature and meaning of eepsrstion hu created problems in the undentanding of Greek sexual rilles brings the disc:U8Iion more direct1y b.ck to adultery. M.ny classical tchol'rI h.IVe . .umed Wt, in this aoc:iety where men Ind women led Kparste lives, the maritlll relation waa viewed instrumentally u limply I mean. for producing lqitimate children, involving little affection, let alone love or deep emotional .ttachment .... Sally HumphreY" (1g83b : 17), lor example, aaeru that in Athena friendship and romantic love are only found in male-maJe rel.tion.hipa. Or, .. Flacclim "ya, 'It K'C1II1 flirly clear that there wu little intimacy, inteliectu.1 contact, or even real love between husband and wife in claaeical Athena. '" Such conclusions .re not to be taken serioualy. for there is lbundlnt evidence from Ariatotle, Xenophon , Iaoc:rstes, Aristophanes, and Lysiu which makes clear WI men were often both paaeionltely enamoured of women and deeply emotionally and K'KuaUy attached to their wiva. Thia nplaina why adultery ia described in the lOurces .. an offence which undermines the pAil", (love. friendship, attachment) between husband and wife (Xen. Hivo 3.• ). Thua it is not only the external elI:planation provided by the code of honour and shame Wt accounts 101" the hatred directed to adulterers, but alao the intema1 explanation Wt focuae. upon the violation of the relltionship of trust and affection between hutband and wife. This dual level of explanation may abo be .ppropriate in underatanding the motivation of the men who ran the nab which adultery entailed . The adulterer is • man of honour in the senae WI he incraaes his own atlltua. ac:centuala his muculinity, by diahonouring other men by seducing their women. Aristotle thua chanlcteriM:a adultery u typical of the hubriattc rtOIIfJtIaaJt-I"icM, (RJtet. 1391119). Thil, u Pitt-Riven baa abown, it the .. E.,. c.nt.mJ.19i7: 39"S1 .
.. P1IceIitre 1965 : 5$.
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Spanish understanding of Don Juan, as a punclilious man of honour, interested only in the conquests which magnify his own stature and repu· tadon .5o The very seclusion of women that i8 designed to protect them i8 a sexual challenge to other men, who, in Athens 8S in other Mediterranean societies, were willing to run considerable risks to achieve their ends. On the other hand, this explanation is not the whole picture. Men did not b«:ome adulterers simply for sexual gratification; in Athens there was little need of this. Bul, on the other hand, because of the early age of marriage for girls, married women or widows were the only free women who were likely to be available for a relationship which did not have to be bought. This is still the case in many modern Mediterranean societies, where unmarried men often prefer to pursue relationshipll with young married women, for a variety of reasons. 51 Likewise, for the many young women who were unfortunate enough to find themselves in marriages in which, because of differences in age and other problems associated with arnmged marriages, philia was not a possibility, adultery might be the only opportunity they would ever have for a romanticerotic attachment. Another related factor appears from the many references to the jealousy (and envy?) which women felt towards the sexual freedom of their husbands (evidence which has too often been ignored).5l As Clytaemnestra says in Euripides' Electra, when 'a husband looks elsewhere and slights his lawful wife, she will copy him , and find herself another friend. And then the glance of public censure lights on us; the husbands are to blame but they are not concerned' (1036-40). In any society with arranged marriages, restricted courtship, and a double standard, adultery is a likely outlet for the emotional and sexual frustrations which such arrangements often produce. In Athens these various motivations were obviously strong enough to induce men to face torture or death, and women to risk major civic disabilities and social disgrace. The accepted notion of Athenian men as only interested in hetairai (courte· sans) and boys, and Athenian women as isolated, passive, and uninterested in sexual attachments, requires serious rethinking. The foregoing analysis, far from having .exhausted its subject, has merely suggested some issues which future research might pursue. Indeed, I intended the discussion as mueh as a methodological excursus as a treatment of adultery itself. The point has not been [0 show that Athens was 'exactly the same' as modern traditional Mediterranean societies. It certainly was not. Rather, by focu sing upon the particular examples of adultery and the 'confinement' of women, 1 have attempted to show the way in which models from contemporary societies, with simi lar patterns of social organisation in regard [0 sexuality and the family, can provide an analytical framework that so See, e.g. Piu·Rivera '977: iJ . I, This was 1110 Ihe prefe«nce of S.mud Pepy. in seventeenth-century England; it Ivoided problem! of pretsurt to marry .nd 'falherleu' pregn.ney. II See, e.g. , Keul! '9115: ch. 4. Copyrighted Material
,6S can _ _ both in IOrtil18 out the different views of women which the Athenian IOUrceI convey, and in undentanding the contndictionl which underlie every compln: pattern of IOcia1 pract~. Jl P I would liM 10 thank Dr hler Cuneey, Prof-. Grqory VIMlOa, Dieter Simon, and ~ft' NOn, and the edilOi. of thi. wvIumc, for their bclpful cummmb and criticiema.
,
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8 Sale, credit and exchange in Athenian law and society PAUL MILLETT
I It is a commonplace that the exchange. of goods and services lies at the heart of the economic process. Outside the textbook conditions of complete seUsufficiency, appropriate only to the make-believe world of Robinson Crusoe or the superhuman existence of the gods. some form of exchange is inevitable (Codere in lESS s.v. 'Exchange and display' ; Aristotle. Politics 1253u5-9). The m«hanisms whereby exchange occurs are, together with their associated attitudes, crucial to the understanding of any economy and society. Surveys of the scope of social anthropology show this to be IS troe of non-capitalist societies IS of the capitalist world (Mair 1971.: 179"""94; Leach 1982 : 149""75; Lewis tQ85: 197-2.33). It is also presumably the case with the pre-capitalist «onomy and SOCiety of ancient Gru:ce. The character of the ancient Greek economy hIS been the subject of a century-long debate th.t needs no detailed discussion here (Gernet 1933: WiI1195..... : Pearson 1957: Humphreys 1970; Austin & Vidal·Naquet197T 1-8). And yet, in spite of its long life. the terms of reference of the debate have hardly moved away from those set down by the earliest participants : essentially. the production of goods and maritime trade (see the selection of essays reprinted in Finley 1979). With one major and a handful of minor exceptions, exchange stems to have been excluded from the agenda and gets no systematic or even incidental treatment in those standard texts of Greek economic history that have paralleled the discussion {Glotz 1916; Calhoun 1916; Michell 1957: Bolkestein 1958; Hopper 1979).1 This neglect of the exchanging proceas seems to stem, It least 80 far as the textbooks are concerned, from the widespread assumption that exchange of good! in classical Athens shared the pattern of the market economy with which • For the maior eU'eptign (Polanyi). lee in (he tnl below. Heiehelheim ('958-70. II : 64-70. 190-3) I;'ta earlier bibliography, indudi", nlev.nt (ft(:ydopaedi. entriet; Zimm~ ('931: 2~5) hu, II often •• lew helpful paget. See alIo the .undlfd tnllrnmttol Athenian ·tori_\ life' till:
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PAUL MILLETT
we are ao familiar today (explicitly in French 1964: 138-] I). Exemplifying the dote identification of modem eamomy and market eJ[change i. the tendency for the one to be defined in tmnl of the other. So Erich Roll, in hit ctu.ic History of &oNOmic 'lJtougItt (1973: 371) repnt. the economic .yat:em u 'In enormou. conglomeration of interdependent markets' and 'the central problem of economic enquiry' .. 'the explanation of the formation of price', The emphui. i. almc:»t everywhere on the ILlturaineil and inevitability of market exchanse, helping to account fOf" the auppoaition that thi. muat IOmehow be the .yalerR appropriate to duaiCliI Athens.1 The iIIu.ion of Athens u a market economy it heightened by the appearance in the ancient literature of the external trappinp of market achange. All texta having any connection with the 'everyday life' of cI,,,",,1 Athens are more Of" leu thickly .tudded with a!lu.ion. to buying .nd aeUins.) By ....y of iIlultrllion, even a ahort work like the Oaracten of Theophruto. (Ieee than twenty pages of Gmk) contaiRl more than thirty rderenctl to the .le or purchue of good. (Edmond. & Auaten 1904: index • . v. 'Buyins') . Prien in the CIIaracten are preaented .. relatively high or low and thttdOR elutic (m.J, Ix.6, x.4, xlI.8, xVII.6, xxx. u); and, what it more, marteting activities are contiatendy connected with the Athenian tJfOI'd (11,9, 111.3, VI,9, XI.4, XXII. 7) . The existence in Athena of a focal area for all thit buying and .elling, policed by nugiltntes and rqulated by law, only IIerVU to ..rensthm the impreeaion of I fully fledged market economy.· But the concluaioM of (among others) Bohannan & Dalton (t96:a : t), in relation to modem AfriClin markeu, .ugnt that the pBCtke of buying and . e1ling, even in the context of a martel plaa:, need not imply forma! martel exchange. The aeence of the market principle lies in RoU'. 'formation of price' via the interplay of eupply and demand (Neale 1957). The part played by teUe,,' aupplies and buyen' demand. in the procCA of pric:e-ru.:ing in AtheN remaina obacure and unexpl.ined. h it the theme of thi. paper that the eurface phenomena of eJ[chanse in Athena, and the underlying laWi and conventiona relating to
n. F r
from Roll. rited by Finley ( 1973: n) _ put of biI au.dI oalM."uc.c_ of marbt tt-y 10 lM GrIC'CO'Itoman - ' d. It .... 10 be _ m.t Finley offen no ahemMiYe ~ .bout how . . . . mitht haYe been uehtnpd in 'IIw WIritm eCOiiOift)·. fonMl COi,,,,,b " of Roll', definitiool _ be eonIinnecI by ~.t lM cNpcer L d'. . IiWIdant tC2tbootvl 0WI1fMIIic., fTom M...u (1190) 10 U.-,.('963), ~ (1970) _ bq,,"d. M.,.tion michl aJ.o be InMIe vi the ..., in whkti , -,tnditionaI tutII tJb trou~ 10 rp:Il OUI tbtir unwthockta, (P.obir ", .. £-toftn 1974: '-); MeConnidl '917 : ~'s) . , Appoopo~c. Ie. from lM WIritm _ _ _ topther in mock", compa.tioM of tM '1'YftJday 1ft' pare : Becbr ,866: 6'"'73, J77""9a: MM.ffy 1190: )06-10; Tucker 1006: ' - 5: W~ 19169: s-t"6J. TMdac:ripciocaan often mid but ntba-thin : Niptl, 'thicbr" n EhrmbelJ 19SI : 11)-36. Meupholiealwr of the far .. r of . . . . . ilRFI' fmliliarity: EfMkhanr- Dr; fr.)6; Sopb. Alrt. 1165"'7' : Dem. 1W1I. :101 (_...., _ ) • • For lM fliD . . . . of ..... mae ........ _ EdIlloOlI!d. &; A\IIItm '904: u.da . .... 'TIle Mwbt 1'\.,. •• n...:., of ODUIW, an iroodeq ,_ _ tnialftdi,. tnaII.tioftof ...... ..tndI embnced. wbok rup. of _ _ ._cWlldivitia (_ MICtion " bdow), Tbt dIeory 01 St.. eng (IW: 167-9) tNt . . . in the _ of 'alIIItet' h.t no .......... ' :.1 in AtbeM. ow-d (not quito! dec:."Iy) by Starrier ,1)16: 35-0 , I
n.
rt"'.
*"..
F
"
" ,
of.,
'.. exchange, are beat underalood through an alternative type of UUllyaia along non-market lirtCl. S Exc:hance iI an area where, by compariaon with adVfoIlCel in understanding the Plooeu in other periodland pl.ca, the ancient Greek world h.. been left behind. There ia irony here in that the d«iaive contribution, opening up the whole field of compal'llhve exchange relationa, wu the achievement of Karl Polanyi, who had an informed, profesaional interest in the economy and IOciety of ancient Greece (Humphreya 1¢9; Garlan 1973)' Although Polanyi was by no meant the tim to appreciate the qualitative differences between exchange in ancient and modem, pre-eapitllJiet and capitaliat eocicties. he establt.hed the problem as one of the preoccupations of modem .nthropo~ gista. 6 Specifically I he rejected the idea that contemporary economic theory, generlted by and for the modem market economy. was helpful in the analysis of anything beyond. minority of recent IOcietiee, thecreation of the Industrial
Revolution or (18 he termed it) 17te Grrat Transformation (1944). In oppc*tion to the market principle. Polanyi identified two nrlier modes of exchange (19S,.; 19S7C) : 11!cipnxtltive (reciprocal gift.giving) and 11!dUtri· "",tive (ttansfeT of reeourea to, and their re-Illocation from, I central repository or authority). On the face of it, the variety and flexibility of thi. three-.ided approach to exchange look attractive to the historian of ancienl Grce« ; but progrCSl in itl appliCition baa been p.tchy and limited to the economics of the pre-clusiCiI period. 7 That Pollnyi'l Ipprolch should be ignored for the period for which our lIOurea an: relatively full, and in application potentially fruitful, il a paradoJ: to be uplained on two diffCTent but connected levell. In the 11m plaec, Polanyi'. typea of exchange were originally pracnted u mutuilly CJ:dueive a1ternativlCl, lacking in flexibility . The imprC8llion wu given that a aocicty had to conform to one of the three modes, or It leut be tIO helvily dominated by a lingle mode u to fendCT the remaining two peripheral. The implication that the market mode of uchangc could not easily co-cxilt with reciprocity and redistribution helps to account for the eecond part of the explanation. Polanyi hilTUlClf ecems to have been won over by the outward Ippcannce of d . .ical Athenian exchange (u detailed above) to lICe in Athena a partial exception to the pre-capiwill rule of non-market CJ:change. He devoted. whole paper (19S']b) 10 prcaenting price· making marketl, not 18 the heritage of early Meeopotamia, but u an invention of the Greeb; more preciaely. the invention of the Atheniana in the fourth century. Thil intrulion
, LiIIinc 01 pricw ..... for _ Frwt 1917: 61-70; (~
btotoriam, ..:quiftd the _ aI. feeiM: Heichelbftm 19)0; ....a.ty) EIu-mba, '951 : :II,..... But prioN by lhmMlva, di....-l fnaI tbe p 01 fomwtion, M'fC tittle to offer lillie "*""-. I Iunoat dw-"on8lld wwbcited by PoJanyi. pede •• _ : M..ine 1161; T6nniee 1881; M.n(_!Mer IglS : 31~17); MAI~ Up:lj M_ upS ; lind Tbumwald '93:1. J On tbe ~ • • of dw MJ" ,.1 : Polenyi 1960i Fiftley '951; 00'1 the &d: • ....s ,eo ..... ocily: Fiahy 19.55; 19711: 5"-'07; .. tbe.....-m.lol nciprocal adlanceiDI:o the AtdaMc: period : Mom. 1916.
..,a.,
1
170
PAUL. MIl.L.ETT
01 the market principle into an economy depending primarily on reciprocal and redistributive exchange resulted in an 'inevitable cmil of vaJues', .. re8ected in Aristotle'a normativt d....inction between natural. and unnatural. exchange (EtJejcs 113111G-J.... :a5) . It hal to be conceded that there are dif6cuhiet about thit paper by Polanyi. It leavet unclear, for example, what kind of exchange relationthipl are being replaced by price-making marketa and the extent to which the change it taking place. Polanyi talb in vague tenm about (65) 'Greece at the clim.aic point 01 her awakening from a heroic to a lefRi-comm~ial economy', Empirica1 evidence for thil 'awakening' ii, however, decidedly thin : not much more than a mnterpretation of MKne of the moat problematical pa·-sea in Aristotle'a Etmes and PoIitics,a Later writings acid linle by way of clarificltion. Hil aUflRpt. in a comparative atudy of economic inatitutiont (1960: 333-40), to reatrict the ICOpc of the market principle in Athena ia not without inaccunae. and inconsiatenciet (Humphreyt 1969: 49), In a final, poIthumoul publication (1977 : 159-87) , Polanyi tried to account for the growth of the 'market habit' in Athens in lerma of broad political developments. The _lth of empire. pa..ed on to the citizena in the form of public pay, .... aeen .. instrumental in auataininll the "lOra as a market for rudy-cooked food : the CORtrut between the old and the new being exemplified by the contest betwccn the rediatributive behaviour of Kimon (Plutareh, K.irfton X,I-3) and the policiea of the market-oriented PericlCl (Plutarch, p~,;cus XVI'4-S). Although not without insights, the theory ia naive in formulation , depending on the selective citation of paI.. gw out of context. And yet, in 'Pite of theee and other imperfectiona, Polanyi'. broad conception of a decisive abift towud. market exchafllt in claatieal AtheOl teema to havt found favour with hiatorianl who reject the crude, manet-dominated appro.ch to the whole of Greek. history. And there the matter of exchange in duaical Athena appein to
-.' More recent research on CORtflRponry non-capitalia lOcietiea hal aerved to !how up the limitationa of Polanyi'. nther rigid, tripanite analysia. Although it remains helpful in the preliminary atagea of d_meation, the detailed {and
I n in quntion (&Vel IIJa.o-)4U5 ; IWirin nj6ba?-Sa.'4) hIowe been repnudly re-examined ; FinIcJ ('970) IIi- a critical Rport on earl. . war\, II it !he MrftIIIh of Fin.,." ..... yW (and thai of WiD 19,54b) thai AriItotIc',.,...-.1Ift intcrpreud.,u...1he bKqrouncI of founh.century«OllOl1l' mel 1OrieIy, TbM it _lhr_ with recenc 'etOIlOCIIic' ialerpm.tioow of !he teIrtI (l.ewit ,~ : t-ry .969, 1974, .9111. Oft whieh _ Meilde 1989), AD 1'- i * - eilMr irpMwt !he -.icH:UHWIU.ic coamn cw my aa iMlkq_ MId outdated _ N ~.". _ _ (_, fcw • .. 0..... Witian 1975: 61 n.a. , "hen fcw 'MDeI' rnd 'Michdl,), • Thaup!ben 11ft dilkie. of opinion _!he jN ....... period dI wbieh Ibc •• ,1:,.: rill of marbI achance b.pn to bawe "p"e • ' COlli aa.ocicl,. a wtde, Fcw Stm (1971: 191) Ihe ptOftW _ well under..,. bJ' 5110; FmdI {196+: 107-34) _ 1 0 fiftlI oaIIW'y. M~ (1979) IoUowI PoImJi dllIO". lie taka AriItotIc. tW Oill"lCC ,.,... fourth-omtwy 1nnIf_ _ , To fl. . . . wida thiI debMc it bqwod'" tcape of chit,...... tM _ uI. the ptoblelill in.ohcd dI ickatif,ir4 dM 'rile of. - r fl(t : . " _ _ plli...ed out bic.,., h1 r - (19441. 0. the eriticII qo.lIl'ioa of the rei 'MNtoobip bina" ca ' , . _ dw ....oclll C . . _ _ y, _ Kru, 1964; C••• fwd .9I. : :19"!9, I TII.e PI
*
f._ . .
"
'7' conflicting} contributions of Bohannan &:: Dalton (196:1), Dewey (1C)62), Belshaw (11)65), Nub (tC)6S), Sahlint (1974), Gregory (11)8,) and Hill (1986) .11 iIluatrate the complexity and .ubtlety of non.capitaliat cxchange. lo Not only are the mechanismt of exchange mixed up and modified. there can .Iso be • blendin£ of the ideologies assumed by Polanyi to be appropriate to the different modes of exchange. So, in our own capitalist lOciety, the 'monl ecooomy' of aift-giving both parallels and impinges upon the 'political economy' of market exchange (Davia 197:1 i Cheal 11}88) . The result, therefore. may be compromiae and control rather than the tension identified by Polanyi in fourth-century Athens. 11 To apply thi. kind of plet-Polanyian integnted .n.lyai, to the economy and aodlCty of clulical AthlCl'II would be. muaive undertaking, involving study of • range of different types of testimony: literary, cpignphic, numismatic, archaeological, iconogn.phic Ind comparative . It ill IS. contribution towlrd. luch • comprehensive study thlt this piper i. offem!. Although I variety of IOUrce materiu. will nee' arily be brought into pl.y, the problem is Ippt'MChed obliquely by eumining the complex of .ttitudes rel.ting to the exchange of goods .. mediated through lawslnd legal writings from Athens. 1z
II Any Ittempt to gnpple with the legs1upects of exchange in Athens must take .. its point of deputure Prinpheim's fundlmental study of 17te GrPeit Law of &Ie (1950). Since its appearance thia hu remained the standard work in the field and is the esaentiallOUrce for the f~ psges devoted to IIle in more recent textbooks of Athenian law and legal theory (Jones 1956: 227-32; MacDowell 1978: 138-+0). Prinpheim began the conclusion to his book by expreuing the hope that new dlscoveries and better interpretations would lead to revision and correction of many of the Itltementa and explanations it contained (502) . He aIao stated hil expectation that the two theKs running through the book would remain unchallenged; namely, the notion of IIle in the Greek world .. IIle for ready money. and the verutiJity with which the Greth manipulated th.t limple concept to meet the requirements of In increasingly IOphistiCited economy and tociety. To date, both these predictionl have proved correct . ,e MUlY of tIM: worb lilted in the lut (and pIaIty of othere) ..., uecfuUylWlllrl&riled in 1M .,-napIic INdy by HodpI (11)88): flit' IIWW}' aI the rOle aI the mnct in erier 1CIcictia, 1ft Rodi ..... (1973) · II On the inIdequIC)' of the qnal PoIaayi pandip> • UI ~ of t:II~ in the G . . - a - world, _ Finley IOns: In. P.tinanl hen.;. the recml diIco ..,,) .....111 Fink-y'• ....-. of the unpubIlebcd C'onltibwllt'l that 1M: "';lhIM:1d lrom 1M n...k ouuJ M. ., (H~ '969: 4l'): tIM: po.Iibility of ih publimion iI Mi,. d~ . It Ihoukl .... be noted 6oI.>btI brre ! . . . ., PoIaayi'a fN_ntltion of awtec. tndi. . . the daminent lorm aI adwtr in the eacieot N __ Eat (Gkdhill a. Lanen 1,B:a). 11 POI'the . . . aI ~ty. the....,.. IbM. fono.. ~ ewer tIM:. UnportlDt q..-ionl of !be.ektioillibip bet .... ~ tnde IIDd rdailint ( Finky (93S) end tho: -U)'Iick • • _ aI -..ppI_ for the C'ity lo.bacllll: I,s,..: 9)-11:a). .\leo ipoted II tho: ~ aI oppoted to aoodt (flit' tIM:. hiriDa allIboI;tt Nllica, _ Fub '951 , M~ (9'f6).
"me
a-
beet!........
..,.ica.
"
17~
PAUL MILLETT
Such amendmenll u have been offered involve only poinll of detail (Oemeyere 1952, 1953; Gerr.et 1953: Wolff 1957; KrInzlein 11}63: 76-82). But application to excha~ 01 the broader &pproKh outlined. in the fint part of thil paper cuta &CfOII Pringsheim'l anaIym. of ule. ca1ling into question Ind in plrt modifying his twin themes of cuh ule and conaequent legal venatility. The II.... of sale at conceived by Prinpbeim provides an apparent exception to the rule (noted in the fint Itction of ch. 1 of this volume) that the ltudy of the law in ancient Greeee I'ItCE lrily echoes the pnctice of Greek history in ita Athenocentricity. The num~ of accua1lawa relating to sale surviving from Athens is small (Lipsius1915; 73B---49) . There are aeveral references (an from fourth-century IOUn:a) to I law forbidding deceit or misrepr EI Entltion in the agora (atnetulei" ell lei tJIOI'Qi : Hyp. AtMIIOfftU'S 14: d . Oem. xx.9). The Hyperidel puaage i, gloued by Hlrpoknlion in his late LexiCOft ofw Ten Oraton u follows (, .v. lata te"lJIO'U" apse"dei") : The law moreovct requirn honat dali", in tht 1IfOI'fI. and it _ probably writttn to cover pxh flwn' tOfl 0IIi0fI). Theophnlloe DYS in hil N~ (LIraIJ - SRJCdy· Muuk 19111 : fr .:&0) that the fflD'dltOMlli (market inapttton) mUll look aftu two thinp: good order in theDfl'"l snd abKnc:e of deceit not only by the adlm but slIo by the buyen.
According to the Ariatotdian Cott.rti~timt of Me AlMnimu (LI .• ), there were ten of these a,omnomoi Ippointed by lot, five each for the Pciraitul and the city of Athena: 'TheM: Ife required by the laws to take responsibility for all goodl lhlt Ire on IIle (to" mriml), to enture that what il sold is in good con· dition and genuine.' Hyperidel (AtheJllOfl!"ILI IS) also mentiona a law thlt obliged anyone telling a Ilave to uy if he had Iny physical defect; and TheophrattOi in his Nomoi (Szegedy-Muzak 1981 : fr.~I.I) record. that where real property wu involved, the teller hid to regi.ter the we with I magi.trate at lent lixty days in advance of the tranuction, Ind the bu)'tf' had to deposit one per cent of the purchuc price. TheM:, then. make up the total of known la..... concerning the general conditiORl of Wt in claaica1 Athens. 1] Although it clnnot be ...umed thlt this collection is complete, it i. at leat conai.tent in content. There is repeated emphasia on the avoidance of deceit (qleud~tl) and, with the exception of the sale of real. property and mVel. the IlCenario for thil bad faith i. the tlf'Md (see Ste. Croix H}P: 399) . Thlt auociltion recall. the alleged gibe of the Penian King Cyrus that he could never fear I people like the Greekt. 'who hive a pllce tet apart in the centre of thepolil where they cheal one another with oaths' (Hdt. 1. 153; lor the possible nature of theM: oaths. ace the finalleCtion) . The flUTOW range of Athenian Ia......bout we (11 leut. u they survive) is in striking contrut with the ICOpt of modem law .bout sale. The ltandard exegesi. of current English law II 0... the dutiet of the.." u "'" StaMy 1976: 19?-J97. I an InI certain than SUnley tMW ...poueibtlitiel iQC/vc&ed ...... known only from • f" 01 01 fourth. century totIlCd, (Athm. uSC). Pft'hibitqllk.WlldlmflVOl~ __ tbeir_. On the It_ rcbtit!f to lhe purm. of n:aI Plope,t, ia Att.m., '" Sdrnba 19)4.
( - . . ,) lhal
,
k
'73
relating to the sale of gooda (Atiyah JI}8o) involyed the citation of over a thouaand statutes and cues, and invites conlideTition of I wide range of concepts and problems, including definition and nature of the contract of Slle, dfectl of the contract, duties of seller and buyer I .nd remedies open to them. The hiltorian of Athenian law has to make do with I lina1e Ilw-court speech arising out of. sale tranaaction. 14
A. might be anticipated from the meagreneas of the mlterial, encyclopaedic U'Htmenta of Athenian law COVeT the law of sale in a handful of pages (Vinosndoff 19U : 2SC)-6S; Ham.on tC}68: ~5, 1971 : :15-'7) . By contrast, Pringthcim', treatment of the Ond law of ..Ie rivala modem legal textbooks in ill amplitude. Wb.t makee a1l this poaible is the range of text. built into the IUrvey : Prinpheim incorporates material from the world of Homer, through archaic and cluaical Greece, to Ptolemaic and even Roman Egypt, moving backwards and forwards acroes the Mediterranean world, through I thousand years of h~tory. The IMthodological question raised by thie aggt"egation of texts WII one of the major themes of Finley'a review (1951) of T'Iu G~ek lAw of Sole and it remains a matter for debate. Although lOme of the improbabili. ttea inherent in Pringaheim's combining of texts across tilM and space will emerge below (and ace Prtaux I¢I), that il not the aspect of his metbod under scrutiny in thie paper, which is concerned with the wider problem of the choice of concepts and categories.]5 In h~ Preface (1951 : VIII), Pringsheim diaclaiml any intention of writing a syatematic ttcltise on the Grccklaw of sale and prescnts his task in terms of the interpretation of texu. The texts arc grouped under more than 180 lubheadiop, with an overall div~ion between the history and theory (86-,..,), and the practice of Ale (14J-500). It is therefOft appropriate that the chapter headed 'ConclUlion' should open with the frank admission that " summary of concJUliOlll is neither neeessary nor possible (500) . But in spite of the apparently unayttematic approach, there are underlying principles that give the book a definite ahape. The aim of Pringsheim il not eO much recon.truction of the individuallaWi and S"'tutes encompusing sale in the Greek world. II clucidttion of the broad legal doctrines that are presumed to underpin the mau of material he has collected. Where he differs fundamentally from h~ predeceuors (Caillemer 1871, 1873 ; Bcauchet 1&}7, IV : 10<4-56) is in consistently uguing apinat the crude usimilation of the Greek law of .. Ie to itt Roman equiva1ent. But in proving his point, Pringaheim paradoxically It
lJ
Hyperidm. Afoitut A'\o! :,*,WI. On lOme of the Iepl implication. of this epeech, ~ Furtiol:;. 19,56. ON: prmama that tho: ve-t ....jorit)' of diaputa aNi,.. in the tIplJ ~ Idtled...-ily by the..,... •••• c; and ilCYeI"rnched. 00II" (HItriIon .97. : :15-6). Pallua. in lUI ~ or 'Wordbook' (x.ln). pru • • line from Kl1Iti~, the fifth_ntury mmic pLoywI4bt - 'With IliIe ned. in tho: pillory ('''''''''') ' __ follow. : ' II mUM be .... ppoecd thd lb;. pillory _ . dewke employed in enforcint tho: ... of the CIJIII"P . in which. pnwn doint wronr ill the ..,.. _ fon:ed to put IliIe ned; lor. bati,..· For. critiqw of Priflclheim·. boo' from I diffftftlt .... opec:ti.~. 1ft Gemet 1951 . II mil)' ~ fIdded tb.t Pt;I.obei...•• "icbtIY evtier 1tI»d)' 01 "The Grea _Ie by auction' (1\1+9);' aI.o heml)' ckpmdmt on tho: tatimony of the papyri.
17.
PAUL MILLETT
applin to the Greek material a a)'Rem of cat~es and c1...ification derived ttnight from Roman law, with the rault thlt hia analyaia remaina Itraitjack. eted by inappropriate conceptII. The aumnwy thlt follOWI ia, .. far u pouible, bued on Prinpheim'a own exJK*ition (86-90) . In the amplest aocietiea, we ia conceived of u an inttantaneoua anair with goods and money changing handa aimultaneoualy. That ia the procell known to Roman law .. a 'real contract', being va1idated by the actual nc:hange of ,ood. and cuh (Nicholu 1I~62: 167-71). Difficulties ariee becauee of the inftexibility of auch a aimple ayatem and itl aupposed inability to meet the eophiatic:ated requirementl of a more developed economy. The buyer may want to ue the gooda now but pay later (deferred payment or credit...le) or the eeller may want the money right away but hind over the gooda only at a later date (deferred delivery). Either procell ia potentially awkward in that having an instanuneou. contBCt of ..Je, va1idated on the actual exchange of goodl and c:uh, there can be no legal unction for enforcing delayed payment of purchue price or delivery of goodl. Thegreat achievement of Roman law in thi. reg.rd WII the development of the IO-called 'conacnaual c:ontfllct' (Nicholu 1962 : 171-82). The crucial point about thi. type of contract was that a legal oblig.tion could be established between buyer and eeller by virtue of a mutual agreement. Once an agreement had been reached, the buyer WIt under an obligation to ply over the money and the seller to hand over the goods. Any delay in either paying over the purchase price or delivering the ,ooda wu irrelevant; II a contract was held to exiat from the moment agreement wu reached, completion of the proc:eae wu legally enforceable. AI I conaequence, ownerahip of the goods in question wu tf'llnaferrcd along with the goods, independently of Iny payment of the pun::hue price. The buyer in I credit·ule agreement therefore became the owner of the gooda .. lOOn as they came into hil poll "ion. Legal hittoriant before Pringaheim Iw:I tended to ICC the Greeb u anticipating the Romant in arriyjng It the idea of the corwensual contract with rapect to ule tranuctiona. Their c:oncluaion ... baed on two uaumptiona: in the nnt pllce, that the Greek economy had, by the cluaic:al period, IdVlnc:cd beyond the luge at which itl needl could be adequltely met by eimple cub ule (Hoetink 1929); aec:ondly, tut progrcsa in Greek Ilw WII bound to prefigure later Romln development.. Such evidence u lumves for the theory and practice of sale in mainland Greece was accordingly diatorted to fit the Roman model (ICC for example Dareete t89J: JOS-I2). It was one of the achievementl of Pringaheim to diacredit the aecond Ulumption .nd ahow c:onc:lulively that coneenaual contract had no formal existence in the known law of any Greek poIU . The weaknese of hit anaIysil lies in the failure to question the firat lIIumption, luppoaing like hit predeo era (Ind many of hit lucceSlOlI) that the Greeb had a 'highly developed cultuf'lll aItd COtIIUU!r· cial ciyjliution' (SOl, with my italic:a). Thia led in tum to the formulation of an Iltemative ueumption : that there wu Itill the nttd for tome equivalent
Copyrighted MaterIal
Saf~,
endi! and nehan,e in Atl!t-nianlaw and society
'75
mechanism, corresponding to credit-sale and deferred delivery , The conclusion reached by Pringsheim was that the Greeks bridged the gap between the primitive principle of cash-sale and their growing economic sophistication by developing a set of devicea or legal fictions that served as substitutes for the as-yet-uninvented consensual contract. So credit-sale wu transformed inlo a fictitious loan transaction, with seller lending buyer the money needed to purchase the goods, thereby becoming his creditor. Should the deblorpurchaser subsequently refuse to pay up, the lender-seller could institute the usual proceedings for the recovery of the loan (~«...,). Alternatively, the buyer could make a down·payment on the purchase price, for which the Greek term is arrha or arrhabon (tranalated as 'deposit', 'earneat money' or 'option'). That served as a reassurance that both parties were committed to the transaction and supplied an incentive to complete the sale at a later date (33]-41<))· Pringsheim sees in these and similar deviCe! the true meuure of Greek ingenuity in law. 'Certainly', he writes (:143), 'the Greek genius used ita versatility andJreedom of thought for so shaping the rules of sale as to cope with the variety of daily life and the requirements of a high civilization.' That ia a thread running through the book, which closes with a atatement balancing the fertility of the Greek legal imagination against the Roman geniu. for jurisprudence (510--11). As we shall see, there is an element of truth in that comparison, though Athenian fluibility was not along the lines envisa~d by Pringsheim . More specifically, his theory about compensatory devices taking the place of consensual contract can be challenged 011 two different fronta. Apart from the ahadowy existence of the devices themselves
III The infrequency with which the deviCe! of deferred payment and arrila appear in Athenian sources wu remarked on by Finley in terms that deserve greater prominence than the obscurity of an endnote (195a: a68 n.39). ' Because of their exclusiv~ concern with legal problems, tbe jurists tend to ignore the question of the 'relative frequency and socio-economic significan« of credit operations in real property transfers.' That observation, which could be applied to the study of many aspects of 'Greek law', is neatly exemplified by the institution of the arma . 16 I. 1l.c juritt. ",fclTed to by Finky In, of toUa<:. modern uponenll of Grcck!aw, As ;rmlrK:Q of misleading concentrll;on on CII~ptionll cum pIn•• t the cxpenae of Qubli1hing the gc~r.1 pltteTn of Ale, he: <:ilQ Ihnniclc:a by Simonctot (1939) and HellcbnM (RE XVIII : 4'1-311,¥ , olli),
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The treatment of the arri'a by Pringaheim give. sufficient indication of its limited relevance to the IOcl.J Ind economk hiatoriln of dillical Athen.. In I chlpter of Ilmoat one hundred pagel ()))-.p8). only one concrete example iI drawn from Athena (310-2): I lpeech of IIieUI ha. fleeting reference to .n am.abon given for &orne funerary equipment (vlII .a). with Wy&e ad Ioc .). All other refemtcel to the amra.re indirect. The term occura twice in. dilputed puuge from the Nomoi ofTheophrutol (Szesedy· Muuk 1981: fr.5-6).nd once in .n .necdoce preaerved by Ariatotle .bout the fitulncW lcumen of the early sixth-century age Th.les (Politics 12SeJa)-19). Neither text need have Iny direct belring on the Ute of the amaa in AtheM. Apt.rt from In ob.cure .lose in the urico" of Hlrpokration (s. v. beba«neos), arrlra 1110 Ippeara in twu pll)'l by PilutUl derived from Atheniln origilUlil (Mtnt~llaria 631-8; RMd~1U -45-6, 860-a , 1281-]). Although thil ng.bIg of referenca confim'll the uiltence of the anIIa in Athenl. it hardly IppelB aln illKitution crucw to th~ functioning of the Ath~niln economy. 11 Much the ume could be uid lbout the ochu device tingled out by Pringaheim : the legll fiction of having I loan contract atlnd in piKe of credit·ale. In light of Prinph~im'l rtlponR to hil critics, thil cIIII for al'l\Ore inltlnce to literary extended treltment. Rntricting the field in the evidence, there Ife from Athenl only two cemin references to credit'Mle heinl repllced by loam betwHn buyen Ind .lIen (Oem. xu .l ; Lyk. LtoIt . 2). Both cues will be discussed in the next KCtion; u will two Itltements by Plato seeming to suggest that in his IeCORd·beat wte deferred plyment for goods would be diacouraged (.l.aws 8~. 9ISd-e) . Finley objected thll these eumplea. even when combined with doubtful cues .nd the evid~nce for the am.a, hlrdly IUpported the view thlt 'the concept of we on credit WII flmililf to Greek Ilw' (19Sa : a68 n.39. citing Pringlheim 1950: 24-7) . The telponM: from Prinpheim (195) wu I widening of the field to take in the tntimony of inscriptions. The .rgument revolves .round • group of twelve ao-alled Iwros· in&criptions. I ' These were Itelle belring abort, often roughly CUI in&criPliOnl,
nrat
r« JK*iblc in1~iotw of tlw H"pokntion f
r. we Reimer (1941); C - 19S' : II)-U. Altt.ou,h the PIIutine mcn=nca to tM ....... piobitbly reftm Alhmian . . . ( MIC~lI 1978: ')9; Lowe ,0)85), !IOU the raidual ceulion 01 Gernct '951 : 310. To the: mCKfICft in the Inl may be lidded dllt conjKtunl reM_ion of orrlIobott in • blttered inettilMion thoorht by Fine 10 be.iIoftN (19SI : lIO.aS ; we the Keplia.I CORIftIItIIt. by FinkJ 19SI: 1IO.lIofA) ; alIo, • ~ ''''''lItnl 01 1M L.w founh _1111)' • • ariouaIy .ctributcd to Python 01 Klt.na, Python 01 Byantium IUId Alexander 1M GlUt ( t) , l\'IItfttiont metaphori· cally klllirru......", - 'the ckpolil on I call";rl· (Alt-. lIIU.S86d. ,S9fMt). TWnc ....... .n. Col.. (10)81) _ in tlw ....... tM IepI dniet " ..... tbj 1i1lt'...t...It.~ Mllipla of imported soocb in lhe ......... or 'dilplay Ira' in 1M Peinieut wen: able to Itrike I bindi", I(fti:mtnt without carro IUId purm--prict ehlntirc handa. But .. tbe need the mecbaniatn i, hued on Prinpheim'. thetit 01 real eontnel (I a6 n.39), tbe IUpIDftll TtIIt biblq.aphy on IM..m.a llOMinliel topow; 10 the litt Ii"" by FinSer (195': a68 .... )9) edd T.Lam.nn '9Sl. II What followl •• thortellltd IUId eimpUfied 'm'tion of the UJUII'IC'III pramted it! Millett 19111: xiv-Pi ii. For deW. oftbe !'I.tlft"'" it!¥Olved, let 1'1 .11 be""'.
11
'III' .cirN ...
1
placed on the boundariea of real property to indicate thlt the title of the piny in P-Q1IC.ion was 8Omehow compromiaed. The property might, for example, have been offered as aecurity in I lOin transaction. I' The function of each individual hotw is uaually .c1ear, though the tencnftol of the text can .ametimea lead to ambiguity. That il the cue with the ~Ive inecriptions under ana1yaia: elliptical wording makc:a it poI8ible to interpret them as indicating either loan trlnsactionl with the property Icting II security (Finley), or ..Ie of the property with defert'Cd payment or deferred delivery (Pringaheim). An eumplc may help to darify the oppc»ing viewa. One of the disputed Itoroi (Finley 1952: nO.3) reads: 'In the arehoMhip of TheophrutOi (340'39 or 31]112 •.c.),1toros of land for the price owed on it to PhancmratOi of Paiani" a,ooo (drachmae). '2:0 Finley uaumea the omi.ion (not unparall. eled in thea IJRIteuriah productional of .arne phrase indicating a Itturity operation, giving the aenae : 'Iroros of land (put up as security) for the price owing on it , .. ' The tBnUCtion the«:fore resemblea the modem Englilh mortgage, with the pie« of property acting U IICCUrity for itt own purchase price. But, according to Priopheim (1950: 163), IUch an interpretation was impouible, inum~ch u only the owner of, piece of propeny wu in a position to offer it u security. If the full purchase price had not yet been paid, there could be no change of ownerahip, short of invoking the principle of conacnsual contract. 'All thi. would go .pnlt our thelis', admit. Prinpheim (1950 : 163) , He therefore reinterpreted the horos u recording a credit-sale. PQSKSlion of the land had changed handt, but not ownership, beeauat the purchase price wu 11i11 owing to PhanoatntOl. The inscription, argued Pringsheim, wu ICC up u a warning to any third party intendinl to buy the land or accept it "leCUrity that the oecupier was not yet the owner. Hia tranalation of theAorrn would read : '.\otw of land on which the price ilowing . .. ' Twng a .imilar line with other horos-inacriptions with phruea indicating obliption or ule but noc eecurity, Prinpheim (1953) was ,ble to conatruct two aub-categoriea of Itoroi .pparently marking deferred payment of purchue price (three eumplel) and deferred transfer of property to the new owner (nine examplea),:u In the latter cue, thelroros waa to be aeen II. wllning to third JIIIntes that ownenhip of the propeny no longer rated with the occupier. Apin, this was in oppo.ition to Finley'. view that the illlCTiptions recorded more or leu conventionalaecurity operattonl: 'If theltoroi regularly recorded hypothecation, an occaaiona1 omiMion or a word or phBK would probably htlve gone all1'1OR unnoticed' (r952 : lo.t). Although there were pointa to be made for and apinat CKh side in the argument, the nther rigid .. For. brief intrvctuction 10 the""". (uaiquc to Athef. and _ under Athmiln control) and . . ' ; n 'e of their - - . . : • ie ....ific ncr, Me Finley '9.sl • • bd otoQlivIOIAI 4qxo.iOOO 6qog ~ ntdW ~ ~ "-,,
e
..,=/11:
1
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formalism of Pringsheim seemed to give the edge to Finley'S more flexible interpretation (Millett 1982: xvi-xvii).22 The subsequent discovery of a single horos would seem to have resolved the debate in Finley'! favour. The horos in question (Millen 1981: no. 12A = SEG XXXIV, 198-1-: 167) may be translated as follows: 'homs of land, house and gardens put up as security to Philon of Halai for the price owed on half the land : 3,000 (drachmae).'u Two explanations of the transaction behind this horos are possible. Either the unnamed debtor bought the land, house and gardens from Philon, offering him the property as s«urity for the unpaid part of the purchase price; or the debtor bought the property from an unnamed tnird pany, paying him in full by borrowing the price of half the land from Philon. Of the alternatives, the former is by far the more plausible and economical explanation of the text. The crucial point about this horos is the presence in the wording of a security element. As such, it indubitably contradicts Pringsheim's fundamental thesis that ownership of property could not change hands until the full purchase price had been paid. The borrower here had not yet paid over the full price to Philon, but was Slill able to offer the property as security and was presumably regarded as the effective owner. The resolution to the problem offered above has a significance that is wider than the immediate point at issue. Although the Philon noros seems to subvert Pringsheim's theory of strict cash sale, it should not be read as support for the opposing principle of consensual contract. What is to be rejected is the mode of thinking by which all sales in Athens (still less the whole G reek-speaking world) nave to be subsumed under some single, rigid principle that can be discovered by aggregating the appropriate texts. The decisive thing was that the parties to a transaction should be satisfied with the terms, which would be negotiated without much attention to legalistic niceties. The permissive character of Athenian legislation in this regard may be indicated by a law (cited in several sources) that mutual agreements shou ld be binding on both parties. 24 Had the agreement behind the Philon homs resulted in a court case, it would presumably have been argued out along lines familiar from surviving forensic speeches, with rhetoric, emotion and appeals to justice well to the fore, and arguments based on law or legal principles kept in the background. These are some of the things ths! mystify and occasionally scandalise the modern reader, coming to Athenian law·court speeches for the first time. The speakers cheerfully ignore, or treat lightly, legal technicalities and loopholes such as in our systems of justice would be deployed to block or evade the whole 12 ecru ;n ISpeelS of Finley·, readinll ollhelooroi have been ch.UenllCd in In important plp-l'r by Hur;, (.<}IIS: sec n.19 below): but not in way. which compromiK hi, position rcprding Prinrheim. JJ ~ l"""(ouI xal mxtas xall X~ltW" lttltpujlltvwv btl /.."0£11 CP')'iWVL 'A).aLEV lLj.ul!; tvo.p[II).oI'tv')~ tOV 411l{ol~ Xtu(lwul xxx. " Hyp. AlllcrK!g. 13 : Oem. I(LIl. U, I(LVII ' 77, LVI.a: Dein. Ill.,, : PlltO, Sym.p . ' ¢C. For the Iflempt by Prmgshcim (19So : 34-4)) to argue thlt Ihi, law need not indiutc the Cl(istence 01 conKllIual contract, set: Finley '9S1: 197 n.13 .
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process. So the Athenian equivalent of • Statute of Limitations never appears as an absolute bar to an action (e.g. Oem. XXXV1.2Si see Harrison 1971: 116-20), Rather, it is cited as an additional argument in support of pleas which turn out to be based primarily on appeals to bimess (toepieikes). U That is an extreme illustration of how laW! in general are handled in the speeches; aCctlrding to Aristotle's realistic classification, they were to be treated as a type of evidence, alongside and on a level with witness", documents, torture and oath! (RJteton'c 137su4-6; see ch .2 above). The legal In:ity with which litigana presented their C!se! was matched by the latitude allowed to (or assumed by) the jurors, Noisy intervention! in the course of a spuch are well aUe9ted (Bers 1985); in an extreme case, the jurors might actually howl down the speaker, bring the trial to a premature close , and find in favour of his opponent , Such was apparently the fate of Apollodoros in his suit against his stepfather, the banker Phormion (Oem. XXXVI) . Appearing on a subsequent occasion (Oem. XLv ,6), he described how his opponent, by speaking first and perjuring himself, m.de such .n impression on the jurors that they refused to hear a single word (rom Apollodoros and fined him more than three talents. There is • tendency to see in all this the deviation from an ideal, towards wh.t Weber characterised as 'justice .. , according to tears, flattery, demagogic invectives and jokes' (quoted by Finley 1985 : 100), But that is to place a negative value on what, taking a wider view, was an integnl part of the sySlem. As touched on in the opening chapter of this volume (section III) , the umpoken aim of the legal process in Athens was not primarily enforcement of the or even securing justice for the individual; rather, it WIS the settlement of disputes. And implicit here was the underlying notion that disputes were to be resolved in such I way as to preserve the koinonia or 'ctImmunality' of thepol;s, Aa Aristotle points out towards the beginning of his Politics (1253137): 'Justice (dikaiosrmi) is I feature of the polis (poiitilton) ; for judicial procedure (diki), which is the decision of what is just (dikaiOfl) , is the regulation of the koinonia of the potis.' In the case of classic.1 Athens. the poIitet'a or 'polity' happened to be a democracy, with the jurors representing the interest! of the democratic community (ch.r, section u),26 That is presumably why litigants were unwilling to rely on technicalities as the basis of their cases ; and it also explains why Apollodoros should have been shouted down. receiving thereby a stronger expression of commun.1 disapproval than would have been possible through a formal vote of ctIndemnation.2.7 A major consequence of the infonnality of the Athenian legal process was
1,._
15 For the lull u,..:ol telere~. _1NfC"" &: Halllen '97S : ,16. On tM r&le 0110 rpinlln (only the 100M: equivlknt of modem 'equity') in Athnlian JepJlrrumrnl, lee Jon(l '9S6: 6.t-'7; Dover '974: ,84- 7_ M ~ Gnd: of the PoIitiCI ;. notono....ly elu.i~ ,rod the tn_Iation ,...en in the tnt i. not intended .. dmnitive ; 101' dilli at '!qt.1 procedure' lee the note ad Ioc. in Sinclair 6: Saunders '98" On the rorn:ept of the IIoi~Q of the polis, __ Mul(an 19n: 1)-16. 17 n i t ApollCldoro. _ not ddeotinacd by Ihit dilplay of JKlPullf diMpprovaJ ..1' mon lbout Apollodoro. than tht lora: QI juclicilillflinion; fOl' • IUrvcy Qf the cauer of thilliliaioo, Athenian, we Bonner 1917 : 11)-)4, Copyrighted Material
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the non·appearance in Athens of the prof_ional jurieta who were a characteriatic of the Roman model (FrieT t9BS). It ia therefore unfortunate that modem writen on Greek law have tried to fill what they perceive .. a gap in the literature by promoting to the IhNa of an ancient Greek jurilt an _ntially philoeophic&l writer like Theophrut08. Such interpretationa are hued on the IMumption Ihlt, .. there arc underlying principia of 'Gruk law', 110 they mUlllOmehow be recoverable from the frllfMllti of the NOIrtOi. Their latest editor (Szegedy-Maua1t t98t : 72) concluda that the lengthy fragment concerned with lIle is 'invaluable for our undemanding of the Gruk law of IIle, becluae it provides a framnrrod for thediapante bill of evideneethat can be culled from literary and epignphK:allOUrceI'. But Theophrut08 wu no jurill nor wu the NOIrtOi intended .. a forma11epJ llUtile. The long 1m of pre8er'YecI .. a part of Dtogenet LaertiOl'. Lif~ of '1Mophnutos (v'42-50; let Sollenberger 1985) gives tome impreuion of hia range of intereat., of which law made up only a minor pan. M for theNOfItfJIi, that work ia, u Pringaheim appreciated (1950 : 137), 'a minure of a tre8ti8e on actual lawa, a compton.on with other, panly old, ptortly imaginary lawa. and philDlOphica1 remaru on the menta and raulll of thoee lawa. It containa gllpe and unansWfl'ed question., and reporta and critid'lTII are lOfnetimtl inteparably intennixed.' And yet, in Ipite of lhia ruliatic amllment, Pringtheim expect. the ecnteott of the Nomoi to confonn to the principle of euh I&Ie to the enent of being serioUily embarrueed when they do not (139-41). If. u I have argued above, there ia little evidence for dderred payment or delivery in Athenian lIOur<:el. why did Prinpbeim IMume that legal dev1ct:1 would be needed to make them poeaible? The aR8Wer, which it my.econd and d~r objection to Pringaheim'. thai., IUITII to lie in the evolutionary conception of law and eociety which wu a pan of the intelkctual tradition within which he worked . Such a view i. explicit in hi. IMumption that legal fictiont were introduced in order to circumvent the IimitatiOnt of cuh aa1e in Athen • . The: evolutionary interpretation of early law is molt cloecly a.ociated with Henry Maine, with whom the doctrine reached ill c1imu (Burrow 1966: 1?-41i Stein tC}80 : 86-c}8i Kuper 1988 : 1?-41i Cocb 11)88: 52-78) . In hi. muaively influentialA"cieft' Law (1861 : :10-41 i lee Ch.l aection • ahove). legal fictiona are an urly and indilpenuble part of the proc 11 whereby obeolete restrictiont of codes .re by·puaed, making prOireu potIible. Prinpheim teem. to have held similarly progreaivitt view. of developmenta in ancient law. economy and lIOCicty.zt Although he never apcab in any detail in ~ Grult Law of &Ie aboul hi. conception of the economy in which ..Ie transactiona took place, there is alwaya implicit the idea of increuing commercial IOphiltic.tion to which the law hal to be adjUlted. The clearest hint COmet in hil ttatement that (86) ' Barter il the predcce8lOr of aa1e. Therefore the Iepl
won.
•
~,IOI'uampk. h;' paper (1955) on f)'II\boII and 6c:tionoo in Grerkand Roman law. II may be eiplfieant m-I Maine, in ~ Iht failure 0( Iht Grftb to dutlop I R ' * 0( jurilpNderlce, dacTiba Iht '!nObility mel dwkity' of their intellet;t in Itr1JIII whio::h .... ticipIItI:
Prinpbeim (Mline 1861 : ,.-], with Cocb 1918: sf...t) .
,
k
,8, hiatory of we aJways begins with the conception of cuh sale . .. But the practical requirements of • developing economic life cannot for ever be ..timed with this simple ..k: for ready money.' Prinphcim', modificltion of cub we to introduce an clement of credit thows that he ia thinking in conventional lenni of I progression through time from primitive baner to the UK of cuh and finally credit. 1'ht!t concept of barter, cash and credit H I hicnrchy of increasingly sopbisticated fOrml of exchange can be traced back beyond Adam Smith (Gra 1930). Though luperlicially attl'Ktivc, Nch aimple ~ttcrn. of lOCi.i and economic (and lepl) evolution tend to distort the way in which we view the put. In order to hiJhlight progyeR toward, ever gultet IOphilticltion the put ia neptively praented and typica11y I.belled 'primitive'. But a major achievement of IOciaI and cultural anthropology h.. been to mow how eo-callcd 'primitive lOcietiea' iovlri.bly hIve their own complexity and IOphiatitation. More insidiously, what we regard IS 'primitive' tends to be mirrored through our own preconcrived ideas lbout civiliution (I« Diamond 1974: Kuper 1988) . Thlt is the miltlken luitude It the heart of the debate over the ancient economy referred to earlier (section I). for the eo-called 'modemisu', who talte capitaliam u their meuure of auccae, 'primitive' it a neptive concept: a term of failure Ind almost Ibuse. Their leMOning (aubeonecious or otherwise) aecms to be hued on the usumption that the IOphittication of the literary Ind visulI culture of Incient Gree« must have been matched by a IOphiaticated economy, which necessarily mana capitaliam - if only in ita earlier stages. Thne hu been I failure to appreciate that pre..(:lpitalilt economlei can and do gennate their own aubtlety and complexity.29 With rapec:t to the problem of .. Ie, one way forward is through I pusage from MaUII'a TM Gift (19:&5 : 34-5) , suggesting an alternative Ipproach to the development of exchange: in the ancient world : Cuq eould ttilluy in 1910 : ' In primitive lIOCietin, baner alone ia found ; in thD.e more advanced, diftd "'e in pf'Ktiaed. Sale on eredit eharactema I higher nuge of civililattcm; it appears fir'll in nn indirect manntt, a combination ol ..le and loan.' In fact , the origin of credit isdiffemlt. It q to be found in t nnge of CUlton'll neglected by lawyenand economist. .. unintueating : namely the gill , which ia a complex phenom. enon ... Now I gift nee trily implies the notion 01 ~it . Blnn lrote from the tyatem of gitu riyen and receiyed on «edit, limplified by dnwing together the momenta of time W'hieh had previoualy been ditlinct. XI .. The m;..pp.d.uoMil """"" ~ GRd< Iqal h;.torio ... ; 1IC't. f .... eUmpIc, Fine 1951 : 9J ' Cohm I97J : 66 0. 164. s.y. Ham. ( 1918: 37 11.8.) : 'EYCe n.y avail.bility of credit _e.mtial to 1M amooch ~ of A~ 1IOricty; bn tnnMCIioM of OM type: .... _her .~ • pe.. ";ve f_ _ It all Ie..- of Athen.iaJllife~ (Millett .983 : 41): But Hlrri, h.. f.i\cd 10 appiCeitte thai: the Cf'tdit leiM. . . Hnbt .. ltd in ancient Athenian aociety Yi!ft qu.litatiwly diffO'tftt from U- Cllftventioaelly held to be chancteriItir: of the o:IIpiW.iet economy. " Theql··""" flOlll Cuq, pen1ldinfto perfection. f'riIIpheim't ida of the CYOtution. ol GRd< Ilk, ill tQ.m from a IIIMIy ollftcien.l Babyklnian law. Cuq ... mjoyed a reputation II • biItorian of RORIIfI law.
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This idea of reciprocal giCt-giving takes us back to Polanyi, althoup it IUggesta I cIORr relationahip between gilt, we and credit than he _med to think possible. In the followirll final aecttona I will try to develop thlt relltion. hip to hint at a more integnted Ipproach to exchange in ct..ica1 Athena.'1
IV The plau.ibility of a connection between IIle and gift-exchange ia enhanced by the Greek terminology of IIle. MOlt striking is the direct link between apod£domai, one of the commonest word. few 'eelI', and didomi, 'to give'. According to LSJ , the compound form has the primary meaning of 'render whit i. due'. In a valuable study of Greek VUM for IIle, Chantraine (1940) concluded that there wu no word for 'lell' in clueical Greek where ..Ie WII the original meaning. Apan from apodidomai, /WnIftfti meant 'transport aC1'OM the tea' (typically of .Iaves). whilefJOkO had the IICnae of 'offu for we'. Similarly, otIOllmai, the wual term for 'to buy', had the e.rlier IICftIC of 'malr.e an offec'. Although all these verba came to have the accepted acnae of buy and sell, the older meanin81 were praerved at lcut .. lite II Herodotus, who IJICI the word. in both teOlCl (Pringsheim 19So: 9,...s); and. II Gc:met cCTnarlted (1951 ; 1°4), the conlext il commonly tUI of gifl-cxchangc . For Prinphcim this seems to have the mtul of a Iinguiltic curiOlity or an institutiORlI .urvival. While agreeing thlt the concept of 'exchange' (here meaning baner) can be trlced through the fifth and into the fourth century (101-1), he ... urnes that 'Exchange iUtlf had almolt di.. ppcared in the Greek cI...ical period with its developed commerce.' Etymology alone can, of course, prove nothing; but chue i. a clear parallel for the gift-sale connection in the terminology of credit. Thanb to the detailed researches of Korver (1934), it can be shown that no familiar Greek word fM 'lend' had that IS ill original meaning. The commoneat term, da_ntt, h.. clOK connections with dartOS, 'gift' (7cr84); and other verM, such II Je,.Je"rattaj (7+-'7), PrrNstJrai (8c}-93) and s"mbaJl~"tt (93-4), had the earlier sense of 'furnish' or 'supply' which l urvived .. subtidiuy meanings. The Imbiguity inherent in this ueociation of lOin with gift IIeCI1'II to have rewlted in the coining of the word where the incorporation of toIws (interest) made the credit dement explicit (97-9) . From the aide of ..Ie, there il the analogous invention of the VUM Je~l~uft" and aaorwrn", referring almost unambiguou.ly to selling and buying.12
,olean",
II M ohm , 1M 'fI\Ilnml iI antiriplllcd b, Gemd who, in hie ~ of Prinphrim ( 1951 : U 1-13), pointed out tlm.de ruy be better lInderttood • • cIevdopmaIt of Iift";"i..- (d'. G«net 19+1 ; 111-46, 19411-9 : 10t6-7~ , 1956: u6-J.). 1 ""'" ben: ~w\e
ncb.1Ifr IIonr the linn indtc.tcd ill the tnt .
II For IlKOIMlary ICIIK of ~'" _ n.39 below. 11Ic...wicuity of wonk connected with ..Ie ilt.IIoofOl.Lnd. in.Wf/JIIIriPl whkh , ICCOCdmcto CIwlltaiM (1940 ; 11 .....4>. bit the lInde.I'inr
1
Sak, mdjl o"d uclto"ge i" Atlt",;u" lim o"d JfXitt)'
,s,
What is more, it can be demonstrlted in Ihe else of credit that connections with gift.giving go deeper than terminoJogy,lJ There survives from Athenian tourcet I mISt or material reining to lending and borrowing thlt mlkell overall Knse only if viewed from the perspective of the gift.exchlnge relationship identified by Mauss, In simple lenns, it il possible to identify for fourth · century Athenl two types or l}'1Items of credit relltionl. One system invoh'ed loanl that were intemt·free Ind without formality . This type of credit is c1~ to gift Ind mly be exemplified by the erarlOs or reciprocal loans that were a feature of mutual support within the koiltOrria of the polis,J4 By contrast, the aerond type of loan carried interest, along with associated fonnalitiH includ· ing witneues (or written agreement) and security. Where ancient theoretical writers comment explicitly on the relationship between the two Iypes they IIreu the gulf between them and are invariably hOlti1.e to the interest·bearing variety, The strictures of Plato (Laws 7'pc, 9uc) and Aristotle (Politics 12S8bS) against the taking of interest are well known . BUI, as will be suggested below, that negative attitude may be attributed to their ideological stance, which inadequately reflects the realities of Athenian society. An alternati\'e 'M!Mment, concentrating on the practice and pattern of lending and borrow· ing in Athens, brings out the integration of the two systems of credit . Different conditions of credit were appropriate to the vITying dt'grees of intimacy between the people who made up the polis . For those regarded IS pIIi/oi (friends, relltivCl, neighbours and Issociates), the kind of borrowers with whom c10ee reciprocal relationships might be established, loans .....ithout interest were Ippropriate." Where the association between lender Ind borrower wu more distant and a reciprocal favour seemed unlikely , it was legitimate to charge interest and require security , An interest·free loan implied the expectation of mutullariatlnce at some future date ; receipt of interest took the place of a future favour and closed the account. On these terma, an individull could limultlneously lend (or borrow) money both with Ind without intC'f'Cllt. So the (Ither of DemOlthenes had lithe time of his death about a talent lent out in interest·free ~ra'lOs loans of between two Ind thr« hundred drachmae, in Iddition to I talent lentIl interest (Oem. XXVII .9, II ).lft The InaJOI)' between gift Ind loan, and gift and sale should be clear. To ~
oI'ach. .' Ind ean mean either 'buy' 01" 'KII' I«OrdiflllO the cont«t. Th is .pp"nnl
,",p,":iao" in the lamino...,. of buyi .. and KIIi,. (Ind IH n. S4 below) it in ...~nl wilh
It·., _
tbe deteo:ted i" tbe trmIitIoIctD 01 o:m!it t"o Kbr'Yft (1934: '44-6) .tKI of banki,. by BIl,K" (1961: sl)-6o)· » In'frhat fol",,", I dn. on tbl: detailed doc!.rmcnulion 01 my lorthcomi", booIo, k"di",,,M So.. .,. itt AIJdn, NlVoe,. J< 011 tbe roW of ~ CRdit in Athmian lUcidy and ill bIMI in reciprocity, IH tM brief _byGemct 1941-9 : ISH. JI Althourh ,..., and JI4iM are COftYmtionaily rendered .. 'friend ' and 'frimdlhip'. the con'eIpOIMImce. not eompleu. Briefly, I pili"" _ anyOM wilh whom OM mjoyftl I ~lMianIhip m. _1DIINIl1r beneficial; affection need nul be inV'Olved. &e Goldhill 1C}86: 79- 107.
» The IIIOCkI outlined in tlw text is in P&" dui.ftI hom Sehli", (1974 : 115-175), with h. con. eept oI'kinlbip diltmce· replaced by the bromer idu oI'8OCia! cfiItantt' t.ed onplli/ill.
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people who were dOle. either physically or metaphorically (or both), one pve and at .orne future date received lOfnething back in return. But U lOCial distance between individuala incr! lied. 10 it became unrealistic to hope for a future return. The return therefore became instanuneout and gift was transformed into ule. An important upect of reciprocal givins is the strengtheninl of relationlhipl which Ire to be continued into the future . It it therefore beneficial for both partics if an euct balance cannot: be struck: a gutrantet: that the ueocialion will continue. Sa1e, by contrllt. is a more impenonal tranuction that need have no implications for the future, making it crucial that both .idn be IIlidied with the excluinr:. That may help to explain the imporunce of cuh in ..Ie tranuctiona, facilitating lOme kind of balance betw~ what is liven and rttrived in a way not euy or poaIible with .rlight baner)1 Whereabouts in terma of social distance an individuaJ drew the line between gift and IIle would depend on I combination of lOCial convention and penonal judgement . The sheer size of the population of Athena made it inevitable tluit ciliUM who were unconnected by ttea of plfi/io would hive at leut oc:cuional dealiflll with one Inother. As with Demoathenes' flther and his loan at interest, no Ihame wu attached to selling rather than givi"l. provided it ..... nOI habitual and the bounds of phi/io were not tranagrmed. To return to I text introduced elrlier (and to .... hich we ""ill refer llgIIin), the Cltaracten of Theophrutos commonly sell things on I eQuII, private buia (1.5. xlI.8, xv.S, XVIII .9, XXI1.4, XXII1.9). By itself. this i, unex~ptionable: criticism cornea only .... hen a Character illegitimately combincspili/ia. gift and .. Ie. That is the specillity of the 'Man who thrivea on sordid pin (aislrJerrMenkio)' (xxx) . He sells watered wine - even to his philo; (5); having elaimed hti &hare or gifu (x~nion) on an embauy, he aellathem (7); and, after perauading .philos 10 sell him somethinl cheaply, he immediately re-atlls it II a profit (12) .)1 11 1M impenoMl O\'eftonn of Ilk may help 10 nplain Uw: illli hKe of dw Corinthians in dw early liilh centllry 'hll dw Atlwnialll pey live dTKhrue lor _h of tlw I _ y Wp. that dwy (di'**lI) to Mlp Alhme in hn WI. . .;l1li Aqina. "J'1u. _ ', ..,.. Herociotu. ('"'19), 'bodlllC - . ti .. ttl their _ , they.en: not IIIDwed to Ii"' them .. I tift,' A. notcd by Silmon ('91. ; '5' n .• ,). _ . rna~ Iwrc h..,e the tellK of either lonnalla. or CUItOm . 8111 b~' pricof lin' the lIhi p.. the Corinchirl,.. c:ould pal off the tnn.cttoa .. 'impnwnal', not n«'CaIrily implyi. Iny bond of Jlltjl«r bdwl>C'n the two JtokU tbet mipt conti_ into tbe flltllre . '" A. often in the ~t"I~~ . thc IUI\II and mnninc of the tnt Irt Iwrc (XlOt . u) IInclcar. but 1M ~nenl drift it IInmill:....bIc; _ U..hct' 1960: ffd Ioc. Comparabk ia 1M bt.llaviour of the 'M"n Min' (G"",kllroVrM), who .,111 off the: _ fn;>m • -.ifico: he: ia tIbIipd 10 perform rMbrr than ,;vor it aWlY (nil •• ). Othc:r r I ' . , . , _ cI ' ~"!Uta ;Ux1IpoIC ..k with reciprocily: hoc: . II.S.: Pt.to, IAtc',I7&-a&l; d . Dem. Ut . 1 where ,1ouI of 3,drxhmac .. weipcd am:.ticIi.ly "';l1li tlw .cnp of papa' - " two coppen (Altai"") liven I I . rteeipf . Allo rtleYatt is tbc tendmq for wordI mcaninc 'buy' IIId '.,11' 10 br combined with GIp ...... 'money' or '.aver'. nu. ida of buyi. or .,W.. 'Ior money' "'Oelll thlt II'IOM1 c:ould itlelf be _ .. 1ft object of rae"' ; _ Kray 1964: 90; lor. mDtktn African panlleI, Bohannan " Datto. 1961 : I . AppoptiMe tab aft colk::tcd by Prinphcim ( "itSo: 100-1), who mtuprctl the p/IrMi. . . ~ '-ct...J .. k for ready P'~
"'inc'
pRe_
.......,', Thae
and IMhn F
I " 1l1latify 10 lhe livel} aiateooe and apprccillion of tlwOOf>Cepf 01
,
k
SDk. endit and uc~ i", Atllvrian fatD and somty
'"
AIIO under suspicion are th06C who sell on I more-thln-cuull basis. making I living out of buying Ind selling (1uJ~I~a) . Again. credit provides I pllrallcl with the populu mistrust of profCMional money.lenders. u indicated by attacks on them in the courts (Dem. xxxVII .sz-4; XLV . ~) . Alleged grounda IN: the way in which profcaaionallendera make their living through the ayatematic exploitation of other people's misfortunes. With profcaaional retailers (~loi). suspicion SCCrM to have arisen out of the obligation impoKd on them by their OttUpation to buy cheap and sell dear. It WlS Ulumed that without linb of philia to restrain them they would incline towarda deceit and miareprcaentation . Some of the stock acc:usatione made againlt retailers in Athens are given below; but mention might be made of the aIlame appllrently felt by a citizen in being al&OCiated with the busincas·end of the tI6f"tJ (Oem. LVII.30-6). and the unpleaunt auociationa of lOme agora· worda.)9 The huhhy lU.picion with which market tradert were regarded in Athens should not be confulCd with the downright hostility and even contempt they meet with in the pages of Plato and Aristotle. Both identify ..Ie with exchange (aJJa,e. alloJt;ti1tij refa. in Pringaheim 1950: 99) and are highly IICnaitive to the way in which exchange in purtuit of increased wealth . rather than for the uke of .If-sufficiency. is liable to abuse. diarupting the Jroinoni4. Thia is the baia of Ariatotle'a notorious distinction between exchange that is 'natural' and 'unnatural' (Politic$ IZsSa39""hz). But in what follows. the cmphuia will be on Plato's presentation of the problem of retail trade in the poIi$. arguing by reference to empirical evidence for exchange thzt he (and Polanyi) undHestimated the acopc for integration between p11l1;0 and exchange in the a,tON . In Plato'a SopIWt (azJc-d). exchange (alloJrtiJri ) is agTccd to be of two kinds: gift (donotiAoJll') and IIle (a,onutiAon). It is further agreed that ClIchangc-by-aa.le can be further subdivided into 'aelling one's own products' (autopoliJri) and '1IClling what othera produce' (~tabktjJri). which in the city is called 'retailing' (Jrtl/N!liu) . In the Po/jtjcru (a6oc-d). Plato revcala his relative diupprova! of lJ.apelilti : kings and their heralda are metaphorically and rapectively COfRpllrcd with outopoloi and Itapeloi; and in the RqIlblic (J7IC) disapproval is abeolute. with /taj¥Joi prtaented as weaklings. fit only for hanging around the GpnJ I ex<:hanging goods for money. That ia the more immediate bacl:cround for Plato'a lI'catmcnt of retailing in the Laws. where • reo:ipnal Jift~ ripl thrvuP ca..ic:al AdwnI (and bc)OII1d). WMn ~ .m.edtbcAtbenw.toKClepl: ~ flVftl PhilipOll!yifht:p", illHd (lIIl £ '-i) and not ftoticly offend to';" it (.....) . be _ not 1'* quibbli"l"_ .,n.tI1et. Ae.hina arJI*I (1II.ll)· A tift impDed I covntcr-.ift in 1"'"'1 that tbe..-ontioa IJiI former F :.on cticI not. See aiIo die _lope of p eet with tbc _ motif coIJeeted by At'--':Uld ntb. " Far a.llpk" . I lad 4:e ;. en die _ _ IJi ~ _nd in die 1IIJDrlI, with Impl .....--.of Weliol -.0.. On tbe da... "' 1m Ehnnberr 1951 : IIJ-IS·
onn_IJI..,.... 1
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PAUL MILLETT
comprehensive programme for its control verges on suppression .+0 There are delailed regulalions for holding markets for specified products on fixed days with separate markets for citizens and non-dtizens (849a..o). Within the market itself, pitches are to be marked out and allocaled by the agoranOtnQi in conj unction with other offidals (84ge); selection of these market inspectors has already been carefully described (763e-764b) . Regulations relating to pricing and adulteration are listed (916d""918a); and, after a remarkable tirade against the anti-social behaviour of kapeloi and pandokeis (innkeepers), laws are set down forbiddi ng any citizen to act as kapelos, with imprisonment for one year as the punishment for a first offence (9183--930b) . The conditions of sale prescribed by PlalO are as follows (91Sd-e; d . 84ge): When one person makes an eltchange (allallt lai) with another by buying or selling, Ihe transfer shall be made by handing o\·er Ihe anicle in Ihe appointed pan of the agrna and nowhe re else, and b~· reeeil·jng the price on the spot; and no delay (a ",~boli) in ule or purchase is ~lIow ed . I f a person exchanges (diamtl iHitai) something in any other place or under any other agreemem , trusting (pi5/tuon) the other party to the exchange, he mUSI do so on the understanding Ihal Ihere is no legal rcdrus regarding thi ngs not sold accord ing to the law$ set down. Although appart ntly straightfono.·ard, the interpretation of this passage has prO\'ed problematical. For Pringshtim in particular it presents a stumbling· block as he tries to read into tht text Plalo's reassert ion of the principle of slricl cash sale, outlawing the device of the fictitious loan contract. As the motive beh ind this he identifies Plato's antipathy towards credit transactions ( 130) , based on a broader hostility IOwards capitalism (129). 41 But a problem remains for Pringsheim in Plato's treat ment of eredit·sale operations in which the buyer fail s to hand over the purchase price . By denying the seller any right 10 legal redress, he seems to be supporting the idea that ownership of an article (or, at least, its unassailable possession) could be transferred without the purchase price having to change hands. That apparently secure interpretation of the text - and it was so understood by Theophrastos in his NQmoi (Szegedy·Maszak 1981: fr .21.7) - is rejeeted by Pringsheim as having consequences that are ( 140) 'incompatible with the Greek law of ownership'. 'Moreover', he says, 'they violate the first principle of the Greek law of sale, that ownership passes only if the price is paid, a principle emphasized by Plato himself who wishes to res tore pure cash sale.' There is more than a hint of circularity in Pringsheim's reasoning, hemmed in as he ;s by preconceived notions about the primacy of cash sale and Plato's dislike of credit. Clarification of Plato's attitude towards sale and credit seems .., For a full discussion of Pla!O's12 "'5 relating 10 Ihe marketpllce Ind. c:omp.rilOn with Alhenian I"S"lation, Ke Stanley 1976: 33-57. 01 'We may uy with w me co nfider>« Ihat Pl.todilliktd credil tr . nuetions .nd in this respect WI. In accord wilh the popular Ind dup· rOOlw f«l inga ,,( many oonlcmpor.rie-. as wdl.1 thllK of the old poetry' (I J I ) . B"I Ihe rdercnc;q lupplied to I I.w Iscribed 10 ZaleukOi (ICC n.42 below) and. pns.gc from Theogni. (3.83) Irc poor evidCn« on which I" bast luch I IW",ping .tlle rnenl.
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'"
to come from the continuation of the p""ge from the Lows cited above . In what at first looks like an aside, Plato concedes that (9ISe). 'Concerning erwlOJ' Joana, ""hocvet' wiahea may collect them as _phi/os amongpltiloi. But if Iny diApute arises involving the raising of ItrartOS loanl, he mUlt act on the undenttnding that in tegIIrd to theee mitten no legal action••re poeaible.' Plato cannot intend the lack of legal redraa u. disincentive to er(zlIO$ credit, which, with it. c10eenen to gift. reinfor«l the ideal of mutulIIUpport within the community encouraged elsewhere in the Laws (e.g. 738d-e) . Rather, he regards legal unctiont as inappropriate in loaM between philoi : an attitude that is echoed in the Ja. code. of other poki,.42 Plato', aim in malting 10lnl at interest non·f'eCOVenblc at I.w w.. presumably to buttress the giftueociatione of credit (Laws 74:1C, 9:UC) . By hi, peaaimiltic rttkoning, offering the opportunity to default on repayment to borrowen not bound to lendera by ties of phih'a would effectively luppress this brlnch of interctltbearing credit .4 } Phllo'l attitude towards ..Ie Kerns to be similar. He rqards the tnnuction (especially in the tJ,f01I2) IS being between non-philoi and therefore open to fraud . Although he KeRU to envisage the bare possibility of tnut (pUlis) between buyer and seller (ICe the puaage quoted above), the impliQtion of hi. cammen.. is that abuse i. liable to break in. That is wh y he aeeb to minimise the opportunity for fraud by insisting on instantaneous exchange wheTe non-pililoi are involved." An examination of the empirical evidence for ..te and credit sale in Athens suggeata that Plato', peuimiam WN mi.pllced. It was argued above (III) that formal eumpla of credit IIle were few and far between. Where cases can be identified, they typically involve substantial purchues of real property or ,laves. 45 The relative rarity of credit-sale ag«emenls may be expllined in ... TH f"lleot.c.tcmml_ ftom AriItotlc (£lAin • • bbll-63~), who , in. dilcuMion of Ihc diffCftftn bel_U", pmoonIl and impcrlOAII ..,I.olionthipll, noca Ihit in _ p\I<:n Jeri not IIIowed in nts baKd on tNlt (pill;" . AIon« thac lina, Lolatkoe, thteul)' ~ry 1awci1rU of Locti, .. npulecl to luyc a"bI~ .1.... forbidd illltM UK ol writtm ... _'",'Ib ia - . 1......,;1...... (Zcnobiu., Prm: . •. 4). In fourthoftntury Alt.n.lhtpoeition _ lettlted, with dilputa.mine oul of crv_ Iootn. lu,,; . lhe pri"iJectd ".Iu,ol 'moathly ",itt' """.N . UI.:I ; 1ft Cohen 1973 : , ..010). Othtt IUthon follow Prinpheim in 'pp-tnlly utcndine Plllo', oppotilion 10 ;nlfl'eIlbtuTnc kIMI to III brand... of credit (t.,. Nicokt 1971 : 1»4 n. I, 'Le prtt • intbft , done I~ du afdil, - " amdamnn') . S..,td,_M_1t (.91' : 71) ,,,Dick llul tf'rOr bul Ippun to be undtrtbe imp . co thai tym int~.lfft endil _ ~i led lorcommm:i •• purpcMtl • •• PJD1pbeim -.emf to mriMfe Ihn:c: typct oflooln. in tbt tocicty bthi'lld tbt LtIan : inlft'tll' bcarinr, iMCral·frer, andn-a_; of which onl)' the inlerClt·ftet ".ritty _ protected b)' ..... ( I)O) . But ..... mtrod_ Ift..-Jy into lhe uWy.it llul CUI be .¥Oided by lCUpti.llul f'bto .- dill inIen!M·frec IoutI would be of the c_lJJ"'. .. IDItftIIinrIy e-.h, it it 'l'btophnItoI" Mituultful Min' (..,.u/lOl) who i..... on immtdi.lt "")'"_ (rom. pvrdI.u who win _ tolentc an)' dt")' (ltYIlI.9). nu.nono tICIpc Btu ..."," (1897, I'f" : u6), who IICriba PIeto', Pf'O"*- o:onc:cmiTil endil ..Ie 10 hi. _ ol the pnrttrbill bid faith ol hill ft1low-C ........ 1 05 Finley 195': 110. ) ('-ncl), MiUttt 11)81 : iIO. IIA (WId, bou&< and pdt..) ; 1ft .bo¥t, lee!ion III. Dan. and L~. LIIoj . I) both in¥Ol¥ethe pun:hMcol ...... UIi.the dc¥ic:col.1oan _dacribedby Prine ..... ial. ln both.-.thc 1:\'111 I. ~Iion. _ .. , ....d ...... ...,;.'ormal • • with ia_-c:butc and ol tither .ill or wrinm " , _..en!.
rtd.-.
".ttli..
n-
xu.a
'*
.88
PAUL MILLETT
temu of the networu of interat·free credit anillble to molt citiuna. Apin. ttraight credit provides a parallel. with bOB owen ecekinc to replace interat· bearins loana from profeaaional lenden with intcreR·fm: credit from pltiloi (e.g. Oem. UII .4-tJ) . By In ana1osoua ProceM. obligationt owed by pltiloi cauld be deployed .. I wly of Ivoidins Iilbilitiea wins out of dealings with .~/oi. Thia mechanilm CIIn be ecen .t worlt in I letter on lead from Attica. dlted to the early fourth century ;46 CUT)' to the POtin.' M.rket (tori MnIMOfI), and delivrorto NaUli.u orThruykksor my .on. Mnnierpaend. hi. rminp to alill home and hopes thit IDI)' find them .. _11 .. it Invn him. PIe_1Iend me a nil, either .lheepN.in 01" ptNin, .. cheap .. you can gd it, and not with h,irt on, and IOII'Ir MI'OfI( Ihoe 1atheT. I wiD ply you when. chance ,riatt.
The pattern of that relationship appears elaewhere, in contexts from which the underlying ethic.1 norm CIIn be inferred. In Ariltophanes' Plutau (380-1) there il • IIrClltie .lIu,ion to expending three minu on behalf of a pleilol and then billing him for ten : and the 'Skinflint' (IJIi'roIofosl of TheophrutOi (X.4) campl,ina to a penon who buys aomethins on hil behalf It a bargain price that it ill1i11 too expenlive.47 Texts like these luggest &eta of relationships on I different plane from the (ormal contracts and agt'etmenta that Ire the concern of legal hiatorilm. That is why 10 much that is written on Greek law has about it an air of unrellity when viewed from the perapective of the lOdo-economic historian . The contnlt can be mlde more atarltly through rival rudinga of the long fragment of Lysias' lpe«h Alai'"t AisMlirws t1r~ Socratic prtlerved by Athenaeua (XIII .611d-uf - Gernet &: 8 izoa 19S5~, II : fr .xxxvlII) . The unnamed speaker was trying to get Ailkhinea, I fonner pupil of Socrates, to repay a debt . AI plrt of his Ittempt at charlcter·I.I ..ination he pratnu a black picture of hi, opponent', habit of borrowing without rq>aying: how hil neiShbours hive bHn for~ to lbandon their houleland rent othen fir away; how he refuln to repay hi, mJltos 101m, with the rault that thOle who helped him out are themselves ruined ; how there are.a many people standing ouuide hi. hou&e at dawn, demanding repayment, that pUlers·by think it'l hil funeral and the crowd i. waitins for the corpse to be carried out. The lpeaker .. The lUI at rntGl'ed br Wilhelm (190-4) Ind.: +4QCY ~ lOY xiQ(qllov lOy XVlQWv·/ cbi:066vat lit Nauo(ru/ f\ 8Qc:a
"
ri.-en in the tnl .
•, Allhouth the lUI of the TbeophraII!II F IC it ufK:Cfttin, the cmcnI mcani.. i. clear (_ n.)' .bovc). AIIIo tempcrinc uSc with pItiIifI (Ibouch in. diffCf'mt ..,-) 1M pttNjiO."live pvKh_r of • .tnc boy . ... dncribcd in Hnlerida' . " .., Ad: • (I-S). uocd .... P third party known to b«h buyer.nd 1OI11er. If the opcaker CUI be believed, the ""heme t.;kfircd: whkb it why _ Mar about it. WheoI1'hcopb..-o.' 'lhOppOIlUne man' C. . . .""') artI ... p-bct_. he briJtp. bu~ pc,.cd to olfer -.:;u.t -her the deal bioi been clinched ('UI.').
bcI_.
lit'
.s. abo lllega that : 'the 1t~loi who live near him, and from whom he re«ived advances (prodouis) without making repayments, have shut their IIhops (~kitJ) and gone to law with him.' FOt' Pringaheim (1950: 372) th is lISt accusation prescnt. an interesting legal problem . He considen the pouibility that Aiskhines might have taken an tinIuJ for the delivery of lOme good. (assumed to be wine) which he lub.equently f.iled to produce. A. an alternative, he wonden whether the ""0; had IOld Aiakhines IOmc wine on credit. This eecond suggestion involve. Prinpheim in I solemn diacu.ion u to whether Ai.lthines gave the ~Ioi • 'deed of loan' for the price of the wine, or whether they lued Aitkhines for the return of the ama. He end. by admitting that no firm conclution can be drawn from the passage. And yet, when considert'd in the context of economic rather dlln formallcpl institutiona, the meaning of the fr.gment teelllS clear. If. clue i. needed. it can be found in the Ortomastillon of Pollux (vlI . I94) : 'Hermippos [a comic poet of the later fifth century) uses the phrae "to drink on credit (prodosirlp;Mirl)" of wine got from the inn (d /ttJIWkioll) without payment.' The supplying of goods by ahopkcepen 'on tick' is 10 familiar u to need hardly my explanation (de Vessiliuky& Bulkley 1916 ; Roberts I9J6 : 3:rJ) . Although the social significance of these 'credit ..Ies' may have been conaiderable, their petty commercial level renders a juristic analyaia inappropriate. The only 'contract' needed was a piece of slate on which to record the customer's name and the lum owed . The idea that debts run up in Ihis . .y by a aingle customer like Aislthincs ahould Cluse ahopkeepen to daR down Ind reeort to the Ilw is • piece of humorous engerabon that appears to have escaped Pringsheim. One detail of the attack on Aiuhi8CI hin~ It I wly in which pIr;/ia Ind ..Ie might be drawn together to produce an element of penona' integration in apparently impenonal exchange rel.tiona. The /ta~1oi who have put up their Mutten to go to law with Aislthines Ire those 'who live near him '. The implication th.t their neighbour Aiskhines wu a regular customer suggests a more-than-caaual relltionship between buyer and Klier. The connection i_ made by Leach (tC}83 : t53-]) who, in his discu.ion of gift-giving, points out that the label 'regular customer' really me.na 'a cu_tomer who has the potential to go into debt'. That ra*- the postibility of enduring relation_hips betw«n buyers and Kilen in which, Ifter the fuhion of gift.uchange. an exact balance might be struck only intermittently or momentarily. It is not hard to imagine how luting linn between drinltcrs and innkeeper mipt develop at the neighbourhood JuJpelnm , itself a focus of lOCial intenction. In I f'ag ....,nt from a loec comedy by the founh -cenlury playwright Antiphanes (Atben. x .+pb), a female character praises the locil ,,*101 u being the only penon who knoW! how to mix wine to her t..te. More problematical is the poeaibility of blendingplrilia with ..Ie in the agora . The marketplace is singled out by Polanyj as the area in which exchange i_ at i~ most random and impenonal, with buyer and Klier bonded only by the
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cuh-nexul (Pollnyi, AnnabcTg &: Pearaon 19S7: viii-ix). But the Athenian agora WII only in ~rt given over to buying Ind &elling; ita other func:tioRi g. centre of political, judicial and nligioul activitiC8 are too lftU known to need detailed documentation. In thil broad and liten.1 arn&e, the ec:onomic ISped of the agora Wg, to Ute Poianyi'l tenn, 'embedded' in a nnge of aocial and political inltitutioll8." And there were narrower ways in which penonal ueociations interpenetrated even the commercial.ide of the 1JIOnl. It wu the rule that Ihop' and atalla telling aimilar IOrta of commodities were gathered together in the ..me general areu in or around the market-place." The8e collec:tiona of .~/oi a1.o acted II informallOCial centra for groupa of people who were not nece ... rily interetted in buying. Tent repeatedly refer to groups congregating at the cobbler's, barber's, perfumer's, metalworker'a, wrelthmaker', Ind moneychangtT'I.50 All the indicltion. point towlrdl stability in theR groupa of byatanden, with people habitually gathering at lOme favoured place. We are told lpecificlUy by LYli.. (XXut. ) that men from the outlying deme of Dekeleia tended to gather It the barber'. in the Itreet of the Hennl, hlrd by the agora. Individuals liso had their favourite haunta. The speaker, again in a apeech by Ly.ill (XXIV.:lO), remindl the jurof'l how 'Each of you is in the habit of frequenting lOme place: • perfumer'l, a barber'l, a cobbler', or wherever it misht hlppen to be ; Ind the snateat number viait thole who an: nearest the agora ... you are all in the way of payina: I call Ind passing the time at some place or other.' Xenophon (Mnr. IV.2.1) tella how Scentcs dilCOvered that the young intellectual Euthydemos 'did nol enter the agora owing to his youth, but if he wanled 10 get anything done, he would be found litting in a leather-worker', shop (ht!lliopoi~jo") near the agora'. Euthydemoe WII preaumably able to find older friends there who would enter the agora on his behalf. It i, jU11 possible that this leather-worker'l il to be identified wich the workshop belonging 10 Simon, the philosophically inclined ,hoemaker, where Socrates allegedly went to mm and tllk with hit compt.nions (Diog. Laert. 11.1202). Although onlooken presumably doubled up II pun:huen at che shops and ,tails Ihey frequented, SocratC8 can hardly have nnked among Simon', best cUSlomers.51 .. For. ~hronolD(W;al ... mm...}" of 1M dndOpoMnl of 1M ...... in ",lolion to ~ uc... atioM. leO: Camp 19116: 1;lerary and qJi(nphical rac imoni. au cvllec!rd by W~herky (1951). EwiOcn<;t for 1M eommerriallunction of 1M.,.," ill prntnlrd by W,d •• "" 1956. 1'171 and Thotn~ 1911. For rheenw:'le.h."ofIMcomnw:rrial upecl of lhe ...... in lheltixthand fifth ""IUrin. leO: MIM;n 1951 (d. Spahn 191+: ]09-IJ). The: IfIUmmluf Sllnlq (1976: n'-lJ) for lhe Ippeli'lNt: of 1M tIfO'TIII' centre of eltCMnte II nrly .. lhe Odyll#) an: ineoneiUli¥t • .. See W~herley 1956: 5-9; Shn1ey 19']6: 41-50. FOi' In impratlon of rhe RIIf't of sooch on offn'. _Ihe Intimonill coIlec!rd by Wychcriey 1957: 193"'"d. Ie Rd,. in Wyd.erley 1956 : ); for !he 1IIOI.,cha..... add PlMo, A/IoI. '7C , Hi, '11 Milt. J6Ib ; "Theoph. CIt.. ratl . v.7. II A IIoocrr •• WOfbhop. ritht 1Pi- • boundlory __ of the . . . . , • pb_~ idmIified II Simon', (Camp 19M: 1+5-7). At oflen in Altom. (YouIll1951; Betulli 1985), the WOI"bbop '"'"' to Mve IefVtd II Mop Ind hoI.e, <:uni• .....- Weba", ot.a ..tion that {1951:
«,
"
·,. This broadening of the r6le of the marketplace to encompass a range of aocial functions is not in Iny way peculiar to Athena. Bohannan &: Dalton (11)61: 15) introduce their materi.1 on modern African muket. by remarking how 'Muket places can be utilized for .Imoat every conceivable pUtpost' that requires alaTge number of people brought together in I controlled aitu_tion.· Mon:: Ip«ifically, • Itudy of social relationa in I Philippine market (Davis 1973: 111-19) shows in detail how buyers try 10 establish personal relationahipe with atallholden. acquiring thereby the atatul of 'privileged customen', A similar pattern of behaviour aiR be tn~ in the Athenian agoro. where linb between lcapeWi and at least some of their customers seem to hive gone beyond the cash·RCXUl. So I fishmonger in I fragment from a comedy by Antiphanes (Athen. vlII .338e-1Jb) knows his higher.spending cu~tomef! by name and eannaru aperial fish for them as he set~ out hi~ waTH, From the other aide of the counter, as it were, the 'Rullic' (a,1Oikos) among the Charact~n of Theophrast08 (IV , I 5) announcea to anyone he meet~ on the road hi! intention, on arriving in the city, of buying some salt·fi~h from Arkhias, Other Characters hint u how theae relationships might bt: built up Ind C'II:ploited, The 'Abominable Man' (bd~lu.ros) contrives to 'chat up' the sellers of nuta, myrtle berries and fruit, nibbling away at their atock all the while (Xl,.). The 'Shameless Man' (anaiskJnmtos) has a well-developcd technique: 'When he'a out shopping, he reminds the butcher of any service he may hl\'e done him Ind, standing next to the scales, toasn on lOme meat if he can or, failing thu, a bone for making soup. If he ~l$ awa y with it, he is well pleaaed ; if nOl, he grabe I piece of tripe of( the table Ind laughs as he hurries away' (IX •• ) ,5Z
The idea that the creation of a personal bond bt:tween buyer and sdler might prove bt:neficial to both parties nintroduces a question posed It the beginning of thil eaaay : the problem of pri~.fonTIation in the Alhenian agora . Although I comprehemlive Ittempt It In In.wer would cill for I full·length study, we are now at least in a poIition to see lOme way forward , An outline of the poIIIible fon:ea involved in the forming of prien in Athens brings the paper to a cloee.
v In the world of pure theory, foreea of demand Ind .upply interact to eatabli.h the price for I commodity at the level that will just clear the market, Whether that i. by itlClf an adequate accounl of price.fonTIltion in the modem , 33), 'City prochK:tion • for the market, for complettl), unltnown tonIUmtft who will MYrr mtu tbt prochKtT'. KlUII field 01 'riIion,' n Ht'" ' - tbt ~ to . . . per-. who hu boutht -'>tIhinc chtltpty to &i~ him .lhaft (6) , In the F r quoccd in tbt leSt, the tltment of ah_1aeMa KCmIIO lit in rtmindi.. tbt of non-aiMtnt fa-..n. Th. COI.lkI nplain the dUI)' placed on the lIfO'D_' of IIIptH inc deceil on the- pen of both aelltftaNJ buytn (lhauth Stephen Todd raninde 1M that bu)"U" decat miahl inclvdc the.,... . 01 b.d coin).
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capitalist economy is open co doubt; u sn aplanation of price in ancient Athens it is demonltrably rabe. There is, 10 be sure, sbundanl evidence in our texta for price fluctuatioRi. and fixed ot administered prieta were the exception.n And yet, it Kema likely that prien in AtheRi were determined by a complex of facton, with lancer-term ahifta compounded by fluctuationa from day to day and even from cuatomer to cuatomer. To calculate in quantitative terma the devee to which the varioU* forca offset each otheT in the Ploc:eu of price fixing is beyond the capabilities of the ancient evidence; but it may be poesible to isolate the facton involved and locate them in their appropriate .ocial context. DeKription of prien by our toUrcca AI 00. relatively bigh or low implies aome standard of rompmaon: a norm (however notional) from which actual prien were thought 10 deviate ,S. The implied compariaon eeema to be conceived in terma of an underlying or CUROmary price. "I"Nt diltinctton betwa:n cultomary and actual price is clearest in the cue of grain (n',os) , Grain is in many way. exttptionalamong the commodities on we in Athena. Indicators indude extensive state intervention to tecure adequate luppliet of impotta (Garnsey IC}88 : IJ?-43). apecial arrangementa fot unloadi.. and stonge of grain u distinct from other cargoes (Stanley 1976: ISJ-s).larze numbers of official. concerned with grain distribution (Gauthier ujh). and the existence of plrtill price controll, regulating retailers' profita (Seager 1C}66; Figueira (986). The reuon for III this is beyond Iny doubt Athenian dependence on large-sclle importllion Ind dly-to-day distribution of grain supplies (Garnsey 1988 : 90-109) , Thil overwhelming importance of grain is reflected in ill senl ilivity of price to chlnga in lupply. As the dermnd for pin WII banly eiutic, 10 Iny IhOMbn in lupply (real Of imagined) would result in I disproportionately Iteep increuc in price. That is the background to the numer· OUI commenta about the price of grain lurviving from fourth~ntury toUn::a; fir more chin for Iny olher commodity. Speecha from the Oemoethenk corp .., menlion pin increuing in price in the Pei.raieu. (L.6), grain being IOld for three tima ill formtt price (XLlII.JI). and the arrival of a ahipment of gTlin cluling the price 10 fIll (LVl.9) . When the 'Chattertt' (adoIoI.\Ml) of Theophrutoa remarked inconaequenlially on the chelpneaa of wheat in the D,fOn2, he was prtaumably luting what wu obvioul to everyone (lII.J) .u Tbc MIn of.dminitt~ prit;n _y lie behind_" otht.... obItcure r " in P\Mo'aL.w (9aob-c:). From A"hcnI, then: it 1M . . . iel ...... on 1M pnJfitI of me- Maim., pill (Ly.. IOIll.S, '), _ limi' on the pritt ol IIiriat" ftute.cirk (Hyp. &..w.. 3). and I beft him of _,rolliill' the pri« of .Ipbium (At. KM,IIu 8tH). There it DOtttitIc ~ 'o .... ppot' tbt Iit.llilMni by Hanieon (1971 : IS : rio 5' I's-M..-k 19111 : 56) thII the ... ' d Q IIi .dtninillered I lfCtion of the muHt law (_..... 'hi) kine eertaiD prica. Tbe u.tn-y of A _ TKticua (x.I I ) " " " tMt price C'OIItJ'OIt wen; __ • ~ rne..ure$, approprim 10 cit. unckr~ . .. Tbc tenninoIau of pritt (,;"w) woWd poIIibty...,. furtbH atudy, nftIlinc in ib _bipiIJ (...... an..-n rither 'cheap' ar 'eapcMi¥c') the '<'IICIbu1ary Ill ... (n.3:1 abcm:). U A,llhouch ,be t.io: ~1atiOn.tUP be'awn c&anmd, IIUppl)' and pritt _ lli.dt..tlaod (t.,. Dem. 1.49: Xm. Ptwoi ",,]6). its wida' tn6cItioM 1lla7 hnt '-a DIdJ imperfectly .ppreciated. ln the 110f0 Kkoultlltt, A1n., fl, '. ,..,a'M ol£c7pt, orpniaed ... inIonnatiofI U
,
k
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Even with the sale of grain, where prices were undeniably sensitive to shifta
in demand and supply, there wu alill the concept of. cultomary price. In I apeech attributed to Demoethenet (XXXlv.39), the litigant trica to curry f. vour with the jurora by reminding them how, 'When grain clrlier increued in price and reached .ixtttn dr.cbmae, we imported mon: than 10, 000 _dimllOi of wheat, and meuurcd it out to you It the nornul price (tes JcatMslebicu times) of five drachmae I wudimnos .' The figure of five drachmae u an appropriate price (or • medimNOS of what .ppnn in at least two jRlCriptione from the II&fIIt period. honouring meKh.ntl Klling lubei· dilcd grain in time of .horuge.56 Grain wu probably cllceptiolUll in the extent to which customary and actual prices tended to divergej with otheT. lete caenti.l items, the diKrepancy might be negligible. But there wu also an intermediate range of commoditiel (almoat exclusively foodstuffs) for which demand was relativciy inelutic and lupply Ieee than certain. There was nothing necelfuily predictable lbout the produce brouafu to market by peuanta from the surrounding counttylide (Oabome 198711 : 9]-112), Of" by fiahermen dependent on the daily CIItch (Gallant I9BS)' Under these circumstances, prices for particullr commodities could vII')' frcim &.y to diY, OlICilllting around whit WIS regarded IS the CUltomuy price. That is ptelumsbly why 'fheophrutos' 'Rustic', u he IpptMChes the city, interrOSltes pueers-by lbout the price of hides Ind ..It-fish (IV. (S) . It may 1110 be the expWtation behind Pllto's concession thlt prices chuged in his nCif-ideal mlrket msy be chl nged from one dlY to the next - I responee to the realities of supply (Laws 917b-c) . But thlt ii in the context of I law that effectively forbids hlgling in the market Ind Ilso prohibits the lIapeloi from 'praising up (~PQitlOS) ' their wires Ind liking oaths u to their qUility. All this il fully in line with Pllto's poor opinion of lIapeloi. but in sharp contrut with the prflCtices prevliling in the Atheniln a,oro.f7 The implication, that the process of haggling will degenerlte into I deceitful and unpleuant confrontation, Inticipates Pollnyi (19S7C : :ISS), who sen antagonism u the inevitable consequence of 'higling-haggling'. And yet, it il paradoxically the procell of blrgaining bet_n buyer and aeller that enables personal relationahipe to intrude into the otherwise impersonal operation of Wi vice, diape'ch;,. ...... .hip- to wt.ere prica ....... ~ed 10 t. h .... BU! t h • • ~II)' "if : _ to .....-\et ' - _ "",,1Id1y denounced in lUI Athenian ~r1 .. . w ..." .....,...-..- AthcM and tM odin- Creek _ (Dem. Ln.?-8, ';th C.......,. 1~ : ~
'5-1)' H IG II' )60, I-I O, I G 1I'...,a. ' . ; fOl' !be 1ft C.......,. I~ : IS6-6:a. 0pF I . ,d to the ..,.,.,.... , . . _ the '\i. " " I I ri tRi which, m the I>errooMhcnM: 1pftdI.y"itu, I..Iui.." (JCD[ • • u). plainly men «> the ..... of ....n at the t:UrTmt 01' oct....J prio;e. BUI my '-p'ctabaa of the...,." ........ r;.w. the ~ prio;e . ~ 1,i~lIb1e (Humph~ 1969: aIon .l6 ; d . Dan. Ln.'), mel the wboleaabjKt lIftdI_ddailedltudy. FOI' Ibinl of the _ of. C"W • , prieto 101' barley r _ I y - ....rutll- four dnc:hmae pH noc-.n!1. 1ft the q ...... tion from StnttiI, • comic pod 01 the late fifth emt\Ify, pI .aI by Pollllll (1 • . 168). J7 Batpininc _ an: • commotI comic motif: Ar. F10fI 167-79. Pe,," II on-a64.kAcfnoillil' 16)-9:13 (we further n' N below). l'IIto'. banni,. of c.tMcaJll «> mind the: taunt of the PC"'Iian Ki,.. reponed by H~ (1Klioll "aboYe).
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..Ie. Reminding the teller of one'. IUtUi U I privileged cUltomer, like the 'Shlmelest Min' It the butcher'., opens the way to I rsngc of pouible benefit•. The buyer who i. well known to the seller msy get hi. good. at I bargain price, or more for the umc price, or good. of I bertcr q~lity or a combinltion of III thcsc sdvlntaga. So hsa1ing Ippcar. U I third flCtor affecting overall price : • 'penonal price' to be set spiRIt conlidcrationl of CUltOmary Ind actuII prica.58 Compar.tivt ItUdics confirm the positive potential of haggling, provided both aides behave ae:c:ording to eatabli.hcd rules of etiquette (Uchendo 1¢7). Far from the oppoling positionl of buyer and .e1ler representing real antagoni.m, the confrontation h.. about it an air of posturing or play-acting. Adding to the imprcuion of 'ille .. theatre' is the presence of an audience in the shape of bystanders snd prospective customers. All this etiquette of haggling can be read into surviving accounts of behaviour in the Greek tIIOrD. Athenaeul (VI .USc) notn the existence of a book called 1'1reAtt ofPnNisioJlina by the late-founh-ccntury figure Douril of Samoa. Written for one of his friends who wu inexperienced at buying, its advia: included coping with a fi.hmonger who refustd to lower hil prices, by running down his warca in a loud voia:. ' For', IIY' Douris (Athen. vn .Jll'- I,,), 'you willlCare away many customers and bystanden, and by doing that force him to ac:cept the price that aecml right to you.' AwkwardRCII or animOllity oceuncd only when one or other of the p.rties broke the unwritten rules. Such is the f.ult of Theophrutos"Unco-opcrative Man' (authadef) who, when he hUlIOmcthing to lell, won't name I price, but lelvcs hi. buyen gutMing (XV.S) .59 The theme of this piper h.. been the integntion of different types of exchange in the Athenian economy. Implicit in that procae h.. been the lelrch for a further form of integration : finding an Ippropriate context within which to ISICU the laws relating to ..Ie. Much remaina to be done, but I have tried to l uggest how, in the abtcna: of I juristic framework, the law and cuatom of IIle ("omos in both lenses) may be combined, and then viewed in relation to the economy and society in which they were embedded. M ConditioN of uk in tM marketpla« pve plmty of ICopr for bvpininc lbout the quality of soooH on .. It. NO! for I\OIhifll "'.. I tIII~ of IhI. ""ne on olfer ' .... ded .. 1 I.. try pnl;mina'1' 10 IhI. purthlR (Eur. ~ ISO). Comedy h.. plenly of IhI. Incb (\epllnd oUw,W;K ) prao;IiMd b,- mar\ct tndeB : d~.. lip mI:IOt;n 1M ....,-1 ~ UrI, hcrwll lip (AIIIm. Xiii .S68d) : pl.c;", ..:lUnd lip on (hi. lop of tM ~. ~ 1M bed OI>Q llnOt-rnnlh (Alhen . 1I.?6d ): uki. p"ym<mt;n IhI. hcsrier coi... of one _~ Inc! ri..-i.... CNrce 1M li"'ler coilllfl'l' of .nother (AthnI . \'I .u.Sb). " And .\too dw Ilull of I fithlOOIll" conckmned ;n I fr-cmenl of 10000i"th-«nlllry comedy II finr: ict-"inclbri. (Amphil in AIIIm . ¥1'."'4HI . He rdUlClto rnpp -.nh hit mquirift .. to price. ,nd tben si'l"inc out hit _ _ in • dilmillive ....y. For fllr1her nemplcl of binlrr bctwem bvpinen., 1ft AIh.meN. III .I4b, ¥' . :I~. ¥1I .)09d. lUlI.Sb,
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Glossary-Index
This gloMary it intended to fulfil Kveral function• . It. prim.,y dUly i. 10 provide I IUmmuy of lhe technical or eemi-uchnical tmns used throughout the book (tnOIt but by 00 Inn,. all of them Athenian Jepl terms) ; this Ius cnlbled us to .void OVtt·burdaUng the lUI with repeated aplanatiom, while .1 the tame lime en. uring th.t the book it ac:caaible to the non.apecialiit. We have alto induded within the gloeury frequent page.refffenca to the lUI of the book, to thlt the glOIIIry can Krvt in place of an index of the tnljor themet dilcu_d. We hope finally th.1 the gto-.ry may perlonn one further function independent of the rest of the book : to proride I coavenient (and IOfely needed) WIly into the terminology of Atheni.n I,. for readen who are t.ppfO'IChi"l tbe tubject from outside; for Ihit reuon I number of term. are included heft becauw they ,re important, even though they Irc not (.. it happen. ) diecu.ed by any of the contributon 10 the book. For el"QM-refen~ within the p..ry, an lItteritk it uted to mart terms which .re themeelve. the aubjttt of .n independml entry. llijec:tivt law See AI . procedural' 11w. Idverarial An adverurial . )'Stem of jUitice is one in which • trimimll trial i. tONlructed .. I dieputt betwten two aidee, with the judgdjury acting u umpire. 'The.un of the trial it not todilcover the truth (thoulh it may be hoped that thit ,,"II OttUf incidentally), but to determine whether the lide chlflC'd ,,"th the burden of proof (pp. ~ : in thite:ontut normally the pt'OIeCution) hudernonlllnted itl cue. See for eont,.. IV . inquiaitorial· .,-.tern. Enlliah crim.ifUllltlw opetalef; under the Idvenarialay.ternj but AthenUon ju.tic:e t ....1r. it to ut,ftTIn: the roun'a r61e w .. to decide not whetheT. burden of proof hid been Mlauined, but which of two ,eneni th. . wu ~fttable, that of the proeecutOf or that of the driendlnt. -snate In ROt'I'IIn 1_, blood· relations in the mille line (i.e., where there ia I relationahip to I c:ommon Incestor which an be traced thl'OUlh mllee alone) : to In E"Ilith radu, apatee are perhap' beet described .. the people who .hare one'. 1UmanM:. See for conttlllftJ . ~ . . . . Lit. 'eontc:st' of any kind : eepecillly I IIWlUit, or In athletic or dramlltic c:ocnpetitton (p. s.sl: qortJ The ciric centre Ind market-pllCe of I Greek poh.,. (pp. !2. i!..a 4:!L ~ 2l !!:.l!.. 156, !h. l6?-Mpcunm. eep. 180:91).
"S M
:116
STEPHEN TODD
DfO'DIIOMOI. pI. ~ Lit .•..".. •• rqubtor(.)' : public offici....ttatcd in. 1I"1ti number of Gredlttoki,·; t~ dut~ COl lilt~ of auperwilinc the commerciIJ 8IpectI of the ctpU (pp. I,:a-], 186. !.2.! n.52) . oUIrsis Ike.ute homicide in AttmU.n 11_ .... mattu flK private pr'cweution (d. no. pItortoll·, dilt.1). the I"tlacivnoithe cte.d man. _ PN ecuton, wert uockr cenain cirrumltancn ~itted or npmcd to JranI ~rdon (.uJms : p. 68) to his killer. Once this hid betn done, the killer _ immune from. further Pi' ecution. (The derivation of the term it unclear: it ismuinly connected with the verbtJidtDrJlai'to (HI ahame •• _ or rnptct' ; LSJ notes !hit the verb can be used to me.n 'to raped another', misfortune' .nd IhUi 'to be nc:onc:iled to him' ; but unlike EnPsh '.tcOnc:iliition·. aiMlil is only uted to denote the letion of the wrvnced peny.) tJijitJ (tometimnai1tia) 'InjW')"or '_ult' (pp. 126, 128. 1]1 , 141) : .gmenJ term. without the further implications of lillbris·. (diu") ailtias A private indtctmmt conc:eminc _ult (_ia·) : pp. 126 with n.12,
'3] ·
See Itlt' . mttic· , XtlllOl·. tJIIaltrinl A preliminsry hnri"l before the public official within _bote COlIn • c-.e will liter be hurd (for Ihe r6le of the prtIidi.. official within I IawaNn, _ 1tI. atHo,,·) . Lit., 'e:uminltm', but it should not be eqUited with the inquisilorilJ· jlUtn«:htM of ci ... il,lI. . lystmII: In Atbmi.n public of6ci.t had '1ft)' mtrictcd Ilien
dilcf'etion j Ind unlib In ubitrator (_no. dillittkS· ), his function was not to settle lhe c:uc. _tidolil Lit. '. Ii";'" in ell(hInft:'. A min who.at nominstcd to perionn.litutJY· coold .YQid th. duty if he could name UIOCher citiJcn wbo w.. richer and better-qualificd 10 perform the uK. If the man challaiccd "iced wt be ... ricber, he bid to take O\Icr the iitu'l)'; if M cilimcd ta be jiOOiei , then the chlUcnccr could intilt on In u.ch.nge of 111 their pn;tperty to tett the cilim - in which c:uc the challe.., would himlCif perform the litufJY .. the new owner of the (putatinly) ","Ier Cltate. Thil proc:eM of txdlt.. . . . ailed _ritJom (pp. 9-', 2ih The Idv.ntlftof the .)'Item from the Yk_point of the democ.KY_ Wt it encou~ the rich to be IUspiciouiof nch othn. inlttld of beinc boetik towvds lbe lWe; but Ihhoucb we know of le'ICfII chalJtnra, there is no lUated case in which the exc:h.nce ... completed. atrriti_nr Set 1tI. tilffi· (]).
mrr-osia See IV , d«-sia· , .4:ci, pI. ~ Lit. 'dr-ainr ......y., i.e., to the 'pPrOpriate
~e·
(pp. ]1 n.19. ~ Summuy anat _ ~itted apinlt cenain Cltegor1a of criminll. l och .. thie'ICI .00 hi,h ......ymen. if they were csuaht ~. me"",JIotDl·· fred.handed·. but 1ft lunber w . ) : PP" J n.]9, 106 with n .• 6. ~ If the acwted admined hisruilt befon: the msptnte he wu promptly utCUted; only if he cIlinwd to be innocmt _ he put on trial (p. Bo n.,.). See ilia wt/. trtdtUis·, qAqtsis· . ~· awlt}flltolvi·, snd 'aAoMrzm·. tIf1
Enc1ilh penonll· p'lOptny (i.e., t'lerything except land and houees, wbich Ire described in Athens u fJItattnn· 0IUia: .nd in EncliIh IIw _ real- propenyl, In Athenian I•• howe\ltf. the distinction seant to hI'IC been lOCill nther thin kpl :
1
GI.,....ry-lndcll
'"
uunt uta of the tC'mUI concern the relttive ease with which the two types of we.lth can be hidden in disputes ovu taution (_ nN. ftqJItonJ., liturgy·), ... ther than (u in Engliah Itw) the different way in which the two types of propeny are treated in ..Ie or inheritance. U/JOt,apIti Ln. 'I (written) liet' : I Clulorue of tome or.1I of the property of. man in debt to the 1tIte. Thuble took no initiltive in the eonfiae.tion of pi openy : this wu leh l'itber to priV1lle individual. or elte, it IPpesn, to local deme· officu.lI (demar\hs·). The term .",upIti is uaed to describe the list itaelf, the prOCCla of denunciltion, .nd any judicial hearina .riaing out of the c_ (pp. 39 ~ , Sl::! with p . .51 n.66, !2 n.16, i!l:. See aiM) stI. p/tasu • . .,~II(;uis Lit. '. ahowing fanh, dtclt ... tion'. A procedure newly intlituted around the midd~ of the fourth ttfttury: either on the invit.tion of the tltJlktio· or on ill own initiative, the Aretop'p'· could invCltipte .ny maner involving public ttCUrity.nd praent. rcpon (opopltotu) to the tAII/et;o , recommending ~nicullf action, lor insbnce the Prol«Utton of. named individWiI (p. l!. d. p. l2L ~
Seew. /torw·.
appeal See nr. qkm·.
tIprtIpItm, pI. ~I (adj.); tJIInIpIoIllrti (.bltfKt. noun) Lit. 'one who does not oonduct busine:-': • penon who refr.ins from luing ~n in public aff.i ...
(W . 99 ~ 116. !.!.2l, It can be either I JlO'iti~ or I nqative chlfKtetUtK:, dependinc on the attitude of the apeaker ('philoeophkal contempl.tion' or 'politK:aJ i"""poiI.ibilitf). For the oppoeitt chanctnistK:, _It!. poI~ • . (J,apIti) iII1"'IttJ.1it:w See ftI. prDltoUt-. arbitBtion See ftI. _Uttt- . Areiof>lCO' The ancient and originally 1lUt00000tic council of Athens (p. llXI n. 50) ; itt membenhip compriled thole w~ had completed. ttnn I I one of the nine
arkhone-. III PO'IfCfI had been ItYeRty rntrictcd by the democr.tic relorma of Ephialt.... in the 4fM- I.C., which )eft it • little more than the main coon for cues of homicide; in the fourth ttfttury howe~tr other powen were added, moat notably
~-. milti, pl. onrMi (noun) Lit. 'rule' or '.uthority' (the term is oftm ueed for inatmcc to dc:Icribe the fifth.cmtury Athenian empire). Originally an .bltnet noun, but often ueed in. conclett tenIt, I I I 8i'.It.aI term to delcribe any public ofli« or of6ci.al (pp. 16 with !!!ll.t !!.2l.i the term wu prot.bly UIcd to include the botIJi-, but thia ha been contemd. Unlike ottltott-, the word orlclti it ~ nosmally reItricted to one of the nine arkhonehipl, With. few exceptioM, mot! IlOUibly the &eilttallhip ItnJt.,·), public of6cet.t Atheflll were filled not by election but by Jot-. Note: The EosItah tenJI'maptme' is ohm uKd to lrutlate the Greek tffleIti; thlIlhoukt be undcntood in • Roman or ShIk....peunn Knee, to denote. publK: of6cial with _ judM;:jaJ duties, Biber th.n (_ (oo.y) to mean • pUNime I.y iudp : p.u. . . . . . , pl. aI'MoItUt (participle Kla.". noun), E.... archon or.,khon Lit. 'o~ who it in authority', UK'll in three Knl~l: IooIcly, to refer to any Athenian public official: IDOft .triedy (uaWly • ooJln:tive plural) to de.cribe the 'nine arkhona': tpecifica1ty, .. the title of the tmior of the nine Ifthonshipl. Thac: were ltill the titular chief ~ of AtheN, but their real .uthorily had been Kverely .dbicted eftI'.nee they bepn to be .ppointed by lot, .pparently in They
<_I'tI.
the.so..
2018
STEPHEN TODD
maincd howe fer an honorific poIition, pertic:ularIy in the adminiltration of jutcite : for inttlnce, to.. ner arthont beelme membera of the Areaop . .• for life: 1M duri", their yar of office they pto- tucd the Iiliaatiob pcucnted to the moIC important 01 the diAoItni4-, 1M prCllided over trials held there, aIthouP in thlI capKity they ~ by now little II)Ofttban non-votinc(and~) dWrmm. The three arkhone elIC:h had a speci5c title and competenet: the,.,.... (the eponymout official of Amen. who pve his name to the civil yar) heant ~ involvirc family and inheriunc:e matten of cit. . .; the ......... btuilnls (lit. 'kine arkbon': p. fl) preaided over relipu mattera, indudina: uc:riIete and hcxnicide; the .eo'eut.atMos (lit. ' WIt Itkhon', but by now III his military functm bMI been handed over to the ItnJUJOI") duh with family and inhmtance cua inYOlvirc metics-, and 'PpMc.ltly cata involvircctrtainotber privilcplltACic'oth aleo. The othn.u arthonl.ere called r,v,llDlktm' ("",. "'" ,ct.Vtf's- : oriciaally ~ 'tttabliaMr of juqemcDtI' rather than 'maku of 1aws1: they hard thoet public cuet, and perupt alIo tome prince ann, which did not faU within the compeuooe of thc three Imior arkhona Of of othn named officiaIe. For the", ,wtai, ICe pp. U ], !is..: IITCIt, aummary See w . (I~- . «m\G (or arrltaboft) A word of Smlitic oriciN uaed by the Greeb to indicate the depoUt peicI over to aeaan: an opcion on the purm- of plnicular aooda or ICnM:e.: pp. 175-6 with p. ~!!,!L !..h.., Ci'4W-) ~ A public Ktion . .inat tomebody who hu aUepdly committed
1m_
impiety
01' uc:riI~
(/UHrio : PP. 6.t.
~ ~
in AtheniM cyn, impiety _
etatntililly • matter of actioN rather than thoughtl, but worda apoken in ea1aia lituattona 01' in certain plactl coukI themklvea becxn:ue imptoue kttonl, • Soc:rata found out to hi' COlI . .-ntbly
See e~klio- .
pI. tutll-U L il . 'one who rqulacea (affaira within) the 41~ (the built-up lrea of Athenl)'. A boud of public officials c:haqtd wi th the Jenera! IUperviaory dutiea which welllOciate with the police. Unlike the police, hownou, they did not undertake the iftvntiption of crime. Nor were they much cooctwed with the Inftt 01' punilhmmt of .c:-a.ed or convicted criminatl : th. ~ _ pl.yat by the Eleven'. For the tJlhI-a, ICe p. !il n,14. AIIr.Pol. Two teparlte textl bear the litle~ PtIIikio (lit. 'Conititution of the of anli-dar.oaatic poietnic, whhllly attributed in Athenillna') . One it; a abort antiquity to the hntorian Xmophon. It is the nrl~ IUrVivi,.- work of Attie p"* literature, dati", problbly from the.pol I .e. Itl date and opiNoDI have earned (Of the unknown luthor the conventional title of the 'Old Olipreh'; but "nee !hit dac:ription conjures up pic:cURl of an ancrr old man, a leta m"'eed"" dctc:ription mIIy be '{Xtn.J AlIt.Pol.'. The more famoua AtM,r,.,.. IWiuitJ, howtytr, it tbe monosllf'h Oft wnalitutional hiMory written either by Ariatode Of by I pupil, probably between JJ20 and 32.2. • •e. (pp. 1]=141. ThnMflhout this book. the titJe of AlJ..Pol. without qualification to the An.cocelian text. Oltll_,
won.
W:
men
IJIi,rwtot See w . tirrw.. on",;. (atJ.tnct noun) Lit. 'loti of ,..., t!L honour'. In early IRhaic Athena, on",;. _ to have meant outllWT)', the total deprivation of aU riptl, atc:b that I citilen could kill an (pl. otiMai: perlOft -.aRm. . from 4II'iwIio) without
on.o.
c:ommitti"llft offence Of applrently incurrinr blood.,wlt. Well befOft the cl
iall
w
".
period. t.owe,,:r, atiJltia Md already been ratricled in its.cope 10 meaD the 10. of IOmC or aU of I m..m',1Ctive ripUIl I citiun. Such atiMitJ could be partial or total ; it coukl be
im~
pcmwxntly by • court, or it could be the (tbeofetkally)
temporary raul! of an unpejd debt 10 the state, • condition which would lutotNltically tcrmiute if the debt wete ever paid off. A man .... bject 10 total am..u, could not
appear in certain public pt.ce., could not take plrt in public life, and could not appear in coun. If he broke ImY of thete ban., he _Iillble to tJfNIIOI't' and death. But be did retain hia private nptl ... citizen : to kill him would be murder; he_ not formally ailed; and he continued to a.n hit p.ope.ty- thouah his illCk 01 the aptcity to _ IN)' have mMk it difficult pro«durlllly to defend tbfte right •• and many mar have found life under IUCb mtrictiont 10 intoknbk that voluntary exile teemed prdenhle. It. man subject to parti.l ati,,,ia loet either I particular right or rithb, or el.e the power to nerciK h. riJhts in I particular .itu.lion : for ineunc:e, the ability to brincemain typaol pn: I(cution. Foro"","" tee pp. ~ p..!Q. lln.n ~ ~ l.Ci61:1.1I , ns.
'''7. 131, !l!.! 139;1 and esp. !JI:l'!B.i for its potitton
within Athenian pmoJogy,lftw. penaltye, 1tI. tittt?
w.,
btuilctu Set no. 1If'iIIoIe1. (diM"') bkabn It. private action for damaga : the concept of bIiJbI i. broad, Ind tetmI to ....e covered any phytic:al or material_ IUffned by the plaintiff .. I result of ~ 01' inaction on the pat of the defmchnt. For ib u. in one ~rticular Ht of cin::umMaDca, lee p. !5:. bot.li Lit. 'council'. The democ...tic council of SOO mm, appointed annually by loti from I!nOOI citisena -ced It leaat thirty, Ind with KVen: reatrictiona on repeated membenh.ip. Ib chief function ..,.. to prepare the qrnda for meetinp of the eIrAIm', ,', and to undertake certain routine adminittratil,e dutte., in particular tNt of co-ominatinc the activ;ta of nu~ board, of minor oflicial, ; but it had aleo taWn independent judicial. powe.i, mainly but not only in c:aan of limited import.ance: in K1me c:- of mmrplia i • the bouli C1)Uld decide whetheT to refer the trial to the eUIeM' or to I dilaskriott i • See ~lIy pp. t.6 ~ ~ !!:.!S! 100 !!!5!J 101 , !..!2 n. ~ 118 n. ~ and for the r&le of the botdi in mmrplia. lee p . ~ ~ (40) bot.k w..... Lit. '.nyone who wiahn' (pp. ~ 10]--5 , '07, .:a]=4, !J!l, Wher_ pi' ~ cution in I diJti C'OUId only be brought by the qrrieved party, in a f"IJIIIti or other public c.te it cou.Id be brousbt by .ny quali6ed penon (which nonnally meant any Athenian citiRn who..,.. not himtelf miMes') . challenp . . Cit~
Sec 1'tI. lJrOItkriJ'.
...
_I."
'A-I.'
nN. _Ina ,_""
i
_ .. f ; ..... or contraM, nN.
.L··i
1jI().".,..
. i ,mebc .
civil law A civil·la.. .,.am today it one which derivet from the iJU civile ('law perUini..- to citiaM') of d"..;e.t Rome. Such .,..cern. are uted throurhout much of continental Europe (pp. ~ ~ n-;J) . COfMte: In Roman law, aUbkxM:l.rdationti but the term itohen uaedmore nan-o.ly to mean thole who are not "",tete'. Accordi ..... to thit uaare, c:opitet are bkIod·rebtiont in the female: line (i.e., where there: it. relationahip to. common ance.tor, but thia cannot be traced entireiy thfOUlh mala). ooinaae Athenian monewy lermI on,inally rdened not 10 de:1'IOf.unations of coin but to weithu of untOined metal. Indeed. eYeD in the d-'cll period. only the
1
no
STEPHEN TODD
,l'I\allerdenominatMlnt (obol, drachma) "",eel .coiftlin their own riptj the IuJer (mina, talent) wen: limpl,. QOlI~ fomw of reckonUIs fOt' luJ'e IUmI of mDf"..;y. folio,,"", table.oow. the rdatiYe value. of Atht-nian monetary terml : 6 oboh - I drKhma 100 dnch.mac - 1 mini 6.ccc dnehmae-,oo miMl- l talent (~wen: alto. number of non-Athenian coa.,lUCb .. the IWer of Kyaiko.lnd the Penian daric, wbM:h wen: virtually Jepl tender in Alben..) Equivalent nluet in modem cuiielK ' tl an: impollib~ to live : caIc:ulMionI b.ed on Iilva- content an: ulllnl; Ind 6xed atimace rapidly liva . ., hefore the impKt of inflation;
n.e
In, moeeuYel', we woukl tend
ply propoetiouDy more fOt' tome thinp (lUCh .. hoI..a) and 1aa for othen (lUCh .. food) than lbe AthtnianI did - C'tm if we we KeOUnt of the fKe tNlt many utiie... will hln lived .. J*t of I IUbltantiaJly non-monttised IUhIietmce economy. But fOf" wbst it is worth, • day'..... for • Killed I.bourer stem to hive riIeft JRduaily throupow the fourth oentury I.C. to
fmm fUUlhly one to IVlJIhly two or even two-Ind -,-half drKhmae. coIl.ten! A term UIed in Entliah law to cDtribe people who aban: the tame ItK:CII:ry, but not nea:l lrily (indeed not normally) the.-me line of d ...."t: for iattance the dcscendsntl of brothers or . .en. common A common·l.w l)'M.em toda)' is one which baa .,doped out of the common I•• (i.e., the Ia. that it lhe __ throucftoulthe kiftcdotD) 01 medtevaJ Ene1and (pp. ~l , ~2) . Entlith law iI. common-law I)'M.CRl; and 10 is the Ia. of theM: oountna which han derived dwir 1ep.I lyMan (rom ;t, _h .. the USA and much of the Commonwe.Jth. com.purptor 8ft JV. OIth.helper4>. conaensusl conU'lCt A eontrKI in which the .Ieenlalt (,cOfltentj of the J*ttes involved it eonsideml bindine. without the nee ity of roods and purehue price chansing hinds (M it the ca. with I 'ra1 eontnct1 : on both temII, tee pp. !.2i!
I..
'n-'.
council SeutIV. Art:iop.OI·, bMdi·. ('Otnt·feet Several..vrdr. flK court-fee are attetted in our 1OUn:a: for inlllnCe /IG1'OAGlahoIi, pofdl.onJ Ihd fWVllllWitl . 1nete variowI feet teem to have btm ~Ylble normally by the plaintiff but in different c-tqooiota of p..:udute: in lOme ~ they were darly I Itf'Iiabt fee phd to the evurt; in otheh they WCTC Ippuendy mort: in the naturt: of I depOIit, to be returned in the eventoillHce ful pre t(utton; in yet other caIft they Kern to haYe been doeer to the Erlflith l)"Item of 1\O'lirdifll COllI, pII)'Ible to I llICCeMful defendant tlIther than to the Ilbte. The Plceile intHpretition of exh type of fee bowner it obecure, not ICIIl beca_ on the n.re occIIIiona when pIIymmtllrt: mentioned, the individual termI do not lippeif' 10 be uaed in any Plceitel), ccmtistent fillbion.
,,'iG, n
~,
pI. MmtJfOlO4' Etymo1ogially thia tCTm hat the neutral rneuUlII'!eader of the people', Ind it could therefore be ueed to delcri.be any democratic politM:al )ader. But it _ cvmmonly uaed like the Entliah 'delflllOl\X' in I pejontin_ ('mi:t-'-ier of the pevpk', 'fllbblt n;JUtCT') in the moutht oi the mclitional lriatotTllC)', to delcribe thate whom they reprded .. upttartl, the new1ty1e political
leaden of the late fifth century; theae Wert walthy men such II KIevn, H,.pt:lbolOl Ind. Kitophon, whow wealth _ bowua daivecl from ICNrus ... rt:tp«table
M,'.'" '"',.,"'"
...
Glmury-looa than land~ (pp. 5.! with Y.L
oS! with ~ ~ 9.S n.]8, 2'.iI "ith y,!.
~
with ~ u8 with 0 .49). denw:k.b, Gk. dnuIrltJtoI See 1tN. . . . ~, derne- !!L . . .. pI. dnrtoi (Ule of. EDC. demt it eonfined to _ W beLow) This it I ttnn .cd in nI'O radically diffnmt _fllll, and with lipifieant ful1her ahada of n-rune within It ~ one of. the nI'O. W It can mean 'the peopk of AtheM', either the "hole ci~ populltion or elK the common people: .contrllttd with the rich. In the fil'llt ICnH ('1) it i. commonly uted espectaIlJ in official docummtl • I vinuall)'l'lOllym for the elAwlio-: the ItCOlid _ (I b) i. implicit behind hoatile intaprewtona of the term _ _ ratio-. W But ~ is aIIo uaed to denote the c . ~ v i i . or civil pariaha (E",. ·derneti1 into "hich Attica (includi", the city of Athent) _ divided: .bonly before: SOO I . C. the of KIeiMhenetI bel orpniMd thelt demeI into the ten 'triba' (pIudar), which 'Of' many ~m be<:aJM the dector.! diltricts of Athena. II it in th. _ that for m.tance dmwlh· 00.. _ to mean an of6cial of the IoeaI derne nthcr than of the "hole Rate. FOf'~ in ImIe (II). _ pp. n. ~ ~ S!. all. ~ g!; in ImIe (Ib), _ pp. 118. !.3l!. !l7 with ~ and ~ Y!.. Yl. Ind poeIibly lOS n. i.i Ind in leNt .t!l. _ pp. ~ 110 0 .35. uI. The name Demo. (pp. ~ may be I pllY on both (II) and (Ib). ~ 'Sov~ au.thority (.lratw) of the peopJe', either in the intefesll of lhe ItIte .. I whole (~ (.1) .bove), Of ehe terVinc the nIlTOW' interall of the common peop~ rather than tho.e of the rich (_ _ (.b) lbove), de~in. on the prejudica of. the lpener {pp. n. d . ~ and ~ is. n. !1L dUltli4 0liG Lit. 'judcement (oontelttd) betweeil': I dilpute between two peop~ who each claim the _ thine, in particular I e:ontlNted inhmtance (P. ll ~ --..I ·_L_...! •• ___ • Com peR AI. Inacrnan<:'II: • ditriteln, pI. utetm An arbitnlCOf. 1'hnNfhout the hiltory of Athenian II., it had alWlYI been open for litipnll to anarce arbitration (dim'a) on I priVile bait : in theory, the deciIion of • printc: IfbitBtor wu binding, JlfetlUltUIbly becau.c: tM litipntl had voluntarily contracted to accept it. The", _ aim, ho_vcr, • ' }"Inn 0{ public arbitration, introducft c . 400 '.C.: every hoplitc: (or poIIibly enry ciliwn), in tbe year IMt he eeacd 10 be eliJiblc for milrwy ItfYice 111M. 01 S2t had to M:rVc:. public Ifhitrator: and every diJw' (private dispute) wu alkx:ated by lot to one of them for an Ittempt It prdiminuy raolution. In IUCh caes .rbiUltMm _ oompulaory (Jitipnu wne oblipd 10 .ttend) but it w .. not bindirll (I d ...tisfied litipnt coukl mille to ICCepI the verdict : _",. epMsis-). Accordirll to ~Ic, tho: jctbof tbelfbitrat<w (priYateDl" public) .. unlike: that of thedilostu- in le.e.11 rapedI : be IIhouId try to reconcile the pel1iet before impoaing I mlution : he b. the diteretion to brine in I d«:iUon mid -WIlY belween 1M demandl of the litipntl (contrMl",. "... Ul} ; Ind in hi. judaement he tbould look to t'pieilteiofequity', but let fwthno IV. ~) rathu than 10 diM' fjuttioe'). See generally pp. ,6-'7. lS n. ~ s.s.., 'j@,wrio A formal pn tentation of I wil_ ("'IUfNI-) whoK ",i~:.erva 10 compel. the public of6cia1 before: .hom it is PI c_nted either to act in I «nlin .Iy, 01" (D'IOft commonly) 10 deR.I from m adi .... .... I ruult 01 the introdlKtMm of 1JtU .... ~ uouoo 400 ' .c. , the ICOpC of ~rio _100I'I rapidly fetltricted : after J80 I . C. , ita only Ittcaced IIIe it in inheritance- caHS, "hen: I Jq;timlle ton
monnl
'LC' . _,..... _ nncT"'. "'_fI Iu~L~
m
1
ua
STEPHEN TODD
could have. claim by • more remote relative quaebed on the VOUncil that the cue .... not Ictton.ble : 10 re-opm the c.Ie, the rival claimant would have Nee dully to protecute the 'MitnN b, thAi 0II1'1frio,r- . For djlP..OII1'JIria II an inlCHutton,
JIUt'.,
_ p. l O; for dilc:Ullion of.n early cue, _ p. ~ (the) Digat A compil.tion of authoritative excerptI from the worb of nrlier jurisu, "'ued.t the command of the Empm:w JUltiniln in the early lixth century A.D. 1Ithr, chief part of hit codificalm of Roman I.... : pp. lo !!J.... diIt(U/tzihta~ Seen.>. Forty-, the. mlll'lltI, pt. mlMlaii Eng. dibet(l) A man ... ho lef'Veci on In Athenian diAasttT· ;0,,', fulfilli", the functioN both of. modern juror and of, modem judse (pp, !.2.. it.. 2S n. ]S, 100 with n ,so). ~ in the cae of the botJe.. IIKi many other public offica, the P*tion .... rftlricted to citizent, who had rnched the.-e of thirty. diltastmo", pl. milos/triG ; Ene. diblteryraa One of the numerous People'a Courtl of Athene, to be contruted with thoee apecial coyna which weft not manned by milas/at"', IUch II the AreiopicOl-. The typtcaJ mJu'lkrioft conAlttd of ~Soo diltos/m" , .elected by loti (_ 11.0 nN. -Itkrot~, __ See Je .... raIly pp. !9.. t!t ft. ~ ~ S2! 9.L ~ n.j'. mid, pl. t/iltai A concept of wide 1eOpC : 'jUitice', 'good ordff', 'judsement' (p. !..ll.: But it cln a110 refer to the procell by which I jUil wttlement it determintd, thu. ' , I...uit', ',trial', ,nd even 'the cue which one plods' or 'the penalty which one h.. to pay'. In the aenw of 'II_it', diJti can be uaed rithu lu... rially, to refer to Iny type of indictment, or elK (more commonly) in, temi·technical ten8C , to denote lhe olde.- ' pr;"'lte l u;t' (whic:h only the ,,""evee! pany OC' hie immedieto: pefWONl repretentatives could bring) II oppwed to the newer 'public lUil' <.t.~), which could be brought by my citizen in good IUndi,.: it ahould however be noted that the CIItqory of public procedure .... tm.der thin that of fNJ/IIti. Ind included I number of extraordinary procedures which were not themttlvtl~ (p. S1l: we for iNtince tw. tJ/NIIOfi l , afK1PlttUi.-, ma1f8tlia l , elll"'I1_", pluuUl. FOC'di/tl in the Ien.t of 'private lUit·, "'" pp. U. !i!!!J., 9!!. it.. ~ las, !Jl., IJ8 !Y:t.i ..pedl of the dildlfNJ/llti distinction are d~ on pp. 37 n.ll, Sl::l! ~ 1Ul , ~ with !U n.Jo, gt !.Ji.. Note : It wema that thele indictmentl in Alben;'n law weft only allowed if UK of the diAl or fn1p/ti procedure again ... I p.nicullr offcnc:c _ lutholiled by atatute : whether the ddendant'. a1lqed behaviour fell within the ttnnl of thdoffmce could of coune be I matter foc deblte. An indlctment _ normally de.cribed u I diU (or 1fTJIJIti. U 'ppropriate), qualified by the i'IoIme of the offence, usually in the genitive cue : thullf'dPIti ..,rebnot, I public indictment for 1I1IbrU . For convmience in thti a{OIIIry, procedul'H diaculled 1ft lilted a1phlbttially under the title of the offence rather than under dild or f"IIJAi. dioHliG The 'two-obol fund' , inttituted apparently by Kleopbon during the litter ItIfH of the Peloponnttiln Wlr ; ita function ... to rive pnr. to poor citixne, pl'Humably II war.rtlief, but the detaillof the diatribution and of the fund itKlf art obtcure (p. !U!: A apeciaI oath taken in CIIeI of homicide: in .11 other caKt the litipnu alone IW01't the tJfItoIftMia (lit. 'oath (of two people] IfIIinIt each other') : in homicide can all the witnaaa had to join in the oath of tbtR principall. which wu for this rcuo,,1t1'lO'lfn U the dicMosill (IiI. 'oalh between [rI'ICn than two ptople)j : p. ~ See funhtr w. oath ' , w . pItoItrM-, dilti.
·"a.m-).
a-na
,
k
G~lncb
UJ
ham.
"'''mana;
«dena See re, ,1rlWtiD.'. tUQ1tf'tlitl, pl. m-"Iiai Lit. 'public announcement, layina of information': I form of public incbctment broadly corresponding to impeachment in the USA. It wu .".ibble fot UIC IpiRit any public oflicia1 durina or after hilterm of office (he would normally be ~ from office for the duration of the trial) or . .inlt Iny poIitM:a1IC1der .ho had made • public propoeal. It _rna that the cue could be brouiht either directly to the ~"~sitJ' (It" ~IK to th~ bot.~-., and that th~ liMi hanng would take place either before the d1t~sitJ or (more commonly, .nd in every known (::Qt liter 360 I .e .) hefon. tli/"ut~rioft' . See pp. 1!. :w.. So, l.O!6 with ~ !!!.. mel for deWled dacu.ion .2§: ~ eUp/tortJ, pl. rifpItorai An occ.aiorW tu on pro~rty (unlike mod~m tllltl. whieh,,~ ......tty dwpd on income), leYied ., Athenl at timet of financial thortage. It ..... impoted on the richer citiuna. apperently as a filled (i . ~ .• non.prorreaaive) percenureoftheir total wealth . The toul number li.ble.t any time" unknown , but have been aue.iil thou.nd ; .t any nle. oonlidenbly more wa-e Iillble to pay thit tax than to unde.go Irt~e . ejectment See IV. ~JtJONkI', di1tJ. elultJlis Lit. ·givi.... forth' ; the ceremony at which the lNrioJ- of • ~rothed bride pve hCT into the hand of her new hUiband. Muri.' in Athenian 1..w took one of two fOrml, eithCT by enp;e and ~lttlosis or else (if a run died JellYing hil d'uPtCT with oo.bnios to Jive her ....y, and no heir to hil property) by the qidiAtJsitJ' ohhc epiltlnw e , lor which _ further IV. inheritanec'. ,ltItksitJ The public ~lyof AthenI, held u.uaIly on the Pn)'ll-,.t which a1ll1dult male dttaeM were formally mulled to attend, vote and tpeak (pp. :6 !!.....1J, .52.. s.s.. 2!
mil,.
~!l5.
with n.]8. ~ a.fll .
(the) £1_; Gk. 1toi 4ntdtAtJ A board of public oIfkia" rnponsibk for the atlle prOton of Athmt. Tbe majority of tJIIGIOftU" wen! bc-ou.Jht heron them, and they were in charze of all eucuttona. See p. ~ ...a:NIIOI diM, pI. e_rtOi diJuIi Lit. 'monthly (::Qt' ; for the meaning of 'monthly'
heft.
_w.~diJri .
,,.,,.,,iIrm·
diJtl, pl. di/tm. A cue involvi.... • SftIIOtflt·, tradCTI ....ho import aooda (apeeiaI1y the mra,mn which ..... needed to feed the population of Atta). Beeauae of the Ui pney of the tnde, web ~ had rapid and prmlcpd _ to the courta; but it it not clear whether the tCTm. ti: W_, commonly UIed to delerihe
~
1
U4
STEPHEN TODD
them. should be intttpmcd to mean that the twe mUit be compkted within a month (the traditional virw). or (a haie:a:utly been UJUed) that there _an oppottunity every month to initilte IUCh~; it ill uncauin.t.o .,hether IUCh litiption could tift pbce OIIly duri.nc the ItUmmeT monthI or only duri..., the ,,"mer monthl. It iI poIIib1etlw othertpetW tulnmlY hive applied inme.cCMa: _ pp. ~n. r:l. 19 n. IS. 31 n ,:l3 • • 87 n ..... ~I . pI. ",dftxm A procedure dOidy related to . ,. . . .. The ptec:iM: .,. nificanc:e 01 the term it dilputed : tnlditionally it _ thouiht to be a denunciMion made befon: I public offic:al,.ho would then himIeIllItftIC the culprit: but it mly inatead have been uled by the plaintiff in lOme _ a a voluntary preliminary to ~. See funher pp. 39 n.3S.!p, l06lrith n.16. erJpi. pI. npGi; MfWIa A IUmy: the ewpI ia the thi", .,hich iI pledp! u ICCUrity. Ind the the pelIOn .,ho pkdcee or commits hm.df _. pledfe. Such IUretia wen UKd in. ""F of JepI contata: to auarantee the ~yment 01. fine Of the appearance of. ddmdant (puric:ularly. loreipltr) in court: and •• ckpoait payable by tho.e 'Wbo conu.c:ttd the .tate the ript to colkct taxa or to openile mini",~ (_IV. '-'."). But the rno.t notable 101M ol e".wa the _ r y prelude to eltdom· m the rerular Athenian form of naam.,e•• WI ,upohdi", to (but much 1ti00ll'lr than) the modem enpcement. nMk,;, TeSlure of land by • perlOli who iI not • ritilen of the community m ....ich he holdt it. It _ one 01 variouI privilqa (_ .t.o IV. iIoet. . .·) which could be lJI".nted .t Athent to individual rnetics·. Survirinr i..eripcionl n:eood granta of 'eldtkr" of I.nd' or 'of. houle' or 'of land and. houR'. but it iI not known whether the three categoriet are Ieplly diltinct, or limply the product 01 cauaI drauchta· manahip. ~ . IUIt"lbll)' Catehinc the eulprit 'red·handed' wu • nee try preliminary to .,. . . . and IUmmary uecution (pp. 6S. 76). It iI not wholly certain .",wEYer whether~' _topItovvi mtaDt 'caupt in the ICI (01 theft, for inIunce)' 01" (moft probU{y) 'caught in web ciraunll:anca a to mate denial of the ofJmee im~ble' . ~ , pl . qtcboij Ene. epbebe(.) An -delel:,..lIt _ho it on the thretho:ld of adulthood. Theearly hiltory of the inltitut'on (epJw6.!i4I) ilobecure: it ft'IIy p!*ibly have derived from primitive ""$ M pGU¥ (rituak of lnnIition from boyhood to adulthood): in the later fourth c:enwl)' howe O'CI' the ./e,beia _ fonneliaed (It te.t for thole of hopIite' . .IUl.nd .bove). 10 dw you. . men It the . . ol (probably) npteen had to underJo t'Wl) yean of compulaory military IftYiee bdore hei. . admitted to the full tRrci.t of their riFta. citr-o But the term iI uled widely _U before th" time to refer to (neh) you. . men (p. 140) . efJIwIe,;" pl. qlwP$ft$ A procedure dOlely related to crpqc;i' and ~., the elwacterilt~ feature of tfIIw'"" it dw the .nat ia rude not by the c:omplainant but by. public official acti... upon his denundation (p, 75 n .SI) . tfIIw,;, Rtf_I to lIIXItpt the decieion of an oHicial or • court of fint inaanct, combined with. dt-mand fOl' the dilpute 10 be I.,ed by. hiper .uthority. FOI' _ante, Solon in the 59Oi1 I .C. iI ..iId to have intToduced 'ftIItui$ to the dilualffo . " U • curb on the tutnmary jurildiction ol public: of&cialI: and &om their mtrodUCIion in t . 400 I .e .• the deciaionl 01 public ubitraton (_ IV. dilIiU'Ia') ftf't timilarly wbjed to 4/1.,;,. EpItnU ia COftftfttionally t:raMlMed 'tpptaI'. but thil can have mialeadinc coullowionI. An appeal in EnclMh 1_" broupt 0lI the convicted defend8nt) tfter the iftitUitive of. diawilMd litipnt (in eriminal
ntpf'"
rrom
CMeII.'
"
.
GI_ry-'nd<x
ollinll jOlWl(e hal decided.llpinll himlhtr; it ia hillhcr duty to ~e the appellate court to revene lbil decisKm, mel lIbe bccoma in. KnIt the plJintiff in tOUrt
lb.. pl~CIII . In Atlla.. then wt:re at Ie..- tome .iUI.lUons in _hkh ~ris eould take pIM:e bd«e the lower IVthority had: reached I deciUon; it _ the duty of the oricinal plaintiff. not of the d__ ia6ed lit""l, to pe-nuade 1M court to lid: (thn it, the court _ rHrJinr the _ from ICftleh .nd not reviewi. . . deciaion already .-de); and it it poIIIIibk tb.t in the _ of Solonian eplwm. lb. rdernJ _ automatic and did not depmd on In initiftiyc taken by OM of the t_litipnu . •,idiltasid Lit.', ;-',,=*Ul (awuded) to'; an uncontated claim to the estate 01_ dNd man: if the claim _ conteRed, it ..ve riM: 10 • JitadilttUl"••. See lurtheT ftI . o
L-'-___ I
m~~.
AriItotIc..,.. that it .. the function of the diAastu' (juror/Judge) 10 judfe ac:cordinc to diM' Cjusticc'). but that the diaiktcs' (ubitrltor) .......ld make hie dcciIion -dine toq,WiUis. It .. conventional thcrdon: to tnMI,te ~ .. 'equity', aince th. it.lCandard.nd convenient ..y to detcribe 'fume.' or 'natural juItic:e' .. oppel' d to the 1Crid. .ppl.ialtion of Iqra) Nte-. Then: ~ howenr Cft'tain probkms here. Equity in Enp.b law can mean limply 'faime.', but d .. alto the name pm to the '1IIm! of law devdoped on,inally by the Coun of Chancfty (Ihe Lord Cha:ocdIor', court), to provide relief in cueI 'III'hn-e 10 apply the rules of 1M common'law WOI.IId have ttemed manifatly unfair. 'Equity' in this Kt'IIe is itlelf. body of rulte'i it • found only in oountriet which bae their Iepl . yttem on the common 1Iw; II'Kl it. clearly not whit An.otk. taIkinc.bout. It.t.ould indeed be noted dIIt AriItot)e'I.utemmt 01 theory ~Yft little acknowledgment in Atbeniln prKtM::e: when • litipnt in In otant apeeeh pleadl for the IpplK:.tion of ratu",1 juItic:e in bit flV'OUr, he dW'KteriltkllJy delc:ribel this .. tIiM ~ not .. ~ . See further P. I79 with n.25. ~ (fan. adj. noun), epiklcrMe (lbiIti ..'t noun) An ~1tInoI ,... the dlucbteT of I _ who died lavine no nIIk heir; 1M ... not hil heire., but P' ' m of lUI e.Pte went together with her hind in tyM:em of inheriunee is claeribed .. the epik1ente: for funher detaill, _111. inheriunce'; II'Kl fMcot.lptiiloll, uwlltI. eltdosis'. (The et)'niOlocY of ~_ unclear: it IDa)' ~bly mean'one towhom the property perujn.'. but I'IIOft likely it 'one who peruin. to the property'.) ~litil See re. court·f_'. equity Sor, ~'. ~ A -.rord with. dUller of meaninp. hnine in tommon the ide. oJ .... mt and reciprocll contributioM (e .• .• to I common meal). In lepI contem. "1'11_ commonly men to the conuibutionl tupplied by • number ollenden to I p/t:iJoI (friend or I Kitte) who ... in &npociaI diHic:ukin. The . - of the indiridual tOrItributioni YIried _di •• to the ___ of the lender and the neede. of the bollONd , but tended to be -U in -X. EnrMII'H»nI WtTc interftl:·free. and were liven un the uncIencandm, tt.t .e.,.,.ikut would be made .. ..un II the bor'Ohe• ... in fundi. Sor, JUWrally pp. 18J with n.J+, 18,. 188 . ..,thrti. nonnalIy pl . ..~ Lit. ·the.nion of atnipt'. Every public official .. Athenlluwl to uftderro .. the end of bit term In namiMtion of hil conduc:t j;a of&ee. If be W hancHed public: be htd topreaent h_lCCOUnti (qui, pl.); in all eaeI be bad to IIeek appro.,.] of the ..,. he hMl uted hiI POWell (,..~ pooperiJ IU c:aUed, but the term ftfIJrJnrai c:ame IIIu to be applied to the whole ~
ICtmc"
m.m.e. n.
_1'tI.,.,...
1'tI.
lleltmc
monr:,.
aali
STEPHEN TODD
of .udit, loP included). 'The examination .,. conducted by boadt of qulai (pI.) .nd~· (pl.) , .. apploprilte; but any printe citiacn could brine' dwte at any . . durinethe ploccedi.... Forftltlw,... lee pp. JI,]9, 78, 79 n .fry ; PfOC~.
for the ftllMllIOI' lee p. 65. ndu-' See w . net". . .. execution For e:ucutkm in the tf:Me 01 apital puniabment, _1\1 . penalt,.-, and fOf IWMWJ execution in th. tenIe _1\1 . . . . .. The tmn 'execution' however i, mctft often UKd by lawyers to mean execution of jt'dcement: if the court decida in flvour of the plaintiff and.warda him ritha' damaca or.arne other .ecompenae at the handI of the defendant, how don the plaintiff Jd ru. hindi on what he is now entitled tol In Athenian law, execution of judp!nent_ldt alll'lOlC entirely in the banda 01 the individual, with minimal _wance from the 1bIe : lee further W . ~~I-,
diltI.
'~"" pI. 1III~'ai
Lit. ·interprct:er'. A JIOUP of of6ciaJa who expound the pope. prOCedUR in lituariont which nliae unusual quationl 01 Rlipoua law. Their activity is 'Hated in Kvelal elKS, all ofbomicidc: ; ,nd in each c.e they are lelfkXwfincto an enquiry by an individual rather than as expert wit, n befOft. court. In one c:aee they olfer a1ao to adviae • litigant, impJrinc that this _lOIntIhi,. mI)ft than tMi' rerul,r function of intnpretinr the law. lXOMOIio Lit. 'In oath rejecti"l (aornethinc)' : an ..m denyinf knowtedp of , fact, taken by , min who _ unwillina to kt .. witnell when chlUenF!; the prcciae lirni6canc:e of the procedUft • diacuaaed on pp. a.J-5, J6. See at.o 1\1. /it-uutllriof,j-, dilti . (diW-) ~-"I A po 11Iion-order: a private indictment d~ to eject the holder from' piece 01 real- property claimed by the plaintiff. The diU I~I could onl), be broupt if the plaintiff had one: of KVC1',1 tlItutoril)' privilefed righll to the property in qutltion. the moat .ipifiant of whic:h .,. that it hd already been .djudicated to him by , pihioua court.han... Tn. plocedure thndOft played , major r6&e in the execution- of judcemmt. beetu. in Athenian tn' it _ the raponlibilit)' of the auccaJul pl.intiff in Iny Kt~ to QtIUett whtteYer damaget he had been a.,..-ded : if the ddendant proved unable Of unwiUi", to .,-)'. the plaintiff could bri", • diJti I~' apinst him, which 'III'OUki thm entitle him to lei. propelty in payment of the debt. A1thouJh the IIIte took no Klive pat in the aemare, I plaintiff Inned with a diltl ~:ctJfIh. beame in, _ the lUte'. -rent : he _ I~,.d to UK any necmlrY violcnc:e, and to raiIt him _ to commit the aeriou. offence oIlnJin',· . fine See IV . peu1ty-. (the) Forty A board of public: officials in the fourth century, who... dutw. were entirely judic:ia1. They toot cnoer the functioN of the nrlieT tliJuutlJi latlJ ____ Of 'judea in the cten-' ('detne' here g uaed in dftW· Knit (2» : tNt the IIHer term continued to be UKd Iooeely to delcribe the new board, ~ thouch the F arty unlike thea predecel l lQ dKi not 10 out on circuit. They were orpniaed on, tribe) bait, with four alloc:ated to each of the ten tribet (not their own) : they received tho... priYate CIIItI (Ke .". ~) which dKi not fall within the eompcunee: of other mqitttllCl, a IfOUP of _ which COilaponded doeeJy if no!: nactly to thole wbkh were 1Uh;ec:t to public: ubitntton. c..a were submitted to one (probably) of the judea allocated to the defendant'. tribe : if the tum at iaaue were very tmall (1_
GL
,,,...lodn.
"7
ten" "
than e';: Me IV . coINp'), he could decide it twnmariI)'; otbee Mde he _ oblipcl to) refer it to I publie: ubittltM, and only in c.c of appeal would he brine it before I court (_IVV. dUzi'~~z', qhDU'). freedman Seutl. ","""eOl·.
,.apIti, PI."4 ~ai Lit. 'I writi.e:eg'; hence ' I written indictment', d . Ene. ''to'rit'. Thil _ the oame giyen to the new 'public' form of ordinary Ph: Ctution introduced Ippu-mtly by So&on in the 5P' h. chmM:tm.cic _ that the ind~1 could be brouPt by Iny qualified citisen (40 how'c' IMIk'$') , the oIdeT diu' ptocedure couJd be broutht only by the: injured party. GropIe'; and other public
wi.... .
proceduret appear to have given rile to hipet- penaltiet, and thua to have rnrarded a IU'" I .M plaintiff much more heavUythan diddi. . ; but tMy ~ IlIo cor.tderably more riMy : I plaintiff in • public ....it who failed to obtain ~ per ~t of the vota of the jury could e::etp«t to suffer I heavy fine md ~bly IlIo other peNItia (e.,. It Ja.t parti.:l ___ '). See further pp. ~ 0.15, M. 69 D.:U, 9~, 9S n.J8, 106 with n.u, and n.13. Ill. 12]-4. 12.5. IJ2-4; and for the namine of the y.nou.;
"ul Wi,
*' the note IV. diJ." shove.
(AIOI) . . . .Ad See IV. Ekven. the·. /w,.m" pI. Iw,';rai Lit. 'female eompanion': dee nonnal G~1r. word for I couneun, call-pi or hip·d... proetitutt (pp. III n.2I). 135. IJ7 n·41. 145. I~ 176 n. I,). which ~D be eonfuUlIf fot' I modem rndeT (C:Oillpan ,v'_POI') . ltt,aimtJ, pI. 1M1IIin!i4i A tam uaed to dacribr: ariItocntic drinku.-c:luM, which mipt or rnipt not have political in addition to theU-1Oci.I aims (pp. Sa with n .4'. 14J). See alia ttl. " _ _no·. ,v1DUos, pl. ,v14in1t. Lit. 'comrade(.). drinkina-companion(.),: member-(I) of a (pp. 45 n . 19. S40 9J n.JJ). "'eOl'" Temp""l'Obbery (pp. 70 with n .a,. 7J n .J9): ' panicularly blat.nt form of aubeiG·. 40 bow"k e... _ Set IV. botj.lew....,,·, Ito. ,../tnukIuJ 5eesv. Eleven', the. homicide See $V. J1Ituito-I, diJri. hopIite H~vy-armed infantTyman. GRell. annin ~ ~iaUy ciriaen rreilitila. and it _ customIrJ for toIdien 10 provide their _poNI . (Sparta rr:ay have hem an eaoeptioa i:n mil rapect. _ iG 10 rr:any othen.) AI a rauk in late fifth- and in fourth-eentury Athena the elYiiby _ the pi rye of the upper c:'- (probably no more than the ~ S per emt of lhe alisen·body); the hoplila will h.ye c:ompti.!d perhapa dee next JO-'4O percent. Tbae filum lite of c:oune DO more than
All,.,.,.,,'
......b"r~'~
..... , pl . Jtomi Lit. 'boundary': by atenlion, intc:ribed atoI-, m.arIr.ina' the boundIry of. piece of ptope.I),; by further exkGIion, applied to inec:riptioe_ pIae:ed on the boundary of the propeny 10 wan: third partia that dee pe>1Oli in pi ICllion did not have the unenc:umbered ript 10 dilpe;ele of it (t.,., bec:a"", he: had offered the ptupal)' _ aecurity for 11ou:.: pp. 1'j'6-8}. Three typea of trll*c:tion lite rec:ordee:l on extant 1Ioroi: h"f1~rwItl, pnuis". I.m, aDd.,OiI· a.a ; but the ptec:de utun: of the diarinction beNeen ta- rem. it \UIdear (_ furtba p. 1,1). (flll''''-) b6rew A public: indic:tment ~WrU' (pp. U]-45,&cu""').
,
128
STEPHEN TODD
AIdwU The core-eoncept of"",,", it ditputcd: it • probably an IICtion .hich intmtionally a _ damIrc to the ~ 01 the pc._• it (p. u6). Sec ~lIy pp. U3"""45. and aha 158 with n.J •. I"Jlrisks A penon who commih bbris- (pp. IJI, IJ:I, IJ5, 139). A.,lwAl Set w . Itotw-.
.wfcm.
imprilonmmt See w. pma1~ . inheritance The inheritance rqulationa of "''"iaI Atbmi were very dillinctivc. If the d«"! •• ed Ich a direct heirorhctnin the mIk line, thm he Met indfect no poWUI to roUe I will; mel immcdiltdy. without the need for I c:oun heIriat, the inheritance" cd to the W(I) (_ rtI . plltiblc- int.clitaDot). If MWher the deccmd hid no mile heir but left. d.aushter, the became anqi"'fuQi-: thai .., the WIll not henelf the hciftII, but I" .on of the prupc:lly WIll vt:Sted in her. The man.ho mamed her took lhe atItc, but.p..... entlyonly •• trUIleC : wbm the __ of th. mII'Tiarc reached adulthood. the propelt, revelled 10 them. The IwKtiol. of thit inllitulion it dilputed: WIll it intended (II hit tnditkJnally hem believed) to pro";dc an heir for a houMhokI that would otherwiee leek onel or _the lim (II hit rettntly been .ugnted) to protect the intereltl of the PfOPCntcd woman in a IOCWty where .tie had no real control 0VC1' her propcny and her muitIl proepceu, by eMurinl that In ufIKrupuloua m.le ntllt-ol·kin did not Itek 10 keep her unmarried in the evmtual hope of inheriti", her propcny l A man who had no direct /Nle h~r did hIve the poWCT to make I will: iu PUrpoK woukl be primarily to fill the IbImcc olIn h~r, normally by poethumoualy adoptinsl male relative or cloec friend II eon, or marryina him 10 the tC'ltator'ldauKhtet, or bach; if the dectued died without heir and inteatate-, then hit rcl.tivca in aid order of kinship had the riaht to cllim the hand of the rpiAwros , or if then ... no qi/tkros to "'aim the CItItc in their own ri(ht. But whether or ROC there _ a will, the dntinlltton of.ueh an ar.te had to be confirmed by • rJiAallvitm- praidcd over by the 1JrtiM-, a hcarinc .t whkh IIlYbody mi(ht submit. claim . An unconlClCed claim • • known U In qfdf~- ; if there _ a ditp'ne between two or more daimantl, the hcrri. _ c:alled a diDdi*an,,-. It wu notoriout tNit Athenian 4iJuut"." tended ta rank the daima of rcliltivC'l IheId of the intmtionl of the teatltOf. inquiaitorial An inquititorial.y1tem of jUlttcc (p. :lJ) • one In which the iudr in , criminal trial it charged with dilcovninc the Inlth : he will nonnally direct poteedinp, dceidil'll_hat wit_ to call mel cuminirc them in pcrwn. nil. the t.ia 01 the Iystem of criminal jUltK:c that Optilla In moll a";I·la'- countries. See for C1;Intrutltl. adnnarial- 1JIICm. intalaC)' (noun); intCIWe (adj.) In EnPiah 11., intcataey i, the condition of dyinc without leavina • will; • pelion who don thit is detcribcd II inlCllate. Athenian rqulattom for inheritlnce m .umnwiKd w. inheritance-. isofeki" Lif., 'equalit)' of tuation': one of , number of privilqca IfVIted by individual decree to particularly fa_red meta-; the pri";. in th. elM _ cxemptton from the _toi..".-, the rqular direct tu to who all meta wae OdM:i wili: lilble. FOf other llirnilar prj";., _ w . itMlnis-.
judge Sec w . diluute,jury Sec no. diitutts- .
1
GL
ry-Inda.
(eu-) k' fCIIIW Lit . '(~tion t'OI"",,*,liIi. .) evil...""kinc' : , printe indichUellit COIIOtIl.mc.a.ncler (p. 133). It it not cm wbethn .ny a1lqedly fal:te iItlIkmc:m _ Ietioub&e, or only eaWn ph~ or .uternenb made in Cftt&in
Iit1wica.
"'o..U. ',1. Lit. ' (pt. !:\Irion ODuceiilinc) .'Ol.,tut pIotUnr' : , pri~le indictnM!nt broupt""" IMn who MeI.bomed, fal:te wm- (p. 36 n ' 31). AdNi'lOl, pl . ..... '.... Lit. 'evil-doer', 'lMlef-=tor'. KtMow,oi aucht mI·hmdrd could be metted by . . . . of tIP""", but it it not certain .betheT thit ptoctdure could be UKd IpiaIt Uly criminal 10 caucbt, Of whether (Of the purpoee of . . . (~)
the tam .... C'W,. . acquir'ed , temi·technkal -run, 10 denoIe cauin oflmen Iptcified by ltatute: the latter teemI rr:ore likely. See p . IUJIor .. ",.".,.., pl. UJoi Iurpdtoi Lit. ',ttJ'llc:tive and honou,.ble', or 'to.nct.ome and virtuouI', thta 'pdemUl': I _U' lpprobitory term uted by the Atheniuo arittoen.t 10 detcribe himlelf and toil fe\lowt (pp. 100-1 ";th IOU n .SI , 104 n.a , 116, u8). UorejW, pl. 4ltote"; 'LeIder or producu of I chorus': the term refm not to I membeTof the chorul in I drlJl\l new to I playwript, but 10 the impresario .... ho hu 10 undertlke .. hilliturn- the1llor-e,ia; tfw it, plJinI for the production oil play It one of the lMuIl drImIUc: fcstivalaorpnjled tither by tbepoliJ' or by one 01 the
'.7.
clarKI- (p. 134). ~ Lit. 'Wlter-ttealer'. A WItet-ckd, uted to ftlUlate the lenfth of pwcced. Hlp in krpI_. II colll' md of. bowl of WMer with I tmall hole _ tiM! Nw, IUCb that the t.»e eould be ttopped or opened. daired: normally two Iuc:h 00. 11 were UIed, the one bei"l allowed to empty n. contenq inlO the other, and then via t.ltna, 10 me.ure the P_ Ie of tUne. In any cacqory of CIIt, I tel number of bowla-full _ aIIoc.ated 10 each tpCIker, but the flow of Wltrr _Iloppcd for the radinc of ...... and the tettimony of wit~. llMar, pl. Wrro.' onp..tty 'the action of eati"llott'; hence 'thlt .hkb ilillotted'. often 'I _ '.Ianded pope.ty·; and th.. 'an eettte .hich iI to be inherited'. lAfoi 1IkriJIoi, tpeeclw:e COIlOtminc ItkrfJi (inheritance ditputel), wen: I recogniled CIteJOf1 of lote.1IIie oratory; but theR iI no evidence for ,diJti- or a".,.(_ further PP. 36--7 with 37 n.la); inItead, inheritance dilputet were nonnaIly dalt with by meana of diodiAasiG- . Wnokrioft A mKhine UIed in the fourth «ntllfY I .C. to allocate di.tu'ca" to lawcourta: MIt further stN . JottI,~ • . iJeur, pl. iJe.,n; IWIftUU Lit. 'one .ho can.', etc. Kk~ it the action of .wnmoninc eitha- Idefendant or • ..m- to court. T1M: .irnific.nc-e of the rules for the ItkkllSil of wit~ it ~ on pp. a.rS. In the CIK of. defendant, on the other '-'d, it .. the plaintiff. job Ioenfon:c the IUmmum; and he ,,",uld take one or more IW~I (tumJnOM-witlKll : p . 37 n.33) with him. If the ddmdant f.iled to Itlend and the court ......tiI6cd by the Ak~1 thlt he had been properly IUmmoned, the verdict would be delivered apiflll him lutOfflltic:ally ; if tubMqUCntly be withed 10 c:onteIl thil, he h.d to claim thlt the Rlmonon. had never been _",ed, by c:onYicti.. the wi __ of Iyi"l (_ pnufrtAMbiu-, "tJfI/ti). ItlIIpI 'Tbeft (pp. 6)-8a.-,"'). Very unuwaUy, thil • • 1n offence .hkh eould be piC I uted by botb~ mod"4~. It. how(ter ~b&e (d'OIJ1h nul ttrtIin) thIt the larter _ rIll rved for _ of embealement or theft from public ~reet. (..,-),.., See p . 75 with ".+8 mod n.sa, 76 with n.S7, 79 with n.6" IItId aJ.ont.
'k_
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STEPHEN TODD
I,grophi- ) It/opes See pp. 56 n.6t, 7S f1 ·49, 79 n.67, and also SV. Itlopi- above. ItTotor Power or authority: see sv. tktno/tratia- . Itrisis A judgement or dedsion : the word ia used to descri~ all forma of decision· making, but particularly that of a court: p. 43. /tun'os Lit. ' master', 'lord', or in certain ctlntexts 'sovereign'. An At henian woman had to be represented in legaltranuctions by a male relative, who WIS descri ~d IS her Iturior: in the case of an unman-ied girl or a widow who had returned to the hQU!It of her family, this would normally be her father or (failing him) her brother or paternal uncle, but it could even be her adult son. A married woman was represented by hcr husba nd, but it appearslhl! her agnatic- kurior did retain certain rights: for instance, the reversion of her dowry. Confusingly, the term kurios was also us.ed to denote the owner of property or master of a hou!lthold, and there Ire contexts ;n which the two u ~ migh t conflict: a married son, for instance, would belturios of his wife; but hi. father may still be kurim of hi. household. law.making See SV. norrrothnia- . legislation See w. nomolhesia-, (sutute of) limitations See sv. prothesmio-. (dike- ) lipumanunou A private indictment against a man who refuses to witness : the precise constituents of Ihe offence are discusaed on P.:lS with n.ll. See also lV .
exomosio- . liturgy ; Gk.leirour,io, pl.leilou"iai Much of Athenian public expenditure was met, not by the state paying out money which it had collected as taxel!. but in the form of compulsory public service imposed on rich individuals (mostly citi~ ns, but for some taska metics- were included). The task. in question were called leitouTgiai ('worka for the people'), conventionally transliterated as ' liturgies', but wi th none of the ecclesiastical overtones of the English term . These leitourgiai included th~ khoregio - (paying for the production of a play at a dramatie festival) and the trierarkh y- (paying for the crew and the up keep of a warsh ip for a year). There was of course an element of ctlntpetitive outlay implicit in this synem: an impreSSively. perfonned li turgy stood to win great prestige for ita pe rformer, and this could be exchanged into political currency (khoris: P.54). There were also possibilities of tax·fraud and unde r-declaration of wealth: hence the need for the a nlidosis- . The number of men liable to undertake liturgies at anyone lime is unknown, but was probably no more than 300-400, It least if we exclude the trierarkhs (p. 53 n.S3)considerably fewer and considerably richer than thOM: liable to pay cisp}rorai-, ~cause the sums in question stood 10 be much larger. For liturgies, see pp. 45,53, r./J. 137 with n·41. logistai, (pI.) See IV. euthunai- . /ogogrophia The art of the logographos-: p. 51. logographos, pI. /Qgograplw; Lit. 'speech.writer' : specifically, a profenional writer of speeches for litiganu to deliver in coun. It has recently been argued that the logogropJros did not normally write the spe«h so much as help the litigant to prepare it, but this view is contested. For the career of Antiphon, the first fogograplwr whose work has survived , see pp. 48-51 (esp. P.49 n.34), 60 n.79. iogrri. (pI.) See SV . t uthunai-. lot The majority of public offices at Athens were filled not by election but by casting lots, on the ground that this was more democratic: elections, as Aristotle observed, Copyrighted Material
Gh
",
.,....Indu
favour the weIl·known. AlimilarsytUm WIt ueed in tM daily a1loc:atton of Jilt.,,,,.. to Iawcouru, tlthouth here the rationale WIt apparently to prevent jury·'nobblinc': ICC fwtber IW. ~, " ... 6•••. For the detaih of .Lection for nnou.
of6c:a, 1CC p. 117 D.¢. mllilblle
manUrt
Setftl. ~.
For the two a1ttmative typee of rJWTiIae in Athtnian law, lite (for the recular form) IW. ntpP and ~1tdorU· , and (for the procedure in the cae of an qilWrw.) 111. qfdiAtuiG· and (for the impbcationl of thil) IV . inheritance·. For PIato'llUIIutioDJ, ICC p. 6g n.:ao. -nu, pl. _twa A witneIe : daa-d in dttail on pp. 19-35 #NUn., d . a110 p . t83· ..........~riD., pl. ~ The tatimony of a ...an",.: P.3 1. Ridej GIr.. _IOiJI,o" pl. _1oiIroi A non-citiztn. et' !knt mote M lea pennanmtly in I Greek ~ (metita aft ltteIIed in IDOft than 70 poIfts, but in 10 little detail that ~rtuaUy lIB our information deriva from AtheM) : pp. 27 n . I., 53, 73, 94 n .37, 106 n. 13. Metics It AtbmI-.rren: IUbjcct to c:onAdcrable ratric:tionl; for inltanct, they -.rren: oblp to pIIy IIpeciIJ or mette·tax, Ind to rqiNer the rwnt of I alDen .. tN;r "",14k'·, md they -.rren: not entitled to own land : lee for contrllt
t.,.
_1oiJrior..
_ L • ....:• •
1tIV. ~ ..
, UOk_ . •
, - ' __
_1OitiOR Lit., 'metie-tax' : ICC IV . ~ . Only I t)'TInt , in Greelr. politital thourht, rtnpoMd rquIar dircd tuition on hil IUbtecu; it • notable that III citizen Wte. It Athena -.rren: ritheT imgulu (like the eis,Mot ... ) or indirtCt (like liturFt-· or harbour duet) : even thouJh the Wt ibtlf DIlly not ha.,e been finmcially cripplinc (our IOUfCtI augnt I rate of one dnchma ptf" month for men, and half thil for womm), to imP*' I direct replu Wt on mttin _ nevtrthc1tM I potent Makmtnt of tN;r subordinate 1tIWI. miM; GIr.. __ Set ftl. cob It-. ".,tJeos Pay for holdinc publte of6ot : Greek politicallheory rtprded th. . . one of the diltinpilhinl 'e-tum of I democracy. At Athtni the datut";- Wert paid for atttncIanct from the.so- (p. ...), Ind the membtn of Ihe ,lrAkJia· from Ipproxi. mately p (p. 50 with n.42) . Publte 016ciala were ctrtIinly paid during the late 6fth century, and in both &fth and rourth centuritt they ~ved rikm (probably mtaIs It public expel_, rather than In allowance in lieu); but itil diaputtd whr:lher they reeeivtd IffiIt!tor duri,. the rourth century. . . _ ; , .. mtnI ftl . COlftII't •
.
...
.
.. '6"fto Adultery : d*'-d m detail m pp. 14~5/)GS- . Set ftl . c:oiDap". monthIyClle Stenr.·....'P••u __ ~·diltl. money
Set ftl . poaiti'lt. law, W'..,.,.) _ _ f1'iktMictt tIwittai Set nr. paiDl_·" ,apItl. JU.WI, pl. ~ Lit. I 'norm', in the ImIe both of 'CUltom' md of 'law' (pp. 11-12, 142, 18+ n ' 37, 194). lID",. iI often _bated, npecjelly in fifth-ctntury Gfftk tholcht, with (lit. 'bIlurt') ; the iatttl' It.,. lib undtrlyinr reality, and the larliler denotee the pettee .. by which men try to ah.pe thil. In Ibia IeMe IA: ' " normally tn"'·ed '_'eatio..'. natunllaw
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STEPHEN TODD
NfIfIfIN .... alto, II leur Ute.- SOO I.e:., the normal1ll'Of'd for ' I lI.' in the .,.. 01 'I tUtute' (e.l . p. 14J n.14); bdorethit.. the 1II'Of'd ,",, XI Mel been prefnnd, IDd the chlnge it lurely aipi6cJnt: 'thle which ill Wet down (by the pH~)' hIIi1nn _y 10 'the order that men impoee'; for ¥ariouI interpfttidoIM of the ~ific:ance of the chinrt, tet p . n rUJ. In d_iclluure, I dillinctioa Ibould be dnwn between _ I (_,..), meaninr 'I ....• in the KnIt of I particular 1tatUk, IDd _ _ (pl.), meaninr '11w' or 'the "w' in the KnIt 01 'the COfIItitution' or perM", even 'the Iep!
.,..e:tm' . One additionll contrul Ilhould be noted, lhat betW"iI _ IDd ~ (lit. ·decree1. In the 61th century there .... no diffei~" in lIw between that two fotml oIlt1tute i Illy dectlion 01 the: dJr#,u,. could be cIacribed either • I IIGWKtJ or • I /lJ'tfIItWtuJ. From 40J I .e., howcV'CT, I formal diltinctm .... dnwn : the ,ltAksio continued to JIIU pstjJllUM(Jltl., but th. term .... confined either to temporlry ruin or to thole which applied only to cwned indiriduals; the pltlifll (thourh not the ptopolina) of r-a, rules which were intended to be 01 rnleftlllnd ptrnJIntirt Yalidity, .... tden out of the hindi of the tIdtIt,u,. Thil.aYed to enhInce Iep! ttability, I1td to p"event the Oftrthrow of the - . .' CCOl'lltitution1 in the wly thIt __ felt to hive OttUrm::I too taily duri. . the oliprdlic rnolution 01 4' r I .e .: it becamr: much more difficult to ch.... I _ (fordeuill tetnJ. -rAtsio'): and it .... iUcpl for Iny propoeed ~_ to contrlvme I _ . See further ro. pcPlI_'"ropAi. rtoMOlMsio ; -'ltettl, pl. rtoMDI/w'ai N~" the P"OC! II of tnkIinc lawa (of JCneral Indlor ptl'l'lllnent "!idit)': _.ro. _ I ) . Met' 40J I .C.• this _ tIlen out of the hinds of the tltAksia' and aiven to the ~t4i, in order to provide I check on the pm r 01 reckIea leplltkln. The prea. urancaoentI for the prOCCllteem to hive been rev_d ... eral timadurincthe fourth century; but it it notIble thlt the -rltelai WCf't I body Itlected by lot' from amGIII the panel of elirible diAtutai' . Their funaion .... to hear in detail (but not ~t1y to ditcUII) the urumentl for and . .inac: lIny pIVj>Oled I~ft chance, and to make I final and luthoritltive decision. They could ho_e ver only IICt when requnted to do 10 on the initiltive of the dltklilJ. ,.,." pI. Lit. 'I buwd'. In the c:I ' ~II period, Athenian citiaenlbip_ confined to thole born of citixn permtl on both - .. The chad olin unmarried unKm bet_un citiaen lnet non-citilcn .... clearly iUqilimate, and hid rifbu neither of inheriunce nor of citizenehip. The IWUI of the child of unmarried citizen pumtI it Ie. clear: tuCh I penon _ clearly I ,..,.., witbou1 riptl of inheritance, but it it disputed whechn II'he .... or _ not I citixn. It it poIIiblc. thoup. Ie. certain, Ihll the word IfOIItos .... UKd to deKribe lhe child of I mixed nwriare: even in thoR contexts (e.,. before 450 I .C. ) where weh I marriIte _Ieplly pennillible, even thouab IUCh I child mirht hlYC full nptl to inheritlnce .. weD • to citGmtbip.
1tOI_
Gllh The UK of the Glth in Atbeniln Ilw w. very different from itt UIC in I modem Enatilh coun. Witnena l were not normally required to _ , eacept in _ of homicide, wheTe they had to join in the oath rqularty IWW1I by the litipntl (tee ro. l ) . Women ho_U'c:r, who could not be wit" , could in principle_ In Gllh, proyided thil_ done with the "iftment of both litipnts: for the tole lItelted alit, tee p. JS i for the pliocedure, tee pp. a6, as, J3. JS n.ag, and alto ftI. JWDkkris'j for the UIC of OIt'" in the .,una', tet pp. 17a, 193 n.S7.
__.,ia
,
k
G~I,*" ~Ih.hdpcT
A medieval witnell who .~ not 10 the tn.Jth of. IKt but in tupport 01 the 'deanneII' 01 hie principal'. 0Ith (p. ](0). Sometimes known II. 'COf1Ipurptor'. obol See IV. ~-. , . " A boutehoId (p. 1)0): the word can be ueed to dacribe people Of f.mily piope.t)' Of • buiJdi..-, or three totethn'. The tet'm ;. rarely uled in the formulation of Athenian 1UtUta, but the concept IeemI to play an important r6k ftOC only in famity but in citilre. .ip law: M:e,fIN. AtmOt-, rnarn.,e-, and compare the dilco . m of the epiUe:me IV . inherit.nce-. Old Olipreb See 1tI. AIlI.PoI'. ottraciIm EYft)' year the Athenian cHJetiG- hid the richt tlO ckcide.hethc-r 10 hold anOllCKiwu,. ballot in .hich anycitizmcould voce apinllOM: political leader. If. quonma of 6,000 voted, the man with the molt vota _ niled lOt' len yeut , but with DO furtbu pt'MIty. The inItiturion _ frequently UICd in the fint half of the fifth century; but it IlppIf'mdy feU into .bey1ince (.pan from • tinlle occa.ion probably in 417) liter 44] • .c. A TOte _ cal by ICratchinr. name on an ortnaAort (. piec:e of broken pottery): hence the name 01 the procedure. See pp. 58, 94 n .)7. ormMotl, pI .ortnaU A voce in .n~· : tevtrai thoutandtof theeeor'~ ......e now been d1IcoWftd, tome beari..- off.ve penonal rmwU about the man MrDed : p. 59 0·74·
an
.t.-;
,.,..' VV A counter· jnd.ictment, in which the defendant chup the plaintiff with brinci.. .n illepl pic HUtion (pp. 89. 9:1). The pnxedure _ invented (or pGIIibly re-orpnieed) IftlUnd 400, to help thoee thrutened with e"''P which broke the Amnetty : the letter had been rmpoeed under Sptrtan INpervition 10 PfOtcd formerlUpporta1 of the Thirty TTfUl", the oIipn:hic juntl of 40+'3 which bad been Oftrthrown by the dtmoc: •• tic ratonlion of +0]1:1. PGldI'O,r.i too.her rapidly extmcIed. its ecope : fOt' the defendant, it _ to tu.w had the .dvaqtage th.t it _ ittelf • Pi' turion; .be . .. the older procedure of di_art"rio- .imply iel ved to block. puticulll' claim by the plaintiff, IkJ'iIf'OfIIt/: entbled the defendant to tum the tabkt, btwoainc hiawdf the proeeeu.tOf and (if lUcce.ful) irnpotinr •
penalty on
m. opponent.
ptnaIuItlIboIi See 111. court·fea-.
tzr ....,.·) , . , _
A public indicbnent lpinll the plopotC. of. new~ that hill PliipOIII ;. UlKO"Mtitutiona! (lit. ''Pi'" the !tw'):
(dtoee), clwtinI pp. ]I , 90, 95 0.]8. One of the molt atentively documented of.1I Athenian lepl pocedUofet, IDd one of the iDOIt overtly political : the ptc mrtor mirht claim lor inItanoe that the biD had been pj(,~utd _bout tbe Me .ry fnnnaJitin ; bul ....ny of the ulIInl, ..., , _ /4I4JIIO :0 '"' diRetcd qai..... bOllo,U}' dec. eel. and in thew the PC] I ecut« regularly baIeI hill CaIe on the claim that the honour ;. it.clf
IIOMOI·.
under :rud. See aIIO w. The PfOCedure c:oukI be emv'oyed Ipinst popoelll both before tnd tfter !My bad been voted on by the ,,6b;"·. Unril4C)l ' .e., it . . tppU"mdy uaed without dillCriminltion tpinII: both _ _ (Ia_) tnd ~G ; but in that yaf • fnnnaJ cIiItti:r:ction _ fOf the &nt time drawn between the two typet of ltaiutt (M:e W . .......) . The old procediJi'e 01'.4'11, retained lor ute tpintl ~; but ..... paallel procedure, the"".\i _ ".,,,.·udfttM tItmim·, _ felt to be required fw ute apifIIC uncot. .itutiona) (lit. 'inupedimt1-;: for the latter, _ p. ]1 .
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1J4
STEPHEN TODD
/HIras/osi, Seesv. court-fees- . partible inheritance The custom of dividing the estate of a dead man equally among his legitimate sons, This system obtained at Athens (P.48), as pl"ellumably throughout the Greek world : for details on the Athenianlyltem seeSl/. inheritance-. English lind law however has traditionally rested on _n assu mption of primagenitu~- (where everything passes to the eldest son), but this has now been abolished. palriline A min', relatives in the male line, palticullfly in I context of d~nt or inheritance (p. 46). penalty The penalties imposed by Alheniln courtl could affect either the peT$On of the defendant (exewtion-, a/imia-) or else his property (either by fine or by confiscation. for which Ke sv. apographi-) , Imprisonment however was uncom· mon, at least II I fX'nalty ; it could be u&ed for remInd, particularly to ensure that I foreign defendant did not IIbscond lxfore trial. In the case of fines, it il sometimcs difficult to see whether the money is strictly II penally (payable to the ltate) or damages (payable to the plaintiff); for the latter, &cC further IV. tJCoulcs-, diki. perlOnal property English I,w classifies property as either 'rul- ' (broadly speaking, land Ind houses) or 'perlOnal' (everything else: pp. 167-94 pa1sim). The law treats the two categories of property in different wara, particularly in cases of intestlteinheritance. For the significance of a superficially limilar distinction in Athenian law, see sv. aphanu- olUia. phanera olUia Lit. 'apparent or visible property': I catcgory which roughly corres· ponded to English real- property (Le., land and houses). For the contruting term, and the significance of the contrast, lee sv. aphor/cs- ousja. pharis Lit. 'a showing fOlth, declaration' : denunciation of a man who is illegally withholding property which belongs to the state (pp. s,....s with n.66 and n.68, 87 with n. 11 .nd n.13, 90, 95 n.38, 106 with n.14, I I f). Unlike the related (and much better attested) procedure of apographi-, phosis was apparently directed against the person rather than the property. (diki-) phonou A private indictment concerning murder, or more generally homi· cide: P.33 n ..,.. In striking contrast to contemporary pnctice both in civill·.and common- ·!aw systems, homicide in Athenian law was normally dealt with by means of a diM: in other words, only the immediate relatives of the deceased had the right (and duty) to bring an action. Homicide cases were heard by one 01 a number of courts, among which the AreiopJ.gos- was only the most notable : the choice of court seems to ha ve been determined both by the details of Ihc charge (was the deceased a citizen, or a mdic- or slavel) and also by the nature of the defendant', plea (claims of justifiable homicide for instance were heard by a special coun). Procedure in homicide <:aSCI was in a variety of ways different from that of othu cases; sec SII. diomoria-. piflakion, pl. pinakia Identity tokens, made of wood or bronu (several hundred of the latter have been discovered), used when [ots were cut for the appointment of public officials or the Klection of dikos/m" to heu a case: for the latter, see p. 43. For the proces.t of casting lots, lee alao svv. It.leroterion-, lot-. pis/is, pI. pisteir Lit. 'that which create$ trost'. Tuditionally translated 'proof' or 'evidence', but thc term is used generally by ancient rhctorical theorista to describe all forml of supporting argument (pp. 33-3, 50, 179). For the distinction between pisltis , fllek/mo, and pisleis olekhfloi, ~ p. Jl.. ple/hos Lit. 'a masa of people' (p. S~ n.,..a) : the term has a range of meanings eimilar Copyrighted Material
GloeIuy-lndu
'35
to"'·
(I). It can be UKd by publkspnkns in I flvounbie or neutrlllmR to man virtually 'your de mocrlCJ' (unlike ~ howe I'tt the word itldf it not found ill thil _ in official Athenilln doc:umcnu); 01" it can M U8ed by boItile critkl to
man 'the mob' or 'the rIbble'. pnyx The hal on which meetinp of the AthmianeUInia· weft held (pp. 49, so).
jIo'-asiAros Seew......... , poklai Lit., '.IIen'. A bomt of publk oflicilll whole principe.! duty _ to .1I1t1k propelt) by 1UCtion. Since then: _ no ItItc Idmmiltntion ca,-ble 01 handline it, cm6ecfled properly (_ roo. . .'.-.) _ rIOf1fIIIly IOkiIl the arIinI Pf*ible oppo.cunity; but the JIOk'ai Il1o InKd out eoll(: I ion. to opente the lil'tCl"-minH (thince underJlound, in Athenian law, remained the inllimlble plOpelty o( the lUte) and to c:olket: taxa (there _ no Inland Revenue, It Athmlil It Rome : once apin. this _ beyond the Idminiatntive capabilities 01 the lIIte). fJOlU, pI. J»I.N Conventionally if Iwkwudly tnnalated 'city-state', but fot" that mlll'lI perhapt better tran.iitenl:ed. typical eorwcitutional unit of the cI-'ca1 Grcdr world : an independmtltlf-JOVemi..- community, rn.de up of both urban Qnltre (_tv) Ind rural hinterland (......). T"II'O ttrikine charxteriltK:. of the cI iocal poIU thould be noted : 6nt, they were trllly very amall JCOIlapbtc:a1 unitt and tber-e were I lot of them; ltCOndIy, the hinterland WII wrprisiftl\y free from domination by the Ufbln mitre. ForthepolU III place, lee p . 57 with n.67; (or thepolU .. an icIcaI orlconcept, lee pp. 10 with n.19, 95, 96. 99, 101, "7, ":a6, lop, 1 ..... 145. 1']2. 17... 179, 183, Is,. n·37· poIiuiD (~noun derived from J»IU-) A word 'llritb I clutter of mnninp. mo.t notably 'corwUtutton' (II in the title AtM,...", PoIiuia, or 'ConIt.itution of the Atheniana': lee roo AlAM.·), and 'citiz.mMip' (in the _ of the . .IUS or priYiiqe 01 beinel citiaen). jJtJIil6" pl. J»Iilai A member oIalJOlU·: hence, I (male) citizen II opplll!d to met~ or alla"" : p. 43. 'The word 'politkl' (taJ»ljtilta : 'thi"", peruinine 10 lhepolU1_ ad '~a1 Greel inveotion. (_) jIotilL. d _' (pl. participle) Lit. 'thole who (regularly) take part in the aff,in of the ,..,.' : p. 118 n .so. In the fifth mllury, I would-be polittc:a1leader aimed kleaUy to hold public office, for inltlnot u rt""tqOI-; in the fourth mltury thil wu no kmaa the norm. Thia chance had effecu on the vocabulary of politk:a : the ..... lIw] ...,. to daeribe active politician. in the fourth c:entury t.e.:ame 'rite",",- and poIirn-_~ rather than holden of tpecific officn. " " ' ... _, pl. pol..... ,,: . , (ldj.); JIO/wp.aplOllllli (abttntl noun) Lit. 'one who c:ondudl much buainell', i.e. 'too much'. Utually pejorative in the era ollhe
n.e
,e..
IpcVC'I". The flfth--c:entury Athtfti.aD empire WM accordina to iu opponenta the produc1 of CIOIporate AtheniaDlt* £h "",1O..,fIIi: Oft an indivkluallevel (p. 110). the
. ....-..
lerm ha the
o~
01 'of6rioua' and 'tn.ybody'. FOI" compariIon,
lee ftI •
poaitive law lAw IteCl M the tr"Qtion of , human 1OUrt'e and fw a human eontext. 'I'he teTra • - illed moat notably with the name 01 the cady nincteenth-ccntury juriat John Auatin, who put it; forwvd M an Ilternati,e to the nIlUraI- law theory dc:~ck»pcd by 'I'homaI Aquinll, the thirteenth'
1
IJ6
STEPHEN TODD
thourht, what Jiva ~ve 1aw (which he iepded. identietJ to 'law ltric:t1y.o called') itt routhority iI that it iI the eommlnd of 1 poIitQJ lUpeno..; thil it the e.enc:e of hit ~Ied 'toaIfNftIi' theory 01 law. There are l.owe-er, other potitirittl, wch u the eontnnponry juritprudmt Sir Herbert Hart, who reprd law .1 human creation but do not Ihan: AUIlin'1 'Commlnd' theory. "..u qi l..ui Set ttl. ~- . primormiture The.,..nn of inheritance whereby the wbok atMe dac:endl to the eldM IOn to the ucluaion of -*en and younrer brothers. It _ chancttrilric: of Norman lind Entlilb feudalilm. lind IIppwt to have been ItU'llCtive becwIt it kept military &eft; intact. It appIted only to ptoptily; aod. ewn here. itt npiity .... in prK1ice IOftmtd by ru1el arantinc Ilife-interat in 1 ptopcntlon of the ntate to the widower 01' wit:kno of the.... I Ii. It .... important in medtenl En,lilb land law becault the Ilw Itverely ratricted the f retdom of telllton to dev_ 1anded piopetty by will. In the KYenttenl:h century, howe.tf, tlwM ratriction. wert Mlt:.untiaUy lbolished : lince then. primoac:niture .... IppI;ed only in caaea of ~ wee ion; itt Ipplication heft .... funhtr ratricted by I .me. of nineteenth· century IIltula, Ind it finally lbolilhed in I~. For Ihe not nlal pnctict of Atheailn t.w, lite w. partible- inhtritanct. /If'OboU, pl. ~ai Lit. 'I throwi", forwmt '. A preliminary lCCUUtion, which 1ft intend;", pllintiff could bri", before the .lIdtli4- rather than directly to I Ji.M~- . Thil ¥'Ote of the eltlduitJ bed no formal dfect : it did not bind I lUCCalful plaintiff to continue hislCtion in court, nor appermtly did it prevent him from to dai.., if unlU~ul; it im~ lID penalt)t rithcT on plaintiff or on defendant. It did howevn ItftnCthtn the hand of the succeuful plaintiff : after the nulMtr of • It.... w poll. it lIho_td whkh w.y the wind w.. blowinc. We btu of proboIi heine ultd in dilputte whkh at fativah (pp. liS, .,U-8); and alto apinlt !Jykophantl- (pp. 94 n .J7, 106 with n. IJ) and apiNII poIitallndera (preIUnulbly) wbo have IUtpdly deceived the people with (alit prorniIH. ptocedural t.w That part oIllep1.,..em whkh .....en the quation. 'ho. do lao about extTciaihf my riPttP' (p. 5) . See forcoatraltS'V . IUbltantivee t.w. Ptocedural law .... by tr.dition held I relatively low ItahII within mode", IepI tboupt; thil ;. iIIU1trattd by the UIt of the term ·Itd~ .... II _ 'JDOiIym : 'ltdjectrve' in IfUNhU II elacwhtrt it that which KrVeI mertly to qualify 'lUbitantiyt'. pnMJ.uis Lit. 'challtnce': cauin cattjOiies of eYMkncc (notably IUttmtilti ri\'tfl on oath- or under torture-) could only be Itdmitttd in 1ft Athtnim coun with the oonatnt of both 1Iidft; any litipnt couMt chalknp his oppontM to 8C:Cf;pt IUch evidence, but the challenge ... in practice n:p1ady rejected, for II I h di.c:u.td on pp. 3)-(i. /JrOIt4kl ' Patron' or 'protmor' : widely uaed to deacribe nnou. t)1lCS of formal or informal fUlrdilnahip . Mme.- W'fte obIipd to n:Pttr under I citiaen • their ptosttllelj and if they failed to do th.. they could be prcmuted by '.4\1 GI"S'tII1ioII (publk indictmtm for f~lure to Iwve in wbkh the penalty .... ule into tllvery oullidt the #JOIU- of Athena. ~IttPffia A Ilatute of limitltiona, makina it impouible to brine • clwJe once I Itt time h .. ps d aha- 1M ac:tion whicb forme 1M t.iI of the ~ (p. 179). 11M: nuI;onty of pioaecuriona bed to be ~t within fiyt yean of the aUepI offmce. but in ceruin catqwa of ~ (~II homicide) weuetokt th.t there .... no IUCh limit; in 1"4'ti ~- , on the other band,. Piopoaal could be annulled at
rear-
w.
an.
.,.,.,IIIt•• )
•
any time. but its propoKr coWd only be puniahcd if tM action ... broua:ht within.
"nP yeu.
fl'Wt4tWi4 See nt . coun·fees-. ~. pl.,."..i""tlIG Adecmolthe~Ukrio- . Lit .• 'that"h~.~lvedby ".."... (,utUc·pebbk: i.e., byte'Cret ballot); but mprw::tia: te'Cret Milot II Athena _ r i ,ed for V'OteI of the tJihukrNJ-, _ votinr in the ~lIJtMritl _ normIlly c:ondueted by Ihow of hind. (1tII!iroIoMo) . See further ftI. JIrd.G_-, ,,.,.; and, for the (ourth-eentury diltinction bet.ten _ _ Ind /JIqIrinu , _ IV. ~.
CI'!4W-) /JIndnAwtfttu Lit. ' (proeecurion eoncemine) (Ute wmrnorw': I public Khon broupt by • litipnt who .... been c:onvicted in hili lbaomce .,.inlt I 1UDlmOIle-..une., aIJecinI tMt the IUmmont Mel MYerin f.ct been delivered : p . 37 n .lJ. See furthu n>. 1tJI,."e. (diM') PIA' Lit. '(proeecution eonc:eminc) fllK "';tneM': I pri~e indM:tmmt . . - I 1IIIUheI- , This ia by ita S\lture I II!COnCIuy action, brought lpinlt. man "ho .... been • witnee. in pmtioullegal proeeedinp, and :;:harFrc him with hlvinc I fabe or illepl Ultimony (pp, 19-)9J1rd.uiM, esp. :a.8 and
,uut......
,......
).
"Yen
'7"
real c:ontnct See p, Ind alIo 11.1. :;:OIlKMUall c:ontract. real .. oped, 8ro.dly tp"Ikm" land and houaea, "hich in Encliah II" Ire trnled diffemrtly from 'pliUO.W-' property (t'f'erything elK) : p. 173 n . IJ. Receptioh The pr~ CIII by which :;:lerical Roman II. _ ' rettiyed ' (lC'CCpted) in pllCe of loc:al cuatonwy Ia" • the baaie for the legal I)'ItC'ln of moat of the
continental counlne. of rMdieval Europe (pp. ~) . riwtor, pl. riwlorn An orator. The word can mean l imply 'public lpeakltt' or 'writer of ~'. 01' perlJapa 'te-chC!' of rhetoric': thua tome of the 'Ten Omon' canoniaed. by later Greel rbetorical theory dKl not themKlvea normally apeak in public (d. nt. JotoI'I~-) . But it:;:an a.i.o mean 'public apeakC!" in the KnK of 'politkaJ I-ser' (pp . 9S n .)8); thia ia paniculariy true in the fourth ttntury It Atbma. "hen it Mel become normal for poIiricalleaden not to hold any public office (Keftl.poIikw::Ulto"I ). Of coune the lime man may be I rlILlot' in both ten_, ..
..s,
.""..".,..
-.
adf.heIp TWnc the Ia. (lqitimately) into one'l own handa. The UK 01 officiall,.. IInCtioned 41' I ,ia~ u.- violen:;:e .. I ...,. of ddmdinr OM'I npta; in particular, the UK of _mary aneII apiDlt certain Cltqoriea of criminal (pp. S6 n.61, 76). Thct tam 'aelf-belp' .. a _ _bat awlr..ant literal Cranalltton of the Getmln &l6stJri¥-: the CObc:etA iI inftllefttial in both German and Athenian lepI thoupt, but DOC in Ensiiah . ". IOfJ/rUra, p1· IOfIItiII.; Enr. aopIUM(.) Lit. 'pnc:tjrionn of wiadom'. The .uphista '\I"ef'e profeM' anal ceac:he,... of.,_ ('wMo...1. "hi:;:b included not limply 'phil. oeophy' (JJtiio-.Jot>Ai4, ' Io~ of ••dom1 in the modern ImK of the word, but alIo IUCh topics • ..ruraI KielK:C and J*tic:uIar rbc:IoIK. The aophiltic mo'f'tment _ noc I ~ical KbooI; what united them _ not .haRd doctrines but limi1aricy of method : in peni:;:uIar, c:onaicIerabIe intellec:tua1 "'PhiltDlion com· bined with I flair for muketinr at I hip price their abilittea .. tachen. See pp. So with n .40. 107 with n.19.
m
IlS
STEPHEN TODD
sttJsil Lit. 'takinc up I poIition': th... 'the takinc up of putiIan poeitionl', culminltire in revolution or chil war: pp. 54 n.55. 95, 100, liS with n .+9, lSi n' 5, Ilo. ltatute of limitltionl See ftI. stnWJDl, pl. 'trak,of A boud 01 ten le.IItftl., the tcniof military officiaJs of Atheni in the cI.....1period (pp. 117. liS). They differed from Ilmolt III other of6ciUI in t'IffO rClp«tI: they were clec:ted rather thin Ippoimecl by I~ ; md Ilthouch their tmn of office .... I yeu, there wen: no limita on re-election. !u I result. the I"neralahip bcCIme I poaition of conaidcnble political importance, ptlrticularly dun.. the teCoud half of the fifth oentury : it .... ehe priI:c for which intencima: politic:allcadcn would Itrive. In the fourth oentury, two"ever, ina ,inc military epedlliution tended to diride political from miliIuJ Lc.denltip: fourth-cmtury poIiriciana were for the moat part private c:itiRna rather than office.hokfen. Sec IlIo ftN . miAoIi-, rlwtorn-, fJOlikwJ' ae_". Lit. 'under (thrut of) penalty': in E,.tiah met AtncriQn IIw, the court will lit the requat of the litipnu tummon compellable win mel to mend and sift evidence; if they mlJle, they will be comminina: an offence and 1ft Iiebk to be puniahed for it. nil IlUmmont is detdbecl • I ~ (PP.1f-5). MlbMlnlift law n i t part of IlcpIlysttm .hich annrcn the qUC:llion, '.hlllft my .;pllind my duties?' (pp. 5, ao). Sec for contrail ftN . prnccdUral-'I•. s~t~s, pI. I~tai (noun); 'd¥.tei1l (verb) A term of disputed ctymoloc (p. 105 with 11.6) and dilputed rMminc (pp. 52, 56 with n.6" 8)-111 passiM , Il3), uacd pe)cllltively to dacribe an oflK:ioua litipnt. Convmrioftally tf"lnaliterat~ .. '.ycophant' or '.ykopt..Dt" but the E"'I .... edjedive "yc:ophanlic' derive. from I Ilin', poII-C'l_icll devclopmmt in the meanirll of the 'IrOfd. (To lvoid ItIKhronillic c:onfulion, we trInIIiteratc the ~ temall '.,.kophant', He. ) for tht verb , ...... 'to be I Iykophant', tee pp. as, 8)-121 ~,;"" c.p.
"""Iturttio-,
Ii.
,,,,,,,,ItJ
"ki"
110.
(1.4 LP) ,.,lIopItalino. A public: indic:tmcnt .bic:h clwpi the defendant with bc:i"l II~t~I- : pp. 37, 107 n.18. tummat)' IfftIt See w . ....... IUmmat)' tJlccution Sec AI • • , . . ,... • _poJiort, pI. ,-,eo.ria ; EIII· f)'fftpoaion or f)'fftpoeium Lit. '(the action of) drinkinc torcther' : , ICIICIIl term for uppcr-eJ.. ritualteed drinkinc·particI, common even in d kll Grcec:t arnonc the wealthy iNured llite, but particularly important in the archaic period (pp. 119 11..19, Il5, Il9-45 ,oa,,;.;); the Encl_ ..tjcctivc 'aympotic:' itUlled 10 mean 'pcruinire to the , ..., ,tIIMJr.' (pp. 52, laB). ,.,rrdiltos, pl. , ...tJiJtoi Lit. '(one.ho iI) toscther (with lOfllcbody) in juIlk:e'. The title of I little·known board of public of6c:iala; but the term iI more often uted U I virtual aynonyrn for III_POS- to mean IlUpportilll apeaker, whether Ippointed by the tUtt or actina on behalf of I private individual, ,.,.".w, pl. 'lDHIOfoi MOlt c:ommonIy, I penon.ho 1pPai'l in eou.n to apeak on bchaIf of I litipnt (pp. 1f, 31, 56). Lit. '1pC8ker toscther with', thua Itle.t in theocy ptnervinc the rult that litipnta c:oulcI not be .epr ••ted by adYOClltct: the SIlIWjOlW WfII of6cially I ... pporti", apcaker. The 1IJOI"d it aIao UIIed 10 decribe I ","ker Ippointed to iCpttICnt the 1tIIC, normaIl,. • pre HUIOl'; but the 0'tCi" • ...t.dminc majority cYen of public: pi, cutionl 'fPU't broufht by private indiftduu..
lIIIIOffIOIia (or xwlliiOMO:Jia) Lit.', joint 1I".n. 01111 oath', hence '1IfOUP 01 men bound torcthcr by auch I mutual _th'. UKd • the cquiYlknt of but
"',aima-,
1
'"
with. Itronaer mphuit on the politicaJ or conapirltorial ovutOnet (p. 51 with
n,.7)· IUrety
See"" ertpP.
I)'kophanl Sec IV.
~tts· .
talent Sec IV. coinage-, t"'~UJ
The titk of the ,ill: junior .rkhon,': pp. I") . 1.5. tirnl (I ) The nlue, honour or rapect .... hieh.n individual enjoY' or believn that he ouaht wenjo),: pp. SS with n.S1. 60, u6, J~ n.KI, 13HSJWsiM . etp. 140-'" To .ttack I man', tiPJtI ... probably the eaential C'ONtituenl of hlims·. The word un aJeo be..-d in an KOfIOmic IImIe to maon 'price': pp. 19:1-3. np. 191 n .54(a) To deprive I man of hit timi is to make: him atirrtoJ, lub}cct to the coodition of
.
..
o~a
( lee"',. )
n-ns',
(]) Ti1ttI in the limit of ·tvalultKm'I~ It the root of the .ylttm by which the penalty _ 6ud for the _jority of offenca. A few proc:edufQ laid down atutory penalrin: IUCh I pl'OCftl '\It'D on-los' (pI. an-lot) , 'rKM aubjed to
tifrtnU', The v. . majority of proc:edurahowev«weren-IOI" : in IheR, ~mins that the defendant .at tonMtd, both lilipnu had 10 propoee alternative penaltin. the propoeal of the plaintiff bane the n-rna' and that of the defendant 1M IJJIn~' ; the tIiIuu'm" would then vote for • teeond time, .nd tMy wen obliled to ehooee one or other propo.!. Like the a)"tern of 'pendu"r arbitration' whieh ia ocmionally u.ed in modem ind....ria1 dilputcs (whereby employen and ,r.de unionllCftC to bindinr arbitration on ~ndition ,hallhe Irbitrator will decide wholly in flvour of one or other lide), thit tended to dilcourqe !tipplnt propoaal.; but the eumpk of Soc:ntel (whoR flilure to propote I terious allemative provoked the jury 11 hit trial imo VO(inc for the death-penalty propoled by the p'ulecution) tho. . that it did not a1wl}'llUcceed. 8ft further p . ?6 n .S7. lis:ec_, n-wm (nou..); n-IOI (.elj.) 8ftw. ,;",e- (J). tomJre Athmian citiaml were exempt from judicial torture, but it could be Ippl)ed under ~n c:in:urmtancel to metial· and other foreipen. In lhe cue of alaves, indeed, their evidence _ not .elmillibk in court ncept under torture: (p. a6); but IUCh tonure eould only be adminittered with the content of both litigant., on the buis of I proItksiJ· or challenge, which w.. (it Ippears) alWl}'l refUKd : the rationale of the I)"Iem it d*'-ed on pp. )3--6. (dai·) "U.""lllWt"t».......tm A private indictment concerning Ittempted murder or (lit.) 'woundinc with intml (to kill)'! p. 133. It _ eloeeIy related to thedilti pItortof. (Ke W . ,*,-., diJrl) , and _ IUbjeet to mlny of the lime pmcedunl peeuliaritiea. tricrtJ~,
E",. trieraRb The trieruthy _
one 01 the ItIOIl importlnt Ind expmlive Iiturpea· : the man who undertook it had to pay for the manning and the upket'p 01 .....rlhip (Irireme) for I yeu. He _ opeded, atlnat in theory, to command the- ~hip in penOn! hence the title trierukh ('commander of a trireme1. It it very diificult to calculate the numben of trierarkhI required, evm if _ ~me (.. KemI probabk) that the Iize of the Athenian nil"}' never aceeded 400 shipl. Thil_ I muimum &pre, raebed only in tM 1ate fiflh century; Ind evm thm, lOme It leaat of thne Ihipl remlined in the dockyanil .. I reaerve. On the other hand, then were periock apeciaJly dunn, the founh century when the trierarkhy w .. shued between .even! individu.lt, prewmably becaute the burden w .. proving 100 mertlU• •
,
:LfO
STEPHEN TODD
usufruct A term of Roman law, IIItd to denote the riPt (UIU&IIy _llife.interest) to \lit inti mjoy the fmitt or piofibi of InOthn' per.M'" propelty, but without betnc IIlcnred fundlmmtall, to liter thIt proptn" There i. one lnetted example of I bequett in an Athenian will on bro.dly aimilar 1tf'fM; but the ibeent't of the dtlrly-defined RomIn doetrintl of propc:n, It Athml makn it ~ to Ipeak of ' ....uhuct in Athenian Ia,,',
JtntUJ Lit . 'betnc I Jt~-'. The lerm meant lelkrally 'outsidet-', "oitilner', bul it puticullrly uaed of Ilk formllilcd hereditary frimdlbipl betWUil memben of diffrrmt poIfts- or between GRtb 1M non·Greet. (PP. 45 n.3O, 59 n.74). Sueb linb _~ eotnmon amonc the lfiltoc,lCY, Ind formed rtNeb of the pnr:tic:II buit for international dealinc 1M dipknlcy. Ci•..,.w-) Jt~(U A public indictment.broupt IPNiI fOieiclier who .,n ,tdly prflendii'l( 10 be I citiun (pp. 33 n.a,., 36-7';!h 31 n·3:1, 39 n·35, 133); Itk penIhy WIt tile into tllytry ouuide the poIU- of Athml. Sa ftI. Jt_-. JtntOI, pl. Jttfftli Lit. 'ItrlfllU'Of 'outsider'. Either'l fon:icner' (_ in" ..... JtRNu-) or ellt " foreigner with "horn one hal entered into I relatiorMip _ auett or holt' (u in Jtll,jll-). In 1M litter 1CMt, _ pp. 53. 59. Jt,,~o Se-e ftI. I I I _ j O - .
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The marionship between law, politics and JOCielc>
