ISBN 978-4-902325-34-8
Occasional Paper 5
Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past
Edited by Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI
Indus Project Research Institute for Humanity and Nature Kyoto, Japan 2008
Occasional Paper 5
Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past
Edited by Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI
Indus Project Research Institute for Humanity and Nature Kyoto, Japan 2008
Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past Editor: Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI Copyright Ⓒ Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature 2008 ISBN 978-4-902325-34-8
Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN)
457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047 Japan
Tel: +81-75-707-2371
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CONTENTS
Preface Preliminary observations on Holocene fluvial sediments around Kanmer, Gujarat, India
1
S.N. Rajaguru and Sushama G. Deo
Preliminary observations on the excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
5
J.S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat, during the second field season (2006-07)
25
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project 45
H. Teramura, Y. Kondo, T. Uno, A. Kanto, T. Kishida, and H. Sakai
Interpreting patterns of Y chromosome diversity: pitfalls and promise: A case study from Southwest Asia
103 Peter A. Underhill
PREFACE
I am very happy to announce the publication of the fifth volume of our Occasional Paper here. We are excavating two places in India on behalf of the Indus project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan. One is at Kanmer, Kachchh, Gujarat in collaboration with Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur and Department of Archaeology, State Government of Gujarat. The other is at Farmana, Rohtak, Haryana as a joint project with Deccan College, Pune. We have already published the first season’s report of the excavation at Kanmer in the second volume of our Occasional Paper and the report of exploration in the Ghaggar River basin and the first season’s report of excavation at Girwad, Mithathal and Farmana in the third volume of our Occasional Paper. Dr. Jeewan Singh Kharakwal of the Institute for Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth has written the second season’s report of excavation in Kanmer in the season of 2006-2007 with Dr. Y.S. Rawat of Department of Archaeology, the State Government of Gujarat and me. It was very impressive for me personally to recover a huge amount of micro-beads in a pot and to find a stonebuilt walls. The gate of citadel is still missing. I hope that the excavation team led by Dr. Kharakwal will find it in the future work. Besides Dr. P.P. Joglekar and Pankhaj Goyal of Deccan college have reported the analysis on the faunal remains from Kanmer and Prof. Rajaguru of Deccan college has contributed a preliminary report of his geological researches around Kanmer. For our project these analysis are very important to understand the environmental settings in the period of Indus civilization. We would like to continue making efforts to collect such data in the forthcoming season’s excavation. Prof. Takao Uno of International Research Institute for Japanese Studies, Kyoto and Dr. Hirofumi Teramura of RIHN together with Y. Kondo, A. Kanto, T. Kishida and Prof. H. Sakai have contributed a paper on GIS analysis and GPR survey at Kanmer and Farmana. GIS is a new method to make a documentaion for archaeological sites and to integrate all kinds of spatial data into one analytical platform. I am very happy to share this kind of new digitalized method with Indian archaeologists because it is not so much familiar among the Indian archaeologists. These collaborations will lead to a great achievement for our Indus project.
Prof. Peter A. Underhill of Stanford University, who is one of the most famous human geneticist, has contributed a paper on the DNA analysis of human genetics. This paper is a revised paper which was presented at the Harvard-RIHN Roundtable in 2005. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all contributors. Last but not least, Dr. A. Uesugi has done a lot of things to publish this volume in such a fine quality. I thank his painstaking efforts.
Toshiki OSADA
Project leader and Professor
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
Kyoto, Japan
[email protected]
Preliminary observations on Holocene fluvial sediments around Kanmer, Gujarat, India
Preliminary observations on Holocene fluvial sediments around Kanmer, Gujarat, India
S.N. Rajaguru Deccan College, Pune, India
Sushama G. Deo Deccan College, Pune, India
ABSTRACT This is a brief report of the geomorphological survey around Kanmer by the authors in February 2008. In this survey, a sedimentological study was conducted along the Aludawaro Vokro, a nala near the site of Kanmer. Besides, the area located to the north of the ancient site was also briefly surveyed to understand of the change of the water level in the Rann. This preliminary survey indicates the higher water levels during the Mid-Holocene which gradually dried up after 2000 BP creating the current landscapes of Kachchh. A general increase of aridity was observed during the survey.
in ephemeral streams. Alluvial deposits of 3m
INTRODUCTION
thickness with a lateral extent of less than 1 km are preserved in structural depression on both the banks
We carried out a reconnaissance survey of surfacial
of these ephemeral streams. We made detailed field
fluvial deposits (2-3 m thick) covering rocky
observations on some of the exposed sections and
pediments developed over ferrugeneous sandstones
carried out small excavations in the nala flowing close
and shales of the Upper Jurassic age around Kanmer.
to the site in the northern area.
Kanmer (23°23’N; 70°52’E) is a Harappan settlement in Rapar taluka of Kachchh district in Gujarat state
SEDIMENTOLOGICAL SURVEY ALONG ALUDAWARO VOKRO
(Kharakwal et al. 2007). In the area around Kanmer, sandstones at some places have preser ved tabular and trough cross
The area around the site is drained by a seasonal nala
bedding, fine laminations and also contain iron-
known as Aludawaro Vokro. This nala is low-order
oxide nodules and rhizoliths. Claystones are white or
ephemeral stream and originates in the inselberg-type
mottled. Fine intercalations of shale and sandstones
hillocks, 2 km west of the Harappan site. This nala
are observed in some of the exposed sections. These
has preserved colluvio-alluvial fill (2 - 2.5 m thick)
sediments are traversed by faults and lineaments
in the foot slope part of the hillock. The present nala
running in west-northwest to east-southeast and
is ungraded and flows over a rocky bed with three
north-northwest to south-southeast direction.
distinct rapids (knick points). Colluvio-alluvial fill
These geological features have affected landscape
is compact, yet without any development of calcrete
features like inselbergs and development of valley
pellets and nodules. Further downstream near the site,
pediment slope and of small rapids and waterfalls
we took a small trench (1.5 m by 2m) on the right -1-
S.N. Rajaguru and Sushama G. Deo
SURVEY IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KACHCHH
bank of the nala. This excavation revealed very well-laminated, wellsorted, fairly compact sand bed with a thickness of about 1.5 m. This sandy bed rests unconformably on
In order to get some idea about the change in the base
the weathered ferruginous sandstone. Interestingly
level of streams which originate in the foot slope of
this litho-unit is disconformably capped by very
the pediment and debouch into the Little Rann of
poorly sorted and weakly consolidated pebbly gravel
Kachchh, we surveyed the northern part of the Little
with potsherds probably of the Medieval period. The
Rann. We observed agate conglomerate in the context
top surface of this alluvial fill gives an appearance of a
of sandstone and shale of Tertiary age (?). This agate
terrace which is due to anthropogenic factor involving
conglomerate was perhaps the main source of raw
cultivation in recent times.
material for making beads and microliths at Kanmer.
In order to understand the probable source of water
We discovered microliths in the foot slopes of hills
during summer and also during low rainfall period,
within grayish clay capped by aeolian sand sheet at
we carried out a survey of some the pits around an
an altitude of 20 m above sea level. The bed level of
old water tank situated in the southern foot slope
the Rann in this area is hardly 4 m ASL (GPS 59). It,
of Mataji hillock. In one of the pits we observed,
therefore, appears that during the microlithic activity
excellent coarsening upward sequence from compact
the Rann was holding higher water level than the level
reddish silty sand to grayish gravelly sand within a
of the present salt encrusted surface of the Rann.
depth of 2.5 m. These sediments are locally known as
These preliminary field observations around
‘lilwa’ - a soil sediment used in constructing the house
Kanmer show that fluvial sediments (-3 m maximum)
floors and walls.
are non calcretised and show distinct pattern of
Further survey towards 2.5 km east of Kanmer
coarsening upward sequence. Finer textural characters
revealed distinct rejuvenation of the nala in the
of basal sediments indicate dominance of low energy
bedrock. On both the banks of this nala, a low 2
fluvial activity during the early phase of deposition
to 3 m alluvial fill resembling the terrace surface
probably during Mid(?)-Holocene. The same nala
is observed. This fill consists of rubble dominated
turned ephemeral, high energy and short-lived during
by sandstone clasts in the basal part and is capped
the Medieval period.
by compact brownish silty sand without any
Detailed textural, mineralogical and chemical
development of calcrete nodules. This fill not only
studies of basal sediments are in progress and are
shows coarsening upward but also gives an indication
likely to be of the Mid-Holocene (<6000 BP). TL/
of the age of the coarser component of the fill in the
OSL dating of these sediments will also provide
form of unrolled potsherds of the Medieval period.
chronological framework for these sediments.
Between Kanmer and Ghanithal the drainage is
HYPOTHESIS
derelict, disappears in a sandy bed and does not flow into the Rann. A few shallow saline depressions are also present in this area. We could not get material
Our preliminary hypothesis regarding geomorpho-
which was helpful in dating sandy-silty sediments
logical environment during the Holocene is as follows:
exposed on both the banks of these derelict streams. If we accept that the Little Rann was holding 2 to 5 m deep water during Mid-Holocene (i.e. 6 ka to 2 ka BP) (Gupta 1975), then it is visualized that the -2-
Preliminary observations on Holocene fluvial sediments around Kanmer, Gujarat, India
overall ground water remained close to the pediment
Kyoto. pp.21-46.
surface. Today the ground water level is 8 to 10 m
Maurya B.M., S. Bhandari, M.G. Thakkar and L.S. Chamyal
below the surface in response to drying of the Little
(2003) Late Quaternary fluvial sequences of southern mainland Kachchha. Current Science 84(8): 1056-
Rann after 2 ka BP. The coarsening upward sequence
1064.
of the Medieval period and the rejuvenated nature of low-order ephemeral streams indicate overall increase aridity in post-2 ka BP. This change is also likely to be the result of neo-tectonic activity as suggested by Maurya et al. (2003). This hypothesis needs to be precisely tested in our next fieldwork in which we will carry out survey of Holocene sediments preserved in the southern zone between Gulf of Kachchh and the central hilly ridge (Katrol range) about 60-70 km north of the Gulf of Kachchh. Recently Maurya et al. (2003) have studied this area and have found conspicuous presence of 2 to 5 m high alluvial surface inset into the higher alluvial fill (8 to 10 m) surface of the Late Pleistocene age. We will like to understand the site of Kanmer in the context of the Holocene environmental changes as preserved in alluvial fills in the foothill zones and the littoral sediments (mud flats, beach-dune ridges) in the coastal zone of the Gulf of Kachchha and in the Little Rann. In the Rann, we will appreciate if a few undisturbed sediment cores to a depth of 8 to 10 m are taken by competent earth scientists in near future. Our field oriented studies coupled with laboratory oriented studies of a few cores from the Little Rann will provide good information on environment existing during the Harappan occupation at Kanmer.
References Gupta S.K. (1975) Silting in the Rann of Kutch during Holocene. Indian Journal of Earth Sciences 2: 163175. Kharakwal, J.S. Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada (2007) “Kanmer: A Harappan sites in Kachchh, Gujarat, India”, in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2. Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature,
-3-
S.N. Rajaguru and Sushama G. Deo
-4-
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Preliminary observations on the excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
J.S. Kharakwal
Institute of Rajasthan Studies,
JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth
Udaipur, India
Y.S. Rawat
The Gujarat State Department of Archaeology
Gandhinagar, India
Toshiki Osada
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
Kyoto, Japan
ABSTRACT This paper deals with preliminary observations of the second season᾽s excavation (2006-07) at Kanmer, a Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India. As we had identified a very strong fortification wall around the Harappan settlement in our first season's work, we therefore attempted to understand its plan and history in the second season. Our careful examination revealed that the fortification wall forms a parallalogram, in which two distinct constructional phases have been identified so far. The total thickness of the northern wall was found about 18 m. This fortification wall was further strengthened by retangular bastions on all four corners. Such massive fortification walls at this small site indicates some special nature and purpose of the settlement. We also exposed a few floors belonging to the Late Harappan houses at the site. Along with the result of excavations, animal and botanical remains are also briefly repoted in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
site, drains the area around the ancient site. The landscape around the site is composed of ferrugeneous
The Harappan site of Kanmer (23°23’N; 70°52’E) is
sandstone and variety of shale of the Upper Jurassic
situated close to the Little Rann of Kachchh in Rapar
age.
taluka in the Kachchh district of Gujarat (Figure 1).
The peninsula of Kachchh is largely composed of
It was discovered by R.S. Bisht and his colleagues of
marine and estuarine sediments and has a variety of
Archaeological Survey of India way back in the eight-
rocks ranging from Middle Jurassic to recent times.
ies of the last century (IAR 1985-86: 15-19). The
The area is marked by low-lying bare rocky hills and
ancient site is located close to the modern village of
vast tracts of naked tidal mud flats, in the northwest-
Kanmer. An inselberg-type hillock next to the site
ern and eastern parts, popularly known as Great Rann
marks the location very well from a distance and the
and Little Rann. These low-laying hills are variously
site is locally known as Bakar Kot. Aludawaro Vokro,
flanked by small pockets of fertile land which support
a seasonal nala, originating in the truncated pyramid-
vegetation, live stock and agriculture. The most com-
shaped hillocks located hardly 2 km northwest of the
mon trees in this region are Azadirachta indica (neem), -5-
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
68°
69°
70°
71°
72°
73°
74°
PALANPUR as
R A N N OF K A C H C H H
Ba n
SANTHLI ti sva DATRANA ara MOTI PIPLI S ZEKDA LOTESHWAR SURKOTADA RATANPUR
DESALPUR
KANMER
NAGWADA
SHIKARPUR
BHUJ 23°
BAGASRA KUNTASI
MEHSANA
HIMATNAGAR
GANDHINAGAR 23°
AHMEDABAD GODHRA
KHEDA i
RANGPUR
JAMNAGAR NAGESHWAR
en
SURENDRANAGAR
PITHAD
LAKHABAWAL
p Ru
LOTHAL
ah
PABUMATH
24°
M
DHOLAVIRA
Sabarm ati
24°
KANEWAL
VAGAD
RAJKOT
BARODA
22°
22°
ROJDI
ORIYO TIMBO AMRELI
Nar
ma
BHAVNAGAR
BHARUCH
PADRI
JUNAGADH
DHATVA MALVAN
21°
da
Tapi
JOKHA SURAT
21°
AWRA
Modern Town VALSAD
Ancient Site
N
Salt Waste 68°
69°
70°
71°
72°
73°
74°
S
Figure 1 Location map of Kanmer
Piloo or Zare tree, Calotropis sp., Acacia sp., Tamarin-
eastern part of the peninsula, which is believed to be
das sp., Mangifera sp. and Ricinus communis. On the
an arm of sea in the past (Gupta and Pandya 1980). It
other hand the alluvial plains of northern Gujarat are
is held that the accessibility of marine resources, semi-
drained by the Banas, Saraswati and Rupen Rivers and
precious stones and arable land were major factors for
their tributaries, which flow into the Little Rann of
the expansion of enterprising Harappans in Gujarat.
Kachchh. The inter-dunal depressions in these plains
Though researches on the Harappans in Gujarat have
accumulate rainwater, thus supporting livestock.
unfolded various new facets e.g. elaborate water struc-
As many as 63 Harappan sites have been reported
tures, dock-yard, diverse craft industries, regional vari-
from Kachchh (Possehl 1999; Seth et al. 2007).
ation in architecture, ceramic and so on, there are still
Among them, only a few sites, such as Dholavira (IAR
various challenging issues yet to be addressed, such as
1967-68: 14-16; Bisht 1989a, b, 1991, 1997), Surko-
the decline of the Harappan urban system.
tada ( Joshi 1990) and Junikuran (Pramanik 2003-
OBJECTIVES
2004), have been subjected to horizontal excavation whereas Desalpar, Pabhumath, Sikarpur were subjected to small-scale excavation. Sikarpur is now being re-
Kanmer was chosen for excavation in order to under-
excavated by M.S. University of Baroda. Most of these
stand regional variation in architecture and ceramic
settlements are urban and post-urban phases. The
assemblage, major reason of de-urbanization and to
concentration of Harappan sites appears to be in the
develop a fuller understanding of the Harappans in -6-
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 2 Contour map of Kanmer
Kachchh. Besides, we are interested in understanding
height of about eight meters from the ground level (i.e.
the role of contemporary rural folks like Anarta or
20 m above the mean sea level) (see Figures 2 and 3).
Ahar cultures in urbanization process. The Harappan
Impressive stone walls were visible on the eastern mar-
archaeology has been dominated by excavation of
gin of the site, whereas the western and southeastern
large sites, and, as a result, the role of smaller settle-
slopes were littered with huge boulders. The mound
ments like Kanmer has not been fully understood.
has a shallow depression on top (Figure 4). The gen-
The mound at Kanmer is roughly squarish on plan,
eral slope is towards the south-central part which is
measuring 115 m by 105 m, and suddenly rises up to a
the deepest. Such surface features indicated presence -7-
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
Figure 3 View of mound from northeast
It was, therefore, decided to continue the excavation
of strong and massive defense wall.
work in the second season with the following objec-
As our surface explorations yielded Mature and Late
tives:
Harappan materials and barring corners and slopes,
1. to understand the nature and history of the for-
the mound appeared intact and easily approachable,
tification wall.
therefore it was decided to take up this site for excava-
2. to understand the nature of Late Harappan de-
tion.
posit
On account of such surface features, we decided
3. to enquire if there is lower town or any settle-
to begin with controlled digging in the first season
ment outside the main mound
(2005-06), which allowed us to identify remains of a massive fortification and two streets of Mature Hara-
4. to conduct explorations of sources of agate that
ppan phase, a Late Harappan, a Historic structural
was used at the site in large quantity for making
complex, besides the following five-fold cultural se-
beads, weights and other objects and
quence (Kharakwal et al. 2007):
5. to train young students of archaeology in field techniques.
Period I
The following scholars and students from India,
Early Harappan
Japan and other countries participated in the excava-
Period II Mature Harappan
tion:
(further divided as Periods IIA and IIB) Period III Late Harappan
Prof. D.P. Agrawal, Dr. Manikant Shah (Lok Vi-
Period IV Historic
gyan Kendra, Almora),
Period V Medieval
Prof. M.D. Kajale, Drs. Shahida Ansari, Alok Kanungo, Ms. Amrita Sarkar, Ms. Anjana Reddy and -8-
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 4 DEM map of Kanmer (prepared by T. Uno)
Mr. Pankaj Goyal (Deccan College, Pune),
posed in the northeastern slope of the mound. We laid
Dr. Anil Pokharia (Birbal Sahni Palaeobotany In-
a few trenches (AA12, BB11, B12, CC10, DD10 and
stitute, Lucknow),
DD11) to clean the alignments and to understand the
Prof. Takao Uno (International Research Center
nature and constructional phases of fortification wall
for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan),
(Figure 5). As soon as we removed the top soil two
Prof. K. Saito, Drs. H. Teramura, A. Uesugi, Mrs.
parallel faces oriented roughly from east to west were
K. Miyahara, Y. Kondo (Research Institute for
found. Among these the inner one was less inclined
Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan),
compared to the outer one and the distance between
Mr. Sanjeev Kataria from Banaskantha, Gujarat,
both faces was noticed around 1 m. No filling mate-
(Draughtsman).
rial was found between these faces, indicating that the
Mrs. Lal Chand Patel, Hansmukh Seth, Rajesh
outer one was perhaps erected later to give support to
Meena, Suresh Meena, Asif Hussain, Krishna Pal
the inner or perhaps original one. The western part of
Singh, Sameer Vyas, Bhim Raj Varhat (Institute
the outer face was made of sandstone blocks whereas
of Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth,
in the eastern part (close to the northeastern corner)
Udaipur).
were used large stone slabs, often semi-dressed. From the northeastern corner, the outer face was exposed
EXCAVATION
up to a length of 14.30 m whereas the inner one up to 10.80 m. These faces survived up to a height of 3.50 m
Northeastern corner
and 4.80 m respectively. At the northeastern corner,
Two massive stone alignments were found partially ex-
these faces survived only up to a maximum height of -9-
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
Figure 5 Outer faces of fortification at northeastern corner
1.70 m. The distance between these two faces at the
Several episodes of dumping of ash or ash mixed
corner was measured 2.70 m. Considering the nature
with soil were found outside these outer faces. The
of these faces, they were identified as two structural
nature of dumping, containing mostly ash, suggests
phases of the defense wall. From the northeastern
that this debris was thrown at a later date from the top
corner of the mound the fortification wall appears to
of the wall or from the inside of the fortified enclo-
turn south forming an acute angle with the northern
sure. Although this dumping yielded mixed materials
wall as both these aforesaid faces join similar outer
belonging to the Mature and Late Harappan phase, it
faces, oriented roughly from north to south, of eastern
was dominated by the material of the Mature phase.
wall. The outer face of eastern wall was exposed up to
Pottery recovered in digging from northeastern slope
a length of 6 m whereas inner one could be traced up
of the mound was encrusted with soil rich in salt.
to a length of only 2.28 m. Very large slabs, mostly of sandstone, were placed at the base of these faces. Some
Northwestern area
of them were measured 2 m in length and 80 cm in
The northwestern corner (Figure 6) of the mound was
width and 30 to 40 cm in thickness. The size of stones
also found collapsed like the northeastern one. On the
gradually decreases towards the top. Both these faces
exposed slope were visible a few alignment of stones.
rest on a thick deposit of clayey brown sand, which
To understand the nature of fortification wall and its
is locally known as lilva and perhaps developed due
bastion and outer corner, we laid a few trenches such
to weathering of bed rock. The fortification wall was
as J22, J23, K21 and K22 in this area. While cutting
raised either right on the bed rock or on the vergin
down the slope wash mixed pottery (Historic, Late
soil and no pre-defense phase deposit was found in
and Mature Harappans) was found on the top of the
this part of the mound.
alignments and outside the fortification wall right - 10 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 6 Northwestern corner of fortified enclosure
up to the base of the wall. Besides pottery, fragment
not buried until the Historic people arrived at the site.
of bricks belonging to historic phase were also found
The fortification wall was raised right on the bed rock,
deposited against the lower courses of the wall. Un-
which was found buried at a depth of 1.70 m from the
fortunately only lower courses of this corner (outer
surface (9.50 m from datum point). At this corner of
face) survived. At the base were found large dressed
the mound the outer face of northern wall, oriented
stone blocks, some of which measured 2 m long, 1 m
roughly from east to west, was exposed up to a length
wide and 35 to 40 cm thick. It is difficult to answer
of 10.20 m whereas the outer face of western wall, ori-
precisely how the Harappans transported such huge
ented roughly from north to south, was exposed for a
stones to the site from the nearby hillock. The ephem-
distance of 9.60 m. These faces survived up to a height
eral nala is hardly 70 m away from this corner of the
of 3.30 m and formed an obtuse angle.
mound. While cutting down the deposit against the fortification wall lances of sorted sand and rounded
Identification of cultural break
boulders were also found at the lower level. It is likely
between Late Harappan and Historic period
that water of the ephemeral nala might have reached
A structural complex (St. no 1) belonging to the
right up to the fortification wall during cloud burst,
Historic period was partially exposed in the first field
which is very common feature in this region. But it is
season (2005-06) in the northwestern part of the
difficult to presume or claim at this preliminary stage
mound (trenches R 21, S21, T 21 and U21). This
if the upper courses of the wall were destroyed by such
complex was found resting on Layer 4, which was ashy
activity. Discovery of mixed pottery (Harappan and
in nature and yielded considerable quantity of Late
Historic) in the entire deposit just outside the wall
Harappan material, besides two silos. Due to local
indicates that this part of the fortification wall was
disturbance in the deposit, there was a bit of confu- 11 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
Figure 7 Outer faces on the eastern slope
sion in the stratigraphy, which led us to think that
on the eastern slope of the mound to discover the
these silos also belonged to the Late Harappan phase.
entrance, in order to understand the nature of defense
It was therefore decided to continue excavation in
wall and deposit outside the fortified enclosure if any.
S21 to develop better understanding of stratigraphy.
As soon as we removed the surface soil of the southern
After cutting down Layer 5, which was dark greyish in
half of trench HH20 a very strong face of the fortifica-
colour and devoid of any structural activity, we came
tion was exposed up to length of 2.68m. After expos-
across regular deposit and structures belonging to the
ing 11 courses of this face, another face was exposed
Late Harappan phase. Thus these silos were obviously
at a depth of 1.60 m from surface (Figure 7). Both
made by Historical people living in Layer 4. Consid-
these faces appeared parallel to each other and the gap
ering the nature and cultural material, Layer 5 was
between these face measured only 50 cm. These outer
identified as break between the Late Harappan and
faces are made of large semi-dressed stones and appear
Historic period. The nature of this dark grey layer was
to join the faces exposed in the northeastern corner.
found identical to Layers 2 and 6 of trenches located
While exposing the eastern slope it was noticed that
in southeastern and central parts of the mound re-
the humus zone (about 25 cm) is perhaps formed of
spectively.
slope wash and wind blown fine sand (trenches II20 and JJ20). Below this humus zone, on the slope, was
Eastern face
found scatter of large- and medium-size boulders,
There are two small depressions each on the eastern
perhaps rolled down from the fortification wall or
and western slope of the mound, perhaps indicating
aforesaid faces. Several episodes of ash sometimes
location of entrances to the settlement. Therefore, we
mixed with soil were also found underneath the scat-
laid a few trenches (HH20, II20 and JJ20 and MM28)
ter of stones. All these episodes yielded mixed pottery - 12 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
(Mature and Late Harappans and Historic), of course
Southern face
percentage of Mature Harappan pottery gradually
After our discovery of two parallel outer faces of the
increasing towards the base. At the termination of the
fortification wall on the eastern and northern slopes
mound was found a circular stone alignment of stones
of the main mound, we decided to confirm the same
at a depth of 40 cm from surface. This alignment (di-
on the southern slope. As the upper part of the wall
ameter 3.40 m) was discovered in the eastern half of
has already washed off, we laid trenches ( JJ33 and
JJ20 and it was sealed by Layer 2 i.e., Historic deposit.
KK32 and KK33) in the southeastern corner close
Along with the alignment was found Late Harappan
to the termination of the mound. Like eastern and
material. Trench JJ20 was located about 15 m away
northern aspect of the mound, two parallel outer
from the outer face of the fortification wall. It was
faces were also discovered in these trenches. They were
exposed up to the bed rock in order to enquire if there
exposed up to a length of 12.20 meters and the outer
was any habitation deposit outside the fortification.
one was made in tapering fashion. Alhough both
Except for thin flimsy deposit belonging to the Late
these faces appeared parallel to each other, close to
Harappan and scatter of some Mature Harappan pot-
the south eastern corner (in trenches KK32 and JJ32)
tery, no structure was found in this deposit. Two more
the gap between them gradually increased 80 cm to
trenches (LL28 and MM28) were partially opened
2.06 m. As very small area of the wall was exposed,
on the eastern slope of the main mound, close to the
we therefore do not know whether the space between
southeastern corner, in order to confirm the outer face
two faces emerged due to local disturbance or it was
of the fortification wall and to enquire if there was
indication of change in orientation within the Mature
any deposit outside. The outer face was discovered in
Harappan phase. Further investigation is required in
the southern half of trench LL28 and has survived up
this direction.
to a height of 3.77 m. As many as 14 courses of this face were exposed. It was made of large semi-dressed
Sondages
boulders and the nature of its construction was simi-
A few small sondages were dug on the northern slope
lar in appearance with the one found on the northern
of the main mound at different intervals to confirm
slope. It also rested on a very thick bed of brown
continuity of both outer faces and to check the ori-
clayey sand locally known as lilva. Perhaps this batter-
entation. These sondages were numbered as N1, N2,
ing was support to the original wall. Against this face
N3 and so on. It was found that in general the inner
were found rolled Late Harappan materials mixed
face has survived up to a much higher level compared
with Historic pottery. The historic pottery however
to the outer one. The gap between both faces gradu-
gradually disappeared at the lower level. It was noticed
ally decreased as one moved along the wall from west
that the southeastern corner of the fortification wall
to east, though it varied from 1 to 1.50 m only. Large
was dug out by the villagers while digging for a well.
dumping of ash, sometimes mixed with soil and other
No regular habitation deposit was found outside the
garbage, was found all along northern outer face. At
outer face of the fortification wall. At the termination
some places the outermost face was found buried
of the main mound a modern child burial was identi-
under this dumping. It appeared that this garbage
fied hardly 20 cm below the surface. The villagers also
was thrown from the top when people were living on
informed that there were several other child burials on
the upper level. This garbage yielded mainly Mature
the periphery of the mound. No other artifacts were
and Late Harappan pottery sometimes mixed with a
discovered from this level.
bit of Historical material. It seems that this ash was largely dumped towards the end of Mature Harappan - 13 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
phase at the site when the outer face had already col-
and 3, all belonging to the same structural complex
lapsed. On the basis of our preliminary observations,
(see Figure 8). The third room was partially exposed.
we presume that the outer face was made either when
This structural complex was made along the southern
there was some problem (earthquake?) in the original
inner face of the fortification wall. The gap between
outer face of the fortification or when the Harappans
this structural complex and fortification wall meas-
wanted to raise the height of the wall at a later stage. It
ured about 1.50m, which appeared to increase gradu-
was noticed that both the faces were erected from the
ally towards the south eastern corner of the fortifica-
same surface, possibly suggesting that there may not
tion. It was filled with large quantity of massive and
have been much time gap between the two.
medium size boulders possibly rolled down from the fortification wall or the Mature Harappan structures.
Southeastern Area
To prepare the floors, the Late Harappans first
In the first season’s work (2005-06), we were able to
levelled the ground by placing yellowish clayey sand
identify a Late Harappan structure located close to
(locally known as pila lilva) mixed with fine clay from
the southeastern corner of the fortification. It was
nearby ponds (locally known as khotda). On top of
found right on a Mature Harappan street in trench
this was placed less than 5 cm thick bed of brown
HH30. As this structure was found almost parallel to
clayey sand (locally known as lilva), which was prop-
the inner face (southern wall) of the fortification and
erly rammed. And finally a thick plaster of white shale
was erected 1.50 m to the north of the wall, therefore,
mixed with cow dung was applied. Sometimes the
we initially thought that this may be a kind of support
plaster is as thick as 15 cm. This technique of floor
wall which the Late Harappans made to support the
making was also identified in the Mature Harappan
fortification wall.
levels at the site. Of course all these three different lay-
To understand this structure better, it was decided
ers of floors are far more thinner compared to the Late
to continue excavation in this area and opened a
Harappan ones. The local villagers informed that the
few trenches like HH29 and GG31. As soon as we
same tradition was continuing in the village even now.
removed the surface soil of HH29, we came across
There are also instances when the Harappans have laid
a wall (exposed up to a length of 1.90 m) roughly
more than 20 cm thick deposit of brown sandy soil at
oriented from north-northeast to south-southwest,
the base of the floor. Perhaps this kind of deposit pre-
which joined the above-mentioned structure at right
vented them from rats and other insects in the house.
angle and forms a rectangular room. The western wall
As this is a known knowledge in the village, therefore
of this room (3.30 m) was exposed in the last working
this kind of evidence indicates the continuity of tradi-
season, which is a common wall between two rooms
tional knowledge of floor-making technology.
(Figure 8). The eastern wall of this room measured
On these floor were found parallel-sided querns,
3.72 m. After removing dark grayish soil of Layer 2 we
hammer stones, complete or broken pots of Gritty
came across four successive floors levels (Figure 9), out
Red Ware, bowl fragments of white painted Black-
of which the lowest or earliest was the Mature Harap-
and-Red Ware, Buff Ware and Fine Red Ware. The
pan and other three belonged to the Late Harappan
polished surface of querns may have been used for
phase.
grinding cereals. Apart from these, beads of terracotta,
The second (3.30 m by 2.84 m) and third rooms
faience, steatite and shell were interesting discoveries.
were located to the west of room number one and
The first or lowest floor yielded Mature Harappan
both are located right on the Mature Harappan street.
pottery, weights and bladelets of agate and chert and a
Thus these rooms were numbered as Room nos. 1, 2
few beads of carnelian, steatite and faience. A cooking - 14 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 8 Late Harappan structural complex in the southeastern area
Figure 9 Successive floors of a Late Harappan house
- 15 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
hearth (U-shaped) was found associated with the Ma-
fish scale, series of strands arranged horizontally
ture Harappan floor, the diameter of which measured
and vertically, bands of wavy lines and chess-board
30 cm. It survived up to a height of 30 cm.
pattern. The shapes are represented mainly by bulbous
It seems that the Late Harappans initially used the
and spherical jars with short and concave neck, bowls
fortification wall as defence wall, but subsequently
with stand in Red slipped Ware, with flared sides
its function ceased for some reason yet unknown to
and incurved rim in cream slip. Some deep bowls/
us. Towards the end of their occupation, they erected
dishes of Red slipped and Black Slipped Ware are
structures right on the top of the fortification wall or
carinated externally. Many of these types continue
sometime robbed the stones of the fortification wall
in Period II, but with some change either in shape or
to make their houses.
surface treatment. Except for cream slipped and Black
A small bulbous pot (broken) of Red Ware with
Slipped all other types appear to be similar to the
narrow opening and flared mouth was found full of
Anarta assemblage.
beads of steatite and faience on the floor of a house
Alhough a considerable quantity of potsherds
located right on the top of fortification wall in trench
which seemed to be the Mature Harappan were also
GG30 and GG31 (Figure 10). It was buried hardly 15
found from this level, the characteristic S-shaped or
cm below the surface. The total number of beads was
perforated jars, terracotta cakes, weights or beads of
11,707 out of which 27 were faience ones (Figure 11).
typical Harappan types were conspicuous by their absence. Therefore, we have identified this deposit as
CULTURAL PERIODS
Early Harappan (Kharakwal et al. 2007).
Period I
Period II
Period I was mainly identified on the basis of pottery
The second cultural period at the site was represented
such as Red Ware i.e., Coarse Red, Cream slipped,
by the Mature Harappan fossils, structures and
Red Slipped, Black slipped and unslipped exposed in
fortification walls at the site. The cultural deposit of
a very small area in the first field season.
this phase is hardly around 3 m in the central part of
This assemblage is mostly modelled on a slow
the mound whereas it gradually increases towards the
wheel and it is very often painted. The Red Slipped
peripheral region of the mound.
ware can be termed as polytone as it is available in
Towards the end of this cultural period was
various shades of slip e.g., dark brown (generally with
introduced two new pottery types such as white
chocolate colour), light red and sometimes looks
painted Black-and-Red Ware and Gritty Red Ware at
like brick red. These shades were perhaps prepared
the site. We have therefore sub-divided this cultural
by smearing the colour on the external surface. In
period into Periods IIA and IIB.
the case of the Red Ware with black slip, the core of
Both on the northern and eastern slope of the
majority of sherds is grey. Majority of potsherds of
mound were found several episodes of dumping of
this ware have been decorated with wide white bands
ash sometimes mixed with burnt soil. It seems that
on the neck or shoulder or middle part of the body
some intensive burning activity continued inside
on which a variety of red paintings are executed.
the fortification for a very long time and the garbage
Often the white background has peeled off and the
was repeatedly thrown outside as the contour of the
paintings in such case are visible only under wet
dumping would indicate. It is likely that this dumping
conditions.
had begun in the Mature Harappan (Period IIB) as
The common paintings in these varieties include
the dumping has yielded mostly pottery of this phase, - 16 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 10 Broken pot full of beads
Figure 11 Steatite beads
- 17 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
besides some Late Harappan material.
southeastern and central parts of the main mound,
Therefore the stratigraphy inside and outside the
it was observed that the Iron Age deposit is hardly 1
fortification do not match. We have yet to understand
m thick in the northern area whereas less than 50 cm
why such large-scale burning was done. The discovery
in the southeastern area. In the central area, though
of two outer faces clearly indicates that there are at
it was found over 2.50 m, it has largely formed by
least two constructional phases of the fortification
secondary deposit perhaps rolled down from the pe-
wall. Both were made by the Mature Harappans.
ripheral areas of the mound. Perhaps there was a large depression in the central part of the mound when the
Period III
Iron Age people arrived at the site. This historical de-
Perhaps the Late Harappans occupied the site
posit was marked by residential stone structures, Red
immediately after the desertion of the Mature
Polished Ware, Red Ware of the Rang Mahal type,
Harappans or after a short gap. A very thin layer
Amphorae, large number of iron objects and Brahmi
of sandy soil with white kankar (possibly calcium
seal impressions (datable to the early centuries of the
carbonate) was noticed beneath the Late Harappan
Christian Era). Thus the Iron Age or historic deposit
remains in trenches GG29, HH29, HH30. We are
has been marked as Period IV at the site.
not sure if this represents any break between the two cultures. This will be confirmed only after exposing
Period V
the Mature Harappan remains in a few more trenches
A few medieval stone alignments, visible on the sur-
next season. The Late Harppan deposit was found
face and belonging to the medieval phase, were iden-
hardly 1 m thick. Most of the Mature Harappan
tified on the peripheral region of the main mound.
pottery types appear to continue in this phase, but
Although a few fragments of medieval Red Ware were
with a considerable change in their shapes, surface
found in Layers 2 and 3 in the central part (trench
treatment and design pattern.
Y30), we have yet to find remains of regular habitation deposit on our cuttings. We have marked these
Break
remains as Period V at Kanmer.
After the Harappans disappeared from Kanmer, the
FAUNAL REMAINS
site remained unoccupied for nearly 1600 years. This gap was represented by a dark greyish soil layer, the thickness of which varies from 15 to 45 cm.
The faunal analysis was carried out by Dr. P.P. Joglekar
The Iron Age deposit was found underlined by this
and Pankaj Goyal of Deccan College, Pune. Alhough
dark greyish soil layer, in which no structural activ-
faunal remains were recovered from almost all the
ity was found. As it was loose, sandy and uniform in
trenches, they were not evenly distributed. In most of
nature and sealed the Late Harappan deposit, it was
the trenches, bones were encrusted with soil, but they
identified as break between the Late Harappan and
were able to identify cut marks on bones and charred
Historic deposit. While cutting down the dark grey
bones in some cases. They have identified several ani-
layer, it was observed that the Late Harappan material
mal taxa, which include mammals, birds, fish, reptiles
(identified as Period III) gradually increased and the
and molluscan species. Among the domestic animals,
Historic pottery decreased.
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and horse were identified. More than a dozen wild animals were identified
Period IV
in the collection, including the nilgai, antelopes, deer,
After undertaking excavation in the northwestern,
carnivores and rodents. - 18 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
In the Historic phase, seven domestic mammals
Goyal and Joglekar (in this volume) conclude that
cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, dog, and the cat have
“domestic animals were the most important resource
been identified. The discovery of charred bones of
to the animal-based subsistence throughout the oc-
buffaloes suggests that they may have been consumed
cupational history. The higher percentage of domestic
during this phase. Bones of wild-mammals include
animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat may sug-
antelopes (Gazella bennetti, Antilope cervicapra and
gest that stock raising and pastoralism was an impor-
Tetracerus quadricornis), deer (Axis axis) and birds
tant component in the subsistence activity of the com-
and reptiles were also identified.
munity in all the periods”. They further point out that
In the Late Harappan phase, domestic animals pre-
the proportion of wild mammals found in the Late
dominate like other cultural phases at the site. Among
Harappan phase was more than any other cultural
the domestic animals (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat),
phase, clearly indicating an increase on the depend-
the cattle and buffalo constitute a majority and many
ence on the wild mammals. Of course one has to keep
of them bear cut-marks or are charred suggesting that
in mind that in all our trenches we have exposed Late
these were consumed at the site. The wild animals
Harappan deposit more than any other cultural phase.
such as bovid, wild pig, antelope, deer, carnivore and
Eventually the faunal assemblage of the Late Harap-
small mammals like hare and rodent have been identi-
pan outnumber all other phases. Therefore, this con-
fied. However, in the Mature Harappan phase 96%
clusion, as the authors have pointed out, is tentative.
faunal remains belong to cattle and buffalo, followed
PALAEOETHNOBOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS
by sheep and goat. Among the wild animals, nilgai, four-horned antelope, a suidae species and the porcupine were identified. Thus as many as 25 species were identified, out of
In order to understand subsistence of the Harappans,
which the domestic mammals were represented by 8
Dr. Anil K. Pokharia (Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeo-
species (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat and
botany, Lucknow, India) conducted the retrieval of
horse) and wild mammals were represented by 14 spe-
botanical remains by water floatation technique in the
cies (nilgai, wild pig, antelopes (blackbuck, chinkara
second season. He was assisted by several research stu-
and four-horned antelope), deer (sambar, chital, and
dents of the Rajasthan Vidyapeeth while conducting
mouse deer), a felid species, porcupine, hare and ro-
flotation at the site. For floatation, water was brought
dents (house rat and desert rat). Besides these, a few
from a distance by bullock cart as there is no source of
birds, reptiles, fish and shells were also identified (for
water at the site. Initially we attempted quantitative
detail see Goyal and Joglekar: report on faunal re-
control on our sampling, but gradually we realized
mains from Kanmer in this volume).
that we required some strategy for varied context. For
Evidence of charred, butchering and cut marks has
example, from the floors or general habitation levels
been found on a large number of bones which perhaps
10 ghamelas soil was sampled for floatation. Ghamela
indicate that these animals may have been part of
is deep basin of metal. From hearths/fire places were
their diet. The relatively higher proportion of charred
sampled two ghamelas and from burnt patches five
bones was found more in the Mature Harappan phase
ghamelas generally used for throwing soil. One ghame-
compared to the Late Harappan and Historic. Some
la contains about 5 kg of soil. Soil samples for water
of the bones of cattle/buffalo and sheep/goat were fire
flotation were selected from trenches S21 (in the
hardened and it is likely that they may have been used
northwestern area) and GG29, 30 and 31, HH30 (in
as tools.
the southeastern area), BB11 (northeastern corner), - 19 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
Table 1 Botanical remains recovered from Kanmer S.No.
Trench
Layer
Depth
Botanical remains
Cultural context
1
BB 11
2
2
BB 11
3
3
GG 29
3
4
GG 29
Pit sealed by layer (2)
5
GG 30
4
6
GG 30
3
7
GG 30
2
2.49 m
Sorghum bicolor, Trianthema triquetra
8
GG 31
2
2.24 m
Pennisetum typhoides, Vigna radiata, Indigofera sp., Trianthema triquetra
Late Harappan
9
HH 30
4
5.48 m
Sorghum bicolor, Vigna radiata
Late Harappan
10
II 20
4
7.9 m
Setaria sp., Trianthema triquetra, Trianthema portulacastrum, Andropogon type
Late and Mature Mixed
11
MM 28
4
8.8 m
Vigna radiata, Sesamum indicum, Commelina sp., Polygonum sp., Trianthema triquetra, Vicia sp., Polygonum sp., Indigofera sp., Andropogon sp.
Late Harappan
Historic
Oryza husk impression
Late Harappan
9.22 m
Coix lachryma-jobi
Late Harappan
3.10 m
Vigna radiata, Trianthema triquetra, Trianthema portulacastrum
Late Harappan
Sorghum bicolor, Pennisetum typhoides, Vigna radiata, Pisum arvense, Vicia hirsuta, Polygonum sp., Solanum sp., Ziziphus nummularia, Scleria sp., Cyperus sp.,
Late Harappan
Pennisetum typhoides, Hordeum vulgare, Vigna radiata, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Polygonum sp., Ziziphus nummularia, Trianthema triquetra
Late Harappan
Pennisetum typhoides, Hordeum vulgare, Vigna radiata, Commelina sp., Trianthema triquetra, Polygonum sp., Ziziphus nummularia
Late Harappan
3.1 m
Historic
12
S 21
5
3.78-3.97 m
Oryza sp., Triticum aestivum, Pennisetum typhoides, Sorghum bicolor, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Vigna radiata, Polygonum sp., Setaria sp., Trianthema triquetra
13
S 21
5
3.84-3.88 m
Vigna radiata, Trianthema triquetra, Polygonum sp.
Historic
14
S 21
5
3.78-3.80 m
Trianthema triquetra
Historic
15
S 21
5
3.68-3.72 m
Pennisetum typhoides, Sorghum bicolor, Hordeum vulgare, Polygonum sp., Trianthema triquetra, Acacia sp.
Historic
16
S 21
5
3.65-3.68 m
Trianthema triquetra, Trianthema portulacastrum
Historic
17
S 21
5
3.60-3.65 m
Vigna radiata, Setaria sp., Vicia sp., Trianthema triquetra Polygonum sp.,
Historic
18
S 21
5
3.52 m
Sesamum indicum, Vigna radiata, Setaria sp., Vicia sp., Trianthema triquetra
Historic
19
S 21
4
3.38 m
Pennisetum typhoides, Vigna radiata, Setaria sp., Cleome sp., Trianthema triquetra, Ziziphus nummularia
Historic
- 20 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
Figure 12 DEM showing the thickness of fortification wall (prepared by T. Uno)
II20 (eastern slope). Each sample was poured into the
by comparing them with the corresponding parts of
body of water in a tub that was agitated so that light
extant plants of the same species. These remains rep-
material is buoyed to the surface and skimmed off
resent the accidentally scorched portion of a larger
through a 25 mesh sieve. Floatation allowed recovery
amount.
of all size and classes of botanical material preserved
In the first field season several cereals and pulses
in the sediment, making qualitative and quantitative
such as barley (Hordeum vulgare), bread-wheat (Triti-
analysis possible. A large amount of carbonized mate-
cum aestivum), dwarf-wheat (Triticum sphaerococ-
rial was gleaned from well stratified trenches.
cum), rice (Oryza sativa), field-pea (Pisum arvense),
A sizeable amount of botanical material was found
grass-pea (Lathyrus sativus), and green-gram (Vigna
in utterly fragile, highly burnt and mutilated state of
radiata) were identified besides cotton (Gossypium
preservation. The inferences of the study, therefore,
arboreum/herbaceum), some weeds and wild taxa (see
are based on a small fraction of the material. The re-
Kharakwal et al. 2007). As the second season’s work
mains were sorted out under the stereo-binocular mi-
was largely focused to understand the history of the
croscope and thereafter cleaned in acid-alcohol (glacial
fortification wall, therefore only a few trenches such
acetic acid 10% + ethyl alcohol 50% in equal volume).
as S21, GG29, 30 and 31 and HH30 were partially
The identification is based on the morphological
opened for understanding regular habitation deposit. From our limited samples, the remains of jowar-
details preserved in the carbonized grains and seeds - 21 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
millet (Sorghum bicolor), pearl-millet (Pennisetum ty-
fortification area. There is a very thin deposit of Late
phoides), sesame (Sesamum indicum), and horse-gram
Harappan period to the east of the main mound,
(Macrotyloma uniflorum) were among new finds. Re-
which can not be termed as the lower town.
mains of weeds and other wild taxa were also encountered reflecting the ecological conditions and ground
Acknowledgements
vegetation. The details concerning the plant remains
The entire team of Kanmer Archaeological Research
with their archaeological provenance are summarized
Project sincerely thanks Archaeological Survey of In-
in Table 1.
dia for giving us a permission to continue our studies at the site. We thank various authorities of Govern-
CONCLUSION
ment of Gujarat for helping us while conducting field research in Kachchh. The authors would also like to
Thus most of our work in the second field season
express sincere gratitude to Prof. D.P. Agrawal, Dr.
was concentrated on the fortification wall. We have
R. S.Bisht, Prof. B.S. Garg, Prof. Lokesh Bhatt for
worked out two distinct phases of the construction
encouraging us to take up field studies on the Harap-
of the fortification at Kanmer. St.5B represents the
pans in Gujarat. We also thank Dr. R.S. Fonia, Piyush
first or original wall, the inner face of which was ex-
Bhatt, Sri V.K. Uppal and Ms. Noriko Hase for help-
posed in trench R21 in the first season. At the some
ing us at various stages of our work.
later date due to some unknown problem in the wall,
Over two dozen lectures were presented in the camp
a strong battering or support was made perhaps all
addressing various challenging issues of the Harappan
along the original wall as it has been found on the
Civilization. These lectures were delivered by visiting
southern, western and northern slopes of the mound.
eminent scholars e.g., Profs. D.P. Agrawal, M.D.
Towards the end of the Mature Harappan phase
Kajale, T. Uno, Drs. Manabu Koiso, Shahida Ansari
the wall was further raised and its width was reduced,
and others.
the evidence of which was discovered in the last season in trench Y16. It appears that the total height of
References
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India. South Asian Studies 10: 71-90.
its northwest and southeast corners have obtuse angle
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whereas northeastern and southwestern corners form
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about 18 m in the middle level of the deposit (Figure
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265-72.
We could not locate any lower town outside the
Bisht, R.S. (1991) Dholavira: new horizons of the Indus
- 22 -
Preliminary observations on the Excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India 2006-2007
the Sorath and the Sindhi Harappans. The Eastern
civilization. Puratattva 20: 71-82.
Anthropologist 45 (1-2): 117-154.
Bisht, R.S. (1997) “Dholavira excavations: 1990-1994”, in J.P. Joshi (ed.) Facets of Indian Civilization: Recent
Possehl, G.L. (1999) The Indus Age. Oxford, Delhi.
Perspectives. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Pramanik, Subhra (2003-2004) Excavation at Juni Kuran: 2003-2004 a preliminary report. Puratattva 34: 45-67.
pp. 107-120.
Rao, S.R . (1962-63) Excavations at Rangpur and other
Casal, J.M. (1979) “Amri: an introduction to the Harappan
explorations in Gujarat. Ancient India 18-19: 5-207.
Civilization”, in D.P. Agrawal and D. Chakrabarti (eds.) Essays in Indian Protohistory. B.R. Publication,
Seth, H., L.C. Patel and B. Varhat (2007) “Harappan sites in Gujarat”, in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2.
Delhi. Dikshit, M.G. (1950) Excavation at Rangpur 1947. Bulletin of
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto.
Deccan College Research Institute 11(1): 3-55.
pp.111-126.
Ghurye, G.S. (1939) Two sites in Kathiawar. Journal of the
Sonawane, V.H. and P. Ajitprasad (1994) Harappan Culture and Gujarat. Man and Environment 19(1-2): 129-39.
University of Bombay 8(1): 3-12. Gupta, S.K. and S. Pandya (1980) Kutch Harappans-their
Vats, M.S. (1935) Trial excavation at Rangpur, Limdi State,
communication routes- a discussion. Vidya 23(1): 39-
Kathiawar. Annual Reports of Archaeological Survey of
46.
India 1934-35: 348.
IAR. Indian Archaeology - A Review. Annual Publication of the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Joglekar, P.P. (2007) “Report of the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Kachchh, Gujarat, during the first season (2005-06)”, T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp.47-76. Joshi, J.P. (1972) Exploration in Kutch and excavation at Surkotada and new light on Harappan migration. Journal of the Oriental Institute 22 (1-2): 137-143. Joshi, J.P. (1990) Excavation at Surkotada 1971-72 and Exploration in Kutch. Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Kharakwal, J. (2005) “The Indus Civilization: an overview”, in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp.41-85. Kharakwal, J.S. Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada (2005) “Harappan sites in Kachchh and new opportunities of tourism”, in Heritage Tourism. Government of Gujarat. pp.35-43. Kharakwal, J.S. Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada (2007) “Kanmer: A Harappan sites in Kachchh, Gujarat, India”, in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp.21-46. Misra, V.N., V.S. Shinde, R.K. Mohanty, Lalit Pandey and Jeewan S. Kharakwal. (1997) Excavations at Balathal, District Udaipur, Rajasthan (1995-97), with special reference to Chalcolithic Architecture. Man and Environment 22(2): 35-59. Possehl, G.L. (1992) The Harappan Civilization in Gujarat:
- 23 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
- 24 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat, during the second field season (2006-07)
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Department of Archaeology
Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute
Pune, India
ABSTRACT This is a full report of the analysis conducted on the faunal material recovered from Kanmer (Gujarat), during the second field season (2006-07). The first report has been published earlier. A total of 2421 animal skeletal fragments were examined that belonged to three cultural periods. The faunal remains recovered from the break recognized between the Historical and the Late Harappan phase as well as from surface, pit, brushing and scraping were also analyzed. The analysis was done at the Archaeozoology Laboratory of the Deccan College, Pune. The faunal assemblage contained skeletal elements of mammals as well as non-mammals. The mammalian species identified at Kanmer include domestic animals (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat and horse) and a wide spectrum of wild animals such as the nilgai, wild pig, a felid species, deer, antelopes, porcupine, rodents and hare. A small number of non-mammalian animals were identified that include birds, reptiles, fish and molluscs. However, this report does not deal with fish and molluscs. Remains of these taxa would be examined later.
INTRODUCTION
Harappan phase has also been noticed. The site has revealed a good number of faunal materials from all
The ancient site of Kanmer is situated near the village
the trenches.
of the same name in the Rapar taluka of Kachchh
This is the second report dealing with the animal
district of Gujarat (Figures 1 and 2). It is situated near
bones collected from Kanmer during the field season
the National Highway No. 15 between Samakhiyali
of 2006-07. The first report dealing with the bone
and Adesar, and is about 20 km southwest of the
remains recovered in the first season (2005-06) at
excavated Harappan site of Surkotada. The site was
Kanmer has already been published ( Joglekar 2007).
excavated during 2006-07 season for the second
The faunal material recovered from the Harappan
consecutive season jointly by the Institute of
phase at Kanmer has been compared with that from
Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur, State Department
other sites in Gujarat such as Shikarpur, Kuntasi,
of Archaeology, Gujarat and Research Institute for
Surkotada, Dholavira, Rojdi, Oriyo Timbo and Padri
Humanity and Nature (RIHN), Kyoto under the
( Joglekar 2006). A part of the material, particularly
direction of J.S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada.
of the Historic phase, has been presented during a
The site has revealed a five-fold cultural sequence
conference at Raipur in India (Goyal and Joglekar
(from the base to the top): Early Harappan, Mature
2007).
Harappan, Late Harappan, Historic and Medieval phases. A break between the Historic and the Late - 25 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Figure 1 Location of Kanmer (Map courtesy S.V. Rajesh and Ambika Patel, Vadodara)
IDENTIFICATION, RECORDING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
sampling technique so as to represent all the cultural periods. The faunal specimens were initially examined layer-wise in terms of skeletal elements.
The faunal material recovered from all the trenches
Clason’s (1972) method of counting the specimens
at Kanmer was carefully collected. Both large and
was used and the fragments of a single skeletal element
small bone fragments were carefully excavated and
with ancient breaks were not treated as separate
collected. All the skeletal remains were cleaned to
entities, but recorded as single units.
remove adhering soil at the site itself by using soft
Skeletal distinction of the bones was then followed
brushes and water (Figures 3 and 4). Fragments that
by taxonomic distinction. For species identification,
were broken during the excavation were mended.
the distinguishing morphological markers developed
After cleaning and drying in shed, the bones were
at the Archaeozoology Laboratory of the Deccan
packed neatly, labelled and transported to the
College were utilized.
Archaeozoology Laboratory of the Deccan College.
In addition, to achieve fine-level identification
Earlier Joglekar (2007) has conducted preliminary
among closely related species, help from published
study at the site, whereas no such preliminary study
literature has been taken, e.g. Joglekar et al. (1994),
was conducted at the site in 2006-07 field season.
Higham (1975), Gupta et al. (1987, 1990), and
The selected faunal material was analysed in the
Prummel and Frisch (1986). Furthermore, the general
laboratory. The material was selected by systematic
identification keys developed by Schmid (1972), - 26 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Figure 2 A view of the top of the mound
Figure 3 Cleaning of the faunal material at the site
- 27 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Figure 4 A view showing how the bones are embedded in the deposit
Hillson (1992), Kratochvil (1969) and Miguad (1992)
to the Cervidae family. These were recorded as “deer”
and other scholars were also used while analyzing the
since there were not identified up to the genus or
material.
species level.
A few categories of indeterminate type were used to
A stan dard arc ha e oz o o l o g i ca l s y stem o f
record the data, as it was very difficult to distinguish
identification, data recording and measuring
between closely related species, if the distinguishing
bones (von den Driesch 1976) was followed. Bone
morphological markers were not present. These
modifications such as butchering marks, cut marks,
include Bos/Bubalus (cattle/buffalo), Capra/Ovis
charring marks, marks of gnawing and taphonomy-
(goat/sheep), sheep/goat/blackbuck/chinkara (Ovis/
related observations were recorded in a computerized
Capra/Antilope cervicapra/Gazella bennetti), turtle/
coded format developed by the second author. Only
tortoise and small mammal (mongoose/hare size).
fragments bearing marks of natural as well as human
In addition, categories like “General mammal” and
action were given a registration number. At the end
“General bird” were also formed. In these cases, it was
of the study, the faunal material was restored back to
clear that the bone fragment belonged to mammal/
their respective packets.
bird but it was not possible to identify the species.
THE FAUNAL MATERIAL
Furthermore, there were some bone fragments, which were identified up to the skeletal element but not to the species level. For such fragments, a category
This report is based on a total of 2421 animal
designated as “unidentified species” was made. The
skeletal fragments (Table 1) belonging to three
faunal assemblage also revealed few incisors belonging
cultural periods (Historic, Late Harappan and - 28 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Table 1 Details of the faunal material examined Phase
Trenches and the layers in ( )
Total fragments examined
Historical Phase
HH29 (1), GG30 (1), GG31 (1), S21 (1, 3, 4), Wall
764
cleaning of Historical Structure (Trench S21), Section scraping (Trench GG3, layer 1), Surface (Trench GG31, Layer 1) Break
HH29 (2), GG30 (2), S21 (5)
457
Late Harappan phase
HH29 (3), GG29 (3), GG30 (3,4), R21 (6), S21 (6),
873
Y30 (9) Mature Harappan phase
HH20 (4), Y30 (14)
327
Table 2 Summary of identification of faunal material from Kanmer Break between Cultural Association
Historic
Historic and Late
Late Harappan
Mature Harappan (a)
Total
Number of Identified Specimens
642
Harappan 271
708
201
1822
122 764 84.05
186 457 59.21
165 873 81.05
126 327 61.46
599 2421 75.23
(NISP) Unidentified Fragments (UF) Total Fragments (TF) NISP %
Mature Harappan), and the break noticed between the Historic and the Late Harappan phases. It also included the faunal material from the surface, scrapings, brushings, pits, etc. Out of the 2421 animal skeletal fragments, 1822 fragments could be identified (75.28%). A total of 599 fragments could not be identified (Table 2; Figure 5) and hence were marked as unidentified fragments (UF). The unidentified fragments were classified into three groups based on their relative size: small (<2 cm), medium (2-5 cm) and large (>5
Figure 5 Relative proportion fo unidentified fragments
cm). These unidentified fragments are an important source to know the nature of the faunal material and
include mandibular and maxillary teeth, phalanges,
can throw valuable light on the site formation process.
astragalus, calcanium, long bones, vertebrae and rib
In case of several unidentified fragments found all
fragments. The process of recovery and packing of the
over the site of Kanmer, cut marks and charring were
skeletal elements was monitored on the site by the
noticed. The faunal material described in this report
first author.
comes from eight trenches - GG29, GG30, GG31, HH20, HH29, R21, S21 and Y30. The major skeletal elements that were present in the faunal assemblage - 29 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Table 3 Animal taxa (Genus level) identified at Kanmer Domestic Mammals
Wild Mammals
Non-mammals
Bos indicus
Boselaphus tragocamelus
Gallus domesticus
Bubalus bubalis
Axis axis
Pavo cristatus Lissemys punctata
Capra hircus
Cervus unicolor
Ovus aries
Tragulus meminna
Sus domesticus
Tetracerus quadricornis
Canis familiaris
Antilope cervicapra
Felis catus
Gazella bennetti
Equus caballus
Sus scrofa Felis sp. Rattus rattus Mus booduga Lepus nigricolis Hystrix indica
THE SPECIES
modifications can occur due to various human as well as non-human agents. A careful look at the
The faunal material collected from Kanmer has
bone modifications can give us an idea about the way
revealed a large number of animal species (Table 3)
faunal material was discarded/deposited. Majority
that comprise domestic mammals, wild mammals
of the faunal material recovered from different layers
and non-mammals. It was possible to identify 25
show good preservation and very less effect of post-
species. The domestic mammals were represented
depositional factors (Tables 4-5; Figure 6). However,
by eight species: the cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat,
in some cases, the bone fragments seemed to have
pig , dog , cat and horse. 14 wild mammals were
undergone physical movement and trampling. For
identified that include the nilgai, wild pig, antelopes
example, a distal fragment of humerus of Bos/Bubalus
(blackbuck, chinkara and four-horned antelope),
(Trench GG30, Layer 3) was in trampled condition.
deer (sambar, chital, and mouse deer), a felid species,
Likewise, a complete first phalanx of Gazella bennetti
porcupine, hare and rodents (house rat and desert
(K78) was found in the crushed condition (Trench
rat). The non-mammals include the species of birds
HH29, Layer 3). Furthermore, a distal fragment of
(domestic fowl and peacock) and reptiles. However,
tibia seemed to be rolled as it had smoother surface
it was not possible to identify some bird and reptile
(Trench HH20, Layer 4). Some of the fragments
skeletal elements up to the genus or species level.
had developed cracks on its surface due to prolonged
These bone fragments have been kept aside for future
exposure to heat. A small number of fragments were in
examination. The site also revealed remains of fish
completely incrusted condition, such as a rib fragment
and shells. These remains are not included the present
of sheep/goat (Trench GG30, Layer 3). There were
report and separate reports dealing with fish and
many skeletal elements that were recently broken,
molluscs remains will be written in due course.
perhaps during the recovery and transport. No case of pathologies and later intrusion has been noticed.
NATURE OF THE MATERIAL Embryonic Bone Every bone fragment was carefully examined for
Seven cases of the embryonic bones getting associated
any signature of bone modifications. The bone
into the archaeological assemblage have been found. - 30 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Table 4 Bone modifications observed in the Historical and break phase Phase
The Historic phase
Break
Total
% of NISP
Total
% of NISP
8
12.9
5
15.15
Comments Charred Charred completely
7
11.29
3
9.1
Charred and turned
10
16.12
11
33.33
Butchering Marks
3
4.83
2
6.06
Cut marks
12
19.35
6
18.18
Gnawing Marks
1
1.61
0
0
white
Embryonic bone
3
4.83
0
0
Porous bone
17
27.46
1
3.03
Bone tool
0
0
5
15.15
Ornaments
1
1.61
0
0
NISP
62
100
33
100
Table 5
Bone modifications observed in the Late and Mature Harappan phase
Phase
The Late Harappan phase
The Mature Harappan phase
Comments
Total
% of NISP
Total
% of NISP
Charred
23
30.26
21
21
Charred completely
7
9.21
13
13
Charred and turned
9
11.84
13
13
white Butchering Marks
1
1.31
0
0
Cut marks
18
23.68
6
6
Gnawing marks
2
2.65
0
0
Embryonic bone
2
2.65
0
0
Porous bone
12
15.78
47
47
Bone tool
1
1.31
0
0
Ornaments
1
1.31
0
0
NISP
76
100
100
100
Figure 6 Bone modifications seen at Kanmer
- 31 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Among these, three belonged to the Historic phase
Cutting and Butchering Marks
and four to the Late Harappan phase. The embryonic
Butchering and carcass-processing activities leave
bones associated with the Historic phase included first
many marks on the bone fragments. Several skeletal
and second phalanges of a small ruminant (probably
fragments, predominantly of large animals at Kanmer
sheep/goat) from trench S21. A fragmented portion
have been found to contain cutting and butchering
of scapula of sheep/goat also from trench S21,
marks. Butchering marks have been observed in all the
probably belonged to an embryo. Late Harappan
cultural phases except the Mature Harappan phase,
faunal assemblage revealed an embryonic radius of
however, cut marks were noticed in all the phases.
Bos/Bubalus (Trench GG29), second phalanx and a
An astragalus (K111) of buffalo had clear marks
small fragment of metacarpal of sheep/goat (Trench
indicating that it was cut and butchered (Trench S21).
GG30). We do not know, if a pregnant female was
This bone was also completely charred. Similarly,
culled or it represents accidental incorporation of an
proximal end of a tibia of Bos/Bubalus (K101) also
aborted embryo into the habitation deposit.
contained the evidence of cutting and butchering. Sawing marks were recognized on a scapula of Bos/
Porous Bones
Bubalus (K63) from Trench GG30 (Layer 4).
It is interesting to find that a large number of skeletal fragments belonging to the Mature Harappan phase
Charring marks
were porous in nature. Many of these were broken
A number of bone fragments found in all the three
due to the post-depositional factors and were in
phases showed that these were related to butchering,
an extremely fragile condition. In a few cases the
food processing and cooking activities. Faunal
fragments turned into powder after lifting in hand.
material from all the phases has a number of charred
Out of 201 bone fragments identified from this phase,
and cut bones. The degree of charring could be used
47 were porous in nature. The other cultural periods
to separate fragments as slightly charred, completely
also revealed porous bones but in not that proportion
charred and charred and calcified. The relative
as revealed by the Mature Harappan phase. It seems
proportion of charred bones was more in the Mature
that theses were in the water-logged condition for a
Harappan phase than the other two phases. It is
long time.
interesting to note that the proportion of unidentified fragments is comparatively more in the same phase
Ornaments
and a large number of these also showed marks of
It has been possible to identify two cases of ornaments
charring and exhaustive exposure to firing. In addition,
in the faunal assemblage, one belonging to the
there were some peculiar bone fragments, which
Historic phase and other to the Late Harappan phase.
were charred at the anterior end only. For example, a
One caudal vertebra (K118) of Bovidae, recovered
skeletal fragment of humerus belonging to the bovidae
from trench S21 showed a well-polished anterior end
was charred at the proximal end only (Trench HH9,
and indicates its use as an ornament. A completely
Layer 2). Likewise, some of the thoracic vertebrae
charred astragalus (K53) of Gazella bennetti was
were charred at the cranial end only.
recovered from Trench GG30. It was well-polished from all the sides and bears a perforation mark.
Modifications by Carnivores
Probably, it represented an unfinished bead and
Only three cases of gnawing marks, one from the
indicates that beads of such type were used during the
Historic phase and two from the Late Harappan
Late Harappan phase.
phase, left by carnivores (perhaps dog) were identified - 32 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
in the faunal assemblage. Distal end of femur of Bos/
goat bones. Two of these showed marks of wearing
Bubalus (K74) having the gnawing marks left by
due to their use (e.g. K3 and K12). A tool made using
carnivores is the solitary example from the Historic
sheep/goat mandible (K129) from Trench GG30
phase (Trench S21, Layer 4). Similarly, the Late
(Layer 3) seems to be fire hardened.
Harappan assemblage revealed a distal fragment of
HISTORIC PHASE
gazelle tibia (K129) and a long bone of Bos/Bubalus gnawed by the carnivores, both from Trench GG30 (Layer 3). No bone from the break and the Mature
In the Historic phase, seven domestic mammals have
Harappan phase was modified either by rodents or
been found: cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, dog and
carnivores.
cat (Table 6). Dog and cat were represented by only one fragment each. Domestic cat was present in the
Bone Tools
form of distal portion of humerus recovered from
A very small number of bone tools and skeletal
trench S21 (Layer 3). However, it bears no marks
fragments that looked like a tool have been noticed
of any human activity. Cattle (74.29%) formed the
in the faunal assemblage. Five such cases were noticed
largest group followed by sheep/goat (19.93%).
in break and one in the Late Harappan phase. All of
Buffalos were consumed during this phase as revealed
these tools were made on cattle/buffalo and sheep/
by the presence of two completely charred bones of
Table 6 Species identified from the Historic phase Species/Layer Bos indicus Bos/Bubalus
1 2
3 4
4 0
C 0
B 0
S 0
Total 6
% 0.935
165
210
30
53
6
7
471
73.36
Bubalus bubalis
1
2
0
2
0
0
5
0.779
Capra hircus/Ovis aries
29
70
7
19
0
3
128
19.94
Sus domesticus
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Canis familiaris
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Felis catus
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Capra/Ovis/Antilope/
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0.156
Lepus nigricolis
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0.312
Tetracerus quadricornis
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0.156
Gazella sp.
Antilope cervicapra
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0.312
Gazella benneti
0
8
0
0
0
0
8
1.246
Axis axis
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
0.312
Small mammal
6
3
0
0
0
0
9
1.402
General Bird
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Pavo cristatus
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Lissemys punctata
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
Turtle/Tortoise
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0.156
207
305
37
77
6
10
642
100
Total
C: Cleaning the Historical Structure B: Brushing S: Surface
- 33 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
A Bos indicus (top and left from Historic) and Bubalus bubalis
B Bos indicus phalanx
phalanx1
C Bos indicus bones (from Break)
D
Bos/Bubalus femur showing gnawing marks (from
Historical context) Figure 7 Bones from Kanmer
this animal. An astragalus of buffalo (K31) bearing
was represented in the form of single antler belonging
cut marks (completely charred) and also a completely
to Axis axis (K107). The non-mammals recovered
charred tibia were recovered from trench S21. The
from this phase include birds and reptiles.
contribution of pigs has been almost negligible as
BREAK
only one bone of the domestic pig in the form of ulna (Trench HH29, Layer 1) was recovered from the
A break has been recognized between the Historic
faunal assemblage. The wild mammals revealed by this phase include
and the Late Harappan phase. Faunal material from
antelopes (Gazella bennetti, Antilope cervicapra and
this phase has also been analysed. It was possible
Tetracerus quadricornis), deer (Axis axis) and hare.
to identify 271 fragments from this phase. A total
It is interesting to note that four first phalanges
number of 11 species has been identified from this
(K92, K93, K94 and K95) of Gazella bennetti have
phase. The identified specimens included domestic
been recovered from the same trench S21 (Layer 3),
mammals (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog and
probably belonging to the same animal. The same
horse), wild-mammals (sambar, house rat and hare)
trench also revealed pelvis (K98) of the same. Deer
and domestic fowl. - 34 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Table 7 Species identified from the Break Species/Layer Bos indicus Bos/Bubalus Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sus domesticus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Cervus unicolor Lepus nigricolis Rattus rattus Small mammal General mammal Gallus domesticus Total
2 3 166 66 2 1 0 1 4 2 5 3 0 253
5 0 9 6 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 18
Total 3 175 72 2 2 1 1 4 2 5 3 1 271
% 1.11 64.6 26.6 0.74 0.74 0.37 0.37 1.48 0.74 1.85 1.11 0.37 100
A A. cervicapra bones (from Late Harappan context)
B Gazella bennetti bones
C Deer incisors
D Bird (first one) and reptile bones (last two) Figure 8 Bones from Kanmer
- 35 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
The cattle formed a large proportion (65.91%)
fragment only in the form of a long bone from trench
in the whole assemblage belonging to this phase.
S21 (Layer 5).
Second major group identified belonged to sheep/
LATE HARAPPAN PHASE
goat (26.7%). Two fragments of domestic pig were identified from this phase: a fragmented cranial part and a canine from Trench GG30 (Layer 2). Only one
The bulk of faunal material examined from the site of
mandibular fragment of domestic dog was recovered
Kanmer belonged to the Late Harappan phase, and
from Trench S21 (Layer 5). The domestic horse also
the number of species identified is also large (Table
appeared in this phase, represented by two complete
8). However, like the other cultural periods, domestic
bones, a second phalanx and a molar both from trench
animals dominate over the others (89.54%). Among
S21 (Layer 5).
the domestic animals, pig and cat were not used for
Only one fragment of Cervus unicolor was present in
food. The domestic animals that were consumed
the form of third phalanx and was very brittle (Trench
include the cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat. The cattle
GG30, Layer 2). The hare was represented by four
and buffalo constitute a majority of the bones found
skeletal elements. These four skeletal elements were
from the Late Harappan phase (73.44%). Many of
two proximal fragments of tibia and a small fragment
the cattle and buffalo bones bear marks of cutting and
of mandible, recovered from Trench GG30 (Layer
charring indicating that these were consumed.
2), and a mandible from the Trench HH29 (Layer
The caprovines formed the next major component
2). Gallus domesticus was found in the form of one
of the subsistence economy of the Late Harappan
Table 8 Species identified from the Late Harappan phase Species/Layer
3
4
6
9
LH Wall
Pit 18
Total
%
8
1
3
0
2
0
14
1.98
Bos/Bubalus Bubalus bubalis
339 2
99 1
44 1
16 0
2 0
2 0
502 4
70.9 0.56
Capra hircus Capra/Ovis Sus domesticus Felis catus B. tragocamelus
2 80 1 1 1
0 15 0 0 0
0 9 0 0 0
0 6 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
2 110 1 1 1
0.28 15.5 0.14 0.14 0.14
Sus scrofa Axis axis T. meminna Deer general A. cervicapra Cervus unicolor Gazella bennetii T. quadricornis Lepus nigricolis Felis sp. Mus booduga Rattus rattus Small mammal General mammal General bird Unidentified species Total
0 1 1 6 4 1 6 1 4 0 1 7 11 5 5 0 487
1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 3 0 1 128
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 64
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 23
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
1 1 1 9 5 1 6 1 4 1 1 8 20 8 5 1 708
0.14 0.14 0.14 1.27 0.71 0.14 0.85 0.14 0.56 0.14 0.14 1.13 2.82 1.13 0.71 0.14 100
Bos indicus
- 36 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
A Capra/Ovis bones
B T. quadricornis (left two), Felid sp. (third one) and Axis axis bones
C Lepus nigricollis bones (from Late Harappan context)
D
G. bennetti (from Historic), R. rattus and Tragulus
meminna bones (from Late Harappan context) Figure 9 Bones from Kanmer
phase since together these animals formed 15.81% of
the faunal assemblage. Gazella bennetti was present in
the bones. Both sheep and goats were present in the
the collection in form of 5 bones. These include four
assemblage, however the former seems to have been
first phalanges (K30, K46, K47 and K48), a second
less in number. Both pig and cat were represented
phalanx (K78) and a fragment of tibia (K129). These
by only one fragment each. The domestic dog was
phalanges had no marks of human activity. However,
absent in the faunal assemblage belonging to the Late
one of these was trampled. Tetracerus quadricornis
Harappan phase.
was represented by one fragment only, in the form of
The wild animals represented in the Late Harappan
horn core (K76) from Trench HH29 (Layer 3). Five
phase include a large bovid, wild pig, antelopes, deer,
fragments of Antilope cervicapra were identified, for
carnivores and small mammals like hare and rodents
example, first phalange (K570) and a broken fragment
(9.60%). Three antelope species were identified
of tibia (K129), both from trench GG30 (Layer 3).
from the Late Harappan phase - the gazelle (Gazella
There were three deer species at Kanmer during the
bennetti), the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) and
Late Harappan phase: Cervus unicolor, Axis axis and
the four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis).
Tragulus meminna. A Few deer incisors (K64, K65
Together these constituted a small portion (1.69%) of
and K66, etc.) were found in the faunal assemblage. - 37 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
However, these could not be identified up to the
calcanium of Bos indicus, both from trench HH20
species level. Trench R21 (Layer 6) revealed a first
(Layer 4). Pig was the other domestic mammal
phalanx of a medium-sized felid species. Rodents in
identified from this phase and represented by only
the form of house rat and field rat also made their
two bone fragments, one of which was a distal portion
presence in the faunal assemblage. The non-mammals
of a radius that was porous in nature (Trench HH20,
found in the Late Harappan phase include 5 bone
Layer 4).
fragments of birds, which could not be identified up
Four wild mammalian species were identified
to the species level.
in the Mature Harappan phase - the Nilgai, fourhorned antelope, a suidae species and the porcupine.
MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE
However, these are sporadic occurrences. The porcupine is identified by a small fragment of scapula.
The amount of bones recovered from the Mature
The suidae species (Domestic/wild pig) is represented
Harappan phase is small as compared to the other
by a single fragment of upper molar tooth, probably
phases and the number of identified species is also low.
of an aged animal. Such sporadic occurrences of these
The contribution of the domestic mammals is as large
wild animal bone and presence of bird indicate that
as 96.01% whereas the wild mammals contributed
these were occasionally hunted to supplement the
only 2.98%. Only two bone fragments belonging to
meat obtained from domestic animals.
birds were identified from this phase (0.99%). In this
BONE MEASUREMENTS
phase, major share of the skeletal elements comes from the cattle and buffalo (81.09%), followed by sheep and goat (13.93%). Together, these two important
It has been found that the bone measurements are
groups contributed 95.02% of the NISP. Some of
useful for comparing the animal population ( Joglekar
the domestic mammals were completely charred and
2000-01), especially the domestic ones kept at various
also had cut marks, e.g. a distal portion of tibia and
archaeological sites within a cultural ambience or
Table 9 Species identified from the Mature Harappan phase 4
14
NISP
%
Bos indicus
Species/Layer
8
0
8
3.98
Bos/Bubalus
133
20
153
76.1
Bubalus bubalis
2
0
2
1.0
Capra hircus
0
1
1
0.5
Capra/Ovis
23
3
26
12.9
Ovis aries
1
0
1
0.5
Sus domesticus
2
0
2
1.0
Boselaphus tragocamelus
1
0
1
0.5
Tetracerus quadricornis
1
0
1
0.5
General suidae bone
1
0
1
0.5
Hystrix indica
1
0
1
0.5
Small mammal
1
0
1
0.5
General mammal
1
0
1
0.5
Gallus domesticus
1
0
1
0.5
General bird
1
0
1
0.5
177
24
201
100
Total
- 38 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
A-B Second phalanx of Equus caballus (from Break)
C Molar of Equus caballus (from Break)
D Pelvis of an unidentified species (from Late Harappan) Figure 10 Bones from Kanmer
between sites of different cultures. It was possible to
domestic animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat
record measurements in case of a few bones (Tables
may suggest that stock raising and pastoralism was an
10-16). All the measurements were recorded in mm
important component in the subsistence activity of
using a digital calliper with a least count of 0.01 mm.
the community in all the periods. The contribution
It has been possible to estimate the height of the cattle
of other domestic animals such as pig was marginal
at the withers using the medial length of the astragalus
(Figures 7-11).
(Zalkin 1970). A point estimate of the height of
Comparison of the three periods showed that the
cattle found in the Late Harappan phase at Kanmer
type of animals in the different cultural periods
is 116.82 cm. This is well within the range of height
were not random. A more detailed examination
reported earlier, i.e. 110 to 117 cm ( Joglekar 2007).
revealed that proportion of wild mammals used in the Late Harappan phase was more than any
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
other cultural phase, clearly indicating an increase on the dependence on the wild mammals. The low
The analysis of the faunal material at Kanmer showed
proportion of the wild mammals indicates that these
that the domestic animals were the most important
were probably used only to supplement the domestic
resource to the animal-based subsistence throughout
mammalian food resource.
the occupational history. The higher percentage of
Since this report is based on the faunal material - 39 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Table 10 Measurements of isolated molars and premolars (in mm) Reg. No. Trench K102 K99 K80 K86 K106 K40 K117 K54 K104 K27 K26 K116 K141 K142 K103 K32 K133 K41 K39
Layer
GG30 S21 S21 GG30 GG30 S21 S21 GG30 GG30 HH20 HH20 S21 GG30 GG30 GG30 HH29 GG30 S21 S21
1 3 5 1 1 3 3 3 1 4 4 3 3 3 1 3 4 3 3
Tooth Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Maxillary Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular Mandibular
Culture
Length
HS HS BK HS HS HS HS LH HS MA MA HS LH LH HS LH LH HS HS
28.1 30.25 17.27 20.2 26.6 31.08 22.85 30.99 16.25 19.25 16.6 22.85 16.69 16.66 40.8 20.07 40.65 8.9 32.58
First molar First molar Second molar Second molar Second molar Second molar Second molar Second molar Second premolar Second premolar Fourth premolar First molar Second molar Second molar Third molar Third molar Third molar Second premolar Second premolar
Width 19.19 16.67 10.5 20.1 20.07 15.97 14.04 25.7 12 13.57 19.48 14.04 7.8 8.4 17.7 7.57 14.9 3.92 9.15
Height of the crown 28.1 --18.05 37.2 14.32 28.51 17.07 35 11.4 14.32 --18.4 38.23 8.24 11.48
Species Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Capra/Ovis Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus Bos/Bubalus A. cervicapra Bos/Bubalus C. familliaris Bos/Bubalus
Table 11 Measurements of isolated incisors (in mm) Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Culture
Length
Width
K71 K56 K57 K58 K64 K65 K66 K42
GG29 GG30 GG30 GG30 GG30 GG30 GG30 S21
3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3
LH LH LH LH LH LH LH HS
6.94 3.14 3.72
3.51 3.2 3.19
6.36 5.05 4.55 13.97
2.41 2.47 3.29 4.4
Height of the crown 12.76 12.59 12.93 12.67 14.18 8.84 8.68 24.6
Species Deer Deer Deer Deer Deer Deer Deer Bos/Bubalus
Table 12 Measurements of a maxilla of Bos indicus found in the Historical phase(in mm) Reg. No. Trench Layer Measurement First molar Second molar Third molar
K37 S21 3 Width 19.14 21.83 23.45
Length 20.21 22.81 28.90
- 40 -
Height 10.78 16.72 20.73
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
Table 13 Measurements of the long bones (in mm) Reg. No. 61 36 35 112 129 105
Trench GG30 S21 S21 S21 GG30 S21
Layer 3 3 3 51 3 6
Bones Ulna Femur Humerus Tibia Tibia Tibia
Culture LH HS HS HS LH LH
Bd --82.4 54.9 21.2 50.2
Bp -19.7 -----
SD 9.25 ------
Species Lepus nigricolis Lepus nigricolis Bubalus bubalis Bubalus bubalis Gazella benneti Bos indicus
Table 14 Measurements of the astragalii (in mm) Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Culture
Bd
GLl
GLm
Dl
Dm
64.5
--
37.32
--
30.15
28.73
17.31
17.55
Species
K111
S21
51
HS
39.75
K113
S21
51
HS
18.4
K53
GG30
3
LH
12.41
24.71
22.76
13.29
12.62
Gazella bennetti
K28
HH29
3
LH
--
66.45
--
34.60
32.53
Bos indicus
K29
HH29
3
LH
--
--
--
37.15
--
Bos indicus
K70
GG30
4
LH
44.02
66.08
61.81
36.42
37.60
Bos indicus
K18
HH20
4
MA
16.43
25.03
24.91
14.30
14.15
T. quadricorniss
Bubalus bubalis Axis axis
Table 15 Measurements of the first phalanges (in mm) Reg. No. Trench
Layer
Culture
Bd
Bp
Tp
GL
K89
HH29
1
HS
17.62
--
--
--
Species
K109
HH29
1
HS
28.28
27.95
--
58.10
Bubalus bubalis
K46
S21
3
HS
7.82
--
--
33.02
Gazella bennetti
K47
S21
3
HS
7.98
--
--
--
Gazella bennetti
Bos indicus
K92
S21
3
HS
7.22
9.25
12.65
32.77
Gazella bennetti
K93
S21
3
HS
7.85
9.21
12.80
33.46
Gazella bennetti
K94
S21
3
HS
7.25
9.10
12.42
33.58
Gazella bennetti
K95
S21
3
HS
7.25
9.14
12.34
33.05
Gazella bennetti Sheep/goat
K81
S21
5
BK
9.10
9.16
10.40
25.91
K50
GG30
3
LH
7.78
--
--
--
K51
GG30
3
LH
8.40
9.61
14.62
38.38
K55
GG30
3
LH
--
22.50
--
--
Bos indicus
K77
HH29
3
LH
24.77
24.86
31.30
58.40
Bos indicus
K78
HH29
3
LH
--
--
--
32.77
Gazella bennetti
K122
R21
6
LH
35.02
33.60
36.62
70.20
Bubalus bubalis
K123
R21
6
LH
10.30
11.25
10.70
28.90
Felid sp.
K19
HH20
4
MA
23.80
24.67
32.34
54.60
Bos indicus
K126
Y30
14
MA
10.08
12.62
15.96
46.40
Capra hircus
- 41 -
Gazella bennetti Antilope cervicapra
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Table 16 Measurements of the second phalanges (in mm) Reg. No. K48 K110 K140 K79 K145 K20 K21
Trench S21 S21 GG29 HH29 GG30 HH20 HH20
Layer 3 51 3 3 4 4 4
Culture HS HS LH LH LH MA MA
Bd 6.45 33.30 6.50 9.29 6.06 24.63 14.40
Bp 8.65 39.70 7.72 12.87 7.62 29.50 19.10
Tp 11.18 25.90 -12.70 ----
GL 19.38 25.27 20.25 25.82 16.75 39.41 29.38
Species Gazella bennetti Equus caballus Tragulus meminna Axis axis Sheep/goat Bubalus bubalis Bos indicus
Table 17 Relative proportion (%) of different animal groups Periods Domestic mammals Wild mammals Non-mammals
The Historical phase Break 95.62 94.10 3.78 5.50 0.60 0.40
The Late Harappan phase 89.70 9.90 0.40
The Mature Harappan phase 96.10 2.91 0.99
A Bone tools
B Bone objects
C Bubalus bubalis bones (from Historical context)
D Antilope cervicapra bones
Figure 11 Bones from Kanmer
- 42 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer
recovered during the second year of excavation,
Joglekar, P.P., P.K. Thomas, Y. Matsushima and Seema
the purpose is to document and get a quick idea
J. Pawankar (1994) Osteolog ical Differences
of the faunal composition rather than to draw
between the Forelimb bones of Ox (Bos indicus),
firm conclusions. Therefore, the results need to be
Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). Journal of Bombay Veterinary College 5
considered preliminary observations like the previous
(1-2): 17-20.
year’s report. In general, it was found that the faunal
Joglekar, P.P. (2006) Preliminary Report of the Faunal Remains
recovery and composition was more or less the same
from Kanmer, Gujarat. Paper presented during the
as has been suggested earlier ( Joglekar 2006, 2007).
First Conference of the Society of South Asian Archaeolog y held at Mumbai (16-18 December
Acknowledgements
2006).
The authors are grateful to the directors of Kanmer
Joglekar, P.P. (2007) “Report of the Faunal Remains recovered
excavation Dr. Jeewan Kharakwal, Dr. Y.S. Rawat and
from Kanmer, Gujarat, during the First Field Season
Prof. T. Osada who allowed us to examine the valuable
(2005-06)”. in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2:
faunal material unearthed from the site. The authors
Lingusitic, Archaeology and the Human Past. Research
also thank the entire team of Kanmer Archaeological
Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp.47-76. Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada. (2005)
Research Project for their kind support on the field.
“Harappan Sites in Kachchh and New Opportunities of Tourism”, in Heritage Tourism. Government of Gujarat. pp. 35-43. Kratochvil, Z. (1969) Species Criteria of the Distal Section of
References
the Tibia in Ovis ammon f. aries L. and Capra aegagrus
Clason, A .T. (1972) Some Remarks on the Use and
f. hircus L. Acta Veternaria (Brno) 38: 483-490.
Presentation of Archaeozoological Data. Helinium
Mig uad, P. (1989) Discriminating Characters on the
12(2): 139-153.
Acropodium of Domestic and Wild Pig . Acta
Driesch von den, A. (1976) A Guide to the Measurement of
Veternaria (Brno) 42: 109-133.
Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Harvard
Prummel, W. and H.J. Frisch (1986) A Guide for the
University Press, Cambvridge.
Distinction of Species, Sex and Body Side in Bones of
Goyal, Pankaj and P.P. Joglekar (2007) A Few Observations
Sheep and Goat. Journal of Archaeological Science 13:
on the Faunal Remains from Kanmer, Gujarat. Paper
567-577.
presented at the Annual Conference of the ISPQS
Schmid, E. (1972) Atlas of Animal Bones. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
held at Raipur (1-4 December 2007). Gupta, S.K., D.N. Sharma and R .L. Bhardwaj (1987) Comparative Anatomy of the Hard Palate of Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Ox (Bos indicus). Haryana Veterinarian 26: 22-26. Gupta, S.K., D.N. Sharma and R .L. Bhardwaj (1990) Comparative Anatomy of the Bony Palate of Ox, Buffalo and Yak. Indian Journal of Animal Science 60(4): 436-438. Higham, C.F.W. (1975) The Faunal Remains from the 1996 and 1998 Excavations at Non Nok Tha, Northeastern Thialand. University of Otago, Otago. Hillson, S. (1992) Mammal Bones and Teeth. Institute of Archaeology, London.
- 43 -
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
- 44 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project H. Teramura Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Y. Kondo University of Tokyo, T. Uno International Research Center for Japanese Studies, A. Kanto University of Toyama, T. Kishida Doshisha University, H. Sakai University of Toyama
ABSTRACT The archaeolog y-GIS team of the Indus Project has been pursuing digital documentation, management and analysis of archaeological data pertaining the Indus Civilization at different analytical scales, ranging from the macro (supra-regional and regional) levels to the micro (site, built remains and artifacts) levels, with the aid of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This paper presents results of our studies from 2005 to 2008, including: (1) development of the geo-database and chronological mapping of the Harappan-related sites in Pakistan and northwest India, (2) GPS-aided profiling of the Harappan sites in the regions of Haryana and Rajasthan in India, (3) topographic survey of the Harappan sites at Farmana (Haryana) and Kanmer (Gujarat) by means of GPS and Total Station, (4) digital photogrammetry of the architectural remains, (5) GPR survey, and also (6) technical discussion on the quantitative artifact analysis at Kanmer. These multi-scalar spatial analyses, using new standard analytical tools for archaeological research, have successfully revealed both supra-regional dynamism of the civilization and intra-site structure of a citadel.
INTRODUCTION
political leaders, suggested by the absence of royal palaces and tombs. There are also very few traces
The Indus Civilization, also known as the Harappan
indicating the development of weapons in this
Civilization, is one of the early civilizations in the
civilization. Nevertheless it prospered with sustainable
world, that flourished during the third millennium
agriculture and animal husbandry in the Greater
BCE in the vast and diverse geographical areas
Indus Plain through which the Indus and Ghaggar-
covering the present day Pakistan and the northwest
Hakra rivers used to flow, as well as active interactions
part of India. The Indus Civilization is mainly divided
with the Iranian, Gulf and Mesopotamian civilizations
into three chronological phases: Early, Mature and
in the west, BMAC (Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Late Harappan periods.
Complex) in Afghanistan and the adjacent regions to
The civilization is characterized by well-planned
the north, the Neolithic communities in the Kashmir
quadrate urban centers in various size, well-designed
Valley in the north, Ganga Valley in the east and those
pottery, ornaments of precious stone, shell, faiance
in South India in the south.
and metal produced out of the highly sophisticated
However, many aspects of the Indus Civilization
technology, and copper/stone seals with short scripts
still remain to be clarified due to an inadequate
and human/animal representations (Wheeler 1968;
numb er of mu ltid iscipl inar y archae olo g ica l
Kenoyer 1998; Possehl 1999; Agrawal and Kharakwal
excavations and lack of methodological application
2003; Osada 2005).
of scientific approaches to the Indus studies. Firstly,
On the other hand, archaeological studies have
for instance, the formation process of the Harappan
revealed that there is no evidence of the powerful
subsistence economy should be understood in more - 45 -
H. Teramura et al.
detail because its fauna and flora consisted of not
been assembling a large database of the Harappan
only domestic animals (sheep and goat) and plants
settlements that are scattered and published at times
(wheat, barley and peas) originated in southwest Asia
in obscure publications, to analyze their distribution
but also those from other regions (rice, millets, zebu
as well as conducting digital topographic survey of
and horse). Secondly, the rise and fall of the Indus
the selected sites and photogrammetry of the built
Civilization, that has long been debated and often
remains in the field campaign.
explained as a result of either environmental change
This paper reports the results of this approach -
or immigration, should scientifically be examined.
archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project. The main
C o n s i d er i n g th i s s i t ua ti o n , th e Pr o j e c t
objective of the research is to digitally document
“Environmental Change and the Indus Civilization”
archaeological remains as accurately as possible. This
(the Indus Project) has been undertaken by Prof.
will enable us to manage archaeological finds from
Toshiki Osada, at the Research Institute of Humanity
different sites in a unified format to compare at the
and Nature, Kyoto, in order to understand the
same scale and with the same criteria. The authors also
formation, development and decline of the Indus
intend this study for a basic model of archaeological
Civilization and the impact of the environmental
investigation in the Digital Era. Through this project,
changes on this civilization, using interdisciplinary
we would like to publish the archaeological data
approach. A number of researchers from different
that are relevant to comparative studies with an
academic backgrounds - archaeolog y, geolog y,
interdisciplinary approach.
linguistics and anthropolog y for example - are
(T. Uno)
working in collaboration, belonging to one of the four
1 PROCESS OF RESEARCH
research groups: material culture, paleoenvironment, inherited culture and subsistence system. Integrating and publishing results provided by
GIS-aided archaeology was put into practice since
different research groups as a coherent achievement is
the planning phase of the Indus Project, and in this
a big issue of such a multidisciplinary project. In order
section an overview of our process of GIS-based
to accomplish this task, the authors, archaeology-GIS
research is presented (Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1).
team of the material culture research group, have been
To begin with, Hirofumi Teramura prepared a
employing GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) covering Pakistan
as a common platform to share, manage and analyze
and the northwest part of India and a database
all the study resources in an integrated fashion, by
incorporating more than 2,000 Harappan-related
attaching temporal-spatial information.
sites (from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age; see
In view of the above-mentioned objectives of the
also section 3.1 in this article), that are clearly dated
Indus Project, the GIS team has been developing
and have georeferences, in between April 2005 and
GIS-based methodological frameworks for general
March 2006 as a pilot study. Based on these data and
survey and excavation of the Harappan sites. In our
by means of the analytical modules installed in the
scheme, all the data acquired in the field are tagged
GIS software packages (IDRISI and ArcGIS), a series
with the geodetic coordinate (latitude and longitude
of time-sliced distribution maps of the archaeological
or UTM coordinate based on WGS84; World
sites were created and also a number of spatial analyses,
Geodetic System 1984) determined by high-precision
such as site distribution density evaluation, run-
GPS (Global Positioning System), Total Station or
off reconstruction and sea level change simulation,
photogrammetric instruments. The authors have also
were carried out. The results of these analyses were - 46 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Table 1.1 Process of the research Project
April 2005 to March 2008
Geodatabase building and GIS-based analyses of the Harappan sites
February 2006
Topographic survey at Kanmer, Gujarat, India
February 2007
Photogrammetric survey at Kanmer
March 2007
Regional survey in Haryana, India
February 2008
Topographic survey at Farmana, Haryana
February 2008
Topographic, photogrammetric and GPR surveys at Kanmer
helpful in assessing the diachronic changes in the
of Haryana and Rajasthan, India. The GPS survey
distribution of the Harappan-related sites and the
was carried out to prepare the profile of the sites and
spatial relationship between the settlements and the
some ground control points were allocated for the
drainages.
future excavations (section 3.2.1 in this paper; see also Shinde et al. 2008).
In February 2006, along with the first season (200506) excavation at the Harappan site of Kanmer, Takao
In February 2008, Hirofumi Teramura, Yasuhisa
Uno conducted a topographic survey of the citadel
Kondo and Takao Uno, in collaboration with Hajime
and its periphery (see section 3.3). The ground surface
Chiba (Tohoku Gakuin University), conducted a pre-
was surveyed on foot, with an antenna pole carried
excavation topographic survey at Farmana, one of the
on the back and connected with a GPS receiver
Harappan sites that was surveyed in Haryana in the
(Trimble Pro XH) as mobile station to determine
previous season. Teramura and Kondo integrated the
the walker’s position once in a second. The GPS data
results of the profiling and the topographic survey
were calibrated by Kengo Miyahara (Kyoto City
into a DEM of the site (section 3.2.2).
Archaeological Research Institute). The calibrated
During this season, the GIS team started the third
data were used for creating a DEM of the citadel and
campaign at Kanmer to conduct a topographic
its periphery (by Teramura). This has been utilized
sur vey using a Total Station with prism-based
as a base map in order to display the data acquired
automatic tracking facility (Trimble S6) in order to
from the excavations as well as used for the analysis of
provide a new DEM. In addition, Uno surveyed the
visibility from the citadel.
topography of a site recently discoveredin the east of
In February 2007, along with the second season
the citadel of Kanmer, using a couple of differential
excavations at Kanmer, Hirofumi Teramura, Yasuhisa
GPS receivers (Topcon GB1000). Furthermore,
Kondo and Takao Uno conducted a photogrammetric
a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey of the
survey of the uncovered architecture. The topography
Kanmer citadel was conducted by Hideo Sakai, Toru
of the stone walls of the citadel was also surveyed with
Kishida and Asuka Kanto (section 3.3.4). Besides,
the aid of differential GPS receivers (Topcon GB500
photogrammetric surveys of the recently exposed
and GB 1000) operated by Kengo Miyahara.
architectural remains were also carried out.
Next month, Takao Uno together with Prof. Vasant
(T. Uno)
Shinde and his colleagues surveyed the Harappan sites in the Ghaggar and Chautang Valleys in the states - 47 -
Figure 1.1 Major archaeological sites mentioned in the text
H. Teramura et al.
- 48 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
2 METHODOLOGY
regional, (2) regional and (3) target site levels. First, the supra-regional level analyses include database
As mentioned in the introductory part, the Indus
building for the Harappan sites and assessment of the
Project aims at understanding the impact of the
site distribution with the analytical tools packaged
paleoenvironment on the Indus Civilization in terms
in the GIS software programs. (Figure 2.1; See also
of human adaptation to the environment through
section 3.1 in this article). The diachronic change
time. The task of the archaeology-GIS team in the
in the distribution and density of settlements are
project is to integrate various types of data obtained
analyzed from the wider view point covering India and
from the excavations in GIS to collect, manage,
Pakistan. Second, at the regional level, the relationship
analyze and publish the information in a unified
between the site location and the environment is
manner.
analyzed by the drainage reconstruction in Haryana
The actual research has been designed and
and the simulation of sea level change and visibility
conducted at three analytical scales: (1) supra-
in Gujarat (sections 3.1.4 and 3.2.1). Third, for
Figure 2.1 Distribution of the Mature Harappan sites
- 49 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 2.2 Archaeology-GIS team working with a GPS receiver (left) and Total Station (right)
Figure 2.3 Scheme of integrated geo-spatial datasets by GIS in the Indus Project
- 50 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
the target sites, the digital topographic survey and
(Table 3.1). Multi-period sites are counted at each
photogrammetry using GPS receiver and Total
stage.
Station are conducted at Farmana and Kanmer
Second, supra-regional and regional DEMs were
in order to scan the topography of the site and its
created from the SRTM-3 (Shuttle Radar Topography
periphery as well as the intra-site structures (Figure
Mission; ca. 90-m-mesh resolution) and SRTM-30
2.2). In addition, the quantitative data of artifacts
(ca. 1-km-mesh) provided by NASA. These raster
are analyzed per spatial unit (locus or architectural
data were imported to IDRISI by the agency of
structure). The final goal of the research program is to
GISmap, free data-management software developed
integrate all the information at these three scales into
by Izumi Niiro. The recorded sites were then plotted
GIS to suggest a new model of archaeological research
on the DEM to conduct runoff, density distribution,
system (Figure 2.3).
viewshed and sea level change analyses by IDRISI. (H. Teramura) 3.1.3 Supra-regional Site Distribution
3 RESULTS
Figure 3.1 shows archaeological sites in the study area plotted on the DEM. The area of distribution covers
3.1 Distribution of the Harappan Sites
the Balochistan Hills in the west, the Upper Ganga
3.1.1 Aims of the Analysis
Valley in the east, and the Saurashtra Peninsula in the
As discussed in the methodological section, the supra-
south.
regional and regional level spatial analyses aim at
In order to examine the diachronic change in the
understanding the diachronic change in the geospatial
site distribution, the site density of each chronological
distribution of the Harappan urban settlements,
stage has been analyzed (Figure 3.2). In the density
paying special attention to the association between
maps, the darker (blue-colored) zone indicates the
the site location and the natural settings such as
higher site density. At Stage 1, a dense cluster of
topography, river course and sea level change. This will
archaeological sites is observed in and around the
contribute to clarify the dynamism of the civilization.
Balochistan Hills. At Stage 2, in addition to this region, the Middle Indus Valley gets densely occupied.
3.1.2 Data Sources and Method of the Analysis
Furthermore, at Stage 3, the distribution expands
The spatial analysis in this section is preceded by
to the east, and another site cluster is observed in
preparing the database of the Harappan-related
the Upper Ganga Valley. Stage 4 is characterized by
settlements and the supra-regional DEM covering the
relatively sparse site distribution and appearance
entire South Asia.
of sites in the Gujarat region in the south. Stage 5
First of all, the fundamental data from Harappan-
shows a dramatic increase of sites, particularly in the
related sites were imported from the earlier version
Saurashtra Peninsula. There are also three high-density
published by Gregory Possehl (Possehl 1999) into
areas - Gujarat, the Middle Indus and the Upper
the geodatabase. The data includes toponym, geodetic
Ganga - as well as a smaller cluster in the Balochistan
location (latitude and longitude), time periods and
Hills. The density distribution of Stage 6 is polarized
superficial measure of the sites. 2,020 Harappan-
into a larger cluster in the Upper Ganga and a smaller
related sites, which are clearly georeferenced and
one in Gujarat. At Stage 7, sites appear only in the
dated, have been selected to our database, out of 2,502
Upper Ganga, and neither in the Middle Indus nor in
sites recorded by Possehl. Following his chronological
the Saurashtra Peninsula nor in the Balochistan Hills.
scheme, time periods are subdivided into seven stages
Figure 3.3 indicates the possible river passages - 51 -
H. Teramura et al.
Table 3.1 Chronological scheme adopted in this chapter (after Possehl 1999)
Stage 1
7000-5000 BC 5000-4300 BC
Beginnings of village farming communities and pastoral camps
Stage 2
4300-3800 BC 3800-3200 BC
Developed village farming communities and pastoral societies
Stage 3
3200-2600 BC
Early Harappan
Stage 4
2600-2500 BC
The Transition of Early and Mature Harappan
Stage 5
2500-1900 BC
Mature Harappan
Stage 6
1900-1000 BC
Post-urban Harappan
Stage 7
1000-600 BC
Early Iron Age
Figure 3.1 DEM and distribution of archaeological settlements of the study area (all stages)
(in ca. 1-km-mesh resolution) in the study area,
and the sites in Gujarat are too remote to be seen from
simulated by the Run-off module of IDRISI. The
each other, there is theoretically no “viewshed barrier”
analysis predicts a river running southeast through the
between these two groups.
currently dried-up riverbed located in the east of the Middle Indus Valley. It is probably corresponding to
3.1.4 Harappan Sites in Gujarat
the ancient Ghaggar-Hakra river, but a more detailed
In the regional scale, archaeological sites in the
analysis with a higher-resolution DEM is strongly
northern part of the Saurashtra Peninsula and the
required for verifying this interpretation.
Rann of Kachchh region are plotted on the DEM
The viewshed analysis helps us to understand
(Figure 3.5). The Rann of Kachchh is a salt marsh
the location of the Harappan “mega-sites”, such as
that is filled with water in the rainy season and almost
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Dholavira, from the
dried-up in the dry season. The elevation of the Rann
aspect of landscape visibility (Figure 3.4). The visible
area is as low as the present sea level, and thus some
areas from Harappa and Mohenjodaro suggest that
parts of the dry land are in the same color as the sea in
these sites are located at a focal point from which the
the SRTM-based DEM. This error is probably caused
Upper (for the former) or the Lower Indus Valley (for
by the low resolution. Nevertheless the analytical map
the latter) can be in sight. Although Mohenjodaro
is meaningful because it clearly indicates that higher - 52 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.2 Diachronic change of the site density distribution
Figure 3.3 Run-off simulation of the Indus Valley
Figure 3.4 Visible areas from the three major Harappan sites.
places were more likely to be occupied in order to
navigation routes. In fact, the incipient phase of the
avoid floodwaters in the rainy season.
Indus Civilization corresponds to the hypsithermal
Figure 3.6 shows visible areas from Dholavira
period with marine transgression, and its collapse
and Kanmer. The former stretches from the south
occurred in the cooler interval with marine regression.
to southwest, while the latter covers the closed-off
These observations suggest that the closure of the
section of the bay from the east to southeast. These
seaway, due to sea level depression, might result in the
two sites are invisible for each other. However, it
declination of the Harappan sites in Gujarat and other
is noted that these two sites are located at the best
parts of the Greater Indus region.
place for overlooking the outlet of the bay (to the
In order to verify this hypothesis, transformation of
west) and the inner bay (to the east) to monitor
the seaway is simulated by different sea levels (Figures
the marine traffic. This suggests the significance of
3.7 and 3.8). A 1-m-rise of the sea level would open - 53 -
H. Teramura et al.
the seaway between the outer ocean and the closed-
sites around Harappa may result from the constant
off section of the bay (Figure 3.7). Furthermore, at a
availability of abundant water in the Ravi River. It
3-m-rise, seagoing crafts could reach the innermost bay
still remains to elucidate other humanistic aspects
of the Saurashtra peninsula where the Harappan sites
such as inception of bund protection technology that
were clustered (Figure 3.8). Direct access to the inner
flourished in the Mature Harappan period.
bay by ship would become possible at a 1.5-m-rise, whereas the strait would be closed at 1 m ASL (above
Stage 3: Corresponding to the increase of sites in
sea level) and below, which would augment isolation
the Indus Plain, there also appeared a number of
of the inland sites. In our view, the closure of the
settlements in the littoral zone of northwest India, as
seaway due to marine regression should be one of the
well as in the Upper Ganga Valley. By this stage many
key factors of the collapse of the Indus Civilization.
of the typical Harappan traits seems to have emerged
However, in near future, a more in-depth analysis
such as fortified citadels and extensive distribution of
based on a higher-precision DEM, information of the
semiprecious stone, shell and metal (gold and silver)
current sea level in Gujarat and the regional data of
ornaments. Therefore, it is conceivable that both
Harappan settlements is hoped to contribute in better
settlement distribution and socio-cultural aspects
understanding or revision of this view.
of the Mature Harappan were developed during this period.
3.1.5 Transformation of the Settlement Location The above-mentioned spatial analyses of the
Stage 4: A sharp decline of settlements is observed in
distribution of the Harappan urban sites and local
this stage. This phenomenon can be interpreted as
settlements have revealed the following features
significant social change preceding the formation of
concerning the diachronic change in the site location.
the Indus Civilization. However, we should also note the relatively short time span of this stage, evidenced
Stage 1: There is a dense cluster of setttlements in
by the fact that some of the pottery dated to the final
the Balochistan Hills in the west of the Indus Plain.
phase of the Early Harappan have been found together
Given that the Indus Civilization traces its roots in
with those dated to the incipient phase of the Mature
the eastern frontier of the Iranian Neolithic cultures
Harappan period (Agrawal and Kharakwal 2003).
(Agrawal and Kharakwal 2003), this stage would reflect the early appearance of the food producing
Stage 5: This stage corresponds to the Mature
Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities in the border
Harappan. There are t wo centers in the site
lands of the Balochi foothills and adjoining plains.
distribution: the Upper Indus Valley where Harappa (a type-site of the civilization) is located and the Gujarat
Stage 2: This stage is characterized by the foray
region. Another center is observed in the Upper
into the Indus Plain. It is assumed that the living
Ganga Valley although it is smaller than the former
environment in the Indus Plain was improved by
two. The site density in the Lower Indus and the hilly
the significant increase in precipitation and average
flanks in its west, where Mohenjodaro (another type-
temperature during the Middle Holocene (Singh et
site) is located, is relatively lower than that in the
al. 1973; Agrawal and Sood 1982; Bryson 1988).
Upper Indus and Gujarat regions. The appearance of
The increase of rainfall in both summer and winter
settlements in dense cluster in Gujarat as in the Upper
could benefit the stable agricultural production.
Indus suggests that the trade activities connecting
For instance, the convergence of archaeological
these regions to West Asia via Oman Peninsula - 54 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.5 Archaeological sites in the Rann of Kuchchh region
Figure 3.6 Visible areas from Dholavira and Kanmer
- 55 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.7 Sea level simulation: + 1 m ASL
Figure 3.8 Sea level simulation: + 3 m ASL
provided great prosperity for the Mature Harappan
by the Aryan invasion. With regard to this issue, the
community.
spatial analysis of the settlement distribution suggests that the decay of the Gujarat sites, perhaps resulting
Stage 6: It is in this stage that the decline of the Indus
from the diminishing of port facilities associated with
Civilization began. There are a number of hypotheses
the sea level regression as well as the colder and drier
about the causes of this decline; but here the site
climate, might directly affect that of the entire Indus
distribution map clearly shows a decrease of sites in
Civilization.
the Mohenjodaro area and the simultaneous increase in the Upper Ganga Valley. This indicates a shift
3.1.6 Concluding Remarks
from concentrated residence in cities to dispersed
In this section, the authors have examined the rise
settlements and/or the population movement from
and fall of the Harappan urban settlements by a
the west to the east. In addition, the sites in the Upper
series of GIS-aided spatial analyses that have afforded
Indus Valley including Harappa declined, while many
us to make a variety of important observations. A
sites in Gujarat continued. The social change observed
holistic interpretation of them allows us to conclude
here is probably an outcome of the deteriorating
that the transformation of the early civilization was
environment in the Indus Plain caused by the scarce
significantly associated with the diachronic change of
rainfall as well as cooler and more arid climate, as
the natural environment and that the trade activities
indicated by the increase of millet cultivation and the
played an important role in the development and
appearance of camel, horse and donkey in the faunal
long-term prosperity of the civilization.
assemblage. However, it is also probable that trade
This study has dealt with the currently available
activities might have provided endurance against these
temporal-spatial information on the Harappan sites.
environmental pressures to some extent.
The authors are planning to obtain additional data, to integrate them into GIS, and then to carry out further
Stage 7: This stage is interpreted as the period when
research with multilateral approaches, will highlight
the Indus Civilization falls into relative obscurity. The
the significance of the Indus Civilization in the
settlement cluster seems to move to the Upper Ganga
human history.
Valley. The collapse of the Indus Civilization has long
(H. Teramura and T. Uno)
been explained by the environmental deterioration or - 56 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
3.2
Archaeology with GIS at Farmana in the
Harappan periods. Most of these sites continue until
Ghaggar Basin
the Late Harappan decline of the civilization. As per
3.2.1
the detailed exploration carried out by Dangi, the
Regional Survey in Haryana and Rajasthan,
India
number of sites rather increases in the Late Harappan
Under the Indus Project, an exploration of Harappan
phase (personal communication with Vivek Dangi).
sites in the northwest part of India has been carried
In contrast, it has been said that a dramatic decrease
out along with the excavations at Kanmer, Gujarat.
of the sites had taken place during this phase in
In March 2007, as a first step, a general survey was
Rajasthan. This is supported by the fact that the most
conducted in the states of Haryana and Rajasthan
of the sites located in the present survey belong to
(Figure 3.9) by Prof. Vasant Shinde (Deccan College,
the Early Historic period, while the Late Harappan
Pune), Prof. Manmohan Kumar (M.D. University,
sites are very scarce. This tendency is similar to that
Rohtak) and Vivek Dangi (M.D. University, Rohtak),
observed in the Indus Valley (see also section 3.1 in
in collaboration with Takao Uno, who was responsible
this paper).
for profiling the sites by using a set of high-precision
The background of the asynchronous increase and
GPS receiver (Trimble Pro XH; Figure 3.14; see also
decrease of settlements in Haryana and Rajasthan is a
Shinde et al. 2008 and chapter 4 in this volume).
key issue for the current Harappan studies. Therefore
The survey was processed by surface collection and
our project plans to understand this phenomenon by
site profiling. The latter is a method generally used
collaborative research of archaeology and geology.
for documenting the geometry, size and time period
At least until now, the GIS-aided run-off analysis
of occupation of a site. In this survey, the geospatial
has provided some clues to give an answer to this
position of the representative (usually the highest)
issue. In general, the run-off analysis has clearly
point, the geometry of mound and the coverage of
reconstructed the river course of the Ghaggar and the
artifact scatter were recorded by means of GPS, and
Chautang, a tributary of the former. At a closer look,
then time periods of the occupation was estimated by
however, the reconstruction is relatively indistinct at
the surface collection. The geometries of mound and
their confluence and in the downstream basin (Figure
artifact scatter served for calculating the superficial
3.10). Most of the sites surveyed under this project
measure of the site. The results (Table 3.2) are based
are located along the Chautang River. On the other
on the surface work and therefore these will be revised
hand, the results of the survey in Rajasthan confirm
by more detailed investigations in the future, yet in
that Kalibangan, located near the above-mentioned
our opinion they are useful for the further research.
confluence, is the easternmost Mature Harappan
In the 2007 field season, the sur vey team
site in this region (Figure 3.13). This suggests that
documented 24 sites including 12 sites in Haryana
the Mature Harappan sites were located at the
and the other 12 sites in Rajasthan. From the
downstream basin of those two rivers.
macroscopic viewpoint, all these sites are located in
The geology team of the project is now looking
the plain to the north of the Aravali Hills, but there is
for headwaters of the Chautang in the Himalayas.
a remarkable difference in time period of occupation
However, the results of the run-off analysis predict
between the Haryana region in the east and the
that most water in this river is derived from the
Rajasthan region in the west.
Aravali Hills because it runs west along the northern
The results of the general survey in Haryana indicate
limit of the hills. In contrast, most of the Ghaggar
the first appearance of sites in the Hakra period
water is supposedly derived from snowmelt in the
and a gradual increase during the Early and Mature
Himalayas. Similarly, the headwaters of the Indus and - 57 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.9
Location of the surveyed sites (red dot, overlaid on the DEM as base map)
Figure 3.10 Location of the surveyed sites and the reconstructed river courses (overlaid on the DEM)
- 58 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.11 Location of the surveyed sites: a supra-regional view
Figure 3.12 Location of the surveyed sites: a regional view (relevant to Figure 3.10)
- 59 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.13 The major Harappan sites in the surveyed area
Figure 3.14 Surface survey at Farmana
- 60 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.15 View and profile of Girawad
Figure 3.16 View and profile of Farmana
- 61 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.17 View and profile of Puthi Seman Burial
Figure 3.18 View and profile of Madina I
- 62 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.19 View and profile of Kheri Meham
Figure 3.20 View and profile of Bedwa Burial
- 63 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.21 View and profile of Kharar Alipur
Figure 3.22 View and profile of Mitathal
- 64 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.23 Rakhi Garhi
Figure 3.24 Citadel of Rakhi Garhi
Figure 3.25 Hangsi
Figure 3.26 Bhirrana
Figure 3.27 The Ghaggar River
Figure 3.28 Hanumangarh
Figure 3.29 Panchpeer
Figure 3.30 Karni Mata Mandir
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H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.31 Dulmana
Figure 3.32 Badopal
Figure 3.33 Bhadrakali
Figure 3.34 Kalibangan
Figure 3.35 View and profile of Kalibangan
- 66 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.36 Murda
Figure 3.37 Thedi Nathan
Figure 3.38 Pahalwanon ki Thedi
Figure 3.39 Srinagar
Figure 3.40 Cellya
Figure 3.41 Cellya
its major tributaries are located in this world’s highest
tasks is to examine the correspondence between this
mountains.
depositional event and the rise and fall of the Indus
The intelligible reconstruction of the Chautang
Civilization sites.
Valley can be interpreted as a result of constant water
The general survey in Haryana has also revealed that
flow and floodplain formation. Contrastingly, the
not only Rakhi Garhi, the largest site known in the
obscure river courses at the confluence of the Ghaggar
region, but also Farmana and Mitathal are important
and Chautang and the downstream basin may
because these sites are large and occupied for a long
indicate more rapid deposition of the floodplain than
time period. Based on these observations, Farmana
in the upstream valley. Therefore, one of our future
has been selected for intensive excavations along with - 67 -
H. Teramura et al.
Table 3.2 Archaeological sites surveyed in Haryana and Rajasthan
State
Site Name
Latitude
Longitude
Area
Time Period
Haryana
Bedwa
29°03’46”N
76°18’51”E
1 ha
Late Harappan
Haryana
Puthi Seman
29°04’14”N
76°17’08”E
1 ha
Late Harappan
Haryana
Kheri Meham
28°59’05”N
76°18’29’E
5 ha
Hakra culture, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harappan, Historical, Medieval
Haryana
Madina I
28°56’01”N
76°24’54”E
6 ha
Mature Harappan, Late Harappan, Painted Gray Ware
Haryana
Girawad
28°58’41”N
76°28’48”E
5 ha
Hakra culture, Early Harappan, Late Harappan,
Haryana
Farmana
29°02’23”N
76°18’27”E
18 ha
Hakra culture, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harappan,
Haryana
Mitathal
28°53’31”N
76°10’12”E
15 ha
Pre/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harappan
Haryana
Kharar Alipur
29°08’57”N
75°53’35”E
3 ha
Early Historic
Haryana
Rakhi Garhi
29°17’27”N
76°06’41”E
50 ha?
Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harappan
Haryana
Bhaklana
29°09’21”N
76°13’19”E
PGW, Early Historic, Medieval
Haryana
Hangsi
29°06’16”N
75°57’49”E
Early Historic, Medieval
Haryana
Bhirrana
29°33’16”N
75°32’54”E
Hakra culture, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan
Rajasthan
Hanumangarh
29°36’45”N
74°17’03”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
29°32’04”N
74°11’46”E
Early Historic
29°31’03”N
74°13’39”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Panchpeer Karni Mata Mandir Dulmana
29°30’43”N
74°06’51”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Kalibangan
29°28’26”N
74°07’51”E
Rajasthan
Badopal
29°22’26”N
74°04’06”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Bhadrakali
29°36’03”N
74°23’04”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Munda
29°27’55”N
74°24’04”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Thedi Nathan
29°33’21”N
74°17’38”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Pahalwanon ki Thedi
29°33’59”N
74°16’48”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Srinagar
29°34’18”N
74°15’22”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
Cellya
29°34’08”N
74°15’03”E
Early Historic
Rajasthan
- 68 -
Citadel: 3 ha Early Harappan, Mature Lower Town: Harappan 8 ha
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
digitalized topographic survey.
the range of original values. Therefore, in our view, (T. Uno)
this interpolation method is most applicable to the detailed topographic survey at Farmana.
3.2.2 Topographic Survey at Farmana
The topography of Farmana is so flat that the survey
Preceding the excavations, the authors conducted
yielded a rather homogeneous data point network,
an extensive topographic survey of Farmana and its
in approximately 5 to 10 m interval. 1,421 error-
periphery by the following process (Figure 3.42).
free points were selected for interpolation. In order
First of all, several datum points were placed by
to determine the appropriate resolution of DEM,
means of high-precision GPS receiver with post-
Voronoi polygons were created from these effective
processing calibration (differential positioning ).
data points, and then the outermost polygons are
Second, the central area of the site was surveyed by
omitted because of their inaccurate area values. The
Total Station with prism-reflected automatic tracking
median of the area of 1,288 inner polygons is 22.0588
facility (Topcon GPT-9005A), and data points
m² and its square root is 4.6967 (Figure 3.44). This
of the peripheral area were acquired by a pair of
means that the average resolution of the topographic
GPS receivers (Topcon GB1000) in the Real-Time
survey is relevant to a 4.6967-m-grid DEM, given
Kinematic (RTK) positioning mode (Figure 3.43).
that an average polygon is approximated to a quadrate
All the ground points were positioned in the WGS84-
raster cell. Since it is thought that quadruple or
based format, and compatible for management and
quintuple of the estimated is appropriate for the
analyses with GIS within a few centimeters accuracy.
interpolated surface model, a 1-m-grid DEM was
In practice, the X, Y and Z coordinate of the points
created by the interpolation (Figure 3.45). Note that
were recorded in the UTM (Universal Transverse
the elevation is classified and gradually colored per
Mercator) geocoordinate system compliant to
10 cm in this map. Although there appears to be a
WGS84. The analytical unit is unified to the metric
quadrilateral higher place at the center of the site, it is
system. When DEM was created from the data points,
actually very minute upland, just 20 cm or less higher
different GIS packages and different interpolation
than the surrounding area, artificially constructed as
methods were applied to the same data source for
modern crop fields (personal communication with
comparison, which yielded the following results.
Vasant Shinde).
Firstly, a high-resolution DEM of the central area
Secondly, the data points of the central area was
surveyed by means of Total Station was created
integrated to those of the peripheral area, that were
by ArcGIS, employing the Natural Neig hbor
acquired by GPS (Figure 3.43) and a more extensive
interpolant. This method interpolates data points by
DEM was created by IDRISI and its TIN interpolant
adding target points to which the mean value of the
(Figure 3.46). TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network)
neighboring data points are assigned in proportion
is a network of small continuous triangles made by
to the superficial measure of the Voronoi polygon
the Delaunay triangulation. This algorithm connects
that is created from the original point as a centroid
data points in an irregular distribution by the
(Sibson 1981; Watson 1992; Okabe et al. 1992:
condition to maximize the minimum angle (Zhang
343-351; Hiyoshi 2004). The Natural Neighbor is
2001). As a result, the terraces of modern crop field
particularly effective to interpolate a large number of
are highlighted as observed in the DEM by ArcGIS
data points in an irregular distribution because it is
because the site itself is located on a mildly elevated
able to involve all the raw data into calculation and
land and is intensively leveled off by the modern
estimate the value of target points without exceeding
agricultural activities. In addition, it should be noted - 69 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.42 DEM and Landsat imagery of Farmana and its suburbs
Figure 3.43 Survey area of the GPS and Total Station at Farmana
- 70 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.44 Data points at the central area of Farmana
Figure 3.45 1-m-grid DEM of Farmana (created by ArcGIS)
- 71 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.46 DEM of Farmana and the surrounding area (created by IDRISI)
that some parts of the DEM of the peripheral area
3.3 Archaeology with GIS at Kanmer
are relatively coarse and inaccurate because the TIN
3.3.1 Topographic Survey
model interpolates data points without exceeding
The Harappan site of Kanmer is located in the
the range of raw data, as the Natural Neighbor does,
peninsula between the Great Rann and the Little
and the data points acquired by walking with GPS is
Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat State, India. As seen in
potentially error-prone. Smoothing the surface by GIS
the satellite imagery (Figure 3.47), the site is located
and avoiding the duplication of pedestrian tracks will
close to the edge of the Rann. Topographic survey
improve accuracy of the DEM (see also chapter 4 for
at Kanmer was first conducted in February 2006 by
the further technical discussion).
Uno, by positioning his own walking tracks with a
(H. Teramura and Y. Kondo)
pair of high-precision GPS receivers (Topcon GB500 and Trimble Pro XH). However, the DEM created - 72 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.47 Location of Kanmer and Landsat imagery of the surrounding area
from the data of this season is rather coarse for the
that the outermost polygons are omitted from the
following reasons. First, the walking with GPS was
Voronoi polygons derived from 3,961 effective data
sometimes interrupted by dense bushes and thorny
points, is 4.5565 m². The square root of this value,
plants. Second, Trimble Pro XH is a single frequency
2.3146, is relevant to the approximate effective
GPS and therefore its vertical accuracy ranges from
resolution of the topographic survey. Based on this
a half to one meter. In order to revise the DEM, the
information, the cell size of the DEM was configured
citadel was surveyed again by Total Station (Trimble
to 0.5 m, approximately quadruple of the estimated
S6) in February 2008. The survey team consisted of
resolution, and the Natural Neighbor was selected for
two to four engineers, helped by local workmen. Data
interpolation (Figure 3.48; see also section 3.2.2).
points were arbitrarily placed at approximately 5 m
The DEM indicates that the eastern edge of the
interval on the flat area and 0.5 m interval on the
top of the citadel mound is 1 to 2 m higher than the
slope. In addition, the peripheral areas, including the
western edge and that there are small depressions
artifact scatter discovered on the hill in the east of the
in the southern and western edges. Three “small
citadel, were surveyed by a pair of dual frequency GPS
rises” pointed by the arrows in Figure 3.49 should
receivers (Topcon GB1000).
be mentioned here as a technical problem. These
As in Farmana, a high-resolution DEM of the
are aberrant values, ca. 50 cm higher than the
citadel located at the center of the site was created by
neighboring points, derived from the error occurred
ArcGIS. The mean value of the superficial measure
in the measurement: The antenna in moving might be
of effective polygons, selected by the criterion
measured. This kind of error is easily detectable in flat - 73 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.48 Data points at the citadel and the surrounding area at Kanmer
Figure 3.49 0.5-m-grid DEM of the citadel and the surrounding area at Kanmer (created by ArcGIS)
- 74 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.50 Survey area of the GPS and Total Station at Kanmer
Figure 3.51 DEM of Kanmer (citadel) and the eastern hill (Kanmer East)
areas because it may be represented by a remarkable
it is noted that the “high-precision” DEM created as
outlier, but it is rather difficult to detect such errors
a result of the topographic survey at the citadel may
in the slope. It is also very hard to keep a pin pole
subliminally contain such human errors.
with prism standing still and vertical on the slope,
Figures 3.50 and 3.51 show the IDRISI-based
especially in the middle of thorny bushes. Therefore
DEMs into which the data points of the Kanmer - 75 -
H. Teramura et al.
citadel and its peripheral areas are integrated. As in
based drawings, the Japanese team recorded them by
the case of Farmana, the points are interpolated by
digital photogrammetry. Once the three-dimensional
TIN. The interpolated surface is relatively smooth
geospatial information (X, Y and Z coordinate) is
although there are some missing areas between the
appended to both analog and digital documents, the
citadel and the eastern hill (Kanmer East). Adding
complementary data exchange will become really
several data points on these areas is required for filling
possible.
the gap as one of future tasks. The eastern hill was
In photogrammetry, the first step is to take a
rapidly surveyed on foot with a set of high-precision
series of pictures of the architectural features or a
GPS receivers (a pair of Topcon GB1000) due to
section of the target trench by means of high-end
unforeseen discovery of the artifact scatter. However,
digital single-lens reflex camera (Nikon D80). In the
the slope and geometry of the hill are successfully
case of a wide trench it is photographed in several
captured into the DEM. The mound is a little lower
divisions. Section profile and elevation surface are
than the citadel and elongated from the northwest to
photographed horizontally, while flat architectural
southeast. Although the occupation has not yet been
remains are shot from the plumb -bob vertical
dated, but documentation of Kanmer East and its
position, at appropriate distance. In the first season,
integration into the digital surface of the citadel area
the photographs of the architecture plan were taken
are essential for dating, which is expected to elucidate
from the top of the ladder, but the vertical angle was
the cultural association between these two sites.
usually oblique, which caused many errors when
(H. Teramura and Y. Kondo)
creating an ortho-imagery (see below; Figure 3.52, left). For improvement, in the second season, the
3.3.2 Photogrammetry
photos were taken from the plumb-bob vertical angle
A photogrammetric survey of the exposed archite-
with the camera attached on the distal end of a long
ctural remains was conducted at Kanmer along with
pole and clicked by self-timer (Figure 3.52, right).
the topographic survey. In the excavations, while
Nine or more markers as ground control points
the Indian team documented the immobile remains
should be placed in a grid pattern on the target area
- architecture plans and soil profiles, etc. - as paper-
of photogrammetry (Figure 3.53). The X, Y and Z
Figure 3.52 Taking a picture from the top of a ladder (left) and a pole (right)
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Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.53 Architectural remains on which ground control points are placed
Figure 3.54 Process of the ortho-imagery. Northeast corner of the citadel wall, Kanmer
coordinate of the control points are determined by
of the georefecenced pictures, neighboring each
means of Total Station (Topcon GPT-9005A for the
other, is stereo-matched by means of ortho-imagery
first season and Trimble S6 for the second season) to
application software (Topcon PI3000). This job is
match a stereo pair of pictures on the computer.
repeated to make an ortho-imagery of the complete
Figure 3.54 displays the process of the ortho-
scene. If an elevation drawing of the stone wall is
imagery, exemplified by the elevation surface of
required for excavation reports, it will be possible to
the northeast corner of the citadel wall. A pair
prepare a digital drawing by tracing the break lines in - 77 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.55 Ortho-imagery of the architectural plan of the southeast corner of the citadel, Kanmer
Figure 3.56 Overlaying the photogrammetric images on the contour map of the citadel, Kanmer
- 78 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.57 Reconstruction of the wall line along the north side of the citadel, Kanmer
digital illustration software such as Adobe Illustrator.
wiggle the digital camera attached at the distal tip.
Figure 3.55 is an ortho-imagery of the architectural
(H. Teramura)
remains inside the southeast corner of the citadel wall. The original version of the photograph was taken
3.3.3
Quantitative Spatial Analysis of Artifacts: A
from the ladder. Nevertheless, the spatial relationship
Preliminary Approach
between the outer wall and a block of room inside is
The traditional archaeological excavations have
successfully distinguished.
focused on architectual remains and artifacts, and
The geospatial information of ground control
hence, theoretically, GIS-aided spatial studies of
points photographed with architectural remains
archaeological sites should target both. This paper has
enables us to overlay the ortho-imagery on the DEM
so far dealt with the documentation of the Harappan
in a GIS application. At Kanmer, photogrammetry
sites and the GIS-aided spatial analyses based on
has been carried out for the architectural plan of the
the data acquired though it. However, GIS-based
northeast, northwest and southwest corners, the plan
studies of artifacts should be further developed for
and elevation of the stone walls recovered in a series
an integrated research of an archaeological site as a
of trenches in the northern side, and the plan and
complex of built structures and objects.
section of the deep sounding opened at the center of
In order to put the GIS-aided artifact studies
the citadel. When the ortho-imageries of architecture
into practice, it is necessary to develop a database
and the location of trenches are overlaid on the DEM
according to the purpose of study. The Kanmer
(Figure 3.56), the spatial relationship between the
Archaeological Research Project (KARP), directed
trenches and the overlap/continuity of the citadel wall
by Prof. Jeewan Singh Kharakwal, has continuously
and other structures can be very clearly understood.
been building a suite of artifact database. This section
In fact, the continuous stone wall is reconstructed
presents a preliminary discussion on the GIS-based
by integrating the georeferenced ortho-imageries
artifact analysis based on this database.
of the citadel wall found in the remote trenches. In
When artifacts are analyzed with GIS, the
our view, the photogrammetric surveys at Kanmer is
following four types of information are indispensable:
more fruitful than expected beforehand, although we
(1) unique serial identifier for data management,
have found out some technical issues including ways
(2) qualitative/quantitative attributes of artifacts
and means to keep the pole standing still so as not to
(material, shape, dimension, color, decoration, - 79 -
H. Teramura et al.
making method and technolog y, usage state, and
Using numerical data, a scatter map of the objects
other quantitative data), (3) temporal information
can be created and the distribution pattern can be
(time periods), and (4) geospatial information
analyzed by GIS. However, it is more accurate to
(geocoordinate, depth, layer, etc.). The object database
evaluate the voluminal amount of artifacts than the
should be designed so as to contain all these data in
simple count because of great variation in the size
accordance with the GIS-based approaches targeting
of fragments. In this respect, weight can directly
(a) individual artifact remains, (b) small finds from a
be analyzed as quantitative data. It is also possible
specific lot such as individual built structure or locus,
to estimate the number of object from the average
(c) intra-site distribution pattern or (d) distribution
weight of unbroken specimens. The KARP excavation
pattern in a topographic unit, geopolitical region or
team has recorded the weight of every small find in
supra-region.
addition to the number of fragments, and thus the
The GIS-aided artifact research by the KARP
amount of artifacts can be quantified per typological
primarily focuses on the intra-site spatial analysis (c). It
class, trench or layer.
is not only one of the most important research topics
At pre sent , th e temp ora l inf ormati on is
of the processual and post-processual archaeologies in
incorporated into the pottery database as relative
the second half of the 20th century, but also a research
chronolog y (ware and cultural period). Layer is
field that could greatly be innovated by GIS. It could
also useful for relative chronology to attest pottery
also provide a high-quality dataset for the regional
seriation and typology. In the near future, the AMS
and supra-regional spatial analyses of artifacts (d).
radiocarbon and other scientific dating methods will
There are many types of artifacts recovered from
provide absolute chronology for each layer to quantify
archaeological sites, and their attributes differ from
temporal information. When artifacts terminus ante
one to another. However, in the GIS-aided intra-
quem are included in a layer, their dating will be
site spatial analysis of artifacts, the common dataset
verifiable with the attached quantitative information.
including qualitative/quantitative, temporal and
The geospatial information being attached to
geospatial information should be provided for each
artifacts can accurately be defined by means of
type of artifact in a realistic manner. With regard to
photogrammetric instrument or Total Station in
the qualitative/quantitative information, for instance,
the case of important finds. However, in fact, a great
the pottery database of the KARP contains that of
variety/number of artifacts, including small and
fabric, forming method (handmade or wheel-made),
microscopic remains that can only be detected by
firing state, decoration, typological classification
water flotation or sieving, are unearthed from the
and potsherd counts of rim, body and base (Table
site. Thus it is almost unrealistic to record the three-
3.3). Similarly, the small-finds database records
dimensional location of all these remains one by one.
material and object type as qualitative/quantitative
At Kanmer, the excavation team has set 5-m-grid
information (Table 3.4). The databases of faunal and
trench system and recorded tetrameric portion (or
floral remains in accordance to similar scheme are also
2.5-m-grid cell of the northeast, northwest, southeast
under construction. As described here, the method of
or southwest quadrant) of square trench as well as
documentation should be schematized in each object
layer number and depth [m] from the surface for
category.
defining locus of artifacts. Therefore, it is at least
The quantitative information is essential to the
possible to attach these as the common geospatial
GIS-aided spatial analysis of archaeological objects.
information to all the recovered objects.
The most fundamental data are number of fragments.
After the artifact databases including attributes, - 80 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Table 3.3 Specifications of the KARP potsherd inventory (courtesy of J.S. Kharakwal)
Item
Data Type
Description, Format and Examples
Information Category
Serial No.
Integer
Unique identifier.
Data Management
Trench Lot No.
String
Name of trench and excavation locus.
Spatial/Management
Layer
String
Stratigraphic context: Layer 1, 2a, 2b, 3 … n.
Spatial Data
Depth Ceramic style and Cultural Period Type
Real
Depth from surface, in meter.
Spatial Data
String
Typological and periodical name.
Object Attribute
String
Typological name.
Object Attribute
Weight
Real
Total weight of potsherds, in gram.
Object Attribute
Fabric
Integer
Potsherd count per the fabric sub-types: Fine, Medium Object Attribute or Coarse.
Technology
Integer
Potsherd count per the forming technique sub-types: Fast wheel, Slow wheel or Hand-made.
Object Attribute
Firing
Integer
Potsherd count per the firing status sub-types: Uniform, Ill or Over-fired.
Object Attribute
Decoration
Integer
Potsherd count per the surface decoration sub-types: Incised, Appliqué, Painted and Others.
Object Attribute
Rim
Integer
Body
Integer
Base
Object Attribute
Integer
Potsherd count of each part per the shape classifications: Jar, Pot, Bowl, Basin, Dish, Goblet, Lid, Ring/Stand or Others.
Object Attribute
Retained
Integer
Count of retained potsherds.
Object Attribute
Total
Integer
Total count of potsherds.
Object Attribute
Object Attribute
temporal and geospatial information have become
artifact studies targeting the site, and therefore we will
available, the quantitative spatial distribution pattern
be conducting these studies continuously.
of artifacts will be displayed and analyzed by GIS,
As the final part to this section, the authors would
overlaid on the layers of DEM and architectural plan.
like to put “the digital approach to an individual
Among the artifacts, pottery is composed of various
object” in proper perspective (a). For the moment, it
taxa such as the Harappan or local pottery in typology
is still unrealistic to make it operational for technical
and the storage jar or tableware in usage. Personal
and temporal restrictions. However, in the future,
ornaments are also diverse in both typology (bead,
this kind of detailed data will provide a higher-quality
micro-bead, pendant and bangle for instance) and
solution for other approaches at different analytical
material (copper, carnelian, agate, steatite, faience,
scales (b, c and d).
terracotta and shell). The quantitative spatial pattern
The elemental job of the digital studies of artifacts
(uniform or uneven distribution) of these objects and
is not to describe and document the attributes but to
the spatial correlation between artifact distribution
construct digitalized data. The shape and profile of an
and architecture will provide interesting results.
object can be modeled from the data points with local
Furthermore, the comparative spatial analyses between
X, Y and Z coordinate supplied by three-dimensional
different objects such as stamp seals, stone industry
laser scanner. Data points in 0.1-mm-interval or
tools, faunal and floral remains will contribute to
higher resolution would enable us to digitalize not
understand their economic and symbolic values.
only the complete figure of an artifact but also more
These are fundamental approaches of the GIS-based
detailed information such as forming method, surface - 81 -
H. Teramura et al.
Table 3.4 Specifications of the KARP small-finds database (courtesy of J.S. Kharakwal)
Item
Data Type
Description, Format and Examples
Information Category
Serial No.
Integer
Unique identifier.
Data Management
Date
Date
DD/MM/YYYY
Data Management
Trench
String
Trench name. FF29, GG30, etc.
Spatial Data
Quadrant
String
Quadrant of trench: NE, NW, SW and SE.
Spatial Data
Along
Real
Northing in meter.
Spatial Data
Away
Real
Easting in meter.
Spatial Data
Lot No.
Integer
Unique identifier of excavation locus.
Spatial Data
Depth
Real
Depth from surface, in meter.
Spatial Data
Layer
String
Stratigraphic context: Layer 1, 2a, 2b, 3 … n.
Spatial Data
Object
String
Name of object: blade, bead, bangle, etc.
Object Attribute
Material
String
Stone, steatite, agate, carnelian, copper, etc.
Object Attribute
Remark
String
Additional information about context or object.
Spatial/Object
treatment and use wear. In the case of an in situ object,
studies. Since the positional data also provide the
determination of at least three control points on its
information on the direction and angle of objects
surface based on the geocoordinate system, which
in the deposit, it is also useful to reconstruct the
is also applied to the topographic and architectural
artificial/natural depositional process of the site and
survey, will allow to convert the local coordinate of
artifacts from the viewpoint of geoarchaeology.
the data points of artifact into the geocoordinate used
It is also noteworthy that not a little amount
in the fieldwork. This will enable the GIS-aided spatial
of quantitative information can automatically be
analysis of artifacts in association with the geospatial
acquired from the GIS-oriented database. For
information on their provenance.
example, the total weight of artifact fragments can
When the geometry of an object is overlaid by
be calculated from individual gravity and volume,
the information about color and decoration as
and the total number of individual objects can be
a texture, all the digital information recorded in
estimated from distinctive fragments such as rim
the form of drawing and photograph has been
of pottery or distal tip of lithic tools. In the future,
incorporated into a suit of digital data with geospatial
information for helping reconstruction of fragmented
reference. At present, attaching a digital imagery
artifacts will also be provided by these studies.
calibrated by the standard color chart to the three-
The digital-oriented artifact studies at Kanmer are
dimensional framework of the same object provides
currently conducted as a pilot study, and they have
the highest-precision digital model. It is expected
not yet been suitable for practical operation due to
in the future that data of color and decoration will
much time and labor required for data mining and
be simultaneously acquired by laser scanning of the
processing as well as provisionally gigantic volume
shape.
of digital data. However, in the near future, practical
Ideally, the data of artifacts contained in GIS should
application of the laser scanning technology that is
include all the information required for artifact
able to search and distinguish artifacts in situ from
studies. The qualitative/quantitative information
structural remains will serve for laborsaving. Our
is used for typological studies of artifacts and the
future task at Kanmer is to make the GIS-oriented
geospatial information contributes to stratigraphical
research of artifacts into a fully operational system - 82 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
after taking account of all contentious technical issues.
The data of GPR survey often contain many
(T. Uno and Y. Kondo)
unnecessary signals such as the reflected waves derived from the discontinuity between the antenna and the
3.3.4 GPR Survey
ground surface, noise called as “clutter” and multiple
Kanmer is a citadel site of the Harappan period. The
reflected wave, which result in chaotic patterns in the
excavations at the site have recovered some parts of
GPR profile. These noises should be removed by a
the massive wall with outer and inner stone bracings.
variety of signal processing techniques to extract the
The nondestructive GPR survey was carried out on
signals reflected by the target.
these wall areas in order to predict the position of the
At the data processing, the three-dimensional time
unburied wall and gate structures.
slice analysis (Conyers and Goodman 1997) was also
GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) survey is a
used. The process of time slice analysis is as follows.
method to locate buried structures by physical
The relative amplitudes of the reflected radar waves
response such as reflection, inflection, penetration
recorded for a particular time interval are selected for
and attenuation of electromagnetic (radar) wave
each radar profile collected along parallel lines within
in the ground. GPR unit has a pair of antennae.
the survey area. These data are then averaged across
A transmitting antenna sends radar waves into
the time interval for each profile, and interpolated
the ground, a receiving antenna measures the
between profiles, with the results being printed in a
refractions caused by boundaries between layers
map form. The resulting anomalies visible in the time
with differing dielectric permittivities (soil strata,
slice maps therefore represent the spatial distribution
rocks, cavities, etc.). The two-way travel time (t)
of reflection amplitudes at the specific depth across
of the electromagnetic wave and the amplitude of
the area. The distribution of the relative intensity of
the reflected wave are recorded and placed in the
reflection is shown with a colored representation. This
chronological order, then pseudo underground profile
time slice method is useful in studying the distribution
is created. Electromagnetic discontinuous planes are
of archaeological remains and artifacts. In the GPR
typified by geological one (bedding plane, fault plane
survey, it is possible to monitor the measured data as
and boundary plane between different rocks), cavity
a pseudo-profile of the underground structures in real
and buried object (gas pipe for instance). When these
time. In addition, this method makes possible a rapid
discontinuous planes are bidimensional, the reflected
survey in high resolution. Because of these merits,
figure will appear as a line in the GPR profile.
GPR is used for various purposes in the field such as
In GPR survey, the limit of exploring depth
environmental and archaeological studies.
depends on frequency of the antenna. In general,
The GPR survey was carried out at Kanmer on 23
the frequenc y in use ranges from 10 MHz to
- 26 February 2008 (for 4 days in total). We used
several GHz, corresponding to the high frequency
Noggin plus 250 and the SmartCart system with 250
(HF) to ultrahigh frequency wave (UHF) bands.
MHz center frequency antennae supplied by Sensors
Electromagnetic wave of lower frequency tends
& Software Inc. (Canada).
to penetrate in more depth, while that of higher
Figure 3.58 shows the survey areas, namely Grids
frequency goes less. The resolution of the resultant
1 to 9, located in the upper periphery of the citadel.
data in lower frequency is coarser than that in higher
The survey lines were laid out in every 0.5 m in Grids
frequency. Therefore, it is necessary to select an
1, 2, 3 and 7 and every 1 m in Grids 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9.
appropriate frequency (or antenna) in accordance
In total, 468 traverse lines were surveyed. Figure 3.59
with the depth and size of the object for survey.
is a snapshot of the survey. It was rather hard to push - 83 -
H. Teramura et al.
the survey cart because most of the areas were part
wide inside the outer wall. In Figure 3.65, a time slice
of steep slope and numerous obstructing stones were
map for the depth of 100 to 125 cm is shown. The
scattered on the ground surface. Thus on the upslope,
anomalies identified in the western end of this grid can
the cart was dragged up with the rope fastened to
be interpreted as a trace of the outer wall stretching
its front. The results of survey are described in the
straightforward from the north to the south. The
following.
anomaly detected in the position between 12 and 20
Grid 1: Figure 3.60 shows the representative GPR
m (Figure 3.64) is running in parallel to the outer wall
profile acquired on a traverse (Line 90). Anomalies
and clearly ends up at the point just a little east of the
were identified from the distance of 17 to 20 m (from
central area of the grid. At the northern side of that
the start point of the traverse line), with the depth
point, there are other anomalies in a circular shape.
to 1 m. The anomalies were concentrated in the
It is assumed to be an effect of topography because
northwest corner of the grid. Apart from these, there
this area corresponds to a large pocket in the ground
is no remarkable anomaly in the grid. The inner wall
surface.
had been predicted by the previous excavations in this
Grid 4: Figure 3.66 shows the representative
area, but it was not detected by the GPR survey. The
GPR profile acquired on Line 30. There is a zone of
inner wall would be buried over 1.5 m deep. Figure
relatively strong anomalies in the distance from 5 to
3.61 is a time slice map for the depth of 105 to 120
7 m and in the depth of 0.5 to 1.7 m. This anomaly is
cm in depth from the ground surface. It is thought
probably a continuous trace of the outer wall observed
that the anomalies in the northwest corner of the grid,
in Grid 3. Figure 3.67 shows a time slice map for the
as appeared in Figure 3.60, spread out of the grid.
depth of 100 to 125 cm. This map clearly indicates the
Although we do not know the reason of anomalies,
outer wall running straightforward from the north
it suggests a possibility of the presence of some
to the south. However, the wall is discontinuous at
architectural remains.
the point just a little north of the central area of this
Grid 2: Figure 3.62 shows the representative GPR
grid (indicated by a red arrow in Figure 3.67). The
profile acquired on Line 48. In this grid, there is no
discontinuous region is 5 m wide, and it is possibly
anomaly that could clearly be identified as mural
one of the gates of the citadel.
remains. The inner wall was recovered in the trench
Grid 5: The representative GPR profile on Line 20
located in the northeast part of the grid, but the GPR
is shown in Figure 3.68. Anomalies were observed in
survey could not detect any traces of it. It is thought
the distance from 14 to 16 m and the depth of 0 to
that the inner wall is buried too deep to be detected
1.5 m. These anomalies would indicate the outer wall
by the GPR survey. Figure 3.63 shows a time slice map
of the southern side of the citadel. The time slice map
of Grid 2, for the depth of 105 to 120 cm, where some
for the depth of 100 to 125 cm (Figure 3.69) clearly
anomalies were identified. However, those do not
identifies a trace of the outer wall that stretches in the
appear to correspond to any built structures.
western side of the citadel from the north to the south.
Grid 3: Figure 3.64 shows the representative GPR
It appears to turn to the east at the southwest corner of
profile for Line 0. Strong anomalies were detected
the grid. This may correspond to the southwest corner
from the distance of 12 to 20 m and 22 to 24 m,
of the outer wall. The outer wall is then running
with the depth of 0.5 to 1.7 m. The anomaly in the
straightforward to the northeast, continuing further
position between 22 and 24 m probably indicates the
ahead outside of the grid. There is no discontinuity in
outer wall of the citadel. Another structure, possibly
the outer wall-line that would suggest a citadel gate. In
a large building, is predicted by the anomaly in 8 m
addition, the linear anomalies running in the eastern - 84 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.58 Areas of the GPR survey
Figure 3.59 Snapshot of the GPR survey
Figure 3.60 Representative GPR profile in Grid 1 (Line 90)
Figure 3.61 Time slice map of Grid 1 (Depth of analysis: 21 - 24 ns, ca. 105 - 120 cm)
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H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.62 Representative GPR profile in Grid 2 (Line 48)
Figure 3.63 Time slice map of Grid 2 (Depth of analysis: 21 - 24 ns, ca. 105 - 120 cm)
Figure 3.64 Representative GPR profile in Grid 3 (Line 0)
Figure 3.65 Time slice map of Grid 3 (Depth of analysis: 20 - 25 ns, ca. 100 - 125 cm)
Figure 3.66 Representative GPR profile in Grid 4 (Line 30)
Figure 3.67 Time slice map of Grid 4 (Depth of analysis: 20 - 25 ns, ca. 100 - 125 cm) - 86 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
part of the grid from the northwest to the southeast
The anomalies are correspondent with the outer wall
are an influence of surface water from the higher zone
in the eastern side of the citadel. Figure 3.77 shows
of the citadel and thus it does not reflect the actual
a time slice map for the depth of 100 to 125 m. It is
situation of the underground.
rather difficult to presume the direction of the wall
Grid 6: The representative GPR profile on Line 10
because of the narrow grid (5 m from the north to the
shows anomalies in the distance of 14 to 16 m and
south by 8 m from the east to the west).
the depth of 0 to 1.5 m (Figure 3.70). The similar
The time slice maps of all the grids are integrated
anomalies are also detected on another traverse
with the topographical map of the citadel (Figure
located at 1 m south of Line 10. Figure 3.71 shows a
3.78). In the integrated map, the outer wall is
time slice map for the depth of 100 to 125 cm. The
indicated by red line (the dashed parts are predictions
anomalies detected on Line 10 appears to extend
based on the results of the GPR survey). This map
to the east of Grid 6, but the limit and size are
reveals that the outer wall of the eastern side orients
blurred. There is no anomaly that indicates any other
26.5° from the north axis to the west, whereas that
architectural remains.
of the southern side orients 57.6° from the north
Grid 7: Figure 3.72 is the representative GPR profile
axis to the east. This means that the eastern wall
on Line 15 that indicates no remarkable anomaly. The
bisects the southern one at a little bit acute angle. The
time slice map for the depth of 50 to 75 cm (Figure
topological map also indicates that the citadel is not a
3.73) shows a cluster of relatively weak reflections.
square but a quadrangle with the longer diagonal line
This grid was set in the neighborhood of the trench
running from the north to the south. Therefore, it is
from which the architectural remains were recovered
assumed that the plan of the citadel wall will look like
beneath the ground surface (1 m or less in depth).
a parallerogram.
However, the GPR survey could not identify any
In summary, the GPR survey at Kanmer targeting
traces of them because it was very difficult to detect
the mural remains surrounding the citadel has
the wall as it was dilapidated and many collapsed
revealed traces of the western wall, the western half of
stones were scattered on the surface.
the southern wall, the southwest corner and part of
Grid 8: The representative GPR profile on Line 10
the eastern wall. It has also suggested that the outer
shows strong anomalies in the distance of 0 to 4 m and
wall turns off at acute angle rather than right angle
the depth of 1 to 1.7 m (Figure 3.74). The anomalies
at the southwest corner. Furthermore, there are a
are associated with the outer wall in the western side
few areas with strong anomalies in the western side
of the citadel. The width of the strong anomalies is
of the citadel (Grids 3 and 4), which are assumed as
more than 4 m. This may be a reflection of collapse
structural remains. With regard to the gate, one of the
and scatter of stones of the wall. The time slice map
main concerns of this research, a discontinuity of the
for the depth of 75 to 100 cm (Figure 3.75) indicates
outer wall is observed in Grid 4, and thus the authors
a trace of the outer wall running from the northwest
predict an entrance complex there.
to southeast. The northwest corner of the outer wall
All of the mural remains detected by this study
was recovered in the previous season, and therefore,
belong to the outer wall. The excavations at the site
the outer wall detected in this grid was probably
had revealed that there was also an inner wall inside
connected to that.
the outer wall, but it was difficult to be identified by
Grid 9: Figure 3.76 is the representative GPR
the GPR survey because it was buried too deep to be
profile on Line 3, which indicates anomalies in the
detected by the frequency of antennae used in this
distance of 2 to 5 m and the depth of 0.7 to 1.5 m.
season as a preliminary research. The authors plan - 87 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 3.68 Representative GPR profile in Grid 5 (Line 20)
Figure 3.69 Time slice map of Grid 5 (Depth of analysis: 20 - 25 ns, ca. 100 - 125 cm)
Figure 3.70 Representative GPR profile in Grid 6 (Line 10)
Figure 3.71 Time slice map of Grid 6 (Depth of analysis: 20 - 25 ns, ca. 100 - 125 cm)
Figure 3.72 Representative GPR profile in Grid 7 (Line 15)
Figure 3.73 Time slice map of Grid 7 (Depth of analysis: 10 - 15 ns, ca. 50 - 75 cm) - 88 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 3.74 Representative GPR profile in Grid 8 (Line 10)
Figure 3.75 Time slice map of Grid 8 (Depth of analysis: 10 - 15 ns, ca. 50 - 75 cm)
Figure 3.76 Representative GPR profile in Grid 9 (Line 3)
Figure 3.77 Time slice map of Grid 9 (Depth of analysis: 20 - 25 ns, ca. 100 - 125 cm)
Figure 3.78 Location of the outer wall predicted by the results of the GPR survey
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H. Teramura et al.
to employ other antennae to explore deeper as well
the surface of the DEM derived from the GPS data
as other exploring methods in order to advance the
points is rather coarse with many erratic triangles. In
nondestructive surveys at Kanmer.
contrast, the DEM based on the Total Station dataset
(A. Kanto, T. Kishida and H. Sakai)
is so smooth that the topographic nature of the citadel, especially the elevation of central area which is
4 Discussion on the Digital Topographic Survey and Photogrammetry
a little lower than that of the surrounding four edges, is clearly understood. Why did such a paradoxical result occur? It is partly
As described above, the archaeology-GIS team of
due to the accuracy of the GPS survey which was
the Indus Project has applied digital technologies
depended on the single frequency wave instruments.
for the development of: (1) the site geodatabase and
It was also conducted by walking with the antenna
mapping, (2) the GPS-aided determination of the
on the back, which caused incorrect elevation values.
site location in the regional survey, (3) the profiling
Secondly but more notably, too many data points
and topographic survey of the site by means of GPS
created too many interpolation triangles, which
and Total Station, (4) the digital photogrammetry of
resulted in rather rough raster surface of the DEM.
the architectural remains using a set of Total Station
On the other hand, the Total Station measured more
and digital camera, (5) the GPR survey and (6) the
accurately a much smaller number of data points. In
quantitative analysis of the architectural remains and
addition to this, there is theoretically no “cross-point”
artifacts. This implies that the team has conducted
in the Total Station survey. These factors contributed
archaeological studies with the digital technologies
to create a rather smooth DEM. Similarly, the GPS-
at all the analytical scales, ranging from the macro
based TIN model shows uneven triangles (that are
(supra-regional and regional) levels to the micro (site,
formed by connecting one data point to another)
built remains and object) levels.
and a partly biased network, while the triangular
However, the authors do not intend to argue that
network based on the Total Station survey is relatively
the digital technologies are so versatile that all we have
homogeneous. This study therefore demonstrates that
to do is to use them in any scenes of archaeological
the number of data points should appropriately be
excavations. There are of course both merits and
limited.
demerits in the application of digital technologies.
Then, how can we improve the accuracy of the
In this section, methodological and practical issues
GPR survey? The pedestrian survey on the hill in
in the application of the digital technologies to
the east of the citadel (Kanmer East) employing the
archaeological fieldwork are discussed in order to give
dual frequency GPS receivers was successful to create
a proper perspective to the future research.
a relatively smooth DEM in spite of the elongated
First of all, topographic survey with GPS receiver
interpolation triangles (Figure 4.2). This is partly
and Total Station is fundamental to all GIS-aided
because there are very few “cross-points” and because
fieldwork. In Figure 4.1, the TIN model created from
the elevation values are rather constant.
the results of the topographic survey at Kanmer by
The process of topographic survey by means of high-
means of GPS in the 2007 season (left) is compared
precision GPS consists of (1) fix-point positioning
with those using Total Station (right). The data points
of the base station GPS, (2) positioning of the data
of GPS (ca. 26,200 points) are ca. 6.7 times as many as
points and (3) post-fieldwork calibration by using the
those of Total Station (ca. 3,900 points). Similarly, the
dataset of the existing GPS-based control points in
former is much denser than the latter. Nevertheless,
order to obtain more accurate geospatial information. - 90 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
During the field survey, data points are recorded in
successfully captures the minute undulation of that
every second by walking at a constant speed with the
mound (approximately 1 ha and 10 m in elevation;
antenna of the mobile GPS receiver kept hold at a
Figures 3.49 and 4.1).
constant height from the ground surface. Then, in the
Furthermore, the most-advanced Total Station
post-survey processing, the data points recorded by
with prism-based automatic tracking facility could
the mobile GPS are calibrated by the communication
automatically measure the points without visual
data between the mobile and the base stations. After
targeting in blind bushes that one cannot enter
that, a local DEM is created by subtracting height of
with a tall GPS antenna or a pin pole prism. These
the antenna from the raw data. This method is easier
convenient facilities let us finish surveying the flat
and much more efficient than the Total Station survey
mound and its periphery including the slopes which
because it could be carried out even by one person.
are treacherous and blinded by massive bushes of
It should be noted, however, that there are some
acacia with numerous thorns, ca. 53,000 m² in total,
problems and difficulties on the GPS survey. First,
by two to four engineers per day, in mere seven days.
it is hard to survey microtopography by the current
Compared to this, the open and flat area of Farmana
high-precision GPS instruments since the accuracy
(ca. 43,000 m²) has been surveyed by the same number
of the vertical direction (elevation) is around 30
of engineers in just three days. It is astonishingly time-
cm, although that of the horizontal direction has
saving and labor-efficient in comparison with the
been improved to ca. 1 cm. Second, it is empirically
traditional topographic survey in which a slate board
known that the accuracy of positioning depends on
and a level machine are used in combination.
the position of the GPS satellites and the distance
Of course, it should also be noted that there are
between the existing GPS-based control points
some problems and limitations in the method of Total
and the base station on site. These problems on the
Station survey applied in this project. For instance,
accuracy of data points affect the quality of DEM as
it is highly difficult to interpret whether the minute
a final product, and therefore, they will be improved
upland (ca. 10 cm high) in the flat central area at
in the near future when the performance of the
Farmana is a remnant of the original ground of the
instruments is advanced. In addition, small tips in the
urban settlement in the Harappan period or formed
way of setting traverse lines (walking tracks) will also
due to the modern agricultural activities (Figure
contribute to remedy the results: finish the survey in
3.45). As shown in the data points measured by Total
one day (or one layout of the satellites) and reduce the
Station at Farmana (Figure 4.3), the TIN-based DEM
“cross-points” in walking as far as possible.
is sometimes rougher than expected even though
On the other hand, the topographic survey by
the density of points appears to be appropriate.
means of Total Station is particularly effective for
This may be associated with the limitation of spatial
distinguishing microtopography by dense and accurate
interpolation by the TIN method. In general, the TIN
data points to create a detailed DEM on surveyor’s
model is more suitable for the natural topography
request. This method was originally carried out in
than that is for the artificial structures such as stepped
the topographic survey of a large tumulus in Japan
crop field at Farmana, and further devisal such as
(Teramura 2008). The fieldwork in India has revealed
more dense measurement of the break lines (upper
that the Total Station with prism-based automatic
and lower extremities for example) is required for the
tracking facility is highly suitable for high-precision
survey of artificially modified topography.
topographic survey of the surface of large mound sites
In sections 3.2 and 3.3, the DEMs interpolated
such as the citadel of Kanmer. The 0.5-m-grid DEM
by the Natural Neighbor algorithm have been - 91 -
H. Teramura et al.
Data points and TIN model by means of GPS (left) and Total Station (right)
DEM based on the GPS data points in the 2007 season (left) and DEM based on the Total Station data points in the 2008 season (right) Figure 4.1 Comparison of the GPS survey (left) and the Total Station survey (right) at Kanmer
presented. Besides, contour maps based on other
TIN-based contour lines are jaggy in some parts since
two different interpolants - Kriging and TIN - are
the TIN algorithm employs the elevation value of
compared here. Kriging is a popular interpolation
data points in sensu stricto, while those by Kriging
method in geostatistics, employing Semivariogram
are smoother because errors are statistically rounded
as interpolant. The contour maps are created with
off. Nevertheless, in this case, it can be said that even
Surfer, an interpolation application. Figure 4.4 shows
the TIN-based contour map successfully reflects the
25-cm-interval contour maps of Kanmer created by
topology of Kanmer as well as the Kriging-based one.
the TIN (left) and Kriging (right) interpolants. The
In the case of Farmana, the Kriging-based contour - 92 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 4.2 GPS track (left) and DEM (right) of the hill of Kanmer East
Figure 4.3 Data points and TIN model (left) and DEM (right) based on the Total Station dataset at Farmana
maps represent the topography more accurately than
macroscopic viewpoint even if it has been leveled off.
the TIN-based counterparts (Figures 4.5 and 4.6).
Therefore, the interval of contour should be modified
Particularly in the 10-cm-interval contour map by
according to the requirement: either to depict the
the Kriging method, even the stepped crop fields are
actual surface as truly as possible or to reconstruct the
well depicted. In contrast, the 50-cm-interval contour
past surface.
map of the same interpolation fails to capture this
In addition, there found a scatter of clay blocks
microtopographic feature. Paradoxically, the 50-cm-
- possibly eroded fragments of mud brick - on the
interval contour is better for understanding the
ground surface of Farmana, but it is impossible to
original topology in the Harappan period from the
distinguish such a minute undulation from the results - 93 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 4.4 25 cm contour map of the citadel of Kanmer (left: TIN; right: Kriging)
Figure 4.5 10 cm contour map of Farmana (left: TIN; right: Kriging)
Figure 4.6 50 cm contour map of Farmana (left: TIN; right: Kriging)
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Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
of the 5-m-interval measurement. Therefore, it is
to a laptop computer to process a DEM in the camp
rather difficult to predict underground structures
in the evening. In a future system, hopefully, a DEM
by “high-precision” DEM produced by topographic
will automatically be created and updated by the data
survey. This is also true in the case of the prediction
point network on site in real time.
of gate structure at the citadel of Kanmer (Figure
Based on the above discussions, it is suggested that
3.49). Even though the geometry of slope were
the best way of topographic survey so far is to select
most precisely measured, it would still be difficult
or combine the most appropriate methods according
to determine whether the ground undulation was
to the purpose and conditions of research, considering
derived from underground structures or as a result of
both advantages and disadvantages, without adhering
the natural formation process such as wind and water
a specific methodolog y. The topological analysis
erosion. In our empirical view, the best way to predict
of an archaeological site cannot successfully be
buried architecture is GPR or other geophysical
accomplished until an appropriate interpolation
survey methods, in conjunction with the results of
algorithm is selected to create an accurate DEM and
excavation and nondestructive surface survey by GPS
also the site is visualized in the three-dimensional
and Total Station.
format such as bird’s eye view (Figure 4.7).
Even if high-tech measurement instruments such
Next, the results of photogrammetry at Kanmer
as GPS receiver and Total Station are in use, the
are discussed. The photogrammetric imageries are
possibility of human error should always be taken
georeferenced (having the information of latitude
into account. For example, when walking with a GPS
and longitude attached) with ground control points.
antenna on the back, the top of antenna swings like a
Therefore, they can easily be integrated on a GIS
pendulum all the time. Besides, vertical positioning
package, overlaid on the contour map (Figure 4.8),
by GPS is relatively inaccurate. Therefore, it may
and flexibly resized. Thanks to the georeference, the
occasionally happen that the elevation value of two
spatial relationship between buildings and citadel
data points next to each other on the flat land differs
walls that could hardly be perceived on the site can
at tens of centimeters. The similar error could occur in
visually be understood. For instance, the location and
the Total Station survey: the pin pole with the prism
function of architectural structures could be discussed
might not be kept vertically standing and the prism in
within the spatial framework of the citadel.
moving might wrongly be measured in the automatic
Figure 4.9 presents an example of the spatial
tracking mode. As described above, these errors would
relationship that is made clear by the combination of
appear as “small rises” on the DEM (Figure 3.49) since
photogrammetry and GIS. Two maps in the left side
the algorithm of TIN and Natural Neighbor considers
show a trial reconstruction of the eastern wall line
all the data points for interpolation. It is notable that
of the citadel on the DEM in the 2007 season, while
DEM is nothing but “a model” and thus it does not
the maps in the right side display reconstructed wall
always accurately reflect the actual state of the ground
lines (dashed) overlaid on the contour map that was
surface. It is rather problematic in some rare cases in
created from the dataset prepared by Total Station in
that the model looks even far from the actual. These
the 2008 season. An examination of the contour map
errors must be checked out during the field campaign,
of the 2008 season has helped to revise the previous
ideally before the day is over, and if necessary,
view. Given that the bottom of the wall goes along the
immediately be corrected on site in comparison
contour lines, the eastern wall line predicted in the
with the actual state. In the current system, the data
2007 season is incorrect because it is traversing the
acquired from the site in the daytime is downloaded
counters. This observation should be verified by the - 95 -
H. Teramura et al.
Figure 4.7 Virtual birds-eye view of Kanmer
Figure 4.8 Overlaying the results of photogrammetry on contours in the Kanmer GIS
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Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
Figure 4.9 Predicting the direction of the citadel wall in the Kanmer GIS
GPR survey and sounding in the next seasons.
conduct a variety of spatial analyses introduced and
As just described, GIS may potentially contribute
designed in this paper.
to rediscover the archaeological facts that would
In conclusion, GIS provides a platform that
otherwise be overlooked. It is also noteworthy
integrates many research fields in a cross-sectoral
that GIS is able to overlay not only DEM and the
manner. In fact, such an analysis has already started
subsequent contour map but also photogrammetric
in a very natural way: for instance, the location of
imageries and other georeferenced resources to
archaeological sites documented in the survey was
compare and examine each other on a unified
added to the existing site database, and the ortho-
geocoordinate system. By doing so, the authors will
imageries of architecture were overlaid on the high- 97 -
H. Teramura et al.
resolution DEM of the site. Interdisciplinary and
the temporal-spatial data of more than 2,000
integrated research will advance our understanding
archaeological sites, the location and dating of which
in the near future. For example, first, the distribution
had been published, were input to the geodatabase,
density of the archaeological objects recovered from
and then a series of site distribution maps were
the site will be displayed on the high-resolution
created from the database to be overlaid on the
DEM and the photogrammetric imageries. Second,
1-km-grid DEM (SRTM-30). The site distribution
it will be possible to have a user interface displaying
density at each chronological phase was also analyzed
of the supra-regional distribution of archaeological
to illuminate the macro-scale transformation of
settlements at the beginning, and then focusing up on
the Indus Civilization. The results of this analysis
the regional and intra-site patterns, as a bird’s eye view
indicate the dramatic increase of settlements in
by Google Earth. Finally, the inventory of the artifacts
the Gujarat region in the Mature Harappan period
uncovered from a built structure will be displayed as
followed by the decline of sites in Pakistan coincided
pop up in another window when an ortho-imagery is
with the increase of those in the northwest part of
clicked. Such a multi-scalar spatial analysis is the heart
India in the Late Harappan period. The run-off and
of GIS-aided archaeological studies. The integrated
viewshed analyses have also revealed that the so-called
analysis of various and copious information at
“mega-sites” in the proximity of large rivers, such as
different analytical scales is expected to discover new
Mohenjodaro and Harappa, are located at the center
archaeological patterns that have been overlooked by
of the great plain with a fine view, while the visibility
the conventional studies.
from the major sites in Gujarat is rather restricted.
(H. Teramura, Y. Kondo and T. Uno)
The fundamental tasks of the supra-regional spatial analysis in the near future involve refining
Conclusion and Future Tasks
the temporal-spatial data of the sites that have been already reported and collecting information of
The archaeolog y-GIS team of the Indus Project
unknown sites in the region where the archaeological
has been advancing the methods of archaeological
survey has not yet fully been conducted. Data update
fieldwork and research in order to publish the high-
in GIS is so easy that it will be very effective for these
quality archaeological information about the Indus
jobs. In addition, when GIS is made possible to handle
Civilization sites as the primary goal. This article has
more voluminous data in the future, the current
reported the accomplishments of our project at the
1-km-grid DEM will be replaced by higher-resolution
present moment. Here, in the final part of the paper,
substitutes and then it will be possible to conduct
the achievements are summarized and the future tasks
spatial analysis at the supra-regional level in the same
and perspectives are overviewed.
resolution as at the current regional level.
The authors have put GIS-aided archaeolog y
Second, at the regional research level, a series
into practice at three spatial scales: (1) the supra-
of spatial analyses in higher resolution than at the
regional level covering the entire horizon of the
supra-regional level have been carried out. It has
Indus Civilization; (2) the regional level focusing
been inferred from the results of the sea level change
on the States of Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan in
simulation that the inland area surrounding Kanmer
India; and (3) the site level targeting the individual
and Dholavira would sink in the navigable sea (or
settlements excavated by our project including
at least water corridor) when the sea level were 3 m
Kanmer and Farmana.
higher (in geoid height) than the present days. This
First, at the supra-reg ional research level,
waterway is most likely to have been present because - 98 -
Archaeology with GIS in the Indus Project
the climate in the third millennium BCE was milder
GPR survey on the base map and the architectural
than today. Furthermore, the viewshed analysis
plans by means of the unified geospatial information.
has demonstrated that Kanmer and Dholavira are
In addition, the archaeological objects will be ready
invisible from each other and that they are located at
for spatial analyses after the completion of the object
the point from which the neighboring water zone is
databases with temporal-spatial information. In our
highly visible.
view, these digital data are much more useful for in-
The GIS-aided spatial analysis at the regional scale
depth discussion on the size, orientation, layout and
has become increasingly popular in understanding the
function of the sites and the built structures than the
location and network of settlements or distribution
conventional paper-based documents.
of archaeological objects. Therefore, refinement
There are still a number of technical issues in
of the regional approaches in the near future will
putting such a digital-aided general research into
significantly advance these kinds of studies. The
practice. Firstly, the technique of photogrammetry,
fundamental tasks at this level include creating and
particularly preparation of an appropriate shooting
utilizing a higher-resolution DEM such as 10-m-grid
environment should be improved further. Secondly,
one and collecting site data in higher-accuracy. It
mobile and immobile remains should be modeled in
is also important for GIS-based regional studies
the three-dimensional format with their texture and
in archaeolog y to conduct more empirical and
geospatial information. This kind of approach has
interdisciplinary approaches in which, for example,
been put into practical use to some extent by laser-
the reconstructions of the paleoenvironment and
scanning technology, but there remains room for
paleotopography get involved. In addition, more
enhancing its practicality in order to replace other
effective methodolog y and procedure should be
documentation methods. The high-quality three-
developed besides the existing methods and theories.
dimensional scanning will achieve the highest-level
Third, at the target site level, the authors have been
of documentation in archaeological fieldwork, and
seeking to have all the archaeological finds from the
therefore it will contribute to advance the quality of
site recorded as georeferenced digital data. This is a
analysis of archaeological information.
trial approach to renovate the traditional paper-based
So far, the results and future tasks of GIS-
documentation. It will also potentially contribute to
aided archaeology in the Indus Project have been
advance GIS-aided archaeological research.
presented. The goal of our study in the near future
In the excavation, the topographic survey of the
is to develop the research environment in which all
target site and the surrounding areas by means of
the archaeological work is conducted on GIS. In our
high-precision GPS and Total Station is conducted at
perspective, this task will be achieved at multiple and
first. Then, the acquired data are converted to a high-
seamless scales, ranging from the micro (artifact and
resolution DEM that is to be used as a base map of the
built structure) to macro (regional) levels, when the
excavation. The built and object remains found in situ
above-mentioned issues have been solved.
are recorded by Total Station and photogrammetry
Furthermore, the authors plan to apply the effective
to acquire X, Y and Z coordinate and digital imagery
facilities of GIS not only for archaeology but also
respectively. These data are incorporated into an
for interdisciplinary research. GIS is able to manage
ortho-imagery to be displayed on the base map.
and analyze any kinds of information only if four
The soil profiles are documented in the same way.
essential elements - serial identifier, attributes, time
Furthermore, it has become possible to overlay the
period and geospatial location - are prepared. The
data obtained by the scientific approaches such as
next step will be the development of “Web-GIS” in - 99 -
H. Teramura et al.
which the dataset incorporated into GIS is managed
Bryson, R.A. (1988) “What the climatic past tells us about
and analyzed online, taking full advantage of digital
the environmental future”, in Earth 88: Changing
data and intelligence shared on the Internet. Taking
Geographic Perspectives. Proceedings of the Centennial Symposium. National Geographic Society, Washington
these perspectives into account, the authors have been
D.C. pp.230-247.
attempting to integrate and manage in GIS a variety
Conyers, L.B. and D. Goodman (1997) Ground-Penetrating
of study resources of the Indus Project, including
Radar: An Introduction for Archaeologists. Altamira
research data of linguistics, ethnology, botany and
Press, Walnut Creek.
zoology other than archaeology. In our view, this trial
Hiyoshi, H. (2004) An algorithm for computing natural
will contribute to the establishment of Geographic
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the project, directed by Prof. T. Osada at Research
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Interpreting patterns of Y chromosome diversity: pitfalls and promise
Interpreting patterns of Y chromosome diversity: pitfalls and promise: A case study from Southwest Asia
Peter A. Underhill
Department of Genetics
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-5120
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Progress in exposing the geographic patterns of human Y chromosome differentiation offers intriguing clues concerning the origins of contemporary population affinities and substructure and provides an independent perspective to investigate ambiguities concerning resemblances and origins of populations based upon material culture, linguistic and other genetic knowledge. Besides innate limitations related to the Y chromosome just representing a molecular record of male history, the current incomplete knowledge of the fuller spectrum of phylogenetic diversification of this male specific locus increases the chance of misinterpretation and miscomprehension. This report addresses the inherent susceptibilities in potentially reaching an incorrect understanding of the observed diversity configuration. The caveats related to the specific issues of ascertainment bias and paraphyly phenomena are discussed underscoring the need for interpretative caution.
INTRODUCTION
THE PROMISE
The field of human molecular evolution is predicated
Since most of the haploid Y chromosome has the
on the concept that patterns of DNA sequence
special property of not recombining, no confounding
variation in living populations encode informative
shuffling of DNA from different ancestors occurs. In
aspects of human heritage. As long as a mutational
a manner analogous to paternal surname transmission
change doesn’t affect the individual’s ability to
in many societies, as long as the paternal line of
reproduce, it may by chance be preserved and passed
descent is maintained by the occurrence of at least one
down to each succeeding generation, eventually
male offspring, the Y chromosome variety of interest
be coming widespread in a population. Such
persists in the gene pool and hence avoids extinction.
mutations can serve as genetic markers, some of which
As a consequence, any Y chromosome accumulates
display non-random distributions with geography.
all the mutations that have occurred during its
Those observed at considerable frequencies most
lineal life span and thus preserves the paternal
likely reflect long-term processes during pre-historical
genetic legacy that has been transmitted over the
periods rather than more recent historical events.
generations. The sequential molecular differentiation of Y chromosomes can be deciphered allowing the construction of an unequivocal genealogy reflecting the geographic relationships of various haplogroups - 103 -
Peter A. Underhill
or clades that when analyzed further using more
the fact that rapid population growth in our species
mutagenic polymorphisms such as microsatellite
is a rather recent phenomena, since rapid population
short tandem repeat (YSTRs) length polymorphisms
growth favors the preser vation of rare variant
can describe haplotypes or lineages (de Knijff 2000).
lineages. Fortunately the Y chromosome contains
Each limb in the tree is generally equivalent to a
many millions of nucleotides providing a potential
harmless single DNA nucleotide sequence change
considerable inventory of polymorphisms, some of
and corresponds to a man whom is the most recent
which will eventually either fuse or fission clades in
common ancestor of the subsequent branches (e.g.
the currently defined phylogeny. Polymorphisms
patrilineages) descending from that node.
that occur at informative frequencies (i.e. a few
Since the mutation rate during spermatogenesis is
percent or greater) and that define genealogical
very low for nuclear DNA, each binary (e.g. single
bifurcations in clades during the Holocene era of
nucleotide substitution (SNP) or small insertion
human evolution, while difficult to identify because
or deletion) mutation that arises in the son’s Y
of their relative rarity, certainly exist. It is these
chromosome relative to his fathers’ is considered to
molecular neighborhoods in the phylogeny that are
be a unique event in human molecular history. Thus
often the most important with regards to the topic of
a son, with one novel DNA sequence difference
human microevolution as it relates to the formation
between himself and his father (as well as any of his
of populations (Fix 1999) during the relatively more
brothers) can be viewed as the common ancestor of
recent pre-historical and historical periods.
a new Y chromosome variant and branching event
It is the mechanism of genetic drift that is most
in the tree. Dynamic population level forces such as
responsible for the pronounced non-random
chance, fluctuating population size, migration and
correlations obser ved between Y chromosome
population subdivision act to influence whether or
haplogroups and geography that often show as
not a new variant gets established the gene pool (Hey
clines in frequency and/or accumulated haplogroup
1998)
specific haplotype diversity. The peculiar properties
The fact that during much of human history the
of the Y chromosome have the capacity to better
numbers of people were relatively small and constant
capture a record of between population divergences
in size accentuates the consequences of genetic drift
then the autosomal chromosomes ( Jorde 1998).
(i.e. survival of the luckiest). These demographic
Thus the phylogeographic pattern of Y chromosome
forces and the haploid molecular properties of
differentiation offers stimulating and singular
intergenerational transmission are largely responsible
clues concerning the origins of contemporar y
for the empirical observation that haplogroups
population affinities and substructure and provides
currently defined in the global phylogeny of Y
an independent perspective to investigate ambiguities
chromosome haplogroups (Underhill et al. 2001)
concerning resemblances and origins of populations
typically have accumulated several phylogenetically
based upon material culture, linguistic and other
equivalent mutations that define the same branch
genetic knowledge. While variation in any single gene
or node of the phylogeny and that intermediate
can only reflect a small portion of human diversity,
bifurcated haplogroups that share some but not all
the unique nature of haploid Y chromosome variation
the mutations in the clade are considerably rarer.
provides an elegant and demonstrative narrative of
This manifests itself in the tree of Y chromosomes as
human population histories. Despite the justifiably
clades often defined by a long branch (inset, Figure
promising nature of Y chromosome sequence
1) with several sub-branches near the tips reflecting
diversification, some pitfalls also exist. It is the aim of - 104 -
Interpreting patterns of Y chromosome diversity: pitfalls and promise
this paper to highlight some of these shortcomings
markers the tribal populations of southern India have
as cautionary considerations for the naïve and
seldom been used during the search for new binary
enthusiastic non-geneticist who is often susceptible
polymorphisms leading in an underestimation of
to misinterpretation and miscalculation based upon
local diversification relative to external regions. Thus
a simplistic understanding of the seductive storyline
the gene pool of south India gets evaluated from an
provided by the Y chromosome.
exogenous northern perspective. Currently only two binary mutations have been discovered in Indian
PITFALLS
tribes. The APT SNP (Pandya et al. 1998) defines haplogroup H2 that is a sister clade of haplogroup
Ascertainment bias
H1-M52. Haplogroup H2-APT is confined to
The Y chromosome is quite disposed to ascertainment
peninsular India at less than 10% frequency. The
bias because of its haploid nature and observed strong
second SNP is M356 that defines haplogroup C5-
non-random geographic correlation with haplogroup
M356 within the haplogroup C clade (Sengupta et al.
category. This empirical fact strongly indicates that
2005). Haplogroup C spans Asia, Oceania and North
many Y binary mutations that occur at informative
America and display regional subdivision (Figure 2).
frequencies appear to have evolved locally and thus
The C5 sub-clade is widespread in south Asia and
not always dispersed in a transcontinental manner.
absent elsewhere. Haplogroup C5-M356 frequency
In order to assess a more representative census of Y
is only 2% but its associated microsatellite diversity
chromosome diversity in a particular geographic
is high implying antiquity in India and considerable
region, it is important to analyze polymorphisms that
divergence from other C sub-clades observed in
appear to be of indigenous origin. For example, if one
Oceania.
were studying Europe, one would not expect to gain much insight using Y chromosome polymorphisms
Synapomorphy
ascertained (i.e. first discovered) in East Asia
Phylogenetics shares common themes concerning
populations. Unfortunately regarding south Asia,
the hierarchy of relationships of DNA and language
relatively few Y binary mutations have been identified
genealogies. To uncover the actual relationships,
to date, because of the unavailability of Indian DNA.
both disciplines must be able to distinguish between
This deficiency has been compensated for somewhat
ancestral and derived states (Hennig 1966). In the case
by using DNA available from Pakistan populations
of DNA, the polarity of each nucleotide character and
during the initial marker discovery phase of Y
its degree of plasticity must be determined empirically
chromosome diversification studies. One example
so as to determine if the pattern of relationships
involves the M52 SNP that defined haplogroup H1.
reflects identity by descent (common ancestry) or
This SNP was originally ascertained in male DNA
identity by state (multiple independent origins). This
samples from Pakistan. Its geographic distribution is
is best inferred by determining the allelic state of the
virtually absent outside SW Asia although it occurs
polymorphism in non-human Great Ape primates. It
in European gypsy groups (Gresham et al. 2001).
is critical to recognize the fact that primitive ancestral
However haplogroup H1-M52 occurs at both highest
alleles cannot be evidence of close relationship.
frequency and diversity in S. India, indicating that
Only common possession of derived novel alleles
its origin likely occurred there and subsequently
(synapomorphy) reflects true-shared common
radiated northwards. While Pakistan provides one
ancestry.
source of material for SW Asian (polymorphisms)
Thus Y chromosomes that can only be described to - 105 -
Peter A. Underhill
° 45 N M317
M357
°
M11
30 N
11 20 22 61
M27
185
° 15 N
295 27 357 76
° 15 E
317 274
° 30 E
349
° 45 E
° 60 E
° 75 E
° 90 E
Figure 1 The center of gravity distributions and the one standard deviation ranges of the overall L-M11 clade and its three major subclades
the haplogroup C level, while certainly components
Asia and Oceania is rather ancient.
of a monophyletic clade reflecting direct descent, are not necessarily closely related since the formation
Paraphyletic haplogroups
of this haplogroup was thousands of years ago and
The consequences of the haplogroup C5-M356 results
has representatives from India, Siberia, Oceania
underscores the potential danger that can ensue if one
and north America. The lack of known subsequent
is not careful in interpreting inadequately resolved
mutations downstream of the RPS4Y SNP that
haplogroups shared amongst different populations.
defines haplogroup C, does not mean that haplogroup
One has to keep in mind whether the polymorphisms
C chromosomes that display ancestral features at all
being used define the gene pool really define terminal
other known branch nodes are closely related. Prior to
nodes (twigs) or more interior nodes (boughs). The
the discovery of M356, both India and Australia had
actual viewpoint the data provides is dictated by the
haplogroup C chromosomes but lacked any additional
degree of molecular resolution inherent in the data set.
novel shared heritage. These relationships were
The concept of interior verses more terminal nodes
misinterpreted as reflecting a recent shared history
can be illustrated by the L clade. This haplogroup
between India and Australia (Redd et al. 2002).
is defined by a string of phylogenetically equivalent
However the discovery of M356 undermines the view
polymorphisms, M11, M20, M22 and M61 etc that
of a recent shared heritage since the M356 defined
lie at the root of the L haplogroup. Which of these
lineage is confined to India and is absent in Australia.
four mutations happened first and subsequently is
Importantly, these sub -haplogroup C5-M356
uncertain because no intermediate lineages have
chromosomes also have considerable microsatellite
been observed in which a subset (one or more) of
diversity indicative of considerable age of C5 ( ∼
these derived mutations have been observed, but not
20,000 years) within south Asia suggesting that the
all of them. The L haplogroup is most commonly
fission between haplogroup C lineages in southwest
observed across Turkey, west Asia, Pakistan and India. - 106 -
Interpreting patterns of Y chromosome diversity: pitfalls and promise
RPS4Y
M8
M38
M210
M217
M356
M407
Japan
India & Sri Lanka
India & Indonesia
Australia
New Guinea
Polynesia
Japan
East, Central Asia
M48
P39
America
M93
Siberia
M208
Figure 2 Phylogenetic relationships and geographic affinity of the major components of human Y chromosome haplogroup C
The approximate geographic region from which the
the standard deviation of their place of expansion.
contemporary L chromosomes expanded can be
Interestingly, the Indus valley region falls with one
inferred by centroid analysis (center of gravity) of it
standard deviation of the overall L-M11 centroid.
frequency distribution in living populations in these
Descendents of these ancestors would have originally
regions.
spread outwards from this estimated geographic
To calculate the centroids and their one standard
region.
deviation footprints, the coordinates of the data
A fuller understanding of the pre-historical
points are transformed into three dimensional space
relationships amongst the collection of haplogroup
to account for the curvature of the earth, normalized
L chromosomes unfolds when these chromosomes
and weighted by frequency, and then transformed
are profile d f urther using additiona l binar y
back to latitude and longitude. The standard deviation
polymorphisms that evolved subsequent to M11. Such
of these centroids are then found using the sum
data can be used to assess the question of Dravidian
of the squares of the Haversine-determined great
origins. In simple terms, one scenario proposes
circle distances between loci and their centroid, also
an external homeland for Dravidian origins near
normalized by frequency. This approach offers a better
southwest Persia (McAlpin 1981) while an alternative
estimate of marker centroids than standard averages
model (Fuller 2003) proposes an indigenous origin
(Forster et al. 2002). An analysis of available data M11
in the Deccan region of S India. Insights regarding
data suggests that haplogroup L may have originated
these various scenarios can be assessed using
somewhere near the junction of present day Iran,
appropriately analyzed haplogroup L data. When all
Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan (Figure 1). It is
the L clade chromosomes are genotyped at the 3 main
important to recognize that circles drawn around each
“downstream” markers, M27, M317 and M357, which
haplogroup do not represent frequencies but rather
capture over 98% of L haplogroup representatives, - 107 -
Peter A. Underhill
the pattern of subdivision and the expansion centers
with the opportunity to participate at the conference.
of each sub-clade are revealed (inset, Figure 1). The degree of microsatellite (YSTR) diversity associated with the L1-M27, L2-M317 and L3-M357 clades
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