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Tr an s I ate d by S TEVEN R END ALI.,
and ELI
Z ABE
TH e
L
MAN
"History and Memor y is a splendid example of Le Goff's work on the notion "history." Highly readable, consis
tently lucid, and very well-informed, it is a wonderfully thought-provoking assessment, defense, and illustration of historical thinking and historiography." -Gerald Prince, University of Pennsylvania
EUROPEAN PERSPECTIV S A Series in Social Philosophy and Cultural Criticism Lawrence D. Kritzman and Richard Wolin, Editors
Columbia University Press
ISB-N-0-231-07590-1 21 2231 118 $29.50 Our price: $25. 08 �HIST & M/LEGOFF,J •
10/13/92
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CONTENTS
(lv\,.i\r, tAv..oh PN:.u .W-JM Q.jvJ
..-,. � Me....... COP\ nght 0 19n, 1979\ 1980, 1981, Einaudi. Prtr� '" 1M Jri*ltln edillon copynght C 1986 Editions Galhmard Pr('i� ,olhC' Frmch tchbOn ropynght ()
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1949-
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HtMOt) md mtfnOr) Jacquer; Le GoJf; [ranSl3ted by Steven Relli·/J.nd Ehnlvth CJ.aman.
....n pt'rr;peal\,("s) p. C'm..-{Eulopt Inc!.... b.hliographital rtf.r.nces and IOdex. I\M.' 6-l11-
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Preface
IX
PAST/PRESENT The distinction between past and present in psychology The distinction between past and present in light of linguistics The distinction between past and present in primitive thought General reRections on the distinction between past and present in historical consciousness The evolution of the relation between past and present In European thought from ancient Greece to the nineteenth century The ghost of the past, the history of the present, and the fascination with the future in the twentieth century
ANTIQUE (ANCIENT)!MODERN An
ambIguous 'Western pairing
In IhlS pair the modem is (he main problem
I
3
4 7
9
II t� 2\ 2\
�
vi / COntents
Contents / vii
cient): Greco-Rom an an qu ti an e th of ity gu bi am � he T . qulOes n n a antiquity and other em an d The Modem and its competitors: Mod and Progress
History as a Science: The Historian's Craft
ew, Modem
Antique (ancient)/modern and history: Qua.leIs berween Ancients and Modems in preindustrial Europe from the sixth to the eighleenth centuries Antique (ancienr)/modern and history: Modernism, modernization, modemity in the nineteenth and twentieth cenruries Domains [hat reveal modernism The historical conditions of the recognition of modernism The ambiguity of the modem
History Today 26
OihliogropJry
About tAe Author
Index
32 42 47 49
MEMORY Ethnic Memory The Rise of Memory: From Orality roWriting, from Prehistory to Antiquity Memory in the Middle Ages: Western Europe The Progress ofWrinen and Figured Memory from the Renaissance to the Present
81
Conremporary Revolutions in Memory Conclusion: The Stake of Memory
HISTORY Paradoxes and Ambiguities of History
97 101
106
Is hlsrory a science of the past, or is it true that "there is only contemporary hi story"?
106
KnOWledge and power. Objectivity and the manipulation of the past
III
The singular and the universal: Generalizations and regularities in history
lIS
The Historical Menraluy: Men an d the Past
Philosophies of Histo,y
Endnotes
[ 27
179
199
217
'43
PREFACE
I am
pleased that my reflections on history and memory are being made available to the English-reading public. The essays in this book were written a decade ago, but apart from updating the bibliogra phy, I have not attempted to revise them. If in fact historiography has undergone what some writers have called a aisis. I should prefer to call it a mutation the changes that have OCCQIl(d definitive, or even clear. In the essays that follow, I have discussed the " retUrns" in of history: the return of nailative, the return of the event, biography, the return of politics. These returns appear to quite different directions. For some historians, and this is both a and an enrichment, the problem of narrative concerns the nature torical writing rather than the conception of history itself. These ians have approached the event, biography, and politics with new conceptual frameworks that acknowledge the contributions by new historical methods. The e\'ent is considered as the
iceberg, biography does not oppose the individual and society them as mutually illuminating, and politics does not deal
x
/ Preface
political history but with the new problematics of power. But at th banal, reactionary modes of history narrative, the hist r y even ts, biography, and political history continue or stage Com b . . . This shows, m y VIew, that th "6 ght Iior h'IStOry "that LU ci n R b · not yet over. H"IStOry In general is never talke d about Iong ago IS . . part 0f h"Istory, IS nor over ' IS h' h y, w IC h Istonograp h· d eithe r. The traditional history of ideas is tending to give way to a n ew 'Intel leclUal history less focused on concepts and more concerned with ' .. . s an d W][ t ce 0f leas 'd . The history of me ' h the socIaI praci tutlon n I' . · precIs · lrom the history of values · Ion C ten ds to draw n an d gam d h history of the Imaginary. th occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of the In 1989, fOund' of its journal, the Annales group published an article titled '� C . . 11urnmg-pomt. · . �" ' I ThIS II d on h'Istorians to foreswear laz Y hab' I op n w mterd"ISCIP linan.ty. If the social sciences in and to d gen I are in crisis, and if historians are no longer able to converse with ologists and ethnologists in the way they have become accustome d to doing for the past few decades, historians must nevertheless Continue their dialogue with the social sciences even as the laner change. Finally, it seems to me that the detellill nation of certain historians not ro coniine themselves to European and Western histOriographical tradi tions, along with the long-standing but little rev italized desire to in the direction of comparative srudies are more important than ever
same : of e acks e e Vre oVer
time,
e
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on e
eve
g ml ntlca l!S
ar e nc ca e . a e .
s::�
move
;
�nd could bring about a profound change in the fiel d of historiograph . m the commg years.
A twenty-first century historiography remains to be developed. I be
lieve the relations between history as it occurs, history as historians writ it, and t e memory of me n, women, peoples, and nations, wil l pla y � . a major role In the bIrth of this ne w historiography. That is why I will b� delight d if the essays published in translation he re ca n he lp the En � glJsh-readlOg public participate in this transformatio n in a more in formed and thoughtful way.
�
June 1992
T hey were accompanied by articles on progress/reaction, ages of myth, esclwtology, decadutce, calendar, and document! Einaudi later published these ten anicles separately under the tide Swria MeTaken together, the four texts published here (past!Present, Antique! Modem, Memory, History) form a general slUdy of history. As encyclope dia anicles, their first concern is to convey infotmation. At one level, they are a history of history, or rather a history of historical procedures, historical mentalities, and the historian's craft. To lend depth, I have re Rected on the relations berween "objective" history as people experience it, whether they make it or undergo it, and the historical discipline if one wants to avoid the word "science" by which professional (and to a lesser degree, amateur) historians seek to master history as experi enced, in order to conceive and explain it. At the outset, I had to examine the relations between history and ory. Recent, naive trends seem virtually to identify history with memory, and even to give preference in some sense to memory, on the ground that it is more authentic, "truer" than history, which is presumed to be artificial and, above all, manipulative of memory. It is true that history involves a rearrangement of the past which is subject to the social, ide ological, and political structures in which historians live and work. It is also true that history has been and still is, in some places, subject to conscious manipulation on the part of political regimes that oppose the truth. Nationalism and prejudices of all kinds have an impact on the way history is written, and the rapidly developing field of me history of history (a critical and highly evolved form ) is in part founded on the acknowledgment and smdy of these links be tween historical production and the context of its period as well as that of successive periods which modify its meaning. But the history, which has recognized these va iations in nonetheless seek to be objective and to remain based on the historical "truth!' Memory is the raw materi al of history. tal, oral, or w ri tten, it is the living source from which historians Because its workings are usually unconscious, it is in eality gerously subject to manipulation by time and by societ ies given flection than the discip lin e of history itself. Moreover, the history nourishes memory in rum, and enters into the great process of memory and forgening experienced by history.
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mstl_ tames an t e
.
Preface / xi
•
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The texts presented here first appeared in Italian translation in various volumes of the published bY E'maud'I IT \ .unn , 1977- 8 2) . They are the most lITIpOitant of. serie s of ten articles published in this encyclopedia. Their themes are·past!. . _1-_ _ ,-/Jr --.., "" lHf,;",-C( ,,> ",, memory, an d
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eties. The historian
must be
there to render an account
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Xl;' / Pr iface
ries and of what is forgotten, to transfoJlII them inro som eth ing t ha � can be conceived, to make them knowable. To. privilege memory excesSlve y l is to sink inro the unconquerable Row of i me. I have also looked inro the meaning, for history of concept ual o . ppo_ k The Opposition be sitions that are centraI to the h·Istonan s wor. tween ' ' �rundamenraI, smce the acti"v I ty 0f memory and past and present IS hist is founded on this distinction, which appears in the history of coU �ry ecrlve . . knowledge, as It does on other grounds and 10 other fOlillS' in ch'l �sych�logy. The pasr/present opp Ositio n .is essenrial, for historical w r . . IS carned out through a conrrnual oscIllation from one of its poles to the other. It is up to the historian to define the rules that govern this m Ov e_ menr, to define. con ons on which the "regressive" method sUPPO rted .
t
��
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by Marc Bloch IS legr!lmate and fernie, and to mainrain the distance and opacity that separate us from the past, even and especially if we agree with Croce that "history is always conremporary." We must also take care that chance illuminates rather than shackles us. The histo ry of his tory in particular must be, as my friend Girolamo Arnaldi has PUt it a "liberation /Tom the past:' and not the "burden of history" of whi �h Hegel spoke . This distinction between past and present, made both by common consciousness and by the historian, is seldom neutral. For som e the paSt is a Golden Age, an exemplary time of innocence and virtue, an epoch of great ancestors; for others, it is barbarism, archaism, the lair of obso lete and outdated antiques, an epoch of physical and menral dwarfs. As lor the presenr, it is, in corollary fashion, either the blessed age of prog ress, creativity; and civilization, or else a dangerous time of thoughrless i no tions or a lamentable age of decline. Those who hold one or the other of these opinions are always able find evidence for their views in his o ry or events. Certainly, the Western world is com1Og OUt of long by the ideology of progress, which seems to have halted, centuries, of and there were
n va
ultimately to t in current a phase dominated in the sevb enteenth and eighteenth the dialectjc ancient and modern, ut even in these centuries that lived thought under the sign of progress trad itio nal ists "an tirevolutionaries" or "reactionaries" who challenged the reigning view. It seemed important study rhis series of successive modernities, these recurring quajjels between ancients and moderns, that have punc tuated (he development of the hi torical mentality in the West. I have, of course, the study primarily in the domain Western thought and PiOth'aion, which I know less poorly [0
s
of
Preface
I
.
..
:>aU
than those of other civilizations, and which have shown more sensitivIIY to the movement of history. But I have made an effort, using secondary sources, to give some anention to the attitudes of other societies toward history including the so-called societies without history, which h,stor . ans have long left to ethnologists and anthropologists. It was all the ore importanr to go beyond Western civilization because the vicissi tudes of our time have made us more sensitive to differences, to plurality, and to the Other. In the vast fields that seem to me to lie open to historical science, and which are clearly linked to the evolution of the "objective" history of humanity, I distinguish two long-term, essential tasks, which are as yet hardly begun. The first is a comparative history, which alone would be able to give a relevant content to the apparently contradictory require ments of historical thought: the search for completeness on one hand, and the respect for singularities on the other; the determination of reg ularities on one hand, attention to the role of chance and rationality on the other: the articulation of concepts and histories. And beyond may loom, as Michel Foucault hoped, the still distant ambition to write a general history. The reader must have guessed that if my primary concern in compos ing these texts was to provide information on the evolution of historical work and on the historian's craft, my own experiences, my background, and my choices also play a part in them. I have had the good luck to have worked and tau ght in the intellectual milieu that has probably con tributed most to the renewal of history in our century, the one known as the "Annale.s School;' associated with the jOl111lal founded in 1919 by Mar c Bloch and Lucien Febvre, and directed � Femaad Braudel from e by PielLe 1956 to 1969. I have also had the priv ilege Q£�g Nora to prepare with him the three volumes of...Faite Ie (,I,97ll),
�
the Annales group, has offered reference points and which, with the cooperation of many historians in avenues for enlarging the scope of history.
This is not the place to recall the details of this adventure position regarding the crisis in the social sciences, in history,
Annales School, which has been discussed from time to time ing degrees of knowledge, sincerity, and competence. 1 s all
�
such vie ws on another occasion, either personally, or wnh friends, who will be celebrating the sixtieth birthday of 1989. Here I shall simply say that the history to which
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xiv I PrifQce
is what has been called "historical anthropology;' in w hich h'IStory makes use of the methods 0f anthropo Iogy In order to reach the deep � levels of historical realities, whether these be material, mental 0 ' � polIti_ cal, while taking care to preserve the structured unity of human ltYad n 0). iere 52-6 Burgu [986: (see ledge of know It is nonetheless clear that the follOwing texts bear the mark . of the \Yl ' context In w h'ICh they were wntten. ",estern h"IstoncaI though t h s �elt the full impact of the challenge to the idea of progress, an idea di Cred_ . .. ' th-century atrocities that have been brough Ited by twenne t to our atte . n_ . non by t he me d'l a, a new source 0 f h'IstoTlcal documentatio n. From the Gulag to the torture chambers, from the Nazi exterminatio n camps to apanheid and racism, from the horrors of war to those of famine, We have been forced to abandon our proud belief in a linear , contl'nllOUS, and general progress, represented above all by spectacular advances in science and technology. A better knowledge of societies around the world, including the third world, and of their history, ha s led to the decline of the idea of a single model of development valid for all human sOCIeties. In the less dramatic area of historical methodology, we have seen on the one hand what ha s been called the fragmentation of "hist ory in small bits" (lUs/oire en mietes) t a nd, on the other, the return of traditional forms of history: a return of "nanauve," of the "e ve nt:' of "ch ronology," of "politics," of "biography." Here I shall simply say that if it is true that self-criticism and revisions are needed to ma ke the historian's field more fertile, legitimate "returns" of this kin d must not be lik e tho se of the emigres who returned to France after the Revolution having "forgotten nothing and learned nothing." History needs changes and not reactions. In order to carry out tbe necessary changes an d to res ist those that would be regressive, historians have to call upon the luc ir idity, their vigilan ce, and their coura ge. The front lines of history are sti/J enga ge d in ba ttle despite the achievement of various kinds of consen sus. A battle of ideas abOut •
:
•
•
how best to "do hisrory."
January '988
Today, th e concept of history seem s to raise six kinds o f questions: r. What relati onship s are between "lived his to ry" (lUs/oire vicue), that is, the "natural" if not -objettive" histo ry o f human so cieties,
Preface /
xv
and the scientific effort to describe, think, and explain it? In other words, ",hat is the relation between "lived history" and the science of history? f rence between these twO senses of "history" has given rise to The dife hy of bistory. Since the beginning an ambiguous discipline: the philosop branch of years, twenry past the a lly for especia and , century the f istoric al science has been developing that studies its evolution within
�
historiography or the history of history. ent: lopm deve rical histo l veral o history entertain with time or duration, 2. What relations does sea te and of clima cal time cycli ral;' "natu the of er matt a is it ther e wh sons or a matter of time as lived and naturally recorded by . individuals . time vanous and societies? On one hand, in order to domesticate natural
societies and cultures have invented a basic instrUment which is also an essential datum of history, the calendar; on the other, historians today ry and memory. are increasingly interested in the relations between histo 3. The dialectic of history seems to be summed up in the opposition . or dialogue between past and present (andlor between present and past) In general, this opposition is not .neutral but ��btends or exp.resses an . anCIent/mod paIrs evaluative system, as for example In the opposltlonal em and progress/reaction. From Antiquity to the eighteenth century,
there developed around the concept of decadence a pessimistic vision of history that has been expressed in certain twentieth-century ideol��es . vIsIon lstlc of history. In the Enlightenment, on the other hand, an opum of history based on the idea of progress was crisis in the second half of the twentieth century.
which entered a history have a
pa!dii!tillg tl1e future. How a new "science," fnlUrotogy? In
meaning? Is there a direction to history? 4. H istory is incapable of f or eseeing and then can it be situated with respect to
reality, history ceases to be scientific when it seeks to about the beginning and the end of the history of the humanity. As for origins, they are expressed in myth : the Golden Age, the mythical ages, or, in a scientific guise, the
of the Big Bang. As for the end, history yields to religion (and ular to the religions of salvation which have constructed a of ultimate ends:' eschatology) or to the utopias of progress, the one being Marxism, which juxtaposes an ideology of the ss sle las e t , is un m m o C ( al go its of y history and an ideolog internationalism). However, at the level of the hlstonans e th d an d, pe lo ve de g in be is s in ig rique of th e concept of or genesis tends to replace the idea of origins.
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Preface
with other so al sCiences, 5. As a result of his co��cts . toda hlstOt• y '� ng amo Uish ing dIst ere dIff to nt y kinds of ian has a tendenc hIstO ri cal duration [dureeJ. There is a renaissance of interest in the e ent, but in tive of pec pers g . "lon duration" versely, it is above all the o gu n d . "'ie] e s lead r latte in The certa historians, e th that interests historians. l er i . , . n COn. e, or ctur stru ugh f 0 thro ion not a dialogue Ith nectlon WIth the t hro• n ,, a . pology, to advance the hypothesis of an "almost immobile IStory. Bu t can there be an immobile history, and what are the relat'Ions b tw e een . history and structuralIsm (or structuralisms)? Is there not a I so a nother perhaps broader tendency to "reject history "?
�
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,
6. The idea of history
as human history has been replaced b Y th e I. dea of history as a scientific study of humankind in SOciety. BUt'IS there . . ' can there ever be, a hIstory of humankmd? A history of climate has aiready ' deveIoped; shouldn t there also be a history of nature? Since its birth in Western societies a birth traditionally Iocated .In . . Greek AntiqUIty (Herodorus, in the sixth century B" C I'S supposed to I.
be, if not the first historian, at least the "father of history"), but which a�ually goes back to a more distant past in the empires of the Near, Mlddle, and Far East historical science has been defined in relation to a reality which is neither constructed nor observed (as in mathematics and the physical and biological sciences), but concerning which "inves tigations" and "testimonies" occur. That is the meaning of the Greek word
histona and its
wid-weid (to see). History thus who could say: "I have seen, I
Indo-European root
began as a na ilative told by someone
hav� heard it said!' This aspect of history-as-narrative, of history-as
testimony has persisted throughout the development of historical sci enc�. Paradoxically, today we are seeing a critique of this kind of history
motIvated by the desire to substirute explanation for narration ' but at the
�ame time, we see the renaissance of history-as-testimony .
through the
return to the event" (Nora) that is connected with the new media, with
the appearance of journalists among historians and with the develop ment of "immediate history." Nevertheless, since Antiquity, by collecting writen and t transfolming them inro testimony, historical science has gone beyond the fifty- to one-hundred-year span attained by historians who were ocu lar or auricular w tnes es and by the oral transmission of the past, T he � . establtshmenr of Itbranes and archives has thus furnished the materials for history. Scientffic methods of criticism have been elaborated, thereby
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Preface
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xvu
hist ory one of the characteristics that make It on ' SCWltJific 'In ing 'err ' Ol O c T h e first uncertain steps toward these met sense. nical hods we� tech e h t MIddle Ages (Guenee), but they were developed pnman the ' '1y in raken sevente enth century by Du Cange, Mab'll the of end . lon, an d the e e . Sin of Samt-Maur, Muratori, and others . In fact, therel's no tines edic . the Ben . wlth�ut sch0ta:ship. But just as the twentieth hIst ory as g censuch thin . the notion of hIstorical fact (which ',s not a gIv zed critici en tury has is constructed by th� histori�n), today it criticizes the it e caus be object, ment. T he document 's not obJective, innocent raw = u oc d a of . , nOtion esses past socIety s power over memory and over the fuexpr but terial, what remains (Foucault, Le Goff). At the same is ument doc ture: the documents has been . broadened. Traditional history of range . rirne, the the dlscovenes of an archeology too often to and texts o t it reduced Today �ocuments include the spoken word, the history. from ed . sepa rat are bemg established, and etluwlexts arc/nvu Oral s. gesture and irnage, storage of documents has been revolution al archiv the Even collected. Quantitativ computers. e history, from demography to of use e h t by ized history, is linked to advances in statistical cultural even and c i m o econ theory applied to the social sciences tion rma info and s rnethod . ist orica l rea lity" and historical science has "h n betwee e c n ta s d i The .
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ers and historians from Antiquity to the present to h osop hi l p d owe l l a opose systems of overall explan ation for history (in the twentieth cen
xt reme ly different sense s, Spengler, Weber, Croce, Gramsci, e n i d an tury, . Most historians are mote or oned) be menti may aI., et , Aron ee nb y To heless turning are nonet they s y, but r to of hi hy osop l hi p the of wary less ke) or (Ran an in Germ inant was dom that m tivis posi the from away tum of the cen t phy he at gra orio ) hist bos gno Sei and ois ngl (La French supporters the ate loc y ma m, we atis gm pra and gy olo ide en we Bet tury. of history-as-problem (Febvre). a of t jec ob the it ke ma to d an y tor his of nt me e lop v de e To gr asp th ed tri ve ha y uit tiq An ce sin ers ph so ilo ph d an ns ria stO hi genuine science, in t es th far ne go ve ha at th ts or eff he T s. w la al ic to find an d de fin e hi st or ris Ch d ol e th e ar , re ilu fa st te ea gr e th in ed this direction, an d th at re su lt the on d an , nd ha e on on ) et su os (B tian th eo ri es of Providentialism arx M in at th ct fa e th ite p es d s other, vulgar Marxism. T h e latter persist in se ca e th is at h w to y ar tr n o there is no m e n ti o n of historical laws (c o d u se p a to in sm li ia er at in making historical m Lenin's w ri ti n g s) . ct w.ith the facts confh in ly g n si a re c in m is in science o f histo rical determ
pr
,
and with historical thought.
...· o all a bons lo set asi c:or&idu 0Ik; kmd, d ...-ill rerum lo pure nam!liYe: !he poosibiJi "",r t} of a . . ·L ' . . . FeC02il 0f OJ::! � ..L UIC ltJOn i"'nalo Ir..J'upe:t3DOll � hismr)' me OOsis for a Sl1Jd... of .md souawes and !he elaboration of that re. .. hroadenin ..un: uruque of a g of hist Or}" in all i remp1eril:S the induence 0 :md (0 e need lo .espect . lo all lDO .
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.
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areas of ruStO new e thes :\11 � represent an imponam broad.hing of \\e must a\'O,d I:v.'{) ellors in Ibis ICgard. Instead Hov . e,-er. eld. of fi the realities of the history of representations to other IC subordinating the alone granted the SlatOS of nISI causes (material and alities which are economi c realities ...-e must gi--e up the false problemarics of inm.sutIC ture and superstructUre. But v.-e must also a\'oid privileging me IoCl4'
drh;ng force in history. An dec ti,-e historical e."Planation must recognilP the existence of the S,-mhoIic ...�thin e\�' historical reali£) (including €(onomics), but also �mpare these historical representations ...;th the lealities they reprnenr and apprehends by means of other documents and othtt ...·hich the historian methods- For example, v.-e should compare political ideolog.\" ,.;th prac tice and with political e'-eIlts_ E\'e£)' hisrory should be a gxjal JristD,y. FUlally the "unique" charaaer of historical eq:nts. and the historian's need to mix narram-e and explanation, ha--e made ruslOn' a litera.." genre, an art at the same rime as a science. While this "-as IlUC from Antiqui£)' to the nineteenth century, from Thucydides lo .lichelCL it is less so today. The inaeasingl technical naurre of historical science bas made it more difficult for the hiSTorian also to be a "-riter. But there is y. cf",riting hisaxy {1l1U! ioinrre tk 11WtOOel that cantno be reduced still a .... to the indi\
realities. considering them in
rum
the
.
rar.-
-
don"oCUr as
-
.
fon made by human societies to domesticate "natural" time, the nanuaI movement of the moon or me sun, the cycle of the seasons, the altemation of day and night. But its most eifeui\-e articulations, me hour and the ....eek. are linked to culture and not to nature. The caleodar is the and l hica myt e th to d ke lin is it y; tor his of n produa and th e expressio ologi techn and c ntifi ie sc to religious origins of humanity (in ral lru cu and social, ic. m no eco to e) rim cal progtess (as a m ea su re of -
-
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1'1;.. ti mes (0 r leisure). It shows the do
timt'S tOr "
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IHlns(onn rhe yd i :l l rime o f nature and by h ' } � elM I rc:tum. i Olo 3. linear rime. punctuated b ' grou p rnf t s, of s 0 \- . -'� . ." . m ad\
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broader than history - and
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. lbe past �resenl opposition i essential to Ihe acquisition of a t ti me. For the child. "understandina time" 0 means
trom me presem (p13get). Bur the time of history is nOI All th e sam e, an exam ination of logi ( or me •
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the �ych 10 �ychology and linguistics con6 i111 the faer that the presnOt a natural gh-en b ut a consrruction. On the -r pposmon han
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-
Ita led or
10 eimer
to
10
rega rruna the possibilih' �� 0 b
eliminate any reference at all [�
the ill us ion of romantic hi rorians like 11ichelet an etton
the "com
neer' n f the past or of positivi [ historians like Rankee-v.-h I leall� hap pened- . in leali � the intelest of the past is that i[ is reached by starting our from the ilium' res me presen t. The ere IlS
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. regtess i w method). L"mil the Renaissance, and e\"en up
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and an
ocieries privileged the past· the
appeared fO them ro be a time of innocence 10 . imagined myrhica1 ages, the Golden Age, the rs
paradis . The hi_ro� of the world and oi humanity seemed to .....,. mc. Th_ Idea d<'L""3dence was raken up again to ase
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. eties and ciVIlizations. It plays a role
i hi WI )
(\leo,
generaU. he product of a IUdionary of hnle utility for historical •
In late
preface
/
•
x:a
and early eighteenth-century Euro.... n�h..� . . the "Qualte\ of th tee e . se\"en i odems," which began as a debate aboUI SCIt e h d an tS ence., 111ncien howed a lendency to reverse the pn'VI'1ege accoro art, S d n -.led the a re m e.� ".� , " became a synonym of "outdated" t n e ci n ' and "modem a syn " ... ..st. ,... progressI. ve." \ n rea1_Ity, the ',dea of progress triumphed in the onym 01 " rough the nineteenth and the earl . d dev�loped all n lenl. enn � ghr E.nli unes, particularly \\"lth reference to scientific and techno cen t tiet h twen fter the French Revolution, the ideology of progress ces. dvan a logical " . rea cnonar . tendency whose e.\'-plession took mainly a a ed t n con fro pa" . onary lOte retation rea a , CtI on sed ba ",as < ut of history. b ", . tOlin al c li ti . eth cenrury, the failures of Marxism and wenn r the of le the In the midd realiry of the Stalinist petiod and of the Gulag, the th of tion � revela azism and the concentration osm and espeCIally of as F of horrors caused by the Second World War, the destruction and death the campS, "objective" historical incarnation of a possible first (the bomb atomiC _ £ cultures different from those of the discovery 0 th and se), calyp � apo . . the Idea of progress (let us mention here \'\est a ll led to a cnnque of
�
"
,
Friedma n n s The Crisis '
of Progres,s 1 9 36). The belief in a linear, continu
which develops according to the same model progress, rsible irreve ous ry, Histo dead. which does not control the ically pract is s, tie socie all in future, finds itself confronted by beliefs that are currently enjoying a generally catastrophi c visions of the end prophecies, ning: reawake great mystical re olutions like those invoked of [he world, or, on the conuary, 'I estern societies or in cenain in seers within whether ns, mil\enaria ' b
societies of the Third World. Thi s is the rerum of eschatology. But the natural sciences, and particularly biology maintain a positive, ves even if anenuated, view of development as progress. Their perspecti
to history. Thus genetics tends to s and nce scie ial soc to lied app be can to the role e r l rg a a e giv to but s gres o pr and ion lut evo of a ide the ew ren sti sub to age ant adv y's tor his to . is It m) ho ([ s he rop ast cat to d eyent an of origins, which a ide \-e ssi pa the for sis ne of ge a ide c mi na dy the e tut Marc Bloch criticized many years ago. tra le acce is ch hi (w e nc ie sc al ic or st hi of s - In the current renovation S tu pe im al cip in pr e th n; sio ffu di irs of ew vi ing, at least from the point of a ), 19 19 in "re eb F d an ch lo B by d came from the journal Annales founde g in rd cco A e. m ti l ca ri to is h f o n o ti major role is played by a ne'\\' concep the d an d, ee sp of s te ra t en er ff di at to this conception, history proceeds ro p l ca ri to is h f o m th y rh i above all to dete[lnine the historian s is ich h w . ts en e f o e m ti id p ra e th , rum a so l a ci rfi e p su e t th is o n ccs es. It
,\
•
x:�ij I Priface
, porrnnt but rather the deeper level of the realities whic h Ch mOSf 1m ' ange I' menta ltIes; culture, general material � ly ar:lph Speak109 moo..,'sI0"·1 �' (,,-� « J e ' ll m" (8 raudel). The (tW>l<) , Th is is the le\e1 of longua a di I ,
..
.
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historians of longu� thlm and �ther �ocial sciences and W t gue geo the h lier, wtt ear s no ence eco sci mics and and biologica l .11 i h\ P gTa y, . aph ogr dem olo and rop anth � bio logy h , a nd today with :.n h as led P ' f an a Imost Immobile" ea 'd 0 l e h t propose to s historian some histo the hy Poth (Braudel, Le Roy L'ldurie)" Some hav� even advan es , , that there is a completely Im mo bIl e hIstory. Bu t hlStoncai anthropolo begins on the contrary from the idea that movement and evol utio n !O' a found in all the objects of all the social sciences because their comrn re object is human societies (this is true not only in SOciology and eco no its, but also in anthropology). As for history, it can only be a scie nce of c1wnge and the e.'I."plnnation of change. History can have fruitful relations with \'ll rious kinds of srrucruralisms on two conditions: a) that is does nor target that the structureS it studies are dynamic; b) that it applies certain structUralist methods to the study of historical documents, to the .m ".... .
..
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-
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is of texts (in the broad sense), and not to historical e.xplanation pro per One may ne\-errheless wonder whether the vogue of structural_ ism is not connected with a cel!ain rejection of history conceived as the anal
.
dicratorship of the past, as a justi fication for "reproduction" (Bouroieu), as repress i\ e power, But even on the extreme left it is recognized that it
wo uld be da ngerous ro make a "tahula rasa of the past" (Chesneaux). The "burden of history" in the "objective" sense of the tetIII (Hegel) can and must be counterbalanced by historical science as a "means of '
l iberation from the past" (AroaJ di)
6. In "'Titing the history of their cities, their peoples, and their em· ,
pires. the historians of Antiquity thought they were writing the history of humanity in general. Christian historians, Renaissance and Enlight· enmem historians (even though they recognized the diversity of "cus roms") thought they ,,-ere writing the history of mankind, Modem his· torians obsen'e that history is rhe science of the evolution of human societies, The e,'olution of the sciences has led us ro ask whether there could nor be a hisrory different from that of man, ,
the most cJlangeable parr of nature
A hisrory of cJimate'-
has already been developed, but it
is of interest ro hI tory only to the e:Xl:ent that it heds light on certain
phenomena in the history of human societies (changes in cultures, in the habirat, etc,). People are now think mg about a lrisrory of naturt (Ro mano), bur ir would surely confilln the "cultural" (and hence historical)
Preface /
'" ii "" ).71 11
nature, Thus through the continual i of on r enlanr ."e.mem 0f Its ' , cancep , 'Y' histo n-· IS sul ' l becomlllg coextensive. with man 'J , . terntO , " il fo dI S l r ve rse (1Ilc\�dtng the historical its novel) history "'hile in , s an unprecedented populanty III \Vestern societies' and wh\'le th·lr d enJOY ' . are pnmanly preo�pled WI� giving themselves ons nar i a his,,'orld may, moreover, cause klllds of hIstory to arise that are ch (w hi ve ry tOn' , d rent from those de Iined as sueh III ' W.estern countries), the paradox dm e IS that I' f h'IstOry ha� thus become an d ' �l essential of historic. for md,vldual and collective Identity, it is precisely need the t now nr of P [Q ry is undergoing a crisis (of growth?), In its dialogu i e with that h s , III t11e consl' derable broadening of its s, scienc e l .. i a c problems, o other S obJects, hlstoncal sCIence wonders whether it is not in the and , Ods meth ing its way. of los cess pro '
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HIS T O R Y A ND MEMOR Y
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The distinction between past and present is an essential com ponent of the concept of time. It is therefore fundamental to both histor
ical consciousness and historical knowledge. Since the present cannot be
limited to a single instant or point in time, the definition of the duration
of the present constitutes an initial problem for the historian, whether it
is acknowledged or not. The definition of the contemporary period in
history curricula is a good test for this way of defining the historical
present. For instance, it reveals the role played by the French Revolution
in French national consciousness, because in France contemporary history begins officially in
1 789.
A variety of conscious and unconscious opera
tions are presupposed at the collective level by this definition of the
dividing point between past and present. Similar ideological dividing
points are found among most peoples and nations. Thus Italy experi enced two staning points for the "present" whose
telescoping constitutes
an imponant element of modern Italian historical consciousness: the
Risorgimento and the demise o f fascism. But this definition of the pre sent
which is in fact a program, an ideological project
frequently runs
into a much more complex historical obstacle. Gramsci wrote the fol-
2
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e im rg e so th of Ri in nto: "a mo ng I I. ig or e th ng erni nc co lowing ta lans. . I . I· · · t a vers aI unl he lev I[Y d me l[e d un an n d ma Ro of the deveI rradition opIlle ly econo mic a nr of national (bourgeois) forces beyond the pure nd mUn · . iC1· � rces d I d not b "natlon a J" ra e th is, that , e co pal domain· me a na . t1.��a l tion a Revolu nd French h t e e change in t "force" until after th he POSltl · on way " I I:' n t iS e h t h E urope. rrench in . R e vol u tion (I of the papacy I�e th e oonversion of Constantine, the Hegira, or the Russia n Rev0I U tton 0f . 1917) first becomes a mark er 0f th e &ontler between past a n d p resent ,, < " ' lore" and an alter. G ramsCi· s rema rk and I ater between a "b eC all o Us c u relati h hi to nship extent the to gauge to the past, which � � �, � gel heaVier hiStory, IS for of burden cenain nations th called "the a for others (Le Goff 1 974). But the !mown and recognked a bsence or br � evllY of the past can also create serious problems for the developm ent of a col · · r · · · · IeClIve mentaII[Y an d I dentity I� r mstance, m young n ation s, panicu larly African ones (AssorodobraJ). The United States provides a plex case i� whi ch the la�k of a I�ng his�ory is combined with the v . mpanble earlier hentages (especial ly Eu ropean and somellmes mco ) ac companying the diverse ethnic components of the Nonh Am eric a n 0 ulation, as well as with the overdetelm ination of re l a tivel y recent e s in American history (the Revolutionary Wa r, the Civ il War, etc.) which are already pan of a mythical past and are thu s stil l actively present in the f011ll of myths (Nora 1 966). Our hahi ts concern ing historical periodization thu s lead us to privi . ns, wars, and chang lege revolutio es in government in other words the history of events. This problem comes up again in the new rel ati ons �etween past and present that the so-called new history seeks to estab lish today. In addition, the official (i.e., academic) de fin itio n of contempo . . � history m countries such as France now require s us to speak of a J:istory ofthepresent in order to discuss the very recent past or the histor Ical present (Nora ( 974). Although the past/present distinction th at co ncerns us here exists in the c�lIective consciousness, an d m ore panicularly in historical social consClo sness, we must begin by commenting o n the peninence o f this � OppOSItiOn, and by consI·den . . . n fro m perng · h t e pa s t/ pr es en t d, st m ct lo . spectives other than those o f collective memory a n d h is to r y. Let us note first that th e . perception an d segmentation of ti m e � .:�. respect to a be fore a n d a D after, wheth er a t th e in d iv id u a l o r th e con. . . tlve elveJ, IS not limited to t he opposi. ti. on betwee n present a n d past. must add a th Ird dI· me n S IO W. the future. S t. A ug us tin e offered a profou n d
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of this system composed of three temporal viewpoints ion ulat �°rffi we live only in the present, but this present has severnl that said he 'IIhen . . en sions: "the present of past things, the present of present things. dlm 0f future th'mgs." sent pre and the . . . the Opposition between past and present in the idenng coos re Befo collecrive memory, it is also imponant to look at what it of k r o w e fra m . ·fies in TWO other domains: psychology (especially child psycholslgOl . . . istics lingU ogy) and
t p ent pas in and pres ology sych een betw tion inc dist The It would be a m ist ake to transpos: the data of individual psychology
. · nto the domain of collective conSCiousness, and an even graver mistake the chi ld's acq u i sit io n of mastery over time to the evolution
:0 compare
of conce ption s of time through history. But reference to these domains can provide a cenain number of clues (most of them metaphorical i n
nature) that can illuminate one aspect or another of the pastlpresent opp os it io n at th e hi storic al a n d collective levels For the child, "to understand time is to liberate oneself from the present: not only to anticipate the future in relati on to the regul arities un .
of wh ich is different from the others, and whose connection can be es tablished only by a gradual movement without fixation or stopping point" (Piaget 1 946:274). To understand time "is essentially to demon strate revers ibility." In societies, the distinction between past and present
co nsciously established in the past, but to deploy a series of states, each
(and future) also implie s this ascent into memory and this liberation from the present, both of which in tum assume education, the constitu ti on of a collective memory preceding and extending beyond the indi vidual mem ory. The majo r difference is in fact that the child despite the pressures of the external environment personally constitutes in
large mea sure his/h er own memory, whereas the social, historical mem ory is sha ped by trad itio n and education. But as an organized construct (see the section "M em ory" below), the individual past parallels the col
lective pas t. "Through the play of these organizations, our temporal horizon de ve lop s far beyond th e limits of our own lives. We treat the as events provided by th e history of our social group in the same way e: we treat ou r ow n hi story. Moreover, these two histOries tend to merg our of ly on t no d se po m co is , ce an st in r fo the hi st or y of ou r ch ild ho od , , . es, and th·IS Pan of on em m s nt re pa r own first m em or ie s, but al so of ou
4
/ Past/Present
ps on the basis of both the elo dev e ctiv spe per al por tem our se O . tnpo. C this and is nor lly Fina aUto 7 ). 1 p. , i mat " isse (Fra cally nenes 0 nsfer ry, mo but me it ve ecti clearly shows th able to the domain of coll a h . . reIatl'on to a system WI·th Utnan m e tim not two b beings segment Ut thre . e I I us Slmu I taneo y esses ' progr 10 ocali child zing the p poles the ast and the future (Malrieu). coward time shows th The pathology of individual attitudes at "nOr . . , I num b etween the Conscio mal" behavior maIO tams an eqUi'I'b us ness of the past, the present an d the Iiuture, bU[ with a slight predom'Inan ce of [he orienea[ion IOward the Iiuture, whet her the latter is feared 0r d . eSlred , . . . The oneneatlon IOward t he present, charactenstlc of very you ng " ch11. . dren (wh 0 even "reconstitute the past 10 re Iation to the pres en[," as Piage[ has noted), of mentally defective or insa ne persons as well as of . ' former deportees whose personalIty has been disturbed is enco Untered . ' fairly commonly among old peop le and some persons with perse . n CUtlo complexes who fear the future. The classic exam ple is Jean } acques . Rousseau, who wrote 10 the ConJesszons that his "wild imagin ar'IO " which led him "to foresee only a cruel future," made him take refug �, em . the present: "My heart IS ' occupied by the present alo ne, which fills all its space and all its capacity." In oth er kin ds of illness, the individu al's anguish concerning tim e takes the form of a flight toward the foture or a refoge in the past. The classic case of the latter, in literature, is Marcel Proust.
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The opposition between the orientation toward the present and the orientation toward the past is fun dam ent al to one of the central distinc tions in Heymans and Le Sen ne's characterology; they pos it the primacy of the former and the secondariness of the latter as bas ic structures of
human character (Fraisse, p.
'99).
The distinction between past and resen t in light oflinguistics p The study of languages olfers ad dit ion al evide nce wh os e va lue for our argu �e t has to do both with the im port ant ro le p layed in language by � . n pr senrlpasrl( the dlStmCtJo future), es pe ci al ly in verbs, an d with the � act t at language IS a ph en o m en o n that is do u b ly de pe nd en t o n tlve h IS tory. Language m . . eI udm " g Its ways 0 f ex pr es sI ng te m po ra l . r� ons ev lves t rough the ag es, a n d it is c lo se ly li n ke d to the � tlon o f national Identity in the past. "The h Ist ' or y 0 rrance, . wrote, "begms with th e Fre nch la n guage."
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past/Present /
5
Le[ us note first that the pastlpresentl(furure) distinction that ""m� al in linguistics. Saussure painted out long univers from far is al natur SO of tenses, which is so familiar to us, is alien to distinction "the that ago history does not recognize even the fundamental diS ages: langu e som nt, and future. Proto-gerlllanic does nOt have prese past en betwe on tincti the future . . . . Slavic languages regularly distinguish for fOlln c specifi a perfective represents an action as a whole, twO aspects of the verb: the t; pmen the develo fective to imper it shows nce refere ut witho point, as a line" (Saussure, see note). Modem linguis oral temp a g alon ss e proc in "the past/presentlfuture distinction is not ht: insig s sure' Saus S t adop tics " (J. Lyons). Some linguists insist on the con c risti acte char l a universa nd far the beyo goes verb and ch con whi , uage lang in time of tion c stru cerns vocabula ry, the sentence, and style. This leads some to refer to a "chronogenesis" (G. Guillaume). Here we encounter once more the fundam ental idea of past and p resent seen as a construct, a logical orga nization, and not a simple give n. Joseph Vendryes has insisted on the inadequacy of the gramm atical category of tense and the in consist encies in the way languages make use of it He notes for example that "it is a general tendency of language to The past can also be expressed by using use the present as a future1 the present; in narratives, the so-called historical present is frequently Inversely, the past can serve to indicate the presenrl in French used2 the past conditional can be used in speaking about the furure: 'if I were given responsibility for this problli!m I would resolve it quickly'" (pp. , 1 1 8-21). The pasrlpresent/(future) distinction is malleable and subject to numerous forms of man ipula tion. A particularly interesting example is the way time functions in natla rive. Harald Weinrich has underscored the importance of the foreground ing of a given tense i n narrative. Using a study by E. de Felice on medie val texts, he draws attention to the attaco di roconto (the nallative point of departure), distinguishing for example a nallative that begins in the preterit (foit) from one that begins in the imperfect (erat). The past is .
•
•
•
•
•
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•
not just the past; in its textual functioning it is, even before any exegesis, the bearer of religious, moral, and civic values. It can be the fabulous past of folk tales "Once upon a time . . ;' "In those days . . :' or the sa cralized past of the Gospels:
"In illo tempore . . ;'
Andre Mi qu el, usi ng Weinrich's ideas to study a tale from the Thou sand and one Nights, finds that it foregrounds an Arabic tense, the mudi, which expresses the pa st, the perfect or completed action, in relation to
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ch whi ari, expresses co nc mud the e, tens ate rdin subo a om I' tan t or h ct), erfe imp e (or Sinc ent pres the the p in a n ast actio i s bit ual , a ' t " h Ont at U I ' I ' Ii s e goa or ta I t h unctio that S n lve �, . IS to reCOu quel can show . r, r , "'II. n t sessed Arabs a scory about trium phan t Arabs , to prese h O dis",rvS . nt t r e ' a source, a l oun danon, as or a guarante f conceived ast III 1>Iith P e 0 et ro a e ' Ity,' ' th e way verb tense s and tem By charting changes 10 pora I e Xpr ' I ession h ' Isconca grammar , language can n i also reveal are used s the e volUtion of collective attitudes toward the past, For example F B , " tUnot P the mnth to the t hi rtee nt Ointed out that in Old French (from h centur ) y th was considerable confuSIOn between tenses, a blurri ng of ere the Past! r p es. ent/(fut ure), and that between the eleventh an d the thirtee nth centu ' , " ..r ' l y Impo rtan nes the use of the Impenect b ecame IOcreasmg t, wh'Il e on th r l' rteenth ch (Iou and fifteen th centu other hand in Middle rren e tJ ' ) es the , , US e of each tense became more sharply deltneated,5 Paul Imbs ha ' llil r , s Sll a ly ' th e M'd l dl e Ages, at leas t in Fran maintamed that language m ce, becarn e ' tr enna ' ted i n orde clearer an d cIearer, more an d more dluer r to e " " xpress ' u Itan I' , posten on ty� an�enonty, et c He " i dence, slm cornc also links d �� if. ferent ways of concelvmg and expenencmg the relat ion between P as t and present with different social classes : the time of phi losop hers , theo· logians and poets oscillates between a fascination with th e paSt and drive toward future salvation; it is a time of both decadence and h a o The knight's time is characterized by speed, but it often rums in circl ' confusing one point in tim e wit h ano ther, Th e peasant's time is marke by regularity and patience; it is a pas t in wh ich he seeks to ma i ntain h t e present, The bourgeois's time, as we mig ht expect, continually sh ar pens the distinction between past, present and futu re, and is characterized by rhe most insistent orientation toward the future,6 ,
,
,
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d
Finally, Emi le Benveniste mak es an i mportant dist inction between (I) physical time, which is continuous, uniform, infi nite, linear, and can be
segmented as one wishes, (2) chronological or "event" time, which is socialized as calendar time, and (3) ling uist ic tim e (tense), whose center is the presem of the act of enu nci atio n, the tim e of the speaker, "The only time inherent in language is the ax ial pre sen t of discou rse, and this
present is i mp lici t. It determines two ot he tem r po ra l reference points; these are necessarily ma de explicit in a sig ni fier, an d in tu m make the present appear as a line of demarca tion between w ha t is no lo nger pres· ent and what is gomg to become present. T he se two reference not relate to ti m e , b u t to views o f ti m e , projected backwa rd from th e present point" ( 1 9 6 6 :2 3 7- 5 0) .
past/Presen t /
7
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usually expressed in the form i is me l t ica tor of a nn ' �';'_ IS h ,-'-'" e , S'IIlc ' n the historian s work and 'm coIIectlve memory, it includes an both I present, an implicit focus on the pres the to e c n e r ent. This ce rel , . nt C , naI history, W tra d'mo lor tru e y inSlste, ll h'Ich has long been Ia C e p s e sl I is Ob" U story- history, a narrative, Whence the ambiguity of even y rim n ' seem to privilege the past, such as Mic I that a s e r s u o c s i d P h ' ca torl , hls u I resurrection t e g m ra e ' f the past�' t h those s a y r t o s 0 h i , m. gra pro s e\et'
� :.
sent in primitive thought and pre t pas n ee betw tion ' : /Stt1IC d The
" nes, to borrow CIaude Levidistinction in UcoI d" SOCle t sen pre I t s " a P e Th an that 'm Uhat" soclenes and of t h weaker both is y ' log , , Straus s' termI nO old SOCIeties reference to the in e c becaus i weaker s It er d . or 'g; rent e dI Creation or Golden AJ&e (Le G olf l hica myt a a to Ily a nn ' esse s past I to have to have elapsed osed supp is h whic time e th d ), an 6 1 8 '227' 6 19 ent IS usuaIIy "fiattened out," 1t 'IS pres ' the and n o t rea C l berween th e primitive thought is to be atemporal; of ariry culi "pe e t h ause , 1 ; 11: cu Jl er ent bec iC an d as a d'laOn a chr as syn y usl eo an ult sim rld wo e h t grasp to s trie it , 1962:3 48 ss S au t r ) e v i L ( y" . , chronic totalit establishes a partIcular ht ug tho e itiv im pr ls, ua rit d an hs Through myt ' ra d ox pa IS y " h' I or h' Ist Ica t my t: en es pr d an , past n ee tw be O n l ' t I a re f 0 kin d WI' th 'It, . . d e " om d n) co an t en es pr e th om fr d te ra sepa h ot b lI , a y Ic on the one d te ec nn co is st pa e' at ar ep 's l ca hi yt m Through n' tuaI , the ' h the he other WIt t d on an , iry ic od ri pe al on as se d an hand I' th biological ad de e th ': , r, he ot an to n tio ra ne ge e on om , ' con)olnt past w hi ch lin ks , fr . 3) 1 :3 2 6 9 1 ss u S r a t i v e ( L " g in with the liv ' , ls gu m st dl n ca ne sta ce m r � f , es in g ri o ab n ia al tr us A f o se ca In the � '.� e ct sa e th te ea cr re ch hi w ntes e between (1 ) historical or commemorativ 0b a e h t e ag ' ' rn ea r 'd a es m I ti ' a d beneficent at m os ph er e of mythl, ca d n , a " d ee s, d h ' h I r ei th d an rigl es say and mirror their protagonists in rn u o m g of tes n ) (2 d n a t" , en es pr ' to t he which "transport the past m " mng to the . asslg f o d a e st ' m e. ur d e oc pr e rs , which "correspond to an inve ,
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g g on am er ng lo antee that men w ho are no , t" s a p h e t to m t n e s e r p e th ' " g nn b I 'I WI y the t tha d an " into ancestors (Levi-Strauss 1 962:3 1 4 , to is se purpo whose rites I ta Vi 0 er pp U e th of es ib tr o Am ong the Sarn � a mm f i an ' 0 tion conce p certam "a I a ve re ' s � c Ii delay death through sacn nta e gm e s l ca i g o l o n o chr of s le ru e th to ct je b su nem time, which is not
:
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Pas,/Presen,
ng the Nu e� as mo ."A es liti ra po tem e tiv ela "r or , amO ng tion " 7 ' man y red asu i IS me rd co st ac pa ' the ng , to les op pe a' d, "primitive" n ere nt ki d S f ? o , groups and small s qUickly concern past v anis h es ages. One In he . t I " es, '1 tim r w 11 e a second pa t ' nce 0 f frorme mysten ous dIsta S COn stl u r te s r kab ema of r le and ence sequ r a impo tant event s "historical time, for th e f: amrnes, wars ) , w h'ICh goes back m . ' tn be" (R00ds, epl'demlCS, uch fu rthe r than the historical time of small groups but is pro bably l i m I' ted to b a OUt . . fifty years. Then comes a "I eve I of traditions" at which time " IS InCO r_ porated into a mythical complex." Beyond this extend s th e hO . nzOn of " pure myt II, w here "t he worId, t he peoples, the clvlhzatio ns" wh'ICh a h ve . "all existed simultaneously in t he same immortal past" are conjOined " . h tIme does not extend very far: what one can ta k as' r uer, N ror t e e history stops a century back, and tradition, carefully measu red, ca .
" J
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I es
rr
us back only ten or twelve generations in the structure of descent. 0ne can see how short Nuer time is by considering th at th e tree u nder which
humanity came into being was still standing a few years agO .lO the . western regIOn of the Nuer country! " (Evans-Pritchard '940: 128-33 ) . :ve But the sense of a historical past is hidden at the heart of prl· mltl . nevertheless profound ly synchron thought, whIch IS ic in n at ure. Levi Strauss thought he could glimpse it in the chan'nga of the central Austra lian Aranda. Charinga are "objects made of stone or wood, more or less oval in form, and with pointed or rounded extremities often incised with symbolic signs," in which he saw striking analogies w i t h our own archi val do �u �ents. :'Charinga are tangible witnesses to the mythical period . . . , SImIlarly, If we were to lose our archives, our past would not thereby be completely destroyed: it would be covered with what we might be tempted to call irs diachronic savor. It would still exist as a �ast, but it would be preserved only in reproductions, books, institu tIOns, even a situation, all of them contemporary or recent. Conse quently, it would also be laid out synchronically" ( 1 962: 3 1 6-2 1 ). Among certain peoples of the Ivory Coast, the consciousness of a his torical past has developed alongside a multiplicity of other times. Thus (he uere seem to have live different kinds of temporal categories: ( I ) mythlc� 1 time, which is the rime of (he mythical ancestor, after whom a past eXists until the first actual forebear; (2) histo rical time, whic h is a SOrt of epic of (h clan; (3) genealogical time, which can go back more � ( an ten generallons; (4) lived time, which is sub divi ded into ancient tlm �s (a v ry hard rim e, cha racterized by tribal wars, fam ine s, diss atis � faction, a tlm e of a colonization bo th liberating an d en slaving), and the .
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Past!Present /
9
ession be pr op of e a tim as ed ew y vi all xic do ra pa , ce en nd . e of Indepe ed time, the ect oj ) pr (5 n; tio em od m of y lic po a of ts se of the effec pp. , 10 artz hw . Sc (A re tu fu agined im an of time
:
60-6 1) .
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Temps el deve/oppement,
in t n se re d p n t a n as p ee tw be on ti nc ti dis e th General reflections on s es n s u o i c s n o c l histon'ca
lem of the "social ob e pr th ed is ra E ' Hobsbawm has terior to the od an ri pe e th as ed fin de g in be st pa e past;' th e th of n io f cieties consider the past t so os M . ly ct re di rs be em m re vents an individual votion to de is in th es tic rs te e in ar e er th ut B t. en es the pr s the model fo r t is the role ha . W in ip sl ge an ch d an n tio va no in ch hi w the past through cceed S su ct w se fe a y nl ? O st pa e th to ed ch ta at cieties of innovation in so ge. The soci an st ch si re y el et pl m co r to de or in es in isolating themselv all t at no e ar s, ie et ci so t an as pe ly ar ul ic rt , and pa eties we call traditional can st pa e th t to en m ch ta at e if th t Bu . be to t ough as static as they are th n it io ut ol ev e th n of io ct re di e th , s n o i at rm fo ns a admit nove lties and tr v tion o s nn i hu T e. in cl a de or e nc de ca de a of at th perceives is u su al ly the form of a return to the past: that IS the
:�� :
recently (1 972)
presents itself in a society in s. " ce an ss aI . n re " f ea d I I a tr 0 n e c '
�
st as their pa e th to rn tu re a e tak s nt me ve mo ry na io Many revolut socit an as pe re to res t to or eff s ta' pa Za , ce tan ins r fo : ion motto and ambit by er rli ea ars ye rry fo ed ist ex it ich wh in te sta the ety in Morelos ro ac o int e tak to ve ha e W . az Di rio rfi Po of e ag g nin erasing the interve the old city of of n tio uc str on rec the as ch su s on ati tor res c oli mb sy count War. A rld Wo nd co Se the of n tio uc str de the re fo be ed ist ex it Warsaw as me na the ts: jec pro w ne ry ve l ea nc y co ma st pa the to urn ret demand for a h rap og ge er, oth an to a ric Af of rt pa e on m fro y "Ghana" transfers histor The Zi nt. ere diff ely let mp co lly ica tor his o als t is tha a are t ically distan ish Jew nt cie an the of on ati tor res the in t ed no ult onist movement res vements, mo t lis na tio Na l. ae Isr te: sta w ne ely tir en an in t Palesti ne, bu a completely ate ur ug ina to d ten ich wh , sm sci d fa m an zis Na ing lud inc the to g in rn tu re as t, lis ' na tio di tra as es lv se n ew "order: present th em both be to ed dg ju is n tio va no in n he w ly d on te past. The past is rejec ds "new" or w e th d di w ho d an n he W le. ab sir de lly unavoidable and socia e d e or "m d an " er en "b ith w " s ou m ny an d " revolution a ry become syno
s irab le " ? al e n e g as d ve ei nc co st pa e th ith w do Two special problems have to
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P ast/ P ·rre.s�nl
. and 3S chronolog): Individuals composing a SOciety al maSt al cesrors, and one of the roles of ..... \\'aYs an \'e ha to need rhe d k .,·�at men ' s . . . to c su t h e am ta d 3n te s rom .:us of Th e the . past are Ii till wr need r • 0 en s es .or .... . nan U[lo . I on chr rem o by l ed ,, pt o"" o d a ' 3� and bJ" t re lllain es . . e f 0 1 the sen • ca p3st, h.ston for histo . a � senoal to a modem, direc_ '� nl chronolOgies ti nll change. Hisrori al and nonhistOric extS t, an d it must be (<'COgnized that the sense of the P;l t persists in d'I e v rse fa nns. • •, e I1S . water, and we cannot • I C III I lu past the In " sWIm escape fro m 'It (Hobsba\\m . 1Ud)1ng the binh of history in ancient Greece, Fran�is eh' atelet tried first to define the charaCteristic features of "rhe histonca ' I Sp ' " i nt. . He begnn by presenon<7 the p3st and the present as care ories t h g at are · --'d u<:rent. I enncaI and diir.. .
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. The historical pirit belie\'eS in the 'aJliJy of the past' and mamtam s (hat th past, III .ts mode 01 be'mg and, to a ce.tain extent, 'm .Its COn. ' -ut ltl nature from the present. Reman;.;ng <: ucr tent. IS nor di lI: wh at IS ' cp.. "' •� _r � 4m"W l.. _'!.' '�- he acknowledges that what happened did " no .. .. _ . (OlmeN\" e.�n, III a s�,,6c nme and pia.... -..,. J' ust as wha', we now see , " e.'\lSIS. " That means, m pama.tlar., that it is not in an way accept.L' to ticat what has happe awe ned as fictive. as unreal, and that the nonfresence o paSf (and of rhe future) cannOt in any manner be idenotied "\\1th .ts nonrealiIY. (p. I I ) .
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Bur the p3SI and the plCsem are also differentiated and even opposed:
If the pa-t and the p,esem belong ro the sphere of the sn .� rn � they are . the p here of • III 1£ it is true that the past event is gone . dimenSIOn const fom.er and that this itutes its essen ce, it is also true
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differentiates it from any other event that might It. The Idea mat there are repetitions in hisrory . . . that there . ts notrung ne... under the s�., and e\'en that "-e can learn from the past. em be meaningful only (or a menrality that is not hisrorical.
Wt
ItS
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· F'llIall\: b " tor:-. the SCIenc e 0( the past,. makes use of scientific methods (or $tud�ing tM past. ·
It is mdi.�n.
daJm on OUE :melltl on. In ofar a a rtucrure a signed to [hem, insofar a theIr li"'- . are n thlt' In the pr�senr. It is . that every discourse conrenu ng the pas t be able to dea rf how why-on the
Past/P,OSOlt /
II
at evidence it proposes a pamcud wh an , nts me cu do ich wh basis of n another. It is tha er n, rath sio ver lar ticu par a , nts eve of 13r sequence ken in dating and locating at care be gre t tha t n rta po im 311y es . toncal status only to the extent . s hls Ire qu ac ce the latter the event, sin y. ( .: 2 .-22) a is w th in d e in n ll te e d that it is
peci
:a
ision in the study of ec ith pr w ern nc co s hi "t at th ns ai nt ai m Chatelet e ginning of the th be at ly y on rl ea s cl ar pe ap d ne pe p a h what fOllell rl n vo old op Le by en s giv wa " tus pe im ive cis de e "th t tha last centu ry," and to 5 82 m 1 n fro rli of Be ty rsi ive Un the at r so fes ro p ), 86 (' 795-18
. 87 ' (t :22).
Ranke
t en res p and t as n p ee tw be n tio la re e th f o The evolution t.Ize to e ec t Gre n ncie a m o fr t h u o th g in European nineteenth centurY
be n re ca tu fu e th d t, an en es pr e th st, pa e th rd wa ro es Collective attitud lorization va e th ty, ui tiq n an ga pa in : ws llo fo as d se es pr ex schematically nt presenr; in de ca de a of a ide the th wi ng alo ted ina om ed pr of the past the past of t igh we the n ee tw be ed pp is tra nt ese pr the es, Ag the Middle the on ce, an iss na Re the in e; ur fut l ica og tol ha esc an of and the hope en se the m fro ile wh t, sen pre the on is ess str ry ma pri contrary, the gress turns the pro of gy olo ide the , ies tur cen h ent ete nin the to teenth valorization of time rowards the future. th my the er eith toward ed ent ori is e tim se of sen the e tur cul ek Gre In Thucy· of the Golden Age, or toward memories of the heroic era. Even he and r, erio ant re futu of son n tha re a mo no sem pre the in s see es did brackets future entirely,9 even when he knows how things will rum out,
man Ro .1O mem mo t pas the imo ely plet self com him orb abs to er ord in historiography is dominated by the idea of the morality of the ancients, a acti., ris empo t r Iaudato a less or e mor ys is alwa n oria hist an Rom and the praiser of the past, as Horace puts it. Livy, for example, who is writing within the framework of Augustus' projeCt of "restoration:' e.xalts "the
most distant past" and in his preface he indicates that the decline from past to present is his leading theme: "let us then follow in spirit, along with the gradual rela.t.-..:a ion of discipline, first the appearance of cracks in moralit); so to speak and then its progressive destructio n, and finally
its rapid collapse in order to arrive at our own time:' er nd u rt be Gi re er Pi , ble Bi e th in ry to his of s ing tud);n g the beginn e th of ry mo me ve cti lle e co th for t me be st lined on e condition that mu
12
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Past / Pres
" ent
past [0 become his[Ory: the sense of continuity. He believes th O seen in the institution of monarchy (Saul, David, Solomon)' "I '� can be s t o � � we must thar attribute monarchy ' of institution Israel s acquiSltlo the f a n o knowledge of its past, for even I f lt sense of continuity in the Po sse e s S h throug the past corpus this of of its legends, eve ' d a cerrain sense . . n ,f . had a cerratO concern fior exacntude, It IS onIy with the monarchy tha t the without ruptures appears" (Giberr 39 sense of a continuity B ' t) ' . rhe Bible, Jewish his[Ory is on rhe one hand fascinated by tS OWn �t in on g ' (the creation and rhen the coven ant between Yahweh and h'I p Ins S eople)' an d on the other drawn [Oward an equally sacred future' the dvent of � the Messiah and of the Heavenl y Jerusalem which' in Is� la ' h, IS Opened [0 all narions. Berween our origins, darkened by original sin and the r:-aI I r , and the . en d 0 f the worId, the Parousla, rhe expectation of which shoul d not disturb Christians, Christianity strives to focus attention on the p resent, . Firom Sam ' t Pau l to Sa m ' t Augustme and th e great theologians of the Middle Ages, the Ch rist ian Church attempts to concentrate Ch " , nstlans , mtOds on a present which, with the incarnation of Ch rl'st the cen tra 1 , . . pomt of h,StOry, IS the begin nin g of the en d of time. Mi'rcea Er lade, . . refierrmg to vanous PauI me ' texts (Thessalonians 1 .'4, r 6 -' 7,' Romans I ) , r 1-1 2; Thess alo nia ns 2:) , 8 - r o), shows the ambigUities inv olved In ' th'IS attempt: "The consequences of thi s ambivalent valorization of the (while waiting for the Parousia, history continues and must be respected) wil l soo n ma ke themselves felt. In spite of the countless so lutions pr?posed fro m the end of the first century onward, the problem of the continues to hau nt contemporary Christian thought!' II In fact, medieval tim e confines the present between a retro orientation toward the pas t and a futuro-tropis m tha t is particularly strong among millenarians (Le Goff r 978 5 :71 2-46). Jus t as the Ch urch or condemned mil lenarian movements, it privileged the past. . ge was rei nfo ThIS p � vtle rced by the theory of the six ages of the world, accord mg to which the world ha d entered its sixth an d fin al stage that of decrepitude an d old age. In the twelfth century G ui lla um e de Co ches declares.' "We are on Iy commentators on the ancients, we inv ent nothing . new:" . The telln "an nq . Ul.ry" is sy no ny au m th ou or w ith ity s . value (grantar), greatness an d majesty (majestas ). S. St el lm g- M lc lla ud ha s m ai ntai ne d th at th e men o f th e M id dl e Ages, tossed back an d forth between the pa st an d th e futu re, tried to live the '
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present
Illstonca/ present
resu:zine�
(auctontas�,
(ant1'luuas) ,
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past/Present /
13
was supposed to be a moment t tha ant inst an as ally por tem on' present n ' n! This is what Saint Augustine urges Christians to do: "Who of eternl'r at the mercy of the waves of the past g tin oa (fl t g h u ho t is th can a rest , in ity le a bil litt e it d sta giv an it ize bil mo im n ca ) o wh f , . and t e uture ' . . iendor 0f eternity, wh'ICh IS sp , e t f h 0 lon ult mt the [0 it order to open
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/ Past/Pres ent
. On one hand, progress in measuring, da ri ng, and denCles. chronoI . 0.". permit the past to be put in perspectlv� ( p.. B u rke) On the II3gic sense of life and death (A. TenentJ, 1 957), can lead to ep iCU rea n_ ism, ro the enjoyment of the present, expressed by poets from Lorell7.o the Magni ficent ro Ronsard: .
other, th�
But gentle ladies, handsome youths, Who sing and play upon your lutes, Drink the joy of every day, For hour by hour it slips away.l)
Scientific development, starting with Copernicus and especi ally Ke _ ler, Galileo, and Descartes, gives rise to the Enlightenm ent Optimis that leads to an affilmation of the su periority of the modems over the ancients (see essay "AncientfModern"). Accordingly, th e
�
idea ofprogress becomes the leading theme of history, which tu rn s toward the future. The nineteenth century is divided berween the eco nomic optimism of the partisans of material progress an d the disillusions o f those disap pointed by the aftelmath o f the French Revolution an d th e Napoleon ic empire. Romanticism turns deliberately toward the past. The pre Romanticism o f the eigl neen th century ha d already taken an in terest in the ruins of Antiquity. The grea t master was Winck elmann ( 1 7 1 7-1 768), a German historian an d archeologis t who saw in Greco-Roman art the model of true perfection (The History 0/'Ancien t Art, 1 764), an d published a noted archeological study, Ancient Mon uments Explained and IUustrated, in 1767. The first excavat ions at Hercu la n eu m an d Pom p ei i took place at this time. The French Revolution prom oted th is taste for AntiqUity. La ter, Chateaubriand's Spirit o/' Cluistia nziy ( 1 802), Scott's historical nov els (Ivanhoe, 1 8 1 9; Quentin Durward, 1 823 ), an d Novalis' essay Cluistiantiy or Europe ( / 826) a ll helped fo cu s th e p redil ection fo r the past on the Middle Ages. The figure o f the troubadour beca me fa sh io n ab le in t he Iheater, painting, wa tercolors, woodc u ts, a n d l i thographs. In Ihis period, art in Fra nce was a verita bl e "fa ctory o f th e p ast" (E HaskeJl). Three main stages can be d is ti ng ui shed In 1 792 , in th e fo rmer conVenl of the Grands-A ugustins, th e arch eol ogis t Alex andre Lenoir opened a m u s e u m th a I in 1796 became th e M u s e u m o f F re nch M o n u ments. A mong che many contemporary v is itors deep ly i mp res s ed by th i s museum was jules Mich elel, v. h o fi rs t discovere d c h e French past t h ere Napoleon sl rong ly favor d I h e pa m ci ng o f scene � s from French history. In che r 8 0 1 a n d 1802 t'xl . llb lt lo n s two p a io c ings d e a lt w it h t h e history of .
.
past /present / 1 5
. l � I4' ei ghry-six were devoted to this subject. Finally, 1..oU15France; In restore Versailles and to make it a museum 833 to I 10 d e d decl PhI'1'I PPe ries of France." o l g e th II a to . dedicated f,or the past, which nourished European nanon. tast e c n an The Ro m . , . . . t movements 10 t he nlOeteenth century, and whIch was 10 tum develahs . naI Ism . Iogy and to . If, extended to ancient law and phIlo Itse ' atJo oped by n . doubtIess IS ncy tende laner this of ple exam best e Th re. cult u popular 59) lm 8 Wilhe 786-1 1 ( and 863) 785-1 / ( Jakob ers h rot b the the work of LJ ",m iirchen of n Kindu- und na ctio colle ous fam the of rs h � u a the ° Grimm, German a ry , frhL Histo o Tales) rv a; F 's m Grim as h I' IS ng E J 10 wn kno ( 1 8 1 2; . 8) \ 8 1 '15 8 1 ( nary tio Dic an Germ a d an 8) , 4 8 language ( 1 .
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host ofthe past, the history ofthe.present, and the
MI'11enan.amsm i s far from dead in nineteenth. century Europe. It IS hld. h'10 Marxist thought, which claim s to be so" enn fiC, as well den deep WIt ' B .: J � ' IS h sees, 10 Comte te Augus When ht. thoug po sitivist . h' IO t WI as Modem Past (1 8�0) the decline of a theological and J OveraU EslU.nate O.rtM . . m IT�tary sys tern at the dawn of the new scientific and mdustnaI system, eh IS casting himself in the role of a modem Joachim of Floris. In the same way, the nineteenth century which was rJ.e century 0f history . . ' I past to I'lie C (F. the medleva continued, beyo nd Romanticism' to bnng . . Graus). But at the beginning of the twentieth century, a cnSIS co�ceming the idea of progress (Le Golf 1 986:1 87-284) leads to new attltudes with respect to the past, the present, and the future. On the one hand, the attachment to the past at first takes exasperated, reactionary fOllllS, and later, caught between the anguish of the atomic age and the eu '
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phoria of scientific and technological progress, it turns both toward the
past with nostalgia and toward the future wit� fear or hope. However,
after Marx, historians try to establish new relations between the pres :nt and the past. Marx had decried the paralyzing weight of the past, which had been reduced to the exaltation of "great memories?' This weight was felt by nations, for example, by the French: "The drama of the French , as well as thac of the workers, is great memories. These events " must put an end once and for all to this reactionary cult 0f th e p st (Lener to Cesar de Paepe, September
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1 4, 1870). At the end of the mne
teenth and at the beginning of the twentieth century, this cult of the past was one of the essential elements of right-wing ideologies and a com-
16
/ Past/p.resen t
ponent of fascist and Nazi ideology. Even todav J, the cult of t he pa . . B an , vatism P d I I conser . ierre socIa ourdieu oca tes ' accompames Sr It pa �' . d I ' . g socIa I categon.es: ''A class Or I I .
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In other domains, the attention given to the pas t and to duratl. on . PI ayed a grOWIng role In literature (Proust and Joyce ), In phil osophy . . In the (Bergson), and finally In a new sci en ce: psychoanaI YSIS. la trer, . . . laer presented as dominated by un con scIOU S me 'r IS In psych IC I lIe . . c. mones, . . by th e burted hIStory of individuals and notablY bY the most d'Istant ' past, that of earliest infancy. Howeve�, the importance accorded t O th e . B past by psychoanalysis has been denied; for instance by Mane ona . . ' parte ctttng Freu d: "Th e processes of the u ncon scious system are ate m . th ey are not temporally organized' th ey are not mod'lfied pora I , th at IS, . . . by passIng nme; In ' short, they have no relation to time . The reI atlon to . I'In k ed to the workings . ' of the conscious system"( p. 73 ). IS time p ' ean laget m kes an ther criticism of Freudia nism:the past which ] "
•
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the psychoanalytlc expenence grasps is not a true past but a recon . structed past: "what thIS operation yields is the subJ' eer's curren t con' past, and not a direct knowledge of this past . . . . And as I ce non 0f h IS
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belIeve Erikson (an unorthodox psychoanalyst, with whom I n everthe . less enn rely agree) has said, the past is reconstructed in relation to the . present Just as the present is explained by the past. There is interaction .
For orthodox Freudians the past determines the adult's current behavior. But then how can this past be known? Through memories which are
�
the selves reconstiruted in a context, which is the context of the present and In relan.on to this present."
I'
In the final analysis, Freudian psychoanalysis is part of a vast anti. . hlstOncal movement wh'c 1 h tend s to d eny th e Importance ' of the pasr/ . . . . ' II y, t' n POSItIVIsm. present relanon, and whose roots are , paradoxIca 51 Po . . . . nVlst h,st whIc h th ro ugh increasing ly scien tific mod es of datin g and text al crltl� sm se med to mak e a solid stud y of the past possible, actu . aUy Imm obtllzed hJSr ory I n the evenr itse lf and thereby elim inated •
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17
to th t pa en er ff di d by le d or xf O at y or st hi of study e th , nd la ng . E t as p e th f o cs ti li o p e th is °on. In ry to is "h , sm ri o h ap 's an em re F . lt su re " t n se re p t1 as p e e t d h en v er p the same t n se re p e t h f 0 ry tO is h e th is so e t s h le d' u st 0 w e h and porIo es "h at th g ' n cl an e d ) 2 0 , 19 9 82 1 ( r e in d ar . n. G t n se re p . e th f o ' y et reIatlo cI e so th to e ic rv se at re g a o d l il w . st pa e m sa e t h ' In e d aety 0f the d n te t, " n u o cc a to m ' r e alt i h e t e k ta t o n s e o . d . to y el er m k e se 10S0far as he er th eI s rk a m re se e h T -48). 7 4 p p k ic . rw a M ' ) ( . tlOn y e th e ls e r o l, a n dlreC a b ly h g u ro o th s u are th d n a m is n ro h c a n a against ad h so al m is v ti si Po t. as p d an nt se re p een w et b k n li nal . . on of the ratio ny a r warn seve tl a e neg In th d e lt su re , e c n ra F in ly b ta O n , h ic h w " . e d u it tt . a r e h � y it t rn ano te e r o re Sl e "d e h t IS ' IS h T . d te ra e n e v e b to d e s o p p u s s a w d a s that h g in is re e F d n o tt O ry tu n e c th lf the twe In . e is u g r la u c se new e t � d y e b ll o tr n o c m e st sy l a d u fe a f o lization a re e th h it w t a th .VlSt thought tl Sl . O d P n e n a to e m co d a h d n a ls a o g s it d e h c a re d a Church, history h e th th n wi e th d n a n o ti lu o v e R rench F e th h it w t a th t h g u o th historians s it d e in a tt d a a h , e c n ra F f o ry the histo ll a f o t rs fi d n a , ry to is h Republic, 9 8 17 r e ft , a it t u p y ll u tf h g si in t n ro p u D se n o h lp A s A t. n e m p lo final deve n ca li ub p re e th se au ec "b y, it rn pt ete ce ex ft le g in th o n s a w e er th and 1 8 70 f o it ir sp y ar n o ti lu o v e re th ed blish ta es ly e iv it n fi e d t en m n er v o g form of ar d an al o g s it ed h ac re as h ry to is h at th t es g g su ts x te l o o ch S ' e: Franc , n re d il ch y m e, ar e es , th ce n ra F d n a blic u ep : "R er v re fo y it il ab st at rived et L s. rt ea h t es ep de r u o y in ed v ra g n en ai m re ld u o sh at th ds or w O the tw l fu te ra g al n er et r ou y of d an e, v lo nt ta ns them be the object of your co is y it ern et of k ar m he "T : ds ad t on pr u D se on h lp A d n A ' l! el w as ss ne . 6 6 4 1 . p ( ) " ce n ra F n o h rt fo ce n he ci so , is ys al an ho yc ps ts en pm lo ve In another way, new scientific de to ek se d an l ra po em at e th r fo t es e qu th ology, structuralism stimulate ts is og ol ci so if en ev at th n ow sh s s ha am br empty out the past. Philip A as w se ri rp te en r ei th , st pa e th on (and anthropologists) ba se d themselves , st pa e th ow kn to t no as w t in po l in reality very ahistorical: ('The essentia of n n te a as ed us be d ul co at th but to establish an idea of the past hu e th I in ts lis ia ec Sp S ' t: en es pr e comparison in order to understand th . st pa e th of n io at in im el is th t ns ai man sciences have recently reacted ag rn tu e w ld ou h S d: ke as as h ux Fo r example, the historian Jean Chesnea g n ou y y an m by lt fe n io at pt m te the past into a tabula rasa? T hat is the g in ee fr h it w ed rn ce n co e pl eo p g n u revolutionaries, o r si m ply by yo x u ea n es h C t. as p e th f o se o th g in d u themselves from any constraints, incl s u h T s. se as cl nt a in m o d e th y b t is aware o f the manipulation o f the pas ld u o sh , d rl o w d ir th e th f o se o th y rl he thinks that peo ples, an d particula .
f: �
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modeled on be necessarily that of events. On the �hould s on i t g a l , . l OvesI lalcr restore history s true movement, historians have they t tha n ditio n ing by reading it, as Maitland put it, "back a t s from d t e fi ro en p ns, relatio esent r p ! t � pa which pl ayed a major of on pti conce s i Th ?' wards i n ' 919 by Lucien Febvre and Marc founded Anna/eJ al journ the Ie in has even i nspl fed a Bn tis h historical journal to take Past and .
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and in irs firsr issue to declare that "history cannot name, irs as en� p,es the past from the present
and the future?' the study of n the past, amaCts people today who are The future, no less tha (see F. Hinck er an d A. Casanova, ty Identi their of roots the for searching entre l'etlmologue u Ie foturologue), and fascinates them rien L' HislO eds . old apocalypses, the old millenarianisms are the But . ever than more lar popu of wfltlng, science new fottn a by shed noun are and rn, rebo at the same time philosophers or fiction . Futurology is developing, but tions to the msenton of hi tory biologiSts are mak ing notable contribu osopher Gaston Berger has exam phil the e, mpl exa For re. futu the into ing out from de. Start ive attitu pect the pros and re futu the of idea the ined the ob<erl'anon that "men have only recently recogni7.ed the meani ng of the future" (G. Berger, p. 2.17), and fro m Paul Valery's remark that "we
logically separate .
go mto r he future facing backward:' he has recommended a conversion of th pJ , t tov.: ud Ihe future and an arntude IJ,ith regard to the past that
do;: not tum away from the present or the future. but on the contrary, hdp' to predict and even to shape the future. book From
BioJOfiY
jJcqut' Ruffi a\. 0 examines lhe prospectl\ rhe
\t
101\1
nd of hi
: For him. h u m a n ity
(p. �69).
.
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111 IUf) oi Ih p pI
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the biologist
aU l\ ude and "the call of the
\ I n of hi'! r\ has
n
( , 976),
tnre-hold of a "new e\o\utionary
H
nl�
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made \ h
offiCIal definition
nt. It would presuppose that
tfUe coni mpcrary htstory must
of oonlemp(\r.lr� hiMOr) um n bl .
hl'tof�
Cubun
on Ihe honz.on.
Ihe a ele
be brou ght into b i ng.,
is on tn
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nd p \\1
to \"n
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In ' In n tur
t, tnat "a hiMory" based 'r, I
and lhat we reiect the
�enl al lht! very mo-
lid incorporating the ele-
1"(
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t 978:468).
r
ANTI Q UE (A N CIEN T) / M O DERN
An ambiguous Western pairing Although equivalents can be found in other civilizations and in other historiographies, the "antique/modern" pair is linked to the history of the West . During the preindustrial age, from the fifth to the nineteenth centuries, it organizes a cultural opposition that from the end of the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment forces its way onto the center of the intellectual stage. In the middle of the nineteenth century, it is trans
forllled with the appearance of the concept of modunity, an ambiguous reaction of culture under attack by the industrial world . In the second half of the twentieth century, it is found throughout the Western world, whereas elsewhere, and especially in the third world, it is inttoduced with the help of the notion of
modemi{ation.,
which arises from contact
with the West. The
antique-modem
opposition developed in an equivocal and com
plex COntext. First of all, this was because each of the terms and concepts is not always opposed to the other: or
traditional,
and
modem
by
antique can be replaced by "ancient"
recent or new.
The second complexity arose
22 / Anti'lue (Ancienlj/Modern
pa nied by lau d om acc n bee as h S l T terT atoty twO e h t f 0 L_ _ ch m oaun app ears in en Wh ' Pt_ s, beca use ea tion vu l nota g con I r La a rra neu t or , II tive In ' ee we ps k In to It h ' I C ora h' th e w ' M recent i l, dd l 'ng l "eaO e m [he " g y esj nl ° as and t pas h re mo rhe It to pre cis ng ngi el lo y, "be t ean o th m can .. , , ' e ' e t i nu h e r e an '7 te ce slx sin r nr s h e w c e rh r en in u ry n ow kn O a s /l , d perl al n_ ' um ph of C hri st ia ni ty h'ISroric rr e t h re t fo be od i r ! pe O e th I' n the ' IS, Jat I t ' ti7n/liN p d 'J ' ra t og ea gr h em e t h ic, econ omIe e lor be d an ' ld or w , and an om , M'ddle Ages, w h'ICh IS Greco'R ' l arked b gh m HI e th of n sio es Y the , culturaI regr ' , 0f siavery and an intens e rura I Izanon, ' , dech ne n r Western h ' the na y, ml tur do cen nth ree slx rhe in ISto_ When, sta rting , graphy (developed firsr by independent sch"ol ar s an d lat e r by unIV ' er_ rtO , anttque, medieyal ds e no re pe rh tO in ry tO s hI , proll s de vi di 'essors) ' and su y , , n refers only to a chr oft� ctIve adje each n), a Germ in ono_ modem (neuue, val rather th an to ant' die to me d se po op is m mode d , an , ''1Ue ' al period Ioglc , , the past does no t al ways correspond lng Olz ga or of y wa s rhi Moreover, n Swiezawski, dis cuSsi n efa St ht, ug rho st pa the of le op pe g [0 what the , moa ' teen th cent ur oJerna" schema rhar SInc ' e th e mne Ylo uaantu, rhe "via al iev e t, su ggest ed lat gh m ou of th s se aly an ' ns ria ro his ted na mi do has al gr rin io ct or e st do th hi by ed ap hy of the us be r no an "c l de mo that this ' ns! tio and tric res ns atio erv res Swiezawski us ero num t hou wit od i per adds: "This schema is nor general in either tim e or space; the concep t of progress and vitality then in force did nor always coin cide with what was considered new at the time, and rhe pair of concepts 'modern ancient' thus bad ambiguiries thar leave the histo rian perp lexed," I Finally, modernity can camouflage or express itself under the aus pices of the past of Antiquity, for example, That is the peculiarity of ftIlaissances and particularly of the sixteenth- century European Renais sance, Today, taste for the fashions of earlier decades is one of the com ponents of modern ity, �
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In this pair the modem is the main problem
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t i ci r y and properry, are dominant n he t u a of ' Th ese SOcietl"" rs ntO t he A nC'l ems, to Senates to a to ce d\J a T3 gerOntOCracy e 'da n ' l \' t m_ "" I, for gu f t ve a c rom g All Amon e, f I I o ement , retir the lo � ad'Ian of the \vory S t I h ief of the h d by ' e h u t n, ' preme c s ere zatio ni lo p ratry was h P t belore co I e e t est a Id 0 e of group, eoa s h g -I � ub m n a and the u.w eote v l est Id 0 O Ihe r " I ' II "ana , < w e proba bly a ut omat lca y deslgna ' ted usi ng the CnteriOn r e ' e lS h l C com Iaw lands, the antiq mon In e Age s, g la e iddl uiry of a righl eM h t In rs of a community is a juridical membe dest of age' ol a e h t rgum " ent b Y d e , st WI h Id not h owever I m agtne that ' ou S w vve h t, atte elg l e In antique f conSI'de rab 'IS not aI so a negative SIde to age and there o ies ciet ' antIq ' y o uIt C S ' haI c ' ' a Iso scorn for decrep' t d here IS t age, or a rc [or ect resp u e Th e, th e e l 'd s g n o Al reek wor the l G d geron, old m an, Wit the term inked at th l og)' o ro e a se, b f I ' et Y EmIle to shown Benvenis te . been has as remt h nded , O.r " on h gerOS, r e i anon to In the seen be Sanskrit to ,'amti' "to be as h n o e u s that g � ' IY 0 Id age IS ' s urrounded with : " Certaln s dd a e h d respect; an " , It, crep de ' l I f A 0 en n t C S , the Senate but couns e the up royal honors ' ake m en old ro man never receIves a royal privilege' a geras Id 0 an them, en giv r eve " n are term." 2 I n warnor socl en es, the adult IS f the o e sens ' ise ex,tn the p rec " nd to �he old man, That is the case in hlld c the t w t tras � � alted by con , In HeslOd: the gold and silver ages depIcted IS It as ce Gree are ' , t anCIen , ' youth a �d old age are unknown, whereas which In s e g a iry, vital ages of , , that of old men, and If ,It Indulges in hubris, it will end IS iron of age the grey-haired men born old, down Through the metang striki death with life, the term antique thus panicipates in the ambigu of ages the of hor wisdom between and senility, caught t p c e n co of a rise to the pair gives and to that its dialectical operamodem is it But 0
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of consciousness modernity arises from the feeling of the fact, In tion, having broken with the past, Is it legitimate for the historian to see modernity where the people of the past saw nothing of the son? In reality, even if they did not perceive the extent of the mutations they
underwent, historical societies had the feeling o f modernity, and created
omp licates matters because alo ngside th e m e a n in g of " a n CIent It has taken on a " specla I m eanIng In reference to th e period of Ant'IqUlt' Y, Jl" IS modern that , I ays th e major ' ro le 10 bP th co e W le, ha t is at up ' stake in the antagom . , sm erween anll'luf an , d modem IS th e at tit ud e of mdividuals , societl'es, and penods w'th I respect to the pa st , th at is, to tneir past. In so-called (radl't ' , lonaI SOCIeties ' � nt J q Ul ty IS a firm va lu e, an d th e ' , old AnClents people who a re of the co lle ct ive m em or y an d u
Modern / ntj/ Ancie ( e u Anti'l
a vo cabu la ry for it at the turning points in their hi story The word modern
comes into being in the
,
fifth century, with the collapse of the Roman
empire; the periodization of history into ancient, medieval, and modern is established in the same sixteenth century whose "modernity" Henri Hauser has stressed; Theophile Gautier and Baudelaire launch the con
cept of modernity in Second Empire France at the time that the indus trial revolution is taking hold; economists, sociologists, and political scientists spread and discuss the idea of modernization on the eve of the
24
/ Antique {An cient)/.l." Y 10dern.
a of niz olo dec t tex con tion a the in nd ' � Wa of the Id " w , or ,. Seeond e h f e t 0 pair d st lller ant _ . �' n o /" U The Y ue w orld, Uf \ 'rd 'I 0 -<en UI gence f the th ' a I moment that ush oClc hlst a of is lys ana e ' rs the e d In cI u , "'%" m must th e I'dea I te Y ea us o cr ne s ta ul m an si y 0' eb anrUf er th i u d an "tty ' _ J. to de ' of fTWU"' ' ' II an d put It at a cer h ls g n Istm d" U , to j. ply sim r o t ' r, ' I a It m exa II, , di St an ' � te to praise order ce' m 'rv it as located well be can as J ' I to de".,"" Fior modern . J II.
25
Antique (Ancient)/Modem /
.
,
_
J
: t) en d c an re ( G ue tiq an oe Roman an ' tlz oJ ty ui u i b am The " "I> , ... tr.q Ul/ ...., and other anttquw.es
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ts take place on the mo de n e m p lo e v de in ma the m s'i de of Even if , ' th e ' ' e d uir t h en acq t t n gh cal rou co the term a 'Uf distinction , the hlsron ue 1'0 ��stern culture has had great weight in the struggle of the te' Inl m odenr to emerge as designating a valu e To be sure, just as rrwdem cou ld have the neutral meaning
n
.
,
of recent ' or refer to a period antique could have the neurraI sense 0f anCient, ' Ot h er ' ' th an Greco R oman anuqUlty, a penod someumes exalted, somen' mes deprecated, Thus the Middle Ages and the Renaissance use the expres' r r to the ' us serpens) to re.e Sion antique serpent" (annqu Dev il , and th e u ' expressIOn antique moth er" (annqua mater) to refer to the Eanh appar' merely to the origins of hu ma '' entIy m a neutra I sense, all udmg nIty, BUt whereas t he DeVl'I's antiqUity onI y relm ' rorces his wickedness and his evil nature, that of the Earth confers on it the highest v irtue s, For Christianity, th e terms Old Testament, Old Law (whe re old [ancien1 ,I� o�posed to new, not to modem) are explained by re ference to the an te nonty ,of the Old Testament with re spect to the New Testament, but they still have an ambivalent v alue, At first si g h t si n c e th e n ew Law ' replaced th , e Id, and as ch an'ty (canias, lo v e) replaced ju stice to whic ' h 't s n r h d f:aw is in fe� r to the ne l ss en w b u t n � e v e n h � e jo y s h r i t Cl n t, o f on Jns, T h e g iants of th e O ld Testament � surpass th men of t e ew, even If th e lan er are n o t reduced to d w arfs as they were in the , twe1< Ith cen tury i n a ne w topos, attributed by J o h n o f Salisbury to Bemard , h d I' r ctor o f the cathedral school a t C h an This topos is iIIu res. strate y � t meenth-century stained glass w in d w in the Cathedral o that sh ows tiny evangej IS ' ts perche the great "
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d on t h e s h oulders of prophets, At , the very time . , when ann'lu e com es to t, qul ty and denote Greco-R oma n anrakes on all v the alu es that h umanists e caII the sCri n alssance invested in it t h e , pt of the Caro ' , I IOgl a n a ge (tenth
the R .
a n d eleventh cen-
, ) annque writing. Salutati, for instance, oied to obtain Abelard's ' tunes 10 the slXteent ' h century, according to us , " Th anttca . "en pts manuscri " a l�antl. ue, IS a p�lorat��e expression in French, be? " Robert Estienne, uncultivated antiqUity that is' with the With iated assOC was . cause 1t Mi ddle Ages the of qu ity ant i "'ic Renaissance onward, and the especially in Italy, from ra l n e g e in But go an age that is distant, exemplary, and ) to refers antico ( e antiqu the te rm gone forever. The Grande Di{ion ario della Lingua lt ali an a y \ t e n a rt u u�fo quotations: "Virtu contra favore significant these o") "antic e r gives (u nd ' I I ter certo, che antiquo v alore I ne bat com 'I fia e , me I'ar rli de I re n l h n ta "O gra ); bon de rch al tra ieri cav " (Pe rto mo or anc n e o n cor i i c I i al une Ie pani, per avere architenura in t bellisima ) di "E ; (Ariosto ,1" antl9u uell a dignita che s'ammira in tune "Q ); sari (Va tico" ran aro imit asSai ,, (Leopard') I 1 nc d' ano o nn sa e ch e os pr quelle In most European languages, antique is distinguished from all the in particular an tne s, a to cien va ue len d can t tha s term g in bor � � h g nei , ry of OU , iona cal Dict rsron In H ve, hiS rati from old, which tends to be peJo Frenclt, La Curne de Saint-Palaye (d, 1 78 1) put antique, ancient, and old in ,
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nt ent, and ancie e anci is abov e tiqu "An r: orde ical arch hier us curio a above old: to be antique, something must have existed more than a thou sand years ago; to be ancient, more than two hundred years ago; to be ' s: ar d ye re nd a hu an old, more th More precisely, the conceptual stake hidden within the antique/modem opposition was transfOlllled in the Renaissance, when antique came to denote primarily Greco-Roman antiquity, which the humanists re garded as the model to be imitated. Petrarch already exclai ms: "Is a\l of history anything but the praise of Rome?" ("Quid est enim aliud omnis historia quam Romana laus?"),4 What will hencefonh give the modem! antique conflict an almost sacrilegious character is that antique designates a period and a civilization that have not only the prestige of the past, but also the halo of the Renaissance that idolized and served them. The combat between antique and modem becomes less a combat between past and present, between tradition and innovation, than between twO fOllll S of progress: on the one hand, a progress by recourse to origins and the Eternal Return, a circular progress that putS Antiquity at the apogee of the cycle, an d on the other ha nd a linear progress that privileges every e on which the tiqu an e th is It y, uit tiq An m fro ing ay s th that move aw six e th of " ity ern od "m e th ate cre to d lie re Renaissance an d Hu m an ism dmo e th of s ion bit am e th to n io sit po op in e ris teenth century that will
20
/ Anti'lue (An cientj/<'" � 1o
dern
ent itself as "a ntih um . es pr to led ll wi a nlst " dem . mo e Th m. e , Wi' t h Iave fo r t m s an m i hu of gi" he n tio o ca n I tifi en en 'd va ' I I Y a . . VITtu l rhe h . u i ty. In th e sa m e Id I ,''l. t L an iq an m o w -R a co re ' G " is J, t e at th , . ' ' m ry oqUl o d es to com ue, ally antIq its the em e t l f , ns agai Wit le h g srrug d i in irs ffere . m o -R n co a re G at tl th an ose th y ir nt u q y el is ec pr rep , . es 'r' lac I , Ul anllq e . d . , b b d ar s de. an e ou v ar l m l ti an p l n d ne m iri : qu e e nd co s. BUt "' . stroYed, or h ' er il rts ov y hb Or ig ct ne VI sy ea s or e rly, in ea an th s in e w ue '{ l ti s Ql emanti r s a fo in a ng time a t gnps m lo c . re m ode m s, es tn en ci an field of "'irh It. s progr ess. d an new the : competitors be
The Modem and its competitors: Modem Modem and Progress
and New.
>
If the term modem marks the recognition of a rupt ure with the 't is n�r as I�aded With m�n ing �s it� n e ig b�rs new and progress. . . m plIes a birth, a beglOnlOg, whIch 10 Chns lJamry takes on an al � OSt sa cred baptismal character. It is the New Testament or Dante's vua
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nUOVa thar are born with love. New signi fies more than a break w'th I th e past' a r . an erasure, or an absence of the past. To be su re, In lorgettlng, ' ancI. ent Rorne the ward can h ave an almost pejorative sense' for examp I e In ' the . . , ' l expressron nOfTlUles novr, that IS, men with without a past, b� ro pa rents wha are outSI'de the social hierarchy, commoners or parvenus I .O . n cenal . , expressrons, Chrislla ' n medIeval Latin accentuates thi s sen se 0f a sa ' cnle . grous noveIty that is not connected with the pri mo rdla ' I vaI ues of the " �ngI�s. The "new aposrles" (novi apos/olt) th at Abe l ard scornful J nons In hI,S twelfth century His/oria Calamitatu m are th e he rm its i n �anons, and reformers of monastic li fe w ho , in the i t eJJ ect ua l � vIew are no more than cru de, u n CI'VI'IIz ' ed ca ri ca tu re s of th e , . true aposrles-those 0f th e past, of the tru e ongms, S m ' ce A n ti q ui ty, th e superlative of novus, ' ' unus h ad taken on the flOVUJ I t, mean 109 0f las ' ca/astrop/'i,c Christianity pusheS . thIS superlative ro the point o f a n ap ocalyptic pa r xysm . In a thi neenth -century treatIs ' e on th e perils an d calamities of the last times (De pencu ' us /.'. flOI!ISsunorum t emporum) th e Parisian master GUI'llaume de Saint Arnour pIays on the do uble m e a n in g o f novissimus which denotes both the ' most recent time and th e e nd o f th e wo rld, B u t new (novu.s also ) has above all the prestI.ge of the newly b lo the pure. omed, the SImIlarly, mtxkm £ is � nrrasted With pro>gress . Insofa whIch emerges ' term, r a s th iS rom latIn inro the Romance languag
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es o n ly i n [ h e six-
Antiqu e (Ancient)/Modern /
27
a , as noun to a large extent it carries fTW'(I.U7l y solel used - 'is y ' ntur e c teeoth The recent, as opposed to the past, thus takes its place . wake its aIo ng in ' ary I'me. However, when '10 the nineteenth century , a osirive evaI uuon In P g b i d d' p r a an a ve t . aI forms uv e jec rIs s ve 10 progre's, gt s res � ro , n . . outsIde the valorizing trai ct the nOu the au, ode up 10 left IS e ory progressive m m s. term er of the oth on, l Revoluti Industria rrwdern is the caught be of dawn Thus at the nce it lacks, and progresvsi e, innoce and ess freshn e whos twee n neW, also lacks. It finds itself opposed to antico, but de it mism dyna whose ages over the latter. Before examining rrwd ant adv its of e som prived of toward modernity, however, we must first con ent vem mo ard em's forw u modern the opposition antique (aru:iu)/ of de ma s ha ry sto hi , sider what g erni . d in to o ty rn m r tu e f e o b m is dern o m e z and a n aly -
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"
n ls ee rre tw : ua be l)' Q sw d hi a m od m t)/ ien nc (a n, � Antique l e om op e na fr th ur st E du em In pr s m ode M d an Ancients s rie tu n e th c n e te h ig e e th sixth to
" . "M a derns to "Anclents" a1 ready apg In S O p p O tS le n fl' o I c a n o tl Genera An of (TM d id Ov an 89) 76, 1 n, e les, rac pist (E Ho ity. tiqu An n i peared ge of ancient writers ("antipresti the d about e n ai pl com [) 2 J III, Love, <JUi''), and rej oiced to live in their own time, but they did not have a word ' t tras navus with antiquus. The neo con not did they e sinc rn; de for "mo modo from ed ry, deriv sixth centu the in ars appe t rs fi mus mode m s logi ie hod ved from deri ) " was day this f ("o mus hodie as just , ) " y t l (" recen imi s simu entis dilig rum iquo "ant the of ks spea rus iodo Cass , ay") ("tod R. Cur E, 1), 5 lV, As e, aria (V or" itut inst s imu iliss nob orum modon , r o tat tius has put it, modemus is "on e of the last legacies of vulgar Latin�' S One of the marks of the Carolingian Renaissance is the consciousness l Wa as h suc es, ativ ent res rep its e of som of t par the on " sm rni ode "m of " um dem mo 1um ecu "sa e agn em arl Ch of age the ls cal o wh , abo Str rid ahf of e lin the y, tur cen th nin the of r tho au er oth r an Fo )' e" ag rn de ("the mo t bu , era n tia ris Ch the d an y uit tiq An n ee tw t be s no demarcation pa sse d an ns ga pa nt cie an th bo ing lud inc ", res s ete or ("v th au nt betwee n ancie n ow s hi of rs ite wr e th d an s) er th Fa ch ur Ch e early Christians, notably th .
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ttme, •
ere th s, ie ur nt ce th en te fif e th to fth el tw e th om In th e Middle Ages, fr oc st fir he T . ns er od M d an s nt ie nc A are two waves of conflict between of n ai m do e th in d, te no s ha s tiu ur C curs in th e twelfth century, A s E, R.
28 /
Antique {Ancient}/M.
O aern J
n e qua rrel between A i n e u g a is e ther , frer J I 70 n cieti a try po e latin ts ha rt re C s ' f co m o m en na rd t and Ber ab g all in OU Re c t d Modems, e AI ' d am "'ar< 1'1 I ' , Ie ts an gI c on f IS rs 0 d e ul de sh o ns m " th e m perched on Odern em ), at rudi t um em od (m ss " crudene th e second ha lf of th e twelfth centu of s or th au ry Str Two notable ' th e ess r e to lo on ep d e e it m i t r ei th , o of t her to tng th e modernism Pr aI' se ph of as fir e th st e th IS qu ar of r es e s l rn bet"reet bitte It show the l A. " n· ' I ex c ur al y IS m b s: a I' S f E ve Jo 0 hn r t rn s, h ' In , ntS and Mode g �s oe y be e th of les nt ru cie an the s , ing a rd gr ca dis m ma r � ' roml'ng neW'' by s re, ed c an d n ew p at hs n, rheton scorn w ro th er ov tic ec al di newed, for th e n h io e sit po IS t op e b B ut d " tw e , e e os n op pr nova (" �adrivium were . e v rn iciou S) and (,riores ("the earl i e r m as t e rs ") pe ly licit , F h ties"-imp , IS en twe lem (be cuna 80 1 1 , and 1 1 92) " In ' SIS pan, Gautier Map, in De nugzs ts I esult of a s ecu l ar progre ss: on a "modernity" that is the end r cal l our h' IS d ' f o peno ' 0 t ne hundred years to IS, at t h ernlty, d ' , mo thIS to age whose last pan is still going on, whose recent and man ifest m e mo r gat s .
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he r together everything that is remarkable, , , , The hun dred years hat ha e v ' our cmodemlty. ' ''' And t here we fi n d th e term mode ' eI apsed, that IS muas ' 1 wh'ICh WI'11 not emerge 'm th e vemacu J ar unn the nineteenth centur , y conflict, persists ot the if n in thirteen th- centu The opposition, ry ' and Albert the Great consider e d a n t I'q u sch 0IaStl.C'ISm , Thomas Aqwnas e the old masters who taught at the University of Paris two 0r three gen' . s earlrer, around 1220 to 1 2}0 the date at which th e m eration . teII ecru al , " revolution connected WIth Aristotelianism replaced them W it ' h t h e mod. erm, among whom Thomas and Albert cou nte d the ms elves . Bu t I' t I. S I, n ,the f,, ourteemh and fifteenth centuries, in th e sa m e cu ltu ra l cli m at e i f no t m dIrect connection, that several movem en ts ar ise' ap pe al in g op en l y to , novelty or mod rem' ty nd opposm . explicitly o r im pl ic itl y to ea rJ ier g It � ' anclem Ideas an d praCtIces. These appear first of all in the dom am ' 0 m US IC, w he re th e ars nUYa triumphs in the work f G 'I I de Machaut, Ph ili pp e de Vitry (th e author of a treatise en ded a)' and Marchetta of Padua. Jacques Chailley says that t h ' , . IS new art IS "a co c pt lo n 0 f pu re m us ic , i n w h i ch � � words were only a pretext" 6 T h n a SI m Ila r m o v e m e n t ar is e s in th e o l� ogy and philosop hy,' where the V/tl . ch moderna IS ampl.oned in o p p os itio n to the VIa ' anh'nua The , rnadem path · IS f,0II owed by very b t they all d ifferent m in d s, pursue the way � 0pened up by 0 wllh AT/S u n s S C O tu s w h e n h e b ro ke ' . toteJIan schola st';c. . rhe rw lfth centu ry a n d t h ey a r a l more or less � e l fUlminalists o r , e fl In W Ith no ' m . Th e mo st fa · mm . aJ Is '
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Antique (Ancient)/Modem /
29
-1 se rruxkm'" or "tl.£Dlom the id of "fog ant 0- moaenu ort imp or and S u O JTl "",oJurtiores" are O�kham, Bun.dan, Bradw�rdine, Gregory of Rimini, S be set a Ide for Marsilius of Padua, must place speCIal A . ycliff and W recursor of modern political science, the first the as seen n bee � who has the separation of Church and State, of secularization, and of n a etici theor ( 1 324), tends to give modunus the sense of Pacis or Defens the ho in Giotto, whom of the period the sixteenth century also is This tive. "! UIII 1:' ' Vasan, ' or ' h e artIst. r IS the one "who reern d " mo " rst fi e h t red conside and goodd art of painting"(che risuscito la moderna e rn mode the vived dell'arte, Cennino Cennini credits his Libro In pittura). della arte buo na ern;' that is, with having aban mod the to pted d a a " ing hav h wit GiottO e;' and with the invention of a new figura tur "na for on nti ve con doned ry, the centu o nth devon moduna es fiftee the in ly, Final age. langu tive g n, gio rk.in a break. with reli ma of ain dom the in lf itse hes s tabl i "superstitious" religion of the Middle Ages. the with and ism, t i c s a l scho r ive c m, imit asti rch, p ticis to mon Chu the asce of ers Fath the to ns It retur l otes idua an and prom indiv and tice, prac and ng feeli S iOU relig s e puri fi myst ical religio n. The Renaissa nce ch an ges the course of this periodic emergence of the modem as op posed to the antique by establishing the meaning of Antiquity as denotin g the pagan culture of ancient Greece and Rome and to ri by giving it precedence over other cultures. The modem has a ght of ing mean e th the nt. tes is That ancie imita it as ar insof only ence er ef pr the famous passage in Rabelais celebrating the renewal of classical stud ies: "Now all the disciplines have been revived?' The modern is elevated th rough t he an cient. But the Renaissance makes an essential distinction between the antique period and the modern. As early as 1 34 t, Petrarch distinguishes . . .
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storia antica
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storia nuya (ancient
new history). modem (storia modema
history and
Different languages will later sometimes choose in Italian), sometimes new (neuere Geschi.chce in Gelman). In any case, the the at ed ish abl est is n der mo the d an ue tiq an the een tw p be shi on relati
Pe a, nov ria sto d an tica an ria sto n ee tw Be es. expense of the Middle Ag the of l fal e th m fro d ten ex ich wh s), bra ne (te trarch pla ces the dark ages Vasari , an rn te es W of n io ut ol ev e th In e. tim n Roman em p ire to his ow begins ch hi (w a" rn de mo a ier an "m a m fro a" tic distinguishes a "maniera an y ur nt ce h nt ee in th e th of e dl id m e with the rinascita, the " rebirth;' in th an m d ol (" a" hi cc ve iera an "m a and culminates in Giono), separated by ner") located between the two.
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Anti'lue (Ancient)/M
Odern
r ri rio pe y of the AnCle su is th st ain ag s ' n t tes ro I ess, e ts Neverrh b P e e ' ag e Im t h e 0 f us w to d ar re si gi de v n a es is re m he T O r Un te [0 be hea d d B ar as em d 0 f on ss ' stre d' C to rr har d rs of giants" es I I In the shou de t es h warv ave d h m at mode d e least the t that h e wry a Van [WeIfth cen "que giants. All th e same in t Ii rage anti the over rience he o£ 1 ng Pe t half rs t : nis V ma h hu nis is pa Lu iv s prOtest d .exeenrh century, the S °eh sJXt r e th o t c s an an at th dw e th re mo n no me re we o f e t" rim an Iq u tt � the men 0f his e y or re mp h' IS nte co st, lea ies ar ry ve d ha the at t , tha tha n ks to gJanrs, and " t he , m ru e ca rrup co llSlS ey ta th n (D ha d ha m I er artiu ancientS, risen high � , 5), A e tur t na s cha wa no res cla de s les l nd sse Ga generoUs to r, late y tur cen th e f Uity, antiq 0 b ut men " t th e h at to , zeal and the ' men of his time than spir it hem in And he ed instill tak c es up the idea . of competition must be t h at , e ue an ch antiq giants (Exercitatiofle$ th h er Ig h' nse can ms mode the paraJoxicae adversus AristotiuM, lib, I, &ercitatio, II, I J) . The second and most famous quarrel of the Ancients an d the M o d ems breaks out at the end of th e seventeenth century and the beg'100 , 0ng , of the eighteenth, It Iasts practlcaII y th roughout the eighteenth cent ury ' , , , and ends m RomantiCIsm. The tnumph of the Moderns is signaled by Stendhal's &cine and Shdespeare and by Hug o's preface to Crom weU (1827), in which the opposition between romantic and classic is onl the latest guise taken by the conflict between Moderns and Ancients., th�lOgs are chronoIogl'ca1Iy co mCus ed, slOce the hero of the Moderns, Shakespeare, is earlier than the classical models of the seventeenth century, It IS' true �hat since the end of che s�eenth century, th e su perio rir y of , the true anCients, the people of AntiquIty, was occa si on al ly challeng d For � mple, at the beginning of the seve nteenth century, Secondo L n� celom founded a seCl in Italy, the Hoggidi, that praised th e present an d , In 16 23 he "
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published L'Boggidi UYero u i inu un ' '.{; enon at�pas '-i m odemi non u; -" -.,," '"t daY's Aeople or Modern Talen ts Not Inferior to T h o se o f the UI al the end of th e seve
(Ii°
aSl),
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nteenth century th e q u a rrel heats u p both 10 ' EngIand and In Fi ' ran ce Whereas Thomas B u rn e t a n d William Temple publl'sh respectiveIy a Ran " .rIU L egync' 0] Y IOae m Leammg m Comparison
oftk Anciuu
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rOle IS ' IO, n on the ([687) and Charle Ancten ' ts and th e Modems s Aerrau It after hav lO ' g touched o ff a n exp lo sio n by presen ting T� Centu/'V f llIS tk Great J f 0 'LO L (Le Fireneh Acade " Ste le 1 e ae Lows' Ie grand) to th e my 10 Jan I �87, co mm itted a Iishing Paralle further otfense by pub ls &tween e na --
et
des motiunes,
J
688) ,
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Anti'lue (Ancient)/ Modem /
.3 t
partisans of the Ancients who could see nOlhmg the by ted Con fron ng the Moderns, the panisans of the laner proclaimed amo ce den , but deca twO ages, ered'Ittng the Maderns with the advantage the f o \iry ua eq e th k more nowledge and experience, or else d ate accumu l y l p m i s g n haVi f o ' Iy quaI"Itauve progress, , i dea 0f a genulOe the ked , ' , fi they !Ova conSIder posmon, rst these lines from Perthe of e pl m a x e As an , k Great: ts t u o L of ry tu h en C e taU I t,S T I always considered antiquiry venerable, But I never thought it adorable, I contemplate the Ancients not on bended knee; True, they are great, but only men such as we, And we can compare without fear of injustice The age of Louis with that of Augustus, '
n, consider what Malebranche positio d secon the of e pl am x e n As a h rut a r T est e (L Jo che QJ.t Th her 5 in
Phy Matk ApplicalJfe to aU Objects of the Mind and /kzson (La PhiJe,sopltie �ppficable a toUS les objets tk ['esprit et tk fa raison, Paris, 1 7 5 4): "The mod
nts: a that the is to ancie proposition bold in ior super al gener in are s em its utterance, and modest in its principle. It is bold, insofar as it attacks an old prejudice; it is modest, insofar as it makes us understand that we do not owe our superiority to the capacity of our own minds, but to the experience acquired through the examples and reflections of those who have preceded us?' Nevertheless, even among the partisans of the Modems, the idea of old age and decadence remained the explanatory curve of history. Per rault wrote in the Parallels: "Is it not true that the development of the world is usually regarded as comparable to that of a man's life, that it has had its infancy, its youth, and its maturity, and is presently in its old age?" Not until the eve of the French Revolution did the century of the Enlightenment adop t the idea of progress without restrictions, Tocque ville places the decisive turning point in 1 780. However, in 1749 the young Turgot wrote his ReflectWns on the History of the Progress of me Human Spirit su r les progres de ['esprit humain). In 17 81 Servan
w e (Discours sur Ie published his Discourse on the Progress ofHumttn Krwledg progres des connaissances humames), an d the masterpiece of belief in indef-
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/ Antique (Ancientj/Modern
Con dorce t s hortly be f y b n e t t ri w " was ore h IS (' , ' (Dlte progress ' C' , . uman Jpll71 = s ut q nu se dun tahie C tlze of s gres Pro tlze or au Oudine y ,
94 1 7 ) am , /wm l'esp rit de
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des prog,
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Around 190,0 rn:ee very different movements ar e la be le d "m od er nist" one of them at ItS own request, th e 0th er two under protest · a li m ited Ii f)' m vemen in the area of His pa n ic culture, a set o f a i stic ten . d es w ose nnClp 1 den ominat i on was Modem Style and d i ve � rse ' kinds ofdogrnanc InqUIry , w ithin Ch fl'stJ.a m cy an d princi p aJJy w i thi n Catholicism.
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The term modemirm o uIn ' elicates since a b , ou t 1 8 90, a g ro up of au t h ors wnting in Spanish ' , w ho chose t h IS n a m e to show t ' h el r common desire to renew theme s and forms " (B e r l,lIer 1 7 1 : 1 3 8 . It included especially 9 poets, and it was ) particulatIY \'Hal ' , In La t ' i n semanve IS Amenca. Its p ri n c ip a l repretbe icaragu an I\'n te r Rube ' o. T 0 his work that n a n h e ch aracteristics of are of special Imerest fo r th antifJue (/.lI1uu e genera I problem ' 1CI o f th e couple )/moJem are th e very dl, fferen t aspects o f i ts reactio to n
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On the one hand, there is a reaction to the rise of tion . evolu !U.stOO'cal af mateo' a I'1St I' dea Is, and 0f the bourgeoisie (modey, mo n of wer o e th P movement); on the other, there is a reaction to alist" "'ide an is Sm rfl l e h'IStOry (mod ernism is an "ariStocratic" ' masses IOtO the of tion , up Irr e th C poet a lor not the masses," D ano "I am ' . etes h says in aest . of ent m . move J " J ' y esperr:m{a) . But 10 reactIon against the a )'W ae Cantos to ce , the prefa ' lty, Dano chooses h'IS models in the cosmo' tlqU I A n sic a c1 as of cu I[Ure nineteenth century, and especially the second the of ature , poI,Iran liter "" d ecI ares: verlame means much D ' an ry. cent eenth ninet � half of the , , A reactIon agamst the Socrates. Spamsh-Am than erican me to ' more . that arose from the Spanish deb,tterness the agamst and 1 898 r of react ion against the emergence of Yankee impea also is k wor lea , his " ' onary" tendenCle ' s 0f the Spams ' h "GenerctI rea h e t s are sh rialism and of Latin Panamerican is m, an d '9 8" of atio n .
l heritage of the Quarrel of t ica histor the from h e An Ct'e Slarring ts a ion ut y ol all rev dic ra al tri us ind nd ch ang es the the Moderns, th e con llt ' J b 1 . ' /. In t h e m d ct n a e' second em anCJ£1llj oa ( e antiqu half e o f th e nl ' tw en ' _L n eteen , tu T ry r cen h . e eU th e new poles o f e century and In the twenU i voI UlIon ' L twenoeth centur y a nd f 0 Ule rum the at appear : liter , conRict a ry, artlSIl.c a nd or I o t a e r m pea f, a d accuse , ents movem o o religious t/e,nism' a � , t , erm mto doctnne hardemng . o f the mode which marks m te nd enCtes t ha t h ad encounter Th e b etween use, I d'fIi been developed an d u earlier nder_ developed countries outside . e . ,Western Europe and the Unn d ' States tum that are radicalized by decoI poses problems of modernqa ontzati w: On l rld ar. At the heart of the accel erat wo after the Second 'Y ' n 0 f h ,'story Io Tl ' estern culture, through born forward i mpetu s an d reactIO in �y n ' a new concept appears and expands in me area of esthetic creat l o n , mentall'ty ' and manners: modernity.
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M O D ER N I S M
In the strict sense, modernism is a movement internal to the Catholic Church during the first years of the twentieth century. The telm appears ' in Italy in ' 904, a nd its use culminates in Pope Pius X s 1 907 encyclical
it. But it is situated within the long-standi ng ns condem which pascendi, agitate d Christian ity a nd part icul arly the Catholic s a h t ha t n tens io on dow n to the present, the Second Church fro m the French Revoluti n ot final stage in the devel t but rtan impo an king mar ncil Cou Vatican opment of this tension. The Catholic aspect of the conflict antique (an ci£nt)/modem became a confrontation between the conservative Church and Western society of the industrial revolution. In the nineteenth cen-
tury, the term modem becomes a pejorative telm that the leaders of the Church and its traditionalist elements apply either to the ideology born of the French Revolution and progressive movements in nineteenth century Europe (liberalism, and later socialism and naturalism), or and in their eyes this is still graver to Catholics seduced by these ideas or simply lukewarm in their opposition to them (for example, Lamen
nais). The official Catholic Church of the nineteenth centuty declares itself antimodem. Piu s lX's Syllabus (1 864) is representative of that atti n Po n ma Ro he "T on: siti po pro the is ns dem it " con ror t e "er las Th tude, tiff can and must reconcile himself to and come to terms with progress,
dem mo re he , re su be To ?' on ati iliz civ rn de mo , with liberalism an d with e th in ely iv cis de es ov m it t bu t;' still has the neutral se ns e of "recen ngi be e th at d an th en te ne ni e th of d en direction of th e pejorative. At the
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the ict y, nfl tur co cen h anticolm od.""'0 iet ent tw the of ning "' it . h ' In e mes eco mor d b c an con In, aga r ent Cath up ated and V icism flares 0 e n 1 O , d a ogm ) 1 ( ll and s: I em b o r l e esp p o twO cially B I'bh' relation uS , '� a l e . n o ti lu o l(eg (2) social and poli ti l ev es,S; More than the ambiguous. social Catholicism' ",h IC' h In. an d' rch al Chu offiCI a the y vid ont (pro confr s c ly t c e ed dire not since Leo v'I 'd I <"\..l encyclical ,Rerum Movarum WIt. h an equally a mbiguous bU t p s 1 891 . en So ' I and exegetIcal movem theoI oglca It was the doanne), . . ent that c'laI , the center of the CrISIS of modem m. The crisis came firOm "th "'as at e lagging science, as . they ecclesiastical called it, WIth re behind of s p e ct to lay I discov eries . . . t was occasioned bY culture and scientific the brutal en, counter between traditional ecclesiastical teaching and th e n ew reI'Ig . . sCIences Ihat were deveIoped lar away from the COntr I �f �rt lous h odOJties, and oflen in opposilion to them , on the bas is of a re�0 U tlOnary pnn . . Clp. Ie: he appI"IcallOn 0f pos tIve methods to a dornam' and to , were herelofore considered beyond their grasp" (E. .AouI t texts that � 1 97 1 : 1 3 536). This modernism, which is linked with iss ue s c oncermng the Ii ree_ . dom 0fh'Igher educarion (the law of 1 87 5) an d th e crean on of five CathoIIC. Ins . titutes, caused a particularly grave crisis ' m Firan ce notabl . Y In th ' . , case 0 f AJITe � d Loisy, Monseigneur Louis Duch esne s pupIl wh was uItlm . ateIy exco mm un ica ted in 1902. to
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Three phenomena having to do with the devel o n t e anllp,e confl ict should be noted in conne t IS mod emls�.. FIrst: In Italy, the modernist movement resu lt s i n mass, propagand,st,c aCtIon and ends u h IIe mg th re t: o g r ade COntrol of the Church Over political, in tell a every ay lI fe. Three priests iIIus rrate the diverse tendencies Of th'IS oveme t a t th e b e g in n in g of the twentieth century: Father G lo. vanm� s � emena 7 - 19 3 I ), Ro mol o Mum ( 18701944), the founder ofCh ) n st la ' . Democ acy, a n d th e histor ian Ernesto Buonaiuti (1 881-1 � � S e m e na was eXIled, a n d M u rr i and Buonaiuti were excomm u . n cate . In haly, the mode rni l st confronts the CathorIe move ment thus . Ch urch as the pn ncl.paI 0bst a c ie to th e modern ization of society. Second modernism broad . ens modem 's field Iess to anaeJJl o f a c n o n by o p p o si n g it t h a n to · I., and . .lilt'" trodIllona . . In a mo re -"fl1 p re c Is e relIgI OUS sense to B Ut this broad ' emn . g is prod uced . If an lends Itse above a ll by t h e way it array of combInatI " ons and nuances: fo COmes possible to r in s ta n beit c e spe , ak of . ascenc , _mode. em.s m semunodemtsm o r m il it a r y m od e rnism ' or moderlll(a ciorrism (m,,",,", L . �). tSanflSm
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Antique (Ancient)/Modem / 35
well describ �d t�e final scope of this modemhas a � � Pou le Emi Third, beyon and d It, In hclsm all the ' Catho Weste rn milieu x n In ithi ' '' ..s m· 'vv . . . . I Itse Ie r . If es t In some k ma degree, It ence hmlts the influ domain its ch whi that expands of the and "knowable." Modem thus le" ievab "bel of the the touchstone of a fundamental reorganization of the field of becomes knowledge. 3.
MOD ERN STYLE
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vocabulary, whIch IS after all very important: of level the at ' can One the modem of a whole constellation of esthetic by ation annex the contest 1 900 took or were given various names in Eu nd arou that ents mOvem States, and were called Modem Style only in United the in and rope the echo modem names through the intel'llle these of most But ce. Fran nieuwe joven arte , t Jugendstil Kuns or allude , novelry or youth of diary sio stil, style Liberty. These move Se{esn s implie it that ure rupt to the , emic tion of tions acad rejec tradi the the fare ly sive deci ate indic ls men in a , els In art. they an) way mod an m put end Ro co e Gr ( que anti well to ition modem in oppos art. antique! What will the of ath e life-br the to er a no rn . be to long the will retu que anti them to d ose opp be h rt o f hence R. H. Guerra nd has derived Modem Sryle and its cognates from a double trend visible in the second half of the nineteenth century: the e the art for ryo theme e of and v ' It is . ne icism academ t s in ga a e uggl str e ideological aspects of the industrial thre with up nd bou ately intim s u h I .
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revolution: liberalism, naturalism, and democracy. In this essay, which concerns not art and its history, but rather the metamorpho ses and meanings of the antithesis antique (ancientJ/moden, we will focus only on a few significant episodes, figures, and principles. Since the enemy is the Antique, which has produced the artificial, the masterpiece, and is addressed to an elite, Modem Style will be natural istic and take its inspiration from a nature in which sinuous lines pre its as e hav l wil It s. line ple sim or t igh of stra ent rim det the to te, domina the ove rem to s thu and , life ay ryd ade eve inv to s, ect obj e duc goal to pro sed res add be not l wil it , ally Fin s. r art no mi and a h ts hig en barrier betwe r to an elite, bu t to everyone, to the people; it will be social. a , 6) 189 )4(18 ris Mo am illi r W th wi nd Modern Style is bo rn in Engla Morris . ed ok lo es hom y wa e th ge an ch d to te an disciple of Ruskin w ho w op sh st fir e th n do on L in d te ea cr ' n; launched th e "decorative revolutio l Be In . design of Or at in ig o e r selling decorative en se m bl es , an d w as th e th h it w e em od m e th of n gium the m o v em en t is p la ce d u n d er the sig
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Antique (Ancient)/M ode,."
e review L'Art Modeme It is in Be I . t h f o g l u Ill . . , da rion, in IOun , t a I po I IC cr ' d so an t ar Y is e m s d fir o t aSSe o0, nm ee · tw be k !O I ne d . tIlar the 0 I d L ' re a l e ih a c L _.. e . n ' O tlre ti Es ia C i O t SS a qu n a e, f o whose of rhe 1e0 unders g o e I it s d th a e f r w o s, d n e rp tr eu P o k w e n , t � e the h r o e m ro o to ga n was P ( ta or H an : Victor a r of . c rty h pa i t e or lab ct ian h the Belg o e d te a d n re il a c � U l b e g e st in f d _ o s s e w rc u so i re h h c e he dec ploited all th . s er f ne o IO e p th al o ci o_ so t ar as w an d, he d is m th e bUild rated and fu e d n s it A a e ls w in s B ru r B i l in lg e p u u Pe m u d h n so a ai mOdern of rhe M orator Henry Va n de Ve lde I ec d an t ec it ch ar art fo und an i mar w he re G ro pI U S at W e ed ' ct re di he at th ol ho sc succeede who ar the d r t ctu ea ite gr ch ar the al t ar y wa of the ewentle . th him), prepared the Iands, the Nieuwe Kunst Use r he et N e In th s au uh Ba . e th d materr_ century, . . an d Sl'l ver, an d m ad e th e , am I e rc po , d o wo : ds km l new I rn als of a ' es book, the calendar, and the pO s te r. d ate str illu e th in r han um ri ' h . N ital e t s cap firs t s wa in dem Mo ere wh anc , In Fra nce Y' Wlt
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S yl the Galle glass workers (18 16- 1 904), the Dareu x b ro thers, an d th e arch ite er Victor Prouve (r8 58- 1943), wh o practiced all the arts, Modern Styl e . , . descends mro the street with Hector G Ulm ard (186 7- 1 94 2) th e Ravachol of architecrure," who made of the Paris metro s t ati on s te mpl es of modern art, and with th e poster-artist Alphonse Mucha (1860- 1 9 9) .3 , The modern rook over Jewelry an d go lds m i t hing with Rene' La l1q u e (r860-(945) and opened shop with Samuel Bing (1838- 1905 ), w h0 made obj ect s in the Modern Style fashionable. In Germany, in Munich, modern art allied itself, under the sI.gn of Ycouth vug rT. etfdsil) wah pacifism and anti cler ical ism In S pa l' n or rat her �. C;.taIonr'a, rnodem an produced Ihe genius of naturist arch itectu re' �� i (1 854-191.0). In I aly, the Liberty style (taking its name from a. BTIllSh mercham who had [;ounded a horne lUr rnishing s sh op i n Lon don in 18 ) to hd' uTln, 1901. . n the United States, th e exemplary figure is Tiffany ( 1848-1933) whose "an workshop in New York exce lle i n d all ' the so-called mino, d promo�ed bl�wn glass by m ak in g it the decor of the most fam��:r :� modern mven tlOns: electrical li g h ti n g , Modern Style, an ephemeral phenomenon th at la st ed le ss th an twenty years (from 1890 ro I 9 ro), was ove s r h ad owed by a mo ve me nt tha r arose out af the rejection of decoratron . ' curve 5, an d floUr Ishe s and that first appears Darmstadt, Germa ' n), a nd cu I m m . ates in A u s r ri a w it A d o lp LOOS ( 1870 -(9 h h 33). AmId th:" :�� of om amenrarion, Loos m a d e h im s elf the prophet of a "new ag 'great walls, all w h ite," rh e reign o f '
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I ern od M l tJ .n d n A ( e Antiq/l
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since 1970 Modern Style has emerged from a eless, verth ' re. Ne cre ' coll .ItseIf once again In the wake of modcrmtv assert to 'J' urgatory I D long P . R evoy has weII analyzed: IGuch, L . e . h at t CS isti er act char to ,Jects ks " rhan 0 m b f ste a sy us, uctures of amstr , utt a 0 gr e th of � � ension dim "the ity. ambIgu of uage , ce, a lang . . lell . Spirit b was attached to heanU9/le h e ' t at h t IS ere h pOint ntial The esse , the modem spirit is henceforth , ts, while loi exp ces, to ie erp st ma roes, rO SI"ve , by the diffuse. aS e m th b y , ay yd er ev . shed by the nOun '
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Modemi{ation
tween the antique and the modern was be n io at nt ro nf co total The first s. d ca an the an pe eri ro e Am Eu th of ns dia In e th n � betwee at th s ap perh , Uished, conquered, re e nq er va s w an di In e th r: ea cl as w lt su re e th t Bu of imperialism and colonialism ms for nt ere diff e Th d. rbe duced, or abso s rarely arrived at such rie ntu ce th tie en tw rly ea d an en th ete nin the in uched by occidental imperialism, when to ns tio na he T . es radical outCOm ndence, were led eir pe th de in ng vi er es pr in d de ee cc su s les they more or s in certain domains. De nes ard kw bac ir the of m ble pro to consider the ine am ns to ex tio w na e ne th ed itt rm pe I I ar W ld or W colonization after rn this proble m i n tu mselves the nd d fou hin d be ge lag h a t ns tio na e th re he yw Nearly ever = we ste rn iza tio n, and th e problem n io at niz r e od m : n tio a u q acin g the e
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y arl Ne ty. nti ide l na tio at na of th th wi ted cia so as us th s wa of th e modern ral ltu cu d an l cia n so ee tw be wn dra s wa on cti tin dis a tOO everywhere n. tio iza rn de mo ial ter ma ic, om on l, ec ica og ol hn tec d modernization an the t ou ing br to d de en s int ple am ex few a ly on r ide ns co Here we can ish gu tin dis ll wi e W . m de ! ) t mo ien nc (a ue tiq an le up co e th avatars of on cti tin dis is th of re tu na ary itr arb ly ive lat re e th ng gi led ow while ackn e th ich wh in n tio iza rn de mo d ce lan ba ) a I ( n: tio three types of moderniza e th of es lu va e th ed oy str de t no ve ha m de successful inroads of the mo to nd tre e th ich wh in n io at niz er od l m ua antique (ancient); (2) a conflict d te ea cr s ha , ty cie so e th of rt pa ly ward the modem, w hi le affecting on n tio za ni er od m t an sit he a ) (3 s; on iti ad tr t en ci serious conflicts w ith an n (a ue tiq an d an em od m ile nc co re to s which, taking various forms, seek l ia rt pa h ug ro th t bu , um ri lib ui eq cient), not through a new general choices. e th m o fr ed in m er et D . an p Ja is n The m o d el o f balanced m o d ernizatio s u d in e th f o ad re sp e th en h w t en m top o f a hierarchical soci ety, at a mo ed w lo al ry tu n ce th n ee et in n trial revolution an d the discoveries of the
J8
/ Amiquc (An cient)/" ''l #o de m
the ong am din e lea c a pl g irs m mke o y d e idl rap rn n all' ' to n " opo ' ( o 1 M J I 'r lJ n e �m e n 6 s, t 8 Y 1 b t u o 7 n o d ie w rr ca d ) h ar n o ti zn i Nl o W e d m e as h c W h rec estern nrques a of n and the �nserv �c "recepri o , the ' . d by I�nu ' a tion • autocratic-militaris the t But .. regi m e that e of nous d'ge I In , ' rn e , e e d n t tha t was , i n a , 9 1 In ", S 4 ed end s so ces m pro "e d e Wa 'rom this II " a , y , J rn J ( , , n n 6 a a)'Ot 7 p 9 a f 1 0 n io a t p a a z i n n r e se d e o m society, ' crisis in the In S ' " I , c ' , ll po cs IS cra m o m ill e d st Pite ex pe rl'en cl n rd II lV tO ss re og pr its of g the , an eqUi'I I'bn' u rn between anllq' llc (anci te n rn t) en t en er a inh n ns d sio modern, . d an on the y, wa he r basis of mu ch mo t o an in t tha be if mlly � corn p lex a por a tem con rs esen ry repr f 0 de I mo n I l rae o b Iaa nCed demelll rn o h d. ns are sio ' e ten t ate e loc cas thi d in thi t wi Bu n n t enrizntio , he geogra ph. a ng r osi new mp co eli I sra rors e , ,a l pe op e berwee iC(l1 nnd eultura n thes ' e J ( i h s w e en t ra we di bet n rio , ll)l era s gen d n an d rhelr rei'gI, factors, n ' O US � f d nee or s rare a m o new d e h e t r i n an d za t i on Wh Ich foundation) ' IS One f e, o its tenc exis F s o ntee a r the same reasons of the essential gu ra co n· " must at a II costs sa feguard bOt h ' cenung Its SUI'Y1'V11I, ItS ClIItl9Ut (anriulI) t1nd its modern, The majority of Islamic countries can serve as e>.a m p les 0 f confl ict ua I ' , , modemlZatlOn, I n these countnes, modernization h as usuall y come ' an (m i l i ta ry o r orh e r)' and In " J boli t not by chOl'ce but by invasion y case through n hock administered from the outside. A I mO S t everywher e In . tII� ISIAnlle ' world modernization has ta ken t h e form 0 f W \'VIeSternrzatio n , and tliS I · IIl. 1'l'3111lkened or created a fund ame ntal pro h em' tv! \'Vest or " E: t.) "�It hout entering into t he demils o f th is conflict It ' can he said that h'Is(o.nea y. It ' appears in three forms: in the n inete'enth cen
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varv ' i n m a ny MI on th e whole up to ' 1t01l .r non 3u, d on Iy a lew sectors o f th e Is l a mic cou n erie ' �C\) noll1il! and t oueII o n ly dIe s urfa ce o f th ei r na ti o na l life. It 11 s hEotn \, lromed 011 l b I V the go\ ern I.Ilg eI'ttes an d certa i n parts of the "bourn ' . � " Ir h3$ � (;oeQi'I'1,;.. , a nonah , m deepened th e g uJ � be[1\ n In. e:1, ,llld Imnxl ' d u"ced a pro ound cultur a l m a la is e , jJo:que. Berqu all USla\ Ion G ru en ell 3u m , am o ng others, have � at)'ted this mabi:e.· For Gru n eba u m moderniza t io n ' IJmlc peoples fo r and natIOns tltt' \' enoal prohlt'm of th e ir id em ir Jacq ue has seen In "('u ues tT1!'m :l. rnb the ru p tu re that •
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domain: "modem sector"f'traditional sector?' own their in e lor ep C ' C 10lll d , ' IrllstS the Arab world, which a hundred In \S artlSU d an rary lite n , StudYi g "was ignorant 0f paInung, scuIpture, and even literature in the o g a ' d'\cates the contra' n to t hese words," he In , s have give Years dern urne o m e ' th eater, and paradOxically even in ns mus\c, I nove , se , the essay, the 'n ' h agi' tate and to a I dictions certain extent parW hIC t pas a ut ho wit .;an art _ ' proceeds directly 61m-" h tion t excep e ere w ' Id h wor thiS In ure. cult " ' ' f ot n alyze the from the lore tion es d unc ' lty as ern a tive d ctea mo n, l r � � y ctl e dir in or saction between the archaic and tran a or , tion ura cult "ac as ut b ss ce pro 3)' 292-9 (pP, " rted . ' po . im e th ca n be conSidered a kind of laborarory of es m un co an ic fr A The black , nt mode rnizatio n, Whatever the variety of' heritages and orienta, heslta /modern ) ent lem (ana prob in que antI the e mat dom ns we o . , tWO basic b' . , ' nons � � their mdependence is a fact e fi th IS e es th of rst e Th ries, nt u co e es rh ht in by the ug n bro uo lza dern of mo nts me ele the d an e, dat nt e rec of s e d to al te th ed re ap ne ly ad or po d an d, te en m ag fr k, ea w e ar rs ze ni colo e g, Th un ry m yo ve de is mo e th t, or sh in ; ns tio na d an s of the people ( ue e tiq ancient) a very th d an , at an re g is g la l ca ri o st hi e th second is thar heavy burden. l and ideologiica lit d po se po en op ev d an e rs ve di h ug ro th As a result, f ich t wh tha d n i : to es a) sir l de ra ne ge O tw ed rn ce dis be cal founulas ca n p loo l, f , rtia pa ive ect a sel ce cti pra to a, A ric for ble ita su s in the modem i k a specifically African equilib ) e se to b n; tio iza rn de mo holed, empirical, e rnizatio n , d o m d n a n o di ti ua n ee rium betw ff at th s em se it , e ort e bl ra ide ns d co an s se es cc su le ab ni Despite unde f g in vin ft mo o ge sta e th at ins ma re en o a ric Af ck bla n i modernization to g in at sit he t bu vlay its g in op ly gr on t no is ca fri A at cantations, an d th (al ic or et rh d an ism ric pi em of re tu ix m a h ug ro th pt face up to it exce be ay m d an , ay w is th in ce d ro e p to ht rig e ar s an though perhaps Afric .
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e, pl exam r ro , n) tio erniza od m of e od m s ou developing a specific, efficaci S H s ce en ci an um of te itu st ln e th of Amadou Hampate Ba, then director a of ak spe to f is on iti ad tr o k ea sp o "T in Mali, declared in 1 96 ) that of k ea sp f to d an s, ar ye o ns io ill m heritage accumulated by a people over r cu is r ,-e te ha w r fo ia an m a en ev r 'modernism is to speak of a taste o aban ts en es pt re 'ways al em mod ren t. I do not think everything that is om fr s u to n w do ed nd ha s m o olute progres with respect to the cust ua is in m d a l ra o m t n se re p re n generation to generation, \odemism ca n o s rd a w ck a b -e \ o m a r o t in o p r la u ic rt a p a n o ss re l g a ro . ic e p n ti\ or tech •
40
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s, "tra di tion is n ite wr he r, e ov re Mo ot opp int.'" po e ' sam IS osed th 1[, s d I[ " d an a em d em it s, nd s it from to s gre pro ks see it n.'I ' G "'" progresS, 1 a . p 4 5 ( nd f" e . ) him s Dev il the "en from 'It h respect to th e pro W nt ra er ab be ay m bl em o One case that f mOd If s ui Lo d. se discus D um o nt is righ t, . be to ns ai m re n eml'zario the sen .lR IndI'a has so � lar remat.ned un touc hed se ry to his bY th e of rime and notJ.O d e t e h n I respeerive me ri ts e d'Iscuss " op pe ia Ind In s. s gre of pro of the a n. I g I e a slO , on I e ev " ut b so to s, m de mo e sp the ak, com p cientS and aring (or sio ss res gre reg of pro n). "H istory them without any idea s only a repertory of high deeds and models of conduer, of exam ples " ( , :36) situated at a greater or a lesser distance, much as they migh t b:91:5 . cated [0 the right or left, to the north or south, in a world that is not Onen ted by topological values. Moreover, according to Dumont, the conditions of independen ce, far . , from simplifying the way the problem of modernization is raIs ed have made it more complicated: .
Adaptation to the modem world demands a maJ' or effon from I neli ans . Independence has created a misunderstanding, because h aVl' Og obtalR . ed It, ' In d'lans Iind themseIves regarded as equals by other n a n. ons and they have thus been able to imaaine that the ada pta tl'o n h as essen 0' Da . Uy aIready been completed. Their success was establ ish ed ' an d now [hey ha:e 0nJy to rna k'e ml'nor adj'ustments. The opposite wa s true. ; iJ.' . FOr India has succeeded in ridding itself of foreign do mi nati on Wn e . . . a Qcftievutg �A._. ,r! m� ...a,ion. This is doubtless a remarkable C! ,� su�ss, whIch IS due in great pan to tbe geni us of Ga nd h I, ' w h ose poltc.y ca n be summed up, I believe, by th is very forll lu la . (p p. 72-73 ) '
�um
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If D� m0nt Is correct, there
manlty
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would thus be an important segment of h u has up to now e scaped [he dy na m ic di alecti c o f t he pa i r
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anJipJe (ana&rt)/modem .
ModemiJy The term modernity was . COlOed by Baudelaire i n his a rticle "The P i a n ter , O of Modem Li fe," whICh was wnnen aro und 1 860 a n d publi sh ed in 1 86 3. The term gained curre , y in r nc}. pn' arll Iterary an d artistic circles d u ri ng m the second half of the n . ereenth lO cen \r tu ry, a nd w a s larer revived a n d mucb mote widely used after World ar n. Baudelaire and th IS . ne�" does IS nor 0 ffier anv reas the present and on fo r v a lu ing , thus rhe odern othe pleasure we m ; than tha v h , � it is present. "The deri e from t e r epresentati on of the p re s en r he =;; ,"
odun / nL )/M An cie ( e Antiqu
41
' th e beauty it may have, but also from iIS from onl)' sen estial . �comes not beaun'fuI IS panIy eternal but " a Th " e ent s pre . cadem.t' , 0f being h{'\' a qu .: (I.e., the pani san s 0f the antique) d0 not see that it is necessan'1\I ' , morality, h IOn as to es, f: um CI' anS passion?' The bea�. e "th to ed link y rtl . is t alsO Wha ? rnity em. mod mode ly It rt a is p " the t s a e l poetic ar e b p3 ust lm '[ u " M odemity derives frOm 1 . rh e " transItory. In I'" t rna "ete the bistOry, Ies he gt.ves, B audela'lre speaks of femin'1M In d " examp i t e h n Thus e. �mo the dandy, even animals, dogs man, military the of y "stud , rhe of on [asln , ' f h e word "m ode m" in the dirert 0 meaning e h t s pushe He " es. o or h � H I al' ms t hat every period has "irs c e s. ing sett s, tom cus , rs O . 0f behavi . non Int Id ' erest us tn the "antique" s Wh at ou h " . ges tur e ItS , loo k ear'n g: its method?' As for the rest , we general the logic, the itself, art e t h ' IS on y f t he present," and carefully study "every0 me mo ry "th e in h ve to reta of a �e riod e al lif rn te ex e th up es ak m [:ing t hat rniry is thus connected WIth fashIOn, with dandyism, with snob .
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Mode sses tl�a� "fashi� n should be considered a symptom stre laire e Baud bery. . an n hum brai the In r everything up g ove risin l Idea the for e tast of [he ' 'l e life that na[ural accumulates ? revolting there . . and y, crude , eanhl term the g by amon ed the cultural dan enjoy ss succe the nd ta rs e d un can in their Journal ([ 889, p. 90t): e wrot who ers, broth rt ou Gonc the dies, himself to be too much taken in allows Rodin sculptor [he ately, "Ultim l the natura he lacks and taste for re, the modem literatu ioned h old-fas by that Carpeaux had?' In our own time Roland Barthes one of [he cantors of modernity has wrinen of Michelet: "He was who has also championed fashion perhaps the first author of modernity who could only sing what could not be spoken?' Modernity here becomes an attack on limits, an adven ture in m ar gina li ty, as opposed to a confo[mity with the norm, a refuge in authority, a gathering in the center in the manner characteristic of the cult of the antique. Modernity has found its theoretician in the philosopher Henri Le febvre. In his Introduction to Modernity, Lefebvre distinguishes modernity from modernism: "Modernity differs from modernism in the way a con cept that is being formulated in a society differs from social phenomena,
as reflection differs from fact . . . The firsr tendency certitude and ar rogance COlltsponds to Modernism; the second a questioning and reflection that are already critical corresponds to Modernity. These
tendencies are inse parable, and both are aspects of the modem world" (p. 1 0).
43
/
M.ode r"
/l1II1,/Ue (AI/ciefltjl
ard what Is un fin is hed, Sk e tow ing rn tu by tchY, Ir ' o Moderni ty, n ic, t e f th o lf e ha tw t nd ie co nt se h e h rh Cc in nt zc l l u n e r Us r to te neI s X a n ' d 011 ' m ra I og pr 1C t n tli ou y, ict oc ed by flom" th eve 0f po tindustrlal nt icl s I e, t e cnv 1 sp per con flic t bct we rn . I � u longe r in n see e 11 n anli this" way, . ' ' I ' '1ue (Q I Dllng 1e t U reartlC conJu , S t s rsi nct e n. ural 0 0 dcrrt) and modUlI p PP Stt ion rn te u s lc e u in c W e . re b ma nt i ro d n n l a e. ic s s a l c n c twe ou tcome of m od e rn is m . al gic olo ide the is B u t as Modernity all ide d an of t, ub i do itic o l. cr of , sm , ed ish lin , un mo e h t de of rnl ty IS . o" "y a Iso b rea t k ' I ' I Ie p I wlr 1 x c a n a l l a ideo l ogi es an drive fOWllrd creatioll d all th eo• nce to ere ref the on tiq an d nde fou ue ll atio d timl an . ten d 109 rlc�, of toWar d academicism. .
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Going still further, Raymond A ron thinks that the ideal of mo ' dern'Ity . " " " I i�• "PromctI lean am b man, t 1e am b mon to reclaim the o l d Iior mul a a n d become masters and possessors 0f nature through scien ce an d echn ol . ogy" (I 969:l87). But this Stresses only the conq uerin g side o oder. � ni ty, und thus perhnps attributes to modernity what should be attn b . Uted only [0 rnade rn .tsm . I n any case, I t IS a caJi to inqui re, as we WI'11 . do In conclusion, into the am big ui t ies of modernity.
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Domains that fL'Yeal modernism
The olde t forms of the confro ntation between que (al/ciel/t) and mod. trtl were rhe qua rrels of r h e An cie nts an d the Mo de rns'' in orh er Word5 r nt lIon roo k place primarily on t h IS ' conlrO ,I lit er ar y or, more generall : � Y: . cu ltu ral terra m. Up un lll the rece nt battles co nc er ni ng m od er n'I t C' Y I. e ., a t the t Unt 0f t h e twenuerh ce nt ury), literat ure ph ilo so ph y,, th e0I ogy, art, ' and mu�Jc llave been parll'cu IarIy in volv
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ese enlms of in qu ir y were even m or e beset by : Ie over modcrll lt . y In
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ed in th es e de ba te s (i n th e realm is the ars nova da tin g fro m th e fo ur te en th century, and
lISIC .
A n ti q u iry, th e M id d le A g e s a n d th R e e n a is -
From the end of t he , Middle Ages a general ' vt Slo n w ht ch was ' howeve�, I i m l t,� d t 0 tIIe cIerg\! . . J ,I. nd . w lJe cr ua ls entere d rh e field of . II1C In battle. This was' rc. , I/(Ion. C t'rt3lnl v t h C aJe�'On o modema di d no at r Jl fo t ta ck th e undation of eh rts ' ren dom the . R f C o rl n at lo n o f th e si x te e n th century I not present d'd ' itsdf a a. ,, mod� ' rn " 1n0\' mt'1H ( ra 'ItS relcr r t h er th e reverse w ith ence s to the O l d 11 t to h e e rl the "modern ist" movc a y Church, etc.), a n t n, mel ts e ea rl) t w e nt ie t h century w o u ld .
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cientj/ Modern I ( An ue ntiq A
r
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t had the Chu rch's highest authorities not lem It a effec ted rmi ir s objectives. But the emry of rel tgion had , I e beyond far went at � n e th gnl sl ea conflict marks a broadening of the debate. odern m e/ ntiqu h e O t , d that from the sixteenth , to nouce ntly to the elghn sufficie bee ot n ( t has . . was expenenced , It as debate, by contemporaries thiS ries ntu h ce ' t cen t II Y new domalns. ' T he first of these is hisessenna tWO to nded waS exte ' ance created the concept of the I is well known that th e Renalss ' necessary as a b n'dge betwcen tory, ( II n e I h w two hison Y but ges, . . , MI'ddl e A fu 11, Slgm' ficant: anCient history and tive, posi were that ' , I periods . (orrca ' ovauon, from W h'IC h everything else deIIln true he T ry. mod ern histO " I ' rn e d l1sto ry. o . d , was the idea 0 f a " m rrve ' nce. Here aga'lll the progress ' t hat 0 f sCie s wa alll om d new The second affects only the intellectual elite. It is true that the ce scien ern" f "mod hteenth an d nineteenth centuries were known eig e lat the of s iScoverie s. Bu t Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Dessse ma the by d ize and recogn vince part of the learned world con to able e wer ton, New r late artes and il rem aine d unsu rpassed, Archimedes Virg and o, Plat er, Hom hat e en ptolemy had been overthrown by modern scientists. The British and H tile to in the his ce e, prefa enell f o istory Font this. e notic to were the first ofSciences, 1 666- 1 699, ranked "the renewal of mathematics and
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the advan ces made by the modern spirit of g amon ost forem s" physic ds. He goes on: "Descartes and which he hims elf was one of the heral ss that this kind of litera such succe with ed labor have men great other
ture has entir ely changed its face?' For Fontenelle, the chief point is that progress in these sciences has affected the huma n spirit as a whole: "Au thority has ceased to have more weight than reason . . . . As these sci
ences have extended their scope their methods have become simpler and easier to use. I n short , math emat ics has not only recently yielded an enormous numb er of truth s of its own kind, but also produced fairly
generally an exactitude of thou ght that is perhaps more valuable than all these truths themselves?'
The revo lutio n in the area of the mod ern dates from the twentieth century. Mo dern ity, con side red u p to that poin t primarily in relation to
"superstructures;' hen ceforth tak es sha pe at all levels in the spheres that seem to twe ntie th- cen tur y me n the mo st important: economics, politiCS, everyday life, mentalities.
As we have se en , it is wi th the in tru sio n of mo de rn ity into the third world that th e ec on om ic cr ite rio n be co me s pr im or dia l. Moreover, in the l an ch me is ity rn de mo of com pi e o f m od ern ec on omy, th e to uc hs to ne
44
/ Ami,!ue (Ancient)/Mo-' "
ern
i But triaIi7.1r s on. s Fo JUSt indus i l y a e e c r e P n tenel le or , Ulfl'On , an d m g sa pro ress rhe of s ce n the e i c ", 0 s h ain U lll a n cen ( 1 , e�s ogr S Pl tlt, th to rhe p� c ed er ei v p ve is abo y e ir n r all e d o as m of a I p rogress , economIC crltenO I' ' t In on a f 0 e produ h t I� t "io rollOll ln " I ' /1 , it ctio a " n that I mentaIny, l fre ' dS O f th e n i n e S th e mIn great he T i , t y t e od ern e nt h c m 0 f sIgn I , Jn esscnt ent ury d A n m o y R ron a "A d a has no rhls, s : ed te gniz eco r Y ,", ug U d a rea I d /In Ste I ura 0 nat " f our llon res lOlW eXp ces ro nl rion r the be thC Illost ·Id a Ie I e C.omt nn d Marx o ll tr ere d an i ncerp r de rn soclery, ' mo of proJ'ccr ort"nr I lOp eta rl On ' ' I ' t sm 0 f capit a 1St econo m nam d y lve rltut cons nr manc y that Sti of rI IC per ll ' J progrc.r, p. uti ons l di.nllw 2991 · Gin o Ger rema In valin roday" ILe.r m anl' R' In 960 1 10 de Jan eiro I lkr:.te n i ed lish pub text a ro ,., n" ' I n nC1'a a rerur . " . rhlng: In economIcs rh e process same the much . says . , 1 .. .... of s. ecu.. O ", J "lln m ' . . . lar/Ultlon mcan� first of all rhe dIfferentia tion of speCIfic economic in.rtitu_ enral rationality as a fu nd amen tal prinCip le 110'" Incorpor:ui ng i n s t ru m of " 10 g " allon 0 f cllan e. nction an d th e i n su ru tt'ona I Iz This I ntellect ual " conception of economic modern ity has led a '
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group of social sClenrim ro inqUIre i nto the problem of the rela tions between rhe Proteqtanr cth ic and economic development, thus exten ding ro con temporo ry non- Western countries the rhe�es that Max Weber and H. II, Tawney had dcfended co n cern i ng the sixteeorh and seventeenth
III Europe (EiRensrndr r 968), These th eses, which / bel ieve to be (.1 Isc, have the merit of raising the probl em of t h e reilitions between religion and mode rn iry on a broader basis rhan that of q u a rrels between exegere\ or theologians. /n t h e ame perspective, mod ern i ty can be ex amined-roday-from the point of view of dem og ra p hy First of all, the d,·mography of the fa m ily: Gino Germani, for exa mple, sees in t h e "sec ul.lnl.arion" of rhe family (di vorce, birth coorrol, ere.) an i m porta nt as pc t of r he prore s of modernizmi on and link s the "modern" fam ily to I neJus[rinliwrion-a lin k denl()n�tl'!lred, he believes, by the case ofJapan. cenruries
.
Hen ri Lefebvre counts the
ilppearance of "the modern woman" among rh� promtnenr traits of modernIty. I I WIth th t ' prrmac of the ec on omic and th is de fin iti on of moderni ty , by oil II.IWO" two n�,\ concepts (( )fne in to play i n th e o p p o si ti o n be t Wt'I'n Untr',I 'f I Ir'un 1;' 1I) ,I nd fill"" ,. 1'" ('I I l l(I. ) . I 'tr ' St, along wirh economics,
th e mlktrm I ,1,,0�1 J r "·d nn t
\V II Ir ff1Jllfl!!J rn
g('n ('r al , b u t w ith tfevtlopment, Qr In ,I mort' re'rrr(t �d "-'It s". Jt'wrt/IIl K to ('n,un lib t'r al ('COn om i5 t ' IV ItIl /!,OWIIt, S ('COlld 1/IfJ(I'fn r, nn IOlll(er upprhl'd to
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IModern I Ancient} ( e qu Anti
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objectivizing to a "modern mentality" defined of blc I cap a , '" tTlcntah,� ,12 But the twentieth century has also de actio n" � abstr of ty by the � �� , by reference to certain political attitudes. Pierre Kende fined m OW"",ty com monpl ace to 0 bserve that the structures of modern a [ IS t , es'. ",nt sene s 0 f revo Iutlon ' twO f ' s: t he one occurring 0 ct prod u ct dire life are th passag e from artisanal to industrial (the ction produ of re e in the s odu ction), and the other in the political sphere (the replace tTlodes ' 1 1 r K ad en ds de : "Productive usage democracy with Y narch 0 tTlent is which r anothe ation, aspect of lay and calcul nal ratio es pr.es u � 4 article "Zur Kritik der hegelschen 1 84 his in Marx, ught!' tho l ent C s l of Hegel's Philosophy of Law"), WrOte: itique ("Cr ie" h 'losop Rech ls ph I . I 1 b e ongs onI y to modern times I as suc State the of n ractio st ' "The ab , . IS a modern product. The cal State politi the of aclion abstr and t he ' I . d b I d ' rea ua d Ism, mo ern umes charactenze by Y abstract are Ages e Middl I ,Is m. dua Raym ond Aron, while essentially concerned with the problem of "the starts out 98), from 969:2, (1 economic fact and ity" modern of order 'al precis ely from the productivity of labor" and seems to arri�e, as we Promewan ambttwn fo of u n d ed on idea sCIence and the at seen, have technology as "the SOllree ofmodernity!' He nevertheless defines "modern civilization" by three values whos e political resonance is clear: "equality, personality, u n iversal it y " ( p . 287). Studying "traditional pol iti cal structures and modern political struc tures" in black Africa, Christ ia n Vieyra observes that if most of the new African states have adopted political institutions of the Western type (universal and direct suffrage, separation of powers), the modernizati on of these states has not always succeeded in overcoming a "vicious circle": the transformation of these states into modern countries presup
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poses national unity, while the latter is based on structures (ethnic groups and leaders) tied to tradition and opposed to modernization. Since Marx, the modern state is more or less defined by capitalism. Thus it is not surprising that for many people, and sometimes naively, the model of modernism, and particularly political modernism, is the
States. Kenneth S. Sherril has a offered a definition (based on research done in the United tates) of the " politically modern man"; the
United chief i
of this definition is that it may influence (or reflect) the foreign policy of the United tates. According to Sherril, the politically modem man ( t ) identifies wtth the national political community; (2) is able to
between the personal and the political spheres;
(3)
46
I Antique (Ancient)/M.O J uern
n s, (43) is powerfu«ll y) io in p o nn li s ha I n A,u en (4) has a strong ego; ced I,. ll is ) w e n b i , 4 , fo ( lt t u s m e r e d a s and a , ia d ' J IS lUnd "Y e m s s a m e th a lll h It te t W Ia h " o C en ' o s s r s e a to ( s ) d 7 i e s e n i ) (6 nc ' I , c ti In ed to r tally optimis wa d . " ' t I po ou a b l n ed ca m e r . e v nc en co t s WIth (8) IS rt n' io at OUt ip ic a , . P bel'n . (8 ) pa IS I a s rt , an , b u t op en g set bY ,them up r o I ed ss ' se ob p Y a either , rtlsan". ce en flu on an m g e vm th ha decisI'On s m of ng eli fe e th s (9) ha ' a . d e ' b�J ra l f: . rl d te h b y ac a C ze ar ( ) g IS en e 0 d J an ; alth In g . Public authorities . overn. n IS often presented as th ica er Am e th , lly ra ne ge e or e prOto men!, M " " H ty pe . n a m w e n a s a , n a m rn e d o of the m Finally, modernity has �cencly been defined by its ma ss i ve ch ara cter: . a ss e. ' Spi te it IS a culture of everyday !tfe and ma cul tur Ba udelair e' m . of m , had fro niry the der mo beginni ng onen his elitist definition of ted it . p h a self l i s o (him o h p e bvr e r Lefe of ri Hen d mo er�l and toward what � of everyday life) has called "the flower of the everyday." The artIStiC move · ments known as "Art Nouveau " at the turn of the centu ry aI so I' nves t ed " 10 everyd ay 0b'J ects as well as in altworks and mo mod ernlty dernl'ty p ' re Kende sees one 0f t h e char ler J s. ga get d o t d an ' estgn a I to d s ea thus ac. , 0f modernlty ' and one 0f th e causes of its accelerati'on I.n tensues the ' "massive . dI'/fiuSlOn " " ' 0f Ideas, mass communications!' If Mc Lu han wa s , " the d"ISlntegration of th e u tenb erg gal wrong 10 pred lcung he Cor· rectl� stressed the role of the audiovisual i n moderni ty, as d eo Bo· '
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gart 10 TIlt Age ofTelevision (t968),
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doubt best described and explal' ned m odernlt' y " ' as mass cuIture." He sees it as being born in th e Untt ' ed S tates In h 1 950s, an d m en spreading to other Western societies He de fi ' neS lt Edgar Morin has no
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The popular masses in the cities and in part to ne,,' standards o fl iv ing,' they ente
of th e COUntrySI'de acce de , r progressIvely into the un ivers e of ,,-ell.being, IeJ.sure, consumpt IOn which had prevI'Ou s IY been reserved for me m1ddle cld Lsses The ' quanttt r rmation (in" auve translO " c�ase in buying pO\\'er, the su bStlturt,on of ma h ' r h um an labor c Ine s lOr the augmentation o ' ' flelS ' ure nme) bring abOU t a s I ow q al i tat ive metau morphOSIS: the proble . ' ' dIV . ms 0f 10 ldual, priva ' te I I re , n r , 0f the realIzatio of a personal life . 1. ' Ulence ,orrh aose, " SIStentIY, no longer on l y at th e IO Ievej of me m ddle d as�es. bUt also a t th at 0f tIte develop ng sal ar ed cIass, ( 1 97f: I 19-2 1 ) ,
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Morin sees IIS Ch ' Ief novt'lt'J v 10 th e wa)' rna ' s cu Icure su hjeers Iauon between I h e
INI and
matio n. thIS CUltu re, which
Ijh:�u;�ary 10 an unpreced ente greal produCt' r of myth •
d
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(h ap p in ess,
/ Modem ci.nt)/ Antique (An
47
ns not only from the real toward the ctio fun ) etc. , ure leis , , ng ei II " II_b It IS not only an evasIOn, as , we on ctl d" Ire se er rev . we the ' but in ' , agi na!)' ? ion II rat an y Integ . IC3 OX d ra pa e and lrn tim e sa m the ' at 'In the past proJected modernity into perihas ury but cent h went iet t . usness of modernity or be T cio ns co had defined no d ha . t tha s tie ie c , S r O o t 930 an em'inent French historian ds In us Th se, wi 0 , er ' rnity oth e d century (which had put the Ancients their mO th sixteen the in , Hauser, saw Henn modern only in an, leners, and history as elf its w sa and al st de five kinds of modernity: an Ages) Middle on a p the to on relati in ' " a "reI Iglo " moraI revolution" " . I n, a utlo o rev and on Y us , lution ' o rev al u t ec II ",o , te ,, and a "new economy." An d he conciuded: "From any litics' o p " a neW thus appears to us as a prefiguration ry ntu ce nth tee six , the w vie of int of the world and of moral, individual, n tio cep con its In wn time. o ur o ing the internal freedom of a knowledge, in its feelings regard soci l international politics, in the appearance of d an stic me do its in ul, so e oletariat, and, v:e m ight add, in the pr of n io t a m o r f e th and sm i al t pi ca In all these domai nS the Renaiss ance economy nal natio birth of a that were singularly fertile even when nts me ele w ne it th brought wi e speak of modernity in a n w ca t Bu ?' . . us o r e g n a d be to they proved moderns ha d no consciousness of being mod d e os pp su e th case where on it? ti n e t m o n id d t s a le t a em or .
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odernism f o on m iti co re e th o f s n tio ndi co gn l ca n' to his The
or nsf tra ed rat ele acc the ses of cau the in pla ex to t no is Our goal here lore the difficult exp to or y, tor of his e urs co the in ies iet soc of mation on t ligh d she to her rat t es, bu liti nta me e tiv lec col in es ng cha history of nd on the a t pas the h wit aks e bre niz og rec to me co le op pe the ways moder or ism dern mo l cal we t tha s ak se bre the e um ass to ll wi e tiv col lec play sepa We wi ll focus on fou r ele me nts that frequently come into nity,
The ). nce scie con de e lpris ion nit og rec of s ces s pro thi in rately or together in led cal ly on mm co en be s ha at wh of on pti rce the pe first of these is be to re the for r de or in t Bu " ry. sto hi n of tio ra certain periods the "accele a ow all st mu on ati ler ce ac is th s, rn de Mo d a conflict between Ancients an m no e th n ee tw be l re ar qu e th e, nc conflict between generations. For insta us t (le s tic las ho Sc e th d an s ist an inalists and the Aristotelians, the hu m uity tiq An of s ter or pp su e th s ke ma at th recall here the cu nn in g of history rti pa e th s, ist ic ss la C e th d an s tic the 10dems in this case), the Roman
ue tiq an e Th c. et , sm ici em ad ac of s er sans of modem an an d the defend
48 / Antique {Ancient}/MOd ern
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which. is one of t e confli cts , sition oppo th rou )! anciot t modem ( h g dictory rel a t i on . contra s ""h ich . ' experience their wi th th el r s le es a st, be.. P e to struggle agai nst ha s de v Mo m the o OC a past p comes a cute when res t, w pas a en h th as e x e ed n� ienc per qua e re is l that be r a present tv,.ee n A.na settling o f acc of Olll1 f the . on s rake ms o u nts b Clents a nd Mode et"\\>ee n fathers and sons. the pressure that materia l progr is Ol me ele d on sec ess exer The . . Ci'Seg h ' elr t or to nsf ng tra ' un tio rnb ma con n. It i s on mentalities, true t hat , den om sud seld and t are tha lity nta y me the take pIace p changes in n. ' Itles ta t men h I e r ' ems f th e ves. 0 l leve at the Wh at marily cha nges IS th e ' o gn i t . m n o i 0 c o re f d e e rn lt Th y is expresse d mental equipment. m OSt on reas of or ra ation ti affirm on a l an i ty often through agai nst th u a case of the the "modem" in as irion, thinke rs of the M� thority oftrad I ddl e . . " En Igh tenment Wnte . th e "auth on. nes, Ages opposmg rs from F.on ten . el /e to Condorcer, or Catholic modernists who opposed traditional ists at . t he beginmng of the rwenoeth centu ry. Bu t modernity can also--'10 the cases of Ruysbroeck, Gerard G roote, Baudela i re, or Rolan d Barthe s_, priVilege the mystique of the con tem plati ve over intelle crualitv "the . -J' . , . .ve, an d con ongent " over th e "eternal lugm transitory, and imm u .
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(Baudelaire). Henri Lefebvre adds the "aleatory" as a cha rac te ristic :f modern modern ty. But the technological and eco nom ic "revol ution " of the twelfth and th ineen th centuries, the science of the seventeen
i
th cen tury, the inventions and the industrial revolu tio n of th e nineteenth century, and the atOmic revolution of the second ha lf of th e rwentieth century are all factors stimulating th e recogn iti on of m od er ni ty wh ose action should be carefully studied. .In some cases an external shock faci litates th e recogn iti on . Greek phl l�sophy an the works of th e Ara b thinkers, if th ey di d no t launch . ' cenamly nounshed the "mo d erm.st" conscIOusness of th e m ed ieva l . Scholastics Western techno logy and thought created th e conflic b ! t e. tween Ancients and Mod ems m non- European so ci et ie s' an d Japanese ' r ean an p a nd A m layed a role m ' the comm ' g to co ns ci ou sn es s o f the new an �f the '" west aro un d 1 90.0 Fmally, the affitma rion , of m0d, emlt ' ' y, even If It goes be yond th e bor ders of culture, is restncted to a IlOti ted group 0f i n teII ec tu al s an d technocrats. A ph en omen on 0f the recog nm ' on 0 f progre s of raneo us with a ten co n re m po . democratl'zatJon of OC'IaI a n d p o li ti remains, at least c a l li fe, m ode rn ity at the Ie�e . I 0f It de \ el opmem. I Im groups and " n e d to a n " e li te," to COtenes . Even w hen m odernity ha a tende ncv. as it .'
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/ Modem cient)! ( An Antique
49
f in a mass culture, as Edgar Morin has sllg itse l ate arn . who develop that culture, through television, posters, de lad�Y, I ed, restn.cted group of intellectuals. � to S1 elo ng e , etc . ps, This g str i . ic . m , ies. ambIg uit ys sign co ernit mod of e s on is jU !
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The am
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b;mJ.ity ofthe modem "t>-.
modem has a tendency to deny itself, to the t tha st r fi note uld ho We s Ages onward one of the arguments of the e Middl the f From lISel bstrOY the Ancients were Modems in their own time. that n bee has e rn d Mo d his readers that the Latins had been inde rem , ple exam for Fon 1ene l Greeks. By defining the modem as the presthe to t c espe �hr Wit adem tTl past. 0 ne thus pn.vI'1eges not a content foture a it of make ent one can push'109 thoIS meamng 0f the . aud e1alre, B iner. conta eral hem ep an . but ' , an d draw'lOg on fash'Ion o dermty m f t 0 ep nc co s h, in ir Iim the o n r der o the modem to be perpetually on the way ms doo fi it tTl ne de ' . � order to we denve from the representation sure plea e "Th ce. scen d 0bsole . r Owa I only from the beauty It may possess, but also not es com t esen " of rhe pr . t. n .ty 0 f belOg prese h a u q l a ri n e ss e irs fr only linked to fashion ("Fashion and the not is ern mod the O�hus and ent, the to mom and time mysteriously to hed attac both are odem mo bil e images of an immobile eternity:' says l, rna ete the th wi ed nnect nting o n Baudelaire [1 9 62: 172l), it can scarcely me com re, ebv Lef Henri modem tends to privilege the new for its own The . bery snob escape
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idea. , the the of of object the work, of t conten the out empty sake, to enberg, "lies in H. Ros tes ' wri art; dem mo for rest inte sole the "Since anal by ned i tlll not dete elty is nov this e sinc and rk, wo a of y t el v no the
s cise exer ting pain arde nt-g er, ava pow l gica ago ped and ial soc by but ysis activity in a milieu totally indifferent to the content of its work" its
( 1959: 37)'
Ultimately, modernity can designate anything at all, and notably the ancient. "Everyone knows;' H. Rosenberg observes, "that the label mod rder o In it. se po com t tha rds wo the to on ati y rel an r s ge ha em art no lon to be modern art , a work does not need to be modem, nor art, nor even
be n ca c cifi Pa h ut So e th m fro sk ma ar ld ye -o a work. A three-hundredp ( " art s me co be h ac be a on d un fo od wo d lle ca modern an d a pie ce of t1?�. ra. le ce ac of s es oc pr ed in ra st re un an in 3 5) . The modern is caught up gi rti ve e th in t ou ab d rle hi w is It has always to be m or e modem, an d it .
nous vortex of modernity.
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/
An tt9ue (An cien t}/''I
� 1o dern
ity : gu e bi th or am o "m x do ra de pa r m " at th e he ot an is e er H e I. ' d d ar w e ck ro ba s e th ru p r ' m t en as es pr g If ab e th It anac Of rhe yss of ,< e .u s r. re ta ro k e in g s nd te st hi t ss y, or he le he rt ve ne M 0 ir , d anc.'enr e rn It ' ' y an , h "T t er ge s ro h, o ri pe g es yl d sr o w hich call d rhe rasre for earlier s it f s e el w lo its al to w, ne s be o ely b tir en : e lf be e ss d bY th and wants to e Favre t has eann show e n PaSt: Thus by J ry," stud histo ry, l ' memo ng the l a Ol itics of rural Algeria how one can fall into "traditionali m throu oc l h Pxce f modernity," Among the In g h ' b ' ts an a Itan i f K l aby a 0 in o e ss a ucular, � : the ion lut vo Re oy l str ria de ust Ind ed rhe the of tr n ario a etr pen d Itlonal S t ru I d' " c_ tra 1tI ater, m nahs years red p hund reap a 0 bur ears , rures n Ot to fu lfi ll t, exis er long but no h a whic new , tions func funct',Jon of c rhe old a I I 10 ' 9 , n for modernizatio The ambiguities of modernity are especially relevant to revolu ' tlo n, modernity shown, is "the has Lefebvre shado Henri As w of the rev _ olu sometimes its and caricature." , dispersion tion, its But parado call thi y, s break thar individuals and societies make with their past or r1 e, mod _ er n ' ist reading of hisrory that is not so much revolutionary 'as d sresp J �crful, can become, through what Edgar Morin has called "the impregnatl on of cu IturaI and dal'Iy I"ue," an Instrument that makes its u sers more adapt abIe ro change and better able ro integrate the ms elves into th ' elr Sur-roundmgs,
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MEM O R Y
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The
idea of memory is an intersection, Although the present memory as it appears in the human sci to vely lusi exc oted dev is essay ropology and is therefore chieRy anth and ry histo in arily prim ences ries, it is impor ual mo me ivid n ind tha er rath ive lect col it h w ed concern hous phenomenon orp the am rs of tou con the eRy bri out tch ske to tant , ledge know ld of e fi the in with rally gene ars appe it as ory mem we call Memory, the capacity for conserving certain information, refers first of all to a group of psychic functions that allow us to aCtualize past impressions or information that we represent to ourselves as past. From this point of view the study of memory is related to psychology, psycho physiology, neurophysiology, biology, and where disturbances of mem ory the principal one bei ng am nes ia are concerned, to psychiatty ,' Certain aspects of the study of me mo ry in one or the other of these sciences may allude, eit he r metaphorically or concretely, to traits or problems of historical an d social memories (Morin and Piatel\i Palmarini
1974),
The notion of ap prenticeship, which is important in the phase of memo ry acquisition, le ad s us to pay attention to the different systems of
52
I Memor y
" IOg memory that have existed in various soc ieties a nd o' trnln n Vat ' r'o� t I1e t Ileo r Ies Iea dl ng in I AI s, gic lo no ch ote cm s som e m ""r,tOds'' mn , e a cal S hani liz mec ctua a � less atio n t c- the l'dea of a more or of e m e m to Ot mor y e com 'f'Qct.r o vor s plex fo con in f ed ce don aban pt of t h e IlOve been , " rn ne. I le . t tem sys ce pro s ss vou ner of rhe m of Cm o rY In 111011 1'c activity ' hum bl' l S I I me n t 0f traces ' but an esta the only not s e involv the rere be,'"gs ad In " ' f 0 a s rere d esse ' proc 109 "the g can and s, invo lve very of these trnce co m. f l I t parr corte " large C 0 x, and even if a cenrers there are nerve lex P So t e ' I" I Ii ' e ng cercbr:ll centers tIInt specl3 Iz III l x r 0f memory traces " (c me h a n. lleux 1974'35 6)' , hood mem ory chtld of study the r, acqu iSition has[all In particula o ed us to ob erve rhe major role played by intelligence (Piaget and h det ; Scan thesis de dia , that with Scho nen line decla res tha ' T 1968), In he " -cogn itive I " b h ' percep e tua aVlor f c charnctertStl 0 patter ns that seems t o Us " ' ' most ',undamentaI IS rIlelr active, constructive aspect" ( 1 974'29 ' 4 ), an d , sl�e adds: "Therefore one can conclu�e by h o p r ng tha t further res earch , , WIll investigate the problem of mnestc actIvities by res i tuating the ' In the ensemble of perceptual-cognit ive activities, in the ense mble of t o�e activities that aim either at organizing themselves in a differen t way m " r IIe same SItuatiOn, or at ad aptrn ' g to new SttuatlOns, On ly i n this way will we someday be able to understan d the nature of hu ma n memory, Wh'IeI1 causes us so much trouble in ou r fie ld s" (p , 30 2) , Whence th e vari�us recent conceptions of memory th a t emphasize a s pe cts o f struc turauon and self-organizing activities, The ph en om en a ' of m em ory, In ' I�gl'ca I as weI I as their psychological aspects, ar e t Ile'lr b10 on ly th e result o� d�namlc sys�ems of organization an d ex is t o nl y "in so fa r as th e orga , mzotlon maintains or recons ti tutes them," 2 Researchers have thus been led to re l ate memory to phenomena hav, I�g ro do di�ectly with the h u m a n an d social sc ie n c e s, Fo r examp e l ' Plerre Janet In his b00 k L" I ' I evo
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exists in Our memory as a form of lan gua ge rain r ce a , w rt, rten or , , , p. 461 ), n e P' II' a ,k d P I ' nnr late ma an o rin (Mo sp rage" sto n tlo a rm the memory d'ISlUrbances which, alongthat fo nt evide ,n e mo r en ev , Ieve I 0f Ianguage in aphasia must h It IS e t at r app ea also ) ean a, es, ? n r m a ' re,erenee to b y t he socla\ SCIences, cases side many in ' d e Ialn exp e 'Imporrant I eveI , 'In the same way that but al alsO b horic metap a t a , � e � o re o disturbance of the individual's memory but e M local a rely ot m n S ' h IS ta I ' ' persona\ tty, es ' n m o l 10 s at n b ur the absence a perr us serio less or , ON m es caus of collective memory among peoples , loss y ntar lu invo r O ry a t � u l o T or v ve ecti . of coll tity ms iden ble pro he cons iou ser USe ca n i ons ca t a d n an , ms 0f memory may ai so be not metap horf r o nt ere diff en e etw b s n lO ror eet n d e erv " mple, that In obs has exa ody Go k Jac , ter ac r cha I 'I n rea ut b l 'ca I ' y 0f to ' formatio " n to their a I arg e quantit d hol s ual vid ndi ' " eS I Ieti " SO II I C ' a memory, an d temporan y, In theIr -term long their in ' , age ' hert t genetic a :39 5) ' 77 mo ( ry" t me e tiv ac n of d the on es, sec pa el hm ire ryl les La mo me , an in urh Andre Leroi-Go ory in a ve r y broad sense, but also distinmem s take , le paro a l Le Gesle el ,I . ry, emnic mo c memory, and artime fi ci spe ry: mo me of es typ e hre gUI' Sh es t ficia! memo ry, ,
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in a very e�tended sense, it is not k wor this in ood erst und is Memory ligence but, whatever tt may be, the suppo r t intel of erty prop a I on h ch sequences of acts are inscribed, [n this way one can speak of i � 'spedfic memory" to define the fi�ation of the behavior in a,nima\ h ensures the reproduction of whic ory mem nic" "eth an of , edes sp " 'fi ' \ o am CIa " en, h an e to " d k f sam e y b t , behaviors in hum an SOCIetieS, an memory, which is electronic in its mos t recent fOltll, and which en
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sures, without recou rse to instin ct or reflection, the reproduction of linked mechanical acts, (p . 269)
Recent developments in cybernetics and biology have considerably enriched the noti on of mem ory, especially metaphorically, in relation to human conscious mem ory, People now speak of the memory of comput ers, and the genetic code is presented as a memory for heredity,' But paradoxically, this extension of memory to machines and to life has at the same time di rectly affected psychological research on memory, pass ing from a pri ma rily em pir ica l stage to a theoretical stage: " From 195 0 on, interests shi fted radica lly, partly under the influence of new sciences
such as cybernetics an d linguistics, and took a clearly more theoretical turn ?' S
lysls hove insis recJ, in c:holl n psr and � the cns!t Psychologi. rs of 1l1 y bl om g (n llo n rn fo e rg w ing Eb b". ' � ". rh nt of fo in < 1 • ' ",. II I we , O , us gh a U ory s lllp ulo tlo ns rnll ) () u cio e int ons unc res ' t or o us ' u eer iv " " , r IIe COil 10 I' ty, d � e cis on er Vl eX e/I 1Il llp si tll or ns du ce m enlOry. d an . , � , on ' 'Il 'bl II I ' In . i Sire, ' ' I th e Il1ll n nr lta ue pO Iss Im on II en be tl � hilS tr r)' Il0 g III� g 1 , ll'" I
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su d os i t forgorten or not me y t th onon mm y l memory is one of rhe ro I t ne L Istoricol stu d ' s essenn:l y and tho h te he s s rhe e calls "the domestication o� We h e successio n: eth c wit writing, called "primitive"; rhe rise pre Hstory to ntiquity; etween t e ora an t Ie written; (4) the memory, III i e? rhe sixte�nrh century to the present; (�) he current overllow mg o f memory. ThiS procedure is ns i ed t t b of Andre Le i G r a n ''The history of collective me mo ry Y can e d�1VI e tnr� Iive pe�ods: oral rransmission, wr itt en transmission or S i m le file cards, m ec ha ni ca l w rit ing, an d el ectronic , sequencmg" ( 1 964/6 5= 6 5) , In order to i�g m ore clearly th e re la ti on s be tw ee n m em o , ry an d history rhat con mute rhe principal horizon o f th is essay, it h as seemed ' m e prefernble d IS ' C S separare Iy mem ory , o i e tie s w i th o ut s i t ' mg, whet iler a n C ie n t or m o dern, an d to d I" t g ,sh th e f ol lo w in g phases in the h I'srory f memory in Socl"etles r ha have both oral an d wrirren memo ' , ( ) Ie ' , phase tn antique wI He ' h or al m em o ry pr ed om inates longSide rhe partl·c I unction , s of W n'tr en or IIgured m em or y; (2) the medieval phase of betlVeen th qu il ibriu e t lVo m e m o ri e ' a lo n g w it h the important rrJnSlOr r matlOl}s III ' . [he 1 e h 01 t h e m; (3) the modem phase.' 0 cimr.I(,lerI'tt'd b dt'l'I"I V " ,Id .In ee s ' Y connected with w ri tt en m em o ry and I I:reraC)', a nd o' nJ, IIy; (-I) the phase corre,
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'y changes of the nm urio vol �' rt: II { ' II to ' f III expun�lon, , ory e m "m
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mory I /i � t/ln ic Me
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wh o llses the term "ethnic memory" ln" our IH G roifor all e L to y r a only to refer to the collecti ve tr It usc n wi1l I o memory 0f , C 'es ll , , elc so n nOIC, Witho ut paying it undue o Let i fll ting, ' on, u wr atte h n l l t ' U ' IIO " " Wlr Ie Importance, that OutSide of wriling ItS g P tti >o e mneslC g ' r o f P. , ut , o ith W In SOClelles WIthout wriling, but aI ' " only r not bu l so tn ' n stan 'co y r \1l Good y has recently pe rt i nently reminded us that II (I( Jack ir, ve a h " ut th � S wrltlng, and III m any sectors of our own culur rho wirho ell Ir u re st ' h'III memory is pan of everyday "I n mo s WIt I e m em e f 0 io ul m u c ac rhe tll re, )' :31 770 h'fe" (19 ' oral a n d written cultures by referenc e 10 the n i t s inc I d S i h T seems to me, as to Goody, to be based on the ory mem to I gn d ' aSS kS tas Itures Situated at the midpoi m beI t among s n o a l r at h I r fae , t hat are equally wrong in their radicalthought of t n r r c wo r en , rwe ' ' ' h h ave t e same men POSSIb Il mes, the other I lat aII ' Ai , "one " sm I , m pli itl y, a distinction between 'them' and 'us' " or i ly c i i l p ex drnW IIl g, culture of people without writing is di ffer the that is truth The ( p, 4,, ) ' other. not i il but ent i pa l domain in which the collective memory of peoples he p es is that which provides an apparently histortalliz cry g n writi ut wirho exis tenc e of ethnic groups or fam ilies, that is, the for tion da foun ical ory myths of origi n, Geo rge Bala ndier, discussing historical mem gs seem innin e beg s "Th that o, note ong the of nts bita inha e h ng amo ory with d all the more imp res sive bec aus e the y have survive in mem
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precision, The Co ng o has nev er bee n so vas t as it was in the time of its \t , e r ow p of s ect asp tain cer es uat ent acc , al " itu "R y," 6 tor obscure his and , thic my e om bec has t tha y tor his a in ts , rOO gs its nin gin its be evoke it make this
sac red :'
of s pe ty O tW es sh ui ng sti di el Apropo of th e N up e of ig er ia , Nad he "t is ch hi w ' e; tiv ec bj "o lls history: on th e on e ha nd , th e hi to ry he ca rd co ac in ish bl ta e d an e series of fa ct s th at w e, as re se ar ch er s, descnb re r ei th n er nc co d an l, with certain cr ite ri a th at ar e ' ob je ctive, universa
56
I Memory: Etlmu: M. unory
omer the history he me on and '" ssion, v calls """ me "15 and SU' '" Jaoc anu � OlgaO'," ' s mese faas in acxord l icaI," ",hidI d : ceq. rh .W S nd n ki seco 11 11 ), 27 :1 <)76 (1 of hlStoh. It, established uaDirions" J is use . L. ends Ii co h' ISt n Or ro y t "-i th U k> I tht m h ro/L,\,,i l! ilK"""}' "", And . yc rea re n mo l Do lJtu'fl di iIS roms y '' r}' t hisro " award "'.L"ideo'--"->' " .., rd " dom; " , , � of the �ng towa rhe figure of TSOed .. earli. e est the adulIa' hero and mymical founder of the upe k.in dom,n The hJS, ro adopt Malinowsk becomes, dlus s express nnings wry of begi ion, a chatter" of die tradition. . rolJecrive memory of socalled "primirive" socimes , also IS ' cal, ed rL. ' ca. ' pa I tc:u u , and . , fntD"est pra pro i fessional knOW m � � Dallan" ledge. ' As ItrOl-Gourhan has pomted our, 10 acquiring this "tech meal me m· u soa I ct su "m ' e ur � o e a f � trades I ays ._ft w iro"!;, ,_ I., ury im. porullt role, whedter we are concellled with blacksmiths In Mnea Or .., , L . ' " d asSOCl3Dons 10 Ule nest up to me sevenree .:.L . ,'13, or �l A' UI tra ...., nrh cen. ation of nserv trade ro secrets IS at stak wry. Apprennreship and me e '" ' - L edtnic groups" (1 964/' 6 5·'66). _.1.I 0f w .Le wa 0f we ' aI SCIences ' CiIO Georges odo nas has found among me Mois of central Vletnam the same Comi ' . f IY llO me rime toward mel of ori ve II ew . ' co gms an d myth 'leaI onenuuon 0 . . L. _ ( . past for "pnm mve mem "",oes 19"5:). This atuacrion of the so be ven'tied In aI my" · [he case of proper names. In the Congo, BaJaooler DOles, afier- the dan has given the newborn ch J'Id a first name . ruu",",,,e," he IS ' gwen , mown as a "bi-L.a serone!, more official name, whIc h . displace. the first. This serond name "perpetuates the memory of an ance5Wr, "" 00 is chosen beca use of me veneratio n in which he is held"' In rhe5e societies wirlwut wn.tJn . � there are me mo ry specialists, memory-men "Geneal guaI'dtans of the royal lawbooks, historian, of die coun, rradit"IODlSCS CJf whom Bala n d ler ' says t ha t mey are "die memory of Ihe society" that Ihey are at once the conservarors of "oo,ective" hisrory and f eo ogJca , l h story," to use Nadel's tetIDS (19 :lC7), Bur lhey are so age heads of fam ilie s, bards p ri ests " " acn cordi g Ie i .. " ... aI,GOurhan, w h0 attn'butes to these ligures "i n tradi· tloml the �'ery lmPOrtam role of maintai ni ng th e cohesion of " the group ( 1 �416
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EJuri ry: eJ1l11 /J
/ 57
variants in the dilfet,-iI1: ,dSlOllS US n ero um e th 0( ouI . ed en, -m nO .l flten ill m e l ca pI Oi}" ty ents. The tr. eo er gm st fra ost ro the !-Ie ha5 ,.. eV e same �ole as scholo masten (the tb ay pl n do �� stOf)'telle� plti.ri ong). A mechamcal, automatic aprc wn th ,be ""I nly o ill thl5 a fS m dealing • oody, G in rd to o a . g t cc a u e B P und th lll ro a l p v lo e schoO ot de .. ec.. 0 th v r er no id ns ly e co ha on to e e , w . u , ng ti ri ship � o. es that lack w . word f,or-word, toral memonzation, but also e SOO 1 ,, "tit '1Iieu! ' involved In lt to be necessary'" "rhe fe ly re ra is ty tivi ac k of t} "this ind ri"e di rhat ct ory" seems to these societies as "less mem of aCt tite fa ct exa n a tlct of me fruit of an inenct evoca· man le ab lu va ss , le l u ef us s es l �.od rrant, 8), Thus one seldom finds mnemowcilOical procedures in 73:3 91 (1 ptions is the case of the Pe�-lan ce ex re ra e th 000 of • eries (one y e r o ctiv e em ll m o ). C re tu ra te li hic p ra g o n th e C f ss o cl i tIt� u, a ' dance Wt·th � u. ene[ative reeon. . c r a QUJP 0 es t oo � l s \ ese � OCl m ill ction fu ' cal memonzanon. In this ..a n ... '" to ech am a m .' th I W an th ramer n" . O l pe e ed su th at on rt tu si no is n io at SUUct or em m re f o t or pp su e "m , ys sa , el e n rd v r o o th le o w n GoadY ro . .. -f .. rd s o te ra e p o ry o m e m h ic h w n o 6 'al level rn . . . on the contrary, ce ts is d is g lo o th y y n a m at tb res tu � c ru st " p ee "d o n o d si e v an en ri im lla d e a n th y b ed y la p IS le ro t n porta im e th at th " it seems (p. 34). On this even ts parti cula r f leve l the t es � � ctur srru r by othe d ke to lin ld d be or ou w w rfo dor w on tI uc od pr re nemomc m le hi w vieW, n prac· ai tr e ce av h ay m ey th h ug o h (t g n ti ri w t u o h wit s ie et ci so g, writin t an gr ng) so ng ei e b l on pa ci in pr e th , tur varie ne n io at iz or em m rices of s. ie it il ib ss e o v p ti a re c d n a m o d memory more free in t en mm ro g in sh ni to as an ain pl ex d ul wo iS Perhaps this hypothes gst on am ed liv ho s w id ru e D th g in rn ce on C . 4) 1 Caesar's Gallic Wars (VI, om fr arn le to ed er th ga le op g pe un yo y an m m the Gauls, around w ho them, Caesar writes: , and es rs ve of r be m nu e rg la a y, sa le op pe t, ar There, they learn by he ids. They ru D e th ith w ng yi ud st s ar ye ty en (W d some of them spen as te he w n, w do n te rit w be to s se believe that religion forbids these cour use ey th , tS un co ac e at iv pr d an ic bl for almost everything else, both pu custom is th d he is bl ta es ve ha to e m the Greek alphabet, They seem to e, doctrin r ei th e lg u iv d to h for (WO reasons: because they do not wis for , g n ti ri w n o g in ly re y b ry or to see their pupils neglect their memo lt u res s it as as h s xt te f use o It almost always happens that making . ry o em m f o n o ti u in im d decreased zeal fo r learning by heart and a •
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to l il w e th , ret c se e b to d re e d si n o c e g d le w o n k f e is Th transm sion o e ar ry o m e m e v ti ti e p re n a th e v ti a re c re o m u g ll a fe lI sa ard in proper fO
58
/
Memory: Ethnic Me
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l reasons fo r the vitali ty of pa nci pri the of coIIeCti L not [WO U1ese Ve . . � g. n llle writi ut witho ties Ill. ory in socie •
Writz o · ity l t Ora m ro : F y r m e o M The Rise of n£ ity Antiqu t o ry hist fom Pre o
writing, collective memory se em s to or ut tho wi ies iet soc . e ganlZ In . · · tsel f I . . · co II t e e h ve cu d I ts: y es ennt bas ed on around three major Inter mYth 5, . . a n tn, d the ong of tige s pres myth n o of the ularly partic Iead109 more . farn l·lIe · s . an I , the d ogles ic genea techn by al knowledg that is expressed e �h at is . t s e a a l at h r u e d p orm f e l a ly c i im d ct ra p by ned bu e WIth re transmi l tgIO · US . . magtc The appearance of writing is linked to a profo u n d trans e" 10 rm atl.o n In . collective memory. As early as the "middle paleolithic age " figur es ap. ' pear wh·ICh have been seen as "myth ogram s " paral le l in g th e " mythol. . . th e verba i order. Winu. ng p erm its co i l ecuv ogy " th at deveI ops 10 e mern· ory to make a double advance with the rise of two fo rm s 0f m em ory. . the commem ora ti·on or celebration of Th e first IS a m e m orabl e .
event b . . Y a commemorative monument. In thIS case mem ory takes the e" W Illi of an .ptlon . . modem tim es to th e deve . . and ieads In Inscn lop men t 0 f a SCIe nce . 1 . · auxl lary to hlStory, epigraphy. To be sure the world of I· nscnptlons IS , . . rse. loUIS Robert has stressed its h ete ro very dIve gene i ty.· "Runes th e 11urk·sh epIgraphy of Orkhon, Ph oen ician , Neop u n ic, He : b ra i c, Sab'ean, Iraman and rabIC · �Pl.graph l·es, the Khm er i nscrip ti ons t h ese are all ' . . gs ery dlfferem thm (Samaran 19 61 :4 53). In the an ci en t Middle Ea st ' . sc . . lor example' com memoran.ve m nptlons were the occasion for m ul ti I .n monuments such as steles and obelisks. Mesopotamia was the � . •
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elr exp OltS by means 0f Ii gured representations accompanied by an i nsenpUon · · . A notable case . IS th e Vulture St el e now in the Louvre, on which the lei n g Ea nnato m 0f Lagas h , around 24 70 B.C., ha d � the memory of a victory p e e ed lfl I.m ages an d in scriptio n s. The Ak kadian kings made part"ICU a r Y re u e n t use of this for m o f comm em oration, and the most fa mo us 0f theIr Ste! es IS t he one o f Naram-Sim in Susa, on which , . the king WIS hed to perpefUate th e Im won over the · age o f a victory people 0f Z . agros (also in th e Louvre). In th e Assyria n penod, the stele took theftorm 0r [he obel rsk, such as t h a t o f A s s o u lk-
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59 / Memory o f Rise The II lY Jem ory.· B.C.) at Nineveh (in the British Mu ium illenn m nd o sec the f ar Ill, which comes from Nim nas ma Sal of (end k s li e ob .Ia black e h t n over the COUntry of Mousri ( &<' 3·, victo ry a s i ng . k ' e th e g s ulJl) zin I ta · s, the commemorative monument rud, .I rnrno. r. I Mu se um) . Somenme h . BouS .tng remains b scure, as in the case of the 0 a n e me h in t its . . sCfl. pu. o ns and nni.ng of the second mili beg ( . Byblos 10 ple m e T lacks In isk h Obel t f ypt steles ful filled multiple functions in Eg obel�sks t ien anc In steles commemorating, as at Abydos' funerary lennlurn ory: rnem . . ng a uau t he I·Ife of the deceased' nting recou et or , b tom l i erp a i l p a fa rn 0 t . Ill; royal steles co sls mo out Th • pI· Ign rn � er und mt e ph m e n e n e m A f t a called "the ViCtory of lsrael" under like th 0 t tha as h uc ri i s es to c v g rnor3un o ent mentioning Isd an · p E gy I � y n on he .), B.C . 11I� htah (c 1 230 � .u p e ndlcal steles, like that at ; Exodus the of b Mill J penod the from y l b a o p e (I t us recall that the most famous of these juridical steles of ra \, Ka�a ylonian . � the one on which Hammurabi, a king of the first Bab . . S ul ry ntlq I a h ·IS C 0de engraved , and whIch IS prea d h B.C., -1750 1792 . c y . ast ,
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ges en bert has said, "one could call Ro is ou ch h w L i t ou ab Rome, d an c e e . " ) y 54 h n 4 p o 1: f ti ra a 6 o ig 9 iz p il (1 e a iv c s ie tr n u o c Roman d n a k e e r th d ds ng es, an nu d roa alo an ave res ua sq c bli pu s, rie cemete s, e l p m e t In litude;' inscriplions ac so t ates gre the in , ins nta mou in the ep "de en ev ordi tra an an ld ith ex or w om w -R co re G e th d e r e b um c n ed an d e cum u lat .
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e, usu y. on or n St of em tio m ua et rp pe d an n io at or em mm co nary effort of e es . ry Th mo ad of lo me er an r ov fo t or pp su a as ed ally marble, serv r cte ara ch er the op es pr hiv of arc on cti fun e th to d de ad " "stone archives of y ilit rab d du an ion tat e ten th os g on rin ge wa y, cit bli pu of an insistent ry. o em al m re o m ar m d an y ar id p la this the document is g itin wr th wi ed ect nn co ry mo me of rm fo er oth The experiments ter (af ng iti wr r d fo ne sig de ly ial ec sp t or pp su a on written tamia, po so Me x in wa or y cla s of ter let d an rs de cin in, sk , th clo with bone, s as ell sh ise to tor or , dia In in s as ve lea lm pa a, ssi Ru nt cie birchbark in an is it t Bu r). pe pa d an , nt me rch pa s, ru py th pa wi in China, and finally
, 48) 8n 8 197 ff Go e (L w sho to ed tri impottant to note that, as I have there at th d an t en um on m a of r te ac ar e ch f th every document ha s in itsel is no unmediated, raw collective memory. "the : ns tio nc fu l pa ci in pr O tw s ha In this type of document, w ri ti ng e tim ss ro ac n io at ic un m m co first is infoliuation storage, w hi ch allows and g, in iz or em m , ng ki ar m of and space and provides m en w it h a m ea ns
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'" tiring the t'n. pas hile ',\, II" C firom ,,!ht'� � II " . • n o" the n �1'It' ' uctitCl nine t').\\l "to in 11$ . a " �II, " diffe in, d<,om rent Wav '-1,,,, 1 I \1' 1\1\ ." .J _ _ Si) I 01= \\ rds (19 , j It> ",,'Ii l\ ph",�e� ,Ind t'\ 0 l �' b' ��'; : IIfh'l t'\ I lIlion ",f mem rv whi ch ,'s fht' o I�I L n , . ....1' L , .�. nked t o .l �'I� -lid ditll.sion of writi n!(. depends I:'ssen ti 1\,. . 0n s .tPF �." " " OtiaI e I de ell p , !: �I U II \"� m I� � h.ll<>Il ')11<1 p:trtk\lbrl� Q/\ ,",
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(.l" the froon liS to '�) " !'listO ry ' . t Orient before the middle of the second millennium aoclen e I , t dar accounts of royal heroes io I ' dy nastic lists and iegen . re are 00 ) begl' O to h a'e their scribes elgns r soye . . the Theo im. "ramS H\..e orge" or '1 d 3CCOUOtS of their reigns, in which military viCtories, re del:" e e progress of the laws emerge, duee th wrire 0,0 d ao , ice st ju heir f t 0 o for men 10 come. In the bo" ), I of providing memorable e.xamples . . . ' wort ) 'ns < d (11\11 " that from the \OyenllOn ° f wnllng, !ih0nly belore the m I E��lll. Ig- t1;e third millennium, up to the fall of the indigenous roy begi onln the TO ",I Annals ,,-ere continuously maiood. peri ��n .0 Ihe R 0"·,, ed 00 papyr us has y serv cop pre on t ub do ' l no d an JI�Y 1 But the one w" Oed. -([[a engraved on no more than a few e.-Cts ain rem ere h T d. dlsap ace ' annals on bamboo probabl� date 1 ro)'3 ent anci the a, Chin \n . stooe include mainI)' questions and and thev B.C., )centur . th �n ftom the eIeh form 'a \"ast repertory of goyernmental hieb "' cles ora of ' s rhe res nse all gradu - devolved on the divi vist archi of ion funct .'the formulas and able events proper to each or mem the of s dian guar the oers.. tIIe}, ,,'ere . ' as IS shown, e lor tn(iunerary memory, _ " I I Finall , there IS also a . rel�II' . L has a p h sarro agJ ory mat mem oman R and ree k stele G e th b,� stante, pment of the polOalt. lo ve de e th in le ro al pit ca a \3\-ed p \�\th the pa age from oral to wrinen transmission. collective mema profound trail foremorv:' m ial fic rti "a \' all Pci �n � d � n Of' \U." "''''' r-proce nical of otech e mnem aranc appe the that s think y Good m;tion. But ng. writi to d linke is tion oriza mem o " wor for woro " ;ng a\lo,, dures a l modificaIll inte lies imp also " of ring wTi e tenc c:Qs the ion hi- opin
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I A r�lIIory.. Tire R,:,c OJM emory 'n nnd r up itl ' rh em Olle rotO10 n s . w o k nl<'rin n listS n of t II e I ''1' k 1 ' , : o ' I,lS ' OS � " r n 10 d of In l'xP llUll11 Mesopt ed u frtJ, cati ve mentS of I I Ill le O d exten d S n ISI xlc e l h n.l 0 l iol wr Mi em I Jl A .J � . e c, 5<'< m d he v 1 v 0 00 n . er a n a ' .lIId PIayed n IIll pOrt:UU ro le i n Ih di rea f"\I a t'\ � i nlT MeSOpolillnw e ffu ( ", r ' s ' ' tl uellce I t exercised lon d t I �� 111 al� re culw 11 . i l wil Opt o n nei of Mt' , Pnlestine, and v IJ l()nes: Iron, " nn ,nin, � S e en !n1> . , 78) , 1 p ( lre lp n . F. t in " e rhe �riud (It the , r,g to \r, :'honld ndd that rl1I' modt'l musr be refined aCCOrdi n t he kin nt in m<1 mo iell ul ,,'h ori hisr rh e pa age ro fsodet\' aJld Ih .. m One ' d ". I, o d ' es pI nce. r t mlllor b� appli ed Is, r il as sho.wn th at pt' f emo based h in Ih� lsi mil' " � ld I I\ 011 t e memo n'zar ' l on of a i:1llrun: .11 once or.!I nd ,, n' nen I :t'rs un n' l around 1930, th en ch an ges links between school and ,lnd ret lis the memory I,n , , 6l!
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study by Ignac� Meyerson (19 56) from a sing spo indiTra n , 10 istOry. memory as It appears in ancient G ctiv e h col le to reec e, .n ry m o . < me , IIl S t ar as It s d'Isu. nguished fr ry em "M : ze vidu�I om habit, s � ? 0 si a h m the progressIve conquest by man of mnnt e tion, inven lt his \l1 di fficu s for the resenr constitutes social group the conq ory hist s Uest . reP 'd I pa s t a ua t) , But among the anClent Greeks in the sam e 5 'odi�1 (p . " as , t I ve P Iecn ' l d If < to, an Itse ' d tranStOlmed, oral memo , n memory adde of itS CO wntte . ry, memory, modlfymg but not destroying �y tha ctive colle it. kes over t y to study t he functions and evoluprofitable r h is O more the . . , ma kes 'It all The d'Ivmlzan.on, an d Iater the secularization ThIS ry. memo ' e ectlV I l . co f 0 technoIogy: th at 'IS the nch tableau ofmnem o rioll f o birth he t y mor ' . e nl between eS H memory od and Aristotle, bef l ctive o colle k _� by Gree es B .C . ri tu n h e c rt u fer= fo e th d n a ,lghth e ' the n I memory to ora wnnen memory is diffrom e I,,-ee passag the To be sure, , " Ilsnrunon an d one text may perhaps be able one But I t. oin in p [ l ficu t 0 might have happened in archaic Greece. The what struct con r S U elp h'ICh " aII ows u s to observe the advent I h w mnemon, f the o that non Is 'ns ntu I ory" (Gernet 19 47 :2 8S ). The mne' f m e n 0 m o ti c n fu l ia c o s ,In the, Ia'" o f a memory of the past for the purpose the maint ains who on ls a pers m . ' can be a person whose role as "memThIS deCISIOns. cal J ' uridi g ' . mak' 10 . , occaSIonally, For mstance Theophrastus mentions only ised e. x erc ory" l. S . ee e n e ' h h ' t hb r g t ors closest to the propThunum I he t of law the that tn . (( com for the purpose of remembrance and testia received sold be erty to mnemon can also be a more durable function. The ap the t Bu :' monY ry o cials recalls the ph eno eDa we have mem these of nce � pe . . already mentioned: the lmks Wlth myth and With urbanlZauon. In my "
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is the servant of a hero whom he con nies in order to remind him of the divine mission that accompa stan dI' will cau e his death if he forgets it. The mnemons are used by cities as mnemon
magisrrntes charged \\ith keeping in their memories what is useful in
religiou matters (concerning the calendar in panicular) and in j urispru
dence. With the development of writing, these "living memories"
tranSfelme
On the other hand, in the Phaedws (274C
are
27�B), Plato places in the
mouth of cerate the legend of the im-ention by the Egyptian god Thot, the patron of cribI.' and literate officials of numbers, calculation ge
ometry and also
table games an d dice. and the alphabet. And he
the god uansfOlmed memory but no doubt ening it more than to developing it: the alpha-
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/ Memory The RISe ' q, ,rM.e ", ..
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10 exerci se th ei r m ed ne e Ih of en m g in e mo n e belI "b)' reliev s e s o f "" o o Ih h ls w u o p s I r 'I a e le Ih n I in ' I ss e t , ln u lf so m Uc duce forge h I IS 'd k U e t e h O So to.. 'II se s I , , m W e I y lv l e e I es, , g n n n w an d Ih 'I o trusting 10 n h t , ei t , lt u u o a s y re ns e av h ; g lO u er fo b em m n d re a remed al>" the means of y,' n0 f s b es 0 em ec m pr re I Ie l in r er ,o , < 1 r.a'\ g " rt has t mem o r}'I bu t ratIler b e en s� iv a s to e rv d u su l ll a a f o e g sa as th p e trad'I (l,on gesled thn t this s of , ) 6 7 :4 8 3 0" 1 memo ry (NOlOpOu los 1 9 t ub no is do g e in th th e bl "d ivI"mZatl,On 0f ka ar m re l os m The , melll y og ol th st y f va m o " cence '' remIms O and the elaboration 0f a n a ' Vern ant ge ne . ry tch _rn u nt I135 we II put II, 1 " as \" a ralI"zes h'IS ob Greece se rvali 'e " In dl.H'erent penD an· . ds and cuItures, there is a co nnectl o n betw een . L · techniques of rem emberi ng' that are practiced' th e I' n terna l 0rga nl "lie . latio n . e tem of the self., and the I'm of that (unction, Its place 10 th sys age tha I . I) 5 5: 96 1 ( y" or em m of people ho\"l' made Memory a goddess, M The Greeks of the archaic ao-e 0 nelllo, . ·yne. IIe IS the moth er of rhe nine muses ' whom s h e h a s concel.v ed in . . s spent with Zeus . She rem'IndS men of rhe rhe course of mne mght _ melll_ , pres d es over Iyric poer y.1l Dry of heroes a nd their high deeds and she I r ' a d IV J IS T1Ie poet I. rhus possessed by memory,, rhe aeae " iner of r he pasr, 3 the eer divines rhe future. He is rhe inspired w'I tness 0 f .ien " the an c t . " nllles, 0( th e Il ereic age and beyond that' of [ he age 0 f o n' ginS. ' \�IJlen poetry is identified with memory, this ma kes [h e laner a kind ' of kno,,'ledge and even of wisdom of so'PIua. The poet takes h IS ' pl ace ' . Jmong ( he "m asters of [ruth" I � and at the on.gm s 0 ( Greek poeti.cs the " . poetiC word IS 3 Il\1ng inscription inscrib d on me ory a it is on � marble (J. Svenbre). Ir has been said that fo Horner, , to versify w as to remember. 8\ reveal ' '
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eyond. Memory th en appears as a gift resen-ed for 10 1£ . 13 . res, and amamnens. or remml.scence as a n ascetic . IUS l> emor plays a promm enr role in Orphic and •I), ithagoreJn doctli.nes. It IS ' the a n t'I dore lo {' r O b IIvl " on . In the O rph ic underworld the deJd m u t aVOid . n; they m s not the s pnn gs ' 0 ( obl Ivio u t L drin K rhe Wliters of the Lethe, but Ol the contr ry dr ink {ro . m the fo una � tlun of Memo!), "'Itiell a so urce of Immortality . ' Among the D. n't II�rean h'l P ' o o phe rs, these belief; a re ' ."lth a docuine tllt� reIOcamallon . of an d the pat h to perfection hIS tile one (har lead to rhe re b a n of ll p a revio us lives. The adr Ci' eIl!nts of rhe e eas regarded . n ulagora a an m lelllled.iary L m3Ii and Goo ut."C:l U. e he had �lained die memo ry of
and
technique 11 · 'J
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I Memor y f o e Ris e h "" .J
65
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ring the Trojan war, m the du ce, en ist ex his y l tab . n s, and no I d . e I o ll Empedoc\es also rememk' aus ene U M a m n who r s ca I rbu n i 0 h _ p u the seat of the gods. . . . I have m o E fr d e il ex f r re e wand ,_ rfll 0 "A If"• ' I'o " ' e , t a in a bird silen and fish the s h sea bus . a }!TI , girl h d da an . . e y . o b \)er a 'Ip "exerCIses m memory" played een h entices b appr dy n rea o g ea ha pyt �Ir , I ric e II eto 1 7, 1 0) , "p (Rh le ot h I:. l'menst ri A t to ng in us Accordi . rt h . a "'1 p {"'toJ. rt ot brance. m c e ti m ta s re c f e o te ta .rnpo a s a into y a w I is h n t a In ' " d , he transposition of Mnet d e k re ar I rem e y t d un en profo s ha t n ides na r T. ' e . hatological level changes c es e h t s to I a a ic l g Bu cosmolo e th m o fr out memory" ( 1 96 S:61 ). This ab hs yt m of n y um ri b equili rnos e th in s g te ly ra al pa em ic d m m se ra al re In l ra o p m te yt t e nl h o fr ever ry o . " em ' M f ts y uc or 0 str f em every ob m 0 n tlo tza ln a IV d I v o a llc ys m . rern . The or st hi y re n h' f ru o rc n c of a tl a e 0 c It ru m st n o c e h t fro " d n " a r st pa oy e th . re lo p x e to entation, memory can lead Ori ' ItS t on r d 109 o n epe d eff " Thus, )' . 4 -7 , , . 3 " 7 , pp of atol h ( ice esch serv e In t put IS It en Wh ' It. from urne away or (le history ry to r d Goff is d e fo h tr a h le b ta war ri e v a n o lf to . itse s e h s ri u o n I 0 s a It o� ). 46 1.71 ded in recee y 5' cc ll su r fu e v e 8 n e h p 7 rs so o l h i p 19 Greek t s e t a e r g . tle is a func o Eve� the d st ri n a A t la P In � o m � m If . � ry to is h d n a y r mo , e m g t in l l u e a b v u le ct e ll S te It t In a lf se It oncil st fe m a m t o n s e o d it l ' .tlon 0f the sou ' 1 19 tuS ( te s lrea T to I a e in g s a s p a s u o m a f a level. In s u o U s n e s . h is ic h , w ls u r u so only at its o In ts ls X t e a th t le b ta x a w e th f o s k a e p s s ' CoD), Socrate to s s u it lm h e ic p h w d n ; a s e s u M e th f o r othe .
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t 11
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m e th , ry o m e m la . P ax "the gift of w g in al ts se n ri p im g n ri t e n g si a ay w e th in s n o i s s receive impre e ak m to y tr t o n s e o d it t u , b ct e sp a l a ic th y m s it st lo s a h tonic memory l ra o p m te m o fr e p a sc e to ts n a w it r, e th ra ; e g d le w o n k f o e rc u so the past a experience. , the simple nutetm r, e p ro y p r o m e m n e e tw e b s e h is u g n ti is d Aristotle un l v o e th , esis n m a m , a e c n e c is in m re d n a , st a p e th g in rv se re p power of r la cu se d n a ed iz l ra c sa e d , ry o m e m , e tl o st ri A r o F . st a p e th f o tary recall n ti n co e tl o st ri A r fo h ic h w e m ti a in t u b , e m ti in d e d lu c in w ized, is "no se ti a e tr is h t u B ). 8 :7 ) 6 19 t n a m e (V " g in d n ta rs e d n u ues to resist t a re g e th to d e m e se a ri n ce reminis et a ori em m e D s a n ri translated into La d n a t a re G e th rt e lb A s, e g A le d d li e th f o rs e h p so Scholastic philo ca ori et Rlt e th to le b ra a p m o c y r o m e M f o rt A n a e b , to s a in s Thoma Aqu ni anributed to Cicero. ad Herenum n o ti n e v in e th h it w d e in b m o c y r o m e m f o n o ti a iz r However, this secula a , ry o m e m f o s e u iq n h c te w e n te a e r c to of writing allowed the Greeks n o im S t e o p e th to d te u ib r t t a n e e b s a h n io t n e l . v lMtiloucJrnOIogy This in
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� of "ic/ Cltro Tlw . 8) -46 $56 eng (r. raved 0 s Ceo of Ide thn t In 47 7 s on nti me n e v a I e , II.C im 4 16 o d d un ni lIn'l slnb es llarbl o of t he syslem of m ne invcn[Or e e r h ' prcpe n mo ( L" , " n 0 le td son ' th ' a S 'd on ns Im t es was still c1 . '; n..ail1" 1'01 , prize ar Athe , ... L 0 ICl cI e ' d so ngs 111 prai se f o"tiC m�," or}S nnd IIe c ompose . o Vl'cto IltYthI'CoII rlllCI p ' ' Cl
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�Ceos e \Von t 'le to "ous h e. r
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S ; � ed tllIlI t : �reSh only OUt 'd les t e l dles Thus imo nides esmblis hed two pri nci p l es o f art ific ial m emory as understood b t he AnCients: the re mem bra n ce of imoges whi ch are nee, t'SSltry lor memory, a n d rIl e re I'IU nce on tin orgofl/(oriOfl an orc!. h' leh o 't'lII1a good me mo ry. B ut " mo des ha d accelerated , It th e secul r , . _ 17.11tlnn 0 f mt'mory nn d nru ated tts technicnl a n d profess l' o nn I Char· r aCI�r b} pcneru lIg the a l ph b r ,
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a nd bei ng th e fir st to de m an d payment
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for his poems (\hnunr 1 96 5:78, n, 98 ), imonide, is Iso to be respo ns
ib le fo r a n i m portanr d'IS , n III 1II. ll'IIO , rnnemotedrnology betw een th e ploce.r ofmemory t' n w h ICh one ' t'.m I.o(a . tt nI r 0bJee ' rs of memory by association (the �odiac was Soon to pro\ Ide such J fr.lIne\\'ork fo r memorv w h il e a rt ifi c ia l m e m o ry was co I'
n(, '' ' "I' Iire divIde , an " d rnto rooms of m e m ory"), u n � d t IIe tm ' o"aes, , . floI'm,.. (./lnr.le'tt·n5m' tratt "and r Iet' I It ' tlte m n e m o n ic reca tI t n t It ll, od ther /tmalo ' r (/ ,, IJ.ncu"o II potl'. � I tr.tdi tiona l m n e m o n ic tech n iq u e i sup�, to .I\� , ppw'cd a I rt' S I' m o m'de s: th e one be r r. wee n " th e menlory b ' m ��II� 0f !I1 1 01' " r'" S �'I I ld memor " b " f r h a t t found , o wo rd ) ) ' (or \amp l.. in a te�r d,lung trom arou nd 400 B.C., rhe Dial,'xci:; (Y 1 966:.,, ), are, . tl(utt'd a
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m n e m o rec h no l oay r> ,op IIt", t H tp p ta s, w h o . Plato
B f.) ,"�,u lc Itt' I:l h t� p U p t'I , " lt h ;J n t'nc� d o pedic .
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r / Me mo y o f e Ris Th e nlof)",
Me
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echniques of remembering that had t of use e th a gh u o r h t 0f M etrodorus of Skeptis [)l ge that nor d acter ,e ' t · h wh0 I r \le c 13 \ ' 0'\ kO 1 ,/ pOSI t! the court of the King of POntus' Mithriat B, C. lu ry cen fir st �re ' amous memory and develo f WIth a the wed endo n i ped ' self S hun �hveuJ wa d' the ,,, h 0 on sed 5 ba y mor d�le , me ' I a mnemotechnoiogy 'IS based primarily on cl ifi Greek t of r ge d e w '10 � l O c ' s the definitive n cent urie k lor wer e statement �r hich , , w o S l< te n ati L I memory (an expression which they e ' fi cia re ' art! th of ory e , h I tIIe a , c si u S , I' ,I c RAetonea Ad nerenmum compiled by an the e , ): sa h :t: eio y.' I art of a an fll fII e 86 and 82 B.C" and which the bet wee d: n e e Rom in in r e cO h S ,/ moU " ro s own De 0ra tore ( 5 5 B,C,), and C Ice , ero Cic n to o d ute n a attn'b es g , Mle A . A , ' I'O orotoria (end of the fi rst century A,D.). These i three t I" lItu lllS , s I , " Ian ' [l , tshmg establ the ogy, in tion bedIStinc hnol motec u Q mne ek r G fine re clarifying the active xtS es (loci imagines), r and characte e t ima g an , ees P/a n e ' ( b ermg aetrve f remem unages, unagines s 0 proces tWe the in , ges between memory of division things (me of the g aliZin form ogtfltcs),ntm) and memory of words (memoria, verborum). mort,O re the m great y memor system of rhetoric d situate texts e thes /I, a e ov b A culture, be reborn in the Middle Ages que anti ate in dom s o ) , and be revived in our time in the work s urie cent r i th n ee h I, ls Memory is the fifth part of s. rician rhetO ns and other new , , , of f ' ' t g to say), dispOSItiO (the m e h so m 0 ry ve ( co d s I the ntio inve f , ter . a " rhetOnc. n entatio e!OCUIIO , (ornam found) through been has what of 'on orga m, ZUn the the ce urse of in rman disco manperfo (the ) actio es figur , d word5 an ion), and memoria (memoriae and dict s ture ges gh u ro h t or , act ner f an .
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t t ha el7� t t t [(tw , ? lCl semlOt 3
nd es rves that Rola "The obse Barth . ory) mem to ign cons to mon aa,....., , ' and io ant . (act . twO ort . the last st lmp mo the are s on rati ope first three ' were soon abandoned, as soon as rhetoric no longer dealt only m8lltona) ses of lawyers or politicians or with the spoken (declaimed) discour 'speakers' (in the epidictic genre), but also, and finally almost exclu
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sively, with written works. However, there is no doubt that these twO parts offer great interest . . , the second because it postulates a level �f stereotypes, an inter-textuality that is stable and mechanically transmitted"
(t96.v6S : 1 97)·
Finally, we mu t not forget that alongside the spectacular emer<&ence of memory at the heart o f rhetoric, that is, at the heart of an art of discourse that is lin ked to writing, the collecti e memory continues to
develop through the ocial and political evolution of the ancient world. Paul \-eyne has em ph a ired the confiscation of collective memory by the
68
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Memory: The Rise ofM.
erno,>,
means of Ihe pU bl ic m by ularly partic o Um , Roman emperors, 'l enI a ' I 0 h f e um epl m I' g e d f r h ap 0 i ca l .� e nd by ' 1I'on, in a sort crlP ' , ., m o Ihe JOS s But d an d om en mes deci� xe ve y ntl 1)'. a nst co ..,aled b h the Roman Senale' , Yt ee sl Imp e n al tyranny. Thi s w aga n m po wea r a Ill. ea pon perors, "ound he name of a defia t Was remo ves whic h nae, mem nt the o e m pe r J ." a lu ,1natto r m � onu menta I ' Or ft lll .ro ip d cr an ms tio nts me cu o ns . The archival do to gh we P wer 1 power achi e ved th r counte l l a is y memor h roug destroy 0 e pro. ry, me mo ducrion of "
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/ Ag es dle M id .· The
Memory
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recogn ition of Yahweh, the mem a a\l of fi r st ory , t IS Iha y ' I ' est you heed forget the Lord your ",or ir : "Take y e t den a ", W l sh I J e 'r d m ents and his ordinances and his I ' (olin dS ma n m o c hi s g t keepJO thaI d by n O " o not forget the Lord your G 0d, who brought you D GO les" the house of bo ndage (8: 1 4); "You shall of out t gy P , E ' f 0 d SillI n l a ' IS . h e wh 0 gIves you power to get lor It 0( 1h e God , e your d or L , e h o�� be r I covenant wh'ICh he swore to your fahI S nn ", fi n o e c may re'" he hal you forget the Lord your God and go after if eallh; I And oJ ' day. . thiS t a them, I soIemnly warn you this s worshIp and a h rs, them e seN I e d ds an ' ) A y ( or em of m hw o " 1 Ya eh s sh 8 9 1 r pe 8: i g ly re su other ll sha ou Y you provoked the Lord your how Ihal get for t no y do da r and "Rem emb e , : 7); "Remember what the Lord your " ( rn es s 9 er: wi n lde a g ' the h (:�4:9) God 10 • . I� t ou ur y of t" yo wa yp on Eg re we u yo 1 7 when · , m a ' lY l ln God dId to f Ihe offenses of enemies: "Remember w hat ArnaIek did to y 0 rnor e he attack ed you on the way, when how Egypt, A ", of out e cam OIl rear all who lagged behind yOIl as Y at your off cut and weary ' c ' t and l aJO were yOU the rd en ur Lo wh yo e God has for ere Th d. Go r fea t no did e h d n yOU; a mies round about., in the land which the ene r \l you a from , en yoU rest glv an inheritance to possess, you shall blot for you gives God our d Lor Y und er heaven; you shall not for h e remembrance of Amalek fro m out I 9)' 7 1 ( l S : 1 t" ge to remembrance and the promise of appeal an ), (44:2 1 And in Isaiah Yahwe h and I srael : ee n be tw memory
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Memory in the Middle Ages-Western Europe
, Whereas the "popular" or ra ther "folklore" social m e mory re maIns aI. most completely beyond our grasp, the collec tive mem ory f,or m�d by the lead J Og classes of society u ndergoes profound transfo m at'Ions I n the I " Middle Ages, The essential change denves from the spread o f Ch ' , nstlan· ' ' t I' deo Iogy and from th lly as a reI IglOn an d a s a domman ' e quasI. monopoly the Church acquires in the intellectual domain, The Christianization of memory and of mnemo tech nol ogy, , , ' t h e d'IVI· Slon 0 f co IIec!lv ' e memory berween a ci rcu lar l itu rgical memo rY n lay memory little chronology, the development o h memory of the dead and espeCially of dead saints the im po rtance of , " m�mory m an educational system depending on bo th th e oral and the \\onrren, and finally the ap pea rance of treatises on m em ,
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mfluenced b�
or y (anes mem()nat)-these are the most characteristic traits of m em or y in th e M1'ddl e
\Vra�
Remember these things, 0 Jacob, and Israel, for you are my servant; I fOlllled you, you are my servant;
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Ages.
I: �n�enr
m e�ory was st rongly in fl uen ced by religion, Ju deo Chnsuamt} contnbuted ome th ing addi[ional a n d d ifferent to th e rela[ton bet,,'een m e m o r Y an d reI I"glOn, bet ween m an and Go d 1 6 J u dai sm . y' b and Chr r' !lallll oth Ii rm Iy anchored hist orica lly an d theo log i cal ly in history, have b een des crib ed as re, I.gl.ons 0 f rememb ra nce " (Oexle 1976:80). And [h IS IS true III <everal .
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" re pe ct , b ec ause di vi ne acts of salvation situated in the fortn t he COntent o f fa it h a n d th e object of rites," b u t also be ca u e t IIe H0I \' , B o o k on one h a nd , · a n d t he tradition on the o[her, II ' I 1St, e'�en!lJllv. on [h e nece s s lt \ o f reme mbrance as a r d . . m" amen rn l reI 19lO · U� etl \ lt\ . In the 0Id Te sta ment, I t i . peC Deu[eruno m\' th a t c a l th lJ lh faithful to [he e duty of remem b . ranee dnd 0 1 rhe memor\, t h a t '
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o Israel, you will not be forgotten by me.
whole family of words derived from the root
War (Zachariah,
ition trad of man a the Jew ) es ers" mak emb rem h hwe "Ya o , r-yu Zka fr m
whom memory and mutual promise link to his God (Childs) . The Jew ish people are the people of memory par excellence. In the New Testament, the Last Supper founds redemption on the
remembrance of Jesu s: "An d he took bread, and when he had given thanks he broke it and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which
in re m embrance of me' " (Luke 22: (9)· John puts the remembrance of Jes us in an eschatological perspective: "But the Counselor, the Ho ly Spirit, ",·hom the Father will send in my name,
is given for you. Do thi
he will [each you a\l things, and bring to your remembrance aU that 1
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Memory: The M.. /( I d le /! lfes . nd 6) A :2 ul extendS . 14 Pa n oh (J u" yo to id sa have this eScha I u t ea yo t h as · IS en ft b 0 . ad as re or t and d n perspecti.ve: "Fi he 0 °&i�1 t k ' " . · he e " m til s co un h at I ( de Co nnth Ia the Lord s d ro m i a nS I I Clip P is in fact thoro ughl ul d Pa an ks ee Gr e th g on am as i rnb u ed . y . ventuate 10 eschatolo "",, d lis, " "'i e n ca ry o t em m o J' m en is len " Iiel. Yl ng te m . . poral · WI·11 be on e of th e pa t IS Th y. tor hIS h s taken � e tence and bY eh.; IS memory. Stlan . n istia the s " i Chr ca ly, l le mon com d to e 1Ive In th But mor em ,one mu st heI p t he weak, reme elllo ' ds: wor e mb ' s u s . e J n ng the "' ry of or , d s of Lord Jes us (Acts 20:J 5); "Remember Jesus Chr is t' ns · en fro the m th e d h ead" (2 11Imothy 2:8), a memory t at will not be lost in a IiUtu r e I·r, I e, in th ( e k L 16:25), to u who · 109 rd makes aceo , d beyon Abraha say to the e e", rich man in Hell: "Son, remember that you in YOu r l -,l Ileti me rec , eiVed yo ur good things.' More historically Christian teaching presents itse If as the memory . of . succ Jesus transmitted by the senes of Apostles and thelr essors. '1", • n us · Pa u I wn tes to 11Imot hy: ''what you have heard £irom me b e£. 70
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o re Illan . y Wltnesses entrust to faithful men who will be abl e to teach others aIso" (2 11Imothy 2:2). Chnstia · n teaching is memory (cf.. N'I I S D a hl) Ch . n stian ' . I. ntua IS commemoration. . St. Augustine bequea ths to medieval Chr istia nity a d eepem ng and a Chnstl . .an adaptanon of the ancient rhetorical th eory 0 f m e m ory I n h · IS c.OflJes .r. lOns s' , he starts out from the ancient co nc ep tio n ofp,Iac es a n d memo . Of)' una.,ues, but he gIves them an extraordinary s ch 0I . oglcal depth and fl uidity, speaking of the "immense ha ll of m em : -
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�:�:: �h���:: and s�acious O o
palaces of m em ory, w he re are the
s
e e ls store up wha tever besides we . � . think, either by enlarging 0 r Im . m lShm g, or any ot he r way of varying those things WIDch the sense hath com e to,. an d wh atever else hath . been commined and I .d up, h,ch forgetfulness ha th not yet swal lowed up and buned e enter there, I requ ire in stantly what I will to be brought fo h som thing instantly comes; others m ust be longer sought aftet' . Ie are letched' as It h�h were ou t 0 f so me inner receptacIe; others rush OUt In . troops and wh . I·1 e on e th i ng is de sired ' and reqUired, they start r. h. ho should say, 'I s it perchan ce I?' These I drive aWlIY With h °f my heart fro m th e face o f my remembrance; u ntil what I n n'I'S b lor be u m-el ·1 ed, and appear in sight, · secret place OUt of ItS Other tholOgs . . co m e u p rea d ily in unbroken order., as they ' or; those 10 Iro m m4A _I..mg way for th e fo llow-
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are called r.
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Th. Middl. Ages I
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den hid m fro are sight, ready to come y the y wa , ake m .Ite a thing b d as theY I en h w reC I ace p es lak n." y hea h ic wh All ing; a� will. . ",hell n · stt· a n Images of memory h C l ese h that en harwrin as h " te s la · rches, ·10 whIch u h we should perhaps c . eS C thI Go t frallc . h he grea . ed wll I Where Panofslcy sees a relation betw . lace �n �olllZ mory-p e m I' mbo lc .,. s hou Id perhaps also see a relat·Ion we m, icis sY ast . a Schol See d G thlC an memory. and u e r t he t i ec h ( r a "into the fields and caverns into the ard forw betWeell c . ing mov ne u su , ug A " C s eks G od in , onf 17) e ons, essi X, ry mo ( me m my But s of v e a c b Ie a uJ find h·I m ·10 any Ima�e or in any t o n Ic es o d t u a b memo ry . illc f s o th . WIth Augusu ne, memory smks into the dep if' ) . 6 5-2 2 X, TlS e h t ·O , Oil ( C ristian dialectic between the inside Ch t c tha of la rt hea p � co the . a. f n tt m o m xa t e e t ' man , h e .If!(et0 conscience, m 0 co '11 I W h h' IC w fro m e id s t u 19 he o . t i s a d s n y l a h o c s y . erha p s p p an n e v e d n a . tr spectlO n, l Christianity a Chrisva ie e d m to h s t ea qu be In O so al ugustin e A r , Howeve of e e the soul: mes r o re p w th e th of y g ilo tr t en ci an . . n version o f the · (CIcero · · m, t60). � In his tlone, II, I··· na , De mven ·dentla
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tia, pf(JVI en ellig . t . morta, /II s me eco · b d a n t e h t e tat . De Trirti
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mte ' [J.ecrus, voIuntas
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. nmty. · T the of s image m an in . e . . these ar ation of or em e h m th e m fl i m y c co lf se It s st fe am m m em or y n a i s r i hr If C t en eto dv om nt gy A fr Pe ur e lit i v t a r o m e m m co e th ua lly in nn a s Jesu L n t, and th e Ascen , e as tm ris Ch of s ge sta ial nt se es e th of y wa by cost, popular re a at mo st ari ch Eu the of ion rat eb cel the in ily da and , sion . d a e e d th n d o n ts a in sa e th n o y rl la u ic rt a p level it focuses ed lliz sta y cry the th, ir dea the ter Af s. sse me wi re The martyrs we bri Li e th in ar pe y . ap he ce T an br em m r re ei th nd ou ar Christian memory e pr ey y th or em m se ho e w os th ed er st gi re es ch ur ch Memoriales in which hth eig the , in ple am ex for is, it us Th . ed ay pr ey served, an d [Q whom th e on y ur nt ce hnt ve ele e th in or g, ur lzb Sa of alis ori em century Liher M er nt ce e th as w r ty ar m a of b m to he T ). 82 6: 97 1 le ex from Newminster (O , so al t , bu um artyri m or sio es nf co a as ly on t of a church, and was known no e th ay w g in rik st a in s st ra nt co e tin us ug A .20 Signi ficantly, as a memoria y or gl e th , us ul om R of e pl m te n tomb of the apostle Peter with the paga r. na (E li mu RD lum temp e th of t en of the memoria Petri with the abandonm e th om fr d an ad de e th f o lt cu . t en in Ps., 44, 23 ) Deriving fr o m the anci u ic rt pa as w e tic ac pr is th s, ch ar ri Judaic tradition of the tombs of the Pat s ou m ny no sy e m ca be " ia or em "m larly favored in Africa, where the word rel r no b m to a er h it ne ed lv vo in with "relic?' asional ly, the memoria
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ted ora mem com on a was liturgical feas r sain a , Elsewhere t l d era sev st fea e hav ay ys t da gh mi , t as n rta po im (a n di d the most S ai d n t P t " ne gi ra ai de Vo e pl ex m ns hi ac Jo r e.. th J, en l7 L, ee en s ld Go U The , c In h . C . o ' u/pI't, h IS CaptlVUy, p S r te e r h it W d and h'IS '"Illlllelllo. rations associate . as rnOntl'ff 0f A IO Qr!)7� C ' nt h , n io at ev el is h i m pn'son lll , these recall his , en got lstlans Ch ' n to dinary the ) . T habit of cele r, �'>I, nd his death , an� o� bratl m ed sto nt cu he m a , ay m thd fro blf ng ir the t an iq along with Ult ' ' y, t h 1 e 2 day o , II we as ' samt f the patron ally took piace on ner ge The commemoration of the saints . t h e da h at t elr be [ h f 0 martyrdo to supposed m or or known dea th. Th e asSo y tion between death and memory spread rapidly throu ghout Chn.stl,a cia. which developed it on the basis of the pagan cult of a nceStors andnity, h t e dead, The custom of saying prayers for the dead became wide pread in the history of the Church. Very early, roo, as in Jewish c��mUn�lt�r1y les ' the churches and Christian communities kept Li/m memona es, call ed r centu h ry onward necrologz'es or obitu . s on Iy Irom the seventeent Huyghebaert), in which were registered the living and espec��;� ;�f. dead, persons who had been the most freq uent benefactors of thelr. yCome · ' mUnltles, whose memory the commun ity wanted to preserve, and fo r whom It' committ ' ed Itse ' If to pray. I n th e sam e way the ivory d.- hs which toward the end of the Roman empire, the con sul s were �mtyct h e Ilabit of giving the emperor wh en the y too k o ffice were . Ch Tlsua ' fllzed ' and henceforth served to commemorate the dead, Th e for mu las In' vo k 109 the memory of those wh os e na m es were in scrib ed on th e d' Ip t y C h S ' , L U " ' or 10 the IOn memonales said much th e sa m e th in g'' "q u o u rn qu arumque recoIimus memoriam" ("the men an d women w ho m we reca ll to , mem, ory" ) "q,UI 10. I'lbeIIo memorali , . , script; oratu?' ("those who are l�;cn?ed 10 the book of m emory in order th at th e y b e rem embered ), quorum nomina ad memoranaJum conscrip si m us " ("th ose whose names we have IO' scribed in order to rem em b er th e m ") ' At the end of the ele ent h cen t u ry, th e In ' troduction to t h e Liher Vitae : of the rnanastery af Sa t Bened etta d I' 1" n0I I' ro ne d ecl a re s fo r x m e a pl e: "The abbat h as ca us . ed this book to be rn a de, w hI ch w ill re m ai n on the altar so that all the names af our broth ers wh IC 'h .."
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are written in it m ay be always present to the eye of God and so that the m e m o ry o f a ll may be preserved by everyone th r o ughout the mona s ter , y, d un' n g th e cel eb ra t i o n of the Mass as well as in all t h e at her good works" (O Sometim e , e x 6 1 /e : 9 7 7). 7 s (he LIon . '" memonales betray th e l:l r i/ ures o f th o s e w h o are
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A pray r in the Lib.T Murwria/is of ReI'ch u " ena been gIven to inscribe in this book, v ha I t tha but
e � o r h (lleu. y .t e Ils[ed ",I s e (f m a en ''fhe n igence fo rgotten I recommend to yo neg l y , m ugh aYs, I have thro to a Il the ce Iest'lal power, in order that nd a er, oth �hich and [0 �our m rated here below and in the beatitude of etern l a le b Christ, ce e Illemory [heIr 1 e, p 8 5)' also the possibility that the was there ,,, · l " (Oe s es n , t fu ge r or !' \lIe o t ' . On IU the from d struck memory-books . Exbe t ad migh y t h In r o w . un � th of s t icula r entailed that kind of Christian "damnatio Ille r a p n3 , ' n llO a p lc erson the synod of Reisd mumcate ��Ill un excom an nl' ng " C ncer o , ae death let nothtng be wntten tn his n hiS 98 after " lll o Ille that 'n 7 d e a l r c e 1027 issued an edict concern in d a Eln of h od syn bac d secon e h t d an " , let their names not be read at the ry "and llo : le peop Illel ned em d � r co e h l dead?' ot fu h it fa e th f o e s o th ing h g wit on a r a lt a d e memorable dead had b een introduced ac the o f s r names the l e e ry ;o of the Canon of the Mass, l� the eleventh �entu�, � l ;; V celebration was established tn annual into the an Cluny, from e r u s S e P r er n d u l dead, a commemoration of tite dead, on the sec,
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all the faithfu f Illemory y , ur ry h nt of ato elft ce rg tw Pu e th in rth bi he T r. Novembe f ond day n Heaven and Hell, from which ee tw be d ate loc nd yo be . the m a p b'ITd l an interest to had y om the wh in se tho of ls sou the . g uld help ln hV [be asses, prayers, or glvmg aIms, m h ug ro th y dl pi ra s les or e e r escap 0 f the memory a f the dead. lf ha be on g in liv e th of ts or eff , the d e 'fi I S en IOt ed formulas, memtyp e reo th ste of e ag gu lan on mm co the In any case, in "af good" h e , ar ey t d d e ea d rn ou e m f th o n io it fin de e enters into th
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n wn o kn i Un le rac mi e nd th ou ar ed liz tal ys cr . on i ot ith the saint, dev op of a e th n in tio ni og g ec sin en sp di or ng isi om pr � antiquity, ex-votOS .Joyed an Immense popularity tn the en miracle or after its occurence
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,11 O n the other s cle ira m of y or em e m th d ne ai nt ai m d Middle Ages an u in dim a is e er th , ies ur nt th ce en ev el e d th an hand, betwee n the fourth seq,) . 01 7:']. 97 1 s rie (A s ion ipt cr ins ry ra ne fu of er mb nu tion in the l, ra ltu cu l, cia so e th in le ro nt rta po im an ed s ay Memory nevertheles pl stohi of s rm fo ry ta en m ele e th in , se ur co of and scholastic worlds and,
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ere w ey th e us ca be an e ov ab en m The M iddle Ages venerated old g on am t en m cu do ne O . ul ef us d an regarded as memory-men, prestigiOUS en h w , �o l l d ar ow "t at th tS un others, publ ished by Marc Bloch, reco . d . trie Saint Louis was on a Crusade, the canons of Notre-Dame de Pans
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Memory: Tl.e Middle
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e ly. Th Or serfs refu sed t at fs ser ir the on tax a o pay, [0 levy a n en as os ch e s bir wa ar d r. lle sti Ca e of Th th e e ch t an Bl w regenr 0 parri e s pr ing I " h alm c t n at me so ly er eld lo s sse ng tne wi o. as anyo duced as n e en COUl or be d d ha ha ly t Or no of fs ser be the en (depe d rem ember n d' 1 09 ' to : t es b Jec rax su Ita ) on it re us we On atu m est which side rhey a te , " (CC ' th at I S wh at h as been mPO re a q uo non exsrat memo (J a don e Si n ce . ") 23 . tl llJe ry o m e f m 0 r u o e m ti l ia r o m e imm Bernard Cuenee, rrying to clarify the mea ni ng of th e m e di e val ora (tem em mod " times a) ern "mod after p expression h avi g c a refu l ly nt Cou of the A of j n o u, Fo ul q u e I studied the "memory" l e Rec ' h10, . ' h ouse IS ' In h f 1096, 0 f 0 hIstory the a wrote who Can on of C amb rai, La mbert de Wattrelos, who wrote a chronicle arou nd 1 1 52, and of rh e Dominican Erienne d e B ourbon, th e auth or o f a collectio n o f exernpk, compiled between 1 250 and 1 260, arrives at the following cO nc l Slo ' ns: � "In rhe Middle Ages, some historians defin e mode rn times as th e time of memory, many 0 f r hem know t hat a re I·,able memory can Cove r abO Ut a " hundred years, an d moderm·ty, modern time s, IS therefore for each of . ' h th ey a re r, vm ' g, or h ave just lived th em Ihe nrury wh IC thro ugh the Iasr years (Cuenee 1 976I77:3 5 )· Moreover, an Eng lish m an , CaUU.er Map, wrote ar the end of the twelfrh century: cc·
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Th,s began n our era. 1 mean by 'our era; rhe period w hi ch is modern for us, rnat IS, rhe exrent of these hu ndred years whose en d
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we now see and whose norable events are all sufficien tly fresh an d present in our memories, first beca use a few very old m en are still al ive an d also beca use many sons have heard fro m their fa th ers an d grandfat h ers very re/'lahIe srories about things they [the so ns J have no t see n. (quoted in Cuenee, p. J 5)
All the same, in this period when the written i s d e v e lo p in g al ongs i de t e 0ra l and when there is, a t leas t a m o n g clerks or literati; a n e q u il ibn u m berween oral memor y
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an d wri. tten m emory, recourse to w ri ti ng as p p a su ort for memory . intenSI'fies . Lords bnn ' g together i n ch arter-books the documents they . need to prod uce to de fcen d th eI r ri,g h ts . C o n cerning .L the Ian d, 'llese . h c arte r-books constltute the euda . . Ie l memory' whose other half, concernmg men , IS constituted by g eneat.ogies. The i ntroduction to the charter granted in' I I 74 bY. G uy, C O Un t o f evers, to th e in h ab it a n ts of Tonn erre , declares th at "The u . se of Ie rters was d I' sc overed a n d 10 for the preserva tl' on 0f tIle memo r y 0f t hlO ' gs . W h at we w is h to and learn by h eart, we cause to be written dow n , 0 [ha t what we
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75 / Ages Middle The . ory. Mem
weak and fragile memories our in ly rual e may be preerp I, ee p p I f etters that last forever?' y means 0 " . or b n d an OIn ,,m tl' ng y s ma II and mobile I In on d a h s kin g "ed archives ' Phl"\'' e 'm ser P ng � o t l r a a teval, 1 1 94 where he was de�eated b Fe in fo r hind b y hIS r ef l ' S h f ive t s ar the c Th 0 lIgus U e roy al rte ch d. an cel leries began He a A _ f' Ion L he t d I h' eenth century there were estabt I h e r t n 1 200. fUcha � d n ou r a rJIl fo e archives of the Chamb re des Compt ale the ple, exam ot es [ ed ,n Fra nce, for ,mterest are coIIeeted m " registers bearing the al i n fi c a Iish n f t o S ae I nd of the Parlement. In the twelfth cen a (the roya orials) mem f o e narn t can nifi and h especially i n t e the fourteenth cene rt h t the sig m o f r d an , Iraly I'n "ves becom e mcreasmg " I y common (Favier arc ru [ur)', l notaria re, . . s els eW he e b an arch'Ives are constituted, and , ur s e iti c 0 f e s i r tUn he t h ) Wit 195 8:[ 3-[ 8u rded by m un ici pa l bodies. U rban memory for these nascent ly g l u h ere clearly collective or communitaris jea o � utions i nstit n ed te e a h t r still . and It b egms pioneer; " Its arch'Ives as early as , a IS oa Gen speet ' re .Ian. In th IS notarial registers from the middl e of the today s e rv e s re p 'II d stl , 7 an [ [ 2 h centu ry. The fourteenth century witnesses the first archival inelevent P , y F b rance in ope rban V for the U V d es Charl by . e r e d ven ron es (or . E I' c h h nar ng t IS mo y In 8 by he 1 ). In , 6 366 3 135 1 1 in s e v i ' h c I a 'fi ca r onti P (the treaty Peace of Paris concluded l ationa intern an time fi st r h ' for t e ' an ains cont amcle concernmg the fate y) Savo d and in h p a u the berween . I e O d 24 . v V s e In u tn o n c e th f o s e v of the archi I n t he literary dom ain, orality continues for a long time alongside the constitutive one of is elements of medieval memory and , writing ,
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literature. This is particularly true for the eleventh and twelfth centuries epic song, or which not es only meth requir geste de n chanso the for nd a ods of memorization for the troubador or jongleur and for the audience, but integrates itself into the collective memory, as Paul Zumthor as shown in discussing the epic "hero": "The 'hero' exists only in the song, bur he nevertheless also exists i n the collective memory in which the men, both the poet and the audience, participate?' 25 Memory plays the same role in schools. Concerning the High Middle Ages, Pierre Riche asserts: The pupil is supposed to register everything in his memory. One can
not overemphasize the importance of this intellectual aptitude, which characterizes and will continue for a long time to characterize not only the Western world but the Orient as well. Just like the young Muslim or the young Jew, the Christian schoolboy has to know the sacred texts
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I Ages iddl e M Tlte , Mtt1'of)"
he ich s m wh lea er, alt ps m ore Or I ss the l Firs t, by hear e qUickl ); then, if he is n m on k, th e R l y ars � (sOIl\ l ra ve se U e rnk� of S 26 I , Ben ) L ' _ l III , 80 , (u,.,rrln'ftS '" IllUlV<'''' ' ed,ct __
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heart is to know, The In this period, to kno'" by schoohn lowing the ndvice 0f QUI'llII'"Ian C"mst, Orot. X I, 2) and M artl' �Sters• fol a nU s " I pU t elr pl s to try to ret a ' a Pel . , wan t h C .. , cIi , (IA .Vupms n l everyth ' la Ing th , I erenr mnemotechni cal metho up d'ff< read,l? They dunk e d s, co mpose Y that m m ) help the St ud ent al phabeticnl poems (''I!IS'
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And no"' What WI'11 you say about memory, wh ich I ' conSI'der Ul .Le· most noble parr o f rhe roric'. A L e V IN : What can I do except repeat the words of Marcus ulli us , (Cicero);> Me he ro ho use of all things, an d if it has no t re made its lf th r i n o what one has thought, the othe r gifts of the oralO[, no matter h ow excellent they may be, WI'11 come to naught.
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Are there no rules . w hle h teach us how one ca n acquire memory' and I'n .) crease It . ALCUtN : We have no rules about m emory oth e r than to learn by heart. , AICum ' obVIOus ly d oes nO[ . know [he RItetonca Herrtru:um w h i ch becomes, from the twelfith century- onward, ( he great cia sic of t he genre.
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manuscript, and was an 'b in widely d e n ute d to . circulat '(lle It ' tio Oratona were I en Qum ' tl'1'lan's 1nstltu tl n_ Oratorc an d Ihal h A "I (whose v�
wn) no cerO ' unk ll y Ci n lfth century, classical rhetoric takes tlc twe ll the f h C of he t d p en lh e "" ' ng at t V" ary an for adminislrattve , ' f eplsto ' I ntque 0 h a tec ' "Irtl S l11l1 tatt ' Jrc afS , a ' he f center is major It Ihere thaI Boncomthe . mes 0 beco a n h Bolo g farnl I second of the works in this genre that the 5 23 �se af ' v C, in 1 e rot w " ' a gn da Si nOVlSSlma, m wh'I Ch memory in general is n'ca Rlteto , the ' memory.;> M emory I' S a d (ll ose glorious and p IS a "Wh t CO S erm : he e t s e h fi ed In t f w h'ICh we recall past things' emns 0 ea m by e ur n de t na of t 'f gl , ble Iate future th'mgs, thanks to their reo p ntem c adml rs and gs Ilin t en , t es ll the funr s on o goe to agn a mp rec nco Bo 29 ' p ? s ce g i n brn h t t pas 'th ce W I blan CI.al memory. ' I memory and artifi tu na ra n ee tw be sem on i ct i n t is d "signs of memory" e t th of lis damentaI, ng lo a s ve gi he r, tte la e th ) cor exam p Ie, the cock's crow that is for C ncerOlng 7 27 l ; m t he Bible (p . . . f r o es rat eg no mto the science mt ag drnwn mp co " on B n. sig , nic mo "mne a e SI. P ierr le M ty ali ian e of or ist th m idd hr e th of C s m ste sy sential es e th . y o r e La, " memorial o u of m (ll mt ac es stgn rna k ' e h h h' IC w ' es vic d es a n tu vir h Ages' t d ial beyon artific ially, memespec ps perha and ), " 1 966: 5 9 ates notes I. " 'Ise," the remembrance of erC e ry mo x me I nta fun da me "a as t " memory r b " d e se an th di ra of y Pa or em m e th " er th ra 0 y, ve and Hell, or Ha " n between Purlo h h d" ' ct t n tm e e Is w t en m o m a at s, region l na r fe in f the e . his is an imporish b\ ta y es el i n e en be t ye t no a s h �� l el H d an y , e countless tor , lf , ill y sp W ed tn om e C vm Di e th r te af , ch hI w tant innovation ld usually ou ch e, sh hi is w ad ar d P an , ry to ga ur P l, el H ons of representat i bers ream ls ch or s ve le ou ri se va ho w " es ac pl y or em "m be regarded as y" or em m of es ey he h it "t ok w lo ld ou sh e W s e . ic v call the virtues an d d an a du Pa in el i ap gn ch ve ro Sc e th in S oe sc fre 's (Yates, p. 9 2) at Giotto
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ern ov G d Ba d an t en nm er ov d G oo G of es Ambrogio Lorenzetti's fresco dise, ra Pa of ce an br em m re he T a. en Si of ty ci e ment in the Palace of th ar m riu co es ng Co e th in on si es pr e ex em pr Purgatory, and Hell finds its su t rs (fi h rc be om R es nn ha Jo an ic in om D an tificiosae memoriae by the Germ ra st l u il es ud cl in ch hi w , on iti published in 1 S 20; the most important ed an ew kn o wh , 3) 51 1 in ce ni Ve tions of Romberch's figures, appeared in ui q A on ly al ci pe es d lie re d the ancient sources of th e art o f memory an n, io at in lm cu a to es ag im d nas. After bringing th e system o f places an e th ich wh in y or em m Romberch outlines a system of encyclopedic in t u B . ce an ss ai en R e th f medieval patrimony fl o u ri sh e s with the spirit o em m f o n io it ad tr t en ci the meantime, th eo lo gy h ad transfOlllled the an
, l fmlon ".J ..''- T/" ..Ill _"e � u.cu. f '�g... , cludt-d in rheron Rlllo,,; n!! 't. Augusti ne l ead. Al lred of rue, ux (d, t ( 6-) isren:ian [he nd tn<: , /I re\'I\,!! C ""' nn t d voau uas, ma7l0lt a, An he tri" m oed b\' el m m . "" .'kl=t, " ' . . akes " ( 0 J: ' Igmnes d of � ""I of rhr<'t' elemen ts the three the SOtU, . bllt IQ . , the trind becomes momona, Wel ligen I tia, nn � -
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nes f [he oul. In Ihe Ihirreenr century IWO towering D�mini can .-\I be." the 300 Th mas Aquma- nccord memory an ImpOrta nt r ole, Tc0 Greal anCle O( �rk and to Augustint', they add above all A ri tode and A\1ce . n· Bon n, I • . nn • \\"I[h "'t'mory III u« 0, ur ."Imma, a nd in '-, ..\lben his COmmen " , FL la r-,' fI . He tarrs OUt f f Ari·totles U't' mall ' 1 rt7WUSretra rom lhe An tote, •o ,,� ,,DlKl ' L__ ,,-een memo lY 3nd rem l' mscen If �n WS l n U<"\ ce By incl ud i n tit tOt w. in he
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the C h n '" "m "it\' an h · of .'t e IDtt'n,or man," He tiCipates the roIe 0 f m e mo rv in Ihe .'... . -..agrnllf)' b) conceding that. the marvelous, and t he Dno/ions Iha[ lead to nit;" ) are an aid to memory, bUI JUSt as memor\" is nul'-¥ an I'nd I' . . ptJlS3ble auxi liary of prudence that i of wisdom ( imagin ed as a WUlnaD "-ll h Ihree eyes who can see past, presen t and future things ) Alben iDsi.ts on the importance of training memor y on mnemonic lech� niques. Like a good "narurali t,"' Albert u lti ma tely relates memory to temperaments, ror him, the temperam ent mos' favorable to acqui ri � 17 a good memory is -dry-hot melanchol}, the in tellectual, th e . m l ancholy ares, p. 69 Is Albert the Great rh us a precu rsor of en ais ' 5alI(e "melancboIS" in "'hom we sh o u ld rcwgnize a wav of th in king . and feeling based on rem embrance?
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-
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any other aptirude. Thomas qu in as was particularlv . qualmed to deal " ' ..L memo� , he see 'I," ms to have ha d a phenomenal . n:mual memo" 3nd h' IS amho'a1 mem Of-\, h a d been exercised by Alben ..L , "'" G reat t aching at Cologue. Lik e L e Albert die G reat, Th o ma Aquinas . �"IS In ute
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be 1'0lind,' F rances \ales
"t he
of
" TlruHitltllc Ages I
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J9
have turned into corporeal similitudes' ',. O1or me , . i!!l · '; . " 'mtentlons l I... I . "" l 3r spmtua are to and "" h pre,emed pie 5101 , t e , hlch ' agam here the reason • m the sou\. And h e gIVes hrOug,h \\ , I, 'Ill ;IiPplllg tro itudes which he gives in the Anstotle imil s al If\. -y 'corpOre , " ' regard IS cog stro nitio nge n r . m O\. U
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' . anm lov G' can � O\ mI . th tu� cen h � � At the beginning of the fourteent , mum, put us ih clin liru ac srnu lis exemp de m Sum his in , no a gn i im da an G
a
the Thomist rules int o b rief formulas: '"There
four things that help
a
man have
a
good memory.
The first is to arrange the things to be remembered in a are
cifie order,
The second
to pay careful anemion to them,
The fourth is frequent!. to repeat them while thinking about them" (Book VI, ch, xiii . The third is to relate them to unusual
, � Pi. f o t n e v n " o c e th m o • Tot Iong afterward anat h er Do mlmcan fr o up the Thomi-t rul � tok Banolomeo da a n Concordio 1 161- 1 34
•
80
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Memory: TI. AI.
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. .L.' i I ru , th e fi eg ant.e rst
ae Amm . his to � . O of memo ry t acular, in k Italia vern n to d rhe n , i bec ry o au m f Se I t [he arc 0 me d. as adeol I dt�"" th ro lay peop e. of the la ter M Memonac � Artes y u man id e dl .'<1 Among r h e A. d w m e a y ges m en ti o n h rish e flou rhe y e r' th e .od . WhI'ch J. �_ avenna, f a w h ' R I Ch the Iirs da o . pierr by t """", ," ...;..- � e d ilJa mt!J1l0na i t ' 1 4 9 1 and was fa IIowed by a secon 01) -a... 0" ' d , e d . p 1 . i to IO OIce Pe n '� a. in B in .y" ' d WI I most e rhe y � read s 0 m e e o s 1 ir f t 0 S h M ., � ese re ' -6na 149 2 TIliS at I S s ' eent h cenrury a es . It . I severa l e.ditions in the lxr � n I d "'a s ug rhro , "' e n t example b y f or Robe ta n sl t ages, rt . langu C o 'ous p l n an d i at 1010 va 'T' A" � /" . A n T l r 8 r rhe rirI e 1 ne rt 0.; mem surzmenlt
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nor deny rhar do I plac lthough es '1'. _l e. g d le w o kn ro normal rraining in \�� cannor leave rhe Middle Ages wirhout mentio ning one rhe . . oretl_ . . I 10 ' the domaln 0f memory, Ram cian who is a.lso very onglna , on Lull. . , . , discussed memory In vanous works, Lull finally com Arrer ha\1ng osed in 1 3 r 6 rhree treatises on memory, De Memon"a, De intellectu, a d De .ulunlate (which are th us based on the August in i an tri n i ty), not to men rion a Likr ad nzemon"am confomandam . Very different from the DOrni ni can Arlts Memon(Ie, Lu ll's Ars memoratiYa is "a m eth d investigation and a method of logical investiga tio n " (Yat es , p. r 8 5) , w h ich is iIlumi� nared by Lull's Li6er septem planetarum . The secret s of th e ars memoranJi �re idden in the seven pl anets . The Ne pl ato n ic i n terp retat i on of Lull Ism In fifreemh-cen rur Florence y (Pic della Mira n d o la) le d readers to s:e a cabalistic astrological an d magical d '
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He was rhus to have a srrong in fl u e n c e in t h e R e n a is s a nce.
en a n d Figured / 8 , 'u l?n . ry·
jI'/.",o
an d F i tt en re d ri gu M W em or of fr S y om es r o t n se re P e th e n . g fr e h rf' e s J I J(eft 1S a a
to
tfle . Onized We stern memory, but slowly. It revolutionue ' d volutt .In Ch'ma, w h ere, even though printina h re (ing re slowly . n a ad pp rn n e e . ., pnnte A D ' rs did not discov centu ry h r nt ni lll o y er movthe e in ed . t n e III remamed content with xylo"'""" i rhu s and , phy ) n hY gra po lJet! (ty e m reI'Ief), up until the ninetee d ' en gra ve s pla te of ble ryp by meanS nth . . I tecIltl1' ques w er e Introduced. Prin ing at llc a h m t r ec in te rn tina (P r hen Wes . , e Impact on eh'Ina, but its effects on ma sS IV a (U Y, ve ha n , re ce' h re10 . e d t d not stra ta te 0 f SOCI' ety, was significant d cult iva the in for ieast at s, e o technical works that m and were printed, and ntific e scie ". y ' 1 marl ' p '( ",as rt the memorization d of knowledge. extende and d e . . lerat e c m L h W. t e est. (hese a ntly erol-Gourhan has dediffere d ene v
nv
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ap P h s g in Th memory brought about by printing: in n lutio 'bed the reVO scrt printing . . . it was difficult to separate oral of e aranc ppe . . lJP u nn' 1 th e a 0f th e known was buned In oral pracMost miSSion. trans � om w itt n the peak of the known, whose framework re� ueS iq ; techn d n s nce ad was given fixed fOlm in the manAntiquity, since d hange . alne . unc by heart . . . . W·Ith the advent of printing learned be to rder In 0 . t scnp u h Wit an d f ace enormous reader collective memthe was Iy on . . . . . not no could longer aSSimilate In toto, but he he matter ct bje su e hos u dy put in a p o�it i�n to e�pl?i� new works. We then witen s eq . e no nzatlon of mdlvldual memory; the work of xt e essive progr . ness a . h plis S I om ed acc from text the . (19641 Side out tten wri ientarion in a
.
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m
.
.
:; 7r or
65:69-70)
'
ng printi mak.e of elves thems fully felt only in effects the ss, e l e h rt e v Ne when the progress of science and philosophy has ry, centu enth eighte the sms the of ory: hani ctive and mem mec colle ent cont the d e rm o f s n tra The eightee nth century in Europe marks the end of the ancient world in printing as in other techniques . . . . In the course of a few decades, social memory embodies in books all of Antiquity, the history of great peoples, the geography and ethnography of a world that has become definitively round, philoso phy, law, the sciences, the arts, technology
and a literature translated into twenty different languages. The flood tide goes on swelling up to our own day, but without losing a sense of proportion on e can say that no period in history has known a such a
rapid expansion o f the collective me mory. Thus we already fmd in the
11" /lwry.. II ,.r'tt�
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ar.r qlladrata) , Frances Yates think \u of ead inst Ja S ItI " S the fa mous Globe Theater in l n on, for de "" .Il,d (d� o m o 7)' 34:1.6 fer IO" " S ' e 0 f me mo ry had .ou r " ,re • nd , ir he s n leo I t u t greatest s �l"'\.c. "p<'· ' ti l occ , 1�'lll\"hiI<=, ( 1 � 4 8 - I 600), These theories played a B o funo rd ' n a ,1'1' 11 In G i o ' \ conde mnatlon, I lUre I and ' n C , executio l n UtlO of l , l'r>;tlC re he
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rt kfu ra (F t O n n ' nrposrtl co lll l moon el d fTI�� In \' b ) r" tum nto of me B eel wh th , o run for t s' th. ' 1 �9 1 onl u� L�t ) the memory divine man, be of a uld r o 1 \ 91 ' em , , C ,I nd thIt "'ueh a m am t I es ed to ule on lllau " Imag I I\I I g I lrou t IInd'I ers : '\\ PO\ w ith diyine 1I> ' on the I I' I' 1lp; cl su d \ an attempt would n l'S w o p ic m s , e co
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b k on memory [N � d he bU pu d ha 160 , -<: 4 \ 1 � 'henkd at re th l ) , 1 10 rg ou s\:) II tra Y cl {d ,\ (OI'It d n a " .1ft' will , O ou ,i, ' \\ s in ry, m me of c ti la h e d n a t li i c app, rently faithlil\ t .In g f mne on ':In sW e th 5 \'\"3 hi T , m i ed nn he f . !it\ ,I secr.-t " dept l'<'I ' emh me ve e e th in ted o l"3 d eb,o ho et m iti nt ie ' \l\oni heflneticisnt, Th , t . A� \ ie ed m e th f ch an br nd ' s thi est d $ , \\ c tltUf\ , m m 1,1) , n u R:n ;\ n \\ n k am R \�, Th.. Prott' r.mt Pi...rre d I � � J" \,.d \in re a ass m 3\ D ', \\ \ 1\ ,Ind \ ,i ti m )f the t,- 1ft" \ ' t en ,n e th t th 1 ONt!S d i ii ' is tt',ld, dem;,nded in h,: th n ded un n w ne ith w t't'dmiqu s f m l\\ ri :ttl 1\ b rep\a::e-d m ai f cl e r\\ n rt\ �e 3� an \S T � :' h\ n ,\ "m 'th "di.\1 :'Ii'.\\ t rd r,' p u ed u n ri n h hi w t itl�l\i, r th ( t m 1l\ r\
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, t. h u th \' nt tl<: ::u " ry m ll tl i-i il\ tim t in;pire 1\ "ant \ ::u m I I S n 10 n u it deman , th � T li m in ti n . b 'htl P'� h \ ;i; ' \\ h rt' \ � m m r, T\ m m that n. h h , n" r, th In: m in \I um , m .
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84
/ Memory: Writet n a nd F'lfIJr '
said as early as 16 Bacon Francis , ease 20, to n anY ' h'I S also labored been and harh , P Ut into practi N"",,_ ganum, " There ce a ..", . but a od, meth od meth l lawfu of im post lllel 0,. which is not a h u re ' a m an ne r, as m en m ch su in s ge led ow kn ' �hich is OQ, ay speed deliver ' to l l y h h w ave . I t ' 0 not ' learning s uch was COlll make a show of e 10 the trav a l'1 o at art h t making which in Lullus bear f Ita� s his n a mundus . m e" (q UOte p. Yates, 3 74)' d In At the same period, in his Cogitationes privatae ( 1 6 1 4- 16 2 1 ) ' Des es an Ineptltu I, · ' d " s d k e propos "Seben e d several C3l'tes . anacked I ogl c l . . ' . ' a " fi ImagInatIOn: t e or h llleth. IOsIanc masterIng e, ods" for "throug h t he red uctio . . of things to their causes. Since all can be reduced to one II n ' IS obvi ' o usl� not necessary to remember a t he sCIences " �I'v. , ates, p. 7 ) . 3 3 Perhaps only Leibnitz tried, in the still- unp ublishe d m an uscn, p Is re. 'I L rec to onci e uII'S art 0/memory, wh served in Hanover, P i ch Lel'bnll2 d " I' ' ' ' ' escribed as a comomatona, Wit h m od ern sCie nce (Yates , p. 3 8 2). ' LUII'S wheels of memory, which were take n up agai n by Brun o , a re mov ed b signs, notations, characters, and seals. It suffices, Leibnitz see ms Y to thInk, . . ' I0 make out of the notattOns a umversal ma the ma tica l langu age . H'IS . . malh· emanzanon 0 f memory, stan d'109 between t he m edi e va l Lu lJ ian sys . lem ' an d mo dem cybemetIcs, IS Sll II Imp res siv e to d ay. Let us consider the evidence offer ed by vocab ul ar y conceming th'ls . ' ' tc penod 0f memory In expa ns IO n '' (Leroi-G ou rh an ) . We wI' 11 exam ' Ine the two se antic fields in the French language th at d e ri ve from mn � eme and memona.
I
ed
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The Middle Ages contributed the centra l word memoire, which ap peared in French in the firs t m o nu m en ts o f th e l a ng u age i n th e elev enth century. In the thirteenth cent ury the word memorial (which h as to do a w have seen, with financial acco unts) was added, and � : in 1 3 20, mim Orre I n the masculine ' appears, destg na " tm g an ad mmlstrative dossier u. , memOrre becomes bur ' ea ucratlc " , 10 th e servic , e 0 f th e m o na rc hi ca l centralIsm then establis hin g lis ' e If, Th e fiCo Iteenth century sees th e ap pe arance of 11 memora Ole at the perio d 0f the a ogee ' p of the Artes Memoriae and of the . renewal of anCie nt I Iteratu re'. a tra d"ltl on al 1S ' t memoire. In th e sixteent h century,, in 1 5 52, personal me.morre,s , usua II y written by an a ris tocrat, be· gin to appea �. Th e elg ' hteenth cen ' . u t ry COntnbutes t h e wo In 1 726, and rd in I th word memorandum bOllowed from the latin via English, , A J· o m 77a'l IStlC . . and d' . Ip Io matI c mim of public, o Ue: th is marks t he en tq national, and ' Intern atI onal , memorre The ' Ol o n , w hi ch 0 pI • al so makes i ts own first half of . the nmetee . . nth century WItnesses a mas S I ve ,
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:
/ ed Figu r and en . ry, Writt
Memo
85
contributed in 1 803 by medical scien mnls ie a ' 'on s ce, n ea cr I a b r e (1 813), mnimoteclmiqu ll ie e f (1 836), motedm and rmo mni y ) , d 800 (1 bO e tl ' ed UC3tors, a group that shows ' bY S WISS lq 7 4 n 1 8 o in � ' ea ted cr S a 'J . ' w wem n d pe agogy, e d io an ir<, Which in t 8 n mo ng "" t achi (l1li,istl f e 0 t '
ress ro g ed with the need for memory. Finally, in imbu is p life ay d y r ' , , the ve e t a I l to sum up the acquisitions f memt seems S , nse w m 5h0 dan[l' C me
nlO
a
e
-
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the P 19°1, io n ns a in eXp ' u rh a n has pointed out , the eighteenth century G o l ero orY L , as er, br oa de ni ng of collective memory: Howev this ' 10 I e ro ve deciSi ••
,
a S y la p the encyclopedias of all kinds that in its lim . ir the ach s rte Dictiona, of manufacturers or tinkerers as much as for use he � J she bh u of technical literature occurs in the om bo are p e tru t firs O�: T , rs , ola ch , s , Th e d'lctlOnary constitutes a cent ury pure eent h eigh t f the f 0 hal ' Wh'ICh thaught 'IS ry, but one In seeDnd mo me al ern ext of c lved lorm evo lIery ' a sen' es 0f I'InIe I oped'la 0f 175 1 IS G cyc En t rea the , d' ' raIIze mo Iy e · infinlt . . the encyclope d"la IS a d'Ispersed, . y nar tio dic a in und up ba s nual ma isolated cog contains an animate each , ch whi in ry o l mem uea , be a h p I a relation between Vaucansons automaThe ory mem I ' the tota . , , f o t ar p with It IS the same as that ry ora mp nte co dia pe clo e Ency h d t n an to rs Wi' th memory to day. I ato cu cal d an s ine ch ma nic ro between eIeet ) :707 1 5 96.v 6 I n a ourh G (Leroi -
u vol nch Re Fre in e the lod exp ll wi ted ula um acc s ha t a h t The memory > r. to na to at de gre , 0f 17 89 . Was it not the
, , a I c ' m c h te ' g h I nc y sm ' ea cr an m al os sp r di ei th at ve ha While the living ay from aw n tur to ms see ry mo me ry, mo me al tu ec ell int d , n fic, a n soen hte�nth ' elg e d of en h th to nt ee nt ve se e th of d en e th � � the dead. From , ppe ArIes and Michel ili Ph by ed rib sc de ce an Fr nturies at least in the s, mb To er, ak we ily ad ste s ow gr ad e de th of on ati or em m �ove\le he com to t lef are s er lch pu Se , ple sim ry ve e m co s, be ng ki i ncludi g those of the man ch en Fr e Th . up pt ke ly or po d d an rte se de e ar ies ter me na tu re an d ce or the s fin ns, tio na les tes lOu de s bre ne ies fo on Pierre'M u ret, in his Cerem to It es ut nb att d an d, an gl En in ng getting of the dead particularly shocki year. ery ev sed cea de the red be em rem Protestantism: "Formerly, pe op le much � to l el sm ld ou w at th r fo , em th y, t Toda people no longer talk abou en ht hg En e th of e ag e th in of Papistry." Michel Vove lle believes that
uon
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0f th e y or em m e th of rn tu re a On the eve o f th e French Revolution, at gr he T . pe ro Eu in re he w ad se el de asserts itself in France as it does � peri od of cemeteri es be gi ns , w it h new ki nd s of monuments, funeral m
ment, people want to "eliminate death�'
86
I Memory: Written and p('gu
red
. l'onS, and rhe rite of the visir to th e cemetery. The t0 rnh scnpt 0u I . � l er e t h nt ce 1 de of aJJ ag m re ce on t b em me co ht be ra ne s ha D e. '\O . Ch urch m the cemetery lin ked t0 of a ion act attr n the Is ate nru e mern . m acc CIS Ory. � h '10 the order of k muc so not sees, ' JJe nowled . -eenth ccnttJry . ntno . g�, as I 10 the order of feeli n s h er t ra t bu y, ur nt ce n g and the eighteenth \0 , al it I "• e t 0f h co mm e mora ti v t en m I op ve " de a e , spl nt true, in educatiOn . . e t th se e pl am n ex io ? Mon a Ozo Revolut Did the French uf h a� dt. tion in th e sel ry ra na leb tio ce olu rev the of use v i ee of scribed this m till. � r e rt f h I ' t o ..>" ' S 0 t rev u pa l on I ary n" ratl p ro g a m.' A ory. "Commemo ll the rs ke e re ma ag non th e necesSlIy d celebrat io ' calendar-makers an of USi'n . . . g the ry of mo lu me vo Re the n tio 1 aJJ JJ1t ma " to z (O al riv ouf p the fes . 99) 1 . " es: lar dec of atio "N r 79 1 ion itut nal nst Co celeb ra llon5 Title I of the " W 11 I the of ory mem ch the Fren Revol uti on. be established to preserve . ' n 0 f mem ory app ears. A' But soon th erea,r.ter, the man tpu Iatlo ,ter 9 sensitive become to the have people massacres and ex Thellilidor, cu. tions of the Terror, and it is therefore decided to dele te from the co �crive memory "the mult iplicity of victims:' and "in the comm emorat l ve 1 . r rt h opp ose mem ory " (0 ' WI 1 hencelO celebrations, censors hIp zou f, . P . In other cases a ch olce must be rna de. Only three revolu t'10na ry days seem to the Th e�� id orians wo � hy of b ei ng co� m emorated : July , r4, the first of Vendemlalre, a revolutionary day unstalOed by blood and with more hesitations, August ro, the date of the fall of the mon rch� On the other hand, the commemoration of J an ua ry 2. 1 , the day of Louis
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202).
:
XV/'s execution, will not succeed in being commemorated; it is the "im_
possible commemoration."
Roman �icism rediscovers, more i n a literary than in a dog matic way,
the alltactJon of memory. In his translation of Vico's On the Ancient Wu
dom of Italy (t 8 3 5),
M i chelet could read th i s e pigra ph : "Memoria et ' ' " VICO p hanrasJa. wrote: "The Lalins call memor y memoria wh en it relams sense perceptions, and reminiscentia wh e n it gi ves them back 10 us. ut they desi gna ted in the same way the facu lty by w h ich we form .
�
Images, which the Greeks called phan/as ia, a nd wh ich we ca ll imaginativa; . for where we vulga rIy say " Imaglnare, t he latins said memorare Thus . Ihe ree say in their myth aI ogy Ih at th e Muses ' the powers of ImagJ. nallon, are the daughre r� 0 f Memory." 32 Here the link between m em ory . . all d Im ' agmatlon betwe en memory and poetry is red i scovere d . owever, I he' seculari r .vals and of the cale nda n man Z3 [J' on 0f ,estl r i y 1 COUntries fUll I Iarcs a mu II p hca(on f 0 commemorations. In France, t he ' I remembrance of t h e Revo Iut J on al lows itself to be absorbed i nto the
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J,fent"ry:
Written and Figured /
87
4, whose avatars Rosemonde Sanson 1 h a5 � ly J U 'bed f 11 0 I r ll'va IS ' reestablished at Ray t he ,es oo, I.hrll 0 o pole mood Ra• a , � cd by 880. The repo rter of the bill in r 6, July the 1 . on , . 'o n _ so ' of national l eb ' ,1'5 sU"",ed : "T he o rga n l zall' o n 0f a senes •
S�ppress
eg,sla-
ce ral lon. ed . ar p3� ha.I de 0 f the memones th at are linked to the ple . l. ng exJsl (1J ' ng t he peo . ....n l nd, . cion is a necessity that all governments have recognlzed f ··'· . I ln sot U ' h d i d a a rea etta y wntten ""brlca in "La Repu Gamb ' bl'Ique t ice . rac ' rt intO P n a ti o n needs national celebra re e "A f 1 , : 1.) 87 1 tions?' and e� (J uly 5 end of the Civil War the the after l tly shor es, Stat l Orthfra"� s Un 'ted l , In the cided to estabhsh a day of commemoration', this was first de r es ra 30, 1 868. I n 1 8 82 t h'IS day was .,.. e1'f1 S <Mven the na me 0f n May celebrated 0 " " I emorial Day. . . wanted celebrat I ons commemorating t e ionaries v 1> olut re h . , F nch em ora tio n ma nta was even more intense com m the but , on , . cularl o \/oluu "e y among nationalists, for whom rti pa and , tives rva nse co g n amo and a n important instrument of government . goal a both waS o mem ry ,ounder 0f th e "L'19ue des Patriotes" he C I' ' t e, d e erou ' exl D u a P 1 88 r,
pu
"
'
The re
.
In
cla imed:
I know people who think hatred fades,
But it does not! We s hall never forget; Too much French soil has been stolen from us; The conquerors have conquered too much.
nationalists had the celebration of J oan of Arc and ic s l o at C h Frenc July t 4· The commemoration of the past Republican e t h to added y man i Ger Naz and in Fascist Italy. ion inat culm its s e reach
h
Commemoration finds new means: coins, medals, postage stamps
multiply. From about the middle of the nineteenth century, a new wave of statuary, a new civilization of inscriptions (monuments, street signs,
commemorative plaques on the houses of famous people) floods Eu rope. This is a major area, in which politics, sensibilities, and folklore mingle, and which awaits its historians. For nineteenth-century France, � aurice Agulhon, in his studies on the mania for statues and Republican Imagery and symbolism, has shown the way. The rise of tourism leads 10 an
unheard-of development in the sale of "souvenirs?' At the same time, the scientifi c movement that will supply the na . tron al collective memories with monuments of remembrance accelerates.
In the eightee nth century, centralized archival depositories were created (by the House of Savoy in Turin i n the early eighteenth century, by Peter
•
r
88
/
'Cured
Memory: lPn'tten and Fl'
rsburg, by Maria-Theresa te Pe . St at 0, 72 1 in at V·l e the Great nna in . . 1 770, In at emce Vi Flore n ce In at I ' at Warsaw., in 1765, 1 778 /19' . . n created t he Nan on al Arch ives ( , etc.). ' tIo lu vo Re d ecree f France, the Lt S epte . J uly 25, 1 79 4, openin g th 0 f decree ? The 1 790). e ber 7, a rch lv Ill . es o W c I h'ch d u m In to th e ase n h t P s c o new m a aInl ' . ng Public begt'ns e th e . . natio _ . l be accessIble to the publtc. Fo l l ow ing F wIl ra n ee E memory .. al . ' L on do n , ngl and In ce Olii Reco in rd 1 8) 8 . n 1 88 es· tablished a Publtc . 1 he , r Po p ltc the Arrhivo segreto votican pub the to ned ope ' e Leo 0, w hIch h ad been r . established in 1 6 1 Specialized institutions were created to train spec ial'IS ts In th e Stud tes in Paris, in t 8 2 I (reo y of these materials: L'Ecole des Char . r ga n lzed n . . . i 1829); the Insntut fUr Osterrelchlsche G e sch ichts fo rs chu p:r Was be gun by Theodor von Sickel in Vienna in 1 8 54; the Scuola di eografia "'a s begun in Florence by Bonaini in 1 8 5 7. Much Ihe same can be said about museums. Mter timid eigh teenth. century efforts at opening them to the public (the Louvre bet ween t ' and 1 774, th e publ'IC M useum 'I n Cassel established In t779 by the Landgrave of Hesse), and the housing of great collectio s . t special buildings (the Hermitage in St. Petersburg under C a the ri n r I.n 1 164, ' the Museo C1ementino in the Vatican in 1 773 , the Prado In . ' ' M a dnd In . 1 785), we finally arnve at the period of p ub lic an d nat i onal mu seu ms. r. 1 . . J rrana In the Lo uvre wa s op en ed on Augu st 1 0, 1 79) ' The v e vcuene ' th Conventl.on established a technical museum with the revea I 1' 09 nam ef eo "The Conservatory of Arts and Crafts'" ' in 1 83 3 , L0UtS. PhI'II'ppe £.oun ded the Museum of Versailles, which was devoted to a l l th e gI . ones of Firanee. Th e Firench nan.onal mem ory was extended in the d', rect . lon 0f the M 'ddle Ages by th� h ou sing of the Du S o m me ra rd col lec tio n in the M�see de C�uny, an� In the direction of prehistOry by the M u see de
I
XIII
.
7 50
:
.
Sa �t-Germaln' established by Napoleon III i n 1 86 2. he e ans created the Berlin Mu se um of Na tio na l An tiq uities in 7 I 830, an t e Germanic Museum of Nuremberg i n 1 8 52 . In Italy, the ' House of savoy,' w hIC . the process of br ing ing ab ou o h was In t Ita lia n na. tional Unit' y, created the B a rgeII0 nat lon a I mu seu m i n Florence in 1 8 59. Th e coIIectl've memor . y in S can danavlan co un tri es wa s more open to "popu Ia r" me mory; museums of �0 Ik lore op ene d in De nm ark ( 1 807), in Bergen , Norway ( , 8 8) . . "+' 1 , m Helsm 5'ors, FIn ' Ia n d ( 1 84 9), before rhe ereation of the first open -a'Ir m u seum (skan se n . ) In S tockholm i n 1 89 1 . The anemion to technica l memo whi� 0 AJ e i e th rt n d be d r ha lle fo ca m ' ' Y r z Encyclopedia, was rea l i ed m rh e . crean o n In . I 8 P 0f a mu seu m of manu(;aCfUnng at Marlbo rough House In Lo ndo n .
�
.
Mef/'ory"
/ 89 Fi gured d an tten . Wri
process of . developm el parall ent and 0 a ng m pe ent _ . und e,·· . B . F enJamm , ranklin States open ed a Ien d'mg nited s rte (ol ' U e h IvIb " c In t l bI '73 "
pu in : a i ph . . he 1 de t la p slg mfi can t or manifestations of the to r'j ill hI ant po rt im ese th to (.l b ' '0 11 h P twO enome na h f 0 in nce the nineteenth d eara d ,n app e a th III . h century also merit JIlemory, gin n in g 0f the twennet atten i e b t ¥e e h cOJlec'" " and at 1 cell[ll ' J
to the dead after the First s ent num mo of n ctio ere e h t tlO S s fir t I ion orat mem com hed y reac erar fun new ch whi 'fhe gh ou r h t r W d "'Iiomb 0f the U nknown Soldier" a ' a ries t coun l of \*r u rober n . a ' e In iat es d d oc an ass th n wi ou ym b on e an h t k c ba ht sh pu s. ig he g to ' n I k e se I · , I ' ' ng over a nameless b0dy, the coheS'lveness of a nation ¢s bU t m l , al I oC r d il)'. all . P om m on memory. ac n , phy ich gra wh oto ph d revolutionof t tha e is ullit I n eno m no e ph . . d . On . . . c se es It a giv It, ion cIs d pre zes an a ran oc em 'fhe d d an es pli lti mu . it . y . es JIlemor ' POSSI'ble to . Vl. suaI m em ory, and rnak'es It m d e ,z in ta at re fo be e e n. utio l evol gica nolo chro of and t[llth Il ¥ r time of r y emo . m e h t e f\' . . e c e ed an th at fic str e m on of slg m de ve ha pres p ou gr s h, d an u ie . rd ou B pIerre : m u lb a il the "fam y s in ily d ha , m ch an fa tic ea ra oc m de e m co be s ha gallery t ai tr or 'fh ph ra . e's og er on To ot ak ph t-m ai rtr po e al ci offi its , ad he its of n so �r th od d ho an ild eir r th ch he of ap gr , rio sto hi e th elf es on h�l�ren is to make t ey e ha th e ag e, of w th im nc ta ri he in of rt so a as , em create for th ial remem th soc of tru the s sse pre ex um alb ily fam e Th have been . . . . the n tha t e los tim for rch sea c isti art the like s les is brance. Nothing s an rie ta en m ed by m ni co pa m co , ac es ur ct pi ily m fa e es showing of th es ag he im . T rs be em w r m ne ei l al th on se po im es ili m fa initiation rite so of r" de or l ra e tu th na r," de l or ca gi lo no ro ch in d ge an of the past arr y rth wo ts en ev of ce ran mb me e th re t mi ns tra d an se ou cial memory ar nu mo the in tor fac ing ify a un es se p ou e gr th e us ca be on ati of preserv it e us ca be , ing th me sa e th to s nt ou at am wh or , ity un st pa ments of its y wh is at Th . ity un t en es pr its of on ati rm nfi e co th st derives from its pa n tha ing ify ed re mo or g, rin ssu rea re mo nt, ce de re mo ng thi there is no al du ivi ind se clo en t tha res ntu ve ad l r a icu rt e pa a family album: all th d an it, m fro d de clu ex are t cre se a of ity lar cu remembrance in the parti the common past, or if one prefers, the lowest common denominator ed sit vi tly en qu fre a of ss ne at ne of the past, ha s the almost coquenish funeral monument.}3 . 11.
•
"
�o'
,
I:et
di ad e on d an n tio ec rr co e us add to these penetrating lin es just on lion. The father is not always the official family portrait-maker. The
r
,
•
"n • •
go
I Memory..
JP,n'Ue
n ana . p, 'CUre"
O mother often /iUs this role. Sh ou ld we se e in thIS a rei I' e of t .on 0 f . b he fe remem rance or, function 0f the conservati on th e C Illi. ni o ntraI) is by y in or m fe em ? m m p ou gr e th of t ques , a ne co ..,. le s op pe oto e ph tak the , we s h o u I d Tn addition to a lso c ons'Id ke up the ma th new Bo . ' buy f am I' I la I arc ' er cards they h Ives Pos•• . " th e . y r o 'co heque" of fa mily mem
na••
,
Contemporary Revolutions in Memory
histOry . IntO fi ve penods: oraI transmission, written transmlssl . ' on Wit h tab les . ar . contenlS or indices, simple file cards, mechaO lc a I w n. t ln g, and ele ctronic sequencing" .
(1964165:65).
. We have just discussed the advance made bY cO II ectlve memo . .
ry. in the JUSt
mneteenth cenrury, of which file-card memory IS on I y a n extensl on, . . as prmtmg was ultimately the concl usion of th e accum . ulatlo n 0f mem· . . ' Ulty. Leroi-Go urha n has defi ned th ory smce Antlq e progress of file-card memory and its limits: ColI�ctive memory acquired in the nineteenrh centu such a volume ry . that Il became impossible to expect th e 10 d"lvl du aI memory to contain the contents of libraries. . . . The elg . m.fica ' h teenrh century a nd a slg nt pan of the nineteenth still lived on notebook s nd ca talogs of works; � next came documentation on filc: cards, whI. ch IS no t really organized until the beginning of the twentieth cenrury. In ItS . m os t rudimentary form it alread espo �ded to �he co ns tit ut io n of a veritable exterio d cereb ex, S10ce a SImple bi bl iograph lea ' I file-collection permits, in the hands 0f a user; ' . va no us k10 ds o f orga nization . . . . The . image of rhe conex IS to . I ea d ' some extenr mls 1Og, h owever, for if a filecoIIeerion IS a memory . . . . 10 the Stric t sens e, It IS a mem ory tha t lacks its . own means of reme mbranee and to becom e . active It must be inrroduced mro ' the visual and manua l operational fie ld o f th e researcher. (pp. 72-73 )
riz;
r?;
:�
But the radical changes 10 . mem ory . t m h e twentieth century, and espe. IIy after 1950, eta consti tute a gen um e revol . ut io n i n memory, of wh i ch electron c mem ory is only 0 ne elem en t, thou gh no doubt Ule tacula r one. . L most spec-
i
91
se of the Second World War of large caIcour e th in e c n a ar the enormous acceleration 0f hlSto e d ' hnke . h S p . . 'fhe a P hI. n es (whic I . . 1 y c tifi tor en his SCi d c an a ' can 'J ' since 1960 a mc O h tec l f o g Iy r a !lo 1 U I a ic ' memory. The arithmeticaI rt ctJ automatic f a 0 p ory st i d h g n lon a fa O rt )' . the seventeenth century, which marked a ,0-'" a p s 10 l a ca en . nted by Pas e s v e be s and has been seen as a preCursor of n cu aba I the r ne ove hi nce c va (!la d o a calculative faculry. em m a oj ty ry ul ac f t e th n to a d e d fic ad . i rs n e t , '51"d U . o tn p s'itua ted '10 th e foIIowmg fashion in a
ry IS o em m adern c . of on (!I tl unc f s e e d : u l c i n h 'fh i wh c r, e ut O1p e pro gram; t h d an cfJ data ring . . nte e f o s an constituted by magnetic de, y e or em m 10 h it W ) ed w a o d n e s tnent introduced into the rnaon ati e orm inf e the rv l ) e b e s pre h c h ' 1 0 the course 0 f its opera d e tn Vices, w ' ta b 0 tS l u s r e pa rti al . .
As we have already seen, Andre Leroi-Gou rhan, lOCU l" sing On th . e r cesses by Wh'ICh coII eCtlve memory is constitute d, h as dlv ' l. p o.. . " ded ItS
.
Con . y or Mem .
/ Revolution orary temp
i
-
e th d an chine
tion; n. o n; a I 1 cu ca f 0 s mean id ra P . c) very ; n o t a i c fi r e v of s an 3' e m . d) ts u l s e r e th acting eXtr f o ns mea ) e o ta be dealt da he r te is g re at th es r o em m een tw be h s gu We distin edlate results rm r te e tn th e v er es p y l n a r o p m e t that es ri . o em m d an ve r '10 the computer s c o t Wi.th d e e r w , y a w a I n ( p . 1 2) . ts n a st n o c n i a rt ce d d ong-term n rm l a e an -t rt o n e h s e tw e b e k a m gists lo o h c y s p n o i the d st nct
i
i
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ii
memory· ions of a at er l op ta en am nd fu e re th e th of e on is y or em m y, ar m '' '' " ' In sum ' ' , and ry o . " em m i d tnto wntmg,
ze y a an e b n ca at h t n io erat computer op e m " so in d" ite lim un be ay m ry o em T h is m ). 1 " . 0 fig , 28 . (p g "read n cases. em m ic n o tr ec el d an ry o em m uman n h ee w et b n io ct n ti is d t rs fi To this par is ry o em m an m u h " at th d ad st u n, we m o ti ra u d to rd a eg r h it w ory nal io it ad tr e m o ec b as h at th m is itic cr (a le b a e ll a m d n a le ab st n u y a rl l t cu in r fo , y n o im st te l ia ic d iu to ce n re fe re h it w , y g lo o ch sy p n d er in mo
i
i
sta at re g s it r fo d te ec sp re is es stance), whereas the memory o f machin but s, k o o b y b d te n se re p re bility, w h ic h is comparable to the memory )' 83 . (p ll" ca re of se ea combined with a previously unheard-of s it in 1 il st is h ic h w s, in bra It is clear that the construction of artificial e th ss a rp su l il w t a th s e beginnings, is leading to the existence of "machin g d iu l a n o ti ra d n a ry o m e human brain in operations having to do with m s a le b a ir m d a s a , ex rt o c ' l ra b re e c e th " t a th t; n en m and to the recognitio 41 96 1 n a rh u o G io er (L it is, is insuffi cient, just li k e th e h a n d o r the eye"
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;�. fUI I-." Le d (p I .. � ::' dle �WC'ltO� _- tmalh- finds Ihe sohmQQ.. -ll the _ ' biol02 0. the "message" U)BSIillud by the aIla;� :J i' along a �ma, rlul holds the tIMiiMlI!� of I.leclL\: -1
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J
evolut '
/ Memory: Conternporar" R
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to"
it, a deep, per on al hab to ated imil ass be can hat ory t ' terms 0 f "th ' s " ' " mg .n b Ut on ly ed lyz ana be not can tha t of " 0 ,.,. ered th e I m ' ks between 'I ' This theory, which red.scov ry soul, had the a g even rea t perhaps i nfluence o , d, and mm . the , n li t , s eat gr st ou nove ] , st lc p rOj e Pr l rce Ma on rk tarure. I ma its ct A I left , ,
PUre" Illel prog ress "ll memo a . nd e ,
m
s mo ry In memory , So decep_ Imponanc ,
.
,
,
,
:
c�oice, emo
?
espee d n ea .s ' chap Ing on e e lZes ,,3hv fo h '
:
memory.
,
,
'
.
-
Revolutio n I 95 ary mpor nte Co . · ry mo
Me
d it
and explo re along with ion , not e th d , pare . . rn o Ic e nc � =: w l th /Us ro to ol o or that is among the s gy f! ory a t /Us p o llrl " t e , e h r t ents In h.stoneal know le ge. lo y Iy i n elopm dev t cen g re lar !ico ' t eres[l. n ation of collective memory n l ce leb r an d n , e • ng r ' cu t res . s , o uit r s r ques h' , t t d pen u o lOr collective emory p long 5 a ver """ ut 0 (11 ! " . b tS n e v images, gestures, rituals e wor d, n e e k o l p s g n . .t n t h e . s . . at . th •·o ' S . hIston eaI v,slon. It amounts r e In a cha ng t or aJ ' 'n a • m a . S s s te ' at Iarge, wh ' le 1tu S[ I n pub the obsessed cO by by d hare s I . .s . that . d 0 f eo II ct'' v� amnesla-a fear that ktn s 5, a r in ¢l � .o "e mory me cOn g its .n s o l for the .ashIons of earlier times and taste f o the in r d ' resse llea exp dly merchants; memory has thus beeome ar ' giaw nostal k by II' t ed 1 01 xp a e S ly S e l e sociery. mer su con sha m a o t r e l el s t s t hat collective meTlUJry, defined as "what rves e obse 8) ab 1 97 T3 ( O N of groups, or what these groups Pierre realiry lived the in st pa e h t . f o s n . a• s . gh t seem to b e almost completely opfirst rem at can " t, pas e th 0f e k a as affectIve memory used to be opposed to just m , mem ory t • IOnca h/S to pOsed ry. Up until our own time, "history and memory" had
history
d
IS
IC
ICh 'IS
�
.
oo e m and festito the is
.
-
.
mo at me c .
11ectu I e u ;"
seems to have developed on the model of istory h and d , e .us ally . . ctie ' . pra . o n zat lon." H Istonans proposed f mem d 0 a n esls amamn of . ng, en . (!lb ' " re(!le ' i gles ," we were passing from h myr 0 o . collective at e gr " n presslO ex he [ emory." But the w ho Ie evoI ution of the contemm e iv . ct le l o hIStory to , J' history lor r the most parr e at f em m an 0 lm ct pa im e th r de un , worid "
C
po rary spot the on ated c .1. faun
.
by the media, is headed toward the production of . . . eased nu mbe r 0 f co IIectlve me mones, and h'IStOry .IS wnnen, an mer . , the under e mfluenc days, of these collectIVe earher in than e r o m (!luch .
The so called
(!le(!lones.
.
.
•
"new" history which seeks to create a scientific history on the basis of collective memory can only be interpreted as "a revolu tion in memo ry," that causes memory to "pivot" on a few fundamental axes: "an op e nly contemporary problematics . . . and a resolutely retro spective procedure;' "the renunciation of linear temporality" in favor of multiple kinds of time as experienced "at the levels where the individual takes root in the social and the collective" Oinguistics, demography, eco nomics, biology, culture). This is a history that would be based on the study of "places" in the collective memory: "topographical places, such as archives, libraries, and museums; monum ental places, such as cemeteries or architectural edifices; symbolic places, such as commemorative ceremonies, pilgrim ages, anniversaries or emble ms; functional places, such as manuals, -
•
96
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Memory: Contempor a'Y n nev
o/"l .
autobiographies, or aSSOCiations: these memon' a I s have th r ei r h' But we must nor (orger t.h e rrue pI aces of history,, th ose in 1St elaborarion or consrructlon, bur rh e creators an d d0 . "'hieh 0')1." nO In � o a t f r's1 o t the rive memory are ro be soughr: "Stares, social and po 1 C o Itl . . c IJ al m ' ( I s nce ene exp ' nca Isto h or f 0 i 0f generariOns munltles eu� , Co", l e d . � r0 eo .., . ' . 'lT' 'to t he dluerenr rheir arch·Ives m reIatlon uses that r hey . nS tlt f �te mak e o ory.")S To be sure, thiS new collective memory co . nStltu tes ' . . . rnell} , I ts I 'Ul O I es, but Ir conceives the in rhe tradltlona I ve h'eI m1 d'ffi I eren tly. C "-'1edge . orn for example, rhe EndclopedJa &iuzudJ' or the En� JC paedia (J, . IO Pare 1.' • n LY , trsalis ncyclopaetua BruannicaP6 Perh aps the venerable E . ul t1 m ately . . !h . , "-' I We WO ' rhe S pi rit of d'Alemb e ' nve ar somethmg more like uld at n, s an d D id . t 's e ro Encyclopedie, which was also the olfs prin g of a gr p eno eat d of aCtl ve . menr and rransformatlon of rhe collective memo engag � , � The new collective memory m an ifesrs itse l f es e la ' II Y ' n th C I e consri tution of radically new kinds of archives of w hi P . c h r ' h e mos r chara , are ora I arch'Ives, In IIC ctetis. rhe dictionary of rhe NtOuYe1/ U, tte lllSlozre (L e Goff, ed") Joseph Goy has defined an d si tu at ed or al hIS ' tory, w h Ich " ' n0 doubr orIgmated m ' rhe Unired Srates, w he re' from 1 9 52 to 1959, great de n· menrs 0f "oraI h'IstOry" were creared at C pa o lu m b'la, BerkeIey, an d UCLA, and later developed in Q uebec, England ' , an d France, Th e , . IS case of G rear ' am Bm exemplary. The UniverSity o f Essex e st ab J"IS h d e a ColleCllo ' n of "life histories:' fo unded "The Oral H istory Society,," an d creat ed nu mer, ous buIIetlns and Jo urnals su c h a s History m ,L.I . nops, one 0 f whos lCS or e mam resu Its was a brilliant rebinh o f social h is to r y a n d above a ll ' la b h I tory through attention to the in d u s trial, u r b a n , a n d working p a s t o:;h � m nt of the popul tion H isto � a n a n d SOCiologists pla ����:� � � yed : � mp anr role m th i S lOqUlry lOto the collective memory of � r: , � k wor e B ut I ronans a n d a n th ropologists a ls o c a � ' m e together in other areas of co" ect!ve memory,' both lo ' Alin' ca an d lo ' E ur o p e, w h ere new methods of rememb , ' enng such as "rfi I e h IS ' to n e s " b eg an to be ar fruit, A new col/oqU l' um th at met Ifl ' Bol ogna u n der [h e ' tide Convf!{J1IO Intemaponale dJAntro>po!.OguI ' e stona: Fonti Orot.'I, Wh ose proceed lO ' gS were pu bl ished in 1977 in a spec' laI Issue 0 f Quad. eml' Slona . . ("0ral History: fra an tropologia e storia ") d emon strated that ' ' 0 f th is re se ar extend th e le l" rtl' / Ity beyond African ed ch Fire nch E n l l' � g sh ("oral history and the history ot tltt working class ") ' an dI tal Ian ("0 , I ra ' h ISrory I n a wo rk i n g quarte r oral sources and peasant labor apropos o f a m useu In the area of m ") ' ry, unde h Isto r th e In ' Ii uence of new conceptimliJ .
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: mg elop dev the ' " ory hist phy f gra o rio isto h f 0 rm o f W ' e I e u h t mp f 0 o n ma ano dy stu by col the a ly , al usu e . is tll t, fac u 1 in ... ··' h' Iy Ie w h up to h" t n IS mt eno po on om en ph Which, tOrl al to ric h' IS a of ,lstolY,tIl JIO y r I h ie d d e u , st as . , e h y v of r O remarkable ctJ four examples t find s we i J aphy h le a l ogr r ll to s l h o ' tl ch , t n d e h ch ug hi iv ro w ct th lle on co e en Fr om tf
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Conclusion:
The
The Stake of Memory
evolution of societies in the second half of the twentieth century
demonstrates the importance of the stake represented by collective memory, OverflOWing history as both a form of knowledge and a public rite, flOWing uphill as the moving reservoir of history, full of archives
and docu ments/m onuments, and downhill as the sonorous (and living) echo of histo rical work, collective memory is one of the great stakes of
98 /
Memory,' C one/
Usia"
s, of dom in tie cie so ng pi lo ve de d an ated a developed nd d " r lor 109 er pOW gg or for life, f, o lll classes, all of them stru 'nati Or sUrv' I IVaI t, n e ad vancem and Ilg fOt han Leroi Gour Andre are truer th The words of " an ev er : on un or ns f co 0 e t t h e h , ' qS ... iens sap pa ap o Iwm t ra us of from ' S ng o C a m l an ,q h f i um 0 olu ev rlj tion;' an d IiU._ L e dominates all problems le r' q..,. U mo",J l r t he h u man s tad iti , d'Ispensa ble lOr biologically just as 10 p On eCl' es as " , .L is g e n ' etic dicioning is to msect soaenes: eUlfllC surv ival depend n rOUti , con. ? � ed brings abo ut the ne tbe dialogue that is establish e qU , and I Ibriu , m be � rourine and progress, routme symbolizing cap ital nec een e ss , an J, to ' ' t h progres e s d an Interve I ntio SUTVlva , n of ind'IVI' group s th e du al in n ollatio I ' " M emo ry is a n a lv , r lV te sU et a b es uc d o t pr ha t essent'laI eI e n , rn e n t of . ' ed I What mdJVJdual or collective U!en,; ", WIll henceforth be cal J, th e 'feve, �'sh ' today one of the fund a r WhI'ch IS and anxious quest lor mental actr Vltles But societi collective memory is not es. of individuals and onl a Con ques� it is also an instrument and an objective of power, It IS ' socletie S whO e social memory is primarily oral or which are in the process s of establ' ISh• II that memory ective co offer us written a ing the best ch ance of under. , ' tlon over remem brance r domma ' thi s strugg Ie lor stan d109 an d rcad " thIS manipulation of memory, -
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The case of Etruscan histOriography per hap s iIIustrates a coI lectlv ' e , memory so nghtIy boun d to a dom ina nt social cla ss tha t th e I'de nufic ' a. , [Jon 0 f t hat cJass WIt ' ' h t he nat Jon bro ugh t abo ut the abs enee 0 f mem ry w hen the nation disappeared:
o
We know the Etruscans, on the literary level on ly through the IOter ' ' med�'ary 0f the G reeks and Romans: no historical acco unt, even if we admit that such an account existed, ha s come dow n to us ' Berhaps , thelr nallona I hm ' oncal or pa ra historical traditions di sa ppeared along , with rhe aristocracy that seems to ha ve been th e repository of the , nd mOraJ, Ju lcal, and religious patrimony of th ei na r tio n, When the , ' na[Jon ceased 10 exist as an autonomous nat ion , the Etruscans seem to have IOSt the consClousness 0f t h elr ' past, th at is to say,, of themseI Yes, 17 .
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Sludymg Greek and 'cJ " Ro� a n p h'I lan thropy, Pa ul Veyn e ha s sh own ad mirably how th e n I sacnhced part 0 f rh elr ' wealth to ens ure the memory of their role" (I
�7\�' 272), and how under the Roman empire me
empero r monopo ' l lle P J anth ropy, a n d th ereby th e as well,, "He aI one caused al/ th e pu bl'Ie edi fice s to excep tion of the mon ume n ts th ar the
collective be bU ilt (wltll enate and the Roman people
/ 99
ion clus n Co Ory,,
Mem
the An Se d na te 88) , occ aSi on ally avenged 6 p, ( or) " on h , , ry o em h m n a i r I i e p , m S i ed th is e�f bY desUOyt n , r ". cri ves the example of the Ben of the Cameroon to Balan I e �e1 ' " whose role 'an the collecgenea Iogles e " h t f 0 on ulan l a ,I S we11 -1m own: " In an O , , m e wnnng u h t o unpubth t i w e t pies ....o of peo d Be of southern Cameroon, the writer M ongo Ben I, Illelllory e h , t n o ' lt llll S am pe b ' mous at h t and enterprisgy strate he t s ' ' )ished nd I' J lustrate der to Iegahze a comesta or an ' Iogles genea he a t ' S (1 , adapt to ual s vi tepO ,,38 , j(ldi 'nence, ' es log ' d d I ua au an vls I I oa or hIV arc ve w ha ne e th , ies et soci , ments, even If they cannot monitor govern of on ' o n 10 atte he t d e ap ly as they can the new tools for close as c ory es mem t d of ' In , , oo , k S thi oI r: televlslo� , n and o radio c ably or not , , i t, " n rodUcl " bent upon professi onal s peClahst s In memory anthropolP ,s ' cum " to make of the struggle for ists log CIO SO Ip '� , s, ist l a ' n ur , ,o ans , n lO ' , stS, hls f t he pnmary Imperatives of 0 one ry o m e m l a i soc oga , ' tion of , " -r 'm g hIS msplratlon fro m 'T' e nc 0, re le k ia ty v i ti ec , ent!' fic obj sCI ination of traditional African ord sub e h t ed iciz crit wh o ) llanger ea y "g logies" manipu en all eci esp d an s rce sou " s t i t i l e " 0 anthropo 77) i ulz has (t9 led for Tri cal an ro and ess Al ns, cla t an in t e om n?' He n ma om mo rec om an "c ric Af e th of ry , O n of the memo invesugatl ' , IocaI ope, " 0 f fami' Iy memories ur E m " as a ric Af in study, e m d men al memories, and al\ on s, rs ge pe lla vi , es ili m fa , ns cla of s �es, historie ' ' I , n on-mst tlo naI'Ized knowiedge wh'ICh Cia ffi o un of x vast comple , , ents, so es ich d pr ns wh an re tio di tra al rm fo to in d e iz ll ta has not yet ctys s, vil lie mi s e (fa up ol gr wh of ss ne us io ns co ve cti lle co to speak, t he nal expenences) that fotm a rso pe d an ies or em (m als du ivi ind ages) or lized po no d mo an ed tiz iva is pr ich wh ge led ow kn e th to counterweight ?' sts ere d int he lis ab est of se fen de the for s up gro by certain urn, ret in s she uri no it ich wh d ws an dra y tor his ich wh on y , Me mor
I,J GeOrges
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us t Le , ure fut the d an t sen pre the ve ser to er ord in st pa seeks to save the and ion rat libe the ve ser y ma ry mo e tiv me lec col t tha y wa a h in suc act not
the enslavement of human beings,
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HI S T O R Y
Almost everyo ne is convinced that history is not a science like even believe that it is not a science at ple peo e som and s, other science ng t he I'IngUlsnc d1' ffiini y, b " ut am h' or ex tst t ou a b k tal to y eas t all, It is no so can lea d us to the ver y center of history's ng doi in lved invo s cultie ambiguities, In this essay I shall try both to resituate reflection on history in its duration and to situate historical science itself in the periodizations of .
,
history, without reducing history to the European, Western vision, even
if the Imer leads me (because of the things I do not know and because
of the
significant
state of the relevant documentation) to speak pri
marily of European and Western histor ical scienc e, The word "history" (in all the Roman ce languages and in English) comes from the ancient Gree k word histone, in the Ionian dialect, This
form derives from the Indo- Europ ean root wid weid, "see!' Whence the Sanskrit vettQs, witness, and the Greek istor, a witness in the sense of "one who sees?' This concept ion o f vision as the essential source of knOWledge leads to the idea that istDr, the one who sees, is also the one who Anows; istDreitt, in ancient Greek, means "to seek to know;' "to in-
1 02
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inquiry. That is the sen se thus is storie l elf." Iionn ones of th e . , "H ' �Otd Iscones, h H w ' " h IC ' tus are erodo inveSt l' at th ' lng of begmn a g " and sa ti o05, i .� en e vozr, belW YOU betw ' I The connection . ee n n seel n les, q�Ir . g a R ut 1 0 om an ce la ng u nd k B , le ob p st fir a us th � nO\>, ages (as � ing, is IVell rc. express two , e slona, ona, Izist ' If not th ree as ochers ), hisloire . cli ffere , , mto iry " mqU the the O ! C\l 11] acts aCcom I' ceptS. These are first, P IS h ed 1-.. o. . co esta bl'Ish Itself as a t sough has that uy Il.. l -0,.. . dotus) (Hero SCI' ence t h e Sci ' of that ct obje i inqu che ry, nd, seco ence Wha t men of hisrory; h ave ' tl yne puts It, "h'Is ory ' . aCCoIll r IS elth er a se ri f As Paul ve lished. es o e P • . v e n IS, s ent f ev 0 " es 9 ( 1 sen 6 ar h 2 t 8:4 of 3). tive narra B Or che ut h ISt ' ory " . , whI.ch IS precisely tha t ca n a nmg mea of lSo r narativ have a third e. A h 'S to s or false, true based be on "historical ry i a � narrative, which can re a IIty" . , , Or I" a , b "h' e Isronca ' can on It a£1on; narrau v imagm e or a fabl pure e. En , ghsh avoids chis last confusion by distinguishing between history and SID Ocher European I anguages see k more or I ess to avoid these ambi . . . .'Y. u ltle g " s. ' ' I SCIence, at leas Italian tencis ro dIstmgUls h, I' f not h Isronca t the p r d . . .1: . . o uc. G h . d b e wor t r C!J,a, storw y sCience, Ihat elll l an of g tlons tnes to d'IStt.n . u'ISh " " 6 g . r ' l · _L /z " . . y 0 f vescruc. tsc:nr belWeen Ibe sClenu c actiVit ewung and his tOri ca I SCl. ence .properly so called, GesdzicluswissensclUIji. This play of mirro rs and ambiguities has continued throughout the ages. The nineteenth cen tu che century of hisrory, invented doctrines that Simu ltan eously aCCo history both a privileged place in knowledge, spe aking, as we shall see , of either hislonsm or historiasm, and a function I sho uld rather say,, a category of the real. This function or category is historiciJ.y (the word first appears in French io 1 872, in English in 1 880), Ch arles Moraze defines histoniity in this way: ''We mu st loo k beyond geopolitics, com merce, the arts, and even science ro fin d the jus tifi ca tio n for people's obscure certainty that they are part of a un ity, am putated as they are in the enormous flux of progress which de fin es th em by op po sin g them, We have a strong feeling that th is so lid ar ity is lin ke d to th e im plicit extstence, which each person senses w ith in hi m se lf. of a cerrain fu nc ' tion" (p, 59), Th is concept of historiciJ.y ha s detached its elf from its "his torical" o gins 1 0 the hist oricism o f th e ni ne te en th ce nt ur y in order to play major role in the seco nd h a lf of th e rwe n ti e th c e n tu ry, Histmilily pelDuts us for example 0 , . , ( rej ect on th e the ' l lev el the not ion 0f a ore tica " ' sOCiety without histo . , m o re " ry, ' , -, W I h IC h IS ov er. em , , re p� fu m by e te d ' ' . examm anon of the SOCIeties stu d'led by ij O e 1 th 9 f n .a o L ogy l e fo (s rt e e If), I( 0bhges ' " us to msert Itself mto a h i sto ri ca l " '"there IS ' a h'Iston clty , of h IStOry, I t Im ' p/tes th e movemen th at _ , , , 81 1 .
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xis" (de Cerreau 1970:48 4), A philos.pra al ci so a o sup pression of historicity by the , pract ice t the i n ees S r ll e co ' t lVe o ' I lOunda ' moIoglca C ru f th e eplste 0 lll x tion of do ara ef11 re e pa e , P th p y h lik so ophi c al discourse splits his R h c ilos r, p i oeu lo hi to d o� to r! of ct, accor lO g , ode l and a structural mode� eve nt-m an ry a to , hIS h IS f In I· 0 Is de O to "The system puts an end to history, rn r: pea his ?,' cWO p isa d y , Or t of) l/1 O t is L h sin gu larity also pUts an end to ; s og ic ke ' in a d II e I ,� S tJl ' nnU a ' ely 1 ' tOry IS e t ' at e h [ amv entir 1. We r d dO _o para , y. xical histo S .,' I I I a h iJe"'t1Se b c use 'It denies h 'isto ry, 0f the end of history, of tier fron a the e at ys Vill ristics of histori characte histOr!'h it is al l era n ge e h t cirv " nd a t t J a ers d t n It o t e double moral from the funca 11 p .cO V bl draws a eyne re I ll a , y 91e a I l F'I n a It pe rmits the inclusion of new , oricity ,' ZZ4-z5)' hist of 1 6 co (1 9 e th n�eP the field o f historical science : "That which does f o g 10 h O I it W " , mentiel' ' O ry o'O O st , non-even£ hl , IS an event that the t , even of n a f 0 r cte b' ha c the o f regions, of m e�ta\ities, of history : ave a the : such h d as e gn o reco ages, the We WIll throu gh et therefore rity y secu t r o f 0 h c ar se IS 0 the f 0 or n o t yet Tecognrz� as ' d we s ich , wh 0 es ity ric o to his d a the f en m ine e es the idealiultion lud ity exc oric hist 'non- v d, han e r h ot n the 1)" 1:3 " 197 a t "H : "Eve rything is c l api ( a h wit h" y tor His f o soc , ce sten eXl , " the , y r O t XIs t. e t of his o n s doe H'15tory s rhu ble le OT trip dou this ning mea history, with of k thin d n a I've I to ave , h . e UI B , [ude and mysufymg Ively C ess exc the st n i a g a ggle must stru e W , "hisro we must and not se s, confu other histhe with nse se one 0f s " , lOn nfus co ry. ThIS laner confUSIon, hIStO of , y soph philo e h t with nce sCIe (L neal ro C bvre 1 94 S I4 6: 1 6), ten d5, " Its " ele In ious insid and 'ous cI . "tena " , which IS r ce histOrical explanatlon to the dIscovery or apphredu . S lorm to 5 , vanoU 0f , 0f a s'lngle, first cause; for the SCIen 0 " f ' tific the tion study evolu catio n , In aC , n eIved abstr Itself utio conc evol that e titut subs to tends , t ' I S , , e u socle
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dge y wle mar a kno y sum ns ver or on ptio um ass ri prio a on ed und fo rions of scientific investigati ons, 1 find astounding the impact made, largely on non h istori ans, it is true, by Karl Popper's pamphlet, TM Puverty of Historicism, He does not cite a single professional historian , We should nor, however, mak e of this mistrust with respect to the philosophy of history a justification for rejecting this kind of reflection, The ambiguity of the vocabulary itself reveals that the frontier separating the two dis ciplines, the two orientations of research, is not hypotheticaHy strictly drawn, or even drawable. The historian must not conclude that he should therefore tum away from a kind of theoretical reflection that is necessary for historical research. It is clear that the historians who are
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10 rely solely on facts are not d line inc st mo o nly the £ �-a te s ces pro a f 0 lrom nr mo lts resu age tl and h'sl . I Orical fact th " i at t� . es t ab ca , h ' I eoren t and l'I shin work ical techn but also blIn both res requi ' ded l... � it b ' ory t hat IS ' 0ften slen conscious philosophy 0f hm der d '' vy an Un.. nc h of nce ignora c histori the al repeat, research a o erenl Certainly, I ng mO lary corol the of St p historians ' sco losophers of hislOry hi. r.o Phy has not facilitated dialogue. But for examp le, therneJti. rP.philoso.. Sten� u, Ory lSt as fl d ch ". an su of a ,'heory: Studies high -quality journal in tlze 'hiIOSOpJ.. since 1 960 by Wesleyan Universit O-rH is t ory published , 9' y,' proves th e 'OJ . »os. sibility and the value of common re flectIOn on the pa n of h iJos and hislOrians as well as the developmenr of infolln ed spe a I . o.phers ISts In t he field of theoretical refleco·on on h'Isto ry. 's brillianr Paul Veyn e that theref ore, think , I argument again st ph' I ophy of hislOry goes slightly beyond the reality of the situat; I . o n . ne ' I osophY 0f h IS tOry IS no I onger anything but believes that ph'l a dead . genre, or one "that SUfVJves on I y among th e epl'gones of a mor e or Iess " Popular knowIedge, and th at "It was a f:aI se genre." In fact, "un l . esS It. IS a revealed philosophy, a philosophy of history will merely repeat t he concrete explanation of facts and refer to the mec han ism s and laws that explain these facts . Only the extremes are viable: either the Provid en. tialism of the City of God, or histOrical epistemology; everything else is illegitimate" (Veyne 196 1 :40). Withou t going so far as to agree with Raymond Aron, who claims that "The absence and the need for a phi. losophy of history are thus equally characteristic of our time" ( 1 96 1 :38 ), I would say that on the margins of historical science a philosophy of history can legi timately develop like other branches of knowledge. We may hope that it will not be ignorant of the his tor y of his torians, but historians should admit that it can have cognitive relationships with the object of history that differ fro m theirs. It is the duality of history as his tory-real ity an d as his tory-stud of y that reality which often explains, it seems to me, th e am bi gu ities of cer tain statements concerning history m ade by C la ud e Levi-Srrauss . Thus, in a diSCUSSIOn with Maurice God el ier, Godelier ha vi ng pointed out that the praise given, in Du Miel aux cendres, to history as irreducible contin �ency turns back against his tory, and th a t it " p u ts th e science o f h is tory . In an mpossible position, re d uc ing it to an im p a ss e," Levi-Srrauss re . ph es: . I do not know wh at you are caJIi ng a science of h is to _ I would r y be satisfied to say sim . pIY h!S' tory, an d SIm ' ple hm ory IS som ething we cannot do withou t' preCl .Sely because It ' co ns ta nt ly confro nts us WIth
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'" "l.1 I. tY IE> b m a le o b w e h a 'f 1 05 m . o r _83) f . / a e 1' d CI _1 8 aSI b f{iSiDrf y " ( 1 9 7 � ' t. m g in w o a O e rt m bo fIIell te b t l1e(lo . tlIat s l! istOry y e ut ol h s ab P is 1(1 roach er h eit d ne o r co l a s ta ain at t . _histO )efore pP . em o o r g S n a It nl h her at e it th m e S s � r as it en 311 ( a s s a f e h r t .los a f n o i I ly I ,h phe(. tr\lCl, os s i ca � o vo lly r a ui rftO tU o r)', a ' r l d �tl ly.�q a istOr�l te siOgll ptY a\ h em S od nt , � e n ve . a is t e o n s ess s l I I e h d b t1iSIO e or ab r\istOr)' e o t n � t . " ce r ct 'f '� n a io ' o e t n C ela e O r . � e In th cO an f m hi e d" roi� O' " �...eJltielle, reaim o b s e i 'f ly I on StI . eO, an U e ,,"" "'" J c th . It d o n. It k h r et a e. lly l1 b l irt�allY t O ot al "? st n is l c hi an ori r'j c � e it S ist h ji nd e stO l t e th e Th e a m . :rJll. �t i( j ls ifi ;o t him · t o b j ec iv , "x wantS t o be o o t t nt t c S a r \ t ns cO tbe l � a �nl reco �. r dls o (h COil. BistOr� w t s e r o t Y U n a ca c c e It b t 0 e, S dilli roe(hod. : · I t nd I tim � , m a e fro te it am an s tne�ct resllsClta but at the s e that separates n O ist b e b t rY � f i ti 0 a i f cal � as r or i d .,ants �flteJIIpor ap o an st e ry h th all isto b � fy s f t g 0 tl p se in jUS de en to def Ih he s of is d t o h s t e d in c t e f t n e d t lo ID d ou tan� an Rec frO te e e oin aris is r ch p not o l do c s l r B i a Y ul 6 M n ffic r 1:22 ) c R fi a\ ' �e that f � 1 96 di eur i e s . o e ( es. ' ft, tho . an,s ctl! t.fTh UItl bIg a m n ut d O e b t d , n his nts ll e o poi Ih 'e\l � w tain crJI or cer e ar on C hey tI s I ' t lID d d, an ess h p xes o t . Jl\e ado e tOO par littl the a t sen IS pre at . th fi r st n a W ore VIe . f e re enc a the sCi ll a ha s as 1 it This is fine e d e rue to r e tt e b o e i, th l r e � y hich se JIIS t story, u t o n f hi . . es ften lU e 0 . c gu are n e i 01 i t C JOh s tha a al ry ent histo dam of ctS . 0 fun aspe but al nti cal esse ton ee his unusual, th r hed: with guis al distin de n e e h l e should shall t
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I iev , so do . l I ch I be ' shal h � 1 . ft but cra , s r e nan t h e hlsto . the d an . ed tog miX ory, hIst 0f a of y cism h . p so criti I 0 h'l My . p sense the I re, tca nolog cultu chro the in . e, ward eCtlv \d persp OU h s al . in the first part in a historic
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f histor ron c t1 � ide I that e ion Ignac suspic e what th off and dge , knowle ff f 0 s t c e e u\atlve
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Meye�on as ca e . ' e u o c h c i h w h ' Y P r g o h lb b e h (T . e v ti s u a h x I shall not try to be e e t th ' l m r e p o t r e d r o In , s e d u \ c m It t u B . er th ei e v ti us ha ex t enormous is no .
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. e r a t a h t s k r o w , on u ec lr d' reader to go further and sometimes in another . . ' t m o p t rs fi . e th ro o r f , ow s h not cited in the text.) What mterests me IS to . l ' � c on \st at th ns tio la re of nd ki of view, through a few examples, the societies have entenained with their past, and the pla ce of hls tor y m their present. In the perspective of the philosophy of histo ry, I shou ld '
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like to show, through the cases of certain great minds and certain imp or-
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cam currents o f thought, how, beyond or Outsi de of the . dlsci pl . . '1 ce I'na" rice of history, peopIe have, rn I rtarn m l l'eu " and . In ce... · J, p� . I coh esio n I'deo oglca · c. conceptualized, and gIven .... I n p " . t . 0 th el r h' . ' ello.l. . f fessiona l h onzon o h IstOry wdl paradOJo cally 0; 1 5[0", r o " J. "h P .... o·Ve mOre . ' f . and Impro vement. That is attell t n e [he notion o evolution beca use I... iOn to 0 itself in th e perspecrlve f tech no Iogy and scien ce it "II ' uy I ' p aCing W I ' Ul ev ita b f ly counter the idea o technical progres s. .
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of h'IS tory . Will reru and d'ISCUSS cenaln Tn
A /i na I sect'ion devo[ed to t he current SItu ' ation to some of [he fundamental themes of this essay aspecrs.
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Historical science has experienced a prodio o';ou s groW(ch d ' h h lf h Unn past a -cenrury: t e renewal and enr ich m ent of its te , g Ihe . . . n l q Ue methods, of Its honzons an d dom ar ns . BUt m ai nt a ' in in g WI[h gl s and aba l cieries relations that are more mte nse tha n ever I ().. s pro " e ' , " SS ' IOn . . . a sCt'ennfi pro In history IS a found cnsls. The knowledge of his to c ry is all the 1Il troubl ed because its power is greater. 0te •
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Paradoxes andAmbiguities
0/History
Marc Bloch did not like to define history a s "the science
of the pas!, that "the very idea ch a t th e p a s t as such could be the ob)ecr ' . of : sCle ' n�e IS absurd" ( 194 1 4 2 :3 2 - 3 3 ) . He p r o p o s e d to define histo I ry as t e sCience of men in tim e." He wa n ted t hereby to stre ss three char . acrensoCS of history. Th e first of ch es e is its h u m a n character . Alth ough todaY hl,stoncal rese a rc h sometimes r e a c h e s in to certain d o m , a in s of natural hlstor' ,vZ i t is gen . ed _ eraI Iy a dm m n . tory Ul " tory IS h um a n h Is L at h IS , and Paul Vevne has emphaS . lz e d " t h e e nOllJlOUS d Ifference" se p arating hu,. man hIstory ftOm natural h lstory: "Man delJ 'berates, na ture does nor; buman hI.story . would becorne nons en sIcal I'f we were ro ignore che fact thal men have goals' ends, In ' tentions ( 1 8 :4 2 4 T conception of 9 human h IStory has is h 6 ) . ' .l red .'a1morem.er, ms p In m a n y h is to r ia n s th e i dea tha the central, eSSe I ntl pan of h'Isr ory IS social h is tory. C h a rle Perrin has wnne s-FOroand ' n abo ur Ma rr B/och : u He as signs rhe srudy of man 10 hi story a s it s ob� e!$ 'mSOlrar' as . man IS pan 0 f a so c ia Febvre goes l group," and Luam even fiurrher: UI N'or rna n . I
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and though [
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thoug next ht Bloch about the rela} s?' oup . r g ze d ni his history. In t opinion history within , pes, orga n e res p j11 o soCle n past and " understand the to f present by us or 3 le ,ee b I SS O p it e£" e k b . but also " to understand the attitude .OOS 01 onIy rna nal ' o In d p " - a rra ( -So ). IIIIl Iy assem ' h ' F' ng t 44 e SCle nOSI n the past . p p t n e s re p a f e . h f t o n d he denie jIIeans , that work thlS s work n S a ri o t s l ' a h e e h t f m o r . e t c ra ct ha m fact be a senous error to nas( bY ul d c o w jII "It gy: lo c.. m chrono r" abstr3 . . . ,,0 ble h " m elr ns t lgatlo s mvest h an as ri to his ra by o' 6c. a d e t p p o d e a s , e d n r � o on dm the ,,'liS I t con On tha y the . nts eve hat the of t tha n If o e lt Vl! del � o rn btlie o ft movement, historians may en trUe to . tS 0 hI story I .""saP Y t " kwa rds" (pp. 48-49). bac n"'''- d restore it, put d ' n l a r al M . . ' g I. t as 311 r.ef"'3 r readIfl th "P . t d" d o en " me ru e m sIV res reg y b ntl de pro Y a 61 " of . t s . e er t Ifl h . prO nce t e , sent mto the past or pre e t h g brin e ly v l a n not s �e d �Xlh e It at , th ld be just as illusory in the se wou at h t ll y cror e traJe ear hn a Ihe s . rse . . ve re at t not h es b can ulO e tm ill con dis and W res ptu ru o are e . eC.Uon. Ther foll ' dlf (e SI pO Op . . th r d irecno n . e l e Ifl . ver ly ts ge on t lar res a en o es pr , e th l by ted na mi d 0 leap hIStory IS . at th ea i The d : "al l history is contemporary hlse's c C o r ettO d B ene f o e s hra n time the i t tan dis how r tte ma o famoUS p "n Ii t tha by r e e ns th rnea e C . roc . i' Iated y . re tor IS (o r hIs hry rea in be to m see y ma tS un o rec ry to s i h , at . h t tS ven e Ir nts d n the se fi eve the Ich wh m ns atio siUl the o t and s need t sen . . al events can 10 pre c ton t hls tha nt me mo the In facr, Croce thinks that . " h'IStOry IS . echoes· . th e e, nm " m ger lon no are y the , ght ou h ret l y t n a s t n co be h'IS extreme T t hus ). ner rdi Ga (p. t" sen pre l rna ete e t f h "knowledge 0 E. H. CaIT has y. tor As hiS of on . ati neg the to ntS ou am s m l -dea\ ,
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Is history a sa'ence ofthepast, or is it true that "there is onI
contemporary history ""?
ara p r)" !lis/O
/ iguin es Amb d doxes an
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repeat, not m a n , never man. Hu-
fonn Of I , . . 1 . r HIStO ' ry, a J O Idea The sIs m S the od wo \\ig Co ed pir ins e c o observed, C r In ' 94 1 d an 932 en 1 we ed bet lish 6 pub s cle arti of on ecti Coll ous posthurn , . ISh' 0 f ses sen two the lI1 g b\Il rts com asse n oria hist ish Brit e t which h .
tory,, the historian's investigation and the series of past events through . h Wit d e cern con which he carries out his investigation that history is
neither the past in itself nor with what the historian thinks about it, but
rather with the relation between the two (Carr, pp . 1 5-1 6). This conception is both ferrile and dangerous. Fertile because it is
true that the historian starrs out from his own present in order to ask
questions of the past. Dangerous because, if in spite of everything the past exists outside the present, it is vain to believe in a past independent of the one constituted by the historian.4 This consideration dooms all conceptions of an "ontological" past such as Emile Callot's definition . . "5 · . of hIStOr y: " an inteUigible nallation of a past that IS de Ii D1t1veIy over.
10 8
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'" l The past is constant y being constructed and rei nte . rprete , an ' 'fi cant parr of future that is an IOtegra I an d slgm ' d I't ' or h ISt . y Th' has � I le t progress ecause . b m F IrSI IS meth senses. twO ods a nd is t'1l . . ' tec h n lqu e i� us to Ihink th at an Important pomon 0 f the docum es e n alia t s . of I A materIa d ' n: arche I portIo 1>;$ th e mains to be dIscovere . . 0 ogy IS Past teo I a t e 0 f monu 'Vays ' h past, archives ments ering buried of th e p dI c S oV. ast ne I a are so new rea ere d t h ut · B mg s of docum growing. ver en ts th Ceas . e e reS ' l ensu re th present to be born 10 th e Iiurure, th at WIl . UltS of e SU rvIv . . . al . -Or h w IC IS h . not d efi nltlvely past of a the life over. tathe a l � ation re betw essen een tial To the past and pres e nt, 'Ve m USt th add the horizon 0 f t he Iiurure. Here again ther e are e . re�at m u ltlp le e meani . s 0f hISto ' ry have subo rdin ated it The theologre n to a goa l deline . reveI an' on. Thi s is " auon an d ItS . cu Imm end, Its as its tru e of Ch . ' nan ns esc hatology, and it is als o tru e of his hi sto ", in the grip of to n'ca I mat eria I IS . n ), w h'ch ' m (i. /> ItS I . I'deo Iogrca I versIo graIits On to a science n of th e pas t a deSi . for the future that does not depend sol ely on the re fu Sl on . of a s CIe . . ntIfi analYSIS 0f past hIs tory and a revol utionary praxis . c e n I ' Igh tened . bY t hat ana IYSIS. . 0ne 0f the tas ks 0 f hI'storical science is to Ii nd a w ay· 'Oth than I'deoI ogy, and one t h at respects th e un fore er seeab le natur . e of th r. lurure to mtmduce the h onzon of th e fu tu re e in to I'tS re tIectl. ons (Erd mann, Sch u I·m). CoDsl·der thIS · observation, ba na l b u t q Iiu II of co . . nse uences: hIstonans who deal w ith an ci en t perio ds kn oW Wh at h appened .f; _J. l1! 'erwaru " ; h Istonans 0f present times do not. C o nt em porary . . hIstory StrictIY spealeing thus di'ffers (and there are al so o th er reas on s r lOr this diffier� nce) firom the hi'story of earlier p eriods. ThIS dependence of the history o f th e p as t o n th e h is ton'a n s present ' �houId Iead u s to take certain preca utions. It is inevitable a n d legitimat :�:0far as the �ast does not c ease to live a n d to m a k e it se lf present. s long duration o f the past m u st not prevent th e h is to ri a n from estab. . I1S h109 a ceream ' dIs ' tance with regard to th e p a st , a reverential distance th� t ls . we . �ecessar� If are to respect it a n d avoid a n a c h r o n is m . In s u m I . th 10k h ISlOry IS IDde ' ed �he sCJence o f th e past, if i t is acknowledged that . this past becom�s an o 1ect o f history through a reco n st it u tion that is q constantly uesllone d. one ca nnot, r lor example, ta lk ab o ut th e Crusades the wa ) peopI e \I'ouId have be fore n ineteenth-ce n ru ry coloniza tion, but we ha ve to ask I f a nd fIrom \y hat po in ts o f view, the term "colonialism " can be app IIe ' to the medieval C r u s a d ers' occupatio n of Palesti ne.6
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/ es ui ti big A m d n a es ;)C o d ra
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io n re la t i in s "I . re t Febv ' n l UC L le . tS s · Thu fl y r asses o cl ist th f en an d h S ve st har o Iy r l . o lca at . em ast st sy y . 110 . h r ea t d he o ns t es tio P s qu h ( I it t ha t th a lif e of to t d . s o at e . e l e l r call in could f�0tf100 o I : is llt one what i t s se that ts nt a ese � c . p he t t as to rehas n m H E e 0 8 o p obsbaw i t ( itS P s, la ric . II r nd p A I t s ,od � the p a f histO ry" ( p. 43 )'ast" ( 1 2). (See the opening f p the o 97 l i o t l c c l ll ll io llll f 1 ze o o� f ll t soCl3 " he SOCI . d o e n h p ea " c h w e hi l c t (h eO 011st (a d Prese l !') ampIes 0 f the process by fleet ,'pa ll feW ex ast!' p ric al . a his f to r he t n o l t nta eSSay, US COIlSlde ines ese B ou v r of p ba re tt le th e d e re at \,et abricates I'tS re c or d tate . us S ustu Aug res f ip Phil K F s �l ing b Y ha rench f the entall ges Du y ctor� V and iv ed e l r st ra t s or i ch c e o d e e ba tt le i a ' s T h II' le s. J1l G 4 , a ) hI S 1� 1 an d IV ' Ir t 1, h th e tto af z te r n O bl lY iv io o r Ju into ( fe ero ll ' s an ri , m hi.stO P he E ch F n ry ce nt t re u h nt en r te e y se v e b he t in ov legendary e en c rg re . su a ye d . 1 o enJ der un ll ag am an e d ed th , J1l 3 Ue la ud were r , y hy U rc on a en t m French hc t f e Au th ' t I . , G ZO U ns oria (een JIIemories 0 hist ( iS o rge bou and I er a b I' I us e a be c hen 'm I w y on h ar y c h ":, e e t f h r 0 ce a n a ce nt alli Mon en efi b jul y th e 91 as (he . Thierry) saW In it se en w as It e be ca us 1 9 1 4 an d 87 1 1 n ee betw n gustl n ai g d a ( " 19 4 te A r f n " s. er a m an le, G th e over ch F re n h e (he Peop t f 0 to ry . VI C " t att\ eb or re a f sc orn g ra l ge ne th rst e of re su lt ' a as "(he fi ry ri SC U b O in t k l ines sai J: 0 '"'
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Bouv Duby 1 97 3 ) ' , nc ra e F ( in ho w y" n sh ow ha to ve r Nacquet his V id al ' e e r Ie P d . " an ux or a L e Ol S ou rg e "b D a ur uy N ieoI , V ic tO r to eu qui nt es o M ro m f , . . 1 8 \0 to 0 S ic St ri ' te ac ar ch froJII 11 \ al p ci n ri p se o h w orated ab el s a w ns . h t e A . t ancIen
. age 0f Im
r pnvate fo t ec sp , re ty er p ro p " r fo t ec sp re n ee b e v a h to d e . pos 'IIere sup e on h IC h' w d m " , an ry st du in d an r bo la ce er m m co f " o g h' \D ' s II ou . , n life, the "R e: ie IS eO rg ou ry b tu en -c th en te ne ni e th of ns tio ta si he e th S d n fi even . e.� Athen s lr I em a er lib em A pi re ? ri ta rian au th o A n re � ? em pi or public quet ac -N al ,d V d x an au or y" (L sl ou ne ta ul m si es is gu takes on all these . Zvi Yaveu., asking himself why Rome had been the hls
1979:207-222).
century, th en ete nin the g of nin gin be the at y an rm Ge for del mo lOrical replied: "because the conflict between Pruss ian lords and peasants arbi trated after Jena ( 1 806) through the ref01Lll ist intervention of the State, without the counsel of Pruss ian statesmen, provided a model that was thought to be found in the history of ancient Rome: B. G. Niebuhr, the
author of the RomaroSche Geschichte that appeared in 1 8 1 1-1 2, was a dose collaborator of the Prussian minister Stein" (Yavetz).
Philippe Joutard has traced the memory of the popular uprising of the Hugue not Camisards in the Cevennes at the beginning of the eigh-
110
History: Paradoxes all d�m 61. gu
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graphy a ru . o ri en o tt st ri hi w e th In y ur nr ce teemh . rnt ng P ° ll h ot t C l b O t oli rha lt ap , ath ro c Up an P 0. 184 d Protes around Pea t a n t · t hIS peasan revo ir. B ut w ' t to . ts or fi h orn s sc t bu i ng thi no d ha Ith the h nails pu I n r - ert by Napo I eon T'oes J v U a es ua aste P .... ti ey i",tl.O at ( 1 84 2) of Histou. LJ· toire de ;; , L� prop n prolestanlS by A ml Bost ( 1 8� 2), and MI'Ch eI et 's f7lS � ped, w hich w "'nee ( 186� golden legend of the Camlsards .develo )a as COU nt . ered o p p o IS sI ' tI h o e T n . x p I d n e g ie le id c y li o . th a C drew nou r dark h. . vy a Is h m e e secon d t h f h If a of the nine the political passIOns ? tee nth ce nt frOm n CUry t of the isans moveme part the . conflict nt in ut and the partisa h at . P . n s 0f Or d C amlsar h e s t the red conSIde ancest the latter Ors of a II the de re bels of advance the scouts cenrury, of "the etern al ar nineteemh r; Ih my of d'Is "the lirst precursors of those who demolished the BastJ'/Ie," th e orde[" sors of the Communards and 0f contemporary soeialiSts, th . preCUr. elr "d'Ir WI om w t " I 'rb h ong ey a h ems, eq d were "suppos ed to h descen ave dem the right to commit pillage,. murder, and arson in the narne 0f anded th e fJreeH owev " h anot e. er, 'k er sen to 10 k md ' dom of mem ory wh IC ' h secretes "a luerent hisrory, ]outard has r foun d a positiv d'/I" " e' living Iegen d about th . . . e Camlsards, but one which also functIOns in relation to the/re senr nd a makes the rebe ls of 1702 "the secular and republican" peop e . 0f the end . of LOUIS XIV's reign. Later, th e regi on al ist revival tran r SfOtmed them . IOtO OCCl·tan rebel an ' g the Second World War, th d durm e Firench Re· . ' ance turn ed them lOro maquisards. Slst It is also in relation ro contemporary po sit io ns an d l'deas t hat a po . Iemlc concerning the Middle Ages broke ou t in Italy a fter th e F'Irst !ar. 'V or Id w Sull more recently, th e m ed ie va lis t Ovidio . W. C apI'tam lhas discussed the distance and the proxim it y o f th . e M id dl e Ages In a col ec . . Uon 0f es�ays sl'gmncant/y titled Medioevopossato prossimo (T he Past, the Recent Middle Ages). He writes: The currentness of the Middle Ages consists in th is: knOWing one :a�not act without seeking God where h e is not. . . . The M l'ddl e Ages IS current' Pre 'sely because It' IS. past but past as an element delini , � a tively att ched foreVer to OUr Iz ' tory, an . d w ' h ICh 0bl'Iges us ro take It into ac ount� because It 1.�c1udes a p owerfu l body o f a n s wers that men have given, nd cannot forget, . . d even I'f th ey h ave proven th eir r na equacy.. The onIy way to [forge t th em] wou Id be to abolish history. •
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Thus, historiograph . y appears as a seTles of new readings full of losses and resu rgences " ' of memory ga ps a nd aggiornam en t i " [updatmg ' sl can also affe ct the historian's
ara p ry: o / is H
J())Ces a
(l11t1 Ambiguities /
III
ds, wor they and epts can conc u serio of sly nism o chr Th us ir is that relying on examples drawn work.
n a a e ghl'[h f hi.S u d, cl1rO o y Ir etween b ry histo a U Bl' ean q p o r u cl1e E d
1 4 5 0 and 1 650, and using Aa� ".".�glish a"n Y" " class " etc., J. H. Hexrer has demanded a massive ' art . 2 P 6 9 r 1 a y ( l b u a s c v ) o l a ic r a ch o t is h JIls SU ' 0f (JO...., o i n S r and past een betw p t Ie'.. orOus revi on esen relan the his t in w g s o d d g Bl' rI GCo\ li rI w � n�an's re flection o n his work: the past is an as pect hlstO · he t f It h t ar to appe e ys alwa t historian mus it . 0bj ect 0 so and , t sen n pre al e h � "' netion 0f. t . tly o n his own work or, in other words, aims at a ,u ctS JOtelhgen or , d t an sen pre t e pas n i en t we h bet on s ati fle T rel 8 . e hi r · O ory h . I aspect 0f the erad' . hiSt w f 0 . y . nna h monal esse an p e cas o any S IS I n phI'lo ory hist f 0 . ' 0 I' Story. e rs U 1 h vlry disCO ecti J b' f 0 0 l1l .
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o ti la u n ip n e a th m d n a ity v ti ec bj o : er w o p d n a e dg le w o /Vz s! a t the a/ . . I n no Jec 0 f the s pro ma y on t no is st pa the , � ger .dl g to Heideg Accor � pr oje cti on of the most Imagnary parr of his
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the t bu ast h p e t IOto nt se pre t hat he has chosen, a re tu fu e th of st pa e th o int n tio 'ec ro e h P t t, presen . t j ht to e is re rig yn ec Ve ul Pa . ory ist e-h sir de ed revers r y r o st . i h fiction I y erects nmeteenth" on r 'd ge H eg el t tha say to d . pOl.Ot 0f view, an . thiS ' I h ' h'l a to p I osophy" ap m y gr no h' to t Is 1s na tio na a l ct u e ll e t century anti in ' . . i ". a h h dd e In s: lc en w lst nm y op er ov s ap h ' r pe he t isn ( 68: 2 ) Bu t
�
-
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dl9 s , 1i ke ot g 404 .
s awakened a little too late"? First of ha he l, ow s va' ner Mi n O st int at tw lea s po to thi urn ret ll I sha d an are re the e all becaus ap t s. e firs Th ian tor t of his tha and ry mo me e tiv lec col of h a t t hi�tories: sti con it tic. But onis chr ed, and ana orm def hic, myt lly ntia esse as pears tutes th e lived reality of the never-completed relation between present and past. It is desirable that historical information (lavished on us by profession al historians, popularized in schools, and one could hope by the mass media) correct this false traditional history. History must illuminate memory and help it rectify its errors. But is the historian himself immune to an illness that proceeds, if not from the past, at least from the present, or perhaps from an unconscious image of a dreamt-of future?
A preliminary distinction must be drawn between
objectivity and
int
The his us. artia nscio "Imp unco lity is is tivity ; objec erate delib . tonan does not have the right to pursue a demonstration despite con trary evi de nce, to defend a cause no matter what it is. He must establish
n •
/ History: Paradoxes andA
",6'gr.,; ' , �
/ /2
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w at he believes to be th e tru or th tru e th th , B ' and show , Ut It is ve, to abstract from objecn his ideas Sible (or him ro be abOU t 1' 1ll ""-.. llal e_ ' question 0 f gaugmg the a is i it mp n whe o norably rtance gf o ev nd ' n, a fu 8 t ) t co 1 1 em 0: 9 , 2 enIs B ut We m their causal relations an U St 0 d ' nt, the pro bl em of o ffi cle su re we n bjectIVlty he r this distinction f WOul d no "a famous crux" which has it, put has Carr H as E , ' QUs� m� t � 9 ink 1 � fl 0 , Let us first examtne the 'Impact 0 f t he social environ me n t 0n the h ' rorian's ideas and met h0'ds , Wc0 Iiigang Momm sen has P°t'n te d OU IS . t I pressure: " socIa ) IS 1 The self- image three compon ents 0f th' , of the ' SOci or to which he belo , group interpreted by the hlstonan, al n gs Or IS be o '
" (G
-
�
"
' 0 f t h e cau ses of soc h l. " n s conception den ,,2) Th e h'Isrona ia l ch e, 3) T chan es socia he perspe�ives o( futur� � ;-rhich the histO rian thi p roba ble or possible, and which onent hIS historic al interpretation" But it is not possible entirely to avoid "presentism" t he efomung ' ' e th on mterpretation present the of of influence the past alt h ough O ne can limit its pernicious impact on objectivity. First of a an I, s�all return ro this important point because there i s a group of spe a who are trained to examine and judge what their coll eagu es Cl ltsls pr�duce, "Thucydides is not a colleague," Nicole Loraux has wisel , Y saId " In u, tory, aJt houg h 1£ s howmg ' seem s to us a docu ment ' that h'IS flZS possessing , , " ' every mark 0f seno ' us h Iston cal dIsco urse, i s not a document ' the m modem sense of the word, but rather a text an anc ien t text , Wh'ICh IS ' ' " first 0f all a d'Iscourse Situated wit hin the dom ain of rheton'c" ' B ut I shall show later that as Nicole Loraux is wel l aware every d o c ument IS ' a �onument � r a text, and it is never "p ure," tha t is, never purely objec tive, It remams that the appearance of his to ry is ac co m pa nie d by that of a world of profeSSionals who criticize th e wor k o f ot he r historians, , en a pamter says about an ot he r pa in te r's pic tu re : "t hi s is badly Pamted," or a wn'ter says abou t the work of an ot he r w rit er' "th is is badly , wntten ," everyone kn ows that th is onl y m ea ns : "I do n't lik e th is," whe� a hIstorian criticizes the work of a "co ll eagu e " he may certai n l y ' be mIstaken and his J'u dgme nr may re II ect In ' , par t h i s pe rs o n al taste, but , , h'IS cnuclsm IS bas " ed at I east to a degree o n sci en tifi c" criteria, From the dawn 0f h'IStor y Ihe h is rona ' n IS " J U dged by the ya rd st i ck of truth. Rightly or wcon I . H erodo[us w as l on g con sidered a "liar" ano 1986: 12
!
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8 (19 7 d :23), ll d
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h s Hwones, de vot s e a good de al of � energy 10 artacki ng a "coIIeagu e, T i m a e u s ,
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/ 1 1.3 bigu ities Am an d MI - " D aradoXe5 f/islO'.I ' , ' sron' cal works and historical h l saId, has sen m om M and n standable verili.able�' g This inunder y ga el f cti v l e ' ' bJ ''o Vi u ' rs e t n " 'I 'JUdgment 0f others, and pri'S e th e h r u ro th a d 'tute , g IS su fl e n ' co "", ' three d Iscerns crnena for vern ommse 'Jodf'b' , ecrivitY M s, n ri a o St 1 h' b r o J he t f 0 th pertinent sources been used an d has the most lerS , Ihal o e e a ken into consideration? b) To what extent have roaflly fl', a) !-l v , ta n o e ' e U b umaI 'Integratton of all the �_ \.,' , op an ed v hie I'6Cl1 resea (V ac S t n e I d � i lorical JU gm � xpli cit or underlying explanatory e A e th re ) s c h a, d ' a l e s al ntradictory? ( p, 33) ' One could Ihe ' le his[o rtC nonco and , [ b n e er h I O S c S u5 b nD o r nt me the on ree ag r t of ad f bro pa o o lity ' ibi g oss r J eIs ri he p t ut t " roou ' [er a pa rt of any historical r nt rta t po c im f n a er o e h lu va [he n fi d ot ce g o c S � rnt proof o f the "scientific" character of history and the alist Sr- " rt ma ry p h e " ecttvl' ty, [ IS ) 0 b l a c k ri to s i h f wo r 0 e On p, Scott's hst st C, ali urn jo t ea gr c e th ry sto hi 0u y to pl a firSt 1 p we r, e v we h ' quote d b'J E H, Carr, p, " ( ee r 0 f IS n o Ol pl f, o I ed, sac r " are ' .L _L ' S act "F . , "" e remain W\UIIn 'f w IS wat I fi t rs e Th s, nt e il l'l m m co m O tw d d a st ",u e is less vast in history n opinio w 'fi histo rv of range the , 4)• J' c en u so f 0 d r), l t y a e or r e st eu hi l at am s s l fi sCl di l al e sh (1 Ih r ssl' onals believe ol e r p n nO e ar ey an th th ed cr sa ss le n te of Ihan e ar s ct fa is t n e nun o Ond seC ed ni ot de be nn s he ca ct fa d he lis T ab st l-e el w e m so if E n ve d t se o p ti p ys ly u m ch on hi , w 31 14 in s e ak st e th at h deat 's rc A f o an J exa P e" ' for the essential basis not ) is itself fact , "' ( doubt to care d forme Sln ml ' e h fiers or t en , and t
IS
'
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, "vity in history, Historical facts are made and no gIV, of obJecti emence to bs su re pu to d ce du re be ot nn ca ' ectivirv ) ob J l ' a , on c hlst •
facts, ' ' r und '10 ,o e b n ca t f I ac ' ca n to h f \s 0 n io ct ru st n Discussions of the co , on lm Sa p, , le ap m r ex fo , ee y g (s lo do o h et l m ca ri to is h on e tis ea tr y er ev ly on te ci l al sh l , c,) et V, rt Pa i, sk ol o T J, , 24 1, p pp, 46-48; E, H , Carr; pp on ce an Fr de ge le ol C e th at e ur ct l le ra gu Lucien Febvre's famous inau e th by d te ea cr ng hi et m so o, N n? ve gi ng hi et December 1 3, 19 33 : "Som e th th wi d, ate ric fab d an ed nt ve in g historian, how many times? So m ethin la g in cit ex d an e at lic de h ug ro th s, help of hypotheses and conjecture er sw an to k, ea sp to so is, It it. t uc tr bor, , , , To elaborate a fact is to cons 7p, (p aU" at ng thi no is ere th , ion a question, And if there is no quest
9)' Historical facts only exist within a history-problem,
is y or st hi in ity iv ct je ob at th ng yi Here are two m or e wimesses testif not a matter of pure su bm iss io n to facts, First, Max Weber: "Any attempt to understand (historical) reality without subjective hypotheses will end in nothi ng but a ju m bl e of existential judgments on countless isolated
1 14
/
History: PalY1"oxes an" A
"" o)C d a par
mhig" "
ro u s I Y d i s cu s s es th e ni et o m u h r ar C , H n eenth 1 , E 0 s," " t r even ' hIU� -Ce : , ,u 's h Ism s f lact , 0 " n ,e ns oria Ilist Pos. 1[1 , 'VI'.t iv in e provide nce wou I d l d a [h d e v e li e b ta ke car Ranke piously f re o e ca k th o ro facts he if T of.1he ry o st hi • ' h f o e I b g " , I n , ni mea eral n ' I a d y la close r I Is[o l affini f 0 l view n h y I t Wi ry enrur h rh-e e eeo teen •. . I was r e ' liS h T age of i oee nce n {; . . , ' J01fl! ''8 10, ' of d a doe[ rine of Eden . . . naked a n e d r a G e th Unas h a llled r r_ in ians. walked b e I v e ln o , w n n l e k t n I w e e S i n nnd e x ' In S . ry ro is h f o d o er the g ie nrod p d a te y ro re h 0 p d w n ' to s ' n d a n p Isto h" IS � a e w n se S o e [h d n a ; ll II Fa h a " ly , in tr I ng va Yi hI· e d er m an Y s , lf.-consel P e cory are s ' l I I f 0 oUs l y losophy like coI ony, to recrea te the Garde n of E t d ' S u n 1 den in I members 0f a hel r 4) J-r r ! l 6 ( [ 9 gnrden suburb. It,,,,,
'
,
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re th a n h o n e st y o n th e o m o n e ir u q re f t he hi lor• Impartiality � s n a t. a h re t f th I o m s e m ir e u req y it iv ct je b I S a St o e il h w ian, ake in orizes conscious a n d unc o nscIOU auth ' S ma it if e, gam er pow nipula. the tive in tere sts h i Story lik I c e ll o d c n a l a u id iv d in s e rv e a I Sci· tions, if it se ' n a ri to gages in a bu ses of h' is n e h e h T . rm o n s it s a th u tr IStor cnces, takes y n, a isa ia rt ic pa a lit f po l se n m hi or es m a l ackey of co be he en wh Th only er, in History and b a . F G . K r, e d ie h c S . h (T er Supplepoli tical pow clares, "H is tory is th e m t ange us de ry le Va ul Pa n he W . 8) ro ?S me nt, [ 97 ed . . . . H IStory p lo s e a v t h e c , e d ll te in e th f o y tr is m e ch s e th t ' ju tifies Produc n't teach a nyc hmg for ' it es , do ng ki ea sp ly ct ri St . ts an w e It whatever on , le s o f everyth ing" ( pp. 63- 64) p tr am ex s er u o d an g in th y er ev contains . an i h o m es st hu ry Wit . h SClent ' ' k er comrus lfiC' . ot herwlse very ac ut e t h m t IliS . . 'st or ic al work . hI of e nc III' lOry and s hows hiS Ignora ' t ec rr n is co e he P w yn h e Writes: Ve l au ic, ist tim op tle lit a is he if en Ev
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'
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'
ot 10 see that historical knowledge is subtended by the norm of truth . g abo ut it, o r about science i n general. To rhm any d tan e und 10 no s � � � Identify hlstotlcal science with the nati ona l memories from which it p �ceeded 'S to confuse the essence of a thin g with i ts orig in; it is to . . ish fall 10 distingU chemistry from alchemy, astronomy fro m astrol ogy. . : " From the very first day . . . histor ians' histor y is defined i n
oPPosltlon �o the socl3l function of historical memories and bases it, ' ' self on an Ideal of truth and on an interest that IS p u re CUriOSity.
( 1 968:424).
. ' An ambitious goal , ob)ect ' t\. h I tory t little, th ro ugh t he ceaseIes re\'1 tOns
�
low ly con strucred little by . 0f h tSt ' Onca I work, the laborious successive recrificat'Ions, an'd r IIe accu m u I a rr' o n 0f pa rtia l tru ths . Perhaps �
es uiti big m A d fl a
/
I
,5
toward history of ress prog w slo : this rj d o / fi ne s i t g ll e e ,i rt ctin w erfe , p ff , h h ert C ' ha ' d h' I ItS c ' I U ll S w d e I J i grasp ity cess real ro A da!!l . a�O to hes c p \e e it roa fi d ' simp a j\ll f' , n n p U ap I merely t not ' eren rt: ll ults n a , res d ths 0r . gh tru lU w I o r n k ro la r u e o art in t h s ' gt p ge n a g h c ' ae n e v t " i la i t a . it t d n u , a u q In f h 'Istory rOcee ,IItS, accum 0 on W, ' VISI o n our k of P s ee e ons w mati t r a P f 0 a , ns h t tra w ll e e v o t t i ita al Il u ,n q O i dit I d sO al but a .
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ff
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edge, 8 r.). JJ ' P (P
a r a mJ :�'tl su
The r)' o t is h in
l
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ties regulari and ons li7ati ra Gene 1.
its while that is ry histo in n o icti ad r t n o c nt appear a r ag who es fl figur t s or o tS, !!l even e of es th seri t b or u t \, . genera I , ersa UOlv "I' 0 do 5111gular (an even the IS , nces . scie a\l of IS t tha , es e sCienc I'k I e h t , I object rom oa f g history tS ded , ) i exclu ce ady n o . alre ad f 0 . h lect ' I e b only t t e o h o r not s IS rt which A . cular, lar parti u g the re with d an deals d an . once, tt only e s red u occur eca has b Iy fact e , orical hist preCIs Each proge . ' many I d e for w tutes no consti k fic larity ti singu en this sCl, fact , In 'Istory: . . e . onc y . I h f 0 on tlon ur anrac I occ pa pnncl will the ory hist of ers sum n o c ducers or f ois ux de vena ne on Aimez ce que jamais ) in a g a e e s r e v e n l il (Love what you w '
"
· V 9 1 r e in d r a G ( s t c je b o " e u q i n u " h it w l a e d t s u m n o i t a l n a Historical exp "). History in r o t 2:3, "Uniqueness is h e h t f o y it r a l u g in s e h t f o n io it n g co e r is h t f o s e c n e u q e s n o The c e l o r r jo a m a d e y la p s a h h ic h w f o h c a e , e e r h t o t d e c u d e r e b n a c t c fa ical in the history of history. k r o w l a ic r o t is h t a th s k in th e n o f I . t n e v e The first is the primacy o f the a ts n e m u c o d to ly p p a to ly n o s a h e n o consists in establishing events, s a h \e b ib D . K . V s u h T . m e th m o fr e g r e method that makes events em
/ History: Paradoxes and A.
116
. rnhllJl
inf erence of kinds leading from f our ·shed · disongU1 dn--..
�ume .L documents 0 we n f nacu re t8 t ev the : on ng test i d· I epen mony, d I I Th . . enl$ I e . rr es co ar or ' , rs to e ca di in only ct dire 109, ct of thO -I>. l If st a ue q se O It nabl ts se e I goal . It con S method is that it fuses �lIent now know e we that and the f aas, s� ve cal · · goa lSIon nt h l of h . JSt y Ith or � · wat " . L h data ave een b "real IS nOt given the · h falsely ._LIIS esuw n a me f to o historical fa Cts. events O r of nce limiting conseq ue hisror y to the sin The second I gu . a r and individuals particula of rly th at of IS to riv. I·1ege the role . great P . . n, me " n Carr has shown how, '� the 'v w,es e rn tra dJ[J . c. Ii. � this ten dency to the Greeks, who attributed theIr mos t a n CIen t epi cs an d . rh elr firs I . s I om ua . . d (H er, L md lvl t tica l ycurgus, an d Solo to hypothe d a",s n), an newed in the Renaissance WI.th th e vogue 0 f PI ut arch He ds ""as . reo Ii . again in what he calls, following Isa iah Berlin, "the bad theory of hiStory" (I. Berlin, " Historical Inevita bility" 1 95 ( Carr, Society and the Individual ( 1 96 1 ), ch. 2 . Th is · Ii. concep tion, · h Ie /j · ct r rru na tely co n " Pra ically disappeared m SCl en lJ. c h JStory, un ,o t Jnues be retailed by tOO many populanzers an d by th e me dia especial/ publishers. I disringuish this popular expl anat ion of histo ry by refer by to individuals from biogra phy, wh ich in sp ite of its mi sta ke s and m e ocrities is one of the major historical genres, an d ha s produced histo . riographical masterpieces such as Ernst Kantorowicz 's Fredericlr. the Sec. ond (1 927). Carr is correct to rem in d us of H eg el 's co m m en t on great men: "Historical individuals are th os e w ho have so ug ht an d aCCOm plished not something imagined or pr es um ed , bu t so m et hi ng right and necessary, and who have understood, be ca us e th ey h ave received its rev elation within themselves, what is necessary an d re al ly belongs to the possibilities of the time" (Hegel 1 822-30 : 1 2 I ). A s Michel de Certeau has pointed out (L'icniure de /7zisloir,e p. 99), th e sp ec ia lity o f history is indeed the pam'cu!ar, but the particular, as G. R. E lt o n h as sh o w n in The Practice of History, is different rro m the in di vi du al , an d "t he particular specifies both historica l attention a n d h is to ri c a l re se a rc h , n o t becau it se is an object of thought, bur on the contrary beca u s e it i s th e limit ofwhat can be tlwughl!' The rhird misleadmg consequence th a t h a s b e e n d r a w n fro m the role of the particular in history is the r ed uction o r t h e la tt e r t o a n a n a t ive or Story. As Roland Barthes has remin d e d u s , A u g u s t in T h ie rry was one of the defenders appa rentIy one 0 r I h e most n ai v e o n es . u " the Virt o f th is belief m es of hisloric al narra l ive: " I t h a s be e n s a id [ h a t t h e goal of th e
o b sOCIal d efe oOkL '
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1 17
that, but 1 ut w ab o k no not v 1 0 d e· o pr to t e of abl o ca p n mo st on e th e t of, pro ' f . 0 euJI . ki d n c st o s t re least nusth e ke s the be ev o th at ne e h t t n i e
e does c e w hat th t u es 7 ) is a cons�cv "pti,-atld lea · B not, 1.:1.1. or al ori , c hist ed. her all 8<1 et w h . e, � fIIS · , I I atl whole senes a ce , I V ar an arr ap pe l e tiv e . · a b t c ,irl/I1fI8' c.. ct tha . honest and 0 J that Iden ry hi sto f o tS on E oncept i ""·d· the , - d eath I ery c v ve. JIlifl d \lll ern rati t he su re , e be p To o . to da y ble re ta e s una cc rio"' �. · t choice � seems t o m e uires � re · ater q ial . m al stor ic e h t 0 l fab c n of iJII� ':ith lIarra v IIsrirutes the ly pedagogical in ari t pr im oJies I elless that. c� role that seems to�m uiring how re iv in a q b ef o th s e rth natla t l s ln se tt of ceard ty es si succe rical ne o t hi s c f o e ns o ti a r un o d P ogl I fo US t 3 is the SI� th e at e rativ It na uired s re r e ha s q it if n e t v e why that .Sl Uh� nly a preliminary P a S '� o S this r ecB u t t ia 10 n . s to h r e h • e 15 t art 0f "
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rely rhetonca u p a . as t century h eteen nt n th of ns or ia � his t to r e l th ra r o , in la ci p x e to e ".n r d In or tetJl1h se o ur se o dis c e tiv I rra tra st e re th g n o m a se o o h c n a c s n a o st , e e y f nator pla e n ent, ::ve " x emplo tm throu gh n, entat io argum l ma u o r th . n ati o lan . . ere th s, ie g te ra I st 3 .es.• ex e re th e es th in h it W p h egt I p I c an o n. . l m a gl o deoI ug o h r d t f e ry O at an an pl e ex th g I in in ta at r fo t n o ti la f ar icu es 0 o m ble . . are four pOSSi lua ext nt co d an sm ni ha ec m os m , ahsm, orgam fo rm s , t n ume .lcaI ' eCI: for arg ·deoIog I r fo f d an e· tir sa d , an dy ge tra y, d co m e . ce, ' ism; for pIotS, rom an e Th . ism al er lib d an m lis ca di ra , ism at rv co nse an a rchi s m, · rIc uon, . :' i fic ec sp e t h om fr lts su re s or th au al du vi di in of hlsto�og�phical "51YIe" an h ug ro th ed ev hi ac is e yl st s hi T n. io lat icu art comb matton 0f m odes of · s o teg ca n I ian e ot ist Ar e th ies pl ap te hi W ich wh , to . II Y poetie act essenua . iS th d lie a s H h e . ny PP Iro and e och ecd syn y, of metaphor, metonym
a e th pn :a a a
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Michelet, Ranke, Tocqueville and Burck. hardt-and to four phi· 1 osop hers 0f h·IStory'-Hegel, Marx, N letzSch e,
scheme to fou r historians
and Croce.
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The result of this inquiry is first of all the observa on tha the wor s of the principal nineteenth-century philosophers of history dl er o ly m . emphasis, not in content, from those of their counterpart to "history proper:' I would immediately reply that White has only discovered the
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n it)' of style of
/ History: Parodo."es and /I" 'b '
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period, and redis covered , what perspectIve concer larger ning l'ai the seve ted in an even n n t e garde e ns of "" ha.t �rsailles , a phil nth 't't'n a nook in the os o ph ical a""QIlIry, Boileau's rules of versi of on e ' nc he ficati on, bv " a lebra -!SOOt... a I a d an a mortgages, max'Im by B w eO lbert concerning oss uet on th seem in n may te, tance � e fi i f r_� The facts a re o lJ<JU, the dis so di,s , I ..,, .°Ot ISO seem d ate they an d n io S eer sepa r sp n I ' lltt il rst ate' B Ut a L on Ii �Ii these , de Ii nm the " on g h of u ro t h the facts ' groups I' n IntelWn neered w hi ch � and rd ade Ehra Palm , y b th ted p, (quo 72) '" t:U �" ey a , dU d tn . , ' . rt of charactenzanon [he [he eIght auth o rs INex • [ comes ' the In t°II h'Istonca I realism as represents Michele[ nero °Voin man roma Ran ke cal �3lism as comed)\ Tocq ueviJIe his[orical ee, ron rea l sm , " as urck sm sa as re, rea lt ron cal [ ege l u H hard his [he poeti cs ' tragedy B 0 f h , I StO n. 'J t e h'l p 'f arx " h I os n); op h' Iro Ica be} l 'On d and' pat defense of h h the , I'Story i n lelZSche [he poenc defense of hist mode, metonymic , ory I'n [h e IIIeta hi p t he ! oso roce h' p and C lca l , defense of h' phoncal mode, IStory in the mo de , ironic _,I30' ''!! U ",,
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White's seven general conclus ion s concerning the hist Orical co ncan be summed up in sciousness of the nineteenth century three I'd , , eas. dilf nta ere l nce fun b dam rw een no is (I) there � lstO?, and philo � � soph ' of hisrory; (2) the chOIce among strategt es of hlston cal explan ,Y ati On IS ' J ' eplstemo an t h th er I oglca ra ' c m ti e esth a moral or nature; (3 )
;
his[o '
prelension to scientific statuS is only a way of disg uising a pr f e ere ceS one or another mode of historical conceptualization,
fOf
RnaU); �'hile's most general conclusion
wh ich goes beyo nd the concepoon of histofY in the nineteenth century is tha t the his torian's \\-'Ork is a force of intellectual activity tha t is sim ultaneously poetic, scienri/ic, and philosophical
II \\-'Ould be too simple to commen t ironically ,
esp eci ally on the ba
of [he bale-bones outline I have given of a book ful l of sug gestive detailed analyses on th is conception of "m eta h isto ry," its assu mptions, and its sunplifications, I see in it rwo in tere s t i n g su b ects fo r reRection, The first is that it contributes to the ill um in at io n of th e crisis of histori cism at the end of the nineteen th century, which I sh al l discuss later, The second is that It allows us to rais e o n th e bas is o f a hi st orical ex ample the problem of th e relations between hi sto ry as a science, as an an, and as philos ophy. It seems to me mat these relations are defined fi rst o f a ll h istorically, and that where W hite sees a kind o f n a ru re, [here is the historsis
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which ry , hi st o th at an say � c e n o , l ra je f n e to g , ' timately involved W'Ith art n \ (iS l, S nt I u and less tific, 3 diScip f nth ce ,';r scien e al, hnic e t f C, O l n l e l s pe cl Neverh iO e so , or do in g t f rn I in ee �J d0 be succ ds lIy , ' a tl ar 0 S n e p ri e n hl ston' an s til l [ )1 �t d orary e t te a m p co n ' test P h�' nI re a e g I e f th n "1 � �P.hllosoP ' l s Ph' 0 D b y, ' u e rg es G rn eo o s Thu s .. I h ar at t, h n a J 0f �ll0 P nole [ er t c ry art, lit er a a al ly st h en ti c e n ess a art , the discourse has " ' I of all an ,.-e P'UhiSIOrY !iJi ood • .Ii" for t to be g is I r Fo rse, u where asserts t hat CO iS el se JI"' d" J1I hislOrY d he h But , JIll, 0 IS I v IhrDUg ardreau, p , 5 0) " cal po of m lm ode a be d 00 J L may It n e' a fr e ' be �. " (Dub)' no t but I' t ca n ge nr e, ry lit er . a a be t may e)(ls , t �... da ' n "I a s a op [ b p ' aI th e h'Istonc r mU g th - 'f t "" at be e r cl ea us h o[ t tv n I , n It ) S a 6 1 " ( p ,�iStor)· bu it e own as h e ur 5 -1 ' s p o c s di l a c n ' St o h ture t tha e s, k i . ot e Ii[era of art l e oth r p \\'0rk ' e ,, na rr at iv T he a s: Ba rt he d R ol an bY d te ' es r p reeks, to the G <"rIo6c dlarac been well e)( since re, cultu i n o ur , y subJ ect S� iSSue Ita onl rn e te an ar s u u g o rn ri , e pe im o e th r , de [5, c I" un d e pl ac e n , en c e I , v ' I s C " e ca 1 d oes ltl on ri ex S po s na l n3 st ra tio I fh ' ' o of f o r' val clpIes " pn n , th e b d , e Y fi , some i tc t st n s te ac ar J u ch c ifi. ec sp d I" e , m so h ou I' an g th r er fI: dI' ' e , h ll), l rea s 10 d e fin on as ch Of rea , u've su ative, rr na ry ' a n g a m afI1I I
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ven ile Ben Em e, tim the At om a �" ( 1 967 :65 )' r , ' �dubl, he novel, an d ra i : "The historical enuncia on nte nt [ I s n Ic' , ng th e hlstona L ep II,e , , sst re red s[ , Only the writer s h t ru t ' ive ect ' ' I 'ob r el h f tSIe rep I , I,S Independen t 0 t " , [s '\), 0 ra l : 1 24 ne e, ue ge ttq rs gu lm .00n of even de es em bl ro (P " s un t co ' ' ign es ' , d ' ' a I " tn °b)e ' h ve Isto ry, the ct1 at th is ms ter 'h llOric ic t s " ' I'In gut In e p s Oli I hes, res BaIl d h' ere e t h b d elt tn , e sh ed mfi sig d sse pre ex un n a , e than , mo r er 'teal, I'S nev , ' n defines what could atio s situ Thi . rent refe the ce 0f ot en mn lp 0 apparent ' histo ri cal discourse does not fol1 ow th e . tr ec t' ell ' Ity I the rea ' caI led be essly rep eat 1 0 g It happened; but that asser l se a e c it, . lies " l Slg n Ital tt only , ' ' . ' 0 obverse sigrufied h l IstonCa any the f but g n i h yt a n be er ne v oon can
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(1 96n4), Barthes concludes his study by explaining the de-
, a as today the of result ry s quest for a more SCIe n dine of narrative hi to Me discipline: "Thus we can see that the effacing (if not the disappear IOce) of narrative in current historical science, which seeks to discuss narfoItive"
strUcrures more
than chronologies, implies, far more than a simple thange from one school to another, a genuine ideo logical transforma non, Historical naltative is dying because the sign o f History is now less the real than the in tell igib e l " (p, 7 S ) , Paul \�yne has founded an original view o f h istory on another amb i-
I History.· PartU!oxe.r
120
a'6''/'-1", . . 'tP
. "h' » wh'ch 10 , ,stol)\ most langu rerm the in ages d ;,v _. " "�'J o an d an �tes h-. ;;,neal �en� (Th us French s bern,-een ;'i�_ ti une ngt,j'" ""L d an ! . n _ ",,, -een / '1 .."'" It, h s h a -""Y nd "'63" 50-72J.) For \eyne, istory is indeed a s o � but i ' (G�lJ i d st ere is ry int sto Hi t e . r6) 71: (19 19 e�..,/ltS n a parti uue cu. Jar fo . ' ' the speci fic: " his U'h1ch 's nn t}\ idual' 0 indiv '). Of t or o LuiI)' r ' IS in e y Of sil)",. e t which of fun r _ non ctions , n more . "" �' ed th di"'dualized e,-ents . . ' " . a n on "" se: ' rty lVl lJ} II\.. d du al n r Ifl ted reres '1, but it is not ", e rIt seek -, . s fOt is, to li nd Ifl them a kind of gene that events, rali sueb . ty, Or tn d . (p, An 72) ty" lia spea again'' "h isco o cisel), a kind of tan.! ry is the thac is, comprehensible, . c. pecifi dre p� s is wha[ Ifl human n-on of . eVen� h nov el a Ic les � 's rese mb . com us po t ory rs sed His t 5)' ofpkz:. J>. Th insofar as i[ preserves singul ar; is 00 (p eres[ ior cen;ain a bas . tJon. ty WIthoU . t sorder, IflSO far a 'c di reJ tn a�; . ecc , s rn rat de e ce � . r it degene mi n � ism b _ u t i tn p f[ emphasIZes th e role s a far IflSO lo lri c, " of -. lI·...g [h e h , a certain i stonan, � the same way tha t a In srudy " ca1 ' hisron his ho "'builds n oveliSt bu�l . ds r ele ct e d f , ' h th 0 as It sugges tin V1e� g at he "Slory." In my . t hiStona" his has roe same freedom as the no,.-e/isr, and that hisro ry is nor a SCIen . ce at a ns, rerary Ii preca uno a1� gen e S re, n \ '' y " e whereas I. bur, despi[ a ppea � rs and bas this is whi to ch a scien oe ban alir v a 'J' be me [0 b ur It bas . , . to he p , all ( sCIence 0 s s ncs n and cre a s ecific ch said-borb the ch ra
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nd eVen aDY "idea � from historical work, many historian s and theoren. cians bon-e demanded and still demand the righr to im agination . can
Wtlliam Dray has even defined the "imaginative reenactment" of the past as a form of rational explanation The "sympathy" mar allows _ fi'--I _L:rs = a hisroncal phen omen on would th fIee1 and ro lIL IilI<e OUR e�fo�e be only a means of e'positionY Gordon Le£[ has connasted the h IS[on" , . , _ L the proc an s ll1lagmame la:unStTUCIlOn WIUI edures of special'ISrs m nat. wal soence ' : ...,. t il .,. e h"Ist0naD, unlike the natural scientist, has ro create h' IS , m 0rder !O e, )uate his . OU:D £rameu"Oc events'' he mu st make an Im ' agJnao\e H:oonsrcn ru on of what, by Irs narure, was never actua l b ur � coDwned in indi \iduaJ even rs. He has ro abstract m e �mpl:as 0f 3101lIdes, \7!lues. mtenD'ODS an d con\-encions which belong ro our
us to
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DOns :n order r� grasp Its meaning" (pp. 1 1 7-1 8).
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. TIlls f''3luaoon, o,-, . f _me � ius,ronan , unaglOano n seems to me i n sufficienL There are rv.o UIJ\l . of Imagmar'I o n that a h i srona n may manifest: (line that oonSISts ID enln 'emng Ilo·ha t IS dead I' n [he do cumenrs, an d which .
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ince the latter shows and explains k, wor a l � oric hist _ f . on, :"hich makes o g.n n capacity for 'm� the past � _ is
Th oY'""dI '< 3cOOIlS'_rat>le quality m the h.stonan JUSt as Geoq;es Duby "e literary talent. It is even more desirable, '."oIl- a des' , a h s i . an 'stOT1 :'P"" h esses sciouific for the hlstonan to show that he poss ",," J ,lte I ." . ..h.... . the contrary, 1n the power of tl"£S on If , Itse ' SfPY f s " ests i it �"P" rnani h c ould distinguish the h sh or hes s i gu histor tin ", I s i d thing o ,tI's$'ctiO"- !-ieee � on his documents with the same work must He tists. '" brings to his calculations or tbe atician athem m t at /l 'to th '15 a maner of a state of 1 ts en t nm . pe ex eir th oo a .. 0ll ri st to i m e itl'�cisl a/ld ch e must agree with Huizinga when he declares that rush\'S 1 ""d h ee ,", of knowledge but also " an -mtellectual £Otlll for h c ran b l 36). 9 1 a, ng zi ui H , (J " w ) l n � or d tOr)' is not e t the fact that such an acute thinker as e detSt3nd,n g r o l ep d 1 l.. _ nd, er til' e oth _ has asserted that the bistorian's t pasSIOn. h irical emp 00 n his , il, ,\rO approaches the concrete, one e1imione "as l nd jlJryfl0 ause bec e , ) � are vagu ' " ( 1 9 38 a:2 06) ' The h'.stonan s concepts are in fact not �oceP'. IIt)' ecause they must refer to both I ' I • prectse y b ica hor ates g . o metap ft e n 0 but e other human or social I'k I Istory bemg h act, bsu .ague, crete and the a . ' 0 ften satd, than of the com pIex, as IS the cOP of e . less th ence d our. te n oi h p as e . � 6C, p has to gener a hze history and explain. h re, therefo pec' ce, sci en s
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Like eve ry cular way. As Gordon Leff and many others have said, i . 0 a part 1 . .IS essenn. ally de duerive: "there so story hi does m nation expla of thod e the be 0 history or indeed any conceptual discourse without gener 0 ,,�ul . ers not in the mental processes diff g din tan ers und l rica histo . aJjzaooo . ' . . ' as tus ItS sta m mferential rather than but ng som rea n ma hu . all in en! . , Jl\her en s ' IS y ng Hi 0), as ni or glV st ea 79 m , pp ( " ge d I e w no e k l d emonsuab ntelligible a body of originally separate data as i g n ki a m uch th ough nt: "Significance in history is me ch ele ea of ic log al ern int through an ry in s sto on a , ti hi l na lly xp e na . ) . Fi 7) (p al" extU nt co y l ial nt therefore esse itor his the ude y incl but the ns, tio ua ons dem n tha ns are more evaluatio s l ces ua pro ect ell int e th nt in ere ' is inh at y th wa al ion rat a an s opinion in to ble sa en isp ly ind ar cle is sis aly al an us ca of fOlIO e om "S : of explanation ish be gu tin dis to s ha ian tor his e th t as jus ts; en ev ate rel to an)' anemp! m and ter glon e th on up e cid de to s ha he so ity ss ce ne d an [Ween chance ey , th ries go te s ca hi e lik t, Bu n tio ua y sit an g in . rn ve go rs shon-terrn facto le lah iso l)' al ric pi em no to nd po es rr co y he T . al tu are ultimately concep are at th r Fo d, te fu re or ed rm nfi co ly al ric pi entities and so cannot be em '
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I lIistory,
Porad.{).J(tI,r
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explOI Wl iol lS corn e clos er n�' i/l ror hl� Ih� 10 ev l �C?n a lI a ti I ' cmns eorL'1 J t , I of <'S, i h S o118 ( to rY Ila Ow, rh� c<:nlllrl " ve r d Pp, t� rinciples I IW I co uId proVI'dc gcnernl keys to h ' l'Je 9, _ .. tO r' v c.,",b P l, ''' cal 01 h [lve b een PUt fo rr h h , r nollons S main " ' ), , e" h 111'0 are 0 n On e h a U tlo &t� , d r y o an 0 on sr ' l I I e r th o t I h l,wtJ r ' e I ' loric dlrerllon 11 .,, ' IIS d al1 a I la, , the ' or d" Ireci I gao Ion a r 0 , of lIonon , hisr TIl<' II"", ,, . o ry ca n be a r �, ' , rIJ(, b eI Ie ' f I' n grem cycI'Ic na l typ�" 0r �xpIIlIlnllOll, Yzed al Illov ' " I llt e lll conslS tl ll1!' III the y a r M e ' II I O Ih perfectl'On ' nls nil I'nd 0r of th I IV ' IIIe id ,� " ry sllu ated outside h I' S r/lrl()fY ()(' n gOIl I 0f I IIsto ea Orld Storv I I A. J' 0 ose A f , h ld >'tec t rno ' alld or way, Toyn bce' are or III /I cerlllJn COn 'h COn n e ected , c pl,O � ' II I Il l' s eco n d, and ehr' Stl' a , ' W II Opillioll, M nrxlsm n. IVl th t I , n ny WI't h , I h h ,Y ' gap vast n th ' llY IfISI"'M C separot e wltilin , es t wo th ' e � �'! '
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ltd, gro u ps, 0 rl,crt' wcre those: \Vho, il /ong with :aim AugU St in 11 0 ' ea 11 d 11 e h� ' n the iden ea r " ,oun d ntlo lelr I' t ' as th k 1IIg' ' en doxy, 0I nd, o f rh e tw C o CItIes C: ' ?f ' t ° r ho ' Ify s e l d b c ' r <,sun I ' cd ce , t It h I in d nil ' C,ItY h e '0' a G.0d., St r earthl" ss e ' n rime l rrou (Mn r 9 50)' wh' th nlenre of h i� roric ICh I c 'f a rie e a IIIbi J ' d S v, 3Wa rhe appnrenr c/wos 0r hu m a n history (Rom e l' Y n o et S h in al �! rn e t , a l n c ' e Ih nd d ' in an y) h tor es his ro ogl ca , R ux 0 rlw �nd of It I S nOI D i v i ne h I' , On rhe olher h n nd, dllm: n re rhose wh o, wirh m l'IIe Stor nar l a , ns I ik y ' e Ies, seek to recon cile rh e ' ' dISCIP )Oa ch , ' nn d IliS I�IOTIS or r seco nd a ',1111 n d rh ,e th 0r I IIscory o ut l ined above, For rh 's rollrt'puon$ , ' S cond � gro up' , ird i ndolly eods w i rh the advenr of n Third Age, rh e reIg 1 1Stor n 0f rhe sa i nts Y ' rile eurrl! before renching irs final conclusion W it o Ver h th e res u rrect I ] io n o d d I I d r 1(' en no I Ie �1sr udgmcnl, Tll(It j rhe 0pI'lli, on ofJoa f C h ' 1m of Fi ' r II thirteenth century, Here ' Ies In nn d III.' dI' tiP ' O ilS we Ieave beh ' dn IIl ot 0n,y ' ncn IIIsro ' I r II�ory bur even philosophy of I1 l'S t o ry,
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a s we ente r i nto ' 0 f rhe rheo/o�,'y of domolll rhe ro ry, In rile twen tle ' r h cemu ry, resurg or reI"Iglon Ira IItd cerr:t i n th in ke rs to revive th e ent rh I of h isto ry, R u �i:rn \1'ri rer Bt.rdynev (1 874- 1 94 8) prophe ied e cont radic , 01 roU(�mpor�ry hi s tory would give way tions " to a ne w c cJO In t creati on of ma n Uld God." In rl1t!mierh-cen ru ry rh ere ,a re va no , ' us con Ric rng CUrrt'n!S, for xnrnplt' clnveir r_ z, e r s "co / l � e q � � n � es ch a rol ogy," B u lt , "dem) fined t\ch n rology, , " Dodd's ��a Ize es charo logy," an C u l/ liI n 's ,1 n ticipn red t' d S harolog " ( L G0 1 9 7 8 : 7 r 2-46), Continu mg aim ' a n a lysis (lte n rho i c Henri-In!nee M rou Ira d�\I?lopt'd rh ar e ide'J b o f IIt' am i"Igw.ty o f h i s to r ic a l t im e : 'H C':!I rime thus npp istorr' e,an,o t0 ear 'In ,r)", a r a I l m b i g � I ' d tc a l a m b ivalence' ' , (rhoug I'!ll lll I)' It h n o t '01 eI) ' , J� a u perti i i \,'Ie", " I m agines) a n agent 01 bur hl'Sror ' .Iso 113" :J S l'I l l,, t
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ItS w ay s ke rna d n u' [Iii ly a s u o f ' 0 ea ri d t e h l c d an . tio n ncep royst co 96 8) , al ' I C I yc I c e u I 0 f th'IS rh e p ex arn O e an r he r la te Ise", llarn i ne ,It 0 '- �" r.(�1a rf e ' dea 0 f an II a h .... s 1 d h ' t e l c C� zo), a nd «! �" erntng on c C y, f hi stor o • d fl,ll' Ol5CtJSS 8 4 rhe hY r ' co t os m e op th , i rld wo o os 8 f th s I� �J,e 197 :J 9 '5 p hil n o C\ I ( en ler n ec e p .. e h , g 1 ( s , tOct re s prog of t Jt<Jo oO, 5P o isting " (h a 'S d I s work conn' ria ce to his n n ' e th l va that , I",<, p '.. 1or,/ cO d d a rte s as e v been ' in 1 9 n : S ) and ( 1' \1,. g e'> hi st or y h a an fter hu m a " f o I h� s s I I s II ' Id �d " oce pr e 0f ord er," , d �' th ' tn 'k a ' on ly ,,�l j'\ I(1 0 ct ll o der but ry (o l 1 IS r ' h S I' n , , Go 0 w on a is la he re t hi m , Fo r n r g orde , e O r e a ha t f t e \' , tinoio 0 I pe m a " n d hal ( h r ex 0 f coaI" wh'ICh conn ag e s he a " t a to t ' dY 1 ry 0 StO I , e hI re ., inl,l" o '" " p om chn at t s h no f te hi ld C e r Bu t d S, vent ,IIJ ,e Ie
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gives a new value to what is called. vaguely and a m b i guously industrial revolutions?' Thus is rai ed a problem which 1 shaH formulate more generaUy as dynamics of y tem , thu
co nce iv ed,
' 24
/ Histo ry." Pa"'do
""«r a that of mvlurion in ndA his tory. In hi '"''''6 ' . S tOri d�m .n (the Pn�t ograp · revoI ' ' . � f. h y U C/on: c 'e<."4. 'e 's . M' MC soen C/5c revolUClon rajS� I.. s: see Thoma u ha n d in itself (F. Smith s Kuh n) and the Fussn er, Tlze H and . ,., , . " 1.. '"It c. . eV isto . en rical and Thoug/u � ' �lutio,,' qs n ,560 -1640, '96 2 �I .P h istOt; , reviewe Theory-, :2 en•ltt,,; d . G b y -:-'f 3 H 61 ). It IS aJso . f. h /:(irro,,�_ � lir N . H e raJs d in the . ad pl.. revoludon of 1 64 el ' POliric 0, (he Fren ch re al d __ . Ir li v o lu ti istoJp� ' on of 1 8 th rion of 1 9 1 7). These 'e ? m ° evenes an d th �1) 7 9, (the r:..'J e """ e ver \ ' y cenrIy been the obj.ect u n . O . sS'a tion of ngl�"l 0f Inte r n nse evOlu co n trove tev . CUrrene tendency IS rs Ol� t''On y. It S on one han d ee S ha� to r. re onnu/ate m to m to the problema tics to.. e e ""of / -e 1. the 1 7 ff. u 'G � t P TObl)e hOlt uur ee ( vov other to see the cont th el/e 1 9 8 ll) jn roversies S U rro 7 : 3 16 relOl e u tio . , a n ding rev a privileged area . . n n o d O l ution for the Ideo/ogr n th 0 r cal . co re m o of the present. "It � nu ol Crn e u ts n . ti is •.
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s not e d o �fferences .. d h n a ry o t is f o cess h flees ,e dl pro e . t e ,n e er ive eIec t stitu con in lf l a ", s a '5 i ce d 1i chan haS i t e e u I'� � ,0 \J �lselY be� : US bi it reC \ . ligi ""� -see ob"'o p \ te y ,n e f ,tS h d iri s , h 0 " an e accidenr t s a s c . ular cause, su 'flce �u\ cal pr c ° ;.: "if a part C e .1sted · ex e s u a c t I ra l State, a gene pt"rb e histO da red h � e rroy es d result in d J " of uieU oul b e as a ingle � ;" s a f battle, ",eJ o ,eSq h i ch t e 0 history " " h . d ofl orl f er n w en . l a �l ",e 0 in te I o wro n " nd Mar i t " U t for it in a x m O O r o I ou'cO ed " Sl n were h ere t if he Stat� ..
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research and "-<"t\r expOSition. alia T h e tI'e same n ","' h .. IlISt y av 'Yay, e ' or/ans , 6,� " no ab'l ",<\t asp,ru C/o eCt'. v tory can an d n [0 mUSt ta k e e, s U cO diverse fo mp re h bs[� The framework n ti�1 r ms" w end can be a geo h� h 'e ' h 01 t rea gra phical of Fernand Brau S o e V ' [0, I' l'I). ' I re alit del, firSI in . I o lve h ' y o Tho 11/ tAe Or M e . d,r . t crru f/ 4 y f �, � ABe 0/PAilip II, a con , ond the n 'n ep l a" Of/a c 'I. , ?�Rh and f have tried I ,!, Ci",lttatiof/ and �s AI to show ha 'n L Ill. ll' C"" "'lecl,i."" I". , , the obje accessIble " � l/a In a perrlne cti v f ir e "" of a t nt way thr . , Ota l h ' o ugh th by [he h,slor/an: � 'S tor " e 1' '''' e rO tal" 'O r exa mple y �b. Ill s , 0 I e n f/(:a.s ideo of labor, g . � tellamcf/to, obl'e Ill erc. (Le G off s t d cls c a n d PO ToUberr). an s 0 Verty, I do noc belie , margi t� t �y ve cha r rhe merhod of n �/i c 'd nor draw on an f): Ih mUi riple ourd ated " eclecric idea a , o h work. It IS som ac es logy. , is h etIm es more / , ar __if . or les s Impose docu menrollon , tO th e h' it do U d on U each k' lOd 'S to es ' s 0 f b sou rian' rce req y wichin an over t h e Slate uiring a alJ proble S matie of t s. In Stu diff e of Purga rory re h, dying the nt tre from rhe thir develop � tlllen d to the m e aCCO unrs af VISI' fou neenth l n t af h t ons, eKenlplIa. I ' centu rie I ' s J[urg ' ' I lca pra cC/c rices, a nd I wou de rn a · ld have made es, an d USe of devOtla use of ico ,'" rOO" I'" fc ' nog na1 raphy if •" I .,. "'m , P P it had n ""' I hlll'l:' som ""Y �' 0 Ot �o. . b e t'/lm es anal ' . 0, �p�"" . n fOr yzed ,nd, v,du " "" h als tho ught ml'nruli/ie. . p i"" Omeumes rhe s, sOm eti level of rhe mes col mas,t's. BU I I powerful, so leOtl, v� have al",'ays e meri me kep s t t in mind rha hat of nor (h/Jli l)\ t, rh e wirh neither wirh dl:'lays, losses, and tu determ tory \VJ' inca rning inism POims, rhe rnated ac the belief in hear t of a Pur�_ system, and me.m lll/!' eyce thac chis s pc thro ugh ystem had Its funccion in no 1 9 I). an overall SOciery (Le Goff A mOn 0grJp hic rudy limit ed in space historical work and tim e can If it Sca rt's a be an exc prob ellen r lem , and lend i conducce s d � a "ca itself co COm e-stu dy." Only pariS on if ic with our :Iny the monograp horIZon, one h clos ed in on itself, of the prize sri/l nOt emir offspring of t,1 dead. now positi vist histo eems to me ry and So far " exc/uded. conrl /lu lry and disCOnrin uiry discu s 'ed th are con cerned, � COncepc I have alrea dy of re' oluci on. I would poin t of tlli, like to concl es�a-" b.\ s tre Ude the first . s i ng rhe tim e, wluch fact that the historia n has III I riOll to respect form�. 'I must m ake hi' the very stuff Frarne\\'\Jr� of history, and thac he for chronolo th e durJCion gica l e,\pla s of I"ed nation correspo e\pe nenc nd to e. D cm� of tile fun d remaIn and amenral ta k! Jnd ducit' will rema m one accompa of che hi t nied b} ano Oria n. bu r ther n t'ce �� dating m U 'r be ry man ip ma ke ir his ulation of dur torically �'On anon i n cel� ble: p order to riOdllat lon. .
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, Od'I� is inwsn o ti .� "Per l that us d e ind ,J' 0 3 :1 9 6 , 19 ff rn (Le " Jill ndmg Ily rsta fu unde e c r 'cal o rt f , elf, is an empirio ist .. haS h ' ry ltS f {..e P r forJlI 0 ' a n, on, like hlsto ,IS re e d th ) t a th 1 i o d p d a r 1 1. " ( I" I So e wauld 'f o a ' t Gord or """dds th n rta , thaugh either o , ist hange "Ie c h a ure . 1'1 e �v p not b'f th is 01 ry ,mstru S to d his e in a m e (tiO th 's p ' odizanon I hat t p d shape n en a s S ces l histO�' nificant change , ' fi es . 1 prO bi e ng cha g sl nt c!l , rflo d'f 0f ' nl ca ' n Slg Ill Irfl • nd I g pO S d h e ' r 0 e rs'. S I' I fo II
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conrnen which , m h e way t f 0 les exarnp of the le w o r fe the tion a atten e ov my ab turn ow ted n I " a t used as . ' lture dlc cu p rical o heir i ,lOn "histo t h�"e ct ress tru x e p the . I e nl her ['Occide or recooS e dans m e ' o c e\ cul w I � ture wnqu " his , ll el s l e e HlSto sl lT , b�ok raI e sev her b socieu O'et hiS to" ee in bric, Gue nee rings ru e' lr library � h ' t ns, istoria Uodo' 'b' fh o.1 i , .....·. . '� udi' ' , , , 0 ",,,.n, I b .n ' , . , i" " ' s: 0 b«. g a in th , cal works, , ns o l (1 a rel l o the iS t to of hist dd thlnkmg 1 a of way uld aware of y wo past M , I ' its . th ( WI , am Cr.l _ ence . I o ness o h minded ) c sy n cal , o e p st � ' I J U ' uv "h c ca e lity a re a tv ' ' um cOII . _ eak ' ng hl ston'ans a r f J 'ing 0 tak k of i rlS sp . the sh on . " flec l by social cate re l Eogll his .InVOIved In t least by classes at ks not if d e r u t ,he n': uc cuI r s their d and an stS b intere lr e rnplex h ' t co y r IS anoth [hat , one " r m eisl o � lei or Ig d e , h s me i t u he t ' i i ng o it st f I d "spir a IS . ories there that ", abstractions . ass um l n 0' rous dange . s so 01any i c o s , d" ope I "deve c a n eve r rch an esea h ac '_bd'�. ' ' proach a , l , i, p" ;h , w pro i and ena show " < ph'"" e h etles today appr "' .00 one 1 as I ay W e ,h, sam I the pas m ' the past for its 'ble Ssl impo e ar . ' 10-\ ' inqUIrieS n h ficatio s I I' nce simp d an lems. 18 S � riness rbitra he edging nca nowl hlsto of � r b num characterize a in itude att n a domm ly the prima so , ke omg ta al sh volved in � 1 ry , histo d to n past their , gUIsh to ard distin reg to With tryln societies on, opini I eCtive co that n of mo s reter , com mterp the o gs histon' ans aS belon what om f r I 'deas .In na perso ory ir hist h t 'ith past what belongs to 'll t e h ing nflat , o a m a I ana\ g a 1 m th a t exp e l7. O ary g ent I reco e m . p p l su fore ouer a few
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History.. T he Hl.S; professional historic t0'1c. Q al { lJ.t. which constirute the production but W '''IQ i th a Ii� hist Oric / al w ofa period. A stud cu rure' 0r h ole y of sch oo ra th e Set l r th 0f h SUCI) a S tud Story e i e tb t y, bu t lOr r a 11 h ist ti phe x ks ' practical PUrp o llQ 00 only sinc ' e . IS a . ca I ll} Ill. .'''<.. oses, Such P the nineteenth cen & "i1e rury. The S A � text�I1 �II illuminating in this _ ru o dy of 1" v oks ha respect. The rol '" l;;itsPoq Of geste (medieval epic e of Char/ :erat Ii. songs), the birth �re and a� �'tt.I em rury, the fact that this of the rom gn� In th � birt e h � b,; too ce k n the form o ancient subjects), 19 the I n th , e '" f a imP r", ort e an ce of histo lfth theater, etc., a11 test!·fy . 0 1 rollJ n I1 <4 rical pt ':"' to ULle predile . � ( . a ay s their past. 20 Wahl CTIo In S h L C(; . . n of sO ' n the framework m e hIStO . a .e,p On _ l1cal of a reCent French painter of the . -.t., O s Cl exp Sixte et oSIIJ enth cenrury, Je . .On i.. r. has shown how, alo On t Ot an F ou h side qu e gt hi er, �� . Ninte rest i� ncient I eat RenaIssance (the mml � � arur hi Story, ��� �eyna . es In the Wd aenne, an d ' 7',, A "'tq & utt T ·� es judai9ue.r, In .llle-L.rV . 1, J:of th rouq uet t s e h h e ows a pronOu em (the Etienne Che J 7 nced taSte lr lSi{)lre valier Book of Hou Or the "". Grandes CIvoniiJues de rs, the mOd. FOrtnigny t France, etc.). 2 1 apest We should a names, guides for pilgr the dd the ims S and tudy or6 touriSts, engraVin sold by peddlers, etc gs, Popular tst ., etc_ Marc Ferro has lit eraCWr an important new sho wn how SOurce for history; the cinema has e added cinema was the "agen film, explaining, t and SOurce of hist COr rectly, that ory" (M. Ferro, true of all the modem 1 media 977 , and ). This is would suffice to explain advent of mass jou rnalism, cinema, radio why, with the , and television, ship between men and hiStory has enjoy the relation_ ed a considerable Mazzarino has attem revival. Santo pted such an enlargem (in the sense of histO ent of the notion riography) in his great of history study /1pensiero storico (1966167:206 -1 9). Mazzarino is especially cla.rsico mentality in ethn ic, concerned to trace histOrical religious, and inari onal elemenrs, in myths fantasies, cosmolOg ical theOries, etc. A , poetic new conception of the resules, which Arnald historian o MOmigliano has the histOrian IS not weI/ defined: "For essentially a profe MazUlrino, ssional searcher for the pase, but rather a truth of the Sorcerer, a 'prophetic ' interpreter of the tioned by his politi past condi cal opinions, his religious faith, his istics, and final/y, ethnic character but not eXclUSivel y, by the social siruat tastic evocation of the ion. Every fan pase , whet her poetic, myth other mode, depe ical, Utopia n, or in any nds on his[oriogra phy." Here again we shou ld dra w a distinction. indeed this diffuse The object of histo sense of the past ry is which recognIzes of the imagination in the productions one of the principal expressIons of historical reality, .
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s. h direct B I l thIS ise ut . ast r Ir . P the to ct '1' o a scienI t a re h WIt � il e one j/ Y l on op . the is ch 1 h' w S, an n O st i f V' way pe h f ° . the rY but y histor not IS . ast e h t p as .Its objectS t ))' Jus � f or o n e h f b o t � "" ",b ern " u t 0 , . Y' y, e.s o· m .A stor hi t h a s no qu ° is Dia/ectr � . 10umal The [fU0 memo,! t en m ,;,c sa'" o '" s n vel betwee p de ns o s � e relat It f th l to d te v (V'1h� f d veI o e . e U B i i ISS sh t r cial the e issue, sp h's I t In a ) ire." 8 riJltP 30' t 9 � S (is l'''�tozre la me.nw ders f the "H'IStory Work_ un f ",d 'o ed o ° ain ' 0 ts m en f the statem o us h ne guo b m a e som k ue es Sam �·� ss later, � g History?' If he cu '; rofessionalizm l shal �OUS i e, ep I sub d an es, hi I d r . o i autob p b I ry, l o am '" hist sS hOpS ° le hat conSI'dering. ofra . enrific work., �difies the imag� t 0r SCl IS SI S he b a eak., s to h ' ry t es p f ISt h O rg o Ie nla eo e : forgotten p P orary o em c p i O � ". , _II"'" nces adva eat � h ':ri of " on 00' ting ' ' If re s .u
e ·" °e histO to th e t � \ �l e is t is o., h o 1eJ1lenta'rY le e nO p""liS� �(nd '�.storY, l ",e:�� a n f\ 'h C� t )US n e h t r '¢.oe thereby s � '�� s theIypacOl,rrect ne ore. e lll . sa. 30:·�t.'
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' d goo easl'1y the has ry StO h' , es I lenc . hisS \ the a C ssion ng . amo Profe s. Alone lamer . popu eeds n It fact, theIn teurs ama r neve . .. th'ls function, wh'ICh is practicable by perfonn to willing ' mply not not en ft 0 Sl are are s hey t rorian mes someti ct,. respe of worthy d an d an need essary he t ases less nee incre media w ne the of era The O tIII ing it. J n pe t a d goo . I mediators . . na fesslO o semipr . cal noVe\Sifor s . rtUn\tl . . n oppo hlsto the . In sure plea ke ta often 1 that t add gran s ap ly per lIing should ' I 1w that and 'nen -w wel and II done long � so e w e r a em y e th n to whe gs belon that n natl° imagt of to edom n, e f oria r 0 e th h' s rs I h t u a a ir e as th on opini my d ke as m a 1 when as I am .III tum allowed ,
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pomt our rhe libertle . s 'leal M. rhey have take e�la there nor be a lire n 4()area of hiStory,, 6 �ith hisrO the basic givens 07h?'Isrory erlons in "' r' y. J\. nd CUS to h m s ' WO UId be rewrirte b h h St , · l' "" t ' "" l 'e U ti m y h : o e g l l i x p n O tin th s � 6 e ' rn ro'e of e tes events? I would n 10 such 6 n S�a�l d p t al i c t · h res a' ctio eO! e ns n the d0ub e of respect for what IS. moSt and , �IS Q'�.• Ie t pi Of I mpOrtan t n ' e a su Pa " t r novel by Jea n d 'OI� e h' ' o u to i� IlIl esson , � ry. Th us f L Q gloire de ? , Ie", ue, w i hIs' rory wirh ra/em a n d . h r;Se '}l ay I h hr knowledge N t 'P .rnre d a rsrices of h 'srory, like IVanhoe, The � . srory :, , �te: Ba lt)i'e'd� l ' : na p 'P D. I ng LAlS The Tlzree Mu.rJ ntine b efl:\r ,eleen, erc b u t th e inv �s of P o en e n t i o n evems on the basis o f he" Iiun of a new c:"ei,i Q� t�e m a d e � nral StrucrU res rse o U This kind of work IS often f of Polv a S """ well Itl Oci d e one . C< and 1 become a hIsronan Use ' fu l. B Ut IS. ly. �' I d0 not claim pO Wer for h 's e e own territory,, rhar IS. ours'd V ' r o r r o ne t ia I y e h n t s is i r o l a O c work and ItS t . ry and parncu U s· I de socle . 'I i ' t�el.a, echo n th arly in educarion. W g e h at . ished IS his torical impenah sh ould be OVe enetal ' sm in the d r n oma in of th'e beginOlng SCI'ence an d fin ' of the ninereenrh cen r � _ i d o r tu y . i h . o HIstoncis ry Was almo� h Cs At m, in irs v ous ises, :� wanted nOt b hi g e should not rule over ;�er � n eVe ryr hi n SCIences, and even less g. Histo ' rhe physicisr rhe marhemaricia ry ov er so cle ry. . n, B ' the bi I 0 0gJs . t (and' rn an othe Ut h.ke Clalists rn the human and OC S i'a l scien ces) th h 's r s e_ to, for history is Ii da m e a ri o n p ? � U m t S b : e ' r / ; l a m St ra b e h c n o ne n k w d � e : ge. The relations e" een the prese nt and the past should confusion or skepOclsm any nor lea d more t to h an the relati ons beCWeen mem and history. We now know th o at [ h e past depe ry nds All h'IStory IS comemp0 panly on rhe P esent . cary rnsofar as the a t is ; and thus re graspe P d in � the p eseot ds �o the latter's interests. . Th IS JS not onIy Inevit legitimate. I:::e h IS tory . able bu' s rI ved tim e (durie) th : e . . r a n se IS t lt � is e th ? ? �� both past an� hist an s tas k to m a ke a n "; . b}'ectIve study 0f the l� Its double form. ;; be Sure' . a Srnce he is . hIStory,, he canno . , ut no other h'IStory is WI make fiunher rogress In understanding tory by purn'ng himself P h'15 ' question in the In a scientific observer COurse o ' f h IS analysi s, just . as take S nto I aCCOUnt the modI'ficatio . �vh; object In ns he may make he is obseTYing . we k now very well' lOr r exa mp Ie, that the Iead5 us t0 rnqUl progres s o f dem o crac re m re full In t Y y o rhe role of the "li h'mory, to place o u r � ttle people" rn . sel' e a r the level . of everyday lIfe In different ways, a11 ' a nd t h a t a ffects' h ISrOTlans We al 0 k now th at tIIe . evoI u r lo n of [he •
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t mental f o of the dO S element e c tial n essen d are an SCle a an ciety is so a a of in conception t tOry i s the J( to e back t come a h t shaH I e . s an ri O t . is h . h processes of acof n.' m its d lt f W e o c a f ' s t e Cieti O S en n e e m tw e b ulp ity u iq oI1 . t " n A ce n n co r la n i cu C i r . a r n n . betwee o u Onans, f a t hlst n of o ro ught tho co the rein correctly d n been a e ha n ns v o Historia rau . time U of ( ion CUI cept con " cal gi ear l o o no r c h " lin a � I a on e ' envisag . to ty .[Ion and ensl pro eir o t i n � th take at they f mty th I uncerta d more to way mrnde give to has ac e ne's A.ugusti tim which ical of time, about histor tions ques al phic well iloso know I ph time? is nt then, , "What accou : tative esen repr is what nt e asked m d am g in e but l asks me; y know nobod that vided pro is, it 1 966:1.4 hat w Starr h 1 4; Xl, ons, si enoug (Conf es baffled" I am in, expla to GalGutenberg The book, it is and try famous han's McLu shall Mar on g concep ctin of Refle ence 2 \). depend the sizes empha stein Eisen eth Elizab his 1.), rting axy ( 1 96 transmi and ng recordi of means al technic the on of that time, of rions of time kind new a of birth the printing in sees She Cronus and torical facts. Clio n betwee ns relatio the in break a marks and oral een books, which betw sition oppo the on restS tion concep This impor (1966:36 -64). the to tion anen n draw have ogists ethnol and ns n w o h s o written. Historia ls a s a h ody o G k c a J . n e t it r w o t l a r o m o r f e g a s y literac of tance of the pas nt adve the ation, transl of means their on e r o m s a how cultures depend h e H b) . 7 7 9 I ( y t ie c o s a f o n io t a t u m d n marks that belOg linked to a profou ress" "prog the t abou ideas ed receiv over corrected certain .
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precoy 'I d' aor extr was ' h IC h w the ; k nt wor e ame m f/il fr p n ' ow lo ItS ve ' f 0 e out d ak ify bre n a ident t di we o n ngly, In s wro e "� o or d tly d t righ a an h, h ge hic t ' blocka w . o thiS e ' n of o e o - " early �' caus e h the t s t see o s� " S n ont on rizati um D secula stOr ctl' on us ) ocio 6 4 prec ' p, a iOl r the t, ""u" f e ( pas t r ndlVld ' tan e stO h I t o f dis 0 ' y I hl s ear ia very d n also '! n 1 fOt1" oU r o","n n ini I a the tio by er en ues , ass I va t11 rom the f o ff l 0 d cut n a , phel f ere n to oo sph ated rdin c c i " m subo o n ained ti o c e n rem ' has n, 0 royal " poIlUCO 1 ctio ure fun struct ' yal caste e , l e f h ro b t I mO e ' m th ' o rhUS an I f In 0 W. d est e n aln o of n z3tt m e rna re h t as ' ellIari rom ' h f ted ntia ere se " (p ' 6,) ' 1ndia diff man?' lly al oric ica "hist rad rast is cont n a ' by c1 m o I ll ca ll ., lIIa ,,.,. sha 01 f religi n , rar " ca s 1 tran m rary ho e empo , w ) cont , 6 ' " �'hieh hl e 6 h t to con on of ( t s enti e ligh att tt the e his in eted s oci rn S erpr tu int be nt off o not et11 wing can thro it Du t in a d h ( ceede t g suc y n a fio ll , f l dla, noti has a Indi p, " that on � n ' zatl erm ,,,00" o id in the West, and IZlng the mi" nimum 0f mOd to If myse I" l rea a mlt I" v e II I a h s whl'I 1 " eas, ceptS n d l tio s " nt ina umO D his m , o an USS d Indi ' ISC n d an of to e ce tenc en foreig exis pet the m eny co � banal k not c r es rathe 1 la d now si the the � ond , his : bey t , thiS In pesee :��el"'ing tha ong \ f l ty, 0 cifici On Icatl spe ' d" its e h t s ry, rm ' Isto ' f h affi 0 ut sociion b e cept som r con in o ar I Y' place ine s I uni take n a lutio of evo on t fi can ecti i sign re' ty. socie no ch of s whi kind in g certa urin in d ge ri�dS and of a resistance to chan of "prehistoric" or "primitive" soeties, same is true, it seems to me, ties, a great specialist like Andre The socie their ic ng stor cerni prehi con ing ties cern rtain on unce C the cieties, urhan has emphasized that acy of the investigations, celt is Leroi-Go e primarily from the inadequ ustively analyzed only fifty history arisif for a half-century we had exha certain number of stages clear that sites, we would have today, for a al history" (1974: 104), well-chosenculture, the materials for a substanti Europe, and that waS was re "The in human that S, text 974 1 hose in w rved ns; obse zatio t onio civili Henri M Far back, there were a few 'great heri or es, hang exc ry, ship, histo kin all of on d base an ns hum ectio the conn of s time size some the and or ruins, y, uit antiq pec al ins lassic an l c ope rna Eur mate tage with our opposed to the European powers andClio's empire, The masses that they to be admitted at the frontiers of street, textbooks, he t in man tion, caused them the : of adds rd he acco nd mon A com ory?' the hist by hout rest were wit s ple, tribe am ex many for so rs, just yea en s rsitie fifte or and unive ten t last onio he t M For 60), us, 1 for (p, ed ld" chang fie has ns' ria "All that histo en, he writt t be ading to inv ains been rem has hich w black Africa ry histo n frica A his t es defin explains and
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7' 1 'Ie /7;l .flor Decolo nizati on allOWs ' ir:o/ It, Sin ce rh lvtent t;e e "" th e r lormer colon Izers ' ali and colo niz � on of ' ed (ormerly domin a ted n o I on sOcie ties e " o " attem pti selves wh h calls n a (or the r p ogn iti on o o history tha enelits Y, an eon (rom rhe ne w d , �e m ethod tory, erhnology, t Of t � SOCIOlogy)' and 5 w hich h "l-. "Ill s ue " ma k Ing ' as t e use o( all so rts adv o( docu m a m en' rS, ents a n d ' h" " •. ' '' .' ' ' '' A Iinal opposi( O n . a P:,," ' "" I,,,,, In Or l d th e � hi " 1 , ' , I I " um ln ate: th e o Y osi tio n be I WIll be hel Iiu I P P tOllc I l v,r P , to disti ngu is h two e n t tu cas es ere, CU can study tfle L blTth d h ist t � In 0( new historical O e s uno oIiten rooted in m t sities w � yth, Thus in the se � d e al West, nations, or urb o m Unitie s be a� co rer , est hIstory, they O t ed in ,n e�1 n with mythi Ii ca ancestors who genealogIes, wuh r h elr lege nda ry i Oun din claim ed ro descend (ro d m ly � t e monks o( alnt arIon o( their abbe -Denis t o Denis the A reop nian converted by Y ' Saint Paul In th e se cases we hi sroncu' l condit ' ' see Ions under which cI th ese e· myth s are born ' Com e parr o( h IStorv and h The probl em IS , r m re d i c u lt w h en i r IS a matter ffi ; h uma n societies of th on' or 0 ��-cal/ed , ins of primiti v . socIeties, Most have explai ned th �I� ongl ns throu t gh m t s and it thought Ihat a de has ge ne� ly Y , . lslve been phase in the th elr C evolUtion conSI'sted ' from mytb 10 hIS In passing tory. DanIel Fabre has sh Own how m h w , I analy Ica Y h � ich se em s "resi stan t to hlsto sIs " n be rec ' r upera ted b �: e hIstorian, for "it SOmewhere ; n Y ��s constit uted , preCI se historical penod," 22 Eithe� as UI It, mytb LeVI-Strauss has ' recuperates P and restrucrures rhe o utm o ded lier social y�te ' leftovers of "earms," or the 10 ng CUltu ral lir.e 0f literarure, to myths allo s us, hrough make them e he " e -P. ] hI s , onan , s m eat " as VlI'dn I
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TelatI s geT destr�neqll�lit b h el]" i " / st � : re :: o lrheI T her ,Sessio of the h umltages '� ' ' en;,� ". ' h ant an Sclenc age ; � oct" field of h is , e' mYth a � h IStorical n ti e � b s �� e : : gi v i ; :: e, ? noble fa g� gIVIng themsemIlies lve ' n c s k � 1 l ai m e to S ttr' a aglte, the Ath'b. very early the ence be' g : � f he latter l
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iving d durie, Io� in a ' r ed scrib rj in ry fluto t sto apparen is i the h er I ' " und g era aun en loc d ' li n 2 it? s } II g n o se si traver I es y Ient r si p that lC e nts rre ' s cu matics' CiO proble al ' I . rn caps stonca ' e .� new ht t , nt ,
e S s o <> rOr u p tfl , 3'" ep �pt the ea of r W g . e ,�pd' . r e ipgs w Oin, tS of vie Ory, but pushes hlston cal time back . a throlP the p 0b'Ject of hist ian s meth0ds, and underpms of idit)' f onIy lin ches the histOr 'j1los pot .l nr e ' . e o ginS' ''slow'' history· ",h IS expression the een betw ship � tion fIl] d th rela r y '; vel of hlst� h' tIy stressed the concept'ion 0f h'IStory held by the "" ,ope� e h ve fig 's d the eniste an S Benv m Emile e is st a " rs kind sy e this c rit of U '4I in IingulS ' p.. model study preA o), 37-S " 2 ' ( 1 9 S 9: <;ll i s m e e ran (l1 h f t e e verb r ti s used u Ie ments ns o docu h da the in ps ime m e t p te of n . l ep o elau �S d: ammatical �xpressio , Itself . or ,ields valuable mf , Y � th gr e "LeS r atiV nalt ical xample e tor a ble his dy k ar u rem in a st s . d gIve M' . an \ e ue els e hIstOr.ian analysis, Andre Iq was he which , in N ig/us th � ical rabian r by , n or h, isto of a story from the A 0 he story was nostaiglc' ft k r study ewo (I1300 s ram I h . ng f of In tion erlyI i evolu s und of (h O shoW that the Arabic Islam,24 It remains that the C nstla . ' mty ' able :Pg for (he original great I· mportance to h'IStory, h ry was histo which loPgl donS of time is 0f in and in the way .�
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ca;rcek:d a turning point in historyleast three conceptions of time: (I) the the d at ting bine pera recu com and it se ons u seas eca calal, :ritlen btime of the liturgy linked to the neutr eous and ogen hom e,
tim gical gicircular tolo nolo escha chro or ) (2 time r; cal nda ologi cale tele ar, line pagap of (3) idea and the n; out atio put hed sketc com sm by tioni evolu cula1ed and nnt h-ce nme teent ghte nine Enli on ence The influ e, s cal tim enormou had tieth that twen ress the In prog m, ricis sible histo ver on an irre ularly partic critand ary liter nce, and scie s, al artist oric rs, hist sophe tury ts, philo have logis that socio of time s of work ons cepti con century, the new on ct of impa y plicit le derab multi consi the of had idea have the ics Thus ce, scien starta rical as histo ed by S), serv (192 achs been accepted Halbw rice crete Mau con by n rated give were h whic social times, elabo ns, ctio refle e, el's articl Braud this and ), ln Fern (19S8 for r> point duru ing longue "La his on e article thre al ng ment amo funda h guis his in distin form d shoul rian ph histo ogra the "ge that and e:' tim ial Braudel proposes "soc time:' an al ividu iCS, polit "ind of and those nts , eve speeds of torical time ted of agita thm and rhy rapid the the is, es that rmin ; time" ical that dete es cycl struc omic of e econ tim of mobile" im intermediary time ost , "alm slow like very work the rary and a lite in d esse societies' evolution, expr d rime urge lived have of sense critiCS the , and again Or hers tures, philosop some hich w st, Prou thaI of Marcel
1.36 / H istory:
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historians to cons ider (e.g. , Ja uss 1 9 5 5 ' Jr . entation subtends entQ/ilj one of the current cerned WIt ' h a h I'StOr ten de , ' 9 y 0f 'l'wed G n ' Cl G ). e 1'l . s exp 'n As Georges L erience. efebvre has poin te '''5 I 0 history was crea ted, d O I "r Ut c ' , lOr as was VIr IS tua lly all r .IIs 36). Nevertheless, to O Ur th h. limi t O u rse lve s to W cient vestlg t "' I\b , es 0f an mter , ' rit , te n est In tra nS y C J>.oPI� m itti ng the past exten d IO e , s, from the beg , to pOSt n mn mg o f erity � ginning of the first th e " '0 51 (p. fO U rth mil/enniu m B / .c. , an d c IOI I e Middle East (Iran , M oncern nnlUIll e opotam la, l" � A ia Min , In the MIddl »e e East, thIS � or) an d On preoccupatIo the n With p seems to be parti the cularly linked erperu at n With olit tence of a gove d ica l Struc P rnmen t and mor tures, ' eve "a. e p artJc ment. Inscnp WIth •. ula rly of " tlons d � eta l'I'1 09 th e h a m na 'I' m l nary cam h Sovereigns, a S ume . pai gn s an nan I 'St 0f k l' ell), d gs Vic O ( � t C, kings, aCCOU nts arIe , B.C. ), a s of h of the hIgh nn a ls oft deeds of the � the royal legen ds e k mgs of A s a nCien t Ira r s of the anCI'ent , Medo -Persl chives of n 10 U an traditio Mari (nineteenth nd n: Century B.c 25 th e .), Hattousha in B of Ugarit in ar. ogazk 6y (fifte R as h enth to the Thus the them es ra thirteen th c of royal glory enturies and of the roya l mo a decisive role at the Origins del have o of ften different peop tories, Pierre G les' and c ibert has main ivili zations ' taine d that in the h along with roya/ is. B ible , history ry, letting us moreover glimp and DaVid, se, around prom onarchical Sa muel, and anri mon archical Chris tians later c tren ds,27 W reate a Chris tian h n the histo ry, model king, the they insis t on emperor The the image o odosi fa us the younger, imposed on the whose topos Middle Ages by, will be for example, Saint Louis,28 Edward the Confessor and More genera lly, the idea of history is structures and often attached to its image, to the State's and to this is oppo tively the sed positi vely idea of a socie or nega ty With out Isn't all ava governmen t and tar of that witho ut history, ideOlogy of a utobiographic history to be al novel, fou n d in Carlo L Chris t Stopped at evi's antifascist inte E60li (194 �)? llectual, in This Piedm ontese, exile at Mezzo a com mon giorno, dis hatred of Ro covers that he shares me with the pea sant men t, and slip s aba ndon ed s into a stat by the govern e of ahistor up in a roo iciry, of m, and in a im mobile clos mem ory: "Shut ed World, to that othe it pleases r WOrld, clo me to reru m ed in On p in memory History and aill an d CU Sto m the State, ete s O utside the rnally pa tie rea ch of nt, in this land m ine, with n either
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h iV c e il b l o m m iS h I lives nt [ asa e ' th P: , h" deat re of e ce presen h oil in the I do not d flo r 5 fld isO n o n gth pr n m ad°(l err':! a le the I e giv t a d an ' pOll s ' o t pe e v a h CU S ld u o S w iS ot t d e seen, I Y er have t s we ion, 'n1 (101 as 0 n, e rfl h ld 1 u t o w he ey n h t , , a ve y" , ,,\ sn ! ollee I l (and e de 0f histor ) i utS o " s L n itY et o , spmt, zati a al historic 'li � the e l VI , to , CI ile host n ia on d .",nlooian itl al rad histOric t for l I t h a t , tiC dear is It , tne " le0 Iha n a sclero . � , t ah Y ent n as , much so bralC "", n d wilhl' y dest ,.. e m as y stOr e e I-l hl d th nce d los rie ea pe f o a l rn ra ex. d a \ s as . d a wor h enc ider i n� the le d p nce o e ene s p p e r e has ffered n su t x. ple has o cO o ory , t pe h (lO of l r e e sens h s ot he � t n 0 less, s of he state rea o , bave, � vert the of e tion crea the tit · N nd n Jews Y e t 8 1), d Jews, 1 To , e 9 � the tne ng Uecnv err ' ( , des aITlo see F tory S h I heir t s t e is , c t , luat their cO i va J ree n' o to m opl s Id's ew e H, fi r Butte signifiea e th d ' der n s le SI co b t, pas l a e the been ever to has s Isra , e arta M lv C e agna r its u 5 th WI e land nt ng ancie E H li mI' t he t n that eve " I range ,nO st not d � tt ; ce n' and produ tS u to co first o e h hiS t N were h wit d s ��?,� gi tive f e ry arra histo � s fi ob � :� t er o ch sket po to wed � r � � o � th s in q � S ory uali hist nal � h brew , nat reache a They l , l i � ion k at Cre �ly the th fal n y of of e an � � ording rec the in o the t1� cially r f pe e , ative n O narr k SSI succe ir he !TIafl �� ruc i t t f and � David t n of s h � t : o the of the c than L case aw e t he :�� as more ntS, ed ntrat �; o � c they rece�t the Exile t abou the n r i , Afte u spec e ' to ���n tl t ten at their to hiS rned 1 a sense tU they �: d � o d e an undan ory m t s t i f h end n he o � t t their abou �ose lar q rticu Uic ' pa n nd I dl a they re But futu t touch with the hard earth. ' I M dbnot 'sh C the Y before s ee acca , they lo seen m is 9 as ating, 3 D ' 7 narr . (1 A al ury i r O C cent fi rst the in , gift ,or hist phus J ose of ngs writi ' n era and the must , we 2:466) , ble a ndenl u IS , ology at h esc and law says h t e Geis into t a , ' R retre bert Ro hat ut if this w here e, l ex.amp B , For on. a ualific q n a add , , still ud , Talm he t history ' f mage h t e l , bout ry. a histo of , hing teac he t , 'nt m pOI , ng turni as ' a on ks mar tUati ry sl centu Jews the The third in nt e rovem Imp ' an the hand Rom e e n o m n o beco are The causes , being granted ' 2- 1 2- the right to er, the StlII a result of theIrthe ensuing peaceful ess, and on the 0th s the repcitizens andfIof e of the Babylo l, a; schools th�t s:�:rate. Neverthe powerful in �e�c end of history �r m its terrestrial ure as we can resentation, t I\elief in this or�d remains recognizable�na:im, The less, the Blbh� e of histOry,:,In the first masters, the Ta see from the Imag . 0 C rl O ist f/ he
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sense of his t ory. As e r� t millennium B. C a ., colJecrio as th 6 Cient ch· ronologlcal order o u d c f o r a e m ts , d e th u s h c s a � 'if l cJassi6 alf A Starring with S nn . als Qlan (1 4 5?-8 5 d in an " Chmese Herodotus " d . , .) c B w h o h Ch" a J:'nas b s tic his ' e tori e es deveIop n schema: they are co1 1 " eCD ns of p ublic a ccordi n th e to documents � he s : ch g ronolo gical order "Chmese histo o bro u ht . allle ry I a patch g ne therefore has th e . work � Impr . essio n th t e Chin CO pllshed two n c us s e e V r e l ts c a Y early f o � is h i r o t � c procedure· th chives, an d the atmg COIll. . e u co . of docum ems. If e to o exam in es l n of function of these text the atUt and the attribUrions e the persons wh ;rod�cers or guardia s, however, anoth are er e ry IS ' closel y linke � appears. In h a h � d O the written docu is. m t. "There is n e Chinese sense of 0 h1Story t e word Other tha . n what IS writt i gs do not have en " Th ese a memory Iiunction h owever, but rathe ' wri t· . fiuncti rnagJc r a ritual, sacr d on They are a ' e ' means . of com powers. They a�e . munication WIth th e divine Wntten down "so that the gods may ob that in this way serve them'" so they may becom e efficacious in an etern document is not al present. The intended to serve . as a proof, but to b talisman . It IS a ic object, a not produced for en bU t or the gods other purp e . e ate has no �n to indicate t . . auspICIOUS or ina of the tim e USPICIOU s character Ich the docum ent was produced: " mom ent in tIme ' bu t .In It d o es n Ot an d icate asp a ect " . . Th . e I a bUt ritual wnun nna s are nor h Istoric ' " r gSi lar from ' I al dOCuments Imp ying the notion ment, they note f h an developcorresponden 0 � Scnbe who at are eternally r;es them is val . The Great . time whose archi . vist bUt a p lest Include rnaInt of symbolic ' alni r (c. 200 B e.-A 0 ng the calenda � ' 220' the COUrt ' I n t h " e H a n dynasry ' ) hl i s tor �n IS a Who precisely' e stablIS magician a n astrono ' hes the cale mer ' ndar. Nevert modern sin% gists of these h e Iess the use made faJse archive by s is not merely an Instan . ce of
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. to JI tS /1t f n o io 1 . t a . t e r n c ta s n o c a past IS ' e h t rj t a lo th tljs g in w on ti c o n [I' u d f n g a in n h s a e m t n e r e diff a r l Y a e v o t e r s i S t f n f h '1" o e evolution m e h t . d an o u ons, d d I rum CIV se us 00111"Chille. OCthe vario cen h " venth-twelft (ele 'flI cO asty e �e g to ung dyn / ty tali en M l a ric ··
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. I HUl orY: The 1!.'
l.Sloric do[Us considers the L"b al A� . I yan s ' / , the e"-t Egy ' al ' and the Persians, m ' an ethnograp ptla n s, a nd e '!lspeCi h IC ' pers p am pIe, are nomads ecrive 1 t and n omadism " Y h . S T IS he e dI fficu t t of thIS ' geohistor IS' the S notion of a h i t " o ian.cn c a :! n � ? fro e barbaria ns O U tsI'/e, The i 'l!, nti r. ' t\ er· -e � CI vI I' Scyrhians l10 ' t or Z3 W croSse ti on t he hellenize themseI ves to is d th ' ize them CIvil selves· 'w � [, orn tier ""ithi�ltr people because the e e kil/ and tl � WOrlds cou ld not ed b i merely a mirror in b e m ICh the Greek ix d. t h Y ed 10 r ei s h T e � s e e th emse 1 980). S o hi es reve ?� ans .,n V The other fo e driving are r Clia e the
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dev elopment of nog the politics link:� to social Greek Strucrures. M 1 h istori n o his tory in G ' . F inley re k gra reece , befjore the fifth m r s th phy IS e c u t n r to those of the A ssyn a n y B. C N . th O a nn l k ings n o in t res e er � is s a ry c � t in o and philosophe h iSt a o archives. It is : n t a h :r t ble e t n e epoch of m � a transmitted oral7 n the P t s, OUtside /?eIS fifth cenrur m em Y o ests of aristocra ti ' an ory is bor � IJIll n / f royal) t O fami U 0 ie � . ( an d the pne the r at Delphi, those ' tere. In sts 0f temp EIeUSIS and Delos Ies S ' 1'01' h IS part Santo Man Uch as ' " o is of the, op ' . �arrn first arose in Ath ' mlo n tha t hi eman Orphic circle ' th ough In t�e middle reaction against e old I a aristo d e cracy a:d partlcula moc at . . of the Alcmeonid � rlY agamst t lC the . ' . History was b rn n n a th A ia n e n ! IglOUS Secr, and not � s k t e re i h f n er of on la a . . . 0rphls mong the ' m had b een spread b h genos most hostile to the los i Y , Alem n the eoni Y d P s , the genos from whIC to /es the comm h Theml.S ander of the Athen Ian , . Beet, was later bo A t,henian revolutJon m, , . . The agam ' s t th e conservau. , ve parry of the old anstocracy had certam lande lyalr d ead y begun . , [he new re around 630 B.�., as a ulr�ments of the result . comm � ercial and ma lme w dominated t e CIty. orld th at . . . "Proph �� regarding the pas pal weapon In the was the princiPOl i tical s tru e. (Mazzarino I 966 1 :32-33) H'IStory rhus appea rs as a p oI"ItIca I weapon. absorbs G reek h" This motJva . tion fin all IStoncal culture . y r° Opposition to the B another wa of exalt , only arba n'a n s IS Y ing the city.. 'Th � IS praI'se of civ'j ' . . Greeks, moreover IzatJo I n inspIres i n the t h , e . ide a ,ISm that of a ce rta m technical progress: h ad glv ' en th e first , "Th e orph im ' petu ' s covered the very to h IStoncal though t had also 'dis idea 0f tech nIc al progress, i co uId conceive fj n the o r m t h a t t h e Greek E�I'C pOetr) had s a Iready spoke on Mount Ida r'h n 0f the dwarrs e InVentor of C tha t lived metallurgy Or 'the art of He p I1a isros,' a n d
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377a (M " miths golds f less . or ore m e er w ,1' torj' pP VIho . S t n I Sl' usness of s conscio a the ared, J1l appe he dis . ing the t city e th h'l I e retain w f StS, . . o h' I sop e Th 0 o). he Idea It. ..#� ,Ir ith re w ss, progre t g n ' 0f moral ll I n o 3 0 he ot i P' n d e any r d a e j o00• ", s '" appe ect it in dispersed re and S nce, viole I.I� . ois l I'ro greS dual divi ' in antito an a C 0:_ f t I atlon n 0 .. (\iC u am O m an IS IS 01' �ISI flf ch l h T ve " otes. de ecd a co\\ec� as a but d'" n ry, 'l _ histO s ent as m i .' hiSloC �. "sc"",ro u elop (Chas dev der f groups 0 ted nsi isola co or als er du�\ectiOIl vidu g y indi l lon b d uce 110 d o t r ha " " S ct I' a cO ' t a t n tr rom the f �ISIO J co lltiJlge ' nt mere d very . f not o was 0 'lUs, the Roality 6 ent ), _8 II'0 m 9 Polyb ' cal r. rl llne 1: fO � StO the ' . ed hI eleI . Iro shap n 0 . a er na latt I Impe 1,0 the Roman In e, saw hiS cas ry, ISto T h' anY out . ab In oman ng . R e , nki ll anans ' b ' thi o ar , I eb in � h t r e tmg to e ron en r . f n G m Co it. st eek spir Sallu r 's which G cirv , , Rome . e •J th ns by a ed f 0 rnat m n Illca o ati n atio il Rome d from civ iliz he owed t the borr ted who bra an ism Afric ce e the s a, rast an cont urth by Cl s Jug trate . tO hls with vy illus U ast h whic ntr it; co nst who agai ners os ng foreig arri u ns, la fw ginia o S Cartha an the and e me d0 y t to Ital d ' me of d a h es on\Y ' ns rac ersla P e the vag as sa slaves e h to h t Tacans which "Ilt om ; R Gauls the the uce st again red s rnate ht to inca fiar and Caes es, h savag lOan s; whic Get eek and Gr on e [h d Bret goo lived the who in ans ire Rom adm OUS to virtU s nt, the ancie the ituS seem by as ified fact mpl in is exe ality as ment s see rical histo an nally for Rom ing in. long set a by e enc nated ecad domi d re be r befo late will stral tality ance men for al algia oric nost hist the mic es, virtU Isla nts' ancie with the ry histo of of myth ion ificat ident origins, the The m. e maioru denc mas deca the in f belie the by ways of life, for only ered temp een is betw ation nce civiliz mbla rese the Greco-Roman on based ry theo a die into and ed ne erect decli op, devel which Polybius s Constit ution . ws iduals "la indiv the and to ct subje are human societies they , duals indivi that like use ry beca theo do, a away as individuals pass will grandeur n An Roma the for even ory and hist of of nature;' on less The on. later cy lega mber ive reme posit will ry. Its Monte squie u histo of tion nega a Dec to end, men. the t in grea and cients amounts, es hero s, stor ance es the of anc deeds the great level al consists in the vidu indi the at g ducin as repro ory, by Hist d resiste . past the adence must be of els mod rnal ete es. the iqu ting techn repea uasive pers tors' great deeds, by of oric rhet the At from es. far ours not is disc , and es a source of exernpla ngu hara on to lecti predi with tum re therefo will it ,
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IStor,CQ/ the end of the fcourth century, A lI.t"" style and with his ta e for the mx m i�� Marcellin Qk � acreristics of the a n:��n t h istO e tra gan t and s Ullls past, evokes R°�an h,story th rical ��n tality, ;raI,gic, t�Pe' i�s his ba hS e h�ri on even t ough he ha rough Itera with t has as '� t, OS t of ' Ih, an th d h e N o ' ma etema (Mo ch noIlla Is '<>� A r li mi glian ' 977: , fiCa �e � e , Ch nstJanity has been S r of �Pite, seen as c 0). n /1: tit 4 h,storical mental' y giving S t in U � g PI, r e hist � ak o � y three Iixed the absolute beglOnlng of h ' a e ol�ti ISto ' ry' \r Oin ts h , P t h e Christian hI torY and of the histo , Incarnat on t e O n Q . C , ' t ry ' e a th of saIvation , and e begin �O th, e end of hIstory Chnsria ' nity , , t h I e su l i Qg 'l, Q S p os as ed , concepnon p clem t to h v sUbs JUdgllt Of ' s of cyc/ical time h eQ ti CUte orrented histo and �iven it mea:,e notion of : � a tries to dare th7 , 0 halre ar C es, an m ar k s' ear ofJesus gJOn anch ' e n� his � t t O ica � S osed pp U to � h eli. G { n e : e l est, en W uy �r reau and G V r a deClsi r� a�in emphasize:?'t�e llOk eo e r r g s be e wee ' n , 'v Ch Ir D y b u nsti n a a ty h,sto h ry l n a in d th e th e w est d La e � d r , reau elo M ecalls v ' a rc Bloch 's remark "c Plllenr f IS a historians religJon, , and h e hris rian ' o adds " 1 m we pracnce � quite si mpl ' ' history b cause ' we are � Ch z ,,,,, ;,."" responds: "You o kl: Wh T m!> ;;; : '; g h r o , e , g " s , C "' ub r. D ' ' � n Ia ;: , y ' a r w ; Y f IV}", , o ' h 0'> k In :;" ' g ory In China, In whi ch I Ali ' , I nd" a, " In black ncar S ad admirable geoO'r.> h Islam has o' -P ers, but h I'Stona ns?" (Duby and L 1 38-39), ardreau, pp Chnsnani ' , ty has certai nly promOted a certam ' prope ' histOrical tenns cha nSlty t reason in 'rstic of 'v racter ' ent , W e Ster n h (ablIshm abits of ' thought, but the esof an mnm , ate link berween to me Chri '
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stianity an d hist to need qualificatio , n FiCSt 0f all' recen t studie we should not red s have s OWn that �ce the ancient hist , the Greek histori Jcal ment ali �T a nd a partic rly me ula mality to the Idea of cycJic 1 977:1 79-204 � t' Ime ' , dal-N q Omiglia Vl a , no uet rh (M 1 9 0 6 reduced to e conc ' N 0), 8 H eithe ' r can 'l Ch , sC eptio anity n of be I � Oear r' cal rime' pIays a l e; a , t ype of c l ' al I e � majo r , role liturgi � C in t� �; C Ied it to nst ty. a i J i : � Chr Stia date o y the day p S mac an y long d r m h s n to � integrate e eve ?' th WI OUt men ri n ' ng nt the into year l so the ' I tu � Ical, eschatolo cal ical cale rg / ndar tim , e oreove r, teleo logdoe � s no history. It m ay e n�cessarily lead tho ught that salv t0 � va lo rizatio n of 3t1on wIll OCC Ur OU tSIde o f h IS' rory as
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still and existed, h ncies ��; d ten ; rWO Golf, EnLe J, by wu,fJ'a esca cle arti te a ist ' special th d h accorde e (se has t dh Wes ", e o I th l ) f 1 1. 46 r, o lan y mentalit St I II ri al 7 historic h d elope C dev , 1! GS 7 rly ' ula 1 8 ic 9 'a\ and [ I ' t Ji art soC! � to p �i ll rtion s propO Ie, It IS In arJ d n ro a t n deoloi e rta h t d an e-'V;�o ()P'histOfy, " an lin o pS p grou a ' SOCl talO cer '" 10 ') in on ' ves 0 , ' . t themsel y P s " rl of l o lOg a , h e ll' y 10 thlOk O p er st e v ere e l ' int l �p , ' n an thought o d i rical t a histo h u of orks ' mew GPorpc3 � ' .1 evol" I systems fra e th 10 ng and ' ast si E tlc e ' a po M'ddl ' l m t e h I 10 pO 1 ( r poh d n e ear I d app n 0 a t 1 firs bes only t is m res It s, " r te Greek 'sIS e the lt ng IS In amo h ca t (I ' �111510 have seen' H breWS and then Io'&j that eo 'd I ent ' d OCCI ant � ' ' oml� e �e d h th: ht, thoug e />s cal ong t tim histOri of ng s lo a fonu a t ralO cer gg)'p , , m<,Vas for With historest the W to role e r th lesse It d a nt 'de gra Se I to m , ' n) p roV A see ,_U for y ory" the l' "hist if n } word s '1 on tla the ' rve S .�ti rese I ri " VI we e Ch CI aus 0f er bec ways h d er h ot an ot I eh stonca ' h" on 0 I as n mze M for og S rec I It al not politic rit do ' and i d social an the s on use ptl ' beca iellI sp r, ce othe n o the have c on rn West d an the in y history Wes(� of about histor ' t men elop dev g the d ore fav ' kIn ve th111 ha at (h s ' on to e, ti nts her eme di w I e else on rtan ' ed mpo c ain d I e u � 'b obt n ' cont s as way h : ry, l mty histO tia of hris , C epuon not a conc at ian th ustin s Aug the ond ds, It remain bey perio n later eve and ality Ages e ent Middl the al m on ric ence s urie sto infiu cent hi at fifth gre and a h fourth suc the d in East e Middl which ha indithe also, in but t, ans Orien tori the his in an only not Christi ence tes Socra infiu rea, ant Caesa port of im s ebiu an Eus for case also had the all is t They Tha S, t. Cyrrhu Wes the oret of on Theod y, tl and rec , omen fol Soz even rius, were Evag us astic s, Schol ticu las ates Socr Scho and s no sebiu d playe (Eu tum) will (j a free fate in d that eve ved beli belie e efor ved, ther belie and s n), rian histo Orige an of -Rom ers Greco low the t wha on to Reas rast e cont Divin in or ry, os histo Lo g in the role erned by gov re was natu world all of the ctUre stru the ed For the latter, titut cons which ernal ) nce int uWle the Pr and analyzed (otherwise called be could history cul way nt this ancie "In on ng Drawi 32 and all history, d�> dere consi ts For even of of n s notio serie the pted structUre of its acce had anism hum char rical s tou histo fortui The ry, ture, this Christian histo of s" dent the "acci to the h n birt explai e gav and ry tune in order to histo in n agai s, itself Age ed dle reveal Mid life in the ular acter of human pop so was h whic n of ne, eptio fortu conc of the ntO i ent idea of the wheel elem cal cycli rical her histo anot n paga duced as of ide and which intro ntial esse O tw ut d b erve eror, pres emp also the of a ide history. Christians he m: t the med sfor tran undly thought, but profo '
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. on Ihe model 0f TheodOSIU S Il1'�1 Ihe rtcQI Y. unger, il '" who was half a .o half � a Q/ilj monk a r, m n n d th e e both the notio: s 'll'Ia I d : ome a ' s declin� d h f Ro _ go or � an o Ages Ihe theme aI t ' � C '' o ' f Its ome beca me elth .... .. t t '" ' ''' � iI r ' e , c · e r n , Empire whIch was borh Ch riSt � the cOn e It ' , ian tjtt, n Il and t 'lit. f e \f O un P e c " RofTII1na &",,61"9 ver Ii . , sal (see p. a Q " " ' r CJuca ' 4 2), Or the u ropra /}< ' � 0r a K Ihe ehI/lastie dream'S 0f an emp G i " n ", 11" 4 /eo a g f d l ll' o ero r o f the en 0 The Wes r was in debtcd d Iq � . La;t t he i to "Id Ch ' tia � histo �/ ll'le. ea� Ihal h d a ;�ea l career In �: ri t h o D.; t ., u gh 'dd t l. e r. rowed from �he Ag es . f a unive rsal r th e · f 0, 1"'0 r O a O lde' a type� of hislor bI�btIcal histo h i de n e � a P / � l /esi; I shall now e � a few ry�:S : e� S i hlStOry.1l riv il f h ,stOrical m Ihal are Irnked : ;::arn social e . . nta li and ty an ' poli tIca l rnterests In d of Weslern his!ory. ' vario Pratttg,� •• u S Per The grea r social and jOds politic al Stru Ct ures of .Ism and the M iddle '< ciries are "rnked to two s A e g phe nomena of i genealogies a n d urban histo e ra udal . ,;;: f ori eal rio . T � o thes · e service of a ca � ali t y: t t " e fc e nal a d m o nar de h a d . Story �;[J I 10 � e the rOyal Ihe mOSI impor a � which were Ii c d h rO ni rom es, th th e end of t e [he Grande.r C'L h e rwe M OntT u ue.r ere L(Fran . /fi c e : In which th o �"'"' ' the Bible G a s rhey did rn �: b '1i d. ' h, ). as Ih UC 'lJ9 , ,80 ",0" h Th, ""� , 'h" 'm po . � reant families In 'h' SOciety have 10 IT genealogies wh n the so ' establ . ish' cial a n d Pol l tlca l stru 109 � ctures f reach a cerrai n s tage IS well known. Th fi b ''''", , k ' of h . recite the 1"1 " I any of h e already '"d.,' g,o' r.,o �' g ",o l es. In so-called ' . ' ' " , "PTimilive" g o og' are o f ';'''''' ren the first O . ta ' en by k h o a mome nl mory, the result when memory has a ren den J/II : c to organiz f e logJ(:al series. George D itsel In hron oY e uby has shown h ow in s fi the eIeve n t " II t CJ� Y Ihe wel h cen h e Iords ruries I , lled 10 l he W. er, pa tron b n rane e an ' I e In orde r 10 enh
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I t lOeage, la strare and to enable h r em ?>, vantageou� alliances" (G . ed uenee u ) Re gnr r 980.'64 , clr a fter l ng dynast"le� went a srep fUrthe � esrahI , or man l pul,Jled , ' Ishlng Im ' agin gen�a/ogjts I 0 . ary Slrcngtne n rheir Thus ;n rh C I welfth presrr'ge a n d a u th o rity. cen t u ry tn" ' Capel Ian kings of Fir connecring rh emsd a n ce s u cceeded in vcs with the Ca ro l mg; ans And thus the' rnrerCMs (G ucnee 1 9 78 :4 5 0 -7 . of prin ees" and 7) no bles led to a arou nd the I rneag m e m ory organIzed c' of great ra m t J le� (�ee Genlc ' or ( 9 7 5), D t
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A parucular .story. ' h f 0 e . pI nno ' p g chy :tJO monar tP rj' ani is pontifical g tl ' or the P' ertS a ass s it e en ",h o which but c., dynasti be hiP bec tO e need' not can y h l t us s S vio .34 b f el o itself JOP hurch ich the C of t �" ",I�' 1'30 � t r ' ",h tha tO o r f ves as t themsel 0 3 n hl5 b'f /feren ed h IS bl' esta di ey ", h t e o en ' ",h � re ,t o wanted t also ies s stige, t cit pre o d e an h lo .. wer t d, po eir .� c1 � r hall of th ' ry o f 10 , g l o the Uity, S e antiq u 3/l olh o ci s the.ir ll ut �e r abo ca 1' e "" g tOS ' stin and the I OP t ns, s oa I OHre er b O . of thei' r foull by . ga e r g o ts SU i lO _1 p x Vlrh' pre the e od, . G e f 0 h " . n t o '" s' tecti nOIIL d r c o t r IS de p e h t un d ,.nee . . ye lo r n)o d an e acquire ey n a nes th h.sto ' s ell . . se ",h 10 _ gto the t s tha l t e ol I momen tru of the s icle . "r It chron . e h s . t e' t 2, tlt "ooa t 26 " II sain I i Apr TO on at of cep S, p rban U Thu t m S ' r a f e, r. te h lste r 0 o I ' rac 1 ' e e a h r ch o 10 t • c d o ef. , rea con n that y sity di P I , aothe blicl U niver u p the s of ",a s 'a dent ' Cl stu 1 � d . fli of the and 0 an and o ' l oty ors o the ss R ofe ory of r hist p e e c ta tru the US oo r'f belore th uli of J by title ation e found th e its cl to ni n o ntio chr adU3, atte fth at w w el dre t . the p d 011 th ce as n e Iy r o ear l ' F as e ry .J5 r IStO ty h Ulli c rer entt . m auth cities m g n o stron w o h ' c Wit its o area d a a an b h y, d ar Ur b 36 G elloa m La no t tha that I d ra r. ecte natu a IS t 1 38 h y. Caes ..v )1 It is to be exp grap orto Ist b' an than b ry ur I histo . J' u rf u n e ot o w its po in ce a st � d tere ba i e re v m re � ha used many ld � ar ed o s nenc h Age expe � e aphy iddl nogr M lsto e (h autoh earlier io ttan the een Vene betw i( l va rast ie d cont e m ing ut strik a B is les e. re strugg ic the t, Veo and Firs ions s. divis de mal situ s inte s vi ci city' g riog the lin histo vea cted The refle " t eved: tha achi hy ly p final a gr it that uests nity histori o conq sere al and parti y and unit gles the strug n the ore (ha eme nt, the .
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not m mov and in ty it reali within a e ects activ are that J'1\phy refl es ess" forc proc e mor hed finis or a one ating it, empl is cont who the thaI mark e of eon le midd som of the in enity , hand ser r d othe the satisfie On ired �). acqu 4 p. olo , Petusi Dand in ea o, Andr Gracc Doge (G. the of aphy als iogr Ann the histor tury, tian cen Vene nth er earli rtee d fou erate oblit histo lic they "pub that of n tatio ning repu begin the is such a This i ) . culm t-1 2 1 a pp. hes reac Pertusi, in which , Fasoli " aphy (G. riogr il histo udo d San sione no mmis Mari "co or with " aphy ury cent riogr enth sixte the of nning begi nation at the It is . tality men al oric hist ane's the Giov for d by perio and t grea ory, a hist is nce lete aissa comp Ren a The ry, histo al its glob m Fro new, . cism of a criti idea al the by oric hist marked and el gy mod odolo zing meth aly in par nceS a h adva is bot important hich (w de quity e anc Anti aiss with Ren 0ns the relat1 of ry ambiguouS histo t anis r othe hum the the n O ext), ory. pret ng hist ard tow and an inspiri tude ani tory radic cont ld, twofo rives a
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/ Histor y: The Ii : ZS
hand, it has a differences and ''''Q lilj civiliza ti ns, but also the search for m ' an which h,story paradOXlc , aJ Iy becom es the T>Iagis life") by denying itself a n d by 'ltIVity providing e trai ""ere tern l "th",1lf lessons (see Landfiester). N ne Y as eXpress d I� history more clearly than MOnt e I "tt �r ' s a igne : "the PI� forehand, They are pleasant all,j a n d easy . . C , man in rigLlas f�t of whom I seek, appears m them mOre ali to ve an place the diversity and truth d entlr 'e � his inner q ua � ed li ies 10 detail, the variety ge he ways he is PUt I Oth er threaten h'm ' ."39 t e aCcid I� In this COntext I ,S not surpn that smg that MO ntaigne in history "his man " is Plutarch, ud whom we than a historian. On the other hand, history then the law, and this a ll iance c ulminates in the work of
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fo of r a h ' uma ' l the tel ?'S l] and n ,a (t h e a t 0o h " eacl al ' d ' e""rn t h a h istonansll]bi&\loUs o t ' ll]e general the "t e , kn ob ' l of th · a n In " t an of t ' together and hthe ll]ass "nd . , ents , t sh o l consider moredeclare that makes an allla� nmoraliSt e c "' th i t e �ois Bau doUln, h P ' wh0 stu dIe r o t ' d Wit e st . h th e great Juns a nt ' . D F t ra none IUstontle univ=ae n m o u li n D. h " eius juris p rudent ia conjunctione (1561)� goal of this alliance is t �1tt . unite the rea � nd the ? the ideal, CUStoms � ity. Baudoum. . ag:ees WIth an d mo theoret cla � s �h o � � r r� � m , no . history, but h,s VISIO of a � "CO f h IS tory remams u t ; ll]p let e" li lt a n a n (Kelle y 1 970 I should like to dis ,
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cuss here the reaction s, in the Sixtee and at the beginning o nth centur f t h e sevenreenrh c e n y rury, important phenomena of t h a t period the dis c overy the I shall mention two ex a mples, o n e concernin g the colonized Other concerning the c olonizers. In a pioneerin g book, La Vision des vain. cas, athan Wa chtel h a s st udied the reactions o f t he Indian memory the Spanish conques to t of Per u . Wachtel firs t reminds u s that the did nOt aJfect a SOcie conquest ty without h is tory: " O n e s h o u ld n o t imagin this is produced by e that a n evil genius; in h is to ry, every evenr is prod a field that is alre uced in ady constituted, co mposed o f in s t it u tions , CUstoms, practices, meanings, and multiple traces, which both resist and purcha se to huma n a actio n" (197 1 :3 ). 00 The result of the conquest seems to be a loss of Idenrity on the part of the Indian s The . death of the Gods and of the Inca, along With the destruction of the me Incas "a collect idols, constitute for ive trau ma" a very impo rtant notion which should take its in history, place amo ng the princi pal forms o f contin uity: the great historical dis even rs (revol utio ns, conq uests , enced as "collective defeats) are experi trau mas." The vanq UIshed react to thIS destrucrura-
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tion, crur rU a rest " ed danc 1M a is . this ecl\' ine n prove o ' have q j/il1 'J IS n praX c o f s m 0 r fo ina 0 m e conc er k emar th r o ant the rnakes an import rationality of his a of S Ii k I e a r l, P spe mati t ,,;pa· } 6). ca mathe e e w de �" ' n t e m h c1al ,p (1(1 a..I" ,0 e w t some a th to ' Ip l eet , ub s e w er tory hIs as , e h t 0 s up d e 'etl make Cl that O s S etor a a O ' r on 0 on. gl'nal, d' 'net area that fo t the blna tl \1is' d , ' bu f the event outl'lne anrit,les that 'IS, a coherence, tOr'!' a('/ a oeee9I . es whose e 0 anisms and r�gulaby ed the ISPWachteI to de ne in sUI'yc' ra Ch e l p a p : p " a y o H r ",h is t a n d tio e r e cep uerors and the conqu Shed people expe�ence . q q U n a n v C l e th f 'l the e mple h 0 exa , final ro 1 r � u e e r � e v q ;' � H n , 309)' ow o e ( I" fo th : it u t� to ; � n s t n c o tio Ie na p 0 alie d I0 d P uishe an vanq y It 'Istory appears.. (ht e" on as aPmeans of rejection. d h it i f tr a o g a y, in 'nstead 0f a histor hus a form of reS1.Srance to the cthonat es lves, I d's slow history isAtnd paradoxica\ly, "to the dear",.eeries up tU c e n e th d s e o s . ' ave cr . ib le o s s ' an t the of e e n time, we :, n say that evephen � l; the end" ( : 3.1 �' kind of P m d a triu ee our ow way n S ln n ta itio I c e r I trad , a d , ' an In h a as of one h o n s, tSam e n ¢i s d o a le n s I m o ld a o : ts o f . tw e th g a fl Phe historian ften, even if it cames a' lon ical constructl, 0n' a reaction to d . o r s r t 0 an th 1 e h o , nt h tory e ece t his nt pa t .It 'lS a relative Y r d usuaUy both at once, on , S 'n dista itlC � o, cultural traU�a, an finds again .In "popula J' cultUre, I anI d s e u o on ti h a pol � : n ta c h s te w o , h e l to ry t hi s se s , w pp o sl f ti-history msofar as it o hand, thiS an s o roup kind nt fact a history promoted by the dOin.tna ogf the coU. ectl0n Les Grands Voy4, lively h a study of the iCOnographY family between 1 �90 and 16, d ab lishe Througished d '\lustrated bY the Bry that ,""e est ' I sterners V ons p' re I r ages, publ e they th e d ch ' � n e � h d e fi to a s r � � i ro o r c d Bu a c c dette Berna . ory and the ritual sY�oA an so�gety t�e; had discovbetween hlstd m· erpreted the lnd\anl mericProtesettant ' deas and values resented an pro: ct d their Europ�an and f the lnd.lan\s. 1n,th1' s way the ered. They boltcl.. s�ctUres of the I�ages od the European� and particinto the sym rence� between the lndlans anp eared to the Z fa�mily at a cultural dilference�, linary customs a' np is rejected by od ' Buchularly. dilfe ent :: ��e sign that the lndla certam mom .,.:.
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been interested in history had now be had gone bankrupt." en Nevertheless, Jean Ehra rd an d Guy us of what the RevolU tion Palmad e �a" did to prom Ote histOr . n, [u[ions, docUmentallo � Or and educatio n. y In I Y t'Ill s hall ret way, if Napoleon tried [0 i� Ut hiStory urn P d · a[ is deveIoped, In th'IS dOmaln tO . 1 0 or i s his . s e c "' ' as In I e 0t � . many he 0 oth ers �. L begun. , �nat h n �"'. The Revolu[ion� main achievement in a� o the d m . tali[y was [0 have effected � had a break and aln of h' given to m and in Europe generally any the feeling tha t it ha d n · era, bUt that IllS[Ory began Wi.th [h IS t o n y be ' era, in any case F c "" 0 � have, s�rictly spea�ng, a ren h 0 ." 4 Qe.,. h istory of Fra � nce the penodl.cal La Decad� . only sin ce . plUJosoplu'lue Wnte , ."W. the s in the mo [he Revolu[ionary year nth Ge OI��oQ.' X. Michele[ will la[er exclaim , le[ i[ be known that Franc l or r rtn . lo a " , B e elOre Eu WI" have only a . ' wh I'ch IS Its true, e[emaI Sing roPe, le, inex i ' name: R evoI Ullo abl ' n. T h us IS establ historical trauma, which is ished positive for some and . COunterrevolu[ionarie neg ative for Ot s and reactionaries ): the myth of lu[ion (Le Goff ( 978) , the FrencL � ([h. I shall discuss la[er the ideological clim ate and the a Roman tic sensibility in mOsph r which the hypertroph y of the hiSt known as historicism orical sense was born and develo ped. Here I shal only two curren ts, two l men ideas that contributed in an important promotion of the ninete way to enrh-century passion for history: the bou inspiration then linked rgeOIs to the notion s of class and democracy, tional feeling. The and na great hisrorian of the bourgeoisie is Guizot. communal movement of In the twelfth cenrury, he already sees the Victory of the bourgeOis and the birth of the bourge Oisie: "The formation great social class, of of a the bourgeOiSie, was the necessary result of local liberation of [he the bourgeois." 42 Whence the class struggle, the ing force of history: driv "the third great result of the liberation of the munes 'was cla ss com struggle, a struggle that fills modern hisrory. Europe was born from Modern the Struggle betw een differenr classes in (Ehrard and Palma society" de, p. 2 1 2), Guiz ot and Augustin particularly in his Thierry (the latter &sai SlIT lhistoire de la /onnation et Etat, / 8;0) had an atte des progres du Tiers ntive reader, Karl histOrian s had Marx: "Long before deScribed the I, bourgeois his[orical dev struggle, and the elop menr of rhis class bourgeOis econ oml srs had ex anatomy." �J The de press ed its economic mocracy thar res ulted (rom bou rgeois victories had
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1 53 / ry to is j/ m fro � • or • ' back L draw "' ion P O Rect re al ric Couo pM iOS de ist el h Fust e k with ma say or f "iSl lY o \ lad st philo g d d no n ul is re e o the , h but s "t y, ,h • tor , ' his e, c , is Ich ' n W h , e ere , , ' I IZlng th ' SC h 1' d f " n . 050 « 101Pe a l I h 0 [' y, O h e: h ' me t:' vr e t o p Cri b � o e f ° ' s c l d o n km p , hil e 1 i rst uci wo , L I e ':cOI rO 'S P ' " , n \ ' h t ,i J ,. phllo It "' the ' "rt ,, tS, d ys 0'" ' I ,e ,' an a Spln s o � ' 1w 'T. , , , n re: . . v I�< ' of \� b e ' her F t rY, s nelt o l 'th ' ltS, , h ' IlIS splf y ", f< O he sa 1 W IJ"", � -of on, t O ree als ag " n e UO e Id w ",h queS u h c a o mu not . se opl')'6." at 1 sh preo th 0 I, ,5 t ll I ut C t , such "u n B n ) , er, , g tO " d m s cee oth ' ;.�" pro e h, f h 0 ' n e t h , stio o t que t 'IS not d e a . ' J c 's u h nod eac 4J It d ns, ' e pOS,tlO (.9)Ill}', e"I the r, o e re b an ectiv ' e n resp P n at ° le r t o \ call el e, '\ t h ll OStl 0 t .hi h e in m ' not . , f " in he I , ma g n t ,nl a m g' b°th re re ' f nt ° uci" i O le � " p r , ",h, e 01 th to , r t t o o a h b par I '\ ' only I g not e\ -:IV is o ory f hist itS J ' \4 of ) s I \ 82 hie o 2 (I" grasop " orio hilo l hist it p , f o of o y igflOrafl gn t stud dy u any st for rel ary e I,er,, the th y [o ess b d nec eale f sl t ur (rev ut y b le. iguit o ry, o amb \I g ist e h th hn ,'d t n unf tha o s I t ,,," 'lon ten " ex ory t c e r � h" R ' to th oi � r ; '. t ' firs Y d;,. m" fl ,fo' , . l• e u b U f o d" f ,h;, tr . o " ,5 , m " �' 's '" ' h 'fh ) ,..,h'" fro , " hisrnI of . y � soph "; ci philo ,>t- I � d the as " � ofar ' . m ins ... ,f e trU ' m hly ,,,, it is rim ,, nd, """' t I I fi co Se o r l. 0 ' nta "," ,,"" g d me Ifl ' 0' , y da 0 b ," n d ' fu ,,," 'w s j, " " m", l" " e a r n ' m ' .... 0' e 01 r , " I" ,.h, ' , ",, b" h" '" ,� '" ., .d " " , _ by who tt '" " ' '''' Q oO' ,,,, , , h; . .. hi" , ",hi ;,," ' ,;. 'h , ' ' ''''' " "' of noW " k p" " ",ci� o ' r d ''''y fu" , on ,h " .., o wh m'" d do; " y he '" ng ,,. h, aini ",, whi, abst "" ,'" in �p � eed i, hc succ , not yi" do d"l e " the judg <' ves "J;o to msel se I"'i the refu from ho w ng ceali ians con tor in His only ceed riflc?' (" suc 'Ys e Th nts? n t gme e not m jud l g r ud shal thei j \ y, for essa is from bas this e of th s are part t r tha othe dis s in ple the i n i c n n tha r withi e p mor ely n olut eve res e, her elf r, mys the eve e not plac How l and shal \ els ive. mod ens ual preh Uect com inte ellthe be ed is it select rry to for es, the trin way doc the the if of n I eve ity ,h,1 me, inu \ s cont U rest '''O inte n' , that my t ' ugh qu'" tho of " will ne, '" usti ,, evolution "', Aug I es, oOQ ydid h;" , huc ,h,; (f '0<0 kers fi, gus thin " (Au ual .m" s ivid ool ind sch ng ng amo mo s a mple sci), am posi Gr choose exa sm, ce, xi Cro Mar , Marx m, cis el, Heg tOri , (his Vico s or nd tre hist Bossuet, or h , bot lism) e wer eria mat ho l w orica ns hist ticia , ore high the tinianism of very ples a ed e.xam nain twO a ng take havi ns ut o ctio tivism), l shaH with rea g ory, ealin hist of re d ers use soph aro philo a who of e but ians and cas es, the plin e asid disci e set thes 1 of e, r nbe eithe m Toy nte level in and co at ngler gre a Spe of ury: e cas cent h the ntiet and '''' ' un, ' hl in the twe ald , ' Kh grea Ibn d , " mind rn ste -We " non l<" great , "",h WO' " " w '" 11"" ;,,, ",rnry ,
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pher, and who pIayed a ' l oucault. Ii · e 1t seem s t0 me . . that a H Ca classical clv,jization of Gree rr is i h SI O ry ce ' an Herodorus as the r.ather h d . sto r , cIassical antiqwry y h a d '" were .. On < " th ��" i h ld�:: h oJ as with the ;:: t S h �7 , a lo .. I A e ydld · c OO nd O [ p''''''' I, ",:::'::. ore the ev leved th:t nOt ncerned ",t.he tj�l. em hin slgmficant w�s likely to ha s which would be d a h nd �t. ad th�t re Gr: : o a and the Prin�p clOsely th.e(1S9U/lj/lj 3-8). � nOth'nPal g e C!ntecontaetia) th:�prece ; e h ven t i: a ts of :7 ln p des ce [he C t )" H he the t 0/ 't e k ory Thucydides ( t e !S e dia c h Y J � _ 4 00 n nn . e -c' k po 4 I n 6� B ' �' ) a "Wro � re a h ISto o �'Qn Qr � (ths.. War from its beglnmng in 4 po' sirivisr se rring fonh rh3 tor. abo �r 4 "BeY thfinthe Aelop. o e . k acts In Or HIS philosophy IS rh us inc sty/ired, an ' "
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nt PO t i O ed t O O t U " s rhar his or k wil/ b e ca us e " it will b e valid , same, ' and c isi q ar Ure re only al t rh e e v nts � : ? S he in so th ose wh i h .n th G re . e fU l tur man character. w .lI be s e n the y I ' : vl f J imilar or :n io?ous." T � . nue o t e hu. [0 be jmm obil � erernal, or ra rher ir IS� ilkely h s hIStory is suPplro of a single m o del of change. ThIS' model to be [h e eternal'\<\rfiepet.lised of change IS. l on cydides there �
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War: fer T was no longer any doub h h t t at . wars obvious lac represen ted th r. ror In ch u· ange " (Momigrlano 1 977". 1 e rnOSt " 6 5)· War is " caregory (Cha teIet fj a h iS 1 962 l .2 t oricaI ' 1 6 £f.) Greeks It ' ' IS brough t abOU t by h ' reactI.ons of ear and jealousy wh jmperialism. Ev o ents are h p u,rn f , : o ',IT..". by o ' ""l mUSt l '.""/J gibl" ""••
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indi een betw ict pt' confl O the oS ·to � il of m one is P , iavetli sim Mach : es of rj sor cur pre dee�. P a Ranke Jci{ to ....""tll y. histor im h of ... s ophy e los ... a phi s m e tern . tl. CS I Wes � . him ·to 'b _"d poh"..." . leers In esiS" 9(1(1 "th is n that ... s .0 ory hi hist I �' t _ . pagan '" al a r o i een t et\V b " " I tIll'' 0IIueo orJellI ", ast nstlan " Ch r a nt d an 9 l� t co ry s 'O�", hi h'IStO e . f h 0 t n S "[St ,I . O ate ceptio d a r towar rlC!' on e ctory c [1 'Inear traJe Hcal 3t;O I c a eJ' ,he .A 1115 cY ong his10rY..I,e do , ess is t ans proc sti rical . ,n hri histo C the I ( ange . e ch h whi t ds a ch war Ired e a acqu h to I ' t thus ' . er l � g a f:>oal t IStO ry � f H d a . (oldlell ap tory n his tl ter a arac of h c U ar t W U I s sec o ItS a cal vie " g oSln f l i 0 Y o f:> se b l . en t 5, stine e
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s thing " " of "" ence man were "i'''"' per es totyp the pro to r tied Thei not ory. hist was an ion hum that in ory work salvat hist at an mas hum a sche of n i cal origi r o ist the to h rn was retu tw mer to for tried The that ory be\. hist A a and of rce 1e Cain er, sou latt the er the , latt lon the Baby l, devi was the mer for Ved athe tric ser en"; inex eav n bee H e for hav nged s citie twO the as God, that "lo ry, civit histo 27, an ch. hum , own In n. (Br 7.io s" m and ri "pilg alem s. rs, rus citie gne O forei tw are the men rate , them sepa will God me n bly linked; in whe ti this , " time g, of anin end me the out with nts to peregrina) until eve of horn n chai are a who first se was tho to way give to Human history urs die occ who n atio those arn hich Inc w of se l the cour unti the ) re 1,1 in e IX, hav uld God, wo of City tory (The his " in them es eed turi succ cen in lUS st racta "Pa (T g: m" nin the mea a fill nts to eve e me thes co ut give ' hris ''' ' C ,b, not " had ila< jars im . pty " em dry like ri" ed """ main " ,b, ry of o b'" b, T 6), " """"'"""
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PhI'!.o.r ' 0f a umqu tJOn ' e , 0p� orga msm , , , the in ages 0 f I I,e diVid.. ' r and 4aI b "' '!F'l7.4 wl[h the In ' 0 carn r gerr.ing old (m ation' '1 'J ' e J' um/us senescU), n le es U t hu the Inunense con l1> man it t1,j '< nochlng bur the sole " mn success recis ' p ion of eV f : .." n • momen rs allow us ents, � to glimpse , � 0 I "'h . � in e a "pro t.f of salvarion. Such ph etic is rhe fe... , '�"', . piCtu re rha t th e G paints, m.Xlng I " pr,"i' , t Ie JO fu ' Yous hope 0 � I f .. ., sa " Goa ( vation W (Marco u 1 9 fo). Po",.L "'l ich rh e t 4 1,3-'1<7) "<>l'it} The ambiguities of ragi c Augustinian fi 1la'� his t Orical th and particularly in O f ',r. o Ihe u Middle Ages, ght , , . , to a wh and slmplJlicaoons: " o le sene One can follow I'll s . d ITom cen tur morphoses, whIch 00 are usually y t0 mere cari ce lU h, '00, schema set OUt in J7.e catures G!y '!fGod" (Marco of rh ' J �. e Ill u ' 96 1 :20 J\Ug\l was a work by a ) . The Spanis h priest, Oro tiOi � se, whOse tc an (4 1 f- 1 7), a ry:
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History A ' inspired directly by Aug ustin e's tea a major influence ching at on the Middle Ages . In this way neU the CJlUrch, the prefig th e m S /l], �ad uratio n of the Y n�tt Divine Ciry institution 'I\'hich claim on and th e ecc e ed ro have autho Stas!j riry Over ea rt bound rogether with hly SOei the pseudo-expl caI ely, anati on of hist Pro\;den ce that was ory by re unforeseeable but feren alway "'-s s well di rec a progressive decade a ted nce of huma niry, the beli otherwise infall ef ' end willed by God, ibly led tO and the du to c Ward t nv rt � in order to cause � � non- Chrisri ns at them to enter mro any Pri � thiS history of salv ce, Chris tians alone, ation r 4
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While Western history in the Middle Ages slowly and hU shadow of this '\-\'u mbly, in the gustin ian" theory of history, purs ued the histOrian's craft, I tasks of the slam was belate dly produ cing a the realm of the work of gen ius philosophy of history, in Ibn Khaldun's unlike J7.e G!v '!f MlLlJ'Iaddima. But God.. it prefigu red, witho ut directly influ of the procedur enCing, some es and attitudes of mode m scien tifi agree in conSiderin c history. SpeCia g Ibn Khaldun lists to be "an exceptional his time," "a critical mind for geniu , that is a person with peerl his time in his ess intuiti on," "ahe ideas and 11is ad of metho d ' (\( MOnreil Khaldun). Arnol in his Preface to I d TOynbee bn sees in AI-Mu9'1a greatest work of ddi", a "without doubt the irs kind Chat has e\"er been time or any place created by anyon e, ." in any With out being able co anal yze the . a 10 its cime, I shall
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ru ,lstoric h ' ts i 5 ov erall n1 h \. an ] m P ' u o h tor S o' f h' I 0 t , i/ urren h rt a p pa "c n encl h � f\u in f the Iy : is ,orj t e Her en dir ce o1 j5 c Id h of wor � e P d i thir ng e c pa l he �ned by th: be t n ' d 5 r n a a I p s, Id v i fil 3 r c ian o m n si 'c w , he d 1,,0 h \ ] ce\l: l 1' a his l 1 a11l I n -< . I a, Idun c (1 tU a h e K I 3 \s e tbn ' nrel ,"''' 0(1 ' d Ih ' . tfu\ness °f his a re ho an I .lJ" h s in lg d �Igert ian war w an c )' n let tio . t m ub den er s its d y an tor r11� of a(l he y the His b on as \l I we e rol as ' . , nsy chology ' , - : dllfl"g eeillII)' s State and its .(\ to r n wee n bet n k-no , w IOO , pOS rIll(lg Ih� ecti"es un the 01' g n t l n consne " cc p ' a th nee e rit by n . corps I e l d p>' , rk5 cO p p m 'The P a ' e1t f 0 r Ie ned · u ce fo rO esp e n c the ade or de , op s ci l gY ir e the pl in ;"1 peo enl ur dam , j-It lu fun f ,a a 1t Y " Ie o d ru rO h . S the birth ' e h t a d I n n ,0 �re a se man e : It t c s o e s -deyeIOpm e11l e h ClI� e t in e e ag st un tial her yy of sen Ory an to s hist u e c s e th u d o o t r t n i I n it " d fr
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The nrst ons. erau gep ree rt th dese all /oJ the th ry of re vage p,.; {!lo sa : d t an d . an Ilo s ' Slve es ri to eCl hn d y bers are I g . ' u l liiS o a r m . me the llec es, ItS e of the , g t. ce ll·' uen 5 Sp in{\ virtu ll the la ' der c I�s( S a .v . Un ll . llS 't m . l fro . . O . ses I pas m e lon eOO.15° retal h rat t b elle p y g "" e _ •• ld ) e ' ,)l col .ol 5 ", e ° e se l ... th op d <1', tefO'� boo"Y e lg' b 0 eil p e ' . Th II r i � . . · t<'� �e .. . \ "r ei ua i( (" aJ'u, th W.. ' we hf'' f�ffl ,0 Iory 0f all 'Ind'I'lld 'Y \\\ � g , ' . _A '0 e rY th ... """ I llta g� to e , d ry "" e o s l " '' """ b o ' � . ' t d 'r t "! . fo "'Y fe .re ly i . . l I" . 0,00 , ,b'". . . . ,,, bo' roffl, . ,", fo l ..M�" � "mo g and " ll me " �. wo e lik _ m, , of ,h' . the ri� must rotectS ll p at ereig ,, , sov )' th he st T I ."..,,,, ' la . . a er. dy ry eth the e WS o og th l allo alt d il s o G ear ay d e p .0 e for g pelld o on ut 1) disap p . e lt ers d ir ow r Sp foll e ll s I hi (llse(!1'b 5 'the c a to S) 4 -) ltS 3 ' . el p ) p cli ll ' ' S 22, re 'iQI h ' .\i ld I (11 ) �i (1, i", to d. CI' • ",c eal b destroye · pP (0 e b. a e "" Iogy o • " h •• ( th ll rchY o . 1 d, . ,..,d i' I iQ � lo. cs bio , !1'OIl ' ' classi ,bi i''' . at . gre ... o ,,,,iO> the . of l, � one .id is .b " o io N dJimo. a • " b"ffl" Muqq "I< e 't th , , , at b� " " s th • s ll a , • e . l a ", e Y'·g B r!1' . li Ilolleth " o ffl , ,hi lS , f fo ll . '. , . . a d. . � . !1' . " b, �b wb bo O. , 1 " . oriool ._ , o"" d. w hi'o d \ ''' < o ' ' w i. d 00"
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wichout lOreres t from . PJII/ oso t h e Accordin p oi nt g to of vie G eorges tory was che peri0d fro Nadel' the goldew aof toe '" 0/"It. h'IS point of deparrurem aboUt 5:0 to Jn7 ge Of �oilosoPh J ( e oly P and che best appren rIce " biu h· s Oilo� : >or. G: ' e rn J: shi e p nt f o tory.". r acri ve Politi �): ,,�I'3 Phl' tst.. 0.1 /;f, . "; 1 ; Ii.." . I inrroduce one rem IS tO . , Influ ence es 0f M, oh"�W ,' '' 'hf PO i� t I O "I and n G i uic .ltIon of c eac h of histo on cern i Y if w see ' a ng �, m b i a s h . th� g or . my e . t Machi h e o a a i t �II ,- ,h. . l o r o m me l s and ·,s n i sen s mf tia r � l o . 0 , id w n a . e h a ' si O ' of. y, t nce o 'o t)\ I t mUSt [) p t 0I1 cs has e e "en s c; P be e t 0pposed to o 6 b e a s h' to the capnce . s of Fiorrune, as ' dISt..Ory, wh,' " f, a pe "" '.Or S , Of ' Ofl. m d ans thought Fi0' M,,,,,lav fabilI Po a etu r oly Tp l b' I llu US .'n . elJi t» a n d o ch Sllb' men '" mu ' ""'f",1 09 .a pelln l St r . e e ane nt lZ the Soci al r ord which J'uStice. would be di . e , w of od's human re ill a "" w "M ay a s tIio respond Or in u t ' ach iav elJ' I ts I h 0wn /aws' and old . COnseque Y 0 ,hs :;;;''' ,•." ," IS ",oa1 is to keep a socie , ::' ; consequences mf, OOO �ti,"w. 0 'h. p etual fluxo f b' e a scle' nIdea o( po/;'fal coteSlveness � on were "the recogDlti. on 0 hI S rory." .,...Ce;, a f d ° th e thesi whIch expene' nced a later d s of ,h. autonoln "'. necessi ",",0pment with o f pol 't. ty Y (1 965=. 1 71). rh e I lcs con c ept of "' , . Gulcciardini, on rhe 0 t S"'� h h/Story On rhe b ' o m.er ha0 d d. f,., 'od realizes eh ( ,ame ob om, of j serv a ' p l. " o ( o :;:," o oh,o.. '( "",, fd ocuJarly that ' specialist ' h. " dy 0 "": "" _�. ooly �: dlscernib/e in h�I Ut which o Sto 0ge, the hist ( ;:; o _ Orian th .us "'lofred h· ) (o afoo . h,story assumed an a ",ooomo", " " 0'" " ",'Y ."A know/edge, the o in " ' mg o( hi hi"ory f"o£ Th h ri, "Ory ...., b" ,oogh, 0ow wo,1d of .; £ ;"o . o b here G m of0;'''"0, ,i _ d?,au,a ;s th= . . glstrar e, "c,,,d. nee w work c oo "oa ' ; o , Ut it ''' '''0 md,St great w o k of 9 ) } ( 6 " 5 5 f eturno'ng '0 ,dol his' ide a is rI � at /;gh "o em Iirom th e Ren the d ai � Omin ssan 'a ee ' coneeprio or to the Enplary hlStory, d'daerie in n. of his tory was thac of an exem commonp/aces of ehe m ten e, ind. uerl ve meth ' Rom an ScOlCS, rheto 0d, a d Feounded on the neians and histOnan ' s, H'15':Yo"
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/ 6/ / ry o isl ses, of H clas L;es ng verni " go ' the P . ng o / o s cati tnl du pJr.i maglS e as tOry s IS n h' 0 ea . n m o u to'1 a cep o e n n is cO ctio m f/ colle iS Th one ecO ( , b lJ o p ' '0' , 0 'tt" b" ' m �' , "'" P" 0,0 Oro f"'" ' ry pb" w hI, ,od ", ory ... "" ,'o mdod onq"o" 'O "'��_ ,�o , d,," gm ""'" bred b �II" .. do' ,,� d Sa ' o , h �). o, ) 1 p,d, .". "T p. del, _,d (Na , . her" do osop .. .. phil � ... 0' the ,0 .,. r w ..,; ove ",11 lar " scho m. , the 00' of " tory ory vic " 'Hi con rhe r boo cula , th \ wi ,s, parti 0 ' our ",d ut abo ""dy dge " wle is b,d kno OUS, " ,01 true fam to me path o bec only has but the hich s, t w pas ple n, the ratio xam g e in iudg t decla of ares n cle tio func The the 4S d orts ' bute eff attri dition? my n ul; bee usef has re tory futu his the e "1'0 mak gs e's: to thin Rank er ord how in W sent sho pre to only ng the tend ructi inst they and ns ctio fun lofty such at aim not history do y larl scho 9 man d?> 4 Ger ene of s nd ion me really happ cept a to con \ike new uld the ng sho mini 1 sm, orici the Before exa hist of as is, ide that e th tury, t tha cen is th nrst teen nine he T e " r ts, in the ' poin no" twO � on Y nM idea " ng ,b resti ",. inte ,"" l's inte"" Nade or " e mplet nd • • co a ,b of ,r ry no o ,ria the " " the h ' ory; w"o hist .'incl., " y plar ad m ",,,, exe of Th· idea .. ... the "0 to d , duce d> ,u nd b,y, r" go� gml ""0,,
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1 02
Nadel h'1mself all udes ' h'IstOry still has fol Jowe� Inthat h risti 0/It., an able expression being Boss the seV: e t roVid / n e n e th e t co Dir � en tllh• tial' In the second half of the U� 1St i x ;'" th�Q') a t US ' nt h Ill historians pressed very SIa�tee o Cen tu s ' t r� ty, a Ce b ( e/4 i o ""> u plete history. This con cep i rtain n � v' ew f o t on IS en u l ,\, a (Soammoire ) 'Git r c e U� O realil d , nt P, de er . es d l'/z e d ,In Louis Ie R (D l Yi�nfair, I and in Bad, e "" Of!:'" 0Y "" e a , ' . e d i " � ' , &f<,:""'"'�l e Izi.,"olas {. <0.", and espec'la1 Y m L o."do< d, ;'" -, "" eI,OS 'g"i., e.r , ""4, " 0 e Pop l "" L7Ii rh in � �'i e " � n l des hisIOlres, L'/de re, in a . I!!) ' " ' u� "-fSeut de l'HisIOue nouvelle d. e de ''his , Vol .. e ( ) es talre ' Fra I n Onta ) fois larly for his l'dea of the inflUence f I 9 , Bod' aCCa ..::: � 0 i di ::;:-. .: m , sq , nre Mo u'leu and hI'Storical h i ?' C ;:: B h ogy. ' ,"" than an in '�"'o " hi, "d,'' ' � ..:l: .. M, ' i Cjpa� ;ltt L " ' ""i '' 'i : 16 ' ' (I r a O 6l hilO , h P 'P , h .",), �d politics and R.epu i'lue ( 6) S 0 1ll0r 'f hi",,), 's snll based on t°he humanist not a h'IStori n BI�S76), Be is � idea of utility All ,In common three ide men e hav e i as .. th t tha on s t are l be e e t e mere. The first IS' that history 's not p � res ed � by : e pur ' It must seek c uses. The secon d th e nar anVe, nOt JI'teraLaryPoPeli, est and the object of h�IStory IS, borh a ''culanew rk. mOSt i "' O . lta yi/" O ci mp i ciJ,;l r nt, is h P nJ , If.atto and eraf. This begm' s even befcore " w nr ""'" mg . "1 Georges Hupperr writes' "'h h"i, L. " '� m,,, 1'" "" " , g�. " p " . olio ' d tory is to b' ''.gh, ev h" ele nds , h" " i , ' , on o gs re yw " and " O ,,,j io o
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wel1 as Boss uer s Dis eOUTS sur 1'1!,: . (1 681)' BOSSue t, who . h d WO"'" " lHistolre de eranee fc h ' pu ' fi � ' ,"< A P ./, 'h, D,.Ph ' "n ,f LOUi S XlV. m .n, composed h ' , DUan., f,' h" d,,,/p/, as " well: rh ' fi'" P " p " ' , 'fh" '')' " to '" P n ' " emagne ,, , '" "" '"' o geo , whil t h e second, emonsrra ri'n of ,h, . = " " � ' " of h, e ' ath o/ Ie religion In hi,,,,,,, I, HS re/arion to ( " G M vre, �m b efe ' L ' " ' 9 ?). The third Pa n an examin an. 'f Ih e des tiny of emp lr on , es, is the m sr In reres ring. ln rea r I ry, beneath the
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ry, o hist r ove nce e vid Pro oS of that il gn h fact rei p the le . m fro ab s ' e sult e d s re e o ' r all ich / o r ove f wh n by !lis y u ned he Or i erm t H.is det t f s tem 0f sec , 0 sys " of )' fl ry t ral o edla h i fle m la A tet O'e " f m O e the fl ' ratI i s gh 3 f� s ., u e � o t on' 3 thr a , 1 cip ,"" "e� nly (ti ) ly o ., ho! 3' a oe p el " r Y , (0" . ra troth ,� ( a fltS " of h "e idea ,,, "� the ., iCS, -I er<' apr e . always em . pol gh d . IS ",,""' a t oU CS an . ge i n O'et cha , ' hun t olo or u ., "F p .. a s B . , n ' him �lo e s l ee ,h e to , "" w n ls no ,,�s bet eig re . c , r f a , dar'! fo M ' is ' e " ade p " m m ates Pal h ' tl , h CIll and , rard (Eh oP t1'1 os throug , " ""ori'" t' en m p " elo n h W �e h dev OP' d l an " e , • • "" tim or f isoo was e err s that n f tP ' ory se hist he dO o of t phy \<5 is • S l" that oso er, ' l phi care c al gin ' ing later t la ori nish os an asto n (11 an & \66 tio ( had es en s l Nap m ha of O 1 ich sity h as w iver Id i ut Un t b p,;"Dp , ou the ' �e � at l� eci" or p, \ sh n ttv ess e r ow mo rof p tS a bl ' u rep fl CO . I ' , I . v , was " • d ru) a ., .. .. t io na{ s ttl L, e Jell lote ba G'' ho," m'" _,� alLa commune natura mo hicl o Oni w J\nt o, Vk o ", ," el,s of u /f Sor n ,h' a,'o es of ,re; ' g eor g p' G by ' fi� ed ,h' p elo , 0 dev 0 � " "' V,' was .. f o o ... I which "'o "" , B,d," ,ky" qu" ' �' ' T"" '''' fi N h' by , nd 'red fro '",p nd fi f"g.� o > hicl w, w '' V'' o� i ol.< "In a , t &v hou ",,, w wit ""'" "" > 'oci or), B do t his "," of of E ,). hy 6 U (,, sop V , . hilo 0 . ; p a ob" d k Go ,,' G/omh<""'" of , , ,ion City ne's Ifuma usti , m' g Au e by ,d ,rt time sinc pp bu, ,u O, tiO ,,'w f o y r higo
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:Y" .Ph · of.history,, that there w do�o h,� o :o u b Id e na h IIgion (.Za u Phd m "" an d e !. 0/Ii,ioto p n l e O C Ii a o .n. e na Nadel has de ned Il1ll1 ':Y u ' ce Illty l.S�an h ISt ) ' oricism as p 7 , , . W it h fo U o W Its foundatlOn s: 9 . I' . is th e recogn . h� ' t on be studied as 11 J / t h � at ' h USt ' IS J ratio to !If ns f ric l a . mo nomena In practice, this ' ra ls Or P aI ' cs evellIs in.dependem un'Iversiry ' IS .marked b the /ti � bu t as �USI no h is ed:ssed by tw dI:Clpline, in fa asappe :�ce O ��oti�on&., o f ll W e � x : Ph., siti e plaine : r�lation f °PO ons W S I0ty I n nail) I to h t a e t momem a h hap n:�n lh� cific science eXlsrs for p ic the :� h e it � 7 e� se science th akes use ��:� of p a nil c ' rs � U" ,) Il ) a nd ' � �� o � g " W l h " cal � a Neither of e e ro p h roc a e es ' as !I s: P Sitio h a O P th ns e P pP as ne but the sciellCe f ened,e, new, and led ro th eir w, d ern ° hi trin p OC al h d n /Jrom the first a e sis xagg O S'o era ' tio . n n prop OSltlon tha t to . . Th �aS to g'Ive a sulIiclem ' x e ord . t "" s of sOil) t ose wh r g 0 e m ,.'hin w sa e v a s fi e ICtmg rhe Uture. ( 29 regarded h I' ri a °gic., to l S p" ) Cienc� Hisroricism sh ould ' ated be Situ among the oth renrs o( rhe nine eenrh er p cenr � u hil r os . as M y, auri nores rhar hI'StoncIsm ce M andelba um OPhical CUr, ' has two dIsti has d nct and perhap The firsr is the R One. li s Omanri e c opposed revoJr aga�ns . . orher was' In t the En ' some respects, "" m ', ' the
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/ !)' to is H , h r o ltsc es Troe , ll of / sm tivi Op rela oS al / ric M to his P . h the
t "" g n and age l a ngu , of la y r r phe o oso t phil is a mer0f h nu s) te ' " wro 83 -, 1810,
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e' 7 m 6 i 17 rhn ( h Be p of trea d! l his y o e in so sit b ory ver hist on Uni hts .h'_Io�le'Pecl< o. " Bo(1l g e ou h . en t th I' wntt . d v , '1' his , e k ) p d las " o ' ns d eltfl d oo ona e Ist m H f m b ",ho ,. Be so he l (T to \�'i eTS close eib very p lSc hr , n s. L:,h ofte J1Ia! _ as r G ", . the diPI0 [orl'al "", "be des esa' � , 88 z. Humboldt by ) tively nega d n an 3 a i vely d e siti h Ali fg h , s po die l eas bh I ' d " " both o nca o�, Ifbtr Iy p Isto ( fh d y ce eor a en n h t o 0 f\ " e . h n t f , in S bllt saW [" , or a a he w at ory; cre hist tId e in h JS �" t ", tiCS s (1l a a poli S i of e C B Ger e i nc t red " n rta inspi . a o po that t l m a o ry i !1l isto l l p o , v h tr e R en th j\o h e c . and ) 86 e y :84h ph t 1 97' ," so d s e lo gger " t phi . (1 sr ee a ke f the ec h ' f eln 0 M J1l s mcar . to e p e n II Y e O nca ank t o e keys R . they are h"Isto m aP fro e C; c h I . n t " YOlN> ton or e , U:,L. ) e pla sCl g eist S or e l ca al e, I _U'" p sic ori peo phy e h st a ft a l et it h m spir e. vagu ot e a" . n ("th maIn l e !1 re fe opl ey a h t pe as ut a ' . ..j� ISt , b al, ) " leage I du nvi iS ame di !-l es, . fund In tim a n has e a th he n of t;' I tivis rela pateO d "the spi rit a r no list nihi ( a O r l he ef " neit a p is ory. ."' ,he Ist he ' h' ) f ,,6, h 0 . llg ion m ept O " , bl h 0 nc 0 lt co , A al ro'd, hisn 886, o d man a Ger . r ,""Ir 7, tury (' y cen Ire nthall "" etee t nin ,"' ly the main of s L<" old nt ern orta conc imp n oria ost hist m e as a th ork d sw n Pru His a S P t and y e s · tor turie his cen of great tS enth oris ente the sev d d end an n a the eenth ns ard sixt ' tOfla s. Tow the turie of cen ry nth isto etee h ed n nin ea main and p re ro nth h whic tee Eu ry), eigh Histo the of orld y (W tor his his chte a of eschi er n soph Welrg si philo a te a wro than t e logis h life odo eter meth his (Fu a of e od" mor meth was al ogic ke ilol al-ph d. Ran she critic his fini e the fals un of the er mast ced " oun the den he was m, e onis H er chr . Walt tory ana Sir nst of agai els g nov gglin the Stru , mple exa I : 1 73)' gs 91 (for thin 1 m w icis "ho mant tell o R to of was e anc task at gre an n's torical rom g oria ntin hist gra the y b that ught rted tho asse al oric hist d Scott) and ught rishe tho ove his imp But Ranke ry. ?' histo ened matic o dipl really happ nch and Fre cal . alist politi ide to r ance othe port the , ivist posit excessive im his one can : meri ways y A in twO ciall rted espe disto s) and has been mits obo li Seign t tha and ory lois hist Lang a of , ry;' histo historians (e.g. g and her of "fat ali7.in the mor in him e of enc seen abs have the S, torians fact of on rvati obse t stric "the to itself docthe ?'51 of r truth rte rical ppo histo su udent) (pr the ornament, pure a as fact ure in cult was e of Rank s res dt, prog the Like Humbol e, in anc eved port beli im at H e gre s. idea gy o rical chol histo psy of h al oric oug trine alth hist d But rde 6). acco 4-) and (d�) ry, histo es of Pop ent (J.1l. cont m Ro the of ry Histo his in wed sho he as _
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much has been made the is. In" Immediate Contact ' phrase In' "'hi Ii. Of ch hlsrorical u eories (FueteWIth God"' he "'as h e Said t "'0,)h p 1 ( . " at a r, ) n HistoriciSt optimism reach 9 ' " .....�..�� ... most remarkable Iigu -es i" 'pog." i wh° '''I",.",d h,. 'h�=ri� io� 1oh,,,,, G"o �, nP....i,O s '� �d H mri.h " sy h " ""'- " chao y ' rO l{. s de,. . n ' 0 (. 8 7-1 8 e ,' ," 0 :'-h. monU. 'od history or Oliti 95). Dr0ysen s ts"'rif Q (18o ,18.""It o . e P 8 f a I alone, but als on an eth'ICS . governmen t esis no OonI'ta'pz1&,' 8Gs)' 1) 0 ' ement th e St, I t reach es .the s p mnOt b-,,let beI" hiscorical ach lev ate ' state was the model of th" '0 . In the Om ' "' �"" .'!" ':':: antiquity b'y AI, d Wi.hio �'" whi'; �o� � h� '" P "'"�'a s,· , '" ill h -o iOdi"d .:;� " ,, ' , e ' en re .h ' ere "-n "' o s o al �"'om ' a iz d e com , n Tn d mon mo� .h""", mISSI r good I n . O e Sy On b and e len the q real CQnRi ity h jz of maOlty. For h1m, th e general T p as ed ' the state 'S IOte . rest arose between them, might had ' was preem ''o�·, .i pr.- !'., to n o, " h wm " 0", 0 This brief Summ''Y ,hould h , CQna Oh. n " iq om pl m r ' ent rooo =i'm ,", ed ' ' by a .h� , tud 0 Vle """ S Y of • ws of hist , o ry and G ,,,, h"",'Y io .he nlOeteenth centu ' h ,ruj E ' '''' 'lI '" " ,d ' science In which c;... 0 hi"orio. Y ' '" y' of ..h" , '"''''a m = " ! " . , '•• i � I ' "''''p m ' hi"ori ,,,,di,, O im ly n " l' m � ' of ! p • w d o " , «0 omia, h." .ia' a., (lgg,rn p, .,,), ncal l n : , i "i., ' C' ''''' 0 h"'orici 'm 'hhed at th nd . of h ' e .ri'mph", eIsewher ' cent " ur y, h ", F: p iri . ' . ,, ( gu Ises in ='" 'od .h w i. h Stat") odd"I;" g sesm(I al . , t y Cmre), A , Ig , ul cn oque of h'',,on.o= h ,d , , ' h«o � rn h" cl,,,,y h' U,i..., hi dy ', � « m � M ' ;. % , p o, I . . o .h � . < , y . , aiD ; "' � "' of m i d H . " m cri ' ;d" of , " ", " ;; Uqu e of the ,Il 1
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, " C nd 9 6) hy ° A m n" o , I 5 ,Il o ) .h ''' ' " "'' "' " ° pn , d", 1 di�, ..1 o il.: 6 h, ph o ph; mo q" ofhi 'I ne.m' , ' ; O ' .. O 'J h nd M" 1 fi " e 0uh e r . o ) � • ( " " " h.... � cnnelzing th " ' e und H.mhold,' nd ' nke o s his',onos soul of [he nan [ e " Ism . He considers [hese or hls[onans ' (Ig gers �' . 1 80). Later he w edge was poss ibJe In ' SCIences of [he s p ln t ( . en Geirteswrs s ,
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.Insntu'" I o " ,' � f In h . Itse . P fi es ' O s u " lec 'Ig>on, b 0 hilo I p e re f e \i W, art, s I a ju . , f te ca sta b 'e e h t po U.s IO , Y . ery r Cl o so t is Il rO"eois d h ry u j: (\!:> cent 0 b h ent . c11l<>1 falIllly, " ete ' nln e f th 0 ....1 ... (\ d n e en see h e t t lus th at 8). have 8 we Il s 1 isl a h (p' ric s. As ou o . 'st I bIgu " h " m f a "i' Y 0 is .. '10sop h qlle et h" , ti m n " We oO,, a , t l hI f also h,, o but h l cfI " her ,", osop ",ho P �o phil .0" eat .. .. i'" , gr ",, • a ,, "" y "", al IS tn • , as not onl d up mm. .. w h$ g o o 0 'J Afl> itS 9 d � 1 " �Ithey, m 64 ay 18 B ( " I ",," . wOOl , n ina ry theo : • ,,� .... .. an own ay t r his w o ate t is ' nstr th I s o a tn is y ry de r Hisw to to n it. gned t "of his eate si thr de ght e tni siar a t r)' aphy CS gre tha tnet tni s eO , on the le ,h i cept a) n n stio sP co que ' e wh O Ih int � g .... tS n ti pu u n All m $h o d siti . y po b , o pr " , b) I � " e Y s � O i '>' w" th hi." o dir sCIence. u .£ m '';' ' •u' " . ci i, " SCI. . '''' at m) w h t ' ,o W Ice ...si d' " .. "" U . (f prel ' " e " th _ P rom �I f � l ut � " o ,� i t d "o star i h. .iVi'StS wh0 0,"' l, , ,� ", -� ,,.. pOSIt m .. or , y 1O es ,ril et ,, sth • .. ae " ry > w n " H' "", ''p ' ·ly, l w n� " " ,, . . . " i,ro ' '" h y . .f . "l o' ibl. n ,) � �' � =ti" .. h . " q o "" mp i,r IO "'" pm "' _ . ;':i iti" po. nce ro'" scie pro i,fi of ' i. .. goal Th If, only •• •�l i." the • " are = ws .f " hl W la lO that m by � clai ",".0< .i'" "i pro " .f who o ,,r -� 1O, w alistS" h. r , uo , atu , � wh. _ i� �, ,he "n ".r " ' ,, . m.y " "' . k , � ",i, po b) ,h. im , ,h. ... m who Ii .f "IO oi" " c) "', _ , and h, .f . f, itsel "'" 'l""m d i" worl .... al i «. oric hist ".u i pos the .... a in ' in ered sped .f ",ri cov gra dis e hav they can be eral that ntal gen e ide agin the im ces , who for the acc p ans dee sici hy eve , the ena etap beli nom m and phe k thin of all the e who enc n me the ess of s r head nne r the ive ma ove , nge cha t trol con laws that ti' 79 ) "' 2 938b: ld� (1 ,h. act. bo,h they .f that ".rorici.m .ugh' .
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1 68 / N istory..
LI' w, hether n�ro� ph ' mus was 'e" of b ette r / r C1sm," and evenrual/y abou a ns a r d I f: r e "'0, r rhe s ' " a p h o ssibil' ty of dra:;orislll" .Y ��en the two tenllS (lgger cmlque of h ' r:cism and a : �73)' Th� two Or " , a ng d ri "'O r �:� u�e i to like Ranke, r r lere was not irs come the fun eh ""' be t act "' , e his h h r ISt tOr£ o ri t h cis I � m tween ' t trj d O actio h n un d e C er actIOn in accord wirh a moral J' rhe imP(�' Sion o�flict b: o�h� of o Sriti l"' e er. car /(;, consciousness io ( n ee � d Q rhe t e h need Os for ), a berw sol "") ure dualism. He :� val e ned historic'ISm as "rh ues Meineck een his o .�Qd undersrandmg ' of hu man affai rs ." As e highe�r degr e aeee ll dtjc;st e e atta P e h o Carl necke stopped sho of the dISS o , A nrOni has ob ined i t IS ' I unon of reason and of s:tved �the the unifying pnnciple of h uman n faith ' ure, bec rhat Rank' e had �a mrained n � aus � e ' I Ih e of th , Bur h e D e 10 OU j. ery Ca ' v ' ntlm h in seeing in Memecke s h'Isroricis u g ori n th i -..;. \ C "" m h a re� ln Irrari e "rrue hIs' roricism," ill rj "'as ona/" berra ght Y a/ of "WIsroricism " m ' the scientific se f rhe ter life and reali m is � t :; histo ' rical, and h .al M has as irs co�o��: h n tion of ;�� b�. hl oti,� n.�"" I aSSeltio .,.. ' r S � eo ;; , " h y o r , " a : , id d I �" ;'Y aln tains n Superhi srory and Ih � a I eas and valuesfIand a ower world thar hlst,ory, Into a at reflect up ro now. in a eeting and ' ;:::, �' ;';,: "J y, once and ;' Ich :;�a k W . ; on e oo' m u:: o , mg � o Impe � ; rfect his ory Or histo pore .nd ,,:p ' gIve way to rational' p rhe orher hand' �akes hisroricism :rfect reality.' , : . Meinecke Onry in the admlssion 0f th ir rarional elemem m human life m, hconslst r e oldin ' last g , ro the m ' ' ' d out neglectmg Iv I d ual ' wi th_the ' typIcal and the gene�I whIch is linked to the 'VIdual, and I'n rhe. � ' indi r o Je c ri o ' n o f t h is background of �,IgtO S faith or m VISIOn of the indl' dual on the yste as it criticize an Surpasses the abstr ry. But true hiStor:', lclsm, insofar a c t r a t mem, is more profoundly rationa,1S. t ch ionalism of the Enlightena n the Ia rrer' (Croce, quoted bY Camimon 1 94 5 = 500) ,
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tio The ra " n: reaso is by , at d erne th gov h l�g y is idea e tor h t t on, his reas y f t 0 'Idea e I P "e"er 1a tns tha t Sltn ' hIS y t histor h� c s l i rsal s he "� unive ute y uentl ..;b , "d ( ' O�I' " seq t con on t c ' " " It IO tha ht <(It'I h ' caug d y IS an Itself I ' ", . 'Istory d OP orl ' H ) OS 7 ' ( nhi\ e 0:4 S ' re�\ I �t r "ems th " ( egel 1 8 ;z. ;z.-3 ' Identlcal ' not IS H dl Istory \ ) o H ' , g , ast (G ly J fl 's " lt o plf S ioe� Hegel lona s � t f in a 0 ge t passa ' tha r a d to e n is ptlo 'ICh atte II�( revelop P h his'" a"' h e ' 9 t dr J1\ ( s de 10 k has h' 10 "lfIt t S Vedripe � th "� 0 � syste : ut � "B ees: of e S aen " , S spirit en \i the l el ea of , o hi up I oPs ltatl op hm C pf,Jos se 0 t !p rhe o rsalhe off \ unive g " , ete wip copcr o ,it ItS " a thr spS Ji . gra y e , b p ess , lo d dhp c ally I I r cj wor etern if' 'OIo an . as P c t, ow spiri e ts olut v' 0f the i d abs p a . ge of es sl led nece Y p h ow r O whic e kp 10 tO he and t , f, p � Itsel to r for ' thIS artiCOI le"ates I' tself wipg reasoP IS free of auop revel he ' P fld e t f o 0 kn vIce ser e h t at arks jrj a th .I n which ' rem oply I ect Y ' are corr pe Ory U n ' d V e t t , his 470) p. " rea\ r t ore , apd mapi ( or Uy hop cia espe its sees of also els .S it"' oa but , "ess alism e h grasp ide t :, to el's d r orde Heg ve ry: in pro histo n of es J(t s hie � sp l osop h' e do w phil '" t ,0 all �I of � [ x h' h�t , . firn\ t Y . ' t "the parado '' .fi ""' "", , ' I I, ,. b�m pm,"' y "", fest In =< d,�I� wI d of .. y '' n. r'''' I. inte n •• be " ,', m to '" m h the ts m . h'" penni oll, h whic b ork " i' mew ob "",,, .� . ;" fra of a ,' h tt wit ron • pce " "' rda prod co ac � tabil" ip 'Y edic h, t unpr . an , .,,. c 11" escapes " . eby . ther " ' and onal e, 1"""" In Vedrin rati ( mes role" beco its ect play obj stil\ d he coul t hat nce t cha "only h h that soc whic ks in thin ality l Hege por ess, tem proc a d al an sophy oric hist Philo ity e th the on sons erning (Les Conc us" to wn kno the be p . 2 1), rays can port te Sta he 1) a m (182 for Right of sophy peoples who Philo tantial subs the in the and ses, ), clas e 1 837 thre , of ory ed Hist ) form f ratiC e o stat eauc y bur onar , (i,e. oluti ersal trev univ the and l modern, pos class, Hege l ubt stria do indu no the er, s, rath clas Or ory, hist or peasant and in n , ctio over perfe is ry ng isto ti esen preh t s tha think he class, as repr t; funcpoin nal that ratio at the ory hist but nge stOP cha al ctic does not diale longer no is h whic ory, Hist that of a el g, mod nnin his begi and is t, l,S3 Spiri Hege ized tioni ng of m critic fro " ngly that stro ned e Rank ntai mai that be can it It is true but view ment, of nt elop poi dev the ear m of lin fro ess n tha less single proc apno g y ndin ticall rsta ema unde syst of w sm, vie historici e the point of plet com a nts ese repr l Hege e, of valu orihist of ic 60). rubr p . m , the lbau der un d dere us plied" (Mande nsi A.\th co be See can ( se, s m sen riali ad bro very Historical mate a ma in " m the ter 2.),S4 latte r 1 88 the 1 8g takin (18 x by Mar only or F cism 00,) 00 pp, , idea this of u e critiq ser's P
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of histo ry, he ized the historical only conce process; but he someti l ptu a _ mes used "law" himself, or the danger allowed his though s term t to be form ulated example, he did nor this way. For object when, in a review of the first Caplial, A. Sieber, a v um professor a t the University of Kiev, "laws " in referring used the word to his ideas (Man delbaum , pp. 1 72-73) gels set forth in his . He let En ( 1 8 78) a crude conception of production and of th the class struggle. As has been obse docum entation rved, his historical (and that of Engel s) was insufficient, and write true histo he did not rical works, but pamp hlets . He left of his concepts the most dangerous vague, namely, the distin ction between superstru crure, infrastructure and altho ugh he neve r expressed a tion of the infras crudely economic concep tructure, nor deSignated as a Superstructure anything OPposition to most German histo rians of his rime and to several defend-
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was h whic l , ide a 'tical historidS�a�: clear ius ��::; P' e th n d later be N ither did he CO be e to d se ppo , ",olll ' su r ' es ere te bas w !l' l ical v e pract e a ic n but al O etic f \\.h ejOr atl pary pract heor � t d I ics, de A i io polit v d p t o n y pr r histo n t eP �irt> ad revolll w rk l'1 wee e b r 1l his o \ ion oses at f u , rel I d fo a a" t . e f all prac f all lC t e or r heOr13,, 's � Sla 0 , with l if le f A ia amil y o b r r 0 un I�1,tOfl illg ,h,e p sed !l'thl e histO pea history, and he. wasf ch nical laws a o s m r e u o E clls e n . c t o ng his rei lO� h he declares t�at . ort> ote at1l pcept ° u n n a cur O n c oc ' c but e e eac 0 ar ing I ' d Y � stu y �� istOrY, i�inglY s B t to u key res the d h ;� r fin rr: i\a r asy � i � is it m : the , :�Evefl'S �!I'Ip etelY :� ar to pa ible . l poss om c r n n he S '; c t it ; d but t o _ an ; I n d eno l ca : a histo rate le y f hen n e �, p som f arlOU p his o t se e · p 0 ' g S ass � p n he ll I d t O g y j O de tan histor USI bove b , a Y g nd n di sta I "e up r: to a n t IS s t r ue d e vir n a I" t u g r e , iS e s h h o ry at eo h t rive l a , sees " ic One . h f y. histor , , oP o s on 0 i . epti p l Ph conc ) S " d d b C art, 9 t ge ie h n whic dit I Y ' z d the "�vent-o r b te r 7 (qll�'nI arJ{ critiC e \ conceptl n f h'IStory was an a suUO l a l it ic p o g n d reso ° ier great f he t , , to l , se h the ear ,As Vilar putS it, "He t d \inute I 2) , h e t ; ooks . re o , nts eve 7 I , d histon' ca a he t U b ry books , an f w 'hlst , We '\ o t 7 (p. " 3 ice e d 4 . ,· an prac e , rot ism his M arx , w in s by d " ory cte f attra hist I as o lism. 'concep�enedetto Croce ( 18 S 6-1 9 P) d by historical m teria , � esse b youth, h ught Croce was later o � "the identity of I:tory and , t . . sci alism . m 17 ateri ra . G I c a . s CI ) f o h n m is t ra 2 G " o ( r � , as r IS n a e a � te m ' c a l hat r Croc , t hlsto, n ion, � in U S t cl nen , to its ultimate con " e m ., o c to et a It e ceiv hrsto rJ y I, S, to con ntif ide to d ove e m efus in r y y II t " reali t d h a t he especla e ot ceiv org f con . be ust -1 8) . He m , tinct diS y " ica\\ t I s " \. dea \\ intO i f concept 0 un able par inse n a cts as y on all hist oric his d hist n a 0 , '! nse msCl se Gra ive 'orat tM cord'Ing to , es /ti P o s o i/ h p : "" J O' , J is r calied
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se 's ' sci sc ram ram G f G I that m I r me � � to en mat l rica S word. It seems isto ' ce 0 Cro t tha d � di � P � with \ as y or h'st I rne f ; . because he retu 0 philosophY o kin a as ' IS m t . alis I en think 1 I mat , root ca ' n mon isto was h ets e a com h rpr e aus inte bec he s se hap au bec per d , el an eg , H ) was Marx to it n h' k t I not d do I arx (M m historicis
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. s unable compJe eI t y to escape �'4 o r t e in f! Uen 1 9 1 7 "tbe grea [es[ CO " Ii, " "" o memp f C ce orary E � rece nceming Croce' nOIl) .Y � T eono ( lh Idea lism, . e SlQria della n� "' I � h e defined [be idea and be H ee ry u lo '" Concepfl.on Way: ry ofHiston.o dc)ubt rhis . ""' g, <2p � : I not a ues flon n . of 1 09, a /o gsld ra J, P ?",aric is ori , h of che abs rracr ' P y, ,. slract ·n ahst � "'" er of un d 'dN .... en separar " ' ,� """ r are inca t e � of p'�'ru g che tracti nd '.id . of rhe indIVl . .dual as as mdividual ��" that d t a n e · poim is noc fice R '''U t sacr f i [ o n or Placo in fa or of en cJ s • ""'" Phi/osophy, ' r"", So " , ; ocl� rather f 10 and re P ,' Po o of li " ""'" � P Ph ieI PI,,� ,. d S l l"",p ,: gedy. · . ' T ra To " �d F. arrer as R , mom ents f, ""," e elat o 0phy, a e Individual . ' i r h",= · , a S ream • i , " " ro '"� s adow o f a rorical con _ Ua 'd � 'vers i � e co '" soltd thanks o and rhe solidi t . y at each ocher. If eJUsrence of Peric COn fers es, Sophocles '" and PI"" ferenr, wouldn we b , ave r proclaim r r h, , ,Ii e ,dea indif_ well? ( I 9 ' 5:92 n i er n -93) t as
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Storie rome pensiero e rome a{iqne (H
. ISrory as Tho 'gl Acrion, I 938), afrer hay· d . mg eri c"lelz i"' . e d rh rn •• H,,1o no f . Iy w Rank e 's ,,pre lse os ' tiVism i C h " h .ppe."' " h e P O goes r . so f a s ro cla im h "rh = • 00 '" ''1 orh t at er rhan rhar 0 rh ought f. · F. itsel wh IC h dl tl Oguis and u n ifies." A s , bes � . Chabod comm e n t s "Th ere is n o t u n ity In itse" ' only in cnrical though lf bUt r" ( 1 9 2 7: 5 1 1) ' Arnaldo Momlg1 . lano ha s pointed 0 u t th a t Croce had . « on philosophers' " , ,,' ,., " "" 0 one can fore · ror wh "h" C ; phdo,o e " phy w'lI ' provide a stan " po furo . ,ph ,� 'o, (0, re ' p h d o " " , H .. , ' " ' =n y h" f� 0 "l'cipJ� . wo od o Y, , . " pe,h.p "o , I , " n ories. Eyen h " o " '" C ° o lling. h " " '0 '" h i, dIS Clp/e before h is pre (, 977'",•J. "',,' mar , re d""h"
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ized mphas e must be it gh ou phialth re" W, "pu ie e wer v ""ho 'i'S tl. l "Ii O tory ab his Co» f h o C ",.ok ers I e � ar Oph S h � s ilo �,' 1 h oh. is t that a h ory hISt Ut . t 10< � abo ng ki thm n og1 ,, ce ori n hist va and 1 ory ffllIior ad hist een etw C ",.,.5 a b p, on t cti c in s t)JJ e dis o rre5 . the t t h to
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uld sho ing we tak on "By ncti hy: disti grap tal men orio a of hist y ory essit To this fund hist nec the the o[ d e cate tanc por indi im e roc the C on hy, e scal grap a insisted orio as ns, of hist oria ory hist hist [or the ght in insi rest re cal el\> criti an inte int ond of n sec o gniti this of reco ty sibili the h pos on oug the ositi thr and n, exp artai an to , nt, sure me mea ron d envi uate al m grad soci [ro and a and free is, ural t cult tha us, eral mo gen no r thei auto of not and d ing tations rme deriv info ods welleth are m that to t and men iC last siCS and judg scho aphy met and al to hic utes sop trib hilo and p ns m fro titio repe but , nce erie and exp e niqu bl, ''''' from tech ' """ p'n h'" 07). <0 4 (p. we ";d s" on i' acti princip\e l 937) tica H poli , " hi.s ( ,ci in .... . as s G of ing onio on, writ n< ," A his n"" oo in t hi' tha e ", tru " is hin' it d , no' do I Marxis m, an Bu' ry ibUi . .", " ,",, ,;d, nnd ooo
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SOplz,. history represe a p gr ess oJIf; rather a certam retur to He in h 'Storical . '"" gelia M into vulgar arxism o m , "'H, �', ' ' 0 0 . h 'H I s h Ill , o,h". on f � e ' e e .o h do r a "l e ' e o c " o nd o o ' I gni n , ;' , z SCIen nd es ce a t and b l f tha o ' hellt a t sl' ' e c o n c On e p ti S o e n , 0 causality. Bu t hIS' fam cannot Ur " '� (bloco SIOnco) seems o "' h n, " ply : " to ' me d O , , y " g, ro .;:. ," " . that"' infrast'Ono� '0' " h . ' :: h ;f ,;, , l,m :. " ' n"� ,. " ""'" � hif : : m'o, 'h" �,:� � m , hI" o'" . .., rho ", ' , pI '1 ''' ' ' whol o h '�P'B<,"'ru, . . °"'' Uni t ' claj ,, '00, �R d Ilt ry leto h, In " ' M ' ' ecti a th , , 00 0, " (" ""..H' m 0 O on nd ' of d th " " e Storic o "m ' wh , 39) has b�o 01, ' P '0 "Oducing more fie 'b S 'danl O l Ci en J :f i e a ,mlirastructure / ry ',''0 'he doctrin 7 rally nd rela_ e e s 0 '0' ' "Persrructure th t r th e I re whI.C� seems to be the falsest a t Ma rx ha' I'f, rel,,:",O" h."'" ' cal mat ' , '0' f w"ke , 'n' m y hIstorl ""'" """ I f , m '" ' " , m 0 i � M , and 'Id � u l r 0 o s 0 "", oom e �� t e u c W e " G" th . e i m ci � � � b ms to m a " ando " h, · " "o n of i', fo :� r e but ' e to since o : h ra , ' ti v g Y, Id, e f gy in the :u / ,,� O rehabilitati:n °f " ",1o " , � n l PO""" y incre 0 ases . (b t 'h� of ,he tel/ectual sect � ; . ' " · h, 10' 0' o 0' 0 0" 0 � ' m '"'oo o 'mo "' elliSt) " ci '0"bly ,60 fo .,'" wh cl",. h k ' � = ' h, o0 , ""o ", o on f ' "" ," o , ; o 00, h'n' " " 0 , e 0 r "," ' " ' 0 0 I" "", , 1 rel/", ", " G"m,d " ' 0,,"010 Im:;I .... ' �H " onl a 7 h ,." ,,, o ' , ls �" re" ctu ' " ' e � ' t ' oio � s '0 P iden who � f h g g o ' l M Y s n' y e � d mks c that arx h ad ou ed ,ence 00", h , 'o " es li science in the superstruct M ure, At th modiflcarl'ons 0ne can see the G g : 'h of ' l ra e , , '"' 0 ron "'p ,io o ; :" o m :, rlal'sm as a n abs I o Storical '' "re ,
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Lo �I' Af,h",,, protested veh emend " , aga y ' mst th e hIsto , pretanon of lv1at'XIsm ricist " "", , " h ' w Ich , he '� ked to his ' . "," "h " m'n He sees the h 'StonCI " mrerp e r tation . . St interp�" OOo ,s a n s g l m fro m " ' , against rh' m"",oIsm ; " I "', 0 , · and the ec ", m of 'h, 5=0 ntema y h e ' period rha tional . , in ,, '" 'h, I on of 1 9 1 7 and pe ,l O 'h m / io f " Iy l o a m It " "" , i, bo,h h · . 56 This con "p ooo '"" 1St (the two ch'rnn'ri 0' h om, w ' : i" " .. ' ,hro"gh hI . ,oore" 'j 109 to A1thusse� '" ' ' , ' " otiog ' > t are not necessa n ' 1 "' , , 'h,o,,,, ..� i o f g ' ' ' ' ' ' lOt of view), an'd ' " , io "i, lIy ,h ° 'h, wa " of Rosa Luxemh f" G ' ,o ' = M , ' "", 0 'hri d , o ,n" " ,'0 h ; revo 1,, ' of L "k urion 1917 of / ' i; " , "pori /ly o ra msci, before be , mg r ken up again , '0 , "mio y, y Same in h'I Cnti"" d � i n raiso fa dalect1que, Ir is in rhe e e Italian Mana's t tra dman � ..., _ , ' where 'G ra msCJ j the ' h e lr o f La bnoIa and of Crace (A rhu / Sser rends to mi OImlze che [ io n becween G ramscl' '
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of s sion res exp ent min pro in st o age m pass e ouS th fam O" s d 10 the fi n tes f/js q uo mon com � He ' y ver .." the ' , s in cl .14 n rl tte o go the r st fo on ) l ent e h acc av W I the .. , " e h put ce , ust m ' e , In w Ical at CeO phys th d ' (II 1 meta m s IS ali Ich �o eri wh , a nd e m co wlor s " se I ,b e h' th : ' �!or>lsct ci>m n o ro" tY It . reali Im, te h ncre or co F C of e, u esis , . val 11 , gen g oo al ' the 00 W " " o ' ith G "m.' � w pt" " ' ce On ,ort· cepti con h " I " con aOY Ist " oriC � p "' hIst 0 a .. f , rx., ° . a M mk, � of " on h' " pti p_ o�' nce h , ' co AI ' st · ,o rt rici h ,, I to re' ' " his d IS, n "'" , y . 0 '" trul rt "a ,, ,. , �', 'h� h,'" w � I o ,;,Jiw<, .� , (1\U �, " .ph .. " ., f oO ll _ ri ph w ,,1, , ,," I, ' o ,h hI,h � .f b'� .., . ,h , ol 1,\1 g ,, .. O " M, .. ,.ri ,1 of , .... Iup oo\ arx "M \ogl Idoo lar ticu ,,,., ,h' d 0' par "",0 in , t <0" ,o tha luo d po> an b. , ss") h' ig sne m ciou ha' w ' social cons ThO ,). (>', Ii' � ,.r.!g' ' h Ies P so Jo h ,p
r e pJthUS� e o ut bs , "a ce o r 9Sflote otl C t a ic r ' o S oh o ' : l "" h 'W ..�:"'f" 'e phllOSOP Yh hW O " g n i ' d , hIS, tCS m e l pO cerl,ry ,0 , I m P Y l e S h , or ht e ���e eg oaeSl,ISh ,he ate .. mO>'
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GramsC/an interpretati, er on of hiStor Oj'It."' Spite of the dangers ical to')mater, of the various Ia l'ISIl] r k ' negated by h IS IS in ds ' conception of 'etls a s ' , of sci h I hi Stor za tl' ence as S two senses of the ; n word being co U PerStC nfl ated_ ' I expression and instr Uctllra l ��t i a S o be 'll Pli::- i� ument of the 'l I _ , S COll] group in h'Istory IS , pushed to Its es � ' cuI mln o P " atlon: o we r, , r flated, thus IOll/lJn 'fh e tgan i•• "'<1 his tOr a g another kin Y nd p ' philOS ., Ih d of l h " , of a hlstoClcal epoch "hi Op l t St I or s ic oPh " IS therefore I a I}' or lInl , ' t" """ not J are hing other same epoch, whIch ' ' I he the mass of v than ph'l ''
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rediscovers the cyclical tions of history. Arnol COncep. d Toynbee ( 1 889-r 978), on the other hand, historian, In A Study was a of Histo ry, he starts o ut from Spengler s ucceed where his hoping to predecessor had failed , He distingUishes twen civilizations that have ty-one attained a stage of f ll of history from c lt u devel opmen t in the Course u ures that have achie ved only a lesser level of Opment, All these devel ciVilizations pass thro during which the ugh fo ur phases: a brief genesis new civilization is s ubject to a challenge ( the Outside) and give us ually from s its response, a lon g period of growth marked by an accide , then a hal r' nt, and finally a phas e of diSin tegration which may
/ y or ist H o f ts , 'Phr O S o hi/ p ' f)"
1 77
of level the at " n, "ope " sive, o res rog of " on <Jis t ' sSi , S succe I a P a m in , g e lst h m cons c ' tory S hi h c s SS nIs s huma thi h e whi d " ' . s i l g m , ' aI h story, � g o tl l d e n p v ('j 10 i a ro P i Is "the " l a tY, a a reve e that ,u stS, r tion \ e e p y a r o ceeding toWard " oiC)" sl h it w y hi theor n leria pen a s S bine o com � �1l(11 : P th�le is P;'; ee s a not ted yn obiec To htly cyo g ",hheology' h'ouSn of hls� tory, CritiCS haveeptlO � tS to I also but n , pn i[i ' n's conc e c this n f 0 ct 'S[011a tlI'pla co SIC e es sp ' , cultur a " nd ' a al s on lza 'I y iV �I j\llguS I , h n C p wee " bet eta n m \ ctlo cu and i ns stin . atlo d h '",Iiz e CI thes of .0 I), to t � confus d l vera se of � e them, 00 r)' a d tween ledg be w ad no ns ariso t fee "'. comp [ � e rbi f3 e,s imper h ' t of chie s bee f ure Toyn nat lZe e phas te a em " history, "sPenm Jlb ), it \l o r res, the i eg i ond Aron has neverthelessWest g z erm m m tric cen [o on, RaY uro , a of E basis a pe the on ca es West, he t f t .od ,s� 0 e sm , sir timi de o t � he t o refute he rationah� �chean concepti, on °f herois,m; )11 yn_ t 76 letz , d N e a (p and " tn r s le p pe gle caI philosoPhy rn Weste of � 'd e prJ cial for gl y ovin , histor lo of pr story bio 'ed to refute the hi the n i Ie I ro 'ona ceptl ex eb e�ehe\ Foucault plays an the ians: histor n e th e o f e ns, s t re a t aso g e th re ; of a \ly ee one fi d a thr st, because he was n s s , o n � p and gy enolo Fir f madness, 0f psychiatry, 0f st "provocat,ive" new oblects 0 o n m P the ria of tO me his ali,ty, he introduced so h hisrn , Weste in oints g rn t m � of sexutOry and revealed one f t e great inu the he t tu : n e c ry th eteen n m nd a Ages of his e 'ddl the M I " o f d en ts the ) f "devian " t tory atsten' ng (Ie grand ron.l'erm emen 'IS h t of nosis );" d' lag S O l c a c i persP seque d because he ouered the most s: form r our n eco king S n' of history, whlc, h he sees as ta I a dition tra renovat.lo tS in I tory "His nt'" , me docu the to ' ng 0 f past ' e tiom h t ques of , ments "The monu the e moriz k, 'me a to k spe O ces derto tra un e thes form ke lOa to and s t en docum e m into o s m ress h t e exp tly transform silen or a , I b er not v often what e � a I theY ry histo ugh altho time ur in say; they 0 here what a h t place other thlng ' , and in the fl'
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hg , the design of wh�t mi�ht be called a v�sto'Y h". gUle hIstory d difl'� """ har fonn of relaoonship berween rh ' .. .. er..... � e q ,' diff er; ng sen -"" gmmareIy be described" (pp, (7 - ( 8),
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'e\\ methods. "The new history en � coUnten; a , I problems, several of methodol<>glca of wh ich Clertain Q no dO erabh- precede iT, bur which as a grou ubt coP o , ", � :\mo�g them we ma\" mention '' the . ( Uni nSu on of homogenous collections and of dOCUments 0pen Or CO " It. lection delimited or indefinite), the esra brIS h rn ent 0f a � ch oo sin (a f ccording ro whether g ciple or . one ' at Prj ". te m pting deal exhausti\ ely .,.ith the body o f dOCUm en (0 sam 10 ple it using sratistical methods, or to determine in ad�Cle , the lQOs represenraD\-e elements)' the definition of the t Ie�I 0f �� and 0 f the elements that are pertinen t to it (in )'sis rhe mat erials <=, one may note numen'cal I'neli cations; sru eIi...l referenoes _ ,_, pllcir or not ro events, to insti ruti on s, to practices' h 'ex· t e Words ' used, .,.;rh the rules gO\'eming their use and the semantic 6elds , ' that the\' " outline, or the foulJal srructure of che proposIn ,ons and the ways they are linked to each other); the speci6 catio n of a method of analysis (quantirative rrearrnent of che dara, h t eir bn:�akdown in accordance with assignable tra i ts whose correIa. 4,
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logical relations; of functional, causal, or analogical relations; or of the relanon of the signifier to the signified, (pp. 19-20)
Foucault proposed an original philosophy of history closely linked -ith practice and ,,'irh [he methodology of [he histOrical discipline. I lea"e [he rask of characterizing i[ to Paul \�yne: fOr .FOucault, the ID[e.esr of histo ry does nor lie in the elaboration of • invariants, whether the latter are philosophical or organized in human
ciences, bur rather in u mg the IDvarianrs, whatever [hey might be, ro dissolve the consrantl) .ecurring fOllns of rationalism. History is a
ietzSCbean geneaJog}' Thar is ",hy (or Foucault, history is a kind of philosophy (,,-hich is neither true nor fal e); in any case, ir is very far •
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. that \t needs Is e c en d sci sa\ a e re b . Febv ust m n d e: , . an uo L IS . } ...., ht .' o. g d u ,st . stU ta h d at be cte th can du f o It o r co t tha est p a d n b e The ,a tory, ds nu{i U � cie ", h\s o s eth u ' st a m as . es and SI r nO stO d hi ' qu rore e t U b a t C[\ c \ -'�; . . f o. <7 des r technI t> . s l o ..... n · s y . su u an \ e a o e 'cuv In r UI eor ed s res h t res 01 st te >tP s\S more c e a . stri b os, the he ob T ,IS at gn " i Se ce. at cien les h w , har d C ee d not a s ' an I cr _ OIS , g\ r.. "\ me n ' .u "n da ' 1 Un . V )· s\ 2 ne n. or'j fi ( t de ' Charles '-\s ....; \I to 0 tes IS.. . J b' r . eas'Ier w u 0 s n o S nt enT , hat c � e m I!\ ut t U u b ula oc oc ch d m d 0 e su . " th as 'f . � . n ce e. e , en w her g sCI s er \ n a ' V n. e egt n a b is histOne t)' tOn h ul his hic diffic w the e h t or a f f er, al S , m ic a e tor d ob\ Howe n =. his an nr ct n e o , ous r -'-' U an sen tlb h t �V(5 '\" s e at se n o oe \ a f 5S p lt 0 l( U e b S and to re ert v the e n as it 'j' d, nl e 0 ct t U en str m u con c do a es m o ec It b . t, us F
ry o t is H
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th choice,
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' /Is So . The IOves ' tigatlon is in gen eral nOt the at of auxirlanes , toge ' that bnng h is to the r the co .an � whl'ch the hIstona " n finds his d cum <>.�c. ' s � l ect / o . i entation n cavarions useums, librarie � f O a ' d ct, taslt, " rc ' s 7 h , t v rs c . l t T e CO he Iosses ' s, a o l ecto 0 documents, the h e . b quali "'4 ts t :n c ty Il) l ea Ch o h ' f 0 � t e ic [Ive ut constrain109 conditi � d o c s � e � ons of r h lst n t 1 t e the problems that are posed for orian,l1s cr a ion a re th' aft. the M 1St ' 0rian hiI1 � documentation. Ohj,.. e ��. d � l r sel e o i 1 f n t� Ie � The historia haS first of 1 eh t. asis a / to deClde ' what Of ti"t documenr and :hat he will he · re'J ect, For a Io ' that the true h Istorica.l dO ng tim w,ll COnSider uments were thO ' histo .a C l:! as se of h uman histor ns n th y whIch was worthy of b . at II/u . at �ho�g : h emg prese mdlQ ed t studied the hIS' tOry o fgreat even rv at p. e ( rs r the Ii�es of eP?rt , dipI0mat " lc even rs: bartle� and gre ed, It at ) m and e treati n e s , polI on the other han d, tical and ins ' lllJ/ita the Idea that the birth ti�"'''' .� '" o f M"o , w 'Sto of wri ting Ied to a priv'l . " · as ry g , ' li of n k h < w tltlen docum ed to m fi d ,h",n .. La
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enrs are lacking 10 history, history has to ask a anguages t0 reveal their secrets, and in their fi has to divine the thoughts and S words it of lJ l l th peopl e who spoke hem. History to examme [;abl myths. : h a s es, the d eams of the ,magi . falsehoods undemea th wh nat' all those old ich �) it JO m USt diScover somet h uman beliefs Whe h 109 very real man re has " ofhis life and h15 inteII'Igenc passed' where he Ilas Ieft some impn. m e, there is histon•59 ." .
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of ocu 8 I a . D 8S s. w , ment of docu lle to as e e pect , 'd r I r e s l w ith � I ch e 0 oa vity � t appr . s not ssi f must pa he o e "" gaiPst � t tlons; d ues le q h n's ng 'fIt � h worki a c ori h Wit . ist rather w i h but e as, e h t Ide fixed 0''''''''' ivet 0illl" to he d that ap rian es histo at gre d . udic the e , P r e! p ) ust � rO � < � F /l3 th rec hat <po elf w t hims ful i he that e at od t gr •t'tOtS l� oIlrse, meth the be to g ri n histo of c of rdi sity S et Il w rk acco neces the in � aga o e asiz ph ,hetfl'theses. em not t ll I s sha o 111 fact /l id \ h)'!'" d . rica S 8 ISto h' f 1 ill 0 er ,,1IS, aract h I C d OWl f e [\' mU e h Te t JI1e/ld tion FebV is n Lucie re he nges, otfl s oula /la reS l de g st el o Fust Jl1a t t to i lying wa/l rep '"I ' I . on . I n 1949 �at {30 t1 e ther e n ..,.," Whe ' clear. is that . do ell d: ts; men . u doc en wnn e en out h rin r Wit e w s t. en, ith won w as e b ' p ' to . n, It has .IS wrine u ingen otte orian's hist w ry O the be I ng ,S can r)'l'hi " f' eve h ut it Wit With B us, e. Th I a non ers. . uow a usu are 3PY' , if there are. the lllg lack S fields t ey, of p e es hon shap m hiS and e s docu kind mak o s. With ' tile gists . geolo and n fi/ld t pes, With rs. sca colla land e S, hors ign , and ord s es w a clips s In e rds. ar swo lun al met h of ses s. Wit analy es eed serv sts chemi man, d nds on a�d nes depe stO man, in to se g and nglll rti es, e beio tast " , ity, e p hich activ w , ence hing pres ryt man's fies with eve sigm an, m ses res exp n, roa 8 ) 1. 1933: 4 is g. ( mony bein testi of ways histo rical of rsity dive "The g he : ared ythin decl ever also writes, h Bloc or says c And Mar that man (p. 63)'
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him" rything ut Eve abo . us finite teach in must ost and n alm can ume ches doc rical he tou histo ng of rythi n nsio expa s in lllou makes, eve ease enor incr the to the back ugh e thro com y ciaU I shall espe ut phic abo e ogra com icon has rly which prope y, or toda hic grap of tation exuse this the n, of tatio ctS men aspe docu cular ual parti twO audiovis s stres to t wan 1 e Her etc. nts, ume doc the arch. with rese here ary ment rned e docu conc of not on tensi am 1 y. pen olog inde arche an or erns ory conc hist first to iary The auxil to nce ted scie a tribu is con her it has whet t men to as elop dev question its nth much tee eigh how the only in note es 1 anc nce. adv first dent scie its pre made of it n tory Whe terri ry. vast histo of the ry histo the renewal for con d uere ately conq ntim tely l ory. edia hist imm it ent anc.i century, d the ewe of ren t par and key tory, a is ohis it prot gy, nolo history and tech uval of D and rre art Pie of . ry edie histo clop the ncy J;E in ed nected with t ess firs expr the re for cultu rd, accQ rical ns' histo aria tiqu 'an broadening of a the of t ge tha vesti France or l in too is "It the d'art, objet poinrs out that nt, the me docu cal ologi arche time , the
I B� / consrructi /1,. on' an Int "to en ry tion." GO D se as � -'I.or uVaI em eII as Q Ph aSl·zes 0bje S.<'le ar the Par rh cri e �ole v lemenr lfc e e a 0f A'X of n d Po · th e firs r el.res b disill ur ir scienrific Was th c (r r e s�c le E esr ty llg/i the SOcie w �8 o _ IG in J7 ;t W sh ed ty of An hich ar tlquaries Ch eo/o
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errUrnin ened l �, ch eolo tha t has g of t gy is One a t� e been mOSt h e s r. e r n eg of the fully reno fjrom the O � rive r ar e vat as ed II) ob1ect a " leI\> of hISt . · rece nd nc deca rh e m on on.e�l O f rural, and u de me Sei s: in tel' nt to th then to th n e e s r e v lan er tative met dscape, r all site, w ? Shifred Ii Ce hods e tc ural a nd h I n dustrial arc eth er llrb CSr . Arche ology CUtion of a h · ' ha s also �n at Istory of heolo deye1ope ma te · l rhe gr n� culture, eat mass d tOWar � q ll�n ri. which i and of rh d S e m ajority firs t of eons maSterpiece : all "th of m en " 62 ri• of conce e hISto 1:' h w mpo hic /Salton mOl-' rary his rO . ry ·- fI h -= as of � al ie et C r n e ogr a ' hy: · dy i·ns o n ap -r I i 'll o r Jme I also nO em and B Pired (1 980) te that ra udel his 's Ci"'7. torical refl lack of d eCtl:on ocuments . today IS . . ' II) th subtly a JUS t as e silence in terest nal}'Zed th s of h . " ed in th Story. M e hiS tor , len ce "-, th e ian 's d . . ich el de e exampl eVla tlon s cerrea " " es h e gives toward u has lar literat th are "sorc ese zo ure, th e e nes 0f ry, m adnes Ii org Otten w s, the fe (1 974:27). B . orld ut he IS stival po SIof th e speaking p pea toriogra ' sa n t, Occit . u h ere ab phy, wh _ a O Ut nla er , th ea ' e silen s We m U etc " documen ces t go furth of tra diti tation itse � er, I belj on al lf c his� ev th e h ole oncemll)g e, to q ues tion s and bl irs lac hISt u nae, and a nk S · onca l to inve POts in h ist to ask 0 ntory th o urs eJves th fc e archi e .1 th ings it abou t ry, docu ves of h as .
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is what sources make of ir" knowledge · . cal n .- hIStO · IS h t observanon the remark that "the hisbe this to Id dds . sItOIl 6 . V.eyoe a . one has to know what quesnons to ask 6) tvJge z6 ,_ . 1 vlse ro p outdated; one cannot write political ( 1 97 ' . a nnot Im are cs mati ' oble pr t ·3lI c a h respectable, realistic, or advanced ( (1 I f. and w the with · 0 ory · · us h1st · 1se , Ji . I re a as pnvate ts subjec individual!' bl . l or these on e hav a ay m the seventeenth to the nineteenth soC' th at one from lly pecia s ·dea . ans have, es documents that IS today established of sm critici i1i s n a ed elop ev . , d · h reveai s 1[se es ffiClent · · If to be msu · ( h n IC see w lI C but n ry , ce cessa ne ns l ma e an external lly, criticism r or criticism Traditiona d n -1 40) .8 5 2. . . 3 . 969 1 n · . o I l m an mterna CntlCISm or cnnClsm 0f rom f d a guishe S distin y is henllClt IS
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entially to find the original and to ess is m icis crit al ern ext I of document one is exam ining is authentic or false. the ne . decernJl rtheI ess requIres us to make two neve It e. edur proc � ntal e dam . . . Ic IS a un laI se" document IS aIso The first IS t h at a "r ons. rvati obse y entar lem orical document that can provide val �able testi �ony regardin? th: . g the g d ernm and peno dUrin conc d whIch It forge was it which in od eri authentic and used. The second is that a document, as considered to be and particula rly a text, may over the course of time undergo apparently
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example, it has been brilliantly demonstrated that the lener from Epicu rus to Herodotus that is preserved in Diogenes Laertius' Lives, Teachings,
and Apophthegms of the Famous Philosophers was reworked by a secular
tradition that buried the lener of the rext under the annotations and corrections which, whether intentionally or not, finally stifled and dis torted the lener of the text through "a reading that was uncomprehend ing, indifferent, or partisan? ' 63 Internal criticism is supposed to interpret the meaning of the docu ment, to assess the competence of its author, detelluine his sincerity, measure the exactness of the document, and test it against other evi dence. Here again, and here especially, the program is insufficient. Whether we are concerned with documents that are conscious or uncon scious (traces left by men without any intention to leave a message for posterity) the conditio ns under which the document was produced must be careful1y studied. In fact, the structures of power in a society include the power of certain social categories and domin ant groups to voluntar ily or involuntarily leave behind them testimony that can orient histo riography in one direction or another. Power over future memo ry, the
/ 84 / /firt b ory.. /Is " S". recognl'ze '�c b ' d and • d I ed b Fu d E: e g u . J d monument Y ch "llre
power to perpetuate' mUSt e No documen t is rnno ' cent. t mUSt e s e mon:y Or evidence ( w ) t Ver h he i h y d structure, to take aparr. The histo ha ' a fa ke, to jud b 01\. �tl n , ll} O t c s u i me nt l ISto : d P ncal Ut ;O s l e y to a ou t trea tment whose Purpose is to tra :;es only :fter h so· o d IS n 10rm therr' m aVlng u dIl}htI' '
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/ e "c ie c S a S . its A of nes ...t li ' main the j w ' follo I shall to is th:' /l u "tr ods on , meth ' d an ons . "e" term cepti con f 0 W ' "le cn 0f t oin ,I b)'e stages l p essentia 0 e bl The other. the OU on ost d h rch e sea t fift re h f the o to m S (11 sixth t Ii the fro n il from e 'o eJ11 od m peri U tr man -Ro ' ns teso G of c d t concep re e " h t I all urse, ' ISco I d the e,1l\I)n"and a onc be Ist " "h . d to fourth nte t the e truth; ve on y on to (11 in histor ' nded Ch fou 91 h I and Q C y, tor ee(1l 10d chance, his f bi' v ea -d of t e l h s s ic nate e " Iml ri \ " \ o e g h o Olty e t sna t time n f 5cen d oncept Ch c n a s mmate ich ,a )' Isse 91h d" y, 0 Or 0 ' ISt h III to rl ,0\ p" n inY tio ou �f11 b ec ' egms ' dir b h C h cenlor), meanI, ng ani d history; the Renal' ssance, w I ends with the cona of and y ' l s lo o e g philo U v a on di sed ba the " n' od'Iz with nts e which, e m y, u centur oc d p llth d n 3 ntee f 0 seve a CfI{1'que ; the for tory ations his found the lays plete ur, m lt-Ma o illl! � Sail c of a s f rille - creates the first instio ic n ned Be {lo hich the w ceP ury, d an cent S th st teen I ty, d eigh curiosi I cal n the histori \ ip; of B° a field rsh the ola s aden h sc bro and ' shes rn y ' e stabl, tor d h'p, his o i a (1I h0 � to � sc f d s h d ote met v the ,tlons de ectS rf every pe mto ury hIstory to , n� ads spre llth and tee ion, e ntat ill ume n on e doc 1930S Th cal the from ton , ury, his cent of tieth es twen the of is ory half the bas territ ond ian's histor sec the the , crisis in in ; and ain le m ionab 1 o ation. fash d ment oth docu in is b y ution tor revol his is a e ther ward, cal and histori d, in ande e phas exp nt rece ly this erab to essay this of consid part last the e vot sh aH de of hes stretc long the g durin ce. that ht sCien thoug be devel not r the eove nce mor adva uld ative qualit sho It no made ce scien study nt rical brillia histo a (for hich ant w in stagn e ly equal tim was craft and rian's 1 979 histo ee, Guen the ard Bern see opment of s, Age e Middl entry the its s in make lem testimony of of this prob e nanc impo the tes otus, onal pers Herod is ce excellen ar 1 9 80), With p ony testim him, is For his tive. T ?' narra heard saw, 1 "1 say: into histo rical can ian histor the rih barba whic in the kind to ted devo timo ny, the tion stiga inve his of g)part Harto the for F. e true (se ges voya particularly his on led trave he ory urred territ occ e that whos ts even s, ans, through war n Media the of to tive able narra was the h he whic ut It is also true for abo and his, ded s prece tnes that eyewi n ratio and oral during the gene ded accor acy prim This back ony. the testim intO less or e collect hearsay mor d eate retr it ; past history nt in dista ned the m fro s testimony remai ment docu en writt als. of reviv e critiqu later ant port im ground when the ral seve had but rs, orde stage, t the dican men new the took the center of of bers mem the ury to cent re" enth adhe to " desire Thus in the thirte their in ns, cisca very Fran or ry the pora and s em nican cont Domi mony, the testi oral onal pers eged privil new society, ,
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e alo d som th e an nv de e d n th se s lea ha a d p n to r he d ne nks sa desig eCS e d rk i th ne tl 'Wo e ., na bla '" ce I·f h a th r the rIY �resero \I suI" a r ) :22 1 Tr /. on , ' ar � i Sit w ui
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/ " " cie S a s A . his succesand s rj Eusebiu O wed s allo ent f/ist m cu . . g do es. More 0 I'Ivmg wimess •
f ln S mory U me f the d Yo on all y above and e ous, ul b scrup k . jell] wa O baC ent, pati a is k or w '1 S crtl l to g . nChristia se etween o b ' atlons h i re e h 'fI 1 s fe y eblus, w t h . wit deal c to s privilege � pt u to seek ", rS m not d'd O 11'1 I e . ' S :495), att 1961 n t \ el oe"" l huma I world (Sirtn he which history, tian y Chris l,d aicHebr o o ; o gy f m e . t gil � ,:,an chronolo . only one history among others he pro d t Sn him rt p for 3 Ch s I wa hisil)' r er y , c synchroni ses a f ct 0 o e . j o op pr OUS . n WIth M IgU b" am 'Improvement ewhat 3 P s begI ' m so . I view SimpIe ' a is d an "h e � d ca eOl an 3 m ), ecu 1 6 an _ een 9 tw e fI\ ' \ . b d te (pP a ' s (Daniel 's sItu ent Testam 63)' . Old lory I rshiP" ( p from the roW bor ans the of n tori h successio c his the e of an them iP s jsti the n r ia h stin u J m s' fro Eusebiu . d Roman an and 7) nian, iel acedo n , M a sian D , Per , m h Saint ian � T and lon e Jerom dre aby S ' amt ' by B . d plete ' res I com and m up P e n hisr take o o biblical was to f ing accord icle ry histo ron of e ch n iO t za di io r to pe up a m, ",hos th Abraha for to up , set . Noah e to ' . (up tl ' n ages SIX ed hich j\ugUS uish w fist , Ch ' ) ting ter ' ' a f dis fist, . Ch ch ' to whi up ity, IOOla n captiV at tOry, Bede, y b and Ba ry,68 centu the th seven up the id, of g nnin Dav begi e h t at , ille te. Sev calcula of to re sought ry, Isido centu eighth orhist the the of for a g i sent es egin nin are ology b e chron th and g . datin tions of s founda blem the laid had ties The pro socie and s orian hist n nt chro ancie first n the agai d provide e had kings of ian. Her n lists gyptia E the of and terms ian in ylon time eiving conc The Bab of e practiC The In ks. B.C. ewor 2000 fram around n Babylo ological in rance appea its made the of had list gn the rei 754 a of : in begins years iads Olymp the by n s, utatio Athen comp of ns the archo ous 776 B.C. eponym the of that 685 686uted in instit rs, ar epho Caes B.C., Spartan 45 In e. Rom in n utatio comp time ular of n cons utatio the comp al in 508 siastic eccle tian Chris . Rome a in for dar ned calen remai n s doubt the Julia e Som r. Easte of dating the on ning ularly begin partic the of ses nt focu shme establi the erning conc n le, Nicea examp the for of actS long time, The year. of the ning begin the of and years ology the chron by and of the suls con of the s name the by ral both gene dated in s are tian cil Chris Coun Latin The B.C.). 3 1 1 (3 1 2in cidae But Seleu 284). the of (A.D. rs the era marty the of or tian Diocle adopt of era to the osed ed prop first adopt Little the s Deni monk n the Roma as the t ry Chris centu birth of the sixth the blish esta to and , the nation until Incar ed the adopt of tively the age defini not was This n, .69 utatio nology comp chro of cal siasti beginni ng eccle on arch rese the raa\l But ornm ry. tem p centu De tise trea eleventh 's Bede was ssion expre able remark most whose •
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17i.rtor (72f), despite Its . Y" -'ls hesi tari o tage s � on the way toward mast ryn and fal'JUres S",· In EnaClo'P=a 13:uzaudr. e ver tim ' cOnStit ( '977), 2.�f O I - f ) e. (See te Uted � 1 980:1 47-6 5). ill)"" � Coll; Bernard Gu nee has · :' do 4, Cor JIan' '-al ""lb. I '961, eO
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e Ut t e Middle Ages did n t e evolurI' n of hiStO rical sc·I n ce; trary, J[ IS ch aracr � on the con, erized by "th e cOntm ' uity of the h Iston nee, p. 367). cal effort " (Gue-
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secula rize" histo ry a n to rid it of myths egen ds, and they and laid t foundation s of rh . : tory and ce mented t It erudition. Ism o[ text has been (raced back t Lorenzo Va lla (/40 5-14 57), wh 0 proved, ' . In u "e foLso mMita e ementlla L Onstantim. do'1U1-
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g f o in e k s e n o g n e A th f o t s e h e b e th t a an written st n o f C o n io at n o ) D " e th at th , ee S 4 ly o oft'tio (/ 4 � ' the H the of that not was t text s the J ga· n of e guag J lan D W' ll. llg a the e e th s u lI c h r. T te s la e n u m e c ' batt � gery, s'. e v fi r o r u fo r m eS s o fr pstPI "", a 0 d d do allege e's te a d onstantin C on ul d e d n fou b � s late -'l S al J . this ap , "In forgery gian P (:11� Carolin h, CeIlIU a h on ased t O e b t.oO s claimSpe s\' :ester wereas the consCiOUS cn�. que 0f oneself and of r o , ""r' to po gy to m is c ti ri l c a xtU olo te d l ie p p il a Il o ls a ph a ll a V ' ) I 5 1 ��ti O . OrY as . p. ' 10 v d n in r e e h an Ist a G Sallust) ( " dldes , y ."," n huc T or , dotus b s Hero " " J . the for ",a , preface i ts (L a . ' -e wrote ,.rl1 us s a rasm E J nes; o . l hiSlon fl tatw nno A . his , his of ll father in the e t of y r n raph c �e g b O I �lI s a t Valla ut ,es . B . work ,( w . ,., d in this ' complete f , o on e n , . Arag .nan the Ell'S/' King of ' o dJe ans ed.t! d p Ferdi ' of . 0f anecry senes . Histo a an h t . more 1\�0�l\ectOr, the d in PartS \II 1 5 2 I , IS no . 1958) G he aeta ' life ( blis ate P ad u priv s king' the . with ri ly mong I a ar ri h ma 0 sc f :e Ie h' c h � 1445tes alfng p t ' IS 0 d IOn B as . Just , " at h t after ren . e do r su wrir not . am . 1 en cnnc; be chief . s the ha IS Valla It so , ans llnuO f tori ry a m m su his a st such . �ani defend .. can u one that the h work 1446, ta, 's inslaura nee (Roma Gue Rome d ient ar an rn on C e uals B man Dec his his in in d n a do, ( 472) n c. Bio printed n. 1459, , latio hans triwnp a or collect Rom great ; a 1 47' was , 1 440 to 4 1 2 from rinted in Ages e Middl a nor the s of source of tory e critiqu a r �des, a his neithe is works there "
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se at the other, in each but ide , ces alongs ed publish are of sou r ments docu s The pope' ory. the , hist Biondo but order, sense of al ologic chron in ) des menta Deca docu the al historic in most (in ology arche e includ to first was the ry, teta sec urated inaug ns historia st tlon . humani the ry centu h fifteent al rnatur the as supe early and As ables f of red cumbe disen ce scien 69cal (1) histori Btuni ar rdo Leona a secul of that here is name great 4) 140 The to ons. (up venti ce Fwren inter of ory Hist e whos nce, Flore of and cellor , dation chan the foun 1444), city's the rning conce nds lege ed the open n mentio is way not the does him "With on. venti inter dential Baron Provi ans of H speaks and never ter (Fue y" histor of nation expla al ry. histo of toward a natur ierung) n (Pro f a " nation "profa c the olemi as p this long ed a to rise has describ gave . s myth orical o-hist nne pseud Etie of , on turns rejecti y The B s. Frank the of origin n Troja the in d s allege book the ten 1 560; concerning 1, k (Boo ce Fran la de llia rches o-Ga Reche Franc his his in Pasquier, in lan Hotll ois Fran<; 1 61. 1), Clovis of 'a. n jusqu editio aises � fr posthu mous et ises gauw is tiquit An his nouvelle et in oire Fauch e l'hist Claud de Desseirt (1 5 73), his in e linier pope la de elot Lanc and ( 1 5 99), •
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:y "l all que st· IOn So{ th e e"c r T Ojan or Hotman amtams persuasively e i The role of�he Reformati th. at they We o gin of h J;-� on � f G th e :: ese rrn: should be em ized. �y arous�� ad nits, I C n e ·OC s �/� i p g h n s Ch.ristianity, a y freemg them Iri d ' l) te gi cO � rj tO d IS . d e ba t se l v e s tanan tradition, the Reformers COnt frOm the eCeds On. the ha,!lleth ....bU ted to the eSlaS tl·c 1St°
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On ly li OUt t at th eCtual to ha ve ta IIO� �o 'k n e te trO ken the lIto a n tl ' Mal'Xis rn -OUt th rislI) de, th 1\>i1h or ished, t Pse eme of , h as I e p, �o i u l 'l'a tlon , ce d o -hi St �I �ilre Sin a s Mand /ity a r O sm h as b ' s its Ory tha ctedi nventieth ce een th e b,�nn t se ' onIy C nrury parr e O h , has If ellis what hap fr e o r m e / n th t the pens in Ig at of °ilt. o Max W, h t of th ren eWal of II' e dIs ' a ue eber., I ry of his hISt ' oricaI t IS ill)p tOry i� ctl'on w pra ctice aga ins t Ma ith in th nds b ut o a )t to OU tside WeSt (beg St tha t certain l'J(j t 11 '1l a he it)- oi u pro ems s O O n al)d th e ll) ' ry at are ca e ag only On the r e e the s p lIt O/l)e it ba a l a sis of Ma f it o h , r h e hIStorian s h ichel la' I)O ndsm , In h M is t o t ria� c ave tn d t rh e an be a o �cail o sh ow th est a c the "new ; f 1r at Ma , erta h isto , lated sm co ul nell' histo ry, b u,t also that � ; Jl) nllrnber rv d n ry th roug O M t OnIy a ' '''s m b� f ga h Its m �"s On od ' teres t hISt ' ory, an e t g a I) , a l e of th d its mte in Struct g IVl - rest in e th ures, ' s fa thers T. th e area lerre fvlla I[ concep of th ' of tech nl' r and G uy ti IS On of q ues an Bois h a passpby ' a tat ve expres Way of a ce d mate " 'll sed ri rt ' "
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201 / day To r y Histo . tory" f/is Ages (Haarlem, n dle the of Mid ing a W e Th r rpiece, l. se mas e ' ' tive psych0 Iogy mto h'IStOry,
collec ,0 "" ), 945 and r y i d( , 9)1 brought sens ibil n Febvre's foundation in 1 929 of the journal 9 Lucie d 1 rc Bloch�� so� known si ce � e ���� ire d'his ruwie s A � a � ed m red ide nS IS ! co the b ) h ns arw Civilis , ites Soci s, rs mie c , Econo es (fi les ;t al as A(IIIa e neW history,78 The ideas of the journal inspired tbe o f th e cerri6ca� D 1947 by Lucien Febvre (d. 1 956; Bloch, a member of the
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"AnnaIes," These ideas can be summarized as (l) the critique of historical fact and event-oriented history, in particular political history; (2) the quest
for collaboration with other social sciences (the sociologist Emile Durk
heim, the SOciologist/anthropologist Marcel Mauss, and the economist
Franc;ois Simiand
who had published in 1903 in the
Revue de synrhese
lzistorique (a pioneering journal in the new history, under the direction of Henri Berr, 1863-1 954) an article titled "Methode historique et science
sociale;' denouncing the "political;' "individual;' and "chronological"
"idols" the
Annales);
Annales
program inspired
all shaped the outlook of the
(3) the replacement of history-as-nallaove by history-as
problem; and (4) anention to the present,
Femand Braude! ( \ 902-1 985) was the author of a revolutionary "the-
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longue
durie ("Histoire et sciences sociales, la longue du
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Almost everywhere in the 1 970s colloquia and works, most of them
collective, defined the new orientations of history, In 1 974 a collective
202
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work titled Eain de I''/tUto,,,, CLe Goff n ry 70", problems, "new app ro hes a " a d No ra nd S p c a� ew obie:r:'� ,) rese "Jnew problems h nt : u vt! rirmi o ed :tn t hi q , f � f h s r S t I t o I e i s t o ry be I or ri ti g, rhe hisro r y � o nc f c ' y o eptuO�, A.1ll p . \\: le ' p eo non, ideologica l IIIsrory, Marxist h t � �Qg �'l in t O U hi S t g tor ':� y, t an history. The neaw Profches conce� d a e ne ", ;' �� Qry, ph)l religious nr�P o �, new met�rcheology,' eCOnollJe' en t ti tlI"" en P ? ods in rh the sci n s, an;politic tes s. The new pr0ble e hiStory of d,elllo t"l rmomtl! sho ' ; C � ) l.f t 196 toUe, 7 hisro�� a � and bet n sooologyU,(among other we n exa mpI es, rhe s � OCl 'Ii.oumine declaring in n disir olo re g st d'histoi p, �74: i A l a In "1 , d o not rask of sociolo� firom the h separate is tory o f a soc l e ry ") the ' a privilege has been esrablI hed berwee L , d rel atio S n cu S tory a n d n n t h ro pol ogy, 0 � " he anth ra_ PoIogJ rs side this �s proposed by E , ' E vans-Pritc �� "
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be, no one knows. Perhaps it will will y stor . ersa 1 h·1 u V . 1I u st I l we cal y. at tor wh his t m m fro ff nt ere rcu 1}' nl y di a ra c a h ng conflicts. To reduce it to a bland, \VOar � et i the , nces llere /)e SO'" di h e t n e . o ry tryin g to please everyone is not to take the }' ,< nror e ·nve 1 h.st a p,st 1 e<:urnenlc e of the five volumes of the Histoue failur l artia p e h t -eetl}' . " e c /' / ,·n. e n . J · hed by s" n umam te, pubi.s .entz"i:qu e et cultu�el ae rh. "". �.. ent SCI · "ht Pa . tentl.ons. d o tn o g f o ll fu re a ivefoPP'nef7I 6 which W n" J b £SeD t World ar, history has been confronted by new SecOn d tJ he 0 f them. three Si nce r tion men 11 a h s l es. it must respond to the demands of eng r, eve n tha all re mo h . c IS tha t Ii t ect it to be more than a teacher The rs exp that es stat and . ns, o n na s le p , eo p an sy yncra essential element idios their rhe of r mirro a rnore t han .� that they are anxiously seeking. of 1 1 e,. . tity iden ve ecti coll and al u d I . I d . .n V he r of er colOnizers, who have lost fOlln the of s and dem the to nd o resp ust Ir rn · Ie European space · I t · elt Itt h d to · te Iml I I ves mse the find a nd emp theIr . s awakent·ng from a t · lon ien f nat anc I) 0 ; P a ug ort , France, n ·tai Bn (G eat Eastern Europe, where of tries coun the of ; Italy) any, (Germ . htma re is not in agreement with what Soviet domination would have Soviet Unio n, caught between the short history of the of e; believ them ed country and the long history of its nationalities; unifi a as nce existe its y a had in it won histor for itself ed the believ which , States d Unite the of whole world, and finds itself hesitating between imperialism and human rights; of oppressed countries bauling for their history as well as for
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their lives (Latin America); of new countries groping toward the con struction of their own history. (For black Mrica, see Assorodobraj
1967.)
Must we, or can we, choose between an objective history-as-knowl
edge and a militant history? Must we adopt the scientific schemas forged
by the West or must we invent a historical methodology at the same
time as a history? For its part, the West has asked itself during its ordeals (the Second World War, decolonization, the shock of May
1968)
whether the wisest
thing to do was not to give up on history. Wasn't it one of the values that led to alienation and unhappiness? To those who long nostalgically for a life without a past, Jean Ches
neaux has replied by recalling the necessity to master a history, but he has proposed to make it "a history for the revolution�' This is one of the
possible results of the Marxist theory of the unity of knowledge and praxis. If, as I believe, history, with its specificity and its dangers, is a
science, then it mus t esca pe identification with politics, an old dream of
/
210
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2'2 / H.islO Alain DuFour. _ L ' ,,- , Z, ' '""'lOg as ' ..T' 17, i.rlo hIS m rhe A1ilanese o ')del the seare in rh 70 e ome O modem polit w rks ~ o f C ical hIsr harIes tr ' 0ry,' " re'de ' WhOSe bITch , of modem has progra c ti oC Seares a m sevenreench Or o rhe ould w ed ' ce nru rie b m � "fo odern e t s' bY cu o li mlO t a II} on Srar.,.. ward the poliri g OU nd r atte cal ' ' pe I rs n on Ore ' th nel ncj a el"lJt l\'lch Irs O ' rO n W nell' kind ard th tll s�ee nd t� frO e cJ of erhics, e nas rhe rO nth a e more Or less impf cenr lVard rh s o " e ' a e name of rh of n s ,ar el e t � ires rev e s \ . ufour n1 a gi" eneral Crats, 0 IS irs g 966' 20) 1 .
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and struggles are for the most ns decisio ay ryd e e " ur o as mfollllatlon, one of can e see that the cours dis "I so far m e y b s" our societie : 1 8 of (Veron 9 1 70). 1 future u-orl<: t;rmined the n a h t . , , es l de S l d an s questlons, a challenge ens.s has re""rf lod lng of nd I u o r r �e IS ckg ba I shall take as an example of historians, ;'" of d i llst thI S , worl he t . In d j\'!? e .1 appea r hlstonans, wrence tone S and Etic La British . (WO en e cen") debate be(W In h'IS essay "The Revival of . esent Pr and ast P the in thIS pub I'IShed m h'IStOry b ased on the ' to naltanve . return LI bsba",\TI, a tes , ,,0 , " StO ne no . ,.-. the disap poi nt "'.-.nve, e detertllI' nist model of hlstoncal explananon, . th f produced by quanti' tative hiStOry, the disfailu re 0 S result I'rv the pa J ' 'rh mellt "" strucrural analYSIS, and from, the tradinooa� from ' g I n U [I re5 n , s o " illusl f 0 mentah ry." 10 a conclu, notion the of r e charact ry" ona tt " reac evell of is a analys an notion that is itself in uiry arnbig of ph trium a , ,, 'on thar 'IS " Sl , k h new histonans responsible lOr t e e C rna to s seem ne to S . atTIblguous , ' h " IC h' h .rom a y of [he deory, w IStor hist of s nt e m ce a l p dis and i the sh'ns ' rerumed to uad'm. onaI h'IStory: " nar h ave to suppose d is rype [ , tenniOlS , hl'story and individual biography are showing evident signs of ranve a d. e d e t h m o fr in a ag rising . '
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Hobsbawm replied that the methods, onentanons, and producnons of me "new" history in no way abandoned the great questions nor [he search for causes in order to adhere [0 the principle of indetetminacy, ,
,
Rather, they represent in large measure "the contiouation of past histor
ical methods by other means." Hobsbawm has rightly emphasized that the new history's primary objectives are [he broadening and deepening of scientific history.
it has
doubtless encountered problems, limits, and perhaps dead-ends. But it
continues to broaden the field and the methods of history. Stone was
particularly unable to see what is truly new, or "revolutionary;' in the current trends in history: the
CIirique
of the document, the new way of
considering time, the new relations between the "material" and the
"spiritual;' the analyses of the phenomenon of power in all its fOiU1S, and not only from a narrowly political point of view.
By proposing to consider the new trends in history as fads on their
way Out and abandoned even by their partisans, Stone has nOi only
remained at the surface of the phenomenon but ended up allying himself
in an ambiguous fashion with those who would like to bring history
back to the thrashing about and narrow positivism of the past. That such
people are raising their heads in the domain of historians and neighbor-
215 / day To ry o ist H ,
Y. r O t j/is
e this knowledge becaus but felt, be to ed ceas be can ry" ISIO ve h' " ter m a . e h t h h ,III wh'IC to e ", os th an , me to say, th is that ti history, s in f itself o ge is f wled r e no k t ical o � true, e r and real o e more s" �� the i all es it mak e y onl \ d, � s come h � ' ' tona S Thi p m I" l eas p 'd s cO ' roce e" 0f e b one J r a e e s to ( e rOp lng e urO ffilttled or ret a has ) , �, " " ' n. C t1on I, as d ht an tunaId p "e houg T ' as ory .I0 ,I' o H ist ;' and o past h e ( t GirOl� "" eratmg b I l f 0 s o mean ap " a as e hy trl rap ' riog authentic and co to true e a ' IS to ",JI,Sie
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comem wirh only a few ridi culous and 1· " u ory c erta i "H I·Srorizin I:' bvre repear wllar Lucien re . . ' s�ory I JOO lirrle for me a d for many orhe r mI e. ." or . ,t · nar� re of hisrorical sCi nc 10 be dosely link w· e . deed we I· whIch ir is a part. Bur we can m uSt, begI ' IJ1 . n ning · ' a n every lusrorian work srruggle so that h · I Stor)! i n b oth , worei, may become d ill:. � en"'/.
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ay." Tuesd T next SEN leave E R "I / P w;' e?' orro Rom lom PAST sack Paris will 10 s g rian goin barba am I the " , 410 mple omic
"in , e.g. "gn the re;' futu called al ly toric usual "his is a which also , G reek 1. There is nt ancie t in aoris the ple, . 3. For exam (977) s, (Pari et Ghani" " ",Ajib nuiu un' aorist. et 190\) . · "Mill is, (Par des conte 1900 rigines a el, Un n o des unario �' 4. A. Miqu dhem eJran La " Langu c;ais, La de Fran in ien Anc en s . orelle \. F. Brunot, Huw 19\6) temp rg, s sbou sition (Slra propo S Jranftll "Les , ticaL leVI de 6. P. Imbs s Clau gramma by du temp d ucte l'itwk a cond ution inar (sem i til 'Itkn du moment: Contrib L in samo; ntite "L'ide r, Herilie presF. 7. and past rding rega . udes 1 977) attit the enza; of Strauss, Paris, ecad e outlin "D les brief ame a only the give and shall w, belo ters 8. Here I chap . nt 1986 que 8, subse 197 see Goff s, detail Le in more e" For rion ent. o/rea ress "Prog e;' 6). mitich 191 s, "Era (Pari ogia;' de ormal. cytE "Scatol N a Thu Scuol cite{ della el raison b Anna istoin H in y, es;' progr 9. ). de Romill du I'idee et e cyd,d Finley, "Thu Eoud 10. M. 1. ama Gaut De 9 1 • ., 1 43Vol . . 3 \('): es , (1 966) religteus tE ?;sa idees Superior< des ,t ees
For exa
2 18 / End"Ol es P Text and transla ClsI/A tion quo'ed . res from Char' c,nwfy, Pnnce os Single . 'on, '975· ron� ", '3· Pero, donne genti edJ.o.
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MEMORY
C. Flores, "Mem oire," in Encyclopaedia Universalir. Z. ]. Piaget, La mimoire. Symposium of the of the French Langu Associa tion of Scientific age (Paris, 1970). Psychology J. H. Ey, "Les troubles de la memo ire," in iftudes psyc"ia z, no. 9; and �es (Paris, 1 956), vol. PSYdwpatftorogy 0/Menwry, Symposium, Tallard , ed. (Boscon, 1 967).
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3· Perrarch:"Manly s, 1968) strength will rake , 2: up will show rna, neirher arms againsr � valor nOr 'he favor, and rh . Italian heart is grear valor af u -L.e � len'g . ' h ts.I" V: dead". An . ; OSlo":0 asan: It '5 a very : <0h""'" in all respeas because ir beau I rh riful arch i'e has so well imirared rhe ann"ue"; L admired in all � prose. I " eopa w�rk " rdi: 4· Perra rch, Apo/"gra golly COn/ro cu;,"""", anonymi Galli 1 5 54), p. 1 187. CQ/umnias, in C1>era omnia (Bas., S· Currius, La liuirorure , europie.ne et Ie M oyen Age latin 6. ]. Chailley, Hiswin (Paris, 1956), p. 30. musicale du moyen age (2d. ed.; Paris, '96?), p. ' 7· G uerrand, DAn nouv.au 43 . en Europe (paris, '965). 8. Gruenbaum, Dimensio ns du XX"", siede (G en eva, '965); Berqu duprisent, p. z9O. e, Langages a rahes 9· Amadou Hampate Ba, Tradition et modernisme en 4fifu 10. Gino Gennani, e noire, p. 3 ' . "Secularizarion, Modemi zation, and Economic ment," in Eisenstadt, Pro testm" Edlic (New Develop Y ork, 1968), I I. Germani, p. J 54 . Introduaion to La modemtii: LaJtmme modeme, pp. I z. G. Van Leeuw, 1 5z-58. L1Iomme primitff et la relg i ion: Etude antluop 1 940), pp. 16 J ff. oloci9ue (Paris, IJ. Kende, L'a.en.emen t de /" sociili modem e, p. 16. ' 4· K. S. Sherrill, in Comparative PolLiics (Janu ary ' 969). •
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primo congresso intemar'onale de/In Societa ItalUma di Stona JeI DirUto (Florence, 1966), pp. 293-309· la chute 42. Guiwt, Cours d'Histov. Mod.ernc Hisrou. U, civilisation en Europe l'Empire romaUl Jusqu � U, Rivolution Franfaise, 1 828, 7me Le�on, quoted by Ehrard 4 1 . G. Arnaldi,
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44. de Tocqueville, .0. la Dimoaan'e en Amin 'n�, I 8 , 36-39' L' n, , · 6 .I\eVQlUllon, I 8 5 'AIJ� 45. Keith Hancock, quoted by Banaclough, His«> . ~ •� 46. J. de RomiJIy, Thucydide et l'impirUJlisme a 1P":4i, ans, 1 9 17); ch"{ Thucydide (Paris, 19 56). " 47· A. Taleb, Lettrer "'prison, Fresfles, 10 dlcembre, 195 AIg .... . .. er, ed� 1 966. i ir Gesclliclulidre &cIuwissenschcif;'( 8 48. Savigny, ui"cIviffi 5 , 1 :1. Geschichte. der germanisclz 49. Ranke, 8'1; rp� '9 50. A study on VICO to Le Devernr Soaal, 1896. 1 7, p. � 0/Study in His«>ry. Johns Ho 5 I . H. B. Adams, kins UnI. P versIty ies in HistOry and Polrllcal SCIence ( 1 884), no. 2. S "'ue ., ses m"", u. oJes, Encyclopedie de la Pleiade (Paris, 1 96 I), p. 2 5 5. 61 . A. Schnapp, L'Arclriologre aujourd'lzu� 1 980; M . 1. Finley, 1 971. 62. J. M. Pesez, "Histoire de la culture materielJe," in Le Goff et aI., 1978: l Jo; R Bucaille and). M. Pesez, "Culrura materiale," in Le Goff 1978.. . .
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290•
65. "Nam quis nesch primam esse historiae legem, ne quid falsi audeat? deinde ne quid ven non audeat?" Cioero, De orotore, II, 6 2. 66. "HlslOria vero testis lemporum, lux veritatis, vita memoriae, magistra vitae, nuntia vetustatis, qua vooe alia nisi oratoris immortalitali commendarur?" Cicero, II, )6; quoted by R. Koselleck, "Historia magistra vilae: Uber die Au/losung des Topas im Horizonr neUleidich bewegrer Geschichte," in Nature und Geschiclue. Fesrsclrrififor K Low,ih (Stuttgart, 1 967), pp. 196- 219. 67· G. F. Chesmur, TIt. First Clvistian Histoms: Eusebius, SOt/ates, So{omen, Tkodoret andEvagrius (Macon, Ga.), 1978, p. 24 5. 68. Eusebius, CluTmiron 426, 428 , 429, 4 3 2, 4 )9, 44 5 , 4 54. 69· q,era de temporibus, C. Jones, ed., p. 303. 70. Hugh of St. Vieror, Fundaml!1l11lm omnis dotlJincu in De mous maximis cir-r:um , stanciis gestorum, W. M. Green, ed., Speculum (194 3). p. 49 "
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