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AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
D,
S,
Chauhan, M.
A., Ph. D,
t
Director,
The B. R. School
of
Economics
&
Sociology,
AGRA.
A&VRWAL, afSsje-^^Xij^^S^^bf^^
H O 9 P I T Al HO A
li
,AG R A
(INDIA),
ALL
RIGHTS RESERVED.
Printed at
The Modern
Press, Agra.
aJia Cflamvi
jUom
-tonom
aumol naA
a4aaw
FOREWORD Agricultural Economics
an appendage
to
is
taught and studied in India as
economics, of which
urban-industrial
the
type and pattern are set by the economic history and instituWestern Europe and America, This kind of approach
tions of is
responsible not only for the lack of scientific understand-
ing and interpretation of the social and economic problems of the Indian country-side, but also for the indifference,
nay fatalism with which we look upon the present trends of rural decay, desocialization and disintegration as inevitable* It is
and fresh introduction
for this reason that this brief
to
Economics coming as it does from Chauhan, who has had a long and valuable experience of field agricultural research, is to be heartily welcomed the study of Agricultural
Dr.
D
by the
S.
scientific circles.
The net output
at factor cost
from agriculture
in India is
estimated at about 48 per cent by the National Income Committee. But agriculture is not merely an occupation but also a its
mode
of living;
and hence
the
enhancement or lapse
of
values apart from income or employment has both direct
and indirect beyond
effects
upon general economics and policies far Yet even within the limited
farming as a business.
field of the agricultural
blems
occupation
that are crying for solution,
the holding, the lization of
the insistent pro-
cropping system, the
optimum cattle power and
the
on which rests the whole success agricultural sector.
we have
such as the optimum
size of
optimum
uti-
optimum farm management of the Five Year Plan on its
These have been
skilfully
dealt
with
by Dr. Cbauhan* He makes out a strong case for proper land utilization that today holds the major key not only for successful population adjustment but also for withstanding
the social and economic perils of erosion
the soil ot the
Great Indian Desert
the
Today
and the population
cumulative
eating
and dessication* into
vitals of
the
On
Uttar Pradesh.
oi
of
effects
is
the expansion of
account
sands
loose
by the disappearance of scrub jungle and grass, over and gming browsing by cattle, sheep and goats for generations and heavy erosion, especially along the flanks of the set free
Jamuna and made desert itself
its
what may be called, the 'man-
tributaries,
1
or the 'Dust
Bowl
of India' has
now
over about a thousand square miles in
smiling
plenty.
Topographical
land once
indicate that
Ferozpur, Patiala, Mathura and
from the north
to the south
Agra are
vulnerable lines
the
surveys
established
oi
across which the
invades the Ganges valley in a great convex arc of half a mile per year during
swallowing up about 50 It
may
at least
miles of
sq.
be estimated that the
500
sq,
the last half a fertile
desert
at
a rate
century and
land
gullied lands in U*
per yean P.
cover
miles and are not merely useless but consti-
tute a serious danger to the adjoining good lands. Almost 20 per cent of the tracts along the Jamuaa and the Chambal
in Uttar Pradesh is
comprising a
now
intersected
vast waving sea of
and denuded by ravines aching desolation and
waste fringing and attacking one of the most prosperous parts of India. The U. P. doe to man's recklessness, igno-
rance and hunger-drive, cesses of
which are accelerating the pro*
wind and water
erosion in a
semi-arid tract
bordering the Great Desert, is committing 'regional suicide in the south-west.
servation of
The conservation
of
soil
and
the
1
con-
water which are intimately associated with
Hi
(
)
each other together touch the entire tion of the earth
and thus a
field of
man's exploita-
scientific bio-physical
involves the highest amount of
programme man's
co-ordination of
uses of trees) grasses, soils and waters in the back-ground of
his popolation
and
pressure
standard
of
I
living.
would expect that the team-investigations of the B, R. School of Economics and Sociology, Agra, under Dr. Chauhan's will
guidance
expert
show
the
way
the
for
recovery
Agra-Mathura region on the basis of integration methods and materials from the different fields. of the
Researches
into
and
soil
water
of
land
conservation)
reclamation and agricultural intensification and extension
cannot succeed
have
these be undertaken
if
These
piecemeal,
be carried out in
total setting of the emerging science concerned with the techniques economic agricultural of farm production, the patterns of farm management and to
the standards
farm work and living
of
reciprocity with the
The
transformations. in India is
Today
the
complex
of
in
their
entire trend of culture
and technology
working against the country-side and Indian village
is
dynamic
economic, social and cultural
victimized by
agriculture,
The
the city,
and progress of the country-side depend upon success with which we can introduce a dispersed type
rehabilitation
the
of industrialism
on the basis of hydel power and
motor
transport and tations that skills
set up certain intermediate "rurban" habicombine the social values of the village with
and technologies of the
city-
The Five Year Plan
is
unhappily silent about these aspects of economic integration
and development.
Dr,
for rural industrialization
lead to the diversification
Chauhan has made
a
strong plea
on a decentralized basis of
that
will
employment, improvement of
farm technology and the reorganization
of rural credit
and
marketing without the control and exploitation by the chain of intermediaries,
All this is related to the
higher educational
institutions,
distribution of
such as Folk Schools and
Colleges after the Danish pattern in rural surroundings, the the powers of village Panchayats and other and the development of rural social welfare programmes. In Uttar Pradesh we have the Panchayat Raj
expansion
of
local bodies
Act which Or. Chauhan heartily welcomes,
Sevak Sangh hopes rural areas.
A
to
The Bharat
begin social service programmes in is yet to be envisaged
social security plan
for the Indian village that,
shock-absorber for
however, constitutes the primary the hazards and misfortunes in all sectors
It is urgent that we approach problems of rural economics in our country not merely from the point of view of income and employment but from that of the broad social
of life.
values of an agricultural civilization.
work contributes materially
to the
economics as a social science
Dr. Chauhan's pioneer
development
of agricultural
in India.
Radha Kamal Mukerjee. UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW,
KMrch
77, 1953.
PREFACE
A good
deal of literature has-been
and
is
being produced on the subject covered by this book, under the same ot
resembling
closely
This attempt
titles,
made
is
collaborating rather than in a competitive spirit,
approach nor in the scope
in the
is
it
claimed
in
a
and neither be of a
to
pioneering nature,
The book
is
understanding of the subject of Agricultural Economics*
full
How
far
it
will
at
if
prove useful,
and
for
not able to foresee at present,
He
which classes is
primarily intended to provide a clear and
of
readers,
to
hew will,
how many,
long, the
for
author
however, be happy
stimulates thinking on the subject, either as a whole or
if it
on any
specific
problem treated therein*
The treatment could of
all,
covering a
not be
wide scope
made more exhaustive because
in a relatively shorter
space.
But
through the device of frequent and sometimes lengthy footnotes an attempt has been
made
to invite or
ders to enter into usually neglected spheres
and
intricacies,
in detail, text,
persuade the rea* of
controversies
which for want of space could not be treated
and could not be accommodated in the body
of the
After an analysis opinions are expressed; and for
detailed study
some sources
are indicated here
and
there.
The approach has been without preconceived notions, and some of the conclusions are widely different from
popular
thinking. validity of for
At ^places doubts have been expresed on the some assumptions, or about facts which are taken
granted, or about
For
settled,
this
controversies
no apology
thinking generally results in merit
is
to
approach.
which are taken as
needed since independent such divergent views whose is
be examined, and assessed
through scientific
While specialists
making the book and at the same time
specialists, die style, instead of
interesting to
to
the
non-
provide something for the
maintaining the specific and
become a mixture of The exactness of statements sake of the specialists make the
distinctive characteristics of either, has
readableness and exactness*
and precision attempted
for the
style prolix at places*
The interspersed
digressions
and
the
language loaded with long sentences have been adopted to make the statements exact without being obscure. But
it
so
appears that clarity attempted for the sake of
the specialists has become, at place, confusing to the general
reader*
It
looks like the vision of an
orchard or forest
becoming obscure when one approaches too close or actually
moves amongst the trees. The author is most indebted to Dr. Radhakamal Mukerjee who has been a source of inspiration. Besides, acknowledge* ments of gratefulness are due to a very large number of authors on whom he has drawn considerably for thought and substance. Some of the names are being referred to but many more remain unmentioned. The author is conscious of their Thanks are also due to Mrs, Sushila Kumari obligations* Chauhan, who has helped considerably in reading the proofs and preparing the index. Lastly, we thank our Publishers for their
remarkable patience in bringing out
this book.
D. S. Chauhan. Agra, Nov., 1952.
CQJJTBNTS FOREWORD. PREFACE.
CHAPTERS. I.
THE SUBJECT-MATTER. DEFINITION. SCOPE. NATURE.,
1-11
,
N
II.
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE.
...
12-25
AGRICULTURAL FUNDAMENTALISM. PLACE OF AGRICULTURE IN NATIONAL ECONOMY* IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTUREIII.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMY.
...
...
.,,
26-56
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY. AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT. INTERDEPENDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER ECONOMIES. THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS. INTENSITY OF CULTIVATION. IV.
TYPES OF FARMING AND THE PROBLEMS OF SELECTION AND VALUATION. ... 57-95 ^CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS. FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. SPECIALIZED VS, DIVERSIFIED FARMING.
PROBLEMS OF SELECTION. VALUING THE FARM. V.
RURAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC TRANSITION.
..,
THE VILLAGE COMMUNITIES,
...
-
PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF VILLAGESSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE,
ECONOMIC TRANSITION AND AGRICULTURERURAL-URBAN RELATIONSHIP. VILLAGE PANCHAYATS IN U P. VI,
FAMINES AND FAMINE RELIEF.
.
158-200
FAMINES.
HISTORY OF FAMINES, FAMINES IN MODERN TIMES, EFFECTS OF FAMINES. MEASURES AGAINST FAMINES, PLAN OF MODERN FAMINE CAMPAIGN, VII,
RESOURCE UTILIZATION. (LAND RESOURCES,)
201-264
RESOURCE ASSESSMENT. LAND-USE PATTERN. SOIL CONSERVATION. FORESTS,
LAND RECLAMATION AND AGR. EXTENSION, VIII,
RESOURCE UTILIZATION CONTINUED. (WATER AND POWER RESOURCES.) 265-350 RIVER TRAINING.
PROTECTION AGAINST FLOODS, 'IRRIGATION.
POWER RESOURCES, CO-ORDINATED POLICY OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION,
in the sale value of
APPENDIX
A.
Changes
APPENDIX
B.
The Community Concept.
land,
CHAPTER
I,
The Subject-Matter.
Definition.
The
scientific
study of
Agricultural
Eco-
nomics as a separate branch of Economics is of recent origin, though books on agriculture used to be written long beforehand and
many
important
of
problems
agricultural
economics have been given considerable thought and have been solved through organized effort. 1 All this literature is of a
different nature
which
is
not generally considered as
agricultural economics in the modern conception of the term.
However, even is
in the recent approaches to the subject there
no unanimity
of
thought,
and
the
definitions given
various authors differ both in nature and scope.
example, a few of them are given below
^/j.
"Agricultural Economics
cultural science
which
by of
:
branch of agri-
is that
treats of the
By way
manner of
regulating the relations of the different elements comprising the resources of the farmer whether it be the relations to each other or to human beings in order to secure the greatest degree of prosperity to the enterprise," (Jouzier) 1 The beginning of the study of agricultural economics is generally traced back to the 9th decade of the last century or roughly towards the At the same time we are told that agriculture close of the 19th century. is the oldest occupation customs, traditions and even legislation regarding land system, taxation, exchange and international trade, irrigation, price administration and relief etc., have existed since the ancient times; economy of most of the countries of the world till the middle of the last ,
;
century was founded almost exclusively on agriculture and the treatment of agrarian problems is seen in almost all the important treatises on political economy by classical writers. Thus, we find a considerable thought and effort being given to agrarian economy since long. Then how to reconcile these two apparently opposite ideas ? Really speaking, when it is said to be a recent study the implication is that the application of moderq ;
2
(
)
2. "Agricultural Economics deals with the principles which underlie the farmer's problems of what to produce, how to produce it, what to sell and how to sell it,
order to secure the largest net profit for himself consistent with the best interest of the society as a whole. in
More specifically agricultural economics treats of the selection of land, labour and equipment for a farm, the choice of crops to be grown, the selection of livestock enterprises to of
be carried on,
the proportions in
which
and the whole question
all
these agencies should
be combined.
These questions are treated primarily from the view-point of costs and prices. It deals not only with economics in production but also with problems of justice in distribution of wealth amongst various "
classes
3
"Rural problem
is
divided
into
four general
The
industrial aspect or agricultural economics has to do with the relation of the farmer with other aspects,
elements of the industrial system, such as land tenures, of transportation, methods of marketing, system
means
of taxation, credit
institutions
and protective and stimu-
lative legislation."
(American Farm Management Association.) economic thought and analysis and the technique
of research to the admiput it on the status of an independent scientific approach, teaching and study of it at the university
of agricultural
nistration
economy
so as
to
level, i, e appointment of professors exclusively for agricultural economics and the inclusion of it as a separate subject for post-graduate studies and research, and the writing of books exclusively on economic and social problems of agriculture and peasants etc., are recent developments. as such, as an organic doctrine based on adequate Agricultural economy and logically analyzed, did not experimental data scientifically collected exist until the end of the last century when thought was stimulated in Western Europe, England and America by the agricultural depression. In fact the earlier treatment of the problems of agriculture as indicated above is not considered as the study of agricultural economics in the modern meaning of the term. It is because agricultural economy in early times has been studied by technical agriculturists rather than by professional economists, and the earlier economists while dealing with problems of dwelt on general economic problems apart from the specific agriculture character of the sector under consideration (e, g,, discussed general problem of price-fixing even though investigations were concerned with agricultural even while studying agriculture as a human activity (e. g,, products) and in historical approach) and in their sociological approach (e.g., life of of farm-work) they rarely conceived of anything peasants and problems other than abstract problems of little practical value, ,
2,
Taylor,
(
3
)
"It may be defined as the science in which the 4, principles and methods of economics are applied to the special conditions of agricultural industry," 5,
''Agricultural
Economics may be defined as the economics to the craft and busi-
application of general ness of agriculture."
"Agricultural Economics
6,
tionships arising
spending
The
first
with farm
The
is
the study of
activities of
man in
agriculture."-
three definitions identify agricultural economics
management and hence, they are
other three are better
hensive in comparison
to
is
more akin
conception of economic activities and hence, definition,
explanatory and
is
that case
to
it is
Marshall's
also limited
;
covers a wider scope, is not characterized by vagueness. Really
though
it
it
charm on being explanatory and necessarily becomes lengthy
speaking, a definition loses since in
limited in scope.
because of being more comprethe first three. But they neglect
Hibbard's idea
the social aspect.
and Gray's
rela*
from the wealth-getting and wealth*
its
;
brevity often sacrifices comprehensiveness. to criticise a definition
It is
very easy
from one point of view or another but
Secondly, there is an impression that the systematic study of agricultural economics as a separate branch of study has originated in the U, S. A, and that the terminology such as 'rural economies' and 'agricultural econoThese are wrong impressions, and have mies' has also originated there. gained ground most probably because the literature of the countries of Western Europe specially Germany and Italy, has not been sufficiently In America, though a few earlier contributions are found, T. F. studied. field of agricultural economics Hunt^lj&2) is the outstanding pioneer in the ^wTufpuTniral economics on the list of courses recommended in 1896, and the most popular book for the students of agricultural economics in U. 8, libraries was 'Progress and Poverty', by Henry George written in 1880. Besides, the terminology referred to above is seen in English literature prior to its use in the U.S.A., and in England there is also available a rich literature by Caird (1850 and 51), Prothero (1888), Cobden (1846) and even much earlier to them by William Marshall and Young at the close of the 18th and the American thought is considerably influbeginning of the 19th century enced by, and American students at the close of the 19th century found many of their basic principles explained in, German literature, by Thaer, This shows that prior to America, Thunen, Roscher, Sering and Goltz England had a considerably rich literature in agricultural economics and 4.
Gray,
5.
Howard,
6.
Hibbard,
(
very
difficult to give
4
)
one which
may be
free
from the defects
found in the previous ones, But while describing the subject-
matter and the scope a brief definition is not indispensable nor is it necessary for students to remember any particular one.
definitions are criticised
Very often
because a few
do not convey the exact sense the covered author. This is the case with by scope
lines torn off the original text
and the
full
Taylor whose ideas and treatment of agricultural economics covered a much wider scope than indicated by his definition
which
is
Perhaps the purpose can be
quoted.
generally
served by omitting a brief definition in the beginning and the students
find
may
easier by
it
first
dealing in a bit detail
with the nature and scope of the subject-matter and then to a
come
concrete definition. Agricultural economics
Scope,
is
not the application of
the general theory of economics to the business of agriculture
but as
indicated by the term
is
itself, is
the social science of economics. to
have
at the
economics.
very
It
is,
a specific aspect of
therefore,
In this regard
it
is to
be noted that the scope of
economics has widened from Trice Economy* 1
Economy of
.
Economics
Marshall that
business of
life
it
;
it
necessary
outset a clear understanding of generaj
to
'Welfare
instead of being defined in the
"is a
study of
examines
words
mankind
in the ordinary
of
individual and
that part
America borrowed considerably from Germany, Again, even prior to England, Germany and Italy had advanced far in this study. At the close of the 19th century every important German University had its professor who taught subjects concerning fields now designated as agricultural economics when there was no chair of agricultural economics in any English University, and the contributions of Thaer (1798) and Thunen (1826) are economics. said to be The outstanding contributions in agricultural Similarly, Italy was remarkably rich in such literature contributed by Cato, Varro, Columella, Pliny and Virgil. And the influence of Italy on British that
thought and practice is proved by the modern agriculture the British system
fact that prior to the introduction of of farming was termed as 'Virgilian
Agriculture/ Besides, during the 19th century Italy had fine contributions made by Carlo Castaneo, lacini and Valenti.
5
(
which
social action
and
most closely connected with the
is
ment and with the use
)
attain* 1
of the material requisites of well-being/ 1
be a study of 'material welfare, being considered to be a particular
thus, being considered to
and economic
activities
group of human activities distinguished from non-economic it
is
now more
that
it
is
activities,
Robbins
popularly defined in the words of
which studies human behaviour
a "science
as a relationship between ends and scarce alternative uses",
human
is
It
The problem
activities.
means which have
a study of a particular aspect
satisfy multifarious wants
of
economics
is
how
<*f
to
The back-
with scarce means.
ground is that wants are unlimited and the means to satisfy them are scarce* A complication has been introduced by the characteristic of
The
uses.
objective
maximum
the
means
Here
welfare.
social
economists, and
their
can be put to alternative
that they
attain the greatest
is to
is
satisfaction
the subject-matter for
task has been described
is
way
of
as
the science and art of cultivating land and
raising of livestock,
a
in short
Agriculture on
that of selecting or choosing or economising*
the other hand,
or
life also,
and
is
A
not only a
mode
of livelihood but
combination of these two ideas, of
economics in general and
agriculture in particular, gives
of
a clue to our subject-matter.
Agriculture, in general,
Some
is
governed by a number of
of these forces are physical
chemists,
geologists
and
soil
and are treated by
specialists,
etc*
physiologists,
pathologists,
bacteriologists, etc.
sociological
arising
geneticists,
entomologists
forces which are characterised
and a way
agricultural
of life.
others
and animal
forces are economic
set of
amongst men on account of
as a vocation that
Another
physicists,
Some
are biological forces which are studied by plant
forces.
and and
by relationships
agriculture being followed
It is
economists deal.
with these relationships In other words, while
6
(
the multifarious
satisfying
wants farmers come in contact
These contacts are
with others. of
)
modern economic
the natural characteristics
which the economists
life,
arise
say,
on
account of specialization and commercialization of production, division of labour and
and
distinct factors of
combinations
of
With
production.
widely scattered progress of
the
becoming more numerous and complicated, weaving around an individual a network of inter-relationships some of which are supplementary, some
civilization these contacts are
complimentary and others competitive. They involve relations between different enterprises indicating (i) :
the choice of farming as an occupation, and between different
branches of the same occupation indicating a choice between
growing of crops or raising of livestock, or even between cereals and fibres,
in
growing
of crops,
relations
(w)
between
presenting a problem of
commercial
(fit)
people
to
whom
they
farmers and
between
whom
from
or
production
combination and substitution,
right
relations sell
factors of
different
the
they buy goods and
services, and, (iv)
relations oi value
production and the
between
the different factors of
product, involving cost and
final
price
relationship.
Agricultural economics covers
economic
life
of
the
distribution
exchange,
all
it
to
studies
;
what
what
'.
produce
sell
to
four branches.
;
what
what
to
With
how
where
;
specific
production,
for
practical
can be divided into
to
produce and how much and at what price to
to sell
among whom
to distribute,
To be
it
.
special reference to agriculture
produce,
to sell,
basis to distribute
consume.
four branches of
community and consumption, and
agricultural
purposes or for detailed treatment these
the
what it
to
to distribute
and on
consume ami how much
includes the choice of farming
7
(
farm and
as an occupation, the choice of
nery and labour,
)
livestock, of machi-
crops and cropping system, the size of the
of
unit of production the grouping of the factors of production, intensity of culture, manuring, irrigation, soil of agricultural products, land
selling
cultural finance
and
costs
prices,
Dividend,
and
rate
profits,
etc.
i,
efficiency,
e,,
problem
is of
economising or of
choosing the most profitable enterprise and
at the
it
of
factors
rent, agri-
wages and employment, standard of living and National
of interest,
In all the cases the basic
operating
conservation,
system and
optimum
production
combining the different most economical proportion,
scale,
the
in
buying and selling most advantageously, regulating all the activities involving value to the best interest, and in short, directing
the activities
all
of the agricultural
to the
economist
is
to
best advantage,
what
point out
The is
task
best to
do in the economic interest of the agricultural community under given conditions, what is technically termed as valuation of
phenomena by
worthwhile
It is
maximum
with
social standards
to note
return
money
in
That
satisfaction in consumption.
aspect,
call
it
the
or
that this does not
problem
human
or product,
is a
standards.
coincide exactly or
limited ideal.
of pricing or of profits,
maximum Monetary is
a basic
and very important aspect of our science but not the whole of It is the basic economic motive, but is a means to an end it.
and
not
and
a
an end in
itself*
driving force
mankind
or of society.
does not end
maximum
in
for
judged not
provides a will, an urge, a purpose, motives the service of
The study
attaining
of agricultural
maximum
return
in
indvidual satisfaction of the farmer.
interest cannot be ficed
It
for higher
overlooked.
economics
money or The social
Individual interest is sacri-
community interest, The results have to be from the maximum profit but from the general
the
8
(
happiness of
The
life.
Besides, the
in
is
subject
the
is
maximum
evolutionary
social welfare.
growth-
under new circumstances which
problems
arise
solutions,
and emphasis
shifts
The
The
economic and
cost
social
of
analysts
now used
another
of the
to
include
farm community.
individual crops and farms, formerly
attempted with H view of various factors in
problems
to
fence conception * 1
'line
changed agricultural economics has now widened so as
all the
New
call for fresh
from one problem
conditions.
to
according of
ideal
)
to
discover the relative importance
determination of farm
the
in connection with regional
profits, is
adjustment of produc-
from a national point of view; and serves as a basis for
tion
national policy.
The study
of
foreign trade in
agricultural
commodities has evolved from the economic advantages to different nations and the idea of the comparative cost to the of International Emergency Food Council present activities
and
the
Food and Agricultural Organization.
The study
of
land economics has developed from merely resource description to directional measures as a means of dealing with public problems of
resource conservation.
The study
of
iarm labour and rural welfare has advanced from community studies to the distribution of national labour
force,
social
security and public utility services. Similarly, considerable development has been made in research in marketing and price analysis, statistical research, soil conservation, enumerative
surveys and attitude studies in determining public policy, Nature,
etc.
In order to concentrate attention on a particular
branch the domain of economic activities has been divided into
several
provinces which are distinguished from one
'The conception
that
the
field
of
agricultural
economics should be
those things which could be acted upon by the individual This was the early American farmer within his own line fence view, (B. \V, Allm, Journal of Faim Economics, Aug., 1948), restricted
to
9
(
)
another by some qualifying terms such as land economics
and labour economics,
and public
household economics
economics, rural economics and municipal economics, It
will
be wrong
to
that
imagine
Such
exclusive of another.
a
any one of them
thing
is
not
is
etc,
absolutely
possible specially
At higher stages the problems are inseparably interlinked, and at the highest stage they merge into one, Hence, the principles and practices of agricultural in
sciences,
social
economics are not any
general economic
of
group
specific
and practices which are applicable exclusively agricultural environment or refer to the economic aspect theories
to
of
the behaviour of agricultural community, and not applicable to
other conditions and communities,
that economics
method.
is
a doctrine,
be remembered
It is to
a
it is
of
way
approach, a
is largely governed by physical and which vary from time to time, Farmers
Agriculture
conditions
social
not
cannot follow specific rules since each time they have adjust
to soil,
Adjustment being a constant problem they have
some guiding
to
climate, market and many other conditions.
for
principles
the
directing
follow
to
activities
under
certain circumstances in accordance with a definite purpose,
These guiding principles indicate
which the basic problem are not
they
is that of
The
exclusive,
a
way
of
approach in
'economising,'
and hence,
principles and practices
of
agricultural economics likewise are not exclusive,
Agricultural economics
mean
not
theory of
that
it
is
studies only
economics
to the
an applied science. the
application
it is
a systematic
and
the methodical pursuit of knowledge,
tion
and
of their
stabilizing,
2
results
in
agriculture
does
of the general
field of agriculture,
applied science in the sense that
It
But
it is
an
knowledge
analysis, organizafor
adjusting and changing them,
the It is
purpose of not
a pure
-
10
(
or naturalistic science
sake of knowledge,' to
certain
assessment
standards,
But
in the latter
'knowledge for the
facts
of
knowledge with reference having nothing to do with or facts
phenomena
by
social
has both a theoretical and practical aspect.
it
In the former case the systems
of
pursuit of
or
phenomena
'values', or
sense
the
in
i. e. t
)
it
includes the knowledge which governs
economic behaviour and relationships, and results are used for manipulative or
of
case the
directive purposes.
Some
early writers have identified agricultural economics
with farm management, and some have
even treated
it
as a
farm management. Recently some have insisted that they are two different subjects and must be treated by branch
of
These differences have arisen mostly amongst American thinkers, Agricultural economics and farm management had separate starts, and the latter, which different
specialists,
generally grew out of early
start.
The
the
department of agronomy had an
early courses were based
mainly on the
books by Cato and Varro, Daubeny, Heitland and Xenophon. Later on,
made
when
scientific
study was started, the beginning was
with cost studies in
relation to
incidental to the introduction of
by low farm prices during on the attempts were made
new
which was
crops and was stimulated
9o's of the to
prices,
last
century,
studying the best
Later
methods
of
as a social farming and the study of agriculture activity aimed at best national interest, It is mainly due to the early
study of farm management became more promiThere has been a change in the terminology also. Now
start that the
nent. it is
generally
wider
accepted that agricultural economics covers a
and
scope
farm
management
is
only
one
of
its
aspects. Lastly,
it
has
ideals, policies
to
be remembered that economic ideas and
and measures,
institutions
and
activities are
(
governed by the cultural,
They
community, and
tic
political,
A
orders.
and
social structure of the
student
of
agricultural
will, therefore, seek in vain an identity in these
things under different systems.'
With
)
are not entirely identical under capitalis*
socialistic
economics
11
this
1
scope and nature of the
now attempt
a
definition.
subject in
mind
Economics
Agricultural
let is
us
an
applied science in which the thought, process, analysis and organization of economics are studied in
relation to the
and relationships .arising out of agriculture being followed as a vocation and aswell as a mode of life, under a particular political, social and cultural set-up. Thns
specific forces
)
tt is
on
the one
agriculture
hand a
and on
special branch of the general study of
the other a particular
economics but fundamentally
it is
branch of general
a social science.
*Life shows a series of levels of organization ranging from the nucleus and cell, the organ and organism, the sociological and psychologiLaws found at one level cannot be applicable at other levels cal entity Community organization changes under the influence of internal forces and Economic life, therefore, is the pressure of external environment partly evolved out of the environment and is partly the result of conscious
Economic institutions adjustment of the environment by the community ,, the therefore, bear a mark of relativity, e change from free trade to from laissez-faire to planned economy and the individualism protection, of olden type giving place in England 'and America to a new economic order with community as a focal point of industrial
effort,
CHAPTER
II.
Importance of Agriculture.
Agricultural
Fundamentalism.
Wilson, Barsodi and
thinkers (Barker,
commonly
said to be having an orthodox
that agriculture is par
The
There
usual explanation
a
of
group
Humphries,
etc,)
view, which holds
exellence the fundamental industry. is that
since
ture is the basis of the existence of
raw material
sable for providing
is
it
feeds the world agricul-
human for
race.
many
It is
indispen-
industries and
provides a considerable part of the materials for trade, hence it
is
the foundation of manufacture
and commerce.
It is
the
first settled occupation and tven to-day it is by far the most and numerically important superior industry, since roughly of the world 2/3 population depends on it. The beginning of
Industrial Revolution was
made
made
earlier in agriculture
the revolution in industry possible^
in world population
is
and
it
increase
was made possible by a great increase in
agricultural production,
ing that "there
The rapid
not
Barsodi goes only
to
the extent
something wrong with
of
say-
modern
but that there
is also something wrong with and thereby he suggests that modern life which is becoming more and more mechanical, commercial and artificial should be adjusted to rural and agricultural
agriculture
modern
life,''*
*Baker, Barsodi and Wilson, Agriculture in Modern Life, quoted in Readings in Agricultural Fconomics, by the Indian Societv of Agricultural Economics, 1950
12
13
v
which
life
is
more
>
Rural population occupies a basic
natural.
place in the social structure, and
Farmers are
race.
importance
it
in a peculiar
human
of
basic
of
degree
Agriculture furnishes the basis and
to society,
substance of prosprity in other fields that "If agriculture
source
the
is
sense and
;
and Humphries holds
made
widest sense can be
the
in
pros-
peious, then the whole world will very shortly become more
prosperous as well." civilization wholly
agriculture
never be possible
will
It
urban and industrial which may neglect
Ht nee, agriculture
completely.
lundamental in the sense
of
absolutely
These thinkers believe
businesses.
would topple
Soundness
J,
of this faith
Davis
is
is
known
thinkers popularly S.
without the basic fabric of our
Hence, they have a
faith
by another group
challenged to
be having the
modern view.
one of the most popular representative of
group, and he holds that
The
this
wealth and welfare of nations
depends upon many complex conditions. is
other
controlling
that
be
to
fundamentalism-
in agricultural
of
into ruins.
said
is
contributions of agriculture all the rest of the civilization
have a
to
To-day agriculture
not uniquely basic, and the prosperity of a nation depends
than the
largely on other factors soil nl
study
This of
is
work
of
those
who
supported by the following arguments
economic history shows
that
the
till
:
The
economic progress,
broadly speaking, tends to be accompanied by a decline in the relative importance
of
agriculture.
This
is
true,
if
not
universely, of most nations in most periods and of the world as a whole. To-day
we
find in the countries of
more advanced
standard of living a trend towards a gradual decline of the place of agriculture visible
1,
],
in the
in
falling
their ratio
S. Davis, Agricultural
in Agricultural Policy,
of
national
This
economy.
agricultural wealth
Fundamentalism, reproduced
Edited by 0, B. Jesness, 1949.
m
to
is
total
Readings
14
(
national wealth, to national
ture as
i,*,,
)
falling percentage of agricultural
income
income, falling index of the net output of agricul-
compared with
that
of
industries,
declining rate of
compared with the urban population and the absolute contraction of numbers engaged
increase in
rural
population
as
in agriculture leading to a falling ratio
the total
lation
to
capita
demand
These are
and
the
A
extreme views.
and
more balanced view
Karl Brandt, H. R, Tolley and
after considering both eastern
agricultural
agricultural popu-
the decrease in the per
for agricultural efforts,
taken by others like
who
population,
of
and western countries and
industrial communities, assign to agriculture
They hold
a status equal to that of other sectors of economy, that one part of the country if
another part
is
is
Chew,
P,
cannot be happy and prosperous K. Brandt holds that "farmers
in distress.
are a vital part of the arterial system of circulation
which flow the goods and services
of
the
national
through
economy.
The nation depends on properly functioning farms as important sources of primary materials, foods and fibres. Yet the farms cannot be treated as an independent object of policies, nor can they be made prosperous in emancipation from the re-
economy. Nor can the conditions creating mass unemployment and decreased output in cities be cured by
mainder
of the
maintaining or restoring economic well-being alone.
1
to
the
farmers
'*
A still better explanation is given by T, W
.
Schultz,
Wilcox, Food and Agriculture Organization, and Institute of International affairs,
the
W
.
W.
Royal
London.
By explaining the of the nature modern economic society they emphacomplex sise the
interdependence and the close
relationship of the
various sectors of economy or groups of the society instead of *Karl Brandt, Report of the committee on Parity Concepts, U.
S, A.
15
(
saying which
They
fundamental or which
is
say that the size is not the
as the height or
importance or physical to total etc.,
The
prestige.
of
are misleading in this regard,
of importance,
no indication of his
amount and
of output, the
talized, but as a country
test
quantitative
income and the number
nomic development economic
is
more important*
is
supreme
man
a
of
weight
volume
)
tests
such as the
the ratio of income
persons engaged in it. At lower levels of eco-
may
activity
makes an advance
be compartmenthe
interdepence
of various sectors increases, and their relationship
becomes
economic evolution when a country grows a relatively free excha specialized production and to it of becomes goods ange impossible to say which part is
more
close.
In its
more important, since reciprocal behaviour ress possible.
is
it
the
The nature
mutual stimulous and the
which make the progmodern economic society is
o{ different
of
parts
becoming more complex than ever before.
This implies a
gradually lesser degree of self-sufficiency of different sectors, self-contained economy, or a greater each other. In this ever changing on dependence relationship we cannot establish the fundamentalism of
or a lesser degree of
degree of
any. It is
true that farming is the
employs a large section which is the basis of life, it
and manufacture, and important. in
But
more advanced
settled occupation, that
of population, that
that
it
that in
man does
first
not
countries.
it
produces food
provides materials for trade
terms live
of output
it
is
the most
by bread alone specially
"When we
say
that
it
is in
any sense more a generator of income in modern society than other occupations,
modern economic of
we
fail to
society ..An
farm families with
a
understand the true nature of efficient
high standard
buying power per person
contributes
agriculture of living
made up
and a high
much towards
a
high
16
(
and
national income
but the same
economic well-being
the
which
say
economic society," 1
most
is
Though
2
produce food, the basis
of
does not prove that
efficient
it
to
should
of all occupations,
agriculture providing an adequate and stable
farm income and attaining increasingly regular sufficiency food in
is
is
modern
continue
will
agriculture
life, it
in
important
be considered to be the most important
An
of the nation,
can be said for each of the other group,., It to
impossible
)
no index of economic
modern times
is
indicated
progress of a nation.
of
Progress
by an adequate leisure and an
adequate provision of the means enjoying that leisure, i, e t1 consumption of goods and services that make life rich and
worth living.
wholesome,
in short
faction all
occupations
and
To
sections
this
maximum
contribute.
satis*
In
the
economic society which is organized like this it is neither easy nor desirable to demarcate the essential and the nonessential sectors,
importance. 1,
W, W,
8
nor can they be rated it
Really speaking,
Wilcox,
Farm
is futile
in
order of their
now
to
argue the
Prosperity.
Synthetic chemistry has made considerable progress and we find producing a number of organic compounds. The chemists to-day very well understand the composition of food substances of our diets, But at present we cannot imagine a time when growing of crops and raising of livestock will be substituted by factories producing the commodities now furnished by farms. That will never come, though it may be partially achieved after a long time, 2,
laboratories
Man has to be fed and food production has been the most funda3, mental and permanent concern of man. The profound importance of the thought of man from the very beginnagriculture, therefore, dominated made agriculture the only key to economics. During the ing, and thinkers early times all the nations have mostly been concerned from day to day with the problem of bread. It is only during the 19th century that a small section of mankind has attained freedom from concern over feeding themselves. But it is true of only a small section of the world population. Even at present 3/4 of the working time of the whole world is spent in making a living possible, Though civilization has advanced to a stage when the thought is not wholly dominated by the question of bread, even to-day for the under-developed regions of the world the problem is otherwise, These rigions include 2/3 of the world population, and there the human life is at
sub-human
level,
and there
is
a
problem of bread. With reference
1?
,(
)
and
relative importance of land, labour
capital,
It is
highly
problematical whether these factors of production, while functioning in the real world, can be sorted into neatly cut
and divided,
either three or
more mutually exclusive,
cate-
gories.
Place of Agriculture in National Economy. is
one of the four ancient homes
ancient
civilizations
Our country
too has
immemorial,
were mainly
of
Our country
civilization,
These
agricultural in charactert
been an agricultural country from times
Though our
cottage industries
attained a high
water mark of excellence and earned world-wide reputation in the past,
we^were even
tural people, Inspite of the tion during the
modern
at that
time primarily an agricul-
steady and gradual industrializa-
times, specially after the First
World
War, agriculture even to-day retains the role of being by far the most important occupatiffii and the most outstanding
mode
of
economy
national
life.
at present,
as
The
place of
shown by
the
agriculture First
in
our
Report of the
National Income Committee, 1951, can be estimated from the
following table.
these facts the talk of agricultural fundamentalism in the sense that it should be given the primary importance in policy and programme, is not wholly baseless, But those who hold that the progress of these regions depends on the degree of industrialization do not consider agriculture to be fundamental in the sense that it should be given priority one. Really speaking, it is the surplus in agriculture which is the basis for building up At least in this sense agriculture is fundamental in India at further, to
present.
3
In arder to have a comparative idea data relating to
countries is given the
countries is
in the
made
following table,
The
some
selection of
so as to represent highly industrial,
mainly industrial and mainly agricultural countries,
(
19
)
National Income at factor cost by industrial origin,
A.
Occupational distribution of the gainfully occupied
B,
population, (%)
2
Coram-
Agri,, fore- Manufacture
Countries.
stry
&
Fishing.
Construction Govt,
&
&
Transport
It
of
life,
.,
tions,
has not only been the main
source of livelihood but also a tradition and the most
way
&
Communica-
Finance.
Mining.
Importance of Agriculture,
erce
common
and has been enjoying since times immemorial
a place of
pride in our economic and social
ation has
been reflected in our
life.
The
situ-
festivals, literature, customs,
ceremonies, songs and dances. of agriculture 1,
It is
To be specific the importance can be explained from several points of views.
by
far the
most important source
of
employment
1,
United Nations, National Income
2,
Colin Clark, The Conditions of Economic Progress, 1951, pp, 39S-9
Statistics, 1938-48, 1950, pp, 211-215.
20
(
)
More than two-thirds
and
of livelihood.
tion
depends directly on agriculture,
11
ol the total
popula-
we add hunting and
occupations the percentage increases to about 70.
pastoral
Besides there aie menials and artisans in villages whose livelihood
depends on the cultivators and thus they are
supported
by
found
produce of the land.
the
And
and also with some urban pursuits. trade and
of
tural produce-
90%
also
have been combined with some cottage industries
to
amount
is
Agriculture
of our
considerable
a
transport are concerned with agricul-
has generally been estimated that more than
It
rural population
depends
or indirectly
directly
on agiiculture, 2. It
It
was
contributes a major
estimated that
tributions to
contributed
and otheisS,
wortli R
produced goods
1931-32 the
income was:
national
try 17, Services 22,
in
share to the national
Agriculture 53, Indus-
During
from agriculture
to
,abja or about 48%,
directly
1948-49 India
3942 crores of which agriculture
Income Committee has estimated
to reflect
percentage of con-
2193 crores or about 53%.
R^.
The National
the net output at
factor cost
f
Rs. 41 5 out of a
be
wealth^
total of
Rs. 87*1
Besides, agricultural conditions are said
and influence considerably
the
public
budgets, 3.
It
contributes considerably
to
our exports,
the percentage has declined recently, even
45% tural
of
our
total
at
Though
present about
exports are raw materials and other agricul-
commodities which value more than Rs. 200 crores,
These exports earn foreign exchanges which we import
capital
goods for our development plans
and other necessary commodities. 4, It produces raw materials for our biggest industries, terials,
depend on
e, g,
for us with the help of
cotton, jute
industries,
and sugar,
Some
for their
of our
raw ma-
agriculture. Again, agriculture provides the
21
(
bulk of
the
demand
or
)
market
main
the
for
industrial
goods. 5.
It is
situation
the source of food for the entire population.
having deteriorated
we
our food supply on imports.
and
the country
has
present depend
But that
be
to
at
is
Food
for part of
a precarious position in
self-sufficient
this fespect.
There-
Clothing like food
is
fore, for both food
and clothing, the two primary necessaries depend on cultivation.
of life, 6.
we have
to
in
likewise agricultural
The gradual realization
of the country,
origin.
and the absorp-
tion of the seasonal unemployment created by some industries
show
that
agriculture
refuge for
population
when 7.
it
is
employment falls
the shock-absorber, and
for all
workers.
the last
Thus, the working
back on agriculture as the source
fails to. get
is
of livelihood
else.
employment anywhere
Agriculture resembles a public service.
It
aims
at
permanent preservation of the productive capacity of nataral resources.
individual
the
Though
farmer
is
guided by life and
private interests, he produces the basic necessities of his interest is mostly a public interest. 8.
Agricultural population occupies an important place
in the social structure of our country.
industries and
man power
for
and
traditions.
The
provides labour for
Because of the chara-
army.
cteristic resistance of rural culture to
the old culture
It
change
it
has maintained
the
social herit^g.e.
In cities under the influence of commercial and zation
more
the
social life is
often disorderly.
stabilizing influence 9.
under going
community
agricultural
has preserved our cultural identity and
a fast
Agricultural cponnunity
by permitting only
a
urban
civilt;
change which ,
is
exercises $
gradual change.
Agricultural community promotes social as well as
political
disorders
security. in
Economic upheavals, strikes and social worst forms do not fully influence
their
22
(
farm population.
the it
In the
)
of
days
upheavals
political
The urban
national patriotism*
constitutes a reservoir of
community which is a heterogeneous ethnic and cultural hedge podge and the culture which is generally commercial-
menace
aim-industrial, are at present a great
peace and good
will.
Contrary
to
rural
it
international
to
community and
culture promote peace and good will.
As explained
10,
Chapter V, though agriculture is not as an occupation from the pecuniary
very encouraging point of view,
it is
in
quite
stable
and
is less
As
disturbances in the financial world.
a
susceptible to
mode
ot living
it
simple and happy. Though rural areas do not provide some conveniences which towns and cities do, but the cost is
of living
much
is
And even during
lower.
the
farmers are not faced with unemployment,
depression
It is
observed
nities
communities are most peace-loving commuand agricultural life is the most contented and peaceful
life.
That the two oldest and biggest agricultural countries
that agricultural
of the world, India inspite of
and China, have never fought each other
being neighbours,
is
an important
fact
world
in
history.
The
situation
which says
that
is
summarised
best
economic
in a Chinese proverb
life is just like
represented by agriculture, branches and leaves by trade and commerce.
worthwhile
to
whose
roots
industry
and
a tree
stem by
are
It
is,
however,
note that this important role of our agriculture
has to continue in future, extent, and the country
country for pretty
though not exactly
will
to the
same
remain mostly an agricultural
long in future.
The reasons
are as
follows; First, the present
occupational
overwhelmingly large proportion
distribution of
showing an
population depending
on agriculture
bound
is
population
and a considerable
to
remain agricultural
part of
it
for
for ever.
very considerable
it
portion
Under
some
of
very long,
present and the growing
the
a balanced occupational
distribution the
be 45, and by others 50
change from the present
is
sugges-
Whatsoever
to 60,
state of affairs
Generally, with the development of transindustrialization and an overall economic progress the
will be port,
to
actually be, a
may
the
industrializa-
percentage of population depending on agriculture ted by
of
Rapid by serious handicaps, and it cannot absorb a
tion is linked
population.
But the major part
unbalanced.
is
very slow.
percentage of agriculturists begins to decline.
%
days the
farmers in
of
England and U.S.A. was more
than 75, but
now
former and
less than 25 in the latter.
it
In the early
has been reduced
to less
Such a
than state
10 in the cannot be
expected in India for a pretty long time, because agricultural
and the capacity the under-developed communities is very
communities are conservative for
in
development
limited.
It
in character
involves a change in the national psychology,
overcoming long established traditions and modifications in the mode of life and the method of working. These are stupendous tasks specially in an Secondly, the share future
is
tion,
Even
supposed the
to
of agriculture
and poor country. income in
illitrate
in the
national
be more than that of any other occupa-
Bombay
Plan which
is
said
to
be the
income are suggesAgriculture 40%, Industry 35%, Services 20% and others 5%. Thirdly, to meet the shortage of food and to place capitalists plan, the shares of the national
ted to be
the
:
country on a sound food economy
million tons of further
adds
standard and types
of
more foodgrains.
to the to
we
require about
10
Our increasing population
food requirements,
For increasing the
meet the adequate nutritional demands better
foods are necessary.
Besides there will be greater t
(
ne^ds
for
)
seeds and feeds.* Fourthly, for increased industria-
there will be greater need for
lization
also
24
for
enhancing
the
volume
of
raw
materials.
And
our exports we shall have
depend on more of agricultural produce, Lastly, for balanced .economic development adequate attention will have to
to
be
paid
to
agriculture,
industry and
prosperous agriculture
has
to
for
the
the
prosperity
general
of
prosperity
is basic. f
This shows that for culture
Therefore, for
commerce and
considerable time
to
come
remain the most important industry.
agri-
The
specialized agencies and the Technical Bureau have specially emphasized and are intending to give
United Nations,
its
priority to agricultural
developed
areas,
schemes
in the
Similar schemes
made by The Planning Commission lopment for the next 5 years,
A
development characterize
for the
of under-
the
plans
economic deve-
very important role of
#The Bombay Plan imagines the target for agricultural production to be 130% and the Kharegat Plan to be 200%. The Advisory Planning Board suggests an increase of 10% in cereals, 20% in pulses, 50% in fruits, 100% in vegetables, 250% in fats and oils, 300% in milk, fish and eggs, Again, we require 55% increase in fodder and 400% in oil cakes. The Planning Commission in their broad objectives of the agricultural programme during the next five years suggest an increase in the production of food by 7'2 mill1'2 mil. bales, of jute by 2'06 mil. bales, of sugarcane oil seeds by 3 "75 lakh tons, (gur) by 6'9 lakh tons and of
ions, of cotton by
Us agricultural prosperity basically important for general prosperity? Really speaking the position depends upon the economic pattern of a given Prosperous peasantry society and the relative strength of different sections. means wider and more effective demand for industrial goods, greater industrial profits and greater volume of industrial employment. On the other hand, agriculturists would be prosperous if other sections of the people are able to The movement is circular, However, the for the farm produce, international relations and the condition for foreign trade may influence But exports pay for imports. can have a foreign this state of affairs.
pay well
We
market for our goods simply by creating a home market for foreign goods. Therefore, the surplus of goods and services are the basis of prosperity. One can buy only when one has to sell something, and one can buy more only when one can sell more. Poor persons or nations are poor customers, In our country agriculturists are in the overwhelming majority. If they to sell they will buy more, an4 there will be wider scope for Their prosperity industrialization and also greater volume of imports,
have more
means the
prosperity of the whole nation,
(
in
agriculture
25
our economy,
considerable time to come.
important occupation and
)
therefore,
Numerically
will it
shall contribute
cant share to the national wealth.
And
continue for
will be the
most
the most signifi-
further
it
will
remain
economic progress. Though after sufficient industrial advancement the percentage of people depending basic
on
it
for
and
all
its
share in the national income
yet they will always be quite significant.
may
not be major,
CHAPTER
III.
Special Features of Agricultural Economy.
I.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY. Agriculture presents a close combination of a science, a
craft, is
a business and
a
way
of life.
these respects
In all
characterized by certain peculiarities of
its
it
The
own.
geographical and the sociological environment under which
production
is
complexity
of
characteristics
carried on,
the process
production,
which make
etc,, it
of
production and the
impart agriculture certain
substantially
other occupations specially industry.
different from
These differences are
responsible for the difference in the basic assumptions which ultimately reflect in the economic relationships and economic
behaviour of farmers rendering agricultural economy distinct and slightly different from industrial economy.* Nature of Agricultural Activity, of
Agriculture
is
a
sort
replacement of nature's favourite plants by the cultivated
plants
of
man's choice, and hence,
it
is
a sort
of
man's
*rhis should not be interpreted in the sense that agricultural economics is something absolutely distinct from industrial economics, or that it has Really speaking the science of economics, which got a theory of its own. has now become as accurate as any other science, is a special technique, a way of approach, a method, which may be called the general framework of economic theory, governing economic behaviour of mankind. And it is But when one proceeds from equally applicable to all types of economies the mere outline to the concrete problems, to explain the economic life, to frame policies and measures for improvements, and to establish standards, one finds that the basic assumptions being different agricultural economy is slightly different from industrial economy.
27
(
on
imposition
Farmers have
maximum
)
and a constant
nature,
battle
it.
against
work constantly with nature and make a
to
use of land in relation to other factors of production.
Agricultural activity
is,
therefore, directly
geographical environment, and
the
influenced by the
played by nature
part
being more prominent in agriculture than in any secondary the
or tertiary occupation,
more applicable
to the
Law
of
former than
Diminishing Returns
is
to the latter.
The process of production in agriculture is biological. Growth of plants or of animals takes a natural course and at a
not possible, except
highly disproportionate cost,*
it
is
to
speed up the pace of production as
it
possible in
is
manufacturing. Agriculture being a partnership between is
tance of physical factors limits the
e. g,,
and
results, therefore,
of
control
man.
stray animals,
in industry.
depend on conditions beyond
Crops being exposed
failure of rainfall,
Even
etc., if
nature
The overwhelming imporscope of human endeavour,
characterized by uncertainty.
and the
man and
floods, hail
to
the
several hazards,
storms, diseases,
pests
production cannot be controlled as
the crops
mature
well, the
time lag
between investment and return being pretty lengthy, business fluctuations bring about considerable variations in farm incomes.
element of
Besides,
it
is
far
more
risk in agriculture than
agricultural insurance
is
more
difficult to
measure the
in industry,
difficult
and hence,
than other types of
insurance.
On
account of uncertainty agriculturists cannot capitalize
the future as the industrialists can do, of earnings are highly conjectural.
wed
because the estimates
Again, the use of borro-
capital involves longer time and greater risks, rendering
'Glass-bouse culture is not economical; to permit vernalization, su arej supposed
and only few crops
in
India
{
jthe
28
)
problem of agricultural finance much
different
from
that
pf industrial finance.
As compared
to
industry which
is of
localized nature
and
has generally larger units of production, agriculture, as a general rule, is scattered fairly widely and is typically carried on by family units under small-sized units of production.
As
a result of
a reginoal basis, basis, is
of
the organization
it
much
difficult.
amongst
competition
economic
theory
of
leads to a greater degree
It
and the
agriculturists
perfect
agriculture than in industry. is
on national and international
less to say
rendered very
producers even on
of
competition
general
more
is
real
in
The individual small farmer
of, and often disregards the influence of the his own produce on agricultural prices, This is
unmindful
variation of
hardly true of industry.
Small scale production being the general feature of
far-
ming, the economic analysis pertaining to large-scale production and division of labour which is characteristic of industry is
much
less applicable to agricultural enterprise,
Productive
due
to
effort in
farming
sluggish movements
adaptation of agricultural partly to the in
production result that
investment
Unlike industry
more sensitive are it
it,
partly due to
It is
partly
to the lack of
other
uses,
and
reluctance of farmers to abandon farming even
bad times.
output are
highly stable.
is
in
much
to price
less
which
in
movements
variations, adjustments
smooth
in
offers less resistance to
agriculture,
of of
with the
depression and equally
expansion under price incentives.
Price disparity during of the lack of and Great thirties the Depression expansion less
during and after the World War II are examples of it. Thus, the ordinary measures to meet the situation of depression
and boom or
of
glut and scarcity
in
industrial Sector
prove
29
(
much
effective
less
in
)
agricultural
which
sector
calls for
special measures. is a
Agriculture
,
.
way
means
of life as well as a
of
liveli-
Therefore, sociological, psychological and sentimental
hood.
considerations influence
followed by less
which impart
necessity of life
conservative people
public service.
It
aims
at
conser-
Farmer produces
the basic
and works with the national resources. ,His
interest is essentially public interest that of
is
it-
natural resources and not their exploi-
robbing of nature.
or
tation
is just like
human and
vation of
and more
efficient
Moreover,
organization.
an inflexible character.
it
Agriculture
its
an industrialist who
is
and
is
very
much
unlike
mainly guided by private
profit,
Agriculture provides national security and preserves social
While framing
stability. to
agricultural policies this
fact
has
be kept in mind,
The
attitude of farmers is
much
different
from
that
of
They do not anticipate the fears of idle plants workers. Even during the depressi9n they do not
businessmen.
and face
idle
unemployment, but on the other hand, work harder $nd
try to increase the output to maintain the
Nature of Agricultural Output. generally joint products,*
e. g,,
income.
Farm
and cotton seed, and wool and mutton, As
afe
products
cereals and straw
tir
stock, lint
in industry
where
several products might be produced by the same machinery, in agriculture to
it
is
not possible to separate the costs attributable
various products.
the supply of such
And
it
becomes very
farm products
difficult to
consider
in isolation.
*The word
'joint-products' is also applied to a number of commodities a typical rotation where the output of one can easily be increased by expanding that of another. Here, the reference is to a cotrtbination of different processes on a mixed farm. To make things simpler,aqd ,more*pJain it will be better 4o use the word 'several tfnal products.'
produced
in
'
'
'
30
(
A
)
farm generally grows several food crops, a seeds and sometimes some fibre crop also. Variety of production on each farm is a general rule and specialize
few
typical
oil
tion an exception.
Every
therefore, has
seller,
quantities of several commodities to sell. tion being
widely scattered in small
marketing of farm products
is
very small
Besides, producthe
units,
rendered more
problem
of
difficult, the
chain of middlemen becomes very lengthy, and the cost of
marketing becomes very high.
Though
due
agricultural production as a whole,
to certain
1
'self-compensating features of there
stable,
are wide
its
yearly
individual product or individual producer. agricultural
agriculture
prices as
often
whole are
a
is
aggregate supply,
highly
fluctuations in the output of
Thus, even when
stable,
vary and induce
shifts
within
prices in
the
use of
resources.
Due
to small-scale organization
and scattered nature
of
production the supply of agricultural produce shows less flexibility
shows
and
and adaptability
to
new economic
conditions.
It
a considerable time lag in response to price variations,
the adjustments of supply
to
price changes
are
much
slower than in the case of industrial products, Besides there is another peculiarity in the adjustment of agricultural
production.
way
During the short period
flexibility',
supply
may to
it
shows almost
since in response to increased
increase,
though slowly and
demand and lower
'one-
demand
slightly,
the
but the
is very much sluggish and generally does not bring about a comparable contraction.
reaction
falling
prices
Agriculture being a seasonal industry the output presents glut at harvest time and scarcity in the off season. This irregular nature of the
means
supply puts special burden on the
of transport, the channels of normal trade,
and the credit
(
at certain
institutions
31
)
times of the year.
This gives
rise to
marketing and finance, much different special problems from those of industrial goods the supply of which is more of
regular.
vfhe quality and character of agricultural production is governed much by soil and climatic conditions which differ from
The
locality to locality*
the uniform quality,
It
result
is
that
not of
is
supply
makes standardization more
difficult
and marketing more imperfect. Partly due to a considerable time lag in the adjustment of
supply to price variations and partly due
lively
more
a compara*
rigid cost structure, agricultural prices
more rapidly than
those of manufactured articles,
the former decline
it
becomes more
Farmers under such
comparatively more than that
They
decline
and when them,
difficult to restore
circumstances suffer a double
income or the
Their money
lation,
to
purchasing power declines
of other sections
sell at relatively
loss.
of the
low prices and buy
at
popuhigher
prices.
Agricultural output like
find
is
generally of perishable nature
cannot be stored
indj^tfi^ (Cutout >t soon, a*m Partly because
it
for long.
is difficult to
It
;
and
has
to
postpone
and partly because of small scale production, middlemen between the original producer and
the consumption the role of the final
consumer
is of
special importance in agriculture,
Agriculture being primarily concerned with the production of food its
which
is
products
a
is
basic necessity of
less
elastic
than that
life,
for
the
demand
for
non-agricultural
products.* *0rdinarily
f
it is
expected that with the improvement in the standard of
for agricultural production should increase less rapidly. living the demand This is true of developed countries. In our country the standard of living is short of the total requirement, Any very low and the overall production in the standard of living will, in the beginning, increase the demand for food sufficiently rapidly. is
improvement
32
(
Thus,
it
)
noticed that on account of these
is
nature of agricultural activity and
the
the
differences in of
peculiarities
economic problems of the farm comcharacteristically different fram those ot other
agricultural output, the
munity are
communities specially industrial.
some distinguishing in
reflect
may
These differences impart economics which
features 10 agricultural
analysis and policy, nature of saving
price
and investment, organization of production, establishment of equilibrium between demand and supply, degree of com-
amongst the producers, nature
petition
wages, costs and
profits, etc.
AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT.
II.
We
have a glorious history behind us.
culture,
literature,
religion
and
Not only the
industry, was proverbial,
are almost
at the
But
bottom
sured by modern economic
to part of the country it
preserved
millet growers
would be
difficult
the
in
There
people
the
economic order
and mea-
nations,
if
to
accuracy
^f
generalize,
Stalls ,
is
ere is a
agricultural environment ot the
sugarcane growers
of the
rice
growers in
on the
foothills in
the country as a whole,
and taking
common is
features, one can imagine a certain a high pressure on land and considerable
Agriculture
on individual
subsistence type of farming vation.
of
of the cultivators
However, taking
into account the
hunger,
and
of Uttar Pradesh,
Orissa and Madras, and
land
list
agriculture and
we are an under-developed
in arid Rajasthan, of
upper Doab
pattern,
the
tests
another,
considerable difference
Assam.
present in
Agricultural environment greatly differs trom one
country,
of the
of
at
of
art,
but also the
philosophy
economic wealth which was the result
we
incomes,
of risks,
Most of the work
is
followed
by
nearly
70%
of
It
is
small scale
mainly devoted
to
cereal culti-
family basis,
is
performed by human hand,
33
(
most of the finance
is
provided by village money-lender and
most of the transactions are health
is
)
Standard of general
local,
considerably low and so
is
productive efficiency.
farmers have no surplus to sell, many others have only small, while only a few have fairly good amounts
Most
of the
Their purchasing capacity
to spare,
Productivity per
standard
income
capita,
and general standard
correspondingly low,
is
per
low, and the struggle for existence
way
community comparatively ignorant and outlook and circumscribed Agricultural
to their
crops and
to the local
flows
life
agricultural
are considetably
correspondingly hard.
is
common features. And
Poverty, hunger, disease and death are in this
nutritional
capita,
of living
in
a
traditional pattern.
(detailed
discussion in
illiterate.
They have
is
a narrow
animals, and their knowledge
surroundings,
V)
Their talks are confined
vision.
There
ch,
is
a
lack
of
is
limited
initiative
and
urge for improvement. The lack of adaptability makes them suspect the new ways of life and methods of production, leading to immobility in respect of both occupation and
But conservatism
place. nity.
is
not peculiar to our farm
Agricultural civilization as such and
institutions
are conservative.
agricultural
communities
traditions
common world whether we
And the
of
its
comma*
this
is
to
and all
talk of
under-developed countries like China, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil
and Indonesia, or tries like the
U,
of highly
S- A,,
U
K-,
Australia and Argentina.
worthy
feature.
advanced and developed coun-
Germany, France, Denmark, There is, however, one note-
The Harijan
Movement,
the
political
independence and the establishment of rural democracy are slowly bringing about
masses and a change
consciousness
in the social
reforms are providing 5
some
values.
momentum
to
the
amongst the
The wave
recent land of revival,
(
34
)
But these things are only in an embryonic stage and their speed will depend on the political climate in the country.
Tin seeds
have, however, germinated,
The volume gnation.
employment and production exhibit
of
The population increasing
at
an yearly rate
of
sta-
one
percent brings about a deterioration in the economic situation
which has become more pronounced during some past years. The following table shows the trend ol agricultural production and the income per capita during the
(Index
of
production
based on
38-39=100, and income
the
recent past,
average of 36
37 to
in Rs,)*
This shows a state of haulting decay so far as production is
concerned and
a decline in the general standard of living,
as indicated by the real income per capita.
Besides there
is
employment and very few job-opportuniThe resources both human and material rural areas.
a limited scope for ties in
await utilization,
The
has generally been
resources very
complacency,
desirability of
their
better utilization
accepted and the magnitude of dorment
often lulls us in a sense
of
security
That the development of these resources
involves tremendous investment and uphill task, ^Records and
statistics, vol.
No.
is
and is
an
fraught
(Eastern Economist, Delhi.)
35
(
considerable
with
)
and administrative
technical
financial,
limitations, has been only very recently realized,
The
agricultural environment, therefore, has hardly any-
thing encouraging. less intelligent,
meant
Village
be a place for the
to
and agricultural profession is supposed to be and the illiterate. The middle class wants
economic progress.
of
supposed
for the poor
migrate from villages
to
is
initiative
to
towns and thus recede the pace
There
is
not
much
of
incentive and
amongst those who are left there, and neither there scope for economic progress at present. The
sufficient
is
general poverty leads to deficit
economy which
in
its
turn
leads to further poverty and debt, and thus, the vicious circle
runs from which farmers do not find a way situation
Union and
the
One
out.
The present
therefore, a sort of challenge to the people
is,
and
the State governments.
of the interesting studies is to
find
out
whether the
real fault lies with the people or the defect is inherent
environment.
to
The
rate of variation in culture
and
in the
civiliza-
depends upon biological inheritance, physical environ All the three play a part in cultural endowment.
tion
ment and every
human
action.
For the time being anyone
acquire predominating importance as vities ries.
we
find
of
them may
cultural acti-
looming large in some highly developed western countIt
does not mean that civilization lessens the
environment.
effects of
Really speaking the effects are not so direct
as on the savage people, but they are just as strong. is
believed
of
obeying
that the it
mastery over nature
or adapting to
it.
is
measured
And in
it
terms
Taking the world as a whole
climate seems to have established a basic pattern of civilization
upon which other
factors simply
different degrees of magnitude. civilization
and
shows
impose some variations with
The geographical
that the efficiency of physical
pattern of
environment
the degree of civilization have a high degree of
positive
36
(
And
a&Jation.*
)
environment largely deterof life, method of
the physical
mine* the habitabiluy, occupations, mode working, dress,
and
houses, transport, ideas
health,
diets,
Our
geographical environment is, really speaking, less stimulating and less favourable for human activities as ideals.
compared to ment which
that of the is
temperate regions*
is
It
mostly responsible for the
our environ-
present state of
economic backwardness.
An objection is sometimes same physical environment possible in ancient
raised that
how under almost the
a high degree of
India.
located in geographically
more favourable
and
Under
the Indus valleys.
civilisation
should be noted that
It
parts of the
They were
does not mean
tftat
from modern
different
environment
is
There
our present backwardness.
fact that the political climate in
last
Ganges
and Mesopo-
the
civilization.
no doubt
It
about the
country after the Arab foreign domi*
the
300 years, has been
some
to
But what has China
extent responsible for retarded growth,
We
was
responsible for
wholly is
invasion has not been very congenial, and nation specially during the
was
similar circumstances almost
similar civilizations developed in China, Egypt
tamia.
it
any foreign domination would It does not mean that not have been very much different.
achieved
?
too without
a better economic condition could not be possible in the past,
and
that there is
ronment
is
no bright hope
capable of affording a
for
the
better
future.
The
present one and also a higher degree of civilization, basic differences are III.
to
be reflected in
but the
future.
INTERDEPENDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER ECONOMIES.
One
of
the important lessons of economic history
*A comparison clearly.
bound
envi-
standard than our
of the
two following maps
illustrates
tfee
of the
idea more
World Dentation of Climatic Efficiency.
1
HfcHE=| HIGH
2
World
^
Distribution
MEDIUM
|[|{||
of General
LOW
jv^d
Proqress*
VEY 10*
37
(
world
economic progress can be attained only through
is that
a simultaneous
in various
development
Revolution
England,,the
without a
possible
)
too could not
agriculture
similar change in industries.
depend
labour force
necessaries of
logy
life
of
Agricul-
depends on the development
power
income
and railways
to
market
for all the other
Our
manufacture
to
of techno-
to cultivate
on the
ferilizers,
to industrialize the rural areas in
absorb the surplus labour from agriculture and
a subsidiary
their
except food, on other industries,
draw water and
development to
depends
provide improved agricultural machinery
the land, to
a
for labour supply.
the other hand,
agricultural progress to
for
;
commodities and
community, on
tural
Generally, industries
raw material on agriculture and on rural community and they provide their
for agricultuial
and
have been revolutionzed
without
for
In
fields.
reciprocal revolution in agriculture,
similarly a
economic
industries could not have been
in
to
order
provide
on the development of roads farm the transport produce to markets, and on to farmers,
the development of banking to provide credit for day to day
working and tor development, agriculture not only depends
etc,,
on
and foreign exchange,
trade
but
means
is
it
to
power and banking
transport,
limited by the development of the
latter.
and the
latter will
be possible
extent of development in these things,
the
other hand, the volume and character of the latter controlled
and quality puts in the
by the conditions of
raw material
market
for
it
of agriculture,,
home consumption
the character and quantity offers, etc,,
will
is
On
the
largely
e, g,, the
type
produces, the volume of goods
of
demand
it
or for exports, the
nature and quantity of financial accommodation
it
It
unless these things are expanded, development
that
in agriculture is a vain attempt,
only
Again, the development of
that of industry, international
for
it
needs and
consumer's goods
considerably determine the conditions in
38
(
)
and banking, etc. This interdependence of one sector of economy on another leads to an important feature that the repercussions of
industries, foreign trade
the problems of sector alone,
one sector are not confined
e. g.,
a depression in industry
to that is
particular
bound
to
create
The volume
depression in agriculture.
level of earnings, price level
of employment, the and the conditions of living and
working, in short, the economic conditions of one group exercise a controlling influence on those of the other groups,
changing
a previous
balance and again striving
a fresh equilibrium only to be dislocated soon.
and men from one occu-
in a perpetual shifting of resources
pation to another.
continues
And
in this
way
establishing a causal
to establish
This results
t
the action
and interaction
relationship and reciprocal
behaviour between different segments of national economy,
With
the
development
of
civilization
and
economic
progress this interdependence has been increasing. And so In agriculture, there is a change from will it do in future. self-contained subsistence type of farming and village to
nomy
specialization
for the
crops
selling
market and
This
economy
of
and the
production, production
to national
eco-
of cash
and even international
implies more dependence on buying and nature and volume of production and con-
The growing impormodern economy makes agriculture,
sumption being oriented by the market. tance of exchange in
and so
also other industries, vulnerable to actions in other
segments of economy,
This has got both advantages and
The advantage
disadvantages.
relationship a higher, better
made
possible,
and
and
is that
fuller
advantage their
own
economic
life
has been
the chances for the future progress
been made more bright and the scope is that
through this mutual
is
enlarged.
have
The
dis-
different groups are exposed, in addition to
individual risks, to those of other groups,
e. g,,
the
39
(
stability of
farm income
is
)
disturbed not only by the agricul-
tural hazards and their consequent variability in farm production,
demand and
but also by the fluctuations in
thus by
Besides, the economic problems are becoming
trade cycles.
.more complicated and difficult. But with the march of civilization and economic progress the problems have to be more
The advanced man soon
complicated.
every complexity. controlled.
greatly
On the And
whole, these disadvantages can be
interdependence can serve as
this
mutual help and cooperation leading
and
human and
fuller utilization of
thus creating a spiral for
finds a solution for
more
to a
balanced distribution
material resources, and
civilized
and
better
economic
life.
But there
economy
is
economy
is.
is
not
one important thing to note. Agricultural an isolated affair. And similarly no othet
Some
of the
problems of agriculture aie
its
own
the size of the unit of production, land tenure,
problems,
e. g.,
irrigation
and manure
But quite a large and sufficiently
etc.
important are
the problems of inter-relationship between and industry, trade, foreign exchange and transagriculture e.g., the volume of employment, price level, port, etc.,
influence of of savings
foreign market,
and investment,
level of
etc.
It
most of the problems of agriculture
And
sector alone.
earnings and the rate
implies that remedies for
do not
similarly, the remedies
lie in
agricultural
for the problems
any particular section are also not confined to it. Economic problems of every group are many-fold and the remedies are
of
likewise
multi-sided. is
economy part
of
the
Progress in any isolated segment of
not possible.
It
has
to
be
made
a coordinated
general and overall economic progress of the
whole country. IV.
THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS.
Land and
its
importance
in
agriculture.
In Economics
40
(
the term land* is interpreted to
)
mean
'materials
and the forces
which nature gives freely for man's aid in land and water, in air, light and heat. It includes all the forces and resources 1
which science can discover any useful applicabut which are not the result of human effort,
of nature for tion,
Importance
and
action, that a
is,
land
of
obvious,
is
It
man room
provides
for
therefore, the primary condition of everything
man can do
world as a whole,
Inspite of the is still
development the must devote a major
scientific
so poor that
it
part of the resources to the production of necessaries, mainly
Nearly 2/3 of the world's population
food.
residing in
is
under-developed countries in which agriculture
is
far the
by
most important occupation, and most of the people depend on land, Even in the world as a whole, agriculture is numerically the most important occupation agriculture land
production.
It
is
the basis
affords
at present,
and the most important
standing room,
growth.
The chemical
in
factor of
mineral
supplies
products and supplies conditions and materials
and
for
plant
constituents of the soil in combination
with seed, produce the plant.
Life and growth are affected
by geographical constitution of the soil and the forces of nature which are associated with land surface, such as rain, air,
sunshine,
light, heat,
and atmospheric pressure
f
etc-
They
are very important in the process of crop production and slightly less
a
in live stock.
But they can be affected only
to
minor extent by man. It is
and the
worth-while to note that with the growth of population social progress, the absolute
importance of
requisite increases, because the increased
fresh
demands, and
the
new
this
primary
population makes
discoveries and the development
'Instead of a general term 'natural resources' or 'materials' economists use the term land in a very wide sense, It is because under the existing it is through the ownership of land or rental that posseslegal institutions sion of natural materials is obtained or access to natural forces is gained,
41
(
of
and technology point out
science
largely to the
of
new uses
for
the
efficiency
relative
production
evolution
importance
decreases.
human
to the
of
due
of
human
efforts,
and
resources as a
Again, in the
society is
Ecological and then
form
in the
these is
But the increase in the quantity of wealth
objects.
hence,
)
factor
process of social
passing from the Etiological to
Epharmological stage, and man's
powers over nature are gradually increasing. In the earlier stages primary industries, and in them the part played by but later on secondary and nature, are more important ;
tertiary occupations gain more importance, and in them the part played by man becomes more prominent, and the
relative tables
importance
and
the
of
nature
accompanying
declines,
The
following
diagram may serve as an
illustration.
Trend of
in the Distribution of
Working Population by Types
Employment.
Primary industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting, Secondary occupations include raining manufacturing, electric power and building construction. Services or tertiary occupations include the rest, i e,, trade, transport, communication, domestic, public and professional services,
(
Relationship
economic growth.
between
42
)
occupational
(Economic growth
is
and
distribtiution
measured
in terms of
Real Income per head.)
of \vorlfmg population
c^aged
m
Real Income
primary {
occupations
International units,
)
600
Sod
to
K ! Fig.
*
Compiled from National Income Statistics, U, N, 0,, Year Book, U. N. 0., 1948. Colin Clark, The Economics of 1960. Heal Income per bead for the Balkan States.
Statistical f [
I,
1950,
and
(
Productivity of Land,
43
)
means
Productivity ordinarily
amount
capacity of yielding a certain
investing a certain amount of labour and capital, basically on
the
fertility of
the
of output as a result of It
depends But the development of-
land.
exchange economy makes the value of land as a factor of production dependent also upon the relationship of
forms
to other
buying and
of
its situation
productive activity from the side of both It
selling,
fertility but also for
means land
is
valued not only for
its
situation,
Really speaking, the
location greatly influences the physical
and chemical charac-
teristics of land, to place.
of
Besides, the social conditions,
In economic
efficiency.
of the units of it
or can
is
the ratio
It is
unit of
with
it
influence
means
of
the value
with optimum results at a
economic development*
and
effort put in
Economic
and the
efficiency*
result obtained-
product per unit of labour and capital
Capacity
it.
also
it is
between the
land,
conditions
the character
determined by capacity multiplied Capacity of a given area is measured in terms labour and capital which can be absorbed by
the value of the
spent on
g.,
commodities, and hence, the v&lue
be associated
given stage of
e*
analysis productivity
producing power; and
by
market
the
production and sale of land.
good
and the physical conditions vary from place
people and
the
its
is
measured in terms
efficiency is
measured
of
input per
in terms of output
per unit of input. Thus, in estimating the productivity of land both the factors: the physical conditions and the location,
have
to
be taken into account,
*In economic analysis products or in instruments of because of the the immovable
efficiency
terms of value,
e.g.,
may be calculated
in
terms of physical
While analysing the
efficiency of movable a better basis for comparison
production the former is in value at different places. But in the case of instruments of production value of the product is a better * basis of comparison, difference
:
*
44
(
)
Thus, we find that productivity primarily depends upon
two factors
more
what the nature has brought about.
is
plot of lesser fertility in the vicinity of a city
value than one which may be more fertile but
man
own way
in his
has tried
to
may
plain is
And
than the arid and the barren tracts.
fertile
difference
The Gangetic
natural and locationaK
:
the
Again, a yield
more
distant. Besides,
improve the productivity of
laud by tempering with nature,
e,
clearing of forests,
g.,
draining marshes, irrigating barren lands, judicious selection of
If left
etc.
weeding,
But there
less.
sowing, proper rotation, manuring and
careful
plants,
modifications by
alone nature would have yielded
limit
is
to
man can go only
to a
the productivity can be increased the fertility,
in
improvement
much
man's control over nature, and small extent.
However,
artificial
through
increase
improvement in the means of transport, and the development of townships,
in land system
etc,
The
Law in
experience
and
of
Diminishing Returns.
farming
that
is
It
a
common
increased applications of labour
capital to a piece of land, or successive additions of land,
generally
result
than proportionate .results,
less
in
diminishing tendency
of
result of the application
the
extra
capital or successive additions of
mic theory
known
as the
as the
Law
Law of
return
of successive
of
land,
The
obtained as a
doses of labour and is
termed in econo-
Diminishing Returns,
It is
also
Diminishing Marginal Returns, or the
45 Varying Productivity,, or the Law of Proportions. In a simple form the law is stated that "An increase in the
Law
of
capital
proportionate increase in the amount
in general, a less than of
of land causes,
and labour applied in the cultivation
produce raised unless
it
happens
coincide with an im-
to '*
in the art of agriculture.
provement It is
not necessary that the
may always
be visible from
under-cultivated, of labour
and
f,
0,,
capital
normal performance
the
tendency of diminishing return
the beginning,
amount
of
less than
is
of the
(Marshall),
investment
some time.
some time decline.
it
It is
agricultural
of
possible
may
is
that
after
no doubt about the
Diminishing Returns
sometimes stated
that
the law
form
of
is
bound
may
increase
increasing for
may
begin to
fact that ultimato operate.
Increasing
It is
and Constant
returns are the two temporary phases operating previous the tendency of Diminishing Return,
and the diagram may
is
operations, the mar*
remain constant and then
But there
tely the law
also
land
in the
the quantity required for
ginal return as a result of further investment for
the
If
to
The following example;
illustrate the point,
(
160
46
)
5
G
,
130
$0
Ao
I
^
3
I
Doses of
7
input.) 2.
Fig.
This explains in a very simple form the working of the laws of returns. But it must be noted that the laws refer to the produce
and
diminishing
returns do
diminishes.
The
is at
in
to
total
value of output,
the
not
indicate
is
constant.
produce But the increase
Thirdly, the decrease
rate*
While
that for the time being the
And
lastly,
land
is
stating
fertility
not
a
neither of the factors of production
Really speaking
all
degree.
factors
Land
are is
is
the
of land
law
it is
remains
limited factor of pro-
duction in the absolute sense of the term.
difference of
Secondly, the
not the result of a decline in the fertility of land
continuous cultivation.
assumed
that
produce increases.
a continuosly diminishing
produce
after
not
At the same time
unlimited in quantity,
variable,
relatively
but
there
is
a
more limited than
other factors of production.
Experience has taught farmers how much land they can cultivate successfully. Ordinarily, in farming, one can neither succeed on a very small
area nor on thousands of
47
t
Farmers have a
)
fairly clear idea of
what can they do,
Therefore, they try within moderate limits.
Similarly, they
over cultivating a single acre
folly of
have understood the
or over feeding their stock. It
Hence, they practise moderation. must be noted that perhaps no body begins with the 1st
column and no body carries production
to
column.
the 10th
Mostly farmers will begin with the 3rd and will stop near
about the 6th or the 7th-
be carried within these
Major part of the production will
the limits to
which production
interesting.
If
we imagine
would
farmer
The
limits.
analysis of
be carried on
land
all
that
cultivate
will
theoretical
to
be equally
is
very
fertile
much area which, with
a
the
and capital available, would give maximum output per unit of input, In this case, each acre will be
amount
of labour
to
cultivated
the
till
point
returns, or ceases to
begins to show decreasing
it
show increasing returns
a result of
as
This area will be the most profitable one to cultivate because either more land is used less
additional investment.
intensively
or less land
more
cultivated
is
intensively,
marginal return as per unit of input would be if
we
take land to be varying in
units will not be cultivated to the
begin
to
diminish.
fertility,
less.
as
same point
it
at
because in case of
It is
the
Secondly,
really
is, all
which returns the
all
lands
being cultivated with equal intensity marginal return on more fertile land will be greater than on the less fertile one.
And
it
would be advantageous
to
cultivate
land more intensively than the less that so
the
more
fertile land.
It
fertile
means
long as the marginal return on more fertile land
is
greater than the marginal productivity of the less fertile land greater investment will
be profitable
to
be
cultivate
Diminishing Returns begin intensifying production,
made on
the former,
and
them beyond the point to appear.
owing
to the
But in the
at
it
will
which
process of
law of Diminishing
48
(
)
Returns, a point will be reached
more
productivity of
fertile
Then
less fertile one.
the
The
best state of cultivation, or the
of labour and capital would be one which all
to
limit to
The producer
is
diminish
will go fur-
the marginal productivity on different lands
till
or less equal.
is
which cultivation
not the determining point or the
more
This
cultivated lands.
which the returns begin
that the point at
should be extended or intensified. ther
marginal
land will be less than that on the
yields equal marginal product on
shows
which
will be equally profitable to cultivate
it
the less fertile land also. best distribution
at
becomes
In brief, the point of diminishing returns
not the limit of cultivation except on marginal land. the efforts to increase
In
production the tendency of
diminishing returns operates whether more land extensively or lesser area
cultivated
is
is
cultivated
more intensively.
In the former case, the producer will go on adding inferior so long as
lands
the value
He
expenses of cultivation. is
equal
which
to
worth while
stop further application
income
finds the extra
dose
is
known
worthwhile
stops
This
expenditure.
is just
the output is
of
is
when the
known
to cultivate.
of
In the latter case, he will
dozes of labour and capital when he
be invested. the cost
in agricuhure
we
t
addition in income
just covering the extra expenses,
reached when
the
as the marginal land
as the marginal dose which
to
more than
The margin
is
is
This
considered just
said to
have been
and the income become equal. Thus,
find a twofold idea of
margin. The idea of
marginal land associated with extensive cultivation
and
that
of marginal dose associated with intensive cultivation.
There
is
a tendency of bringing
under agriculture because of fying,
There
and devoting to
more
fertile
is
more and more
of land
the increasing costs of intensi-
likewise a tendency of restricting the area,
the available resources of
labour and capital
lands on account of lesser yields on inferior
lands, or increasing costs of cultivating them, If the difference in
the fertility of
lands
different
cultivated
would be
Similarly,
if
less than if
on the more
is
greater, the total area
they differed only slightly.
land the marginal returns,
fertile
as a result of intensification, decline rapidly, less fertile lands
would soon be drawn under cultivation than Again,
only slowly.
if
if
they decline
the marginal returns, as a result of the
successive dozes of capital and labour applied to land, decline faster they will be used less intensively
declined only slowly.
though the land
It is,
if
return of labour and capital from
total
returns
the
to note that
more
fertile
greater than that on the marginal land their marginal
is
return is the same on both It is
than
however, worthwhile
more
because more fertile land
until its
is
fertile
marginal return declines
least fertile
and inferior lands.
cultivated to that
more intensively
obtained from the
land under cultivation.
The average
returns will be higher for some farmers than
The higher limit depends upon their ability and the determined by a worthwhile commercial return if the deficit is not intended to be compensated from wages. But
for others.
lower
all till
is
farmers, from the best to the worst, will be pushed to invest brings in returns just equal to costs,
the last addition
Thus,
at the
point of margin
all
farmers are equal and
all
farms are alike.
The tendency
of diminishing
types of industries extractive
returns
is
common
and manufacturing.
to
It is
all
said
be universal in the process of production. The word universal in this connection implies not that it appears, or is
to
visible,
means
in all cases of production
that in all
forms
of the successive
proportionate,
certain limit.
and
of production the
input will it
The
and
at all
times, but
it
output as a result
sooner or later be less than
will not be worth-while to go
beyond a
difference in various industries arlsi*
e$
50
(
)
account of the difference in the degree of supremacy of nature or the part played by it in them. It is often remarked that the part played
by nature
in production
diminishing returns and the part which to the It
law of increasing returns. will be a wrong conclusion
Diminishing Returns
corresponds to
man
plays conforms
say that the law of
to
is characteristic of
agriculture in which nature plays a greater role, and the law of increasing Returns is characteristic of manufacturing in
plays a supreme role. of
degree only
;
Really speaking, the difference
and agriculture
There are reasons
for
which the ingenuity of man
it.
is relatively
is that
more prone
Agricultural production
is
to
it.
limited
by the supply of mineral substances, e. g. nitrogen and potassium, etc., and every crop reduces their quantity. Time t
and space put another type of limits on production, It takes months for the seed to be transformed into crop and years for animals to
in the soil
grow to maturity. Every plant requires space and air. Specialization in the process of produc-
cannot be carried too far because every worker is to do a number of jobs at the same time. expected Supervision cannot be very effective because of operations being tion
spread over a wider area.
Scope for
mechanization
i^Jatively limited because of the need of the delicacy of operation plants.
9p$B
to
and
for the
human hand
attention to
is
for
individual
Thus, the economies of large scale operation are not farmers on a very wide scale. Climatic conditions
sometimes
interrupt the operations
and
also exercise
a
Determining influence on the quality and quantity of prod uce. considerable part of the process of agricultural
A
is natural
production
where man
is
not the master of the
nature in doing of
its
work.
situation but
Hence, in agriculture
Piminisbing Returns s^ts in earlier thfm in jfherc
huigoan
iq^eijtuty
has a
gjfrafer
and
role to play in planning and in execution. manufacturer may not allow that stage at all. expert Similarly an expert farmer can postpone it for pretty long.
more
significant
An
Science has provided immense powers to
Even
environment.
seem
to
change
his
science and technology
in agriculture
have held the tendency
to
man
of
Diminishing Returns,
The
specially in progressive countries.
fact
food con-
that
sumption has increased but the population depending on agriculture has gone down, lends support to such contensions.
But nature can be controlled only partially. The inherent characteristics of the environment and its original properties cannot be
changed completely; and costs.
considerable
bound
to
this interference is
at
of diminishing returns is
operate ultimately*
The above any
The tendency
factor of
discussion leads to a conclusion that whenever
production
is
fixed
and the other cooperating
factors vary, the total output increases at a diminishing rate. It
means
the combination of a variable factor with a constant
factor results in diminishing marginal returns for the variable factor*
The
operation of the law is due, therefore! to the
of production, But the actual scarcity of a particular factor a the because joint one, quantity of one factor relationship is
production for most profitable combination will depend on the quality and quantity of other factors. Besides, all the
of
factors of production are variable with a difference of degree.
The law
of proportions simply refers to a principle of combi-
nation of factors-
Any
variation in one or
more
factors of
combination causing relative production scarcity of one and relative excess of another factor. charge the
will
The law
of
Diminishing Returns assumes that the land
is already utilized
amount
of labour
the methods
of
in the
best
known manner/
and capital applied
is
that the
adequate, and that
cultivation remain the same.
Any
improve-
62
(
)
farm management,
and
the greater investment of
labour and capital for the development of case of under cultivation,
These are said
to
lead
full
in
powers
the
returns.
increasing may be the limitations to the law of Diminishing to
Returns* Further, the tendency of diminishing returns can be
counteracted for the time being by some positive methods,
Modern implements, manures and tion
judicious
facilities,
improvement
fertilizers, better irriga-
better
cropping,
transport and marketing,
in
management, and above all
improvement in the human factor, in short science and technology which improve the quality of land and can make it
yield more, can hold the law in
check temporarily!
V. INTENSITY OF CULTIVATION Human efforts are generally directed towards wresting maximum results from nature. The methods adopted can broadly be put under two classes. In old settled communities
having comparatively dense population, land is supposed to Cultivators generally be a comparatively limited factor.
have small farms, and in order to make the best of them they work hard, try to grow more than one crop, practise judicious cropping through rotations and mixtures and invest more capital in the tools, etc.
form
This
is
manures, irrigation and improved commonly termed as intensive cultivation. of seed,
In comparatively new countries, or where population efforts to
under
maximise production lead
cultivation
instead of
efforts
devoted
smaller areas.
size of
farms
to
is
sometimes results
to
in wasteful
the
point of
apd
the
increased use
This
is
distinction
increased use of particular factors of production, application of labour
increased
Land being ample
use of land.
The
sparce
bring greater areas
concentrating on
relatively bigger, and
as extensive cultivation.
is
termed is
the
Increasing
capital distinguishes intensive agri<
53
(
)
culture from the extensive one which
is
characterized by thf
increasing use of land.
Ordinarily, the intensive method implies small farms and
Where
method large farms.
the extensive
scarce they cultivate
The term
the case.
it
more
vast lands are
and where land
available farmers follow extensive method
But
intensively.
intensity refers to the
it is
is
not always
degree of invest-
ment per unit of land. In the US.A* and Canada where farmers modern scientific developments investment per acre is more than that on small farms cultivated by more primitive use
methods in China and Is
many
India.
our agriculture intensive or extensive? cases clearly illustrating the two types.
not describe the general character*
And
the general rule.
Small
There are But that does
size of
equally conspicuous
is the
farming
is
low invest-
ment per acre. In the total farm investment land values form more than 2/3 share* And if cost of family labour is added to it, both form more than 3/4 share, and all other investment hardly forms 1/4 share of the
Though
there
is
capital
investment.*
an excessive labour in agriculture even
these small farms are under-cultivated of
total
and equipment.
due
to the
inadequacy
Ordinarily, the ability of the
farmer, the area of land, the volume of family labour and to
some extent
the
fixed factors at cultivation is
Factors
quantity least
more
of
affecting
for
and
quality of
capital
are fairly
And
hence, our
time being.
the
an extensive type than of intensive one. the
intensity
of
The
cultivation.
intensity of cultivation is affected by several factors, (1)
Ability of the Producer
:
In order to
combination of different factors of production
make
a proper
ability
of
the
*Raraphal Singh, Income and Standard of Living of Farmers, 195 ri an unpublished thesis, Dept, of Agr. ECO,, P, R. College, Agra,
54
(
He
producer counts most. is
personality
His is an indispensable agent. with agricultural operations as a
and
of an organism,
Vital part
return
the
limited by
is
it,
The Quantity and Character of other factors of Produfr Availability and the efficiency of land, labour and capital
(2)
tion
associated
)
:
determine the degree of theit use and the combination for producing the best
Agricultural Prices;
(3)
and
ently
results,
created
in
Price fluctuations
The abnormal
varying degrees,
occur frequthus
situation
be temporary, or the tendency to return to the
may
previous balance
abnormal situation readjustment
be realized only
may
may
partially,
continue and form a
or
the
new norm,
a
in the combination of factors generally takes
place.
in Capital
Variation
(4)
assumed
interest are
producers
will find
it
to
Costs:
If
rent
prices,
be constant, and capital costs vary,
advantageous
to
change intensity con-
versely with such costs, reducing the use of capital they rise,
wage
and increasing when they
Variation in Wages
(5)
rates,
if
other
be advantageous it
more
is
case
is
rtofc
to
costly
and
:
when
fall.
Intensity varies inversely with
things remain the same, because it will farmers to make less use of labour when
and vice versa*
so simple.
But in actual practice the
The changes
of capital lead to substituting
the result of such changes
wages and cost one factor for another, Again,
may
in prices,
be a
new balance
similar to
the previous one though not absolutely identical. (6)
reflects
Pitch o/ Rent;
Rent generally, though not always,
the degree of intensity, since higher
greater costs
which can only exist
if
there
is
rent
means
greater return
per acre. (7)
apd
Stage of Economic Growth
;
The
social condition? will <Jetenpine the
prevailing economic
volume
of (Jemnnd,
employment, pitch of industrialization and the pressure on land, etc., such things in turn will reflect upon the intensity of agriculture.
How
can the optimum degree of intensity be visualized and approached ? The most simple answer is to have the
most advantageous combination
and
let
it
labour and capital, There can, of course, be an optimum
continue.
combination of factors but
more
difficult
it is
continue.
to
of land,
difficult to
arrive
The method
at,
and
still
of arriving at the
proper degree
of intensity of cultivation is to try the various
combinations
at
factors
different
alternately
levels
by changing the different
and simultaneously.
theoretically simple but
is
The process seems
practically impossible, since
ves four variables. Every situation in order tight
amount
determine the
of a particular factor of production will
a combination of the remaining factors. to
to
It
invol-
it
will
say whether the unsatisfactory result was due
be to
assume difficult
the
wrong
quantity of a particular factor, or dne to the wrong combinaTo say that a particular factor tion of the remaining factors. is
in
right
or
wrong amount
is to
decide one question inde-
In actual practice the experiment is the because major premise will not bear analysis, only partial that a laboratory method determines the Even if we suppose
pendently of others.
right
proportions on a trial farm and the results are theoreti-
cally demonstrable,
practicable
this
combination cannot
serve
measure on farms of smaller or bigger
size.
as
a
The
problem of proper degree of intensity of cultivation, therefore, cannot in actual practice be solved through accountancy method or mathematical calculations* The experiments, however, do advance useful suggestions for movement in a particular direction.
Our growing population,
the scarcity of
farm products, and
the desire to increase the standard of living, with in future, pat
(
greater
demands on
56
)
agricultural resources.
Resort to
new
lands for cultivation being limited (explained in chapter VII)
most important method
supply of agricultural production is through intensifying our farming more and more. This implies a greater part to be played by the
of
increasing
the
equipment and management in future than in But both in the process of intensification and
labour, capital, the
past.
extension the return per unit of social and economic costs sure the
is
decline sooner or later.
The depressing effects of law of Diminishing Returns will necessitate an improveto
ments
in the
which
is
human
termed as
factor in farming
and
capital or technology.
in other
equipment,
CHAPTER
IV-
Types of Farming and the Problems of Selection
CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS
I.
What is
and Valuation.
a Farm ?
It is
a piece or faeces of land operated as a
of agricultural enterprise under one management. In our country the term 'farm is not so commonly used as
single unit
1
the term 'holding,' to
and very often
be used as synonyms. indicating
concept
legal
under one
lease,
two terms are found
or grant,
engagement
absence of any such lease
the
Really speaking 'holding* is a parcel or parcels of land held or theka,
under one tenure.
etc,,
or in the
The word
1
'farm indicates the actual unit of operation,
Dimentionally not and often or coincide, may they may very they do not. of Farms, of The Types phrases types farming or systems
of
farming apparently appear vague, since they bring
mind
a bewildering variety of agricultural
in respect of growing
of crops
and
of
enterprises both
raising of livestock.
Generally, these terms are used interchangeably. speaking the the nature
of
latter is
& broader term.
production or
the
It
But really
generally denotes
The former
combination.
has been more commonly used in the
to the
classification of
farms
Ty^e-of -farming area denotes the territory within which a particular product or combination of products is found on most of the farms, or even in the case of intermingling that is the most common system of farming The term 'combination' denotes not only the products which are combined but also the proportion in which they are combined, e. g potato-tobacco farm means more income is from potato than from tobacco, and the tobacqopotato farm rnean^ the reverse of it. ,
8
57
58
(
specially on the basis of the
share of gross income received
But
from different sources.
)
this is not a
commonly accepted terminology in our country indicating clear cut distinction. However, a
classification
of
farm5 can be made on several
bases.
According to the
1.
may
speaking agriculture crop farming, and
(a)
nature of the produce.
be divided
Broadly
two
classes
;
livestock raising.
(6)
According to size (measured in terms of area}. In terms
2.
of area they are generally classified into
sized,
and
(c)
:
small, (b)
(a)
Sometimes a detailed
large.
attempted, such as:
small,
(a)
medium-large, and
(d)
into
(b)
(e) large.
medium-
classification
medium'Sma}l
(c)
t
is
medium^
These terms convey different
ideas in different countries, depending upon the total culti-
vated area, the number of people following agriculture and the prevailing size of the unit of production. is
more marked
one
in
hand and
In our country,
countries of small-scale
those in
of
large-scale
The
distinction
farming on the
farming on the other.
case of the threefold classification
the
farms upto 5 acres may be considered small, 5-15 acres as medium-sized and those of above 15 acres as large. In the latter case those upto
5 acres as small, 5-8 acres as medium-
small, 8-12 acres as medium-sized, 12-15 acres as
large and those above 15 acres as 3.
According
large,
io value of products, or
they are classified
into
:
(a)
medium-
income.
Specialized farms,
Broadly
when
the
from a single crop or one industry. There may be crop speciality, such as cotton farm, wheat major source of income
is
farm and sugar cane farm, etc., or animal sheep ranch, poultry farm and piggery
farm* when
the
income
is
not even 4W/o of the income
speciality, etc.
from several sources, is
(b) i.
such as General
en
when
from one particular source.
a comblifcilion oF agricultural enterprises, which p'resenfs
It
may
(
59
)
be closely related, each being necessary for the profitableness of the whole undertaking,
such as dairying combined
with
growing of fodder; or it may combine several departments, each producing its independent share of the income, such as a farm producing sugar cane, vegetables and dairy products.
An
extreme form of combination may be
of several industries
on the same farm, such as cereal cultivation,
fruit
farming,
vegetable growing, and they being combined with dairying, These are the three stages cattle breeding and poultry etc. of combinations of agricultural
enterprises on the
which general farming may again be
basis of
under three
classified
heads.
Closely resembling to the term general farming there are two terms diversified farming and mixed farming Ordinarily :
the term general
farming can be used for any of these two
farming means growing of several crops, or including different kinds of livestock in a stock-ranch. There are diversified crop farms as well as
types,
But specifically diversified
diversified
The word mixed farming
livestock farms.
used for a type on which growing of crops
some kind for
it
4.
the (a)
of stock-raising.
A
is
is
combined with
more explanatory
substitution
would be crop and livestock farming, According to the business enterprise.
nature of business
farming may
be
On
the basis of
classified into
Self'Sufficing or subsistence or family living
farms
t
:
when
most of the goods produced on the farm are consumed in the farm family and agriculture is carried on mostly as a mode of living,
(b)
Commercial farming^ when the farmer lives
a business, and agriculture is mostly carried on as most of the farm produce is for sale in the market, (c) Part*
on
profit,
time farming,
when
agriculture is
combined as a secondary
occupation with some non-agricultural occupation, 5,
According
to
farm organization,
On
the basis of
farp
60
(
organization
when
farm
the
be classified as
may
it
)
the
is
family
(a) Individual farming,
:
unit
of
operation and the
farmer operates the farm individually, mostly with the help of his family labour and resources, (b) Joint farming when ,
two or more (mostly two and
occasionally
families operate their land jointly as one their
lands,
supplying labour and other investment in a
and dividing
particular proportion (mostly equally) in the
same
The combination
ratio,
cultural
year and
farthing,
when
own
their
vate
it
lasts
land or taking
jointly
by means
performs some
the output
one
agri-
(c) Cooperative
it
on lease or buying
it,
owned by
and the
culti-
society.
and the society
services such as supplying of credit,
produce and supplying costly implements. on
a
farming, when the farm
The work of
the harvest,
of production
Really speaking at some
sion
mostly for
cultivated individually
is
common
of the
must be done
prise,
till
is
cultivators for in a cooperative society pooling
Sometimes land
marketing
farm
three)
farm, combining
is
the
stage
cooperative is
operated
actual basis,
by
farm operations (d)
Corporate
a joirtt*stock
enter-
done by hired labour under the supervi-
paid services.
The
share-holders
are concerned
only with the profits or losses.
Agriculture is followed generally on large-scale based on capitalistic method, (e) State farming when the faim is owned by the Government and
worked by the paid labour under the management services.
of
the
The workers have no
voice in deciding government the nature of crops, or in the management, and they have no interest in the improvement of the farm. The operation is
generally on large scale and such farms are often equipped
with up-to-date machinery, the
members surrender
in land
and livestock
done cojnmonty.
their land
are joint
The
Collective farming,
(f)
ipcctne
irrevocably.
and the is
actual
The
when rights
farming
is
based op the amount of
61
(
Farmers mostly
work done. in
own houses which have
to
them.
Sometimes
members
)
with individual families
live
small garden allotments attached
in the extreme form
have
live together,
a
of
common
collectivization
own
kitchen and
everything commonly, having no separate belongings except personal use like the tooth brush. According to land tenures. There is a bewildering
trifling things of 6,
variety of farms and farmers based on the nature of
However, on
in land.
occupaticy right farms
the
may
basis of
be of
five types
rights
duration of the
the :
fa) Tttwncy-Gt*
will, right accrues in land and the farmer simply depends on the sweet will of the owner. Generally, $ucfa
when no
The tenancy
farms are for one agricultural year,
is
renewed
and the farmer may have the same land next year or rent land,
number
(b) Lease holding, when the land
of years
right of
under a
cultivation
(d) Hereditary
lease,
lasts
tenancy,
till
when
is
(o) Life tenancy,
the
of
life
the
right of
diffe-
held for a
the
when
the
operator,
cultivation is
inherited and passes from generation to generation according to the
law of inheritance,
(e)
Heritable and transferable
tenancy, when
the right of cultivation
transferable.
Besides, another type of classification based
is
both heritable and
on tenancy may be as (a] Tenant farming, when the land is taken on rent from landlords. The rent may be paid in cash :
or in kind.
Share cropping
is also
a form of tenancy farming
in which a part of the produce, generally half, is paid as rent, (6)
Peasant proprietorship, when the
land
from the State by the farmers and there between the farmer and the State.
and transferable, land
is
farmed by
{e)
the
The
is
taken directly
no intermediary
right is also heritable
Owner or Landlord farming, when actual
owner
has the superior right of ownership in
pay
is
or the land holder it,
The
the
who
actual farming
be done by himself or throogh-hired labour,
,
.,
62
(
actual farm
On
labour.
farm
to
According
7,
)
work done, farms may
Family farms, when most
of the
the
basis
of
be of two types
the :
(a)
operations are
agricultural
performed by the farmer with the help of the family labour, and (d) Faming by hired labour, when most of the farm
work
done by wage paid workers.
is
FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION
II,
There best of
an old Indian proverb that agriculture is the occupations. Such a conception is not peculiar to
is
all
India alone but tural societies.
reflects the traditional
it
As observed
earlier
view
of all
man had to be
fed
agricul-
and food
production was the most fundamental and permanent concern
man. The fundamental importance of agriculture, therefore, dominated the thought of man from the very beginning of of
settled
and thinkers made agriculture
life,
economic
mankind
'Throughout the age-old
activities. to
make
home on
the
land
place where one could be reasonably sure
that
the
warmth,
average
a snug, secure of
enough
to eat,
elemental necessaries of
those
of
man
struggle of
perhaps no dream has been more
a living,
appealing than that of a
of shelter, of
the only key to
thinks of
first
life
for
himself and his
and
it
1
family .*
One of
thing peculiar about fatming
any other vocation,
that
it
is
a
is,
home
is
hardly true
enterprise, intimately
combining business with home. be considered in
Farming should, therefore, two ways as an occupation and as a living, :
Technically speaking, they are two different forms
of activities,
and the principles governing them are likewise different.
The
tests of
an occupation are economy and
be more explicit
ptofitdbleness, safety,
mately the national good. Judged b) ^JLarson apd Teller,
What
is
Farming
?
its
efficiency, to
stability,
and
ulti-
piofitablencss agticul-
p. 13,
(
65
)
ture cannot be the best occupation. Agricultural communities all
over the world are not so advanced asindustrial commuai-
ties,
A
only a few become rich.
rank and is
said to
small percentage
is
well-of but the
is
But farming poor, and some miserably poor. be more safe and stable, and less susceptible to serious file is
than other businesses are.
dislocation in the financial world
This
In agriculture
and are not even equally prosperous*.
mostly due
to self-contained
economy. Farm production
on the whole is fairly stable but taking
and individuals
into account
siderable, which
is
due both
the
different regions
income variability
is
quite
con-
production variability and
to
business fluctuations. Besides, agriculture
hazards more than any other form
is
subject to natural
of business*
Again, in the
Bengal famine of 1943 majority of the starvation deaths were and farming community, That makes the
of rural people
idea of safety doubtful.
However, since agriculture
duces primarily food and agricultural economy a self-sufficing nature,
it
is less
susceptible
turbances than other occupations.
to
Booms and
is
pro*
mostly of
financial dis-
depressions,
and unemployment, etc,, do not affect farming so seriously as they do in the case of other busiinflation
and
nesses.
Even wars do
deflation,
not dislocate agriculture so
much
as
other industries, Hence, farming on the whole can be treated to
be more stable and safe than other occupations.*
But farming cannot be treated as is
a
mode
of
life
as well,
And some
a business only*
go
to the
It
extent of
*
Really speaking large scale farming and big business cannot be com* A big farmer can do slightly better only through improving the organization but so far as the methods of production are concerned he has Farming is not an occupagot the same standard as his small neighbours. tion in which a small revolving fund can be made to do wonders, nor is it one in which few great fortunes are made by a lucky turn of the wheel which pared.
It is mainly the result of individual grinds thousands of competitors, The vast majority of farmers are trying to get along doing the best they can under all forts of handicaps,
effort.
64
(
saying that
it is
a
mode
of life
Really speaking lines
other.
activities
of
a
is
and hence,
a business,
least consideration
in
it.
close intermingling of the two
each exercising a great influence on the
The farm family
business,
and not
demand
business principles should there
)
is
very
and equally important
important the
to
to
the
farm
family are food,
Farm and the clothing and fuel provided by the farm. more closely involved because there is a sort family become of conflict
between the desire
between
for cash
income and wholesome
income on the farm and for family, living, and between the work on the farm and the time for living, recreation
and
the use of
leisure.
Farmers have
to
make
a choice
between how much
to sell in order to get enough income to meet the various obligations and how much to keep for their family requirements. They have to make a choice in the
use of income and other resources for carrying out the farm operations and improving the farm, or leisure, health, education, is
of the family.
a choice between work on the farm and enjoying
children to go to school or
to
for ladies to take care of
and
duties, or to attend to
bers on farms. of
and recreation
for living, comfort,
milch
There
life,
for
look after the cattle and crops, children and look to household
cattle
The choice has
to
and be
to
help the male
made between
children and their education or the rush of
mem-
the care
work
at the
sowing and harvesting time, between the medical care of the wife or some urgent farm expenses, between reducing the debt or performing some social ceremony, in short between more income or better life, and between farm business or farm lifet *Is security a powerful economic motive ? The psychology of agriculcommunities proves it to be so, To the prosperous and specially those who have imbibed the spirit of individualism and competition, and are sure of themselves as competitors in the commercial and the business world, it may not be so. But to the relatively poorer sections the sense qf safety the farm, regarding food and living, makes them stick to farmprovided by fog inspite of the fact that it provides relatively poorer standard of living and lower incomes, tural
65
(
The standard
of living
are also closely
related.
and the standard of farm work
Working conditions are
a part of life as food, clothing
ment which makes
the
welfare of the
the
)
and housing,
farm work
family
and
etc.
tion
'utilities',
much
improve-
light also contributes to
may
increase the income.
Again most of the satisfactions which make up are termed as
Any
as
life
and which
are derived not from direct consump-
taking of food or wearing of clothes but from
like
pleasure of
The usual
work.
derived by an
artist
illustration
by looking
is
the satisfaction
at his paintings.
The
satis-
from maturing crops and a grain heap on the threshing ground or a fattening livestock,
faction
which
farmers
derive
milking cow, and even the care of crops and animals when they grow and develop,
as genuine as that of an artist.*
is
Farming has got certain advantagesthemselves an
i
Farmers work
for
have a greater independence than labourers Farm work is varied and out of doers.
for others.
working
Farming provides
opportunities for
making
a living
possible
with comparatively smaller investment, There are opportunities for
smaller investments and smaller businesses, hence,
there are
greater chances
successful. Agriculture
on account
of inefficient
is
for tnediocres
al&o to
be quite
an occupation which though suSers
and unintelligent operation and
still
returns a living, while other businesses, inspite of inefficient
operation
may
not return a living.
Farming provides work
a fine story about farming told by Plutarch, the famous Over 2000 > ears ago, a certain nation sent emissaries with a large sum of gold to gain the fa\our of a prominent Roman citizen. They sought out the powerful I
*There
Roman
is
historian.
wants nothing 3 ou can give, What need have I, or any man \vbocan such a supper as thro, of gold', He sent them away produce and enjoy and went on dressing turnips. 9
(
$6
)
young and old and work which women and children can dp with profit and pleasure. Farm life provides a better
Cor
community life, and life which is more close to natural copdr turns and nearer to human hopes and desires than life in other occupations, specially in
cities,
which a^e dominated by
pecuniary motives, selfishness and greed, resuldng in dehumanizing of human personality, Farm life is more contented
and peaceful;
Farming
more simple and happier. our country is a tradition and a mode
it
in
is
resolves in favour of living.
the
Most of our farmers, almost
return to keep
their
of life.
farm and the family very often farm work and cash income than actual
But the choice between
and
families,
must secure enough hence, must consider
all,
business principles in so far as they bear on their securing
enough money
for
meeting their various obligations.
business principles and
have
to
family
considerations,
be given their due weight.
rarely so successful that
sweet song,
runs so low
Due that
farm
farm
number
to a
life is
a
life
of
Both
therefore,
The business aspect
may appear
to
is
be a long
handicaps farm business
downtrodden sweated slavery
and a permanent struggle against fate. Farm life in rural areas is devoid of some conveniences which are available to
workers in other occupations in towns.
living in rural
areas
is
lower.
Even during
But the cost of the depression
farmers are not faced with unemployment.
time of general shock-absorber.
During the
unemployment agriculture serves as the And farm life is more contented and farm ;
communities are nnst peace loving.* *The economic history of the developed countries shows that with economic progress the attachment of people with land has gradually become less numerous and less close. But the results of the urbancum commercial civilization which has come into being are not very happy. On the other hand, experience shows that every great war tends to draw increasing attention towards farming, which means that such -turrcorls which disrupt economic life considerably seem to revive the simple old bope of seeking safety, security and peace on land.
67
(
III.
SPECIALIZED
The
distinction
the
extreme
DIVERSIFIED FARMING,
between specialized and diversified farm-
ing has briefly been
10
Vs,
)
drawn
fora*
in the discussion of types of farms.
specialization
means
crop
single
farming! or only one kind of business regarding one kind of Similarly, diversified farming in the extreme form
livestock,
implies a combination of a very large industries both
agricultural
and
of
raising
livestock,
in
e, g.,
number
and
hetrogenous
growing of several kinds of
crops: cereals, oil seeds, fibres, pulses, fruits etc.,
of
respect of growing of crops
and vegetables,
also having different kinds of livestock.
In actual
are rare. In our country practice such extreme forms of the same land have examples growing rice repeatedly
a
number
we for
years in the rice zone, or in Rajasthan certain
of
lands growing bajra for a
number
of years,
case of tea gardens and rubber plantations,
Again, in the
we have examples
There are also dairy farms keeping milk and buying all feeds and foddef.
of single crop farming.
only cows, selling
But such cases are uncommon.
Really speaking, the
differ-
ence between specialized and diversified farming, in actual
The former implies two or number of crops and the latter
practice, is only that of degree*
three crops or relatively less five or six or
even more,
i.
a
relatively larger
number
of
Another way of drawing a distinction is that one the other living on the farm. implies living on the profit and It means specialized farming is drawn more extensively into crops.
commercial and business relationships, and to the
same
principles
And
takings.
on the products
many
is
dragged closer
which underlie other business under1
in diversified of
farming producers live mostly the farms produce almost as their farms ;
things as needed by family and the farm,
this test to the
fatmtng
is
actual: conditions
it is
Applying
found that specialized
not only for profit and wholly for the market,
68
(
similarly diversification
not absolute self-sufficiency
is
or
home consumption. Here also, there is One is mainly for the market depen-
for
farming merely
)
a question of degree.
ding largely
on
generally for
home consumption.
business principles, while
the
other is
There can be examples them being ment
of farms growing several crops and most of
The
for the market.
real distinction is not the
growing for
the market or for the family, but the degree of the variety of
number
products, or the
of businesses.
Advantages of Specialized Farming. to
community
wholesale buying. (2)
When
centralization.
tion is greater the facilities for
Farm work
(1)
the degree of specializa-
marketing are better.
Thus, products are is less
Specialization leads
more
It
attracts
easily marketed.
exacting, less confining and liable
to a less neglect. (3)
since
Specialized farms the
proportion of
afford to have better
are
generally
better equipped,
fixed
charges being less they can machinery and other equipment.
A start is usually possible with less capital investment.
(4)
(5)
Less equipment
(6)
Less labour
is
is
required.
needed.
(8)
Chances of undetectable leakage are minimised. Farmers have considerable leisure to enjoy life.
(9)
Specialization
(7)
leads to a greater degree of skill and
dexterity in the production (10)
and care
In some cases lesser land
is
of a particular product.
required.
A
five-acres
poultry farm or twenty-acres fruit or vegetable farm may the same income as 40 or 50 acres of probably produce almost
mixed farm.
Specialized cereal farming
is of
course exten-
(l)
Specialized
sive but not fruit and vegetable farming.
Objections
farming
is
to
Specialized
very hazardous.
Farming,
There
is a
greater dependence
on the market the failure of which brings serious disaster,* *
g
buy at high prices made bankrupt and U. S. A s best land was
bankrupt Europe unable
,
American farmers under most
to
f
also
In the U, S. A. specialization has been
trouble.
1
the leading cause of farmers troubles
and
the
worst example
is of their cotton belt.
Generally, farmers unconsciously
(2)
become a
an international plan because they become producers
And
market.
When
(3)
in
abnormal times they become more trade
international
selling of specialized farms
ing on a safe basis
is
become
is
prices.
for
world
helpless.
invloved buying and
difficult
rendered very
variations in international
part of
because bargain-
difficult in
case of
A comparatively, small
and diversified farm seldom goes bankrupt. Success of farm depends ou the crop conditions (4)
of
one or two crops, and crop failure spells disaster.
The worst
(5)
The system leads
effects are to be seen to
when
the prices fall.
dependence on public help. And the it can afford, and farmers
poorer the country the lesser help suffer
more*
(6)
The
irregular.
return in cash
is
The investment
mostly once a year and hence,
fails to
turn over more than once
a year, (7)
soil
It
does not provide for the proper maintenance of
productivity.
Continuous use of the land for ihe same
crop not only exhausts
from diseases.
soil fertility
Commercial
but also results in losses
fertilizers
can counter balance
*
Demand for agricultural commodities is generally said to be It is subject to fewer changes tban that for other relatively more inelastic. types of goods. But even the most stable parts of diets experience changes, e.g., during the First World
War due to emergency there was a 20%
cut in bread in
the U. S. A, diet. It has never increased since then. Consumers have adopted the new type of diet as normal and producers have adopted to meet the requirements of new type of diet by producing more fruits, vegetables and
dairy products/
(
70
)
the redaction infertility but the soil-borne diseases neccessilate
crop rotations which are not properly carried out oa
specialized farms* (8)
Labour and
used
not
is
equipment
to
the
best
advantage* (9)
to
Specialized crop farms do not keep sufficient livestock
consume waste products
of
farms and
to
make
the waste
land productive, (10)
It
And even
does not produce the necessary articles of Kood.
become dependent for their on traders, and suffer from trade risks requirements and business hazards even when production is maintained. the producers of food
baste
Diversified
Advantage* of
Farming.
it
(1)
economical and better use of equipment. (2)
Since different crops mature at different times, the
system offers a steady and constant employment to labour, and distributes the farm work more evenly throughout the year.
There are more months
hence, greater income, retains better (3)
productive labour and
for
The nature
of
steady employment
workers on the farm*
When
several crops are
in
grown
succession
soil
fertility is kept in a better balance, since leguminous crops
transfer atmospheric nitrogen
diseases ate also reduced.
to
the
Sometimes
And
soil.
soil
soil-borne
texture
is
also
improved. (4)
Farm
practices
and methods are improved on account
of better rotations, green
of moisture
and
crops not only
manure
reduction of fill
space in rotations,
up
crops, clean tillage,
loss
from
pests.
storage
Sometimes
the gap, or a vacant or idle time
but help other crops.
and
Thus, the oppor*
tunnies for productivity are increased* (5)
The: system results in a better land use,
Many farms
H
(
have a variety
)
Diversification leads to the
of types of soils.
adaptation of
to
crops
soil
conditions.
A
combination of
daep and shallow rooted crops taps different layers of the plant nutrients in the
And
close
soil
when
growth near the surface. and add organic
root
heavy
growing crops reduce
matter in the
soil
Again, deep rooted crops store a part of
for plant nutrients.
soil erosion
Thus
they are ploughed.
to
some
extent they reduce the need for fallowing,
Combination of crops and livestock leads to better There are certain industries which utilization of crops. (6)
prove more economical
if
permits a proper minimises waste.
fication
they are carried together. utilization of
by-products and thus
Returns are more quicker and more regular.
(7)
ment has chances
of turning over
There are several sources
(8)
producing
factors.
and certainty
of
Thus, there
is
more than once of
Diversi*
Invest-
a year.
income and more money
greater safety of investment
income every year.
Climatic hazards are
not so disasterous as in the case of specialization*
Market fluctuations do not
(9)
specialized ones.
so hard as the is
not primarily
hit the diversified It is
based on producing for the market and
hence, market factors are not so important. are a
number
that the (10)
of products for the
market It
may
market and
be depressed for
better
is
for
beginner?
familiar with local agricultural
(11)
It is
a
who
practices
more complex system
cities
to the
Secondly there will be rare
it
all.
There are chances of some business proving fail, and thus of returning some reward.
more exacting
farmers
because diversification
are not
and
closely
conditions.
profitable if others
of farming,
operator or the manager.
and Kenjce
Their capa* are put to real test in respect of crop planning, orgam*
flation
work, utilization of labour
of
marketing,
The system
(12)
and equipment and
etc. is
more
suitable for maintaining a
heavy
population.
Objections to Diversification. diversification crops
ment
same
at the
(I)
In
case of too
much
compete for the use of labour and equipand in such cases some are liable to
time,
be neglected,
There
(2)
Less time tion is
is
leisure
more appreciated
at
and
an advanced stage of economy*
In a country like ours the problem (3)
Due
and year round routine, This sort of objecliving,
multiplicity of duty,
is left for
to the variety
is
of providing
and small quantities
more work*
for sale, there
are generally difficulties in marketing farm products. (4)
The work
is
scattered,
liable to be neglected
more exacting, and,
therefore,
sometimes.
Though two or three crops in rotation exhaust the fertility more slowly than single crop farming, but they
(5)
soil
very effectively, specially when crops are grown in rows. But this generally happens in a lower degree of diversification
do
it
and row-cropping. In case of mechanized
farming both general and are used for a lesser duration of machines special purpose time. At times the situation has to be mastered and the (6)
be finished quickly, hence farmers are inclined to buy larger and greater amount of machinery than is ordinarily needed. This increases overhead costs.
work has
to
Adopting a particular system. After examining the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems it should not be difficult
to
decide whether
follow diversified farming, thefre is
no single answer
farmers should
But
it is
specialize or
worthwhile
to this question.
to
note that
First, "agriculture
78
(
)
no where, and perhaps, cannot so highly be specialized as many other occupations, Secondly, whether a farmer should
is
or should not specialize* or to what extent should he diversify,
depends largely on conditions under which he lives* Soil and climatic conditions mainly govern the nature of crops grown. Amount of rainfall and the facilities for irrigation determine the extent of
intensification.
Besides, in poor
communities and relatively underdeveloped areas farming is mostly of subsistence type and farmers grow several crops ;
and
in prosperous
communities self-supporting farms give It is
to specialization*
way
hard from morn
till
because when a
evening simply
to
make
man
has
to
work
a bare living he
has no time to think about the scientific aspect of his undertaking or the business principles underlying
when he
receives an adequate return that
such things. In prosperous countries specially in
to think of
the
West
which
It is only it. he has opportunities
there has
been a tendency towards specialization
probably the result of surplus economy. Moreover, in
is
densely populated countries like India and China in which agriculture is sufficiently old tices
and established and farm pracalmost an
have slowly matured and have attained
equilibrium, diversified farming has aimed at best land use
and the maintenance hand,
it
of
a dense population.
On
the other
has been seen that diversification does not help
all
farmers.
Hence, it is not generally a question of choice between the two systems because most of the things will be governed by circumstances. But a more correct view is that for successful factor.
even
And
o( business is
distribution of labour, to offer a variety of products
sell so as to
the land,
10
an important a medium degree of diversity so as to give an farming diversity
to
bring regular and sure income, and to best utilize
is
much
better
than either an extreme form of
diversity or a low degree of
C*e for Mixed of
it,
Farming.
In
view of the peculiar features
our agriculture the case for mixed
Our
obvious. are low
is
agriculture
is
farming
quite
overcrowded; the crop yields
farm income and standard
of living are very poor connected with agriculture economy very closely because animal power is the main source of power in agri-
and
;
cattle
;
is
farm yard manure is the main source of maintaining and animals make good use of subsidiary and
culture,
soil festility,
Under such circumstances
by products on farms. of
mixed farming
will
most
a system
our conditions.
suit
capable of maintaining a thicker population.
It is
It
offers
a chance of better labour utilization
by providing greateremthe period of spare time. further reduces and ployment, Thus,
which
will
it
is
make
a
maximum
use of the factor of production
available in plenty, and by enhancing the duration
employment will increase Besides under the conditions of land
of productive
the
capacity.
scarcity
productive it
offers
methods and practices of land use. Different types of lands will be used for the purpose for which they are better
Thus by
suitable,
establishing a balanced land-use-pattern
will better conserve the soil fertility,
ducts of agriculture live-stock, It
which in
will
it
subsidiary and by-pro-
be utilized by different kinds of
their turn will provide
farm-yard manure.
agriculture more economical but also exhaustion. It is more significant in our case
not only makes our
recoups
soil
because the possibilities of the use of chemical artificial
festilizers
and
manures by farmers in general, are limited due
sevetal reasons. Again,
it
to
will provide not only a subsidiary
income but also more frequent and regular income, and thereby will enhance the standard of living.
source
of
Really speaking the case for mixed farming can be blished only after considering
the
alternative
esta-
measures.
(
of our
The problems above,
e, g.,
incomes,
75
agriculture
)
as have been
pointed out
over crowding, spare time, lower yields, and low
can be solved better by a system
etc,,
farming, which seems to suit best our conditions, study in Mathura
district of Uttar
of
mixed
A
recent
Pradesh comparing mixed
(arming (cereal cultivation being combined with dairying) with purely cereal cultivation, puts the case in a more con* crete shape.*
From
the study
of
European
agriculture
warriner come to the same conclusion that *
Jitpal Sing,
an
unpublished
Economics
thesis,
of
Yates
and
~grain
pro-
'
Mixed Farming in Mathura District, B,R, College, Agra,
Dept, Agr, Eco,,
(
duction by
itself will
and
acre*
is,
76
never give a high money output per
therefore,
utterly
farming for crowded regions,
by them
is
1
quite interesting,* but
one who
to
only
is
)
familiar
inappropriate as a staple
and it
the evidance
reveals
its full
supplied
significance
with European agricultural
conditions.
A
Active workers in agriculture per 100 acres farm land.
Over 15
Italy,
Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Poland, Albania,
Yugoslavia,
1215
Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Czechoslovakia,
912 fi
Netherlands,
9
Norway, Finland, Lithunia,
Denmark, Sweden, France, Estonia, Latvia, i
Under 6
United Kingdom, Eire,
B. Net output in
1215 9
Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland,
Denmark,
12
69
Norway, Sweden, Italy, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Estonia,
36 Under
per acre. (1937)
I
3
Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Slovakia, Poland, Finland, Lithunia, Latvia, Eire,
Rumania, Yugoslavia, Albania,
*p, L. Yates and D. Warriner, Food and
Europe, 1943, pp, 39-40,
Farming
in
Post-war
(
77
)
C, Net output per active worker in 2(1937)
Over 120
U, K., Denmark,
90-120
Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland,
60-90
Germany, France, Norway, Sweden,
30-60
Finland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Spain,
Eire,
Estonia, Lateria,
Under 30
Portugal, Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Lithunia, Albania.
IV. Selecting
PROBLEM OF SELECTION. as an
farming
occupation.
personal matter and must be determined by
and other circumstances are,
profitability
and
mostly
a
tastes, aspirations
of the individuals concerned.
however, other factors
respect of
in
is
It
There
for general consideration, specially
farming as a business, such
of farming, availability
as potential
of alternate occupations
also the social values attached to
it.
Therefore, before
making a choice of farming as an occupation both have to be taken into account.
the sets of
factors
(a) Personal considerations.
examples
who
of farmers:
we
In every locality
due
are most successful
or efficiency, others special ability
miserably
find
to their
failing,
and
still others presenting gradations between success and failure, depending far more upon differences in the human element than on those in physical conditions of land and
all
other opportunities of
money and market.
Thus, in making
farming successful considerable stress has to the individual.
percentage
There
is,
however, no rule
of success attributed
quite considerable.
It
is
to
mam
be placed on to
But
indicate the it
must be
sometimes believed that half of
the success depends on ipan and the other half depends on
78
(
the conditions of
and market,
climate
soil,
discussion of this point
)
made
is
etc, (a
dering the personal factor several elements have into account.
They
are
detailed
.While consi-
elsewhere).
to
be taken
personal taste for agriculture as an
:
farm practices, knowledge of local agricultural conditions, level of efficiency as an operator, energy, enthusiasm, courage, faith and responsibility. in
occupation, experience
Other considerations.
(b)
The other
of factors
set
com-
in previous pages prises of those which have been considered
under the heading 'farming as an occupation'. To be brief, it has to be considered both as a business and as a life, and as such,
it
is
a very profitable business. quite stable though not
aSords a healthy, peaceful and enjoyable work. While making a choice the points probable income and stability
and
safety
its
adequacy
social values attached to
Farm
it
for the family
of life
:
alternate
it
it,
affords.
After making choice of farm-
the other question is of
type of farming or the
of
and the farm,
work provided by
and the type
Business.
ing as an occupation
and a variety
be considered are
as a business, availability of
occupations limiting choice, nature of
Selecting
life,
to
It
farm business.
It
selecting the
will
largely be
determined by circumstances, and the factors to be taken into account can be put under four groups (a) Environmental :
conditions or the locality limitations,
such as the
soil
and
and the quality of labour market and the market conditions, which
the climatic conditions, quantity
and the location will
of
the kind and quality of the crops greatly determine
gtown.
ments
(fr)
Availability
of
capital,
(o)
for operating expenses, or family
Financial
require-
needs, or for both*
Since different farm businesses have variable earning capacities
greater family needs
may
influence the choice of the
business, (d) Personal tastes and the capacity of the operator.
AH the$e
factors
have a bearing in makiftg the choice.
79
(
)
and they have to be balanced against each other, The need of larger income may shift the personal factor to a second Again, lack of capital
place.
may compel
to
choose a busi-
Sometimes the environ-
ness of lesser income possibility.
mental conditions prove most powerful and overcome other considerations,
Hence,
factors is
But
choose from,
actual
choice
all
be noted that
there
To
is
a
enter
into
But in
choice.
generally simplified by the
is
locality
or a
particular
be precise, the factors which have to be taken
consideration
enterprise are
if
one has the whole country
if
the factors
these
consideration of
based on either a given
business.
1.
all
the
practice
decision
into
choice, or
elasticity ol
greater to
necessary.
a
is to
it
ail
while
deciding the
desirability
of
an
:
Income
possibility or the profitableness as
determined
by local experience,
and climate,
2,
Physical conditions of
3
Effects of the type of
4.
Financial
5.
Extent and quality of labour requirements.
6.
Nature of work and
soil
farming on the
requirements
fertility oi the soil.
equipment and
for
other
investment.
its
seasonal distribution.
?
Location with respect to market.
8.
Other conditions existing in the market, specially
9.
The
marketing costs and
10.
and the volume of business
determining the quantity and of the market
stability in supply.
The extent
demand
11,
facilities for sale.
extent of enterprise,
so as to determine the
foi
the product or the
probable influence of
an increase in the supply on market price. Personal inclination of the whole farm family
for the
particular line of business.
Selecting the Farm,
The
basic essentials in
selecting a
80
(
)
farm are right type of land, good income producing power, congenial community life and reasonable price* These are broad considerations including amongst them a number of
elements which, under a detailed analysis must be considered
They are
Separately.
:
-
The farm
Types of /arming.
1. fit
as follows
in the already formulated plan
the kind
ot crops, or raise
To have
a place simply because
to be
ments,
method
Quality of soil.
2.
to
it
is
a
farm and then try after
to
long experi-
of gaining experience,
It
determines yield and
the
is
Through proper management and
Valuable asset.
produce
animals which the operator intends.
find out the right type of crops or animals is a costly
selected should
and must be able
manuring some improvement
possible, but
most
artificial
the
soils
of
General lay-out of the land, slope and
its
is
naturally poor physical condition will not pay.
Topography.
3.
direction, presence of ravines or
kind and
influence the
hills,
proper drainage,
quality of produce,
etc.,
farm practices
and operations, 4. Shape and arrangement of the farm. There should be facilities for dividing the farm into fields of proper size, and proper arrangement of fields, buildings, roads, paths and water supply, etc. Irregular shape and a haphazard
arrangement
add
to the cost,
5.
tions
The
of these things increase difficulties in cultivation,
and sometimes waste land. one of the most important consideramostly determines the volume of business.
Size of farm
because size
it
It is
should be such as
to
provide
full
and
profitable
capital and equipment, and ultimately to a tolerably good, if not provide an adequate income and
use to labour,
a high, standard of living. limit the opportunities
and
capital,
and
thus,
It
should not be too small to
for profitable
adding
to
employment
of
labour
the cost of cultivation, nor
81
(
should ful
it
)
be too big resulting in under-cultivation and waste*
use of land. 6.
Climate.
kind of crops, storm,
etc,,
It
plays an important part in determining the
Temperature, determine
rainfall, forest,
the succes
And
cause diseases which
men and
capacity of 7.
may
cattle,
and
unfavourable climate
may
and reduce crop
Normal
The need
for crop production.
men and
deteriorate the health and working
cattle,
Water supply.
thunder
hail,
otherwise of crops.
life of
Pleasant climate leads to healthy
work. permits regular farm
or
rainfall
for
yields.
seldom
is
sufficient
therefore, is
irrigation,
paramount for successful cultivation. Without it fertility of land and manures cannot be fully utilized. Cultivation cannot be intensified and crop yields are considerably reduced* Location with reference to market. The earning 8. capacity of the farm is considerably affected
Proximity
means
market and good
to
commuication are basic for successful specially
when
duction can
the produce is of
be arranged
with
a
by
of
its
transport
commercial
to
and
farming,
nature.
perishable
reference
location.
Pro-
consumers'
preferences and the output can be transported quickly, The locational factor cheaply and in fresh condition.
may
not be very important in subsistence
commercial farming 9.
it
is of
farming but fundamental importance.
Financial requirements.
The
price of land or rent
should not be too high and out of proportion ing power.
needs
income produc-
operational requirements and the the have period of production
adjusted to the availability of 10.
to
The
during
Labour.
Amount,
money
in
family to
be
immediately or in future.
quality, availability
and
cost
of
labour (wages) have to be considered specially in case of Due to scarcity of labour the work may large-scale farming, 11
82
(
)
not be performed in time, and too high the costs
wages are
the other hand, cheap labour
be out of proportion.
may may limit
zation. In case of family farming
If
On
the extent of mechani-
not so important-
it is
Sometimes
Safety against damage.
11.
the yield.
affect
may
it
considerable
caused by wild animals, birds and stray cattle, damage Safety against them is important for successful farming, is
Good
Social conditions.
12.
neighbours provide not
but
only a congenial
community
ness of farming.
When new comers
life
also
govern
profitable-
are not liked hinderances
are created in work, crops are damaged,
bickerings
petty
and sometimes prolonged litigation take place, and life becomes unwholesome and farming unprofitable. Besides the farm should not be
too isolated for
good social
life.
Agriculture for
Town
dwellers.
in
also
adopt farming as an
residing
sometimes
cities
in
who have
temporarily or permanently shifted to
a debt, or service-men
want
occupation,
Such persons are either the big
cities, or city money-lenders to
to
some cases persons
remote villages and more often in places,
easily accesible by roads.
landlords
In
whom
who during
continue the possession
ol
land has passed under
the period of their service
land or maintain connec-
tions with villages, or other rich persons
dual or corporate farming mainly for spare cash want
to
who
profit, or
have land property.
follow indivithose having
In most
of
these
done on a comparatively larger scale, work is done by wage paid labour, even the management is paid, production is for the market, and profitability is the main
cases farming
aim.
But leaving aside big commercial farms most of the
farms due
Land
is
is
the
lack of supervision, prove unprofitable. not maintained in a high state of productivity, and it to
Jeads to under utilization.
As
a subsidiary occupation, and
83
(
)
specially providing the basic necessaries of life, it may be considered good, particularly in abnormal times. During
period of
the
high prices it may prove profitable also. But from the view point of land utilization it should be
discouraged
as
a
national
Under
policy.
the
shortage of production optimum utilization of
maximum
is
production
property right in land If the institution of
So
the aim.
is
concerned,
far as the
it
is
present
land
and
question of
a different question.
property in land is maintained
tenancy
laws can provide an adequate and safe arrangement. through lease or sub-letting land must be
Either
maintained in a
Even in case of newly reclaimed from thickly populated regions should be preferable to extensive commercial farming by individuals or corporations. On the whole it is a sort of enchroachment high state of productivity.
tracts colonization
by
cities
on villages reducing the farmer to the status of a
wage earner.
Even from
profitability, in
most
the
view point
of the cases
it
is
of
business and
not desirable,
There-
farming by town-dwellers in villages must be discouraged. In can, of course, be tolerated in the vicinities of
fore,
cities if they
have farms nearby and practise farming under
their close supervision.
Agriculture as a Subsidiary Occupation.
menials, workers
who
migrate
to cities in
Village artisans, slack
season, and
others having very small areas of land, follow farming as a their incomes derived from part-time job to supplement In cases main the traditional their occupations. many
areas are so small that the operators cannot afford to keep
bullocks and other farm
equipment.
ploughed and sown by those from supply other labour. under-cultivated.
Land
Lack
production generally
of
is
they take
not put to proper use
experience
results
They have the land
whom
in
low
in
the
it,
and
and it
is
technique of
production,
It
also
(
reduces the size the pressure on
of faniis of
declined and
The
real
regular farmers and
artisans
of
from
their
increases
is the
development
common
occupations has
no alternative occupations
there are
remedy
)
This practice has become
land,
because the income
.84
in villages,
of cottage industries for
artisans and the creation of farms of suitable size for farmers,
development of cottage industries as a subsias a remedy for diary occupation for farmers is suggested under-sized holdings and as a provision of subsidiary
Very
often, the
income. This amounts successful in Japan.
be done,
to
dual occupation, which has been very
In the transitional period
But in the long
run
the
place and specialization will lead occupation,
to
it
will
adjustments
have
will
to
take
the choice ol a single
Therefore, farming as a subsidiary occupation
by those having
little
agricultural
traditions
should
be
discouraged*
A
recent study in Meerut District or Uttar Pradesh brings
out the following results.*
#]ai Niwas Tyagi, Agriculture as a Subsidiary Occupation, theis, Dept, of Agr, & co., B, R, College, Agra,
unpublished
1951,
an
85
(
VALUING THE FARM,
V.
as
a
The term valuation
Process.
Appraisal
for
synonym
is
mostly used
i. the theory and the e., value of a given property at a In a derived sense it refers to the
appraisal
process of estimating the specific place
)
and time,
value placed upon the property as
of an
a result
appraisal.
Valuing a
farm, therefore, ordinarily means determining a figure in terms of money which one would be justified in
paying for a farm or an agricultural enterprise. The appraisal process consists of two main parts inventary, the
collection
i.e.,
value of
a
farm,
of
and
:
(i)
Physical
physical data affecting
Economic
(ii)
converting physical yield into their
all the
appraisal,
i.e.,
money income, or determining The whole process is
value in terms of money.
comprised of six
stages,
the
three
first
of
which
are
concerned with physical aspects and the other three with
economic aspects. I
They are
as follows
:
Physical Data. /.
Appraisal a
map and
soil
inventary.
It
includes
complete description of physical resources of farm, such as location, demarkation of its
the
boundaries, location of buildings, soil
texture,
sub-soil
2,
depth of
topography Estimation of yield. ;
;
surface
climate It
;
trees, streams,
soil,
character of
drainage, etc.
includes an estimate of
productivity through estimating crcp yields and typical cropping systems. 3.
Building inventary.
It
includes physical inventary
and analysis of farm im provements and equipment such as measurements of buildings, capacity, estimate of future For
this
section
Appraisal, 1947,
we have
life
largely
and
drawn
adaptability, etc.
on
W.
G,
Murray,
Farm
86
(
II
)
Economic Appraisal. 4.
Preparation of Income
Statement.
aims
It
at
determining the internal producing and earning capacity o{ the farm. The net income is found out with the
expenses
of production.
valuation, and 5.
help of farm product prices and
costs
also includes building
It
and valuation
of other things.
Determination of value by capitalizing the income.
means deciding
It
present worth of a farm
the
with the help of the estimated annual income by capitalizing* the expected
income
future
at the
pravailing rate of interest. 6.
Determination of determination
total
of
the
vafae. total
It
is
the
final
value by adding the
intangible values (values attached to the farm on
account of favourable location and other amenities or non-economic features being available) to the
and by making other
productivity value,
ments
adjust-
comparing the sale value of the farm in question with those of other farms in the locality. after
Methods of Valuation,
There
is
almost
unanimity
of
of farm productivity. But opinion in respect of the appraisal of difference considerable there is opinion on the best method
of valuation,
*'
e tt
the process
to
be followed in convert-
ing production estimates into value. tions
on the best method
of
Two extreme
valuation
are
:
(i)
sugges-
The
net
income capitalization method, and (ii) The sales value comare termed briefly as the income parison method, They value on which the annual Capitalizing means assigning to the farm a net income is the prevailing rate of interest,
because
it
depends on the expected income and also the expected
which are inconsistant, rate of interest both of
87
(
,)
approach and the sales approach, These methods have their own merits and demerits which make them suitable under particular circumstances lore, in
order
to
anJ unsuitable in others,
avoid the evils of both and
good points a third suggestion
compromise
their
combine the two on a
to
by employin g analysis, comparison and These methods are as follows:
basis
capitalization, 1,
is
There-
retain
to
The net income capitalization method.
In this method
determined by capitalizing the net annual income taking into account the returns Irom land and buildings. It requires, first, an estimate of productivity and net income, value
is
second, selection of the rate of capitalization, and
justment of the capitalized
value
to
nomic features or amenities mostly estimates of the income
may
lords or of owner-operators.
third, ad
account for the non-ecoof intangible nature.
The
be based on the returns of land-
The
difficulties
arise
in calcu-
lating certain items of expenses involved in owner-operation,
Therefore, while
valuing land the
income method usually
income which can be substantiated by comparison with actual facts, and owner-operator income is generally estimated while examining the possibirelies
lity of
on estimates
of rental
an owner having sufficient income
to
pay the
interest
on a mortgage loan,
The merits
of this
method are
the annual rental value specially
mon, and where
soil
that
it
is
easy to determine
where tenancy
is
more com-
and climatic conditions, and not the
management, are more important in determining yields, And as T. D. Morse believes, income capitalization is the direct and primary approach to valuation,* mathematical analysis. And since,
It it
leads to
exhaustive
can develop to such a
*T, D. Morse, American Rural Appraisal System, Journal of the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, II No, 2, Nov. 1938, Farm Appraisal, p, 206, p. 98, Quoted by W, G, Murray,
88
(
)
large extent from definite mathematical data and formulae
appears
logical to
use
it
as a foundation
The
limitations of this
(a)
The most
there
not be
may
method are
serious handicap
in case of
owner-operation
of
income
becomes untrue
A
(b)
:
certain localities
Again, the estimate of income
is
very
difficult,
areas where
in
as follows
is that in
it
build upon,
agreements, and in others rental
rental
income may not be uniform.
rental
to
And
estimation
is
uncommon
tenancy
to facts,
considerable portion of land value
is
due
to
non-
economic features, amenities and other intangible elements, It is very difficult to determine the rate of (c) capitalization.
The
(d)
talizing
in
difficulty
rate is greater
determining both income and capi-
in
regions where crop yields vary
considerably and agricultural prices fluctuate widely,
Estimates of net annual income lose
(e)
in
significance
is
of their
areas of marginal farming where average
expenses and returns almost balance each value
much
other,
and farm
very low.
where
wide variety of methods of farming are practised, or where farms produce a variety of (/)
(g)
It
It
does not
is
management
suit
a
where buildings,
unsatisfactory
location
and
are of special significance and soil conditions
play a minor role in determining annual return. (h)
It
assumes a
it
does not possess.
is
not reliable.
to
revenue
is
As
scientific
Hence,
it
accuracy which, unfortunately, is
subject to serious errors,
and
Aereboe believes,* valuation according A unscientific, impracticable and indefensible. F.
*F. Aereboe, The Value of Landed Property, International Institute of Agriculture, Bulletin of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases, Nov. 1912. Quoted by W. G, Murray, Farm Appraisal, p,206,
89
(
slight mistake in yield per acre
same
cost of cultivation)
)
(under the assumption of the
will bring
about such a difference
whole value after being capitalized Again, even if the valuation of net
in the net returns that the
appear absurd.
will
returns were practicable,
depend on the
capitalization will
which a small difference
rate of interest in
about
will bring
a considerable difference in the value.
The
2.
sale value
sales as standards.
region
is
method
comparison method.
The
level
of
determined from actual
is to
It
uses actual
value in the particular
The
sales.
first
step in this
estimate the farm productivity or to establish
The second
rating of a given farm,
the productivity
step is
non-economic features, and accounting for the intangible features. The final step after rating the farm
to
consider the
as a productivity of
level
is
to
fit
in the general
values in the region through comparisons.
a checking first
and amenity feature
or a corroborative process in
It is
which values are
determined on the basis of comparative productivity
and other
factors,
and then the
capitalization
method
is
used
as a check in determining the correctness of those values.
Market price of farms value since
it
is
supposed
represents the
to
actual
be the best index of price
finally
settled
between both the buyer who wants to offer the lowest possible the highest possible price price and the seller who wants to get (forced sales being avoided).
Those who emphasize
this
method think
that
in
farm
probable market price, farm should be worth, that the and not what one thinks arrived at is the appraisal the figure
And
as G. C.
judgments
Haas
of the
believes,* market price is the result of the
land market, and represents the best
esti-
G, C. Haas, Sale Prices as a Basis for Farm Land Appraisal, Minn. Agr, Exp, Sta., Tech. Bull, 9,, Nov. 1922. Quoted by W. G. Murray, Farm Appraisal, p. 208,
13
mates of buyers and
about the future farm income.
sellers
Secondly, value estimated by any other Method will approxi*
mate sale value.
It is,
remain almost at the
When
values
sale
a
optimism during
because sate value and income value
same
level except during short periods
may be higher on account of boom or lower due to undue
during a depression, than they should be.
income value based on normal price level the^sfcle
value
it is
Brandt thinks, large scale,
more
this
It is
(b) sale
its
and the
of this
generation
to
than
fit
for
Thirdly;
as Karl 1
quick application on
Theoretically
operates on a
it
results are reliable.
method are
:
(a) unreliability
of
farms are handed
generation and sales are scarce
;
value has a lesser significance in making comparisons
with other farms, but
is
when
par with the latter through
estimates specially where
the sale value
down from
method
pessimism*
Again,
is nfttich less
capitalizing rate,
less costly.
scientific basis
The handle *ps
at
brought
changes in price of the
excessive
It
may
be the only basis for comparison,
limitations cannot be overlooked
;
(c)
lack of standard-
ization in the land market.
After discussing the two methods one would note that though
them they use farm prodfUct b&se and also use the method of capita-
there are differences between
a cotrimofc prices as Direct capitalization of income as a method of land lization.
valuation has serious handicaps, but afrd
'a
check has
to
be recognized.
supplement suggested which aims
is
usefulness as a gttkte
Really speaking the two
each other,
methods should
method
its
at
A
compromise
avoiding the evils of
both the methods and at the same time retaining the merits of both.
ttom
It
Since
employs analysis, comparison and irt
some cases a
thfcn capitalfea*
particular approach
may be more
suitable than the other, greater weight has tb be attached to
the one
better
adapted,
There are
different
kinds
of
91
(
The
m aip
Sipce the
main
is,
on the productive characteristics of
objective
future earnings
is the
put
&, while buying fopd
*,
of emphasis,
place is
emphasis
t
which the appraisal
use to
specific
.determines the
)
;
soils,
while selling
land the seller should see that both income and non-income features
or intangible
included
are
in
;
condemnation
appraisal (taking land for military purposes, for air fields and for roads, etc.) a reasonable compensation to the individual is
aim of the
the
sacrifice
govt,,
which
tax assessment
and main consideration
owner makes
the present it
must
;
is
of the personal
if it is
designed for
reflect the existing conditions
$how,the relative position of one region to another
made for
loan purposes the emphasis
is
;
and must
and
if it is
on long range views,
such as the probable conditions of the land during the period of loan, natural, hazards, price risks
and borrower's integrity
and security. Theories of Land Value,
above discussion,
is
Valuation,
learnt from the
it is
a process of establishing a value figure
based upon a particular programme through a formula of capitalizing that
economic return.
The value
paying for land decision*
And
as such,
it
is
a function of all future retains
generally has in result
pon-egonomic features,
of
it
land value
be considered to be so. the
'Jajid
What one
'capitalized land return
^mawy compromises
land value formula*
Therefore,
value of land alone although for #11
may mind is
.practical .purposes
the
jand
prospective entrepreneur.
bty
yjdjie' is not truly the
this
amount
economically justified in be obtained under a specific business
to
depending upon several economic as foreseen
is
figure is an,
an entrepreneur would be
Opinions
formula, and
differ
1
which
ip applying the basic
on the very basis of
they are
known
as different
theories of land value, which are as follows:7,
Kent Theory,
ft is
based pp the
plassi?a[l
copceptipi}
92
(
of rent
as a
i.
surplus,
any ment its
form
in the
annual use.
use,
and
it
it
is
will
he wishes
if
depend upon
normal
ratio
and
value,
its
rent,
to sell t,
e. t
it,
e. g,, if
the
the value
since capital and
of its
of a piece
current rate of interest
20 times the
annual
is
of
land
5%
price
rent.
Land value
Interest Theory.
amount he can
the
investors tends to establish a
between the annual net rent
of land will be about 2.
the worth of
is
The competition amongst
use.
It is
what the tenant would pay for landalso what the owner should count if he cultivates
the land himself, or get for
over and above the cost of invest-
labour and capital.
of
This
an excess of annual income that
en
piece of land yields
)
is
residual in character 1
labour have priority claims against net
meeting these claims any income is left then land has value and the amount of value which land If after
earning,
way depends upon the amount of excess The main point is that value of land is a
acquires in this productivity,
function of price of capital and labour, for net return of an enterprise cannot be determined without
The
value of improvements.
first
determining the
residual nature of land
implies that while valuing land
income
we should proceed through
estimating labour and capital and the required returns to them.
The conclusion after,
and
labour). that
land
is
that the price of land
in part, by
This argument is
fixed
is determined only investment (capital and also based upon the classical idea
the price is
of
and immobile while other
But the modern view-point
is
mobile 2 and hence, land value
that is
land
is
factors are not.
economically
not residual in character.
Return to any factor of production can be considered residual. 1.
Land
is
residual in the sense of
non-deteriorating 2.
Land
several uses
is
permanence of value. It is physically and unlike improvements rarely becomes valueless,
economically mobile to the extent to which it can be put to to the extent to which a unit of it can be substituted for
and
another or for capital and labour.
93
(
3.
)
Demand and Supply Theory.
nomic analysis distinguishing prime factors
of production,
land,
Unlike classical ecolabour and capital as
modern economic theory suggests
that pure definition of land as nature has
since in
little
practical value
production land and investment in the form of
and labour are so intricably combined that there is possibility of separating and measuring the productivity of original and indestructible qualities of land. Productivity capital
no
of
an enterprise
is
an undifferentiated stream
of services or
And
in
economic behaviour land
is
revenues.
other factors of production.*
similar to
Therefore, land valuation
is
not
fundamentally different from investment analysis in other And land value is determined by the forces of fields.
demand and
supply.
But in actual practice buyers differ from sellers and in each group one individual from another. Hence there cannot be a single series of earning powers attached
to a
piece of land.
On
the other hand, there will be different earning powers for each diSerent seller and buyer. The difficulty is that which one is to be capitalized into present market value. Again,
each seller and buyer has his separate
discount rate, a
separate process through which to arrive at his individual for it. present worth of future income, and maximum bid
Thus, in the market process individual capitalizing underlies both the demand and the supply schemes, and hence value is not the
normal equilibrium
supply but in practice
it
of
free forces of
has to be
strictly
demand and
individualized.
*In some respects land is similar to other factors, but this similarity does not justify a complete merger of land and capital because for analytical purposes land retains important distinguishing characteristics, e.g., location is of peculiar importance in the case of land. 1 1 rests on the physical immobility of land and the relative permanence of location feature. Besides, relative durability of land and the relative inflexibility of supply are differences in degree that are sufficient to have considerable economic significance to distinguish
it
from
capital.
Besides, land values are
considerably wflaeaced by Local
customs, institutions and standards,
Increase in
Und
Value.
In
an old
country
.agricultural
having a thick population, by far the major portion of whi
depends on agriculture, land has a special economic
signifi-
During the last five or six decades and specially during the last decade there has beep a considerable rise in the price of land* There are se.vetal cance and a natural attraction.
factors leading to this rise
:
decline of cottage industries combined
(i)
with a rapid
increase in population which have resulted in a gradually
increased realization of the country with an undue emphasis
on landed property
;
inadequate development of alternative sources of investment in the form of industry, trade and commerce (it)
which have diverted a considerable portion of rural invest-
ment
in land
;
exchange and have mini* which distribution of agricultural commodities mised the isolation factor and have increased locatinal value (iti)
development of transport
facilities for
;
:
(iv)
scientific
and t$chnical developments ;
in agriculture
.Whfch have regularized .or increased outturn or have minimised, agricultural hazards (v) (vi)
tv'w)
general rise in the price level
impact of urban growth security of
conditions (via)
;
life
;
;
and .prpperty and
settled
political
;
a threat of Japanese invasion
combined with
a slight loss of faith in
induced many people
to invest in
during
194243
paper currency which
landed property
j
recent tenancy reforms and the abolition of Zamindari Jsgttaaftsystfeffls in most of the States which have led the
(IK)
land holders to sell or leave land (x)
and the
rise in prices
and make money
;
during and after the war which
has increased farm incomes and agricultural created a sudden land hunger.
profits,
and have
CHAPTER
V.
Rural Life and Economic Transition.
I.
THE VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
Origin of Villages.
have
to
In order to understand
was
study the village which
From
economic system,
out the country, people
and self-contained
rural life
the unit
we
our old
of
times immemorial almost through-
have been living in small isolated
villages,
It is
very interesting
to
when and how did they come into existence, The term 'village means permanent settlement
enquire
as to
7
indicative of a stage
and
1
,
and
is
nomadic
as opposed to
of settled life
permanent or continuous agriculture as opposed to shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation marks the first the in stage development from pastoral stage, and permanent life,
of
agriculture
marks
from pastoral
the beginning
to agricultural
and begins with permanently settled or permanent community life. Thus, village communities begin with
stage,
continuous cultivation.
even
when
in pastoral stage
tration
of
population
It
;
should, however, be life is
there are
temporary nature and agriculture shifting character.
At
and some community
that
cultivation
and
that
marks
are
life
is
community
developed.
96
is of
a
a
living
But such
not technically called
begins with continuous
the beginning of village
nities.
concen*
is
followed which
is
institutions are
Settled
noted that
settlements though of
stage there
settlements are temporary and village communities.
nomadic there
commu-
97
(
is
It
to
difficult
that
exactly as
say
Sometimes
communities originate*
word 'Arya' means
tiller of
soil
continuous cultivation in
of the Aryans,
after that time,
and
)
village it
Again,
when
to it
did village
believed that the
is
and from
it
they conclude
India began after the coming
communities is also
likewise sprang
up
believed that communities
were always on a kindred basis, except where family tie seems to have been broken by over-sea migration. These kindreds were usually tribally organized on a patrilineal basis, often
under a chief or a headman.
has been an Aryan to
disprove these statements,
being the question that to
But there
feature.
India, were
it
ample evidence
Leaving aside
for the time
whether the Aryans, when they came
accustomed
cultivation or not, 1
This organization is
to settled
life
and continuous
can easily be established, and there
is
ample evidance to prove, that the Dravidians whom the Aryans found in India, were living a permanently settled Even the Kolarians who life and had village communities. were the earlier inhabitants, were accustomed life, though most were mostly nomads.
of
of
them were
in
to that sort
and
pastoral stage
Conditions in the different parts of the
country being different, the Kol race (different tribes) lived in
of
different stages
them
of
pastoral
and agricultural
were nomads, some moving
after
life*
Most
a short time
and
The Aryans were originally pastoral people. In what stage of 1. development were they when they first moved, and when they came to the with certainty. But it is generally believed plains of India cannot be said The first Aryan tribes in India established that they came in waves themselves along the Himalyan slopes in Kashmir. There agriculture must have been limited to narrow valleys or terraced fields on the mountain side. Perhaps they took to settled agriculture and life afterwards when being pushed by successive waves they left the hill sides and descended to the wider spaces of the alluvial plains of upper India. There they found the Dravidians living in village communities and following continuous cultivation.
Though
must have been lopment,
13
in different parts of
living at different stages
the country the Dravidian race
of pastoral
and agricultural dev$-
some
But some of them lived in villages and
after a long.
followed
continuous
cultivation!
villages goes to the times of the Kolarians
And
is
it
existence
the
Thus,
and Dravidians*
certain that before the coming of
Aryans in permanent nature were there
India village settlements of a
the
But they were not the general feature of rural as they became later on after the Aryan settlements* in India.
The idea
of living
vilage groups seems
or
together to
have
due
Basically
which can be called
be the fundamental
Regarding
grouping.
it
is
the purpose
several hypotheses have
tinct,
villages
seem
is difficult to say
It
of earliest groupings.
earliest
We
men was
for the
to
and
also difficult
of village
cooperation the
t
task of
and
hostile tribes, to
tribal ins-
was the purpose
say that
all
the
one and the same purpose.
to
believe that the of
to
of
instict
supply of water
the
exactly as to what
It is
purpose
e,g,
have arisen due
to
groupings were due
are inclined
cause
of effective
the need for protection from wild beasts
Again some
natural
to
been advanced,
clearing the jungle for cultivation,
in
some purpose
in
origin
its
life
man
aggregation of
effective cooperation. to
of
earliest
security
or
aggregation of
But
protection,
afterwards, at one and the same time, village groupings must have sprung up for diSerent purposes as mentioned above.
Besides some thinkers have referred the village system to Hindu Law and believe that the system is peculiar to Hindu races.
But sufficient evidance
is
available to prove
among system was Hindus, and which, with some of their prevalent in India
the races
to
suivive in tion
shows
some
parts of the country,
prior
history of
races almost at the
suitable villages had
same
time.
still
evolu-
same environment human mind same manner. We are inclined to believe
where environment was all
living
institutions,
that in the
haves in the
by
The
that the
be-
that
been formed
99
(
Types of they are
distinct
villages*,
form of
in
There are two types of
and
the oldest
perhaps
Landholders are disconnected aggregates
villages,
each claiming
owners
villages,
villages and Joint
origin: Severally
Severally villages are
(i)
of families
cally
villages,
)
its
of their several
own
holding.
They are
holdings
family
practi-
which
they
have inherited or bought or cleared from the original jungle. They have a common headman and also some common offi-
and artisans who serve them.
cers
They are
nected with the government and there Cultivators have
or individual). of the
whole
estate
is
directly con-
no landlord
(class
no claim as a joint body
and then dividing
it
among themselves,
nor are they jointly liable to the government for the revenue, In some places
claim
to
we
find
be owners of
the
superior lords surviving,
all the soil,
only as landholders though
who
and tenants are recognized
hereditary after holding for
They are conquerors or adventurers who gained the superior position in one way or another. In Manu we do not find any such claim of the ownership of the
several generations.
soil
being
made by
the
He had
Raja.
his
private
*3ome thinkers like Phillips believe that there is only one type of vilIt is lage, the joint village, which is the earliest and the original type, in the process of decay, and in flux of time the joint rights are substituted,
and the severally type
There
is
evidence of buch cases
arises, in
This does not seem
which
in the process
to
be correct. one form
of decay
Joint villages as a result of partition get splitted up But it is easily recognizable and into individual properties. It should not be believed that the joint village in the a different thing of decay has been transformed into i,everaky village which is of a
passes into another.
and are turned is
process
development. Keaily speaking severally villages s^em to be of earlier and the two are distinct in origin. A few exceptions may be there which do not prove the general rule,
later
origin,
1
Campbell has termed them as 'democratic' and 'aristocratic and Baden The latter terms have become as 'Ryotwari* and 'Landlord'. more popular in use. Sometimes we come across such terms as 'autonomous' and 'feudal'. But they are not expressive of the main distinctiop and riot better terms to be used. ,
Powell
100
(
As
)
a ruler of the country his right
and
venue, taxes, cesses
the
represented to the
is
power
of
making
waste land but perhaps not an owner of the land, That why they are called ryotwari or non-landlord villages. (ii)
There
Joint villages,
is a
re-
grants of the is
strong joint-body mostly
descending from a single head or a single family having and having superior title pretentions of being higher castes claiming jointly the entire estate. They are descendants of former rulers or colonizing founders or conquerors or grantees or later on of revenue farmers and auction purcha-
The
sers.
tenants have
whole area of the
village, including
and the waste land, use
it
is
The
only the right of cultivation.
claimed by
the site of
that body,
The body
only by permission"
of
habitation
and the tenants
landlords has a
of land and stands between the superior right of ownership estate among cultivators and the State. They divide the
themselves on their own principles and acknowledge themselves in some
degree, jointly liable to the State for the
Such villages have arisen in two ways among and over the first type of
revenue demand. (a)
:
they are a growth
villagee,
and
(&)
and occupation
they have arisen from the original conquest of
land
previously unoccupied by some
A
tribes and leaders of colonists, their
growth as given
(a) Landlords rights have grown up over
the
village
first
type,
of
further classification
by Baden Powell f
1.
is
follows
as
of
:
Out of the dismemberment
of
the old Raja's or chief's estate, and the division and partition of larger estates
the
2.
Out
of grants
to
courtiers,
made by
the Raja
favourites
minor members
of
the
and royal
family, etc. 3. I
growth and userpation
By
later
of
Govt, revenue
officials.
101
(
f
recent times by the growth of revenue farmers and
fn quite
4.
purchasers when the village has been sold under the first laws for the recovery of the arrears of revenue.
i
5.
Landlord rights were claimed from
From
the
ment
of
(b)
the
first
)
families
settlement
and special by conquest or occupaclans
and by the settlement of bands of village
tion
or foundation.
establish*
original
associated
and
families
colonists
in
comparatively late times,
Old Village Communities and their Disintegration,
The
not be interpreted to
mean
word 'Village Community' should
anything like a communistic or socialistic right or interest,
There
is
no evidence
remotest past,
was owned
land
held in
to
show
that
even
villages,
common
in
common.*
for
In
many
some time but
community ownership*
In
cases,
that
rights *It
the
villages
are
cannot be called
such cases they are always so
held by joint descendants of a chief or a conqueror
how acquired
in
were owned communally or even cultivated
who some
These descendants have equal Correctly speaking, the term 'com-
the estate.
and privileges.
has been asserted by several thinkers that the institution of lordship
of relatively recent origin and that it was superimposed upon an original lordless community, Originally there was co-ownership and common Maine believed that India land was cultivation by village communities. is
m
common by
groups, of people for the most part, of common descent but including strangers who had been adopted. Lavelcye thinks that all peoples utilized this economic form as they passed from pastoral to agricultural stage and that communal ownership was natural at this phase of development. On the other hand, Coulanges has strongly denied originally held in
the conception of common ownership of land, Baden Powell finding no evidence seriously doubts it, And Ashley, Pollock and Maitland, Lewinski and Sanderson have also seriously questioned it. Property in land is said to pass through three stages (i) when it is held by tribe or clan and is said :
property of the whole body, (ii) when redistribution is abandoned and each family retains its holding permanently, and (iii) when families break up and individual ownership is created, These stages are those of community property, family property and individual property, In
to
be the
common
102
(
nity*
)
should only be used with reference
to a corporate life
and interdependence between showing the families living in each village. This close connection a close connection
arose due to several facts
:
they lived together under a system
which made them joint owners
;
in
some cases they lived
together under similar conditions; in others, they had tribal or caste connections,
and
in
others they had simply a
still
common system nity'
of local government, But the word 'commufor a used such close connection between families, being
should
not
in
any way suggest an idea
common ownership
community or
of
of land.
The self governing and self-sufficient village communities were the most important feature of economic and social life in the past. They were equally well developed both in North and South, and were the most outstanding features of rural almost throughout the country. About Bombay province M Elphinstone wrote in 1819 that These communities contain
life
in miniature all the materials of a State
and are almost
sufficient
to
protect
within
their
Governments are withdrawn."* About Madras in 1812 that 'under this simple
form
of
themselves,
members
if all
was reported Municipal Government it
India in case of most of villages, property is in 'family stage'. Opinions and it has not been well established that there was an Some curious instances are given by early stage of joint tribal holding. differ considerably
District of Punjab that in some areas now forming separate villages there was once some units of tribal holdings divided The cases mentioned show a part of the land being held in into shares. common but the produce was always divided according to certain shares. That shows that different family shares were recognized. Moreover, it
Tupper regarding Jhelem
:
to local circumstances, Besides, the idea of common ownership referred to the custom of periodical redistribution of land or holdings in which there is sufficient evidence, But this was always particular tribes for followed by distinct allotments of holdings It indicates a desire to equalize
was due
is
the holding so that some may not get all better land and oihers all inferior Redistribution qf land does not indicate so much a communistic idea The question, however, remains of property as a desire to equalize land unsolved and requires further research.
land,
*Elphinstone's
Peshwas,"
1819,
"Report on
the Territories
conquered
from the
(
103
)
from times imme*
inhabitants of the country have lived
the
The inhabitants give themselves no trouble morial... about the breaking up and division of kingdoms, while the remain
villages
or to what sovereign
transferred,
remains
economy
what power
they care not to
entire,
unchanged."
it
1
devolves,
About
its
little
They seem
after
Dynasty
lasts.
succeeds
to
dynasty
last
to
tumbles
Commu-
remain
else
down, revolution
Hindu, Pathan, Moghal, Mahratta,
revolution,
The
same
the
want
where nothing
Sikh, English are masters in turn, but the Village ties
India
republics, having nearly everything they
themselves.
within
is
internal
Northern
Sir Charles Metcalfe wrote in 1830 that "the Village nities are
it
Union
Communi-
of
Village
Communities, each one forming a separate little State in than any other cause itself, has, I conceive, contributed more to the
India through preservation of the people of
all
revolu-
tions and changes which they have suftered, and it is in a and to the enjoyhigh degree conducive to their happiness, 2 and of freedom ment of a great portion independence."
These
village
statements
Communities as their
managed
They had very
of the outside world.
knowledge Most titution. occupational
of the population
groups
servants and menials,
They had was
were those
Many
social
life,
each other and almost no
contact with
little
appears from the above
it
ov/n economic and
a peculiar cons*
agricultural.
of
artisans
of the artisans
The other
and village
had small
plots
which they had either rent free or on concessional Many of the menials and village servants were artisans
of land rents.
But the most peculiar feature of these communities, which distinguishes them from their parallel, in other coun-
also.
tries,
was
the close
connection and
interdependence of the
1812, p, 85,
1.
Fifth Report,
2,
Sir Charles Metcalfe's Minute, dated
November
7,
183%
104
(
different occupational
)
The
groups.
artisans
and servants
were paid a certain quantity of produce by each cultivator and in their turn they rendered certain services to them. The amounts paid
to
them and
nor
artisans
all
artisans
the
duties were
their
not uniform
All the village servants were not
throughout the country.
were village servants.
But
were regularly required by all members of the village community were generally both artiTheir units were highly selfsans and village servants.
whose services
artisans
contained and self-sufficient.
own all
They produced not only their food and agricultural raw materials but also met almost
the requirements of industrial output,
village
had a variety
potter,
oil presser, cobler,
since
almost every
of artisans including carpenter,
smith also.
Most
numerous
now, were produced within the same
as
the
of
only a few articles such as
weaver,
ironsmith and sometimes a gold-
requirements, which were not so
salt,
unit,
and
glass bangles, gold, fine cloth
and some luxury goods required for ceremonial occasions were imported from other places. These units generally produced for thtir own demand and little which in the technical sense of the term did of fact, exist*
We
hear
of a flourishing
for
the
market
not, as a matter
foreign
trade in the
were no important exports of agricultural produce- Agriculture was more of a subsistence type. Every fanner grew a variety of crops for his use suiting to the local past but
there
conditions of soil and climate,
The revenue demand was produce varying between
was accompanied by
a
and kept a few milch
fixed
as a
share of the actual
1/3 ami 1/6 from time
number
to
time.
taxes and cesses.
of
demand
very high, the
payments were quite considerable.
The
total
the
size of these village units
parts of the country,
past does not seem
was
different
in
It
Hence
though the revenue
in
cattle.
to
be
different
In plains, where the environment being
congenial
and
buller
it
was
easier to earn the
better, the villages
were
The
life
was
than those
of larger size
constitution and organization
in hilly
and barren
of these
communities and the administration
tracts,
and
livelihood
of
their
through village panchayats are said to be responsible
affairs
for the
happiness of the people residing within these units. They maintained peace and order even when there was anarchy realm.
in the
among
They
most
settled
the members, and
managed
of
their
the
disputes arising
own economic and
They served as a form of social protected their members. There is a very interesting question about social life,
quality of these
communities.
It is
security
the
and
enduring
Indian Village
said that
communities had their parallels in the English medieval manor, the Russian mir and the German mark, But the Indian
Communities had
Village
account of which political
a
feature on
peculiar
they could persist in the face
of
numerous
changes and could withstand numerous shocks. The
statement that the village
life
was
entirely
unaffected
by wars and revolutions can be accepted only with reservation, the 18ih century and specially after the breaking since during
a theatre Moghal Empire the whole country being life could not of constant wars and brigandage, the village there were innumerBesides, undisturbed. remain entirely
up
of the
able
movements
of
people from place
to
place.
But
it. is
a
remained mostly unchanged It is interesting to enquire as to whether the for centuries. survival of these communities for such a long time was due to some inherent characteristics, or was it due to some outfact that the village organization
side factors. is that the
effective
14
Opinions
lack cf
difier
on
this point.
One explanation
communication and consequent absence
centralized
of
system of administration was mostly
106
(
)
responsible for their survival for such a long time* Another version is that the compactness and the solidarity of the
communities which was due
to their
being forced
to
rely
on
themselves for defence against aggression was mostly reponBoth these factors seem to be sible for their persistence.
The
simply contributory.
real cause is their
the
of social structure specially (
peculiar form
system which those
caste
The occupations and
communities adopted in India*
the
were hereditary,
and the custom made the
different sections of the village
community highly interde-
social
status
They were closely interwoven in the economic and social activities. This form
pendent on each other* practically all of village
constitution determined
economic and social
life
;
the
whole
structure
and the solidarity which
it
of
imparted
community aided by the factor of isolation and
to the village
autonomy and
the consequent local
mainly
self-sufficiency,
contributed to their long survival.
The economic development
of
by these communities in several
country was affected
the
ways.
Isolation
a
Indian agriculture
to
sufficiency
imparted
character.
The absence
market and
of
communications have been responsible
Under such
served by
little
barter
the
lack
became
hereditaty, their productive system likewise
typed*
difficulty
of of
In the case of artisans their offices being
commercialization*
economy had
self-
subsistence
the for
and
a system of organization price or
place.
rather
The needs
of the
stereo-
money
community were
than by exchange.
Since
the
be responsible for
the proteccommunity was considered and maintenance of its members competition had no place to
tion in
the economic system.
were regulated by customs. definite
Practically, all the spheres of life
This sort of organization had
advantages, but the whole rural
typed, and
the greatest
drawback was
life
became
its
stereo*
that the incentive
for
107
(
)
and improvement was weakened, and customs and
efficiency
traditions being dominating forces in the choice of occupations
and other matters, conservatism checked the habit of adaptability, due to which a number of forces that were released during the
half of the 19th century upr ooted the
latter
economic structure
population could not adapt itself to the
new environment.
have recorded the lamentable
Historians
old
village communities, and the rural
of the
facts about the
decay
of these self-governing institutions specially during the
latter
half
of the
19th century.
They are
survived well both in form and reality in
India, and virtually ceased
until the
have
to
Crown
to exist before the first
rule
gene-
British administrators had closed their labours
ration of
the conquered said to be
The
territories,
in
reasons of their decline are
:
reforms and the abolition
administrative
the
(i)
said
of the
Panchayat system, the
(ii)
fixation of
rent
and
revenue in the form of
money, the establishment of civil
(iii)
and criminal courts
for the
administration of justice,
improvement
(iv)
(v)
means
of
communications,
progress in education, and the growth of the spirit of individualism.
(vi) It
in the
should, however, be
noted as to what
is
meant by the
phrase 'decline of village communities/ The villages continue to exist
many
;
of
them have been enlarged, and
has also increased*
It
is
the
their
number
self-government and local
autonomy (administration through village Panchayat) which is gone, and the corporate life (close connection and inter-
dependence is
of
different
disintegrated.
occupational-cum-social
Thus
their f
groups)
decline should
be
108
(
)
and duties being, interpreted in the sense that their functions due
to the loss of self-government
and
local
autonomy, taken
over by other newly established courts, they have become lifeless
;
due
different
groups
the
Revolution,
become
has
communities in the old sense
interdependence
and
less,
greatly disintegrated with the
.
forces being released
modern economic
the Industrial
after
has
to the
the corporate life
result
oi the
of
that
the
village
term have gradually
declined.
PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF VILLAGES.
II.
.
Organization of Villages.
described
a
as
together in
group
more
a
of
or
An ordinary Indian village is mud houses which are huddled
less
compact area situated under a which provide the main
cluster of trees in the midst of fields
source of livelihood ssion
on
Indian of
characteristics
to the inhabitants.
Agriculture village
anterior to British rule'.*
back
is
remain
life
What
The Royal Commi'that the main
observed are
still
those of centuries
they wrote about two decades
today, and isolation and self-sufficiency
true
still
to be the outstanding features of village life.
Most of the families have been living in the same village for generations, and most of the holdings have been inherited
common
These holdings have been divided or aggregated as the descendants of a common ancestor have increased or decreased in number. Both according to the from
ancestors.
Hindu Law, and the customary law, the inheritance of immovable property has been among sons in equal shares. There have been slight variations but it is mostly true that
will.
male
and very seldom by The result has been a repeated partition and a gradual
inheritance
is
by blood
*The Report
of,the
in the
line
Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture, 1930.
109
(
towards
tendency
uneconomic
their
economic together*
Most
have permanent
of
sab-division
The
size,
several castes arranged status
)
and
in
social
to
holdings leading,
population generally consists of a
social
which
in
hierarchy
values are usually found
of the people are agriculturists,
rights in land either as
some
to
go
them
of
owners or as tenants
Out of these some having hereditary occupancy rights. cultivate all the land they hold, and some having larger areas are agricultural
Some
Lowest
others.
to
sublet
in the
labourers,
economic and
mostly belonging
social scate
low castes.
to
them have acquired small pieces of land either under permanent tenure or on rent and rarely in proprietary right. of
them are simply casual farm-workers. Between and in the the labourers economic scale are the land holders But most
of
artisans, generally, except in the smallest villages, there
the
Some
them follow agriculture Below them in the economic and
are some skilled artisans, as a part-time occupation. also
in
partly
social scale are the village
follow
labourers,
rather
of
community
All
rigid,
the
and
social
the
menials or servants who
services and partly
and economic
work
as farm
stratification
is
choice of occupation, the nature and
scope of economic activities, and the social
behaviour,
The
are mostly determined by tradition and custom.
etc.,
original
functional groups were gradually converted into social groups
and they hardened
into an occupational caste system.
Agriculture which
main
stay of
the
major
part of the village population is generally said to be a
gamble
in the is
monsoon
is
the
by
far
since only a small part of the cultivated land
protected against the vagaries of the rainfall by
irrigation.
regulated activity is
spall
?ifce
Almost
all the
of
major agricultural operations are
by the monsoon and most of the confined to only a few months of farms, the
means
present methods
of
agricultural
in the year.
farming and
The th$
(
nature to
of agricultural seasons
short durations at
amount
of the
total,
in
consumption whole volume
means
)
combining the farm
of
and contribute
The urban population
the
towns
demand is
for
a low
to
not being even
farm produce
comparatively a small
farm production.
activities
leave a considerable
specific times,
of spare time with farmers,
standard of living.
15%
no
for
part
final
of
the
Besides, the inadequate
communication and transportation have kept the Producers both agriculturists and villages in isolation. artisans have had little incentive beyond that which was of
furnished by local demand.
been very small.
And
demand
local
has always
Thus, circumstances have combined
to
maintain a subsistence type of farming, and the village population has maintained a self-contained village economy.
The
villages
which are remote from
cities
and roads are
comparatively more self-sufficient in character, The lack of incentive which still continues outstanding drawback
to
be an
been partly due to selfsufficing character of villages which was due ultimately to the lack of proper means of communications and transporta-
tion,
and
partly,
of India there
due
in rural life has
to the fact that in
the
recorded history
were very few periods during which
the people tracts of the over in general large country enjoyed peace and prosperity for long.* The sense of insecurity created
*The glories of our past have been recorded in high sounding phrases. But was that wealth and prosperity shared by the common man ? The facts have to be carefully scrutinized. Excepting in the golden age in the Gupta period the masses in general rarely enjoyed peace and prosperity for Even, during the British administration, when peace was secured long over large parts of the country the prosperity was occasionally disturbed by But a severe famines and the exhorbitant revenue demands of the State. question which usually arises in one's mind is if peace and prosperity was not the lot of the common man how could such fabulous wealth be accumulated, and how could art and culture make so much progress, We are inclined to believe that the ancient wealth of India which historians have magnified was most probably the luxurious life and the pomp and magnificence of the royal aristocracy and the wealth of temples. And the art, culture, religion and poetry, etc,, all developed under the court :
patronage,
by
was further
the occasional disturbances of peace
thened by exhorbitant state
Thus, the lack of incentive
demands
is a
streng-
one form or another.
in
legacy of the past, During the
tec t&t past the incentive has been provided through several
means,
e.
g. t
and security
security
trative reforms.
overcome
of
fair
tenures,
high
rents,
the long established Isolation
slowly taking place.
Markets are widening,
Changes are
phychology. is
gradually breaking up.
Villages are being brought in touch
with towns and the outside world also*
Specialization
commercialization in farm production has been
form
in the
of
cash crops.
prices
and property provided through adminisBut these measures have not been able to
of life
increased acreage and
localization
of
The
Social values are also changing.
and
introduced
some
so-called
lower castes are rising in economic status and also in social
There
scale.
is
some
political
breaking up the existing organization. tural
The new
consciousness also,
economic, social and political forces are
work.
They are
But since
all agricul'
at
communities are highly conservative, these changes
can only take place very slowly. being
made
in almost all these directions
picture remains almost as usual.
changes
is
ground and
we
Thus,
A
fuller
find a beginning
but
the
general
account of these
given in the following sections on social backthe economic transition.
Characteristics of a Rural Society. of a rural society are
derived from
its
The
basic
features
living nearer to nature
and relationship to land from which most of its members eke out their living* The nature of diets, the methods of work, the mode of living the social grouping, the cultural pattern, the thought process
and the general behaviour are
largely determined by this relationship. to
Hence, they tend
be regional and largely influenced by natural environ-
ment,
The
vertical
social
mobility
in a
rural
society
is
112
(
movements up and down
related to the
largely
from landless labourers
of status as against
of
posed chiefly
the scale
The
the position of a landlord.
to
society includes a high proportion
rural
organization of a
)
contract
Society
relationship.
primary groups.
com-
is
are bound to a
People
by organic relationship rather than by cooperaThe tion necessitated by economic division of labour.
greater extent
individual has comparatively fewer contacts, since his both geographic
of activity
contacts are lasting.
Though
and
field
narrower,
but his
the individual lacks the
modern
social is
sophisticated specialized personality, there is a fair degree of
adjustment and
A
rural
society is characterized by
economic
the
features
The
sufficiency. to
produce much
is
produced by
develop
the
festivities,
mainly
industry are
to
be
by local
regional,
The
rural
and
society
and
simplicity of life
speech patterns, rigid moral stand-
folkways,
domestic
or nearby
characterised
traits, e. g.,
philosophy towards work, those of an urban society. construction,
tries
make
does not
Agriculture and
environment,
local
social rituals, abbreviated
customary
it
same
the
likewise tends
develops some selective
ards,
which
the family
residing in
status.
Culture,
develops out of
regional self-
a lesser degree of competition for
is
closely connected and are
environment.
its
own goods and what
artisans
power and
is
and hence,
isolation
around
unit of production of its
There
communities. goods,
simple, stable and sure.
life is
adaptation and
etc.,
non-pecuniary
which are quite
Rural
articles,
art is
distinct
expressed in
religious
from
house
images and
such as dances, songs and games.
in
Since there
has never been an absolute isolation in rural communities is
very
culture to
is
difficult
to
indigenous
say
as
to the
to
what extent a
country and
specific njral
how much
outside factors specially the urban influence,
it
of
it is
due
118
(
The main
)
characteristics of a rural society as distinguished
from those of an urban society are relative
(i)
predominance
:
of agricultural as against non-
agricultural occupations,
people to natural environment as
closeness of the
(ii)
against an
man-made environment,
artificial
an organic relationship in the community members
(iii)
based on cooperation as against economic and commercial combinations based on competition and for simple and happy
(iv)
life
as
profit seeking,
against complicated and
worried existence, (v)
smallness of
its
communal aggregates and
a relatively
sparce population as against huge agglomeration concentrated in a
compact area resulting in a dense population,
homogeneity and tioft
social
primary
(vi)
much
a greater social
and
differentia*
diversified and socially
and econo*
internal
less
as against too
to
grouping leading
mically stratified secondary
stratification
human
groups,
politico-social classes being related to the holding of
(vii)
land as contrasted with a system largely related
to
personal
and movable property, (viii)
comparatively
vertical social
movements
raphical, occupational
and
less
occupational,
as against vast
territorial
movement
vertical social
arid
and frequent geogof
popu-
lation,
(ix)
(x)
against
conservatism as against inventiveness, but a 'a life
life
close to
and dwarf personality
isolated a rural society
these characteristics,
and as
desires as
and
1
**
is,
the
the isolation
*L, Mumford, City Development, 15
human hopes and
of negative energy, suicidal vitality, moral
spiritual failure
The more
more
more
distinct are
breaks and
it
gets
114
(
urban
into greater contact with
)
society, a cultural interchange
and the distinctive characteristics
takes place,
to
begin
disappear as a part of the standardization process.
As
the
Urban
and language become more national fashions, styles and behaviours per*
society.
Education and technology increases
Money economy slowly
replaces barter, and prices are quoted
contacts increase culture
and
less local.
meate the rural
upon standard measures.
in terms of currency based
mic division
of
labour increases, to
specialization in production begin to play
greater role in production
confined in the
to
social life
of
the antagonism
rural
and
more formalized
in
in material aspects, social
remaining
to
accumulate
community begins
conflict
social classes increase.
and
rather than
But the
non-agriculturists.
of the
social
organizations
vitality of the
to decrease
and
between different economic and
And
more
and
emerge, credit begins
only consumption. Property begins
hands
Econo-
commercialization
becomes more complicated, relationships, more mechanized life
artificial in
environmental setting
become more systematic and
;
less
spontaneous. III.
A
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE Common
Impression.
text-books
Many
written
on the economic conditions of India and on the economic history of India
have traced the impact cf
social
environment
on economic progress. They give an impression that our social environment has not only been uncongenial and unfavourable for economic development but has definitely
hampered or retarded it. From is generally drawn that in order
this hypothesis
to
possible the social institutions, customs, ships, ideas,
social
ideals
and behaviour,
environment has
to
be
a conclusion
make economic progress traditions,
etc., in short,
fundamentally
relation-
the whole
reformed,
(
115
)
reorganized and modified so as to suit the
new circumstances
economy. This view
of a progressive or developing
is
shared
by some foreign authors like Moreland, Wadia and Anstay.
Many Indian
some
writers,
of
them being impressed by
foreign writers, and some perhaps
subscribe
same view.
to the
life
and
activities
is
beliefs,
the
students such an
social
environment on
Amongst
impression -about the influence of
economic
own
as their
Some
quite natural.
the
of
statements explaining this influence in the field of agriculture
which are intended other economic
be examined here,
to
fields, are as follows
to the
exclusion of
:
Caste mainly determines the occupations and thus checks both geographical and
The
vocational mobility.
result
is
overburdened and many other occupations
that agriculture is
experience the scarcity of labour.
Some
castes,
generally
do not perform certain farm operations
the superior ones,
(ploughing) do not
certain crops (vegetables),
grow
keep certain type of livestock (pigs, poultry
&
do not
donkeys
etc.),
and do not use certain types of manures like bone-meal and human excreta, Some low castes cannot follow some occupations traditionally belonging to superior castes due
to the
and cannot adopt dairy farming of marketing the products, The
difficulty of social mixing,
because of the difficulty
mainly responsible for the rapid has deteriorated the land-man which population relationship and is primarily responsible for the present food It increases recklessness and improvidence shortage.
joint-family
system
is
increase in
among
the junior tire
members and by
family
ness.
time of debt
at the
The laws
capitalizing the credit of the it
of inheritance
en-
accentuates farm indebted-
and succession have mainly
land systems in which land is said to governed the existing be very unevenly distributed, and the outstanding problems concerning farms,
i. *.,
the uneconomic si?e, the sub-division
and the fragmentation are mainly their outcome* of
purda amongst women
The sy&tem them
higher castes prevents
of
from working with their male members look after the cattle outside the home,
.on
the
fields
and
This results in some
farm operations being delayed in some castes, under-cultivation due to labour shortage and increased farm costs. Reli-
way of killing the useless and weak burden on land and create fodder,
gious beliefs stand in the
animals which remain a feed and food
shortage,
monkeys which cause
in
killing stray cattle,
a considerable
on the other hand, they are responsible tantial class of
who
to
damage
crops,
and
for supporting a subs-
unproductive and idle able-bodied mendicants
lead a parasitic living and add to farmer's
ties.
birds and
Social ceremonies
responsibili-
and
births
concerning marriages,
deaths, govern considerably the administration of individual resources, determining indirectly the structure of preferences,
standard of living, volume of savings and capital formation
;
and are responsible for a considerable portion of agricultu* ral indebtedness and for the continuation of agrestic serfdom.
To be
brief, the
philosophy of
life,
the
the
thought process,
habit pattern and the general behaviour of the rural masses have taken their shape and character from our social environ*
meat.
They
are characterized
by pessimism, fatalism,
perstition, conservatism and suspicion about
new ways
of
culture, t
t
g,,
su-
things and
Talking in a different vein,
many
economic problems having a bearing on
agri-
doing things.
of the existing
new
unequal occupational
heavy burden on
land, rapid
distribution
increase
in
with
a very
population
with a
gradual ruralization of the country, unequal land distribution!
uneconomic
size of
farms, sub-division and
agricultural indebtedness,
agricultural
fragmentation,
idleness,
low yield,
high cost of production and a low standard of living of the
farming population,
etc.,
are partly the outcome of our
(
)
environment, Not only that agricultural progress in the
social
form
117
of mechanization, commercialization, specialization
intensification!
etc*, is
held in check
and
;
and
has throughout
it
been discouraging push, drive, adventure, mobility! adapta* bility and inventiveness. There
is
also a contrary
view
that the influence of social
environment on economic evolution
and the economic
is
merely secondary,
conditions and forces have a greater
determining influence on social evolution than vice versa. This is Engellian diagnosis which traces the final causes of all social
changes and
political
production and exchange.
and
is,
revolutions in the
This view
is
modes
of
not shared
by many, The former view is,
therefore, not current in India.
however, quite common* But this impression and specially the conclusions drawn from it are likely to create a confusion of thought when an analysis is attempted, and further are
emphasis on wrong measures and
likely to place
priorities
on less urgent measures when a solution is sought, *.#., while blaming the social ennvironment for creating and intensifying
some
the
of
economic problems the opposite side, i. c. the economic environment on social structure, t
influence of the institutions,
A
behaviour and problems
is
generally overlooked.
sociologist can trace with an equal degree of certainty, the
causes of
many
social
in the
problems
economic environment.
Again, while believing that the social environment responsible for holding the feels to
suggest that to
recast.
But
it is
is
mainly economic progress in check one
make
progress possible
neither possible nor desirable
the whole social environment at once or
even
it
to
should be reorganize
in a shorts time,
Besides shall we concentrate the whole attention on reform* ing
it
and wait
so as to
suit
for the
the
progress
to
begin
new environment.
system which stands in the
way
till it is
reorgnized
Is it really the caste
of usiqg better
i
118
(
seeds,
manure and more
social
structure really
How made
far
of
)
irrigation
unfit for
improved agriculture
change be one sided
shall the
the spear-head of the proposed
These are tackled and
some
the questions
of
Is the
facilities?
?
What
is
? to
be
development plans
?
which are not properly
answered by the foregoing
It is
analysis.
neces-
to study the relationship of social and economic sary, therefore, be environments before the real causes of our problems can
located
and the appropriate solutions can be suggested.
Relationship Between Social and Economic Environment,
The
history ol evolution
shows
growth of culture and
that the
on biological
civilization depends environment and cultural endowment.
inheritance,
Human
physical
nature, values,
habit patterns, relationships, life philosophies, thought processes, etc., are formed group forms and personality configuarations, are the results of within a particular environment. They
themselves interactive forces which in ships,
Thus,
man
is
environment which in
shaped itself is
have causal
and reshaped in
a
relation-
particular
continually modified by man.*
of the total situation of This explains the unity or oneness cultural environments, and which social, economic, political eic.
are mutually
related
parts.
It
further explains that
studied and evaluated indivithese environments cannot be
and the relationship and the influence dually or in isolation, not one stdtd but interactive and of one on the other are on the relationship between physical 'There is a difference of opinion The geographical civilization. culture and environment and human environment or the natural factors determimst believe that the physical human activities. Sociologists, anthropologists fairly completely determine believe that man acquires enough and some human geographers, however, nature to supply bis needs since he has the capacity to
force to control his habitat to suit his social needs. Thus, man build culture and transform are inclined to believe that of nature, himself becomes a great force and in the experience of civilized man there is 'n the developed cultures and the influence of natural forces no absolute geographical determinism, of development of man's civilization. The higher is relative to the stage the importance of forces of nature. of civilization tfce lesser tye levels
We
119
(
mutually stimulating.
)
Hence, we
cannot hold
the social
mainly responsible for our economic muddle, or for holding economic progress in check, nor can
environment
we
to
be
ascribe our social problems mainly to economic conditions
and
institutions since
each one
is
partly an
outcome of the
other,
A
correct understanding of
explanations
appropriate
and can
for
this
many
relationship of
our
The
natural setting affects
the structural pattern
of society, the nature of output, the type of
the density of population,
The
notions,
forms of human
trace the real causes of particular
behaviour.
provides
common
occupations and pattern of society
structural
bears directly on the type of institutions, nature of functions, character of relationships and social processes
and problems,
The density
human values
of population also
bears on the
and relationships. Human values in their turn influence the nature of economic behaviour and the forms of economic institutions.
The
types of occupations
under which work
is
and
the conditions
done, influence personality pattern,
social outlook, psychological traits, scale of values
of
preferences.
Such
a
heavy pressure
unbalanced occupational distribution caste system determining the
is
and
ratios
on land and an
not so
much due
choice of occupation
as to
to
the
geographical environment and the stage of economic progress. Hence, for transfering some working force from agriculture to
other secondary and tertiary occupations the most impor-
tant thing
and the
first
thing to be done is not the dissolution
system or the joint-family system but forces and to create certain economic certain of the caste
climate to
make
the
shift
possible.
to
release
economic
The main problem
therefore, is not social but economic.
The rapid increase systems of
in population is not only
joint-family and
due
child marriage but also
to
due
the to
biolcgica), natural
and economic
Hence, the
factors.
disinte-
and an increase in the age at time will not hold the marriage population in check unless
gration of joint-family system
is
attempted, which will be succes-
the standard
of living has been improved to
conscious family planning sful only
a
when
when
stage
the
individual begins to feel consicious of
The most eSective remedy
controlling the size of family. therefore, to better the
mobile, and
this
character
our social customs
to
said
is
population
Agricultural
is,
standard of living.
and
is
said
be
institutions.
farmer works with nature and
is
vitally
much
less
mostly
due
be
to to
Really speaking influenced
by the
process and conditions which exist throughout the natural
Farming is so much dependent on soil, topography, climate and other weather conditions that market changes in world.
geographical habitats require considerable changes in the
mode
of living
and manner
of working.
Migration of farm
population must mean marked changes in the technique of production and farm practices, arid, therefore, must be less
urban occupaimprint permanently on the persona-
frequent and less distant than in the case of tionl
Nature makes
its
lity of agricultural population.
and perishable things
A
constant care of the living
affects the philosophy of life of farmers.
Harvest being always threatened he develops a sense of
When
insecurity.
crops begin
farmer can do
which a
to
dry up there
except pray
for
is
rains,
nothing
There
develops an awareness of the eternal presence of nature for
which he
is
and these
generally blamed to be fatalist and pessimist, characteristics are
religious and
and
social
popularly said to be due to
background.
The slow pace
relatively less inventions in agriculture as
of
change
campared
to
those in urban people cannot be explained as adequately by the differences in the intensity of competition
or the
process
('121 of
)
Mechanization, as by the fact
scale the pace of their activities
date
The
their
movements
that
and
farmers have learnt
and accommo-
to adjust
slow moving process of nature,
to the
habit pattern of farmers has been
environment
to
chiselled
up
in
an
which the natural processes of life, growth and death take their slow but sure course, Farmer's habits are
built
to
in
conform
to the
requirements
Agricultural technique
setting.
natural
factors
than
more directly adapted technique, The process
inventions in rural environment
making
such a
is
industrial
tools so as to suit to
of living in
is
generally in
the
way
working with natural forces.
to
of of
On
the other hand, in an urban-industrial environment inventions
take
the
demands tions,
direction
adapting the technology to meet the
of
of artificially
because in an desires are
ot
more
artificial setting
much more
which the course derance
be
of
numerous and
frequent
than in a natural setting in
is fairly
The prepon-
regular.
vegetarian character in dieis
religious outlook as to
inven-
human needs and
changes in
rapid
events
Urban
environment.
created
therefore, must
is
due not so much
economic reasons, since vegetarian diets are more land economising and can maintain a to
thicker cited to
Besides numerous
population.
show
customs and
that
of
persons migrating during the
mobile due
last
to
and
traditions,
district
examples can be
economic considerations overcome
influence the former,
Meerut
the
A
it
is
not always the latter that
recent investigation
Uttar Pradesh to
industrial
social
shows
carried out in
that
centres from
86%
of the
the
village
decade are Brahmins who are relatively least social and religious considerations, and in the
case of occupational adjustments social customs and traditions
have given way to economic considerations, It is the jobopportunity which will provide the best solution for shifting 16
;122
(
population from
th
land,
hinder the adjustment.
)
and
institutions
social
will not
41
This explains the nature of relationship between social and economic institutions and the part played by them in
tconomic progress- Really speaking the imposition of a new economic order in the 19th century which is based on freedom
and competition, and is motivated by profit characteristic of does not fit in our industrial and commercial civilization cultural
and
evolution
social structure
which
is
corporate in
character. The modern economic system which is developing on the same lines as in the West after the industrial Revolution,
has not evolved out of our ancient past The basic philosophy,
human motives and
the scale of values, the
The
two systems are incompatible.
ideals
agricultural life at present are adapted to older static situations.
of
new
considerable
which
and economic sufficient
problems which seem social
to
while the
They require
adjustments, and
And
time.
adjustment there are bound
period of
The former
civilization
must take
adjustment
many
and relatively
more dynamic.
is
rural
social
the
serve
are not adequate to the requirements
and agricultural an urban and industrial civilization*
represents a latter,
They
organisation
etc., of
that
institutions
to
be
dating
the this
many economic
be due to social environment and
problems which seem
to
be due
to
economic
system. Really speaking they are the problems of adjustments,
and
the
solutions should
aim
at
making these adjustments
smooth and quick. It is an inappropriate analysis to blame the social environment for checking economic progress, and it
the
will
be equally inappropriate to suggest a dissolution of
entire
social
structure
to
make
economic progress
*Jaipal Singh, Distribution of Labour and Earnings in 1951, an unpublished thesis, Department of Agricultural
B, R, College, Agra,
Agriculture,
Economics
(
But
possible.
123
)
should, however, be noted that
it
it
doej not
non-recognition of the influence of social
environ-
ment on economic system and problems. Economic
relation*,
lead to a
and
and
their cultural
vacuum its
from
institutions as a matter of fact, cannot exist apart
but in a
particular setting
exist in a
do not
social context, since they
it
with
of
the
which must stamp
character.
The Future Policy,
The
relationship between social for
that
analysis
foregoing
and economic environment shows
progress the dissolution of the entire
agricultural
Creation of an economic
social structure is not indispensable.
climate will automatically loosen the rigidities and overcome
many customs which
agricultur?! population a
narrow
bound or
to
be slow.
Ordinarily,
considerable social
aims
at
and
To the
power,
life is
of
a
changed
power
the
of
we
decline call
of
cottage
modern economic
profit,
at
greed, and
social
stability
becoming more
It
glorification of the individual
and it
artificial,
solidarity.
Even
in the
have been very unhappy, complicated and unhappy.
extent our social structure has offered resistance to
definite
seivice,
civilization of the ficant role,
far
story
Beside, what
development of such an environment
some
a social disaster
result
not so, At higher levels the
the social consequences of
the
a
commercial, industrial and urban civilization.
than
rather
West
is
as
But the change should be hrouqht
The
industries is a lesson.
progress
is
more.
gradually,
we imagine
friction
This
is
adaptation
about
very low level, and has
At this level power of adapta* be must change very low, and hence change is
economic system. of
living at a
is
intellectual outlook.
tion
Our
present seem unsurmountable,
at
Frono
West, this
Again, in
the
it
has rendered
modern economic
religion has played a rather insigni
sometimes a conclusion
economic progress religion can be ignored.
is
drawn
that
Somehow we
(1240 lave begun
to
believe that industrial-cum-commercial civiliza-
western type
tion of the
when we talk ment
which we want
to
achieve
of economic progress or agricultural develop-
and since our
;
is the ideal
social structure does not
ts of
in the exigen-
fit
it we have begun to ascribe blame Really speaking this economic ideal itself has to be changed. It
to that.
all
mean
does not
that
social
structure
is
That too must be reconstructed to suit
But some
of
maintained because there moral and nearer
answer
will,
we want
to
to
is
thei
new, atmosphere,
relationships have to be
basic ideals and
its
not to be touched.
something beautiful, healthier,
human hopes and
The concrete
desires.
course, depend on what type of atmosphere
of
create,
e n the
'.
shape of things we want,
That
determine the human values, and all the systems and organizations will slowly be adjusted to its requirements, will
Lastly, cultural
regarding the adaptation of the old social and
pattern
static situation, sve
have
oaust
to
which was adjusted to a relatively more new setting which is more dynamic,
to the
remember
that in the process of evolution
With
take place.
the
advancement
of
change
civilization
change gather momentum, and inspite of institutional ind emotional resistance social and cultural pattern must forces of
change.
But the pace
of
automatic adjustment
is
slow and
lence the slow rate of adaptation of our institutional locial structure to the
\nd
this
continue.
lack of It
is
new economic system
accommodation
and
is
life
and
quite natural.
adaptation
must
because no institution can be perfect and,
:tn fully meet the requirements
for
which
it
is
created*
2ven the most thoughtful and most intelligently directed restitution cannot fully and correctly anticipate the future, conditions
and deeds.
which mobility nstitutionft
is
less
In a relatively
and
more
cultural
static society in
changes
,
are slow.'
continue to serve for comparatively longer the
recognized social needs. But in a more dynamic society in which changed are quick they become inadequate very soon,
inadequacy is called the lack of adaptation. This is exactly our situation. Therefore, blaming the social environTfcat
ment
the backwardness of agriculture serves no useful
for
Nor do we
purpose.
find the original causes of
economic problems that have a direct
many
of the
or indirect bearing
agriculture to be located in social system.
on
For the develop-
ment of agriculture the most important things are technology, education of farmers and cheap and efficient rendering of certain services like the provision of water, finance and :
sale of also.
social
farm produce. There are many other requirements But what is meant is that the greatest problem is not
;
agricultural progress
is
not checked mostly by social
and for agricultural improvement we shall have to ; look more to other fields than religion and social surroundings.
structure
IV,
ECONOMIC TRANSITION AND AGRICULTURE
Meaning
of
Economic Transition,
The phrase economic
transition ordinarily implies change from one economic stage to
The process
another.
and economic history a
permanent
an<J
form
is
a continuous
characteristic
dered transitional. the
is
of evolution is a
any
ceaseless journey,
march.
period of time
Change being can be consi-
Again normally the change
is
smooth,
non-violent, the consequences are unspectacular
one stage merges
into
another imperceptably.
the characteristic differences between the two stages
undistinguished-
Hence become
But over longer periods even the slow
changes accummulate to an extent that economic conditions, organization and institutions become fundamentally different,
and the two periods appear to be very much, if not absolutely, different from each other so as to be appropriately termed as different
economic stages,
Sometimes the forces
of
change
(
gather so
much
126
strength that
)
change becomes
drastic,
it
takes violent form and the consequences are striking. The economic structure changes fundamentally within a relatively It shorter time. implies a sudden or revolutionary change
from one stage to another. In its economic evolution the world through
five stages
:
is
said to
have passed
hunting, pastoral, agricultural, handicraft
and industrial.* But in the nomenclature of the science of eco*
nomics the term 'Econ specific sense,
f",0
tnic Transition' is generally
M for the
used in a
change from the old rather medieval
*Economic progress is measured in terms of man's control over nature for the satisfaction of bis material wants, and usually five stages are mentioned (i) the stage of direct appropriation from nature, which is termed as hunting and fishing stage (i) the stage of domesticating and herding animals, which is termed as pastoral (in) the stage of settled life :
;
;
depending on growing of crops, which is called agricultural stage (iv)the stai<e of specialized handicrafts ; and (v) the vstage characterized by the use of modern power-driven machinery, popularly termed as the mJHbtiial stage ;
measuring human advancement in terms of the mentions different stages PS paleolithic or old rough stone age neolithic or recent or polished stone age Inonze age and 'iron age, etc. Each of these ages marks the use of .new and im-
A second
progress
in
the
classification us-; of tools,
.
,
,
proved type of tools. another classification measuring human progress in terms of man's (i) Kttologtcal, adaptation to his geographical milieu, shows three stages when man is merely a creature of the environment, and in adapting to its submits to his situation (n) Fcohgical, when man and region possibilities are not separate but mutually interdependent entities, and man's mastery over environment is not a one sided transaction but a value for value bargain and (ni) Bpharmolngtcal, when man as an active agent of his environment dictates rather than surrenders, and develops in the desired :
;
;
direction,
Patrick Geddes, describing the development of modern technics, has used entirely different terms to indicate different stages (i) Rotechntc, it The economy is based upon refers to the dawn age of modern technic. the use of wind, water, and wood as power, with wood as the principal It was dominant in Western material for construction. Europe from the :
10th to the 18*h century, (ii) Puleotechmc, it refers to the coal and iron economy, which existed as a mutation in the eotechnic period, but began in the 18th century to displace the eotechnic complex, and became dominant between 1850 and 1890, Neotcchnic, it refers to the new (iii) economy which began to emerge in the eighties, based on the use of electricity, the lighter metals, like aluminium and copper, and rare metals and earths, like tungsten, platinum and thorium etc utilization of byducts and growing perfection and automatism in all machinery, ,
economic
system
to
which came into
The
the
new or modern economic system
existence after the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution began in
England
the eighteenth century, and then spreading
to
in the middle of
other countries
;
whole economic organization, the of systems production, exchange and distribution, the measure of values, the scale of preferences, the ideas and ideals, the
it
has transformed
mode
of life
and
all
the
economic relationships,*
complex is a survival, the paleotechnic is recessive, a dominant, (iv) Biotechntc, it refers to an emergent economy, already separating more clearly from the neotechnic Ipurelyl mechanic) complex, and pointing to a civilization in which the biologica sciences will be freely applied to technology, and in which technology itself will be oriented towards the culture of life. Application of bacteriology to medicine, of physiology to nutrition and of psychology for the
present, the eotechnic
and the neotechnic
discipline of
is
human behaviour
become dominant,
is
common, instead
Biological and
social arts
of
depending solely upon mechanical manipulation of matter and energy rest upon organic utilization of the entiie environment, and groups are considered in their multifold relations physical, biological, social, economic, esthetic and psychological,
improvements
:
*
in England, 1770 a series of inventions were made which brought in the factory system and revolutionized the economic life, but the course was completed by about 1815, Toynbee and Mantoux put it as 1760 to 1820, and Cunningham from 1770 to 1840 Jn France it was felt after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, 1789-1815 Germany entered her industrial age of power driven machinery after 1870. Japan abolished her feudal system and began her industrial career about 1870, 1894 the Smo Japanese War of U.S.A. became specially since And in Russia the change since 1880, industrial an country
About
took place after 1890, but specially after the Revolution, hardly 25 years It should, however, be noted that it was not a sudden change which occurred and then ceased. It is a process which after being commenced Industrial Revolution is a theoretical conception still continues. Secondly,
back,
and not a mere economic history.
historical
denotation designating a period of English
Chang while commenting upon the line of thought explaining the nature and characteristics of Industrial Revolution mentions four schools or groups (i) Blanqui in France and Gaskell in England, who considered inventions as the prime cause of the great changes, identified more or less completely the inventions with the Industrial Revolution, (ii) Toynbee :
and some of his followers who have placed greater emphasis upon changes economic thought and commercial policy than on changes in industrial organization, Invention and the growth of factory system, which undoubtedin
ly characterize the system, are considered only incidental to the neto outlook in theory and commercial policy (iii) Marx and his followers, Marx distinguished the revolution in 'modern industry' from that in 'manufacture,' by saying that 'in manufacture the revolution in the mode
(
OS
)
The
old economic system is characterised by
(i)
Isolation of small self-sufficient groups
being mostly due
to
:
and
this
state
inadequate transport and communication
system. (ii)
Uneven occupational
distribution of population
with
predominance of agriculture over other occupations, and rural over urban population. (iii)
Small-scale production with simple and
of
imperfect
division of labour. (iv)
absence
Industries in handicraft stage, smaller capital, of
employer and employee or
capital
and
and labour
relationship, (v)
for local (vi)
due
Limited market and hence production being mostly consumption.
Exchange being conducted through barter system
to the
(vii) (viii)
absence of money economy.
Undeveloped Customs and
state of credit
status
and banking, and
mostly regulate
values and
and contract. predominate competition The modern economic system is fundamentally from
it.
(i)
The main
characteristics are
Highly developed and
different
:
efficient
system
of transport
and communications, after breaking up the isolation
of small
increased the interdependence of different groups, groups, have it begins with of production begins with labour-power, in modern industry He emphasized both changes in productive force instruments of labour', in productive relations (organizational (technical changes) and changes both generating and destroying, change), which he took as interacting, Industrial Revolution is exthrough the history of economic evolution. of these two changes, and mostly by their iriter plained by the interaction
action
Modern writers among whom Shadwell and Usher may be named, that Industrial Revolution is only one phase in a vast and cotriplex that is still going on. The various transformations in that hase
(iv)
They hold
process are gradual and its natural characteristics can be fully understood only by a research into the fundamental causes or factors that are underlying the Agriculture' "and long process of econoraip evolution (Pei-kang Chang, ;
Industrialization, 1940, pp,
73-77.)
and has brought the
countries very ctose to each
different
'
' '
other,
A
more balanced occupational distribution wtth agriculture occupying less important role and secondary -and (U)
tertiary occupations of
more important
and predominance
place,
urban over rural population. Large-scale production
(iii)
with complex and perfect :
division of labour,
Specialization in production, increased use ol machi^
(iv)
nery, concentration of industry, accumulation of huge capital
entrepreneur, creation of a
directed by
labour
class, its
concentration in manufacturing centres, and the disappearance of the personal
between employer and the emp
relationship
loyees.
Very wider market,
(v)
and
commercialization
of
productionin
Money economy
(vi)
place
of
barter
and
heiice
of values* price entering the calculation
Highly developed system of banking and credit; and" Freedom of contract and competition,
(vii) (viii)
In
some countries
this
a period of 50 to
within
change has been so rapid that
75
years the old economic system
has been completely substituted by the
system
;
and these countries
industrialized
countries
France and Belgium,
at
like
etc.
In
modern
economic
present are highly
developed
England, India the
Germany, U,SA, beginning was Jate.
change has been rather slow with the result that though the impact of modern economic forces has brought"
and the pace
of
about noticeable changes in the economic system,, and
is.
gradually transforming the old organization, the old system
and organizations still continue, and they have only partially been changed. The new system has not come into being with 17
180
(
full
)
consequences, but the change has already set
hence we say
that India is in a state of
Beginning ol Transition,
It is
and
in,
economic transition. determine the
difficult to
exact period when the forces working towards this change began to operate in
our country. Really speaking in the history of no
country can the two periods be clearly separated by a definite line of demarcation. India had commercial relations and cultural contacts with the
West
for several centuries but that did
not affect her economic structure
beginning
of the 19th
till
In the
the 19th century.
century India began
to feel the
impact of
and changes began to operate slowly* But was by no means so large as to make a It was since the middle of the noticeable structural change.
some of these
forces,
their total influence
19th century that these forces introduced fundamental changes in our
and system. The transition which began the middle of the 18th century and ran its full
economic
in England in
course by the
life
first
quarter of the 19th century, began in our
country about a century later, and
is still
going on since
it
has
not yet been able to complete its course.
were
There transition
The most important
(i)
linking
several factors which worked towards this
:
up
of India with
ship routes,
factor in transition has been the
foreign countries by
and the opening up
means
of her interior
of
new
by means
of
roads and railways. Opening of the Suez canal in 1869 made Indian market and supplies of raw material quite close to the West by reducing the former distance through
Hope by
about 3000 miles.
Beginning
of
Cape
of Good
the railway enter-
prise in India in fiftees, an almost simultaneous beginning of
road construction, and their rapid increase during the days pf
Lord Dalhousie, opened
the interior of India to
the full
blast of foreign competition. (ii)
Beginning of the competition
of British
manufactures
131
(
)
produced under large-scale operation and with the application of mechanical power, with Indian industry which wascanlftd on by artisans on a small scale, with the result that the Indian artisan
was ousted by the
home and
British
industrialist both
in the
outside markets.
The establishment
(Hi)
of British rule in India synchro-
nized with the beginning of the competition of British manufactures with
Indian
The
exports*
new revenue system and
foreign rule introduced a
new system
a
also
of
judicial
administration* (iv)
Rise in prices which began near about 1860:
Intro-
duction of payments to government in cash increased the
demand had a after
money, but metals being scarce in India prices
for
falling
which
tendency during the
a reverse
tendency
half of the 19th century
seen.
is
It
was almost
of precious metals
and the world supply considerably due
was
also increased
the discovery of gold in Australia
to
California and silver in Mexico.
It
ami
led to a considerable flow
India and
precious metals in
at
much
very time that the Indian exports increased very
this
of
first
raised the
level,
price
Besides, the construction of large scale public works in India
wage level The failure
raised the
(v)
England
of
American
conscious of seeking
an
cotton crop in 1846
important event
War
famine in Lancashire
cotton to
bring
to the notice of
in
in 1861-65
and
is said to
wise showed for the
first
time
how
be the
Indian farmers
the existence of western markets for their products.
to the
made
market
alternative
After that the American Civil
India.
the subsequent first
also.
close India
It
like-
was brought
Western market.
(vi)
Establishment of a strong, stable
and centralized
administration leading to the establishment of law and order
apd security
of
life
and property which
in its turn provided
(
132
)
opportunity and incentive for work. faii)
.
Introduction of
The
as a result of cash prices,
and
influences of British culture, civilization
and
increased credit due
assessments, .and (viii)
money economy
to rise in
education which gave rise to the spirit of individualism.
of
The most noteworthy
feature about the causes
economic transition
is
the coincidence of
and forces
many
events*
These events mutually stimulated the force and pace of each other, and thus .brought about a sudden and violent change But
popularly termed as revolution.
in India
we do
not use
1
the terqi 'revolution but only 'transition', which
term indicating a lesser intensity of change,
It
is
milder
a
is
because
the pace of change has been rather slow here, and the trans-
formation has not been complete, as will be seen from the following study.
Changes
in
Agriculture
and
Rural
Life,
forces were
outstanding influences of these
The
most
the decline
of
village communities and the breaking down of the village isolation and self-sufficiency. The consequences were many-fold and both
village handicrafts, the disintegration
of
the
;
agriculture and farm-life were influenced immensely. The immediate effects were the pressure on agriculture :
began
to swell
and
tional distribution.
brought about an unbalanced occupaThe Indian farmer came in contact with
this
and began to produce for exports in the raw materials. The most remarkable was the case of
the world market
form
of
cotton cultivation-
Though
cotton
was cultivated
in
India
from very early times the export of raw cotton upto 1860 was Dr* Royle wrote in 1851 that 'It forms but. a small.* 'Before the 19th century India used to export elegant fabrics and not raw cotton. After the Industrial Revolution in the West the machiiac'tnuuc goods pushed the Indian exports away from foreign markets, This, changed the nature of Indian exports, and India became a supplier of cotton, In about 1830 English industry drew its cotton principally from America
an0*at tfiat time India exported a very small quantity of cotton, 1860 that cotton exports increased much,
It vyas
tf(er
133
(
)
small part of the imports into this country (England), but a
more .conspicuous
however, make
together, i$
China
factor in those of
;
the
two quantities
but an insignificant portion of what
The following
produced in the country.'
statistics
about
cotton significantly indicate the fresh trend.*
After 1864 the value of cotton exports formed more than half of our total exports for several years,
was
jute
for long
cultivated
Bengal for the purpose
of
Bengal
became 22 seers
at
a
export
began near about 1830.
to increase, e t
Agricultural prices began sold in
Similarly, though extensive cultivation in
its
g.,
in 1861 rice
was
27 seers a rupee and in 1870 the rate in
rupee,
the
same period
the
rate
of
wheat in Punjab changed from 18 seers a rupee to 15 seers a rupee, the rate of Bajra in Bombay changed from 21 seers to 13 seers a rupee and the price of cotton in C,
changed from /2/7 per
Ib.
in 1859
to
P.
and Berar
-/11/5 per Ib,
.in
1864.
and provincial price variations were immense. Major-
*G India
;
Watt
Article on Cotton in Dictionary of Economic Products in of the Cotton Commissioner for C, P, and Bebar
The Annual Report
1867-68,
p,
& Commerce of Cotton in India, Industrial Evolution of India in Recent
132; and Dr, Royle* Culture
1851, p. 18, quoted by Gadgil, Times, pp, 16-18
The
(
134
)
General Briggs in his evidence before the Parliamentary Select Committee pointed out that in 1823 grain was 8s, a quarter in
Khandesh, 34s, a quarter in Aurangabad and 64s.~70s a quar* ter in Poona, and in 1833 a famine year in North-West Province, wheat was sold at Agra at the rate of 13J seers a
rupee and in Khandesh 61 seers a rupee. Such variations began to be minimised, and the price trends in one part began to affect the
volume
movements
labour existed
distinct
and considerable
handicrafts
it
came
swelled
since
class.
And
parts.
of agricultural labour class
agricultural
Public
in other
into being.
very long
huge
it
manifest
to
The growing pressure on land
directions*
e, g.,
Pradesh was reduced
was reduced
to
to
to
acres in
itself
led to a
of
Uttar
1940 from 117 acres
Poona the average size acres in 1915 from 40 acres in 1771.*
Pimla Soudgar in
7*0
Foreign markets began
began
7*1
;
the average size
farms in village Suraya in Mainpuri District
in 1870, in village
and the
depended on agriculture.
gradual shrinkage in the size of farms, of
in 1859
public works, labour class came into being
Slowly and slowly the transition began
many
Though was never a
After the formation of the
suddenly.
and after these works were over
in
it
After the decline of village
Works Department by Lord Dalhousie
construction of
a considerable
to influence
Indian agriculture which
be slowly commercialized.
Cotton,
oil
seeds, jute,
hides and skins began to be exported, and the area under industrial crops likewise registered an increase.!
trade in agricultural commodities
Internal
increased considerably.
^Village surveys conducted by Dr, D. S,
Chauhan and Dr, H, Mann,
fine extent of commercialization in agriculture is not to be judged only by the extent of industrial crops grown but by the actual amount pj agricultural produce put on the market or the volume of .trade, Though farmers grow mostly for home consumption, because rent and interest falling due after the harvest time they have to put on the market considerably more than the actual marketable surplus, and then buy again in tne off season
.
135
(
Localization
and
and
specialization
climatic conditions began
)
ot to
according
crops
take place,
*,
to.
soil
&> jute in
Bengal, wheat in Punjab, oil-seeds in C, P., cotton in Bomba7 and later on sugar cane in U. P. and Bihar* Agricultural prices got an up ward trend, land values increased, cultivators
became more
in land
rights
safe
1
and tenure more fixed,
This enhanced the credit position of farmers considerably. This
is
also said to be a cause of the considerable
amount
ol
agricultural indebtedness and likewise a factor in the passing
away
of land
from agricultural
to non-agricultural
classes.
Prices in principal mandis began to correspond, and further the
inland prices began
to
follow the
world market,
e t g. f
Monthly wholesale prices of wheat, April 1934 to March 1936.*
Average price per md,
(Rs,)
Hapur
Karachi
2'463
2-797
Standard Deviation.
0*326
0*207
Co-efficient of Variation.
13'236%
7*401%
Co-efficient of correlation
Probable Error of
+
(r)
0774 0'055
(r)
Taking the weekly wholesale prices ol wheat at the same places and for the same period we find the Co-efficient of correlation+'819and probable error
'028.
Monthly wholesale prices of wheat,
at
London,
and
Karachi^ 1929 to 1931, (before the import duty).
London
Karachi
4-296
3*824
Standard Deviation.
1*344
1*038
Co-efficient of Variation,
24*301%
27*144%
Average price per md,
(Rs,)
Co-efficient of Correlation (r)
Probable error of *J, K,
Pande
(r)
Prices of cereaU in
+
3'104
o 028 the United Provinces, 1938.
136
(
first
and low probable error
coefficient o( correlation
High the
)
in
case show that prices at ports and at ntandis in the
far interior
are
very much correlated, and in the second
case show that fluctuations in foreign prices affect our prices, Isolation of the village is is
broken and its
considerably changed.
cation are increasing
The media
self-sufficient character
of contact
and communi-
and they are constantly minimising
the
Money has entered exchange and all payments of services, Rent, wages, taxes and prices are regulated and determined more by competition than by custom and
spatial separation*
Mobility of labour both occupational and geographical,
status.
has increased considerably, is
The
the influences of social institutions
rably modified, and identified
and
far
with economic factors,
reaching changes
cooperative
ment
more
and processes are considemore closely
the fundamental values are
isolation, abolition of the spirit,
of rural
visual
are
;
The more fundamental breakdown
of
farmers'
feudal system, re-italization of the
removal
of untouchability
and establish-
democracy through village panchayats. The
changes are
;
replacement
economy, payments in cash instead of
old village organization
transformed, the old relationships of farmers are changed)
of barter
of in kind,
by money
development
and communications, increased mobility of labcommercialization, specialization, and mechanization of
transport
our,
production and the rise in wages and prices,
The process of transition is not uniform* in all classes of people and in different parts of the country. In isolated and *The economic history of the world records five distinct stages iq its development. But this process of evolution has not been simultaneous throughout the world and any particular stage has been shorter in some countries and longer in others, depending upon the quality, character and relationship of the basic and emergent factors. Moreover, it is not necessary Some countries or that all countries should pass through all the stages. some sections of population in any particular country can skip over one stage or another, or can reduce the duration by accelerating the rate of ;
progress,
137
(
)
remote parts old cultures persist and old methods and customs
where outside contacts are frequent and modern forces have a greater impact, the process of
continue
;
transition
and
in parts
There are examples
has gone a long way,
few completely mechanized large-scale farms States, of completely
in
Farrukhabad
District
Aligarh District of Uttar Pradesh, of cultivation
of primitive type
almost
all
commercialized and specialized farming
like potato cultivation in tion in
in
of a
and rose
and on
cultiva-
the other
hand
amongst the aboriginal tribes
Orissa and Vidhya Pradesh, Bhils in Rajasthan, and even
Assam
of shifting cultivation in
hills.
But these are extreme
which do not represent the general picture of the country. The vast majority of farmers, however, is passing
cases
through uneven stages, exhibiting characteristics some of
which pertain to the older system and seme to the modern system- This is peculiar to transitional stages, and is quite There
natural,
is
Some
dislocation and lack of adjustment.
sections, and older generation in all sections, are more conservative and cling religiously to old customs and methods,
yet things are changing fast.
But how far
changed
has the
essential
The organization
?
character
of agriculture, the
of
agriculture
technique of
production, the farm practices, the pattern of farm the standards of farming
and
be as they were long back.
living,
The percentage
depending on agriculture was 68*5% in 1872,
than
and
80%
it
found
to
the
hardly
the market,
population
census
More
of cereal cultivation,
to
food
and the
of the total agricultural production enters
shows the subsistence character
Besides, considerable amount
18
of
time of
to
be the same 68*2% in 1951.
preponderance
30%
and
first
at the
of the total cultivated area being devoted
crops, shows fact that
is
life
on the whole, appear
of our agriculture.
of agricultural
indebtedness
138
(
and a very low standard
)
of living
ward or an underdeveloped
and farming show a back-
Low
stage.
output, low income,
low rate of saving and investment, and on the other hand, high propensity to consume which in
apparently exhibit a state of
turn aggravates scarcities,
flow of agricult-
grooving deeply into There are evidences of emotional clinging custom.
behaviours and ancient cultural
In fact,
traits.
stationary state but that of stagnation* which as 'the blind alleys of civilization.'
To
istic
of
Enlargement
is
it
not a
Toynbee terms
be specific,
to place, and crops have localized according
form
accustomed
farming specialization in production
of subsistence
in the
low
be
to
to established attitudes, traditional pattern of life,
conditions.
a
at
equilibrium
The ebb and
level of economic behaviour,
ural life and activities appear
channels of
its
stable
the soil
is
inspite
taking
and climatic
in the size of the unit of production
of joint-cultivation, cooperative cultivation, capital-
farming,
etc.,
have already
started.
Fair rents and fixity
tenure have been attempted for the last few decades through-
The feudal system is being abolished. The seems in the offing. Legislative measures have capitalist farmer out the
country.
already been passed for the fixation of wages in
agriculture,
farm machinery and the challenging influence
The use
of
modern
technology are on
improved varieties of seeds
the is
increase.
of
The area under
increasing specially in the case
The production of fertilizers and their use is expanding. Irrigation and power are considered most important parts of the Five Year Plan.
of sugarcane, wheat, cotton
and
rice.
Agricultural prices, tarm incomes, cooperative c redit,
animal
*The state of stable equilibrium at a low level as seen in many underdeveloped countries is not stationary and cannot be interpreted as a lack of transition or change. "There is stagnation which appears as a symptom in its aetiology but is not endogenously determine d function of the sy&tem, Like any other system it experiences a change and an interaction of the Accelerator and the Multiplier, and in their peculiaritie s lies its uniqueness." Dr, Baljit Singh Federal Finance and Underdeveloped Economy, p, 2, 1951. ;
139
(
)
breeding, and agricultural education and research are being
given increasing attention. cally isolated as
compared
to
Though farmers are geographitown dwellers, few are now so
beyond the reach of the modern and communications. The fluctuations in
completely isolated as to be
means
of transport
the international agricultural prices affect
even remote
culti-
Besides, though farmers grow a number of crops and
vators.
market more readily and and for selling their
largely for home, they approach the
frequently for
buying their requirements
surplus produce, and thus do not attempt
to
all
grow
they
need.
Farm
life
has likewise undergone and
going a change.
farmers in
all
group contacts,
is at
present under-
Economic values are entering walks of
life.*
Social
activities of
recreation,
status,
personal freedom and many
other
basic
values have begun to play increasing part in functional relations and social order, Cash, competitive, and market eco-
nomy
is
financial
entering the agricultural
reward for their work,
life
since
farmers seek
Virtues of simple
life
are
and are giving place to artificially created needs expressed in the form of increasing emphasis
losing their significance
on consumption,
ostentations
in
ornaments
and
clothing.
Pecuniary considerations are being placed above subjective *
important to consider the role of economic factors in the scale a people, Success should not be taken in absolute terms but In oriental civilizations coveted values defined by a particular culture. It is
of values of ,is
and subjective and they are philosophical, speculative placed above economic goods, On the contrary in occidental culture the and emulation as first and competitive society ranks status, achievement since they are achieved through the accumulation of economic goods pecuniary values are most fundamental, and economic factors are pivotal in the are religious,
,
;
attainment of the objective of life, The more important thing is one that determines the maximum amount of total satisfaction. If it is attained through economic factors they should be considered more important, if not, less important, But the total satisfaction in any social group will be
governed by the systems of values or the objectives of life. Though they and determine the relative impor-
also change, they are more fundamental, tance of economic factors,
140
(
)
and other philosophical values. Adjustments in social movements have gone far beyond traditional social forms. Changes are visible in the whole
Social
institutions, social all
Contacts are wider, and movements are faster and
changing.
seem
distant. Activities
ships
pattern.
behaviour and the nature of problems are
process, social
to
do more with business,
Domination
more interconnected*
are
Relationof
locality
decreasing due to the breakof markets and the extension down of isolation; widening of contacts* Farmers expect adequate reward for their work ;
in habits
its
and consumption
failure
is
is
not considered simply
stroke
a
attributed to anger of
some mythical god.
they feel frustrated.
Their attitude
is
failing to
meet
life's
new needs
On
the other hand,
resentful
is
The very
towards the economic order.
bad luck or
of
fact that
proves that a
and old
bitter
system
transition is
taking place,*
When
Nature of Problems during Transition,
nomy
passes from one stage to another the
direct
and through
set of
circumstances
straight line path. to
another.
It is
an
movement a
ecois
not
change from one
The movement from one
*There is, however, a feeling that economic transition should have normally brought about a period of prosperity and growing standards of production and living. This has not been possible due to several factors a quick succession of famines after 1865 covering almost the whole country xvith the result that during 187080 farmers throughout the country lost all :
the progress
made
so far, economic drain under colonial rule
which gradually
impoverished the country, rack-renting and exorbitant rate of interest charged by money lender dispossessing farmers of most of his gains, rapid increase in population eating into all production increase, and the great economic Depression which considerably reduced farm incomes. The prolonged and recovery takes very long This prolonged nature should well be appreciated.
effects of these factors are generally
For further study the following books are recommended Pei-kang T. W, Schultz, AgriculChang, Agriculture and Industrialization, 1947 ture in an Unstable Economy, 1945 The of Sweezy, Theory Capitalistic Development, 1942 J. D. Black, Factors Conditioning Innovations in The Theory of Economic Development Agriculture, 1945 and schumpeter, and Business objects, 1934, :
;
;
;
;
M
(
141
)
cobweb and from
point of equilibrium to another is through a
one step
to
movement
another the
Thus, the transition implies a
through a concave path
is
movement through Thus
interconnection of different problems.
and in
the result
is
economic
sition in other
the existing ones
Ordinarily
which changes
turn a cause of tran-
It
creates
fresh
problems
transition
the
is
which should be defined as
process of process in
'a
of a series of strategical production functions*
are taking place'.
In this
sense
both manufactures and farms,
and the nature
its
transition in agri-
more complicated.
this
speaking
industrialization
of
Transition implies increas-
sectors,
ing or intensifying complexities.
and renders
network
This explains the interdependence and
interlocking circles,
culture, therefore,
a
of
problems
:
internal organization of :
structure
farms and a the
in
changes
elasticity of
depending upon the
stages
also different.
is
problems which arise are
the
changes in cost
factors of production
includes industrializing
involves different stages,
at different
However, ordinarily speaking those refering to
it
It
changes
;
in the
new combination of
quantity
demand and
of
demand,
cost structure
goods; changes in the nature and extent
of
mechanization of agriculture, depending upon the price
of
of particular
farm products and the scarcity and cost of labour in the size of farms changes in the quantity and ;
of both
5
human and animal labour; changes
farming
;
in
changes in the marketing structure
commodities
;
and ultimately the change
agriculture in the total national economy.
efficiency
the types of
of
in
changes
;
agricultural
the
place
In actual
ot
practice
^Strategical production functions are those the changes of which are generating and determining the changes of other production functions, while the latter may be termed as 'induced '
is
Production function product and a, b, c,
duction,
In
dimensions or
usually written as P~ f (a, b, c are productive services or factors
is
Cobb-Douglas formula
Pb+kL+jC
it
is
written
for three dimensions,
as
p
),
used
= bLkCj
where F in pro-
for
two
(
142
)
there is considerable shifting of labour
and
geographical and vocational, and farmers
capital both
have
to
make
several adjustments with reference to variations in prices, costs, quantity
volume
of
and kind of demand, volume
of
consumption and savings, extent
employment,
of capital for-
mation and the nature of technology.
V.
RURAL-URBAN RELATIONSHIP
There has been a gradual depletion of wealth and power from our villages. There are two Rural Exploitation.
major factors responsible for it. After the disintegration of village communities the social protection afforded by them ceased and their functions in
economic and
social,
matters were taken up by other institutions. decline of village
economic
activities,
agriculture
addition
handicrafts narrowed
rendered
men from
social status
it
down
increasing the
the field of
pressure on
more and more uneconomic.
In
two major factors there has continuously
to these
been an urban ward healthy
and by
political
Secondly, the
and
of
drift
rural areas,
money and
intelligent
and
motivated by economic and
the attractions
of city life.
The
result is
that to-day, inspite of the fact that villages contribute a major part of the national income, they wear a deserted
appearance.
Village
life
rendered
is
less
vivacious and
less
varied,
unwholesome and unhealthy, cramped and circumscribed and narrow and incomplete. On the other hand, cities are becoming the nuclei glory, of art is
and
of
culture
power and privilege, of wealth and and of modern advancement, There
a significant gulf between the
been widening
for
some
time, past.
of this is that the cities are
two
and
;
An
has gradually undesirable feature it
thriving at the cost of villages
For further study readers may look to our two articles ; Rural-urban Relationship, Rural India, July 1949 ; and the Role of Village in Proves sfve Economy, Rural India, April 195 U <
143
(
)
which appear to have remained where they were centuries back without making any noticeable progress,
The economic consequences are unhappy for both cities and villages. In villages we find that the size and capacity have limited
the opportunity
There
can make a progress
civilization
Really speaking rural
sub-human
growth it
is
no material
environment in which culture can be enriched,
social
City
for
extension of employment, and
accumulation of wealth are minimised.
and
The chances
for progress.
multiplication of occupations,
life is
and
reduced
life
to
can be
fuller,
an existence on a
level.
in
development of
the
society.
has mostly been
ings rather than
our country
Even
in
its
a casual egglomeration of
a natural
an
not
is
organic
physical
form
men and
build-
economic process.
Urbanization,
though very limited in India, has taken such an ugly shape that water, light, air, soil, the basic environments of life are
becoming mote and more is
gradually becoming
difficult to procure.
unfit for
a
happy
The environment
life,
There are said
to be quick and easy methods of earning and spending, These pecuniary processes may be considered satisfactory
on economic grounds, but humanly speaking they are low forms of activity. The mechanical ingenuities, the pecuniary pride
and the splendid devices
bases of
Many
life
in
providing
the material
are simply the symptoms of spiritual failure.
of the universal forms of dishonour are not considered
undignified.
The honest workers shave wood, beat
bars, handle earth
;
scholars incubate ideas and
artists
iron
and
poets brood in some unwholesome quarters in neglected corners,
Physically, our cities
basic conditions of nity life
life,
have failed
socially there is
to
provide tbe
no civic and commu-
and culturally the human personality
is
dwarfed,
144
(
Urbanization, in other words, desocialization and
zation,
)
dehumanization, depersonali-
'is
devitalization.'*
The gradual impoverishment a very low scale
lation living at
under
and a huge popuof living, and carrying on
of villages
economy, are very grave features. The villages they eat less, they sell less and they buy less.
deficit
produce less, It forms a vicious circle dragging the nation down.
between
gulf
significant ts
and
the it
villages
is
under the
that
minimised.
On
exploitation
which
will
present economic
inherent
is
system
modern
the
in
industrial
economic
distribution of
of
diversity
advanced communities
human
change rapidly
The
slightly.
of
existing system
and
villages in
The present differences between
the
developed
difference
between
the under-developed countries It
feature
cannot be
it
cities
will increase the
sing.
set-up
The growing
continue.
culture shows that
and
already quite
The worst
the other hand, the present process of rural
and backward only slowly and
future.
cities is
gradually widening.
system, and the existing activity,
and the
The
same
establishes the
of the
world are increa-
fact,
Interdependence of Rural and Urban Areas.
The
linking
between the two are food, raw materials, labour, and farmers as buyers of goods and services.
factors
It
should
be
that
appreciated
bed-rock of our national structure. source of the diffused
The
signs and
rays
of life
villages
They which
are
the
are the ultimate
fall
into focus in
and patterns and the systems and the orders of urban life, which are cities.
considered
to
the symbols,
be the durable elements of
simply the 'etherealized' phazes
forms of
of village life contribute
*L, Mumford,
the designs
human
life in the
heritage, are
countryside, All
towards the existence of
cities,
City Development, 1946. For further study of urbaniMumford's Culture of Cities, 1940,
sation one can look to
(
Thus, there
is
a limit
to
145
)
the progress of the former fixed by the
And any attempt for prolatter. to afford cannot and neglect the countryside, gress planning Not only that the extent to which progress can be made by the nature and character of the
country as a whole cannot be far ahead of that of villages.
On
other
the
base and
social
hand
cities
emergent),
(taken
both
economic
as
through culture and technology,
provide motive force for economic progress by widening the scope for economic activities, of
multiplicity
diversification of occupations,
opportunities,
specialization
of
functions,
deepening of experience, enriching modes and methods of expression and ultimately leading agriculture, industry and government into new channels of experiment, and thus transforming passive agricultural rural environment.
A
case for Regional Distribution of Economic Power and
The
Activity.
in future.
It
parasitic existence of cities cannot be tolerated
depends on how permanent are the forces and
methods which constitution and
and
social
drain our villages, Under our present with the rising surge of political, economic rural
consciousness,
tolerated permanently*
And
longer
it
unhappy consequences*
it
is
be
continues, the greater
are the chances of serious dislocations, violent
Hence,
cannot
exploitation
changes and
necessary
to
seek a
as early as possible.
remedy The remedy and incentives
lies in
for
providing the necessary opportunities
progress in the
analyzing the factors leading
meaning
of the
to it let
word progress
at
countryside.
Before
us be definite about the
which we aim.
implies the development of a balanced
human
In short
it
personality*.
*When machine was considered supreme human ideas and ideals wer$ Now too much influenced by quantitative measures of power and progress. organism being considered uppermost the line of thought has changed to qualitative measures like growth, norm, inter-relationship and association. The aim is not to make man more powerful but to make him capable of developing the attributes of culture, 19
146
(
)
work
Progressive economy assumes an economic frame
which to all,
at least the basic
and further
the
requirements
of life
creative needs of the community
life
may
realization of the
the
for
equipment
in
be provided
may
be provided in
adequate quantity, and the growing standards of civilized life may be realized* Really speaking it is a preliminary realization
condition for the
accomplished the
in
lies
remedy
of the
final
the
of a
creation
To be
objective,
environment.
requires a suitable
it
In
brief
new environment
in
which not only the forces and methods depleting the villages may be counter balanced but a new economic, social and
are
:
to
check the causes of accelerated
measures and
legislative
drift to cities
is
higher stand-
poor farmers by
lot of
of organization, administration having
scales of values and
at a
economic framework which
to replace the existing
incapable of bettering the
through
reforms, to increase the
social
capacity of villages to hold the population
dard, and
The methods
be emerged in the countryside.
may
political life
new system
new
ideals of
units
life,
new
income distribution.
of
requires a balanced occupational
new
distribution,
It
security of
employment and output, opportunities for enhanced production* equitable distribution and adequate savings, stimulating an urge for improvement, social engineering and the development
of the art of life.
industrialization
Objectively speaking
on a decentralized
basis,
it
require rural
and thus creating
employment and a source of income, intenof farm technology, agriculture and improvement
diversification of sification of
reorganization of rural credit the
exploitation of
development
of
rural
the
means
and marketing
of
so as to avoid
by middlemen, and communications,
population
transport
eleethficatoin of rural areas, scattering the higher educational institutions in rural surroundings, overhauling tions,
powers and functions
of
the
existing
the constitulocal bodies,
147
(
provision of security of
life
)
and property in the countryside
which has recently been endangered, and the provision emenities of
The
life at
cheaper
fresh organization
of the
rates.
must be attempted on a regional and the urban elements with a
basis harmonising the rural biologically adequate
environment
cultural resources of the latter. life
shows
that there
is
of
the
organic
cannot be a compartmentation of popu-
lation into separate rural
organism which
and
the tormer
of
The knowledge
and urban zones. The autonomy
a characteiistic feature of
not lead to isolation,
Environment
is
its
of
growth does
a cooperative factor,
Therefore, the existing distinctive features of rural and urban
areas 1 and institutions have to be avoided giving place fresh regional organization,
Corr
ctly
municipalizing villages nor ruralizing
analyzed 2
it
is
to a
neither
It is
not simply
transferring the population or decentralizing the
authority.
It is
reorganizing
will
whole economic structure with new
institutions, ideals, scale of
economic It
the
mean
a balanced
activities on
cities.
a regional
values and relationships.
distribution of economic basis,
power and
and community giving place
to society.
of nibani/ation in India is \ery limited and such a big to the extent to \\hich some \vestern countries urbanized be cannot country But the concentiation of economic power in cities and luial exploihave The system has got some inherent characteristics tation are obvious. 1.
The decree
The danger is that the country may go the way which hamper piogress It can lead to a collapse of the \\ho]p of China if things are not impioved modern urban ami commercial civilization uhich implies greed, domination, and conquest, horn that of 'uibamzation' of the countryside of social contact, and is also distinct from that of the 'extension of city de\elopment' which intends to increase the influence of natural surroundings on metropolitan civilization, 2,
The
idea
is
difterent
\\hich aims at a richer
life
Dr, T. R. Sharraa, Location o For further study one can look to and A P. Usher, A Dynamic Analysis of the Location o
Industries, 1948,
Economic
Activity, 1943,
148
(
)
VILLAGE PANCHAYATS
VI.
of Uttar
The government
IN U.
Pradesh has passed The U,P.
Local Self-Government in rural areas* and for village administration
provision
village is the unit,
Gaon Sabha,
the
in
the
Gaon Panchayat and
The Oaon Sabha.
is
as follows
For every village or
there
corporate It
is
consists of all adults (males
Panchayati
a
group of villages
a population of 1000 to
Gaon Sabha,
a
the
:
:
which
having perpetual succession and a
2
The
every unit there are three bodies
within three miles, ordinarily having
2000 persons,
to
and development,
and
Their organization
AdalaU
and develop make better
1947, in order to establish
Panchayat Raj Act,
P,
is
a
common
and females above 21
body seal, yrs.)
A member will be disin the area. permanently residing if he or she is of unsound mind, is suffering from qualified
leprosy, is an
body or
is
undischarged insolvent,
a convict.
and one ceases
to
is
a servant of a local
Normally, the membership
be a
member
only
is life
when one
long
incurs any
one of the above disqualifications, or when the area in which one resides Sabha, or
is
excluded from the jurisdiction
when one leaves
Gaon Sabha
of
cribed
form,
a register
of
all
the village,
persons
within the jurisdiction of soch at least
The Gaon Sabha
,
the
Gaon
permanently residing
Gaon Sabha, and
it
is
revised
once a year.
from amongst 1
of
the establishment
prepared in Hindi in the pres-
is
adult
On
its
elects according to joint electorate system,
members, a President (Pradhan) and a
Rural areas include
town areas and
all
areas except municipal areas,
cantonments,
notified areas,
2. A body corporate is the same thing as a Corporation, an artificial person established for prescribing in perpetual succession certain rights, which if conferred on natural persons would fail in process of time. It is an
artificial
law,
being, invisible,
intangible and
existing only in contemplation of
149
(
)
Vice-President (Up-Pradhan) for a term of 3 years, and an
Executive (Gaon Panchayat), Ordinarily the Gaon Sabha holds two general meetings in each year after the two main
The Kharif meeting considers and passes budget
harvests.
Rabi meeting considers the
following year and the
the
for
accounts of the preceding
each meeting
Besides,
year.
considers the biennial reports of business submitted
An
President. the
by
by the
extraordinary general meeting can be called
President,
or can
be requisitioned by 1/5
members
For any meeting form the 1/5 quorum while no quorum is necessary for a meeting adjourned for want of quorum. Vested in each Gaon Sabha is a Goan Fund, which
within 30 days of giving a written request. the total
of
is It
members
shall
managed, realized and consists of taxes
over
to
utilized
imposed under
Gaon Sabha by
by the Gaon Panchayat. this
Board or other
District
by
sums handed
Government, sums ordered by a
State
court to be placed to the credit of the tions
Act,
Gaon Fund by any
Gaon Fund,
local
authority,
special or general
assigned
to
the State
Government, amount received by way
of rent or gifts, portion
Government
State
of dust, dirt,
proceeds
of
to the credit of
or refuge
contribu-
amount order of
of loans
and
nazul property placed by
Gaon Fund,
sale
proceeds
etc,, collection charges for taxes
dung and dues collected on behalf
of the State
Government, and
payment received on compounding an offence under Section 104, The Gaon Sabha has a power to acquire land, the
by private negotiation, and
first
Collector. of a
direct
vests in and belongs to
through the
it,
and
is
under
its
management and control. It can borrow money from Government to carry out any of the purposes^ It can
impose the following taxes
anna
that
All public property situated within the jurisdiction
Goan Sabha
State
failing
in a rupee payable
:
by
a tax on rent not exceeding cultivators, a tax
one
op rept received
(
150
)
by proprietors and under-proprietors not exceeding 6 pies in the rupee of such rents, a tax on the rental value of Sir arid
Khudkast not exceeding one anna in the rupee, payable by proprietors and under-proprietors, a tax on trade, callings and professions,
and a tax on buildings owned by persons who do
not pay any of the aforesaid taxes.
The Oaon Panchayat, the
Gaon Sabha.
Gaon Sabha are
It is
executive committee
the
The President and also
its
Gaon Sabha on
elected by the
term of 3 years.
One
joint
third of the
to
members
Gaon Panchayat arranges
taxes and dues, custody of
its
members
51 other
system, for a
electorate
retire
Seats are assigned to minority communities in
population.
of
the Vice-president
President and Vice-president respec*
Beside these two there are 30
tively,
of
annually.
proportion of
for the
of
realization
funds, and maintenance of
its
accounts which are audited every year. the duty of every
It is
may
allow, for
diction
:
so far as
provision within
its
funds
its
juris-
Construction, repair, maintenance, cleaning
of public
lighting
Gaon Panchayat,
make reasonable
to
streets; medical
taking curative and
sanitation
relief;
preventive measures
and and
remove and
to
spread of an epidemic upkeep, protection and other or of any building property belonging to supervision to stop the
Gaon Sabha births,
;
or transferred to
it
for
management;
registering
deaths and marriages, and maintenance of the register
of all the
members
of the
Gaon Sabha
;
removal
of encroach-
ment on public streets, public places, and property vested Gaon Sabha regulating places for the disposal of the dead bodies of human beings and animals, and of other offensive
in
matter
;
;
regulation of fairs, markets
except those
managed by
State
and maintaining primary schools
and hats within
Government for boys
and
;
its
area
establishing
girls, establish-
151
(
)
management and care of common grazing grounds and land for the common benefit of the persons residing within its jurisdiction construction, repair and maintenance
merit,
;
of public wells, tanks
and ponds
for the supply of water for and drinking, washing bathing purposes, and regulation of sources of water supply for drinking purposes regulating ;
the construction of tions of
new
buildings or the extension or altera-
assisting the development of and commerce agriculture, industry rendering assistance in extinguishing fire and protecting life and property when
existing
buildings
;
;
fire
occurs
maternity and child
;
places for storing
manure
prescribed
administration
;
and the election Adalat
;
and
law
other
make
and of
census as may be and criminal justice
cattle civil
any other obligation imposed by any
Gaon Sabha, functions
provision
of
for
Besides,
Gaon
and
planting
:
there
village
ing the
improvement
;
volunteer force different
improvement tion
in
;
of
for
calamities
;
;
some they
maintaining
improvement
;
organizing
;
their
a
assist-
functions
;
and the development of coopera-
Government
thereof, in liquidation of old debt
ing a sound credit system
and
watch and ward and
in obtaining
assisting cultivators
repayment
sanitation
bodies in discharging
of agriculture
are
Panchayats,
trees at public streets and other public places of cattle
of
Panches on the panel of the Panchayati
fulfilling
on
discretionary
may
of
allotment
;
maintenance of such records
;
relating to population census
welfare
relief against
extension of abadi
;
loans,
establish-
famine and other
establishing
ing library, reading rooms, clubs for
and
and maintain-
recreation
and games
and organizations for promoting goodwill and social harmony between different communities and other measures of public ;
to promote the moral utility calculated
being or convenience
of villagers.
and material well-
152
(
)
The Gaon Panchayat has power
to
enquire
and report
about the misconduct of amin, process server, vaccinator, patrol or peons of Government Departthe and forward ments, complaint to proper authority with its
constable, patwari,
own
It
report.
Government within
its
has power
staff
enter into contract with the State
As prescribed
jurisdiction.
and other
to
any taxes and dues for proprietors
to collect
subject
to
the
it
appoints a secretary
approval of the prescribed
emergency can appoint a servant exceeding three months without such
authority, but in time of
a
for
not
period
sanction.
Subject to
establish a
committee
specified duty,
the to
prescribed
assist
in
it
and may delegate
to
conditions
the
it
discharge
of
may any
such committee such of
powers as may be necessary for the purpose of rendering such assistance. Two or more Gaon Sabhas can combine by its
means
of a written
instrument
to
appoint a joint committee
the purpose of transacwhich they are jointly interested, and
consisting of their representatives for ting any business
may
in
delegate to such committee power to frame any scheme
and modify rules which
will be
binding on each Gaon Sabha
Every member of a Gaon Panchayat has a right, at any meeting, to move any resolution and to put questions to the President or Vice-President on matters connected
with
the
And every member of the committee or any other committee joint
administration of the Panchayat,
Gaon Panchayat, any
constituted under this Act, application of
and a by
suit for
any money
is liable for
loss,
waste
or
mis-
or property belonging to the Panchayat,
compensation may be instituted against him
the Panchayat with the previous sanction of the prescribed
authority,
The Panchayati Adalat, The State Government has divided each
district in circles,
each circle usually including contiguous
^
5 Gaon Sabhas, for the purpose of establishing Panchayati Adalat far each such circle. Every Gaon Sabha afea of 3
in
a
to
elects 5
circle
adults
permanently residing within
oi
its
prescribed
qualifications,
jurisdiction to act as Panches
3 years, in the Panchayati Adalat of Panches so elected by the Gaon Sabhas
for
that
The
circle.
in a circle
form a
from amongst themselves a person who is record proceedings and to act as Sarpanch of the
panel, and
able to
elect
Panchayati Adalat.
Any
who wishes
person
ing under this
orally or
application
case
as
shall
pay
the
prescribed.
person
to
the
fee.
prescribed
apply
to
in
The
such
to
circle,
this
other
ana
behalf,
Fee
Court
Panchayati Adalats except as
Act,
may be
party can appear before the Adalat in person
Any
or by such
case or proceed-
Sarpanch, or in the
have been appointed
may
1870 does not
to the
in writing
absence from
his
of
Panch
to institute a suit,
Act before a Panchayati Adalat can make an
representative as the Adalat
represent him.
But
may
adroit as a
fit
no legal practitioner shall
appear, plead or act on behalf of any party before a Panchayati
Adalat.
For the
trial of
every case, suit or proceeding, the 5 Sarpanch forms a bench of Panches from the panel, including one Panch residing in the area of the Gaon Sabha in which the plaintiff of a suit or proceeding or the complainant of a case resides, one in
Panch residing
in the area
which the defendant or the accused
Panches residing neither part in
in
the area of the
party resides,
any case
to
is
Gaon Sabha
resides,
and
three
in
which
But no Panch or Sarpanch can take relation, employer,
a party, or in which any of
be personally interested,
In the event ot
between Panches the opinion 20
the
Gaon Sabha
which he or any near
employee or partner
of
them may
any disagreement
of the majority prevails,
154
(
Almost
minor cases
the
all
)
land revenue cases and cases
criminal cases, civil cases,
of
gambling}
cattle
trespassing
and any other offence under any other enactment declared by
State
Government
be cognizable by a Panchayati
to
Criminal
Adalat -are brought before Panchayati Adalats.
cases are instituted before the Sarpanch of the Adalat of the circle in
which ofience
is
committed,
civil cases are instituted
before the Sarpanch of the Adalat of the circle in which the
defendant or any defendants ordinarily reside or out business at that time, and cases under Sec. 70
Land Revenue Act
are transferred by Tahsildar of the Adalat
within the local area of which the land concerned
A by
by him
to the
Adalat
Besides, the
it.
is
situated.
before a magistrate can be trans-
criminal case pending
ferred
carry of the
il
he feels that
has
Adalat
special
it
can be tried
jurisdiction
in
compromised matters, since it has power to decide all civil, revenue and compoundable civil cases not pending in any court in accordance with
agreed upon
any settlement, compromise or oath But if the Adalat feels that it
by the parties.
has no jurisdiction to try a case, or the oSence
which
it
cannot
complicated that
award it
adequate
should
is
such in
or
punishment,
is
be tried by a regular court,
so it
returns the complaint
to the complainant directing him to before the Sub-Divisional Magistrate having jurisdiction to try such case. A Panchayati Adalat cannot inflict a substantive sentence file it
of
imprisonment but can
fine
upto Rs. 100 (the fine
varies
nature of
according offence), but no imprisonment can be awarded in default of payment, It cannot try a if hfc has been previously convicted of an offence person to
the
with imprisonment of 3 years or more, or
by Adalat, or is
is
a registered
convicted for gambling.
member It
is
fined for theft
of a criminal
has no power
to
tribe or
cancel,
155
(
or
revise
any decree or order passed by
alter
a
correct
)
clerical
but can
mistake,
recorded, on application
for
it,
except
reason
sufficient
made within one month
to
of the date
decree or order or knowledge, restore any case which has been dismissed or in which decree or order has been passed ot
ex
Adalat It
A
parte.
Sub-Divisional Magistrate and the Munsii.
lies to the
their
sional suit,
revision from any order or decree passed by an
is
miscarriage
Magistrate or
or
oi
within 60 days fiom
call for the
record
by an Adalat the Sub-Divi-
justice
Munsii can
any time
in a
pending
the date of a decree or order,
case from Adalat, can cancel die
thij
ot
at
can quash any decree or order* A decree or an order passed by a Panchayati Adalat is executed by it in
jurisdiction, or
a
prescribed
Mtuated outside
its
the
Munsif
if
if
jurisdiction
other Adalat where ot
And
manner.
it
the
1
dependants property
is
transfers the decree to the
the property is situated, or to the court
there
is
no Panchayati Adalat,
The
fine
imposed by an Adalat is recoverable in the manner provided in Sec. 386 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. And it the Adalat finds it difficult to recover, it the requests
Sub-Divisional Magistrate to recover
it,
The Present working, According to this Act Panchayats have been formed throughout the State on 15th August 1949. At present there are 35,919 Gaon Sabhas and 8,414 Pan-
On and
chayati Adalats in the Statea
Gaon Sabha
from the date on which
established in any area under this Act the U. P. Village Panchayat Act, 1920, the U, P. Village Courts Act, 1892 and the U. P, Village Sanitation 1892 is
Act,
deemed
to
duties and
are
are
The Panchayats have assumed
be repealed,
working
since
then-
their
Every member
or
servant of Gaon Panchayat or Panchayati Adalat or committee is deemed to be a public servant within the
meaning
2} of the Indiap Penal
Code
f
This
raises
of Sec.
considerably his
156
(
)
The
personal status in discharging his duties,
condition of previous publication by noti-
has, subject to the
fication in the official Gazette,
Act
with this :
power
carry out the
to
Gaon Panchayat and
to
make
the Panchayati Adalat.
experience the Act
considerable difference.
failure of
this Act,
is
i.
.,
Gaon Sabha, means that
duties of the
It
modifications
to
subject
and amendments subsequently. In actual practice and the provisions a
rules consistant
purposes of
powers and
organization, working,
in the light of the
State Govt.
Act there
of the
is
and
Really speaking the success
Panchayats depends upon the type of people. Where
educated and sincere men are available really good work has been done /specially id regard to the improvement of roads and paths in abadi areas, education, village sanitation
and disposal public
outside the abadi areas, lighting of
of refuge
streets,
distribution of
cases brought
types of
different
Adalats was 467,340, out
As
in
villages
oi
before
number
total
the
and the of
Panchayati
which about 25% were
settled by
and fees they received Rs, 7*9 which they saved Rs. 4*2 lakhs and used them for
mutual agreement. lakhs out of
cloth
During 1950 the
disposal of petty disputes.
fines
The Gaon Panchayats have construcKachha roads, and repaired
constructive purposes.
ted 218 miles Pacca and 1290 miles
3619 miles old roads.
They turned
Kachha wells
14,134
and repaired 35826, They have planted more 10 million fruit trees and 45 million other types of than
into Pacca
trees
;
and prepared
lakhs compost
3*7
hand many Pancbayats have proved grounds
for party friction
are easily bribed
*
and further
There
is
appeals.
a
few
the other
be the breeding
litigation.
The Panches
considerable litigation in the
courts against judgments of Adalats, and
There are
On
pits.
to
difficulties
not able ^o work properly. yats are
due
^
to
revisions
and
which Pancha-
certain stin jafcj
pf
157
(
individual character
which
the
in
is
villages
required for a successful democracy
is
ignorant,
badly
tor
much
of
less
Under
law
declined, and the offender law,
and poor communities
illiterate
lacking.
atmosphere respect
)
is
in
the
existing
has
villages
much
not
political
considerably
hand
afraid of the
Gaon Panchayat
the
or
in
the
of
Panchayati
The congress propaganda against the so far economically and socially superior communities has practically Adalat,
finished the leadership in villages. In the absence of such leaders .he
Gaon Panchayats and Panchayati Adalats
command
administer matters, and do not dience.
Due
to abject
meagre, and most
poverty
of the
of good-will
And
masses the finances remain
amounts are
the party friction
and cooperation which
progress and smooth working
oi
is
that
The
initial
spectacular results
such local
property,
and
the
development
reducing
litigation
establishing rural
of
are
so
of
can,
usefulness of life
and
It
aims not only
self-government but also at
and making
it
economically cheap,
democracy and training
village communities.
working
outstanding
There
protection of
Panchayats.
local
a step in the right direction of old
Really
the maintenance of civil liberties of all persons
residing in the jurisdiction of at
rural
any judgment should
be expected.
The Act provides
for
bodies.
however, be no doubt about the utility and these Panchayats.
further
atmosphere
fundamental
difficulties
cannot
paying the
left for
spoils the
speaking the experience is so short that not be passed,
and obe-
respect
of the funds being utilized in
salary of the secretary, very small
improvements.
lack capacity to
and
of the voter.
will try to revive the spirit
Even during
these signs are visible*
It is
this
short
period
CHAPTER
VI
Famines and Famine FAMINES.
1,
Famine Conditions, hunger suffered tions are said to
Famine
is
'the
by the population of
the failure of the
Relief.
state
Famine condi-
accustomed food supply.'*
when
extreme
of
a region as a result of
groups of people fail to for or accustomed needs. food their normal procure enough it to be to has be Hence, distinguished from the specific, state of constant
stricken areas.
prevail
under-nourishment of chronically poverty
The normal under-nourishment
In such cases,
a famine.
large
as our own,
famine
is
is
not called
the
state oi
an extraordinary aggravation of the normal misery. Causes of Famines. Famine conditions may be created by several causes, which are generally grouped under two catagories direct or apparent causes, and indirect or remote :
causes.
Food supply may fail due to natural such as drought, flood, hail storm, frost, prolonged winter, too dry summer, or some other unusual meteoro(i)
Direct causes*
causes,
logical
phenomenon, plague
of locusts or rodents,
and plant
Failure of crops may further be due toman-made or artificial causes, such as devastation of rural areas by
diseases,
war, breakdown
of the
system of distribution affecting the region depending upon imported supply, and speculation the
in the grain
market resulting
(ii) Indirect causes.
of floods,
in prohibitive prices.
Deforestation increases the danger
and over-population reduces
the
size of
*F. A, Southard, Encyclopedia of Social Science, Vol. V-VI, 158
farms p, 85,
to
159
(
such an extent that u
)
to afford a
hardly sufficient
is
miserable
subsistence in good years, precluding the shortage of surplus in
These two tactors indirectly lead
bad years.
to
famine
conditions.
Regarding the causes noted, to
Firs>t,
it
is
rare tor a famine
one Mngle cause,
the most
common to
cause
the
ot
the
combine
to
primary cause
tamines, has been a
tailure
of the
accustomed
sometimes resulting in huge migrations of rural leaving the land
uncultivated,
1
invasions,
internal wars devastating the rural areas, have also it,
be
But very often other tactors like heavy exactions
population
with
to
be directly traceable
In our country
widespread drought due
monsoon. of rulers
to
several tactors
Usually,
cause a bevere famine,
and likewise
lamines a few things are
ot
and
combined
2
Secondly, though the tailure
degree
of
volume
ot
crop
food and the
ot the
monsoon involves some
and thereby reduces
failure
demand
the
physical
for agricultural laboijr,
lailure of rain does not result in a famine.
every
Varying degrees
'Muhammad's (fughlak)
exactions, which extinguished cultivation Doab, and his severity which destroyed those who might have cultivated, contributed m no small measure to the calamity (famine of 1335), which is always mentioned in connection with, though 1,
in large tracts
not directly
of the
attributed
(Cambridge History
to his
ill
treatment of his subjects in the Doab,'
of India Vol. Ill, p. 152),
'No misapprehension can be greater than to suppose that the settlement demand on the land is only lightly, or as may be, not at all
of public
connected with the occurrence of famines
'
(Col, Baird Smith,
Besides, during the Aug. 14,1861, para 36) Period there are many other similar instances,
iMuslim
Report ol and the British
authors have stated that the real and the fundamental cause is the economic backwardness of the people, because farmers have no reserves and no power of resistance when faming occurs. This is not an appropriate expression because aggranan poverty does not cause the crops to fail. Poverty aggravates the famine and paves it the the no when of for failure the way doubt, accustomed food supply occurs due to other causes. Poverty and backwardness are our normal miseries, and famine is said to occur only when they are exceptionally 2.
Some
of famines in our country
aggravated by something
else,
(
of
the failure
of
180
)
A
degrees of crop
rain involve varying
failures, with varying effects on the
demand
for
farm work*
widespread or a continuous failure of rain will, of course, a distress, but whether the distress amounts to a
result in
famine or not will depend on
many
such
situations,
work
condition of previous harvest, degree of farm
as
affected,
chance and capacity for imports, and the general resistance of the people, etc*
Thirdly, there has been a
common
impression that with
economic progress and the advancement of civilization there has been a change in the causes of famines. War, rapine
and misrule, which were formerly direct causes, no longer cause famines. But some new causes specially depressions
and purely monetary factors have arisen. Further the ease with which food can be transported has minimised the danger
for natural causes,
and the revolution
in agriculture
has removed even food production from the
list
of factors
But in view of the devastating nature of modern wars, and the fact that 2/3 of the world population resides in underdeveloped areas which are mainly agricul-
causing famines.
tural,
and agriculture
in all such areas is far
from secure, the
statements can be accepted only with considerable reservations.
Fourthly, population has already, and ting such a huge
is
burden on food resources
the nature of a continuous II,
further accumula-
that
it
has assumed
famine problem.
HISTORY OF FAMINES.
Throughout the world, excepting in the tropical regions, the danger of famine has always been great, specially in All early civilizations were subject to frequent From 108 B. C. to 1911 A, D, there have been 1828
olden times. famines.
famines in China
;
from the beginning
of the Christian era
161
till
lot
600 recorded famines in Europe 1855 there have been nearly 450 famines confined
1855 there have been 1000
to
;
small regions likes Wales, Lorraine and Alsace
to
was
afflicted with
and Rome considerable urbanization magnified of
securing
;
Egypt
drought and locust plague, and in Greece
adequate food
supply
number
chronicler oi Novgorod refers to a
the difficulties
bad
in
years. of
Some
medieval times specially in eastern Europe.
The
famines have been very severe.
The
famines in of these
great famines in world
1 history are as follows:
Our
Early Famines. at
frequent
intervals
history
by
is
disastrous
said
to
be punctuated
famines,
Details of
ancient famines are not known, but their earliest references are traced in some traditions, of
Brahamans and
the Jain
embodied
in
and Buddhist
the sacred books literature. 2
The
1
!
Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 9, p, 64, This contradicts Megasthenes who mentioned that 'famine has never 2. visited India,' (M'crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes. I,
,
His words perhaps mean either during the days be stayed here
p. 32)
or in the living
memory
of those
whom he
interviewed, or
,
a severe country-
wide protracted calamity, Buddhist records-Vinaya, Jatak, and other books of< Suita Pitak make definite mention of brief periods of local scarcities Megasthenes was perhaps overwhelmed by the conditions of living <>f the pieasantry in the parts he visited, specially in comparison to those of the
contemporary peasantry '
?l
in other countries t?e
knew
of,
162
(
record
earliest
m
famine
of
Magadh during
the
in historical
time
362 B, C; there was again
460 Bt C. to
an almost continuous famine in
and 1033 when some
have been depopulated
there
of
650 A* D. famine raged throughout the country, series of famines are said to have occurred in
After that
driven
tiroes is
Nandivardhan, From 377
of
In
Magadh, 941, 1022
)
to
;
For
cannibalism.
was almost
a
of the
provinces ate said
and traditions show
that
decade from 1148
a
continuous famine in
to
men were to
1159,
different parts of
For seven years from 1335 famine was rampant when Muhammad Tughlak India, throughout Northern ordered the evacuation of Delhi to Deogiri in the Deccan.
the country.
It
is
said that even for the Emperor's household necessaries
of life could not
and eat
be obtained* Ibn Batuta mentions that towns
were depopulated and people were reduced to unnatural food such as cooked hides, human flesh and districts
drinking of blood of slaughtered
1407 the
cattle.
Deccan was devastated
famine, popularly
known
as the
one part after another, and
Again, from 1396
by almost
continuous
Durga Devi famine,
it
to
affecting
reduced the population
to
such an extent that a considerable portion of the cultivated area remained uncultivated for years,
During
the reign of
Akbar famine occurred
three times
:
once in 1556 in the area surrounding Delhi, and then in 1575 in Gujrat,
and the
third,
which was very disastrous and
continued for four years 1595-99 in
Northern India.
The
next severe calamity occurred in the days of Shah Jehan in
1630 in Gujrat and Deccan.
This
is
said to be one of the
greatest famines recorded in history, and the
first
about
which precise details, specially by Dutch merchant named Twist, have survived, It is said that in Swally only li oat
260 families survived; in Surat a populous city at that time 30 thousand perished and hardly any life survived ; pearly
of
Ufc
(
and on the road between
)
very large number of bodies decaying. it
was
Surat and Swally there
a
Hunter described
as the garden of the world being turned into wilderness' 1
and
perished in huge numbers,
Cattle
numbers abandoned deserted
villages and towns,
people in It is
large
said that
men
women
sold
wives, mothers sold their children,
themselves as slaves, families took poison together or drowned hand-in-hand, and people
human
took
The other
flesh,
severe famine occurred in the days of Auungzeb
Deccan stretching upto tamine visited in 1747.
In the
Gujrat,
in
1686 in
same area another
Between 1660 and 1750 there were
14 major famines about which
precise details are not known.
Of all the famines that have occurred during the Muslim two in Northern India period five have been most severe :
in 1335-43 in the in the
days
days
of
Akbar and three
of
:
Muhammad Tughlak and
;
Deccan
in the
:
in 1396-1407
in the days of Feroz Shah, in 1630 in the days of in 1686 in the days of
and
in 1595-99
Shah Jehan
Aurangzeb,
Famines during the British Period. About a dozen famines occurred during the time of the East India Company : in 1769-70 in Bengal, in 1783 in North India, in 1790-92 in the
Deccan
specially
in 1803 in
Bombay and Hydrabad,
Bombay,
in 1804 in
1833 in Madras and in 1837
in 1813 in Bombay, in 1823 and in North India, Out of these four
were very severe.
In 1769-70 in
about 10 millions died. in cultivation to
waste.
In 1783
came
(first
Hunter,
W, W,,
and
the
Chalisa ot
2
land returned
famine in Northern
Benares Province
History of British India, Vol.
The word 'Chahsa' 2 a figure in the Sambat year 1840, and
the last one)
tremendous decrease
a
ot the cultivated
end India, extending from eastern I.
three
Bengal 1/3 inhabitants or
There was
and about 1/3
1800 in Mysore,
in
North India, in 1807 in Madras,
to
II, p. 59,
which occurred
in the year forty called 'chahs' in local language,
indicates'. 'that
164
(
Lahore and
Jammu
)
continued the next year
It
1784 famine conditions
prevailed
horrors oi this famine have been In place
of grain,
of trees.
it is
said that
Madras
in
and
also,
also.
The
in local songs.
symbolized
took roots and
people
in
bark
Hastings wrote to the Council Board in April 1784
that 'from
Buxar
to the opposite
boundary
Benares Pro-
(of
have seen nothing but complete devastation in every village', and Edwards in 1783 found Oudh which was quite
vince)
1
at
populous
came
that time
the Doji
Bara or the Skull* famine
extended over the whole
of
5
1790-92
In
,
of the
Deccan.
It
Bombay and Hydrabad and This famine
northern districts of Madras.
affected to
and desolate
'forlorn
is
said
be the severest famine ever known in which people died
in such
numbers
large
they could
that
not be
Another severe famine occurred in 1837-38 India, the
specially in
Jamuna,
It
There was an Palwal.
the
upper reaches
was most severe
ol
Ganges and
the
North-West Province.
in the
utter desolation in the parganas of
Deaths were numerous.
It is
hurried,
Northern
in
Modal and
said that about
8 lakhs
people perished, and in Kanpur, Fatehpur and Agra special establishments patrolled the streets to remove corpses. bodies were lying on till
the roadside
Dead
unburried and unburm
they were devoured by wild animals,
During the rule of the Crown there have been eight major disasters, and about these sufficiently precise and reliable details are available.
in
Northern India
specially
In 1860-61 there in
parts
of
was
a
famine
North- Western
Province around Agra, Punjab and touched Rajputana and Catch*
The
total
population of *It was
area affected
2 crores.
so" called
was 53,500
More severely
sq. miles with a
affected parts
were
because deaths were so numerous that cropses could
not be "burned and skulls, sight here and there,
the hardest part of the body,
\vere the usual
Delhi,
Allahabad and Alwar
Agra,
State,
rdghly
the tfact
between Agra and Delhi, comprising an area of about. 25 miles with a population of nearly 13 millions. It thousand sq,
is
said that nearly i/2 million people deserted the
From 1865
tract.
the
whole
inland.
It
famine
famine affected
Madras penetrating far 1865 and then extended to
began in Orissa in
The
is
It
of 1866, since
in 1866,
67 another severe
east coast from Calcutta to
and Bengal.
Bihar
a
to
distressed
it
generally
area affected was
total
known
as
Orissa
the
assumed most terrible form in Orissa 180,000 sq. miles with
In Orissa atone
population of 47| millions.
least 1
at
million or about 1/3 of the total population died, and in of the divisions of It
Bengal about 1/4 of the
assumed the worst form
specially in the
in
population
some died*
Orissa due to isolation, and
rainy season the grain being available
it
could not be distributed, and in Bengal the lack of data and thus lack of information
was mostly responsible
for
the
tragedy.
This famine heels) followed It
in the eastern
by one
in the
part
was soon (almost on
western part in 1868
its
to 1870.
extended over Rajputana, parts of North-West* Province,
the early famines ate said to be vitiated by guesses The danger of drawing sources of controversy. conclusions on them is illustrated by the fact that inspite of the great mortality in Orissa famine of 1866, the population of the affected district, as estimated by the 1871*72 census, was considerably larger than the estimate made of it by the best authorities prior to the famine. Besides
Accounts of
\vhicb
are
all
still
fruitful
information regarding States (termed by foreign writers as native territory) to be more frequent, is sadly lacking, perhaps not
where famines are said
thoroughly collected. Even if collected it must be lacking in precise details since enquiries and investigations by Commissions or similar bodies were not made as we tind later on in British rule, Accounts of the early famines are available in the chronicles of courts, and from them only a few general descriptions come down, such as vast-scale desolation and depopulation of tracts, man feeding on man and killing him for food, violation of natural human relationships, loss of revenue and conspicuous acts of charity. But
even from
this
mass speculation some general
facts
regarding the causes nature
effects stand out clearly and help considerably in studying the of the problem and in suggesting methods of control.
and
Puiyab and Bundelkhand*
This
is
commonly known as
the
Rajputana famine of 1868-69, because of being most intense
and widespread
in
Rajputana in that year.
It
aflected
296,000 sq. miles and about 44| million people,
but the
tragedy
is
said to have
been centralized in the
states
of
Rajputana and Ajmer. The extra mortality mainly due to cholera, small-pox and fever which broke out after the famine.
It is
said that
all
the characteristics of old
famines
in India were brought out in this famine, and it was the last famine in which the scarcity of foad was felt severely* There
were two conspicuous features one, an exceptionally large cattle mortality and another, aimless wandering of a huge population. The Report of the Indian Famine Commission :
;
1880 mentions that majority of cattle in Rajputana perished, and vast masses of people moved out of Rajputana at random, of
with their large herds, in seaich of food and fodder, and in the aimless wandering
so
much moved by
Lord Lawrence
many
lives
the terrible
laid
down
were
lost,
loss of life in
were
Officers
Rajputana that
a principle at that time
that
the
be held personally responsible for government to avert death means by starvation. taking every possible Another famine quickly followed in 1873-74 covering Bihar and adjacent parts of Bengal and U. P. It is known officials will
as the Bihar famine because of being most severe there.
It
sq. miles with a population of 215 lakhs, but the distressed area was 40,000 sq. miles with a
afiected an area of 54,000
population of 170 lakhs.
famine
of 1866
and
of
The
terrible
mortality of Orissa
Rajputana famine of 1868-69 was
fresh in the minds people and the government It is said that Lord Northbrook was determined not of the
the
same
in 1874,
fatal results
Asa
result
relief the Indian
still
officers. to
allow
and lamentable history to be repeated of this determination and extravagant
Famine Commission, 1880 gives
credit
to
167
(
Government
the
view
of
the
)
no death due
for
Commission seems
to
to
starvation.
But
this
be exaggerated, and the
view expressed by the Cambridge History of India seems to be more reasonable that 'for the first time in Indian history had not produced heavy mortality/ 1
a serious failure of crops
In the dacade 1870-80 a series of famines occurred covering
almost the whole of this
after
famine in North India there was a famine in the Deccan
for two years, 1876-78.
presidencies It
Almost immediately
the country.
occurred
of
first
It
afiected
of
major portions
the
Madras, Bombay, Mysore and Hydrabad. in the Deccan, and in 1878 was extended to
North- West Province
and Oudh,
It
affected
an area of
257,000 sq, miles and 585 lakhs people, and was most severe in
Madras and Bombay
India considers
century'
2
it
in 1877*
'most
The Cambridge History of
widespread and
and the Imperial Gazetteer
'more widespread
than
any
in the 19th
fatal
of India regards
calamity
then on
it
to
far
record.' 8
Perhaps the implication is better expressed by the Famine Commission of 1880 which described it as the worst experi-
enced since the beginning of the British rule upto that time, since the latter famines were more severe and widespread than
this*
In excess of the normal 5f million deaths occurred
vast tracts of agricultural land
were
there were continuous streams of different parts of South India to the
movement was
different
from
which there was no
uncultivated
and
people migrating from
Western Ghats.
that in Rajputana,
in search of fodder in the forests of for food of
left
,
since
This it
was
Western Ghats and not
lack.
For about a decade and a half, roughly from 1880 to 1895, there was no severe famine but there had been several local 1,
Cambridge History
of India, Vol. VI, p, 300,
History of India* Vol. It.
2,
Cambridge
3,
The Imperial Gazetteer
of India, Vol. II p. 518,
scarcities such as in 1884-85 in Bengal, in 1886 in Chhatisgarh,
889 in Orissa and from 1890
in
C.
P,
In the closing
of
years
95 in parts
to
century two severe
19th
the
famines occurred in quick succession. conditions prevailed
Bengal,
C,
in
Madras and Bombay,
have occurred almost parts of
Burma and It
sula.
It
said
is
to
over India except the Southern
all
the extreme South of
was most intense in U.
district of Punjab,
1896-97 famine
In
North-Western Province, Oudh, Bihar,
Punjab,
P.,
Madras and
of
the
C, P.,
P,,
Madras and Bombay.
Deccan PeninHisar
Bihar,
About 3 lakhs
sq.
miles of land and 695 lakhs people were affected in British India alone, and out of these
1
J lakh
and
of area
qailes
sq,
340 lakhs people were severely affected. In 1896 plague broke out in of
Total deaths are said to be about 1 million
Bombay.
which 7\ lakhs were
Commission
British
territory.
The Famine
1880 considered the famine of 1877-78
of
severest, but this time tract
in
famine occurred over
a
More intensely
was as severe.
still
affected
to
be
wider area
1896-97 than in any previous famine, and another peculiar feature of this famine was that it affected
was greater
in
even those parts which were considered almost immume from famine, into jungles
of
VasJ tracts spe
in
'rally
C.
,
landa were turned
cultivated
P..
and whole
districts,
were
.devastated,
In A89Sbl9QO another famine occurred which be, not so .widespread,
the
M not covering as
i,
two earlier famines
certainly quite severe,
of
is
said
to
wide an area as
1876-78 and 1896-97, but was
The area
affected
simultaneously was
largest in 1900 (4| lakhs sq. miles) but the
number
of people
was largest in 1896-97 (695 lakhs). On the whole in 1899-1900 a small area and a smaller population was affected
affected
than in 1896-97.
coptipuously
for.
Some three
part? Jrearsf'
specially
Jhe
totjd
in
Bombay
suffered
a^ea affected was 4|
(
169
)
lakhs sq. miles with a population of 60 millions, d( which It8 lakhs sq, miles and 20 millions people were in British territory, Famine was not acute in North-West Province, Oudh, Raj*
was more Severe
putana, Madras, and Punjab, but
in parts
of Bombay, C P, and Berar, Hydrabad, Kathiwar, Baroda and Central India, The famine was more acute in those parts of South
severe.
but 1
it
where
famine of
189697 was
was followed by Cholera and Malaria
million
also
which about
in
persons died in British India alone.
Large
tracts
became waste, and jungle grew over wheat of this famine were
of cultivated land
and
the earlier
Starvation deaths during famine were not many,
Remarkable features
rice lands.
high cattle mortality in Gujrat and migration from States into British territory.
For four decades since 1901 there was no serious calamity though localized famine conditions had occurred frequently, such as in 1902-3 in C.
1907-8 in U,
P.,
Punjab, U. P,
P.,
in
Bengal, C, P.
1905-6 in U.
and Punjab, in Bombay, and in 1918 in Bihar and Onssa. The exP.
and
Bombay, C. P., was a quick recovery and in !918 was perience in 1907-8 severe failure of rain were little felt, of the that the effects f
Bengal Famine of 1943.
The most
occurred in Bengal in 1943. this
crisis.
At
more than 80%
that
recent severe famine
Several factors
time Bengal was
of her food supply,
precipitated
producing slightly
and most
of
the
imports
which being occupied by Japan being made from Burma 1942, rice supply from
there to
Bengal was
hurricane in late 1942 by destroying about of rice further intensified the shortage.
over the fall of
Burma and
cut,
1*5
in
Midnapur
millions tpns
Public nervousness
the denial policy
by which boats
and large rice stocks were removed from East Bengal due to the fear of being used by the enemy made the shortage 22
(
widespread and apparent*
170
On
)
being apparent shortage was
considerably intensified by speculation, as a result
which
of
rice supply was hoarded mostly in trade channels, and prices rose beyond the reach of the people, and famine conditions
prevailed
even in those
destroyed
were made the
tion of
natural
by
difficult
grain market large
specially the congestion of
Bengal was rendered
river during the
U.
P,
due
:
to
not
outside
general disloca-
supplies were not readily to
railways,
transport
bottle-neck,
movement
of
Further floods in
difficult.
monsoon
and Punjab*
due
crops were
Supplies from
calamities,
for two reasons
available elsewhere, and
to
where
districts
supplies
Damodar
1943 held up supplies from
of
But inspite of
all
these difficulties a steady
stream of grain was flowing in Calcutta trom July onwards,
government machinery failed to distribute to keep the situation under control. properly, and but
the
The was
official
version
is that
the failure of winter
the basic cause of
rice
crop of
outstanding causes were the lack of information
and
timely measures.
Hence, even
the Provincial
be as
prices to
responsible as crop failures in causing starvation,
of both the Central
famine
this
The Bengal
1942,
Famine Enquiry Commission consider high
it
The most and
governments
failure to
take
after considering the strange
sequence of events, coincidence of so
many
and appreciating the wartime difficulties this famine is to be taken as a man-made
circumstances,
of the
government,
affair,*
*In the beginning the Government being self-complacent and ill informed could not foresee the magnitude of the crisis, and when it cam they miserably failed to control the situation and to take timely measures Failure of winter crop of 1942 cannot be accepted as the main cause c starvation since distress and staivation deaths occurred in those districl also in which there was no crop failure, Shortage of supply cannot b believed since huge quantities of grain were stored in Bengal which afte &eing decomposed and rendered unfit for human consumption wer destroyed. This cannot be taken to be purely an act of caution during WE it was simply an inefficient control and failure emergency, Further, <
(
171
)
The Woodhead Commission estimated or 1/10 of the total population
of
that
Bengal was
about 6 lakhs affected*
and
about 1*5 million people died as a result of famine and the
accompanying epidemics of cholera, malaria, smallpox and dysentery which caused as many deaths as starvation itself,
The immediate
crisis
was overcome by
record rice crop in Jan-Feb., 1944,
famine scarcity conditions prevailed
in
the relief
After
the
and the Bengal
1948 in Gujrat and in
1949-50 and 1950-51 in eastern U. P M Bihar, Bengal and Madras, and in 1951*52 in Madras, Punjab, Saurasthra and
Madhya Pradesh, But none of them was permitted to develop into a major tragedy. The Bengal famine has brought out some very interesting and important
facts
:
High prices were as important a cause of starvation deaths as crop failure. It means that crop security and pro* 1,
duction stability cannot fully guard against starvation which prevail as a result of price
may
movements
arising out of
speculation or trade cycles, 2.
Practically all the
population which suffered
administration that hoarding on such a vast scale could take place, and ft greater failure that available supplies could not be distributed, for it is said that trains loaded with grain remained standing in railway yards for weeks and grain could not be distributed, The report of the Woodhead Commission clearly exposed the failure of both the Central and the Provincial Governments to take timely measures and to keep the food situation of Bengal
Beside the defective control, procurement and distribution relief, which could have mitigated the epidemics inadequate. The same year famine broke out in Bijapur district of Bombay, ceded districts of Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Orissa, Bat no where conditions were allowed to approach the severity
under control.
of food, even medical considerably was far
of Bengal, and it was mainly due to the capacity and efficiency of local authorities in organizing relief and controlling food supplies and prices.
The
which was admitted by the Woodhead Commission also, that was equally due to high prices, shows that failure of administrahandling the situation mainly caused and intensified the tragedy,
fact,
starvation tion
The
in
failure of administration is further
proved by the fact that
many famine
areas in the province were without relief until the army assisted the civil authorities in organizing food distribution and medical relief in November 1943. A foreign government could easily afford to play wjth the lives oj
the
people like this
172
(
belonged
to
)
That the grower
poorer classes in rural areas,
of food dies of
hunger t.ven
annual consumption,
is
pioducing adequate for his
after
the
a seiious challenge to
prevailing
economic system.
A
3.
strange coincidence
events precipitated and
events can take
fresh
nation of
canals,
place
the
alter
belief* that the country,
and
many unfavourable
so
of
Such
intensified the ciisis.
was rendered
Hence
again.
of
development
safe
a combi-
the
railways
widespread
against any
starvation, is shattered.
Our famine codes weie supposed
4.
so well as to
be capable
of
to
dealing with
have developed eventualities.
all
But they could not meet the situation. It means that under tresh situations the accustomed procedure and measures fail,
have
and our famine codes
to
be adapted
to
fresh
prdblems. '
How
5.
serious the
the
fatal
lack of information proves,
becomes
situation
if
and how
timely measures are not
taken. It
6.
has exposed the seriousness of the food situation in
the country,
and has focussed
the
attention
of
the
Union
and State governments on the nature and the magnitude
of
the food problem.
Some Remarkable
a
in India, apparently
interesting and
This brief history of famines
Features,
chronological
unpleasant
statement of dry, unbrings out
facts,
some very
remarkable features*
There have been during the
1.
famines, and during the ters.
,
It
shows
that
a
300 years 26 major
700 yeais 17 very severe disas-
is
said
to
cyclical,
Their
be dependent on sunspot
an annual
scarcity, in
wider scarcity resulting in a
recognized
In every 5
every 10 years
last
famines are frequent and
periodical recurrence period.
last
years there
is
173
(
)
famine condition, and in every 50-100 years scarcity extending over wide tracts covering fully or partly several provinces,
A
closer
study
of
famines shows that after
century (though the period
countrywide simultaneous
abnormality all
is
in
not the
very exact) there is a This is not monsoon.
over the country but continues fora
cumber
starting from
of years in different tracts with the result that
one place the scarcity moves from one part
to
another and
thus covering the country within a
number
of
years.
very interesting and revealing
study the course of this
movement and to analyse direction and speed. 1 2.
due
the
to
factors
It is
which determine the
For some time a feeling has been gaining ground that
to so
much development
almost completely overcome.
means
in the
irrigation and some improvement vators against famines, the chance
.
about a
in
of
of
transport and
the resistance of culti-
a severe famine was
But the Bengal famine of 1943
has shattered that facile optimism and has further proved that the
danger
danger
is
not over.
Really speaking famine
in all agricultural countries,
and
so
is a
long as India is
mainly agricultural and depends mostly on the Monsoon, famine due to the failure of rain and consequent destruction
must occur, since uncertainty and irregularity are 2 inherent in the nature of the Indian Monsoon.
of crops
3.
The
list
of great
famines in the recorded history of
We have Deliberately avoided the detailed discussion of it here 1, because full discussion would have taken undue space, and probab'ly would not have fitted in the plan of the present work. But we believe that a close study of meteorological phenomena will reveal definite routes and a relationship with certain definite factors, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. II, p 527, mentions that 'After 2. J901 the cycle of bad harvests came to an end and the country slowly and gradually recovered. This remark does not seem to be adcurate, since the Chances of bad harvests or drought are not over. It can at the .most be taken in the sense that for about four decades since 1900 there was no major tragedy, and after the development of transport capacity to meet *he famine was greater. 1
174
(
)
the world shows that out of a total
have occurred but to
it
number
may
list
This peculiar susceptibility
factors
:
monsoon,
uncertainty and
the
(i)
and
small-scale
(ii)
be
vary accurate of the country
imparted by two*
is
the
endemic
poverty,
when any crop
resistance
of
of
irregularity
farming,
unemployment and htnce lack
famines 18
of 34
not
indicative of a peculiar susceptibility
is
famine.
fold
The
in India.
failure occurs. 4,
Upto the end
century famines have exer-
of the 19th
cised a considerable check on the growth of population. 5.
At
result of a
generally
calamity which
the time of a severe
is
usually the
strange coincidence of several factors there
some
extraordinary
presents a two-fold
problem
difficulty.
either
:
it
creates
is
The
situation
new
circums-
tances of which the relief administration had no experience, or the extraordinary
difficulty
an unmanagable shape and
due
isolation
ordinary
was an and
to
transport
size.
utter dearth of fodder,
wild tribes
to
presented a great difficulty. failure of water supply and
persons refuse
it
relief
1868-70 there
and huge wanderings of men
accept relief on
ordinary terms
famine
of 1899-1900 the
In the
fodder enormously increased
the difficulties of administration.
ordinary difficulties
is
In addition to these extra-
seen that in every famine oiany too late to save them. it becomes
until
Besides, this situation explains the
repetition
of
mistakes by the government in matters of relief tration,
e. g. t
Orissa, in
the
wrong estimate
of the
of the
the
same
adminis-
situation in 1865 in
1873-74 in Bihar and in 1943 in
in the relief
of 1865
presented an extra-
In the famine of 1896-98 in C. P, the
cattle took place*
reluctance of
famine
In Orissa
difficulties
Rajputana famine of
In
difficulty,
gives the familiar problem
Bengal
;
mistake
aboriginal tribes in 1897 in C, P. and in
1900inGujrat andKhandesh; hampering
of administration
(
175
)
by unexpected immigration in 1868-70 in Rajputana and in 1900 in many British Provinces and excessive relief distri* ;
bution in 1873-74 in Bihar and in 1900 in several provinces.
FAMINES IN MODERN TIMES.
III.
Modern Concept famine
is
a state
the absence
in
emergency
recognizes the existence of in
The conception
of Famine.
of
the
unemployment on
of general poor
sures of relief.
which
of
a
modern
government which
a scale,
law, requires
special
mea-
Historical study of this situation shows that
with the change of times there have been changes in
its
nature, causes, intensity and frequency. in the
Change
Nature of Famines.
It
is
said
that early
famines (mostly upto the Muslim period) were food famines, in which actual food shortage was the chief characteristic,
and
main problem was of getting food at all. The later famines were simply money or work famines, in which the the
main characteristic was poverty and the main problem was of obtaining work and wage thereby getting the means to pay for food.* result
does not mean
food shortage, and
in
from the
It
list
of
famine
is
means
in the
particular
the
place
food production
factors,
The implications
no countrywide
usually there
ment
of
is
not
removed
are that since
failure of crops, the develop-
transport can
by drawing
failures do
that crop
meet the scarcity
at
the surplus from other places
;
administrative organization dealing with famines and
have progressively reduced the distress caused by crop failures and the government have taken the responsibility of providing work and
the system
of
administrative
relief
;
*!t is difficult to say as to when does this change take place. It is said the Rajputana famine of 186870 was the last famine in which the scarcity of food was severely felt. Really speaking it is not from the beginning of the British Rule, but specially after the construction of railways and the improvement in the administration of famine relief in the latter half of the 19th century that tbe change came into being. that
Hence, though
wage daring emergency,
constantly faced with local food
deaths due to
power
The
food.
buy
and
is
adequate purchasing
earlier famines
deaths caused by
by widespread
country
shortage, there is no fear of
people have
to starvation if
the
were characterized
starvation
due
non-
to
the later ones are characterized
by a failures, caused by crop employment At present the idea of food famine is supposed to have availability of food,
temporary dislocation of
banished except from a few tracts which are
still
inaccesible
to trade.
in the
Changes opening created
not so
indirect and
much by
to
India they continue
be
famines, and
the
now
of
power
does
It
of
mean
not
that
Really speaking in
fresh causes have
also
transport and irrigation
natural factors in
price variations,
factors resulting
now
and natural causes as by
And
so.
The development
have minimised
fiscal
direct causes.
more cause famines.
natural factors no
in the
chapter famine conditions are
monetary
been added.
As mentioned
Causes of Famines.
section of this
causing
caused by monetary and
in trade depressions,
can also create
famine conditions by creating widespread unemployment and lack of purchasing power.
Changes used
to
in the Intensity of
be mostly
localized,
Famines, but
now
In the past famines the
effects of
local
shortages are spread over larger areas, and thus the intensity The rigour of famine in the form of is thereby reduced,
deaths and suffering
is
also
minimised because
relief
can
now be administered more quickly and widely, and the measures and methods of relief are more scientific and numerous,
Changes conception
in the
of
Frequency of Famines,
famines makes
it
The change
difficult
to
in the
compare
the
177
(
frequency of famines to
)
at different
periods
;
and
it
is difficult
say whether the food famines in former times were more
frequent or the work or in
modern
money famines
There
times.
is,
famines were more frequent during the t
during
the early period
are
more numerous
howevef, an irapressiop that
Company Ruje
Crown Rule
of the
an,d
than under the
This impression is probably due to the, fact has been a systematic record of famines during
native rule. that there
the
and the accounts
later times
of
previous
famines a re K
comparatively more incomplete.
Regarding the frequency of famines in future there are two contrary views* Some say that the danger of famine is increasing, while others hold that It
was commonly
revolution in transport and
methods
gradually minimised,
in
19th centui-y the
means
of
preservation and storage Western World, and famine was
of food
famine from the
vanished
is
development
agriculture, the
it
believed that during the
very unusual in the civilized world. But there have occurred Irish famine of 1846-51, Russian several famines since then :
famines
1905 and 1921-22, China famines of
of 1892,
1878,
1887 and 1916, U.S. A. famine of 1930-31, and Indian famines
towards the end
century and in 1943,
of the 19th
Besides
there are several things which indicate a growing danger;
(if There are several chronic famine
populated underdeveloped present population
tion experts predict
regions of the world,
causing a
is
areas urthe thickly (ii)
At
famine problem, and popula-
an increasing pressure on the margin
of
subsistence which unchecked would breed increasing famines in futuret
(Hi) In future there
is
natural resources of the world, is
shortage
entertathed not so
a possibility of famine
(iv)
The danger
much on account
in
of food
of paucity
of
resources as on account of the declining percentage of popu* '
23
'
'
(
178
)
lation on agriculture) and (v) Widespread unemployment and famine conditions can be caused by trade cycles.
On
other
the
hand
the
methods
of
fighting
famines are
progressively increasing and thus minimising the chances of disasters,
widespread
The prophecies of population experts are
present net increase of population and the
perhaps based on
existing methods and technique not fully account for
and
behaviour
the
in agriculture,
the likely
modifications in population
ing
and the food supply
is
in
food
increasing at a
grow
development
technological
production. In India though population rate
and they do
is
lagging behind presenting
a Malthusian spectacle, there is neither a danger of growing of increasing frequency because the
severity nor
both fighting them,
of
preventive and protective are becoming
elaborate, scientific and efficient. But this should by no
more
means be taken sense that their
come
will
methods
immunity from famines, but only in the frequency is gradually minimised. Famines as
from time
to
time,
from single crop failure
resulting
and not
not so quickly,
but work famines on a
scale to call for state relief.
Changes
in Resistance
long struggle
and Recouperative Power,
In the
against nature considerable ground has been
gained in the form of both protection and prevention. Apaong the former by far the best methods have been the develop-
ment
of
railways and
irrigation
works.
Other
efforts
to
increase farm prosperity in the form of general administration,
iand revenue administration, cooperative
cultural improvements, marketing, prices,
credit,
agri-
and animal husban-
dry, etc., have gradually increased the resistance of farmers*
Besides, other improvements,
not confined
classes, such as industries, trade, logical
and
linguistic
to
agricultural
commerce, banking, ethnoand vital statistics, etc,, have surveys,
179
I
increased the power of prevention
mortality is less.
from famines
world, they are class which'is
much
still
The power
behind
result
now much quicker and of suffering and morta*
heart-rendering to the civilized
during past famines, But one
less than
still left
is
the tales
Though
in Indian famines are
liiy
against famines.*
to fight
has also increased gradually with the
the recovery
that
)
is
that of agricultural labourers,
Areas Immune from and Specially Subject to Famines. The areas which least
and
receive heavy
70 inches or 7,000 in
(annual average of at
rainfall
more tons
01
water per acre)
of rain
which the chances uf a serious departure
in
any year
are remote, such as coastal strip between the Western Ghats
and the Arabian Sea from the extreme south of the Peninsula to the
southern boundary of Surat District Assam and lower
Bengal, are said to be safe against widespread drought.
hazard
famine
of
not
is
great in
very
rendered sale by irrigation, suchasaieas
The
areas which are
served by large
canals and tube-wells in Northern India and the deltas in
Besides in such areas also in which cultivation
Madras.
without irrigation is less
is
exceedingly precarious (where rainfall
than 10 or 12 inches and which are scrub lands
grazing), the
danger
areas which are
famine
of
(approximately 10 lakhs qr. the
always precarious, the vagaries of the
parts
Monsoon and
exposed
of Peninsular
inches or Gujrat,
less,
miles), or
India
and
Malwa and
to
to a risk of
occasional
the
heavy
rainiall
where agriculture
is
part of C. P.
famine*
drought are the plateau
average rainfall
tract of
'For detailed studies one can look of 1880 and 1898,
Commissions
Beside these
great.
the uncertainties of seasons,
receiving an in
for
remaining areas are not safe against
and hence they are exposed
The
not
is
protected or leceive
either
fit
higher average
In these to
the
of
30
rainfall
areas scarcity
is
Reports of the Faming
183
(
periodic and
)
often intensities into severe famines.
it
areas lying between
speaking the
Roughly
20" and 30"
the line of
Out of this average rainfall are more exposed to famines, whole area some portions are recognized famine zones, They are
Dharwar, Sholapur,
Ptjapur,
Deccan
States
now merged
iu
Satara,
Bombay;
and the
districts
millet
growing
dis-
the tricts of Anantpur, Bellary, Cudappa, Kurnool, and paddy growipg districts o( Vizgapattam and Ranjanad in Madras Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar districts of the East ;
Kutch State; and some western parts of Rajasfchaa* Since famine is related not only to drought but also to
Punjab .
;
paany other things scarcity or uncertainty of the Monsoon got the only
determining factor in the
any aiea modern times no area can be considered
to fapune.
In
absolutely
safe
where, IJQ
porqaally
against
famine,
It
can
occur
any-
an agricultural country the danger is greater uncertain rainfall. Famines usually occur where
But
aj;eas of
is
liability of
in
rainfall is sufficient
good crop but a severe
for a
departure from the normal brings about an unexpected food
EFFECTS OF FAMINES.
IV.
Famines
in
India are
mostly caused by
drought resulting in crop failure.
The
are food shortage, fodder shortage, scale, aimless wanderings of
heavy
loss of life of both,
intensity of famines
unemployment on
men and
cattle
and epidemics.
a vast
resulting in a
The extent and
vary considerably in different cases,
but the basic features being the same
the effects are similar
innature though they differ in degree. of
widespread
characteristic features
Generally the
effects
famines are as follows: ()
Increase in death rate.
and rendered
in
time,
there
Unless is
a
relief is
very
efficient
temporary increase
ii\
(
181
)
death rate 1 either on account of starvation or due diseases
panying
resulting
Largest number of deaths due
from to
weakened
to
accom-
resistance.
famine have taken place in
India, China and Russia, During the last 100 years about 20 million people have died in major famines in India.
Some
epidemiologists say that diseases are the invariable
consequence
of
famines 2 because of debility resulting from
food deficiency or from in
1348 in
typhus in
food
substitutes, e. g., plague
malaria in 1848 in Upper Siberia,
Florence,
Finland in
vile
1867-68,
plague in
Bombay
in 1896,
cholera and small-pox after the Rajputana famine, cholera
and malaria
the
after
famine of 1899-1900, and cholera,
malaria and small- pox after the Bengal famine of 1943. (if)
lation
Wanderings and Migrations. takes
Famine
stricken popu
aimless wandering in search of
to
-
food*
It
happened, in most conspicuous manner, in the case of Chalisa famine, the Rajputana famine and the famine in 1876-78. Besides there
are
favoured places,
8
Wadai
in
1830.
permanent movements
also
to
more
Delafosse mentions such movements from Petrie
mentions pastoral
people of arid
Mallory from his study of famines in China concludes that food was the main check on population. In semi-arid Iran also*penodic famines kept the population within limits set by the environment. Similarly in India upto the last century famines annihilated huge population But inspite of a huge number of deaths during famines they periodically, cannot be considered as a permanent check on over-population, 1.
scarcity
2. Ordinarily famines do not produce new or special diseases, but the typical diseases of the locality break out after them, But sometimes a new disease somehow (perhaps imported) breaks out as plague in Bombay
in 1896,
Permanent movements as a result of series of droughts and 3. frequent famines take place generally in case of nomadic or pastoral people. But famine as a significant factor in inducing the population of a
Some agricultural regions of China, economy, seems doubtful. Pueblo culture in America, and Gujrat, Malwa and some portions of Rajputana in India have faced countless famines. But there have not been permanent migrations, and on the other hand they have tried to develop a famine proof economy, settled
182
(
to
regions migrating after
600 are said
The Arab Migrations
richer lands.
have started after
to
series of drought between 816
The movements
)
in the
and
a great famine,
and 1072 kept them in motion-
northern plain of Hungary from the
Steppes are also said to be caused by prolonged droughts. (Hi l Disruption in economic
unemployment on a large
Failure of crops causes
life.
scale-
Being accompanied by a
causes desttuction of cattle on a large scale
fodder famine
it
which means
loss
of
working
the
capital,
main source
of
farmers*
farming and a major part of the stored wealth of Vast areas go out of cultivation, at least tem-
porarily.
Normal trade
power
of
in
demand
and
is
Industries face
upset,
lack
state finances are strained.
(iv)
Set-back in agricultural progress.
Famine
deserted.
vitality.
reduces labour efficiency
It
increases indebtedness and
It
chance of investment in agriculture. crops are
to
some
extent
a decline in the level of of expert farmers,
and
replaced skill
loss of
is
said to
Stricken villages
of agricultural progress. put back the clock
are
a
arising out of the decline in the purchasing power,
thus
by lowering reduces the
Sometimes industrial
by food crops.
There
is
and knowledge due to death power due to death of cattle,*
Periodical famines not only eat into temporary agricultural prosperities but
by developing a fear complex or a sense
of insecurity
and urcertainty, also check the incentive and
the scope for
agricultural
development.
they stereotype the agricultural systems
(v)
Effects
on social
break up the settled
life,
On
and
the other
hand
practices,
and customs.
Wanderings Sometimes the family life is also life
*Food and fodder famines need not necessarily go together, as But generally 1896 Kbarif crops grew large quantities of fodder. And Moreland aptly remarks fodder famine accompanies food famine that 'fodder famine is the worst calamity that can befall the in
1
people,
of (he United Provinces, 1921, p, 12), (Moreland, Agriculture
Famines are
broken.
reflected in religious
beliefs,
nies and rituals in all agricultural coramities.
some
social customs.
Sumner
They
ceremo-
condition
belives abortion and infanticide
be protective devices against famines*. And some writers have connected famines with religious exaltation and maina, to
group movements and
turbulence in Europe in the
social
In India the worship of rain god, the elaborate
Middle Ages, ceremonies before and after the harvests, the typical worship
when
monsoon
the
etc.,
seem
to
charitable
gets delayed,
Indian rural masses and social
disposition of
responsibility of destitutes,
have originated in crop failures and agricultural
insecurity*
Prolonged
(vi)
famines
is
it
pleasant,
communities
rural
the
a
fact
the
that
not due
widespread starvation
man-made economic
where
rarely it
the
effects
it
a
In
are
phenomenon
being greater,
the
temporary, and the recovery
country
a greater
be
to
the
pity
to find
but due to
food
ephemeral, but
effects are lasting.
countiies, the
effects is
food die of
of
country where famines
likely
Besides in economically advanced resistance
is
During
Though un-
most.
to the lack of
factors.
is a recurring
suffer
producers
And
starvation during famines,
occur
of rural communities.
difficulties
are
quicker.
like India, the effects are lasting,
power of relatively more But in
a
poor
and the recovery
is
very slow. (vii)
Constructive institutions and measures,
famine conditions give
rise
to
measures, which are intended
famines and them.
The
to
Sometimes
constructive institutions and to
reduce
the
chances of
increase the capacity of people
to
withstand
Movement
in
Germany
Raiffeisen Cooperative
*Cannibalism is seen to have often occurred during famines, but it does not seem to have originated as a regular practice under absolute lack of food, (Southard, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol. v-vi, p.)
is
said to
have been organized
More recently
12 yrs. famines* the
land revenue policy, are said this perpetual
Measures
policies
system and the
be mainly the outcomes of
and periodic menace.
famines have
against
preventive, and
been
of
two types
The former imply
protective.
(ii)
and measures which aim
of famines,
irrigation
to
MEASURES AGAINST FAMINES,,
V,
(i)
famine
Cooperative Movement,
the
of railways, the
development
of
reforms of Chanakya caine after the
In India the
of 1848*
meet the needs
to
at
checking
all
:
those
the recurrence
such as development of irrigation and other
improvements leading to agricultural security, limiting population and other social and economic changes
agricultural
minimising the danger of famines. The latter imply those measures which are adopted to relieve the distress when
famine actually occurs, such as distribution
of food, provision
employment, remission and suspension of rent and revenue and provision of medical facilities, in short the measures
of
commonly
called the relief measures.
taken
Measures
by Ancient
Civilizations.
Wherever
famines have been frequent attempts of both the preventive and the protective type have usually been made to
fight
The usual measures were
against them.
water. ,is
The
storing of food as an
proved by the
stone storage
to
store food
rooms and under-ground
granaries found in Harappa and Mohinjodaro in the
Valley
Civilization, in
Lower Egypt
in the prehistoric remains of
amongst, the
the
and
insurance against scarcity
in
Indus
Badarian Culture and
Swiss Lakeland, and also
savage societies, such as the Maori in
New
Zealand, the Hopi and Moqui in America,
Examples
of
famine prevention schemes are the canal
irrigation system
of
Sumer
(3000 B. C.), the earials heading
177
(
)
in the
Euphrates and draining into the Tigris during Babylonian supremacy, the flood prevention dikes on the Hwang
Ho
(2000 B.
the
C,),
irrigation
works
of the Incas, irrigated
terraces of Phoenicia, from which the Greeks are said to have
acquired the knowledge of irrigation, presence of tanks in South India, the remains of terraces around Carmel irrigated
and Gilboa in Palestine, and the irrigation systems
of
some
primitive cultures, such as those of Arizona Pueblos.
Measures under the Native Rule.
Some
accounts
of
the
relief seem give an impression that under native rule no adequate and proper measures were ever taken to fight against famines; and
famine policy and
of
development
hence very often a wrong impression prevails that no eSort was made towards famine control and relief by the native
and
rulers,
Crown Rule
it
is
only after the
that a systematic
Sleeman complains
up.
India in regard to
against
historical facts
failure of
rain,
And
funds
and associations.*
innumerable examples type
of
grew
about the days of
both
of
constructed
as
a
during famines poor
houses were started and maintained, relief
relief
ignorance which prevailed in the economic aspect of famine. This can
Canals and wells were
Chandragupta. safety
lamine policy and
ot the
be disproved by
easily
country passed under the
There were famine
Besides hibtory provides preventive and protective
measures being taken during the Hindu and the
Muslim periods
specially
Tughulak, Akbar, and Shah Jahan.
examples are
Jumna Canal
and the canal system
Muhammad quite common
during the days ot
of the
The two
inherited from the
Mughal times
Cavery Delta coming down from
remote antiquity. It is
said that 'under Native
*The
24
rule there
Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.
was
Ill, p, 478,
little
thought
and no
for,
a large relief
made
means of remedial
effective
work was
the
The people country was desolfcte
revenue was not collected.
Conditions scarcely
most
and so broke down where
wandered and died the
were
But primitive
and roadless cotmtry
transport could not enter fodderless
and
Occasionally
started and spasmodic atten&pts
to famine-stricken areas,
send food
to
action.
in thousands,
required.
Company, but by The moderndegrees a scheme of systematic relief grew up. view of the responsibility of the State was not reached, h6wchanged
in the early
days of the Bast India
Crown, 11
ever, until India had passed under the
vein the Cambridge History
Muslim
the
in
period
that
'as
land-locked and populations were
regarded as hopeless.
largely
grains in central towns,
long
was made
Alms
remission
to
stem
of
revenue, digging of
But no attempt
and
ruin.' 2
But
overcoming a severe distress, to have fully stemmed
of the circumstances of these
nistration, not
ruin,
or
dial meant?,
famine
not to have
the tide of starvation
developed some
effective
reme-
or not to have formulated a systematic scheme
relief, in
unjustified.
the
modern sense
The nature
Europe lends support ,
was
days and the difficulties of the then admiblame any
view
of
Were
districts
giving, storage of food of
the full tide of starvation
in
and
as
isolated famine relief
were palliatives occasionally resorted.
wells,
In a similar
mentions about famines
of India
to
of
of the term, is
contemporary
wholly
measures
in
our contention that anything better,
theoretically pOttaiWe,
was hardly
practicable.
Under
r
fconditions to counteract a
famine or even
to mitigate
was beyond the power of man. This does not nothing better was at all possible, and the native
erially
that
rulers presented 1, 2.
supreme examples
History of Ancient India, Cambridge History of India, Vol. VI,
of
p,
famine policy and 296
179
(
relief.
policy
But
and
at the
relief
same time
)
the impression
that the
famine
began by the East India Company and was
systematized only after the country passed under the Crown, is
The
not correct,
that the
facts,
effects of
the measures
were
a by the native trifling, and the actual the was of food most conspicuous factor in famine deficiency rulers
take
little effort
control
was made by the native rulers towards famine
and
Moreland's view
relief. '
when he obvious,
But that does not prove that
cannot be denied.
situation,
says is
it
that
it
appears
least
at
balanced
inadequacy may be
their
not easy to suggest what
and
been done
though
more
is
more could have whether the
doubtful
and moat humane administration in the world could
best
have organized imports by sea tion.
It
sufficient to
would be unjust, therefore,
administration for failure to avert the
to
meet the
blame
calamity
the
situa-
Moghul
fthich in the
* circumstances of the time, must be regarded as inevitable*.
Measures during the the East India
Company
British Period,
During the days
matters did not improve
famines were dealt with such measures as the
ments and the
seems
to
district
officers
have been made
tamine prevention and
to
thought proper,
formulate a
relief,
at all,
local
No
ot
and
governattempt
general system of
though there are instances
of
grain by government, penalizing hoarding, storing on imports, prohibiting exports, opening giving bounties houses, advancing money for sinking wells, and opening poor
of
relief
works
to
provide employment during famine days. first opened in Madras in 1792 and from
Relief works were
;
1812 onwards the principle
was adopted, principle
In
of
non-interference with trade
1837 local government laid
that while the State
*Moreland, From Akbar
to
dow*
the
found work for the*able bodied,
Aurangzeb, pp,
21314,
180
(
the whole
first
all
asm
community must,
the helpless
)
times, look after
ordinary
The foreign government
and the infirm.
for the
time realized the obligation in Agra famine of 1838. But
these measures
continued
were very inadequate scarcity of food and famine resulted ;
to characterize the situation
;
heavy mortality. During Company's administration frequent wars devastated large tracts, and information in the in
form
of
vital
statistics,
agricultural
was trying
to establish its rule,
and
and other
statistics
economic conditions was not known.
The foreign power directors were more
the
particular about company's profits and were least interested in country's welfare.*
After the country passed under the efforts
were made
seems
so
to
have matured
understand as
to
after long
how has
into the details of
Crown Rule The
deal with famines.
famine
it
relief
duiing
During the famine of 1860
present policy
experience.
evolved
it
it
all
is
conscious
In
order to
necessary
to
go
the famines,
was declared
that
the
government would provide employment to the able bodied, and the helpless and the infirm should receive charitable relief
by voluntary agencies.
Gratuitous relief was provided
and the government by charitable public relief
works.
opened ten large
Able bodied men and women who could work
were organized
in gangs,
were housed
in
temporary sheds and were engaged on earth works on canals and roads, Poor houses were also opened in which some light work was
imposed on capable inmates, and the helpless persons were relieved in homes^ In all 330 lakhs units were relieved in British territory at
the cost of
Rs, 27 lakhs of
which Rs, 9
#The remarks of the Famine Commission of 1830 that upto the end the 18th century 'the position of the British India was not such as either o create any sense of general obligation to give relief, or to supply suffiit,' is just cient means of affording typical of the attitude of colonial jf
idmmistration.
(
181
)
The
lakhs were subscribed by the public. to
be less than that in 1837-38.
enquiry was made into
the
causes,
after this
For the
mortality is said
time a special
first
famine by Colonel Baird Smith
area and intensity of
famine.
the
He
submitted three reports in 1861, and emphasized two things (i)
famine was 'due not
difficulty of starving
to
want
of food
in
people
in
ples, specially in
the country but to
obtaining
Some
lived.
regard to gratuitous
of the
relief,
by him, but his report did not lead
and
food,
(ii)
the
greatly on the land
staying power of the people depended
system under which they
:
modern
princi-
were anticipated
any formulation of However, a new spirit about
general principles of relief.
to
famine policy came into being. The experience during Orissa famine was that defective estimates prove fatal, and that special difficulties crop up in
The maintenance
diflerent cases.
cultural statistics in Bengal,
of land
was considered
nications in Orissa
350 lakh units were relieved
records and agri-
and the development In
essential.
at a cost
of Rs,
of
comnw
two years
95 lakhs, 2/3 of
which were spent on import of grain* If the total loss of revenue is added to it, the total cost of Orissa famine comes to Rs. 1| crore to the
units were relieved
sion of revenue the
was
government
government.
In
Madras
at a cost of Rs, 12 lakhs, to the
spent
in
1866, 210
and the remis-
extent of Rs* 15 lakhs.
In
more than
on
one lakh
Bombay relief.
famine stirred public conscience. The of throwing most of the burden on the instead government, voluntary agencies, itself undertook the responsibility, and
Mortality during
this
borrowed considerable amount
to
finance additional canals
and railways. Now onwards the old doctrine that the helpless and the infirm were to be relieved by the public, was completely abandoned, but really speaking
1874
that the responsibility of
it
was not
till
the State for gratuitous relief
was
fully recognized* This time is said to be the turning point
in the history
famine
of
because the report of the
relief
committee presided over by
foundation of a definite famine pKcy, to
Campbell laid the
Sir Goerge .
The
reportis believed
have changed the outlook about famines, and the
ment began
govern-
assume greater responsibility in dealing with Campbell remarked that 'the idea rather prevailed
famines,
to
was a personal
Orissa failure
that the
And John Lawrence, who was
not occur again'.
blamed
General
failure,
which need Governor-
accepted the
himself, far having
facile
assurance of the Bengal government. In 1868 Lawrence declared in the council that his object
every life*. He created a Department of under Richard Strachey, and an enquiry was Irrigation conducted into the status of the peasantry of Oudh and
was
'to
save
subsequently with a view
an Act was passed* declared that
to
securing them customary rights
Rajputana famine it was would be held personally
In the case of
'the district officers
1
responsible that no
preventable deaths occurred but inspite
of
was. great.
it
the
mortality
Able bodied persons were
employed on relief works. In British territory Rs. 49 lakhs were spent on relief and Rs. 7 lakhs on gratuitous relief.
Revenue was remitted
tq the
extent of Rs, 5 lakhs., In the
Province of Agra alone 290 lakh units were relieved cost of
Rs. 30 lakhs.
swarmed
severely strained in relif
But [migration from native
the relief works, broke
public charity.
was made
in
down
a
states
system and
However, a new departure
advancing
cultivators for agricultural
all relief
at
about
Rs. 21 lakh
to
improvements*
In the case of Bihar famine, the terrible mortality of Orissa
and Rajputana being still fresh in the minds of the people, Lord North .Brook was determined not to allow the same fatal
results
tp
be repeated,
Hence
relief
measures were
ifc
(
fanned on an unknown works were
relief
About 40,000
scale.
started.
It
districts
said that
is
population of the famine affected
some
sq. mlfes
were considered distressed
170 lakhs of people
area
26%
for
witji
which
of the total
was relieved, and
in
percentage increased to 50 or even 70, About 30
were relieved at a cost of Rs, 6J crores. Gratuitous was given on a very liberal scale, Export of grain from some areas (specially rice from Bengal) was prohibited, crore units relief
and when the private trade was
own
its
it
failing
imported grain on
account (4'8 lakh tons of rice from Burma).
The
was ample, timely, quite successful, but is said to be extravagant* There was no financial consideration but life relief
was
to
be saved
incurred on tional
'a
at all costs.
An enormous expenditure was
famine
ot unusual brevity and of no excepBut a definite improvement was made in
security*.
famine administration, and for the
first
time a serious crop
failure did not result in any conspicuous mortality. first
time
village
made which In the
still
inspection (for administering relief)
serves as the basis of
case of the
Government
For the
modern
was
organization,
South India famine of 1876-78 the
insisted
upon imposing proper tests, since they acquired an experience from huge expenditure in Bihar famine, For the able bodied relief woiks were promptly opened, and gratuitous relief was also well organized. Dn the whole
relief
was
strict this
time.
But
Prices were high
and private trade was not equal to the demand. The cost of relief in Madras was Rs, 10 mil. and in Bombay 4 mil, though iiuman lives were saved in Bombay to a larger extent than
where the charitable contribution from Britisk
in Madras,
Colonies was
78,000. In
were relieved
at a cost of Rs* 72 lakh,
was Rs, 60 cost
of
lakhs.
Hydrabad and Mysore 7*2 crore uoits and revenue remission
In all
Rs. 8J crores,
A
70 (yore pni^ were 4 relayed; at * Commission was appointed under
184
(
)
the chairmanship of Sir Richard Strachey which reported in
1880.
They
check the growth of
to
resting as
common
the
does in India upon the moral obligation of mutual
it
assistance,
and self-reliance amongst the structure of the society, which
thrift
or to impair
people,
the duty of the State to offer
held that relief should be so administered as not
relief but
a
fully recognized
is
admirably adopted for
The
misfortune,
common
of saving
object
effort against life
would be
far better secured if proper care is taken to prevent the abuse and demoralization which resulted from ill-directed
and excessive
of
distribution
charitable
In
relief.
this
spirit provisional famine code was formed and promulgated It formed a guide 1883. in and a basis for various
famine
provincial
codes subsequently
were tested and revised
Commission collection
of
insisted facts
between
upon
1880 and
need
the
relating to the
which
prepared,
of
1896,
proper
The
statistical
conditions of agricultural
community, and in circulating the code the Government laid down that fundamental principle of famine wage 'the lowest :
amount
sufficient
The main
tances.'
the
principles of
Commission were (i)
of
maintain health under given circums-
to
famine
Employment should be provided on
permanent
utility
to
to
the
able
the relief
bodied persons,
works before
impaired by privation, on a wage on the conditions of performing a support,
physical efficiency sufficient
down by
relief laid
:
is
suitable task* (ii)
Gratuitous relief should be given either in their
villages in the form of grain or
the form of cooked It
food,
to
money, or
those
who
in poor
houses in
are unable to work.
required very careful and organized control. Food supply should be managed by private agencies (til)
bat
if
the
latter
were unequal
to the task
it
should
;
be done
(
185
)
> r
by the
state
;
and
if
necessary, export of grain should be
prohibited. (iv)
Land owners should
be given loans
for
seeds,
grain and bullocks, and to open works for providing employ-
ment
to
labourers and tenants, and land
and rents should be suspended
revenue payment
in proportion to
the
crop
failure.
During excessive drought
(v)
ded
(vi) to
should be provi-
facilities
for the migration of cattle to forest areas.
its
Cost of relief should be so localized as to bring
administrators a sense of
home
personal responsibility for
expenditure. In the case of 1896-97 the
the
government took advantage of recommendations of the Famine Commission of 1880,
and hence though the number supported on large, the actual conduct of relief was much reduced cost*
and
in C. P, difficulties
total cost
was
Rs.
relief
were rather great
Rs, 1| crores of
was given to 4 mil, people, and Loans were given to the
7| crores,
extent of Rs, 1J crores, and
extent of Rs. 1J crores. to
was very and at a
reluctance of wild tribes to accept relief on ordi-
nary terms, At one time the
better
Administration of relief was not on the same
basis everywhere,
because of
relief
revenue
Charitable
was remitted relief
to
the
fund amounted
which 1J crores came from U. K, alone.
*Jn 1818 the system of Famine Relief and Insurance fund was introduced with the object of providing, through a special tax, as far as possible annual surplus of Rs. 1 croie for famine relief. The original policy was to spent it first on relief and the lemaming amount on reduction and In the next budget the policy was changed by avoidance of debt accepting the view that a large part of it might better be applied to 'famine protective' as distinguished from 'productive public work', and later on railways and irrigation works 'fcegan to be constructed out of it Under the Government of India Act, 1919 a provision was made for setting up Famine Relief and insurance funds by Provincial Governments by earmarking revenue annually for it, and it was invested with the Central Government,
25
186
(
The experiences
of
)
examined by
were
famine
this
James Lyall Commission, which reported observed that owing to high prices there was in value of land,
and
tration
In broad principles of relief adminis-
adopted the
they
They
a rise in income,
and thus the resistance against
in credit,
famine was increased.
in 1899.
Sir
recommendations
of the
Commi-
some changes
ssion of 1880, but
in details
including more
wage and greater gratuitous relief further recommended relief for special
during rains, and
management
charitable
the
of
extension of decentralized their
relief
relief
recommendation was
more
avoid
to
tribes,
gradual
all risk
and
to
effect
make
liberal,
at
degree
There was
persons resorting
any previous time.
In
suspended.
ol relief
laxity in
July
1900,
areas in British India were on In
relief.
of
to
Lord
population had come operations, which were
that 1/4 of the entire
to a greater or lesser
were on
hill
and
The general
work,
number
famine works was largest than
Curzon estimated
freely
fund
relief
attractive,
During 1899-1900 the
very
suggested
weavers, relief for aboriginals and
cases like
of
they
liberal
cost of Rs. 10 crores,
all
and revenue was
tests
18%
in
and
famine stricken
one time 6J mil. releif, 114 crore units were relieved at a
and the
total
cost
at
was Rs. 15
crores.
In order to improve the administration in States as in British
India the relief
Government gave
amounted
U. K. alone.
to
When
Rs.
them 3
crores.
Charitable
140 lakhs of which 88J came from
was over people did not high wages there, and secondly
the famine
leave relief works due
to
because after two successive famines they were not sure that the good season has really set in. The conditions were
examined by
Sir
Antony MacDonnell
Commission, which
reported in 1901. They thought that taking the famine period as a
whole
relief
was excessive, and hence suggested some
187
(
modifications,
was
tions
The cardinal
)
recommenda-
feature of their
'moral strategy* or 'putting heart into people.
Believing that
if
people were assisted
in the
beginning they
would help themselves and if their condition was allowed deteriorate it would proceed on, they emphasized a policy 'prudent boldness
7
starting
and revenue, prompt and the
for
wells,
They
further
sioner
loans
and sinking of temporary :
enlisting of non-official
appointment of a famine commis-
;
province where
a
in
cattle
recommended
assistance on a lage scale
to of
with early suspension of rent
liberal distribution of takavi
purchase of seeds,
1
relief
was
extensive
strict
;
regulations of relief in certain respects; preference to village
works
in particular circumstances in comparison to large works which had hitherto been the backbone of relief public schemes dealing with fodder problem to save cattle; consi;
derable increase in rolling stock on
banks of 'Raiffeisen' type
work
to
be pushed on
;
to
and
be
railways
established
methods
of
;
agricultural
;
state
irrigation
agriculture
be
to
improved. In
1907-8 the
policy
of
prompt assistance by extremely paration, sowing, and irrigation was given remission and suspension of revenue liberal
;
distributed started.
in areas
Out
other
than
where
of 13 districts declared as
works were started
in 11,
districts to
at
persons
and gratuitous
their
was followed
moral strategy
homes.
advances for ;
there
and relief
pre-
was large relief was
works were
famine stricken, relief
T
was given
test
in
26
About 3 lakh persons
Io 1900 The Indian Peoples Famine Trust was created with the. initial donation of Rs, 16 lakhs by Maharaja of Jaipur, The fund was invested in government securities to be held in trust It increased to 30 lakhs by private donations, and further increased in 1934 by transfering a fund of the U, P. Government, Income from this investment was to be spent on relief due In the Act of 1935, no provision was made for a to famines and floods,
separate relief fund, but the provincial governments instituted new famine funds which remained invested in securities of the Central
relief
Government,
188
(
received different kinds of
employed on
and 1J lakh workers were The total cost of relief was abouc
relief,
relief works,
The
Rg. 2{ crores.
)
character of relief was changed
because
changed circumstances which were mainly expansion and railways high prices rise in wages; increased employment on public works, industrial and building opera-
of
:
in canals
tions
;
;
colonies
to
emigration
;
and
;
lesser
dependence
of
labouring classes on agriculture. In 1918 relief measures were
6 lakhs.
The manner
showed an increased prices caused
much
The system its
of
in
taken under the Famine
maximum number
codes but at any time the
which the
resistance
crisis
on
relief
was
was surmounted
amongst masses, though high
silent suffering,
famine
relief
is
gradually settling down, more questioned, and the diversity being minimized in each successive
basic principles are no is
in actual
practice
famine.
But the difficulty
The
reluctance of those
the eagerness of those
of
who
accustomed
are said to remain perplexing in the
past.
government
famine
to
to officers
But the system of
efficient, elastic
relief is inherent.
are unaccustomed to relief, and
and adaptable,
relief
seek
to
is
relief,
have been
as they
becoming
more
The most common horror
of famine (absolute dearth of food)
is
now unknown because
railways have revolutionized relief, and private trade pours food where required, Since the administration is freed from the basic necessity of finding food,
and
is
supported by agri-
cultural intelligence and other social conditions,
able to solve other difficulties elasticity of the
system
is
more
it
has been
successfully,
increased because the
test
The works 1
Test work is an ordinary work employing unskilled labour usually The conditions are strict but not unduly repellent The object the people really need relief, being to ascertain whether J.
earth-work
(
and
189
works 1 are organized with
relief
feelings of the people,
and
:heir villages
People unable
special treatment is
Habitual beggars are
poor,
)
poor houses,
2
in
An
separately cared for.
worked
hill tribes is
on ordinary
to
government
funds
to
surely thii.k hlunii- rs
enlisted
;
in their
own
and every
relief,
being confined
ih.it tht
have
lor
day trVrr
pi'liry, a
mature and
less will
it
a
and
broad,
The
ties*
the
is
provi-
private
'We may
experiments ami co^tlv
of isolated
Out
passed.
trades,
failures
of
ami
deliberate of
effective plan
and
dis-
wMI-tested
campaign.
Nonethe-
always be essential that sirh rorapaigns di u'd
be conducted by
devohd and
equal not only
to
tfficient
the ordinary
bat to those extra tasks which are
VI,
to
which the whole world subscribes. 1
are
effort
softened and supplemented by
is
appointments has come,
men
now helped
and advice are
sion of necessaries, relief
forest
prevent the loosening of moral and social
strictness o(
cannot
children for
in
and artisans, who formerly suffered
relief works, are
Non-official aid
nude
out,
scheme
in
children
mothers
deserted
elaborate
the
and fed
treated,
whose
nurse them are given milk, and
to
respectable
clothed
specially
infants
kitchens,
made with the
sheltered,
weak persons are
are being fed
due regard
work are relieved
to
puHtc setvicts, by
ta
administration
ot
grave erne P
imposed by
PLAN OF MODERN FAMINE COMPAIJX,
The plan
of
modern lamiue coinpaign
scheme, and a complete machinery
for
is
an
relief
elaborate
exists.
It
i*
Relief work is a public uork on which during emergency employprovided to a large number for comparatively longer time on a wage sufficient to maintain health under normal circumstances, 1
ment
is
A poor house is a temporary structure run up ia a few day, where 2, paupers are shettered and given cooked food under conditions of decency and discipline t
The Cambridge
History of India. Voj VI,
p.
313,
190
(
)
modern Indian
rightly said that 'inspite of inevitable defects a
famine compaign in history of
one of the most remarkable achievements
is
made on
oreparations are suitable relief
Country ready.
into
relief
mapped The Government
and programmes in
every
and plans
circles,
of
district.
are
kept
kept informed of the meteorolo-
is
and
conditions, crop conditions, prices
gical
times standing
In ordinary
a large scale,
works are revised annually
is
steps
:
Standing preparations.
(i)
The various
administration/*
scientific,
in the plan are as follows
birth
and death
rates, etc.
A
Danger Signals.
(ii)
danger
signals of
watch
regular
approaching distress,
orobable failure of rain
is
When
made,
is
and
kept on the
a forecast of the fails
rain actually
preliminary enquiries are started.
As
Preliminary action.
(iii)
Government declares
the
necessary
financial
its
uneasiness intensifies
the
makes
general policy and
Great
arrangements,
the is
importance
attached at this stage to 'moral strategy'. Meetings are held, policy
aged
is
to
explained
non-official
;
undertake local improvements
committees are appointed
to
require gratuitous
dence
to people,
money
who
relief
lists of
are
view
paupers
is
suspend
found
to
persons
This gives
who confi-
are further given liberal advances
for agricultural purposes
to
employ labour;
helpless
made.
rent
of
and sinking wells, Detailed
enquiries about crop failures are also a
to
encour-
organize private charity, villages
are inspected and preliminary
may
enlisted and
is
help
made
and revenue,
at this
If
the
stage with
number
of
be great poor houses are opened where
infirm are given gratuitous relief. (iv)
Period of test.
employment, *
This
is
Test works are started for providing
an anxious stage, since
Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. Ill,
p.
479
if
the tests are
191
(
Government
lenient the
and
if
they are
The condition
put to unnecessary expenditure,
is
too strict
)
the situation
not be grasped.
may
who seek employment on test works the condition of those who stay in and closely watched, villages is also inspected, The death-rate is also scrutinized, those
of
is
(v)
village
Period of general
inspection disclose real to the
opened according
increased,
gratuitous
gratuitous
relief
are
revised,
relief
to
works are
given in the
code, and
Lists of persons entitled
and the
distribution
By about the end of December in number on relief is generally large and
increase
and the ripening
till
of
March. The reaping
rabi harvest
of
mango crop draw workers from
works, but they return mostly by the end of April, the
distress is
said
to
generally breaks out, all
of
begins.
the famine year the
continues
works or
the test
distress, relief
principles
is
village inspection staff to
When
relief.
reach
its
maximum and
But the medical help
is
relief
In
May
cholera
kept ready
the time. (vi)
Rains policy (the beginning of
beginning of rains the policy changes. country and the people
With
the
In the interest of
the
the
end).
considered important that the
agri-
cultural conditions should be restored as early as possible,
and
as large area should be
it is
sown
as possible.
are generally closed and people are to
small works near their villages
gratuitous relief is
extended, and
to agriculturists for
Hence
moved from
at the
liberal
relief
end of May.
Local
advances are made
buying agricultural equipment.
as rains break out relief workers return
works
large works
As
to their fields,
soon those
who stay on are encouraged to return to villages when the demand for labour springs, A few relief works are kept open in case of need, and those who cannot work and require relief
are given
it
gratuitously.
support themselves and the
weak
The
able
bodied are
to
are supported by the State.
(vii)
Closure o/
relief.
khartf crops ripens, the
When
closed gradually, gratuitous relief recipients are
September quantities.
and
a
the earliest of the principal
few remaining is
relief
works are
discontinued, and dole.
And
given valedictory October quinine is distributed
the
during in larore
CHAPTER
VII
Resource Utilization (Land Resources)
I.
RESOURCE ASSESSMENT.
Resource Concept.
Natural
defined as the environmental
Resources
aspects or
are
popularly
the materials
tad
forces bestowed by nature upon a region, and utilized by man in the satisfaction of wants*. To be objective they include all those things which are originally conserved by nature in the form of a fund or a of perennial flow in all the
spheres
the physical environment,
viz.,
atmosphere
(ga$),
hydrosphere
(water), lithosphere (upper crust] of earth
and
phere (inner strata of the earth which
is
biosphere (organic objects).
in short, all natural
things which
lie
pulated for his welfare. they signify serve
They imply,
within the reach of
When
all the free gifts of
some human purpose.
rock), centres-
accessible)
man and
and
can be mani-
interpreted in a
wider sense
nature which spontaneously As such they mean all the
original elements and untransformed objects of nature, like
sun-shine, air, water, soil, plant and animal life
substances,
all
forces,
conditions,
spheres,
etc.,
including
relationships
and other aspects constituting or emanating from the environment. In a narrow sense they include only those materials effort
*Those aspects of the environment which are and are harmful to it, and even those which
to
human
man's
efforts
resistant affect
neither favourably nor unfavourably, are riot included in natural resources. The frozen summits of the Himalayas, the schorching depressions of the Sahara, the impregnable forests of the Congo Basin, 4he unconquerable stretches of the Antarctica and the arid uplands of Pamir are mostly inaccessible to modern man, because the environment is resistant to sustained The ocean currents, river floods and storms, in the absence of effort, full
utilization
proye harmful, and instead of
deplete them and
26
hamper
their utilization.
201
supplementing resources
202
(
and
forces which have been actually transformed
which are the
effects of
available and useful
human,
environment, while
in
i, e,,
effort,
by man or
which are made
some basic and
for satisfying
In the former case they
wants. the
)
specific
coincide more or less with
the
latter they
represent only
those forms which are interpreted as wealth by economists*,
seems
But neither of these interpretations
because both of them
be appropriate
to
explain the true implications of
fail to
the concept of natural resources,
In order to understand
the
nature and scope of natural
resources one thing has to be taken for granted that the earth is
the
home
of
man.
is a grand stage upon 1
of its social history.
resources though
it
The underlying idea is 'that the earth which mankind is playing the drama In a man-less universe
of materials and forces. true perspective
The
are no variety
of natural resources in its
concept,
man and
the
quality
of natural
we
man on
relative
to
take into account
environmental aspect on the one
his ability to manipulate
original concept of natural
physico-environmental
is
therefore,
can be understood only when
the physical environment or the
knd
there
a multitudinous
develops with the emergence of
the relationship of both the
hind and
full of
The idea
The resource
the earth.
man and
be
may
factors
resources
is
geographical
on the other.
embodied milieu,
in
The
which determine the volume
resources are
:
locational (situation,
a distinction between natural resources and economic resources. The former is a wider concept than the latter, The points of elements of nature (a) Natural resources are original 'distinctions are wbije the economic resources are mere derivations, fb) The former present the basic materials and forces which can be put to multiple uses according to intention, while the latter are used for specific purposes for which they are produced, (c) Natural resources are the initial potential indicating the a people to act or to produce effect, while the economic capacity of .resources are the effect of potency, indicating mobilized resources for satis-
*There
is
:
an esteem-value, while the fying specific wants, and (d) The former have have both esteem and exchange value, (This contrast is really one of degree, because natural things which are scarce and esteemed will be considered as economic goods even if they do not come to the market,)
'latter
203
(
shape, size, distance,
isolation
graphical (structure,
relief, soil,
)
and proximity,
ett.),
climatic (composition of atmosphere, pressure,
etc.),
ture, rainfall,
physio-
minerals, &nd water forms,
tempera-
humidity, winds, variability and other aspects),,
and animals) and social 1 (man and his works), combination or a combined influence of these factors-
biological (plants
A
determines the resource pattern and the mode of
On
people in a given area.
from the view point imply the appraisal availability
of,
and
man, naturalresources
environment in relation
of
it,
the
when ionsidered
environment as useful
of
the ability to manipulate
ment
the other hand,
in relation to
life of
to
to
man,
th$,
human wants and
and the functioning of the environThe former analysis repre-
in the satisfaction of wants.
sents the natural resources in their objective
form while the
consideration imparts them a purely subjective character.
latter
But one thing has to be noted, Many aspects of the environment which are lying dormant and are of little use today may be used later on after the advancement of civilization and the
improvement
Therefore,
resources are of the
in
manipulation find fresh uses for them.
resource assessment at
in
to
human wants and
the degree
resources vary with the changes in ability to utilize
different
social
present
be included which are useful
them. 2
of
to
only those
man in view
utilization,
Besides,
human wants and
in the
Their values are also different for
Resource
groups.
appraisal,
in relation to specific time,
meaningful only and resource concept has
to
be limited
to a
therefore,
is
region and people;
givep time, a well-
Man is treated as a geographical factor, and the social factor, being1, included here should not be treated as a confusion of thought, Man constitutes a part and parcel of natural resources and is an active agent of his environment. In the study of the relationship of the geographical environ.ment and man their 'mutually determining character and unity should not '>
be averlooked, 2,
fined
The
traditional view
as natural necources)
(relatively greater
in
Economics
as a limited
is
to treat
de-
and that characteristic distinguishes it from other
factor,
degree of being limited)
land (broadly
(
204
)
defined area and a specific social group, In the final analysis it is the concept of the functional
Relativity, or
sources in relation to volume
interpretation
and
Resource
of natural
quality and
re-
also space
and time, that gives a clue to the growth of civilization and economic progress. This functional interpretation of natural resources becomes clear when the mutability of natural
phenomena
is
considered.
Nature
is
said
to
be in a
process of 'self-movement/ hence everything is in a state of constant flux, though apparently there seem to be at
one moment a process of
and
the next
in
of
This explains the constantly changing char*
passing away. acter of
stabilization
natural resources which
weave
themselves into
fresh and diverse patterns.*
considered
phenomena.
as
living
There
environmental
is,
change
They should, therefore, be and active embodiment of natural however, and
one thing
consequently
The
to note.
the
change
The resource concept as defined above factors of production The cultural apparatus by finding fresh uses, stant flux,
is
in
of con-
by giving new meanings to nature and by multiplying contacts between man and his environment, enlarges the significance of nature both in space and time. human wants, advancement in the Multiplicity of cooperative social life, inventions and innovations increasing the technique of resource manipulation, in short, every thing which leads to a greater control over nature, revises the criteria of resource assessment thus enlarges the aggregate of resources,
and
utilization,
and
Secondly, the functional interpretation of natural resources which emphasises man's active participation in the detrmination of resources docs not overlook man's dependence on nature, The significance of nature in human life and social progress is as important in the modern society when man has accumulated a multitudinous variety of tools and apparatus for manipulating his environment, as it was in a primitive society whn man faced the nature empty handed and without any artificial aid. Fundamentally even today human life is dependent on natural resources as it was in the beginning of The ability of man history. to free himself from nature is iimited and the modern interpretation of control or mastery over nature is obeying nature,
^Changes in natural resources as a result o{ the 'self-movement of nature, involvt both quantitative and qualitative re-arrangement As a result of it the old resource of substances and forces, patterns and ones new In this succession which takes emerge, disappear, place
205
(
resource potential
movement, gories and
progressive flow and
natural
emerge in to
relation
useful in
a
means what
It
but the
again,
is
)
a cyclical
not
gone before does not come
is
phenomena reappear in new catefresh pattern, more adaptable and time and space.
This implies that
movement of natural resources is a dynamic system, and any specific functional position refering to any time and placeis a dynamic equilibrium, establishing a cumulative process of balancing patterns in the same resource
the
system as between two slices
ment
of resources
as the time,
starting
What
time.
brium
is
With
the
it
place
gives
tions',
and a
fresh equilibrium
remember
to
help of this progressive
the
i.e.,
destroyed in
being
not a static condition
given demands i t a,,
to
The gradual develop-
one equilibrium, which serves
at
worth while
is
possible to
is
begins
point,
of time.
the the
in
next
next
is that this equili-
but a progressive element,
view
measure not only
of natural
the 'fixed
resources
resource situa*
resource assessment in the satisfaction of
at a
given time, but also the resource potential,
the degree of resource expansion in successive times.
In these characteristics of change and
natural resources inherent, and
dence
another
fundamental
that is the interconnection
of different resource patterns.
development characteristic
of is
and mutual depen-
Since each pattern
conditioned by surrounding phenomena, there
is
is
an insepa-
and no resource pattern can be treated in The mutual or reciprocal conditioning of different
rable connection, isolation.
resource patterns maintains a balance, and in the utilization of different resource patterns (power, vegetable,
animal and
a wave-process there is a gradual transition in which not only one quantity changes into another but also a quantity into quality and the vice versa, Secondly, the environmental change is not a cyclical movement (i e,, what is gone shall come again), but a progressive flow (rein
appearance the
same
of
natural
pattern),
phenomena
in
rje>y
categories
never twice
in
206
(
mineral resources,
region must be considered as an
a clue
to the basic policy of
resource system of a
whole
the
etc,)
)
entity and a
unity. This gives
manner
resource utilization in a
which maintains a balance between one resource pattern and another on the one hand, and between one resource pattern and the rest of the resource system on the other,
Each resource pattern its
comprising
environment of
of
root
related
the
these actions and reactions,
other
to
Resource
and likewise
act mutually,
The
nature.
is
environment.
patterns
patterns and
react to other forces
resource development lies in
Though
the
life-spring
of
any particular resource lies in that resource
change in
the direction of the
change
is
the
the
itself,
determined by the predomi-
nant characters of the environing resource patterns, and the
speed
determined by the degree of impact of the surround-
is
understood
natural
ing natural phenomena.
Correctly
resources represent merely
an ecological complex,
and
adjustment
harmonious blending organic
to the
progressive phenomena,
a
establishing
time.
same
cumulative
the other.
To be
representing
precise
a functional
of
process
balancing patterns
resource system as between different periods of
The concept
is
social group, but there ability of
a
the
which may be termed as a dynamic equilibrium
character,
in the
e (1
resource patterns on the one hand,
and the surrounding phenomena on they are
of
inorganic resources, and of the whole resource
to its constituent
system
reciprocal
i,
man
to
limited to is
a
specific
time,
area and
a constant change in relation to the
manipulate them.
It is
this
upon
concept
that economic development should be planned,*
*For a detailed study reference may be made to Blache Principles Charles Adams Revolution in Land, 1939 Geography, 1 926 The Conservation of Our Natural Resources, 1930 Hise and Havemeyer World Resources and Industries. 1933 Zimraermann G, P, March :
:
of
Human
;
:
;
:
;
:
;
IVfan
and
Nature,
Physical
;
Geography as Modified by IJuman Action,
207
(
Myth
the
of
Our
our Resources.
of
Bounty
)
resource
A
potentiality is often described in exaggerated terms,
has been prevalent that India
and
resources,
the
cause
ol
is
richly
phrase that 'India
a rich
is
when we
The natuial resources
of the physical
environment
also in relation to space in
and
social engineering.
of this false philosophy of plenty or inexhaustibility
of resources will be clear (a)
1
our future possibilities,
of
affects the policies of land-use
The myth
expressed in the
nhabited by the poor,
country
This brings out an exaggerated view
and also
often
is
natural
the fact that
poverty lies in
untapped, This situation
they are
endowed with
view
terms of the degree
and
consider the following
are
not
(both in
mere material
:
fixtures
quantum and kind, and
time), but they are also measured
of applied effort in resource utilization
ability of the people to manipulate the depending upon resourcesResource strength is, thereiore, determined by resource natural and in the potential and the human effort
the
;
resource assessment the tivity is
latter is
synomymous with In
progress
view of our
ability,
more important. Producand ability with cultural
social
factors
quality
and the
ability of the people to mobilize resources, and the possibilities of their
for
expansion
any bright hope.
in the
near future,
People,
in
is
no ground
general, have
relatively
there
limited technical traditions, and their accumulated experience in art, science
productive
and cultural apparatus as exhibited by
activities
their
(being confined mostly to the primary
Parkins and Whitaker Our Natural Resouices and their conservaN, R, C Regional Factors in National Planning and Bowmafc Geography in Relation to Social Sciences, Development, 1935 The 1934, Barrows Geography as Human Ecology, 1923 Huntmgton
1864, tion,
1936
.
,
:
;
Human
Climate and Civilization, 1944
R. K. Mukerjee The Regional Balance of Man, 1938, Regional Sociology, 1943, Man and Culture and the People, 1945 His Habitation, 1940 Gorkey Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Pezler Population and Land Civilization, 1941 Ely and Wehrwem Land Economics, 1949 L, A Salter Land Economics, A M, Lorenzo Natural Resources and Human Adaptations, 1947, 1947. Habitat,
1927,
;
,
;
,
:
,
,
(
industries)
shows no signs
of technical
208
)
of rapid expansion.
and administrative
investment in money, material and time* Scientific
Man-Power Committee, 1949
inability to
provide
the necessary
The
clearly
(6)
in
know-how has
own
report
of the
explains the
The importing
limitations*
Natural resources per head showing our relative position
comparison
table
its
a huge
technical personnel even
after utilizing our training capacity to the full. of technical
The expansion
cadres requires
:
to
other countries are given
in the following
(estimates refer to the last few years before 1939),*
Industrialization and Trade, quoted by *A. J, Brown Federal Finance and Underdeveloped Economy, p, 32, 1952, :
Baljit
Singh,
299
(
(6)
In view of the
)
human needs Volume of produc-
range and variety of
resources carry different scales of value.
determined by the magnitude of demand* By far part of our population depending on primary production, the level of demand is low. At lower stages tion is
the major
economic growth
of
wants are simpler and
less
varied.
Secondly, in comparison to the people of temperate lands, people in
tropical countries
all
require comparatively
and cheaper and
clothing, smaller quantities of lighter foods,
simpler
shelters.
This keeps the
Besides a
permanently*
demand
temperament
is characteristic of tropical
less
a
at
lower level
of contentment
which
climate (region of bounty) weakens
the will to produce in comparison to the desire of successfully
meeting the wider range of wants characteristic climate (which is termed as a region of effort).
of
temperate
Besides, in view of the relationship between climate and
working capacity, a comparative idea
and vigour may strength, which
is
further
Index
*
Hunting ton
27
:
indicate
as follows* of
of the
our
index of health
relative
:
Health and Vigour.
Main Springs
of Civilizatioe, p. 254, 1945.
resource
2fo
(
As
(d)
)
matter of fact
a
all
known
the
categories
of
minerals are utilized for some purpose or the other, but what is more important is their occurence in certain workable
combinations in close proximitv (e.g., coal and iron, limestone, gypsium and clays, etc.). This determines the possibility of industrial growth.
These are weighty considerations specially in matters and population policy. An exaggerated view
of land policy
of resource potentialities
security
should not
and optimism regarding
remind us of our
the
future,
number
blind biological forces to determine the that full utilization of the
dormant resources
plenty, there is an urgent
need
but
it
should
instead of allowing the
And
limitations.
us in any sense of
lull
will
in the hope into
result
proportioning the popula-
of
tion to resource utilization.
Resource Classification. for resource classification.
while tracing the
by
man (i)
Several criteria can be adopted
From
a
historical
patterns as
resource
successive
point of view,
used
in the process of evolution, there are three categories
Vegetable materials, which the primitive
:
man used
first.
(ft)
(Hi)
Animals, which he
made
use of after using the
Minerals, which man used
From
a sociological point of view,
sical forces
from human
focus,
Food
i*.
* .. evaluating the phy-
j
I
Metallic.
Power
:
rim ry fo ds ? ? , A Supplementary foods.
Non-metallic. (Organic. III.
made '
stufis*
and
and keeping in view the
basic products, the following classes are I,
first,
later on.
211
(
From
a
and not
them, and keeping
in
i.
standpoint,
geographical
original elements
)
mind
e,,
considering the
basic products'derivcd irom
the
resources are ciassi
che sources,
fied as tollowe*: I,
Classes of
Land
utilizing the Earth's surface,
Agricultural Land.
1.
Cultivated Land, Pastures.
Woodlots.
1
And
(&)
Irrigable.
Area.
Non-irrigable,
Forested.
I
Forest Land.
2,
j
Cut-over
\
i
I
Grazing.
Dry farming
D <*ert.
3.
Environment and Recreational Lands.
4,
Site Purposes
^
r>
Urban.
(
Non urban .
.
Riparian*
Usufructary uses
Water power. Fishing.
II,
Water Resources,
Navigation Irrigation
Proprietary uses
Domestic, and
Urban in
HI.
IV.
-
-
.
i
bul)-surl.ce appropriation,
\
Minerals.
j
Land beneath
uses.
water.
Super-suiiace uses. Aeroplane, radio, air rights II.
Land
L^ND-USE PATTERN. The
Classification.
according
to the
etr.
latest
total
area of the
Indian Union
estimates of the Surveyor General
is
8,10,809 thousand
acres.
Data on land utilization are not
the
entire
geographical
available
for
States do not collect statistics
there are
pockets which
the States
where such
of
are
since
land utilization,
left
statistics
area
out
are
of
all
the
and further
account even in In
collected.
1947-48
'These broad classes are used by Hise and Havemeyer The Conserva Our Natural Resources, 1930 quoted by Ely and Wehrwein Land Economics, p. 49, 1949 .
lion of
,
2)2 figures of land classification acres, t*i, for
72%
of
were available for 5)83 ,682 thousand
use pattern of the Indian Union
EXISTING LAND-USE
(AVERAGE
The
the total area. is
existing land-
as follows 1
:
PATTERN
Of 3YBS
FOQfSTS
AQEA NOT AVAILABLE POP CULTIVATION
(
16
4
OTHER UNCULTIVAI&DLANO EXCLUDING CUQQEN1
fAUOw
CUPPENT FALLOW
005%) 1. From an unpublished Govt. Report. Most of the unclassified area appears to be unsuitable for cultivation because of being hilly or mountainous, or desert or arid and is mostly situated in part B and C
States
and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Includes 986 thousand acres for which details of land classification are not available. 2.
(
Land
213
)
Classification in different States
formed on the basis
of post-Independence administrative set-up is as follows
(Thousand acres.
194849)
:
(
214
)
Tread in Land Classification. land classes
is
not
The area under
different
comparable between different
strictly
years because of the different areas covered in different Their relative importance, as indicated by the years. percentage of area under various land classes area, is
meaningful, and
There seems class.
to
is
to the total
given in the following table
:
be no significant variation in any land
It is
really surprising that in spite of the population pressure and the price incentive the net cultivated area has.
almost stablized around 242 mil. acr<
j
s or
about
42%
of the
primarily due to the difficulties of bringing fresh land under the plough and the defective land tenure
total.
This
is
system, (detailed In the
first
three classes
the most conspicuous
fallow land.
The
diagram and the
under agricultural extension). is almost no But change.
discussion
also there
feature
position
table,
is
is
the gradual
expressed
in
increase the
in the
following
'OQESTS
Increase in Fallow Land.
(
216
)
SOIL CONSERVATION.
III.
Virgin Land and Geological Erosion.
In a natural undis*
turbed environment the land with tangled canopy of dense vegetative cover
The
maintained in harmony and balance.
is
natural circulation of
wind and water goes on as a
ceaseless and uniform process, which is slow though complex, in
which the new
beneath as
from above. land
in
formed from the parent material
finished
is
is
by human
environment undisturbed
called
normal
and
erosion,
sometimes
is
norm of
referred to as geological erosion or geologic It
removed
ftopsoil) is
product
This represents the erosion characteristic of natural
its
This
hand.
soil is
fast as the
erosion.
a normal geological activity proceeding with the tedious-
ness of ages, abrading at one place and aggrading at another,
and thus forming and dressing the landscape. matter
of
fact,
process of
surface
planation
sculpturing of mountains, plains, valley coastal plains, aeolian deposits,
land
forms,
The
normal
fills,
erosion
soil distribution
from one place
to
as a
leading
to
and such other
a natural
is
is,
plateaus, deltas,
alluvial fans
process of rock- weathering* which helps in
and
It
complex formation
soil
another.
It
occurs
on the virgin land (natural undisturbed environment, where vegetation with litter,
its
canopy, stems, ground cover
with under-ground
network
of
with the absorptive stable character
bound
soil),
under the impact
of vegetative
binding roots together
normal
of
humous
of forces associated with the
natural soil environment (collective
influence
ol
vegetation,
micro-afganisms, climate and physical and chemical activities, etc.).
Normally the
those characteristics
soil is
so processed
which impart
it
a
marked
as to give
it
resistance to
^Technically speaking there is a difference between 'rock-weathering described above as normal erosion, and 'rock-erosion The latter 13 that phase of surface wearage having to da with the abrasion of consolidated 1
1
(
9*
)
surface removal,* and generally the transportation of surface soil
by water, wind and gravitational movement takes place
TOP SOIL (A HORIZON)
-
SAH&Y 10 AM
LESS HUMUS
X
44
O CLAY
D
SUBSOIL (B HORIZON) CLAY
STIFF
u SUBSTRATUM (C HORIZON) ROCK
CLAY
--0--SQPTCLAY
<j
........
SCUD ROCK
PROFILE OF A VER6IN SOIL rocks on which there is little or no soil. It is~a phase -of gedogie pro4ss, and man has no causative association with this type of activity ; it is ^acribed to the process of normal or geological erosion. ,Bt it'ig*nerilly refers to rock surfaces wbere vegetative cover probably >been very effective under existing climatic conditions. iTkis is the activity principal contributor to the development of rock j -bad lands,
*Wellow, granular, and spongelike, the topsoil absorbs rainfall, root holes and the burrowing 6f insects, earthwawns,
Hidden conduits
28
218
(
at
a
pace not more rapid than that
formed. the
)
Hence
effects
the
soil is
which new
at
soil is
maintained in a balance, and
are generally beneficial to plant growth, and
seldom harmful. Soil
'The vastly accelerated process of soil
Erosion.
removal brought about by human
normal equilibrium between is
designated as soil erosion.'*
This
accelerated erosion and sometimes the
protective
cover of
the land
is left
bare,
fire,
is
soil
is
the
removal
frequently called
When
abnormal erosion.
vegetation
(by plough, grazing, axe,
with
interference
building and
soil
removed
artificially
rodents, or such other causes),
and water and wind while moving
across the ground surface exert an abrasive force, removing the soil bodily
much
faster
than
Normally erosion proceeds on
it
is
bare
formed from beneath.
increases as the top layers in which the soil tive are successively
removed.
organic matter in combination
The
and
areas,
is
the
more absorp-
effect of the
spongelike with the activities of mico-
organisms feeding on this organic material make the the
top
layers
granular,
rate
absorptive
and
cohesive.
soil in
The
and other animals~perforatmg both surface and sub-surface layers carry water into the deep substrata and infiltration is further assisted by such structural openings as the soil pores, cracks, cleavages, or fractures that usually puncture the profiles of normally developed soil, Various constituents including important plant food elements are slowly removed in solution or transported to lower depths as the result of leaching induced by this Under natural conditions however, this internal circulation of water, removal of plant food elements are balanced, in part at least, by the upward movement of soluble constituents, derived from the 'raw* sub-layers through ;
Subsequently, the leaves and plant roots and stems, into leaves and twigs, twigs return to the earth as ground litter, and, finally through decay, are returned to the -soil. In addition to these physico-chemical activities, percolating water farther alters the soil profile, especially of the more stable, less sloping areas, by the slow physical transposition of fine soil In .time particles to lower depths (from the A into the B horizon), sub-layers thus increased in density may serve to quicken runoff by impedNevertheless, some degree of balance persists regardless ing infiltration. of these natural alterations through the soil profile and topsoil is developed ;
and maintained,
(H, H. Bennett. Soil Conservation, pp,
*H. H. Bennett
:
Soil Conservation, p. 94, 1939.
9394,
1939),
219
(
)
underlying layers which are deficient in organic matter are
more
These subsoils when exposed absorb water
erodible.
so slowly
that
heavy
in greater
the
results
in rapid runoff
erosion, since the runoS concentrates
volume and moves with mounting speed tearing with increasing abrasive effect as the
of the earth
body
precipitation
of
increasing the rate
gullies are cut deeper*
Typci and Forms of Erosion two active forces is
different
according
and to the
of
soil
Water and wind are
Their nature of action
erosion.
so also their
outward manifestation. Hence
agencies erosion can be said
types, which according
principal
the
to the
forms
to
be of two
may
further
be classified into several sub-divisions, Besides, the actual soil
removal
is
sometimes
a
gradual
process
which
in
is blown or washed away gradually in comparatively small quantities frooa one place, and sometimes it is a
soil
sadden mass movement, quantities
enblock.
classified
according
i.
in
In brief to the
which the
form
removed
in huge two broad types can be soil is
of erosion as fellows
Water Krosion,
Black storms, |
,,r. 1
1
Wind
^u (Sheet ^
.
erosion.
\
J
erosion). (
Brown storms, Loca , sma ,, dust Spirting dust clouds.
:
1.
Ertiion
wattr
fty
It
.
involves transportation of
soil
by
running; water (including rainfall, river, waves, waterfall and moving ice). It is conditioned by several factors, such
as slope, type or land-use
soil,
amount and
Land
practices, etc.
is
of rainfall,
intensity
and
more susceptible
to washing on sloping areas and where the surface is stripped of the protective cover of vegetation, It is a progressive process
intensified
by the degree of slope and the intensity
Erosion caused by rain water
Shut
When
erosion,
more or
moved
is of
a thin
of rainfall.
the following forms.
layer
of the
soil
is
re*
evenly from over the entire segment of the sloping land, it is termed as sheet erosion, Generally it changes the colour of the land, and leads to less
a progressive decline in the different
yield.
The
susceptibility of
lands to sheet washing depends on the character
the soil, topography and climate, Ordinarily it occurs wherever water flows across unprotected sloping areas, but
of
fragile
tent to
sandy
and
stiff
soils,
deficient
sheet washing.
conspicuous, but Rill erosion.
in
clays,
The
soils
with high
silt
organic matter are specially
Since its
and
effect
it
proceeds very slowly, is
it
con-
prone is
not
most insiduous,
runoff water instead of
flowing evenly over the sloping surface generally concentrates in stream'Bennett thinks that this line bends back, i, e,, the process bea very long period On the skeletonized abandoned gins to reverse after areas voluntary vegetation comes in and increases in density , Graduthough exceedingly slowly, the soil rebuilds, and on it vegetaally, tion progresses in the direction of the climax type, The grass cover re-established and eventually the forest returns in original form, is But this completion of the circle (eroded land, regenerated soil,
and
again the rich vegetative cover) takes very long, and the period has not so far beeti determined. There is, however, some evidence that under natural conditions toil builds back from the raw material of the substrata so slowly that not less than 300 to 1,000 years or even more maybe one inch of top-soil. If soil builds downwards from required to replace the surface, as it probably does, much longer time is required torebuild the second inch, and still longer to restore the third, and so on until 6 to 9 inches of normal topsoil-depth is thus recreated through efforts, nature's slow but persistent
A
Rills
sloping field
washed by
rain after being
ploughed,
formed in cultivated land along the Jamna after a heavy
rainfall.
Gullied land along the
A
steep cut showing depth of gullies along
the Chambal.
m
(
)
gathering volume and velocity, and generating cutting power. This catting action of water carves ool smalt bat
lets
well-defined incisions on
Till the
land surface.
the
aatt
channels so formed are not deep and eatt^ oWftetate* by ordinary methods of tillage and commonly used *gticul It it mote taral implements, they are termed as riHs. apparent than sheet erosion, but as often neglected in
respect of
damage
common where
with high
typical
is
precipitation
low absorptive capacity. on all areas where loose a
soils
equally serious.
is
it
silt
is
trenching
It
soil
content
intense
is
It
and
an<J
;
most
land has
occurs during heavy rains overlies dense
are
bat
subsoil,
more vulnerable.
straight-lined,
but
frequently
The
Ae
in*
cisons join in intricate criscross pattern,
When
Gully erosion.
concentrated runoff gathering
volume and velocity cuts deep where concentrated water continues
incisions or gullies,
cient
long enough, land
surface
is
suffi-
to cut the
or
same groove
made rugged by deep
gullies.
Gullies usually cannot be obliterated by normal tillage, and
land
is
rendered
unfit
for cultivation.
Usually
sheet erosion, or results from the neglected
begins in
depressed
slightly
lands
tills,
where
it
follows
but often
it
runoff water
normally concentrates*
Bank
erosion.
the banks,
It
is
considered under
It
implies widening of streams by cutting
a sort of mass movement, and should be soil slippage.
The
three forms of erosion caused by rainfall runoff are closaly and are not mutually exclusive Two or more of them may occur simultaneously in the same area, and one develops into another Sheet erosion and rill erosion cannot everywhere be sharply differrelated,
,'
because the former imperceptibly develops into the latter form. As a matter of fact, in respect of much or most of the erosion commonly considered as sheet washing, there is some grooving of the soil But broadly speaking sheet erosion implies a more or less uniform removal of a thin soil sheet from over the entire exposed area, and rill erosion refers to the formation of small shallow channels distinctly
entiated,
7
visible,
222
(
troitai.
place on tea
It
This
soil
it
mass movement,
slippage* the sub-layers
By undercutting
heads of the trenches
at the
a sort of
is also
and should be considered under Waterfall trosion.
and takes
recession of shores,
implies
coasts.
)
mainly
contributes to gully extension,
and also helps in development of contributory gullies. The process is more active in soils having soft or unstable subThis type of erosion is also distinctively eSective in cutting away soil at the base of neglected field terraces, where the channels have filled to such an extent strata.
particularly
that runofi overtops the
Mass mavtmenfl*
benched
strips,
According
to the
manner
in
which
it
take place by flowage, and that
two categories that which which take place by slippage.
The
defined,
takes place,
difierence
causes
of
is
not
sharply
slope
:
2
It
but
is
related to the
Sharpe has defined
soil creep.
movement
of
superficial
usually imperceptible except tion.'
:
displacements, and hence useful.
Soiljlowage
down
into
classified
is
it
operates on bare
to
soil
it
as 'slow
and rock debris,
observations of long dura-
lands as
well
as
forested
and
When
the process of gully formation starts, the shape is determined resistance of soil strata, and the underlying rock material, The gullies take several shapes, according to which gully erosion can be said tobeof several forms, (a) U-shaped, (b) V-shaped, (c) A combination of both U and V shapes, (d) Tunnel shaped, and (e) A peculiar type generally V-shaped gullies change into U-shaped; the c type, called 'Cave shaped, therefore, is a temporary phase till V-shaped gully finally develops into U-shaped gully is the most destructive form of erosion, and
by the
relative
U-shaped, most difficult to control
Ordinary dams have not succeeded in checking head and sides is said to be be effected by establishing
Diversion of water from the their growth, essential for success, and stabilization can vegetation in ravines. protective
1. Generally the discussion of 'mass movement' is made separately, and is not put under the category of water erosion as we have done. Taking into account the literal sense of the word erosion, a separate treatment seems justifiable, But in the study of the nature of process of erosion, agencies, principles and forms, a broad classification like the one
we have made may 2f
Shatpe
;
not be considered very inaccurate,
Landslides and Related Phenomena,
1938,
Soil slippage
A
small stream, joining
from
its
along a slope.
the Chambal, has washed
bed exposing
the
rocks
away
beneath,
all
the soil
Typical Example of Cave type Gully,
228
(
grass-covered areas,
)
a surface
It is
phenomena, extend-
ing to a depth of a few feet only, and as
man-made
well as
and gullying
it
transports vegetation
Unlike stream erosion
structures.
proceeds over the entire interstream areas,
In different regions the causes are different,
be the most active agent* The process
to
supposed
effective in the climate characterized
but forest is is
specially
by frequent alterations
and thawing.
of freezing
This
Solijluction.
mass movement
of
type
most
is
common
in colder climates at high altitudes or high latitudes,
specially
where the
pretty
long.
soil
frozen to sufficient depths for
is
much
not paid
is
It
attention,
considered very important because
it
where human
restricted.
activity
very much
is
not
occurs in the climate
After the prolonged rains, masses of locally
Earthflows, saturated
is
and
move downhill
soils,
as
earthflows,
They are
more common in temperate and humid climates; and are commonly termed as slips* Debris avalanches.
ment, more cover,
It
common
soil
held
that previously
downhill,
vegetative cover, ,
in
is
a
rapid
form of mass move-
humid areas having good vegetative
usually takes place during or
when the saturated
rapidly
It
after
heavy rains, becomes heavy and overcomes the force
the soil
strips
on the
slope.
down
soil
and usually
The mass flows bedrock f destroys
to
floods agricultural lands by
chocking the channels of streams* Mudflows.
This
peculiar to arid
is
cover
is
poor.
man's
occurs soil and streams, which
semi-arid
areas,
rugged and vegetative and Their frequency violence is generally
specially where the topography
increased by
or
misuse
loose
rock
is
of land.
are
When heavy
picked up an$ carried by
can transport boulders and blocks of
ciently large sice.
rain
suffi-
m
(
)
Slumping. Mass movement by slippage as landslides', which are more comtermed commonly mwly BD&alter, but sometimes very large. Mass of
is
mictmsoHdated material moves asooe unit or as several subsidiary units, dawn the slope* Slumping is said to he an important process in the recession of
stream channels and gullies.
shores,
widening of
The most common qaveis
of undercutting, but slippage of ground water from the base
the
bank helps .the movement considerably. This form of mass movement occurs on
Terractttes,
sloping areas, feet wide, cattle
mostly on pastures.
They are only a few
and are most commonly attributed
and sheep and
SuMdtace.
to
trampling of
goats*
Gradual lowering of the surface resulting
from mining operations, or as a result of brick preparation around towns and cities, damages agricultural land. Asa matter of fact that
is
no
soil
removal as in previous cases*
Shallow depressions are produced, where water accumulates
nd drowns the
the
human hand.
grown there. The active agent is Sometimes subsidence results in deep
crops
if
open cracks and pitholes, making the land severely
broken and unsuitable
for cultivation.
tfher<3re differences between muriflowsjand cashflows, One difference is the character of the material carried away. Secondly, the former are found most commonly in stream channels, while the tatter are found on uaUey frides, terraces and convex portioBs of slopes. ThigJJy, the former like floods recur in the same place, while the latter have no marked tendency to recur in the same area. ;
,
U alike
other forms of erosion by water and wind, mass movements do out of the region in which they are formed. They simply cause downhill migration of sloping soil, and prevent the formation -oHJeep profiles. Further they prepare the way for erosion. ;sot carry soil or rock
Wind erosion occurs on lands where water -erosion is quite active, but in the same locality the two types rarely assume}tquaiijpor*j|j$$,
(
on
286
II.
Wind
all
bare areas (level and slope) when
dry,
bat
is
erosion.
Soil
confined
like
soils of
sandy
that
a
of
is
and
less
and
pile
soil
sieve,
fertile
up in
wind
geological
to
soil
drifts is
and
consider*
Of course,
areas.
lighter
and
lifted
soil particles
loose
a
is
such areas, but
The
to
is
believed that wind erosion
The
regions.
which carry them
equilibrium
cover,
done
humid
particles are picked up, air currents,
It is
and semi-arid
arid
to
most severe damage affects
generally takes place
blowing
most serious in areas where there
able slope and low rainfall. is
)
it
to the
behind obstacles.
wind
fertile
is
soil
pathways of high
long distances.
skip and
frequently
action of
and more
the
roll
The coarser
on the surface,
So long as
the
normal
maintained under protective vegetative
erosion proceeds with the slowness of normal
process.
But on bare and relatively
flat
and
undulating areas where wind sweeps unchecked by topographical irregularities, the process is highly accelerated. Unlike
water erosion wind erosion cannot be forms or sub-types. One case of
from another
in
soil
classified into different
blowing
is
degree rather than in kind.
distinguished
The
severity
Black Dust storms, differing mainly in magnitude, are of four types They are associated with westerly winds, travelling at a very high velocity, lasting for about 6 to 8 hours, covering an area of about 1,000 miles in length and 4 to 5 hundred miles in width, and a ceiling height of about 7,000 feet. They occur in summers and are not frequent. Thick clouds of dust ranging from light blue to black colour overcast the sky, Brown coloured storms. They are not so spectacular as black dusters, but are more frequent. They are also associated with westerly winds and occur in summers. They generally cover smaller areas than the former, and the velocity of wind is also less, The soil blown is of yellow and brown type, and lesser in magnitude than in the previous case. Small dust storms. They are local, and occur oh dry and ploughed lands, under the force of gentle winds. They can take any direction, cover comparatively very small areas, wind velocity being less, the soil carrying capacity is also less. Spirting dust clouds. They arc still more local, and are caused by whirl winds. Sometimes they are only a few feet high, and move a few yards, subsided by smaller obstructions like buildings :
dusters.
and
trees,
29
22*
(
)
ranges from slight disturbance area soil
to
of surface
soil
over a small
major catastrophic storms removing countless tons of
and sweeping across vast areas.
Water erosion and wind erosion appear the sense
and wind in the
that
both transport the surface
differ in the nature
to be similar in
But water
soil.
action and also
of their erosive
outward manifestation. Water erosion takes place down
more by
the slope, is controlled
gravity,
and
the transported
material concentrates along drainage lines, and to or part
way
the sea.
to
Wind
on sloping and level areas, and
upon
the direction
is laid
in
of air current.
down anywhere
any direction depending The wind-borne material
usually so thinly as not to constitute a
A
hazard by accumulation in reservoirs and streams, difference is that slope
is
soil
from a
field
original place
the
it
The washed
cannot be transported back
same agency, but
by the
basic
water erosion, but
to
essential
has no direct causal effect on wind erosion.
away
carried
is
erosion takes place both
to
the
blown away
soil
can be transported back under the impact of the shifting
wind* Factors Affecting and the Causes of Erosion. of soil
and
removal
erosion.
affected
is
four-phased
:
The process
runoff, infiltration, absorption,
These processes are interdependent, and are
by many factors separately and interdependently.
This introduces an almost inconceivable number of
factors,
some
signifi-
of
which are directly related
to
cant in the process of soil removal, indirectly related activity.
would be
to
and help other
While analysing these difficult
to
directly
factors in their
factors one
erosive
feels that
'it
conceive an agency involving more
modifying factors than soil erosion. foundly and
and are highly
while others are only
affected
1
To be
brief,
it
is
pro-
by the kind and condition
of
(
soil,
227
)
type and condition of cover, degree and length of slope,
and climate* (including rainfall intensity, relative humidity and temperature, etc.)*
wind In
velocity,
the
second
may be included the changed conditions and sub-layers resulting from the land-use of cultivation and other practices of practices (f *., methods farming and grazing), and the conditions and character of
category of factors Soil
of surface.
different
some
obvious variables,
less
exposed by progressive
more evident
In addition to these
planation.
are
successively
sub-layers
factors there
mechanical relation
6. g.,
of gravitational creep, sliding, soil granulation, fragmentation,
and thawing and sedimentation.
dispersion, alternate freezing
The causes
of
deforestation,
methods
may
over-grazing,
village forests
the
them combine
cultivation,
shifting
:
faulty
and pastures. It is not possible to rate these order of seriousness. Sometimes a few of to accelerate
the abrasive
wind, but more generally one *
be summarized as
briefly
ordinary cultivation, and the deterioration of
of
factors in
erosion
of
them
is
action of water and the
predominating
Bennett has explained in detail the nature of activity of these factors, introduces an almost endless variety of conditions that
Soil type alone
appreciably and profoundly influence the rate of infiltration and absorption, and therefore of runoff and soil denudation. The texture of surface material, its inherent structure and consistence markedly affect rate of water intake, as do also similar characteristics expressed in widely divergent sub-layers through the soil profile, down to and including the horizon of parent material, Cover effects rate of soil removal and runoff more than
Declevity of land 2nd length of slope powerfully affect hydrologic processes inseparably involved in soil planation and runoff. Climate determines the conditions for the type of vegetation, It also influences the distribution of soil, and indirectly the soil type. This can The be understood by considering the way in which the soil is formed
any single factor
surface configuration
is
also
an example of the influence of climate on
gentle rounded slopes are characteristic of humid areas, landscape (e, g and sharp angles and deeply trenched surface are typical of arid regions). Lastly, the types of soil erosion also vary from climate to climate, e. g,, ,
wash are the mechanisms of accelerated erosion in wind is effective mainly in arid and semi-arid climates frost action is at the maximum where the temperature crosses the freezing and ice action is mainly point the greatest number of times annually limited to polar regions, tundras, taigas and microthermal climates.
gullying and sheet
humid regions
;
,
;
228
(
cause of erosion,
0.
)
g, deforestation is the
main cause
in the
North Bengal and Assam and shifting cultivation in Assam, Orissa
foothills specially
Himalayan
Chhota Nagpur
and Bengal
hills
;
western
in
over-grazing
;
of
foothills
the
Himalayas, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, along the Jamna in Uttar Pradesh (the ancient Braj Bhumi), Siwaliks in the Punjab and the lower practices
agricultural
foothills
Himalayan terrace and embank
hills
Poonch
in
specially in
and the the
Kashmir
in
potato
and the
Nilgiris,
on the
failure
to
lands, and the
cultivated
fields in
faulty
;
cultivation
and pastures almost through-
deterioration of village forests
out the northern plain* Effects of Erosion,
frequent result is
the
change
of the in
The most immediate and bodily removal
topographical
details of
Washing and blowing away of available and carry away the face,
Gradually
and more
tive is
the subsoil
cut into
vators
is
difficult,
is
and further
the
most
by erosion
the ground sur-
productive topsoil
which
food.
plant
potential
is less
And when
produc-
the
work
ground of
culti-
operations become more
cost
yields decline,
soil
into gullies,
multiplied, agricultural
crop
the
approached,
difficult to cultivate.
rills,
of
of cultivation increases,
gradually agriculture becomes more expensive and unprofitable, and ultimately the land being rendered un-
and
tion
migrates to other areas.*
abandoned and populaThe effects of erosion are
not
confined to those
only which are stripped of
fit
for
their
areas,
cultivation,
agriculture
areas
is
productive topsoil by water or wind,
sometimes
to
a
but adjoining
long distance, are also affected. 1
*This erosive process of biting, cutting and tearing ^the" landscape continues in a vicious straight-line process to impoverish the* -soil, to ruin the land, to make agricultural land barren, to disintegrate rural
communities and ultimately resulting
in the decline of tlje nation.
229
(
Considerable damage finer,
or
is
material
tertile
transported
in suspension
by running water, material
and
is
carried to long
The material carried
sea.
to
sand
(subsoil
The
done by erosion deposits,
is
and more
lighter
distances,
)
and
the
wind-assorted
residue) are
tieavier
spread
The deposited material is unproimpoverishes lower slopes and alluvial plains,
over adjoining lands. it
ductive,
and is
the
flattens
diminished.
low-lying
Damage
areas where
dous proportions and extends
and violent dust storms, towards
the
rate
of
flow
areas during floods
to larger
The creeping the
threatens
east
the
by deposition increases to tremen-
of the
Thar desert
portion
of
Rajas-
than and South West part of U. P. specially the Agra Diviis
sion,
up
cial
a conspicuous example,*
Besides, the deposits pile
huge quantities behind dams, in natural and
in
waterways, and in
harbours,
of
Silting
artifi-
reservoirs
reduces their storing capacity, cuts short their
life
and
spread out stored water, and exposes a broader
tends to
surface to losses by evaporation,
It
reduces the
life
and
value of costly structures constructed for the purpose of flood
irrigation,
supply and
control,
shoals navigable of
waterways, reduces the carrying capacity
drainage canals and impaires the effectiveness of irrigation
Sometimes streams are forced from their natural
system. course, of
power production, municipal water
Erosion debris clogs small streams,
recreation.
damaging
flood
control.
the
banks, and accentuating the problem
Navigation
is
threatened
in
harbours
and streams, and expensive dredging operations are necessitated,
When
the absorptive
topsoil
is
removed,
rela-
*
Recent topographical surveys show that the Indian desert Rajasthan has been spreading outwards in a great convex arc through Ferozpur, Patiala and Agra towards Ahgarh and Kasganj at the rate of about half a mile per year for the last 50 years, and is encroach of
ing
upon
approximately 50
square
miles of
fertile
land every
year.
280
(
sab-soil
impervious
lively
moves
increased
with
)
exposed on which water
is
The concentrated
speed,
discharges into streams,
a
at
great speed
runoff
an enor-
and
mously increased quantity of water, causing floods.
Besides,
erosion debris which accumulates in channels reduces their
carrying capacity, and helps in raising the crest of floods. In /addition to the creation of the problem of
erosion is connected
drought, and
with
surplus water,
intensifies water
shortage, by interfering with the normal process of
and percolation,
and consequently reducing the
water leading
sub-soil
also
to the
decline
in
intake
soil
and
water-table,
It
Roads, railroads and
the transport
system. damages embankments are undermined, cut and sometimes washed
away, and
traffic
is
impeded and sometimes blocked by
erosion debris.
Considered quences, the
soil
as a
it
is
a
which
to
of
threat to
human
slopes,
oceans.
mike
down
the
and
down
rivers,
the
the
that
culture and
and
are
going
wastes
chance for a 1
The
down of
the
man
to
effects
It
in
far
leads to
lower returns,
extreme
cases abandonment of agri-
rural migration
mortgages increase, tax base
Farmers run is
for industrial products shrinks, soil
termed
reaching and profound, and the fundamentally depends on soil is adver-
affected*
cultivation,
is
permanently is
a living from land, these are going too.
economy
pf
to
removes
are not con*
are
not merely soil that
it
It
life.
effects
animals
Opportunity, security,
on agriculture
sely
'It is
human
of
conse-
social
security since
Besides, the
man
land,
undernourished, the
basis
the
is
death,"
'creeping
fined
economic and
in terms
erpsipp
sub-marginal
into debt, land
reduced, and the market
Summarizing the
Bennett obseryes
tfya$
'the
effects
process,
|f
281
(
)
uncontrolled, impoverishes not only the land but those live
who
on and by the land, as well as communities and urban
areas dependent in part or entirely on the welfare of the
The
farmer.' 1
of
effects
erosion are
soil
exhibited
in
most striking form by the downfall of former civilizations and empires whose ruined cities now lie amid the
barren wastes that once were the world's most fertile lands* Extent of Erosion,
two ways the
total
:
The extent
of erosion
is
referred in
area affected and the extent of
Information in India about both these
aspects
soil loss* is
rather
inadequate. Spectacular damage on slopes in the form of gullies has been commonly observed, and for long, but the less spectacular
damage on
of sheet erosion
and
fiat
is
not properly realized.
has been noted only recently*
It
Asa
matter of fact accelerated erosion
culture itself) and on
all
sloping grounds
of the protective vegetative
on
all
assumed
its
is
present shape
uplift
earlier
of
of
is affected,
lowering
the
A
the
seismic
But
at
present a very
estimate is that 'erosion is
rough
productivity of
to
the Himalayas. In the Northern India erosion
recent origin.
large area
refers to the land
is
much
and mountainous portions
of comparatively
and embanked
always going on. The geologically an eroded peneplain, which
changes resulting in the hilly
which are stripped
cover or permanent grass, and
country, erosion
peninsular India
as old as agri-
is
arable areas not properly terraced
throughout the
is
lands in plains in the form
loss of fertility
150 million acres. 12
under cultivation
at
present being
This
damaged
by erosion gradually, and is in addition to the badly eroded gullied land which has gone out of cultivation. 1.
H, H, Bennett
2.
H, Glower
:
:
Soil Conservation,
Soil Erosion, p, 4, 1944.
P. 91,
1939,
282
(
)
gullied areas are
The areas badly eroded are: Severely the Siwalik
foothills
and the
Gttrdaspur districts in Punjab,
Kwnatm
Division
Uttar
in
Hoahiarpur and
(Gurgaon, Kangra,
Pradesh),
of
districts
hilly
the
Jamna-Chambal
(Agra, Jalaun and Etawah districts of U.P., South-East portion of Rajasthan specially Dholpur and Karauli North-
TraM
;
West portion of
Gwaliorj
Burdwan
Mad hya Bharat
Chota Nagpur
;
division in Bengal
PEPSU
in
Valley, and the
Mayorbhanj,
the
;
lower
;
and
Bijapur district in
or level is
in
seen
in
form are
rivers.
is
all
the
region.
Assam, the
dry
slopes of
than 40" rainfall) specially
all
Besides, sheet
bare areas whether slopes
climate
arid
Bank
Wave
more common
the
in
Wind
erosion
specially in
Patiala
not,
in Punjab,
erosion the
erosion
and the
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
is
Bom-
occurs to some extent
rivers,
specially in
most serious in Lower Bengal along
of slumping.
eastern,
less
Madhy a
Madras,
it is
Areas badly
Bundelkhand
Gurgaon, Hisar and Karnal
along the channels of
major
The
north-western Orissa.
of
almost
bay and Rajasthan,
plains, but
Narbada
the
of
Madras, drier portions of
serious in light soils in in
Satlaj Valley in
portion
ground and whether cultivated or
dry parts of
(adjoin-
Bombay, Chota Nagpur Plateau in Bihar,
districts
PEPSU,
Poonch
hills in
valleys
Western Ghats (areas with
erosion
uplands of
;
Dhenkamal. '-
Brahmaputra
districts of
is
;
and
Sambalpur
Surma
hilly
Bihar
portion of
upper
by sheet erosion are
and
in
hilly north-western districts of Orissa specially
affected
northern
specially western districts
hills
Kashmir
border) in
ing Punjab
Basbr
of
not serious
in
alluvial all
the
India in the
Waterfall erosion and mass movements to
lower Himalayas both western and
The most severely eroded and
the
worst
area
Jamna-Chambal Tract which has been turned into deep
ravines.
Regarding the
rate of erosion
and
the extent of soil remo-
val detailed and very accurate information
is
not
available.
The
foreign experiments are not very helpful since the local
soil
and climatic conditions are the
however,
it is
estimated that on a moderate slope of 1 in 80
(1'25%) the annual loss of 1*6 to 4*3 tons
from
of
The
per acre per inch of lain varies
soil
Once gully erosion
soil.
damage resulting from
down
it
very serious, the
is
starts, the
soil
flowing
the gully with ever increasing velocity and volume.
when
velocity increases with the slope, and,
of the runoff doubles,
times.
factors,
determining
1
carrying capacity
Besides, a few runoff
as follows 2
A.
its
the velocity
increased to 64
is
measurement experiments are
:-
Dry Farming Research (soil loss per acre per
Station
annum
in
Sholapur,
Bombay,
on an average
tons,
slope of 1-25%) (i)
(ii)
(tii)
B.
'6
Fallow, with weeds preserved.
25
Bare (uncultivated) fallow.
Jowar
1^
field (cultivated)
Punjab Irrigation Research (scrub jungle,
Kangra
Institute.
District,
Punjab,
soil cost
per
acre.)
It is
is
(i)
Grass (80% cover)
(ii)
Grass and Shrubs (90% cover)
(iii)
Bare
soil.
really a pity that seriousness of this
1,
Planning Commission
The Indian
30
Single
days,
$tprm.
,1*56
*V|6
l'|Z4
'137
82*58
1'567
growing menace
That the Government are conscious
not well appreciated.
2.
32 wet
;
The
first
Five Year Plan, p, 131, 1951,
Journal of Agricultural Science, Aug.
1941,
of
appears from the Report of the National Planning the first Five Year Plan of the Planning
it
Committee and
programmes are
But the proposed
Commission.
far inade-
and greater attention is quate in comparison to the needs, the indivirequired on the part of both the local bodies and dual farmers before
it is
neglect of erosion could
too
As
late.
a matter of fact, the
be tolerated so long as land
was
growing population and increasing demands of agiicultural and forest products, any further neglect implies inviting poverty and undermining But in view
ample and cheap,
the
The
future.
of the
major cause of
ignorance about what
is
neglect seems
happening and
be
to
ultimate conse-
its
quences.
Methods
Control
of
the erosive eflect of the
and
speed of runoff
The basic principle different agencies,
aim
is that
the
misuse
of
man, by
to
slowing the
wind, by
heal the
setting
in
problem
stimulating
;
is
the
and
multi-phazed, control
factors
have
activities
to
are
be
The
wounds
motion the
processes of soil formation and growth of vegetation. the
reduce
of travel.
lines
allowed
t
of
velocity
respective
nature must be
the
created by
the
reducing
obstructions across their
to
is
i> e.
Since
mutually
multi-phazed
and should be taken simultaneously on several fronts, The report of the National Planning Committee on Soil Conservation
and Afforestation gives the following schedule summarisactivities,* some of the which check
ing the erosion control
the soil removal directly (a)
and others are helpful
indirectly^
Forettt.
1.
Protection of existing forests.
2.
Creation of shelter-belts, *NafcionaI Planning
tion p, 73, 1948,
Committee
:
Soil
Conservation and Afforesta-
235
(
3.
)
Control of nautor grants (breaking virgin land for cultivation).
4.
of the
Encouragement
village as the
unit for
forest
improvement and protection schemes under cooperative or
panchayat organization.
fr,
Reclamation
6.
Reclamation of
lands for grass and forest
ravine
of
produce. flat
lands in torrent beds which are
often cultivable after a period
under forest conditions,
7.
Village plantations for fuel and timber.
8
Planting of fodder trees.
9,
Rotation of cropping of fodder trees.
(b)
Waste Lands.
(Livestock
and Fodder.)
1.
Reduction of surplus livestock,
2,
Grading up
3
Grassland improvement.
4.
Encouragement
5
Partition of
of flocks
and herds,
of voluntary
common
and rotational closures.
grazing lands
to
develop indivi-
dual ownership. 6.
Panchayat Management
7.
Replace grazing by grass-cutting and stall-feeding of
8.
Develop
9.
Use
of
grasslands.
hay.
grass
markets
for
profitable
and
silage.
disposal of
surplus cut grass.
10.
of green fodder crops
Restriction
of
immigrant
flocks
where these are
a
serious factor. (cj
1.
Plough Lands.
Watt bandi and contour terracing and reduce runoff.
to retain
2.
Restriction of cultivation on very steep slopes.
3.
Improvements
rainfall
of soil wasting cultural practices.
236
(
)
4.
Legutrie or gfoss crop to be
5.
Consolidation of holdings
sown on fallow
lands.
allow better layout of
to
field terracing. 6.
Encouragement
for watt bandi
and terracing through
remission of land revenue,
Use
7.
8.
of live
hedge plants
Cooperative
to replace
for
organization
dry thorn twigs.
land
improvement
projects.
Encourag ng the use
9.
of compost
manure.
Strip cropping and suitable crop rotations.
10,
The Idea tion' 1 is
terms,
it
of Soil Conservation.
The term
'soil
conserva-
used in a very wide sense, and in the most simple implies 'using land as it should be used i. 0., treating
land according to
its
The aim
2
capability.
needs, and using since the
is that,
it
according
earth is the
to its
home
of
man, land resources should be conserved against loss and and maintained at a high level of optimum
deterioration,
productivity so as to permanently sustain national economyt (This
the
is
implication of the
Conservation connotes other
from
all
measures required or partial
total
(by erosion in
removal of
The terms
of
soil
floods,
'Soil
management and
preserve soil and
to
losses caused in one
any form, by
soil fertility
word conservation).
methods
way
soil fertility
or another/ 3
by waterlogging, by
by exhaustive cropping or by grazing
Conservation' and 'Land Utilization' are not of fact, while distinguishing between them attention should not be paid to the technical meaning of the word 'Soil' in the former and the economist's interpretation of the word 'Land' in the 1,
synonyms,
latter.
The
interpreted,
'Soil
As a matter
difference refers
is
in their scope,
Land
utilization,
more commonly
pattern and practices, and is a part of soil which connotes a still wider scope including
to land-use
conservation programme other things also.
many 2,
H, H. Bennett
3,
National Planning Committee p, 27, 1943,
:
Soil Conservation, 1939, :
Soil
Conservation and Afforestation,
287
(
or the removal
of the
)
elements of
by leaching,
fertility
Briefly speaking the specific aspects of the
include
land e,
g
:
control of soil erosion
conservation of
,
fertility
;
programme should
reclamation of sub-marginal
enhance productivity, moisture and maintenance of soil
of land
development
;
;
etc,),
soil
adjustment of the
as
so
to
land over various
distribution of
right crops on right lands; proper or cultural practices and rotations, so that producagronomic of
demands; growing
may
tivity
not be impaired
flood control
proper drainage
;
forests
;
and
should, however, be noted that the
It
etc.
not be
provision of irrigation facilities
;
related
to
also cope with the
the physical
programme should but should
phenomena only
economic and social conditions
and secondly, the methods are not
land-use,
;
forest products,
that affect
static
because
they are dependent upon social, economic and political reac-
and the
tions
scientific
developments
which
are
always
changing,
FORESTS.
IV,
Extent and Distribution, occupy, of
in
194849, according
acres
14*9%
in
Assam,
part
which
is
not
is
B and C under
known
country, specially
part
classification is
the
actual percentage
is
The
first
acres
or
about
in
^xcept
States)
2%
is
1329
unclassified area
Andaman and
and hence
exactly,
A
and
States
forests,
the
130 mil*
the total area of 581
of
considerable part of the
Nicobar Islands,
or 18%,
papers, an area
village
which the data of land
for
A
mil. acres.
area,
to
According to Forest Statistics the area is
available.
in
acres or
86*9 million
mih
Indian Union forests
the
In
a
the
for a bit
more, or
actual part
roughly 17
Five Year Plan mentions the area 19' 9 A,
The
distribution
of
more, and
in
of
different
(
states
is
as follows
238
)
:
Percentage of area under forests*
1.
Unpublished Govt. of India Report.
2,
Indian
Forest Statistics,
Upto 1946-47 the
(1947-48),
1952
pp. 1-2.
regarding forests were issued through the 'Annual Returns of Statistics relating to Forest AdminisLater on the publication was given a new name, tration in India'. 'Indian Forest Statistics', It includes data for a wider area, now statistics and some of the former stateare collected for part B and C States also statistical
data
;
ments have been integrated,
EXTENT FOHE5T AREA %TO
TOTAL AdEA
6AVED ON INDIAH AGRICULTURE
HATIHICS
149%
CD B fTTDTl
UPTO 47. -1
10%
10-
| I
LESS tHAN
ADEQUATE
157. [
SS9 '5-207. - 30 ffig 20 30%] IQ % BE ABOVE S0%1 :
ADEQUATE f THAH AOtOJJAtE MORE THAN
CLASSIFICATION OF FO
Thousand
%to
sq. miles,
total
Reserved,
72-0
Protected.
10'5
Unclassed.
17-5
Total.
lOO'O
The Sub-Committee
Conservation and Afforestation
on Soil
ttee)
needs
the
for
National Planning Coifcmi-
the
(of
think
20%
a
of
that
is
country usually proper reckoned the correct amount of forest, 1 while the Planning
Commission believe least a third of
conditions. 2 for
the
that a
tropical
area under
its
country should have
Judged with these standards the area whole.
as a
country
derable portions are forests in
timber but provide fuel scrub
Even name
in
overall
less
is
area
this
consi-
they have no
only,
and grazing, and sometimes only fewer, and at places no trees
jungles having and some areas are of very inferior material, the
at
forests to preserve its climatic
;
Apart from
distributed. 3
shortage forests are badly
Ex-
cepting in Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bhopal, Coorg, Tripura, Travancore and Cochin and Andaman and There
is
a considerable difference in area under forests recorded
in Indian Agricultural Statistics, part of land utilization statistics and those supplied by Indian Forest Statistics, The reasons are : Cernot covered by forests but worked by Forest Depts. are tain lands returned as forests in the latter, but in the former they are shown under proper heads, as 'other uncultivated land excluding current fallow'
as
1
and Punjab. Secondly, this happens in U, P, area sown bodies and private individuals are forests administered by corporate treated in the former under 'other uncultivated land excluding current
or
'net
1
fallow
W,
;
or
'land
not
forests
specially
in
in
the
latter
Assam,
for
available
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh are
treated
The former
cultivation
1 ,
specially
in
Madras,
and some areas shown as inaccessible
;
under these heads
are
more
scientific
in
and
1.
N, P, C, Soil Conservation and Afforestation, 1948,
2.
Planning Commission,
The
First Five
the former,
reliable, p, 104,
Year Plan, 1951, p 129, f
About 45% of the forest area is inaccessible having no suitable communications, Roads are mostly fair weather, impassable in rains, and with a few exceptions, are unfit for mechanical transport, Water loses much of its transport, the cheapest means of forest transport, usefulness because many species of Indian forests do not float, use of boats is not possible due to rapid streams, their shallowness and the 3.
presence of rocks, After the partition this difficulty has further increased specially in transporting Kashmir timber, Freight charges by railways on forest products are said to be very high, causing considerForest Depts. are handicapped in developing able wastage in forests, transport for want of funds, and at present the expenditure on forest communications is Rs, 67*55 lakhs or 4*6% of the total forest revenue,
In Northern
Nicobar Islands, forests are insufficient in area.
India^the percentage is comparatively less in comparison to that in
to the
South India, and about
Himalayas and
part of the remaining
And
lies
80%
foot
their
hills,
specially in
confined
is
and a considerable
within 30 to 40 miles from
bills.
5 to 10%) lies scattered
only a very small part (hardly
in cultivated lands,
area
of the
South
Distribution is a bit better in the
Madhya Pradesh, Bombay and Madras where are interspersed amongst
considerable forest areas
However, both
vated lands,
gre^t for^sts.are located in hills,
North and South the
the
in
culti-
which makes a very large
area iujacces&ible by increasing
the
difficulties
and the
Two very
costs of
forest
.populous, parts are the
enormous w^ste
transporting important products. consequences of the lack of forests .within ^asy distance of of
only source of
the
qheap manure by burning cowdungi and the low standard village
dwellings,
about which
attention
of
was drawn by
Dr. Voelqker in 1893 and the Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture in 1928.
The
Types of Forests,
climatic conditions in the country
are very favourable for forest growth, and is largely
governed by
In the areas of heavy
rainfall, elevation
rainfall
containing bamboos, palms,
their
and
character
soil conditions.
there are evergreen
ferns
and
forests
rubber trees,
etc.
Areas with a less copious rainfall have deciduous forests of teak, sal
and shisham,
vegetation becomes
etc.
Under
a
sparse, forests are
still
known
forests containing tamarind, acacia (kikar) {
as dry or arid and trees having
A* the, rainfall decreases further forests pass scrub jungles having thorny bushes and thick small
thaiiy leaves. into
smaller rainfall
leaves.
On
the Himalayas,
,
however, where clituate varies forests
varying accord,
(
ing to elevation are pine,
magnolia is
fir,
)
rainfall of
:
They occur under a
over 100 inches, are evergreen, dipterocarps, and
ar6 found on Western Ghats in Bombay, strip
in
Madras, in a
Upper Assam through Cachar and
south-west from
southward through Chittagorrg Hill
tfacts.
They have
Tropical Semi-evergreen forests.
(ii)
and
distribution
their general
Tropical wtt ever green forests.
(*')
chestnut,
oak,
deodar,
The main types and
etc.
as follows
241
diptero-
carps and deciduous species, and usually adjoin the tropical
evergreen forming a transition between
it
and the moist
deciduous, found in the Western Ghats, widespread in Assamf
and lower slopes
Moist-Deciduous
Tropical
(Hi)
under a season.
of the Eastern Himalayas,
rainfall of
60
to
They occur 6 months of dry
forests.
80 inches and 4
to
They are the most typical Indian forests, popularly Monsoon forests, found on a strip along the foot
called the
of the Himalayas, a strip along the east of the
Western Ghats
and a large block round Chota Nagpur. The northern half includes sal forests and the southern half teak forests, and open Savannah forests occur scattered throughout. (10)
Tropical
Dry Deciduous forests.
a rainfall of 40 to 50 inches
and are found
They occur under and about 6 months dry season,
in a wide, irregular strip
from the
foot of the
Cape Comorin, bounded on the north by the Himalayas Himalayas, on the north-west by the desert, on the southto
west by the Western-Ghats and oh the
Bengal
forests.
Sal
and teak are
typical,
everywhere, and are much inferior tropical moist (o)
deciduous
to
eatst
by the wet
but are that
hot fouhd
fouhd in fbe
forests,
Tropical thofn fotea*
They
WxM under a fainf all of
10
30 inches, are found in Rajasthan, Upper Gangetic
to
plain
and
Deccan Plateau, and abound
the
in acacias.
They are
Tropical dry evergreen forest*,
(vi)
small-
leaved thorny species found on the Carnatic coast, (wi) Subtropical wet hill forests, They are found in
Himalayas in Bengal and Assam and and Nilgiri-Hills, Mahabeleshwar Khasla,
the lower slopes of the locally in
Subtropical
(viii)
forests
are
They
pine forests.
between 3000' and 600ff
in the Central
chir
pine
and Western
Himalayas and other pines in the Khasia hills. Subtropical dry evergreen forests. They are thorny (ix) on the higher reaches of the Indus and
Wet temperate forests.
(x)
corner
in the north- west
species covering only a small patch
tributaries.
its
They are evergreen occuring
on the Eastern Himalayas between 6000' and 9500' and on the top of the hills of South India.
Moist temperate forests.
(*t)
spruce and
oaks, deodar, blue pine,
are
They fir,
found on the inner
and Western Himalayas with below 40 inches and between 5,000 and 10,000 ft.
ranges of the Central
Dry temperate forests.
(#11)
juniper and most
and
conifers
rainfall
They include deodar,
broad-leaved European genera,
pine,
found on
the inner ranges of the Himalayas. (xiii)
According
etc,,
to
Government,
as
After
the
Zatnindart
They include high
Alpine forests.
and rhododendron
many
ownership
of
private
States
forests
and
and are
fir,
classified forests.
private
the
birch
ft.
are
forests
corporate
merging
level
and occur over 10,000
abolition
now Govt,
of
forests,
and the village forests have come under the administration of
panchayats.
administered
Out
of
the
total
forest
by State Governments,
area
0*7%
,72*9%
is
by corporate
243
(
)
Further the forests
bodies and 26'4/o by private individuals,
under the control
of the Forest Dept,, according to the control
exercised by the Government in respect of the rights of users, are classified as ; Reserved, Protected and Unclassed. areas under them are
The
Utility of Forests.
products.
The
(Sq. miles.)
They have many direct
utility
They provide timber
domestic and
for
1
Forests are an important resource and
a great national asset.
economic uses.
i
industries like
industrial
is
direct
and
mainly due
indirect to their
for building purposes, fuel
purposes,
match, paper, lac etc.,
raw material
other valuable products
commonly known as minor products, fodder and grazing cattle, and leaf mould for manure. The
indirect
for
for
benefits are mainly through their influence
on climate and the regulation of water supply. Forests are said to make the climate more equable by
increasing
humidity, by reducing evaporation by increasing ptecipitation of moisture 2 and by moderating the temperature.
Working
1.
2,
the
Indian Forest Statistics, (1947-48), 1952, pp, 113, It
has not been well established that forest have a direct relation with of rainfall, and it cannot definitely be asserted that
amount
increase the
amount
of rain,
they ;
244
(
like a
)
huge sponge they increase absorption and produce
a sustained feeding of springs and channels, and by checking the mechanical force of runoff reduce the violence and check
By preserving moisture they check
floods.
the
severity
volume a
of
mould
vegetative
the
velocity
increase soil
they
and
erosion and by forming
runofl they check soil
of
rich
By reducing
drought,
or at least reduce
fertility-
By
changing the surface drainage into subsoil drainage they help in maintaining the water table and also water storage of
They are a
rivers.
dfy winds, prevent
shelter the
-to
agriculture
and
enchroachmerjt of sand-dunes on
the wind-borne sand
coasts, fix
against cold
in
the interior,
and reduce
the velocity of air currents.
birds and
beasts
By providing shelter to wild they provide game, Under certain copdi-
tiops they help in improving health
defencei
By enhancing
produce a
wholesome
the
in a country
and
assist in
beauty of the landscape they
aesthetic influence on the people,
Lastly, they contribute a net output of about Rs. 60 crores
or '7% to the National Income, provide, directly and indirectly,
employment
to
about 3 mil. persons, and provide incidental
grazing
privileged
rates
fodder scarcity speaking forests
forests
in govt*
it
is
mean,
development
and
Need
In
free.*
render
forests
the
full
and
famines and
invaluable help.
and what of
a
role
country. ill
there
for Conservation,
of
they play
There is
Really
Let
is
in
much
the
economic
truth
in
the
a plant curing. it
be fully realized that
a balance
norms, phenomenon and the inorganic worjd. Stability
on
days
of
not easy to appreciate and appraise fully what
saying that for every
is a
2'5 crore animals at
to
of
life
between the organic agriculture
anc}
its
Report of the National Ijicome Committee, 1951, the Report N. P, C, Conservation and Afforestation, 1948, and the Indian Forest
Soil
Statistics
(1947-48), 1952,
240
(
equilibrium between
progress depends upon the
Destruction or exhaustion of one upsets
ecological forces.
the normal equilibrium,
which
Hence
But the pity
some destructive
liberating
on civilisation and endanger
recoil
the need
various
for maintaining
that the
of things is
this
life is
equilibrium
as
forces
such.
obvious.
environment cannot be
left
untouched by human hand, and the very touch of man in the process of evolution, while advances civilization, misuses the
hostile
needed for
looked like a
beginning forests
the
In
resources.
element since they occupied the ground which was for
Therefore, in the
growing food.
existence the
use of axe
or
fire
human
against
struggle
forests
was
considered not only fair but the only course, and hence the attitude
and
man
of
institutions
depletion were quite natural.
But
leading
now
a reckless
to
the problems arising
human and bovine
from the pressure population have gradually become so intense and have developed to such an extent that this settler's psychology of conquest and destrucof
tion is not only unjust but also dangerous,
the world
forests are
cut
to
give place
Almost throughout and it has
to crops,
been seen everywhere that the natural process of reproduction and growth by which forests keep alive are incapable of keeping pace with man's destruction. Fortunately in India this process has been gradual and slow than in other countries (6. g,,
England, France, Spain,
mechanization took place
fast.
Italy
and Greece
etc.)
where
But even here the destruction
(without replenishing) has been so reckless, spectacular and
has gone
to
such an extent
influences, that
it
that,
through direct and indirect
has already considerably impoverished land
and the people and the process is in operation* The need for conservation is obvious from the discussion ;
of utility of forests in
be appreciated by
the
previous section.
considering the dangers of
It
can farther
deforestation.
(
The ravine lands
Chambal
Ganges and its Bundelkhand and
)
India specially
Jamna-
the
scantry desert flora seen on the banks of
the
dense
Northern
of
tract, the
246
and
tributaries,
in
forests, the vast
erosion caused
of
parts
and near Mathura
in
Rajasthan,
district,
by
formerly
as pointed out
it
by the Central Fodder and Grazing Committee, the irreguand decline in the rainfall in Madras and South larity Peninsula as pointed out by of
gradual
silting up Brahamani and Son
increasing frequency
and Bengal,
and
etc,,
and Temple, the
Robertson
the Mahanadi, the
of floods in
Godawari, Krishna,
greater east
U,
violence and the Bihar,
P.,
Assam
are soms of the important consequences of
For a more spectacular phenomenon Arabia, Persia, Syria and Egypt, The need
reckless deforestation!
we can for
look to
conservation can
still
further be understood by consi-
dering the growing needs for forests and forest products
view the growing pressure of human and bovine population on the one hand ad the deteriorating land resources on the other. specially in
Forest Products and
Forest
Industries,
products are
two categories (i) major products which include timber and fire- wood, and (ii) minor products generally classified
which include comprising
all
all
into
:
kinds of forest produce other than timber
animal, vegetable and mineral products found
in forests,
The increase
Dept, from
forests
is
in
total
revenue of the Forest
from Rs. 125 lakhs in 1899-1900
to
The average yearly production
of
Rs. 1449 lakhs in 1947-48,
the former category is about 375 mil,
290 mil- cubic
feet
is
timber alone.
cubic feet of which
The more important
shisham and mahogani etc* In market there are more than 30 varieties of timber each
timbers are teak, deodar,
sal,
of recognized grades, having a number
But
we
are not
(
self-sufficient in
24?
)
timber and import considerable quantities
minor
from outside.
In
however, very
rich.
forest
Among
products the
the
country
more important
is,
classes
bamboos, grasses (including grazing), leaves for fodder, litter and manure, fibres and flosses, oil seeds, tans and dyes, are
:
gums, resins, rubber, drugs, edible products of various kinds, lac, honey, wax, silk, hides, horns and inory, and a
oils,
variety
of
in la c.
monopoly in Bihar,
mineral
Madhya
bad and Assam. in is
It
is
largely
collected
a
Chhota Nagpur
in
Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Orissa, Hydera-
Of
the total quantity about
60%
is
collected
Chhota Nagpur only, and about 98% of the total produce exported principally to U. S. A,, U, K., Germany and
The imports and exports, forest produce during 4748
Japan. ol
The country has almost
products
as follows*
(a)
the out-turn in
the
and the income
Indian Union was
:
The Imports and Exports
(Lakhs
A
classification together with a brief description of the more important is found in Troup's Indian Forest Utilization, 1913, and much usainl details are contained in Watt's Commercial Products of
products
*
"
' fc
hidii. 190S.
Indian Forest Statistics, (1947-48), 1952, Statements XI and XIV,
Total out-tarn*
(b)
(c)
(
Income and Expenditure,
Total Revenue.
i )
(Lakhs Rs,)
Total Expenditure
(ii)
(
(iii)
Net Revenue
(iv)
Percentage of net
revenue
Net revenue per
sq, mile of Forest
(v)
(
under the control
to gross
1,449*34
)
661-08
)
738'26
revenue*
(/*)
54*39
area
of the Forest Dept.
(Rs.)
57100
Recently some minor forest products have assumed great economic importance, e, g,, sandal-wood oil for perfumery,
neem
for
making soaps
for skin diseases,
and some herbs and
drug plants for preparing medicines,
Some important forest products are
sleepers,
:
industries
and
occupation
based on
building industry, railway and tramway
highway bridges, matches, packing cases, transport boats and dugouts, agricultural imple-
vehicles, furniture,
ments, tool handles, toys, textile machinery distillatiotv,
The
sandtawood carving,
possibilities of further
and paper
development
are suggested specially in the case of *IiHshidfe figarcs
for
which
for
Jammu & Kashmir;
details are not available,
;
parts,
wood-
making
etc.
of the forest resources
growing stock, wood Mysore, Tripufa *i^ Assam-
palp manufacture, plywood and veneers, tool handles and machinery parts, preservative treatment and season*
textile
of
ing
wood
timbers,
improvement silk and other
in
and
methods of
forest cottage
Forests as a crop.
charcoal
industries,
Forestry
which
a forest.
it
Even experiments seldom There
is a
climate and
soil,
tak^e
a crop of
grow
takes 40 to 150 years or
complete, oiten they take
years*
to
however, governed by
Usually
species.
to
is,
slow business
a very
is
because of the length of time required trees,
resin,
pine
gas,
extraction, tanning, lac, artificial
more
less
10 to 15 years,
to
grow
than 5
yews
aad even 30
lower rate of return on forest investments
than on business investment.*
Besides, nature plays a
mpre
important role than in agriculture, and therefore large areas are needed for profitable
forestry.
Lastly,
forests
can grow
on sub-marginal lands, and being pushed more and more
by agricultural extension they tend to
giv
margins of cultivated lands, occupy the residual lands. This should not to the
an impression that they can grow anywhere,
Like
other crops they are also limited by soil and climatic factors,
Administration,
The gpyetno^eiU became
alive
to
the
and during protect them
consequences of reckless deforestation long back, the British period
the
first
o^g^^ed
was taken during Lord Dalhousie's
step to
ticae,
about JS55,
conservators of Forests existed in Bombay,
Burma.
when
Madras and
Other ^ppoirxto^ents followed soon, and in 186* an
organized State Pept^^j!^^r^I^$p^c^o^Ge^ erfLlQf Forests t
An to
understocked forest often has to wither again to lose
all
increment
date^r be kept perhaps {ox 50 jrears, .gjve.aiow yieW. mid, then
star,*
again. (N, P, C.)
*P. Heske, German Forestry, 1938, quoted by Ely and Wehrweio,
Land Economics,
32
1940.
250
(
Was
established.
and
the State Depts.
The
Since then the Central Dept, has grown
old forest
Government
)
have been established.
was announced
policy
of India issued a
in 1894
when
the
circular with regard to forests,
based on the following principles:
The preservation
(0)
of climatic
and physical conditions
being most important sufficient forest area be retained, (ft) the general well-being of the people
of the country
was
to
comes next,
though cultivation
(o)
is
of
greater importance
than forestry, permanent cultivation should not reduce forest
below the prescribed ments
the rural
of
sional
and
four heads
local
Revenue should be
free or at conces-
population
importance they classified the forests into
:
Forests the
preservation
climatic and physical grounds (ii)
(d)
but only after meeting the require-
rates.
In order of
(1)
minimum,
maximum
realized to the
of
which was essential on
;
Those which supplied valuable timber
purposes
forests,
produced
better sorts
;
inferior
tracts
which, though true
timber or smaller growths
of
and,
Pastures and
(iv)
commercial
;
Minor forests including
(iii)
for
grazing grounds proper, which were
usually forests only in name.*
Though been
to
increase the
been aiming the
main concern
the
forests,
at
4i 2*5
administration has
eliminating the danger
and
increasing the as
yielding
of
overworking
capacity,
was apparent
This
from the
given by various States to the questions of the Sub-
m!?ep0rt t
administration has
forest
revenue,
has been done successfully, replies
of forest
f
tbe
Royal Comraissi n on Indian Agriculture, para
251
(
Committee on
Conservation and Afforestation.
Soil
unanimous
were
about
and rapid destruction
the
of
they held
forests
State
own working
had
their
and
scientifically
)
as
all
that,
general
they
of the
was established
Institute
was further enlarged dations
of
in
were managed
existence of Forest
research In at
in
provides training
for
the
forestry
1906 the Forest
Dehra Dun,
which
accordance with the recommen-
Indian Industrial Commission,
the
better
as policy, knowledge and funds
Department in India, the value of was not recognized and promoted, Research
but about
though most of the States
For about 50 years
permitted,
mismanagement
private forests,
plans,
far
They
1918.
forest services in India
It
and car-
on research in forestry and forest products, It is in touch with the Forest Departments of the States, close and hence the results of research find quick and effecries
by the States. Many valuable investibeen undertaken have and a gations steady progress is made in scientific and practical knowledge which has consider*
tive
application
the
ably improved
and better
utilization
tant
problems
find
suitable
separators,
printing that
to
is
for
electrical
paper.
there
of
fuller
At present some impor-
forests.
which they are paying attention are
wood
for
and has ensured
productivity,
aircraft
to
production, for battery
purposes and for producing cheap
The Planning Commission, however,
feel
considerable scope for improvement in secur-
ing the utilization of the
results
of research
on the forest
products by commercial and industrial interests. For ensuring closer contact between the Institute and the interest utilizing licity
thened
timber
and forest
arrangements
at
the
products, Institute
liaison
need
to
and pubbe streng-
* Commission, The First Five Year Plan,
p.
133. 1951,
268
(
The Future
Qtfttook.
It
most favourable
in the
30 years
should be appreciated that even conditions
be created, but can be
to
interference
by
in
an incredibly
and,
in
are,
productivity of tend
need
now
principle
maid
has an
it
forests,
gone
badly dis-
the people.
and development
remembered
function of
dr
of actual
tnany ways, adversely affecting the
that
is
forestry
is
important
measured
Though
the
and develop
conserve
to
is
Hence
quite obviotis.
utility
terms of the satisfaction of social needs,
in
tfegtect
inadequate,
and impoverishing
for preservation
should be
it
itfjtidici&as
Ms
The extent
supervision,
an extent that they are
tributed
from
depletion and deterioration hav
deforestation! their
But
take at tea*t
lost
roan, or indirectly,
lack of knowledge and
the
forest
time either as a direct consequence of
short
to
)
role of serving
as
the
hand-
fact that was agriculture, emphasized by the Commission on Indian Royal Agriculture that as a general
a
of
principle
the policy of the Forest
Department should be
so directed as to serve agricultural interests and administer for
ever,
rightly
observe that a stage has been reached where
forestry should
agriculture
The in
The Planning Commission, how-
the public benefit,
view
no longer be regarded
but as a
role of foresls
necessftry
as a
handmaid to
of
complement tremendous specially it
in agriculture is
of the provision
of fuel
which helps in saving the so
extensively available and cheap manure,* timber for imple-
ments and houses, grating and fodder
for cattle,
decreasing by providing employment, regulating water supply, cheeking floods and erosion and moderating the pressure on land
the climate.
But that
criterion for forest
to
is
not their
policy
afod
only role, and the only
administration.
They have
*A recent experiment in Madhya Pradesh shows that charcoal is able compete under certain circumstances with petrol as motor fuel, (N, P.O.)
other equally tfftpoittnt rotea to 'pity, t,&, pr&temitefc of
and
Jrttyaical
raw ttttert^s
provision of
climatic ConditOtis,
purposes and industrial* ftwl.
for mduatrial atfd fctaffletthU
mind (bese rteecteako, keep Forests are a renewable national asset capable of jriddteg
The
forest policy should
under
proper
scientific
in
management
nfit
only a steady
annual income but also a variety of products essemialfof hiicoan welfare.
They Should be
has been handed
we
fo
should pass on
generations,
during the
treated
as a capital
us in trust by our ancestors, and Whteh
intact,
and
if
in
improved, to future
possible
made
Inroads have been
war and
into the forest capital
the post-war
specially
years,
private forests, as a result of the threat of the private ownership.
which
This has
possible, and forests have
be
to
extinction of
made good
be preserved
to
in
as far as
as a
national
heritage.
Some
important
research, transport,
ment
forests the
not so in
aspects are fires,
and
management
private forests*
In
6f private rights lorests have
management,
:
forest is
said
some
to
finances,
In govern-
tribes, etc.
be satisfactory, bat
parts,
come under
after the state
abolition
management,
but in the remaining parts it should be improved through legislation.
In states organized
working plans should be created
not, and the level of working pltns should be kept to the state of progress in forests. Besides, forestry should be judged by the long run financial results rftther
Where there are
than by the immediate surplus; and adequate money snd for silvicultural technical know-how should be provided .
tesearch. so
as to
Suitable meftns of transport should be developed
make
forest
more
accessible,
and
the transport
costs must be reduced, Water transport is said to be cheapest in Germany, Canada and Finland waterways have
found
to
create Industries; toftefrjso rivers flowing
t
;
204
(
examined
or aear forests should be tive
Ares
in
specially in
to float
which are
summers,
Destruc-
timber*
common
a
feature
drier forests, should be minimised by depart-
mental light winter measures-*
)
And
firing
and other protective and preventive welfare of forest tribes
lastly, the
up with development of forests, forest operations
and
produce should be collected
They provide
them,
through
who
auctioning the rights to contractors
grown
linked
most of the minor products. into cooperatives, and forest
collect
They- should be organized
Forests cannot be
is
labour for
instead
of
exploit them,
but in rural areas, and
in cities,
even there in view of the urgent needs
of agriculture,
will be
But they cannot be
pushed
to
sub-marginal
grown everywhere factors.
Besides,
economical
never be
The only
;
like
to transport
carried
so
crops
view
in
of
lands.
they
have
also
costs,
transport
forest materials to plains.
cheaply as
solution to this problem
to is
they
limiting it
is
not
Fuel can
compete with cowdung.
to
grow
forests in plains
near villages* * Forest
fires do a tremendous damage in the form of burning wood, soil and inundation etc. The first measure is controlled grazing in hot weather, and the later measure is deliberate light winter burning to prevent later destructive conflagrations, It is a lesser evil, and is said to have little deleterious effects on tree growth and soil erosion. But in the interest of preserving grass growth for grazing, controlled grazing as a measure of fire protection is now considered a better alternative Besides, in Bihar the early experiments were found positively injurious in drier But in the moist forests of Bombay forests, and the practice is given up it is regularly practised, and has not promoted either erosion or floods, In U. P. the effects on grassy forests are not injurious, but in Bundelkhand and Chirpine forests, though erosion has increased, it has been a lesser In drier mixed forests some deleterious effects may occur, but it is evil, pointed out that burning stimulates the activity of soil bacteria and no alternative and equally effective practicable treatment for minimising the damage from late fires has so far been found. (N. P C.)
runoff,
In 194748 of the total forest area under the control of the Forest Department, 57'8% was attempted to be protected against fire. The percentage of failure to area attempted being about 5, about 76 thousand sq. mile? or nearly
95%
of the attempted area
was protected*
(I,
F, S,)
255
C
)
LAND RECLAMATION AND AGRICULTURAL
V.
EXTENSION. Idea of Land Reclamation.
Ordinarily
it
not
is
ted that in every country land reclamation has factor in advancing civilization.
Though
apprecia-
been
a
major
the processes, the
standards and the results have been different in different it
countries,
has everywhere increased land resources, and
earning livelihood
thereby enlarged the opportunities of
The advantages may be
from land. local
or
nation-wide, regional,
merely individual, but broadly speaking,
it
has
promoted national welfare. Technically defined cesses of
bringing
into
it
means
high
'the
operations and
grade
pro-
usefulness in crop
of
production lands which at the inception of the undertaking are' either
1
limited
and
an unproductive
in
capacity to produce to
1 *
state or
This
is
are of inferior or
an advanced view,
will meaning and processes stages from making land fit
projected
its
full
by the term land reclamation improvement so (e. g.
ntey be
as to
attempted
making land
the type of land
make
it
is
productive
unrelatedly or It
and semi-arid
useful.
and the subsequent scheme etc.),
may
be
by
betterment
As such
portions, clearing of
areas, recovering of
soil
corrections in arid
weeds and other undesir-
swamps and
too wet lauds in
humid
9 submerged land or land from sea and
Adams, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol.
The
motivated ol
its forms, depending upon and purpose, are divergent, and it may
able flora, draining of
F.
;
implies some degree
involve: washing of alkali areas,
1,
agricultural
financing, actual settlement, cropping
different purposes* in
for
But more generally, understood the actual land
upto complete settlement.
operation
steps
include all the
it
,
13-14, p, 160, '
natural process of recovering land from sea is called 'accretion, and rightly speaking is not called reclamation which refers to artificial 2,
arrangements,
alto if rigtadon which is said to be fuily exampttfying reclama-
an economic and Asocial mstitution.
tion as
It
Agencies.
can be .done by governments, organized
bodies and institutions .and individuals* operations
and
cal
But large
scale
cannot be attempted by individuals on techni-
The powers
financial grounds.
of organized
like
the co-operative societies, corporations
ties
are also limited OQ legislative
be armed with
bodies
and authori-
They have
side.
to
such powers
through special legislation. agency for any large-scale operation is the government, whose part is not confined to finanpial aid
The
best
only.
Even when no
things
are
gation
of opportunities
out
finances are involved,
be done by the
to
the
for
government best means
reclamation, administration of
settlement
ipany other of
carrying
laws and
reclamation
Besides their financial aid
etc.
investi-
e.g.,
ranges
from
bearing the entire cost to simply subsidising individuals to
the
partly meeting
such as
reclaimed lands. initiative
volved. ther
is
even through indirect means rent and irrigation charges o&
cost
concessions
in
However, even government
limited
so
For success their cooperation
nationalization of
are not necessary, as is
specially
ther Jfce
the section
Ihey haye
'method*
referi^g to r^ius^tion
q*ethds of (
is
necessary. Fur-
land before reclamation operations believed by some economists**
Method! of Redwwtlan,
cused under
activity an,d
long as private interests aje in-
oi
of
partly
be*a.dt>
erosion
control',
ravine land*
re^i^ atbar ty^of
Fur-
laads have
been diapus^d in detail by the Cgimaiittee op Soil Amelioration (of the Board of Agriculture and Animal lju *Ur.
B*i>it
Smgh
believes that
and improvement re(^W^ioa
should
first
be nationalised',
ail,
'
land
:fora to
be
piammd soheme of land opwatwo
brou^bt ua4er
(Whither Agriculture
in India, p, 44; 1945).
(
bandry in India) and the Usar Land R^Ql^mation CommiU, P. As a matter of fact .the type of land d$ter-
ttee,
mines the method of reclamation. Alkali lands are
Soils characmainly of two types soils and salts, having abnor>
by excess of soluble
terized
The former can be
mal amounts of replaceable sodium*
reclaimed by leaching only, while the
require the
latter
conversion of sodium clay into calcium
for
whiph heavy
doses of irrigation water followed by suitable crop tions to
are most effective,
Systematic cropping
check the reappearance
of
alkali
is
rota-
necessary
in reclaimed area?*
In some places simple leaching combined with deep cultivation has given
known
successful
as 'Bari' are
said
to
ment with gypsum and calcium pensive method. in the
In
the
Punjab, where
resulted in excessive
The
results.
lands
alkali
the
well to
respond
chloride, but
treat-
an ex-
is
it
case of the canal irrigated lands
a
rise
in
the
sub-soil
alkali formation,
around blocks of suitable
water level
deep open drains
followed by heavy leach*
size
ing combined with the application of gypsum, have been
The next
adopted.
then berseem,
stage
w.as cropping
The waste lands
high PH, and which cannot be or kallar
l
can
be
reclaimed
in
wit)) .rice
and
north Bihar, having
definitely
classed as usar
doses
through liberal
of
organic apd green m.anuripg. The u?e of molasses as a ^claiming and fertilizing a^ent is said to be hopeful,
near suga,r factories, where the transport costs of molasses do not become exhorbitant, Similarly specially ia areas
The U.
P, Usar Lan4 J&eclaraafcan improving intractable alkali areas has not yet established and gypsum; sulphur ahd iron sulphate will generally effectiveness ,
,
culture for its
he
;
.. .ip.qcpirtw.MViOT'
8
ty r<^ama#m, *%ay jnrot.
of using further the * possibilities x
.
molasses as a
reclaiming
and
358
(
leaching
water
is
bundhs
is
recommended
available is
surplus canal
areas where
for
and sinking
;
)
of wells
and construction
of
good on contour lines for impounding rain-water in
other areas in addition to working out appropriate types saltworts suitable
of
for
whose
water-logged
drainage cuts is
areas construction of shallow
For the waste lands
In
soils.
alkali
cultivation
required.
not likely
is
to
be enonomic, a system of controlled rotational grazing by
paddocks and tation
of
utilization
is
improved fodder,
type
soil for
plan*
land for
The unculturable wastes
suggested.
ravines should be
of vegetation
producing.
good
leaving the surrounding usar
trees,
consisting of
of pockets of
to
produce the
they are capable of and
suitable for
managed
This will indirectly
and check further deterioration
benefit of
the nearby
land
ravines themselves* In
having perennial deep-rooted 'tans', specially in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Bhopal, tractor cultivation is supposed to be effective, and the Indore Instt* areas
tute
adopted
a
much
simple
method
of
eradication
by
deep cultivation with the help of an adjustBut the reappearable 'fttffckar' drawn by four bullocks ham of that have shows these methods not succeeded* ance occasional
Extension of Agriculture.
optimism regarding the
There
possibilities
is a
of
general feeling of bringing fresh land
under the plough, and thereby enhancing agricultural production and solving the food problem, specially in view of the vast areas of culturable land closer study this land,
and the analysis
and the limitations
facile optimism*
The
of
lying uncultivated. the
But a
nature and quality of
to cultivate
them, shatter that
earlier estimates of the
total
area of
waste land which can be brought under Cultivation ranging from 96 to 150 million acres, should not be taken to be very The most recently available data regarding land reliable.
(
classification
)
given in section
is
repitition of that is
Agriculture,
259
II
of this chapter,
being avoided here.
Government
and
The Ministry that nearly
of India, thought
a of
85
million acres of culturable waste land existed in the country
was good, fertile and culThe 6 years reclamation programme worked out by the Food and Agricultural Ministry was to add 2 million To fully implement the tons of food grains annually. and
of this only 10 million acres
turable.
Food Grains Policy Committee estimates the lands which were to be reclaimed were Punjab '5,
programme of
U.
of the
:
P. i'O,
1*0,
Bihar
*2,
Malwa Union
Union
'5,
Assam 1*0,
Orissa
4*0,
I'O,
Madras Agency Tract
with a total of
self-sufficiency included
Madhya Pradesh I'O
10*2 million acres.
only expansion
of
and Vindhya
The
by March reclaiming 6
yielding 3 lakhs tons of additional food
The present programme aims
at
which include about 4 million acres
weed
of
target of
8 lakhs acres 1952,
mil. acres
infested
areas
which are mostly private lands and require deep ploughing with a view to eradicating the
root
system
oi
weeds, and
about 2 million acres of other idle lands termed consisting mostly of government
are as follows
as 'New',
owned scrub jungles.
They
:
New Land
States.
(mil, acres.)
E, Punjab E. Punjab States Orissa
Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Madhya Bharat
Weed
infested
(mil. acres.)
-5
Nil
'2
Nil
'5
Nil
.-
'6
'5
-3
'2
-15
Nil
1-4 '8
Bombay
'3
Bhopal
Nil
*4
and Vindhya Pradesh Jaipur
Nil
*11
2'2
3-?6
Total
266
(
)
This plan is t&sed on the data furnished by states Which an overall survey before supplying the figures; Large areas of waste land In othf provinces which *re fefdamtfbte roadfe
are not included in this scheme, tackle those to
areas
which
first
mechanized operation so
put forth in increasing food
lands
immediately
production so as
The
imports.
to
intention
is to
lend themselves easily
will
maximum
that
effort
could be
productfon within the shortest
The fundamental
possible time.
make
since the
point in the
available
plan
is
to
food
increased
for
reduce and ultimately wipe out the food concentrates for the present
therefore,
plan,
on thejreclamation of land in respect of which information is available, and which satisfies two conditions (i) the lands :
500 acres each, so as
are in large blocks of at least tate
mechanical reclamation, and
the
(ii)
they
to facili-
are either
scrub jungles with spare tree growth or are weed infested, on which crops can be grown after reclamation, About 50 lakh acres was to be taken in the
first year and then the area be increased subsequently. The entire cost is Rs, 266 Various targets have been fixed for each crores. part of
was
to
the scheme, land
reclamation being the largest item.
The
dollar
requirements are Rs. 71*08 crores and the sterling requirements Rs. 64'93 crores they will be spent within ;
3 years for purchasing requisite machinery and equipments, The Indian part of the expenditure is Rs, 130 crores to be spent over a period of 7 years. in the sense that
from the cultivators
for
and who as colonists possible
year,
whose
Of
the 2*2
benefit
will be settled
areas irrigation
reclamation scheme.
areas where the
The scheme
ultimately the entire costs
are recoverable
reclamation
on those lands*
is
done In nil
schemes are being linked with
The kans
rainfall
is self-sufficient
is
mil acres
infested
between 40 of
New
land
lands
occur
in
to
75 inches per
to
be reclaimed
land situated IB heavy
1*5 mil. acres is rte*
ramWl
areas of
and la Qritsa. In these placet special
if fifatieo
The remaining area: is not necessity* wheat belt where the construction of tube-wells
is iu the
tatai
U.
ift
P.
sct^me
linked
up
scheme
of completion of the
Work
is
to
is
1 nail, tofts*
carried oat by the States with the assistance of
the Central Tractor Organization, starting in 1947 with tractors left derelict
by the U.
famous Ledo Road
in
units of 15 each,
The
each unit
b*
period 7 years, and the estimate 6f
is
annual yield of food from reclaimed land Tfie
is
The
with the reclamation of these areas.
S,
Assam,
army
after completing the
Tractors are organized into
and a mobile workshop actual
180
operation
is
attached with
started in
March 1943 in
Madhya Pradesh with kans infested lands where the cost of reclamation Was Rs. 40 pet acre. The biggest scheme is that of
U.
district district.
P.,
47 thousand acres in Ganga Khadar in Meerm in Tarai in Naini Tal
and 50 thousand acres
The
official
version of the results
is
encouraging
since cost of tractor cultivation is said to have been reduced
and good crops are reported. by the
government are:
71,497 acres and targets.
actual
areas reclaimed
32,531
acres; 1948-49,
1949-50, 98,000 acres, which are below the
The paper reports and
show contrary
The
1947*48
results,
the discussions in parliaments
indicating the reported
yields feeing
based merely on a rough estimate, of area sown multiplied
by the average crops yields, irrespective of the actual output. The Planning Commission in the First Five Year Plan fixed a target of 4 mil, acres to be restored to cultivation
from fallow land and C. T, 0.
The
1*5 mil.
acres to be reclaimed by the
other land improvement schemes
The
covet 1'9 mil. acres,
total
1955-55, which aids
at
thousand tons which
21%
is
being 7*4
further
mil acres uf*o
an additional production of 1524 of the total production
(
The
262
)
waste land which can
recent estimates of culturable
be uaed for agricultural purposes included in different land
clams
(inclusive of the current fallow land) is about 71 mil.
acres*
Out
of this
most of the land
after reclamation cultivation will
able areas are of th difficulties of
is
such on which even
be uneconomic.
Consider-
nature where technical and financial
reclamation are uasurmountable.
Really speak*
ing hardly 10 mil, acres is of the nature on which cultivation can be extended within reasonable future, which means
hardly
4% addition
to the existing cultivated area,
Most of
being sub-marginal land on which yield will be below average, the total addition in food supply from reclamation
it
The
will not be considerable,
of irrigation, of land
Merely the presence
difficulties of technical nature,
rights and of finances are tremendous. of a considerable
waste land does not lend support
such lands are not and cannot be tion th
by
landless labourers.
price
made
of
culturable
optimism.
AH
available for coloniza-
Besides, the fact that inspite of
incentive the conspicuous increase in fallow land
in the recent, past further ties of
area
10 that
shows
the
insurmountable
bringing fresh lands under cultivation,
we cannot be very agricultural
optimistic regarding the
difficul-
Therefore,
enhancement
of
production and thus solving the food problem
mainly or largely through agricultural extension. the increased
demands
of industrial
raw materials
Besides, will not
permit any considerable increase in the areas under food Hence for enhanced food supply we have to depend crops. mostly on intensification leading to increased yield per acre, This does not mean any neglect of efforts on the side of
As a matter of fact both are necessary. But be a high hope for a considerable enhanced cannot there
extension!
food production or increasing the standard through agricultural
(ZW Another interesting
study
)
is
to
determine the possi-
of extension in different parts of
bilities
the
country,
following map) showing the extent of cultivation
on the basis of newly formed
is
The
drawn
states.
EXTENT
OF CULTIVATION
(%OFNH"AQEA SOWN
TO TOTAL AREA)
(1048-40)
The
utilization
pare,
view
parts
cultivation,
of
point
The
plains.
these
of
limits
to
the
extension of
cultivation in
be considerably limited,
however, seems of
from the land-
view, are considerably reached In the
possibilities of
seem
as judged
to
difficulties
The
afford greater chances* of providing
central
But in
irrigation facilities
264
(
(the
)
most baric need in extension) ia
chance of large-scale extension, ts
Mghif
Under such
problematical.
tensification
of
agriculture
plains
and extension
better
coarse.
in
in
the
this
at least in the
the
region,
any
near future
circumstances, in?
northern and
middle zone seems
coastal to be
a
CHAPTER
VIII
Resource Utilization Continued
&
(Water
RIVER TRAINING.
I.
a
Power Resources)
Meaning and Scope of River Management. Rivers have wandering habit, and thus are by nature disorderly and desBesides, man's interference with
tructtive forces,
neglect to take precautions in the use of water, in not recognizing the
them,
e. t
restricting the flowage
of
of suffi-
water delivered
to
ways by encbroachments, and railways without
roads
construction of
occupations, sufficient
amount
(his
his error
of rivers to floodways
rights
cient capacity to deal with the i,
them
and
waterways being provided, and other obstacles) under which rivers are not able to
has created conditions
The perform their function efficiently as flood carriers, vast and to involved are human antagonistic consequences welfare,
To prevent and cure them, and
water to the greatest use, river systems are
and managed.
to
to
disciplined
behaviour,
put
be regulated
River training involves inducing rivers
submit themselves
them flow in a
further to
i. e,,
to
making
conserving of water resources,
stable regime,
and developing the whole river sjstem for the benefit
of the
region along the entire course,
The problem
of
broadly speaking the
The
River Regulation or
problem
activities are two-fold
:
Management
is
of conserving the surface- flow.
On
the one
hand they include
the problems of maintaining the rivers in
efficient
working
"
condition,
34
*.,
the problems of prevention
265
and
of
cure,
266
(
)
refering to the destructive aspect of rivers.
They include sotne
involved) e.g., flood control, maintaining
problems directly
adequate supplies in dry season, avoiding of all sorts of enchroachments on flood ways, reducing the quantity of debris to be transferred, dredging,
problems are
indirectly
and river e. g,
related,
sanitation, etc.
methods
Some
of farming,
management, kind and quantity of stock raising, windbrakes and field embankments, etc. They indirectly affect
forest
streams-flow
On
ignored, river
the
other
and
deterioration)
cannot be
hand, (on the development side)
management involves the best utilization of water for
different purposes,
The problems,
problems of irrigation,
and river-bed
as a matter of fact, vary
nature of rivers.
Narbada and
including the fisheries
power, navigation,
etc,
cultivation,
according
Rivers of peninsular India and parts
to the
of the
Mahanadi, excepting within 50 miles from
the
debouchment
their
soil
(through
into the sea,
and
their
tributaries,
flow
mostly in well'defined valleys and between comparatively and no not meander about in a lawless manner
definite bluffs,
like the alluvial
parts of the
rivers
Narbada on
on the East Coast,
of the
northern
and
India,
West Coast and
the
The problems of control, more peculiar to alluvial
the negative side, are
those of the development
alluvial
Mahanadi
specially
on
rivers, while
and conservation may be common.
Besides, there are highly complex problems of engineering
and
of
governmental relations involved in II.
PROTECTION AGAINST FLOODS.
Flood Ravages, *
it,*
The problem
of floods is very old,
The
River Training and planning of works is for multiple uses of water, and as such there is apparently a conflict of activities, Really speaking there is no conflict of activities, since from the view point of regional be harmonized with least social development such conflicts can disadvantages,
367
(
)
great deluge of legandry antiquity, which practically wiped left an almost permanent impression on
out the population, the
human mind
flood.
of the
overwhelming damage wrought by becomming more fre-
recent past floods are
In the
quent, more intense and losses are direct
the
physical
crops,
more
and some
damage of
drowning
to
Some
destructive*
The
The former include
indirect.
live-stock
damages
to
buildings,
rail-
telephone
from decreased
latter are those resulting
agricultural, industrial
the
property such as destruction of
roads, bridges, water works, sewers, streets and service, etc,
of
and commercial activities during floods
and during periods of recovery. Epidemics, usually malaand desolation. Floods involve ria, further add to the ruin a terrible amount of featist psychology
famines.
human
suffering,
amongst the people who frequently face speaking the loss of life can be
Scientifically
avoided, but
it
due
usually occurs
to
the people to leave their possessions, in lower reaches of rivers.
member
and engender a de-
is that
natural reluctance of
Generally they occur
And what
is
important to re-
man
they are largely the creation of
himself,
who, unmindful of the risks involved in striving for
liveli-
hood, tries to occupy lands on which nature has not accomp lished her for use to
work of making them fit for human which man wants them to use.
Causes of Floods, The most of
floods is
a
heavy
common and
rainfall
occuring
the
habitation and
primary cause
in a
short
time,
accummulating huge quantity of water in stream channels
beyond their earring capacity, and thus overflowing their banks.
The physical features
of the
drainage basin such as
the geological structure and the ground inclination, etc., have
an important bearing, since they affect the run-off of water, Other causes, usually termed as exceptional causes, are ; rapid thawing of snow, volcanoes bursting beneath a flowing
current, earthquakes leveling t'p or reducing the channel
simultaneous or successive bursting of
section of stfeams, artificial
reservoirs in a valley, and ice-jams or landslides
closing the outlets of valleys, etc.
depends on a sfet of conditions, which, broadly speaking, are put under three classses difiering in the aspects they present, (f) Non-alluvial, (U) alluvial, and it
Generally
(Hi) tidal
area^
In alluvial tracts rivers are
knd being usually incompetent
down
in flood
season,
to
land-building,
discharge the water brought
they normally overflow their banks.
Floods are m6re frequent and destructive in such areas where rirevs are perpetually changing their courses.
said that
It is
throughout the alluvial plains the history of civilization
been the
history of river protection
rivers the
process
reversed as the
and
The
In tidal
training. of
direction
flow is
water, having greater density than fresh
way against the current coming from the Sometimes other factors, such as forma* direction,
water, forces opposite
salt
different,
is
has
its
mouths
tion of bars at the
and
of the estuaries
the
of a steady littoral drift along the sea coast, also
operation
cause floods
in tidal regions or the lowest river reachs.
Control of floods.
Measures
for
flood
control
fall into
two groups and (ii) flood protection. (i) flood prevention, The former aim at preventing food stages, while the latter at :
minimising the
effects of flood stages
damages caused by them, noted.
First, that the
and each should be or elaboration
Two
things,
however, have
to
bt
two methods should be supplementary,
sufficiently
when needed,
flexible
And
flood control system can be planned
single measure.
or at preventing the
The
be justified in the light
to
allow a change
secondly, a
complete
and executed not as &
financial implications cannot generally of single
specific
problems.
speakiftg the social benefits, mftlti-sided direct
Really
and indirect
269
(
)
Advantages in the Idng run, leading to or affectitog soHil Water has multiprosperity, have to be take'n into Account,
The aim
ple uses,
of river control cannot be achieved
by
financially justified
it
restricting
to
particular use*
a
Therefore, the policy of flood control should form a the general national policy of conserving water
general.
part of
resources Hi
gratifying to note that the question of bearing
It is
the initial costs has recently been modified by the ties of future
and
developments specially power,
of flood control
measures are
possibili-
and high
cost's
juristified in the expectation of
serving wider needs of the country. (i)
Flood Prevention. (Storage Reservoirs.) The remedy
of floods lies in
checking the rapid run-ofi of water, or
its
whether underground or in surface and better methods of cultivation
detention by storage
Afforestation
reservoirs. facilitate the
percolation of water into the ground, and
storage in subterranean
reservoirs,
its
measures
But these
cannot be taken as basic measures of flood control because there
are considerable limitations to
form
be provided in the
of furface
them,
Storage inust
reservoirs, to hold back
water which would otherwise cause flood, and its
release
channel.
according
This
is
to
the most
the
discharging
to regulate
capacity
sound method of flood
of the
cotrol since
works can be constructed and operated with greater certainty and safety than in any other method of flood preventhe
tion. sites
But there are limitations
may
artificial
lakes
may
suitable site is found
tributaries
method
Suitable
also,
being
seriously injur other interest
;
even
if
;
a
much upstream and the uncovered, may not be benefiial to be protected, and it may not eliminate it
may
left
the area intended to
the
to ihis
not be available to store huge quantities of water
necessity o( protecting
be very
it
the lower reaches,
should be noted that complete reiei
is
Besides,
not possible
it
270
(
)
Floods can best be mitigated by combining
storage alone.
reservoir control
with improvements of the river channels
at critical places.
The
latter
involve increasing the carrying canals and
capacity of channels, provision of outlets, lateral cut-offs,
prevention of caving of banks and sediment deposit
in beds, dredging the (it)
bed and lining the banks,
Flood Protection.
(Levees),
This
etc,
is the
most usual
system of defence against floods, and was used by the Holland affords a good Egyptians and the Babylonians.
example of successful defensive embankments. Embankments as a measure of river training ar^ constructed to check the
of
deterioration
stable.
But
rivers
should
it
and
to
make
be noted that
reaches
certain
continuous
levees
without making an arrangement for drainage are harmful. It is said that this is the only method of controlling an allulevees alone cannot be
vial river, but
serve the purpose.
depended upon to must be They helped by reservoir
control.
or
Tidal Rivers,
The problem
tidal
of
regions
rivers
conditions are so diverse
is
of flood in the lowest
of
a
peculiar
range of tide,
reaches
nature.
presence
The
or other-
wise of an estuary, waves and currents forming bars, and in
the variations
standardized It Is
the
level
of
the sea,
methods of improving the
etc.
outfall
that
no
can be
embankments were originally conceived as a protection which in some cases was of great importance, Later
said that
of vested interest,
on they were used as defence against flood or as a river training measure, Besides, confinement of flood waters within leveed trough is said to increase flood heights, and secondly, fertility of alluvial valley depends upon periodic overflow, and flood control in this way proves harmful to the benefits derived from occasionally protecting As a matter of fact there is no evidence to prove that levees raise river beds and increase flood heights, The existing constructions in U. S. A, and Europe do not support this theory. In the case of the Mississippi a tendency to lower the bed is noted. The conditions of the Nile are different because the floods reach its mouth early in
agriculture offsetting
crops from flood,
spring
before crops are planted,
271
(
water cannot by nature
is to
itself
being at work fresh
forces
However, many
Suggested.
)
maintain a sea
and, therefore,
outlet,
be assisted in her attempts to discharge water
But the expenses involved are so huge that only land reclamation may not be considered as a
of rivers into seas.
justified undertaking,
is of
unless navigation
practical imf
Floods in such areas are nature s method
portance there* of
land formation, and there should be no hindrance
The
free passage of flood water by tidal obstructions* is to
remove the obstacles
remedy embankments
since
to the
to the
of
working
best
nature,
in tidal regions aggravate floods instead
of protecting them.
Ill,
means
Irrigation
the
of
purpose
IRRIGATION. supply of water to
artificial
plant growth.
for
soil
implies maintaining the
It
storage of water in the soil required for plant growth at times
and places ting the
of deficient water supply f moisture content of the soil
optimum making up it
is also a
plants.
means
make it
is
possible the a
means
is
it
of
a
to
practice
other words
crops
of
artificially
receive
all
of
Funda-
supplementing the
areas where irrigation
some water from
remove the excess it is
of
but
preventing or retarding the occurence
quantities of water in irrigated soils.
practised
secondlyi
artificially regula-
to
Primarily
natural precipitation, since in nearly is
0,,
deficiencies in the moisture content of soils,
of excessive
mentally
of
growth
.
rains;
and
water by drainage,
In
a method of changing soil sterlity caused
The term 'duty of water' is defined as the ratio of the amount of water used to the area of land irrigated, When a large amount of water is applied to a small area the duty is said to be 'low/ and conversely when a small amount of water is applied to a larger area the duty is said to be Alexander thinks that the term is a relic of early irrigation termi'high,' nology, and Israelion suggests to discard
it
becausi of being misleading.
ft
(
into fertility,
due
to
)
overcoming
1.4,,
loiy prpditctivhy
dryness,* or excessive water-supply.
can be viewed from different aspects: engineering,
It
agricultural
and economic and
designing and
social.
structures
building
The
first
(or
required
refers to storage,
conveyance, delivery and distribution of water,
diversion,
determination of water yields of rivers and water supplies for irrigated
irrigation
and
water
The second
etc.
lands,
agricultural
refers
the use
to
practices,
applicable to different climates, soils and crops, applic&tipn and the quantity
The
etc.
third relates
and desires which It
must, however,
to
the
be noted
methods
of
water for single irrigation,
of
satisfaction
essential for
is
of
rules
e. g,,
of
social
needs
any community enterprise. there are no clear cut
that
divisions between these phases and the problems in the different
The following pages
phases are interdependent.
are devoted to the last phase.
Meed and Importance, needed
for
agriculture is the
average annual high,
is
it
annual
rainfall in India,
normal
seldom
Excepting a few
by far and
The main source
was
large
it
unevenly distributed.
where is
rainfall.
is
scarce,
vast
There are vast
is fairly
sub-continent.
high, regular
uncertain,
the
Though
being about 45",
over the it
water supply
of
and
certain,
irregular
tracts in
and
which annual
*Soils formed under humid climate and those formed under arid climates differ considerably in their properties, Irrigated soils are more (Though some irrigation is found in humid typical of arid climate soils,
Barrenness regions, it is not extensive.) results from two major factors drought :
and sterlity of arid region soils and alkali. (Though alkali lands
are typical of arid regions, they are neither of general occurence nor are uniformly distributed). Barrenness, caused by drought alone cap be checked and changed into fertility by irrigation, and not that caused by alkali for which there are other methods. Secondly, after long periods of irrigation arid region soils develop
some
soils '
become
some
sterile
of the properties
of
humid region
sojls,
and
because of excessive irrigation, water-logging
precipitation artificial
is
So light that cultivation is hot possible Without
July and
There are
water supply.
which more than 80%
still
larger areas over
of the rainfall being received
between
September, and the remaining year being dry, the
uneven seasonal
distribution results in the lack of moisture
Variations in different at the time required by crops.* catchments and parts of catchments are more marked and frequent.
Beside, the seasonal and local uneven distribution,
variation
the
from year
to
tracts are considered) is so is
said to be one good,
in every ten
resulting in
much
(at
every place
if
separate
that in every 5 years
there
one bad and three indifferent years
years there
is
a scarcity of
;
marked magnitude
famine conditions and
in every about hal-fcentury abnormal over vast areas and there is a ;
monsoon
the
year
is
severe drought resulting in a widespread devastating faminei
and when requiredfor most of the crops, during greater part of the year and over by far a larger area; and there is a great deal of
The
results are that water
insecurity
of
harvests.
is
not available as
The
Irrigation
Commission 1901-3
a expressed an opinion that 25 /o deficiency from average rainfall causes some injury to crops, and 40% deficiency
generally causes severe drought,
On
the basis of the data
supplied by the Meteorological Dept,, and taking
*Where
the
annual rainfall
is
20%
defi-
below 10 or 12 inches, cultivation
Becomes practically impossible without irrigation. On the other hand where the rainfall exceeds 70 or 80 inches and has always been so abundant that the chance of its serious failure may be regarded extremely remote, Between these areas, in which the crops are agriculture is relatively safe, thus rendered safe by exclusive reliance on irrigation or by an assured and abundant rainfall, lies a vast tract of about one million square miles of which, in the absence of irrigation, no portion can be deemed absolutely secure against the uncertainties of tbe season and the scourage of famine. (Irrigation Commission, 1901-3.)
From the view Monsoon is
point of agriculture the most unsatisfactory feature failure or serious deficiency, its liability to It is mostly to overcome or mitigate the sufferings during these drought years that the great irrigation systems of India have been constructed. 35
of the
274
(
)
ciency for considerable injury and
33J%
for severe drought,
the Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation calculated the average frequency of years of drought as follows.*
The
table explains the necessity of protecting agriculture
against the vagaries of the monsoon. for carrying
necessay
providing diversity of production, for
larger yields and longer tion,
it is
on cultivation in arid and semi-arid areas, for
scientific agriculture
and
Besides,
employment
for intensification
to cultivating
popula-
of agriculture so as to maintain
such a thick population in the country and such a huge pressure on land*
The importance
of irrigation
is
also
obvious from the fact that inspite of considerable advantages of soil and climate crop production in India is not so efficient
as in
many
other countries primarily because of the defective
*N, P, C, River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p. 33,
275
(
moisture content of the
emphasized than
)
And
soils*
it
cannot
be over
sadder commentary on our
to state that 'a
economic situation cannot be found than the
close,
direct
correspondence between harvests and birth-rates and inverse correspondence between harvests and mortality/* and the security of harvests depends primarily
on the adequacy of
irrigation.
Irrigation
Irrigation is
Through Ages.
said to
be the
does not seem wrong because dependence of agriculture on rainfall renders cultiva-
oldest applied science in the world,
tion precarious,
and attempts
to
It
make
agriculture safe against
drought by providing systems of artificial irrigation must have been made since the dawn of civilization. On the basis oi the available evidence
it is
ventured
whether
to suggest)
difficult
to
say
(though some have
the earliest attempts
were made
by the Egyptians or the Babylonians or by othtrs, and how far But it is true that these attempts were contemporaneous.
were devised from
in India systeirs oi artificial irrigation
ancient times
North
lift
and in the South storage tanks and in the
irrigation
from wells and flow irrigation from
rivers have been the usual methods of irrigation,
For
the sake of convenience
divided into different periods 2 (i j
1.
2
R K
water for
the study
may be
:
Prior to the Christian Era.
tion of wells, canals, reservoirs
1939. p,
utilizing
The Vedas make men-
and dams, and use
the terms
Mukerjee, Economic Problems of Modern India, Vol.
I,
ix,
For more evidences one can look to Irrigation in India Through Central Board of Irrigation; W, Wilcox, Ancient
Ages, Leaflet No, 7
System
of Irrigation in Bengal, 1930,
have risen in irrigated regions they have also decayed and disintegrated there, Some, therefore, hold that civilization based on is destined to decline sooner or later. This agriculture under irrigation Civilizations
,
Really speaking the perpetuity of any other basis. depends on a number of factors, and of these permanently profitable agriculture is an important factpr,
can be true of civilization
276
(
signifying well, 'kulya'
signifying canal and
's
Kausiba Sutra mention canal, and Manu*
signifying dams*
smrii wells, pools and dams. refer to wells
)
Brihaspati and Narad also
and dams. These ancient writers make mention
seven types and sizes of water works, e, g*prapa kupa Kautalya kulya, padmakara, sarsi and tataka. vapi
of
t
}
t
mentions construction and repairs of lakes, canals, dams and embankments. In Sanskrit literature we come across such terms as pranali
kulya,
t
different types of canals,
kunda and tala
tanks, and tataka and sarsi is
and nalika
%
for
different size of
for
dams. There
for different size of
evidence, specially referring to later
historical
enough
nala
sarasi, nika,
times, of different systems of irrigation followed in different
reference
to different
types of instruments and hydraulic engineering.
The most
Besides, there
parts of the country.
famous was the
great
feat
of
is
engineering of
hydraulic
Ganga by Bhagirath which described in the spiritual language in the Story of Ganga
diverting the course of the sacred is
The whole operation was performed
Avataran.
in
several
stages and took a very long-time.
Beginning of Christian Era
(it)
An
inscription
Rudradaman
of
Kathiawar records cial lake
and Gupta
of
an
artifi-
was repaired by successive Maurya
It
In the
rulers.
Century A, D.
and repairs
the construction
Sudarsan.
to 10th
on the Girnar rock in
I,
south the
Chola rulers
in
1st
dams and controlled the river number of other references to different
century A. D., constructed
Kaveri- There are
a
types of works constructed of tanks
century
said
is ;
Mahendra tank
7th century,
Chingleput in
be
to
and
at
common in
;
in
half a
a big lake near
Walaja taluka in
Tamil
North Arcot
in the latter
district
different times
:
construction
tract
in the 6th
district in the
number
of
early
tanks in the
Conjeevaram and a tank
the 8th century,
by Nandivaram
;
3
number tricts
North Arcot and Salem dis-
of tanks in Chingleput,
by Pallava
King
in 9th century
channels constructed by Parantaka
I
;
number
a
(also called
in the 10th century, as proved by grants and
oi
tanks and
Vir Narayan)
inscriptions, a
channel from the Kaveri near Trichinopoly, and a tank neat Bahur near Pondicherry by Rajaraja in the latter part of the 10th century.
(Hi) 11th Century to 17th Century,
commemorate
cavated a tank and his capital
filled
it
Its
to
have ex-
with water from the Ganges, near
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
llth century.
Rejendra Chola
his victories in the North is said to
in the beginning of the
embankment
present
about 16 miles
is
long. The Bhojpur lake (of proverbial size) was constructed by Raja Bhoj of Dhar near I3hojpur the remains of which are seen about 20 miles South of Bhopal. The story of its
unusually large
size
has survived the
and as an engineering
The copper
feat
plate grants ot
refer to the
it
in 12tb century,
of
tradition;
Anantvarman and Indravarman
existence of two tanks in the
There are many other instances: Mysore
test
must have been a marvel,
llth
century.
tank
Sindhuvalli
in
tank in Musiri in Trichinopoly
a
during Chola king Rajaraja
III in the
beginning
of
the 13th
century, Pakhal lake in north of Warangal in the middle of the 13th century, Anantaraja Sagara (a huge resevoir) con-
structed by
Bhaskara in the middle
Phirangipuram tank
in
Guntur
mitra in the beginning of
Devaraja district
I
in early 14th
district
15th
16th
century, a big tank in
Samudra
dam
by
Anantpur
of the 15th
cen-
Krishnaraja of Vijaya-
century, Korrangal and
channels on the Tungabhadra
century,
constructed by Sur*
by Narsimharaja towards the close
in the early
14th
century, Haridra
tury, Nagalpura tank constructed by
nagar
of the
by the
(a big tank) constructed in the
same
Basaanna king, Sivfr
middle of the 16th
278
(
)
century near Bangalore, and a few canals constructed in the north, the most famous of which are those constructed
by Firozshah Tughlaq, the old Jamuna Canal towards the end of the 14th century, a few others in Punjab and Sindh, the extension of the canals in the north, and con-
from the Ravi by Shahjahan towards
struction of a canal
the
middle
of
17th
the
century.
evidence of maintaining and
Besides, there
is
these
repairing
enough
works, of
municipal supervision, of State help, of mutual feuds, of distribution of water,
These are some traditions
and
and
of private enterprize, etc.
of the
history,
instances furnished by legends,
They prove
against failure of rains through suitable
tion,
that protection
artificial
systems
topographical and other
to
of crops of
irriga-
physical
con-
ditions, (e.g. storage works in the south and canals in the north) was provided by native rulers from the very begin-
They also prove that huge expenditure material was made, and a high degree of
niag.
development was reached specially
gineering,
dams and
in
by
technological
with reference to the construction of
river training.
artificial
money and
drainage and hydraulic en-
Bat there seems
of agriculture in the past being wholly or
ted
in
to be no
evidence
even mainly
protec-
except in small localities,
irrigation
The
available instances simply show scattered attempts; and throughout these ages agriculture was mostly dependent on the vagaries of the rainfall failures as (to)
;
and there were occasional crop
proved by the history of famines.
The British Period.
century the British irrigation works,
they inherited
Upto the middle
Government did
not pay
and therefore some
from
their
of
the
19th
attention to
any works which
of the
predecessors (inundation canals
Upper India and storage works and tanks in the South in Madras) were ruined due to neglect. After that Specially in
279
(
a change in the policy
)
was noticed
in the
form
of
repairing
and reviving the old existing works, such as the Western and Eastern Jamna canals, Ganges canal, works in the deltas of
the
Kishna and Cavery and replacing the old
Halsi canal by the Upper Bari
began the construction
Doab
of canals
Then
canal in Punjab,
through private guaranteed
companies such as the East India Canal Co, in 1858 in Orissa and the Madras
Irrigation Co* in 186J.
It
was an
unsuccessful experiment and the progress was very slow.
On
exhausted the Orissa Co
capital being
by the
in 1866,
government were completed,
in Bihar
a policy
ot
construction
Later on the government adopted and maintenance of productive
works themselves by raising loans. of the greatest irrigation works of ructed,
e.g.,
the
was taken over
and then Orissa canals and some
Under the
this policy
some
country were const-
Western and Eastern Jamna Canals, Lower
Ganges and Agra canals, Sirhind and Colonization canals of the Punjab and the irrigation works ot the deltas of the Krishna and the Cavery, Alter the famine of 1877-78 the government specifically
recognized
works
in
specially
the
it
their
famine in
duty
tracts,
the
to
construct protective irrigation
and accordingly steps were taken and also elsewhere, g,,
Deccan
fi,
Rushikulya Project in Madras, Betwa canal in C,
Nira and Periyar canal systems in Bombay, of heavy costs, failure
of the
irregular
monsoon
demand
for
P.
and
But because
water and occasional
these works did not
pay their way,
After the famine of 187778 the government decided to set apart Rs, 150 lakhs per year as the Famine Relief and Insurance Fund, half of it was to be spent on famine relief when need arose and the other half was Later on the whole of this amount was allotted for canals and railways. used for protective works, The Secretary of State in 1910 sanctioned a provision of an annual subsidy of Hs 25 lakhs for the construction of protective works in addition to Rs 75 lakhs from Famine Relief Fund, This full amount was never utilized upto the war of 191418 when it was
retrenched,
(
and,
the
therefore,
280
)
on
concentrated
government
more
During this period the was considerably influenced by the recomthe Famine Commission of 1880, which
Remunerative works in the Punjab, irrigation policy
mendations
of
emphasised the construction
of
famine protection side by side works.
The
increase
of
Irrigation
food
railways as a
of
with protective irrigation
Commission
supply,
measure
of 1903, insisting on the
recommended
the
constructed of
remunerative works in Sind, Punjab and parts of Madras which were not vulnerable to famines, and where a quick increase in
food supply was possible. of
the construction
For famine areas they suggested
protective
works which,
though not
directly paying, would decrease the expenditure on famine For Bombay Deccan they recommended canals fed relief.
from storage lakes in the Ghats, and also recommended the
As a result of their Kistna and Tungabhadra projects, recommendations a large number of irrigation works were constructed between 1904 and 1914, specially the famine protective
works in the
hilly
tracts
in
C.
P.,
Bombay and
Bundelkhand, Triveni Canal in Bihar and the Triple Canal Project (Upper Jhelum,
Upper Chenab and Lower Bari Doab)
in the Punjab,
Under subject.
the
Reforms of 1919 irrigation became a provincial
The sanction
the Secretary of State
estimated
to
cost
was no longer
of
the government of
was required only when
over Rs, 50 lakhs
restricted
to
;
the use
India and of the
work was
of loan
funds
productive works and funds
were also available from the Provincial Famine Insurance Grants when the same was not required for famine relief. After that, and specially after 1922, we notice a remarkable activity in irrigation, tt>
and many important irrigation schemes The Royal Commission on Indian
have been taken up*
Agriculture advised the provinces to follow the example 6f
Bombay
to investigate the natural
lands from famine,
of
attention to be
improvement
to the
paid
of
and
minor
resources for the protection
recommended more
further
preservation and
construction,
we rks, formation of and
irrigation
assistance to Cooperative Irrigation societies to carry out
maintain protective works, establishment
between
the
Agriculture and the
Irrigation
creation of local advisory committees
about irrigation matters, and the
bureau
information
of
was given
to in
effect
of Irrigation
of
completed during
in India
Dam
and Lloyd
in
Canals in
at
when
the
Some were
the
of :
in U, P,
in
Sutlej Valley
t
in
1934,
and
in the
the
more recent works
Punjab,
Damodar Canal
occupies the
first
policy the
key
is
in
like the
Bengal
P.
The national government in problem have shown remark-
activity in respect of irrigation,
is
1928,
Sukkur Barrage and 1932-3, Punjab Sind in 1932 Cauvery Reservoir and Mettur Project
which (together with Five Year Plan
priority in the
having an allotment of Rs 561*41 out
water
Dam
the
After the Independence,
The new
important works
ft.)
their anxiety to solve the food
power)
Bureau
Bhandardara
the
and the Ganges lube-Well Scheme in U.
able
Central
as an essential adjunct to the
in
Emerson Barrage (V
recommendation
and Nira Right Bank Scheme L Bhatgar in Bombay in 1 25 and 1926 270
the
Madras
in
1931,
time
respectively, Sarda Canals
works
last
Revenue, this
establishment of a central
The
May
Departments,
deal with complaints
Delhi*
was established
Central BOH rd
(the highest
at
to
and
closer relation
of
of
Rs, 1:068*78 crores.
based on the acceptance of the facts that
to the solution of
most of our problems,
i.
en 1
food, industrialization and navigation etc., that agriculturists greatest need is an assured water supply and that irrigation is
the
most potent agent fbr increasing crop-yields; and the 36
(
recommendations
seem
to
of the
form the basis
Year Plan.*
A
282
)
Famine Enquiry Commission, of the
irrigation
distinction is
major or big schemes*
1945,
policy in the Five
made between minor and
The former are intended
to yield
quick results and are to be accomplished mostly by private individual efforts, assisted of course by the government, under the Grow More Focd Compaign. The later involve
huge financial expenditure, are in the form of gigantic dams across rivers, storing water in huge reservoirs and regulating through canals at desired pace whenever needed, using water for several purposes, e. g,, irrigation, navigation, generating power and fish culture, etc* The recently held
its
flow
the measures that may be adopted for increasing the area under and the yield of crops on the land already under cultivation, the first place must be assigned to works for the supply and conservation of water, (The Famine Fnquiry Commission Final Report, 1945 p. 129.)
*Among
cultivation
:
The controversy
'irrigation vs railways' which was very prominent in the closing years of the last century, and in which R, C, Dutt took a leading part, has been abated now. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the construction of railways as a measure of famine protecAs a result of this and tion side by side with protective irrigation works. also for military and administrative considerations there was a phenomenal expansion of railways, The result was that by 1902 the government expenditure on railways was Rs 370 crores and on irrigation only Rs, 38 crores The disparity appeared objectionable on account of the following reasons (a) intensity and recurrence of famines at the close of the 19th :
century, (b) railways being losing concerns
till
then,
(c)
influence of British
manufacturers and capitalists on Government of India to hasten railway construction under guarantee system, fd) protective irrigation works were not paying and hence progress was slow, but at that time a growing sense of responsibility for extending relief to famine tracts developed, and accelerated the decline of indigenous (e) undue hastening of railways industries, increasing the pressure on agriculture, and thus partially defeating the object of protective railways, namely to reduce the severity of famines,
As a result of the recommendations of the Irrigation Commission, 1901, the irrigation policy of the government became more liberal, and railways also began to pay And, therefore, the old controversy ended. But going to the merits of the controversy the proportion of expenditure between irrigation and railways at any time, though disputable, can be decided only with reference to the prevailing conditions. As a measure of protection But it against famine they are supplementary rather than antagonistic, should be noted that irrigation leads to additional food supply while railways
lead to better distribution,
Though both
the pressing food problem necessitates policy in the Five Year Plan,
are inadequate in India at present, of irrigation, and we find this
more
(
International
283
)
Exhibition
Engineering
at
the
Delhi,
Fourth International Congress on large dams, a Sectional Meeting of the World Power Conference and the First International Congress on Irrigation and canals, in Jan
have considerably stimulted interest and
The Extent
of
in
Talking
Irrigation,
1951,
activity,
absolute terms
Our
India's leadership in the field of irrigation is obvious. total
irrigated
acreage
which
about 48 million acres
is
EXTENT OF fw'
50
-
SO
" I0
-%
'
.OF
MST IRRIGATED (
AVERAGE
THE AVERAGE
IRJUGATION AQEA TO
OF -15-46
HfcT
AREA
~
ANHUAL RAIHfAll
!
at
present
is
not only largest in the world but also exceeds the
combined acreage
irrigated
in
U.
S. A.,
U.
S, S.
R,
Japan,
t
and Italy, though they occupy an area of more than 10 times of that of the Indian Union, Our length of irrigation channels is over 60,000 miles, of the earth.
*
.,
The extent
more than 2$ times
of irrigation in different States
basis of the average of 4 yrs.
The extent irrigated)
is
of irrigation
maximum
the circumference
in
(%
45-46
of
to
the
PEPSU, and
4849
is
on the
as follows,
cultivated
area being
is relatively
more in
(
ate
)
Punjab, Madras, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Travancore and Cochin, Bihar atid Ajmer. It is not uniformly distributed, and over 70% of the irrigated area lies The woist in U. P,, Madras, Punjab, Bihar and PEPSU. States in respect
of
irrigation
are Tripura, Bhopal, Coorg,
Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Bilaspur and Kutch, where not even 10% of the cultivated area is irrigated. Taking humid area and the semi-arid and arid areas separately we find that in humid regions about Saurasthra,
15%
of the cropped area is irrigated, and in the alluvial part of the semi-arid and arid region the extent of irrigation is about 45%, and in the central tableland it is only 10%. The net area irrigated by different sources in different States in 1948-49 was as follows (thousands of acres.) :
(a)
Included under private canals,
(b)
Below 500
acres.
286
(
)
UNIfWOiATEO
IRRIGATED
80-5%
(K)'5%)
AREA
PRIVATE
AREA ICUltlVATED
9-6'/i
I
(43-8'/t)
TANKS 16-3% H--+ -n-'4 WELLS, 2<>-Qfc ,-n- f +
OTHERS 5-0% 1
SUN-CULTIVATED *"
AREA (56%)
Of
the total
canals
irrigated
area about
44%
and about
(34% by government
is
irrigated
10% by
by
private
canals) which are the most important source of irrigation at
16% by banks, about 27% by wells including tubeand 13% by other sources Irrigation by canals is
present, wells,
.
done more
in
Madras,
Bihar and Rajasthan.
Madhya Pradesh,
Utter
Pradesh,
Private canals
are
Punjab,
Jammu and Kashmir and common in Madras which has
Bihar, Assam,
Punjab. Tank irrigation
is
most
about 35,000 of them and then come Bihar, Bengal. bad,
PEPSU,
mostly found in
Mysore and Orissa,
Hydra-
Unlike wells which are mostly
owned, tanks are almost always administered by the State. Wells are most common in northen India specially privately
Utter Pradesh,
Punjab, Rajasthan
PEPSU
and Bihar,
the Central and Southern India, they are less in
the area
they are
loans.
number and
commanded by each well is also less, In the South most common in Bombay, There are more than 2J
mill, wells.
truction
In
is
A
They
are mostly private works, but their cons-
helped by the government by advancing 'tacavi large
number
More Food Compaign,
is
recently
1
sunk during the Grow
This sort of development in different
287
(
)
HNlAL CAHALS KOX-PtREHNIAJ. CAHALS
WIMDATiON CAHALS
[SI!
been parts of India has largely
PRIVATE CANALS
governed by physical factors
the soil specially the topography, the river system,
and
profile,
the depth of water table, etc.
The extent considerably.
under difierent crops also varies irrigated area to total area under
of irrigation
The
% of
some important crops
in 1948
was as follows
:
(
'Excluding merged territory. very negligible extent
On soon,
288
Blank
negligible,
the whole Kharif crops
and
irrigation is
Besides, about
80% of
to
crop not grown or grown to a than 500 areas,
(a) less
depend mostly on
mostly devoted
to protect
the food supply being
and only 20% from Rabi devoted
)
cash crops and very
little
to
PEPSU, Madras, Mysore,
Delhi,
mon-
from Kharif crops
crops, these facilities are
food crops,
are by far and large unirrigated, except Punjab,
the
Rabi crops.
to
largely Millets
some extent
in
Ajmer and Kutch,
EXTENT OF
% Of
IfeftltfTlftl
OF DIFFEftEHT CtffS
IRRIGATED TO TpTAL CROP
AREA
OQ48-IW) 100
eo
40
1ST 352 '25
\
20
1-0
*
^
StfSujtit^i o5=cofc< t/>CpeiZ:OCOO 5
About
1/4 of the
5
rice crop is irrigated. in
Cochin,
wheat and barley areas
more uniform so
case barley
These crops are Punjab. Utfcar
an
and Nearly and irriga-
Travancore and
far
essentially
PEPSU
Kashmir,
is
is
Jammu and
crop
tion
It
<*
Madras, Mysore, Hydraban,
irrigated
1/3 of the
5
as
in
the
fcre
case
the different
irrigated
irrigated, of
wheat than in the
States
to a relatively
are
concerned.
greater extent in
PEPSU, Rajasthan, Ajmer, Kutch, Cotton on the whole mostly depends on
Pradesh,
Delhi and Bihar.
monsoon but
mainly an irrigated crop in Punjab, PEPSU and Ajmer, and considerably irrigated in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Sugarcane depends by far
the
is
and large on irrigation except 'amongst the important sugarcane areas) in Bihar where abbut 1/3 of the crop is irrigated, Inspite of such a vast development hardly 20% of the net cultivated the remaining
area
80%
is
protected
by
depend^ oh the
artificial
irrigation
and
vagfcrtes of the mOrtsoon.
Both the percentage of area irrigated and the quantity of water used are comparatively very small. And, therefore^ agriculture 37
is
said
to
be a gamble in the monsoon.
The
290
)
consequences are that crop conditions and farm prosperity are directly governed by the monsoon. The year it is adequate and well distributed, crops Punjab, are good and farmers are better. But the year it is
normal
.
0.,
timely,
abnormal in any way, the crops wither and famine conditions prevail. Besides, there is
there
one more interesting
an impiession that irrigation
is
is
fact,
Generally
very necessary,
if
not
under double cropping, The table on page 284 showing the extent of irrigation, and the following table show that double cropping, at least at indispensable, for increasing the area
prtsent, does not of the
there is
depend on
double cropped area
irrigation. is
actually
a possibility of increasing the
(or intensification
of
its
Irrigation
irrigated,
1012% Hence
double cropped area
even under the existing not the most important factor
cultivation)
circumstances, and irrigation
standing in
Only about
is
way,
Methods and Practices,
irrigation implies the
way
in
The term method
which water
is
applied
Ordinarily speaking there are four methods of doing
of
to land. it.
(i) flooding, practised where irrigation water is abundent and inexpensive. There are several methods
It
is
291
(
of flooding
guide
:
from
(*)
termed as flooding; divided into a number
made
water
is
tip*
(d)
;
made
to
i,
This
border -at rip flooding,
of strips, sufficiently
when
number
a
to flow into relatively level plots
also in
without levees to
e. t
movement.
its
to
permeable
heavy
to
is
;
popularly
when
wide and
flow towards the lower end
covered with water
(c)
of large
field is
long,
and
flooding by
streams are
surrounded by levees,
which should be quickly
soils
prevent losses through deep percolation,
which water percolates so slowly sufficiently moistened during the time a
soils into
they are not
that
(b)
check flooding
suited specially
and
field ditohea,
flow or restrict
its
)
sheet of water flows over them,
and
(e}
baain flooding, which
is
method adopted in irrigating orchards, Sometimes the furrows are deep as for (fi) By furrows. the crops like potatoes or for orchards, and sometimes they essentially the check
are shallows as for beat* Sub-irrigation.
(ill)
bit, if
any.
it is
supply ditches, and
water
to
(it?)
In
which land surface
done in two ways (b)
:
uncontrolled
(a)
is
wetted a
controlled by lateral
by excess application of
higher lands,
Spraying or sprinkling.
Only a limited quantity of and it is generally done
water can be supplied in this way, in the case of pot cultivation.
The term 'method
1
which means the way in which of irrigation water applied to land, should not be confused with the term 'sources of irrigation', which refers to the forms of irrigation works such as canals, ,
is
wells and tanks, etc,, through which water is drawn from its natural position. It is interesting to enquire as to what determines the selection of the method of irrigation, The method depends largely, though not wholly, on the crops produced. And in the selection o' the sub-irrigation method the most important consideration is given to the soil conditions There are many factors influencing the amount of water used in irrigation. They can be put under three broad classes each of which
includes many specific factors and chemical including (i) Biological readily available soluble plant food nutrients in the soil, chemical composition of irrigation water and the kinds and the amount of alkali salts in the t
(ii) Physical, including climatic, such as rain, wind, heat, length of season, soil properties such as texture, depth and permeability, and land preparation such as conveyance and delivery, etc, (iii) Administrative regulating the delivery of water, whether in continuous flow or in otational or turn method or delivery on demand,
soils etc.
t
(
to
292
)
Another way of classifying the methods of irrigation is (i flow irrigation, when put them under two broad heads :
water flows from land in response
when
the
supply
is
source in rivers, reservoirs, or lakes to
its
and
to the force of gravity,
location
and topography
(ii) lift
with
irrigation,
respect
to
water
it cannot flow over the land by gravity, be raised by some mechanical device from its
such that
and has
to
natural source.
The term
'irrigation
practices'
refers to such things as
the size of stream, area covered under a stream, frequency
and the amount of water
of irrigation
conditions: locality,
They are detetmined
etc,
irrigation,
and
(i)
applied in single
Soils
(iii)
under cultivation,
mostly
of
the
Irrigation works
are
(ii)
the crops giown,
Classification of Irrigation
Works.
classified into four kinds, the first three
commonly
are the main, while the forth
is
not
are
Canals,
which
is
is
concerned,
:
They are
Canals,
(i)
of
commonly found, and
not very important so far as the total irrigation
They
by three
climate
of
three
kinds
:
a)
Perennial
They are constiucted by putting some barrage year. The canals
across rivers which flow throughout the are, therefore,
independent
of the natural
water level in the
and have an assured water supply all the year round, The gigantic canal systems of U. P, and Punjab are of this kind, (b) Inundation Canals. They are drawn from rivers
river,
without any barrage.
They
get water only
flooded and water reaches a cettain level, in
the
river,
canal fluctuates with the
natural flood level in the
and becomes scanty when the level
by these canals September.
is
when the river is The water supply
is
low.
Irrigation
mostly confined to a period from June
Sind canals before
the
construction
Sukkur Barrage, some Punjab canals even
of
to
the
at present are of
293
(
this
type,
(o)
Storage
)
Works Canals.
drawing water from storage which a
dam
They
are caqals
constructed by building
is
across a valley to store rain water during the qaonsoon
period.
Such works have been
in
existence in India from
very old times specially in the Deccan,
Madhya Pradesh and
Bundelkhand, (ii)
(Hi)
Wells, including both the surface and the tube-well*
Tanks, of
by constructing
all sizes
dams
ranging from huge lakes, formed
across the beds of irregularly flowing
rivers, to small village
ponds in which a small quantity
of
rain water is collected. (iv)
Other
Works,
generally of
and temporary dams holding The classification of government
rivers
ever,
made
in a different way.
lift
from
irrigation
flood water,
irrigation
works
is,
how-
Upto 1921, for the purpose of
indicating the source from which the funds for the construc-
works were drawn, they were classified as Productive Works, (t) They were expected to yield within 10 years of their completion a net revenue sufficient to tion of these
:
cover the annual interest charges on the capital investment.
They were mostly found
in northern
India and Madras, and
were financed by loans, (ii)
Protective Works.
They were intended
to
seive as
were not expected to be the necessity of diminished They periodical expenditure on famine relief. The cost was charged on the current revenue of the government and was generally met from the annual grant set aside for
insurance against famine, and directly remunerative.
famine
relief
and insurance.
They were constructed
in the
precarious tracts specially in the Deccan. (Hi)
Minor Works,
This] was a miscellaneous
including works (specially tanks) which paent inherited fropa early rulers,
apd
the
also a
British
class
Govern-
few which they
294
(
They were
constructed.
)
financed from current revenues,
all
and loans were permitted only in case of productive ones. those These minor works were further classified into two :
for which capital and revenue accounts for
which they were not
were kept ard those
kept,
After 1921 the old classification has been changed
now
is
it
possible to finance any
loans irrespective of its
The
work
for
which
are classified into two
No
reference
from
}
(protective
and now the
:
Works
(i)
classification
abolished *
and minor works) have been classification is
utility
and
remunerative character or otherwise,
two categories in the old
last
of public
t
is
made
:
(*')
to
accounts are kept,
capital
Productive, and
(ii)
source from which
the
They
Unproductive.
funds for
construction are drawn,
Non-Capital Works,
(ii)
which no
for
capital
accounts
rainfall
amounts
are kept.
The Water to2750mil! is lost
by the
Potential,
ac.
ft,
Of
The mean annual this
51%
or
about
14CO mill.ac.it,
through evaporation and transpiration, and soil.
The remaining 49%
or
is
absorbed
1350 mill
about
ac
ft.
forms the annual surface run-off drained by our mighty rivers, the peak discharge hi the lower reaches of a number of
Converted
which exceeds two million cusecs.
into
a
the rivers carry 1*87 mill* cusecs all the regulated discharge,
'We, however, come across the words
1
and 'major' irrigation under the Grow More Food Compaign, and the Five Year Plan, The word 'minor here has no reference to the old classification. The distinction between major and minor is mostly made in respect of costs involved, time taken in the completion, and by implication it amounts to signify works mostly constructed by the government and those constructed by private individuals, with the help of the government Major works in this context refer to dams, canals and multi-purpose projects, and minor ones refer to construction and repair of wells, tanks, digging of new channels, repairing pr clearing old ones, and small lift irrigation schemes from rivers, etc. works
'minor
in the irrigation plans carried out or suggested
1
295
(
)
year round, and this water spread over the culturable area The idea of the will cover it to a depth of about 3J feet.*
magnitude of our water potential can be formed in another way also. Though the exact proportion of water which seeps into the ground has not been assessed,
form the underground reservoir a huge quantity, and roughly
to
is
it
not
Regarding
the surplus flow
less
the time taken by a
30-35% of the annual
than
speaking
man
said
it is
to
that in
shut his
again rivers discharge 1*87 mill, cubic
The
quantity
meter
is
to
enough
height of about 1400
to a
Qutab Minar. Considered as an enormous volume, and the ''India is
approximately
eyes and open them ft.
a circular
fill
rainfall.
of
water into sea.
tank of 40
ft.
dia-
6 times the height of the whole the water potential is
ft.,
a
CW1NC
believe that
rightly
fortunate in possessing these resources in
abun-
1
The most dance and having them strategically distributed. complacent feature about the water resources is that they are renewable annually, as there
snow on
is
monsoon brings
the
an&
are
a perennial asset.
mountains
fresh quantities
to
So long
feed rivers and the
annually
to
continue the
hydrological cycle the flow of rivers and the sub-soil supply will continue to
be
replenished; and the result
development based on
this asset
must be
of
a
is that
the
permanent
nature.
At present roughly speaking 76 being used in irrigation. This is hardly
Possibilities of Extension. mill, ac,
ft.
"CW1NC
of water is
Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950, p. 3. Irrigation Commission, 1901, approximated the surface flow from an area of 1,434,000 sq, miles (excluding the catchment basin of the Braham:
The
putra and that part of India which
lies west ward of the Indus watershed) on the basis of the computation from the rainfall, The Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation of the N.P.C, 1947, thought that in view of the fresh data being available in regard to the proportion of rainfall running off that calculation was optimistic. (N.P.C, River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p, 32.)
to 51 billion cubic feet,
3% of
and 5'6%
the total potential
The area
and
irrigated
the
quantum
there
seem But
of irrigation.
view
should be noted
that>
factor in question of water supply is the
form
tion (in the
have
to
of rain,
whole of
the
earth,
of
the
potential
be vast possibilities of the extension
to
it
in
water used are
of
quantity
comparatively very small, and
surface run-off,
of the total
it
though the primary
amount
of
precipita-
dew and snow) which reaches
the
we
being not available for irrigation,
take into account only the utilizable
on the other hand, we have
to
And
quantity.
be mindful of the economic and
engineering limitations, In respect of the surface flow, the Irrigation
NPC
the
and the
CWINC
all
agree that a
cannot be made available for Where the rainfull is high there
utilization
part
of
it
in certain tracts*
use
is little
be conditions not favourable
Commission,
large
of
for
water, and
The
there
may
NPC
thought that the surface flow of our rivers amounted
storage.
to
and though most of it could be used for generating power, only a fraction was employable for irriga*
50
billion cubic feet,
'The utilizable quantity
tion
maximum
of
17)
billion
estimated that, 6'75 billion utilized.*
In respect
it is
ground for
1
is
cubic
of the
probably about 15 (with a feet,
cubic feet or quantity
said that not even 2/ of 2
irrigation.
Though
the
and
total
it
of
this,
it
was
45% were being
percolating into the is
drawn by wells
underground supply
is
a
huge quantity, it is not a measure of the potentialities of draft from wells, since extremely slow percolation (usually not 1,
NPC. River The
Training and Irrigation, 1947,
p, 32,
Commission, 1901, estimating the volume of water expended on irrigation from wells at about 1 billion cubic feet, have recorded that this is not more than 1 J% of that portion of rainfall which penetrates the soil. The Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation (of the NPC) considered it to be a 'careless statement, since total rainfall minus run-off does not mean ground-water,' Even afte^r making an allowance for evaporation and transpiration, the sub-soil supply is enormous, and a very small 2,
portion of
it is
Irrigation
being tapped at present.
more than
a few feet a day) leads to a slow rate of delivery,
and hence the amount available
at
1 specific point is small.
any
Besides, even in the old controversy regarding the inexhaustibility
or otherwise of the 'and er-flow
opinion
now favours
view
the
1 ,
the majority of the
that the sub-soil supply is
by
no means inexhaustible* 2
The broad conclusions which can be drawn from first,
inspite of a vast irrigational
India a leading place in the psssibilities exist
the potential
word
for further
quantum
is
:
development which gives in this respect,
extension.
measure
not a
this are
still
Secondly, though
of extension,
utilizable quantity is only a small fraction of
it,
the
a tremenous quantity, and only a minor portion of actually used so far, quantitatively
greater
and the latter it
is
being
speaking our resources
are not inadequate, and provide a hope for vast extension.
But a few considerations are
to
be kept in mind
:
(a)
The
resources
imposes two
engineering, pertaining
to the physical
geographical distribution of these
kinds of limitations
:
obstacles, and socio-economic, pertaining to the character of the
land irrigated and
satisfied*
(b)
The
the
socio-economic needs
modern
technological
specially the hydraulic engineering
to
be
developments
and the improvements
methods and the technique of water conservation, are making practicable what formerly was considered to be in the
impossible and impracticable) and are thus adding to our water resources, (c) Development of irrigation is said to
be essentially a community enterprise or a public responsi-
A fair proportion ol water thai percolates into the ground, 1, utlimately reaches the streams acid rivers through discharge by springs Thus the ground-water reservoir is nature's apparatus to ant} seepage. regulate the perennial fiow of fivers, (NPC, River Training and Irrigation 1947, p, 33 K Fora detailed study one, may refer to Stamp, Auden, Brieftic 3, and others, apd the NPC, Tfce experience of the tufoe-well scheme of the western U, F, also proves that uaderfitouBd supply feint ine*faauatibte, 38
298
(
It
bility.
)
for as
seems correct so
the major
works are
concerned because financially, administratively and technologically they
are beyond the individual and cooperative
But so far as most of the minor works are concerned,
effort,
must be developed essentially through
specially wells, they
private
efforts. 1
Talking in terms of the acreage which can be irrigated, it is
impossible to forecast with any degree of
becuse
the ultimate limit,
developments and
gical
it
will
the
depend upon
reliability
the technolo-
other socio-economic factors
which cannot be predicted over a distant future, The NPC have, however, hazarded a guess regarding the possibilities of irrigating
an area of 116 million acres
50 from govern-
'.
ment canals and reservoirs, 60 from other sources utilizing surface flow and 6 from wells drawing the underground 2 Such a forecast can be treated hardly anything supply,
more than a vague hope. assume a limited period. outlined a constructive for the extension of
A
better
The
course,
Irrigation
programme
however,
is
to
Commission, 1901,
for the then
Br, India
about 6 million acres in 20 years under
government canals and
reservoirs,
and further suggested The Advisory
an increase of 16 million acres under wells.
Planning Board, 1947, mentioned
that the
already under construction or in
irrigation projects
contemplation are ex*
1 There is a view that irrigation mostly concerns groups of society, and must be solved through group action, Individual efforts cannot go a long way. There is also an opposite view that development of irrigation from in importance to that from works private works is at least equal constructed by government, (Woodhead Commission, 1945, p, 334.) Their conjecture in regard to expansion under 'minor class' of 2. works is 13 mill, acres 5 under wells, 3 under tanks and 5 under oth.er ,
;
sources, Further out of the total surface flow, taking 17 billion cub* c feet as the maximum utilizable amount, they thought that 110 mill, acres could be irrigated. In the former category the last two forms depend
mostly on surface flow. The total, therefore, comes to about 115 million acres for the next two decades however, they looked forward for an addition ;
of 16 mill acres only,
299
(
)
peered to bring 20 million acres under irrigation in 10*12 years.
A more
1
accurate and
reliable data has
been
fur*
In the beginning of 1951 there were 135
nished recently.
schemes under construction in different parts of the country. They were expected to be completed within 6 to 10 years,
and were
to
take a few years
more
for
irrigation to
be
The additional irrigation developed fully, to be 5'5 mill, acres in 1955-56, 9'2 mill, acres in 1959-60 was expected
and 12 '9
acres
mill*
In
ultimately.
addition
to
these
schemes which were in progress there were 122 other proThe jects which were under various stages of investigation.
under execution
completion of these together with those
was
to
provide
mill, acres *,*,
irrigrtion
an
for a total area of
Planning Commission
and power
to
projects
later
additional area of 42
90
to
100 mill acres, 2
The
on estimated that the irrigation
included
the
in
first
part
of
the
Plan will irrigate an additional area of 8*8 million acres in
1955-56 and 16'5 mill, acres ultimately. 3
The
actual
Plan,
however, has increased these targets, and by 1955-56 aims
an additional acreage of 8*5 million acres under Major Irrigation Works and 11*2 mill, acres under Minor Irrigation
at
Works, and thus mill, acres
The
to
bring the total irrigated area to about 70
by the end
of the First
Five Year Plan,*
rate of extension is also an
important consideration
The
in this study. past history shows that this rate has not been commensurate with needs, and even if the targets under the Five Year Plan are achieved the increasing po[ulation
and
the
growing
demands
for
agricultural
1,
Report of the Advisory Planning Board, 1947,
2,
The Hindustan Times
Engineering
production
p, 10,
Supplement,
January
1951, p, 111, 3,
A
4,
The Hindustan Times, December
Draft Outline of the First Five Year Plan, 1951, p, 123, 9, 1952,
p,
13,
300:
(
The NPC wished
demands,
will pot fresh
)
it
be increased
to
depends on the of the economic country, and in the near progress general future it cannot be very rapid howsoever urgent the needs to
3 times*
pay
But
it
should be noted that
it
be*
The choice of systems.
In view of the pressing needs
enhancing agricultural production, and secondly, in view of the fact that agriculture is mostly a gamble in the
for
monsoon, utmost expansion
of
needed.
is
irrigation
But
the systems of irrigation to be developed in different tracts will be
governed by
meteorological, geological and
local
In the
other physical conditions.
choice of system, there-
there cannot be any uniformity in different regions,
fore,
Besides, there
no question
is
systems on the
basis
of
of choosing
between different
comparative merits and de-
their
They are supplementary and complementary The Woodhead Commission competitive.
rather
merits.
than
observed that
'the
solved by mere
method
problem of wattr supply
extended application
of irrigation but
every possibility plored,
and
of
irrigational
depend on their suitability In
humid regions
all
Drainage to
for is
rightly
not be
particular
methods* *
Hence
expansion has to be exof
different
system
will
for different tracts or regions.
the State
works are said
been generally successful, because
demand
one 1
by the use of
the development
of
will
irrigation-water
is
rainfall
not constant
an important problem in
to
have not
being high, the
and sustained.
this region
which has
be tackled before irrigation can be
considerable extent. offer
great facilities
developed to any The alluvial plains on the other hand for wells and canals, and they have
been taken advantage of considerably, Irrigation in the Central Tableland is poorly developed, and the most common *Final Report of the Famine Enquiry Commission, 1945, p, 129,
system
is of
tanks which
only local
utilize
rainfall,
There
that region is neither copious nor certain.
scope for the
development
which in is
a great
of canals 1 through the provision of
Storage, since the higher slopes of the elevated plateaux have
a
humid climate and
there are
many
there and run through this region* flow irrigation
graphy or due
to insufficient
underground water
will,
water supply, but ample quantity lift irrigation should be deve-
exists,
an expensive form*
it is
loped, though
where
not possible either due to unfavourable topo-
is
of
rivers which start from
Besides, in areas
The
actual
method
however, depend on the quantity of available water.
Considering the different systems separately, private canals do not seems to have great scope, and with the of
development
more
efficient
means
the old private ones are
gradually going out of use as in Bengal,
Bihar and Madras,
Tanks are found most extensively in areas of low rainfall* As storages they are also useful where the rainfall is ill-distribuBut they are expensive in construction and upkeep, and
ted.
liable to
rainfall
fail
water
when most wanted,
since in the years of less
The
supply in tanks is also less.
NPC
believe
most of the suitable sites being utilized, the scope for further extension is limited. On the other hand the CW1NC that
seem
to
be very hopeful about
it,
2
By
entrusting the construc-
repair and upkeep to village communities, however, some development is possible specially through small units. 3
tion,
One advantage
1.
a rise in the spring
in
level.
Schemes aimed
2.
at
developing canal irrigation in this region will be It will
increase the efficiency of wells.
impounding water during the monsoon season,
when large quantities are available, for use during drier parts of the year when insufficient quantities flow in the rivers have to be designed, (CWINC Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950 p. 3). :
Large tanks need considerable finances and technical assistance to safe against breeches. Government alone can construct and maintain them, In case of small units the repairs may be 3
.
make them reasonably
as difficult as maintaining village huts in repair, Besides, irrigation engineers believe that it is less costly in the long run to allow these works
breech every 15 years or so, then to incur expenditure on preventing under abnormal conditions. River Training an| (NPC Irrigation, I947 p, 39).
(o
breakdowns
:
f
302
(
)
In areas of high rainfall and sub-montane tract small storage can be extended considerably, They will be more useful to rice
specially
storage
crop during breaks in the rainfall.
Again
not necessarily confined to open reservoirs only.
is
Underground storage
is
equally important, but the field for
utilization is limited.
its
Wells are a very suitable and specially
and
efficient
where underground water
(as is
The scope
at
is
frequently the case) the quality for their
development is very Commission, 1901, was certain that there
which
form of irrigation
an economic depth, not unsuitable.
is
The
vast. is
Irrigation
no single province
form of irrigation might not be very largely extended with advantage. There is a large scope for
in
this
expansion specially in the sub-montane generally lies so close but
successful,
to the surface
in
tract,
which water
that canals
on the other hand harmful.
will not be
In the areas
served by canals specially the alluvial plains they will add materially
to
the
utility
certain tracts of Central
are frequent and severe,
except
at prohibitive costs,
of
canals as their adjuncts.
In
and South India, where droughts it
is
not possible to construct canals
and
to assure
them
of
water-supply
when most needed, hence wells are the only form of irrigation* Considerable expansion is possible through private efforts, though aided by the government.* *It will not suffice
to
extend
irrigation
by governments, private irrigation works must If the area under irrigation is to be expanded increase in the number of private wells Final Report, 1945, p. 135), sion
is
Wells
ofier
a better
through projects constructed, also be greatly expanded lo the fullest extent,
imparative
a large
(Woodhead Commis-
:
in which State can encourage the development further research into sub-soil water-supply, specially where such information is inadequate, (b) technical advice and assistance where areas such in information is available, staff by special (c)
There are many ways
of private wells
:
(i)
employment means of lifting water, specially in the regions where water table is deep and electric power is likely to be made available, (mechanical devices operated either by animal power or any other power, and increasing the yield of open wells by tapping additional strata) and financial assistance by way of loans and grants, (The Irrigation (d) of better
and more
efficient
808
(
)
crop security,* have an advantage that unlike rainfall and not vary greatly
surface water underground supply does
between wet and dry years, and they are easy because it
as
ol
being within the limits of individual
should be noted that the sub-soil supply is
is
to
develop
efforts*
But
not inexhaustible
of utilizing it for frequently believed, and the problems of are more complex than those using surface
irrigation
The
supplies.
investigation
involves
solution
for
determining the
intensive
research and
extent of
supply being
Commission thought that the best \\ay was a liberal advance of tacau loans under the Land Improvement Loans Act, 1883 The Woodhead Commission took the same view Undei the G, M F Compai^n the government advanced both loans and grants There can be another way of advancing through LanJ Mortgage Banks). *A comparaiive study of agricultural economy under well irrigation and canal irrigation, specialh with reference to the effects is quite interesting, In compansion to canals, wells are said to ha\e an advantage as they offer greater security a^amirt drought v\ater is available when needed and therefore no uncertainty theie is no waste of watei it encourages highly intensive cultivation (makes 3 crops pobsible) and makes man more industrious; does not disturb the balance in water resources as canal do and crop yields are also said to be higher in compansion to those under canals Canal there is irrigation, on the other hand, suffers from many drawbacks considerable waste of \\ater (30 fO% excels \valei used in N. India); uncu taint) of suppl} and its failure at the time of need excessive application of water due to lack of incentive for economising and uncertainty ,
,
,
,
:
,
(Agr, Commission)
,
as a
of
result
fxcessive use considerable
losses
are
camed through water logging and alkali formation (Usar and Reh Reclamation Committee, U, P inferior and nregular crop qualities (Howard), and diseases, specially wheat rust when there is ram in the Spring (Mukerjee), )
accessive water
,
used as
is
a substitute for
good cultivation (weeding
neglected, surface crust left unbroken, less aeration, crops are forced to develop surface xoots, and an attempt for early ripening by abundant water) it discourages high cultivation (water is not sufficient for more than ,
Only in areas of precarious rainfall canals aid materially, and in plains during drought, but lead to agricultural decline in zones of heavy and unscientific canal system has led to decline of water ways rainfall)
2 crops
,
natural
affecting
swamps and But in the
it
drainage,
alkali
silting
of
rivers
and
formation of malarial
lands,
should be noted that many of these defects are not inherent but have come into being as a result of the
canal system as such
neglect of some scientific They can be avoided in
principles,
and are of administrative nature.
future
For a detailed study a reference may be made to Mukerjee Agricultural of India Baljit Singh Land of the Two Rivers and Lavania: Well Irngationm Western U, P. (unpublished thesis Dept, of Agr, Eco,, .
Economy
B, R.
,
College, Agra).
:
;
804
(
available, the
relation
)
between use and depletion, and the
drawing water, Considerable expansion can be made under tube-wells and river-pumingi former in the areas where water-table is
best
methods and equipment
for
not deep, and sufficient quantity of water-supply latter in areas
and the
But their development
canals,
ment of power 1
is
available,
which cannot be served by gravity is
linked with the develop-
.
Taking the 'minor works' as a whole they are mostly a under there is likely to be slow, private enterprise. Progress since their extension depends on the strength of the resources of the people.
underground water
draft of table.
Further, the
It
is the
NPC
thought that an 'excessive
will lead to dessication of water-
surface flow
which holds out prospects
As
extensive use of water for purposes of irrigation.
we can obtain
see ahead, over
its
80/
of
our irrigation
water supply by gravity from surface
have, therefore,
to look to
now approaching
flow of our rivers,
on
flood irrigation!
far as
is likely to
We
flow,' 2
government canals and reservoirs.
But they require a careful consideration. are
of
It is
said
that
we
the limit in the utilization of the natural
In
the
pioneering phase
which had
its
we depended
origin in level surface and
The
superior
commands being
CW1NC
likewise believe that the 'potential of diverting the
available in
alluvial
tracts.
normal flow of rivers for irrigation canals has very nearly These opportunities, specially the been exhausted.' 9 1, Stamp laid down 4 conditions generally essential for the success of the tube- well Scheme : (i) flow of water in the sub -coil must be adequate to meet the surface demand ensuring stable water-table, the depth of (ii) water-table below the ground level must not ordinarily exceed about 50 ft . (ftt) Irrigation demand must prevail over a wide tract for an average period of not less than 3$0tf hrs, in a year, and (iv) electric power must be available over the tract at the rate not exceeding } anna per unit,
2t J,
NPC River training ajid Irrigation, 1947, p, 40, GW1NC Qminquenaial Rfcpott, April 1945 ttf March $Sfr, :
:
195Q, p, 3.
305
(
)
have been
unfailing supplies of snow-fed rivers,
Besides, a considerable
a very great extent.
utilized to
improvement
supplies by replacing inundation canals by weir-controlled canals (which give better supplies and
in regulating the
made.
also for longer periods) has also been
now
that there is
water supply
The
result
is
not only a constant danger of scarcity of
but also of supply being in-
at critical times,
meet the growing needs. We cannot expect any spectacular expansion of such works.
sufficient to
One sion
of
thing
irrigation
and
remembered.
be
to
important
irrigated
and
the
connection
in
expansystem has largest areas which can be
The
apportunities
larger rivers in the arid regions,
need
of a fairly
suitable
adopting a
greatest
with the
uniform flow
of
In
this
for
it 1
region
water specially
lie
along
there is a at
right
Flood irrigation not being possible in this of high water flow of rivers in large scale storage
place and time. tract,
reservoirs and solution. 2
its
distribution
through canals
Unlike irrigation of low alluvial
the
best
tracts,
this
is
These areas have a warmer climate, good facilities for drainage, and mineral plant food, These things make them very suitable diversified farming and high-priced agriculture, Irrigation in this region
1,
soils richer in
for
will give best results, In view of the (inadequate) experience of 2,
such large scale reservoirs Irrigation Commission, 1901, thought that the term storage was 'as suggestive of the limitations as of the possibilities of irrigation as a means
The
of protection ,' because of 'great costs and uncertain operations,' These limitations arise on account of two things : (a) hydrographic, (all the flow-
water cannot be stored), and (b) topographical, (construction of is not always possible due to physical and economic reasons). Even after having a due consideration for both these things we find that our water resources are adequate and there are ample opportunities for storage, because our mountains receive heavy and unfailing rainfall and also furnish facilities for storage, Secondly, the view of 'vmcertainity of operations' seems to be based on two ideas inadequate water-supply being available, and loss of water in long time storage (holding water during favourable years and using it in years of drought), In this regard it should be noted that the technological development in river engineering show that ample water supply is available even when river is low. And water resources being renewable from year to year, it is not a question of preserving it for a long time; and henec holding water for drought years is not the normal ing
reservoirs
:
39
and delivery tract) is bound to
of irrigation (construction of reservoirs of water through canals in an undulating
be costly in the arid uplands superior agriculture the
cost
total
irrigation only.
;
is
it
Besides,
and
to
possibility of
a
other uses also
should not be
of storage
in other forms also
But there
and water being put
is,
charged against economic prosperity
will lead to
a promising field for
therefore,
public investment,
Problems
in
Before any consider-
Extending Irrigation.
able expansion in irrigation is possible,
have
relate to (t)
Some
be overcome.
to
of
the
several
difficulties
important problems
'.
Research and Investigation.
variety of questions
Irrigation
involves a
which need considerable study,
investi-
gation and research particularly land survey, survey of river courses, drainage survey and hydrological research, etCi
Storage and Transmission.
(ii)
not a local question but of
the
mission of water* involves site for a reservoir
may
The supply
whole
many problems.
A
function of reservoir irrigation. works situated not
water
is
Trans-
favourable
not necessarily be suitable
take for the alignment of the canal.
of storage
of
river valley,
Sometimes
as a
off-
the are a
Besides, on the basis of the experience the regions of unfailing rainfall, the
in
Irrigation Commission themselves reported that 'failure occurs less often than might be supposed,' Therefore, these fears should no longer influence the irrigation plans specially of the big reservoirs and multi-purpose projects,
*In the Central Table-land river beds can be utilized as a means of conveying water because of rivers flowing in the lowest parts of the valleys and the beds being rocky. The only loss of water in transmission will be by evaporation. We are fortunate in this respect but the canals should not be too long otherwise transmission will tell upon water too heavily, The Upper Ganges canal in the North and the Tungabhadra project in the South are examples of it, The defect in conveying water to 350 miles in the Upper Ganges canal was rectified by constructing the Lower Ganges Canal which relieved the upper work from irrigation of 128 miles of the Kanpure branch and 130 miles of the Etawah branch, The main canal from the Tungabhadra Reservoir had to be designed to draw of 2 m, c, ft, for everyone m, c, ft, of water which could find its way to the Nellore irrigation system,
(NPC),
wr
(
under
a canal
harmful
to
may be
fcha* pletoty
of water
Land
Ctessifioation.
The
records include in the culturable area some quality
knd
existing land
latid of
which cannot be irrigated with fcdvan&g*,
classification is required
water
to
be applied, since after
be used so as (IP)
to
to all
find
very poor
A
detailed
out lands worth the
water resources should not
be out of balance with areas to be irrigated.
Finding
uses o/ water.
different
multiple use should be
with other
may be
it,
Detailed
(ill)
of a type
)
purposes
explored,
like power,
Possibilities
of
0, g.
combining irrigation navigation, domestic use,
and recreational use, etc. Some of them specially power, which is a great income producing factor, should share the cost of storage, which should not
flood control, sanitation
be wholly charged
to
considerations refering
maximum
benefit to the
irrigation. to
Secondly, the financial
costs should
be decided by the
community.*
*Till recently the government judged the financial soundress of a major irrigation work by estimating the net annual revenue directly attributable to it (i, e, gross receipts from water rates, land revenue, interest on capital receipts from the sale of crown lands, etc,, minus working expenses), The work was not undertaken unless the estimated net annual revenue was sufficient, at the end of the period prescribed for the development, to cover annual loan charges, In the case of protective works account
was
also taken of the saving in relief expenditure. (Both direct relief to the distressed and revenue remissions), The Woodhead Commission, 1945, thought that it was difficult to find schemes calculated to yield on
Hence they suggested a change in the financial that basis of computation, In the first place they criteria of the government in respect of irrigation, suggested an allowance for the indirect additional revenue to the governresult of the increase in wealth of the people, (increased receipts sales tax, stamps, income tax, agricultural income tax, etc ) Secondly, the improvement of the general well being and standard of living of the
ment as a
from
population being direct concerns of the government, and irrigation promoting these ends, they cannot satisfactorily be reduced to calculations of hard cash and revenue, In view of their importance the Commission suggested that general revenue should contribute towards loan charges of irrigation schemes, and that well considered schemes may be under taken even when in their financial aspects they do r*Qt fully conform with the criteria hitherto adopted,
(frnal Report of the
Woddnead Commission,
1945, 132 -33),
(
Territorial
(o)
is
)
divided
of
difficulties
human community
conflicts
water
in
regulations and laws concerning
rendered
difficult,
this question the
economic unit
Workable
rights.
division
of
water
and there are administrative and
developing river valley projects,
difficulties in
The
control,
divided into several political jurisdic-
which create
tions,
308
are
financial
In regard to
whole river basin should be regarded as an it serves, and
for the benefit of all the people
the question should be taken on a regional basis by
all
power-
ful regional bodies,
cultivators
land.
The excessive
Management oj irrigation-
(pi)
tion of canal water
who
are
The problem
land but of injurious to
involves water,
its
is
said
to
drown
not only of
rather than irrigate the
making the water reach the
most appropriate use, because surplus water
both crops and lands,
many problems such
regulation
relations
applica-
has been a general complaint against
of
Management
as controlled
water rates and
is
of irrigation
application of
maintaining proper
between water users.
(9ii) Surface
and under-ground drainage.
cessive water supply (more than
In case of ex-
the soil can
hold),
as has
been the case in some of the canal irrigated areas, seepage and percolation intercept the natural drainage, causing water-logging and salt effervescence, turning fertile lands The
NCP
was more
scientific
in
their attitude
while suggesting the use corpus, and (b) the use of of maximum benefit to the community demands use in the head-water region of rivers to lowest here must be high to compensate for the loss of energy of water is becoming important, and is
combination of irrigation with other uses of water. of water under two heads (a) Use of its inert
They divided
:
energy, The problem reduction of consumptive quantity, as the charges power, The use of the its
helping materially in reducing cost of storage otherwise chargeable to The use of water for power is not inconsistent with its economical employment in irrigation, while irrigation effords large outlets for the use of excess power. For a detailed consideration of the point of the irrigation
costs
and
and
rate of interest
Irrigation, 1947,
one may refer
to
tfoe
NPC
;
River Training *
(
into
malarial
309
swamps and
)
alkali
surface and underground
soils.
Reclamation by become
has, therefore,
drianage an important issue, specially referingto lowering of seepage and reducing alkali formation particularly where the heavy
and underground drainage Irrigation in the Five
ssion
have
is
poor.
Year Plan.
started with the
view
that
The Planning Commiit is
only by utilizing water recources for irrigation and generation of power, and
by the adoption
of
intensive measures for improving the
standards of agricultural cottage, small-scale
cheap
practices,
and the promotion of
and large-scale industries with the help of an appreciable rise in the stand-
electric power, that
ard of living of the people can be achieved,
They
rightly
think that there are large possibilities for the development of the country's
water resources, specially in view
of
the
have taken place in the technique of improvements dam construction, and that agriculturist's greatest need is an assured water supply. In addition to irrigation these that
power and also and navigation. Some of these
projects offer possibilities for generation of in
some cases
for flood control
schemes, therefore, are purely lor irrigation, some only for
power and others are multi-purpose in nature, Plan irrigation has been given the first priority.
hydro-electric
In the
In the Draft Outline the total estimated cost of
all
the
irri-
gation and power projects included in the first part of the Plan was Rs. 734 crores. Of this Rs. 144 crore were spent
by March 1951, during next five years covered by the Plan Rs. 450 crores were to be spent, and Rs. 140 crores after Water is a prime necessity to life but it becomes a menace when it not properly used, Jt is said that civilizations in the past developed in areas where water was easily available, It is also a fact that they crumbled Man's crime against rivers had its Nemesis, For a detailed study there, of the effects of the abuse of wafer one may Jook tp R JC Mukerjee Rural Economy of India. is
:
(
that att
period.
310
)
These projects are calculated
additional area of 9*8 million acres in
generate
I'l mill*
to
kilowatts of additional power,
completion and full development the gated area was estimated to be 16'5 mill kilowatts of power.
total
irrigate
1955 56 and to After the
additional
irri-
and 1'93
mill, acres
In addition to these projects
which
were included in the Plan there were other irrigation and The power projects under consideration at that time. aggregate cost of all these projects was expected to be Rs. 1400 crores. In the actual Plan now presented some additional projects
totafallotment for
are included
for
power and irrigation
execution, is
and the
Rs, 561'41
out of,a total expenditure of Rs, 2068*78 crores.
crores
The addi-
f
tional irrigation is estimated to be 8 5 million acres through
major and 11*2 million acres through minor works, bringing
When
is more than the soil can hold, natural drainages by seepage and percolation, pores of the soil are not allowed to remain open so as to keep it warm and purified by aeration and there is a rise in the sub-soil water level. The result is that where the soil gets so firmly compact that water cannot move freely, there is water-logging and malarial swamps are created, and where there are dissolved salts there is alkali formation, and the land is turned into a barren usar, as has been the case in Nira, Pravara and Godavari canals in Bombay, Upper Chenab
the quantity
are intercepted,
and Upper Jhelum, and canals
of Punjab (now in Pakisthan). It occurs two forms: (i) soil saturation (the first stage is called sem, and in its worst form jheels, t e. collection of water on the surface), and (it) con-
in
t
This happens in several centration of salt in upper layers called thur. stages, and there are distinct signs of the coming danger at each stage, (baratu crops being successful for a few years, kallar patches appearing the fields, and no germination in these patches, reduction in crop yields, depressions beside the canals remaining full of rustly coloured water, spring level coming close to the surface, drinking water tasting raw, obnoxious odour coming from mud walls and their crumbling),
in
This necessitates reclamation by drainage, which means total absence of free water in the soil to a depth sufficiently below that of root penetraThe remedies should be tion so that there may be circulation of air.
both curative and preventive. Surface and sub-soil drainage should be improved, and further seepage must be reduced as far as possible, Some Proofing of canal specific measures which have often been suggested are beds by concrete, pumping out water by tube-wells, opening out of obstructed drainage, checking over irrigation through a regulation of water :
and replacing canal irrigation by well irrigation, etc. But these be considered in the light of their own limitations. suggestions should rates
311
(
the total Irrigated area
end of the period
to
)
nearly 70 million acres by the
of the Plan.
In the preparation of this Plan,
projects
to
likely
yield
additional food at an early date have been given preference
over others and the large multi-purpose projects have been phased with a view tion aspects
;
and taken up
the
to the
early completion of their irriga-
power generation
in stages as the
is
demand
carefully
regulated
Of
arises.
the
pro-
commenced and under
jects execution, some are financed wholly from loans advanced by the Central Government,
and others by State Governments, with the help, to
individual projects, of Central loans,
arrangements the Commission in few suggestions to State Governments.
a
important was a levy
of
regard
Regarding the October 1950,
financial
made
in
The most
betterment fee with the object of
securing for the States a share from the 'unearned incre-
from the increase
ment'
in land values that occurs as a result
of the provisions of irrigation facilities,
There was a large
of agreement on the principle of this levy. The Commission further suggested to the State Governments to consider an upward revision of water rates in view of high
measure
cost
of
and
the
new rise
works, in
increased agricultural
cost
of
prices,
maintenance the
levy
of
agricultural income tax (which has already been introduced some States), and the creation of a non-lapsable in irrigation
and power development ways and means fundt
In the end they very emphatically stated that these
projects
cannot be implemented successfully unless the States can arouse mass-enthusiasm and secure public support* for these projects on a nation-widle scale.
*
While suggesting the ways in which public cooperation can be obtained and the forms it should take, the Planning Commission referred to the levy of betterment contribution in the form of land from larger holdings, and to adopt a scale of wages (in preparing estimates for work in which
(
It
312
should, however, be noted
)
that
these multi-purpose
projects are the basic feature for our economic
general and agricultural development in they are
the
best and the
lasting
progress in
particular;
solution
of
and
the food
problem.
An
abstract of
in the First Part of the Five is
as follows;*
and
schemes
of irrigation included
Year Plan
in the Draft Outline
the actual
fot a detailed
study one can look
to
the
Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, pages 268-295.
unskilled labour was employed) on the basis that work should be done by the villagers on the canals in their villages and not on the basis of work In each village or villages the villagers being entrusted to contractors,
should be organized into cooperatives for taking up the work in their own area. (Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, 1951, pp 128-9.) Sentimentalism rather than the considerations of practicability seem to have influenced Th*se things do the Commission's mind so far as this point is concerned, not appear to us practicable and workable propositions.
*A
Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, 1951, annexure
II,
(
40
313
)
(
814
)
IV.
POWER RESOURCES.
Alternative Sources of Power. a
to
It is
difficult
to
estimate
reasonably accurate degree, the total production of
energy from
all
sources.
The NPC think
that
does not exceed 100 units per capita per year.
it
Of
probably 60 is
this
from human labour, 15 from animal labour and 25 is from mechanical sources, of which electricity counts for only 8. For a detailed study of the evolution of the Administrative set-up for Irrigation ia the Govt. of India, of the river valley projects and of the schemes of irrigation and power included in the Five Year Plan reference may be made : to Quinquennial Report, 1950, and the Five Year Plan, :
CWINC
316
{
It
means
that
man
)
by far the largest source of power.
is
However, there are numerous sources from which mechanical power, which is technically termed as power, can be produced, But the utilization of these resources depends
upon a number of factors* The use of solar energy and wave power is not economical at present, Wind movements provide vast potentialities, but considerable amount of work has to be done before practical methods of utilizing this
power can be devised, These resources, therefore, are not Forests are exhaustible. of immediate concern at present.
Though they
are
replaceable,
but at a
very
slow
rate.
Besides, their use as a fuel for power will soon exhaust
them
immediate successors, and will create many other Alchohol, a by* problems like soil erosion and floods*
for the
product of sugar industry can serve as an industrial fuel, but it needs considerable development in supply and other
The most important form
research in technology.
however,
Electricity
and
water,
can be
is
generated from
Mineral
(i)
accumulation.
power,
mineral
Being irreplaceable,
rather scanty,
including motor
being
spirit
coal
oil,
requires geological times for
oil
its
utilization
say, living on country's capital resources.
to
of
is electricity.
only
and other
6/
of
fuel oils*
our
is,
so
Our supply requirements
Hence no major
power project can be constructed on th basis of oil fuel, and its use will be confined to those small power stations in areas which cannot be economically served by electrict
other major power projects planned or under consideration.
The
chief sources for generating
electric
power, therefore,
are coal and water.
()
Coal.
estimated the
The total
Indian
Coalfields
Committee,
1946,
reserves of workable coal deposits in
various areas to be as follpw?
:
317
(
)
Bihar.
13.146 (Mill tons,) 2,352
Bengal,
381 14
Madhya Pradesh, .
Assam.
7
Orissa,
574
Other States (Mainly Hydrabad.) Total
16,474
These may be taken as approved workable coal resources*
The Geological Survey of India estimated The probable total reserve may mill. tons. say 60,000 mill, tons.
it
Orissa, 1,
it is
a
cannot be considered abun-
First,
the
known
are found in fairly well defined zones, and are
more
larger,
Besides, in the study of power there are a few
important considerations,
a
be 20,000
comparison with the reserves in
industrialized countries,
dant, 1
to
much
Considered in absolute terms
fairly large quantity, but in
some
it
be
coal
deposits
localized
in
West Bengal, Bihar, 2 Madhya Pradesh and Hydrabad, The supply to
or
less contiguous areas in
Coal resources in million metric tons,
(World Power Conference
;
Statistical
Year Book.)
Occurence of workable deposit of lignite has recently been reported in South Arcot district of Madras and in Kutch. The Geological Survey of India are carrying out detailed investigations in these areas to find out the nature, extent and the practicability of commercial working pf 2,
these deposits.
818
(
distant areas involves
)
considerable
which influence the location
of
costs,
transporation
thermal power stations.
It is,
India and Punjab
therefore, normally expected that in South
which are distant from coal deposits, the development
power
On
will not be based on coal fuel,
thermal power
plants designed
steam pressure
high
power at economic rates Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh,
would generate areas of
for
in
electric
Secondly, the question
is
colliery
not of the total potential but of
how
long the better and the more cheaply got coals will
The
deposits of high quality
coal suitable
for
purposes are said to be 700 to 750 mill, tons, is
being used for steam locomotives, and
last*
metallurgical
The bulk
at the present
of
it
rate
(about 10 mill, tons per year) the
metallur-
reserves will exhaust in 65 to 70 years,
Recently
of consumption gical
of
the other hand, large
revised estimates put this figure
200 years,
at
That too
is
The Coalfields Committee, there* need to restrict the use of high
not a complacent situation, fore, rightly stressed the
quality coking coal to
metallurgical
purposes only, and so
far as possible, to use the coking coals which form of our coal reserves, for
industrial uses
note
that,
the Coal
and esteam locomotives. the
realizing
Government
raising steam
of India
for It
the
power is
bulk
stations,
gratifying to
importance of the
problem, the have recently taken steps to rationalize
Minning Industry and
to
conserve the high grade
metallurgical coal,
Thirdly, coal
is
an important raw material
chemical industries.
In the light of
for synthetic
these considerations
it
appears that in future the large thermal power stations designed to use low grade coal will be located
at
colliery
as
(
)
and those thermal stations which are far distant
pitheads,
from colliery areas will be designed to burn only low ab content fuel The Central Water and Power Commission! however, believe that
'in
ultimate
the
India these thermal power stations would only be of capacities and would be generally intended
as standby to
power
medium either
act
in the area,' 1
power.
2
It
is
electricity only the
Water seems
utilizing
utilized
it
of
gravity
water
There
because when
it,
it
is
is
be the best source
The NPC
in generating used without con-
is
an urgent necessity of
allowed
causes destruction where
mankind.
to
a perpetual mine, and
suming any substance.
to
to
or to supplement other primary sources of
(Hi) Water Power. of
of
power picture
it
think that
run without being could be of service
to
'every horse-power
an annual saving of generated hydraulically represents As a matter of fact any of coal.' 8 4 tons approximately use whatsoever of water all,
since
wasted. is
if it is
And from
preferable
1,
the
it
is
view
power)
is
better than
no use
fit
not stored or conserved
but
point of conservation
use
to that of calorific
Central Water and
Development
(for
not used,
energy
at the
its
same or even
Power Commission: Planning
for
Power
in India, 1951, p, 3,
2, In the past the use of fuel assumed great prominance, because under old conditions thermal power was supposed to be superior to hydel power. The reasons were that under the then technological developments it was cheapest to transport coal than to transmit energy above a certain distance. Therefore, a thermal power station could be located at the most favourable site, whereas the hydro-electric plant could be sited only where nature placed it. Secondly, as regards load factor the hydroelectric plant did not posses as much flexibility as the steam plant, But the conditions are now changed. Now it is cheaper to transmit electricity than to transport coal when the distance is not much larger than 100 miles Electricity is the most adaptable form of power. And now the question is not one of merely supplying a few concentrated loads in the most favourable sites, but of supplying the whole countryside.
3,
NPC
:
River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p, 73,
320
(
somewhat higher
)
Besides, according to the
cost.
electricity possesses the following
NPC
hydro-
advantages over thermal
power.*
Every horse power developed by water preserves Rs. 40 worth coal per annum, and justifies an investment of (a)
Rs. 400 in a hydel plant in excess of a steam plant.
A
(6)
hydro-electric generating unit
than a heat unit because
of
operating
is
more dependable
a comparatively low
at
speed and temperatures*
The non-scheduled
(c)
negligible,
voltage
"when
demand
in
11
is
and hydro-plant units can be placed in operation is important and valuable under sudden
quickly, which
large load increases
and emergencies.
(d)
Less power
is
()
The
developing hydro-electric scheme
cost of
required for station service, is
no
doubt large, usually greater than the erection of a thermal station,
but against this
there
are
substantial
savings in
running expenses. (/)
As
the
load
factor
power increases, and
sales
rises the
which
load curve without affecting the
ever rate they bring In the 'the
form
of
these
mover
out the greatest promise water.'
up
also said to
water
hollows in the
peak are profitable at what-
considrations for generating of social
it
is
believed that
power which holds
success
But any reasonably accurate
It is
the
of
in,
of primite
light
fill
advantage
is
the gravity of
assessment
of the
have some disadvantages, fa) Because of large a corresponding risk of loss which makes capital shy to go in for these undertakings, (b) Demand must be foreseen a longtime advance, and the installation has to be made for a greater capacity than the existing needs, (c) There are technical difficulties also (d) Lonedistance transmission is uneconomical, first
m
cost there
is
321
(
)
water power potential* is not possible at present. A complete assessment will be available when the hydrologies! survey
commenced by
completed, However,
kw.
mill,
But
Water and Power Commission
the Central
it
has been guessed
should be remembered that a large
it
of potential sites
at present
is
be 23
to
number
have not yet been investigated.
Our main sources
of hydro-electric
power are the snow-
Himalayas along a length of about 2000 miles from Kashmir to Assam, and the heavy rainfall fed rivers
rising in the
on the Western Ghats. sites
many
on
the
Besides, in other parts of the country rivers
high head dams can
machinery can be
be
flowing in
constructed
the
plains,
where
and hydro-electric
can likewise be used,
installed,
But
should be noted that every water-fall cannot be used
hydroelectric installation,
since
its
economic
it
for
feasibility
depends not only on the water-flow and the hydraulic head, but also on other factors like accessibility of the site for transporting heavy machineiy,
distance from load centres,
nature of flow, cost of storage and the likely load factor* Besides, in regard to the use of water for generating power there are First, the
a few points
seasonal
evened out
for
construction of
which require careful consideration,
variation of flow
generating power*
dams
to store water,
of our
rivers has to be
This necessitates the for utilizing
during the
time of lean flow and therefore, in our hydro-electric projects, ;
unlike those of western countries, these ancillary civil works
must form a substantial the
country *
The
being
part of
mainly
capital outlay.
agricultural,
and
Secondly, irrigation
assessment of water power resources was made by J,W, which is believed to be very inaccurate, Burrow's estimate He put it at 30 mill, Kilowatts, The is supposed to be more accurate, NPC refer to a conjecture of 5,5 mill, Kilowatts, and themselves estimate it at 11 miSL Kilowatts.
Meats
first
in 1923,
41
382
(
)
depending mainly on the rivers fed by the monsoon) there is a clash of interest between the needs of irrigation and of electricity.
attempted
Therefore,
many
of
the projects have to be
as joint irrigation-cum-electricity measures or as
multi-purpose projects; and in almost
all
such joint measures
a certain amount of compromise) as regards the use of water
has
be accepted
to
as necessary
This
and unavoidable.
nature of the projects, moreover, (multi-purpose character) should be the determining factor in financial considerations of construction costs, etc.
Thirdly, as
is
the
likely,
output of the hydro-electric installation will not
power
be maintained
uniform level over the various seasons of the year. 1 This requires inter-connecting transmission lines between
at a
adjoining large the over
all
power systems
so that
by interchanging power
power output can be maintained more or
uniformly.
And
in
stations will
have
to
smaller
regions
hydro-electric
be coordinated with thermal stations. 3
In the light of these circumstances in our
the
less
it
appears that the power
one of inter-connected development hydro and thermal stations in various regions, and these country will be
regional systems will also be
mission
lines to
The Development tion of
power
industrial
inter-connected through trans-
form a big national
grid.
of Electric Power.
plant in India
development
was made
in
the
The
first
west
was
accelerated by electricity, in our country
it
installa-
and though
in 1897-98,
considerably
was perhaps
1, During rains the discharge in river may exceed the requirements power generation, while in the dry season the available supply will be inadequate, Besides, as a measure of flood control it may be necessary it will reduce to run down the reservoir to safe limits before the monsoon the head and consequently the power output,
of
;
The thermal station will compensate the deficit off hydel power 2. output at the time of low discharge of rivers, and during the season of maximum flow when the entire discharge will be used for power generation, the thermal station will act as standby.
323
(
considered synonymous
with
)
electric
was
It
lighting,
and the companies which took licences under the Indian Electricity Act 1910, being
developed as a private enterprise,
guided by the prospectslof reasonable ireturns, operated in important cities, and due to the absence of mechanized industries power was used for lighting and general purposes. By 1914, however, most of the large cities had electric
supply, but
till
then neither the Central nor the Provincial
Governments followed any progressive
of
policy
power
development.
During the World
War
the helplessness of the country,
I
was proved, and as
specially in the industrial field, of the
recommendations
hydro-electric
result
Commission, and power development was
1918, a policy of industrial
contemplated.
a
of the Indian Industrial
They recommended a systematic survey of Mears was asked to carry power, and J.
W
But beyond that survey no definite action
out that survey,
was taken by the Government was transferred to
at
the subject
the
that
And
time,
in
1921
The Provin-
Provinces,
Governments, however, launched schemes for hydroelectric and the in development, progress power
cial
development was rapid after 1925, which
enabled
the
governments
And to
the Depression
obtain
plants
at
considerably reduced rates from abroad assisted the growth considerably.
The need was
to
promote the development
further realized during the
of
World War
electric II
power
when power
resources proved very inadequate to meet the civil and
war demands. sioner with the to regulate,
with a
view
programme
In 1941 the office of the
Government
assist to
of India
and control the
promote war
effort,
of active assistance
Electric
Commis-
was created in order electric
In
power supply 1944 he initiated a
by Government
of India for
Some
developing country's resources. to
financial principles
guide the electric supply undertakings
circulated.
Work was
were prepared and
started on drafting the legislation
(on the basis of the British Electricity Act 1926) which
intended to to
to
develop promote
develop large sized regional rural
were encouraged
electricity
also to
the
also
Provincial and State
electric
supply undertakings
advance
prepare in
and
system,
grid
electricity supply*
Governments and
was
economical power stations,
their post-war
development plans. They were examined by the Electricity Commissioner from the view point of co-ordinating tham, and further
the
possibilities
of
securing manufacturing
capacity for the plant and equipment
required for the post-
projects were investigated* Central Technical Power Board was
war development In
1945 the
set up.
was merged with the office of the Electricity Commissioner to form the Central Electricity Commission, In
It
1948
was
it
a step to assist the provincial
and other undertakings
power schemes. a further
On
in initiating
the grounds of
and
state
governments and planning the new economy and efficiency
administrative change has been
made
recently,
The two engineering organizations of the Government of India, viz., the Central Electricity Commission and the Central Water-Power, Irrigation and Navigation Commission have been amalgamated to form a new organization called the Central
The Power Wing
Water and Power Commission,
of this organization carries out the duties formerly performed
by the Central Electricity Commission, 1910 which governed also replaced
by
the electricity
the Electricity
The
old Act of
supply industry was
(Supply) Act,
1948,
For a detailed study of the functions of tba the Electricity Supply Act, 1948, reference may be
new made
and Power Commission
Development
1951, pp,
7-9,
;
Planning for Power
and
organizations and to Central
Water
in
Iijdia.
W
(
the International
meeting of the
)
Engineering Exhibition and the sectional
World Power Conference held
Jan. 1951, have considerably stimulated interest in
power development, The progress or the development
of electric
at
Delhi in
and
activity
power
Indian Union from 1900 to 1950, classified according type
of plants, is
Average
as follows
installed
supply installations,
Of
in the to
the
s
generating capacity of public
utility
(kw)
kw
this 1*71 mill,
ment owned power
'6
or 35*6% belonged to 201 govern-
stations, '02
or 1*2% to 19 municipal
owned power stations and 1*08 or 63*2% to 258 power It shows that stations owned by private companies. major part of the
development
has so far been to
in
many
supply
In addition
individual industries and
cases operate their
March 1951 there were 587 such
intalled generating
electric
the private companies.
public utility power stations,
Railways In
made by
of the public utility
own power installations
capacity of '64 mill.
a total of about 2*4 mill, killo watts.
kW,
This
plants*
with an
326
(
A significant the
war
feature in the post
increasing participation
Electric Supply
)
however,
years,
Governments
of State
is
in the
In fact
power development is State Governments, but the govern-
Industry.
being taken up by all ments which have now entered the Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
considerably are
The
Madhya Pradesh and Bombay* in
is
prevailing tendency
field
Some
public electric concerns.* are being purchased by
favour of State ownership of
the State
of
the private e
Governments,
t
concerns
g.,
in
1947
Madras Govt, acquired the Madras City Thermal Station, and the Uttar Pradesh Government purchased the steam
the
power at
station establishment
But even
Kanpur,
fa, electric
supply
of
Messers Martin Burn, Ltd.
present by far the major part of
at
industry
is
the
of
result
private
enterprise.
The
The Present Position. cluding that of the
and railways,
at the
stations
end
In absolute
kilowatts*
of
needs, if
it
installed
capacity,
in-
serving individual industries
March
1951,
was 2*43 million
sense the extent of electric power
development seems quite relation to the
total
significant,
but
if
viewed in
vast area, the huge population and the power
fades into an insignificant
feature
and
;
further,
compared with the electric development in some indus-
trially
advanced countries,
it
becomes clear
that
we
are
a general tendency all over the world to bring this public under government control, The prevailing opinion is that electricity being a public utility service, this industry should not be permitted to be operated like other industries actuated purely by profit motive.
*There
is
utility service
Ordinarily the argument in favour of public ownership is tions of return are no more than the interest on capital The vate investors will consider very inadequate. public ownership is the comparative inefficiency due
procedure.
This can be remedied
that the expectaoutlay which pri-
argument against lo
administrative
The Madras and Mysore governments
have overcome these difficulties, Besides, the State Electricity Boards under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948, aim at imparting efficiency and expedition in such government bodies,
827
(
far
still
The
way behind,
)
affords a
table
following
comparison.
1946 figures,)
1.
(
(
The development
1947 figures,)
2.
of
electric
throughout the country, but
is
power
1950 figures'^
3,
(
not
is
uniform
concentrated in a few regions^
Again, amongst these regions also, there are considerable differences so far as the nature
development, the etc,,
and extent
a brief discussion of each (i)
South India
:
may
be as follows
States).
Due
collieries the use of coal for generating
:
to
long distance from
power
and, therefore, greater development of power
80%
power
(comprising of Mysore, Madras and
Travancore and Cochin
The
of the
schemes, and nature of loads, ownership are concerned. There seem to be 5 such zones, and of
total is
generating
capacity is
hydel and only 20% thermal,
*3
In
mill.
is
very
is
from water.
kW.
of
costly,
which
the hydro-
Mysore Sivasamudram, Shimsa and Jog, These three are interconnected, and supply power to Mysore State.
electric stations are at
One
of the important loads supplied
Kolar gold
fields, In
by this system is in the Madras there are 3 hydro-electric stations
atPykara, Mettur and Papnasam.
These three are inter-con-
308
(
)
nected and serve mostly South Madras.
There
thermal station in Madras city which
connected with
The
Mettur station.
interconnected system
a steam
station
at
at
is
augmented by
Vijaiwada and Vishakhapatam.
power
and Cochin
In Travancore
which
there is a hydro-electric station at Pallivasal, to
big
Besides, there are two more thermal stations
of these stations
Madhurait
capacity of the
is
a
is
said
is
be mostly responsible for the development of the alumi-
nium,
fertilizer
and chemical industries
two distinct features
of the electric
The
the State,
in
development
in this zone
are that these schemes, specially the generating stations and
main transmission
are State-owned,
lines,
and though
the
aggregate capacity is not very large they are extending power -- >Hc to rural areas for agricultural and other purposes. )
Bombay
(ii)
million
kW.
The
Area.
which 60%
of
is
capacity
is '24
hydel and 40% thermal.
The
total
installed
major public utility stations are the three
hydro-electric
Khopoli, Bhivpuri and Bhira on the slopes of the Western Ghats between Poona and Bombay, belonging at
stations
to
the
Tata Electric
Agencies, and the thermal to
Electricity Ahmadabad, belonging The Tata Electric system is inter-connected with the
station at
Co.
power
Ahmadabad
of
steam power station industrial
ia&wtry,
G.I.P.R. at
installations
The
in
The
Ahmadabad
serves the the
textile
supplies power
Outside the industrial areas of
there.
Bombay and Ahmadabad at Stt*at
Bombay, specially
thermal plant at
to tto textile mills
Kalyan, and
there are two thermal
stations
and Shotopur, sustained mostly by industrial load.
distinct
features in this region are that outside
industrial centres of
Bombay and Ahmadabad
the
there is very
little electrict development, and the electric supply industry almost exclusively in the bands of the private enterprise L 1
exception being
tile
station at Bhatgar).
This explains
329
(
as to
why
has
it
)
remained confined
industrial and
to
urban
areas only.
(m)
The
Area.
Bihar*Bengal
aggregate
capacity including both the public utility and
owned power of
coal
electric
stations
being available
development
sively on steam
in
in
power
at
belonging
to
New
is
supply power
to
and Dishergarh
Ample
supply
Bengal collieries almost exclu-
based
Again the development
plants.
The
enterprise.
Cossipura,
Southern
is
largest of the
steam power
four
Calcutta industrial
stations
and Mulajore and
r
in
and residential areas.
utility stations are at
Gourpore Seebpore Bengal and Sijaa Jheria and Patna in
Besides, there are
a
good number privately owned
collieries plants belonging to railways,
the biggest of
which are belonging
Steel Co,, at Jamshedpur,
the
Steel
and other industries,
of
India
Tata lion and
to the
Corporation of Bengal,
the Rohtas Industries Ltd., Dalmianagar,
Corporation
the privately
the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation,
Other major public
Bihar.
areas
stations at present are the
Cossipura,
kW
Bihar and
this
exclusively due to private
power
'95 mill.
is
installed
near Asansol.
and
the
Except
Aluminium
in the
Calcutta and a few large towns where domestic
about general demands come upto The economical methods
20%
of construction
the
city of
and other
remaining power
and operation, and the pro-
gressive) policy adopted by these three Governments, have largely contributed to the industrial development of South India. Progress in South India
might be pointed out as an argument in favour of bringing electricity under unified control as envisaged under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948 The'-Bombay Government have recently established an Electric Grid Department, which will undertake schemes of electrifying the entire State,
Towards the end of 1948, the load development in the area served by Tata G, I. P. Railway inter-connected system exceed the available capacity, which necessitated the introduction of staggering of working hours and days of the various industries, thereby making it possible to utilize the available capacity to the best advantage until adequate additional generating capacity is provided in the system. The staggering of industrial loads of demand. has enabled a reduction of about 38 thousand
kW
42
(
is
development
due
330
to industrial
)
demand.
And
Bihar and Bengal there electric development.
industrial areas of
outside the
very
is
little
Uttar Pradesh and Punjab* The aggregate installed capacity is '31 mill. kW. The power is partly thermal but mainly hydel. The Uttar Pradesh Government has taken (iv)
a
lead in
There are 8
promoting electric development,
hydro-electric stations are inter-connected
steam stations
at
on the Upper Ganges canals.
with one another, and
also
A
Chandausi and Harduaganj,
Ganga Canal Grid scheme is agricultural and irrigation loads.
They
with two special
feature of the
the
of the
In fact tube-well
irrigation in areas not directly
commanded
predominence
by canals was the
The main objective with which this scheme was initiated. U. P. Government has also installed a steam station at Sohwal, and has recently purchased one Messrs Martin Burn, Ltd, of
U,
P, like
power
is
at
Kanpur belonging
Besides, in several
Agra, Allahabad, Banaras,
big
Lucknow and
to
towns
Bareilly
supplied from steam stations belonging to Martin
Supply in Delhi is obtained from the Central Generating station, Delhi, and in Punjab there is a big hydroBurn, Ltd
electric
station
at
Jogindernagar, which serves several
important centres such as Amritsar, Jullandhar, Ludhiana
and Ferozpur, and also continues areas in West Punjab (Pakistan).
expected done.
On
to
serve
The supply
be gradually reduced.
the other
to
But
considerable to
this
hand India should continue
Pakistan
is
should not be to
export ele*
The hydro-electric station at Jogindernagar was established by the old undivided Punjab Government. It is a costly project, since the river Uhl had to be diverted from its valley through a 3 miles long tunnel to a watershed on the other side of the hill, The major portion ol the load connected with the system happens in the area which after partition forms
A working arrangement, however, has been made part of Pakistan. between the two governments West Punjab (Pakistan) and E. Punjab There is a fear of this (India) in regard to the continuance of the supply. Supply being gradually reduced, :
331
(
ctricity
mean
and increase
the supply so far as possible,
not only dealing in a vital
foreign exchange,
And
load supply through
This will
commodity but also earning
there can be a possibility of a greater
regulating the flow of the
and without adding
storage,
)
to the installed
river or by
capacity of the
plant.* (0) Central Region (Comprising of Hydrabad, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa). The total installed capacity is '15 mill,
kW, and
the
power
portant public
is
utility
almost exclusively thermal. installations are at
Khaperkheda and Hydrabad. power as
plants belonging to
cement
collieries,
and ordnance
mills
power generated in
factories,
this
textiles,
is
region
by
are several
concerns such
chemicals,
The major
etc.
paper
part of
these plants,
the
and
This region has good
therefore through private enterpriseof
Nagpur, Cuttack,
Besides, there
private industrial
factories,
The im-
industrial
development since it possesses such as manganese, coal, bauxite, iron ore and limestone, which have not been systematically
potentiality
rich mineral resources
developed so
The to
far.
total installed
about 2*13 mill.
ing
amount
to the
the
of
present
country
which a *In
is
self
this
capacity of
kW,
power
is
88%
i, e,,
all
these stations comes
of the total.
The remain-
scattered in other parts.
programme
of
Accord-
planned power development power zones in each of
divided into 11 contained
power
scheme no storage
is
development
is
The
is
provided.
result
being that
the
output of the power station at Jogindernagar is subject to the variations in seasonal flow in the Uhl. Hence inspite of the total installed capacity of 4S thousand the dry weather flow in the river is adequate only for generating about 20 thousand kW, A greater output can be made possible by regulating the water supply through storage. Secondly, when the greatest output is made possible, the question may be whether to export it to Pakistan or to extend it in the E, Punjab itself, With reference to the position of our foreign trade it may be advisable to export electricitv
kW
;
to Pakistan,
(
attempted.
zones
is
332
)
The present capacity
of
power plants
in these
as follows*.
The development
of electric
the industrial areas of Culcutta
form
60%
ever,
now
of the load.
a
power is mostly confined to and Bombay which together
In other regions also there
planned programme
for
is,
development!
howIn
several of these power zones regional grid systems are being
developed.
Besides, electric power
subject coming
Governments,
under the perview
The Union
now
is
of
the
Government
a concurrent
Union and
State
down
the
lays
383
(
)
general policy and legislates to guide the working of the
and
day to day administration is the Governments! The Electric Supply Act, 1948, provides the machinery for promoting a rapid and
electric industry,
the
responsibility of the State
coordinated power development in
all the regions.
The Future Development, vital force
At present cheap power is the behind industrial development. As a matter of
power can be taken as a measure of ascertaining the level of production and the trend of technological develop-
fact
ment.
Amongst
said to have electric
mic
power
many advantages over
electricity
is
1
others, Really speaking an such in role modern econopower plays important
life that 1
Electricity,
in
the different forms of
the present period
may be
and the extent of
may be
a country
the
called
electric
'Age of
power development
taken as the pointer
to the
stage of
economic development of the country and an index
of
the
Governments and
the
standard of living of the people, In the
all
post-war period
State
private electricity undertakings began very enthusiastically their plans.
According
to
these
original
it
plans
expected that in 5 years ending 1951 about 1*23 mill,
new generating
was
kW
installed,
and
in
subsequent period of 5 years ending 1956 there
will
be an
of
capacity
addition of 3*12 mill, first
kW,
target could not be
addition ol
4 mill.
kW
will be
But as the result showed the
achieved.
1,
where
It
it is
The
in 20 years. 2
and Power Commission drew up
power development
the
a
NPC
proposed an
The Central Water
planned programme of
in different zones as follows
:
can be transmitted with facility from where it is generated to used it lends itself to easy and effective control and it is ;
;
extremely adaptable for multifarious purposes. The advantage of hydro-electric power increases with a sustained load, and it is more economical to transmit power at a high load factor than at a low one. River Training aud Irrigation, 1947, p, 85, 2,
(
334
The Planning Commission First Five
power
Year Plan Of
projects,
in their Draft Outline
of
the
alloted Rs, 734 crores for irrigation
and
this Rs.
144 crores were
spent by
March
1951, Rs, 450 crores were to be spent during next 5 years and
Rs, 140 crores thereafter,
was
I'l
mill*
kW
after completion
and
the period of 5 yrs.
The
generation
1,
full
The additional power expected end of 5 years and development,
was as follows
:
1*93 mill.
kW
The expectation
for
2
the power completion of their irrigation aspect and taken in is carefully regulated up stages as
demand
2,
the
mul-tipurpose projects have been phased with a view
to the early
the
at
;
arises.
The schemes
in the Draft Outline are
Planning for Power Development
in India, 1951, p, 38,
Draft Outline of the First Five Year Plan, 1951,
p, 123,
:
(
335
)
(
836
)
In
the
revised.
now
Plan
actual
presented these estimates are
Irrigation and power
is
now
alloted
Rs,
561*41
crores out of Rs. 2068*78 crores.
The Union and to the
power,
State
Governments seem
importance and the urgency of developing electric
As
the
Plan
shows, they are actively engaged in
planning and execution of
43
to be fully alive
many
large schemes throughout
388
(
the
The plans appear
country.
view
of
needs
the
our
that
But
and
Under such
the
it
be noted
should
by financial resources, the water resources in some
limited
is
capacity
be modest specially in
to
of the country,
technical know-how, Cases,
)
local
circumstances very
rapid
progress
should not be expected, and the development in some of the States
bound
is
to
remain slow.
Besides, in the development of our water power resources a
few points must be carefully considered,
sources of water power
from Kashmir utilized
only
centres in
to
lie in
the
Himalayan ranges extending
transmitted to distant consuming
it is
Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Bengal and Assam.
Recent developments
power transmission
make
accessible
increased sites
to
distant
the large
This potential power can be
Assam.
when
First,
the
in high
West
voltage
power sites and thus has
hydro-electric
consuming
centres,
of water power,
the availability
Bihar,
These potential
and large scale power projects should now benefit many Hence narrow parochial interests should not be
States.
allowed
to
check the progress of water power which should
be conceived from an overall regional or national point of
Secondly, in order to get the
view.
power
potentialities the
development programme should be
carried over a long period
power
units
may
in such
manner
a
Since the power resources
uniformly
throughout the country,
power from surplus to boundaries will have cooperation of several
distant deficit to
applied
to
in
river
of
This
particular
distributed to transmit
will require
projects
and
1
Besides, the principle
natural
valley projects
not
new
when
regions crossing State
be undertaken,
States
development
are
some scheme
establishment of 'regional authorities. unified
that the
be brought into service progressively
required.
of
advantage of water
full
(
resources
TVA
and
recently
DVC
),
389
(
having farther proved the
new approach
to
)
and
utility
resource utilization has been
They should start by taking in view economic and
practicability of
social benefit,
the
made
of
system) leads to it
to
possible
different localities.
conform
and should tackle the problem Thirdly,
inter connected
combine the water powers situated in power-generation has
Further, since
load and water conditions, there
to
overall
power system (grid considerable economy.* The transmision
development
makes
a
possible,
maximum
on a regional basis through regional authorities, the
it,
is
to
an immense
advantage in linking up the different water-sheds, since the inherent disadvantage of the unsteadiness of water supply is overcome by linking up, Though in the initial stages each region has to be developed
when
possible,
the
with local resources as far as
economic limits
reached the possibilities
of the local sources are
of importing
regions have to be explored.
power from adjoining
However, when
the
regional
developments are implemented there will be a need lines
All-India Grid
lopment for
of
it
The Central Water and
between different regions,
Power Commission aims
of
is
possibilities
anil
having an
of
Lastly,
the deve-
ultimately determined by the
or the load factor.
economic
the
as the ultimate objective.
power
scientific
at
Hence
engineering
development as such,
of tie
it
is
not only
a
development, hut It
implies
demand question also
of
a coordination
between the development of load factor (schemes of power
The old
method in which each power station used to feed its own and distribution system, has now (with the development of high voltage pouer transmission) changed into an inter-connected power system, commonly known as the grid development, by uhich the surplus power from one station can be transmitted to make good the output of another station. In the past security and reliability of power supply necessitated the provision of adequate capacity of spare and standby plant Now due to the inter-connection of several power >n each power station, stations by transmission lines the powerful system can serve a very large area, and a very substantial reduction in the amount of standby plant bag been made possible, transmission
340
(
and the production question whether planning
utilization)
a
construction
of
)
of power.
There
load
should
for
however,
precede the
and transmission
generation
is,
facilities,
or
whether power development in an area should be held up till
the possibilities of load are definitely
the
speaking
of
availability
known.* Ordinarily
in
an
in
power
industries and the experience
the
area attracts
load factor growth Madras, Mysore and Travancore and Cochin confirms
in
of
But the scheme should pay within reasonable
this view,
time after installation, and unless there
mum
load
it
is
not prudent to
embark on
is
an assured mini-
large
power
projects.
however, in view of the known shortage of almost all regions there seems to be no in difficulty power
In our case,
of the additional
power, likely
to
under the Five Year Plan, being tinae,
be created by the projects utilized
within reasonable
But in the subsequent years the chances
power being
utilized as
quickly are limited unless planned
efforts for industrialization
Rural Electrification.
has mostly been confined
of additional
are
made
in all regions.
The development of to
electric
urban industrial centres,
supply It
is
*There are opposite views on this point, One view is that unless there an assured minimum load the large power schemes should not be launThe opposite view is that power is a primary requisite for ched,
is
industrialization, industries, e.g., the
and the
availability
development of
of
textiles
in a region attracts near Coimbatore, irrigation
power
pumping and other industries in Mysore and Aluminium, Fertilizers and Rayon manufacture in Travancore and Ccchin, are due to the availability of hydro-electric power in these areas and the growth of load is said to be ;
The answer
cannot be one sided. however, inclined to suggest a moderate policy. It is hazardous to assume that in every region there is an unlimited scope for utilizing The question is how soon can a given load fce developed in a electricity, Jf for any reason the development of industries or the particular area. far
beyond expectations,
We
to this question
are,
creation of load factor takes very long it power projects too much in advance. It
is
is
not prudent to embark on large said that ordinarily small and on miscellaneous load growth,
medium sized power schemes tan depend But large power projects which are very costly should not be undertaken in regions which are too much under-developed unless there are reasonable time.
prospects
of
the
energy being utilized
within reasonable
(
341
)
clear from the following tables.
% of towns and
villages electrified
and the power generated by public some urban and highly industrialized
Installed capacity utilities
alone in
areas.
About 60%
to
only half
industrialized areas,
Besides,
of the electric supply is confined
a dozen big cities and highly
other cities jand lesser industrialized areas occupy most pf
342
(
the remaining supply, with rural areas
fact
if
that
result
electrification in
conspicuous by absence.
is
The need
the
)
of electrifying rural areas is quite obvious,
serve
to
electricity is
general standard of living
There
be in rural areas.
purpose of raising the
the
main
its
In
field of application
must
can increase the production of
it
food and raw materials specially by increasing irrigation It
facilities.
can help
areas and in the areas.
It
c<*n
in
reclamation
the of
prevention
water-logging
water-logged in
low-lying
increase rural occupations by attracting small
scale industries and thus reduce the the beginning rice
in the
selling of the finished products
Further
As
of industries,
In etc,
second stage the processing of
raw materials can be developed.
of transport.
pressure on land.
milling and sawing,
flour
hulling,
can be taken up, and
ment
of
can further help in the
It
by helping in the developenables the
it
a matter of fact in
decentralization
our agriculture by far
the major portion of the cost of production
is
power human
and animal labour) efficient power will bring about considerable savings, and thert is a vast scope for its application. In recent years some State Governments have shown codsiderable inteiest and activities in In
Madras
1600, the
kW,
the
capital
in 1949
energ\
is to
kWh.
Rs, 374
electrify
of
rural
electrified
lakhs.
electrification.
was
villages
areas was 92 thousand mil).
kWh. and
The planning
for
the the
3000 villages, with a connecting
kW
and an energy consumption of 167 The government ot Madras have launhced
load of 203 thousand
million
in
consumption was 76
outlay was
year 1954
number
the
connected load
rural
an intensive economic development of 24 fiikas (sub-division of a taluka)
7 khadi centres, tion in
Madras
is
each
A the
comprising of 50
significant
integrated
t^
feature of
60 villages and rural
development
electrifica-
of both
rural
343
(
)
and urban areas, which amounts to the surplus revenues in urban areas being utilized for the benefit of rural schemes.
There are over 13,500
lift
irrigation
and 1500 rural
pumps;
The general
industries are operated by electricity,
pattern
52% of the total connected loads is in irrigation pumping, 25% in rural industries, 21% is domestic load, 1% in street lighting and 1% miscellaneous* The demand for power is so insistent that the extensions for rural loads is
:
are restricted only by the
other equipment,
In
were
electrified,
same
as in Madras.
Mysore
The
at the
pattern of
As
and
line materials
availability of
end
of 1949,
rural
load
288 villages
is
almost the
a result of the
power supply cottage and toy making have made weaving advancement, In the next 5 years the govern-
industries specially sufficient
ment
is
lation
aiming
of
at electrifying
(in
Travancore
Rural electrification in
fied,
a
villages having
In Travancore-Cochin out
over 1000.
revenue divisions
all
popuof
this State is
more expensive
since in rural areas of this part people live in farm villages)
where length
of distribution lines
adds
to the
Water
cost.
mostly pumped from rivers and canals and there
much
lifting
from
wells,
Power
mation of water-logged area core, is
houses
widely separated from each other,
(and not in
is
and
at
in
is
also utilized
Kutanad
in
not
recla-
north Travan-
Besides, several small scale
rural industries are also in operation. In the villages with a population of
next 5 years 800
more than 5000 each are
and within next 5 years 1200 more.
Pradesh the most fiaction is in
is
for
present about 26,000 acres of water-logged land
brought under cultivation.
electrified,
153
part) 70 have been electri-
significant
development
in
In
rural
to
be
Uttar
electri-
In fact the Ganga Canal Scheme was mainly conceived to supply
regard to tube-wells.
Hydro
Electric
power
to
tube-wells for irrigating
areas which were not
(
commanded by
344
)
There are over 2500
gravitation canals.
tube-wells constructed and operated by government in
Ganga Canal area. Besides, privately owned tube-wells
there are for
a
number
large
which power
the
is
of
supplied
by the goverment.* The new programme of rural electrifition is to electrify 500 villages in the Ganga canal grid area, 130 villages in Sarda scheme, 4 villages and 100 tube-wells Gorakhpur scheme and 60 tube-wells in Faizabad, The
in
Bihar government are operating small rural schemes near
Further
Patna and Dehri-Sassaram,
schemes are being implemented.
extensions of these
Bombay
is
now
giving
About 250 villages
special attention to rural electrification.
and townships will be electrified, Irrigation pumping either from open wells or tube-wells will form a significant position of the
Assam
there
electrification,
anticipated loads.
In
Madhya Pradesh and
have been two successful projects for rural In the former
a State
Electricity
Board
is
formed, and the rural areas within the economic reach of the grid sub-stations will
be electrified.
In
the
Punjab
it
expected that with the commencement of power supply from Nangal power stations it will be possible to extend
is
throughout the State both in rural and urban
electricity
areas.
Bengal
The north is
Calcutta
Electrification
said to have the supply of power
scheme in the
in
W
mofussil
*A peculiar feature of rural electrification in these areas was that the State paid special attention to build up tube-well load, and the development of other load was left in the hands of private licensees. Licenses for distributing electricity for industrial and general purposes were granted in all areas coming whithin the Ganga Canal Scheme, They confined mainly to urban areas and therefore the supply in rural areas made veiy
Though the government had constructed a large net-work could be utilized for general purposes. It was done, but the progress was slow it could be rapid had it not been for an agreement of the U. P. government with the licensees that in virtue of the latter holding distributing licenses in particular area, the government would pay them a royalty of 10% of the gross revenue realized from rural loads other than little
progress.
lines
it
;
tube-wells,
S4S
(
)
townships and villages for industrial and agricultural deve-
lopments as
its
The Orissa government is conlines in the area between Cuttak,
objective.
network of
structing a
Bhubaneshwar and Puri
One
areas* that
significant
for electrifying the adjoining rural
about rural electrification
fact
whatever success has been achieved so far
developed by various government
in
is
is
areas
and private
agencies,
investment, being guided mostly by security of turnover
did not undertake risky enterprise but remaimed confined to safe
areas in urban industrial centres.
Rural electrification means electricity to
villages.
economically poor people residing
As such
benefits of
the
extending
in
scattered
many engineering and economic
there are
But on the other hand, a popular demand for cheap electricity seems to be based on a misconception that a vast hydro-electric potential in the country can be devedifficulties.
loped at a cheap cost.
Really speaking there are
difficulties in electrifying rural areas.
First,
due
many
to the
flung character of the load the transmission, distribution
operation costs
must be high.
kW of
steam station
cost per
station Rs.
hydro be reduced much electric
1,5002,000,
were
commersial loads, '65 anna
and
'96
:
about Rs, 800 and that of
These
costs are not likely to rates
for
2*47 annas for residential
and
anna
for
selling
for large industries, '56
anna overall
Water and Power Commission think increase. 1 figures will show substantial rates are, therefore, limited,
rate,
1,
The chances
44
p,4p,
of
low
But on the other hand, village
Central Water and Power Commission in India. 1951.
The Central
that in future these
to pay high rates, people are not in a position
Development
and
at present the capital
The average
in future,
energy in 1949
electric traction
Besides, is
far
:
Secondly, the
Planning for Power
846
<
)
load density in rural schemes is not always a sure factor. It is
said that most of the rural electrification schemes do not
become
even
self-sufficient
the
at
Thirdly, these schemes involve
The
private investor
and due the
to
huge
end
financial
not attracted due
is
scheme not being
investment.
to
low turnover
self-sufficient for
very long; and
government which can take a longer view does not find
always
Even
it
convenient
to
take
up such big
enterprises.
in the case of subsidies there is a limit to them.
But not an
it
should be noted that electric power development
end
in itself,
it is
sides, the experience
a
means towards betterment.
shows
that
is
Be-
once electricity takes roots
people become electricity minded, and It
10*15 years. 1
of
the
load grows on, a
does not suffer depression except in the rare event of
several large industries closing down, electrification a initial stages, in
long-term
order
view must
to tide
over the
schemes
of rural
be taken,
In the
difficulties,
subsidy
In
should be considered necessary for a shorter period. 1.
Central Eleciricity Commission
:
Rural Electrification
in
The India,
1948, p, 3,
The experience in Canada and U.S. A, was the same, but by taking a long view of the working of the projects they spread out the financial expectations over a longer period. The Sectional Meeting of the World Power Conference held at 2. Viena suggested that experience proved that rural electrification was a more promising field than was at first believed to be so. The experience in Mysore and Madras suggests that there is at present no need to educate the peasant regarding the benefits of electricity or to make special load promoThe study of the growth of load factor in our rural electrification projects proves that the rural load has increased beyond expectations, Besides, the individual rural load may not be high but the total load in the tional efforts,
to a substantial figure, But it is significant to note that actual agricultural load is only a small part of the total load, The Survey of the Damodar Valley project shows that the rural load will be hardly 10% of the total demand in the project, The experience in Madras,
whole area accumulates
Mysore and U.P, showed that actual agricultural load was hardly 3%, 12% and 13% respectively in 1948, This shows that planning for non-agriculbe made in rural areas. In the first period of planing it not be difficult for the additional power being utilized but for successive period care has to be taken in advance, tural load has to
may
847
(
)
whole scheme should be taken up as an integrated one so as to
subsidise rural
electricity,
So
tariffs
far as the
by higher rates on other uses of
agency
is
concerned rural schemes
will not be an attractive
investment for private enterprise
having profit motive,
will
It
not
spreading electricity in villages.
as investment is concerned, costs are also minimised.
The government has
and with them the problems
Reduction in costs
first
which are relatively prosperous,
to
the
also to
oi
be
costs of construction, transmission, operation
our conditions the start should
are good,
is
improvements and adKeeping in mind the security
and maintenance should be reduced.
The low
to
technological
through
ministrative conveniences. of service, the
progress in
They can take a long view so far
take the responsibility.
attempted
make much
and rates
with are
to
made
wht
which
rates
said
be
And
keeping in mind in selected
areas
re the load prospects
the
traffic
will
bear.
have contributed considerably
success of the rural
electrification
in
the
TVA
experiment,*
V.
NEED FOR A CO-ORDINATED POLICY OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION.
In the study of
resource
utilization
the unity,
balance
and harmony complex must be appreciated universal process ot action and reaction of mar It is the and his environment, or of the human community and the of the ecological
complex, that symbolizes itself in a distinctive This genus of life is cieated, genus of life in a given region* consolidated and maintained through subtle, complex, regional
*For a detailed study of power one can refer to Central Water and Power Commission: Planning for Pouer Development in India, 1951 Central Electncity Commission: Rural Electrification in India, 1948, NPC Power and Fuel and River Training and Irrigation, 1947 CWJNC Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950, and the Fiv :
,
'
:
Year Plan,
.
348
(
)
manifold and ever ramifying relationships between
community on
organic nature on
the other,
i.e.
}
through the binding of
culture with land, water, plants, animals, insects etc.
is
It
termed as man's
reactions
to
in-
human
and climate,
environmental
or man's adaptations to geographical
stimuli,
human
hand and the organic and the
the one
milieu,
or
man's meanings, symbols, designs, values, ideals and goals, or more popularly termed as man's struggle for a more satisfying way of life. The analysis of cultural importing of
complex shows
only those
that
traits
which develop in
harmony with the physical aspect of nature, survive and accumulate as heritage of civilizations
shows
for
coming generations; and the history were founded on and formed
that they
They survived and continued
by Nature.
so long as
man
worked in harmony with his environmental milieu. Theresocial progress the balance fore, to achieve and continue between the various resource patterns must be maintained, The price which man has paid for creating a disequili-
brium
is
rather
The most eloquent testimony
heavy.
furnished by the remains
of
the
is
ancient civilizations of
India,
China and several
other glorious culture areas in the world.
These civilizations
Rome,
Egypt, Babylon, Greece,
decayed and disappeared due to inadequate, indiscreet and indiscriminate manipulation and utilization of resources.*
The decline soil
erosion,
of
Chinese Civilization
the
is explained in terms of decay of Greek Civilization was due to
inadequate resource potential, the fall of Rome is attributed to the declining rainfall and indiscreet resource manipulation,
and the downfall
of the
Indus Valley Civilization
is
said to
have been brought about by a combined effect of the shifting of river beds, decline of rainfall due to reckless denudation *It
is
generally believed that civilizations die as a result of the conquest
of a people by a more virile did their own natural death.
and
intelligent race,
But really speaking they
(
of
849
)
encroachment of salinity from
forests,
Kutch and the
indiscriminate exploitation of vegetable
resources resulting
in the impoverishment of faunal forms.
The neglect
to
of
man
maintain a balance in the ecological complex had Us
The experience has been
Nemises.
doubtful whether
man
but
too costly,
it
is
has yet learnt the lesson of a balanced
resource utilization.
The
earlier sociological speculations,
as a part of nature, considered
him
though treated
man
in a deterministic fashion,
were regarded as extraneous forces rather Social progress was than phases of ecological complex,
and
his efforts
explained in terms of control over Nature. is
considered
as
a part and
relationships by which refined, shifted
The
and broken*
a complete whole.
In
parcel
the regional
many
subtle
of
balance
pattern
now man
But
those
interwoven
is
maintained,
of life
evolves as
ways and through
intricate
relationships man's designs, meanings, sensibilities, values, goals and ideals mix with land and water, plants and animals,
and of
air
and sunshine. Social progress
is
interpreted in terms
adaptations to geographical milieu or obeying
Therefore,
let
and progress balance
is
Nature.
us remember that culture will be sustained
will be maintained only so long
as the regional
maintained through a highly imaginative and
well coordinated policy of resource utilization.
Lastly
it is,
significant
inventive genius of
to
note a few
points
:
first,
the
nations tends to operate along the paths
chaulked out by resource patterns.*
The immense quantity
*Thft use of bones in the Arctic snow deserts, of stones in the regions of rugged relief, of wood tropical forest areas and of shells in coastal The paintings of Italy, sculpture of fringes are a few basic examples,
m
Greece, music of India, mumy cult of Egypt, ancestor worship of China and trade complex of Great Britain have similar explanations, Besides, the labour saving devices of the advanced machine civilization developed
and the coal and iron complex, highly developed banking and commerce and the efforts to subjugate agricultural people $re the complexes of industrial-cum-commercial civilisation,
in thinly populated areas,
<
350
(
and variety
of
)
men and
our resources both in
capable of creating and
material are
advanced
a highly
maintaining
provided the art, science and technology are conserve the mobilized and mobilizable resources,
civilization to
applied
and
them
to utilize
balance intact. to the
opposed
efforts
limits of
as
keep the natural and increment, as bounty and lasting difficulty, the
regions of effort
spiritual
This should
material*
tially
manner
a
must be primarily
civilization
of our
in such
In this country of
demands
populated
paits,
a shifting of
the
a larger
to
balanced
for political
extent In
resource*use
population to the thinly
populated
The demarkations
parts of the central regions of the country,
made
basic policy
Secondly, the
utilization,
development being reached
our thickly
as opposed to essen-
taken as the
be
towards resource
to
and administrative conveniences
act as an
hinderance, and the recent demand of linguistic provinces will be a greater hinderance in
Thirdly, the partition
tion.
of
Pakistan
has been
a
a balanced
resource utiliza-
of the country
and the creation
regional
History has
suicide,
innumerable examples of such impositions also
many examples
remember
that
destructive.
regard to
State is
the
attention
Pradesh, parts of
it
to the
of the
Madhya Bharat which,
if
repeat the history of the
attention paid to
fiess of
Government
Lastly, of
us
and
it
is
be fully realized,
we want
India and the
agricultural
ruin which of the semi-
development Western
Eastern Rajasthan,
in
a creeping danger
way, may
The
the
place as a result
desert conditions
It is
of their resources,
of
Governments concerned
taking
let
harsh
rather
has
Let both the countries, therefore, be wiser in
to the utilization
draw
are
correctives
It
But
Nature's correctives.
of
these
man,
of
Uttar
and Parts of East Punjab. allowed
to
have
its
own
Indus Valley Civilization.
too inadequate.
Let the serio#$-
APPENDIX A Changes
By way
In the Sale
of illustrating the
Value of Land
changes in the sale value of
land a few examples are given below. (a)
Uttar Pradesh
multiples of Net
:
Agra
Profit.) (Rs.
district,
(Value in terms of
per acre.)
Net
profit is
culated
roughly
cal-
as
55-60% of rental value which varies according to soil, right in land and availability of water.
(b)
Madras
:
Chingleput District.
per acre Rs,) Statistical Atlas of p. 493.
351
Average sale value Madras Presidency, 1936, (
{
(c)
Land
)
Madras. Different Districts*
acre, Rs. (Dr.
(d)
352
Average sale value per Sayana Readings in Rural Problems, p, 54.)
Hydrabad
:
Nizamabad and
value in Rs. per acre. (Rural
Hydrabad Hydrabad
State,
Govt.)
1951,
p.
Warangal Districts, Economic Enquiries in
123; Board of Eco. Enquiry,
APPENDIX B The Community Concept Historically
Considered the
evolved from a simple
word
Community
to
a
complex one.
economic
self-governing cities
activities,
unit,
were considered
of parts or
fragments
and nations.
states
Originally the
Thus to
of
by residents engaged in
and constituting a politically
system
be communities, and were thought large
social units
The conception
of
of inter-related
economic
like
principally
came
community, on
from ideas
the
of process,
countries,
community was geographical
institutions,
independent framework of government. ception of
towns and
hamlets, villages,
primarily derived from ideas of structure, a area, a
area with
designated a geographical
definite legal boundaries occupied inter-related
Concept has
community
The newer con-
other hand,
is
derived
The conceptual evolution
as a consequence of general social change
353
and an
by which
354
(
)
communities were significantly influenced, and the introduction of
newer disciplines
from psychology, into the thought its explicit
elements,
community
result of
is a
specially those derived
of social scientists. is
Taking
any consciously organi-
zed aggregation of individuals residing in a specified area or
endowed with
locality,
limited
supporting some primary institutions
degree of interdependence elements,
it
is
is
autonomy,
political
among whom
found; and taking
its
certain implicit
a process of social interaction which gives rise
to a
more intensive
of
interdependence,
or
more extensive cooperation,
attitude
and
colleboration
fication.
PRINTED AT THE MODERN PRESS, AGRA,
practice
and
uni-
INDEX, Adalat, panchayati, 152-157
Aereboe, F, 88 Afforestation, 234, 269
Agricultural activity, nature of,
26-29
Community,
(see
com-
munity) Economics, 1-11, 32 Economy, 36, 39, 63
Environment, 32,-36 Fundamentalism, 12-17 Hazards, 39 Life, 22, 33, 66 (also see farm life) Output, 29-32 (see
pro-
duction)
subsidiary Agriculture, as occupation, 83-84 ; for town dwellers, 82-83; social environment of, 114-118
Akbar, 162, 177/a Alchohol, 316
Barker, 12 Barsodi, 12 Bennett, 218. 230 Bhagirath, 276 Bhaskara, 277 Bluffs,
266
Board,
298
Advisory
Planning,
;
Agriculture and
Animal
Husbandry, 256; Central Technical Power, 324
Bombay
Plan,
2.i
Brand, K*. 14, 90 Briggs, 134 Brihaspati, 276 Brook, N,, 182/a Business, selection of farm, 78-79
Campbell, 182/a, Canal, 275. 278, 279, 286, 292, 293, 301,302, 304, 330 Capacity, 43
Alkali, 255, 257, 309 Alluvial, 266,268,285, 300, 304, 305 American Civil War, 131
Capitalization, 86, 87, 90 Caste, 115, 119 Cato, 10
Anantvarman, 277
CWINC,
Anstay, V,, 115
324 Ceremonies, Social 116 Chalisa, 163
Appraisal, 85, 86,91,203 Process, 85-86 Arid, 255, 285 Artisan, 104, 109, 112, 131
98 Aurangzeb, 163 Avata, 275 Arya, 97,
C
T,
OM
261 295,
296, 301, 304,
Chandragupta, 177/a
Chew,
P.,
14
Civilizaiion, 17, 35, 36, 38, 39,
122,138,204,245,263,348,
350; Industrial-
cum- commer-
Babylonian, 177/a, 270, 275, 348 Badarian, 184 Bakhar, 258
125 Coal, 316-319 Cobweb, 141
Bari.257
Colonization, 262, 279
cial,
Cultural Complex, 348 Curzon, 186
Commercialization, 117
Commission,
Agricultural,
Customary Law, 108
280
108, 240, 252,
Central Electricity, 324 Central Water & Power, 339,
321, 324, 333,
319,
Dalhousie, 130, 134,249
345
Famine Enquiry, Indian Famine, 171,
282, 300 170,
166,
Davis,]. S,, 13 Decentralized, 146 Deciduous, 241 Deforestation,
185,280 296,
-Irrigation, 273, 280, 298, 302
-Lyall, 186
Mac Donnell, 186 Planning, 24, 234,239,251, 252,261, 299,309, 311,
Delafosse, 181
Deluge, 266 Diminishing Return, 27, 44-52, 56 Dipterocarps, 241
Law
of,
Distribution, occupational, 42,
334
128, 129
Committee, Coalfiels, 316, 318 Food Grain's Policy, 259 Fooder & Grazing, 259 National Income, 17, 20 River Training & Irrg. 274 Soil Conservation, 251
Usar Land Reclamation, 257
Community,
agricultural, 6, 7,
9,21,22,33, 37; farm,
33;
Divided, National, 7 Dose, marginal, 48 Double^cropped, 290 Drainage, 300(also see underground) Dravidians, 97, 98 Dredging, 266, 270 Earthflow, 219, 223 Ecological, 41, 245 Complex, 347, 349
-
Economic
activity, regional distribution of, 145-147
of
disintegration
village, self-sufficient
101408,
;
Backwardness, 36 Efficiency, 43
village, 102, 104, 106; vill-
age,
158,227, 245,
252
323
Industrial, 251,
277, 282
Dams, 275, 276, Daubeny, 10
96-108,
human,
347,
301
183,
;
under-
348;
-
Evolution 118, 128 Forces, 129, 137
developed, 23
Institutions,
enterprise, 272, 297 interest, 7
progress, 123, 145 Motive, 7
ownership, 101-102 Company, E, 1., 163
Transition
shifting, 96, 137,
of,
227
(see
transi-
tion)
Conservation, 236-238, 244-246 Cultivation, intensity
119,120,125
5J-56;
Economics,
4-5, 9,
land, labour tural)
(also
and
see
agricul-
iii
(
Economising,
Economy,
5, 7,
Insurance grant, 280
9
agricultural,
36,
126; Deficit, 35; Price, 4; Money, 129, 132; 63,
39,
73;
Suiplus,
Self
Electricity, 316, 319; developrf, 322-326, 329,
future
346; of,
;
position of, 326-333; Electrification, rural, 340-347 Environment, 35, 36, 51, 107,
121,143, 146,147,202,206 agricultural, 32-36; geographical. 36; physical 36, 201; social, 114-118, 119, 122,
123 relationship between and economic, 118. 123 Epharmological, 41 social
Equilibrium, 205,218,245 Erosion, 216-219, 348; causes of,
226-228; effects
231;
extent
of,
^28-
of,
231-234;
geological, 216; types
forms
of,
and
219-226
Etiological, 41
Euphrates, 177/a Extension, agricultural, 258
264 Fallow, 212, 213, 214-215
Famine,
158, 173, 279,
280
history of, 175; 160-1 72, nature of ,175-176;
-Code, 188 Compaign, 189492
types
Community, 33 Life, 66, 137
Production,
63;
varia-
tion in, 39
Management,
3,
10
Farming, advantages of 6566; as an occupation, 6266, 77-78; choice of, 6, 77-
diversified,
79;
70-72,
59,67-68,
73;
collective, 60; commercial, 59,137; co-
operative,
60,
corporate,
60; family, 62; joint, 60; mixed, 59, 74-77 owner, 61 State, 60 subsistence, Tenant, 61 59, 73, 104 specialized, 58, 67-70, 137 Ferozshah, 163 Flood, 266-271, 293; causes of 267-268; control of, 268-270 307 irrigation, 305 -level 292 ways 265 F.A.0,,8, 14 Forces, modern economic, 129 137; sociological 5 ;
;
;
;
;
Forests.234, 235, 237-240,316, ;
Bengal, 169-172, 173; causes of, 158*160; concept of
modern,
7^-82;
57-62
of,
330,
developPresent
333-340
the,
Practices, 73, 137
s
ment
179/a-189,
classification of, 57;
-
fare, 4;
178/a,
Farm, selecting
con-
Egyptians, 270, 275, 348 Elphinston 102
3,'2,
-Relief, 280
15,38, 110; Wel-
tained,
ment
)
349; types of, 240-243; utility of,
243-244
Ganges, 277, 279 Ganga, 276 Gaon Sabha, 148-150 Geographical milieu, 202, 348, 349
Geological Survey, 317 Ghats, 167, 179, 232,241, 321 Gilboa, 177/a Giraar, 275
Indravarman, 277 Indus Valley Civilization, 348, 350
Gtavity, 220, 319, 320
Industrial Revolution, 12, 37, 108, 122, 127
Gray, 3 Greeks, 177/a Grid, 339
Institutions,
120, 125
G. M, F, C., 282, 286
Growth, 42,147
Intensity,
Gully, 219, 221, 228, 231, 232,
Handicrafts, 142 Harappa, 184
optimum degree
281, 272-
;
and practices
241,
98, 108
Hopi, 184 Howard, 3
111,
112,
140 Job-opportunity, 34, 121 Joint cultivation, 138 -family, 115, 119, 120 products, 29 113-114,118,
242, 321
290-295
of,
Isolation. 106, 110,
Himalaya 8,231,232,240,
136,
-village, 99-100
255, 285
Jouzier, 1 Kallar, 257
-region, 225, 285, 300
Humous, 216
Kans, 258
12,
13
Hydraulic, 276, 278, 321 Hydro-electric, 320, 321, 323; 320, 322
Kautalya, 276 Khadar, 261 Kharif, 288
Kikar, 240 Kolarians, 97, 98 Kulya, 276 Kunda, 276 Kupa, 276
project, 321 -stations. 322,327, 328,330, 338 Hydroiogical, 321 Ibn Batuta, 162
Labour Economics, 9
Incas. 177/a
Land,
Income, capitalization variation
of,
55
;
Hastings, 164 Heitland, 10 Hibbaid, 3
-phnt,
economic, 119, social, 114-125
275; extent of 283-290; extension of 300-315 hismethods tory of, 275-283
Harijan, 33 Hass, G. C.. 89
Humphries,
;
Invenfcary, physical, 85 Irrigation, 138, 271-272, 286; importapce of
233
Gypsum, 257
Humid,
;
approach, 87 Indian Electricity Act, 323
Individualism, 132
Granulation, 227 Gravitational, 227
Hindu Law,
national, 7
in
of,
farm,
86 27
40, 46, 52,
93
and
;
virgin
;
importance
of,
(also see
marginal)
;
39-44; pro-
v
(
ductivity
43 214 of,
of,
43-44
;
value
utilization of,
;
21
Monsoon, 159, 289, 290
;
107 corporate, 102, charge in rural, 132-140
Life,
community, 96411,
146
;
Linguistic Provinces, 350 Location, 43, 81 Localization, 135 Lyall, J,, 186
Malthusian, 178 3,
10
Nala, 276 Nalika, 276
Nandivarman, 276 Narad, 276 National Income Committee,
NPC,
234, 239, 296, 298, 300,
301,304,315,319,320,333 Nautor, 235
Forest, 253 River, 255-266
Navigation,
-Soil, 236
229,
266,
281,
307, 309
Manor, 105 Manu, 99 Manusmriti, 276 Maori, 184 Margin, 48, 49, 249 Marginal dose, 48 Productivity, 48 44, 45,
Nazul, 149 Nika, 276
Novgorod, 161 Occupation, choice
of,
109
;
primary, 41 secondary, 41 tertiary, 41 ;
;
48, 49
47,49,51
Marshall, 3, 4, 45 Mears, J. W,, 323 Metcalfe, C., 103
Migration, 120, 181, 182 Milieu, (See Geographical
288 Mir, 105
-Projects, 334
17.
Management, farm,
milieu).
Mudflows, 219, 223 Multipurpose, 322
;
;
farm, 66, 137, 139
Millet,
274,
Motive, (see economic motive) mass, Movement, 140-141 219, 202; social, 140
166, 182/a
Leaching, 237, 258 Leavee, 270
-Return,
173, 241,
Moqui, 184 Moreland,115, 179/a Morse, T. D., 87
hunger, 32 reform, 33
Land,
Mobility, (see social mobility)
Mohinjodaro, 184
1<
classification, 211-214 --economics, 8, 9
Lawrence,
)
Occupational distribution, 42, 128, 129
Groups, 109
Optimum, 43, 236 Organism, 147 Organization, economic, 127 Overgrazing, 227 Padmakara, 276 Pakistan, 330, 350 Plestine, 177/<*
(
Pallava, 277
vi
)
Pastoral, 96, 97
Region, humid, 225, 285, 300 tropical, 160 Regional complex, 347 System, 322 Relationship, economic, 127 human, 142-145
Peasant proprietorship, 61
Relief, (see
Panchayat, 148-157, 235, 242 Panchayati addat, 152-157 Parantaka, 277 Parda, 116
-Work,
Petrie, 181
Phoenicia, 177/0 Pine, 242 Plan, Five Year, 234,237, 261,
231,299,312,340 Planation, 216, ^27
338; resource, 293; water, 294-295,321 Quantum, 296, 297 Powell, Baden, 100 Power, sources of, 315-322 Pranali, 276 Prap, 276 Price, agricultural,
133,
135,
139 Production, quality of agricultrend of agritural, 31 ;
34
(see
;
also
farm production)
Productivity,
43,
marginal, 48 varying, 45 Progress, 145-147
44,
;
211
;
natural,
201-210, 281 shifting of, 38 coordination of, 347;
;
350 water and power, 315-347 Assessment, 201-2C6 Appraisal, 20T -Utilization, 265-350 Return (see diminising return) Rill, 219, 220-221. 228 River training, 265-266 Robbins, 5 Robertson, 246 Rock weathering, 216 ;
Institute
of
Interna-
Rural democracy,
33,
136
of
-Electrification, 340-347
modern
Run off, 221, 226, 269, 296 Sales approach, 87 Sarpanch, 153
Ravines, 232, 235, 246, 258
255-^58
;
classi;
Rudradaman, 276
economic, 123, 145; social, 349 Protective, works, 293, 294 Public utility, 325, 329 Rabi, 288 Raiffeisen, 183
Reclamation, 237,
41
of,
tional Affairs, 14
93;
law
;
276, 282, 304,
269..
305; underground, 295 34 dorment, Resources,
Royal
Function, 141 Productive works, 293, 294
relief)
Relativity, resource, 204
Reservoir,
fication of,
318; power,
Potential, coal,
;
178/0
importance
Poor house 189
cultural,
famine
;
Sarsi, 276
W. 14 Severally villages, 99, 100 Seismic, 231 Schulrz, T.
f
Semi-arid, 255, 274,285,350
Shahjahan, 162, 177/0, 278 Share-cropping, 61
Shelter-belt,
Smith,
Thermal power,
234
318, 319, 830,
331
B,,
181/0 Silviculture, 253
Sleeman, 1771*
-Station, 320, 322, 328 Tidal, 268, 270, 271
Slippage, 219, 221,224
Tigris, 177/0
Slumping. 219
Time
Social groups, 109
Tolley.H.R., 14
31
lag, 30,
Mobility, 111
Transition,
Movement, 140
beginning of, 130-132 economic, 125130 forces of, 130-132 Tropical, 241
Scale, 111
-Welfare,
136,
134,
;
;
5,
8
;
111114
rural,
Society,
130.
140142
;
urban, 113-114 Sociological forces, 5 Sociologist, 117 Soil conservation, 236, 237
Tube-well, 281, 286, 293, 304, 330, 343, 344 Under cultivation, 45, 53, 116
Under developed
countries,
40, 144, 160
Exhaustion, 74 Solifluction, 219, 223
Underground drainage,
73, Specialization, 50, 117, 129, 133, 136 Standardization, 31
111,
300,
308 Storage, 502
-Supply, 296,298,301,303 Water 304 "
Storage, 296,
269,
270,
301
272,
i73,
under-
302;
ground, 302 -Works, 293 Strachey, R-, 182/0, 184/0
Sub-marginal, 230
;
237, 254,
262 Subsidence, 2 19, 224 Sub-soil supply, 295 Subsistence, 137, 138
System, medieval economic,
126128
;
modern econo-
mic, 127-129; social, 125 Tala, 276
Unemployment, seasonal, 21 Urban community, 22 -Society, 113-114 34, 203,205,206, 207, 296 land, 211-214 water, 266 (see also resource utilization) Urbanization, 143, 144 Utilization,
;
;
Unproductive works, 294 Usar, 257, 258 methods Valuation, 85, 91 ;
of,
86-91
Value, economic, 139
capita-
;
Tataka, 276
lized,
Tank, 276, 277, 278, 286, 293
increase in land, 94-95
Taylor, 2
philosophical, 140
Technology, 41, Temple, 246
51,
56
Terracettes, 219, 224
Thar, 229
87;
8991;
human,
119,
social, 111 ries of land, 91-94
;
sale,
;
;
theo-
;
Village, 35, 96-111,142-144, 163, 235 (also see joint and
(
viii
severally village); present oi,
organization types of, 59-101
96-98 110-111 of,
;
108-111 ;
self-sufficing,
Handicrafts, 142 Vapi, 276 Varro, 10
Vedas, 275 Velocity, 221, 227. 233, 244
Virgin land, 52, 216 Virnarayan, 277 Voelcker, 240
Wadai, 181 Wadia, 115
;
origin
)
Wants, 5, 6, 203 Water potential, 294-295
-Power, 319-3^2 Resources 294-300 -Logging, 236, 258,308,342 -Table, 244, 287, 304 Ways, 229, 265 Wells, 275, 286, 293, 302 Weir, 305 VVilcox, 14 Wilson, 12
Xenophon, 10 Zones, electric development, 327-333
CORRECTION
SLIP.
Besides, the number of pages on the form No. 24 have been repeated as on No, 23. The former should be treated as 177/0, 178/a. 179/tf 180/a, The gap is further made up from form 181/#, 182/tf, I83(a and 184/0, .
No,
26.
