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DAMAGE BOOK Text Problem Book Tight Binding

Book

00

66023

OUP-880

5-8-74

10,000.

OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Call

No.

Author

33$0511) I

This book should be returned

Accession No.

on 'tsr b^W't$?13W' iat^irked

below.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

D,

S,

Chauhan, M.

A., Ph. D,

t

Director,

The B. R. School

of

Economics

&

Sociology,

AGRA.

A&VRWAL, afSsje-^^Xij^^S^^bf^^

H O 9 P I T Al HO A

li

,AG R A

(INDIA),

ALL

RIGHTS RESERVED.

Printed at

The Modern

Press, Agra.

aJia Cflamvi

jUom

-tonom

aumol naA

a4aaw

FOREWORD Agricultural Economics

an appendage

to

is

taught and studied in India as

economics, of which

urban-industrial

the

type and pattern are set by the economic history and instituWestern Europe and America, This kind of approach

tions of is

responsible not only for the lack of scientific understand-

ing and interpretation of the social and economic problems of the Indian country-side, but also for the indifference,

nay fatalism with which we look upon the present trends of rural decay, desocialization and disintegration as inevitable* It is

and fresh introduction

for this reason that this brief

to

Economics coming as it does from Chauhan, who has had a long and valuable experience of field agricultural research, is to be heartily welcomed the study of Agricultural

Dr.

D

by the

S.

scientific circles.

The net output

at factor cost

from agriculture

in India is

estimated at about 48 per cent by the National Income Committee. But agriculture is not merely an occupation but also a its

mode

of living;

and hence

the

enhancement or lapse

of

values apart from income or employment has both direct

and indirect beyond

effects

upon general economics and policies far Yet even within the limited

farming as a business.

field of the agricultural

blems

occupation

that are crying for solution,

the holding, the lization of

the insistent pro-

cropping system, the

optimum cattle power and

the

on which rests the whole success agricultural sector.

we have

such as the optimum

size of

optimum

uti-

optimum farm management of the Five Year Plan on its

These have been

skilfully

dealt

with

by Dr. Cbauhan* He makes out a strong case for proper land utilization that today holds the major key not only for successful population adjustment but also for withstanding

the social and economic perils of erosion

the soil ot the

Great Indian Desert

the

Today

and the population

cumulative

eating

and dessication* into

vitals of

the

On

Uttar Pradesh.

oi

of

effects

is

the expansion of

account

sands

loose

by the disappearance of scrub jungle and grass, over and gming browsing by cattle, sheep and goats for generations and heavy erosion, especially along the flanks of the set free

Jamuna and made desert itself

its

what may be called, the 'man-

tributaries,

1

or the 'Dust

Bowl

of India' has

now

over about a thousand square miles in

smiling

plenty.

Topographical

land once

indicate that

Ferozpur, Patiala, Mathura and

from the north

to the south

Agra are

vulnerable lines

the

surveys

established

oi

across which the

invades the Ganges valley in a great convex arc of half a mile per year during

swallowing up about 50 It

may

at least

miles of

sq.

be estimated that the

500

sq,

the last half a fertile

desert

at

a rate

century and

land

gullied lands in U*

per yean P.

cover

miles and are not merely useless but consti-

tute a serious danger to the adjoining good lands. Almost 20 per cent of the tracts along the Jamuaa and the Chambal

in Uttar Pradesh is

comprising a

now

intersected

vast waving sea of

and denuded by ravines aching desolation and

waste fringing and attacking one of the most prosperous parts of India. The U. P. doe to man's recklessness, igno-

rance and hunger-drive, cesses of

which are accelerating the pro*

wind and water

erosion in a

semi-arid tract

bordering the Great Desert, is committing 'regional suicide in the south-west.

servation of

The conservation

of

soil

and

the

1

con-

water which are intimately associated with

Hi

(

)

each other together touch the entire tion of the earth

and thus a

field of

man's exploita-

scientific bio-physical

involves the highest amount of

programme man's

co-ordination of

uses of trees) grasses, soils and waters in the back-ground of

his popolation

and

pressure

standard

of

I

living.

would expect that the team-investigations of the B, R. School of Economics and Sociology, Agra, under Dr. Chauhan's will

guidance

expert

show

the

way

the

for

recovery

Agra-Mathura region on the basis of integration methods and materials from the different fields. of the

Researches

into

and

soil

water

of

land

conservation)

reclamation and agricultural intensification and extension

cannot succeed

have

these be undertaken

if

These

piecemeal,

be carried out in

total setting of the emerging science concerned with the techniques economic agricultural of farm production, the patterns of farm management and to

the standards

farm work and living

of

reciprocity with the

The

transformations. in India is

Today

the

complex

of

in

their

entire trend of culture

and technology

working against the country-side and Indian village

is

dynamic

economic, social and cultural

victimized by

agriculture,

The

the city,

and progress of the country-side depend upon success with which we can introduce a dispersed type

rehabilitation

the

of industrialism

on the basis of hydel power and

motor

transport and tations that skills

set up certain intermediate "rurban" habicombine the social values of the village with

and technologies of the

city-

The Five Year Plan

is

unhappily silent about these aspects of economic integration

and development.

Dr,

for rural industrialization

lead to the diversification

Chauhan has made

a

strong plea

on a decentralized basis of

that

will

employment, improvement of

farm technology and the reorganization

of rural credit

and

marketing without the control and exploitation by the chain of intermediaries,

All this is related to the

higher educational

institutions,

distribution of

such as Folk Schools and

Colleges after the Danish pattern in rural surroundings, the the powers of village Panchayats and other and the development of rural social welfare programmes. In Uttar Pradesh we have the Panchayat Raj

expansion

of

local bodies

Act which Or. Chauhan heartily welcomes,

Sevak Sangh hopes rural areas.

A

to

The Bharat

begin social service programmes in is yet to be envisaged

social security plan

for the Indian village that,

shock-absorber for

however, constitutes the primary the hazards and misfortunes in all sectors

It is urgent that we approach problems of rural economics in our country not merely from the point of view of income and employment but from that of the broad social

of life.

values of an agricultural civilization.

work contributes materially

to the

economics as a social science

Dr. Chauhan's pioneer

development

of agricultural

in India.

Radha Kamal Mukerjee. UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW,

KMrch

77, 1953.

PREFACE

A good

deal of literature has-been

and

is

being produced on the subject covered by this book, under the same ot

resembling

closely

This attempt

titles,

made

is

collaborating rather than in a competitive spirit,

approach nor in the scope

in the

is

it

claimed

in

a

and neither be of a

to

pioneering nature,

The book

is

understanding of the subject of Agricultural Economics*

full

How

far

it

will

at

if

prove useful,

and

for

not able to foresee at present,

He

which classes is

primarily intended to provide a clear and

of

readers,

to

hew will,

how many,

long, the

for

author

however, be happy

stimulates thinking on the subject, either as a whole or

if it

on any

specific

problem treated therein*

The treatment could of

all,

covering a

not be

wide scope

made more exhaustive because

in a relatively shorter

space.

But

through the device of frequent and sometimes lengthy footnotes an attempt has been

made

to invite or

ders to enter into usually neglected spheres

and

intricacies,

in detail, text,

persuade the rea* of

controversies

which for want of space could not be treated

and could not be accommodated in the body

of the

After an analysis opinions are expressed; and for

detailed study

some sources

are indicated here

and

there.

The approach has been without preconceived notions, and some of the conclusions are widely different from

popular

thinking. validity of for

At ^places doubts have been expresed on the some assumptions, or about facts which are taken

granted, or about

For

settled,

this

controversies

no apology

thinking generally results in merit

is

to

approach.

which are taken as

needed since independent such divergent views whose is

be examined, and assessed

through scientific

While specialists

making the book and at the same time

specialists, die style, instead of

interesting to

to

the

non-

provide something for the

maintaining the specific and

become a mixture of The exactness of statements sake of the specialists make the

distinctive characteristics of either, has

readableness and exactness*

and precision attempted

for the

style prolix at places*

The interspersed

digressions

and

the

language loaded with long sentences have been adopted to make the statements exact without being obscure. But

it

so

appears that clarity attempted for the sake of

the specialists has become, at place, confusing to the general

reader*

It

looks like the vision of an

orchard or forest

becoming obscure when one approaches too close or actually

moves amongst the trees. The author is most indebted to Dr. Radhakamal Mukerjee who has been a source of inspiration. Besides, acknowledge* ments of gratefulness are due to a very large number of authors on whom he has drawn considerably for thought and substance. Some of the names are being referred to but many more remain unmentioned. The author is conscious of their Thanks are also due to Mrs, Sushila Kumari obligations* Chauhan, who has helped considerably in reading the proofs and preparing the index. Lastly, we thank our Publishers for their

remarkable patience in bringing out

this book.

D. S. Chauhan. Agra, Nov., 1952.

CQJJTBNTS FOREWORD. PREFACE.

CHAPTERS. I.

THE SUBJECT-MATTER. DEFINITION. SCOPE. NATURE.,

1-11

,

N

II.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE.

...

12-25

AGRICULTURAL FUNDAMENTALISM. PLACE OF AGRICULTURE IN NATIONAL ECONOMY* IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTUREIII.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF AGRICULTURAL

ECONOMY.

...

...

.,,

26-56

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY. AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT. INTERDEPENDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER ECONOMIES. THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS. INTENSITY OF CULTIVATION. IV.

TYPES OF FARMING AND THE PROBLEMS OF SELECTION AND VALUATION. ... 57-95 ^CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS. FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION. SPECIALIZED VS, DIVERSIFIED FARMING.

PROBLEMS OF SELECTION. VALUING THE FARM. V.

RURAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC TRANSITION.

..,

THE VILLAGE COMMUNITIES,

...

-

PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF VILLAGESSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE,

ECONOMIC TRANSITION AND AGRICULTURERURAL-URBAN RELATIONSHIP. VILLAGE PANCHAYATS IN U P. VI,

FAMINES AND FAMINE RELIEF.

.

158-200

FAMINES.

HISTORY OF FAMINES, FAMINES IN MODERN TIMES, EFFECTS OF FAMINES. MEASURES AGAINST FAMINES, PLAN OF MODERN FAMINE CAMPAIGN, VII,

RESOURCE UTILIZATION. (LAND RESOURCES,)

201-264

RESOURCE ASSESSMENT. LAND-USE PATTERN. SOIL CONSERVATION. FORESTS,

LAND RECLAMATION AND AGR. EXTENSION, VIII,

RESOURCE UTILIZATION CONTINUED. (WATER AND POWER RESOURCES.) 265-350 RIVER TRAINING.

PROTECTION AGAINST FLOODS, 'IRRIGATION.

POWER RESOURCES, CO-ORDINATED POLICY OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION,

in the sale value of

APPENDIX

A.

Changes

APPENDIX

B.

The Community Concept.

land,

CHAPTER

I,

The Subject-Matter.

Definition.

The

scientific

study of

Agricultural

Eco-

nomics as a separate branch of Economics is of recent origin, though books on agriculture used to be written long beforehand and

many

important

of

problems

agricultural

economics have been given considerable thought and have been solved through organized effort. 1 All this literature is of a

different nature

which

is

not generally considered as

agricultural economics in the modern conception of the term.

However, even is

in the recent approaches to the subject there

no unanimity

of

thought,

and

the

definitions given

various authors differ both in nature and scope.

example, a few of them are given below

^/j.

"Agricultural Economics

cultural science

which

by of

:

branch of agri-

is that

treats of the

By way

manner of

regulating the relations of the different elements comprising the resources of the farmer whether it be the relations to each other or to human beings in order to secure the greatest degree of prosperity to the enterprise," (Jouzier) 1 The beginning of the study of agricultural economics is generally traced back to the 9th decade of the last century or roughly towards the At the same time we are told that agriculture close of the 19th century. is the oldest occupation customs, traditions and even legislation regarding land system, taxation, exchange and international trade, irrigation, price administration and relief etc., have existed since the ancient times; economy of most of the countries of the world till the middle of the last ,

;

century was founded almost exclusively on agriculture and the treatment of agrarian problems is seen in almost all the important treatises on political economy by classical writers. Thus, we find a considerable thought and effort being given to agrarian economy since long. Then how to reconcile these two apparently opposite ideas ? Really speaking, when it is said to be a recent study the implication is that the application of moderq ;

2

(

)

2. "Agricultural Economics deals with the principles which underlie the farmer's problems of what to produce, how to produce it, what to sell and how to sell it,

order to secure the largest net profit for himself consistent with the best interest of the society as a whole. in

More specifically agricultural economics treats of the selection of land, labour and equipment for a farm, the choice of crops to be grown, the selection of livestock enterprises to of

be carried on,

the proportions in

which

and the whole question

all

these agencies should

be combined.

These questions are treated primarily from the view-point of costs and prices. It deals not only with economics in production but also with problems of justice in distribution of wealth amongst various "

classes

3

"Rural problem

is

divided

into

four general

The

industrial aspect or agricultural economics has to do with the relation of the farmer with other aspects,

elements of the industrial system, such as land tenures, of transportation, methods of marketing, system

means

of taxation, credit

institutions

and protective and stimu-

lative legislation."

(American Farm Management Association.) economic thought and analysis and the technique

of research to the admiput it on the status of an independent scientific approach, teaching and study of it at the university

of agricultural

nistration

economy

so as

to

level, i, e appointment of professors exclusively for agricultural economics and the inclusion of it as a separate subject for post-graduate studies and research, and the writing of books exclusively on economic and social problems of agriculture and peasants etc., are recent developments. as such, as an organic doctrine based on adequate Agricultural economy and logically analyzed, did not experimental data scientifically collected exist until the end of the last century when thought was stimulated in Western Europe, England and America by the agricultural depression. In fact the earlier treatment of the problems of agriculture as indicated above is not considered as the study of agricultural economics in the modern meaning of the term. It is because agricultural economy in early times has been studied by technical agriculturists rather than by professional economists, and the earlier economists while dealing with problems of dwelt on general economic problems apart from the specific agriculture character of the sector under consideration (e, g,, discussed general problem of price-fixing even though investigations were concerned with agricultural even while studying agriculture as a human activity (e. g,, products) and in historical approach) and in their sociological approach (e.g., life of of farm-work) they rarely conceived of anything peasants and problems other than abstract problems of little practical value, ,

2,

Taylor,

(

3

)

"It may be defined as the science in which the 4, principles and methods of economics are applied to the special conditions of agricultural industry," 5,

''Agricultural

Economics may be defined as the economics to the craft and busi-

application of general ness of agriculture."

"Agricultural Economics

6,

tionships arising

spending

The

first

with farm

The

is

the study of

activities of

man in

agriculture."-

three definitions identify agricultural economics

management and hence, they are

other three are better

hensive in comparison

to

is

more akin

conception of economic activities and hence, definition,

explanatory and

is

that case

to

it is

Marshall's

also limited

;

covers a wider scope, is not characterized by vagueness. Really

though

it

it

charm on being explanatory and necessarily becomes lengthy

speaking, a definition loses since in

limited in scope.

because of being more comprethe first three. But they neglect

Hibbard's idea

the social aspect.

and Gray's

rela*

from the wealth-getting and wealth*

its

;

brevity often sacrifices comprehensiveness. to criticise a definition

It is

very easy

from one point of view or another but

Secondly, there is an impression that the systematic study of agricultural economics as a separate branch of study has originated in the U, S. A, and that the terminology such as 'rural economies' and 'agricultural econoThese are wrong impressions, and have mies' has also originated there. gained ground most probably because the literature of the countries of Western Europe specially Germany and Italy, has not been sufficiently In America, though a few earlier contributions are found, T. F. studied. field of agricultural economics Hunt^lj&2) is the outstanding pioneer in the ^wTufpuTniral economics on the list of courses recommended in 1896, and the most popular book for the students of agricultural economics in U. 8, libraries was 'Progress and Poverty', by Henry George written in 1880. Besides, the terminology referred to above is seen in English literature prior to its use in the U.S.A., and in England there is also available a rich literature by Caird (1850 and 51), Prothero (1888), Cobden (1846) and even much earlier to them by William Marshall and Young at the close of the 18th and the American thought is considerably influbeginning of the 19th century enced by, and American students at the close of the 19th century found many of their basic principles explained in, German literature, by Thaer, This shows that prior to America, Thunen, Roscher, Sering and Goltz England had a considerably rich literature in agricultural economics and 4.

Gray,

5.

Howard,

6.

Hibbard,

(

very

difficult to give

4

)

one which

may be

free

from the defects

found in the previous ones, But while describing the subject-

matter and the scope a brief definition is not indispensable nor is it necessary for students to remember any particular one.

definitions are criticised

Very often

because a few

do not convey the exact sense the covered author. This is the case with by scope

lines torn off the original text

and the

full

Taylor whose ideas and treatment of agricultural economics covered a much wider scope than indicated by his definition

which

is

Perhaps the purpose can be

quoted.

generally

served by omitting a brief definition in the beginning and the students

find

may

easier by

it

first

dealing in a bit detail

with the nature and scope of the subject-matter and then to a

come

concrete definition. Agricultural economics

Scope,

is

not the application of

the general theory of economics to the business of agriculture

but as

indicated by the term

is

itself, is

the social science of economics. to

have

at the

economics.

very

It

is,

a specific aspect of

therefore,

In this regard

it

is to

be noted that the scope of

economics has widened from Trice Economy* 1

Economy of

.

Economics

Marshall that

business of

life

it

;

it

necessary

outset a clear understanding of generaj

to

'Welfare

instead of being defined in the

"is a

study of

examines

words

mankind

in the ordinary

of

individual and

that part

America borrowed considerably from Germany, Again, even prior to England, Germany and Italy had advanced far in this study. At the close of the 19th century every important German University had its professor who taught subjects concerning fields now designated as agricultural economics when there was no chair of agricultural economics in any English University, and the contributions of Thaer (1798) and Thunen (1826) are economics. said to be The outstanding contributions in agricultural Similarly, Italy was remarkably rich in such literature contributed by Cato, Varro, Columella, Pliny and Virgil. And the influence of Italy on British that

thought and practice is proved by the modern agriculture the British system

fact that prior to the introduction of of farming was termed as 'Virgilian

Agriculture/ Besides, during the 19th century Italy had fine contributions made by Carlo Castaneo, lacini and Valenti.

5

(

which

social action

and

most closely connected with the

is

ment and with the use

)

attain* 1

of the material requisites of well-being/ 1

be a study of 'material welfare, being considered to be a particular

thus, being considered to

and economic

activities

group of human activities distinguished from non-economic it

is

now more

that

it

is

activities,

Robbins

popularly defined in the words of

which studies human behaviour

a "science

as a relationship between ends and scarce alternative uses",

human

is

It

The problem

activities.

means which have

a study of a particular aspect

satisfy multifarious wants

of

economics

is

how

<*f

to

The back-

with scarce means.

ground is that wants are unlimited and the means to satisfy them are scarce* A complication has been introduced by the characteristic of

The

uses.

objective

maximum

the

means

Here

welfare.

social

economists, and

their

can be put to alternative

that they

attain the greatest

is to

is

satisfaction

the subject-matter for

task has been described

is

way

of

as

the science and art of cultivating land and

raising of livestock,

a

in short

Agriculture on

that of selecting or choosing or economising*

the other hand,

or

life also,

and

is

A

not only a

mode

of livelihood but

combination of these two ideas, of

economics in general and

agriculture in particular, gives

of

a clue to our subject-matter.

Agriculture, in general,

Some

is

governed by a number of

of these forces are physical

chemists,

geologists

and

soil

and are treated by

specialists,

etc*

physiologists,

pathologists,

bacteriologists, etc.

sociological

arising

geneticists,

entomologists

forces which are characterised

and a way

agricultural

of life.

others

and animal

forces are economic

set of

amongst men on account of

as a vocation that

Another

physicists,

Some

are biological forces which are studied by plant

forces.

and and

by relationships

agriculture being followed

It is

economists deal.

with these relationships In other words, while

6

(

the multifarious

satisfying

wants farmers come in contact

These contacts are

with others. of

)

modern economic

the natural characteristics

which the economists

life,

arise

say,

on

account of specialization and commercialization of production, division of labour and

and

distinct factors of

combinations

of

With

production.

widely scattered progress of

the

becoming more numerous and complicated, weaving around an individual a network of inter-relationships some of which are supplementary, some

civilization these contacts are

complimentary and others competitive. They involve relations between different enterprises indicating (i) :

the choice of farming as an occupation, and between different

branches of the same occupation indicating a choice between

growing of crops or raising of livestock, or even between cereals and fibres,

in

growing

of crops,

relations

(w)

between

presenting a problem of

commercial

(fit)

people

to

whom

they

farmers and

between

whom

from

or

production

combination and substitution,

right

relations sell

factors of

different

the

they buy goods and

services, and, (iv)

relations oi value

production and the

between

the different factors of

product, involving cost and

final

price

relationship.

Agricultural economics covers

economic

life

of

the

distribution

exchange,

all

it

to

studies

;

what

what

'.

produce

sell

to

four branches.

;

what

what

to

With

how

where

;

specific

production,

for

practical

can be divided into

to

produce and how much and at what price to

to sell

among whom

to distribute,

To be

it

.

special reference to agriculture

produce,

to sell,

basis to distribute

consume.

four branches of

community and consumption, and

agricultural

purposes or for detailed treatment these

the

what it

to

to distribute

and on

consume ami how much

includes the choice of farming

7

(

farm and

as an occupation, the choice of

nery and labour,

)

livestock, of machi-

crops and cropping system, the size of the

of

unit of production the grouping of the factors of production, intensity of culture, manuring, irrigation, soil of agricultural products, land

selling

cultural finance

and

costs

prices,

Dividend,

and

rate

profits,

etc.

i,

efficiency,

e,,

problem

is of

economising or of

choosing the most profitable enterprise and

at the

it

of

factors

rent, agri-

wages and employment, standard of living and National

of interest,

In all the cases the basic

operating

conservation,

system and

optimum

production

combining the different most economical proportion,

scale,

the

in

buying and selling most advantageously, regulating all the activities involving value to the best interest, and in short, directing

the activities

all

of the agricultural

to the

economist

is

to

best advantage,

what

point out

The is

task

best to

do in the economic interest of the agricultural community under given conditions, what is technically termed as valuation of

phenomena by

worthwhile

It is

maximum

with

social standards

to note

return

money

in

That

satisfaction in consumption.

aspect,

call

it

the

or

that this does not

problem

human

or product,

is a

standards.

coincide exactly or

limited ideal.

of pricing or of profits,

maximum Monetary is

a basic

and very important aspect of our science but not the whole of It is the basic economic motive, but is a means to an end it.

and

not

and

a

an end in

itself*

driving force

mankind

or of society.

does not end

maximum

in

for

judged not

provides a will, an urge, a purpose, motives the service of

The study

attaining

of agricultural

maximum

return

in

indvidual satisfaction of the farmer.

interest cannot be ficed

It

for higher

overlooked.

economics

money or The social

Individual interest is sacri-

community interest, The results have to be from the maximum profit but from the general

the

8

(

happiness of

The

life.

Besides, the

in

is

subject

the

is

maximum

evolutionary

social welfare.

growth-

under new circumstances which

problems

arise

solutions,

and emphasis

shifts

The

The

economic and

cost

social

of

analysts

now used

another

of the

to

include

farm community.

individual crops and farms, formerly

attempted with H view of various factors in

problems

to

fence conception * 1

'line

changed agricultural economics has now widened so as

all the

New

call for fresh

from one problem

conditions.

to

according of

ideal

)

to

discover the relative importance

determination of farm

the

in connection with regional

profits, is

adjustment of produc-

from a national point of view; and serves as a basis for

tion

national policy.

The study

of

foreign trade in

agricultural

commodities has evolved from the economic advantages to different nations and the idea of the comparative cost to the of International Emergency Food Council present activities

and

the

Food and Agricultural Organization.

The study

of

land economics has developed from merely resource description to directional measures as a means of dealing with public problems of

resource conservation.

The study

of

iarm labour and rural welfare has advanced from community studies to the distribution of national labour

force,

social

security and public utility services. Similarly, considerable development has been made in research in marketing and price analysis, statistical research, soil conservation, enumerative

surveys and attitude studies in determining public policy, Nature,

etc.

In order to concentrate attention on a particular

branch the domain of economic activities has been divided into

several

provinces which are distinguished from one

'The conception

that

the

field

of

agricultural

economics should be

those things which could be acted upon by the individual This was the early American farmer within his own line fence view, (B. \V, Allm, Journal of Faim Economics, Aug., 1948), restricted

to

9

(

)

another by some qualifying terms such as land economics

and labour economics,

and public

household economics

economics, rural economics and municipal economics, It

will

be wrong

to

that

imagine

Such

exclusive of another.

a

any one of them

thing

is

not

is

etc,

absolutely

possible specially

At higher stages the problems are inseparably interlinked, and at the highest stage they merge into one, Hence, the principles and practices of agricultural in

sciences,

social

economics are not any

general economic

of

group

specific

and practices which are applicable exclusively agricultural environment or refer to the economic aspect theories

to

of

the behaviour of agricultural community, and not applicable to

other conditions and communities,

that economics

method.

is

a doctrine,

be remembered

It is to

a

it is

of

way

approach, a

is largely governed by physical and which vary from time to time, Farmers

Agriculture

conditions

social

not

cannot follow specific rules since each time they have adjust

to soil,

Adjustment being a constant problem they have

some guiding

to

climate, market and many other conditions.

for

principles

the

directing

follow

to

activities

under

certain circumstances in accordance with a definite purpose,

These guiding principles indicate

which the basic problem are not

they

is that of

The

exclusive,

a

way

of

approach in

'economising,'

and hence,

principles and practices

of

agricultural economics likewise are not exclusive,

Agricultural economics

mean

not

theory of

that

it

is

studies only

economics

to the

an applied science. the

application

it is

a systematic

and

the methodical pursuit of knowledge,

tion

and

of their

stabilizing,

2

results

in

agriculture

does

of the general

field of agriculture,

applied science in the sense that

It

But

it is

an

knowledge

analysis, organizafor

adjusting and changing them,

the It is

purpose of not

a pure

-

10

(

or naturalistic science

sake of knowledge,' to

certain

assessment

standards,

But

in the latter

'knowledge for the

facts

of

knowledge with reference having nothing to do with or facts

phenomena

by

social

has both a theoretical and practical aspect.

it

In the former case the systems

of

pursuit of

or

phenomena

'values', or

sense

the

in

i. e. t

)

it

includes the knowledge which governs

economic behaviour and relationships, and results are used for manipulative or

of

case the

directive purposes.

Some

early writers have identified agricultural economics

with farm management, and some have

even treated

it

as a

farm management. Recently some have insisted that they are two different subjects and must be treated by branch

of

These differences have arisen mostly amongst American thinkers, Agricultural economics and farm management had separate starts, and the latter, which different

specialists,

generally grew out of early

start.

The

the

department of agronomy had an

early courses were based

mainly on the

books by Cato and Varro, Daubeny, Heitland and Xenophon. Later on,

made

when

scientific

study was started, the beginning was

with cost studies in

relation to

incidental to the introduction of

by low farm prices during on the attempts were made

new

which was

crops and was stimulated

9o's of the to

prices,

last

century,

studying the best

Later

methods

of

as a social farming and the study of agriculture activity aimed at best national interest, It is mainly due to the early

study of farm management became more promiThere has been a change in the terminology also. Now

start that the

nent. it is

generally

wider

accepted that agricultural economics covers a

and

scope

farm

management

is

only

one

of

its

aspects. Lastly,

it

has

ideals, policies

to

be remembered that economic ideas and

and measures,

institutions

and

activities are

(

governed by the cultural,

They

community, and

tic

political,

A

orders.

and

social structure of the

student

of

agricultural

will, therefore, seek in vain an identity in these

things under different systems.'

With

)

are not entirely identical under capitalis*

socialistic

economics

11

this

1

scope and nature of the

now attempt

a

definition.

subject in

mind

Economics

Agricultural

let is

us

an

applied science in which the thought, process, analysis and organization of economics are studied in

relation to the

and relationships .arising out of agriculture being followed as a vocation and aswell as a mode of life, under a particular political, social and cultural set-up. Thns

specific forces

)

tt is

on

the one

agriculture

hand a

and on

special branch of the general study of

the other a particular

economics but fundamentally

it is

branch of general

a social science.

*Life shows a series of levels of organization ranging from the nucleus and cell, the organ and organism, the sociological and psychologiLaws found at one level cannot be applicable at other levels cal entity Community organization changes under the influence of internal forces and Economic life, therefore, is the pressure of external environment partly evolved out of the environment and is partly the result of conscious

Economic institutions adjustment of the environment by the community ,, the therefore, bear a mark of relativity, e change from free trade to from laissez-faire to planned economy and the individualism protection, of olden type giving place in England 'and America to a new economic order with community as a focal point of industrial

effort,

CHAPTER

II.

Importance of Agriculture.

Agricultural

Fundamentalism.

Wilson, Barsodi and

thinkers (Barker,

commonly

said to be having an orthodox

that agriculture is par

The

There

usual explanation

a

of

group

Humphries,

etc,)

view, which holds

exellence the fundamental industry. is that

since

ture is the basis of the existence of

raw material

sable for providing

is

it

feeds the world agricul-

human for

race.

many

It is

indispen-

industries and

provides a considerable part of the materials for trade, hence it

is

the foundation of manufacture

and commerce.

It is

the

first settled occupation and tven to-day it is by far the most and numerically important superior industry, since roughly of the world 2/3 population depends on it. The beginning of

Industrial Revolution was

made

made

earlier in agriculture

the revolution in industry possible^

in world population

is

and

it

increase

was made possible by a great increase in

agricultural production,

ing that "there

The rapid

not

Barsodi goes only

to

the extent

something wrong with

of

say-

modern

but that there

is also something wrong with and thereby he suggests that modern life which is becoming more and more mechanical, commercial and artificial should be adjusted to rural and agricultural

agriculture

modern

life,''*

*Baker, Barsodi and Wilson, Agriculture in Modern Life, quoted in Readings in Agricultural Fconomics, by the Indian Societv of Agricultural Economics, 1950

12

13

v

which

life

is

more

>

Rural population occupies a basic

natural.

place in the social structure, and

Farmers are

race.

importance

it

in a peculiar

human

of

basic

of

degree

Agriculture furnishes the basis and

to society,

substance of prosprity in other fields that "If agriculture

source

the

is

sense and

;

and Humphries holds

made

widest sense can be

the

in

pros-

peious, then the whole world will very shortly become more

prosperous as well." civilization wholly

agriculture

never be possible

will

It

urban and industrial which may neglect

Ht nee, agriculture

completely.

lundamental in the sense

of

absolutely

These thinkers believe

businesses.

would topple

Soundness

J,

of this faith

Davis

is

is

known

thinkers popularly S.

without the basic fabric of our

Hence, they have a

faith

by another group

challenged to

be having the

modern view.

one of the most popular representative of

group, and he holds that

The

this

wealth and welfare of nations

depends upon many complex conditions. is

other

controlling

that

be

to

fundamentalism-

in agricultural

of

into ruins.

said

is

contributions of agriculture all the rest of the civilization

have a

to

To-day agriculture

not uniquely basic, and the prosperity of a nation depends

than the

largely on other factors soil nl

study

This of

is

work

of

those

who

supported by the following arguments

economic history shows

that

the

till

:

The

economic progress,

broadly speaking, tends to be accompanied by a decline in the relative importance

of

agriculture.

This

is

true,

if

not

universely, of most nations in most periods and of the world as a whole. To-day

we

find in the countries of

more advanced

standard of living a trend towards a gradual decline of the place of agriculture visible

1,

],

in the

in

falling

their ratio

S. Davis, Agricultural

in Agricultural Policy,

of

national

This

economy.

agricultural wealth

Fundamentalism, reproduced

Edited by 0, B. Jesness, 1949.

m

to

is

total

Readings

14

(

national wealth, to national

ture as

i,*,,

)

falling percentage of agricultural

income

income, falling index of the net output of agricul-

compared with

that

of

industries,

declining rate of

compared with the urban population and the absolute contraction of numbers engaged

increase in

rural

population

as

in agriculture leading to a falling ratio

the total

lation

to

capita

demand

These are

and

the

A

extreme views.

and

more balanced view

Karl Brandt, H. R, Tolley and

after considering both eastern

agricultural

agricultural popu-

the decrease in the per

for agricultural efforts,

taken by others like

who

population,

of

and western countries and

industrial communities, assign to agriculture

They hold

a status equal to that of other sectors of economy, that one part of the country if

another part

is

is

Chew,

P,

cannot be happy and prosperous K. Brandt holds that "farmers

in distress.

are a vital part of the arterial system of circulation

which flow the goods and services

of

the

national

through

economy.

The nation depends on properly functioning farms as important sources of primary materials, foods and fibres. Yet the farms cannot be treated as an independent object of policies, nor can they be made prosperous in emancipation from the re-

economy. Nor can the conditions creating mass unemployment and decreased output in cities be cured by

mainder

of the

maintaining or restoring economic well-being alone.

1

to

the

farmers

'*

A still better explanation is given by T, W

.

Schultz,

Wilcox, Food and Agriculture Organization, and Institute of International affairs,

the

W

.

W.

Royal

London.

By explaining the of the nature modern economic society they emphacomplex sise the

interdependence and the close

relationship of the

various sectors of economy or groups of the society instead of *Karl Brandt, Report of the committee on Parity Concepts, U.

S, A.

15

(

saying which

They

fundamental or which

is

say that the size is not the

as the height or

importance or physical to total etc.,

The

prestige.

of

are misleading in this regard,

of importance,

no indication of his

amount and

of output, the

talized, but as a country

test

quantitative

income and the number

nomic development economic

is

more important*

is

supreme

man

a

of

weight

volume

)

tests

such as the

the ratio of income

persons engaged in it. At lower levels of eco-

may

activity

makes an advance

be compartmenthe

interdepence

of various sectors increases, and their relationship

becomes

economic evolution when a country grows a relatively free excha specialized production and to it of becomes goods ange impossible to say which part is

more

close.

In its

more important, since reciprocal behaviour ress possible.

is

it

the

The nature

mutual stimulous and the

which make the progmodern economic society is

o{ different

of

parts

becoming more complex than ever before.

This implies a

gradually lesser degree of self-sufficiency of different sectors, self-contained economy, or a greater each other. In this ever changing on dependence relationship we cannot establish the fundamentalism of

or a lesser degree of

degree of

any. It is

true that farming is the

employs a large section which is the basis of life, it

and manufacture, and important. in

But

more advanced

settled occupation, that

of population, that

that

it

that in

man does

first

not

countries.

it

produces food

provides materials for trade

terms live

of output

it

is

the most

by bread alone specially

"When we

say

that

it

is in

any sense more a generator of income in modern society than other occupations,

modern economic of

we

fail to

society ..An

farm families with

a

understand the true nature of efficient

high standard

buying power per person

contributes

agriculture of living

made up

and a high

much towards

a

high

16

(

and

national income

but the same

economic well-being

the

which

say

economic society," 1

most

is

Though

2

produce food, the basis

of

does not prove that

efficient

it

to

should

of all occupations,

agriculture providing an adequate and stable

farm income and attaining increasingly regular sufficiency food in

is

is

modern

continue

will

agriculture

life, it

in

important

be considered to be the most important

An

of the nation,

can be said for each of the other group,., It to

impossible

)

no index of economic

modern times

is

indicated

progress of a nation.

of

Progress

by an adequate leisure and an

adequate provision of the means enjoying that leisure, i, e t1 consumption of goods and services that make life rich and

worth living.

wholesome,

in short

faction all

occupations

and

To

sections

this

maximum

contribute.

satis*

In

the

economic society which is organized like this it is neither easy nor desirable to demarcate the essential and the nonessential sectors,

importance. 1,

W, W,

8

nor can they be rated it

Really speaking,

Wilcox,

Farm

is futile

in

order of their

now

to

argue the

Prosperity.

Synthetic chemistry has made considerable progress and we find producing a number of organic compounds. The chemists to-day very well understand the composition of food substances of our diets, But at present we cannot imagine a time when growing of crops and raising of livestock will be substituted by factories producing the commodities now furnished by farms. That will never come, though it may be partially achieved after a long time, 2,

laboratories

Man has to be fed and food production has been the most funda3, mental and permanent concern of man. The profound importance of the thought of man from the very beginnagriculture, therefore, dominated made agriculture the only key to economics. During the ing, and thinkers early times all the nations have mostly been concerned from day to day with the problem of bread. It is only during the 19th century that a small section of mankind has attained freedom from concern over feeding themselves. But it is true of only a small section of the world population. Even at present 3/4 of the working time of the whole world is spent in making a living possible, Though civilization has advanced to a stage when the thought is not wholly dominated by the question of bread, even to-day for the under-developed regions of the world the problem is otherwise, These rigions include 2/3 of the world population, and there the human life is at

sub-human

level,

and there

is

a

problem of bread. With reference

1?

,(

)

and

relative importance of land, labour

capital,

It is

highly

problematical whether these factors of production, while functioning in the real world, can be sorted into neatly cut

and divided,

either three or

more mutually exclusive,

cate-

gories.

Place of Agriculture in National Economy. is

one of the four ancient homes

ancient

civilizations

Our country

too has

immemorial,

were mainly

of

Our country

civilization,

These

agricultural in charactert

been an agricultural country from times

Though our

cottage industries

attained a high

water mark of excellence and earned world-wide reputation in the past,

we^were even

tural people, Inspite of the tion during the

modern

at that

time primarily an agricul-

steady and gradual industrializa-

times, specially after the First

World

War, agriculture even to-day retains the role of being by far the most important occupatiffii and the most outstanding

mode

of

economy

national

life.

at present,

as

The

place of

shown by

the

agriculture First

in

our

Report of the

National Income Committee, 1951, can be estimated from the

following table.

these facts the talk of agricultural fundamentalism in the sense that it should be given the primary importance in policy and programme, is not wholly baseless, But those who hold that the progress of these regions depends on the degree of industrialization do not consider agriculture to be fundamental in the sense that it should be given priority one. Really speaking, it is the surplus in agriculture which is the basis for building up At least in this sense agriculture is fundamental in India at further, to

present.

3

In arder to have a comparative idea data relating to

countries is given the

countries is

in the

made

following table,

The

some

selection of

so as to represent highly industrial,

mainly industrial and mainly agricultural countries,

(

19

)

National Income at factor cost by industrial origin,

A.

Occupational distribution of the gainfully occupied

B,

population, (%)

2

Coram-

Agri,, fore- Manufacture

Countries.

stry

&

Fishing.

Construction Govt,

&

&

Transport

It

of

life,

.,

tions,

has not only been the main

source of livelihood but also a tradition and the most

way

&

Communica-

Finance.

Mining.

Importance of Agriculture,

erce

common

and has been enjoying since times immemorial

a place of

pride in our economic and social

ation has

been reflected in our

life.

The

situ-

festivals, literature, customs,

ceremonies, songs and dances. of agriculture 1,

It is

To be specific the importance can be explained from several points of views.

by

far the

most important source

of

employment

1,

United Nations, National Income

2,

Colin Clark, The Conditions of Economic Progress, 1951, pp, 39S-9

Statistics, 1938-48, 1950, pp, 211-215.

20

(

)

More than two-thirds

and

of livelihood.

tion

depends directly on agriculture,

11

ol the total

popula-

we add hunting and

occupations the percentage increases to about 70.

pastoral

Besides there aie menials and artisans in villages whose livelihood

depends on the cultivators and thus they are

supported

by

found

produce of the land.

the

And

and also with some urban pursuits. trade and

of

tural produce-

90%

also

have been combined with some cottage industries

to

amount

is

Agriculture

of our

considerable

a

transport are concerned with agricul-

has generally been estimated that more than

It

rural population

depends

or indirectly

directly

on agiiculture, 2. It

It

was

contributes a major

estimated that

tributions to

contributed

and otheisS,

wortli R
produced goods

1931-32 the

income was:

national

try 17, Services 22,

in

share to the national

Agriculture 53, Indus-

During

from agriculture

to

,abja or about 48%,

directly

1948-49 India

3942 crores of which agriculture

Income Committee has estimated

to reflect

percentage of con-

2193 crores or about 53%.

R^.

The National

the net output at

factor cost

f

Rs. 41 5 out of a

be

wealth^

total of

Rs. 87*1

Besides, agricultural conditions are said

and influence considerably

the

public

budgets, 3.

It

contributes considerably

to

our exports,

the percentage has declined recently, even

45% tural

of

our

total

at

Though

present about

exports are raw materials and other agricul-

commodities which value more than Rs. 200 crores,

These exports earn foreign exchanges which we import

capital

goods for our development plans

and other necessary commodities. 4, It produces raw materials for our biggest industries, terials,

depend on

e, g,

for us with the help of

cotton, jute

industries,

and sugar,

Some

for their

of our

raw ma-

agriculture. Again, agriculture provides the

21

(

bulk of

the

demand

or

)

market

main

the

for

industrial

goods. 5.

It is

situation

the source of food for the entire population.

having deteriorated

we

our food supply on imports.

and

the country

has

present depend

But that

be

to

at

is

Food

for part of

a precarious position in

self-sufficient

this fespect.

There-

Clothing like food

is

fore, for both food

and clothing, the two primary necessaries depend on cultivation.

of life, 6.

we have

to

in

likewise agricultural

The gradual realization

of the country,

origin.

and the absorp-

tion of the seasonal unemployment created by some industries

show

that

agriculture

refuge for

population

when 7.

it

is

employment falls

the shock-absorber, and

for all

workers.

the last

Thus, the working

back on agriculture as the source

fails to. get

is

of livelihood

else.

employment anywhere

Agriculture resembles a public service.

It

aims

at

permanent preservation of the productive capacity of nataral resources.

individual

the

Though

farmer

is

guided by life and

private interests, he produces the basic necessities of his interest is mostly a public interest. 8.

Agricultural population occupies an important place

in the social structure of our country.

industries and

man power

for

and

traditions.

The

provides labour for

Because of the chara-

army.

cteristic resistance of rural culture to

the old culture

It

change

it

has maintained

the

social herit^g.e.

In cities under the influence of commercial and zation

more

the

social life is

often disorderly.

stabilizing influence 9.

under going

community

agricultural

has preserved our cultural identity and

a fast

Agricultural cponnunity

by permitting only

a

urban

civilt;

change which ,

is

exercises $

gradual change.

Agricultural community promotes social as well as

political

disorders

security. in

Economic upheavals, strikes and social worst forms do not fully influence

their

22

(

farm population.

the it

In the

)

of

days

upheavals

political

The urban

national patriotism*

constitutes a reservoir of

community which is a heterogeneous ethnic and cultural hedge podge and the culture which is generally commercial-

menace

aim-industrial, are at present a great

peace and good

will.

Contrary

to

rural

it

international

to

community and

culture promote peace and good will.

As explained

10,

Chapter V, though agriculture is not as an occupation from the pecuniary

very encouraging point of view,

it is

in

quite

stable

and

is less

As

disturbances in the financial world.

a

susceptible to

mode

ot living

it

simple and happy. Though rural areas do not provide some conveniences which towns and cities do, but the cost is

of living

much

is

And even during

lower.

the

farmers are not faced with unemployment,

depression

It is

observed

nities

communities are most peace-loving commuand agricultural life is the most contented and peaceful

life.

That the two oldest and biggest agricultural countries

that agricultural

of the world, India inspite of

and China, have never fought each other

being neighbours,

is

an important

fact

world

in

history.

The

situation

which says

that

is

summarised

best

economic

in a Chinese proverb

life is just like

represented by agriculture, branches and leaves by trade and commerce.

worthwhile

to

whose

roots

industry

and

a tree

stem by

are

It

is,

however,

note that this important role of our agriculture

has to continue in future, extent, and the country

country for pretty

though not exactly

will

to the

same

remain mostly an agricultural

long in future.

The reasons

are as

follows; First, the present

occupational

overwhelmingly large proportion

distribution of

showing an

population depending

on agriculture

bound

is

population

and a considerable

to

remain agricultural

part of

it

for

for ever.

very considerable

it

portion

Under

some

of

very long,

present and the growing

the

a balanced occupational

distribution the

be 45, and by others 50

change from the present

is

sugges-

Whatsoever

to 60,

state of affairs

Generally, with the development of transindustrialization and an overall economic progress the

will be port,

to

actually be, a

may

the

industrializa-

percentage of population depending on agriculture ted by

of

Rapid by serious handicaps, and it cannot absorb a

tion is linked

population.

But the major part

unbalanced.

is

very slow.

percentage of agriculturists begins to decline.

%

days the

farmers in

of

England and U.S.A. was more

than 75, but

now

former and

less than 25 in the latter.

it

In the early

has been reduced

to less

Such a

than state

10 in the cannot be

expected in India for a pretty long time, because agricultural

and the capacity the under-developed communities is very

communities are conservative for

in

development

limited.

It

in character

involves a change in the national psychology,

overcoming long established traditions and modifications in the mode of life and the method of working. These are stupendous tasks specially in an Secondly, the share future

is

tion,

Even

supposed the

to

of agriculture

and poor country. income in

illitrate

in the

national

be more than that of any other occupa-

Bombay

Plan which

is

said

to

be the

income are suggesAgriculture 40%, Industry 35%, Services 20% and others 5%. Thirdly, to meet the shortage of food and to place capitalists plan, the shares of the national

ted to be

the

:

country on a sound food economy

million tons of further

adds

standard and types

of

more foodgrains.

to the to

we

require about

10

Our increasing population

food requirements,

For increasing the

meet the adequate nutritional demands better

foods are necessary.

Besides there will be greater t

(

ne^ds

for

)

seeds and feeds.* Fourthly, for increased industria-

there will be greater need for

lization

also

24

for

enhancing

the

volume

of

raw

materials.

And

our exports we shall have

depend on more of agricultural produce, Lastly, for balanced .economic development adequate attention will have to

to

be

paid

to

agriculture,

industry and

prosperous agriculture

has

to

for

the

the

prosperity

general

of

prosperity

is basic. f

This shows that for culture

Therefore, for

commerce and

considerable time

to

come

remain the most important industry.

agri-

The

specialized agencies and the Technical Bureau have specially emphasized and are intending to give

United Nations,

its

priority to agricultural

developed

areas,

schemes

in the

Similar schemes

made by The Planning Commission lopment for the next 5 years,

A

development characterize

for the

of under-

the

plans

economic deve-

very important role of

#The Bombay Plan imagines the target for agricultural production to be 130% and the Kharegat Plan to be 200%. The Advisory Planning Board suggests an increase of 10% in cereals, 20% in pulses, 50% in fruits, 100% in vegetables, 250% in fats and oils, 300% in milk, fish and eggs, Again, we require 55% increase in fodder and 400% in oil cakes. The Planning Commission in their broad objectives of the agricultural programme during the next five years suggest an increase in the production of food by 7'2 mill1'2 mil. bales, of jute by 2'06 mil. bales, of sugarcane oil seeds by 3 "75 lakh tons, (gur) by 6'9 lakh tons and of

ions, of cotton by

Us agricultural prosperity basically important for general prosperity? Really speaking the position depends upon the economic pattern of a given Prosperous peasantry society and the relative strength of different sections. means wider and more effective demand for industrial goods, greater industrial profits and greater volume of industrial employment. On the other hand, agriculturists would be prosperous if other sections of the people are able to The movement is circular, However, the for the farm produce, international relations and the condition for foreign trade may influence But exports pay for imports. can have a foreign this state of affairs.

pay well

We

market for our goods simply by creating a home market for foreign goods. Therefore, the surplus of goods and services are the basis of prosperity. One can buy only when one has to sell something, and one can buy more only when one can sell more. Poor persons or nations are poor customers, In our country agriculturists are in the overwhelming majority. If they to sell they will buy more, an4 there will be wider scope for Their prosperity industrialization and also greater volume of imports,

have more

means the

prosperity of the whole nation,

(

in

agriculture

25

our economy,

considerable time to come.

important occupation and

)

therefore,

Numerically

will it

shall contribute

cant share to the national wealth.

And

continue for

will be the

most

the most signifi-

further

it

will

remain

economic progress. Though after sufficient industrial advancement the percentage of people depending basic

on

it

for

and

all

its

share in the national income

yet they will always be quite significant.

may

not be major,

CHAPTER

III.

Special Features of Agricultural Economy.

I.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY. Agriculture presents a close combination of a science, a

craft, is

a business and

a

way

of life.

these respects

In all

characterized by certain peculiarities of

its

it

The

own.

geographical and the sociological environment under which

production

is

complexity

of

characteristics

carried on,

the process

production,

which make

etc,, it

of

production and the

impart agriculture certain

substantially

other occupations specially industry.

different from

These differences are

responsible for the difference in the basic assumptions which ultimately reflect in the economic relationships and economic

behaviour of farmers rendering agricultural economy distinct and slightly different from industrial economy.* Nature of Agricultural Activity, of

Agriculture

is

a

sort

replacement of nature's favourite plants by the cultivated

plants

of

man's choice, and hence,

it

is

a sort

of

man's

*rhis should not be interpreted in the sense that agricultural economics is something absolutely distinct from industrial economics, or that it has Really speaking the science of economics, which got a theory of its own. has now become as accurate as any other science, is a special technique, a way of approach, a method, which may be called the general framework of economic theory, governing economic behaviour of mankind. And it is But when one proceeds from equally applicable to all types of economies the mere outline to the concrete problems, to explain the economic life, to frame policies and measures for improvements, and to establish standards, one finds that the basic assumptions being different agricultural economy is slightly different from industrial economy.

27

(

on

imposition

Farmers have

maximum

)

and a constant

nature,

battle

it.

against

work constantly with nature and make a

to

use of land in relation to other factors of production.

Agricultural activity

is,

therefore, directly

geographical environment, and

the

influenced by the

played by nature

part

being more prominent in agriculture than in any secondary the

or tertiary occupation,

more applicable

to the

Law

of

former than

Diminishing Returns

is

to the latter.

The process of production in agriculture is biological. Growth of plants or of animals takes a natural course and at a

not possible, except

highly disproportionate cost,*

it

is

to

speed up the pace of production as

it

possible in

is

manufacturing. Agriculture being a partnership between is

tance of physical factors limits the

e. g,,

and

results, therefore,

of

control

man.

stray animals,

in industry.

depend on conditions beyond

Crops being exposed

failure of rainfall,

Even

etc., if

nature

The overwhelming imporscope of human endeavour,

characterized by uncertainty.

and the

man and

floods, hail

to

the

several hazards,

storms, diseases,

pests

production cannot be controlled as

the crops

mature

well, the

time lag

between investment and return being pretty lengthy, business fluctuations bring about considerable variations in farm incomes.

element of

Besides,

it

is

far

more

risk in agriculture than

agricultural insurance

is

more

difficult to

measure the

in industry,

difficult

and hence,

than other types of

insurance.

On

account of uncertainty agriculturists cannot capitalize

the future as the industrialists can do, of earnings are highly conjectural.

wed

because the estimates

Again, the use of borro-

capital involves longer time and greater risks, rendering

'Glass-bouse culture is not economical; to permit vernalization, su arej supposed

and only few crops

in

India

{

jthe

28

)

problem of agricultural finance much

different

from

that

pf industrial finance.

As compared

to

industry which

is of

localized nature

and

has generally larger units of production, agriculture, as a general rule, is scattered fairly widely and is typically carried on by family units under small-sized units of production.

As

a result of

a reginoal basis, basis, is

of

the organization

it

much

difficult.

amongst

competition

economic

theory

of

leads to a greater degree

It

and the

agriculturists

perfect

agriculture than in industry. is

on national and international

less to say

rendered very

producers even on

of

competition

general

more

is

real

in

The individual small farmer

of, and often disregards the influence of the his own produce on agricultural prices, This is

unmindful

variation of

hardly true of industry.

Small scale production being the general feature of

far-

ming, the economic analysis pertaining to large-scale production and division of labour which is characteristic of industry is

much

less applicable to agricultural enterprise,

Productive

due

to

effort in

farming

sluggish movements

adaptation of agricultural partly to the in

production result that

investment

Unlike industry

more sensitive are it

it,

partly due to

It is

partly

to the lack of

other

uses,

and

reluctance of farmers to abandon farming even

bad times.

output are

highly stable.

is

in

much

to price

less

which

in

movements

variations, adjustments

smooth

in

offers less resistance to

agriculture,

of of

with the

depression and equally

expansion under price incentives.

Price disparity during of the lack of and Great thirties the Depression expansion less

during and after the World War II are examples of it. Thus, the ordinary measures to meet the situation of depression

and boom or

of

glut and scarcity

in

industrial Sector

prove

29

(

much

effective

less

in

)

agricultural

which

sector

calls for

special measures. is a

Agriculture

,

.

way

means

of life as well as a

of

liveli-

Therefore, sociological, psychological and sentimental

hood.

considerations influence

followed by less

which impart

necessity of life

conservative people

public service.

It

aims

at

conser-

Farmer produces

the basic

and works with the national resources. ,His

interest is essentially public interest that of

is

it-

natural resources and not their exploi-

robbing of nature.

or

tation

is just like

human and

vation of

and more

efficient

Moreover,

organization.

an inflexible character.

it

Agriculture

its

an industrialist who

is

and

is

very

much

unlike

mainly guided by private

profit,

Agriculture provides national security and preserves social

While framing

stability. to

agricultural policies this

fact

has

be kept in mind,

The

attitude of farmers is

much

different

from

that

of

They do not anticipate the fears of idle plants workers. Even during the depressi9n they do not

businessmen.

and face

idle

unemployment, but on the other hand, work harder $nd

try to increase the output to maintain the

Nature of Agricultural Output. generally joint products,*

e. g,,

income.

Farm

and cotton seed, and wool and mutton, As

afe

products

cereals and straw

tir

stock, lint

in industry

where

several products might be produced by the same machinery, in agriculture to

it

is

not possible to separate the costs attributable

various products.

the supply of such

And

it

becomes very

farm products

difficult to

consider

in isolation.

*The word

'joint-products' is also applied to a number of commodities a typical rotation where the output of one can easily be increased by expanding that of another. Here, the reference is to a cotrtbination of different processes on a mixed farm. To make things simpler,aqd ,more*pJain it will be better 4o use the word 'several tfnal products.'

produced

in

'

'

'

30

(

A

)

farm generally grows several food crops, a seeds and sometimes some fibre crop also. Variety of production on each farm is a general rule and specialize

few

typical

oil

tion an exception.

Every

therefore, has

seller,

quantities of several commodities to sell. tion being

widely scattered in small

marketing of farm products

is

very small

Besides, producthe

units,

rendered more

problem

of

difficult, the

chain of middlemen becomes very lengthy, and the cost of

marketing becomes very high.

Though

due

agricultural production as a whole,

to certain

1

'self-compensating features of there

stable,

are wide

its

yearly

individual product or individual producer. agricultural

agriculture

prices as

often

whole are

a

is

aggregate supply,

highly

fluctuations in the output of

Thus, even when

stable,

vary and induce

shifts

within

prices in

the

use of

resources.

Due

to small-scale organization

and scattered nature

of

production the supply of agricultural produce shows less flexibility

shows

and

and adaptability

to

new economic

conditions.

It

a considerable time lag in response to price variations,

the adjustments of supply

to

price changes

are

much

slower than in the case of industrial products, Besides there is another peculiarity in the adjustment of agricultural

production.

way

During the short period

flexibility',

supply

may to

it

shows almost

since in response to increased

increase,

though slowly and

demand and lower

'one-

demand

slightly,

the

but the

is very much sluggish and generally does not bring about a comparable contraction.

reaction

falling

prices

Agriculture being a seasonal industry the output presents glut at harvest time and scarcity in the off season. This irregular nature of the

means

supply puts special burden on the

of transport, the channels of normal trade,

and the credit

(

at certain

institutions

31

)

times of the year.

This gives

rise to

marketing and finance, much different special problems from those of industrial goods the supply of which is more of

regular.

vfhe quality and character of agricultural production is governed much by soil and climatic conditions which differ from

The

locality to locality*

the uniform quality,

It

result

is

that

not of

is

supply

makes standardization more

difficult

and marketing more imperfect. Partly due to a considerable time lag in the adjustment of

supply to price variations and partly due

lively

more

a compara*

rigid cost structure, agricultural prices

more rapidly than

those of manufactured articles,

the former decline

it

becomes more

Farmers under such

comparatively more than that

They

decline

and when them,

difficult to restore

circumstances suffer a double

income or the

Their money

lation,

to

purchasing power declines

of other sections

sell at relatively

loss.

of the

low prices and buy

at

popuhigher

prices.

Agricultural output like

find

is

generally of perishable nature

cannot be stored

indj^tfi^ (Cutout >t soon, a*m Partly because

it

for long.

is difficult to

It

;

and

has

to

postpone

and partly because of small scale production, middlemen between the original producer and

the consumption the role of the final

consumer

is of

special importance in agriculture,

Agriculture being primarily concerned with the production of food its

which

is

products

a

is

basic necessity of

less

elastic

than that

life,

for

the

demand

for

non-agricultural

products.* *0rdinarily

f

it is

expected that with the improvement in the standard of

for agricultural production should increase less rapidly. living the demand This is true of developed countries. In our country the standard of living is short of the total requirement, Any very low and the overall production in the standard of living will, in the beginning, increase the demand for food sufficiently rapidly. is

improvement

32

(

Thus,

it

)

noticed that on account of these

is

nature of agricultural activity and

the

the

differences in of

peculiarities

economic problems of the farm comcharacteristically different fram those ot other

agricultural output, the

munity are

communities specially industrial.

some distinguishing in

reflect

may

These differences impart economics which

features 10 agricultural

analysis and policy, nature of saving

price

and investment, organization of production, establishment of equilibrium between demand and supply, degree of com-

amongst the producers, nature

petition

wages, costs and

profits, etc.

AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT.

II.

We

have a glorious history behind us.

culture,

literature,

religion

and

Not only the

industry, was proverbial,

are almost

at the

But

bottom

sured by modern economic

to part of the country it

preserved

millet growers

would be

difficult

the

in

There

people

the

economic order

and mea-

nations,

if

to

accuracy

^f

generalize,

Stalls ,

is

ere is a

agricultural environment ot the

sugarcane growers

of the

rice

growers in

on the

foothills in

the country as a whole,

and taking

common is

features, one can imagine a certain a high pressure on land and considerable

Agriculture

on individual

subsistence type of farming vation.

of

of the cultivators

However, taking

into account the

hunger,

and

of Uttar Pradesh,

Orissa and Madras, and

land

list

agriculture and

we are an under-developed

in arid Rajasthan, of

upper Doab

pattern,

the

tests

another,

considerable difference

Assam.

present in

Agricultural environment greatly differs trom one

country,

of the

of

at

of

art,

but also the

philosophy

economic wealth which was the result

we

incomes,

of risks,

Most of the work

is

followed

by

nearly

70%

of

It

is

small scale

mainly devoted

to

cereal culti-

family basis,

is

performed by human hand,

33

(

most of the finance

is

provided by village money-lender and

most of the transactions are health

is

)

Standard of general

local,

considerably low and so

is

productive efficiency.

farmers have no surplus to sell, many others have only small, while only a few have fairly good amounts

Most

of the

Their purchasing capacity

to spare,

Productivity per

standard

income

capita,

and general standard

correspondingly low,

is

per

low, and the struggle for existence

way

community comparatively ignorant and outlook and circumscribed Agricultural

to their

crops and

to the local

flows

life

agricultural

are considetably

correspondingly hard.

is

common features. And

Poverty, hunger, disease and death are in this

nutritional

capita,

of living

in

a

traditional pattern.

(detailed

discussion in

illiterate.

They have

is

a narrow

animals, and their knowledge

surroundings,

V)

Their talks are confined

vision.

There

ch,

is

a

lack

of

is

limited

initiative

and

urge for improvement. The lack of adaptability makes them suspect the new ways of life and methods of production, leading to immobility in respect of both occupation and

But conservatism

place. nity.

is

not peculiar to our farm

Agricultural civilization as such and

institutions

are conservative.

agricultural

communities

traditions

common world whether we

And the

of

its

comma*

this

is

to

and all

talk of

under-developed countries like China, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil

and Indonesia, or tries like the

U,

of highly

S- A,,

U

K-,

Australia and Argentina.

worthy

feature.

advanced and developed coun-

Germany, France, Denmark, There is, however, one note-

The Harijan

Movement,

the

political

independence and the establishment of rural democracy are slowly bringing about

masses and a change

consciousness

in the social

reforms are providing 5

some

values.

momentum

to

the

amongst the

The wave

recent land of revival,

(

34

)

But these things are only in an embryonic stage and their speed will depend on the political climate in the country.

Tin seeds

have, however, germinated,

The volume gnation.

employment and production exhibit

of

The population increasing

at

an yearly rate

of

sta-

one

percent brings about a deterioration in the economic situation

which has become more pronounced during some past years. The following table shows the trend ol agricultural production and the income per capita during the

(Index

of

production

based on

38-39=100, and income

the

recent past,

average of 36

37 to

in Rs,)*

This shows a state of haulting decay so far as production is

concerned and

a decline in the general standard of living,

as indicated by the real income per capita.

Besides there

is

employment and very few job-opportuniThe resources both human and material rural areas.

a limited scope for ties in

await utilization,

The

has generally been

resources very

complacency,

desirability of

their

better utilization

accepted and the magnitude of dorment

often lulls us in a sense

of

security

That the development of these resources

involves tremendous investment and uphill task, ^Records and

statistics, vol.

No.

is

and is

an

fraught

(Eastern Economist, Delhi.)

35

(

considerable

with

)

and administrative

technical

financial,

limitations, has been only very recently realized,

The

agricultural environment, therefore, has hardly any-

thing encouraging. less intelligent,

meant

Village

be a place for the

to

and agricultural profession is supposed to be and the illiterate. The middle class wants

economic progress.

of

supposed

for the poor

migrate from villages

to

is

initiative

to

towns and thus recede the pace

There

is

not

much

of

incentive and

amongst those who are left there, and neither there scope for economic progress at present. The

sufficient

is

general poverty leads to deficit

economy which

in

its

turn

leads to further poverty and debt, and thus, the vicious circle

runs from which farmers do not find a way situation

Union and

the

One

out.

The present

therefore, a sort of challenge to the people

is,

and

the State governments.

of the interesting studies is to

find

out

whether the

real fault lies with the people or the defect is inherent

environment.

to

The

rate of variation in culture

and

in the

civiliza-

depends upon biological inheritance, physical environ All the three play a part in cultural endowment.

tion

ment and every

human

action.

For the time being anyone

acquire predominating importance as vities ries.

we

find

of

them may

cultural acti-

looming large in some highly developed western countIt

does not mean that civilization lessens the

environment.

effects of

Really speaking the effects are not so direct

as on the savage people, but they are just as strong. is

believed

of

obeying

that the it

mastery over nature

or adapting to

it.

is

measured

And in

it

terms

Taking the world as a whole

climate seems to have established a basic pattern of civilization

upon which other

factors simply

different degrees of magnitude. civilization

and

shows

impose some variations with

The geographical

that the efficiency of physical

pattern of

environment

the degree of civilization have a high degree of

positive

36

(

And

a&Jation.*

)

environment largely deterof life, method of

the physical

mine* the habitabiluy, occupations, mode working, dress,

and

houses, transport, ideas

health,

diets,

Our

geographical environment is, really speaking, less stimulating and less favourable for human activities as ideals.

compared to ment which

that of the is

temperate regions*

is

It

mostly responsible for the

our environ-

present state of

economic backwardness.

An objection is sometimes same physical environment possible in ancient

raised that

how under almost the

a high degree of

India.

located in geographically

more favourable

and

Under

the Indus valleys.

civilisation

should be noted that

It

parts of the

They were

does not mean

tftat

from modern

different

environment

is

There

our present backwardness.

fact that the political climate in

last

Ganges

and Mesopo-

the

civilization.

no doubt

It

about the

country after the Arab foreign domi*

the

300 years, has been

some

to

But what has China

extent responsible for retarded growth,

We

was

responsible for

wholly is

invasion has not been very congenial, and nation specially during the

was

similar circumstances almost

similar civilizations developed in China, Egypt

tamia.

it

any foreign domination would It does not mean that not have been very much different.

achieved

?

too without

a better economic condition could not be possible in the past,

and

that there is

ronment

is

no bright hope

capable of affording a

for

the

better

future.

The

present one and also a higher degree of civilization, basic differences are III.

to

be reflected in

but the

future.

INTERDEPENDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER ECONOMIES.

One

of

the important lessons of economic history

*A comparison clearly.

bound

envi-

standard than our

of the

two following maps

illustrates

tfee

of the

idea more

World Dentation of Climatic Efficiency.

1

HfcHE=| HIGH

2

World

^

Distribution

MEDIUM

|[|{||

of General

LOW

jv^d

Proqress*

VEY 10*

37

(

world

economic progress can be attained only through

is that

a simultaneous

in various

development

Revolution

England,,the

without a

possible

)

too could not

agriculture

similar change in industries.

depend

labour force

necessaries of

logy

life

of

Agricul-

depends on the development

power

income

and railways

to

market

for all the other

Our

manufacture

to

of techno-

to cultivate

on the

ferilizers,

to industrialize the rural areas in

absorb the surplus labour from agriculture and

a subsidiary

their

except food, on other industries,

draw water and

development to

depends

provide improved agricultural machinery

the land, to

a

for labour supply.

the other hand,

agricultural progress to

for

;

commodities and

community, on

tural

Generally, industries

raw material on agriculture and on rural community and they provide their

for agricultuial

and

have been revolutionzed

without

for

In

fields.

reciprocal revolution in agriculture,

similarly a

economic

industries could not have been

in

to

order

provide

on the development of roads farm the transport produce to markets, and on to farmers,

the development of banking to provide credit for day to day

working and tor development, agriculture not only depends

etc,,

on

and foreign exchange,

trade

but

means

is

it

to

power and banking

transport,

limited by the development of the

latter.

and the

latter will

be possible

extent of development in these things,

the

other hand, the volume and character of the latter controlled

and quality puts in the

by the conditions of

raw material

market

for

it

of agriculture,,

home consumption

the character and quantity offers, etc,,

will

is

On

the

largely

e, g,, the

type

produces, the volume of goods

of

demand

it

or for exports, the

nature and quantity of financial accommodation

it

It

unless these things are expanded, development

that

in agriculture is a vain attempt,

only

Again, the development of

that of industry, international

for

it

needs and

consumer's goods

considerably determine the conditions in

38

(

)

and banking, etc. This interdependence of one sector of economy on another leads to an important feature that the repercussions of

industries, foreign trade

the problems of sector alone,

one sector are not confined

e. g.,

a depression in industry

to that is

particular

bound

to

create

The volume

depression in agriculture.

level of earnings, price level

of employment, the and the conditions of living and

working, in short, the economic conditions of one group exercise a controlling influence on those of the other groups,

changing

a previous

balance and again striving

a fresh equilibrium only to be dislocated soon.

and men from one occu-

in a perpetual shifting of resources

pation to another.

continues

And

in this

way

establishing a causal

to establish

This results

t

the action

and interaction

relationship and reciprocal

behaviour between different segments of national economy,

With

the

development

of

civilization

and

economic

progress this interdependence has been increasing. And so In agriculture, there is a change from will it do in future. self-contained subsistence type of farming and village to

nomy

specialization

for the

crops

selling

market and

This

economy

of

and the

production, production

to national

eco-

of cash

and even international

implies more dependence on buying and nature and volume of production and con-

The growing impormodern economy makes agriculture,

sumption being oriented by the market. tance of exchange in

and so

also other industries, vulnerable to actions in other

segments of economy,

This has got both advantages and

The advantage

disadvantages.

relationship a higher, better

made

possible,

and

and

is that

fuller

advantage their

own

economic

life

has been

the chances for the future progress

been made more bright and the scope is that

through this mutual

is

enlarged.

have

The

dis-

different groups are exposed, in addition to

individual risks, to those of other groups,

e. g,,

the

39

(

stability of

farm income

is

)

disturbed not only by the agricul-

tural hazards and their consequent variability in farm production,

demand and

but also by the fluctuations in

thus by

Besides, the economic problems are becoming

trade cycles.

.more complicated and difficult. But with the march of civilization and economic progress the problems have to be more

The advanced man soon

complicated.

every complexity. controlled.

greatly

On the And

whole, these disadvantages can be

interdependence can serve as

this

mutual help and cooperation leading

and

human and

fuller utilization of

thus creating a spiral for

finds a solution for

more

to a

balanced distribution

material resources, and

civilized

and

better

economic

life.

But there

economy

is

economy

is.

is

not

one important thing to note. Agricultural an isolated affair. And similarly no othet

Some

of the

problems of agriculture aie

its

own

the size of the unit of production, land tenure,

problems,

e. g.,

irrigation

and manure

But quite a large and sufficiently

etc.

important are

the problems of inter-relationship between and industry, trade, foreign exchange and transagriculture e.g., the volume of employment, price level, port, etc.,

influence of of savings

foreign market,

and investment,

level of

etc.

It

most of the problems of agriculture

And

sector alone.

earnings and the rate

implies that remedies for

do not

similarly, the remedies

lie in

agricultural

for the problems

any particular section are also not confined to it. Economic problems of every group are many-fold and the remedies are

of

likewise

multi-sided. is

economy part

of

the

Progress in any isolated segment of

not possible.

It

has

to

be

made

a coordinated

general and overall economic progress of the

whole country. IV.

THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS.

Land and

its

importance

in

agriculture.

In Economics

40

(

the term land* is interpreted to

)

mean

'materials

and the forces

which nature gives freely for man's aid in land and water, in air, light and heat. It includes all the forces and resources 1

which science can discover any useful applicabut which are not the result of human effort,

of nature for tion,

Importance

and

action, that a

is,

land

of

obvious,

is

It

man room

provides

for

therefore, the primary condition of everything

man can do

world as a whole,

Inspite of the is still

development the must devote a major

scientific

so poor that

it

part of the resources to the production of necessaries, mainly

Nearly 2/3 of the world's population

food.

residing in

is

under-developed countries in which agriculture

is

far the

by

most important occupation, and most of the people depend on land, Even in the world as a whole, agriculture is numerically the most important occupation agriculture land

production.

It

is

the basis

affords

at present,

and the most important

standing room,

growth.

The chemical

in

factor of

mineral

supplies

products and supplies conditions and materials

and

for

plant

constituents of the soil in combination

with seed, produce the plant.

Life and growth are affected

by geographical constitution of the soil and the forces of nature which are associated with land surface, such as rain, air,

sunshine,

light, heat,

and atmospheric pressure

f

etc-

They

are very important in the process of crop production and slightly less

a

in live stock.

But they can be affected only

to

minor extent by man. It is

and the

worth-while to note that with the growth of population social progress, the absolute

importance of

requisite increases, because the increased

fresh

demands, and

the

new

this

primary

population makes

discoveries and the development

'Instead of a general term 'natural resources' or 'materials' economists use the term land in a very wide sense, It is because under the existing it is through the ownership of land or rental that posseslegal institutions sion of natural materials is obtained or access to natural forces is gained,

41

(

of

and technology point out

science

largely to the

of

new uses

for

the

efficiency

relative

production

evolution

importance

decreases.

human

to the

of

due

of

human

efforts,

and

resources as a

Again, in the

society is

Ecological and then

form

in the

these is

But the increase in the quantity of wealth

objects.

hence,

)

factor

process of social

passing from the Etiological to

Epharmological stage, and man's

powers over nature are gradually increasing. In the earlier stages primary industries, and in them the part played by but later on secondary and nature, are more important ;

tertiary occupations gain more importance, and in them the part played by man becomes more prominent, and the

relative tables

importance

and

the

of

nature

accompanying

declines,

The

following

diagram may serve as an

illustration.

Trend of

in the Distribution of

Working Population by Types

Employment.

Primary industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting, Secondary occupations include raining manufacturing, electric power and building construction. Services or tertiary occupations include the rest, i e,, trade, transport, communication, domestic, public and professional services,

(

Relationship

economic growth.

between

42

)

occupational

(Economic growth

is

and

distribtiution

measured

in terms of

Real Income per head.)

of \vorlfmg population

c^aged

m

Real Income

primary {

occupations

International units,

)

600

Sod

to

K ! Fig.

*

Compiled from National Income Statistics, U, N, 0,, Year Book, U. N. 0., 1948. Colin Clark, The Economics of 1960. Heal Income per bead for the Balkan States.

Statistical f [

I,

1950,

and

(

Productivity of Land,

43

)

means

Productivity ordinarily

amount

capacity of yielding a certain

investing a certain amount of labour and capital, basically on

the

fertility of

the

of output as a result of It

depends But the development of-

land.

exchange economy makes the value of land as a factor of production dependent also upon the relationship of

forms

to other

buying and

of

its situation

productive activity from the side of both It

selling,

fertility but also for

means land

is

valued not only for

its

situation,

Really speaking, the

location greatly influences the physical

and chemical charac-

teristics of land, to place.

of

Besides, the social conditions,

In economic

efficiency.

of the units of it

or can

is

the ratio

It is

unit of

with

it

influence

means

of

the value

with optimum results at a

economic development*

and

effort put in

Economic

and the

efficiency*

result obtained-

product per unit of labour and capital

Capacity

it.

also

it is

between the

land,

conditions

the character

determined by capacity multiplied Capacity of a given area is measured in terms labour and capital which can be absorbed by

the value of the

spent on

g.,

commodities, and hence, the v&lue

be associated

given stage of

e*

analysis productivity

producing power; and

by

market

the

production and sale of land.

good

and the physical conditions vary from place

people and

the

its

is

measured in terms

efficiency is

measured

of

input per

in terms of output

per unit of input. Thus, in estimating the productivity of land both the factors: the physical conditions and the location,

have

to

be taken into account,

*In economic analysis products or in instruments of because of the the immovable

efficiency

terms of value,

e.g.,

may be calculated

in

terms of physical

While analysing the

efficiency of movable a better basis for comparison

production the former is in value at different places. But in the case of instruments of production value of the product is a better * basis of comparison, difference

:

*

44

(

)

Thus, we find that productivity primarily depends upon

two factors

more

what the nature has brought about.

is

plot of lesser fertility in the vicinity of a city

value than one which may be more fertile but

man

own way

in his

has tried

to

may

plain is

And

than the arid and the barren tracts.

fertile

difference

The Gangetic

natural and locationaK

:

the

Again, a yield

more

distant. Besides,

improve the productivity of

laud by tempering with nature,

e,

clearing of forests,

g.,

draining marshes, irrigating barren lands, judicious selection of

If left

etc.

weeding,

But there

less.

sowing, proper rotation, manuring and

careful

plants,

modifications by

alone nature would have yielded

limit

is

to

man can go only

to a

the productivity can be increased the fertility,

in

improvement

much

man's control over nature, and small extent.

However,

artificial

through

increase

improvement in the means of transport, and the development of townships,

in land system

etc,

The

Law in

experience

and

of

Diminishing Returns.

farming

that

is

It

a

common

increased applications of labour

capital to a piece of land, or successive additions of land,

generally

result

than proportionate .results,

less

in

diminishing tendency

of

result of the application

the

extra

capital or successive additions of

mic theory

known

as the

as the

Law

Law of

return

of successive

of

land,

The

obtained as a

doses of labour and is

termed in econo-

Diminishing Returns,

It is

also

Diminishing Marginal Returns, or the

45 Varying Productivity,, or the Law of Proportions. In a simple form the law is stated that "An increase in the

Law

of

capital

proportionate increase in the amount

in general, a less than of

of land causes,

and labour applied in the cultivation

produce raised unless

it

happens

coincide with an im-

to '*

in the art of agriculture.

provement It is

not necessary that the

may always

be visible from

under-cultivated, of labour

and

f,

0,,

capital

normal performance

the

tendency of diminishing return

the beginning,

amount

of

less than

is

of the

(Marshall),

investment

some time.

some time decline.

it

It is

agricultural

of

possible

may

is

that

after

no doubt about the

Diminishing Returns

sometimes stated

that

the law

form

of

is

bound

may

increase

increasing for

may

begin to

fact that ultimato operate.

Increasing

It is

and Constant

returns are the two temporary phases operating previous the tendency of Diminishing Return,

and the diagram may

is

operations, the mar*

remain constant and then

But there

tely the law

also

land

in the

the quantity required for

ginal return as a result of further investment for

the

If

to

The following example;

illustrate the point,

(

160

46

)

5

G

,

130

$0

Ao

I

^

3

I

Doses of

7

input.) 2.

Fig.

This explains in a very simple form the working of the laws of returns. But it must be noted that the laws refer to the produce

and

diminishing

returns do

diminishes.

The

is at

in

to

total

value of output,

the

not

indicate

is

constant.

produce But the increase

Thirdly, the decrease

rate*

While

that for the time being the

And

lastly,

land

is

stating

fertility

not

a

neither of the factors of production

Really speaking

all

degree.

factors

Land

are is

is

the

of land

law

it is

remains

limited factor of pro-

duction in the absolute sense of the term.

difference of

Secondly, the

not the result of a decline in the fertility of land

continuous cultivation.

assumed

that

produce increases.

a continuosly diminishing

produce

after

not

At the same time

unlimited in quantity,

variable,

relatively

but

there

is

a

more limited than

other factors of production.

Experience has taught farmers how much land they can cultivate successfully. Ordinarily, in farming, one can neither succeed on a very small

area nor on thousands of

47

t

Farmers have a

)

fairly clear idea of

what can they do,

Therefore, they try within moderate limits.

Similarly, they

over cultivating a single acre

folly of

have understood the

or over feeding their stock. It

Hence, they practise moderation. must be noted that perhaps no body begins with the 1st

column and no body carries production

to

column.

the 10th

Mostly farmers will begin with the 3rd and will stop near

about the 6th or the 7th-

be carried within these

Major part of the production will

the limits to

which production

interesting.

If

we imagine

would

farmer

The

limits.

analysis of

be carried on

land

all

that

cultivate

will

theoretical

to

be equally

is

very

fertile

much area which, with

a

the

and capital available, would give maximum output per unit of input, In this case, each acre will be

amount

of labour

to

cultivated

the

till

point

returns, or ceases to

begins to show decreasing

it

show increasing returns

a result of

as

This area will be the most profitable one to cultivate because either more land is used less

additional investment.

intensively

or less land

more

cultivated

is

intensively,

marginal return as per unit of input would be if

we

take land to be varying in

units will not be cultivated to the

begin

to

diminish.

fertility,

less.

as

same point

it

at

because in case of

It is

the

Secondly,

really

is, all

which returns the

all

lands

being cultivated with equal intensity marginal return on more fertile land will be greater than on the less fertile one.

And

it

would be advantageous

to

cultivate

land more intensively than the less that so

the

more

fertile land.

It

fertile

means

long as the marginal return on more fertile land

is

greater than the marginal productivity of the less fertile land greater investment will

be profitable

to

be

cultivate

Diminishing Returns begin intensifying production,

made on

the former,

and

them beyond the point to appear.

owing

to the

But in the

at

it

will

which

process of

law of Diminishing

48

(

)

Returns, a point will be reached

more

productivity of

fertile

Then

less fertile one.

the

The

best state of cultivation, or the

of labour and capital would be one which all

to

limit to

The producer

is

diminish

will go fur-

the marginal productivity on different lands

till

or less equal.

is

which cultivation

not the determining point or the

more

This

cultivated lands.

which the returns begin

that the point at

should be extended or intensified. ther

marginal

land will be less than that on the

yields equal marginal product on

shows

which

will be equally profitable to cultivate

it

the less fertile land also. best distribution

at

becomes

In brief, the point of diminishing returns

not the limit of cultivation except on marginal land. the efforts to increase

In

production the tendency of

diminishing returns operates whether more land extensively or lesser area

cultivated

is

is

cultivated

more intensively.

In the former case, the producer will go on adding inferior so long as

lands

the value

He

expenses of cultivation. is

equal

which

to

worth while

stop further application

income

finds the extra

dose

is

known

worthwhile

stops

This

expenditure.

is just

the output is

of

is

when the

known

to cultivate.

of

In the latter case, he will

dozes of labour and capital when he

be invested. the cost

in agricuhure

we

t

addition in income

just covering the extra expenses,

reached when

the

as the marginal land

as the marginal dose which

to

more than

The margin

is

is

This

considered just

said to

have been

and the income become equal. Thus,

find a twofold idea of

margin. The idea of

marginal land associated with extensive cultivation

and

that

of marginal dose associated with intensive cultivation.

There

is

a tendency of bringing

under agriculture because of fying,

There

and devoting to

more

fertile

is

more and more

of land

the increasing costs of intensi-

likewise a tendency of restricting the area,

the available resources of

labour and capital

lands on account of lesser yields on inferior

lands, or increasing costs of cultivating them, If the difference in

the fertility of

lands

different

cultivated

would be

Similarly,

if

less than if

on the more

is

greater, the total area

they differed only slightly.

land the marginal returns,

fertile

as a result of intensification, decline rapidly, less fertile lands

would soon be drawn under cultivation than Again,

only slowly.

if

if

they decline

the marginal returns, as a result of the

successive dozes of capital and labour applied to land, decline faster they will be used less intensively

declined only slowly.

though the land

It is,

if

return of labour and capital from

total

returns

the

to note that

more

fertile

greater than that on the marginal land their marginal

is

return is the same on both It is

than

however, worthwhile

more

because more fertile land

until its

is

fertile

marginal return declines

least fertile

and inferior lands.

cultivated to that

more intensively

obtained from the

land under cultivation.

The average

returns will be higher for some farmers than

The higher limit depends upon their ability and the determined by a worthwhile commercial return if the deficit is not intended to be compensated from wages. But

for others.

lower

all till

is

farmers, from the best to the worst, will be pushed to invest brings in returns just equal to costs,

the last addition

Thus,

at the

point of margin

all

farmers are equal and

all

farms are alike.

The tendency

of diminishing

types of industries extractive

returns

is

common

and manufacturing.

to

It is

all

said

be universal in the process of production. The word universal in this connection implies not that it appears, or is

to

visible,

means

in all cases of production

that in all

forms

of the successive

proportionate,

certain limit.

and

of production the

input will it

The

and

at all

times, but

it

output as a result

sooner or later be less than

will not be worth-while to go

beyond a

difference in various industries arlsi*

e$

50

(

)

account of the difference in the degree of supremacy of nature or the part played by it in them. It is often remarked that the part played

by nature

in production

diminishing returns and the part which to the It

law of increasing returns. will be a wrong conclusion

Diminishing Returns

corresponds to

man

plays conforms

say that the law of

to

is characteristic of

agriculture in which nature plays a greater role, and the law of increasing Returns is characteristic of manufacturing in

plays a supreme role. of

degree only

;

Really speaking, the difference

and agriculture

There are reasons

for

which the ingenuity of man

it.

is relatively

is that

more prone

Agricultural production

is

to

it.

limited

by the supply of mineral substances, e. g. nitrogen and potassium, etc., and every crop reduces their quantity. Time t

and space put another type of limits on production, It takes months for the seed to be transformed into crop and years for animals to

in the soil

grow to maturity. Every plant requires space and air. Specialization in the process of produc-

cannot be carried too far because every worker is to do a number of jobs at the same time. expected Supervision cannot be very effective because of operations being tion

spread over a wider area.

Scope for

mechanization

i^Jatively limited because of the need of the delicacy of operation plants.

9p$B

to

and

for the

human hand

attention to

is

for

individual

Thus, the economies of large scale operation are not farmers on a very wide scale. Climatic conditions

sometimes

interrupt the operations

and

also exercise

a

Determining influence on the quality and quantity of prod uce. considerable part of the process of agricultural

A

is natural

production

where man

is

not the master of the

nature in doing of

its

work.

situation but

Hence, in agriculture

Piminisbing Returns s^ts in earlier thfm in jfherc

huigoan

iq^eijtuty

has a

gjfrafer

and

role to play in planning and in execution. manufacturer may not allow that stage at all. expert Similarly an expert farmer can postpone it for pretty long.

more

significant

An

Science has provided immense powers to

Even

environment.

seem

to

change

his

science and technology

in agriculture

have held the tendency

to

man

of

Diminishing Returns,

The

specially in progressive countries.

fact

food con-

that

sumption has increased but the population depending on agriculture has gone down, lends support to such contensions.

But nature can be controlled only partially. The inherent characteristics of the environment and its original properties cannot be

changed completely; and costs.

considerable

bound

to

this interference is

at

of diminishing returns is

operate ultimately*

The above any

The tendency

factor of

discussion leads to a conclusion that whenever

production

is

fixed

and the other cooperating

factors vary, the total output increases at a diminishing rate. It

means

the combination of a variable factor with a constant

factor results in diminishing marginal returns for the variable factor*

The

operation of the law is due, therefore! to the

of production, But the actual scarcity of a particular factor a the because joint one, quantity of one factor relationship is

production for most profitable combination will depend on the quality and quantity of other factors. Besides, all the

of

factors of production are variable with a difference of degree.

The law

of proportions simply refers to a principle of combi-

nation of factors-

Any

variation in one or

more

factors of

combination causing relative production scarcity of one and relative excess of another factor. charge the

will

The law

of

Diminishing Returns assumes that the land

is already utilized

amount

of labour

the methods

of

in the

best

known manner/

and capital applied

is

that the

adequate, and that

cultivation remain the same.

Any

improve-

62

(

)

farm management,

and

the greater investment of

labour and capital for the development of case of under cultivation,

These are said

to

lead

full

in

powers

the

returns.

increasing may be the limitations to the law of Diminishing to

Returns* Further, the tendency of diminishing returns can be

counteracted for the time being by some positive methods,

Modern implements, manures and tion

judicious

facilities,

improvement

fertilizers, better irriga-

better

cropping,

transport and marketing,

in

management, and above all

improvement in the human factor, in short science and technology which improve the quality of land and can make it

yield more, can hold the law in

check temporarily!

V. INTENSITY OF CULTIVATION Human efforts are generally directed towards wresting maximum results from nature. The methods adopted can broadly be put under two classes. In old settled communities

having comparatively dense population, land is supposed to Cultivators generally be a comparatively limited factor.

have small farms, and in order to make the best of them they work hard, try to grow more than one crop, practise judicious cropping through rotations and mixtures and invest more capital in the tools, etc.

form

This

is

manures, irrigation and improved commonly termed as intensive cultivation. of seed,

In comparatively new countries, or where population efforts to

under

maximise production lead

cultivation

instead of

efforts

devoted

smaller areas.

size of

farms

to

is

sometimes results

to

in wasteful

the

point of

apd

the

increased use

This

is

distinction

increased use of particular factors of production, application of labour

increased

Land being ample

use of land.

The

sparce

bring greater areas

concentrating on

relatively bigger, and

as extensive cultivation.

is

termed is

the

Increasing

capital distinguishes intensive agri<

53

(

)

culture from the extensive one which

is

characterized by thf

increasing use of land.

Ordinarily, the intensive method implies small farms and

Where

method large farms.

the extensive

scarce they cultivate

The term

the case.

it

more

vast lands are

and where land

available farmers follow extensive method

But

intensively.

intensity refers to the

it is

is

not always

degree of invest-

ment per unit of land. In the US.A* and Canada where farmers modern scientific developments investment per acre is more than that on small farms cultivated by more primitive use

methods in China and Is

many

India.

our agriculture intensive or extensive? cases clearly illustrating the two types.

not describe the general character*

And

the general rule.

Small

There are But that does

size of

equally conspicuous

is the

farming

is

low invest-

ment per acre. In the total farm investment land values form more than 2/3 share* And if cost of family labour is added to it, both form more than 3/4 share, and all other investment hardly forms 1/4 share of the

Though

there

is

capital

investment.*

an excessive labour in agriculture even

these small farms are under-cultivated of

total

and equipment.

due

to the

inadequacy

Ordinarily, the ability of the

farmer, the area of land, the volume of family labour and to

some extent

the

fixed factors at cultivation is

Factors

quantity least

more

of

affecting

for

and

quality of

capital

are fairly

And

hence, our

time being.

the

an extensive type than of intensive one. the

intensity

of

The

cultivation.

intensity of cultivation is affected by several factors, (1)

Ability of the Producer

:

In order to

combination of different factors of production

make

a proper

ability

of

the

*Raraphal Singh, Income and Standard of Living of Farmers, 195 ri an unpublished thesis, Dept, of Agr. ECO,, P, R. College, Agra,

54

(

He

producer counts most. is

personality

His is an indispensable agent. with agricultural operations as a

and

of an organism,

Vital part

return

the

limited by

is

it,

The Quantity and Character of other factors of Produfr Availability and the efficiency of land, labour and capital

(2)

tion

associated

)

:

determine the degree of theit use and the combination for producing the best

Agricultural Prices;

(3)

and

ently

results,

created

in

Price fluctuations

The abnormal

varying degrees,

occur frequthus

situation

be temporary, or the tendency to return to the

may

previous balance

abnormal situation readjustment

be realized only

may

may

partially,

continue and form a

or

the

new norm,

a

in the combination of factors generally takes

place.

in Capital

Variation

(4)

assumed

interest are

producers

will find

it

to

Costs:

If

rent

prices,

be constant, and capital costs vary,

advantageous

to

change intensity con-

versely with such costs, reducing the use of capital they rise,

wage

and increasing when they

Variation in Wages

(5)

rates,

if

other

be advantageous it

more

is

case

is

rtofc

to

costly

and

:

when

fall.

Intensity varies inversely with

things remain the same, because it will farmers to make less use of labour when

and vice versa*

so simple.

But in actual practice the

The changes

of capital lead to substituting

the result of such changes

wages and cost one factor for another, Again,

may

in prices,

be a

new balance

similar to

the previous one though not absolutely identical. (6)

reflects

Pitch o/ Rent;

Rent generally, though not always,

the degree of intensity, since higher

greater costs

which can only exist

if

there

is

rent

means

greater return

per acre. (7)

apd

Stage of Economic Growth

;

The

social condition? will <Jetenpine the

prevailing economic

volume

of (Jemnnd,

employment, pitch of industrialization and the pressure on land, etc., such things in turn will reflect upon the intensity of agriculture.

How

can the optimum degree of intensity be visualized and approached ? The most simple answer is to have the

most advantageous combination

and

let

it

labour and capital, There can, of course, be an optimum

continue.

combination of factors but

more

difficult

it is

continue.

to

of land,

difficult to

arrive

The method

at,

and

still

of arriving at the

proper degree

of intensity of cultivation is to try the various

combinations

at

factors

different

alternately

levels

by changing the different

and simultaneously.

theoretically simple but

is

The process seems

practically impossible, since

ves four variables. Every situation in order tight

amount

determine the

of a particular factor of production will

a combination of the remaining factors. to

to

It

invol-

it

will

say whether the unsatisfactory result was due

be to

assume difficult

the

wrong

quantity of a particular factor, or dne to the wrong combinaTo say that a particular factor tion of the remaining factors. is

in

right

or

wrong amount

is to

decide one question inde-

In actual practice the experiment is the because major premise will not bear analysis, only partial that a laboratory method determines the Even if we suppose

pendently of others.

right

proportions on a trial farm and the results are theoreti-

cally demonstrable,

practicable

this

combination cannot

serve

measure on farms of smaller or bigger

size.

as

a

The

problem of proper degree of intensity of cultivation, therefore, cannot in actual practice be solved through accountancy method or mathematical calculations* The experiments, however, do advance useful suggestions for movement in a particular direction.

Our growing population,

the scarcity of

farm products, and

the desire to increase the standard of living, with in future, pat

(

greater

demands on

56

)

agricultural resources.

Resort to

new

lands for cultivation being limited (explained in chapter VII)

most important method

supply of agricultural production is through intensifying our farming more and more. This implies a greater part to be played by the

of

increasing

the

equipment and management in future than in But both in the process of intensification and

labour, capital, the

past.

extension the return per unit of social and economic costs sure the

is

decline sooner or later.

The depressing effects of law of Diminishing Returns will necessitate an improveto

ments

in the

which

is

human

termed as

factor in farming

and

capital or technology.

in other

equipment,

CHAPTER

IV-

Types of Farming and the Problems of Selection

CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS

I.

What is

and Valuation.

a Farm ?

It is

a piece or faeces of land operated as a

of agricultural enterprise under one management. In our country the term 'farm is not so commonly used as

single unit

1

the term 'holding,' to

and very often

be used as synonyms. indicating

concept

legal

under one

lease,

two terms are found

or grant,

engagement

absence of any such lease

the

Really speaking 'holding* is a parcel or parcels of land held or theka,

under one tenure.

etc,,

or in the

The word

1

'farm indicates the actual unit of operation,

Dimentionally not and often or coincide, may they may very they do not. of Farms, of The Types phrases types farming or systems

of

farming apparently appear vague, since they bring

mind

a bewildering variety of agricultural

in respect of growing

of crops

and

of

enterprises both

raising of livestock.

Generally, these terms are used interchangeably. speaking the the nature

of

latter is

& broader term.

production or

the

It

But really

generally denotes

The former

combination.

has been more commonly used in the

to the

classification of

farms

Ty^e-of -farming area denotes the territory within which a particular product or combination of products is found on most of the farms, or even in the case of intermingling that is the most common system of farming The term 'combination' denotes not only the products which are combined but also the proportion in which they are combined, e. g potato-tobacco farm means more income is from potato than from tobacco, and the tobacqopotato farm rnean^ the reverse of it. ,

8

57

58

(

specially on the basis of the

share of gross income received

But

from different sources.

)

this is not a

commonly accepted terminology in our country indicating clear cut distinction. However, a

classification

of

farm5 can be made on several

bases.

According to the

1.

may

speaking agriculture crop farming, and

(a)

nature of the produce.

be divided

Broadly

two

classes

;

livestock raising.

(6)

According to size (measured in terms of area}. In terms

2.

of area they are generally classified into

sized,

and

(c)

:

small, (b)

(a)

Sometimes a detailed

large.

attempted, such as:

small,

(a)

medium-large, and

(d)

into

(b)

(e) large.

medium-

classification

medium'Sma}l

(c)

t

is

medium^

These terms convey different

ideas in different countries, depending upon the total culti-

vated area, the number of people following agriculture and the prevailing size of the unit of production. is

more marked

one

in

hand and

In our country,

countries of small-scale

those in

of

large-scale

The

distinction

farming on the

farming on the other.

case of the threefold classification

the

farms upto 5 acres may be considered small, 5-15 acres as medium-sized and those of above 15 acres as large. In the latter case those upto

5 acres as small, 5-8 acres as medium-

small, 8-12 acres as medium-sized, 12-15 acres as

large and those above 15 acres as 3.

According

large,

io value of products, or

they are classified

into

:

(a)

medium-

income.

Specialized farms,

Broadly

when

the

from a single crop or one industry. There may be crop speciality, such as cotton farm, wheat major source of income

is

farm and sugar cane farm, etc., or animal sheep ranch, poultry farm and piggery

farm* when

the

income

is

not even 4W/o of the income

speciality, etc.

from several sources, is

(b) i.

such as General

en

when

from one particular source.

a comblifcilion oF agricultural enterprises, which p'resenfs

It

may

(

59

)

be closely related, each being necessary for the profitableness of the whole undertaking,

such as dairying combined

with

growing of fodder; or it may combine several departments, each producing its independent share of the income, such as a farm producing sugar cane, vegetables and dairy products.

An

extreme form of combination may be

of several industries

on the same farm, such as cereal cultivation,

fruit

farming,

vegetable growing, and they being combined with dairying, These are the three stages cattle breeding and poultry etc. of combinations of agricultural

enterprises on the

which general farming may again be

basis of

under three

classified

heads.

Closely resembling to the term general farming there are two terms diversified farming and mixed farming Ordinarily :

the term general

farming can be used for any of these two

farming means growing of several crops, or including different kinds of livestock in a stock-ranch. There are diversified crop farms as well as

types,

But specifically diversified

diversified

The word mixed farming

livestock farms.

used for a type on which growing of crops

some kind for

it

4.

the (a)

of stock-raising.

A

is

is

combined with

more explanatory

substitution

would be crop and livestock farming, According to the business enterprise.

nature of business

farming may

be

On

the basis of

classified into

Self'Sufficing or subsistence or family living

farms

t

:

when

most of the goods produced on the farm are consumed in the farm family and agriculture is carried on mostly as a mode of living,

(b)

Commercial farming^ when the farmer lives

a business, and agriculture is mostly carried on as most of the farm produce is for sale in the market, (c) Part*

on

profit,

time farming,

when

agriculture is

combined as a secondary

occupation with some non-agricultural occupation, 5,

According

to

farm organization,

On

the basis of

farp

60

(

organization

when

farm

the

be classified as

may

it

)

the

is

family

(a) Individual farming,

:

unit

of

operation and the

farmer operates the farm individually, mostly with the help of his family labour and resources, (b) Joint farming when ,

two or more (mostly two and

occasionally

families operate their land jointly as one their

lands,

supplying labour and other investment in a

and dividing

particular proportion (mostly equally) in the

same

The combination

ratio,

cultural

year and

farthing,

when

own

their

vate

it

lasts

land or taking

jointly

by means

performs some

the output

one

agri-

(c) Cooperative

it

on lease or buying

it,

owned by

and the

culti-

society.

and the society

services such as supplying of credit,

produce and supplying costly implements. on

a

farming, when the farm

The work of

the harvest,

of production

Really speaking at some

sion

mostly for

cultivated individually

is

common

of the

must be done

prise,

till

is

cultivators for in a cooperative society pooling

Sometimes land

marketing

farm

three)

farm, combining

is

the

stage

cooperative is

operated

actual basis,

by

farm operations (d)

Corporate

a joirtt*stock

enter-

done by hired labour under the supervi-

paid services.

The

share-holders

are concerned

only with the profits or losses.

Agriculture is followed generally on large-scale based on capitalistic method, (e) State farming when the faim is owned by the Government and

worked by the paid labour under the management services.

of

the

The workers have no

voice in deciding government the nature of crops, or in the management, and they have no interest in the improvement of the farm. The operation is

generally on large scale and such farms are often equipped

with up-to-date machinery, the

members surrender

in land

and livestock

done cojnmonty.

their land

are joint

The

Collective farming,

(f)

ipcctne

irrevocably.

and the is

actual

The

when rights

farming

is

based op the amount of

61

(

Farmers mostly

work done. in

own houses which have

to

them.

Sometimes

members

)

with individual families

live

small garden allotments attached

in the extreme form

have

live together,

a

of

common

collectivization

own

kitchen and

everything commonly, having no separate belongings except personal use like the tooth brush. According to land tenures. There is a bewildering

trifling things of 6,

variety of farms and farmers based on the nature of

However, on

in land.

occupaticy right farms

the

may

basis of

be of

five types

rights

duration of the

the :

fa) Tttwncy-Gt*

will, right accrues in land and the farmer simply depends on the sweet will of the owner. Generally, $ucfa

when no

The tenancy

farms are for one agricultural year,

is

renewed

and the farmer may have the same land next year or rent land,

number

(b) Lease holding, when the land

of years

right of

under a

cultivation

(d) Hereditary

lease,

lasts

tenancy,

till

when

is

(o) Life tenancy,

the

of

life

the

right of

diffe-

held for a

the

when

the

operator,

cultivation is

inherited and passes from generation to generation according to the

law of inheritance,

(e)

Heritable and transferable

tenancy, when

the right of cultivation

transferable.

Besides, another type of classification based

is

both heritable and

on tenancy may be as (a] Tenant farming, when the land is taken on rent from landlords. The rent may be paid in cash :

or in kind.

Share cropping

is also

a form of tenancy farming

in which a part of the produce, generally half, is paid as rent, (6)

Peasant proprietorship, when the

land

from the State by the farmers and there between the farmer and the State.

and transferable, land

is

farmed by

{e)

the

The

is

taken directly

no intermediary

right is also heritable

Owner or Landlord farming, when actual

owner

has the superior right of ownership in

pay

is

or the land holder it,

The

the

who

actual farming

be done by himself or throogh-hired labour,

,

.,

62

(

actual farm

On

labour.

farm

to

According

7,

)

work done, farms may

Family farms, when most

of the

the

basis

of

be of two types

the :

(a)

operations are

agricultural

performed by the farmer with the help of the family labour, and (d) Faming by hired labour, when most of the farm

work

done by wage paid workers.

is

FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION

II,

There best of

an old Indian proverb that agriculture is the occupations. Such a conception is not peculiar to

is

all

India alone but tural societies.

reflects the traditional

it

As observed

earlier

view

of all

man had to be

fed

agricul-

and food

production was the most fundamental and permanent concern

man. The fundamental importance of agriculture, therefore, dominated the thought of man from the very beginning of of

settled

and thinkers made agriculture

life,

economic

mankind

'Throughout the age-old

activities. to

make

home on

the

land

place where one could be reasonably sure

that

the

warmth,

average

a snug, secure of

enough

to eat,

elemental necessaries of

those

of

man

struggle of

perhaps no dream has been more

a living,

appealing than that of a

of shelter, of

the only key to

thinks of

first

life

for

himself and his

and

it

1

family .*

One of

thing peculiar about fatming

any other vocation,

that

it

is

a

is,

home

is

hardly true

enterprise, intimately

combining business with home. be considered in

Farming should, therefore, two ways as an occupation and as a living, :

Technically speaking, they are two different forms

of activities,

and the principles governing them are likewise different.

The

tests of

an occupation are economy and

be more explicit

ptofitdbleness, safety,

mately the national good. Judged b) ^JLarson apd Teller,

What

is

Farming

?

its

efficiency, to

stability,

and

ulti-

piofitablencss agticul-

p. 13,

(

65

)

ture cannot be the best occupation. Agricultural communities all

over the world are not so advanced asindustrial commuai-

ties,

A

only a few become rich.

rank and is

said to

small percentage

is

well-of but the

is

But farming poor, and some miserably poor. be more safe and stable, and less susceptible to serious file is

than other businesses are.

dislocation in the financial world

This

In agriculture

and are not even equally prosperous*.

mostly due

to self-contained

economy. Farm production

on the whole is fairly stable but taking

and individuals

into account

siderable, which

is

due both

the

different regions

income variability

is

quite

con-

production variability and

to

business fluctuations. Besides, agriculture

hazards more than any other form

is

subject to natural

of business*

Again, in the

Bengal famine of 1943 majority of the starvation deaths were and farming community, That makes the

of rural people

idea of safety doubtful.

However, since agriculture

duces primarily food and agricultural economy a self-sufficing nature,

it

is less

susceptible

turbances than other occupations.

to

Booms and

is

pro*

mostly of

financial dis-

depressions,

and unemployment, etc,, do not affect farming so seriously as they do in the case of other busiinflation

and

nesses.

Even wars do

deflation,

not dislocate agriculture so

much

as

other industries, Hence, farming on the whole can be treated to

be more stable and safe than other occupations.*

But farming cannot be treated as is

a

mode

of

life

as well,

And some

a business only*

go

to the

It

extent of

*

Really speaking large scale farming and big business cannot be com* A big farmer can do slightly better only through improving the organization but so far as the methods of production are concerned he has Farming is not an occupagot the same standard as his small neighbours. tion in which a small revolving fund can be made to do wonders, nor is it one in which few great fortunes are made by a lucky turn of the wheel which pared.

It is mainly the result of individual grinds thousands of competitors, The vast majority of farmers are trying to get along doing the best they can under all forts of handicaps,

effort.

64

(

saying that

it is

a

mode

of life

Really speaking lines

other.

activities

of

a

is

and hence,

a business,

least consideration

in

it.

close intermingling of the two

each exercising a great influence on the

The farm family

business,

and not

demand

business principles should there

)

is

very

and equally important

important the

to

to

the

farm

family are food,

Farm and the clothing and fuel provided by the farm. more closely involved because there is a sort family become of conflict

between the desire

between

for cash

income and wholesome

income on the farm and for family, living, and between the work on the farm and the time for living, recreation

and

the use of

leisure.

Farmers have

to

make

a choice

between how much

to sell in order to get enough income to meet the various obligations and how much to keep for their family requirements. They have to make a choice in the

use of income and other resources for carrying out the farm operations and improving the farm, or leisure, health, education, is

of the family.

a choice between work on the farm and enjoying

children to go to school or

to

for ladies to take care of

and

duties, or to attend to

bers on farms. of

and recreation

for living, comfort,

milch

There

life,

for

look after the cattle and crops, children and look to household

cattle

The choice has

to

and be

to

help the male

made between

children and their education or the rush of

mem-

the care

work

at the

sowing and harvesting time, between the medical care of the wife or some urgent farm expenses, between reducing the debt or performing some social ceremony, in short between more income or better life, and between farm business or farm lifet *Is security a powerful economic motive ? The psychology of agriculcommunities proves it to be so, To the prosperous and specially those who have imbibed the spirit of individualism and competition, and are sure of themselves as competitors in the commercial and the business world, it may not be so. But to the relatively poorer sections the sense qf safety the farm, regarding food and living, makes them stick to farmprovided by fog inspite of the fact that it provides relatively poorer standard of living and lower incomes, tural

65

(

The standard

of living

are also closely

related.

and the standard of farm work

Working conditions are

a part of life as food, clothing

ment which makes

the

welfare of the

the

)

and housing,

farm work

family

and

etc.

tion

'utilities',

much

improve-

light also contributes to

may

increase the income.

Again most of the satisfactions which make up are termed as

Any

as

life

and which

are derived not from direct consump-

taking of food or wearing of clothes but from

like

pleasure of

The usual

work.

derived by an

artist

illustration

by looking

is

the satisfaction

at his paintings.

The

satis-

from maturing crops and a grain heap on the threshing ground or a fattening livestock,

faction

which

farmers

derive

milking cow, and even the care of crops and animals when they grow and develop,

as genuine as that of an artist.*

is

Farming has got certain advantagesthemselves an

i

Farmers work

for

have a greater independence than labourers Farm work is varied and out of doers.

for others.

working

Farming provides

opportunities for

making

a living

possible

with comparatively smaller investment, There are opportunities for

smaller investments and smaller businesses, hence,

there are

greater chances

successful. Agriculture

on account

of inefficient

is

for tnediocres

al&o to

be quite

an occupation which though suSers

and unintelligent operation and

still

returns a living, while other businesses, inspite of inefficient

operation

may

not return a living.

Farming provides work

a fine story about farming told by Plutarch, the famous Over 2000 > ears ago, a certain nation sent emissaries with a large sum of gold to gain the fa\our of a prominent Roman citizen. They sought out the powerful I
*There

Roman

is

historian.

wants nothing 3 ou can give, What need have I, or any man \vbocan such a supper as thro, of gold', He sent them away produce and enjoy and went on dressing turnips. 9

(

$6

)

young and old and work which women and children can dp with profit and pleasure. Farm life provides a better

Cor

community life, and life which is more close to natural copdr turns and nearer to human hopes and desires than life in other occupations, specially in

cities,

which a^e dominated by

pecuniary motives, selfishness and greed, resuldng in dehumanizing of human personality, Farm life is more contented

and peaceful;

Farming

more simple and happier. our country is a tradition and a mode

it

in

is

resolves in favour of living.

the

Most of our farmers, almost

return to keep

their

of life.

farm and the family very often farm work and cash income than actual

But the choice between

and

families,

must secure enough hence, must consider

all,

business principles in so far as they bear on their securing

enough money

for

meeting their various obligations.

business principles and

have

to

family

considerations,

be given their due weight.

rarely so successful that

sweet song,

runs so low

Due that

farm

farm

number

to a

life is

a

life

of

Both

therefore,

The business aspect

may appear

to

is

be a long

handicaps farm business

downtrodden sweated slavery

and a permanent struggle against fate. Farm life in rural areas is devoid of some conveniences which are available to

workers in other occupations in towns.

living in rural

areas

is

lower.

Even during

But the cost of the depression

farmers are not faced with unemployment.

time of general shock-absorber.

During the

unemployment agriculture serves as the And farm life is more contented and farm ;

communities are nnst peace loving.* *The economic history of the developed countries shows that with economic progress the attachment of people with land has gradually become less numerous and less close. But the results of the urbancum commercial civilization which has come into being are not very happy. On the other hand, experience shows that every great war tends to draw increasing attention towards farming, which means that such -turrcorls which disrupt economic life considerably seem to revive the simple old bope of seeking safety, security and peace on land.

67

(

III.

SPECIALIZED

The

distinction

the

extreme

DIVERSIFIED FARMING,

between specialized and diversified farm-

ing has briefly been

10

Vs,

)

drawn

fora*

in the discussion of types of farms.

specialization

means

crop

single

farming! or only one kind of business regarding one kind of Similarly, diversified farming in the extreme form

livestock,

implies a combination of a very large industries both

agricultural

and

of

raising

livestock,

in

e, g.,

number

and

hetrogenous

growing of several kinds of

crops: cereals, oil seeds, fibres, pulses, fruits etc.,

of

respect of growing of crops

and vegetables,

also having different kinds of livestock.

In actual

are rare. In our country practice such extreme forms of the same land have examples growing rice repeatedly

a

number

we for

years in the rice zone, or in Rajasthan certain

of

lands growing bajra for a

number

of years,

case of tea gardens and rubber plantations,

Again, in the

we have examples

There are also dairy farms keeping milk and buying all feeds and foddef.

of single crop farming.

only cows, selling

But such cases are uncommon.

Really speaking, the

differ-

ence between specialized and diversified farming, in actual

The former implies two or number of crops and the latter

practice, is only that of degree*

three crops or relatively less five or six or

even more,

i.
a

relatively larger

number

of

Another way of drawing a distinction is that one the other living on the farm. implies living on the profit and It means specialized farming is drawn more extensively into crops.

commercial and business relationships, and to the

same

principles

And

takings.

on the products

many

is

dragged closer

which underlie other business under1

in diversified of

farming producers live mostly the farms produce almost as their farms ;

things as needed by family and the farm,

this test to the

fatmtng

is

actual: conditions

it is

Applying

found that specialized

not only for profit and wholly for the market,

68

(

similarly diversification

not absolute self-sufficiency

is

or

home consumption. Here also, there is One is mainly for the market depen-

for

farming merely

)

a question of degree.

ding largely

on

generally for

home consumption.

business principles, while

the

other is

There can be examples them being ment

of farms growing several crops and most of

The

for the market.

real distinction is not the

growing for

the market or for the family, but the degree of the variety of

number

products, or the

of businesses.

Advantages of Specialized Farming. to

community

wholesale buying. (2)

When

centralization.

tion is greater the facilities for

Farm work

(1)

the degree of specializa-

marketing are better.

Thus, products are is less

Specialization leads

more

It

attracts

easily marketed.

exacting, less confining and liable

to a less neglect. (3)

since

Specialized farms the

proportion of

afford to have better

are

generally

better equipped,

fixed

charges being less they can machinery and other equipment.

A start is usually possible with less capital investment.

(4)

(5)

Less equipment

(6)

Less labour

is

is

required.

needed.

(8)

Chances of undetectable leakage are minimised. Farmers have considerable leisure to enjoy life.

(9)

Specialization

(7)

leads to a greater degree of skill and

dexterity in the production (10)

and care

In some cases lesser land

is

of a particular product.

required.

A

five-acres

poultry farm or twenty-acres fruit or vegetable farm may the same income as 40 or 50 acres of probably produce almost

mixed farm.

Specialized cereal farming

is of

course exten-

(l)

Specialized

sive but not fruit and vegetable farming.

Objections

farming

is

to

Specialized

very hazardous.

Farming,

There

is a

greater dependence

on the market the failure of which brings serious disaster,* *

g

buy at high prices made bankrupt and U. S. A s best land was

bankrupt Europe unable

,

American farmers under most

to

f

also

In the U, S. A. specialization has been

trouble.

1

the leading cause of farmers troubles

and

the

worst example

is of their cotton belt.

Generally, farmers unconsciously

(2)

become a

an international plan because they become producers

And

market.

When

(3)

in

abnormal times they become more trade

international

selling of specialized farms

ing on a safe basis

is

become

is

prices.

for

world

helpless.

invloved buying and

difficult

rendered very

variations in international

part of

because bargain-

difficult in

case of

A comparatively, small

and diversified farm seldom goes bankrupt. Success of farm depends ou the crop conditions (4)

of

one or two crops, and crop failure spells disaster.

The worst

(5)

The system leads

effects are to be seen to

when

the prices fall.

dependence on public help. And the it can afford, and farmers

poorer the country the lesser help suffer

more*

(6)

The

irregular.

return in cash

is

The investment

mostly once a year and hence,

fails to

turn over more than once

a year, (7)

soil

It

does not provide for the proper maintenance of

productivity.

Continuous use of the land for ihe same

crop not only exhausts

from diseases.

soil fertility

Commercial

but also results in losses

fertilizers

can counter balance

*

Demand for agricultural commodities is generally said to be It is subject to fewer changes tban that for other relatively more inelastic. types of goods. But even the most stable parts of diets experience changes, e.g., during the First World

War due to emergency there was a 20%

cut in bread in

the U. S. A, diet. It has never increased since then. Consumers have adopted the new type of diet as normal and producers have adopted to meet the requirements of new type of diet by producing more fruits, vegetables and

dairy products/

(

70

)

the redaction infertility but the soil-borne diseases neccessilate

crop rotations which are not properly carried out oa

specialized farms* (8)

Labour and

used

not

is

equipment

to

the

best

advantage* (9)

to

Specialized crop farms do not keep sufficient livestock

consume waste products

of

farms and

to

make

the waste

land productive, (10)

It

And even

does not produce the necessary articles of Kood.

become dependent for their on traders, and suffer from trade risks requirements and business hazards even when production is maintained. the producers of food

baste

Diversified

Advantage* of

Farming.

it

(1)

economical and better use of equipment. (2)

Since different crops mature at different times, the

system offers a steady and constant employment to labour, and distributes the farm work more evenly throughout the year.

There are more months

hence, greater income, retains better (3)

productive labour and

for

The nature

of

steady employment

workers on the farm*

When

several crops are

in

grown

succession

soil

fertility is kept in a better balance, since leguminous crops

transfer atmospheric nitrogen

diseases ate also reduced.

to

the

Sometimes

And

soil.

soil

soil-borne

texture

is

also

improved. (4)

Farm

practices

and methods are improved on account

of better rotations, green

of moisture

and

crops not only

manure

reduction of fill

space in rotations,

up

crops, clean tillage,

loss

from

pests.

storage

Sometimes

the gap, or a vacant or idle time

but help other crops.

and

Thus, the oppor*

tunnies for productivity are increased* (5)

The: system results in a better land use,

Many farms

H

(

have a variety

)

Diversification leads to the

of types of soils.

adaptation of

to

crops

soil

conditions.

A

combination of

daep and shallow rooted crops taps different layers of the plant nutrients in the

And

close

soil

when

growth near the surface. and add organic

root

heavy

growing crops reduce

matter in the

soil

Again, deep rooted crops store a part of

for plant nutrients.

soil erosion

Thus

they are ploughed.

to

some

extent they reduce the need for fallowing,

Combination of crops and livestock leads to better There are certain industries which utilization of crops. (6)

prove more economical

if

permits a proper minimises waste.

fication

they are carried together. utilization of

by-products and thus

Returns are more quicker and more regular.

(7)

ment has chances

of turning over

There are several sources

(8)

producing

factors.

and certainty

of

Thus, there

is

more than once of

Diversi*

Invest-

a year.

income and more money

greater safety of investment

income every year.

Climatic hazards are

not so disasterous as in the case of specialization*

Market fluctuations do not

(9)

specialized ones.

so hard as the is

not primarily

hit the diversified It is

based on producing for the market and

hence, market factors are not so important. are a

number

that the (10)

of products for the

market It

may

market and

be depressed for

better

is

for

beginner?

familiar with local agricultural

(11)

It is

a

who

practices

more complex system

cities

to the

Secondly there will be rare

it

all.

There are chances of some business proving fail, and thus of returning some reward.

more exacting

farmers

because diversification

are not

and

closely

conditions.

profitable if others

of farming,

operator or the manager.

and Kenjce

Their capa* are put to real test in respect of crop planning, orgam*

flation

work, utilization of labour

of

marketing,

The system

(12)

and equipment and

etc. is

more

suitable for maintaining a

heavy

population.

Objections to Diversification. diversification crops

ment

same

at the

(I)

In

case of too

much

compete for the use of labour and equipand in such cases some are liable to

time,

be neglected,

There

(2)

Less time tion is

is

leisure

more appreciated

at

and

an advanced stage of economy*

In a country like ours the problem (3)

Due

and year round routine, This sort of objecliving,

multiplicity of duty,

is left for

to the variety

is

of providing

and small quantities

more work*

for sale, there

are generally difficulties in marketing farm products. (4)

The work

is

scattered,

liable to be neglected

more exacting, and,

therefore,

sometimes.

Though two or three crops in rotation exhaust the fertility more slowly than single crop farming, but they

(5)

soil

very effectively, specially when crops are grown in rows. But this generally happens in a lower degree of diversification

do

it

and row-cropping. In case of mechanized

farming both general and are used for a lesser duration of machines special purpose time. At times the situation has to be mastered and the (6)

be finished quickly, hence farmers are inclined to buy larger and greater amount of machinery than is ordinarily needed. This increases overhead costs.

work has

to

Adopting a particular system. After examining the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems it should not be difficult

to

decide whether

follow diversified farming, thefre is

no single answer

farmers should

But

it is

specialize or

worthwhile

to this question.

to

note that

First, "agriculture

78

(

)

no where, and perhaps, cannot so highly be specialized as many other occupations, Secondly, whether a farmer should

is

or should not specialize* or to what extent should he diversify,

depends largely on conditions under which he lives* Soil and climatic conditions mainly govern the nature of crops grown. Amount of rainfall and the facilities for irrigation determine the extent of

intensification.

Besides, in poor

communities and relatively underdeveloped areas farming is mostly of subsistence type and farmers grow several crops ;

and

in prosperous

communities self-supporting farms give It is

to specialization*

way

hard from morn

till

because when a

evening simply

to

make

man

has

to

work

a bare living he

has no time to think about the scientific aspect of his undertaking or the business principles underlying

when he

receives an adequate return that

such things. In prosperous countries specially in

to think of

the

West

which

It is only it. he has opportunities

there has

been a tendency towards specialization

probably the result of surplus economy. Moreover, in

is

densely populated countries like India and China in which agriculture is sufficiently old tices

and established and farm pracalmost an

have slowly matured and have attained

equilibrium, diversified farming has aimed at best land use

and the maintenance hand,

it

of

a dense population.

On

the other

has been seen that diversification does not help

all

farmers.

Hence, it is not generally a question of choice between the two systems because most of the things will be governed by circumstances. But a more correct view is that for successful factor.

even

And

o( business is

distribution of labour, to offer a variety of products

sell so as to

the land,

10

an important a medium degree of diversity so as to give an farming diversity

to

bring regular and sure income, and to best utilize

is

much

better

than either an extreme form of

diversity or a low degree of

C*e for Mixed of

it,

Farming.

In

view of the peculiar features

our agriculture the case for mixed

Our

obvious. are low

is

agriculture

is

farming

quite

overcrowded; the crop yields

farm income and standard

of living are very poor connected with agriculture economy very closely because animal power is the main source of power in agri-

and

;

cattle

;

is

farm yard manure is the main source of maintaining and animals make good use of subsidiary and

culture,

soil festility,

Under such circumstances

by products on farms. of

mixed farming

will

most

a system

our conditions.

suit

capable of maintaining a thicker population.

It is

It

offers

a chance of better labour utilization

by providing greateremthe period of spare time. further reduces and ployment, Thus,

which

will

it

is

make

a

maximum

use of the factor of production

available in plenty, and by enhancing the duration

employment will increase Besides under the conditions of land

of productive

the

capacity.

scarcity

productive it

offers

methods and practices of land use. Different types of lands will be used for the purpose for which they are better

Thus by

suitable,

establishing a balanced land-use-pattern

will better conserve the soil fertility,

ducts of agriculture live-stock, It

which in

will

it

subsidiary and by-pro-

be utilized by different kinds of

their turn will provide

farm-yard manure.

agriculture more economical but also exhaustion. It is more significant in our case

not only makes our

recoups

soil

because the possibilities of the use of chemical artificial

festilizers

and

manures by farmers in general, are limited due

sevetal reasons. Again,

it

to

will provide not only a subsidiary

income but also more frequent and regular income, and thereby will enhance the standard of living.

source

of

Really speaking the case for mixed farming can be blished only after considering

the

alternative

esta-

measures.

(

of our

The problems above,

e, g.,

incomes,

75

agriculture

)

as have been

pointed out

over crowding, spare time, lower yields, and low

can be solved better by a system

etc,,

farming, which seems to suit best our conditions, study in Mathura

district of Uttar

of

mixed

A

recent

Pradesh comparing mixed

(arming (cereal cultivation being combined with dairying) with purely cereal cultivation, puts the case in a more con* crete shape.*

From

the study

of

European

agriculture

warriner come to the same conclusion that *

Jitpal Sing,

an

unpublished

Economics

thesis,

of

Yates

and

~grain

pro-

'

Mixed Farming in Mathura District, B,R, College, Agra,

Dept, Agr, Eco,,

(

duction by

itself will

and

acre*

is,

76

never give a high money output per

therefore,

utterly

farming for crowded regions,

by them

is

1

quite interesting,* but

one who

to

only

is

)

familiar

inappropriate as a staple

and it

the evidance

reveals

its full

supplied

significance

with European agricultural

conditions.

A

Active workers in agriculture per 100 acres farm land.

Over 15

Italy,

Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Poland, Albania,

Yugoslavia,

1215

Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Czechoslovakia,

912 fi

Netherlands,

9

Norway, Finland, Lithunia,

Denmark, Sweden, France, Estonia, Latvia, i

Under 6

United Kingdom, Eire,

B. Net output in

1215 9

Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland,

Denmark,

12

69

Norway, Sweden, Italy, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Estonia,

36 Under

per acre. (1937)

I

3

Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Slovakia, Poland, Finland, Lithunia, Latvia, Eire,

Rumania, Yugoslavia, Albania,

*p, L. Yates and D. Warriner, Food and

Europe, 1943, pp, 39-40,

Farming

in

Post-war

(

77

)

C, Net output per active worker in 2(1937)

Over 120

U, K., Denmark,

90-120

Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland,

60-90

Germany, France, Norway, Sweden,

30-60

Finland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Spain,

Eire,

Estonia, Lateria,

Under 30

Portugal, Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Lithunia, Albania.

IV. Selecting

PROBLEM OF SELECTION. as an

farming

occupation.

personal matter and must be determined by

and other circumstances are,

profitability

and

mostly

a

tastes, aspirations

of the individuals concerned.

however, other factors

respect of

in

is

It

There

for general consideration, specially

farming as a business, such

of farming, availability

as potential

of alternate occupations

also the social values attached to

it.

Therefore, before

making a choice of farming as an occupation both have to be taken into account.

the sets of

factors

(a) Personal considerations.

examples

who

of farmers:

we

In every locality

due

are most successful

or efficiency, others special ability

miserably

find

to their

failing,

and

still others presenting gradations between success and failure, depending far more upon differences in the human element than on those in physical conditions of land and

all

other opportunities of

money and market.

Thus, in making

farming successful considerable stress has to the individual.

percentage

There

is,

however, no rule

of success attributed

quite considerable.

It

is

to

mam

be placed on to

But

indicate the it

must be

sometimes believed that half of

the success depends on ipan and the other half depends on

78

(

the conditions of

and market,

climate

soil,

discussion of this point

)

made

is

etc, (a

dering the personal factor several elements have into account.

They

are

detailed

.While consi-

elsewhere).

to

be taken

personal taste for agriculture as an

:

farm practices, knowledge of local agricultural conditions, level of efficiency as an operator, energy, enthusiasm, courage, faith and responsibility. in

occupation, experience

Other considerations.

(b)

The other

of factors

set

com-

in previous pages prises of those which have been considered

under the heading 'farming as an occupation'. To be brief, it has to be considered both as a business and as a life, and as such,

it

is

a very profitable business. quite stable though not

aSords a healthy, peaceful and enjoyable work. While making a choice the points probable income and stability

and

safety

its

adequacy

social values attached to

Farm

it

for the family

of life

:

alternate

it

it,

affords.

After making choice of farm-

the other question is of

type of farming or the

of

and the farm,

work provided by

and the type

Business.

ing as an occupation

and a variety

be considered are

as a business, availability of

occupations limiting choice, nature of

Selecting

life,

to

It

farm business.

It

selecting the

will

largely be

determined by circumstances, and the factors to be taken into account can be put under four groups (a) Environmental :

conditions or the locality limitations,

such as the

soil

and

and the quality of labour market and the market conditions, which

the climatic conditions, quantity

and the location will

of

the kind and quality of the crops greatly determine

gtown.

ments

(fr)

Availability

of

capital,

(o)

for operating expenses, or family

Financial

require-

needs, or for both*

Since different farm businesses have variable earning capacities

greater family needs

may

influence the choice of the

business, (d) Personal tastes and the capacity of the operator.

AH the$e

factors

have a bearing in makiftg the choice.

79

(

)

and they have to be balanced against each other, The need of larger income may shift the personal factor to a second Again, lack of capital

place.

may compel

to

choose a busi-

Sometimes the environ-

ness of lesser income possibility.

mental conditions prove most powerful and overcome other considerations,

Hence,

factors is

But

choose from,

actual

choice

all

be noted that

there

To

is

a

enter

into

But in

choice.

generally simplified by the

is

locality

or a

particular

be precise, the factors which have to be taken

consideration

enterprise are

if

one has the whole country

if

the factors

these

consideration of

based on either a given

business.

1.

all

the

practice

decision

into

choice, or

elasticity ol

greater to

necessary.

a

is to

it

ail

while

deciding the

desirability

of

an

:

Income

possibility or the profitableness as

determined

by local experience,

and climate,

2,

Physical conditions of

3

Effects of the type of

4.

Financial

5.

Extent and quality of labour requirements.

6.

Nature of work and

soil

farming on the

requirements

fertility oi the soil.

equipment and

for

other

investment.

its

seasonal distribution.

?

Location with respect to market.

8.

Other conditions existing in the market, specially

9.

The

marketing costs and

10.

and the volume of business

determining the quantity and of the market

stability in supply.

The extent

demand

11,

facilities for sale.

extent of enterprise,

so as to determine the

foi

the product or the

probable influence of

an increase in the supply on market price. Personal inclination of the whole farm family

for the

particular line of business.

Selecting the Farm,

The

basic essentials in

selecting a

80

(

)

farm are right type of land, good income producing power, congenial community life and reasonable price* These are broad considerations including amongst them a number of

elements which, under a detailed analysis must be considered

They are

Separately.

:

-

The farm

Types of /arming.

1. fit

as follows

in the already formulated plan

the kind

ot crops, or raise

To have

a place simply because

to be

ments,

method

Quality of soil.

2.

to

it

is

a

farm and then try after

to

long experi-

of gaining experience,

It

determines yield and

the

is

Through proper management and

Valuable asset.

produce

animals which the operator intends.

find out the right type of crops or animals is a costly

selected should

and must be able

manuring some improvement

possible, but

most

artificial

the

soils

of

General lay-out of the land, slope and

its

is

naturally poor physical condition will not pay.

Topography.

3.

direction, presence of ravines or

kind and

influence the

hills,

proper drainage,

quality of produce,

etc.,

farm practices

and operations, 4. Shape and arrangement of the farm. There should be facilities for dividing the farm into fields of proper size, and proper arrangement of fields, buildings, roads, paths and water supply, etc. Irregular shape and a haphazard

arrangement

add

to the cost,

5.

tions

The

of these things increase difficulties in cultivation,

and sometimes waste land. one of the most important consideramostly determines the volume of business.

Size of farm

because size

it

It is

should be such as

to

provide

full

and

profitable

capital and equipment, and ultimately to a tolerably good, if not provide an adequate income and

use to labour,

a high, standard of living. limit the opportunities

and

capital,

and

thus,

It

should not be too small to

for profitable

adding

to

employment

of

labour

the cost of cultivation, nor

81

(

should ful

it

)

be too big resulting in under-cultivation and waste*

use of land. 6.

Climate.

kind of crops, storm,

etc,,

It

plays an important part in determining the

Temperature, determine

rainfall, forest,

the succes

And

cause diseases which

men and

capacity of 7.

may

cattle,

and

unfavourable climate

may

and reduce crop

Normal

The need

for crop production.

men and

deteriorate the health and working

cattle,

Water supply.

thunder

hail,

otherwise of crops.

life of

Pleasant climate leads to healthy

work. permits regular farm

or

rainfall

for

yields.

seldom

is

sufficient

therefore, is

irrigation,

paramount for successful cultivation. Without it fertility of land and manures cannot be fully utilized. Cultivation cannot be intensified and crop yields are considerably reduced* Location with reference to market. The earning 8. capacity of the farm is considerably affected

Proximity

means

market and good

to

commuication are basic for successful specially

when

duction can

the produce is of

be arranged

with

a

by

of

its

transport

commercial

to

and

farming,

nature.

perishable

reference

location.

Pro-

consumers'

preferences and the output can be transported quickly, The locational factor cheaply and in fresh condition.

may

not be very important in subsistence

commercial farming 9.

it

is of

farming but fundamental importance.

Financial requirements.

The

price of land or rent

should not be too high and out of proportion ing power.

needs

income produc-

operational requirements and the the have period of production

adjusted to the availability of 10.

to

The

during

Labour.

Amount,

money

in

family to

be

immediately or in future.

quality, availability

and

cost

of

labour (wages) have to be considered specially in case of Due to scarcity of labour the work may large-scale farming, 11

82

(

)

not be performed in time, and too high the costs

wages are

the other hand, cheap labour

be out of proportion.

may may limit

zation. In case of family farming

If

On

the extent of mechani-

not so important-

it is

Sometimes

Safety against damage.

11.

the yield.

affect

may

it

considerable

caused by wild animals, birds and stray cattle, damage Safety against them is important for successful farming, is

Good

Social conditions.

12.

neighbours provide not

but

only a congenial

community

ness of farming.

When new comers

life

also

govern

profitable-

are not liked hinderances

are created in work, crops are damaged,

bickerings

petty

and sometimes prolonged litigation take place, and life becomes unwholesome and farming unprofitable. Besides the farm should not be

too isolated for

good social

life.

Agriculture for

Town

dwellers.

in

also

adopt farming as an

residing

sometimes

cities

in

who have

temporarily or permanently shifted to

a debt, or service-men

want

occupation,

Such persons are either the big

cities, or city money-lenders to

to

some cases persons

remote villages and more often in places,

easily accesible by roads.

landlords

In

whom

who during

continue the possession

ol

land has passed under

the period of their service

land or maintain connec-

tions with villages, or other rich persons

dual or corporate farming mainly for spare cash want

to

who

profit, or

have land property.

follow indivithose having

In most

of

these

done on a comparatively larger scale, work is done by wage paid labour, even the management is paid, production is for the market, and profitability is the main

cases farming

aim.

But leaving aside big commercial farms most of the

farms due

Land

is

is

the

lack of supervision, prove unprofitable. not maintained in a high state of productivity, and it to

Jeads to under utilization.

As

a subsidiary occupation, and

83

(

)

specially providing the basic necessaries of life, it may be considered good, particularly in abnormal times. During

period of

the

high prices it may prove profitable also. But from the view point of land utilization it should be

discouraged

as

a

national

Under

policy.

the

shortage of production optimum utilization of

maximum

is

production

property right in land If the institution of

So

the aim.

is

concerned,

far as the

it

is

present

land

and

question of

a different question.

property in land is maintained

tenancy

laws can provide an adequate and safe arrangement. through lease or sub-letting land must be

Either

maintained in a

Even in case of newly reclaimed from thickly populated regions should be preferable to extensive commercial farming by individuals or corporations. On the whole it is a sort of enchroachment high state of productivity.

tracts colonization

by

cities

on villages reducing the farmer to the status of a

wage earner.

Even from

profitability, in

most

the

view point

of the cases

it

is

of

business and

not desirable,

There-

farming by town-dwellers in villages must be discouraged. In can, of course, be tolerated in the vicinities of

fore,

cities if they

have farms nearby and practise farming under

their close supervision.

Agriculture as a Subsidiary Occupation.

menials, workers

who

migrate

to cities in

Village artisans, slack

season, and

others having very small areas of land, follow farming as a their incomes derived from part-time job to supplement In cases main the traditional their occupations. many

areas are so small that the operators cannot afford to keep

bullocks and other farm

equipment.

ploughed and sown by those from supply other labour. under-cultivated.

Land

Lack

production generally

of

is

they take

not put to proper use

experience

results

They have the land

whom

in

low

in

the

it,

and

and it

is

technique of

production,

It

also

(

reduces the size the pressure on

of faniis of

declined and

The

real

regular farmers and

artisans

of

from

their

increases

is the

development

common

occupations has

no alternative occupations

there are

remedy

)

This practice has become

land,

because the income

.84

in villages,

of cottage industries for

artisans and the creation of farms of suitable size for farmers,

development of cottage industries as a subsias a remedy for diary occupation for farmers is suggested under-sized holdings and as a provision of subsidiary

Very

often, the

income. This amounts successful in Japan.

be done,

to

dual occupation, which has been very

In the transitional period

But in the long

run

the

place and specialization will lead occupation,

to

it

will

adjustments

have

will

to

take

the choice ol a single

Therefore, farming as a subsidiary occupation

by those having

little

agricultural

traditions

should

be

discouraged*

A

recent study in Meerut District or Uttar Pradesh brings

out the following results.*

#]ai Niwas Tyagi, Agriculture as a Subsidiary Occupation, theis, Dept, of Agr, & co., B, R, College, Agra,

unpublished

1951,

an

85

(

VALUING THE FARM,

V.

as

a

The term valuation

Process.

Appraisal

for

synonym

is

mostly used

i. the theory and the e., value of a given property at a In a derived sense it refers to the

appraisal

process of estimating the specific place

)

and time,

value placed upon the property as

of an

a result

appraisal.

Valuing a

farm, therefore, ordinarily means determining a figure in terms of money which one would be justified in

paying for a farm or an agricultural enterprise. The appraisal process consists of two main parts inventary, the

collection

i.e.,

value of

a

farm,

of

and

:

(i)

Physical

physical data affecting

Economic

(ii)

converting physical yield into their

all the

appraisal,

i.e.,

money income, or determining The whole process is

value in terms of money.

comprised of six

stages,

the

three

first

of

which

are

concerned with physical aspects and the other three with

economic aspects. I

They are

as follows

:

Physical Data. /.

Appraisal a

map and

soil

inventary.

It

includes

complete description of physical resources of farm, such as location, demarkation of its

the

boundaries, location of buildings, soil

texture,

sub-soil

2,

depth of

topography Estimation of yield. ;

;

surface

climate It

;

trees, streams,

soil,

character of

drainage, etc.

includes an estimate of

productivity through estimating crcp yields and typical cropping systems. 3.

Building inventary.

It

includes physical inventary

and analysis of farm im provements and equipment such as measurements of buildings, capacity, estimate of future For

this

section

Appraisal, 1947,

we have

life

largely

and

drawn

adaptability, etc.

on

W.

G,

Murray,

Farm

86

(

II

)

Economic Appraisal. 4.

Preparation of Income

Statement.

aims

It

at

determining the internal producing and earning capacity o{ the farm. The net income is found out with the

expenses

of production.

valuation, and 5.

help of farm product prices and

costs

also includes building

It

and valuation

of other things.

Determination of value by capitalizing the income.

means deciding

It

present worth of a farm

the

with the help of the estimated annual income by capitalizing* the expected

income

future

at the

pravailing rate of interest. 6.

Determination of determination

total

of

the

vafae. total

It

is

the

final

value by adding the

intangible values (values attached to the farm on

account of favourable location and other amenities or non-economic features being available) to the

and by making other

productivity value,

ments

adjust-

comparing the sale value of the farm in question with those of other farms in the locality. after

Methods of Valuation,

There

is

almost

unanimity

of

of farm productivity. But opinion in respect of the appraisal of difference considerable there is opinion on the best method

of valuation,

*'

e tt

the process

to

be followed in convert-

ing production estimates into value. tions

on the best method

of

Two extreme

valuation

are

:

(i)

sugges-

The

net

income capitalization method, and (ii) The sales value comare termed briefly as the income parison method, They value on which the annual Capitalizing means assigning to the farm a net income is the prevailing rate of interest,
because

it

depends on the expected income and also the expected

which are inconsistant, rate of interest both of

87

(

,)

approach and the sales approach, These methods have their own merits and demerits which make them suitable under particular circumstances lore, in

order

to

anJ unsuitable in others,

avoid the evils of both and

good points a third suggestion

compromise

their

combine the two on a

to

by employin g analysis, comparison and These methods are as follows:

basis

capitalization, 1,

is

There-

retain

to

The net income capitalization method.

In this method

determined by capitalizing the net annual income taking into account the returns Irom land and buildings. It requires, first, an estimate of productivity and net income, value

is

second, selection of the rate of capitalization, and

justment of the capitalized

value

to

nomic features or amenities mostly estimates of the income

may

lords or of owner-operators.

third, ad

account for the non-ecoof intangible nature.

The

be based on the returns of land-

The

difficulties

arise

in calcu-

lating certain items of expenses involved in owner-operation,

Therefore, while

valuing land the

income method usually

income which can be substantiated by comparison with actual facts, and owner-operator income is generally estimated while examining the possibirelies

lity of

on estimates

of rental

an owner having sufficient income

to

pay the

interest

on a mortgage loan,

The merits

of this

method are

the annual rental value specially

mon, and where

soil

that

it

is

easy to determine

where tenancy

is

more com-

and climatic conditions, and not the

management, are more important in determining yields, And as T. D. Morse believes, income capitalization is the direct and primary approach to valuation,* mathematical analysis. And since,

It it

leads to

exhaustive

can develop to such a

*T, D. Morse, American Rural Appraisal System, Journal of the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, II No, 2, Nov. 1938, Farm Appraisal, p, 206, p. 98, Quoted by W, G, Murray,

88

(

)

large extent from definite mathematical data and formulae

appears

logical to

use

it

as a foundation

The

limitations of this

(a)

The most

there

not be

may

method are

serious handicap

in case of

owner-operation

of

income

becomes untrue

A

(b)

:

certain localities

Again, the estimate of income

is

very

difficult,

areas where

in

as follows

is that in

it

build upon,

agreements, and in others rental

rental

income may not be uniform.

rental

to

And

estimation

is

uncommon

tenancy

to facts,

considerable portion of land value

is

due

to

non-

economic features, amenities and other intangible elements, It is very difficult to determine the rate of (c) capitalization.

The

(d)

talizing

in

difficulty

rate is greater

determining both income and capi-

in

regions where crop yields vary

considerably and agricultural prices fluctuate widely,

Estimates of net annual income lose

(e)

in

significance

is

of their

areas of marginal farming where average

expenses and returns almost balance each value

much

other,

and farm

very low.

where

wide variety of methods of farming are practised, or where farms produce a variety of (/)

(g)

It

It

does not

is

management

suit

a

where buildings,

unsatisfactory

location

and

are of special significance and soil conditions

play a minor role in determining annual return. (h)

It

assumes a

it

does not possess.

is

not reliable.

to

revenue

is

As

scientific

Hence,

it

accuracy which, unfortunately, is

subject to serious errors,

and

Aereboe believes,* valuation according A unscientific, impracticable and indefensible. F.

*F. Aereboe, The Value of Landed Property, International Institute of Agriculture, Bulletin of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases, Nov. 1912. Quoted by W. G, Murray, Farm Appraisal, p,206,

89

(

slight mistake in yield per acre

same

cost of cultivation)

)

(under the assumption of the

will bring

about such a difference

whole value after being capitalized Again, even if the valuation of net

in the net returns that the

appear absurd.

will

returns were practicable,

depend on the

capitalization will

which a small difference

rate of interest in

about

will bring

a considerable difference in the value.

The

2.

sale value

sales as standards.

region

is

method

comparison method.

The

level

of

determined from actual

is to

It

uses actual

value in the particular

The

sales.

first

step in this

estimate the farm productivity or to establish

The second

rating of a given farm,

the productivity

step is

non-economic features, and accounting for the intangible features. The final step after rating the farm

to

consider the

as a productivity of

level

is

to

fit

in the general

values in the region through comparisons.

a checking first

and amenity feature

or a corroborative process in

It is

which values are

determined on the basis of comparative productivity

and other

factors,

and then the

capitalization

method

is

used

as a check in determining the correctness of those values.

Market price of farms value since

it

is

supposed

represents the

to

actual

be the best index of price

finally

settled

between both the buyer who wants to offer the lowest possible the highest possible price price and the seller who wants to get (forced sales being avoided).

Those who emphasize

this

method think

that

in

farm

probable market price, farm should be worth, that the and not what one thinks arrived at is the appraisal the figure

And

as G. C.

judgments

Haas

of the

believes,* market price is the result of the

land market, and represents the best

esti-

G, C. Haas, Sale Prices as a Basis for Farm Land Appraisal, Minn. Agr, Exp, Sta., Tech. Bull, 9,, Nov. 1922. Quoted by W. G. Murray, Farm Appraisal, p. 208,

13

mates of buyers and

about the future farm income.

sellers

Secondly, value estimated by any other Method will approxi*

mate sale value.

It is,

remain almost at the

When

values

sale

a

optimism during

because sate value and income value

same

level except during short periods

may be higher on account of boom or lower due to undue

during a depression, than they should be.

income value based on normal price level the^sfcle

value

it is

Brandt thinks, large scale,

more

this

It is

(b) sale

its

and the

of this

generation

to

than

fit

for

Thirdly;

as Karl 1

quick application on

Theoretically

operates on a

it

results are reliable.

method are

:

(a) unreliability

of

farms are handed

generation and sales are scarce

;

value has a lesser significance in making comparisons

with other farms, but

is

when

par with the latter through

estimates specially where

the sale value

down from

method

pessimism*

Again,

is nfttich less

capitalizing rate,

less costly.

scientific basis

The handle *ps

at

brought

changes in price of the

excessive

It

may

be the only basis for comparison,

limitations cannot be overlooked

;

(c)

lack of standard-

ization in the land market.

After discussing the two methods one would note that though

them they use farm prodfUct b&se and also use the method of capita-

there are differences between

a cotrimofc prices as Direct capitalization of income as a method of land lization.

valuation has serious handicaps, but afrd

'a

check has

to

be recognized.

supplement suggested which aims

is

usefulness as a gttkte

Really speaking the two

each other,

methods should

method

its

at

A

compromise

avoiding the evils of

both the methods and at the same time retaining the merits of both.

ttom

It

Since

employs analysis, comparison and irt

some cases a

thfcn capitalfea*

particular approach

may be more

suitable than the other, greater weight has tb be attached to

the one

better

adapted,

There are

different

kinds

of

91

(

The

m aip

Sipce the

main

is,

on the productive characteristics of

objective

future earnings

is the

put

&, while buying fopd

*,

of emphasis,

place is

emphasis

t

which the appraisal

use to

specific

.determines the

)

;

soils,

while selling

land the seller should see that both income and non-income features

or intangible

included

are

in

;

condemnation

appraisal (taking land for military purposes, for air fields and for roads, etc.) a reasonable compensation to the individual is

aim of the

the

sacrifice

govt,,

which

tax assessment

and main consideration

owner makes

the present it

must

;

is

of the personal

if it is

designed for

reflect the existing conditions

$how,the relative position of one region to another

made for

loan purposes the emphasis

is

;

and must

and

if it is

on long range views,

such as the probable conditions of the land during the period of loan, natural, hazards, price risks

and borrower's integrity

and security. Theories of Land Value,

above discussion,

is

Valuation,

learnt from the

it is

a process of establishing a value figure

based upon a particular programme through a formula of capitalizing that

economic return.

The value

paying for land decision*

And

as such,

it

is

a function of all future retains

generally has in result

pon-egonomic features,

of

it

land value

be considered to be so. the

'Jajid

What one

'capitalized land return

^mawy compromises

land value formula*

Therefore,

value of land alone although for #11

may mind is

.practical .purposes

the

jand

prospective entrepreneur.

bty

yjdjie' is not truly the

this

amount

economically justified in be obtained under a specific business

to

depending upon several economic as foreseen

is

figure is an,

an entrepreneur would be

Opinions

formula, and

differ

1

which

ip applying the basic

on the very basis of

they are

known

as different

theories of land value, which are as follows:7,

Kent Theory,

ft is

based pp the

plassi?a[l

copceptipi}

92

(

of rent

as a

i.

surplus,

any ment its

form

in the

annual use.

use,

and

it

it

is

will

he wishes

if

depend upon

normal

ratio

and

value,

its

rent,

to sell t,

e. t

it,

e. g,, if

the

the value

since capital and

of its

of a piece

current rate of interest

20 times the

annual

is

of

land

5%

price

rent.

Land value

Interest Theory.

amount he can

the

investors tends to establish a

between the annual net rent

of land will be about 2.

the worth of

is

The competition amongst

use.

It is

what the tenant would pay for landalso what the owner should count if he cultivates

the land himself, or get for

over and above the cost of invest-

labour and capital.

of

This

an excess of annual income that

en

piece of land yields

)

is

residual in character 1

labour have priority claims against net

meeting these claims any income is left then land has value and the amount of value which land If after

earning,

way depends upon the amount of excess The main point is that value of land is a

acquires in this productivity,

function of price of capital and labour, for net return of an enterprise cannot be determined without

The

value of improvements.

first

determining the

residual nature of land

implies that while valuing land

income

we should proceed through

estimating labour and capital and the required returns to them.

The conclusion after,

and

labour). that

land

is

that the price of land

in part, by

This argument is

fixed

is determined only investment (capital and also based upon the classical idea

the price is

of

and immobile while other

But the modern view-point

is

mobile 2 and hence, land value

that is

land

is

factors are not.

economically

not residual in character.

Return to any factor of production can be considered residual. 1.

Land

is

residual in the sense of

non-deteriorating 2.

Land

several uses

is

permanence of value. It is physically and unlike improvements rarely becomes valueless,

economically mobile to the extent to which it can be put to to the extent to which a unit of it can be substituted for

and

another or for capital and labour.

93

(

3.

)

Demand and Supply Theory.

nomic analysis distinguishing prime factors

of production,

land,

Unlike classical ecolabour and capital as

modern economic theory suggests

that pure definition of land as nature has

since in

little

practical value

production land and investment in the form of

and labour are so intricably combined that there is possibility of separating and measuring the productivity of original and indestructible qualities of land. Productivity capital

no

of

an enterprise

is

an undifferentiated stream

of services or

And

in

economic behaviour land

is

revenues.

other factors of production.*

similar to

Therefore, land valuation

is

not

fundamentally different from investment analysis in other And land value is determined by the forces of fields.

demand and

supply.

But in actual practice buyers differ from sellers and in each group one individual from another. Hence there cannot be a single series of earning powers attached

to a

piece of land.

On

the other hand, there will be different earning powers for each diSerent seller and buyer. The difficulty is that which one is to be capitalized into present market value. Again,

each seller and buyer has his separate

discount rate, a

separate process through which to arrive at his individual for it. present worth of future income, and maximum bid

Thus, in the market process individual capitalizing underlies both the demand and the supply schemes, and hence value is not the

normal equilibrium

supply but in practice

it

of

free forces of

has to be

strictly

demand and

individualized.

*In some respects land is similar to other factors, but this similarity does not justify a complete merger of land and capital because for analytical purposes land retains important distinguishing characteristics, e.g., location is of peculiar importance in the case of land. 1 1 rests on the physical immobility of land and the relative permanence of location feature. Besides, relative durability of land and the relative inflexibility of supply are differences in degree that are sufficient to have considerable economic significance to distinguish

it

from

capital.

Besides, land values are

considerably wflaeaced by Local

customs, institutions and standards,

Increase in

Und

Value.

In

an old

country

.agricultural

having a thick population, by far the major portion of whi
depends on agriculture, land has a special economic

signifi-

During the last five or six decades and specially during the last decade there has beep a considerable rise in the price of land* There are se.vetal cance and a natural attraction.

factors leading to this rise

:

decline of cottage industries combined

(i)

with a rapid

increase in population which have resulted in a gradually

increased realization of the country with an undue emphasis

on landed property

;

inadequate development of alternative sources of investment in the form of industry, trade and commerce (it)

which have diverted a considerable portion of rural invest-

ment

in land

;

exchange and have mini* which distribution of agricultural commodities mised the isolation factor and have increased locatinal value (iti)

development of transport

facilities for

;

:

(iv)

scientific

and t$chnical developments ;

in agriculture

.Whfch have regularized .or increased outturn or have minimised, agricultural hazards (v) (vi)

tv'w)

general rise in the price level

impact of urban growth security of

conditions (via)

;

life

;

;

and .prpperty and

settled

political

;

a threat of Japanese invasion

combined with

a slight loss of faith in

induced many people

to invest in

during

194243

paper currency which

landed property

j

recent tenancy reforms and the abolition of Zamindari Jsgttaaftsystfeffls in most of the States which have led the

(IK)

land holders to sell or leave land (x)

and the

rise in prices

and make money

;

during and after the war which

has increased farm incomes and agricultural created a sudden land hunger.

profits,

and have

CHAPTER

V.

Rural Life and Economic Transition.

I.

THE VILLAGE COMMUNITIES

Origin of Villages.

have

to

In order to understand

was

study the village which

From

economic system,

out the country, people

and self-contained

rural life

the unit

we

our old

of

times immemorial almost through-

have been living in small isolated

villages,

It is

very interesting

to

when and how did they come into existence, The term 'village means permanent settlement

enquire

as to

7

indicative of a stage

and

1

,

and

is

nomadic

as opposed to

of settled life

permanent or continuous agriculture as opposed to shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation marks the first the in stage development from pastoral stage, and permanent life,

of

agriculture

marks

from pastoral

the beginning

to agricultural

and begins with permanently settled or permanent community life. Thus, village communities begin with

stage,

continuous cultivation.

even

when

in pastoral stage

tration

of

population

It

;

should, however, be life is

there are

temporary nature and agriculture shifting character.

At

and some community

that

cultivation

and

that

marks

are

life

is

community

developed.

96

is of

a

a

living

But such

not technically called

begins with continuous

the beginning of village

nities.

concen*

is

followed which

is

institutions are

Settled

noted that

settlements though of

stage there

settlements are temporary and village communities.

nomadic there

commu-

97

(

is

It

to

difficult

that

exactly as

say

Sometimes

communities originate*

word 'Arya' means

tiller of

soil

continuous cultivation in

of the Aryans,

after that time,

and

)

village it

Again,

when

to it

did village

believed that the

is

and from

it

they conclude

India began after the coming

communities is also

likewise sprang

up

believed that communities

were always on a kindred basis, except where family tie seems to have been broken by over-sea migration. These kindreds were usually tribally organized on a patrilineal basis, often

under a chief or a headman.

has been an Aryan to

disprove these statements,

being the question that to

But there

feature.

India, were

it

ample evidence

Leaving aside

for the time

whether the Aryans, when they came

accustomed

cultivation or not, 1

This organization is

to settled

life

and continuous

can easily be established, and there

is

ample evidance to prove, that the Dravidians whom the Aryans found in India, were living a permanently settled Even the Kolarians who life and had village communities. were the earlier inhabitants, were accustomed life, though most were mostly nomads.

of

of

them were

in

to that sort

and

pastoral stage

Conditions in the different parts of the

country being different, the Kol race (different tribes) lived in

of

different stages

them

of

pastoral

and agricultural

were nomads, some moving

after

life*

Most

a short time

and

The Aryans were originally pastoral people. In what stage of 1. development were they when they first moved, and when they came to the with certainty. But it is generally believed plains of India cannot be said The first Aryan tribes in India established that they came in waves themselves along the Himalyan slopes in Kashmir. There agriculture must have been limited to narrow valleys or terraced fields on the mountain side. Perhaps they took to settled agriculture and life afterwards when being pushed by successive waves they left the hill sides and descended to the wider spaces of the alluvial plains of upper India. There they found the Dravidians living in village communities and following continuous cultivation.

Though

must have been lopment,

13

in different parts of

living at different stages

the country the Dravidian race

of pastoral

and agricultural dev$-

some

But some of them lived in villages and

after a long.

followed

continuous

cultivation!

villages goes to the times of the Kolarians

And

is

it

existence

the

Thus,

and Dravidians*

certain that before the coming of

Aryans in permanent nature were there

India village settlements of a

the

But they were not the general feature of rural as they became later on after the Aryan settlements* in India.

The idea

of living

vilage groups seems

or

together to

have

due

Basically

which can be called

be the fundamental

Regarding

grouping.

it

is

the purpose

several hypotheses have

tinct,

villages

seem

is difficult to say

It

of earliest groupings.

earliest

We

men was

for the

to

and

also difficult

of village

cooperation the

t

task of

and

hostile tribes, to

tribal ins-

was the purpose

say that

all

the

one and the same purpose.

to

believe that the of

to

of

instict

supply of water

the

exactly as to what

It is

purpose

e,g,

have arisen due

to

groupings were due

are inclined

cause

of effective

the need for protection from wild beasts

Again some

natural

to

been advanced,

clearing the jungle for cultivation,

in

some purpose

in

origin

its

life

man

aggregation of

effective cooperation. to

of

earliest

security

or

aggregation of

But

protection,

afterwards, at one and the same time, village groupings must have sprung up for diSerent purposes as mentioned above.

Besides some thinkers have referred the village system to Hindu Law and believe that the system is peculiar to Hindu races.

But sufficient evidance

is

available to prove

among system was Hindus, and which, with some of their prevalent in India

the races

to

suivive in tion

shows

some

parts of the country,

prior

history of

races almost at the

suitable villages had

same

time.

still

evolu-

same environment human mind same manner. We are inclined to believe

where environment was all

living

institutions,

that in the

haves in the

by

The

that the

be-

that

been formed

99

(

Types of they are

distinct

villages*,

form of

in

There are two types of

and

the oldest

perhaps

Landholders are disconnected aggregates

villages,

each claiming

owners

villages,

villages and Joint

origin: Severally

Severally villages are

(i)

of families

cally

villages,

)

its

of their several

own

holding.

They are

holdings

family

practi-

which

they

have inherited or bought or cleared from the original jungle. They have a common headman and also some common offi-

and artisans who serve them.

cers

They are

nected with the government and there Cultivators have

or individual). of the

whole

estate

is

directly con-

no landlord

(class

no claim as a joint body

and then dividing

it

among themselves,

nor are they jointly liable to the government for the revenue, In some places

claim

to

we

find

be owners of

the

superior lords surviving,

all the soil,

only as landholders though

who

and tenants are recognized

hereditary after holding for

They are conquerors or adventurers who gained the superior position in one way or another. In Manu we do not find any such claim of the ownership of the

several generations.

soil

being

made by

the

He had

Raja.

his

private

*3ome thinkers like Phillips believe that there is only one type of vilIt is lage, the joint village, which is the earliest and the original type, in the process of decay, and in flux of time the joint rights are substituted,

and the severally type

There

is

evidence of buch cases

arises, in

This does not seem

which

in the process

to

be correct. one form

of decay

Joint villages as a result of partition get splitted up But it is easily recognizable and into individual properties. It should not be believed that the joint village in the a different thing of decay has been transformed into i,everaky village which is of a

passes into another.

and are turned is

process

development. Keaily speaking severally villages s^em to be of earlier and the two are distinct in origin. A few exceptions may be there which do not prove the general rule,

later

origin,

1

Campbell has termed them as 'democratic' and 'aristocratic and Baden The latter terms have become as 'Ryotwari* and 'Landlord'. more popular in use. Sometimes we come across such terms as 'autonomous' and 'feudal'. But they are not expressive of the main distinctiop and riot better terms to be used. ,

Powell

100

(

As

)

a ruler of the country his right

and

venue, taxes, cesses

the

represented to the

is

power

of

making

waste land but perhaps not an owner of the land, That why they are called ryotwari or non-landlord villages. (ii)

There

Joint villages,

is a

re-

grants of the is

strong joint-body mostly

descending from a single head or a single family having and having superior title pretentions of being higher castes claiming jointly the entire estate. They are descendants of former rulers or colonizing founders or conquerors or grantees or later on of revenue farmers and auction purcha-

The

sers.

tenants have

whole area of the

village, including

and the waste land, use

it

is

The

only the right of cultivation.

claimed by

the site of

that body,

The body

only by permission"

of

habitation

and the tenants

landlords has a

of land and stands between the superior right of ownership estate among cultivators and the State. They divide the

themselves on their own principles and acknowledge themselves in some

degree, jointly liable to the State for the

Such villages have arisen in two ways among and over the first type of

revenue demand. (a)

:

they are a growth

villagee,

and

(&)

and occupation

they have arisen from the original conquest of

land

previously unoccupied by some

A

tribes and leaders of colonists, their

growth as given

(a) Landlords rights have grown up over

the

village

first

type,

of

further classification

by Baden Powell f

1.

is

follows

as

of

:

Out of the dismemberment

of

the old Raja's or chief's estate, and the division and partition of larger estates

the

2.

Out

of grants

to

courtiers,

made by

the Raja

favourites

minor members

of

the

and royal

family, etc. 3. I

growth and userpation

By

later

of

Govt, revenue

officials.

101

(

f

recent times by the growth of revenue farmers and

fn quite

4.

purchasers when the village has been sold under the first laws for the recovery of the arrears of revenue.

i

5.

Landlord rights were claimed from

From

the

ment

of

(b)

the

first

)

families

settlement

and special by conquest or occupaclans

and by the settlement of bands of village

tion

or foundation.

establish*

original

associated

and

families

colonists

in

comparatively late times,

Old Village Communities and their Disintegration,

The

not be interpreted to

mean

word 'Village Community' should

anything like a communistic or socialistic right or interest,

There

is

no evidence

remotest past,

was owned

land

held in

to

show

that

even

villages,

common

in

common.*

for

In

many

some time but

community ownership*

In

cases,

that

rights *It

the

villages

are

cannot be called

such cases they are always so

held by joint descendants of a chief or a conqueror

how acquired

in

were owned communally or even cultivated

who some

These descendants have equal Correctly speaking, the term 'com-

the estate.

and privileges.

has been asserted by several thinkers that the institution of lordship

of relatively recent origin and that it was superimposed upon an original lordless community, Originally there was co-ownership and common Maine believed that India land was cultivation by village communities. is

m

common by

groups, of people for the most part, of common descent but including strangers who had been adopted. Lavelcye thinks that all peoples utilized this economic form as they passed from pastoral to agricultural stage and that communal ownership was natural at this phase of development. On the other hand, Coulanges has strongly denied originally held in

the conception of common ownership of land, Baden Powell finding no evidence seriously doubts it, And Ashley, Pollock and Maitland, Lewinski and Sanderson have also seriously questioned it. Property in land is said to pass through three stages (i) when it is held by tribe or clan and is said :

property of the whole body, (ii) when redistribution is abandoned and each family retains its holding permanently, and (iii) when families break up and individual ownership is created, These stages are those of community property, family property and individual property, In

to

be the

common

102

(

nity*

)

should only be used with reference

to a corporate life

and interdependence between showing the families living in each village. This close connection a close connection

arose due to several facts

:

they lived together under a system

which made them joint owners

;

in

some cases they lived

together under similar conditions; in others, they had tribal or caste connections,

and

in

others they had simply a

still

common system nity'

of local government, But the word 'commufor a used such close connection between families, being

should

not

in

any way suggest an idea

common ownership

community or

of

of land.

The self governing and self-sufficient village communities were the most important feature of economic and social life in the past. They were equally well developed both in North and South, and were the most outstanding features of rural almost throughout the country. About Bombay province M Elphinstone wrote in 1819 that These communities contain

life

in miniature all the materials of a State

and are almost

sufficient

to

protect

within

their

Governments are withdrawn."* About Madras in 1812 that 'under this simple

form

of

themselves,

members

if all

was reported Municipal Government it

India in case of most of villages, property is in 'family stage'. Opinions and it has not been well established that there was an Some curious instances are given by early stage of joint tribal holding. differ considerably

District of Punjab that in some areas now forming separate villages there was once some units of tribal holdings divided The cases mentioned show a part of the land being held in into shares. common but the produce was always divided according to certain shares. That shows that different family shares were recognized. Moreover, it

Tupper regarding Jhelem

:

to local circumstances, Besides, the idea of common ownership referred to the custom of periodical redistribution of land or holdings in which there is sufficient evidence, But this was always particular tribes for followed by distinct allotments of holdings It indicates a desire to equalize

was due

is

the holding so that some may not get all better land and oihers all inferior Redistribution qf land does not indicate so much a communistic idea The question, however, remains of property as a desire to equalize land unsolved and requires further research.

land,

*Elphinstone's

Peshwas,"

1819,

"Report on

the Territories

conquered

from the

(

103

)

from times imme*

inhabitants of the country have lived

the

The inhabitants give themselves no trouble morial... about the breaking up and division of kingdoms, while the remain

villages

or to what sovereign

transferred,

remains

economy

what power

they care not to

entire,

unchanged."

it

1

devolves,

About

its

little

They seem

after

Dynasty

lasts.

succeeds

to

dynasty

last

to

tumbles

Commu-

remain

else

down, revolution

Hindu, Pathan, Moghal, Mahratta,

revolution,

The

same

the

want

where nothing

Sikh, English are masters in turn, but the Village ties

India

republics, having nearly everything they

themselves.

within

is

internal

Northern

Sir Charles Metcalfe wrote in 1830 that "the Village nities are

it

Union

Communi-

of

Village

Communities, each one forming a separate little State in than any other cause itself, has, I conceive, contributed more to the

India through preservation of the people of

all

revolu-

tions and changes which they have suftered, and it is in a and to the enjoyhigh degree conducive to their happiness, 2 and of freedom ment of a great portion independence."

These

village

statements

Communities as their

managed

They had very

of the outside world.

knowledge Most titution. occupational

of the population

groups

servants and menials,

They had was

were those

Many

social

life,

each other and almost no

contact with

little

appears from the above

it

ov/n economic and

a peculiar cons*

agricultural.

of

artisans

of the artisans

The other

and village

had small

plots

which they had either rent free or on concessional Many of the menials and village servants were artisans

of land rents.

But the most peculiar feature of these communities, which distinguishes them from their parallel, in other coun-

also.

tries,

was

the close

connection and

interdependence of the

1812, p, 85,

1.

Fifth Report,

2,

Sir Charles Metcalfe's Minute, dated

November

7,

183%

104

(

different occupational

)

The

groups.

artisans

and servants

were paid a certain quantity of produce by each cultivator and in their turn they rendered certain services to them. The amounts paid

to

them and

nor

artisans

all

artisans

the

duties were

their

not uniform

All the village servants were not

throughout the country.

were village servants.

But

were regularly required by all members of the village community were generally both artiTheir units were highly selfsans and village servants.

whose services

artisans

contained and self-sufficient.

own all

They produced not only their food and agricultural raw materials but also met almost

the requirements of industrial output,

village

had a variety

potter,

oil presser, cobler,

since

almost every

of artisans including carpenter,

smith also.

Most

numerous

now, were produced within the same

as

the

of

only a few articles such as

weaver,

ironsmith and sometimes a gold-

requirements, which were not so

salt,

unit,

and

glass bangles, gold, fine cloth

and some luxury goods required for ceremonial occasions were imported from other places. These units generally produced for thtir own demand and little which in the technical sense of the term did of fact, exist*

We

hear

of a flourishing

for

the

market

not, as a matter

foreign

trade in the

were no important exports of agricultural produce- Agriculture was more of a subsistence type. Every fanner grew a variety of crops for his use suiting to the local past but

there

conditions of soil and climate,

The revenue demand was produce varying between

was accompanied by

a

and kept a few milch

fixed

as a

share of the actual

1/3 ami 1/6 from time

number

to

time.

taxes and cesses.

of

demand

very high, the

payments were quite considerable.

The

total

the

size of these village units

parts of the country,

past does not seem

was

different

in

It

Hence

though the revenue

in

cattle.

to

be

different

In plains, where the environment being

congenial

and

buller

it

was

easier to earn the

better, the villages

were

The

life

was

than those

of larger size

constitution and organization

in hilly

and barren

of these

communities and the administration

tracts,

and

livelihood

of

their

through village panchayats are said to be responsible

affairs

for the

happiness of the people residing within these units. They maintained peace and order even when there was anarchy realm.

in the

among

They

most

settled

the members, and

managed

of

their

the

disputes arising

own economic and

They served as a form of social protected their members. There is a very interesting question about social life,

quality of these

communities.

It is

security

the

and

enduring

Indian Village

said that

communities had their parallels in the English medieval manor, the Russian mir and the German mark, But the Indian

Communities had

Village

account of which political

a

feature on

peculiar

they could persist in the face

of

numerous

changes and could withstand numerous shocks. The

statement that the village

life

was

entirely

unaffected

by wars and revolutions can be accepted only with reservation, the 18ih century and specially after the breaking since during

a theatre Moghal Empire the whole country being life could not of constant wars and brigandage, the village there were innumerBesides, undisturbed. remain entirely

up

of the

able

movements

of

people from place

to

place.

But

it. is

a

remained mostly unchanged It is interesting to enquire as to whether the for centuries. survival of these communities for such a long time was due to some inherent characteristics, or was it due to some outfact that the village organization

side factors. is that the

effective

14

Opinions

lack cf

difier

on

this point.

One explanation

communication and consequent absence

centralized

of

system of administration was mostly

106

(

)

responsible for their survival for such a long time* Another version is that the compactness and the solidarity of the

communities which was due

to their

being forced

to

rely

on

themselves for defence against aggression was mostly reponBoth these factors seem to be sible for their persistence.

The

simply contributory.

real cause is their

the

of social structure specially (

peculiar form

system which those

caste

The occupations and

communities adopted in India*

the

were hereditary,

and the custom made the

different sections of the village

community highly interde-

social

status

They were closely interwoven in the economic and social activities. This form

pendent on each other* practically all of village

constitution determined

economic and social

life

;

the

whole

structure

and the solidarity which

it

of

imparted

community aided by the factor of isolation and

to the village

autonomy and

the consequent local

mainly

self-sufficiency,

contributed to their long survival.

The economic development

of

by these communities in several

country was affected

the

ways.

Isolation

a

Indian agriculture

to

sufficiency

imparted

character.

The absence

market and

of

communications have been responsible

Under such

served by

little

barter

the

lack

became

hereditaty, their productive system likewise

typed*

difficulty

of of

In the case of artisans their offices being

commercialization*

economy had

self-

subsistence

the for

and

a system of organization price or

place.

rather

The needs

of the

stereo-

money

community were

than by exchange.

Since

the

be responsible for

the proteccommunity was considered and maintenance of its members competition had no place to

tion in

the economic system.

were regulated by customs. definite

Practically, all the spheres of life

This sort of organization had

advantages, but the whole rural

typed, and

the greatest

drawback was

life

became

its

stereo*

that the incentive

for

107

(

)

and improvement was weakened, and customs and

efficiency

traditions being dominating forces in the choice of occupations

and other matters, conservatism checked the habit of adaptability, due to which a number of forces that were released during the

half of the 19th century upr ooted the

latter

economic structure

population could not adapt itself to the

new environment.

have recorded the lamentable

Historians

old

village communities, and the rural

of the

facts about the

decay

of these self-governing institutions specially during the

latter

half

of the

19th century.

They are

survived well both in form and reality in

India, and virtually ceased

until the

have

to

Crown

to exist before the first

rule

gene-

British administrators had closed their labours

ration of

the conquered said to be

The

territories,

in

reasons of their decline are

:

reforms and the abolition

administrative

the

(i)

said

of the

Panchayat system, the

(ii)

fixation of

rent

and

revenue in the form of

money, the establishment of civil

(iii)

and criminal courts

for the

administration of justice,

improvement

(iv)

(v)

means

of

communications,

progress in education, and the growth of the spirit of individualism.

(vi) It

in the

should, however, be

noted as to what

is

meant by the

phrase 'decline of village communities/ The villages continue to exist

many

;

of

them have been enlarged, and

has also increased*

It

is

the

their

number

self-government and local

autonomy (administration through village Panchayat) which is gone, and the corporate life (close connection and inter-

dependence is

of

different

disintegrated.

occupational-cum-social

Thus

their f

groups)

decline should

be

108

(

)

and duties being, interpreted in the sense that their functions due

to the loss of self-government

and

local

autonomy, taken

over by other newly established courts, they have become lifeless

;

due

different

groups

the

Revolution,

become

has

communities in the old sense

interdependence

and

less,

greatly disintegrated with the

.

forces being released

modern economic

the Industrial

after

has

to the

the corporate life

result

oi the

of

that

the

village

term have gradually

declined.

PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF VILLAGES.

II.

.

Organization of Villages.

described

a

as

together in

group

more

a

of

or

An ordinary Indian village is mud houses which are huddled

less

compact area situated under a which provide the main

cluster of trees in the midst of fields

source of livelihood ssion

on

Indian of

characteristics

to the inhabitants.

Agriculture village

anterior to British rule'.*

back

is

remain

life

What

The Royal Commi'that the main

observed are

still

those of centuries

they wrote about two decades

today, and isolation and self-sufficiency

true

still

to be the outstanding features of village life.

Most of the families have been living in the same village for generations, and most of the holdings have been inherited

common

These holdings have been divided or aggregated as the descendants of a common ancestor have increased or decreased in number. Both according to the from

ancestors.

Hindu Law, and the customary law, the inheritance of immovable property has been among sons in equal shares. There have been slight variations but it is mostly true that

will.

male

and very seldom by The result has been a repeated partition and a gradual

inheritance

is

by blood

*The Report

of,the

in the

line

Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture, 1930.

109

(

towards

tendency

uneconomic

their

economic together*

Most

have permanent

of

sab-division

The

size,

several castes arranged status

)

and

in

social

to

holdings leading,

population generally consists of a

social

which

in

hierarchy

values are usually found

of the people are agriculturists,

rights in land either as

some

to

go

them

of

owners or as tenants

Out of these some having hereditary occupancy rights. cultivate all the land they hold, and some having larger areas are agricultural

Some

Lowest

others.

to

sublet

in the

labourers,

economic and

mostly belonging

social scate

low castes.

to

them have acquired small pieces of land either under permanent tenure or on rent and rarely in proprietary right. of

them are simply casual farm-workers. Between and in the the labourers economic scale are the land holders But most

of

artisans, generally, except in the smallest villages, there

the

Some

them follow agriculture Below them in the economic and

are some skilled artisans, as a part-time occupation. also

in

partly

social scale are the village

follow

labourers,

rather

of

community

All

rigid,

the

and

social

the

menials or servants who

services and partly

and economic

work

as farm

stratification

is

choice of occupation, the nature and

scope of economic activities, and the social

behaviour,

The

are mostly determined by tradition and custom.

etc.,

original

functional groups were gradually converted into social groups

and they hardened

into an occupational caste system.

Agriculture which

main

stay of

the

major

part of the village population is generally said to be a

gamble

in the is

monsoon

is

the

by

far

since only a small part of the cultivated land

protected against the vagaries of the rainfall by

irrigation.

regulated activity is

spall

?ifce

Almost

all the

of

major agricultural operations are

by the monsoon and most of the confined to only a few months of farms, the

means

present methods

of

agricultural

in the year.

farming and

The th$

(

nature to

of agricultural seasons

short durations at

amount

of the

total,

in

consumption whole volume

means

)

combining the farm

of

and contribute

The urban population

the

towns

demand is

for

a low

to

not being even

farm produce

comparatively a small

farm production.

activities

leave a considerable

specific times,

of spare time with farmers,

standard of living.

15%

no

for

part

final

of

the

Besides, the inadequate

communication and transportation have kept the Producers both agriculturists and villages in isolation. artisans have had little incentive beyond that which was of

furnished by local demand.

been very small.

And

demand

local

has always

Thus, circumstances have combined

to

maintain a subsistence type of farming, and the village population has maintained a self-contained village economy.

The

villages

which are remote from

cities

and roads are

comparatively more self-sufficient in character, The lack of incentive which still continues outstanding drawback

to

be an

been partly due to selfsufficing character of villages which was due ultimately to the lack of proper means of communications and transporta-

tion,

and

partly,

of India there

due

in rural life has

to the fact that in

the

recorded history

were very few periods during which

the people tracts of the over in general large country enjoyed peace and prosperity for long.* The sense of insecurity created

*The glories of our past have been recorded in high sounding phrases. But was that wealth and prosperity shared by the common man ? The facts have to be carefully scrutinized. Excepting in the golden age in the Gupta period the masses in general rarely enjoyed peace and prosperity for Even, during the British administration, when peace was secured long over large parts of the country the prosperity was occasionally disturbed by But a severe famines and the exhorbitant revenue demands of the State. question which usually arises in one's mind is if peace and prosperity was not the lot of the common man how could such fabulous wealth be accumulated, and how could art and culture make so much progress, We are inclined to believe that the ancient wealth of India which historians have magnified was most probably the luxurious life and the pomp and magnificence of the royal aristocracy and the wealth of temples. And the art, culture, religion and poetry, etc,, all developed under the court :

patronage,

by

was further

the occasional disturbances of peace

thened by exhorbitant state

Thus, the lack of incentive

demands

is a

streng-

one form or another.

in

legacy of the past, During the

tec t&t past the incentive has been provided through several

means,

e.

g. t

and security

security

trative reforms.

overcome

of

fair

tenures,

high

rents,

the long established Isolation

slowly taking place.

Markets are widening,

Changes are

phychology. is

gradually breaking up.

Villages are being brought in touch

with towns and the outside world also*

Specialization

commercialization in farm production has been

form

in the

of

cash crops.

prices

and property provided through adminisBut these measures have not been able to

of life

increased acreage and

localization

of

The

Social values are also changing.

and

introduced

some

so-called

lower castes are rising in economic status and also in social

There

scale.

is

some

political

breaking up the existing organization. tural

The new

consciousness also,

economic, social and political forces are

work.

They are

But since

all agricul'

at

communities are highly conservative, these changes

can only take place very slowly. being

made

in almost all these directions

picture remains almost as usual.

changes

is

ground and

we

Thus,

A

fuller

find a beginning

but

the

general

account of these

given in the following sections on social backthe economic transition.

Characteristics of a Rural Society. of a rural society are

derived from

its

The

basic

features

living nearer to nature

and relationship to land from which most of its members eke out their living* The nature of diets, the methods of work, the mode of living the social grouping, the cultural pattern, the thought process

and the general behaviour are

largely determined by this relationship. to

Hence, they tend

be regional and largely influenced by natural environ-

ment,

The

vertical

social

mobility

in a

rural

society

is

112

(

movements up and down

related to the

largely

from landless labourers

of status as against

of

posed chiefly

the scale

The

the position of a landlord.

to

society includes a high proportion

rural

organization of a

)

contract

Society

relationship.

primary groups.

com-

is

are bound to a

People

by organic relationship rather than by cooperaThe tion necessitated by economic division of labour.

greater extent

individual has comparatively fewer contacts, since his both geographic

of activity

contacts are lasting.

Though

and

field

narrower,

but his

the individual lacks the

modern

social is

sophisticated specialized personality, there is a fair degree of

adjustment and

A

rural

society is characterized by

economic

the

features

The

sufficiency. to

produce much

is

produced by

develop

the

festivities,

mainly

industry are

to

be

by local

regional,

The

rural

and

society

and

simplicity of life

speech patterns, rigid moral stand-

folkways,

domestic

or nearby

characterised

traits, e. g.,

philosophy towards work, those of an urban society. construction,

tries

make

does not

Agriculture and

environment,

local

social rituals, abbreviated

customary

it

same

the

likewise tends

develops some selective

ards,

which

the family

residing in

status.

Culture,

develops out of

regional self-

a lesser degree of competition for

is

closely connected and are

environment.

its

own goods and what

artisans

power and

is

and hence,

isolation

around

unit of production of its

There

communities. goods,

simple, stable and sure.

life is

adaptation and

etc.,

non-pecuniary

which are quite

Rural

articles,

art is

distinct

expressed in

religious

from

house

images and

such as dances, songs and games.

in

Since there

has never been an absolute isolation in rural communities is

very

culture to

is

difficult

to

indigenous

say

as

to the

to

what extent a

country and

specific njral

how much

outside factors specially the urban influence,

it

of

it is

due

118

(

The main

)

characteristics of a rural society as distinguished

from those of an urban society are relative

(i)

predominance

:

of agricultural as against non-

agricultural occupations,

people to natural environment as

closeness of the

(ii)

against an

man-made environment,

artificial

an organic relationship in the community members

(iii)

based on cooperation as against economic and commercial combinations based on competition and for simple and happy

(iv)

life

as

profit seeking,

against complicated and

worried existence, (v)

smallness of

its

communal aggregates and

a relatively

sparce population as against huge agglomeration concentrated in a

compact area resulting in a dense population,

homogeneity and tioft

social

primary

(vi)

much

a greater social

and

differentia*

diversified and socially

and econo*

internal

less

as against too

to

grouping leading

mically stratified secondary

stratification

human

groups,

politico-social classes being related to the holding of

(vii)

land as contrasted with a system largely related

to

personal

and movable property, (viii)

comparatively

vertical social

movements

raphical, occupational

and

less

occupational,

as against vast

territorial

movement

vertical social

arid

and frequent geogof

popu-

lation,

(ix)

(x)

against

conservatism as against inventiveness, but a 'a life

life

close to

and dwarf personality

isolated a rural society

these characteristics,

and as

desires as

and

1

**

is,

the

the isolation

*L, Mumford, City Development, 15

human hopes and

of negative energy, suicidal vitality, moral

spiritual failure

The more

more

more

distinct are

breaks and

it

gets

114

(

urban

into greater contact with

)

society, a cultural interchange

and the distinctive characteristics

takes place,

to

begin

disappear as a part of the standardization process.

As

the

Urban

and language become more national fashions, styles and behaviours per*

society.

Education and technology increases

Money economy slowly

replaces barter, and prices are quoted

contacts increase culture

and

less local.

meate the rural

upon standard measures.

in terms of currency based

mic division

of

labour increases, to

specialization in production begin to play

greater role in production

confined in the

to

social life

of

the antagonism

rural

and

more formalized

in

in material aspects, social

remaining

to

accumulate

community begins

conflict

social classes increase.

and

rather than

But the

non-agriculturists.

of the

social

organizations

vitality of the

to decrease

and

between different economic and

And

more

and

emerge, credit begins

only consumption. Property begins

hands

Econo-

commercialization

becomes more complicated, relationships, more mechanized life

artificial in

environmental setting

become more systematic and

;

less

spontaneous. III.

A

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE Common

Impression.

text-books

Many

written

on the economic conditions of India and on the economic history of India

have traced the impact cf

social

environment

on economic progress. They give an impression that our social environment has not only been uncongenial and unfavourable for economic development but has definitely

hampered or retarded it. From is generally drawn that in order

this hypothesis

to

possible the social institutions, customs, ships, ideas,

social

ideals

and behaviour,

environment has

to

be

a conclusion

make economic progress traditions,

etc., in short,

fundamentally

relation-

the whole

reformed,

(

115

)

reorganized and modified so as to suit the

new circumstances

economy. This view

of a progressive or developing

is

shared

by some foreign authors like Moreland, Wadia and Anstay.

Many Indian

some

writers,

of

them being impressed by

foreign writers, and some perhaps

subscribe

same view.

to the

life

and

activities

is

beliefs,

the

students such an

social

environment on

Amongst

impression -about the influence of

economic

own

as their

Some

quite natural.

the

of

statements explaining this influence in the field of agriculture

which are intended other economic

be examined here,

to

fields, are as follows

to the

exclusion of

:

Caste mainly determines the occupations and thus checks both geographical and

The

vocational mobility.

result

is

overburdened and many other occupations

that agriculture is

experience the scarcity of labour.

Some

castes,

generally

do not perform certain farm operations

the superior ones,

(ploughing) do not

certain crops (vegetables),

grow

keep certain type of livestock (pigs, poultry

&

do not

donkeys

etc.),

and do not use certain types of manures like bone-meal and human excreta, Some low castes cannot follow some occupations traditionally belonging to superior castes due

to the

and cannot adopt dairy farming of marketing the products, The

difficulty of social mixing,

because of the difficulty

mainly responsible for the rapid has deteriorated the land-man which population relationship and is primarily responsible for the present food It increases recklessness and improvidence shortage.

joint-family

system

is

increase in

among

the junior tire

members and by

family

ness.

time of debt

at the

The laws

capitalizing the credit of the it

of inheritance

en-

accentuates farm indebted-

and succession have mainly

land systems in which land is said to governed the existing be very unevenly distributed, and the outstanding problems concerning farms,

i. *.,

the uneconomic si?e, the sub-division

and the fragmentation are mainly their outcome* of

purda amongst women

The sy&tem them

higher castes prevents

of

from working with their male members look after the cattle outside the home,

.on

the

fields

and

This results in some

farm operations being delayed in some castes, under-cultivation due to labour shortage and increased farm costs. Reli-

way of killing the useless and weak burden on land and create fodder,

gious beliefs stand in the

animals which remain a feed and food

shortage,

monkeys which cause

in

killing stray cattle,

a considerable

on the other hand, they are responsible tantial class of

who

to

damage

crops,

and

for supporting a subs-

unproductive and idle able-bodied mendicants

lead a parasitic living and add to farmer's

ties.

birds and

Social ceremonies

responsibili-

and

births

concerning marriages,

deaths, govern considerably the administration of individual resources, determining indirectly the structure of preferences,

standard of living, volume of savings and capital formation

;

and are responsible for a considerable portion of agricultu* ral indebtedness and for the continuation of agrestic serfdom.

To be

brief, the

philosophy of

life,

the

the

thought process,

habit pattern and the general behaviour of the rural masses have taken their shape and character from our social environ*

meat.

They

are characterized

by pessimism, fatalism,

perstition, conservatism and suspicion about

new ways

of

culture, t

t

g,,

su-

things and

Talking in a different vein,

many

economic problems having a bearing on

agri-

doing things.

of the existing

new

unequal occupational

heavy burden on

land, rapid

distribution

increase

in

with

a very

population

with a

gradual ruralization of the country, unequal land distribution!

uneconomic

size of

farms, sub-division and

agricultural indebtedness,

agricultural

fragmentation,

idleness,

low yield,

high cost of production and a low standard of living of the

farming population,

etc.,

are partly the outcome of our

(

)

environment, Not only that agricultural progress in the

social

form

117

of mechanization, commercialization, specialization

intensification!

etc*, is

held in check

and

;

and

has throughout

it

been discouraging push, drive, adventure, mobility! adapta* bility and inventiveness. There

is

also a contrary

view

that the influence of social

environment on economic evolution

and the economic

is

merely secondary,

conditions and forces have a greater

determining influence on social evolution than vice versa. This is Engellian diagnosis which traces the final causes of all social

changes and

political

production and exchange.

and

is,

revolutions in the

This view

is

modes

of

not shared

by many, The former view is,

therefore, not current in India.

however, quite common* But this impression and specially the conclusions drawn from it are likely to create a confusion of thought when an analysis is attempted, and further are

emphasis on wrong measures and

likely to place

priorities

on less urgent measures when a solution is sought, *.#., while blaming the social ennvironment for creating and intensifying

some

the

of

economic problems the opposite side, i. c. the economic environment on social structure, t

influence of the institutions,

A

behaviour and problems

is

generally overlooked.

sociologist can trace with an equal degree of certainty, the

causes of

many

social

in the

problems

economic environment.

Again, while believing that the social environment responsible for holding the feels to

suggest that to

recast.

But

it is

is

mainly economic progress in check one

make

progress possible

neither possible nor desirable

the whole social environment at once or

even

it

to

should be reorganize

in a shorts time,

Besides shall we concentrate the whole attention on reform* ing

it

and wait

so as to

suit

for the

the

progress

to

begin

new environment.

system which stands in the

way

till it is

reorgnized

Is it really the caste

of usiqg better

i

118

(

seeds,

manure and more

social

structure really

How made

far

of

)

irrigation

unfit for

improved agriculture

change be one sided

shall the

the spear-head of the proposed

These are tackled and

some

the questions

of

Is the

facilities?

?

What

is

? to

be

development plans

?

which are not properly

answered by the foregoing

It is

analysis.

neces-

to study the relationship of social and economic sary, therefore, be environments before the real causes of our problems can

located

and the appropriate solutions can be suggested.

Relationship Between Social and Economic Environment,

The

history ol evolution

shows

growth of culture and

that the

on biological

civilization depends environment and cultural endowment.

inheritance,

Human

physical

nature, values,

habit patterns, relationships, life philosophies, thought processes, etc., are formed group forms and personality configuarations, are the results of within a particular environment. They

themselves interactive forces which in ships,

Thus,

man

is

environment which in

shaped itself is

have causal

and reshaped in

a

relation-

particular

continually modified by man.*

of the total situation of This explains the unity or oneness cultural environments, and which social, economic, political eic.

are mutually

related

parts.

It

further explains that

studied and evaluated indivithese environments cannot be

and the relationship and the influence dually or in isolation, not one stdtd but interactive and of one on the other are on the relationship between physical 'There is a difference of opinion The geographical civilization. culture and environment and human environment or the natural factors determimst believe that the physical human activities. Sociologists, anthropologists fairly completely determine believe that man acquires enough and some human geographers, however, nature to supply bis needs since he has the capacity to

force to control his habitat to suit his social needs. Thus, man build culture and transform are inclined to believe that of nature, himself becomes a great force and in the experience of civilized man there is 'n the developed cultures and the influence of natural forces no absolute geographical determinism, of development of man's civilization. The higher is relative to the stage the importance of forces of nature. of civilization tfce lesser tye levels

We

119

(

mutually stimulating.

)

Hence, we

cannot hold

the social

mainly responsible for our economic muddle, or for holding economic progress in check, nor can

environment

we

to

be

ascribe our social problems mainly to economic conditions

and

institutions since

each one

is

partly an

outcome of the

other,

A

correct understanding of

explanations

appropriate

and can

for

this

many

relationship of

our

The

natural setting affects

the structural pattern

of society, the nature of output, the type of

the density of population,

The

notions,

forms of human

trace the real causes of particular

behaviour.

provides

common

occupations and pattern of society

structural

bears directly on the type of institutions, nature of functions, character of relationships and social processes

and problems,

The density

human values

of population also

bears on the

and relationships. Human values in their turn influence the nature of economic behaviour and the forms of economic institutions.

The

types of occupations

under which work

is

and

the conditions

done, influence personality pattern,

social outlook, psychological traits, scale of values

of

preferences.

Such

a

heavy pressure

unbalanced occupational distribution caste system determining the

is

and

ratios

on land and an

not so

much due

choice of occupation

as to

to

the

geographical environment and the stage of economic progress. Hence, for transfering some working force from agriculture to

other secondary and tertiary occupations the most impor-

tant thing

and the

first

thing to be done is not the dissolution

system or the joint-family system but forces and to create certain economic certain of the caste

climate to

make

the

shift

possible.

to

release

economic

The main problem

therefore, is not social but economic.

The rapid increase systems of

in population is not only

joint-family and

due

child marriage but also

to

due

the to

biolcgica), natural

and economic

Hence, the

factors.

disinte-

and an increase in the age at time will not hold the marriage population in check unless

gration of joint-family system

is

attempted, which will be succes-

the standard

of living has been improved to

conscious family planning sful only

a

when

when

stage

the

individual begins to feel consicious of

The most eSective remedy

controlling the size of family. therefore, to better the

mobile, and

this

character

our social customs

to

said

is

population

Agricultural

is,

standard of living.

and

is

said

be

institutions.

farmer works with nature and

is

vitally

much

less

mostly

due

be

to to

Really speaking influenced

by the

process and conditions which exist throughout the natural

Farming is so much dependent on soil, topography, climate and other weather conditions that market changes in world.

geographical habitats require considerable changes in the

mode

of living

and manner

of working.

Migration of farm

population must mean marked changes in the technique of production and farm practices, arid, therefore, must be less

urban occupaimprint permanently on the persona-

frequent and less distant than in the case of tionl

Nature makes

its

lity of agricultural population.

and perishable things

A

constant care of the living

affects the philosophy of life of farmers.

Harvest being always threatened he develops a sense of

When

insecurity.

crops begin

farmer can do

which a

to

dry up there

except pray

for

is

rains,

nothing

There

develops an awareness of the eternal presence of nature for

which he

is

and these

generally blamed to be fatalist and pessimist, characteristics are

religious and

and

social

popularly said to be due to

background.

The slow pace

relatively less inventions in agriculture as

of

change

campared

to

those in urban people cannot be explained as adequately by the differences in the intensity of competition

or the

process

('121 of

)

Mechanization, as by the fact

scale the pace of their activities

date

The

their

movements

that

and

farmers have learnt

and accommo-

to adjust

slow moving process of nature,

to the

habit pattern of farmers has been

environment

to

chiselled

up

in

an

which the natural processes of life, growth and death take their slow but sure course, Farmer's habits are

built

to

in

conform

to the

requirements

Agricultural technique

setting.

natural

factors

than

more directly adapted technique, The process

inventions in rural environment

making

such a

is

industrial

tools so as to suit to

of living in

is

generally in

the

way

working with natural forces.

to

of of

On

the other hand, in an urban-industrial environment inventions

take

the

demands tions,

direction

adapting the technology to meet the

of

of artificially

because in an desires are

ot

more

artificial setting

much more

which the course derance

be

of

numerous and

frequent

than in a natural setting in

is fairly

The prepon-

regular.

vegetarian character in dieis

religious outlook as to

inven-

human needs and

changes in

rapid

events

Urban

environment.

created

therefore, must

is

due not so much

economic reasons, since vegetarian diets are more land economising and can maintain a to

thicker cited to

Besides numerous

population.

show

customs and

that

of

persons migrating during the

mobile due

last

to

and

traditions,

district

examples can be

economic considerations overcome

influence the former,

Meerut

the

A

it

is

not always the latter that

recent investigation

Uttar Pradesh to

industrial

social

shows

carried out in

that

centres from

86%

of the

the

village

decade are Brahmins who are relatively least social and religious considerations, and in the

case of occupational adjustments social customs and traditions

have given way to economic considerations, It is the jobopportunity which will provide the best solution for shifting 16

;122

(

population from

th

land,

hinder the adjustment.

)

and

institutions

social

will not

41

This explains the nature of relationship between social and economic institutions and the part played by them in

tconomic progress- Really speaking the imposition of a new economic order in the 19th century which is based on freedom

and competition, and is motivated by profit characteristic of does not fit in our industrial and commercial civilization cultural

and

evolution

social structure

which

is

corporate in

character. The modern economic system which is developing on the same lines as in the West after the industrial Revolution,

has not evolved out of our ancient past The basic philosophy,

human motives and

the scale of values, the

The

two systems are incompatible.

ideals

agricultural life at present are adapted to older static situations.

of

new

considerable

which

and economic sufficient

problems which seem social

to

while the

They require

adjustments, and

And

time.

adjustment there are bound

period of

The former

civilization

must take

adjustment

many

and relatively

more dynamic.

is

rural

social

the

serve

are not adequate to the requirements

and agricultural an urban and industrial civilization*

represents a latter,

They

organisation

etc., of

that

institutions

to

be

dating

the this

many economic

be due to social environment and

problems which seem

to

be due

to

economic

system. Really speaking they are the problems of adjustments,

and

the

solutions should

aim

at

making these adjustments

smooth and quick. It is an inappropriate analysis to blame the social environment for checking economic progress, and it

the

will

be equally inappropriate to suggest a dissolution of

entire

social

structure

to

make

economic progress

*Jaipal Singh, Distribution of Labour and Earnings in 1951, an unpublished thesis, Department of Agricultural

B, R, College, Agra,

Agriculture,

Economics

(

But

possible.

123

)

should, however, be noted that

it

it

doej not

non-recognition of the influence of social

environ-

ment on economic system and problems. Economic

relation*,

lead to a

and

and

their cultural

vacuum its

from

institutions as a matter of fact, cannot exist apart

but in a

particular setting

exist in a

do not

social context, since they

it

with

of

the

which must stamp

character.

The Future Policy,

The

relationship between social for

that

analysis

foregoing

and economic environment shows

progress the dissolution of the entire

agricultural

Creation of an economic

social structure is not indispensable.

climate will automatically loosen the rigidities and overcome

many customs which

agricultur?! population a

narrow

bound or

to

be slow.

Ordinarily,

considerable social

aims

at

and

To the

power,

life is

of

a

changed

power

the

of

we

decline call

of

cottage

modern economic

profit,

at

greed, and

social

stability

becoming more

It

glorification of the individual

and it

artificial,

solidarity.

Even

in the

have been very unhappy, complicated and unhappy.

extent our social structure has offered resistance to

definite

seivice,

civilization of the ficant role,

far

story

Beside, what

development of such an environment

some

a social disaster

result

not so, At higher levels the

the social consequences of

the

a

commercial, industrial and urban civilization.

than

rather

West

is

as

But the change should be hrouqht

The

industries is a lesson.

progress

is

more.

gradually,

we imagine

friction

This

is

adaptation

about

very low level, and has

At this level power of adapta* be must change very low, and hence change is

economic system. of

living at a

is

intellectual outlook.

tion

Our

present seem unsurmountable,

at

Frono

West, this

Again, in

the

it

has rendered

modern economic

religion has played a rather insigni

sometimes a conclusion

economic progress religion can be ignored.

is

drawn

that

Somehow we

(1240 lave begun

to

believe that industrial-cum-commercial civiliza-

western type

tion of the

when we talk ment

which we want

to

achieve

of economic progress or agricultural develop-

and since our

;

is the ideal

social structure does not

ts of

in the exigen-

fit

it we have begun to ascribe blame Really speaking this economic ideal itself has to be changed. It

to that.

all

mean

does not

that

social

structure

is

That too must be reconstructed to suit

But some

of

maintained because there moral and nearer

answer

will,

we want

to

to

is

thei

new, atmosphere,

relationships have to be

basic ideals and

its

not to be touched.

something beautiful, healthier,

human hopes and

The concrete

desires.

course, depend on what type of atmosphere

of

create,

e n the

'.

shape of things we want,

That

determine the human values, and all the systems and organizations will slowly be adjusted to its requirements, will

Lastly, cultural

regarding the adaptation of the old social and

pattern

static situation, sve

have

oaust

to

which was adjusted to a relatively more new setting which is more dynamic,

to the

remember

that in the process of evolution

With

take place.

the

advancement

of

change

civilization

change gather momentum, and inspite of institutional ind emotional resistance social and cultural pattern must forces of

change.

But the pace

of

automatic adjustment

is

slow and

lence the slow rate of adaptation of our institutional locial structure to the

\nd

this

continue.

lack of It

is

new economic system

accommodation

and

is

life

and

quite natural.

adaptation

must

because no institution can be perfect and,

:tn fully meet the requirements

for

which

it

is

created*

2ven the most thoughtful and most intelligently directed restitution cannot fully and correctly anticipate the future, conditions

and deeds.

which mobility nstitutionft

is

less

In a relatively

and

more

cultural

static society in

changes

,

are slow.'

continue to serve for comparatively longer the

recognized social needs. But in a more dynamic society in which changed are quick they become inadequate very soon,

inadequacy is called the lack of adaptation. This is exactly our situation. Therefore, blaming the social environTfcat

ment

the backwardness of agriculture serves no useful

for

Nor do we

purpose.

find the original causes of

economic problems that have a direct

many

of the

or indirect bearing

agriculture to be located in social system.

on

For the develop-

ment of agriculture the most important things are technology, education of farmers and cheap and efficient rendering of certain services like the provision of water, finance and :

sale of also.

social

farm produce. There are many other requirements But what is meant is that the greatest problem is not

;

agricultural progress

is

not checked mostly by social

and for agricultural improvement we shall have to ; look more to other fields than religion and social surroundings.

structure

IV,

ECONOMIC TRANSITION AND AGRICULTURE

Meaning

of

Economic Transition,

The phrase economic

transition ordinarily implies change from one economic stage to

The process

another.

and economic history a

permanent

an<J

form

is

a continuous

characteristic

dered transitional. the

is

of evolution is a

any

ceaseless journey,

march.

period of time

Change being can be consi-

Again normally the change

is

smooth,

non-violent, the consequences are unspectacular

one stage merges

into

another imperceptably.

the characteristic differences between the two stages

undistinguished-

Hence become

But over longer periods even the slow

changes accummulate to an extent that economic conditions, organization and institutions become fundamentally different,

and the two periods appear to be very much, if not absolutely, different from each other so as to be appropriately termed as different

economic stages,

Sometimes the forces

of

change

(

gather so

much

126

strength that

)

change becomes

drastic,

it

takes violent form and the consequences are striking. The economic structure changes fundamentally within a relatively It shorter time. implies a sudden or revolutionary change

from one stage to another. In its economic evolution the world through

five stages

:

is

said to

have passed

hunting, pastoral, agricultural, handicraft

and industrial.* But in the nomenclature of the science of eco*

nomics the term 'Econ specific sense,

f",0

tnic Transition' is generally

M for the

used in a

change from the old rather medieval

*Economic progress is measured in terms of man's control over nature for the satisfaction of bis material wants, and usually five stages are mentioned (i) the stage of direct appropriation from nature, which is termed as hunting and fishing stage (i) the stage of domesticating and herding animals, which is termed as pastoral (in) the stage of settled life :

;

;

depending on growing of crops, which is called agricultural stage (iv)the stai<e of specialized handicrafts ; and (v) the vstage characterized by the use of modern power-driven machinery, popularly termed as the mJHbtiial stage ;

measuring human advancement in terms of the mentions different stages PS paleolithic or old rough stone age neolithic or recent or polished stone age Inonze age and 'iron age, etc. Each of these ages marks the use of .new and im-

A second

progress

in

the

classification us-; of tools,

.

,

,

proved type of tools. another classification measuring human progress in terms of man's (i) Kttologtcal, adaptation to his geographical milieu, shows three stages when man is merely a creature of the environment, and in adapting to its submits to his situation (n) Fcohgical, when man and region possibilities are not separate but mutually interdependent entities, and man's mastery over environment is not a one sided transaction but a value for value bargain and (ni) Bpharmolngtcal, when man as an active agent of his environment dictates rather than surrenders, and develops in the desired :

;

;

direction,

Patrick Geddes, describing the development of modern technics, has used entirely different terms to indicate different stages (i) Rotechntc, it The economy is based upon refers to the dawn age of modern technic. the use of wind, water, and wood as power, with wood as the principal It was dominant in Western material for construction. Europe from the :

10th to the 18*h century, (ii) Puleotechmc, it refers to the coal and iron economy, which existed as a mutation in the eotechnic period, but began in the 18th century to displace the eotechnic complex, and became dominant between 1850 and 1890, Neotcchnic, it refers to the new (iii) economy which began to emerge in the eighties, based on the use of electricity, the lighter metals, like aluminium and copper, and rare metals and earths, like tungsten, platinum and thorium etc utilization of byducts and growing perfection and automatism in all machinery, ,

economic

system

to

which came into

The

the

new or modern economic system

existence after the Industrial Revolution.

Industrial Revolution began in

England

the eighteenth century, and then spreading

to

in the middle of

other countries

;

whole economic organization, the of systems production, exchange and distribution, the measure of values, the scale of preferences, the ideas and ideals, the

it

has transformed

mode

of life

and

all

the

economic relationships,*

complex is a survival, the paleotechnic is recessive, a dominant, (iv) Biotechntc, it refers to an emergent economy, already separating more clearly from the neotechnic Ipurelyl mechanic) complex, and pointing to a civilization in which the biologica sciences will be freely applied to technology, and in which technology itself will be oriented towards the culture of life. Application of bacteriology to medicine, of physiology to nutrition and of psychology for the

present, the eotechnic

and the neotechnic

discipline of

is

human behaviour

become dominant,

is

common, instead

Biological and

social arts

of

depending solely upon mechanical manipulation of matter and energy rest upon organic utilization of the entiie environment, and groups are considered in their multifold relations physical, biological, social, economic, esthetic and psychological,

improvements

:

*

in England, 1770 a series of inventions were made which brought in the factory system and revolutionized the economic life, but the course was completed by about 1815, Toynbee and Mantoux put it as 1760 to 1820, and Cunningham from 1770 to 1840 Jn France it was felt after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, 1789-1815 Germany entered her industrial age of power driven machinery after 1870. Japan abolished her feudal system and began her industrial career about 1870, 1894 the Smo Japanese War of U.S.A. became specially since And in Russia the change since 1880, industrial an country

About

took place after 1890, but specially after the Revolution, hardly 25 years It should, however, be noted that it was not a sudden change which occurred and then ceased. It is a process which after being commenced Industrial Revolution is a theoretical conception still continues. Secondly,

back,

and not a mere economic history.

historical

denotation designating a period of English

Chang while commenting upon the line of thought explaining the nature and characteristics of Industrial Revolution mentions four schools or groups (i) Blanqui in France and Gaskell in England, who considered inventions as the prime cause of the great changes, identified more or less completely the inventions with the Industrial Revolution, (ii) Toynbee :

and some of his followers who have placed greater emphasis upon changes economic thought and commercial policy than on changes in industrial organization, Invention and the growth of factory system, which undoubtedin

ly characterize the system, are considered only incidental to the neto outlook in theory and commercial policy (iii) Marx and his followers, Marx distinguished the revolution in 'modern industry' from that in 'manufacture,' by saying that 'in manufacture the revolution in the mode

(

OS

)

The

old economic system is characterised by

(i)

Isolation of small self-sufficient groups

being mostly due

to

:

and

this

state

inadequate transport and communication

system. (ii)

Uneven occupational

distribution of population

with

predominance of agriculture over other occupations, and rural over urban population. (iii)

Small-scale production with simple and

of

imperfect

division of labour. (iv)

absence

Industries in handicraft stage, smaller capital, of

employer and employee or

capital

and

and labour

relationship, (v)

for local (vi)

due

Limited market and hence production being mostly consumption.

Exchange being conducted through barter system

to the

(vii) (viii)

absence of money economy.

Undeveloped Customs and

state of credit

status

and banking, and

mostly regulate

values and

and contract. predominate competition The modern economic system is fundamentally from

it.

(i)

The main

characteristics are

Highly developed and

different

:

efficient

system

of transport

and communications, after breaking up the isolation

of small

increased the interdependence of different groups, groups, have it begins with of production begins with labour-power, in modern industry He emphasized both changes in productive force instruments of labour', in productive relations (organizational (technical changes) and changes both generating and destroying, change), which he took as interacting, Industrial Revolution is exthrough the history of economic evolution. of these two changes, and mostly by their iriter plained by the interaction

action

Modern writers among whom Shadwell and Usher may be named, that Industrial Revolution is only one phase in a vast and cotriplex that is still going on. The various transformations in that hase

(iv)

They hold

process are gradual and its natural characteristics can be fully understood only by a research into the fundamental causes or factors that are underlying the Agriculture' "and long process of econoraip evolution (Pei-kang Chang, ;

Industrialization, 1940, pp,

73-77.)

and has brought the

countries very ctose to each

different

'

' '

other,

A

more balanced occupational distribution wtth agriculture occupying less important role and secondary -and (U)

tertiary occupations of

more important

and predominance

place,

urban over rural population. Large-scale production

(iii)

with complex and perfect :

division of labour,

Specialization in production, increased use ol machi^

(iv)

nery, concentration of industry, accumulation of huge capital

entrepreneur, creation of a

directed by

labour

class, its

concentration in manufacturing centres, and the disappearance of the personal

between employer and the emp

relationship

loyees.

Very wider market,

(v)

and

commercialization

of

productionin

Money economy

(vi)

place

of

barter

and

heiice

of values* price entering the calculation

Highly developed system of banking and credit; and" Freedom of contract and competition,

(vii) (viii)

In

some countries

this

a period of 50 to

within

change has been so rapid that

75

years the old economic system

has been completely substituted by the

system

;

and these countries

industrialized

countries

France and Belgium,

at

like

etc.

In

modern

economic

present are highly

developed

England, India the

Germany, U,SA, beginning was Jate.

change has been rather slow with the result that though the impact of modern economic forces has brought"

and the pace

of

about noticeable changes in the economic system,, and

is.

gradually transforming the old organization, the old system

and organizations still continue, and they have only partially been changed. The new system has not come into being with 17

180

(

full

)

consequences, but the change has already set

hence we say

that India is in a state of

Beginning ol Transition,

It is

and

in,

economic transition. determine the

difficult to

exact period when the forces working towards this change began to operate in

our country. Really speaking in the history of no

country can the two periods be clearly separated by a definite line of demarcation. India had commercial relations and cultural contacts with the

West

for several centuries but that did

not affect her economic structure

beginning

of the 19th

till

In the

the 19th century.

century India began

to feel the

impact of

and changes began to operate slowly* But was by no means so large as to make a It was since the middle of the noticeable structural change.

some of these

forces,

their total influence

19th century that these forces introduced fundamental changes in our

and system. The transition which began the middle of the 18th century and ran its full

economic

in England in

course by the

life

first

quarter of the 19th century, began in our

country about a century later, and

is still

going on since

it

has

not yet been able to complete its course.

were

There transition

The most important

(i)

linking

several factors which worked towards this

:

up

of India with

ship routes,

factor in transition has been the

foreign countries by

and the opening up

means

of her interior

of

new

by means

of

roads and railways. Opening of the Suez canal in 1869 made Indian market and supplies of raw material quite close to the West by reducing the former distance through

Hope by

about 3000 miles.

Beginning

of

Cape

of Good

the railway enter-

prise in India in fiftees, an almost simultaneous beginning of

road construction, and their rapid increase during the days pf

Lord Dalhousie, opened

the interior of India to

the full

blast of foreign competition. (ii)

Beginning of the competition

of British

manufactures

131

(

)

produced under large-scale operation and with the application of mechanical power, with Indian industry which wascanlftd on by artisans on a small scale, with the result that the Indian artisan

was ousted by the

home and

British

industrialist both

in the

outside markets.

The establishment

(Hi)

of British rule in India synchro-

nized with the beginning of the competition of British manufactures with

Indian

The

exports*

new revenue system and

foreign rule introduced a

new system

a

also

of

judicial

administration* (iv)

Rise in prices which began near about 1860:

Intro-

duction of payments to government in cash increased the

demand had a after

money, but metals being scarce in India prices

for

falling

which

tendency during the

a reverse

tendency

half of the 19th century

seen.

is

It

was almost

of precious metals

and the world supply considerably due

was

also increased

the discovery of gold in Australia

to

California and silver in Mexico.

It

ami

led to a considerable flow

India and

precious metals in

at

much

very time that the Indian exports increased very

this

of

first

raised the

level,

price

Besides, the construction of large scale public works in India

wage level The failure

raised the

(v)

England

of

American

conscious of seeking

an

cotton crop in 1846

important event

War

famine in Lancashire

cotton to

bring

to the notice of

in

in 1861-65

and

is said to

wise showed for the

first

time

how

be the

Indian farmers

the existence of western markets for their products.

to the

made

market

alternative

After that the American Civil

India.

the subsequent first

also.

close India

It

like-

was brought

Western market.

(vi)

Establishment of a strong, stable

and centralized

administration leading to the establishment of law and order

apd security

of

life

and property which

in its turn provided

(

132

)

opportunity and incentive for work. faii)

.

Introduction of

The

as a result of cash prices,

and

influences of British culture, civilization

and

increased credit due

assessments, .and (viii)

money economy

to rise in

education which gave rise to the spirit of individualism.

of

The most noteworthy

feature about the causes

economic transition

is

the coincidence of

and forces

many

events*

These events mutually stimulated the force and pace of each other, and thus .brought about a sudden and violent change But

popularly termed as revolution.

in India

we do

not use

1

the terqi 'revolution but only 'transition', which

term indicating a lesser intensity of change,

It

is

milder

a

is

because

the pace of change has been rather slow here, and the trans-

formation has not been complete, as will be seen from the following study.

Changes

in

Agriculture

and

Rural

Life,

forces were

outstanding influences of these

The

most

the decline

of

village communities and the breaking down of the village isolation and self-sufficiency. The consequences were many-fold and both

village handicrafts, the disintegration

of

the

;

agriculture and farm-life were influenced immensely. The immediate effects were the pressure on agriculture :

began

to swell

and

tional distribution.

brought about an unbalanced occupaThe Indian farmer came in contact with

this

and began to produce for exports in the raw materials. The most remarkable was the case of

the world market

form

of

cotton cultivation-

Though

cotton

was cultivated

in

India

from very early times the export of raw cotton upto 1860 was Dr* Royle wrote in 1851 that 'It forms but. a small.* 'Before the 19th century India used to export elegant fabrics and not raw cotton. After the Industrial Revolution in the West the machiiac'tnuuc goods pushed the Indian exports away from foreign markets, This, changed the nature of Indian exports, and India became a supplier of cotton, In about 1830 English industry drew its cotton principally from America

an0*at tfiat time India exported a very small quantity of cotton, 1860 that cotton exports increased much,

It vyas

tf(er

133

(

)

small part of the imports into this country (England), but a

more .conspicuous

however, make

together, i$

China

factor in those of

;

the

two quantities

but an insignificant portion of what

The following

produced in the country.'

statistics

about

cotton significantly indicate the fresh trend.*

After 1864 the value of cotton exports formed more than half of our total exports for several years,

was

jute

for long

cultivated

Bengal for the purpose

of

Bengal

became 22 seers

at

a

export

began near about 1830.

to increase, e t

Agricultural prices began sold in

Similarly, though extensive cultivation in

its

g.,

in 1861 rice

was

27 seers a rupee and in 1870 the rate in

rupee,

the

same period

the

rate

of

wheat in Punjab changed from 18 seers a rupee to 15 seers a rupee, the rate of Bajra in Bombay changed from 21 seers to 13 seers a rupee and the price of cotton in C,

changed from /2/7 per

Ib.

in 1859

to

P.

and Berar

-/11/5 per Ib,

.in

1864.

and provincial price variations were immense. Major-

*G India

;

Watt

Article on Cotton in Dictionary of Economic Products in of the Cotton Commissioner for C, P, and Bebar

The Annual Report

1867-68,

p,

& Commerce of Cotton in India, Industrial Evolution of India in Recent

132; and Dr, Royle* Culture

1851, p. 18, quoted by Gadgil, Times, pp, 16-18

The

(

134

)

General Briggs in his evidence before the Parliamentary Select Committee pointed out that in 1823 grain was 8s, a quarter in

Khandesh, 34s, a quarter in Aurangabad and 64s.~70s a quar* ter in Poona, and in 1833 a famine year in North-West Province, wheat was sold at Agra at the rate of 13J seers a

rupee and in Khandesh 61 seers a rupee. Such variations began to be minimised, and the price trends in one part began to affect the

volume

movements

labour existed

distinct

and considerable

handicrafts

it

came

swelled

since

class.

And

parts.

of agricultural labour class

agricultural

Public

in other

into being.

very long

huge

it

manifest

to

The growing pressure on land

directions*

e, g.,

Pradesh was reduced

was reduced

to

to

to

acres in

itself

led to a

of

Uttar

1940 from 117 acres

Poona the average size acres in 1915 from 40 acres in 1771.*

Pimla Soudgar in

7*0

Foreign markets began

began

7*1

;

the average size

farms in village Suraya in Mainpuri District

in 1870, in village

and the

depended on agriculture.

gradual shrinkage in the size of farms, of

in 1859

public works, labour class came into being

Slowly and slowly the transition began

many

Though was never a

After the formation of the

suddenly.

and after these works were over

in

it

After the decline of village

Works Department by Lord Dalhousie

construction of

a considerable

to influence

Indian agriculture which

be slowly commercialized.

Cotton,

oil

seeds, jute,

hides and skins began to be exported, and the area under industrial crops likewise registered an increase.!

trade in agricultural commodities

Internal

increased considerably.

^Village surveys conducted by Dr, D. S,

Chauhan and Dr, H, Mann,

fine extent of commercialization in agriculture is not to be judged only by the extent of industrial crops grown but by the actual amount pj agricultural produce put on the market or the volume of .trade, Though farmers grow mostly for home consumption, because rent and interest falling due after the harvest time they have to put on the market considerably more than the actual marketable surplus, and then buy again in tne off season

.

135

(

Localization

and

and

specialization

climatic conditions began

)

ot to

according

crops

take place,

*,

to.

soil

&> jute in

Bengal, wheat in Punjab, oil-seeds in C, P., cotton in Bomba7 and later on sugar cane in U. P. and Bihar* Agricultural prices got an up ward trend, land values increased, cultivators

became more

in land

rights

safe

1

and tenure more fixed,

This enhanced the credit position of farmers considerably. This

is

also said to be a cause of the considerable

amount

ol

agricultural indebtedness and likewise a factor in the passing

away

of land

from agricultural

to non-agricultural

classes.

Prices in principal mandis began to correspond, and further the

inland prices began

to

follow the

world market,

e t g. f

Monthly wholesale prices of wheat, April 1934 to March 1936.*

Average price per md,

(Rs,)

Hapur

Karachi

2'463

2-797

Standard Deviation.

0*326

0*207

Co-efficient of Variation.

13'236%

7*401%

Co-efficient of correlation

Probable Error of

+

(r)

0774 0'055

(r)

Taking the weekly wholesale prices ol wheat at the same places and for the same period we find the Co-efficient of correlation+'819and probable error

'028.

Monthly wholesale prices of wheat,

at

London,

and

Karachi^ 1929 to 1931, (before the import duty).

London

Karachi

4-296

3*824

Standard Deviation.

1*344

1*038

Co-efficient of Variation,

24*301%

27*144%

Average price per md,

(Rs,)

Co-efficient of Correlation (r)

Probable error of *J, K,

Pande

(r)

Prices of cereaU in

+

3'104

o 028 the United Provinces, 1938.

136

(

first

and low probable error

coefficient o( correlation

High the

)

in

case show that prices at ports and at ntandis in the

far interior

are

very much correlated, and in the second

case show that fluctuations in foreign prices affect our prices, Isolation of the village is is

broken and its

considerably changed.

cation are increasing

The media

self-sufficient character

of contact

and communi-

and they are constantly minimising

the

Money has entered exchange and all payments of services, Rent, wages, taxes and prices are regulated and determined more by competition than by custom and

spatial separation*

Mobility of labour both occupational and geographical,

status.

has increased considerably, is

The

the influences of social institutions

rably modified, and identified

and

far

with economic factors,

reaching changes

cooperative

ment

more

and processes are considemore closely

the fundamental values are

isolation, abolition of the spirit,

of rural

visual

are

;

The more fundamental breakdown

of

farmers'

feudal system, re-italization of the

removal

of untouchability

and establish-

democracy through village panchayats. The

changes are

;

replacement

economy, payments in cash instead of

old village organization

transformed, the old relationships of farmers are changed)

of barter

of in kind,

by money

development

and communications, increased mobility of labcommercialization, specialization, and mechanization of

transport

our,

production and the rise in wages and prices,

The process of transition is not uniform* in all classes of people and in different parts of the country. In isolated and *The economic history of the world records five distinct stages iq its development. But this process of evolution has not been simultaneous throughout the world and any particular stage has been shorter in some countries and longer in others, depending upon the quality, character and relationship of the basic and emergent factors. Moreover, it is not necessary Some countries or that all countries should pass through all the stages. some sections of population in any particular country can skip over one stage or another, or can reduce the duration by accelerating the rate of ;

progress,

137

(

)

remote parts old cultures persist and old methods and customs

where outside contacts are frequent and modern forces have a greater impact, the process of

continue

;

transition

and

in parts

There are examples

has gone a long way,

few completely mechanized large-scale farms States, of completely

in

Farrukhabad

District

Aligarh District of Uttar Pradesh, of cultivation

of primitive type

almost

all

commercialized and specialized farming

like potato cultivation in tion in

in

of a

and rose

and on

cultiva-

the other

hand

amongst the aboriginal tribes

Orissa and Vidhya Pradesh, Bhils in Rajasthan, and even

Assam

of shifting cultivation in

hills.

But these are extreme

which do not represent the general picture of the country. The vast majority of farmers, however, is passing

cases

through uneven stages, exhibiting characteristics some of

which pertain to the older system and seme to the modern system- This is peculiar to transitional stages, and is quite There

natural,

is

Some

dislocation and lack of adjustment.

sections, and older generation in all sections, are more conservative and cling religiously to old customs and methods,

yet things are changing fast.

But how far

changed

has the

essential

The organization

?

character

of agriculture, the

of

agriculture

technique of

production, the farm practices, the pattern of farm the standards of farming

and

be as they were long back.

living,

The percentage

depending on agriculture was 68*5% in 1872,

than

and

80%

it

found

to

the

hardly

the market,

population

census

More

of cereal cultivation,

to

food

and the

of the total agricultural production enters

shows the subsistence character

Besides, considerable amount

18

of

time of

to

be the same 68*2% in 1951.

preponderance

30%

and

first

at the

of the total cultivated area being devoted

crops, shows fact that

is

life

on the whole, appear

of our agriculture.

of agricultural

indebtedness

138

(

and a very low standard

)

of living

ward or an underdeveloped

and farming show a back-

Low

stage.

output, low income,

low rate of saving and investment, and on the other hand, high propensity to consume which in

apparently exhibit a state of

turn aggravates scarcities,

flow of agricult-

grooving deeply into There are evidences of emotional clinging custom.

behaviours and ancient cultural

In fact,

traits.

stationary state but that of stagnation* which as 'the blind alleys of civilization.'

To

istic

of

Enlargement

is

it

not a

Toynbee terms

be specific,

to place, and crops have localized according

form

accustomed

farming specialization in production

of subsistence

in the

low

be

to

to established attitudes, traditional pattern of life,

conditions.

a

at

equilibrium

The ebb and

level of economic behaviour,

ural life and activities appear

channels of

its

stable

the soil

is

inspite

taking

and climatic

in the size of the unit of production

of joint-cultivation, cooperative cultivation, capital-

farming,

etc.,

have already

started.

Fair rents and fixity

tenure have been attempted for the last few decades through-

The feudal system is being abolished. The seems in the offing. Legislative measures have capitalist farmer out the

country.

already been passed for the fixation of wages in

agriculture,

farm machinery and the challenging influence

The use

of

modern

technology are on

improved varieties of seeds

the is

increase.

of

The area under

increasing specially in the case

The production of fertilizers and their use is expanding. Irrigation and power are considered most important parts of the Five Year Plan.

of sugarcane, wheat, cotton

and

rice.

Agricultural prices, tarm incomes, cooperative c redit,

animal

*The state of stable equilibrium at a low level as seen in many underdeveloped countries is not stationary and cannot be interpreted as a lack of transition or change. "There is stagnation which appears as a symptom in its aetiology but is not endogenously determine d function of the sy&tem, Like any other system it experiences a change and an interaction of the Accelerator and the Multiplier, and in their peculiaritie s lies its uniqueness." Dr, Baljit Singh Federal Finance and Underdeveloped Economy, p, 2, 1951. ;

139

(

)

breeding, and agricultural education and research are being

given increasing attention. cally isolated as

compared

to

Though farmers are geographitown dwellers, few are now so

beyond the reach of the modern and communications. The fluctuations in

completely isolated as to be

means

of transport

the international agricultural prices affect

even remote

culti-

Besides, though farmers grow a number of crops and

vators.

market more readily and and for selling their

largely for home, they approach the

frequently for

buying their requirements

surplus produce, and thus do not attempt

to

all

grow

they

need.

Farm

life

has likewise undergone and

going a change.

farmers in

all

group contacts,

is at

present under-

Economic values are entering walks of

life.*

Social

activities of

recreation,

status,

personal freedom and many

other

basic

values have begun to play increasing part in functional relations and social order, Cash, competitive, and market eco-

nomy

is

financial

entering the agricultural

reward for their work,

life

since

farmers seek

Virtues of simple

life

are

and are giving place to artificially created needs expressed in the form of increasing emphasis

losing their significance

on consumption,

ostentations

in

ornaments

and

clothing.

Pecuniary considerations are being placed above subjective *

important to consider the role of economic factors in the scale a people, Success should not be taken in absolute terms but In oriental civilizations coveted values defined by a particular culture. It is

of values of ,is

and subjective and they are philosophical, speculative placed above economic goods, On the contrary in occidental culture the and emulation as first and competitive society ranks status, achievement since they are achieved through the accumulation of economic goods pecuniary values are most fundamental, and economic factors are pivotal in the are religious,

,

;

attainment of the objective of life, The more important thing is one that determines the maximum amount of total satisfaction. If it is attained through economic factors they should be considered more important, if not, less important, But the total satisfaction in any social group will be

governed by the systems of values or the objectives of life. Though they and determine the relative impor-

also change, they are more fundamental, tance of economic factors,

140

(

)

and other philosophical values. Adjustments in social movements have gone far beyond traditional social forms. Changes are visible in the whole

Social

institutions, social all

Contacts are wider, and movements are faster and

changing.

seem

distant. Activities

ships

pattern.

behaviour and the nature of problems are

process, social

to

do more with business,

Domination

more interconnected*

are

Relationof

locality

decreasing due to the breakof markets and the extension down of isolation; widening of contacts* Farmers expect adequate reward for their work ;

in habits

its

and consumption

failure

is

is

not considered simply

stroke

a

attributed to anger of

some mythical god.

they feel frustrated.

Their attitude

is

failing to

meet

life's

new needs

On

the other hand,

resentful

is

The very

towards the economic order.

bad luck or

of

fact that

proves that a

and old

bitter

system

transition is

taking place,*

When

Nature of Problems during Transition,

nomy

passes from one stage to another the

direct

and through

set of

circumstances

straight line path. to

another.

It is

an

movement a

ecois

not

change from one

The movement from one

*There is, however, a feeling that economic transition should have normally brought about a period of prosperity and growing standards of production and living. This has not been possible due to several factors a quick succession of famines after 1865 covering almost the whole country xvith the result that during 187080 farmers throughout the country lost all :

the progress

made

so far, economic drain under colonial rule

which gradually

impoverished the country, rack-renting and exorbitant rate of interest charged by money lender dispossessing farmers of most of his gains, rapid increase in population eating into all production increase, and the great economic Depression which considerably reduced farm incomes. The prolonged and recovery takes very long This prolonged nature should well be appreciated.

effects of these factors are generally

For further study the following books are recommended Pei-kang T. W, Schultz, AgriculChang, Agriculture and Industrialization, 1947 ture in an Unstable Economy, 1945 The of Sweezy, Theory Capitalistic Development, 1942 J. D. Black, Factors Conditioning Innovations in The Theory of Economic Development Agriculture, 1945 and schumpeter, and Business objects, 1934, :

;

;

;

;

M

(

141

)

cobweb and from

point of equilibrium to another is through a

one step

to

movement

another the

Thus, the transition implies a

through a concave path

is

movement through Thus

interconnection of different problems.

and in

the result

is

economic

sition in other

the existing ones

Ordinarily

which changes

turn a cause of tran-

It

creates

fresh

problems

transition

the

is

which should be defined as

process of process in

'a

of a series of strategical production functions*

are taking place'.

In this

sense

both manufactures and farms,

and the nature

its

transition in agri-

more complicated.

this

speaking

industrialization

of

Transition implies increas-

sectors,

ing or intensifying complexities.

and renders

network

This explains the interdependence and

interlocking circles,

culture, therefore,

a

of

problems

:

internal organization of :

structure

farms and a the

in

changes

elasticity of

depending upon the

stages

also different.

is

problems which arise are

the

changes in cost

factors of production

includes industrializing

involves different stages,

at different

However, ordinarily speaking those refering to

it

It

changes

;

in the

new combination of

quantity

demand and

of

demand,

cost structure

goods; changes in the nature and extent

of

mechanization of agriculture, depending upon the price

of

of particular

farm products and the scarcity and cost of labour in the size of farms changes in the quantity and ;

of both

5

human and animal labour; changes

farming

;

in

changes in the marketing structure

commodities

;

and ultimately the change

agriculture in the total national economy.

efficiency

the types of

of

in

changes

;

agricultural

the

place

In actual

ot

practice

^Strategical production functions are those the changes of which are generating and determining the changes of other production functions, while the latter may be termed as 'induced '

is

Production function product and a, b, c,

duction,

In

dimensions or

usually written as P~ f (a, b, c are productive services or factors

is

Cobb-Douglas formula

Pb+kL+jC

it

is

written

for three dimensions,

as

p

),

used

= bLkCj

where F in pro-

for

two

(

142

)

there is considerable shifting of labour

and

geographical and vocational, and farmers

capital both

have

to

make

several adjustments with reference to variations in prices, costs, quantity

volume

of

and kind of demand, volume

of

consumption and savings, extent

employment,

of capital for-

mation and the nature of technology.

V.

RURAL-URBAN RELATIONSHIP

There has been a gradual depletion of wealth and power from our villages. There are two Rural Exploitation.

major factors responsible for it. After the disintegration of village communities the social protection afforded by them ceased and their functions in

economic and

social,

matters were taken up by other institutions. decline of village

economic

activities,

agriculture

addition

handicrafts narrowed

rendered

men from

social status

it

down

increasing the

the field of

pressure on

more and more uneconomic.

In

two major factors there has continuously

to these

been an urban ward healthy

and by

political

Secondly, the

and

of

drift

rural areas,

money and

intelligent

and

motivated by economic and

the attractions

of city life.

The

result is

that to-day, inspite of the fact that villages contribute a major part of the national income, they wear a deserted

appearance.

Village

life

rendered

is

less

vivacious and

less

varied,

unwholesome and unhealthy, cramped and circumscribed and narrow and incomplete. On the other hand, cities are becoming the nuclei glory, of art is

and

of

culture

power and privilege, of wealth and and of modern advancement, There

a significant gulf between the

been widening

for

some

time, past.

of this is that the cities are

two

and

;

An

has gradually undesirable feature it

thriving at the cost of villages

For further study readers may look to our two articles ; Rural-urban Relationship, Rural India, July 1949 ; and the Role of Village in Proves sfve Economy, Rural India, April 195 U <

143

(

)

which appear to have remained where they were centuries back without making any noticeable progress,

The economic consequences are unhappy for both cities and villages. In villages we find that the size and capacity have limited

the opportunity

There

can make a progress

civilization

Really speaking rural

sub-human

growth it

is

no material

environment in which culture can be enriched,

social

City

for

extension of employment, and

accumulation of wealth are minimised.

and

The chances

for progress.

multiplication of occupations,

life is

and

reduced

life

to

can be

fuller,

an existence on a

level.

in

development of

the

society.

has mostly been

ings rather than

our country

Even

in

its

a casual egglomeration of

a natural

an

not

is

organic

physical

form

men and

build-

economic process.

Urbanization,

though very limited in India, has taken such an ugly shape that water, light, air, soil, the basic environments of life are

becoming mote and more is

gradually becoming

difficult to procure.

unfit for

a

happy

The environment

life,

There are said

to be quick and easy methods of earning and spending, These pecuniary processes may be considered satisfactory

on economic grounds, but humanly speaking they are low forms of activity. The mechanical ingenuities, the pecuniary pride

and the splendid devices

bases of

Many

life

in

providing

the material

are simply the symptoms of spiritual failure.

of the universal forms of dishonour are not considered

undignified.

The honest workers shave wood, beat

bars, handle earth

;

scholars incubate ideas and

artists

iron

and

poets brood in some unwholesome quarters in neglected corners,

Physically, our cities

basic conditions of nity life

life,

have failed

socially there is

to

provide tbe

no civic and commu-

and culturally the human personality

is

dwarfed,

144

(

Urbanization, in other words, desocialization and

zation,

)

dehumanization, depersonali-

'is

devitalization.'*

The gradual impoverishment a very low scale

lation living at

under

and a huge popuof living, and carrying on

of villages

economy, are very grave features. The villages they eat less, they sell less and they buy less.

deficit

produce less, It forms a vicious circle dragging the nation down.

between

gulf

significant ts

and

the it

villages

is

under the

that

minimised.

On

exploitation

which

will

present economic

inherent

is

system

modern

the

in

industrial

economic

distribution of

of

diversity

advanced communities

human

change rapidly

The

slightly.

of

existing system

and

villages in

The present differences between

the

developed

difference

between

the under-developed countries It

feature

cannot be

it

cities

will increase the

sing.

set-up

The growing

continue.

culture shows that

and

already quite

The worst

the other hand, the present process of rural

and backward only slowly and

future.

cities is

gradually widening.

system, and the existing activity,

and the

The

same

establishes the

of the

world are increa-

fact,

Interdependence of Rural and Urban Areas.

The

linking

between the two are food, raw materials, labour, and farmers as buyers of goods and services.

factors

It

should

be

that

appreciated

bed-rock of our national structure. source of the diffused

The

signs and

rays

of life

villages

They which

are

the

are the ultimate

fall

into focus in

and patterns and the systems and the orders of urban life, which are cities.

considered

to

the symbols,

be the durable elements of

simply the 'etherealized' phazes

forms of

of village life contribute

*L, Mumford,

the designs

human

life in the

heritage, are

countryside, All

towards the existence of

cities,

City Development, 1946. For further study of urbaniMumford's Culture of Cities, 1940,

sation one can look to

(

Thus, there

is

a limit

to

145

)

the progress of the former fixed by the

And any attempt for prolatter. to afford cannot and neglect the countryside, gress planning Not only that the extent to which progress can be made by the nature and character of the

country as a whole cannot be far ahead of that of villages.

On

other

the

base and

social

hand

cities

emergent),

(taken

both

economic

as

through culture and technology,

provide motive force for economic progress by widening the scope for economic activities, of

multiplicity

diversification of occupations,

opportunities,

specialization

of

functions,

deepening of experience, enriching modes and methods of expression and ultimately leading agriculture, industry and government into new channels of experiment, and thus transforming passive agricultural rural environment.

A

case for Regional Distribution of Economic Power and

The

Activity.

in future.

It

parasitic existence of cities cannot be tolerated

depends on how permanent are the forces and

methods which constitution and

and

social

drain our villages, Under our present with the rising surge of political, economic rural

consciousness,

tolerated permanently*

And

longer

it

unhappy consequences*

it

is

be

continues, the greater

are the chances of serious dislocations, violent

Hence,

cannot

exploitation

changes and

necessary

to

seek a

as early as possible.

remedy The remedy and incentives

lies in

for

providing the necessary opportunities

progress in the

analyzing the factors leading

meaning

of the

to it let

word progress

at

countryside.

Before

us be definite about the

which we aim.

implies the development of a balanced

human

In short

it

personality*.

*When machine was considered supreme human ideas and ideals wer$ Now too much influenced by quantitative measures of power and progress. organism being considered uppermost the line of thought has changed to qualitative measures like growth, norm, inter-relationship and association. The aim is not to make man more powerful but to make him capable of developing the attributes of culture, 19

146

(

)

work

Progressive economy assumes an economic frame

which to all,

at least the basic

and further

the

requirements

of life

creative needs of the community

life

may

realization of the

the

for

equipment

in

be provided

may

be provided in

adequate quantity, and the growing standards of civilized life may be realized* Really speaking it is a preliminary realization

condition for the

accomplished the

in

lies

remedy

of the

final

the

of a

creation

To be

objective,

environment.

requires a suitable

it

In

brief

new environment

in

which not only the forces and methods depleting the villages may be counter balanced but a new economic, social and

are

:

to

check the causes of accelerated

measures and

legislative

drift to cities

is

higher stand-

poor farmers by

lot of

of organization, administration having

scales of values and

at a

economic framework which

to replace the existing

incapable of bettering the

through

reforms, to increase the

social

capacity of villages to hold the population

dard, and

The methods

be emerged in the countryside.

may

political life

new system

new

ideals of

units

life,

new

income distribution.

of

requires a balanced occupational

new

distribution,

It

security of

employment and output, opportunities for enhanced production* equitable distribution and adequate savings, stimulating an urge for improvement, social engineering and the development

of the art of life.

industrialization

Objectively speaking

on a decentralized

basis,

it

require rural

and thus creating

employment and a source of income, intenof farm technology, agriculture and improvement

diversification of sification of

reorganization of rural credit the

exploitation of

development

of

rural

the

means

and marketing

of

so as to avoid

by middlemen, and communications,

population

transport

eleethficatoin of rural areas, scattering the higher educational institutions in rural surroundings, overhauling tions,

powers and functions

of

the

existing

the constitulocal bodies,

147

(

provision of security of

life

)

and property in the countryside

which has recently been endangered, and the provision emenities of

The

life at

cheaper

fresh organization

of the

rates.

must be attempted on a regional and the urban elements with a

basis harmonising the rural biologically adequate

environment

cultural resources of the latter. life

shows

that there

is

of

the

organic

cannot be a compartmentation of popu-

lation into separate rural

organism which

and

the tormer

of

The knowledge

and urban zones. The autonomy

a characteiistic feature of

not lead to isolation,

Environment

is

its

of

growth does

a cooperative factor,

Therefore, the existing distinctive features of rural and urban

areas 1 and institutions have to be avoided giving place fresh regional organization,

Corr

ctly

municipalizing villages nor ruralizing

analyzed 2

it

is

to a

neither

It is

not simply

transferring the population or decentralizing the

authority.

It is

reorganizing

will

whole economic structure with new

institutions, ideals, scale of

economic It

the

mean

a balanced

activities on

cities.

a regional

values and relationships.

distribution of economic basis,

power and

and community giving place

to society.

of nibani/ation in India is \ery limited and such a big to the extent to \\hich some \vestern countries urbanized be cannot country But the concentiation of economic power in cities and luial exploihave The system has got some inherent characteristics tation are obvious. 1.

The decree

The danger is that the country may go the way which hamper piogress It can lead to a collapse of the \\ho]p of China if things are not impioved modern urban ami commercial civilization uhich implies greed, domination, and conquest, horn that of 'uibamzation' of the countryside of social contact, and is also distinct from that of the 'extension of city de\elopment' which intends to increase the influence of natural surroundings on metropolitan civilization, 2,

The

idea

is

difterent

\\hich aims at a richer

life

Dr, T. R. Sharraa, Location o For further study one can look to and A P. Usher, A Dynamic Analysis of the Location o

Industries, 1948,

Economic

Activity, 1943,

148

(

)

VILLAGE PANCHAYATS

VI.

of Uttar

The government

IN U.

Pradesh has passed The U,P.

Local Self-Government in rural areas* and for village administration

provision

village is the unit,

Gaon Sabha,

the

in

the

Gaon Panchayat and

The Oaon Sabha.

is

as follows

For every village or

there

corporate It

is

consists of all adults (males

Panchayati

a

group of villages

a population of 1000 to

Gaon Sabha,

a

the

:

:

which

having perpetual succession and a

2

The

every unit there are three bodies

within three miles, ordinarily having

2000 persons,

to

and development,

and

Their organization

AdalaU

and develop make better

1947, in order to establish

Panchayat Raj Act,

P,

is

a

common

and females above 21

body seal, yrs.)

A member will be disin the area. permanently residing if he or she is of unsound mind, is suffering from qualified

leprosy, is an

body or

is

undischarged insolvent,

a convict.

and one ceases

to

is

a servant of a local

Normally, the membership

be a

member

only

is life

when one

long

incurs any

one of the above disqualifications, or when the area in which one resides Sabha, or

is

excluded from the jurisdiction

when one leaves

Gaon Sabha

of

cribed

form,

a register

of

all

the village,

persons

within the jurisdiction of soch at least

The Gaon Sabha

,

the

Gaon

permanently residing

Gaon Sabha, and

it

is

revised

once a year.

from amongst 1

of

the establishment

prepared in Hindi in the pres-

is

adult

On

its

elects according to joint electorate system,

members, a President (Pradhan) and a

Rural areas include

town areas and

all

areas except municipal areas,

cantonments,

notified areas,

2. A body corporate is the same thing as a Corporation, an artificial person established for prescribing in perpetual succession certain rights, which if conferred on natural persons would fail in process of time. It is an

artificial

law,

being, invisible,

intangible and

existing only in contemplation of

149

(

)

Vice-President (Up-Pradhan) for a term of 3 years, and an

Executive (Gaon Panchayat), Ordinarily the Gaon Sabha holds two general meetings in each year after the two main

The Kharif meeting considers and passes budget

harvests.

Rabi meeting considers the

following year and the

the

for

accounts of the preceding

each meeting

Besides,

year.

considers the biennial reports of business submitted

An

President. the

by

by the

extraordinary general meeting can be called

President,

or can

be requisitioned by 1/5

members

For any meeting form the 1/5 quorum while no quorum is necessary for a meeting adjourned for want of quorum. Vested in each Gaon Sabha is a Goan Fund, which

within 30 days of giving a written request. the total

of

is It

members

shall

managed, realized and consists of taxes

over

to

utilized

imposed under

Gaon Sabha by

by the Gaon Panchayat. this

Board or other

District

by

sums handed

Government, sums ordered by a

State

court to be placed to the credit of the tions

Act,

Gaon Fund by any

Gaon Fund,

local

authority,

special or general

assigned

to

the State

Government, amount received by way

of rent or gifts, portion

Government

State

of dust, dirt,

proceeds

of

to the credit of

or refuge

contribu-

amount order of

of loans

and

nazul property placed by

Gaon Fund,

sale

proceeds

etc,, collection charges for taxes

dung and dues collected on behalf

of the State

Government, and

payment received on compounding an offence under Section 104, The Gaon Sabha has a power to acquire land, the

by private negotiation, and

first

Collector. of a

direct

vests in and belongs to

through the

it,

and

is

under

its

management and control. It can borrow money from Government to carry out any of the purposes^ It can

impose the following taxes

anna

that

All public property situated within the jurisdiction

Goan Sabha

State

failing

in a rupee payable

:

by

a tax on rent not exceeding cultivators, a tax

one

op rept received

(

150

)

by proprietors and under-proprietors not exceeding 6 pies in the rupee of such rents, a tax on the rental value of Sir arid

Khudkast not exceeding one anna in the rupee, payable by proprietors and under-proprietors, a tax on trade, callings and professions,

and a tax on buildings owned by persons who do

not pay any of the aforesaid taxes.

The Oaon Panchayat, the

Gaon Sabha.

Gaon Sabha are

It is

executive committee

the

The President and also

its

Gaon Sabha on

elected by the

term of 3 years.

One

joint

third of the

to

members

Gaon Panchayat arranges

taxes and dues, custody of

its

members

51 other

system, for a

electorate

retire

Seats are assigned to minority communities in

population.

of

the Vice-president

President and Vice-president respec*

Beside these two there are 30

tively,

of

annually.

proportion of

for the

of

realization

funds, and maintenance of

its

accounts which are audited every year. the duty of every

It is

may

allow, for

diction

:

so far as

provision within

its

funds

its

juris-

Construction, repair, maintenance, cleaning

of public

lighting

Gaon Panchayat,

make reasonable

to

streets; medical

taking curative and

sanitation

relief;

preventive measures

and and

remove and

to

spread of an epidemic upkeep, protection and other or of any building property belonging to supervision to stop the

Gaon Sabha births,

;

or transferred to

it

for

management;

registering

deaths and marriages, and maintenance of the register

of all the

members

of the

Gaon Sabha

;

removal

of encroach-

ment on public streets, public places, and property vested Gaon Sabha regulating places for the disposal of the dead bodies of human beings and animals, and of other offensive

in

matter

;

;

regulation of fairs, markets

except those

managed by

State

and maintaining primary schools

and hats within

Government for boys

and

;

its

area

establishing

girls, establish-

151

(

)

management and care of common grazing grounds and land for the common benefit of the persons residing within its jurisdiction construction, repair and maintenance

merit,

;

of public wells, tanks

and ponds

for the supply of water for and drinking, washing bathing purposes, and regulation of sources of water supply for drinking purposes regulating ;

the construction of tions of

new

buildings or the extension or altera-

assisting the development of and commerce agriculture, industry rendering assistance in extinguishing fire and protecting life and property when

existing

buildings

;

;

fire

occurs

maternity and child

;

places for storing

manure

prescribed

administration

;

and the election Adalat

;

and

law

other

make

and of

census as may be and criminal justice

cattle civil

any other obligation imposed by any

Gaon Sabha, functions

provision

of

for

Besides,

Gaon

and

planting

:

there

village

ing the

improvement

;

volunteer force different

improvement tion

in

;

of

for

calamities

;

;

some they

maintaining

improvement

;

organizing

;

their

a

assist-

functions

;

and the development of coopera-

Government

thereof, in liquidation of old debt

ing a sound credit system

and

watch and ward and

in obtaining

assisting cultivators

repayment

sanitation

bodies in discharging

of agriculture

are

Panchayats,

trees at public streets and other public places of cattle

of

Panches on the panel of the Panchayati

fulfilling

on

discretionary

may

of

allotment

;

maintenance of such records

;

relating to population census

welfare

relief against

extension of abadi

;

loans,

establish-

famine and other

establishing

ing library, reading rooms, clubs for

and

and maintain-

recreation

and games

and organizations for promoting goodwill and social harmony between different communities and other measures of public ;

to promote the moral utility calculated

being or convenience

of villagers.

and material well-

152

(

)

The Gaon Panchayat has power

to

enquire

and report

about the misconduct of amin, process server, vaccinator, patrol or peons of Government Departthe and forward ments, complaint to proper authority with its

constable, patwari,

own

It

report.

Government within

its

has power

staff

enter into contract with the State

As prescribed

jurisdiction.

and other

to

any taxes and dues for proprietors

to collect

subject

to

the

it

appoints a secretary

approval of the prescribed

emergency can appoint a servant exceeding three months without such

authority, but in time of

a

for

not

period

sanction.

Subject to

establish a

committee

specified duty,

the to

prescribed

assist

in

it

and may delegate

to

conditions

the

it

discharge

of

may any

such committee such of

powers as may be necessary for the purpose of rendering such assistance. Two or more Gaon Sabhas can combine by its

means

of a written

instrument

to

appoint a joint committee

the purpose of transacwhich they are jointly interested, and

consisting of their representatives for ting any business

may

in

delegate to such committee power to frame any scheme

and modify rules which

will be

binding on each Gaon Sabha

Every member of a Gaon Panchayat has a right, at any meeting, to move any resolution and to put questions to the President or Vice-President on matters connected

with

the

And every member of the committee or any other committee joint

administration of the Panchayat,

Gaon Panchayat, any

constituted under this Act, application of

and a by

suit for

any money

is liable for

loss,

waste

or

mis-

or property belonging to the Panchayat,

compensation may be instituted against him

the Panchayat with the previous sanction of the prescribed

authority,

The Panchayati Adalat, The State Government has divided each

district in circles,

each circle usually including contiguous

^

5 Gaon Sabhas, for the purpose of establishing Panchayati Adalat far each such circle. Every Gaon Sabha afea of 3

in

a

to

elects 5

circle

adults

permanently residing within

oi

its

prescribed

qualifications,

jurisdiction to act as Panches

3 years, in the Panchayati Adalat of Panches so elected by the Gaon Sabhas

for

that

The

circle.

in a circle

form a

from amongst themselves a person who is record proceedings and to act as Sarpanch of the

panel, and

able to

elect

Panchayati Adalat.

Any

who wishes

person

ing under this

orally or

application

case

as

shall

pay

the

prescribed.

person

to

the

fee.

prescribed

apply

to

in

The

such

to

circle,

this

other

ana

behalf,

Fee

Court

Panchayati Adalats except as

Act,

may be

party can appear before the Adalat in person

Any

or by such

case or proceed-

Sarpanch, or in the

have been appointed

may

1870 does not

to the

in writing

absence from

his

of

Panch

to institute a suit,

Act before a Panchayati Adalat can make an

representative as the Adalat

represent him.

But

may

adroit as a

fit

no legal practitioner shall

appear, plead or act on behalf of any party before a Panchayati

Adalat.

For the

trial of

every case, suit or proceeding, the 5 Sarpanch forms a bench of Panches from the panel, including one Panch residing in the area of the Gaon Sabha in which the plaintiff of a suit or proceeding or the complainant of a case resides, one in

Panch residing

in the area

which the defendant or the accused

Panches residing neither part in

in

the area of the

party resides,

any case

to

is

Gaon Sabha

resides,

and

three

in

which

But no Panch or Sarpanch can take relation, employer,

a party, or in which any of

be personally interested,

In the event ot

between Panches the opinion 20

the

Gaon Sabha

which he or any near

employee or partner

of

them may

any disagreement

of the majority prevails,

154

(

Almost

minor cases

the

all

)

land revenue cases and cases

criminal cases, civil cases,

of

gambling}

cattle

trespassing

and any other offence under any other enactment declared by

State

Government

be cognizable by a Panchayati

to

Criminal

Adalat -are brought before Panchayati Adalats.

cases are instituted before the Sarpanch of the Adalat of the circle in

which ofience

is

committed,

civil cases are instituted

before the Sarpanch of the Adalat of the circle in which the

defendant or any defendants ordinarily reside or out business at that time, and cases under Sec. 70

Land Revenue Act

are transferred by Tahsildar of the Adalat

within the local area of which the land concerned

A by

by him

to the

Adalat

Besides, the

it.

is

situated.

before a magistrate can be trans-

criminal case pending

ferred

carry of the

il

he feels that

has

Adalat

special

it

can be tried

jurisdiction

in

compromised matters, since it has power to decide all civil, revenue and compoundable civil cases not pending in any court in accordance with

agreed upon

any settlement, compromise or oath But if the Adalat feels that it

by the parties.

has no jurisdiction to try a case, or the oSence

which

it

cannot

complicated that

award it

adequate

should

is

such in

or

punishment,

is

be tried by a regular court,

so it

returns the complaint

to the complainant directing him to before the Sub-Divisional Magistrate having jurisdiction to try such case. A Panchayati Adalat cannot inflict a substantive sentence file it

of

imprisonment but can

fine

upto Rs. 100 (the fine

varies

nature of

according offence), but no imprisonment can be awarded in default of payment, It cannot try a if hfc has been previously convicted of an offence person to

the

with imprisonment of 3 years or more, or

by Adalat, or is

is

a registered

convicted for gambling.

member It

is

fined for theft

of a criminal

has no power

to

tribe or

cancel,

155

(

or

revise

any decree or order passed by

alter

a

correct

)

clerical

but can

mistake,

recorded, on application

for

it,

except

reason

sufficient

made within one month

to

of the date

decree or order or knowledge, restore any case which has been dismissed or in which decree or order has been passed ot

ex

Adalat It

A

parte.

Sub-Divisional Magistrate and the Munsii.

lies to the

their

sional suit,

revision from any order or decree passed by an

is

miscarriage

Magistrate or

or

oi

within 60 days fiom

call for the

record

by an Adalat the Sub-Divi-

justice

Munsii can

any time

in a

pending

the date of a decree or order,

case from Adalat, can cancel die

thij

ot

at

can quash any decree or order* A decree or an order passed by a Panchayati Adalat is executed by it in

jurisdiction, or

a

prescribed

Mtuated outside

its

the

Munsif

if

if

jurisdiction

other Adalat where ot

And

manner.

it

the

1

dependants property

is

transfers the decree to the

the property is situated, or to the court

there

is

no Panchayati Adalat,

The

fine

imposed by an Adalat is recoverable in the manner provided in Sec. 386 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. And it the Adalat finds it difficult to recover, it the requests

Sub-Divisional Magistrate to recover

it,

The Present working, According to this Act Panchayats have been formed throughout the State on 15th August 1949. At present there are 35,919 Gaon Sabhas and 8,414 Pan-

On and

chayati Adalats in the Statea

Gaon Sabha

from the date on which

established in any area under this Act the U. P. Village Panchayat Act, 1920, the U, P. Village Courts Act, 1892 and the U. P, Village Sanitation 1892 is

Act,

deemed

to

duties and

are

are

The Panchayats have assumed

be repealed,

working

since

then-

their

Every member

or

servant of Gaon Panchayat or Panchayati Adalat or committee is deemed to be a public servant within the

meaning

2} of the Indiap Penal

Code

f

This

raises

of Sec.

considerably his

156

(

)

The

personal status in discharging his duties,

condition of previous publication by noti-

has, subject to the

fication in the official Gazette,

Act

with this :

power

carry out the

to

Gaon Panchayat and

to

make

the Panchayati Adalat.

experience the Act

considerable difference.

failure of

this Act,

is

i.

.,

Gaon Sabha, means that

duties of the

It

modifications

to

subject

and amendments subsequently. In actual practice and the provisions a

rules consistant

purposes of

powers and

organization, working,

in the light of the

State Govt.

Act there

of the

is

and

Really speaking the success

Panchayats depends upon the type of people. Where

educated and sincere men are available really good work has been done /specially id regard to the improvement of roads and paths in abadi areas, education, village sanitation

and disposal public

outside the abadi areas, lighting of

of refuge

streets,

distribution of

cases brought

types of

different

Adalats was 467,340, out

As

in

villages

oi

before

number

total

the

and the of

Panchayati

which about 25% were

settled by

and fees they received Rs, 7*9 which they saved Rs. 4*2 lakhs and used them for

mutual agreement. lakhs out of

cloth

During 1950 the

disposal of petty disputes.

fines

The Gaon Panchayats have construcKachha roads, and repaired

constructive purposes.

ted 218 miles Pacca and 1290 miles

3619 miles old roads.

They turned

Kachha wells

14,134

and repaired 35826, They have planted more 10 million fruit trees and 45 million other types of than

into Pacca

trees

;

and prepared

lakhs compost

3*7

hand many Pancbayats have proved grounds

for party friction

are easily bribed

*

and further

There

is

appeals.

a

few

the other

be the breeding

litigation.

The Panches

considerable litigation in the

courts against judgments of Adalats, and

There are

On

pits.

to

difficulties

not able ^o work properly. yats are

due

^

to

revisions

and

which Pancha-

certain stin jafcj

pf

157

(

individual character

which

the

in

is

villages

required for a successful democracy

is

ignorant,

badly

tor

much

of

less

Under

law

declined, and the offender law,

and poor communities

illiterate

lacking.

atmosphere respect

)

is

in

the

existing

has

villages

much

not

political

considerably

hand

afraid of the

Gaon Panchayat

the

or

in

the

of

Panchayati

The congress propaganda against the so far economically and socially superior communities has practically Adalat,

finished the leadership in villages. In the absence of such leaders .he

Gaon Panchayats and Panchayati Adalats

command

administer matters, and do not dience.

Due

to abject

meagre, and most

poverty

of the

of good-will

And

masses the finances remain

amounts are

the party friction

and cooperation which

progress and smooth working

oi

is

that

The

initial

spectacular results

such local

property,

and

the

development

reducing

litigation

establishing rural

of

are

so

of

can,

usefulness of life

and

It

aims not only

self-government but also at

and making

it

economically cheap,

democracy and training

village communities.

working

outstanding

There

protection of

Panchayats.

local

a step in the right direction of old

Really

the maintenance of civil liberties of all persons

residing in the jurisdiction of at

rural

any judgment should

be expected.

The Act provides

for

bodies.

however, be no doubt about the utility and these Panchayats.

further

atmosphere

fundamental

difficulties

cannot

paying the

left for

spoils the

speaking the experience is so short that not be passed,

and obe-

respect

of the funds being utilized in

salary of the secretary, very small

improvements.

lack capacity to

and

of the voter.

will try to revive the spirit

Even during

these signs are visible*

It is

this

short

period

CHAPTER

VI

Famines and Famine FAMINES.

1,

Famine Conditions, hunger suffered tions are said to

Famine

is

'the

by the population of

the failure of the

Relief.

state

Famine condi-

accustomed food supply.'*

when

extreme

of

a region as a result of

groups of people fail to for or accustomed needs. food their normal procure enough it to be to has be Hence, distinguished from the specific, state of constant

stricken areas.

prevail

under-nourishment of chronically poverty

The normal under-nourishment

In such cases,

a famine.

large

as our own,

famine

is

is

not called

the

state oi

an extraordinary aggravation of the normal misery. Causes of Famines. Famine conditions may be created by several causes, which are generally grouped under two catagories direct or apparent causes, and indirect or remote :

causes.

Food supply may fail due to natural such as drought, flood, hail storm, frost, prolonged winter, too dry summer, or some other unusual meteoro(i)

Direct causes*

causes,

logical

phenomenon, plague

of locusts or rodents,

and plant

Failure of crops may further be due toman-made or artificial causes, such as devastation of rural areas by

diseases,

war, breakdown

of the

system of distribution affecting the region depending upon imported supply, and speculation the

in the grain

market resulting

(ii) Indirect causes.

of floods,

in prohibitive prices.

Deforestation increases the danger

and over-population reduces

the

size of

*F. A, Southard, Encyclopedia of Social Science, Vol. V-VI, 158

farms p, 85,

to

159

(

such an extent that u

)

to afford a

hardly sufficient

is

miserable

subsistence in good years, precluding the shortage of surplus in

These two tactors indirectly lead

bad years.

to

famine

conditions.

Regarding the causes noted, to

Firs>t,

it

is

rare tor a famine

one Mngle cause,

the most

common to

cause

the

ot

the

combine

to

primary cause

tamines, has been a

tailure

of the

accustomed

sometimes resulting in huge migrations of rural leaving the land

uncultivated,

1

invasions,

internal wars devastating the rural areas, have also it,

be

But very often other tactors like heavy exactions

population

with

to

be directly traceable

In our country

widespread drought due

monsoon. of rulers

to

several tactors

Usually,

cause a bevere famine,

and likewise

lamines a few things are

ot

and

combined

2

Secondly, though the tailure

degree

of

volume

ot

crop

food and the

ot the

monsoon involves some

and thereby reduces

failure

demand

the

physical

for agricultural laboijr,

lailure of rain does not result in a famine.

every

Varying degrees

'Muhammad's (fughlak)

exactions, which extinguished cultivation Doab, and his severity which destroyed those who might have cultivated, contributed m no small measure to the calamity (famine of 1335), which is always mentioned in connection with, though 1,

in large tracts

not directly

of the

attributed

(Cambridge History

to his

ill

treatment of his subjects in the Doab,'

of India Vol. Ill, p. 152),

'No misapprehension can be greater than to suppose that the settlement demand on the land is only lightly, or as may be, not at all

of public

connected with the occurrence of famines

'

(Col, Baird Smith,

Besides, during the Aug. 14,1861, para 36) Period there are many other similar instances,

iMuslim

Report ol and the British

authors have stated that the real and the fundamental cause is the economic backwardness of the people, because farmers have no reserves and no power of resistance when faming occurs. This is not an appropriate expression because aggranan poverty does not cause the crops to fail. Poverty aggravates the famine and paves it the the no when of for failure the way doubt, accustomed food supply occurs due to other causes. Poverty and backwardness are our normal miseries, and famine is said to occur only when they are exceptionally 2.

Some

of famines in our country

aggravated by something

else,

(

of

the failure

of

180

)

A

degrees of crop

rain involve varying

failures, with varying effects on the

demand

for

farm work*

widespread or a continuous failure of rain will, of course, a distress, but whether the distress amounts to a

result in

famine or not will depend on

many

such

situations,

work

condition of previous harvest, degree of farm

as

affected,

chance and capacity for imports, and the general resistance of the people, etc*

Thirdly, there has been a

common

impression that with

economic progress and the advancement of civilization there has been a change in the causes of famines. War, rapine

and misrule, which were formerly direct causes, no longer cause famines. But some new causes specially depressions

and purely monetary factors have arisen. Further the ease with which food can be transported has minimised the danger

for natural causes,

and the revolution

in agriculture

has removed even food production from the

list

of factors

But in view of the devastating nature of modern wars, and the fact that 2/3 of the world population resides in underdeveloped areas which are mainly agricul-

causing famines.

tural,

and agriculture

in all such areas is far

from secure, the

statements can be accepted only with considerable reservations.

Fourthly, population has already, and ting such a huge

is

burden on food resources

the nature of a continuous II,

further accumula-

that

it

has assumed

famine problem.

HISTORY OF FAMINES.

Throughout the world, excepting in the tropical regions, the danger of famine has always been great, specially in All early civilizations were subject to frequent From 108 B. C. to 1911 A, D, there have been 1828

olden times. famines.

famines in China

;

from the beginning

of the Christian era

161

till

lot

600 recorded famines in Europe 1855 there have been nearly 450 famines confined

1855 there have been 1000

to

;

small regions likes Wales, Lorraine and Alsace

to

was

afflicted with

and Rome considerable urbanization magnified of

securing

;

Egypt

drought and locust plague, and in Greece

adequate food

supply

number

chronicler oi Novgorod refers to a

the difficulties

bad

in

years. of

Some

medieval times specially in eastern Europe.

The

famines have been very severe.

The

famines in of these

great famines in world

1 history are as follows:

Our

Early Famines. at

frequent

intervals

history

by

is

disastrous

said

to

be punctuated

famines,

Details of

ancient famines are not known, but their earliest references are traced in some traditions, of

Brahamans and

the Jain

embodied

in

and Buddhist

the sacred books literature. 2

The

1

!

Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 9, p, 64, This contradicts Megasthenes who mentioned that 'famine has never 2. visited India,' (M'crindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes. I,

,

His words perhaps mean either during the days be stayed here

p. 32)

or in the living

memory

of those

whom he

interviewed, or

,

a severe country-

wide protracted calamity, Buddhist records-Vinaya, Jatak, and other books of< Suita Pitak make definite mention of brief periods of local scarcities Megasthenes was perhaps overwhelmed by the conditions of living <>f the pieasantry in the parts he visited, specially in comparison to those of the

contemporary peasantry '

?l

in other countries t?e

knew

of,

162

(

record

earliest

m

famine

of

Magadh during

the

in historical

time

362 B, C; there was again

460 Bt C. to

an almost continuous famine in

and 1033 when some

have been depopulated

there

of

650 A* D. famine raged throughout the country, series of famines are said to have occurred in

After that

driven

tiroes is

Nandivardhan, From 377

of

In

Magadh, 941, 1022

)

to

;

For

cannibalism.

was almost

a

of the

provinces ate said

and traditions show

that

decade from 1148

a

continuous famine in

to

men were to

1159,

different parts of

For seven years from 1335 famine was rampant when Muhammad Tughlak India, throughout Northern ordered the evacuation of Delhi to Deogiri in the Deccan.

the country.

It

is

said that even for the Emperor's household necessaries

of life could not

and eat

be obtained* Ibn Batuta mentions that towns

were depopulated and people were reduced to unnatural food such as cooked hides, human flesh and districts

drinking of blood of slaughtered

1407 the

cattle.

Deccan was devastated

famine, popularly

known

as the

one part after another, and

Again, from 1396

by almost

continuous

Durga Devi famine,

it

to

affecting

reduced the population

to

such an extent that a considerable portion of the cultivated area remained uncultivated for years,

During

the reign of

Akbar famine occurred

three times

:

once in 1556 in the area surrounding Delhi, and then in 1575 in Gujrat,

and the

third,

which was very disastrous and

continued for four years 1595-99 in

Northern India.

The

next severe calamity occurred in the days of Shah Jehan in

1630 in Gujrat and Deccan.

This

is

said to be one of the

greatest famines recorded in history, and the

first

about

which precise details, specially by Dutch merchant named Twist, have survived, It is said that in Swally only li oat

260 families survived; in Surat a populous city at that time 30 thousand perished and hardly any life survived ; pearly

of

Ufc

(

and on the road between

)

very large number of bodies decaying. it

was

Surat and Swally there

a

Hunter described

as the garden of the world being turned into wilderness' 1

and

perished in huge numbers,

Cattle

numbers abandoned deserted

villages and towns,

people in It is

large

said that

men

women

sold

wives, mothers sold their children,

themselves as slaves, families took poison together or drowned hand-in-hand, and people

human

took

The other

flesh,

severe famine occurred in the days of Auungzeb

Deccan stretching upto tamine visited in 1747.

In the

Gujrat,

in

1686 in

same area another

Between 1660 and 1750 there were

14 major famines about which

precise details are not known.

Of all the famines that have occurred during the Muslim two in Northern India period five have been most severe :

in 1335-43 in the in the

days

days

of

Akbar and three

of

:

Muhammad Tughlak and

;

Deccan

in the

:

in 1396-1407

in the days of Feroz Shah, in 1630 in the days of in 1686 in the days of

and

in 1595-99

Shah Jehan

Aurangzeb,

Famines during the British Period. About a dozen famines occurred during the time of the East India Company : in 1769-70 in Bengal, in 1783 in North India, in 1790-92 in the

Deccan

specially

in 1803 in

Bombay and Hydrabad,

Bombay,

in 1804 in

1833 in Madras and in 1837

in 1813 in Bombay, in 1823 and in North India, Out of these four

were very severe.

In 1769-70 in

about 10 millions died. in cultivation to

waste.

In 1783

came

(first

Hunter,

W, W,,

and

the

Chalisa ot

2

land returned

famine in Northern

Benares Province

History of British India, Vol.

The word 'Chahsa' 2 a figure in the Sambat year 1840, and

the last one)

tremendous decrease

a

ot the cultivated

end India, extending from eastern I.

three

Bengal 1/3 inhabitants or

There was

and about 1/3

1800 in Mysore,

in

North India, in 1807 in Madras,

to

II, p. 59,

which occurred

in the year forty called 'chahs' in local language,

indicates'. 'that

164

(

Lahore and

Jammu

)

continued the next year

It

1784 famine conditions

prevailed

horrors oi this famine have been In place

of grain,

of trees.

it is

said that

Madras

in

and

also,

also.

The

in local songs.

symbolized

took roots and

people

in

bark

Hastings wrote to the Council Board in April 1784

that 'from

Buxar

to the opposite

boundary

Benares Pro-

(of

have seen nothing but complete devastation in every village', and Edwards in 1783 found Oudh which was quite

vince)

1

at

populous

came

that time

the Doji

Bara or the Skull* famine

extended over the whole

of

5

1790-92

In

,

of the

Deccan.

It

Bombay and Hydrabad and This famine

northern districts of Madras.

affected to

and desolate

'forlorn

is

said

be the severest famine ever known in which people died

in such

numbers

large

they could

that

not be

Another severe famine occurred in 1837-38 India, the

specially in

Jamuna,

It

There was an Palwal.

the

upper reaches

was most severe

ol

Ganges and

the

North-West Province.

in the

utter desolation in the parganas of

Deaths were numerous.

It is

hurried,

Northern

in

Modal and

said that about

8 lakhs

people perished, and in Kanpur, Fatehpur and Agra special establishments patrolled the streets to remove corpses. bodies were lying on till

the roadside

Dead

unburried and unburm

they were devoured by wild animals,

During the rule of the Crown there have been eight major disasters, and about these sufficiently precise and reliable details are available.

in

Northern India

specially

In 1860-61 there in

parts

of

was

a

famine

North- Western

Province around Agra, Punjab and touched Rajputana and Catch*

The

total

population of *It was

area affected

2 crores.

so" called

was 53,500

More severely

sq. miles with a

affected parts

were

because deaths were so numerous that cropses could

not be "burned and skulls, sight here and there,

the hardest part of the body,

\vere the usual

Delhi,

Allahabad and Alwar

Agra,

State,

rdghly

the tfact

between Agra and Delhi, comprising an area of about. 25 miles with a population of nearly 13 millions. It thousand sq,

is

said that nearly i/2 million people deserted the

From 1865

tract.

the

whole

inland.

It

famine

famine affected

Madras penetrating far 1865 and then extended to

began in Orissa in

The

is

It

of 1866, since

in 1866,

67 another severe

east coast from Calcutta to

and Bengal.

Bihar

a

to

distressed

it

generally

area affected was

total

known

as

Orissa

the

assumed most terrible form in Orissa 180,000 sq. miles with

In Orissa atone

population of 47| millions.

least 1

at

million or about 1/3 of the total population died, and in of the divisions of It

Bengal about 1/4 of the

assumed the worst form

specially in the

in

population

some died*

Orissa due to isolation, and

rainy season the grain being available

it

could not be distributed, and in Bengal the lack of data and thus lack of information

was mostly responsible

for

the

tragedy.

This famine heels) followed It

in the eastern

by one

in the

part

was soon (almost on

western part in 1868

its

to 1870.

extended over Rajputana, parts of North-West* Province,

the early famines ate said to be vitiated by guesses The danger of drawing sources of controversy. conclusions on them is illustrated by the fact that inspite of the great mortality in Orissa famine of 1866, the population of the affected district, as estimated by the 1871*72 census, was considerably larger than the estimate made of it by the best authorities prior to the famine. Besides

Accounts of

\vhicb

are

all

still

fruitful

information regarding States (termed by foreign writers as native territory) to be more frequent, is sadly lacking, perhaps not

where famines are said

thoroughly collected. Even if collected it must be lacking in precise details since enquiries and investigations by Commissions or similar bodies were not made as we tind later on in British rule, Accounts of the early famines are available in the chronicles of courts, and from them only a few general descriptions come down, such as vast-scale desolation and depopulation of tracts, man feeding on man and killing him for food, violation of natural human relationships, loss of revenue and conspicuous acts of charity. But

even from

this

mass speculation some general

facts

regarding the causes nature

effects stand out clearly and help considerably in studying the of the problem and in suggesting methods of control.

and

Puiyab and Bundelkhand*

This

is

commonly known as

the

Rajputana famine of 1868-69, because of being most intense

and widespread

in

Rajputana in that year.

It

aflected

296,000 sq. miles and about 44| million people,

but the

tragedy

is

said to have

been centralized in the

states

of

Rajputana and Ajmer. The extra mortality mainly due to cholera, small-pox and fever which broke out after the famine.

It is

said that

all

the characteristics of old

famines

in India were brought out in this famine, and it was the last famine in which the scarcity of foad was felt severely* There

were two conspicuous features one, an exceptionally large cattle mortality and another, aimless wandering of a huge population. The Report of the Indian Famine Commission :

;

1880 mentions that majority of cattle in Rajputana perished, and vast masses of people moved out of Rajputana at random, of

with their large herds, in seaich of food and fodder, and in the aimless wandering

so

much moved by

Lord Lawrence

many

lives

the terrible

laid

down

were

lost,

loss of life in

were

Officers

Rajputana that

a principle at that time

that

the

be held personally responsible for government to avert death means by starvation. taking every possible Another famine quickly followed in 1873-74 covering Bihar and adjacent parts of Bengal and U. P. It is known officials will

as the Bihar famine because of being most severe there.

It

sq. miles with a population of 215 lakhs, but the distressed area was 40,000 sq. miles with a

afiected an area of 54,000

population of 170 lakhs.

famine

of 1866

and

of

The

terrible

mortality of Orissa

Rajputana famine of 1868-69 was

fresh in the minds people and the government It is said that Lord Northbrook was determined not of the

the

same

in 1874,

fatal results

Asa

result

relief the Indian

still

officers. to

allow

and lamentable history to be repeated of this determination and extravagant

Famine Commission, 1880 gives

credit

to

167

(

Government

the

view

of

the

)

no death due

for

Commission seems

to

to

starvation.

But

this

be exaggerated, and the

view expressed by the Cambridge History of India seems to be more reasonable that 'for the first time in Indian history had not produced heavy mortality/ 1

a serious failure of crops

In the dacade 1870-80 a series of famines occurred covering

almost the whole of this

after

famine in North India there was a famine in the Deccan

for two years, 1876-78.

presidencies It

Almost immediately

the country.

occurred

of

first

It

afiected

of

major portions

the

Madras, Bombay, Mysore and Hydrabad. in the Deccan, and in 1878 was extended to

North- West Province

and Oudh,

It

affected

an area of

257,000 sq, miles and 585 lakhs people, and was most severe in

Madras and Bombay

India considers

century'

2

it

in 1877*

'most

The Cambridge History of

widespread and

and the Imperial Gazetteer

'more widespread

than

any

in the 19th

fatal

of India regards

calamity

then on

it

to

far

record.' 8

Perhaps the implication is better expressed by the Famine Commission of 1880 which described it as the worst experi-

enced since the beginning of the British rule upto that time, since the latter famines were more severe and widespread than

this*

In excess of the normal 5f million deaths occurred

vast tracts of agricultural land

were

there were continuous streams of different parts of South India to the

movement was

different

from

which there was no

uncultivated

and

people migrating from

Western Ghats.

that in Rajputana,

in search of fodder in the forests of for food of

left

,

since

This it

was

Western Ghats and not

lack.

For about a decade and a half, roughly from 1880 to 1895, there was no severe famine but there had been several local 1,

Cambridge History

of India, Vol. VI, p, 300,

History of India* Vol. It.

2,

Cambridge

3,

The Imperial Gazetteer

of India, Vol. II p. 518,

scarcities such as in 1884-85 in Bengal, in 1886 in Chhatisgarh,

889 in Orissa and from 1890

in

C.

P,

In the closing

of

years

95 in parts

to

century two severe

19th

the

famines occurred in quick succession. conditions prevailed

Bengal,

C,

in

Madras and Bombay,

have occurred almost parts of

Burma and It

sula.

It

said

is

to

over India except the Southern

all

the extreme South of

was most intense in U.

district of Punjab,

1896-97 famine

In

North-Western Province, Oudh, Bihar,

Punjab,

P.,

Madras and

of

the

C, P.,

P,,

Madras and Bombay.

Deccan PeninHisar

Bihar,

About 3 lakhs

sq.

miles of land and 695 lakhs people were affected in British India alone, and out of these

1

J lakh

and

of area

qailes

sq,

340 lakhs people were severely affected. In 1896 plague broke out in of

Total deaths are said to be about 1 million

Bombay.

which 7\ lakhs were

Commission

British

territory.

The Famine

1880 considered the famine of 1877-78

of

severest, but this time tract
in

famine occurred over

a

More intensely

was as severe.

still

affected

to

be

wider area

1896-97 than in any previous famine, and another peculiar feature of this famine was that it affected

was greater

in

even those parts which were considered almost immume from famine, into jungles

of

VasJ tracts spe

in

'rally

C.

,

landa were turned

cultivated

P..

and whole

districts,

were

.devastated,

In A89Sbl9QO another famine occurred which be, not so .widespread,

the

M not covering as

i,

two earlier famines

certainly quite severe,

of

is

said

to

wide an area as

1876-78 and 1896-97, but was

The area

affected

simultaneously was

largest in 1900 (4| lakhs sq. miles) but the

number

of people

was largest in 1896-97 (695 lakhs). On the whole in 1899-1900 a small area and a smaller population was affected

affected

than in 1896-97.

coptipuously

for.

Some three

part? Jrearsf'

specially

Jhe

totjd

in

Bombay

suffered

a^ea affected was 4|

(

169

)

lakhs sq. miles with a population of 60 millions, d( which It8 lakhs sq, miles and 20 millions people were in British territory, Famine was not acute in North-West Province, Oudh, Raj*

was more Severe

putana, Madras, and Punjab, but

in parts

of Bombay, C P, and Berar, Hydrabad, Kathiwar, Baroda and Central India, The famine was more acute in those parts of South

severe.

but 1

it

where

famine of

189697 was

was followed by Cholera and Malaria

million

also

which about

in

persons died in British India alone.

Large

tracts

became waste, and jungle grew over wheat of this famine were

of cultivated land

and

the earlier

Starvation deaths during famine were not many,

Remarkable features

rice lands.

high cattle mortality in Gujrat and migration from States into British territory.

For four decades since 1901 there was no serious calamity though localized famine conditions had occurred frequently, such as in 1902-3 in C.

1907-8 in U,

P.,

Punjab, U. P,

P.,

in

Bengal, C, P.

1905-6 in U.

and Punjab, in Bombay, and in 1918 in Bihar and Onssa. The exP.

and

Bombay, C. P., was a quick recovery and in !918 was perience in 1907-8 severe failure of rain were little felt, of the that the effects f

Bengal Famine of 1943.

The most

occurred in Bengal in 1943. this

crisis.

At

more than 80%

that

recent severe famine

Several factors

time Bengal was

of her food supply,

precipitated

producing slightly

and most

of

the

imports

which being occupied by Japan being made from Burma 1942, rice supply from

there to

Bengal was

hurricane in late 1942 by destroying about of rice further intensified the shortage.

over the fall of

Burma and

cut,

1*5

in

Midnapur

millions tpns

Public nervousness

the denial policy

by which boats

and large rice stocks were removed from East Bengal due to the fear of being used by the enemy made the shortage 22

(

widespread and apparent*

170

On

)

being apparent shortage was

considerably intensified by speculation, as a result

which

of

rice supply was hoarded mostly in trade channels, and prices rose beyond the reach of the people, and famine conditions

prevailed

even in those

destroyed

were made the

tion of

natural

by

difficult

grain market large

specially the congestion of

Bengal was rendered

river during the

U.

P,

due

:

to

not

outside

general disloca-

supplies were not readily to

railways,

transport

bottle-neck,

movement

of

Further floods in

difficult.

monsoon

and Punjab*

due

crops were

Supplies from

calamities,

for two reasons

available elsewhere, and

to

where

districts

supplies

Damodar

1943 held up supplies from

of

But inspite of

all

these difficulties a steady

stream of grain was flowing in Calcutta trom July onwards,

government machinery failed to distribute to keep the situation under control. properly, and but

the

The was

official

version

is that

the failure of winter

the basic cause of

rice

crop of

outstanding causes were the lack of information

and

timely measures.

Hence, even

the Provincial

be as

prices to

responsible as crop failures in causing starvation,

of both the Central

famine

this

The Bengal

1942,

Famine Enquiry Commission consider high

it

The most and

governments

failure to

take

after considering the strange

sequence of events, coincidence of so

many

and appreciating the wartime difficulties this famine is to be taken as a man-made

circumstances,

of the

government,

affair,*

*In the beginning the Government being self-complacent and ill informed could not foresee the magnitude of the crisis, and when it cam they miserably failed to control the situation and to take timely measures Failure of winter crop of 1942 cannot be accepted as the main cause c starvation since distress and staivation deaths occurred in those districl also in which there was no crop failure, Shortage of supply cannot b believed since huge quantities of grain were stored in Bengal which afte &eing decomposed and rendered unfit for human consumption wer destroyed. This cannot be taken to be purely an act of caution during WE it was simply an inefficient control and failure emergency, Further, <

(

171

)

The Woodhead Commission estimated or 1/10 of the total population

of

that

Bengal was

about 6 lakhs affected*

and

about 1*5 million people died as a result of famine and the

accompanying epidemics of cholera, malaria, smallpox and dysentery which caused as many deaths as starvation itself,

The immediate

crisis

was overcome by

record rice crop in Jan-Feb., 1944,

famine scarcity conditions prevailed

in

the relief

After

the

and the Bengal

1948 in Gujrat and in

1949-50 and 1950-51 in eastern U. P M Bihar, Bengal and Madras, and in 1951*52 in Madras, Punjab, Saurasthra and

Madhya Pradesh, But none of them was permitted to develop into a major tragedy. The Bengal famine has brought out some very interesting and important

facts

:

High prices were as important a cause of starvation deaths as crop failure. It means that crop security and pro* 1,

duction stability cannot fully guard against starvation which prevail as a result of price

may

movements

arising out of

speculation or trade cycles, 2.

Practically all the

population which suffered

administration that hoarding on such a vast scale could take place, and ft greater failure that available supplies could not be distributed, for it is said that trains loaded with grain remained standing in railway yards for weeks and grain could not be distributed, The report of the Woodhead Commission clearly exposed the failure of both the Central and the Provincial Governments to take timely measures and to keep the food situation of Bengal

Beside the defective control, procurement and distribution relief, which could have mitigated the epidemics inadequate. The same year famine broke out in Bijapur district of Bombay, ceded districts of Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Orissa, Bat no where conditions were allowed to approach the severity

under control.

of food, even medical considerably was far

of Bengal, and it was mainly due to the capacity and efficiency of local authorities in organizing relief and controlling food supplies and prices.

The

which was admitted by the Woodhead Commission also, that was equally due to high prices, shows that failure of administrahandling the situation mainly caused and intensified the tragedy,

fact,

starvation tion

The

in

failure of administration is further

proved by the fact that

many famine

areas in the province were without relief until the army assisted the civil authorities in organizing food distribution and medical relief in November 1943. A foreign government could easily afford to play wjth the lives oj

the

people like this

172

(

belonged

to

)

That the grower

poorer classes in rural areas,

of food dies of

hunger t.ven

annual consumption,

is

pioducing adequate for his

after

the

a seiious challenge to

prevailing

economic system.

A

3.

strange coincidence

events precipitated and

events can take

fresh

nation of

canals,

place

the

alter

belief* that the country,

and

many unfavourable

so

of

Such

intensified the ciisis.

was rendered

Hence

again.

of

development

safe

a combi-

the

railways

widespread

against any

starvation, is shattered.

Our famine codes weie supposed

4.

so well as to

be capable

of

to

dealing with

have developed eventualities.

all

But they could not meet the situation. It means that under tresh situations the accustomed procedure and measures fail,

have

and our famine codes

to

be adapted

to

fresh

prdblems. '

How

5.

serious the

the

fatal

lack of information proves,

becomes

situation

if

and how

timely measures are not

taken. It

6.

has exposed the seriousness of the food situation in

the country,

and has focussed

the

attention

of

the

Union

and State governments on the nature and the magnitude

of

the food problem.

Some Remarkable

a

in India, apparently

interesting and

This brief history of famines

Features,

chronological

unpleasant

statement of dry, unbrings out

facts,

some very

remarkable features*

There have been during the

1.

famines, and during the ters.

,

It

shows

that

a

300 years 26 major

700 yeais 17 very severe disas-

is

said

to

cyclical,

Their

be dependent on sunspot

an annual

scarcity, in

wider scarcity resulting in a

recognized

In every 5

every 10 years

last

famines are frequent and

periodical recurrence period.

last

years there

is

173

(

)

famine condition, and in every 50-100 years scarcity extending over wide tracts covering fully or partly several provinces,

A

closer

study

of

famines shows that after

century (though the period

countrywide simultaneous

abnormality all

is

in

not the

very exact) there is a This is not monsoon.

over the country but continues fora

cumber

starting from

of years in different tracts with the result that

one place the scarcity moves from one part

to

another and

thus covering the country within a

number

of

years.

very interesting and revealing

study the course of this

movement and to analyse direction and speed. 1 2.

due

the

to

factors

It is

which determine the

For some time a feeling has been gaining ground that

to so

much development

almost completely overcome.

means

in the

irrigation and some improvement vators against famines, the chance

.

about a

in

of

of

transport and

the resistance of culti-

a severe famine was

But the Bengal famine of 1943

has shattered that facile optimism and has further proved that the

danger

danger

is

not over.

Really speaking famine

in all agricultural countries,

and

so

is a

long as India is

mainly agricultural and depends mostly on the Monsoon, famine due to the failure of rain and consequent destruction

must occur, since uncertainty and irregularity are 2 inherent in the nature of the Indian Monsoon.

of crops

3.

The

list

of great

famines in the recorded history of

We have Deliberately avoided the detailed discussion of it here 1, because full discussion would have taken undue space, and probab'ly would not have fitted in the plan of the present work. But we believe that a close study of meteorological phenomena will reveal definite routes and a relationship with certain definite factors, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. II, p 527, mentions that 'After 2. J901 the cycle of bad harvests came to an end and the country slowly and gradually recovered. This remark does not seem to be adcurate, since the Chances of bad harvests or drought are not over. It can at the .most be taken in the sense that for about four decades since 1900 there was no major tragedy, and after the development of transport capacity to meet *he famine was greater. 1

174

(

)

the world shows that out of a total

have occurred but to

it

number

may

list

This peculiar susceptibility

factors

:

monsoon,

uncertainty and

the

(i)

and

small-scale

(ii)

be

vary accurate of the country

imparted by two*

is

the

endemic

poverty,

when any crop

resistance

of

of

irregularity

farming,

unemployment and htnce lack

famines 18

of 34

not

indicative of a peculiar susceptibility

is

famine.

fold

The

in India.

failure occurs. 4,

Upto the end

century famines have exer-

of the 19th

cised a considerable check on the growth of population. 5.

At

result of a

generally

calamity which

the time of a severe

is

usually the

strange coincidence of several factors there

some

extraordinary

presents a two-fold

problem

difficulty.

either

:

it

creates

is

The

situation

new

circums-

tances of which the relief administration had no experience, or the extraordinary

difficulty

an unmanagable shape and

due

isolation

ordinary

was an and

to

transport

size.

utter dearth of fodder,

wild tribes

to

presented a great difficulty. failure of water supply and

persons refuse

it

relief

1868-70 there

and huge wanderings of men

accept relief on

ordinary terms

famine

of 1899-1900 the

In the

fodder enormously increased

the difficulties of administration.

ordinary difficulties

is

In addition to these extra-

seen that in every famine oiany too late to save them. it becomes

until

Besides, this situation explains the

repetition

of

mistakes by the government in matters of relief tration,

e. g. t

Orissa, in

the

wrong estimate

of the

of the

the

same

adminis-

situation in 1865 in

1873-74 in Bihar and in 1943 in

in the relief

of 1865

presented an extra-

In the famine of 1896-98 in C. P, the

cattle took place*

reluctance of

famine

In Orissa

difficulties

Rajputana famine of

In

difficulty,

gives the familiar problem

Bengal

;

mistake

aboriginal tribes in 1897 in C, P. and in

1900inGujrat andKhandesh; hampering

of administration

(

175

)

by unexpected immigration in 1868-70 in Rajputana and in 1900 in many British Provinces and excessive relief distri* ;

bution in 1873-74 in Bihar and in 1900 in several provinces.

FAMINES IN MODERN TIMES.

III.

Modern Concept famine

is

a state

the absence

in

emergency

recognizes the existence of in

The conception

of Famine.

of

the

unemployment on

of general poor

sures of relief.

which

of

a

modern

government which

a scale,

law, requires

special

mea-

Historical study of this situation shows that

with the change of times there have been changes in

its

nature, causes, intensity and frequency. in the

Change

Nature of Famines.

It

is

said

that early

famines (mostly upto the Muslim period) were food famines, in which actual food shortage was the chief characteristic,

and

main problem was of getting food at all. The later famines were simply money or work famines, in which the the

main characteristic was poverty and the main problem was of obtaining work and wage thereby getting the means to pay for food.* result

does not mean

food shortage, and

in

from the

It

list

of

famine

is

means

in the

particular

the

place

food production

factors,

The implications

no countrywide

usually there

ment

of

is

not

removed

are that since

failure of crops, the develop-

transport can

by drawing

failures do

that crop

meet the scarcity

at

the surplus from other places

;

administrative organization dealing with famines and

have progressively reduced the distress caused by crop failures and the government have taken the responsibility of providing work and

the system

of

administrative

relief

;

*!t is difficult to say as to when does this change take place. It is said the Rajputana famine of 186870 was the last famine in which the scarcity of food was severely felt. Really speaking it is not from the beginning of the British Rule, but specially after the construction of railways and the improvement in the administration of famine relief in the latter half of the 19th century that tbe change came into being. that

Hence, though

wage daring emergency,

constantly faced with local food

deaths due to

power

The

food.

buy

and

is

adequate purchasing

earlier famines

deaths caused by

by widespread

country

shortage, there is no fear of

people have

to starvation if

the

were characterized

starvation

due

non-

to

the later ones are characterized

by a failures, caused by crop employment At present the idea of food famine is supposed to have availability of food,

temporary dislocation of

banished except from a few tracts which are

still

inaccesible

to trade.

in the

Changes opening created

not so

indirect and

much by

to

India they continue

be

famines, and

the

now

of

power

does

It

of

mean

not

that

Really speaking in

fresh causes have

also

transport and irrigation

natural factors in

price variations,

factors resulting

now

and natural causes as by

And

so.

The development

have minimised

fiscal

direct causes.

more cause famines.

natural factors no

in the

chapter famine conditions are

monetary

been added.

As mentioned

Causes of Famines.

section of this

causing

caused by monetary and

in trade depressions,

can also create

famine conditions by creating widespread unemployment and lack of purchasing power.

Changes used

to

in the Intensity of

be mostly

localized,

Famines, but

now

In the past famines the

effects of

local

shortages are spread over larger areas, and thus the intensity The rigour of famine in the form of is thereby reduced,

deaths and suffering

is

also

minimised because

relief

can

now be administered more quickly and widely, and the measures and methods of relief are more scientific and numerous,

Changes conception

in the

of

Frequency of Famines,

famines makes

it

The change

difficult

to

in the

compare

the

177

(

frequency of famines to

)

at different

periods

;

and

it

is difficult

say whether the food famines in former times were more

frequent or the work or in

modern

money famines

There

times.

is,

famines were more frequent during the t

during

the early period

are

more numerous

howevef, an irapressiop that

Company Ruje

Crown Rule

of the

an,d

than under the

This impression is probably due to the, fact has been a systematic record of famines during

native rule. that there

the

and the accounts

later times

of

previous

famines a re K

comparatively more incomplete.

Regarding the frequency of famines in future there are two contrary views* Some say that the danger of famine is increasing, while others hold that It

was commonly

revolution in transport and

methods

gradually minimised,

in

19th centui-y the

means

of

preservation and storage Western World, and famine was

of food

famine from the

vanished

is

development

agriculture, the

it

believed that during the

very unusual in the civilized world. But there have occurred Irish famine of 1846-51, Russian several famines since then :

famines

1905 and 1921-22, China famines of

of 1892,

1878,

1887 and 1916, U.S. A. famine of 1930-31, and Indian famines

towards the end

century and in 1943,

of the 19th

Besides

there are several things which indicate a growing danger;

(if There are several chronic famine

populated underdeveloped present population

tion experts predict

regions of the world,

causing a

is

areas urthe thickly (ii)

At

famine problem, and popula-

an increasing pressure on the margin

of

subsistence which unchecked would breed increasing famines in futuret

(Hi) In future there

is

natural resources of the world, is

shortage

entertathed not so

a possibility of famine

(iv)

The danger

much on account

in

of food

of paucity

of

resources as on account of the declining percentage of popu* '

23

'

'

(

178

)

lation on agriculture) and (v) Widespread unemployment and famine conditions can be caused by trade cycles.

On

other

the

hand

the

methods

of

fighting

famines are

progressively increasing and thus minimising the chances of disasters,

widespread

The prophecies of population experts are

present net increase of population and the

perhaps based on

existing methods and technique not fully account for

and

behaviour

the

in agriculture,

the likely

modifications in population

ing

and the food supply

is

in

food

increasing at a

grow

development

technological

production. In India though population rate

and they do

is

lagging behind presenting

a Malthusian spectacle, there is neither a danger of growing of increasing frequency because the

severity nor

both fighting them,

of

preventive and protective are becoming

elaborate, scientific and efficient. But this should by no

more

means be taken sense that their

come

will

methods

immunity from famines, but only in the frequency is gradually minimised. Famines as

from time

to

time,

from single crop failure

resulting

and not

not so quickly,

but work famines on a

scale to call for state relief.

Changes

in Resistance

long struggle

and Recouperative Power,

In the

against nature considerable ground has been

gained in the form of both protection and prevention. Apaong the former by far the best methods have been the develop-

ment

of

railways and

irrigation

works.

Other

efforts

to

increase farm prosperity in the form of general administration,

iand revenue administration, cooperative

cultural improvements, marketing, prices,

credit,

agri-

and animal husban-

dry, etc., have gradually increased the resistance of farmers*

Besides, other improvements,

not confined

classes, such as industries, trade, logical

and

linguistic

to

agricultural

commerce, banking, ethnoand vital statistics, etc,, have surveys,

179

I

increased the power of prevention

mortality is less.

from famines

world, they are class which'is

much

still

The power

behind

result

now much quicker and of suffering and morta*

heart-rendering to the civilized

during past famines, But one

less than

still left

is

the tales

Though

in Indian famines are

liiy

against famines.*

to fight

has also increased gradually with the

the recovery

that

)

is

that of agricultural labourers,

Areas Immune from and Specially Subject to Famines. The areas which least

and

receive heavy

70 inches or 7,000 in

(annual average of at

rainfall

more tons

01

water per acre)

of rain

which the chances uf a serious departure

in

any year

are remote, such as coastal strip between the Western Ghats

and the Arabian Sea from the extreme south of the Peninsula to the

southern boundary of Surat District Assam and lower

Bengal, are said to be safe against widespread drought.

hazard

famine

of

not

is

great in

very

rendered sale by irrigation, suchasaieas

The

areas which are

served by large

canals and tube-wells in Northern India and the deltas in

Besides in such areas also in which cultivation

Madras.

without irrigation is less

is

exceedingly precarious (where rainfall

than 10 or 12 inches and which are scrub lands

grazing), the

danger

areas which are

famine

of

(approximately 10 lakhs qr. the

always precarious, the vagaries of the

parts

Monsoon and

exposed

of Peninsular

inches or Gujrat,

less,

miles), or

India

and

Malwa and

to

to a risk of

occasional

the

heavy

rainiall

where agriculture

is

part of C. P.

famine*

drought are the plateau

average rainfall

tract of

'For detailed studies one can look of 1880 and 1898,

Commissions

Beside these

great.

the uncertainties of seasons,

receiving an in

for

remaining areas are not safe against

and hence they are exposed

The

not

is

protected or leceive

either

fit

higher average

In these to

the

of

30

rainfall

areas scarcity

is

Reports of the Faming

183

(

periodic and

)

often intensities into severe famines.

it

areas lying between

speaking the

Roughly

20" and 30"

the line of

Out of this average rainfall are more exposed to famines, whole area some portions are recognized famine zones, They are

Dharwar, Sholapur,

Ptjapur,

Deccan

States

now merged

iu

Satara,

Bombay;

and the

districts

millet

growing

dis-

the tricts of Anantpur, Bellary, Cudappa, Kurnool, and paddy growipg districts o( Vizgapattam and Ranjanad in Madras Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar districts of the East ;

Kutch State; and some western parts of Rajasfchaa* Since famine is related not only to drought but also to

Punjab .

;

paany other things scarcity or uncertainty of the Monsoon got the only

determining factor in the

any aiea modern times no area can be considered

to fapune.

In

absolutely

safe

where, IJQ

porqaally

against

famine,

It

can

occur

any-

an agricultural country the danger is greater uncertain rainfall. Famines usually occur where

But

aj;eas of

is

liability of

in

rainfall is sufficient

good crop but a severe

for a

departure from the normal brings about an unexpected food

EFFECTS OF FAMINES.

IV.

Famines

in

India are

mostly caused by

drought resulting in crop failure.

The

are food shortage, fodder shortage, scale, aimless wanderings of

heavy

loss of life of both,

intensity of famines

unemployment on

men and

cattle

and epidemics.

a vast

resulting in a

The extent and

vary considerably in different cases,

but the basic features being the same

the effects are similar

innature though they differ in degree. of

widespread

characteristic features

Generally the

effects

famines are as follows: ()

Increase in death rate.

and rendered

in

time,

there

Unless is

a

relief is

very

efficient

temporary increase

ii\

(

181

)

death rate 1 either on account of starvation or due diseases

panying

resulting

Largest number of deaths due

from to

weakened

to

accom-

resistance.

famine have taken place in

India, China and Russia, During the last 100 years about 20 million people have died in major famines in India.

Some

epidemiologists say that diseases are the invariable

consequence

of

famines 2 because of debility resulting from

food deficiency or from in

1348 in

typhus in

food

substitutes, e. g., plague

malaria in 1848 in Upper Siberia,

Florence,

Finland in

vile

1867-68,

plague in

Bombay

in 1896,

cholera and small-pox after the Rajputana famine, cholera

and malaria

the

after

famine of 1899-1900, and cholera,

malaria and small- pox after the Bengal famine of 1943. (if)

lation

Wanderings and Migrations. takes

Famine

stricken popu

aimless wandering in search of

to

-

food*

It

happened, in most conspicuous manner, in the case of Chalisa famine, the Rajputana famine and the famine in 1876-78. Besides there

are

favoured places,

8

Wadai

in

1830.

permanent movements

also

to

more

Delafosse mentions such movements from Petrie

mentions pastoral

people of arid

Mallory from his study of famines in China concludes that food was the main check on population. In semi-arid Iran also*penodic famines kept the population within limits set by the environment. Similarly in India upto the last century famines annihilated huge population But inspite of a huge number of deaths during famines they periodically, cannot be considered as a permanent check on over-population, 1.

scarcity

2. Ordinarily famines do not produce new or special diseases, but the typical diseases of the locality break out after them, But sometimes a new disease somehow (perhaps imported) breaks out as plague in Bombay

in 1896,

Permanent movements as a result of series of droughts and 3. frequent famines take place generally in case of nomadic or pastoral people. But famine as a significant factor in inducing the population of a

Some agricultural regions of China, economy, seems doubtful. Pueblo culture in America, and Gujrat, Malwa and some portions of Rajputana in India have faced countless famines. But there have not been permanent migrations, and on the other hand they have tried to develop a famine proof economy, settled

182

(

to

regions migrating after

600 are said

The Arab Migrations

richer lands.

have started after

to

series of drought between 816

The movements

)

in the

and

a great famine,

and 1072 kept them in motion-

northern plain of Hungary from the

Steppes are also said to be caused by prolonged droughts. (Hi l Disruption in economic

unemployment on a large

Failure of crops causes

life.

scale-

Being accompanied by a

causes desttuction of cattle on a large scale

fodder famine

it

which means

loss

of

working

the

capital,

main source

of

farmers*

farming and a major part of the stored wealth of Vast areas go out of cultivation, at least tem-

porarily.

Normal trade

power

of

in

demand

and

is

Industries face

upset,

lack

state finances are strained.

(iv)

Set-back in agricultural progress.

Famine

deserted.

vitality.

reduces labour efficiency

It

increases indebtedness and

It

chance of investment in agriculture. crops are

to

some

extent

a decline in the level of of expert farmers,

and

replaced skill

loss of

is

said to

Stricken villages

of agricultural progress. put back the clock

are

a

arising out of the decline in the purchasing power,

thus

by lowering reduces the

Sometimes industrial

by food crops.

There

is

and knowledge due to death power due to death of cattle,*

Periodical famines not only eat into temporary agricultural prosperities but

by developing a fear complex or a sense

of insecurity

and urcertainty, also check the incentive and

the scope for

agricultural

development.

they stereotype the agricultural systems

(v)

Effects

on social

break up the settled

life,

On

and

the other

hand

practices,

and customs.

Wanderings Sometimes the family life is also life

*Food and fodder famines need not necessarily go together, as But generally 1896 Kbarif crops grew large quantities of fodder. And Moreland aptly remarks fodder famine accompanies food famine that 'fodder famine is the worst calamity that can befall the in

1

people,

of (he United Provinces, 1921, p, 12), (Moreland, Agriculture

Famines are

broken.

reflected in religious

beliefs,

nies and rituals in all agricultural coramities.

some

social customs.

Sumner

They

ceremo-

condition

belives abortion and infanticide

be protective devices against famines*. And some writers have connected famines with religious exaltation and maina, to

group movements and

turbulence in Europe in the

social

In India the worship of rain god, the elaborate

Middle Ages, ceremonies before and after the harvests, the typical worship

when

monsoon

the

etc.,

seem

to

charitable

gets delayed,

Indian rural masses and social

disposition of

responsibility of destitutes,

have originated in crop failures and agricultural

insecurity*

Prolonged

(vi)

famines

is

it

pleasant,

communities

rural

the

a

fact

the

that

not due

widespread starvation

man-made economic

where

rarely it

the

effects

it

a

In

are

phenomenon

being greater,

the

temporary, and the recovery

country

a greater

be

to

the

pity

to find

but due to

food

ephemeral, but

effects are lasting.

countiies, the

effects is

food die of

of

country where famines

likely

Besides in economically advanced resistance

is

During

Though un-

most.

to the lack of

factors.

is a recurring

suffer

producers

And

starvation during famines,

occur

of rural communities.

difficulties

are

quicker.

like India, the effects are lasting,

power of relatively more But in

a

poor

and the recovery

is

very slow. (vii)

Constructive institutions and measures,

famine conditions give

rise

to

measures, which are intended

famines and them.

The

to

Sometimes

constructive institutions and to

reduce

the

chances of

increase the capacity of people

to

withstand

Movement

in

Germany

Raiffeisen Cooperative

*Cannibalism is seen to have often occurred during famines, but it does not seem to have originated as a regular practice under absolute lack of food, (Southard, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol. v-vi, p.)

is

said to

have been organized

More recently

12 yrs. famines* the

land revenue policy, are said this perpetual

Measures

policies

system and the

be mainly the outcomes of

and periodic menace.

famines have

against

preventive, and

been

of

two types

The former imply

protective.

(ii)

and measures which aim

of famines,

irrigation

to

MEASURES AGAINST FAMINES,,

V,

(i)

famine

Cooperative Movement,

the

of railways, the

development

of

reforms of Chanakya caine after the

In India the

of 1848*

meet the needs

to

at

checking

all

:

those

the recurrence

such as development of irrigation and other

improvements leading to agricultural security, limiting population and other social and economic changes

agricultural

minimising the danger of famines. The latter imply those measures which are adopted to relieve the distress when

famine actually occurs, such as distribution

of food, provision

employment, remission and suspension of rent and revenue and provision of medical facilities, in short the measures

of

commonly

called the relief measures.

taken

Measures

by Ancient

Civilizations.

Wherever

famines have been frequent attempts of both the preventive and the protective type have usually been made to

fight

The usual measures were

against them.

water. ,is

The

storing of food as an

proved by the

stone storage

to

store food

rooms and under-ground

granaries found in Harappa and Mohinjodaro in the

Valley

Civilization, in

Lower Egypt

in the prehistoric remains of

amongst, the

the

and

insurance against scarcity

in

Indus

Badarian Culture and

Swiss Lakeland, and also

savage societies, such as the Maori in

New

Zealand, the Hopi and Moqui in America,

Examples

of

famine prevention schemes are the canal

irrigation system

of

Sumer

(3000 B. C.), the earials heading

177

(

)

in the

Euphrates and draining into the Tigris during Babylonian supremacy, the flood prevention dikes on the Hwang

Ho

(2000 B.

the

C,),

irrigation

works

of the Incas, irrigated

terraces of Phoenicia, from which the Greeks are said to have

acquired the knowledge of irrigation, presence of tanks in South India, the remains of terraces around Carmel irrigated

and Gilboa in Palestine, and the irrigation systems

of

some

primitive cultures, such as those of Arizona Pueblos.

Measures under the Native Rule.

Some

accounts

of

the

relief seem give an impression that under native rule no adequate and proper measures were ever taken to fight against famines; and

famine policy and

of

development

hence very often a wrong impression prevails that no eSort was made towards famine control and relief by the native

and

rulers,

Crown Rule

it

is

only after the

that a systematic

Sleeman complains

up.

India in regard to

against

historical facts

failure of

rain,

And

funds

and associations.*

innumerable examples type

of

grew

about the days of

both

of

constructed

as

a

during famines poor

houses were started and maintained, relief

relief

ignorance which prevailed in the economic aspect of famine. This can

Canals and wells were

Chandragupta. safety

lamine policy and

ot the

be disproved by

easily

country passed under the

There were famine

Besides hibtory provides preventive and protective

measures being taken during the Hindu and the

Muslim periods

specially

Tughulak, Akbar, and Shah Jahan.

examples are

Jumna Canal

and the canal system

Muhammad quite common

during the days ot

of the

The two

inherited from the

Mughal times

Cavery Delta coming down from

remote antiquity. It is

said that 'under Native

*The

24

rule there

Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.

was

Ill, p, 478,

little

thought

and no

for,

a large relief

made

means of remedial

effective

work was

the

The people country was desolfcte

revenue was not collected.

Conditions scarcely

most

and so broke down where

wandered and died the

were

But primitive

and roadless cotmtry

transport could not enter fodderless

and

Occasionally

started and spasmodic atten&pts

to famine-stricken areas,

send food

to

action.

in thousands,

required.

Company, but by The moderndegrees a scheme of systematic relief grew up. view of the responsibility of the State was not reached, h6wchanged

in the early

days of the Bast India

Crown, 11

ever, until India had passed under the

vein the Cambridge History

Muslim

the

in

period

that

'as

land-locked and populations were

regarded as hopeless.

largely

grains in central towns,

long

was made

Alms

remission

to

stem

of

revenue, digging of

But no attempt

and

ruin.' 2

But

overcoming a severe distress, to have fully stemmed

of the circumstances of these

nistration, not

ruin,

or

dial meant?,

famine

not to have

the tide of starvation

developed some

effective

reme-

or not to have formulated a systematic scheme

relief, in

unjustified.

the

modern sense

The nature

Europe lends support ,

was

days and the difficulties of the then admiblame any

view

of

Were

districts

giving, storage of food of

the full tide of starvation

in

and

as

isolated famine relief

were palliatives occasionally resorted.

wells,

In a similar

mentions about famines

of India

to

of

of the term, is

contemporary

wholly

measures

in

our contention that anything better,

theoretically pOttaiWe,

was hardly

practicable.

Under

r

fconditions to counteract a

famine or even

to mitigate

was beyond the power of man. This does not nothing better was at all possible, and the native

erially

that

rulers presented 1, 2.

supreme examples

History of Ancient India, Cambridge History of India, Vol. VI,

of

p,

famine policy and 296

179

(

relief.

policy

But

and

at the

relief

same time

)

the impression

that the

famine

began by the East India Company and was

systematized only after the country passed under the Crown, is

The

not correct,

that the

facts,

effects of

the measures

were

a by the native trifling, and the actual the was of food most conspicuous factor in famine deficiency rulers

take

little effort

control

was made by the native rulers towards famine

and

Moreland's view

relief. '

when he obvious,

But that does not prove that

cannot be denied.

situation,

says is

it

that

it

appears

least

at

balanced

inadequacy may be

their

not easy to suggest what

and

been done

though

more

is

more could have whether the

doubtful

and moat humane administration in the world could

best

have organized imports by sea tion.

It

sufficient to

would be unjust, therefore,

administration for failure to avert the

to

meet the

blame

calamity

the

situa-

Moghul

fthich in the

* circumstances of the time, must be regarded as inevitable*.

Measures during the the East India

Company

British Period,

During the days

matters did not improve

famines were dealt with such measures as the

ments and the

seems

to

district

officers

have been made

tamine prevention and

to

thought proper,

formulate a

relief,

at all,

local

No

ot

and

governattempt

general system of

though there are instances

of

grain by government, penalizing hoarding, storing on imports, prohibiting exports, opening giving bounties houses, advancing money for sinking wells, and opening poor

of

relief

works

to

provide employment during famine days. first opened in Madras in 1792 and from

Relief works were

;

1812 onwards the principle

was adopted, principle

In

of

non-interference with trade

1837 local government laid

that while the State

*Moreland, From Akbar

to

dow*

the

found work for the*able bodied,

Aurangzeb, pp,

21314,

180

(

the whole

first

all

asm

community must,

the helpless

)

times, look after

ordinary

The foreign government

and the infirm.

for the

time realized the obligation in Agra famine of 1838. But

these measures

continued

were very inadequate scarcity of food and famine resulted ;

to characterize the situation

;

heavy mortality. During Company's administration frequent wars devastated large tracts, and information in the in

form

of

vital

statistics,

agricultural

was trying

to establish its rule,

and

and other

statistics

economic conditions was not known.

The foreign power directors were more

the

particular about company's profits and were least interested in country's welfare.*

After the country passed under the efforts

were made

seems

so

to

have matured

understand as

to

after long

how has

into the details of

Crown Rule The

deal with famines.

famine

it

relief

duiing

During the famine of 1860

present policy

experience.

evolved

it

it

all

is

conscious

In

order to

necessary

to

go

the famines,

was declared

that

the

government would provide employment to the able bodied, and the helpless and the infirm should receive charitable relief

by voluntary agencies.

Gratuitous relief was provided

and the government by charitable public relief

works.

opened ten large

Able bodied men and women who could work

were organized

in gangs,

were housed

in

temporary sheds and were engaged on earth works on canals and roads, Poor houses were also opened in which some light work was

imposed on capable inmates, and the helpless persons were relieved in homes^ In all 330 lakhs units were relieved in British territory at

the cost of

Rs, 27 lakhs of

which Rs, 9

#The remarks of the Famine Commission of 1830 that upto the end the 18th century 'the position of the British India was not such as either o create any sense of general obligation to give relief, or to supply suffiit,' is just cient means of affording typical of the attitude of colonial jf

idmmistration.

(

181

)

The

lakhs were subscribed by the public. to

be less than that in 1837-38.

enquiry was made into

the

causes,

after this

For the

mortality is said

time a special

first

famine by Colonel Baird Smith

area and intensity of

famine.

the

He

submitted three reports in 1861, and emphasized two things (i)

famine was 'due not

difficulty of starving

to

want

of food

in

people

in

ples, specially in

the country but to

obtaining

Some

lived.

regard to gratuitous

of the

relief,

by him, but his report did not lead

and

food,

(ii)

the

greatly on the land

staying power of the people depended

system under which they

:

modern

princi-

were anticipated

any formulation of However, a new spirit about

general principles of relief.

to

famine policy came into being. The experience during Orissa famine was that defective estimates prove fatal, and that special difficulties crop up in

The maintenance

diflerent cases.

cultural statistics in Bengal,

of land

was considered

nications in Orissa

350 lakh units were relieved

records and agri-

and the development In

essential.

at a cost

of Rs,

of

comnw

two years

95 lakhs, 2/3 of

which were spent on import of grain* If the total loss of revenue is added to it, the total cost of Orissa famine comes to Rs. 1| crore to the

units were relieved

sion of revenue the

was

government

government.

In

Madras

at a cost of Rs, 12 lakhs, to the

spent

in

1866, 210

and the remis-

extent of Rs* 15 lakhs.

In

more than

on

one lakh

Bombay relief.

famine stirred public conscience. The of throwing most of the burden on the instead government, voluntary agencies, itself undertook the responsibility, and

Mortality during

this

borrowed considerable amount

to

finance additional canals

and railways. Now onwards the old doctrine that the helpless and the infirm were to be relieved by the public, was completely abandoned, but really speaking

1874

that the responsibility of

it

was not

till

the State for gratuitous relief

was

fully recognized* This time is said to be the turning point

in the history

famine

of

because the report of the

relief

committee presided over by

foundation of a definite famine pKcy, to

Campbell laid the

Sir Goerge .

The

reportis believed

have changed the outlook about famines, and the

ment began

govern-

assume greater responsibility in dealing with Campbell remarked that 'the idea rather prevailed

famines,

to

was a personal

Orissa failure

that the

And John Lawrence, who was

not occur again'.

blamed

General

failure,

which need Governor-

accepted the

himself, far having

facile

assurance of the Bengal government. In 1868 Lawrence declared in the council that his object

every life*. He created a Department of under Richard Strachey, and an enquiry was Irrigation conducted into the status of the peasantry of Oudh and

was

'to

save

subsequently with a view

an Act was passed* declared that

to

securing them customary rights

Rajputana famine it was would be held personally

In the case of

'the district officers

1

responsible that no

preventable deaths occurred but inspite

of

was. great.

it

the

mortality

Able bodied persons were

employed on relief works. In British territory Rs. 49 lakhs were spent on relief and Rs. 7 lakhs on gratuitous relief.

Revenue was remitted

tq the

extent of Rs, 5 lakhs., In the

Province of Agra alone 290 lakh units were relieved cost of

Rs. 30 lakhs.

swarmed

severely strained in relif

But [migration from native

the relief works, broke

public charity.

was made

in

down

a

states

system and

However, a new departure

advancing

cultivators for agricultural

all relief

at

about

Rs. 21 lakh

to

improvements*

In the case of Bihar famine, the terrible mortality of Orissa

and Rajputana being still fresh in the minds of the people, Lord North .Brook was determined not to allow the same fatal

results

tp

be repeated,

Hence

relief

measures were

ifc

(

fanned on an unknown works were

relief

About 40,000

scale.

started.

It

districts

said that

is

population of the famine affected

some

sq. mlfes

were considered distressed

170 lakhs of people

area

26%

for

witji

which

of the total

was relieved, and

in

percentage increased to 50 or even 70, About 30

were relieved at a cost of Rs, 6J crores. Gratuitous was given on a very liberal scale, Export of grain from some areas (specially rice from Bengal) was prohibited, crore units relief

and when the private trade was

own

its

it

failing

imported grain on

account (4'8 lakh tons of rice from Burma).

The

was ample, timely, quite successful, but is said to be extravagant* There was no financial consideration but life relief

was

to

be saved

incurred on tional

'a

at all costs.

An enormous expenditure was

famine

ot unusual brevity and of no excepBut a definite improvement was made in

security*.

famine administration, and for the

first

time a serious crop

failure did not result in any conspicuous mortality. first

time

village

made which In the

still

inspection (for administering relief)

serves as the basis of

case of the

Government

For the

modern

was

organization,

South India famine of 1876-78 the

insisted

upon imposing proper tests, since they acquired an experience from huge expenditure in Bihar famine, For the able bodied relief woiks were promptly opened, and gratuitous relief was also well organized. Dn the whole

relief

was

strict this

time.

But

Prices were high

and private trade was not equal to the demand. The cost of relief in Madras was Rs, 10 mil. and in Bombay 4 mil, though iiuman lives were saved in Bombay to a larger extent than

where the charitable contribution from Britisk

in Madras,

Colonies was

78,000. In

were relieved

at a cost of Rs* 72 lakh,

was Rs, 60 cost

of

lakhs.

Hydrabad and Mysore 7*2 crore uoits and revenue remission

In all

Rs. 8J crores,

A

70 (yore pni^ were 4 relayed; at * Commission was appointed under

184

(

)

the chairmanship of Sir Richard Strachey which reported in

1880.

They

check the growth of

to

resting as

common

the

does in India upon the moral obligation of mutual

it

assistance,

and self-reliance amongst the structure of the society, which

thrift

or to impair

people,

the duty of the State to offer

held that relief should be so administered as not

relief but

a

fully recognized

is

admirably adopted for

The

misfortune,

common

of saving

object

effort against life

would be

far better secured if proper care is taken to prevent the abuse and demoralization which resulted from ill-directed

and excessive

of

distribution

charitable

In

relief.

this

spirit provisional famine code was formed and promulgated It formed a guide 1883. in and a basis for various

famine

provincial

codes subsequently

were tested and revised

Commission collection

of

insisted facts

between

upon

1880 and

need

the

relating to the

which

prepared,

of

1896,

proper

The

statistical

conditions of agricultural

community, and in circulating the code the Government laid down that fundamental principle of famine wage 'the lowest :

amount

sufficient

The main

tances.'

the

principles of

Commission were (i)

of

maintain health under given circums-

to

famine

Employment should be provided on

permanent

utility

to

to

the

able

the relief

bodied persons,

works before

impaired by privation, on a wage on the conditions of performing a support,

physical efficiency sufficient

down by

relief laid

:

is

suitable task* (ii)

Gratuitous relief should be given either in their

villages in the form of grain or

the form of cooked It

food,

to

money, or

those

who

in poor

houses in

are unable to work.

required very careful and organized control. Food supply should be managed by private agencies (til)

bat

if

the

latter

were unequal

to the task

it

should

;

be done

(

185

)

> r

by the

state

;

and

if

necessary, export of grain should be

prohibited. (iv)

Land owners should

be given loans

for

seeds,

grain and bullocks, and to open works for providing employ-

ment

to

labourers and tenants, and land

and rents should be suspended

revenue payment

in proportion to

the

crop

failure.

During excessive drought

(v)

ded

(vi) to

should be provi-

facilities

for the migration of cattle to forest areas.

its

Cost of relief should be so localized as to bring

administrators a sense of

home

personal responsibility for

expenditure. In the case of 1896-97 the

the

government took advantage of recommendations of the Famine Commission of 1880,

and hence though the number supported on large, the actual conduct of relief was much reduced cost*

and

in C. P, difficulties

total cost

was

Rs.

relief

were rather great

Rs, 1| crores of

was given to 4 mil, people, and Loans were given to the

7| crores,

extent of Rs, 1J crores, and

extent of Rs. 1J crores. to

was very and at a

reluctance of wild tribes to accept relief on ordi-

nary terms, At one time the

better

Administration of relief was not on the same

basis everywhere,

because of

relief

revenue

Charitable

was remitted relief

to

the

fund amounted

which 1J crores came from U. K, alone.

*Jn 1818 the system of Famine Relief and Insurance fund was introduced with the object of providing, through a special tax, as far as possible annual surplus of Rs. 1 croie for famine relief. The original policy was to spent it first on relief and the lemaming amount on reduction and In the next budget the policy was changed by avoidance of debt accepting the view that a large part of it might better be applied to 'famine protective' as distinguished from 'productive public work', and later on railways and irrigation works 'fcegan to be constructed out of it Under the Government of India Act, 1919 a provision was made for setting up Famine Relief and insurance funds by Provincial Governments by earmarking revenue annually for it, and it was invested with the Central Government,

25

186

(

The experiences

of

)

examined by

were

famine

this

James Lyall Commission, which reported observed that owing to high prices there was in value of land,

and

tration

In broad principles of relief adminis-

adopted the

they

They

a rise in income,

and thus the resistance against

in credit,

famine was increased.

in 1899.

Sir

recommendations

of the

Commi-

some changes

ssion of 1880, but

in details

including more

wage and greater gratuitous relief further recommended relief for special

during rains, and

management

charitable

the

of

extension of decentralized their

relief

relief

recommendation was

more

avoid

to

tribes,

gradual

all risk

and

to

effect

make

liberal,

at

degree

There was

persons resorting

any previous time.

In

suspended.

ol relief

laxity in

July

1900,

areas in British India were on In

relief.

of

to

Lord

population had come operations, which were

that 1/4 of the entire

to a greater or lesser

were on

hill

and

The general

work,

number

famine works was largest than

Curzon estimated

freely

fund

relief

attractive,

During 1899-1900 the

very

suggested

weavers, relief for aboriginals and

cases like

of

they

liberal

cost of Rs. 10 crores,

all

and revenue was

tests

18%

in

and

famine stricken

one time 6J mil. releif, 114 crore units were relieved at a

and the

total

cost

at

was Rs. 15

crores.

In order to improve the administration in States as in British

India the relief

Government gave

amounted

U. K. alone.

to

When

Rs.

them 3

crores.

Charitable

140 lakhs of which 88J came from

was over people did not high wages there, and secondly

the famine

leave relief works due

to

because after two successive famines they were not sure that the good season has really set in. The conditions were

examined by

Sir

Antony MacDonnell

Commission, which

reported in 1901. They thought that taking the famine period as a

whole

relief

was excessive, and hence suggested some

187

(

modifications,

was

tions

The cardinal

)

recommenda-

feature of their

'moral strategy* or 'putting heart into people.

Believing that

if

people were assisted

in the

beginning they

would help themselves and if their condition was allowed deteriorate it would proceed on, they emphasized a policy 'prudent boldness

7

starting

and revenue, prompt and the

for

wells,

They

further

sioner

loans

and sinking of temporary :

enlisting of non-official

appointment of a famine commis-

;

province where

a

in

cattle

recommended

assistance on a lage scale

to of

with early suspension of rent

liberal distribution of takavi

purchase of seeds,

1

relief

was

extensive

strict

;

regulations of relief in certain respects; preference to village

works

in particular circumstances in comparison to large works which had hitherto been the backbone of relief public schemes dealing with fodder problem to save cattle; consi;

derable increase in rolling stock on

banks of 'Raiffeisen' type

work

to

be pushed on

;

to

and

be

railways

established

methods

of

;

agricultural

;

state

irrigation

agriculture

be

to

improved. In

1907-8 the

policy

of

prompt assistance by extremely paration, sowing, and irrigation was given remission and suspension of revenue liberal

;

distributed started.

in areas

Out

other

than

where

of 13 districts declared as

works were started

in 11,

districts to

at

persons

and gratuitous

their

was followed

moral strategy

homes.

advances for ;

there

and relief

pre-

was large relief was

works were

famine stricken, relief

T

was given

test

in

26

About 3 lakh persons

Io 1900 The Indian Peoples Famine Trust was created with the. initial donation of Rs, 16 lakhs by Maharaja of Jaipur, The fund was invested in government securities to be held in trust It increased to 30 lakhs by private donations, and further increased in 1934 by transfering a fund of the U, P. Government, Income from this investment was to be spent on relief due In the Act of 1935, no provision was made for a to famines and floods,

separate relief fund, but the provincial governments instituted new famine funds which remained invested in securities of the Central

relief

Government,

188

(

received different kinds of

employed on

and 1J lakh workers were The total cost of relief was abouc

relief,

relief works,

The

Rg. 2{ crores.

)

character of relief was changed

because

changed circumstances which were mainly expansion and railways high prices rise in wages; increased employment on public works, industrial and building opera-

of

:

in canals

tions

;

;

colonies

to

emigration

;

and

;

lesser

dependence

of

labouring classes on agriculture. In 1918 relief measures were

6 lakhs.

The manner

showed an increased prices caused

much

The system its

of

in

taken under the Famine

maximum number

codes but at any time the

which the

resistance

crisis

on

relief

was

was surmounted

amongst masses, though high

silent suffering,

famine

relief

is

gradually settling down, more questioned, and the diversity being minimized in each successive

basic principles are no is

in actual

practice

famine.

But the difficulty

The

reluctance of those

the eagerness of those

of

who

accustomed

are said to remain perplexing in the

past.

government

famine

to

to officers

But the system of

efficient, elastic

relief is inherent.

are unaccustomed to relief, and

and adaptable,

relief

seek

to

is

relief,

have been

as they

becoming

more

The most common horror

of famine (absolute dearth of food)

is

now unknown because

railways have revolutionized relief, and private trade pours food where required, Since the administration is freed from the basic necessity of finding food,

and

is

supported by agri-

cultural intelligence and other social conditions,

able to solve other difficulties elasticity of the

system

is

more

it

has been

successfully,

increased because the

test

The works 1

Test work is an ordinary work employing unskilled labour usually The conditions are strict but not unduly repellent The object the people really need relief, being to ascertain whether J.

earth-work

(

and

189

works 1 are organized with

relief

feelings of the people,

and

:heir villages

People unable

special treatment is

Habitual beggars are

poor,

)

poor houses,

2

in

An

separately cared for.

worked

hill tribes is

on ordinary

to

government

funds

to

surely thii.k hlunii- rs

enlisted

;

in their

own

and every

relief,

being confined

ih.it tht

have

lor

day trVrr

pi'liry, a

mature and

less will

it

a

and

broad,

The

ties*

the

is

provi-

private

'We may

experiments ami co^tlv

of isolated

Out

passed.

trades,

failures

of

ami

deliberate of

effective plan

and

dis-

wMI-tested

campaign.

Nonethe-

always be essential that sirh rorapaigns di u'd

be conducted by

devohd and

equal not only

to

tfficient

the ordinary

bat to those extra tasks which are

VI,

to

which the whole world subscribes. 1

are

effort

softened and supplemented by

is

appointments has come,

men

now helped

and advice are

sion of necessaries, relief

forest

prevent the loosening of moral and social

strictness o(

cannot

children for

in

and artisans, who formerly suffered

relief works, are

Non-official aid

nude

out,

scheme

in

children

mothers

deserted

elaborate

the

and fed

treated,

whose

nurse them are given milk, and

to

respectable

clothed

specially

infants

kitchens,

made with the

sheltered,

weak persons are

are being fed

due regard

work are relieved

to

puHtc setvicts, by

ta
administration

ot

grave erne P

imposed by

PLAN OF MODERN FAMINE COMPAIJX,

The plan

of

modern lamiue coinpaign

scheme, and a complete machinery

for

is

an

relief

elaborate

exists.

It

i*

Relief work is a public uork on which during emergency employprovided to a large number for comparatively longer time on a wage sufficient to maintain health under normal circumstances, 1

ment

is

A poor house is a temporary structure run up ia a few day, where 2, paupers are shettered and given cooked food under conditions of decency and discipline t

The Cambridge

History of India. Voj VI,

p.

313,

190

(

)

modern Indian

rightly said that 'inspite of inevitable defects a

famine compaign in history of

one of the most remarkable achievements

is

made on

oreparations are suitable relief

Country ready.

into

relief

mapped The Government

and programmes in

every

and plans

circles,

of

district.

are

kept

kept informed of the meteorolo-

is

and

conditions, crop conditions, prices

gical

times standing

In ordinary

a large scale,

works are revised annually

is

steps

:

Standing preparations.

(i)

The various

administration/*

scientific,

in the plan are as follows

birth

and death

rates, etc.

A

Danger Signals.

(ii)

danger

signals of

watch

regular

approaching distress,

orobable failure of rain

is

When

made,

is

and

kept on the

a forecast of the fails

rain actually

preliminary enquiries are started.

As

Preliminary action.

(iii)

Government declares

the

necessary

financial

its

uneasiness intensifies

the

makes

general policy and

Great

arrangements,

the is

importance

attached at this stage to 'moral strategy'. Meetings are held, policy

aged

is

to

explained

non-official

;

undertake local improvements

committees are appointed

to

require gratuitous

dence

to people,

money

who

relief

lists of

are

view

paupers

is

suspend

found

to

persons

This gives

who confi-

are further given liberal advances

for agricultural purposes

to

employ labour;

helpless

made.

rent

of

and sinking wells, Detailed

enquiries about crop failures are also a

to

encour-

organize private charity, villages

are inspected and preliminary

may

enlisted and

is

help

made

and revenue,

at this

If

the

stage with

number

of

be great poor houses are opened where

infirm are given gratuitous relief. (iv)

Period of test.

employment, *

This

is

Test works are started for providing

an anxious stage, since

Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. Ill,

p.

479

if

the tests are

191

(

Government

lenient the

and

if

they are

The condition

put to unnecessary expenditure,

is

too strict

)

the situation

not be grasped.

may

who seek employment on test works the condition of those who stay in and closely watched, villages is also inspected, The death-rate is also scrutinized, those

of

is

(v)

village

Period of general

inspection disclose real to the

opened according

increased,

gratuitous

gratuitous

relief

are

revised,

relief

to

works are

given in the

code, and

Lists of persons entitled

and the

distribution

By about the end of December in number on relief is generally large and

increase

and the ripening

till

of

March. The reaping

rabi harvest

of

mango crop draw workers from

works, but they return mostly by the end of April, the

distress is

said

to

generally breaks out, all

of

begins.

the famine year the

continues

works or

the test

distress, relief

principles

is

village inspection staff to

When

relief.

reach

its

maximum and

But the medical help

is

relief

In

May

cholera

kept ready

the time. (vi)

Rains policy (the beginning of

beginning of rains the policy changes. country and the people

With

the

In the interest of

the

the

end).

considered important that the

agri-

cultural conditions should be restored as early as possible,

and

as large area should be

it is

sown

as possible.

are generally closed and people are to

small works near their villages

gratuitous relief is

extended, and

to agriculturists for

Hence

moved from

at the

liberal

relief

end of May.

Local

advances are made

buying agricultural equipment.

as rains break out relief workers return

works

large works

As

to their fields,

soon those

who stay on are encouraged to return to villages when the demand for labour springs, A few relief works are kept open in case of need, and those who cannot work and require relief

are given

it

gratuitously.

support themselves and the

weak

The

able

bodied are

to

are supported by the State.

(vii)

Closure o/

relief.

khartf crops ripens, the

When

closed gradually, gratuitous relief recipients are

September quantities.

and

a

the earliest of the principal

few remaining is

relief

works are

discontinued, and dole.

And

given valedictory October quinine is distributed

the

during in larore

CHAPTER

VII

Resource Utilization (Land Resources)

I.

RESOURCE ASSESSMENT.

Resource Concept.

Natural

defined as the environmental

Resources

aspects or

are

popularly

the materials

tad

forces bestowed by nature upon a region, and utilized by man in the satisfaction of wants*. To be objective they include all those things which are originally conserved by nature in the form of a fund or a of perennial flow in all the

spheres

the physical environment,

viz.,

atmosphere

(ga$),

hydrosphere

(water), lithosphere (upper crust] of earth

and

phere (inner strata of the earth which

is

biosphere (organic objects).

in short, all natural

things which

lie

pulated for his welfare. they signify serve

They imply,

within the reach of

When

all the free gifts of

some human purpose.

rock), centres-

accessible)

man and

and

can be mani-

interpreted in a

wider sense

nature which spontaneously As such they mean all the

original elements and untransformed objects of nature, like

sun-shine, air, water, soil, plant and animal life

substances,

all

forces,

conditions,

spheres,

etc.,

including

relationships

and other aspects constituting or emanating from the environment. In a narrow sense they include only those materials effort

*Those aspects of the environment which are and are harmful to it, and even those which

to

human

man's

efforts

resistant affect

neither favourably nor unfavourably, are riot included in natural resources. The frozen summits of the Himalayas, the schorching depressions of the Sahara, the impregnable forests of the Congo Basin, 4he unconquerable stretches of the Antarctica and the arid uplands of Pamir are mostly inaccessible to modern man, because the environment is resistant to sustained The ocean currents, river floods and storms, in the absence of effort, full

utilization

proye harmful, and instead of

deplete them and

26

hamper

their utilization.

201

supplementing resources

202

(

and

forces which have been actually transformed

which are the

effects of

available and useful

human,

environment, while

in

i, e,,

effort,

by man or

which are made

some basic and

for satisfying

In the former case they

wants. the

)

specific

coincide more or less with

the

latter they

represent only

those forms which are interpreted as wealth by economists*,

seems

But neither of these interpretations

because both of them

be appropriate

to

explain the true implications of

fail to

the concept of natural resources,

In order to understand

the

nature and scope of natural

resources one thing has to be taken for granted that the earth is

the

home

of

man.

is a grand stage upon 1

of its social history.

resources though

it

The underlying idea is 'that the earth which mankind is playing the drama In a man-less universe

of materials and forces. true perspective

The

are no variety

of natural resources in its

concept,

man and

the

quality

of natural

we

man on

relative

to

take into account

environmental aspect on the one

his ability to manipulate

original concept of natural

physico-environmental

is

therefore,

can be understood only when

the physical environment or the

knd

there

a multitudinous

develops with the emergence of

the relationship of both the

hind and

full of

The idea

The resource

the earth.

man and

be

may

factors

resources

is

geographical

on the other.

embodied milieu,

in

The

which determine the volume

resources are

:

locational (situation,

a distinction between natural resources and economic resources. The former is a wider concept than the latter, The points of elements of nature (a) Natural resources are original 'distinctions are wbije the economic resources are mere derivations, fb) The former present the basic materials and forces which can be put to multiple uses according to intention, while the latter are used for specific purposes for which they are produced, (c) Natural resources are the initial potential indicating the a people to act or to produce effect, while the economic capacity of .resources are the effect of potency, indicating mobilized resources for satis-

*There

is

:

an esteem-value, while the fying specific wants, and (d) The former have have both esteem and exchange value, (This contrast is really one of degree, because natural things which are scarce and esteemed will be considered as economic goods even if they do not come to the market,)

'latter

203

(

shape, size, distance,

isolation

graphical (structure,

relief, soil,

)

and proximity,

ett.),

climatic (composition of atmosphere, pressure,

etc.),

ture, rainfall,

physio-

minerals, &nd water forms,

tempera-

humidity, winds, variability and other aspects),,

and animals) and social 1 (man and his works), combination or a combined influence of these factors-

biological (plants

A

determines the resource pattern and the mode of

On

people in a given area.

from the view point imply the appraisal availability

of,

and

man, naturalresources

environment in relation

of

it,

the

when ionsidered

environment as useful

of

the ability to manipulate

ment

the other hand,

in relation to

life of

to

to

man,

th$,

human wants and

and the functioning of the environThe former analysis repre-

in the satisfaction of wants.

sents the natural resources in their objective

form while the

consideration imparts them a purely subjective character.

latter

But one thing has to be noted, Many aspects of the environment which are lying dormant and are of little use today may be used later on after the advancement of civilization and the

improvement

Therefore,

resources are of the

in

manipulation find fresh uses for them.

resource assessment at

in

to

human wants and

the degree

resources vary with the changes in ability to utilize

different

social

present

be included which are useful

them. 2

of

to

only those

man in view

utilization,

Besides,

human wants and

in the

Their values are also different for

Resource

groups.

appraisal,

in relation to specific time,

meaningful only and resource concept has

to

be limited

to a

therefore,

is

region and people;

givep time, a well-

Man is treated as a geographical factor, and the social factor, being1, included here should not be treated as a confusion of thought, Man constitutes a part and parcel of natural resources and is an active agent of his environment. In the study of the relationship of the geographical environ.ment and man their 'mutually determining character and unity should not '>

be averlooked, 2,

fined

The

traditional view

as natural necources)

(relatively greater

in

Economics

as a limited

is

to treat

de-

and that characteristic distinguishes it from other

factor,

degree of being limited)

land (broadly

(

204

)

defined area and a specific social group, In the final analysis it is the concept of the functional

Relativity, or

sources in relation to volume

interpretation

and

Resource

of natural

quality and

re-

also space

and time, that gives a clue to the growth of civilization and economic progress. This functional interpretation of natural resources becomes clear when the mutability of natural

phenomena

is

considered.

Nature

is

said

to

be in a

process of 'self-movement/ hence everything is in a state of constant flux, though apparently there seem to be at

one moment a process of

and

the next

in

of

This explains the constantly changing char*

passing away. acter of

stabilization

natural resources which

weave

themselves into

fresh and diverse patterns.*

considered

phenomena.

as

living

There

environmental

is,

change

They should, therefore, be and active embodiment of natural however, and

one thing

consequently

The

to note.

the

change

The resource concept as defined above factors of production The cultural apparatus by finding fresh uses, stant flux,

is

in

of con-

by giving new meanings to nature and by multiplying contacts between man and his environment, enlarges the significance of nature both in space and time. human wants, advancement in the Multiplicity of cooperative social life, inventions and innovations increasing the technique of resource manipulation, in short, every thing which leads to a greater control over nature, revises the criteria of resource assessment thus enlarges the aggregate of resources,

and

utilization,

and

Secondly, the functional interpretation of natural resources which emphasises man's active participation in the detrmination of resources docs not overlook man's dependence on nature, The significance of nature in human life and social progress is as important in the modern society when man has accumulated a multitudinous variety of tools and apparatus for manipulating his environment, as it was in a primitive society whn man faced the nature empty handed and without any artificial aid. Fundamentally even today human life is dependent on natural resources as it was in the beginning of The ability of man history. to free himself from nature is iimited and the modern interpretation of control or mastery over nature is obeying nature,

^Changes in natural resources as a result o{ the 'self-movement of nature, involvt both quantitative and qualitative re-arrangement As a result of it the old resource of substances and forces, patterns and ones new In this succession which takes emerge, disappear, place

205

(

resource potential

movement, gories and

progressive flow and

natural

emerge in to

relation

useful in

a

means what

It

but the

again,

is

)

a cyclical

not

gone before does not come

is

phenomena reappear in new catefresh pattern, more adaptable and time and space.

This implies that

movement of natural resources is a dynamic system, and any specific functional position refering to any time and placeis a dynamic equilibrium, establishing a cumulative process of balancing patterns in the same resource

the

system as between two slices

ment

of resources

as the time,

starting

What

time.

brium

is

With

the

it

place

gives

tions',

and a

fresh equilibrium

remember

to

help of this progressive

the

i.e.,

destroyed in

being

not a static condition

given demands i t a,,

to

The gradual develop-

one equilibrium, which serves

at

worth while

is

possible to

is

begins

point,

of time.

the the

in

next

next

is that this equili-

but a progressive element,

view

measure not only

of natural

the 'fixed

resources

resource situa*

resource assessment in the satisfaction of

at a

given time, but also the resource potential,

the degree of resource expansion in successive times.

In these characteristics of change and

natural resources inherent, and

dence

another

fundamental

that is the interconnection

of different resource patterns.

development characteristic

of is

and mutual depen-

Since each pattern

conditioned by surrounding phenomena, there

is

is

an insepa-

and no resource pattern can be treated in The mutual or reciprocal conditioning of different

rable connection, isolation.

resource patterns maintains a balance, and in the utilization of different resource patterns (power, vegetable,

animal and

a wave-process there is a gradual transition in which not only one quantity changes into another but also a quantity into quality and the vice versa, Secondly, the environmental change is not a cyclical movement (i e,, what is gone shall come again), but a progressive flow (rein

appearance the

same

of

natural

pattern),

phenomena

in

rje>y

categories

never twice

in

206

(

mineral resources,

region must be considered as an

a clue

to the basic policy of

resource system of a

whole

the

etc,)

)

entity and a

unity. This gives

manner

resource utilization in a

which maintains a balance between one resource pattern and another on the one hand, and between one resource pattern and the rest of the resource system on the other,

Each resource pattern its

comprising

environment of

of

root

related

the

these actions and reactions,

other

to

Resource

and likewise

act mutually,

The

nature.

is

environment.

patterns

patterns and

react to other forces

resource development lies in

Though

the

life-spring

of

any particular resource lies in that resource

change in

the direction of the

change

is

the

the

itself,

determined by the predomi-

nant characters of the environing resource patterns, and the

speed

determined by the degree of impact of the surround-

is

understood

natural

ing natural phenomena.

Correctly

resources represent merely

an ecological complex,

and

adjustment

harmonious blending organic

to the

progressive phenomena,

a

establishing

time.

same

cumulative

the other.

To be

representing

precise

a functional

of

process

balancing patterns

resource system as between different periods of

The concept

is

social group, but there ability of

a

the

which may be termed as a dynamic equilibrium

character,

in the

e (1

resource patterns on the one hand,

and the surrounding phenomena on they are

of

inorganic resources, and of the whole resource

to its constituent

system

reciprocal

i,

man

to

limited to is

a

specific

time,

area and

a constant change in relation to the

manipulate them.

It is

this

upon

concept

that economic development should be planned,*

*For a detailed study reference may be made to Blache Principles Charles Adams Revolution in Land, 1939 Geography, 1 926 The Conservation of Our Natural Resources, 1930 Hise and Havemeyer World Resources and Industries. 1933 Zimraermann G, P, March :

:

of

Human

;

:

;

:

;

:

;

IVfan

and

Nature,

Physical

;

Geography as Modified by IJuman Action,

207

(

Myth

the

of

Our

our Resources.

of

Bounty

)

resource

A

potentiality is often described in exaggerated terms,

has been prevalent that India

and

resources,

the

cause

ol

is

richly

phrase that 'India

a rich

is

when we

The natuial resources

of the physical

environment

also in relation to space in

and

social engineering.

of this false philosophy of plenty or inexhaustibility

of resources will be clear (a)

1

our future possibilities,

of

affects the policies of land-use

The myth

expressed in the

nhabited by the poor,

country

This brings out an exaggerated view

and also

often

is

natural

the fact that

poverty lies in

untapped, This situation

they are

endowed with

view

terms of the degree

and

consider the following

are

not

(both in

mere material

:

fixtures

quantum and kind, and

time), but they are also measured

of applied effort in resource utilization

ability of the people to manipulate the depending upon resourcesResource strength is, thereiore, determined by resource natural and in the potential and the human effort

the

;

resource assessment the tivity is

latter is

synomymous with In

progress

view of our

ability,

more important. Producand ability with cultural

social

factors

quality

and the

ability of the people to mobilize resources, and the possibilities of their

for

expansion

any bright hope.

in the

near future,

People,

in

is

no ground

general, have

relatively

there

limited technical traditions, and their accumulated experience in art, science

productive

and cultural apparatus as exhibited by

activities

their

(being confined mostly to the primary

Parkins and Whitaker Our Natural Resouices and their conservaN, R, C Regional Factors in National Planning and Bowmafc Geography in Relation to Social Sciences, Development, 1935 The 1934, Barrows Geography as Human Ecology, 1923 Huntmgton

1864, tion,

1936

.

,

:

;

Human

Climate and Civilization, 1944

R. K. Mukerjee The Regional Balance of Man, 1938, Regional Sociology, 1943, Man and Culture and the People, 1945 His Habitation, 1940 Gorkey Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Pezler Population and Land Civilization, 1941 Ely and Wehrwem Land Economics, 1949 L, A Salter Land Economics, A M, Lorenzo Natural Resources and Human Adaptations, 1947, 1947. Habitat,

1927,

;

,

;

,

:

,

,

(

industries)

shows no signs

of technical

208

)

of rapid expansion.

and administrative

investment in money, material and time* Scientific

Man-Power Committee, 1949

inability to

provide

the necessary

The

clearly

(6)

in

know-how has

own

report

of the

explains the

The importing

limitations*

Natural resources per head showing our relative position

comparison

table

its

a huge

technical personnel even

after utilizing our training capacity to the full. of technical

The expansion

cadres requires

:

to

other countries are given

in the following

(estimates refer to the last few years before 1939),*

Industrialization and Trade, quoted by *A. J, Brown Federal Finance and Underdeveloped Economy, p, 32, 1952, :

Baljit

Singh,

299

(

(6)

In view of the

)

human needs Volume of produc-

range and variety of

resources carry different scales of value.

determined by the magnitude of demand* By far part of our population depending on primary production, the level of demand is low. At lower stages tion is

the major

economic growth

of

wants are simpler and

less

varied.

Secondly, in comparison to the people of temperate lands, people in

tropical countries

all

require comparatively

and cheaper and

clothing, smaller quantities of lighter foods,

simpler

shelters.

This keeps the

Besides a

permanently*

demand

temperament

is characteristic of tropical

less

a

at

lower level

of contentment

which

climate (region of bounty) weakens

the will to produce in comparison to the desire of successfully

meeting the wider range of wants characteristic climate (which is termed as a region of effort).

of

temperate

Besides, in view of the relationship between climate and

working capacity, a comparative idea

and vigour may strength, which

is

further

Index

*

Hunting ton

27

:

indicate

as follows* of

of the

our

index of health

relative

:

Health and Vigour.

Main Springs

of Civilizatioe, p. 254, 1945.

resource

2fo

(

As

(d)

)

matter of fact

a

all

known

the

categories

of

minerals are utilized for some purpose or the other, but what is more important is their occurence in certain workable

combinations in close proximitv (e.g., coal and iron, limestone, gypsium and clays, etc.). This determines the possibility of industrial growth.

These are weighty considerations specially in matters and population policy. An exaggerated view

of land policy

of resource potentialities

security

should not

and optimism regarding

remind us of our

the

future,

number

blind biological forces to determine the that full utilization of the

dormant resources

plenty, there is an urgent

need

but

it

should

instead of allowing the

And

limitations.

us in any sense of

lull

will

in the hope into

result

proportioning the popula-

of

tion to resource utilization.

Resource Classification. for resource classification.

while tracing the

by

man (i)

Several criteria can be adopted

From

a

historical

patterns as

resource

successive

point of view,

used

in the process of evolution, there are three categories

Vegetable materials, which the primitive

:

man used

first.

(ft)

(Hi)

Animals, which he

made

use of after using the

Minerals, which man used

From

a sociological point of view,

sical forces

from human

focus,

Food

i*.

* .. evaluating the phy-

j

I

Metallic.

Power

:

rim ry fo ds ? ? , A Supplementary foods.

Non-metallic. (Organic. III.

made '

stufis*

and

and keeping in view the

basic products, the following classes are I,

first,

later on.

211

(

From

a

and not

them, and keeping

in

i.

standpoint,

geographical

original elements

)

mind

e,,

considering the

basic products'derivcd irom

the

resources are ciassi

che sources,

fied as tollowe*: I,

Classes of

Land

utilizing the Earth's surface,

Agricultural Land.

1.

Cultivated Land, Pastures.

Woodlots.

1

And

(&)

Irrigable.

Area.

Non-irrigable,

Forested.

I

Forest Land.

2,

j

Cut-over

\

i

I

Grazing.

Dry farming

D <*ert.

3.

Environment and Recreational Lands.

4,

Site Purposes

^

r>

Urban.

(

Non urban .

.

Riparian*

Usufructary uses

Water power. Fishing.

II,

Water Resources,

Navigation Irrigation

Proprietary uses

Domestic, and

Urban in

HI.

IV.

-

-

.

i

bul)-surl.ce appropriation,

\

Minerals.

j

Land beneath

uses.

water.

Super-suiiace uses. Aeroplane, radio, air rights II.

Land

L^ND-USE PATTERN. The

Classification.

according

to the

etr.

latest

total

area of the

Indian Union

estimates of the Surveyor General

is

8,10,809 thousand

acres.

Data on land utilization are not

the

entire

geographical

available

for

States do not collect statistics

there are

pockets which

the States

where such

of

are

since

land utilization,

left

statistics

area

out

are

of

all

the

and further

account even in In

collected.

1947-48

'These broad classes are used by Hise and Havemeyer The Conserva Our Natural Resources, 1930 quoted by Ely and Wehrwein Land Economics, p. 49, 1949 .

lion of

,

2)2 figures of land classification acres, t*i, for

72%

of

were available for 5)83 ,682 thousand

use pattern of the Indian Union

EXISTING LAND-USE

(AVERAGE

The

the total area. is

existing land-

as follows 1

:

PATTERN

Of 3YBS

FOQfSTS

AQEA NOT AVAILABLE POP CULTIVATION

(

16

4

OTHER UNCULTIVAI&DLANO EXCLUDING CUQQEN1

fAUOw

CUPPENT FALLOW

005%) 1. From an unpublished Govt. Report. Most of the unclassified area appears to be unsuitable for cultivation because of being hilly or mountainous, or desert or arid and is mostly situated in part B and C

States

and Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

Includes 986 thousand acres for which details of land classification are not available. 2.

(

Land

213

)

Classification in different States

formed on the basis

of post-Independence administrative set-up is as follows

(Thousand acres.

194849)

:

(

214

)

Tread in Land Classification. land classes

is

not

The area under

different

comparable between different

strictly

years because of the different areas covered in different Their relative importance, as indicated by the years. percentage of area under various land classes area, is

meaningful, and

There seems class.

to

is

to the total

given in the following table

:

be no significant variation in any land

It is

really surprising that in spite of the population pressure and the price incentive the net cultivated area has.

almost stablized around 242 mil. acr<

j

s or

about

42%

of the

primarily due to the difficulties of bringing fresh land under the plough and the defective land tenure

total.

This

is

system, (detailed In the

first

three classes

the most conspicuous

fallow land.

The

diagram and the

under agricultural extension). is almost no But change.

discussion

also there

feature

position

table,

is

is

the gradual

expressed

in

increase the

in the

following

'OQESTS

Increase in Fallow Land.

(

216

)

SOIL CONSERVATION.

III.

Virgin Land and Geological Erosion.

In a natural undis*

turbed environment the land with tangled canopy of dense vegetative cover

The

maintained in harmony and balance.

is

natural circulation of

wind and water goes on as a

ceaseless and uniform process, which is slow though complex, in

which the new

beneath as

from above. land

in

formed from the parent material

finished

is

is

by human

environment undisturbed

called

normal

and

erosion,

sometimes

is

norm of

referred to as geological erosion or geologic It

removed

ftopsoil) is

product

This represents the erosion characteristic of natural

its

This

hand.

soil is

fast as the

erosion.

a normal geological activity proceeding with the tedious-

ness of ages, abrading at one place and aggrading at another,

and thus forming and dressing the landscape. matter

of

fact,

process of

surface

planation

sculpturing of mountains, plains, valley coastal plains, aeolian deposits,

land

forms,

The

normal

fills,

erosion

soil distribution

from one place

to

as a

leading

to

and such other

a natural

is

is,

plateaus, deltas,

alluvial fans

process of rock- weathering* which helps in

and

It

complex formation

soil

another.

It

occurs

on the virgin land (natural undisturbed environment, where vegetation with litter,

its

canopy, stems, ground cover

with under-ground

network

of

with the absorptive stable character

bound

soil),

under the impact

of vegetative

binding roots together

normal

of

humous

of forces associated with the

natural soil environment (collective

influence

ol

vegetation,

micro-afganisms, climate and physical and chemical activities, etc.).

Normally the

those characteristics

soil is

so processed

which impart

it

a

marked

as to give

it

resistance to

^Technically speaking there is a difference between 'rock-weathering described above as normal erosion, and 'rock-erosion The latter 13 that phase of surface wearage having to da with the abrasion of consolidated 1

1

(

9*

)

surface removal,* and generally the transportation of surface soil

by water, wind and gravitational movement takes place

TOP SOIL (A HORIZON)

-

SAH&Y 10 AM

LESS HUMUS

X

44

O CLAY

D

SUBSOIL (B HORIZON) CLAY

STIFF

u SUBSTRATUM (C HORIZON) ROCK

CLAY

--0--SQPTCLAY

<j

........

SCUD ROCK

PROFILE OF A VER6IN SOIL rocks on which there is little or no soil. It is~a phase -of gedogie pro4ss, and man has no causative association with this type of activity ; it is ^acribed to the process of normal or geological erosion. ,Bt it'ig*nerilly refers to rock surfaces wbere vegetative cover probably >been very effective under existing climatic conditions. iTkis is the activity principal contributor to the development of rock j -bad lands,

*Wellow, granular, and spongelike, the topsoil absorbs rainfall, root holes and the burrowing 6f insects, earthwawns,

Hidden conduits

28

218

(

at

a

pace not more rapid than that

formed. the

)

Hence

effects

the

soil is

which new

at

soil is

maintained in a balance, and

are generally beneficial to plant growth, and

seldom harmful. Soil

'The vastly accelerated process of soil

Erosion.

removal brought about by human

normal equilibrium between is

designated as soil erosion.'*

This

accelerated erosion and sometimes the

protective

cover of

the land

is left

bare,

fire,

is

soil

is

the

removal

frequently called

When

abnormal erosion.

vegetation

(by plough, grazing, axe,

with

interference

building and

soil

removed

artificially

rodents, or such other causes),

and water and wind while moving

across the ground surface exert an abrasive force, removing the soil bodily

much

faster

than

Normally erosion proceeds on

it

is

bare

formed from beneath.

increases as the top layers in which the soil tive are successively

removed.

organic matter in combination

The

and

areas,

is

the

more absorp-

effect of the

spongelike with the activities of mico-

organisms feeding on this organic material make the the

top

layers

granular,

rate

absorptive

and

cohesive.

soil in

The

and other animals~perforatmg both surface and sub-surface layers carry water into the deep substrata and infiltration is further assisted by such structural openings as the soil pores, cracks, cleavages, or fractures that usually puncture the profiles of normally developed soil, Various constituents including important plant food elements are slowly removed in solution or transported to lower depths as the result of leaching induced by this Under natural conditions however, this internal circulation of water, removal of plant food elements are balanced, in part at least, by the upward movement of soluble constituents, derived from the 'raw* sub-layers through ;

Subsequently, the leaves and plant roots and stems, into leaves and twigs, twigs return to the earth as ground litter, and, finally through decay, are returned to the -soil. In addition to these physico-chemical activities, percolating water farther alters the soil profile, especially of the more stable, less sloping areas, by the slow physical transposition of fine soil In .time particles to lower depths (from the A into the B horizon), sub-layers thus increased in density may serve to quicken runoff by impedNevertheless, some degree of balance persists regardless ing infiltration. of these natural alterations through the soil profile and topsoil is developed ;

and maintained,

(H, H. Bennett. Soil Conservation, pp,

*H. H. Bennett

:

Soil Conservation, p. 94, 1939.

9394,

1939),

219

(

)

underlying layers which are deficient in organic matter are

more

These subsoils when exposed absorb water

erodible.

so slowly

that

heavy

in greater

the

results

in rapid runoff

erosion, since the runoS concentrates

volume and moves with mounting speed tearing with increasing abrasive effect as the

of the earth

body

precipitation

of

increasing the rate

gullies are cut deeper*

Typci and Forms of Erosion two active forces is

different

according

and to the

of

soil

Water and wind are

Their nature of action

erosion.

so also their

outward manifestation. Hence

agencies erosion can be said

types, which according

principal

the

to the

forms

to

be of two

may

further

be classified into several sub-divisions, Besides, the actual soil

removal

is

sometimes

a

gradual

process

which

in

is blown or washed away gradually in comparatively small quantities frooa one place, and sometimes it is a

soil

sadden mass movement, quantities

enblock.

classified

according

i.

in

In brief to the

which the

form

removed

in huge two broad types can be soil is

of erosion as fellows

Water Krosion,

Black storms, |

,,r. 1

1

Wind

^u (Sheet ^

.

erosion.

\

J

erosion). (

Brown storms, Loca , sma ,, dust Spirting dust clouds.

:

1.

Ertiion

wattr

fty

It

.

involves transportation of

soil

by

running; water (including rainfall, river, waves, waterfall and moving ice). It is conditioned by several factors, such

as slope, type or land-use

soil,

amount and

Land

practices, etc.

is

of rainfall,

intensity

and

more susceptible

to washing on sloping areas and where the surface is stripped of the protective cover of vegetation, It is a progressive process

intensified

by the degree of slope and the intensity

Erosion caused by rain water

Shut

When

erosion,

more or

moved

is of

a thin

of rainfall.

the following forms.

layer

of the

soil

is

re*

evenly from over the entire segment of the sloping land, it is termed as sheet erosion, Generally it changes the colour of the land, and leads to less

a progressive decline in the different

yield.

The

susceptibility of

lands to sheet washing depends on the character

the soil, topography and climate, Ordinarily it occurs wherever water flows across unprotected sloping areas, but

of

fragile

tent to

sandy

and

stiff

soils,

deficient

sheet washing.

conspicuous, but Rill erosion.

in

clays,

The

soils

with high

silt

organic matter are specially

Since its

and

effect

it

proceeds very slowly, is

it

con-

prone is

not

most insiduous,

runoff water instead of

flowing evenly over the sloping surface generally concentrates in stream'Bennett thinks that this line bends back, i, e,, the process bea very long period On the skeletonized abandoned gins to reverse after areas voluntary vegetation comes in and increases in density , Graduthough exceedingly slowly, the soil rebuilds, and on it vegetaally, tion progresses in the direction of the climax type, The grass cover re-established and eventually the forest returns in original form, is But this completion of the circle (eroded land, regenerated soil,

and

again the rich vegetative cover) takes very long, and the period has not so far beeti determined. There is, however, some evidence that under natural conditions toil builds back from the raw material of the substrata so slowly that not less than 300 to 1,000 years or even more maybe one inch of top-soil. If soil builds downwards from required to replace the surface, as it probably does, much longer time is required torebuild the second inch, and still longer to restore the third, and so on until 6 to 9 inches of normal topsoil-depth is thus recreated through efforts, nature's slow but persistent

A

Rills

sloping field

washed by

rain after being

ploughed,

formed in cultivated land along the Jamna after a heavy

rainfall.

Gullied land along the

A

steep cut showing depth of gullies along

the Chambal.

m

(

)

gathering volume and velocity, and generating cutting power. This catting action of water carves ool smalt bat

lets

well-defined incisions on

Till the

land surface.

the

aatt

channels so formed are not deep and eatt^ oWftetate* by ordinary methods of tillage and commonly used *gticul It it mote taral implements, they are termed as riHs. apparent than sheet erosion, but as often neglected in

respect of

damage

common where

with high

typical

is

precipitation

low absorptive capacity. on all areas where loose a

soils

equally serious.

is

it

silt

is

trenching

It

soil

content

intense

is

It

and

an<J

;

most

land has

occurs during heavy rains overlies dense

are

bat

subsoil,

more vulnerable.

straight-lined,

but

frequently

The

Ae

in*

cisons join in intricate criscross pattern,

When

Gully erosion.

concentrated runoff gathering

volume and velocity cuts deep where concentrated water continues

incisions or gullies,

cient

long enough, land

surface

is

suffi-

to cut the

or

same groove

made rugged by deep

gullies.

Gullies usually cannot be obliterated by normal tillage, and

land

is

rendered

unfit

for cultivation.

Usually

sheet erosion, or results from the neglected

begins in

depressed

slightly

lands

tills,

where

it

follows

but often

it

runoff water

normally concentrates*

Bank

erosion.

the banks,

It

is

considered under

It

implies widening of streams by cutting

a sort of mass movement, and should be soil slippage.

The

three forms of erosion caused by rainfall runoff are closaly and are not mutually exclusive Two or more of them may occur simultaneously in the same area, and one develops into another Sheet erosion and rill erosion cannot everywhere be sharply differrelated,

,'

because the former imperceptibly develops into the latter form. As a matter of fact, in respect of much or most of the erosion commonly considered as sheet washing, there is some grooving of the soil But broadly speaking sheet erosion implies a more or less uniform removal of a thin soil sheet from over the entire exposed area, and rill erosion refers to the formation of small shallow channels distinctly

entiated,

7

visible,

222

(

troitai.

place on tea

It

This

soil

it

mass movement,

slippage* the sub-layers

By undercutting

heads of the trenches

at the

a sort of

is also

and should be considered under Waterfall trosion.

and takes

recession of shores,

implies

coasts.

)

mainly

contributes to gully extension,

and also helps in development of contributory gullies. The process is more active in soils having soft or unstable subThis type of erosion is also distinctively eSective in cutting away soil at the base of neglected field terraces, where the channels have filled to such an extent strata.

particularly

that runofi overtops the

Mass mavtmenfl*

benched

strips,

According

to the

manner

in

which

it

take place by flowage, and that

two categories that which which take place by slippage.

The

defined,

takes place,

difierence

causes

of

is

not

sharply

slope

:

2

It

but

is

related to the

Sharpe has defined

soil creep.

movement

of

superficial

usually imperceptible except tion.'

:

displacements, and hence useful.

Soiljlowage

down

into

classified

is

it

operates on bare

to

soil

it

as 'slow

and rock debris,

observations of long dura-

lands as

well

as

forested

and

When

the process of gully formation starts, the shape is determined resistance of soil strata, and the underlying rock material, The gullies take several shapes, according to which gully erosion can be said tobeof several forms, (a) U-shaped, (b) V-shaped, (c) A combination of both U and V shapes, (d) Tunnel shaped, and (e) A peculiar type generally V-shaped gullies change into U-shaped; the c type, called 'Cave shaped, therefore, is a temporary phase till V-shaped gully finally develops into U-shaped gully is the most destructive form of erosion, and

by the

relative

U-shaped, most difficult to control

Ordinary dams have not succeeded in checking head and sides is said to be be effected by establishing

Diversion of water from the their growth, essential for success, and stabilization can vegetation in ravines. protective

1. Generally the discussion of 'mass movement' is made separately, and is not put under the category of water erosion as we have done. Taking into account the literal sense of the word erosion, a separate treatment seems justifiable, But in the study of the nature of process of erosion, agencies, principles and forms, a broad classification like the one

we have made may 2f

Shatpe

;

not be considered very inaccurate,

Landslides and Related Phenomena,

1938,

Soil slippage

A

small stream, joining

from

its

along a slope.

the Chambal, has washed

bed exposing

the

rocks

away

beneath,

all

the soil

Typical Example of Cave type Gully,

228

(

grass-covered areas,

)

a surface

It is

phenomena, extend-

ing to a depth of a few feet only, and as

man-made

well as

and gullying

it

transports vegetation

Unlike stream erosion

structures.

proceeds over the entire interstream areas,

In different regions the causes are different,

be the most active agent* The process

to

supposed

effective in the climate characterized

but forest is is

specially

by frequent alterations

and thawing.

of freezing

This

Solijluction.

mass movement

of

type

most

is

common

in colder climates at high altitudes or high latitudes,

specially

where the

pretty

long.

soil

frozen to sufficient depths for

is

much

not paid

is

It

attention,

considered very important because

it

where human

restricted.

activity

very much

is

not

occurs in the climate

After the prolonged rains, masses of locally

Earthflows, saturated

is

and

move downhill

soils,

as

earthflows,

They are

more common in temperate and humid climates; and are commonly termed as slips* Debris avalanches.

ment, more cover,

It

common

soil

held

that previously

downhill,

vegetative cover, ,

in

is

a

rapid

form of mass move-

humid areas having good vegetative

usually takes place during or

when the saturated

rapidly

It

after

heavy rains, becomes heavy and overcomes the force

the soil

strips

on the

slope.

down

soil

and usually

The mass flows bedrock f destroys

to

floods agricultural lands by

chocking the channels of streams* Mudflows.

This

peculiar to arid

is

cover

is

poor.

man's

occurs soil and streams, which

semi-arid

areas,

rugged and vegetative and Their frequency violence is generally

specially where the topography

increased by

or

misuse

loose

rock

is

of land.

are

When heavy

picked up an$ carried by

can transport boulders and blocks of

ciently large sice.

rain

suffi-

m

(

)

Slumping. Mass movement by slippage as landslides', which are more comtermed commonly mwly BD&alter, but sometimes very large. Mass of

is

mictmsoHdated material moves asooe unit or as several subsidiary units, dawn the slope* Slumping is said to he an important process in the recession of

stream channels and gullies.

shores,

widening of

The most common qaveis

of undercutting, but slippage of ground water from the base

the

bank helps .the movement considerably. This form of mass movement occurs on

Terractttes,

sloping areas, feet wide, cattle

mostly on pastures.

They are only a few

and are most commonly attributed

and sheep and

SuMdtace.

to

trampling of

goats*

Gradual lowering of the surface resulting

from mining operations, or as a result of brick preparation around towns and cities, damages agricultural land. Asa matter of fact that

is

no

soil

removal as in previous cases*

Shallow depressions are produced, where water accumulates

nd drowns the

the

human hand.

grown there. The active agent is Sometimes subsidence results in deep

crops

if

open cracks and pitholes, making the land severely

broken and unsuitable

for cultivation.

tfher<3re differences between muriflowsjand cashflows, One difference is the character of the material carried away. Secondly, the former are found most commonly in stream channels, while the tatter are found on uaUey frides, terraces and convex portioBs of slopes. ThigJJy, the former like floods recur in the same place, while the latter have no marked tendency to recur in the same area. ;

,

U alike

other forms of erosion by water and wind, mass movements do out of the region in which they are formed. They simply cause downhill migration of sloping soil, and prevent the formation -oHJeep profiles. Further they prepare the way for erosion. ;sot carry soil or rock

Wind erosion occurs on lands where water -erosion is quite active, but in the same locality the two types rarely assume}tquaiijpor*j|j$$,

(

on

286

II.

Wind

all

bare areas (level and slope) when

dry,

bat

is

erosion.

Soil

confined

like

soils of

sandy

that

a

of

is

and

less

and

pile

soil

sieve,

fertile

up in

wind

geological

to

soil

drifts is

and

consider*

Of course,

areas.

lighter

and

lifted

soil particles

loose

a

is

such areas, but

The

to

is

believed that wind erosion

The

regions.

which carry them

equilibrium

cover,

done

humid

particles are picked up, air currents,

It is

and semi-arid

arid

to

most severe damage affects

generally takes place

blowing

most serious in areas where there

able slope and low rainfall. is

)

it

to the

behind obstacles.

wind

fertile

is

soil

pathways of high

long distances.

skip and

frequently

action of

and more

the

roll

The coarser

on the surface,

So long as

the

normal

maintained under protective vegetative

erosion proceeds with the slowness of normal

process.

But on bare and relatively

flat

and

undulating areas where wind sweeps unchecked by topographical irregularities, the process is highly accelerated. Unlike

water erosion wind erosion cannot be forms or sub-types. One case of

from another

in

soil

classified into different

blowing

is

degree rather than in kind.

distinguished

The

severity

Black Dust storms, differing mainly in magnitude, are of four types They are associated with westerly winds, travelling at a very high velocity, lasting for about 6 to 8 hours, covering an area of about 1,000 miles in length and 4 to 5 hundred miles in width, and a ceiling height of about 7,000 feet. They occur in summers and are not frequent. Thick clouds of dust ranging from light blue to black colour overcast the sky, Brown coloured storms. They are not so spectacular as black dusters, but are more frequent. They are also associated with westerly winds and occur in summers. They generally cover smaller areas than the former, and the velocity of wind is also less, The soil blown is of yellow and brown type, and lesser in magnitude than in the previous case. Small dust storms. They are local, and occur oh dry and ploughed lands, under the force of gentle winds. They can take any direction, cover comparatively very small areas, wind velocity being less, the soil carrying capacity is also less. Spirting dust clouds. They arc still more local, and are caused by whirl winds. Sometimes they are only a few feet high, and move a few yards, subsided by smaller obstructions like buildings :

dusters.

and

trees,

29

22*

(

)

ranges from slight disturbance area soil

to

of surface

soil

over a small

major catastrophic storms removing countless tons of

and sweeping across vast areas.

Water erosion and wind erosion appear the sense

and wind in the

that

both transport the surface

differ in the nature

to be similar in

But water

soil.

action and also

of their erosive

outward manifestation. Water erosion takes place down

more by

the slope, is controlled

gravity,

and

the transported

material concentrates along drainage lines, and to or part

way

the sea.

to

Wind

on sloping and level areas, and

upon

the direction

is laid

in

of air current.

down anywhere

any direction depending The wind-borne material

usually so thinly as not to constitute a

A

hazard by accumulation in reservoirs and streams, difference is that slope

is

soil

from a

field

original place

the

it

The washed

cannot be transported back

same agency, but

by the

basic

water erosion, but

to

essential

has no direct causal effect on wind erosion.

away

carried

is

erosion takes place both

to

the

blown away

soil

can be transported back under the impact of the shifting

wind* Factors Affecting and the Causes of Erosion. of soil

and

removal

erosion.

affected

is

four-phased

:

The process

runoff, infiltration, absorption,

These processes are interdependent, and are

by many factors separately and interdependently.

This introduces an almost inconceivable number of

factors,

some

signifi-

of

which are directly related

to

cant in the process of soil removal, indirectly related activity.

would be

to

and help other

While analysing these difficult

to

directly

factors in their

factors one

erosive

feels that

'it

conceive an agency involving more

modifying factors than soil erosion. foundly and

and are highly

while others are only

affected

1

To be

brief,

it

is

pro-

by the kind and condition

of

(

soil,

227

)

type and condition of cover, degree and length of slope,

and climate* (including rainfall intensity, relative humidity and temperature, etc.)*

wind In

velocity,

the

second

may be included the changed conditions and sub-layers resulting from the land-use of cultivation and other practices of practices (f *., methods farming and grazing), and the conditions and character of

category of factors Soil

of surface.

different

some

obvious variables,

less

exposed by progressive

more evident

In addition to these

planation.

are

successively

sub-layers

factors there

mechanical relation

6. g.,

of gravitational creep, sliding, soil granulation, fragmentation,

and thawing and sedimentation.

dispersion, alternate freezing

The causes

of

deforestation,

methods

may

over-grazing,

village forests

the

them combine

cultivation,

shifting

:

faulty

and pastures. It is not possible to rate these order of seriousness. Sometimes a few of to accelerate

the abrasive

wind, but more generally one *

be summarized as

briefly

ordinary cultivation, and the deterioration of

of

factors in

erosion

of

them

is

action of water and the

predominating

Bennett has explained in detail the nature of activity of these factors, introduces an almost endless variety of conditions that

Soil type alone

appreciably and profoundly influence the rate of infiltration and absorption, and therefore of runoff and soil denudation. The texture of surface material, its inherent structure and consistence markedly affect rate of water intake, as do also similar characteristics expressed in widely divergent sub-layers through the soil profile, down to and including the horizon of parent material, Cover effects rate of soil removal and runoff more than

Declevity of land 2nd length of slope powerfully affect hydrologic processes inseparably involved in soil planation and runoff. Climate determines the conditions for the type of vegetation, It also influences the distribution of soil, and indirectly the soil type. This can The be understood by considering the way in which the soil is formed

any single factor

surface configuration

is

also

an example of the influence of climate on

gentle rounded slopes are characteristic of humid areas, landscape (e, g and sharp angles and deeply trenched surface are typical of arid regions). Lastly, the types of soil erosion also vary from climate to climate, e. g,, ,

wash are the mechanisms of accelerated erosion in wind is effective mainly in arid and semi-arid climates frost action is at the maximum where the temperature crosses the freezing and ice action is mainly point the greatest number of times annually limited to polar regions, tundras, taigas and microthermal climates.

gullying and sheet

humid regions

;

,

;

228

(

cause of erosion,

0.

)

g, deforestation is the

main cause

in the

North Bengal and Assam and shifting cultivation in Assam, Orissa

foothills specially

Himalayan

Chhota Nagpur

and Bengal

hills

;

western

in

over-grazing

;

of

foothills

the

Himalayas, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, along the Jamna in Uttar Pradesh (the ancient Braj Bhumi), Siwaliks in the Punjab and the lower practices

agricultural

foothills

Himalayan terrace and embank

hills

Poonch

in

specially in

and the the

Kashmir

in

potato

and the

Nilgiris,

on the

failure

to

lands, and the

cultivated

fields in

faulty

;

cultivation

and pastures almost through-

deterioration of village forests

out the northern plain* Effects of Erosion,

frequent result is

the

change

of the in

The most immediate and bodily removal

topographical

details of

Washing and blowing away of available and carry away the face,

Gradually

and more

tive is

the subsoil

cut into

vators

is

difficult,

is

and further

the

most

by erosion

the ground sur-

productive topsoil

which

food.

plant

potential

is less

And when

produc-

the

work

ground of

culti-

operations become more

cost

yields decline,

soil

into gullies,

multiplied, agricultural

crop

the

approached,

difficult to cultivate.

rills,

of

of cultivation increases,

gradually agriculture becomes more expensive and unprofitable, and ultimately the land being rendered un-

and

tion

migrates to other areas.*

abandoned and populaThe effects of erosion are

not

confined to those

only which are stripped of

fit

for

their

areas,

cultivation,

agriculture

areas

is

productive topsoil by water or wind,

sometimes

to

a

but adjoining

long distance, are also affected. 1

*This erosive process of biting, cutting and tearing ^the" landscape continues in a vicious straight-line process to impoverish the* -soil, to ruin the land, to make agricultural land barren, to disintegrate rural

communities and ultimately resulting

in the decline of tlje nation.

229

(

Considerable damage finer,

or

is

material

tertile

transported

in suspension

by running water, material

and

is

carried to long

The material carried

sea.

to

sand

(subsoil

The

done by erosion deposits,

is

and more

lighter

distances,

)

and

the

wind-assorted

residue) are

tieavier

spread

The deposited material is unproimpoverishes lower slopes and alluvial plains,

over adjoining lands. it

ductive,

and is

the

flattens

diminished.

low-lying

Damage

areas where

dous proportions and extends

and violent dust storms, towards

the

rate

of

flow

areas during floods

to larger

The creeping the

threatens

east

the

by deposition increases to tremen-

of the

Thar desert

portion

of

Rajas-

than and South West part of U. P. specially the Agra Diviis

sion,

up

cial

a conspicuous example,*

Besides, the deposits pile

huge quantities behind dams, in natural and

in

waterways, and in

harbours,

of

Silting

artifi-

reservoirs

reduces their storing capacity, cuts short their

life

and

spread out stored water, and exposes a broader

tends to

surface to losses by evaporation,

It

reduces the

life

and

value of costly structures constructed for the purpose of flood

irrigation,

supply and

control,

shoals navigable of

waterways, reduces the carrying capacity

drainage canals and impaires the effectiveness of irrigation

Sometimes streams are forced from their natural

system. course, of

power production, municipal water

Erosion debris clogs small streams,

recreation.

damaging

flood

control.

the

banks, and accentuating the problem

Navigation

is

threatened

in

harbours

and streams, and expensive dredging operations are necessitated,

When

the absorptive

topsoil

is

removed,

rela-

*

Recent topographical surveys show that the Indian desert Rajasthan has been spreading outwards in a great convex arc through Ferozpur, Patiala and Agra towards Ahgarh and Kasganj at the rate of about half a mile per year for the last 50 years, and is encroach of

ing

upon

approximately 50

square

miles of

fertile

land every

year.

280

(

sab-soil

impervious

lively

moves

increased

with

)

exposed on which water

is

The concentrated

speed,

discharges into streams,

a

at

great speed

runoff

an enor-

and

mously increased quantity of water, causing floods.

Besides,

erosion debris which accumulates in channels reduces their

carrying capacity, and helps in raising the crest of floods. In /addition to the creation of the problem of

erosion is connected

drought, and

with

surplus water,

intensifies water

shortage, by interfering with the normal process of

and percolation,

and consequently reducing the

water leading

sub-soil

also

to the

decline

in

intake

soil

and

water-table,

It

Roads, railroads and

the transport

system. damages embankments are undermined, cut and sometimes washed

away, and

traffic

is

impeded and sometimes blocked by

erosion debris.

Considered quences, the

soil

as a

it

is

a

which

to

of

threat to

human

slopes,

oceans.

mike

down

the

and

down

rivers,

the

the

that

culture and

and

are

going

wastes

chance for a 1

The

down of

the

man

to

effects

It

in

far

leads to

lower returns,

extreme

cases abandonment of agri-

rural migration

mortgages increase, tax base

Farmers run is

for industrial products shrinks, soil

termed

reaching and profound, and the fundamentally depends on soil is adver-

affected*

cultivation,

is

permanently is

a living from land, these are going too.

economy

pf

to

removes

are not con*

are

not merely soil that

it

It

life.

effects

animals

Opportunity, security,

on agriculture

sely

'It is

human

of

conse-

social

security since

Besides, the

man

land,

undernourished, the

basis

the

is

death,"

'creeping

fined

economic and

in terms

erpsipp

sub-marginal

into debt, land

reduced, and the market

Summarizing the

Bennett obseryes

tfya$

'the

effects

process,

|f

281

(

)

uncontrolled, impoverishes not only the land but those live

who

on and by the land, as well as communities and urban

areas dependent in part or entirely on the welfare of the

The

farmer.' 1

of

effects

erosion are

soil

exhibited

in

most striking form by the downfall of former civilizations and empires whose ruined cities now lie amid the

barren wastes that once were the world's most fertile lands* Extent of Erosion,

two ways the

total

:

The extent

of erosion

is

referred in

area affected and the extent of

Information in India about both these

aspects

soil loss* is

rather

inadequate. Spectacular damage on slopes in the form of gullies has been commonly observed, and for long, but the less spectacular

damage on

of sheet erosion

and

fiat

is

not properly realized.

has been noted only recently*

It

Asa

matter of fact accelerated erosion

culture itself) and on

all

sloping grounds

of the protective vegetative

on

all

assumed

its

is

present shape

uplift

earlier

of

of

is affected,

lowering

the

A

the

seismic

But

at

present a very

estimate is that 'erosion is

rough

productivity of

to

the Himalayas. In the Northern India erosion

recent origin.

large area

refers to the land

is

much

and mountainous portions

of comparatively

and embanked

always going on. The geologically an eroded peneplain, which

changes resulting in the hilly

which are stripped

cover or permanent grass, and

country, erosion

peninsular India

as old as agri-

is

arable areas not properly terraced

throughout the

is

lands in plains in the form

loss of fertility

150 million acres. 12

under cultivation

at

present being

This

damaged

by erosion gradually, and is in addition to the badly eroded gullied land which has gone out of cultivation. 1.

H, H, Bennett

2.

H, Glower

:

:

Soil Conservation,

Soil Erosion, p, 4, 1944.

P. 91,

1939,

282

(

)

gullied areas are

The areas badly eroded are: Severely the Siwalik

foothills

and the

Gttrdaspur districts in Punjab,

Kwnatm

Division

Uttar

in

Hoahiarpur and

(Gurgaon, Kangra,

Pradesh),

of

districts

hilly

the

Jamna-Chambal

(Agra, Jalaun and Etawah districts of U.P., South-East portion of Rajasthan specially Dholpur and Karauli North-

TraM

;

West portion of

Gwaliorj

Burdwan

Mad hya Bharat

Chota Nagpur

;

division in Bengal

PEPSU

in

Valley, and the

Mayorbhanj,

the

;

lower

;

and

Bijapur district in

or level is

in

seen

in

form are

rivers.

is

all

the

region.

Assam, the

dry

slopes of

than 40" rainfall) specially

all

Besides, sheet

bare areas whether slopes

climate

arid

Bank

Wave

more common

the

in

Wind

erosion

specially in

Patiala

not,

in Punjab,

erosion the

erosion

and the

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,

is

Bom-

occurs to some extent

rivers,

specially in

most serious in Lower Bengal along

of slumping.

eastern,

less

Madhy a

Madras,

it is

Areas badly

Bundelkhand

Gurgaon, Hisar and Karnal

along the channels of

major

The

north-western Orissa.

of

almost

bay and Rajasthan,

plains, but

Narbada

the

of

Madras, drier portions of

serious in light soils in in

Satlaj Valley in

portion

ground and whether cultivated or

dry parts of

(adjoin-

Bombay, Chota Nagpur Plateau in Bihar,

districts

PEPSU,

Poonch

hills in

valleys

Western Ghats (areas with

erosion

uplands of

;

Dhenkamal. '-

Brahmaputra

districts of

is

;

and

Sambalpur

Surma

hilly

Bihar

portion of

upper

by sheet erosion are

and

in

hilly north-western districts of Orissa specially

affected

northern

specially western districts

hills

Kashmir

border) in

ing Punjab

Basbr

of

not serious

in

alluvial all

the

India in the

Waterfall erosion and mass movements to

lower Himalayas both western and

The most severely eroded and

the

worst

area

Jamna-Chambal Tract which has been turned into deep

ravines.

Regarding the

rate of erosion

and

the extent of soil remo-

val detailed and very accurate information

is

not

available.

The

foreign experiments are not very helpful since the local

soil

and climatic conditions are the

however,

it is

estimated that on a moderate slope of 1 in 80

(1'25%) the annual loss of 1*6 to 4*3 tons

from

of

The

per acre per inch of lain varies

soil

Once gully erosion

soil.

damage resulting from

down

it

very serious, the

is

starts, the

soil

flowing

the gully with ever increasing velocity and volume.

when

velocity increases with the slope, and,

of the runoff doubles,

times.

factors,

determining

1

carrying capacity

Besides, a few runoff

as follows 2

A.

its

the velocity

increased to 64

is

measurement experiments are

:-

Dry Farming Research (soil loss per acre per

Station

annum

in

Sholapur,

Bombay,

on an average

tons,

slope of 1-25%) (i)

(ii)

(tii)

B.

'6

Fallow, with weeds preserved.

25

Bare (uncultivated) fallow.

Jowar

1^

field (cultivated)

Punjab Irrigation Research (scrub jungle,

Kangra

Institute.

District,

Punjab,

soil cost

per

acre.)

It is

is

(i)

Grass (80% cover)

(ii)

Grass and Shrubs (90% cover)

(iii)

Bare

soil.

really a pity that seriousness of this

1,

Planning Commission

The Indian

30

Single

days,

$tprm.

,1*56

*V|6

l'|Z4

'137

82*58

1'567

growing menace

That the Government are conscious

not well appreciated.

2.

32 wet

;

The

first

Five Year Plan, p, 131, 1951,

Journal of Agricultural Science, Aug.

1941,

of

appears from the Report of the National Planning the first Five Year Plan of the Planning

it

Committee and

programmes are

But the proposed

Commission.

far inade-

and greater attention is quate in comparison to the needs, the indivirequired on the part of both the local bodies and dual farmers before

it is

neglect of erosion could

too

As

late.

a matter of fact, the

be tolerated so long as land

was

growing population and increasing demands of agiicultural and forest products, any further neglect implies inviting poverty and undermining But in view

ample and cheap,

the

The

future.

of the

major cause of

ignorance about what

is

neglect seems

happening and

be

to

ultimate conse-

its

quences.

Methods

Control

of

the erosive eflect of the

and

speed of runoff

The basic principle different agencies,

aim

is that

the

misuse

of

man, by

to

slowing the

wind, by

heal the

setting

in

problem

stimulating

;

is

the

and

multi-phazed, control

factors

have

activities

to

are

be

The

wounds

motion the

processes of soil formation and growth of vegetation. the

reduce

of travel.

lines

allowed

t

of

velocity

respective

nature must be

the

created by

the

reducing

obstructions across their

to

is

i> e.

Since

mutually

multi-phazed

and should be taken simultaneously on several fronts, The report of the National Planning Committee on Soil Conservation

and Afforestation gives the following schedule summarisactivities,* some of the which check

ing the erosion control

the soil removal directly (a)

and others are helpful

indirectly^

Forettt.

1.

Protection of existing forests.

2.

Creation of shelter-belts, *NafcionaI Planning

tion p, 73, 1948,

Committee

:

Soil

Conservation and Afforesta-

235

(

3.

)

Control of nautor grants (breaking virgin land for cultivation).

4.

of the

Encouragement

village as the

unit for

forest

improvement and protection schemes under cooperative or

panchayat organization.

fr,

Reclamation

6.

Reclamation of

lands for grass and forest

ravine

of

produce. flat

lands in torrent beds which are

often cultivable after a period

under forest conditions,

7.

Village plantations for fuel and timber.

8

Planting of fodder trees.

9,

Rotation of cropping of fodder trees.

(b)

Waste Lands.

(Livestock

and Fodder.)

1.

Reduction of surplus livestock,

2,

Grading up

3

Grassland improvement.

4.

Encouragement

5

Partition of

of flocks

and herds,

of voluntary

common

and rotational closures.

grazing lands

to

develop indivi-

dual ownership. 6.

Panchayat Management

7.

Replace grazing by grass-cutting and stall-feeding of

8.

Develop

9.

Use

of

grasslands.

hay.

grass

markets

for

profitable

and

silage.

disposal of

surplus cut grass.

10.

of green fodder crops

Restriction

of

immigrant

flocks

where these are

a

serious factor. (cj

1.

Plough Lands.

Watt bandi and contour terracing and reduce runoff.

to retain

2.

Restriction of cultivation on very steep slopes.

3.

Improvements

rainfall

of soil wasting cultural practices.

236

(

)

4.

Legutrie or gfoss crop to be

5.

Consolidation of holdings

sown on fallow

lands.

allow better layout of

to

field terracing. 6.

Encouragement

for watt bandi

and terracing through

remission of land revenue,

Use

7.

8.

of live

hedge plants

Cooperative

to replace

for

organization

dry thorn twigs.

land

improvement

projects.

Encourag ng the use

9.

of compost

manure.

Strip cropping and suitable crop rotations.

10,

The Idea tion' 1 is

terms,

it

of Soil Conservation.

The term

'soil

conserva-

used in a very wide sense, and in the most simple implies 'using land as it should be used i. 0., treating

land according to

its

The aim

2

capability.

needs, and using since the

is that,

it

according

earth is the

to its

home

of

man, land resources should be conserved against loss and and maintained at a high level of optimum

deterioration,

productivity so as to permanently sustain national economyt (This

the

is

implication of the

Conservation connotes other

from

all

measures required or partial

total

(by erosion in

removal of

The terms

of

soil

floods,

'Soil

management and

preserve soil and

to

losses caused in one

any form, by

soil fertility

word conservation).

methods

way

soil fertility

or another/ 3

by waterlogging, by

by exhaustive cropping or by grazing

Conservation' and 'Land Utilization' are not of fact, while distinguishing between them attention should not be paid to the technical meaning of the word 'Soil' in the former and the economist's interpretation of the word 'Land' in the 1,

synonyms,

latter.

The

interpreted,

'Soil

As a matter

difference refers

is

in their scope,

Land

utilization,

more commonly

pattern and practices, and is a part of soil which connotes a still wider scope including

to land-use

conservation programme other things also.

many 2,

H, H. Bennett

3,

National Planning Committee p, 27, 1943,

:

Soil Conservation, 1939, :

Soil

Conservation and Afforestation,

287

(

or the removal

of the

)

elements of

by leaching,

fertility

Briefly speaking the specific aspects of the

include

land e,

g

:

control of soil erosion

conservation of

,

fertility

;

programme should

reclamation of sub-marginal

enhance productivity, moisture and maintenance of soil

of land

development

;

;

etc,),

soil

adjustment of the

as

so

to

land over various

distribution of

right crops on right lands; proper or cultural practices and rotations, so that producagronomic of

demands; growing

may

tivity

not be impaired

flood control

proper drainage

;

forests

;

and

should, however, be noted that the

It

etc.

not be

provision of irrigation facilities

;

related

to

also cope with the

the physical

programme should but should

phenomena only

economic and social conditions

and secondly, the methods are not

land-use,

;

forest products,

that affect

static

because

they are dependent upon social, economic and political reac-

and the

tions

scientific

developments

which

are

always

changing,

FORESTS.

IV,

Extent and Distribution, occupy, of

in

194849, according

acres

14*9%

in

Assam,

part

which

is

not

is

B and C under

known

country, specially

part

classification is

the

actual percentage

is

The

first

acres

or

about

in

^xcept

States)

2%

is

1329

unclassified area

Andaman and

and hence

exactly,

A

and

States

forests,

the

130 mil*

the total area of 581

of

considerable part of the

Nicobar Islands,

or 18%,

papers, an area

village

which the data of land

for

A

mil. acres.

area,

to

According to Forest Statistics the area is

available.

in

acres or

86*9 million

mih

Indian Union forests

the

In

a

the

for a bit

more, or

actual part

roughly 17

Five Year Plan mentions the area 19' 9 A,

The

distribution

of

more, and

in

of

different

(

states

is

as follows

238

)

:

Percentage of area under forests*

1.

Unpublished Govt. of India Report.

2,

Indian

Forest Statistics,

Upto 1946-47 the

(1947-48),

1952

pp. 1-2.

regarding forests were issued through the 'Annual Returns of Statistics relating to Forest AdminisLater on the publication was given a new name, tration in India'. 'Indian Forest Statistics', It includes data for a wider area, now statistics and some of the former stateare collected for part B and C States also statistical

data

;

ments have been integrated,

EXTENT FOHE5T AREA %TO

TOTAL AdEA

6AVED ON INDIAH AGRICULTURE

HATIHICS

149%

CD B fTTDTl

UPTO 47. -1

10%

10-

| I

LESS tHAN

ADEQUATE

157. [

SS9 '5-207. - 30 ffig 20 30%] IQ % BE ABOVE S0%1 :

ADEQUATE f THAH AOtOJJAtE MORE THAN

CLASSIFICATION OF FO

Thousand

%to

sq. miles,

total

Reserved,

72-0

Protected.

10'5

Unclassed.

17-5

Total.

lOO'O

The Sub-Committee

Conservation and Afforestation

on Soil

ttee)

needs

the

for

National Planning Coifcmi-

the

(of

think

20%

a

of

that

is

country usually proper reckoned the correct amount of forest, 1 while the Planning

Commission believe least a third of

conditions. 2 for

the

that a

tropical

area under

its

country should have

Judged with these standards the area whole.

as a

country

derable portions are forests in

timber but provide fuel scrub

Even name

in

overall

less

is

area

this

consi-

they have no

only,

and grazing, and sometimes only fewer, and at places no trees

jungles having and some areas are of very inferior material, the

at

forests to preserve its climatic

;

Apart from

distributed. 3

shortage forests are badly

Ex-

cepting in Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bhopal, Coorg, Tripura, Travancore and Cochin and Andaman and There

is

a considerable difference in area under forests recorded

in Indian Agricultural Statistics, part of land utilization statistics and those supplied by Indian Forest Statistics, The reasons are : Cernot covered by forests but worked by Forest Depts. are tain lands returned as forests in the latter, but in the former they are shown under proper heads, as 'other uncultivated land excluding current fallow'

as

1

and Punjab. Secondly, this happens in U, P, area sown bodies and private individuals are forests administered by corporate treated in the former under 'other uncultivated land excluding current

or

'net

1

fallow

W,

;

or

'land

not

forests

specially

in

in

the

latter

Assam,

for

available

Bengal and Madhya Pradesh are

treated

The former

cultivation

1 ,

specially

in

Madras,

and some areas shown as inaccessible

;

under these heads

are

more

scientific

in

and

1.

N, P, C, Soil Conservation and Afforestation, 1948,

2.

Planning Commission,

The

First Five

the former,

reliable, p, 104,

Year Plan, 1951, p 129, f

About 45% of the forest area is inaccessible having no suitable communications, Roads are mostly fair weather, impassable in rains, and with a few exceptions, are unfit for mechanical transport, Water loses much of its transport, the cheapest means of forest transport, usefulness because many species of Indian forests do not float, use of boats is not possible due to rapid streams, their shallowness and the 3.

presence of rocks, After the partition this difficulty has further increased specially in transporting Kashmir timber, Freight charges by railways on forest products are said to be very high, causing considerForest Depts. are handicapped in developing able wastage in forests, transport for want of funds, and at present the expenditure on forest communications is Rs, 67*55 lakhs or 4*6% of the total forest revenue,

In Northern

Nicobar Islands, forests are insufficient in area.

India^the percentage is comparatively less in comparison to that in

to the

South India, and about

Himalayas and

part of the remaining

And

lies

80%

foot

their

hills,

specially in

confined

is

and a considerable

within 30 to 40 miles from

bills.

5 to 10%) lies scattered

only a very small part (hardly

in cultivated lands,

area

of the

South

Distribution is a bit better in the

Madhya Pradesh, Bombay and Madras where are interspersed amongst

considerable forest areas

However, both

vated lands,

gre^t for^sts.are located in hills,

North and South the

the

in

culti-

which makes a very large

area iujacces&ible by increasing

the

difficulties

and the

Two very

costs of

forest

.populous, parts are the

enormous w^ste

transporting important products. consequences of the lack of forests .within ^asy distance of of

only source of

the

qheap manure by burning cowdungi and the low standard village

dwellings,

about which

attention

of

was drawn by

Dr. Voelqker in 1893 and the Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture in 1928.

The

Types of Forests,

climatic conditions in the country

are very favourable for forest growth, and is largely

governed by

In the areas of heavy

rainfall, elevation

rainfall

containing bamboos, palms,

their

and

character

soil conditions.

there are evergreen

ferns

and

forests

rubber trees,

etc.

Areas with a less copious rainfall have deciduous forests of teak, sal

and shisham,

vegetation becomes

etc.

Under

a

sparse, forests are

still

known

forests containing tamarind, acacia (kikar) {

as dry or arid and trees having

A* the, rainfall decreases further forests pass scrub jungles having thorny bushes and thick small

thaiiy leaves. into

smaller rainfall

leaves.

On

the Himalayas,

,

however, where clituate varies forests

varying accord,

(

ing to elevation are pine,

magnolia is

fir,

)

rainfall of

:

They occur under a

over 100 inches, are evergreen, dipterocarps, and

ar6 found on Western Ghats in Bombay, strip

in

Madras, in a

Upper Assam through Cachar and

south-west from

southward through Chittagorrg Hill

tfacts.

They have

Tropical Semi-evergreen forests.

(ii)

and

distribution

their general

Tropical wtt ever green forests.

(*')

chestnut,

oak,

deodar,

The main types and

etc.

as follows

241

diptero-

carps and deciduous species, and usually adjoin the tropical

evergreen forming a transition between

it

and the moist

deciduous, found in the Western Ghats, widespread in Assamf

and lower slopes

Moist-Deciduous

Tropical

(Hi)

under a season.

of the Eastern Himalayas,

rainfall of

60

to

They occur 6 months of dry

forests.

80 inches and 4

to

They are the most typical Indian forests, popularly Monsoon forests, found on a strip along the foot

called the

of the Himalayas, a strip along the east of the

Western Ghats

and a large block round Chota Nagpur. The northern half includes sal forests and the southern half teak forests, and open Savannah forests occur scattered throughout. (10)

Tropical

Dry Deciduous forests.

a rainfall of 40 to 50 inches

and are found

They occur under and about 6 months dry season,

in a wide, irregular strip

from the

foot of the

Cape Comorin, bounded on the north by the Himalayas Himalayas, on the north-west by the desert, on the southto

west by the Western-Ghats and oh the

Bengal

forests.

Sal

and teak are

typical,

everywhere, and are much inferior tropical moist (o)

deciduous

to

eatst

by the wet

but are that

hot fouhd

fouhd in fbe

forests,

Tropical thofn fotea*

They

WxM under a fainf all of

10

30 inches, are found in Rajasthan, Upper Gangetic

to

plain

and

Deccan Plateau, and abound

the

in acacias.

They are

Tropical dry evergreen forest*,

(vi)

small-

leaved thorny species found on the Carnatic coast, (wi) Subtropical wet hill forests, They are found in

Himalayas in Bengal and Assam and and Nilgiri-Hills, Mahabeleshwar Khasla,

the lower slopes of the locally in

Subtropical

(viii)

forests

are

They

pine forests.

between 3000' and 600ff

in the Central

chir

pine

and Western

Himalayas and other pines in the Khasia hills. Subtropical dry evergreen forests. They are thorny (ix) on the higher reaches of the Indus and

Wet temperate forests.

(x)

corner

in the north- west

species covering only a small patch

tributaries.

its

They are evergreen occuring

on the Eastern Himalayas between 6000' and 9500' and on the top of the hills of South India.

Moist temperate forests.

(*t)

spruce and

oaks, deodar, blue pine,

are

They fir,

found on the inner

and Western Himalayas with below 40 inches and between 5,000 and 10,000 ft.

ranges of the Central

Dry temperate forests.

(#11)

juniper and most

and

conifers

rainfall

They include deodar,

broad-leaved European genera,

pine,

found on

the inner ranges of the Himalayas. (xiii)

According

etc,,

to

Government,

as

After

the

Zatnindart

They include high

Alpine forests.

and rhododendron

many

ownership

of

private

States

forests

and

and are

fir,

classified forests.

private

the

birch

ft.

are

forests

corporate

merging

level

and occur over 10,000

abolition

now Govt,

of

forests,

and the village forests have come under the administration of

panchayats.

administered

Out

of

the

total

forest

by State Governments,

area

0*7%

,72*9%

is

by corporate

243

(

)

Further the forests

bodies and 26'4/o by private individuals,

under the control

of the Forest Dept,, according to the control

exercised by the Government in respect of the rights of users, are classified as ; Reserved, Protected and Unclassed. areas under them are

The

Utility of Forests.

products.

The

(Sq. miles.)

They have many direct

utility

They provide timber

domestic and

for

1

Forests are an important resource and

a great national asset.

economic uses.

i

industries like

industrial

is

direct

and

mainly due

indirect to their

for building purposes, fuel

purposes,

match, paper, lac etc.,

raw material

other valuable products

commonly known as minor products, fodder and grazing cattle, and leaf mould for manure. The

indirect

for

for

benefits are mainly through their influence

on climate and the regulation of water supply. Forests are said to make the climate more equable by

increasing

humidity, by reducing evaporation by increasing ptecipitation of moisture 2 and by moderating the temperature.

Working

1.

2,

the

Indian Forest Statistics, (1947-48), 1952, pp, 113, It

has not been well established that forest have a direct relation with of rainfall, and it cannot definitely be asserted that

amount

increase the

amount

of rain,

they ;

244

(

like a

)

huge sponge they increase absorption and produce

a sustained feeding of springs and channels, and by checking the mechanical force of runoff reduce the violence and check

By preserving moisture they check

floods.

the

severity

volume a

of

mould

vegetative

the

velocity

increase soil

they

and

erosion and by forming

runofl they check soil

of

rich

By reducing

drought,

or at least reduce

fertility-

By

changing the surface drainage into subsoil drainage they help in maintaining the water table and also water storage of

They are a

rivers.

dfy winds, prevent

shelter the

-to

agriculture

and

enchroachmerjt of sand-dunes on

the wind-borne sand

coasts, fix

against cold

in

the interior,

and reduce

the velocity of air currents.

birds and

beasts

By providing shelter to wild they provide game, Under certain copdi-

tiops they help in improving health

defencei

By enhancing

produce a

wholesome

the

in a country

and

assist in

beauty of the landscape they

aesthetic influence on the people,

Lastly, they contribute a net output of about Rs. 60 crores

or '7% to the National Income, provide, directly and indirectly,

employment

to

about 3 mil. persons, and provide incidental

grazing

privileged

rates

fodder scarcity speaking forests

forests

in govt*

it

is

mean,

development

and

Need

In

free.*

render

forests

the

full

and

famines and

invaluable help.

and what of

a

role

country. ill

there

for Conservation,

of

they play

There is

Really

Let

is

in

much

the

economic

truth

in

the

a plant curing. it

be fully realized that

a balance

norms, phenomenon and the inorganic worjd. Stability

on

days

of

not easy to appreciate and appraise fully what

saying that for every

is a

2'5 crore animals at

to

of

life

between the organic agriculture

anc}

its

Report of the National Ijicome Committee, 1951, the Report N. P, C, Conservation and Afforestation, 1948, and the Indian Forest

Soil

Statistics

(1947-48), 1952,

240

(

equilibrium between

progress depends upon the

Destruction or exhaustion of one upsets

ecological forces.

the normal equilibrium,

which

Hence

But the pity

some destructive

liberating

on civilisation and endanger

recoil

the need

various

for maintaining

that the

of things is

this

life is

equilibrium

as

forces

such.

obvious.

environment cannot be

left

untouched by human hand, and the very touch of man in the process of evolution, while advances civilization, misuses the

hostile

needed for

looked like a

beginning forests

the

In

resources.

element since they occupied the ground which was for

Therefore, in the

growing food.

existence the

use of axe

or

fire

human

against

struggle

forests

was

considered not only fair but the only course, and hence the attitude

and

man

of

institutions

depletion were quite natural.

But

leading

now

a reckless

to

the problems arising

human and bovine

from the pressure population have gradually become so intense and have developed to such an extent that this settler's psychology of conquest and destrucof

tion is not only unjust but also dangerous,

the world

forests are

cut

to

give place

Almost throughout and it has

to crops,

been seen everywhere that the natural process of reproduction and growth by which forests keep alive are incapable of keeping pace with man's destruction. Fortunately in India this process has been gradual and slow than in other countries (6. g,,

England, France, Spain,

mechanization took place

fast.

Italy

and Greece

etc.)

where

But even here the destruction

(without replenishing) has been so reckless, spectacular and

has gone

to

such an extent

influences, that

it

that,

through direct and indirect

has already considerably impoverished land

and the people and the process is in operation* The need for conservation is obvious from the discussion ;

of utility of forests in

be appreciated by

the

previous section.

considering the dangers of

It

can farther

deforestation.

(

The ravine lands

Chambal

Ganges and its Bundelkhand and

)

India specially

Jamna-

the

scantry desert flora seen on the banks of

the

dense

Northern

of

tract, the

246

and

tributaries,

in

forests, the vast

erosion caused

of

parts

and near Mathura

in

Rajasthan,

district,

by

formerly

as pointed out

it

by the Central Fodder and Grazing Committee, the irreguand decline in the rainfall in Madras and South larity Peninsula as pointed out by of

gradual

silting up Brahamani and Son

increasing frequency

and Bengal,

and

etc,,

and Temple, the

Robertson

the Mahanadi, the

of floods in

Godawari, Krishna,

greater east

U,

violence and the Bihar,

P.,

Assam

are soms of the important consequences of

For a more spectacular phenomenon Arabia, Persia, Syria and Egypt, The need

reckless deforestation!

we can for

look to

conservation can

still

further be understood by consi-

dering the growing needs for forests and forest products

view the growing pressure of human and bovine population on the one hand ad the deteriorating land resources on the other. specially in

Forest Products and

Forest

Industries,

products are

two categories (i) major products which include timber and fire- wood, and (ii) minor products generally classified

which include comprising

all

all

into

:

kinds of forest produce other than timber

animal, vegetable and mineral products found

in forests,

The increase

Dept, from

forests

is

in

total

revenue of the Forest

from Rs. 125 lakhs in 1899-1900

to

The average yearly production

of

Rs. 1449 lakhs in 1947-48,

the former category is about 375 mil,

290 mil- cubic

feet

is

timber alone.

cubic feet of which

The more important

shisham and mahogani etc* In market there are more than 30 varieties of timber each

timbers are teak, deodar,

sal,

of recognized grades, having a number

But

we

are not

(

self-sufficient in

24?

)

timber and import considerable quantities

minor

from outside.

In

however, very

rich.

forest

Among

products the

the

country

more important

is,

classes

bamboos, grasses (including grazing), leaves for fodder, litter and manure, fibres and flosses, oil seeds, tans and dyes, are

:

gums, resins, rubber, drugs, edible products of various kinds, lac, honey, wax, silk, hides, horns and inory, and a

oils,

variety

of

in la c.

monopoly in Bihar,

mineral

Madhya

bad and Assam. in is

It

is

largely

collected

a

Chhota Nagpur

in

Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Orissa, Hydera-

Of

the total quantity about

60%

is

collected

Chhota Nagpur only, and about 98% of the total produce exported principally to U. S. A,, U, K., Germany and

The imports and exports, forest produce during 4748

Japan. ol

The country has almost

products

as follows*

(a)

the out-turn in

the

and the income

Indian Union was

:

The Imports and Exports

(Lakhs

A

classification together with a brief description of the more important is found in Troup's Indian Forest Utilization, 1913, and much usainl details are contained in Watt's Commercial Products of

products

*

"

' fc

hidii. 190S.

Indian Forest Statistics, (1947-48), 1952, Statements XI and XIV,

Total out-tarn*

(b)

(c)

(

Income and Expenditure,

Total Revenue.

i )

(Lakhs Rs,)

Total Expenditure

(ii)

(

(iii)

Net Revenue

(iv)

Percentage of net

revenue

Net revenue per

sq, mile of Forest

(v)

(

under the control

to gross

1,449*34

)

661-08

)

738'26

revenue*

(/*)

54*39

area

of the Forest Dept.

(Rs.)

57100

Recently some minor forest products have assumed great economic importance, e, g,, sandal-wood oil for perfumery,

neem

for

making soaps

for skin diseases,

and some herbs and

drug plants for preparing medicines,

Some important forest products are

sleepers,

:

industries

and

occupation

based on

building industry, railway and tramway

highway bridges, matches, packing cases, transport boats and dugouts, agricultural imple-

vehicles, furniture,

ments, tool handles, toys, textile machinery distillatiotv,

The

sandtawood carving,

possibilities of further

and paper

development

are suggested specially in the case of *IiHshidfe figarcs

for

which

for

Jammu & Kashmir;

details are not available,

;

parts,

wood-

making

etc.

of the forest resources

growing stock, wood Mysore, Tripufa *i^ Assam-

palp manufacture, plywood and veneers, tool handles and machinery parts, preservative treatment and season*

textile

of

ing

wood

timbers,

improvement silk and other

in

and

methods of

forest cottage

Forests as a crop.

charcoal

industries,

Forestry

which

a forest.

it

Even experiments seldom There

is a

climate and

soil,

tak^e

a crop of

grow

takes 40 to 150 years or

complete, oiten they take

years*

to

however, governed by

Usually

species.

to

is,

slow business

a very

is

because of the length of time required trees,

resin,

pine

gas,

extraction, tanning, lac, artificial

more

less

10 to 15 years,

to

grow

than 5

yews

aad even 30

lower rate of return on forest investments

than on business investment.*

Besides, nature plays a

mpre

important role than in agriculture, and therefore large areas are needed for profitable

forestry.

Lastly,

forests

can grow

on sub-marginal lands, and being pushed more and more

by agricultural extension they tend to

giv

margins of cultivated lands, occupy the residual lands. This should not to the

an impression that they can grow anywhere,

Like

other crops they are also limited by soil and climatic factors,

Administration,

The gpyetno^eiU became

alive

to

the

and during protect them

consequences of reckless deforestation long back, the British period

the

first

o^g^^ed

was taken during Lord Dalhousie's

step to

ticae,

about JS55,

conservators of Forests existed in Bombay,

Burma.

when

Madras and

Other ^ppoirxto^ents followed soon, and in 186* an

organized State Pept^^j!^^r^I^$p^c^o^Ge^ erfLlQf Forests t

An to

understocked forest often has to wither again to lose

all

increment

date^r be kept perhaps {ox 50 jrears, .gjve.aiow yieW. mid, then

star,*

again. (N, P, C.)

*P. Heske, German Forestry, 1938, quoted by Ely and Wehrweio,

Land Economics,

32

1940.

250

(

Was

established.

and

the State Depts.

The

Since then the Central Dept, has grown

old forest

Government

)

have been established.

was announced

policy

of India issued a

in 1894

when

the

circular with regard to forests,

based on the following principles:

The preservation

(0)

of climatic

and physical conditions

being most important sufficient forest area be retained, (ft) the general well-being of the people

of the country

was

to

comes next,

though cultivation

(o)

is

of

greater importance

than forestry, permanent cultivation should not reduce forest

below the prescribed ments

the rural

of

sional

and

four heads

local

Revenue should be

free or at conces-

population

importance they classified the forests into

:

Forests the

preservation

climatic and physical grounds (ii)

(d)

but only after meeting the require-

rates.

In order of

(1)

minimum,

maximum

realized to the

of

which was essential on

;

Those which supplied valuable timber

purposes

forests,

produced

better sorts

;

inferior

tracts

which, though true

timber or smaller growths

of

and,

Pastures and

(iv)

commercial

;

Minor forests including

(iii)

for

grazing grounds proper, which were

usually forests only in name.*

Though been

to

increase the

been aiming the

main concern

the

forests,

at

4i 2*5

administration has

eliminating the danger

and

increasing the as

yielding

of

overworking

capacity,

was apparent

This

from the

given by various States to the questions of the Sub-

m!?ep0rt t

administration has

forest

revenue,

has been done successfully, replies

of forest

f

tbe

Royal Comraissi n on Indian Agriculture, para

251

(

Committee on

Conservation and Afforestation.

Soil

unanimous

were

about

and rapid destruction

the

of

they held

forests

State

own working

had

their

and

scientifically

)

as

all

that,

general

they

of the

was established

Institute

was further enlarged dations

of

in

were managed

existence of Forest

research In at

in

provides training

for

the

forestry

1906 the Forest

Dehra Dun,

which

accordance with the recommen-

Indian Industrial Commission,

the

better

as policy, knowledge and funds

Department in India, the value of was not recognized and promoted, Research

but about

though most of the States

For about 50 years

permitted,

mismanagement

private forests,

plans,

far

They

1918.

forest services in India

It

and car-

on research in forestry and forest products, It is in touch with the Forest Departments of the States, close and hence the results of research find quick and effecries

by the States. Many valuable investibeen undertaken have and a gations steady progress is made in scientific and practical knowledge which has consider*

tive

application

the

ably improved

and better

utilization

tant

problems

find

suitable

separators,

printing that

to

is

for

electrical

paper.

there

of

fuller

At present some impor-

forests.

which they are paying attention are

wood

for

and has ensured

productivity,

aircraft

to

production, for battery

purposes and for producing cheap

The Planning Commission, however,

feel

considerable scope for improvement in secur-

ing the utilization of the

results

of research

on the forest

products by commercial and industrial interests. For ensuring closer contact between the Institute and the interest utilizing licity

thened

timber

and forest

arrangements

at

the

products, Institute

liaison

need

to

and pubbe streng-

* Commission, The First Five Year Plan,

p.

133. 1951,

268

(

The Future

Qtfttook.

It

most favourable

in the

30 years

should be appreciated that even conditions

be created, but can be

to

interference

by

in

an incredibly

and,

in

are,

productivity of tend

need

now

principle

maid

has an

it

forests,

gone

badly dis-

the people.

and development

remembered

function of

dr

of actual

tnany ways, adversely affecting the

that

is

forestry

is

important

measured

Though

the

and develop

conserve

to

is

Hence

quite obviotis.

utility

terms of the satisfaction of social needs,

in

tfegtect

inadequate,

and impoverishing

for preservation

should be

it

itfjtidici&as

Ms

The extent

supervision,

an extent that they are

tributed

from

depletion and deterioration hav

deforestation! their

But

take at tea*t

lost

roan, or indirectly,

lack of knowledge and

the

forest

time either as a direct consequence of

short

to

)

role of serving

as

the

hand-

fact that was agriculture, emphasized by the Commission on Indian Royal Agriculture that as a general

a

of

principle

the policy of the Forest

Department should be

so directed as to serve agricultural interests and administer for

ever,

rightly

observe that a stage has been reached where

forestry should

agriculture

The in

The Planning Commission, how-

the public benefit,

view

no longer be regarded

but as a

role of foresls

necessftry

as a

handmaid to

of

complement tremendous specially it

in agriculture is

of the provision

of fuel

which helps in saving the so

extensively available and cheap manure,* timber for imple-

ments and houses, grating and fodder

for cattle,

decreasing by providing employment, regulating water supply, cheeking floods and erosion and moderating the pressure on land

the climate.

But that

criterion for forest

to

is

not their

policy

afod

only role, and the only

administration.

They have

*A recent experiment in Madhya Pradesh shows that charcoal is able compete under certain circumstances with petrol as motor fuel, (N, P.O.)

other equally tfftpoittnt rotea to 'pity, t,&, pr&temitefc of

and

Jrttyaical

raw ttttert^s

provision of

climatic ConditOtis,

purposes and industrial* ftwl.

for mduatrial atfd fctaffletthU

mind (bese rteecteako, keep Forests are a renewable national asset capable of jriddteg

The

forest policy should

under

proper

scientific

in

management

nfit

only a steady

annual income but also a variety of products essemialfof hiicoan welfare.

They Should be

has been handed

we

fo

should pass on

generations,

during the

treated

as a capital

us in trust by our ancestors, and Whteh

intact,

and

if

in

improved, to future

possible

made

Inroads have been

war and

into the forest capital

the post-war

specially

years,

private forests, as a result of the threat of the private ownership.

which

This has

possible, and forests have

be

to

extinction of

made good

be preserved

to

in

as far as

as a

national

heritage.

Some

important

research, transport,

ment

forests the

not so in

aspects are fires,

and

management

private forests*

In

6f private rights lorests have

management,

:

forest is

said

some

to

finances,

In govern-

tribes, etc.

be satisfactory, bat

parts,

come under

after the state

abolition

management,

but in the remaining parts it should be improved through legislation.

In states organized

working plans should be created

not, and the level of working pltns should be kept to the state of progress in forests. Besides, forestry should be judged by the long run financial results rftther

Where there are

than by the immediate surplus; and adequate money snd for silvicultural technical know-how should be provided .

tesearch. so

as to

Suitable meftns of transport should be developed

make

forest

more

accessible,

and

the transport

costs must be reduced, Water transport is said to be cheapest in Germany, Canada and Finland waterways have

found

to

create Industries; toftefrjso rivers flowing

t

;

204

(

examined

or aear forests should be tive

Ares

in

specially in

to float

which are

summers,

Destruc-

timber*

common

a

feature

drier forests, should be minimised by depart-

mental light winter measures-*

)

And

firing

and other protective and preventive welfare of forest tribes

lastly, the

up with development of forests, forest operations

and

produce should be collected

They provide

them,

through

who

auctioning the rights to contractors

grown

linked

most of the minor products. into cooperatives, and forest

collect

They- should be organized

Forests cannot be

is

labour for

instead

of

exploit them,

but in rural areas, and

in cities,

even there in view of the urgent needs

of agriculture,

will be

But they cannot be

pushed

to

sub-marginal

grown everywhere factors.

Besides,

economical

never be

The only

;

like

to transport

carried

so

crops

view

in

of

lands.

they

have

also

costs,

transport

forest materials to plains.

cheaply as

solution to this problem

to is

they

limiting it

is

not

Fuel can

compete with cowdung.

to

grow

forests in plains

near villages* * Forest

fires do a tremendous damage in the form of burning wood, soil and inundation etc. The first measure is controlled grazing in hot weather, and the later measure is deliberate light winter burning to prevent later destructive conflagrations, It is a lesser evil, and is said to have little deleterious effects on tree growth and soil erosion. But in the interest of preserving grass growth for grazing, controlled grazing as a measure of fire protection is now considered a better alternative Besides, in Bihar the early experiments were found positively injurious in drier But in the moist forests of Bombay forests, and the practice is given up it is regularly practised, and has not promoted either erosion or floods, In U. P. the effects on grassy forests are not injurious, but in Bundelkhand and Chirpine forests, though erosion has increased, it has been a lesser In drier mixed forests some deleterious effects may occur, but it is evil, pointed out that burning stimulates the activity of soil bacteria and no alternative and equally effective practicable treatment for minimising the damage from late fires has so far been found. (N. P C.)

runoff,

In 194748 of the total forest area under the control of the Forest Department, 57'8% was attempted to be protected against fire. The percentage of failure to area attempted being about 5, about 76 thousand sq. mile? or nearly

95%

of the attempted area

was protected*

(I,

F, S,)

255

C

)

LAND RECLAMATION AND AGRICULTURAL

V.

EXTENSION. Idea of Land Reclamation.

Ordinarily

it

not

is

ted that in every country land reclamation has factor in advancing civilization.

Though

apprecia-

been

a

major

the processes, the

standards and the results have been different in different it

countries,

has everywhere increased land resources, and

earning livelihood

thereby enlarged the opportunities of

The advantages may be

from land. local

or

nation-wide, regional,

merely individual, but broadly speaking,

it

has

promoted national welfare. Technically defined cesses of

bringing

into

it

means

high

'the

operations and

grade

pro-

usefulness in crop

of

production lands which at the inception of the undertaking are' either

1

limited

and

an unproductive

in

capacity to produce to

1 *

state or

This

is

are of inferior or

an advanced view,

will meaning and processes stages from making land fit

projected

its

full

by the term land reclamation improvement so (e. g.

ntey be

as to

attempted

making land

the type of land

make

it

is

productive

unrelatedly or It

and semi-arid

useful.

and the subsequent scheme etc.),

may

be

by

betterment

As such

portions, clearing of

areas, recovering of

soil

corrections in arid

weeds and other undesir-

swamps and

too wet lauds in

humid

9 submerged land or land from sea and

Adams, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol.

The

motivated ol

its forms, depending upon and purpose, are divergent, and it may

able flora, draining of

F.

;

implies some degree

involve: washing of alkali areas,

1,

agricultural

financing, actual settlement, cropping

different purposes* in

for

But more generally, understood the actual land

upto complete settlement.

operation

steps

include all the

it

,

13-14, p, 160, '

natural process of recovering land from sea is called 'accretion, and rightly speaking is not called reclamation which refers to artificial 2,

arrangements,

alto if rigtadon which is said to be fuily exampttfying reclama-

an economic and Asocial mstitution.

tion as

It

Agencies.

can be .done by governments, organized

bodies and institutions .and individuals* operations

and

cal

But large

scale

cannot be attempted by individuals on techni-

The powers

financial grounds.

of organized

like

the co-operative societies, corporations

ties

are also limited OQ legislative

be armed with

bodies

and authori-

They have

side.

to

such powers

through special legislation. agency for any large-scale operation is the government, whose part is not confined to finanpial aid

The

best

only.

Even when no

things

are

gation

of opportunities

out

finances are involved,

be done by the

to

the

for

government best means

reclamation, administration of

settlement

ipany other of

carrying

laws and

reclamation

Besides their financial aid

etc.

investi-

e.g.,

ranges

from

bearing the entire cost to simply subsidising individuals to

the

partly meeting

such as

reclaimed lands. initiative

volved. ther

is

even through indirect means rent and irrigation charges o&

cost

concessions

in

However, even government

limited

so

For success their cooperation

nationalization of

are not necessary, as is

specially

ther Jfce

the section

Ihey haye

'method*

referi^g to r^ius^tion

q*ethds of (

is

necessary. Fur-

land before reclamation operations believed by some economists**

Method! of Redwwtlan,

cused under

activity an,d

long as private interests aje in-

oi

of

partly

be*a.dt>

erosion

control',

ravine land*

re^i^ atbar ty^of

Fur-

laads have

been diapus^d in detail by the Cgimaiittee op Soil Amelioration (of the Board of Agriculture and Animal lju *Ur.

B*i>it

Smgh

believes that

and improvement re(^W^ioa

should

first

be nationalised',

ail,

'

land

:fora to

be

piammd soheme of land opwatwo

brou^bt ua4er

(Whither Agriculture

in India, p, 44; 1945).

(

bandry in India) and the Usar Land R^Ql^mation CommiU, P. As a matter of fact .the type of land d$ter-

ttee,

mines the method of reclamation. Alkali lands are

Soils characmainly of two types soils and salts, having abnor>

by excess of soluble

terized

The former can be

mal amounts of replaceable sodium*

reclaimed by leaching only, while the

require the

latter

conversion of sodium clay into calcium

for

whiph heavy

doses of irrigation water followed by suitable crop tions to

are most effective,

Systematic cropping

check the reappearance

of

alkali

is

rota-

necessary

in reclaimed area?*

In some places simple leaching combined with deep cultivation has given

known

successful

as 'Bari' are

said

to

ment with gypsum and calcium pensive method. in the

In

the

Punjab, where

resulted in excessive

The

results.

lands

alkali

the

well to

respond

chloride, but

treat-

an ex-

is

it

case of the canal irrigated lands

a

rise

in

the

sub-soil

alkali formation,

around blocks of suitable

water level

deep open drains

followed by heavy leach*

size

ing combined with the application of gypsum, have been

The next

adopted.

then berseem,

stage

w.as cropping

The waste lands

high PH, and which cannot be or kallar

l

can

be

reclaimed

in

wit)) .rice

and

north Bihar, having

definitely

classed as usar

doses

through liberal

of

organic apd green m.anuripg. The u?e of molasses as a ^claiming and fertilizing a^ent is said to be hopeful,

near suga,r factories, where the transport costs of molasses do not become exhorbitant, Similarly specially ia areas

The U.

P, Usar Lan4 J&eclaraafcan improving intractable alkali areas has not yet established and gypsum; sulphur ahd iron sulphate will generally effectiveness ,

,

culture for its

he

;

.. .ip.qcpirtw.MViOT'

8

ty r<^ama#m, *%ay jnrot.

of using further the * possibilities x

.

molasses as a

reclaiming

and

358

(

leaching

water

is

bundhs

is

recommended

available is

surplus canal

areas where

for

and sinking

;

)

of wells

and construction

of

good on contour lines for impounding rain-water in

other areas in addition to working out appropriate types saltworts suitable

of

for

whose

water-logged

drainage cuts is

areas construction of shallow

For the waste lands

In

soils.

alkali

cultivation

required.

not likely

is

to

be enonomic, a system of controlled rotational grazing by

paddocks and tation

of

utilization

is

improved fodder,

type

soil for

plan*

land for

The unculturable wastes

suggested.

ravines should be

of vegetation

producing.

good

leaving the surrounding usar

trees,

consisting of

of pockets of

to

produce the

they are capable of and

suitable for

managed

This will indirectly

and check further deterioration

benefit of

the nearby

land

ravines themselves* In

having perennial deep-rooted 'tans', specially in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Bhopal, tractor cultivation is supposed to be effective, and the Indore Instt* areas

tute

adopted

a

much

simple

method

of

eradication

by

deep cultivation with the help of an adjustBut the reappearable 'fttffckar' drawn by four bullocks ham of that have shows these methods not succeeded* ance occasional

Extension of Agriculture.

optimism regarding the

There

possibilities

is a

of

general feeling of bringing fresh land

under the plough, and thereby enhancing agricultural production and solving the food problem, specially in view of the vast areas of culturable land closer study this land,

and the analysis

and the limitations

facile optimism*

The

of

lying uncultivated. the

But a

nature and quality of

to cultivate

them, shatter that

earlier estimates of the

total

area of

waste land which can be brought under Cultivation ranging from 96 to 150 million acres, should not be taken to be very The most recently available data regarding land reliable.

(

classification

)

given in section

is

repitition of that is

Agriculture,

259

II

of this chapter,

being avoided here.

Government

and

The Ministry that nearly

of India, thought

a of

85

million acres of culturable waste land existed in the country

was good, fertile and culThe 6 years reclamation programme worked out by the Food and Agricultural Ministry was to add 2 million To fully implement the tons of food grains annually. and

of this only 10 million acres

turable.

Food Grains Policy Committee estimates the lands which were to be reclaimed were Punjab '5,

programme of

U.

of the

:

P. i'O,

1*0,

Bihar

*2,

Malwa Union

Union

'5,

Assam 1*0,

Orissa

4*0,

I'O,

Madras Agency Tract

with a total of

self-sufficiency included

Madhya Pradesh I'O

10*2 million acres.

only expansion

of

and Vindhya

The

by March reclaiming 6

yielding 3 lakhs tons of additional food

The present programme aims

at

which include about 4 million acres

weed

of

target of

8 lakhs acres 1952,

mil. acres

infested

areas

which are mostly private lands and require deep ploughing with a view to eradicating the

root

system

oi

weeds, and

about 2 million acres of other idle lands termed consisting mostly of government

are as follows

as 'New',

owned scrub jungles.

They

:

New Land

States.

(mil, acres.)

E, Punjab E. Punjab States Orissa

Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Madhya Bharat

Weed

infested

(mil. acres.)

-5

Nil

'2

Nil

'5

Nil

.-

'6

'5

-3

'2

-15

Nil

1-4 '8

Bombay

'3

Bhopal

Nil

*4

and Vindhya Pradesh Jaipur

Nil

*11

2'2

3-?6

Total

266

(

)

This plan is t&sed on the data furnished by states Which an overall survey before supplying the figures; Large areas of waste land In othf provinces which *re fefdamtfbte roadfe

are not included in this scheme, tackle those to

areas

which

first

mechanized operation so

put forth in increasing food

lands

immediately

production so as

The

imports.

to

intention

is to

lend themselves easily

will

maximum

that

effort

could be

productfon within the shortest

The fundamental

possible time.

make

since the

point in the

available

plan

is

to

food

increased

for

reduce and ultimately wipe out the food concentrates for the present

therefore,

plan,

on thejreclamation of land in respect of which information is available, and which satisfies two conditions (i) the lands :

500 acres each, so as

are in large blocks of at least tate

mechanical reclamation, and

the

(ii)

they

to facili-

are either

scrub jungles with spare tree growth or are weed infested, on which crops can be grown after reclamation, About 50 lakh acres was to be taken in the

first year and then the area be increased subsequently. The entire cost is Rs, 266 Various targets have been fixed for each crores. part of

was

to

the scheme, land

reclamation being the largest item.

The

dollar

requirements are Rs. 71*08 crores and the sterling requirements Rs. 64'93 crores they will be spent within ;

3 years for purchasing requisite machinery and equipments, The Indian part of the expenditure is Rs, 130 crores to be spent over a period of 7 years. in the sense that

from the cultivators

for

and who as colonists possible

year,

whose

Of

the 2*2

benefit

will be settled

areas irrigation

reclamation scheme.

areas where the

The scheme

ultimately the entire costs

are recoverable

reclamation

on those lands*

is

done In nil

schemes are being linked with

The kans

rainfall

is self-sufficient

is

mil acres

infested

between 40 of

New

land

lands

occur

in

to

75 inches per

to

be reclaimed

land situated IB heavy

1*5 mil. acres is rte*

ramWl

areas of

and la Qritsa. In these placet special

if fifatieo

The remaining area: is not necessity* wheat belt where the construction of tube-wells

is iu the

tatai

U.

ift

P.

sct^me

linked

up

scheme

of completion of the

Work

is

to

is

1 nail, tofts*

carried oat by the States with the assistance of

the Central Tractor Organization, starting in 1947 with tractors left derelict

by the U.

famous Ledo Road

in

units of 15 each,

The

each unit

b*

period 7 years, and the estimate 6f

is

annual yield of food from reclaimed land Tfie

is

The

with the reclamation of these areas.

S,

Assam,

army

after completing the

Tractors are organized into

and a mobile workshop actual

180

operation

is

attached with

started in

March 1943 in

Madhya Pradesh with kans infested lands where the cost of reclamation Was Rs. 40 pet acre. The biggest scheme is that of

U.

district district.

P.,

47 thousand acres in Ganga Khadar in Meerm in Tarai in Naini Tal

and 50 thousand acres

The

official

version of the results

is

encouraging

since cost of tractor cultivation is said to have been reduced

and good crops are reported. by the

government are:

71,497 acres and targets.

actual

areas reclaimed

32,531

acres; 1948-49,

1949-50, 98,000 acres, which are below the

The paper reports and

show contrary

The

1947*48

results,

the discussions in parliaments

indicating the reported

yields feeing

based merely on a rough estimate, of area sown multiplied

by the average crops yields, irrespective of the actual output. The Planning Commission in the First Five Year Plan fixed a target of 4 mil, acres to be restored to cultivation

from fallow land and C. T, 0.

The

1*5 mil.

acres to be reclaimed by the

other land improvement schemes

The

covet 1'9 mil. acres,

total

1955-55, which aids

at

thousand tons which

21%

is

being 7*4

further

mil acres uf*o

an additional production of 1524 of the total production

(

The

262

)

waste land which can

recent estimates of culturable

be uaed for agricultural purposes included in different land

clams

(inclusive of the current fallow land) is about 71 mil.

acres*

Out

of this

most of the land

after reclamation cultivation will

able areas are of th difficulties of

is

such on which even

be uneconomic.

Consider-

nature where technical and financial

reclamation are uasurmountable.

Really speak*

ing hardly 10 mil, acres is of the nature on which cultivation can be extended within reasonable future, which means

hardly

4% addition

to the existing cultivated area,

Most of

being sub-marginal land on which yield will be below average, the total addition in food supply from reclamation

it

The

will not be considerable,

of irrigation, of land

Merely the presence

difficulties of technical nature,

rights and of finances are tremendous. of a considerable

waste land does not lend support

such lands are not and cannot be tion th

by

landless labourers.

price

made

of

culturable

optimism.

AH

available for coloniza-

Besides, the fact that inspite of

incentive the conspicuous increase in fallow land

in the recent, past further ties of

area

10 that

shows

the

insurmountable

bringing fresh lands under cultivation,

we cannot be very agricultural

optimistic regarding the

difficul-

Therefore,

enhancement

of

production and thus solving the food problem

mainly or largely through agricultural extension. the increased

demands

of industrial

raw materials

Besides, will not

permit any considerable increase in the areas under food Hence for enhanced food supply we have to depend crops. mostly on intensification leading to increased yield per acre, This does not mean any neglect of efforts on the side of

As a matter of fact both are necessary. But be a high hope for a considerable enhanced cannot there

extension!

food production or increasing the standard through agricultural

(ZW Another interesting

study

)

is

to

determine the possi-

of extension in different parts of

bilities

the

country,

following map) showing the extent of cultivation

on the basis of newly formed

is

The

drawn

states.

EXTENT

OF CULTIVATION

(%OFNH"AQEA SOWN

TO TOTAL AREA)

(1048-40)

The

utilization

pare,

view

parts

cultivation,

of

point

The

plains.

these

of

limits

to

the

extension of

cultivation in

be considerably limited,

however, seems of

from the land-

view, are considerably reached In the

possibilities of

seem

as judged

to

difficulties

The

afford greater chances* of providing

central

But in

irrigation facilities

264

(

(the

)

most baric need in extension) ia

chance of large-scale extension, ts

Mghif

Under such

problematical.

tensification

of

agriculture

plains

and extension

better

coarse.

in

in

the

this

at least in the

the

region,

any

near future

circumstances, in?

northern and

middle zone seems

coastal to be

a

CHAPTER

VIII

Resource Utilization Continued

&

(Water

RIVER TRAINING.

I.

a

Power Resources)

Meaning and Scope of River Management. Rivers have wandering habit, and thus are by nature disorderly and desBesides, man's interference with

tructtive forces,

neglect to take precautions in the use of water, in not recognizing the

them,

e. t

restricting the flowage

of

of suffi-

water delivered

to

ways by encbroachments, and railways without

roads

construction of

occupations, sufficient

amount

(his

his error

of rivers to floodways

rights

cient capacity to deal with the i,

them

and

waterways being provided, and other obstacles) under which rivers are not able to

has created conditions

The perform their function efficiently as flood carriers, vast and to involved are human antagonistic consequences welfare,

To prevent and cure them, and

water to the greatest use, river systems are

and managed.

to

to

disciplined

behaviour,

put

be regulated

River training involves inducing rivers

submit themselves

them flow in a

further to

i. e,,

to

making

conserving of water resources,

stable regime,

and developing the whole river sjstem for the benefit

of the

region along the entire course,

The problem

of

broadly speaking the

The

River Regulation or

problem

activities are two-fold

:

Management

is

of conserving the surface- flow.

On

the one

hand they include

the problems of maintaining the rivers in

efficient

working

"

condition,

34

*.,

the problems of prevention

265

and

of

cure,

266

(

)

refering to the destructive aspect of rivers.

They include sotne

involved) e.g., flood control, maintaining

problems directly

adequate supplies in dry season, avoiding of all sorts of enchroachments on flood ways, reducing the quantity of debris to be transferred, dredging,

problems are

indirectly

and river e. g,

related,

sanitation, etc.

methods

Some

of farming,

management, kind and quantity of stock raising, windbrakes and field embankments, etc. They indirectly affect

forest

streams-flow

On

ignored, river

the

other

and

deterioration)

cannot be

hand, (on the development side)

management involves the best utilization of water for

different purposes,

The problems,

problems of irrigation,

and river-bed

as a matter of fact, vary

nature of rivers.

Narbada and

including the fisheries

power, navigation,

etc,

cultivation,

according

Rivers of peninsular India and parts

to the

of the

Mahanadi, excepting within 50 miles from

the

debouchment

their

soil

(through

into the sea,

and

their

tributaries,

flow

mostly in well'defined valleys and between comparatively and no not meander about in a lawless manner

definite bluffs,

like the alluvial

parts of the

rivers

Narbada on

on the East Coast,

of the

northern

and

India,

West Coast and

the

The problems of control, more peculiar to alluvial

the negative side, are

those of the development

alluvial

Mahanadi

specially

on

rivers, while

and conservation may be common.

Besides, there are highly complex problems of engineering

and

of

governmental relations involved in II.

PROTECTION AGAINST FLOODS.

Flood Ravages, *

it,*

The problem

of floods is very old,

The

River Training and planning of works is for multiple uses of water, and as such there is apparently a conflict of activities, Really speaking there is no conflict of activities, since from the view point of regional be harmonized with least social development such conflicts can disadvantages,

367

(

)

great deluge of legandry antiquity, which practically wiped left an almost permanent impression on

out the population, the

human mind

flood.

of the

overwhelming damage wrought by becomming more fre-

recent past floods are

In the

quent, more intense and losses are direct

the

physical

crops,

more

and some

damage of

drowning

to

Some

destructive*

The

The former include

indirect.

live-stock

damages

to

buildings,

rail-

telephone

from decreased

latter are those resulting

agricultural, industrial

the

property such as destruction of

roads, bridges, water works, sewers, streets and service, etc,

of

and commercial activities during floods

and during periods of recovery. Epidemics, usually malaand desolation. Floods involve ria, further add to the ruin a terrible amount of featist psychology

famines.

human

suffering,

amongst the people who frequently face speaking the loss of life can be

Scientifically

avoided, but

it

due

usually occurs

to

the people to leave their possessions, in lower reaches of rivers.

member

and engender a de-

is that

natural reluctance of

Generally they occur

And what

is

important to re-

man

they are largely the creation of

himself,

who, unmindful of the risks involved in striving for

liveli-

hood, tries to occupy lands on which nature has not accomp lished her for use to

work of making them fit for human which man wants them to use.

Causes of Floods, The most of

floods is

a

heavy

common and

rainfall

occuring

the

habitation and

primary cause

in a

short

time,

accummulating huge quantity of water in stream channels

beyond their earring capacity, and thus overflowing their banks.

The physical features

of the

drainage basin such as

the geological structure and the ground inclination, etc., have

an important bearing, since they affect the run-off of water, Other causes, usually termed as exceptional causes, are ; rapid thawing of snow, volcanoes bursting beneath a flowing

current, earthquakes leveling t'p or reducing the channel

simultaneous or successive bursting of

section of stfeams, artificial

reservoirs in a valley, and ice-jams or landslides

closing the outlets of valleys, etc.

depends on a sfet of conditions, which, broadly speaking, are put under three classses difiering in the aspects they present, (f) Non-alluvial, (U) alluvial, and it

Generally

(Hi) tidal

area^

In alluvial tracts rivers are

knd being usually incompetent

down

in flood

season,

to

land-building,

discharge the water brought

they normally overflow their banks.

Floods are m6re frequent and destructive in such areas where rirevs are perpetually changing their courses.

said that

It is

throughout the alluvial plains the history of civilization

been the

history of river protection

rivers the

process

reversed as the

and

The

In tidal

training. of

direction

flow is

water, having greater density than fresh

way against the current coming from the Sometimes other factors, such as forma* direction,

water, forces opposite

salt

different,

is

has

its

mouths

tion of bars at the

and

of the estuaries

the

of a steady littoral drift along the sea coast, also

operation

cause floods

in tidal regions or the lowest river reachs.

Control of floods.

Measures

for

flood

control

fall into

two groups and (ii) flood protection. (i) flood prevention, The former aim at preventing food stages, while the latter at :

minimising the

effects of flood stages

damages caused by them, noted.

First, that the

and each should be or elaboration

Two

things,

however, have

to

bt

two methods should be supplementary,

sufficiently

when needed,

flexible

And

flood control system can be planned

single measure.

or at preventing the

The

be justified in the light

to

allow a change

secondly, a

complete

and executed not as &

financial implications cannot generally of single

specific

problems.

speakiftg the social benefits, mftlti-sided direct

Really

and indirect

269

(

)

Advantages in the Idng run, leading to or affectitog soHil Water has multiprosperity, have to be take'n into Account,

The aim

ple uses,

of river control cannot be achieved

by

financially justified

it

restricting

to

particular use*

a

Therefore, the policy of flood control should form a the general national policy of conserving water

general.

part of

resources Hi

gratifying to note that the question of bearing

It is

the initial costs has recently been modified by the ties of future

and

developments specially power,

of flood control

measures are

possibili-

and high

cost's

juristified in the expectation of

serving wider needs of the country. (i)

Flood Prevention. (Storage Reservoirs.) The remedy

of floods lies in

checking the rapid run-ofi of water, or

its

whether underground or in surface and better methods of cultivation

detention by storage

Afforestation

reservoirs. facilitate the

percolation of water into the ground, and

storage in subterranean

reservoirs,

its

measures

But these

cannot be taken as basic measures of flood control because there

are considerable limitations to

form

be provided in the

of furface

them,

Storage inust

reservoirs, to hold back

water which would otherwise cause flood, and its

release

channel.

according

This

is

to

the most

the

discharging

to regulate

capacity

sound method of flood

of the

cotrol since

works can be constructed and operated with greater certainty and safety than in any other method of flood preventhe

tion. sites

But there are limitations

may

artificial

lakes

may

suitable site is found

tributaries

method

Suitable

also,

being

seriously injur other interest

;

even

if

;

a

much upstream and the uncovered, may not be benefiial to be protected, and it may not eliminate it

may

left

the area intended to

the

to ihis

not be available to store huge quantities of water

necessity o( protecting

be very

it

the lower reaches,

should be noted that complete reiei

is

Besides,

not possible

it

270

(

)

Floods can best be mitigated by combining

storage alone.

reservoir control

with improvements of the river channels

at critical places.

The

latter

involve increasing the carrying canals and

capacity of channels, provision of outlets, lateral cut-offs,

prevention of caving of banks and sediment deposit

in beds, dredging the (it)

bed and lining the banks,

Flood Protection.

(Levees),

This

etc,

is the

most usual

system of defence against floods, and was used by the Holland affords a good Egyptians and the Babylonians.

example of successful defensive embankments. Embankments as a measure of river training ar^ constructed to check the

of

deterioration

stable.

But

rivers

should

it

and

to

make

be noted that

reaches

certain

continuous

levees

without making an arrangement for drainage are harmful. It is said that this is the only method of controlling an allulevees alone cannot be

vial river, but

serve the purpose.

depended upon to must be They helped by reservoir

control.

or

Tidal Rivers,

The problem

tidal

of

regions

rivers

conditions are so diverse

is

of flood in the lowest

of

a

peculiar

range of tide,

reaches

nature.

presence

The

or other-

wise of an estuary, waves and currents forming bars, and in

the variations

standardized It Is

the

level

of

the sea,

methods of improving the

etc.

outfall

that

no

can be

embankments were originally conceived as a protection which in some cases was of great importance, Later

said that

of vested interest,

on they were used as defence against flood or as a river training measure, Besides, confinement of flood waters within leveed trough is said to increase flood heights, and secondly, fertility of alluvial valley depends upon periodic overflow, and flood control in this way proves harmful to the benefits derived from occasionally protecting As a matter of fact there is no evidence to prove that levees raise river beds and increase flood heights, The existing constructions in U. S. A, and Europe do not support this theory. In the case of the Mississippi a tendency to lower the bed is noted. The conditions of the Nile are different because the floods reach its mouth early in

agriculture offsetting

crops from flood,

spring

before crops are planted,

271

(

water cannot by nature

is to

itself

being at work fresh

forces

However, many

Suggested.

)

maintain a sea

and, therefore,

outlet,

be assisted in her attempts to discharge water

But the expenses involved are so huge that only land reclamation may not be considered as a

of rivers into seas.

justified undertaking,

is of

unless navigation

practical imf

Floods in such areas are nature s method

portance there* of

land formation, and there should be no hindrance

The

free passage of flood water by tidal obstructions* is to

remove the obstacles

remedy embankments

since

to the

to the

of

working

best

nature,

in tidal regions aggravate floods instead

of protecting them.

Ill,

means

Irrigation

the

of

purpose

IRRIGATION. supply of water to

artificial

plant growth.

for

soil

implies maintaining the

It

storage of water in the soil required for plant growth at times

and places ting the

of deficient water supply f moisture content of the soil

optimum making up it

is also a

plants.

means

make it

is

possible the a

means

is

it

of

a

to

practice

other words

crops

of

artificially

receive

all

of

Funda-

supplementing the

areas where irrigation

some water from

remove the excess it is

of

but

preventing or retarding the occurence

quantities of water in irrigated soils.

practised

secondlyi

artificially regula-

to

Primarily

natural precipitation, since in nearly is

0,,

deficiencies in the moisture content of soils,

of excessive

mentally

of

growth

.

rains;

and

water by drainage,

In

a method of changing soil sterlity caused

The term 'duty of water' is defined as the ratio of the amount of water used to the area of land irrigated, When a large amount of water is applied to a small area the duty is said to be 'low/ and conversely when a small amount of water is applied to a larger area the duty is said to be Alexander thinks that the term is a relic of early irrigation termi'high,' nology, and Israelion suggests to discard

it

becausi of being misleading.

ft

(

into fertility,

due

to

)

overcoming

1.4,,

loiy prpditctivhy

dryness,* or excessive water-supply.

can be viewed from different aspects: engineering,

It

agricultural

and economic and

designing and

social.

structures

building

The

first

(or

required

refers to storage,

conveyance, delivery and distribution of water,

diversion,

determination of water yields of rivers and water supplies for irrigated

irrigation

and

water

The second

etc.

lands,

agricultural

refers

the use

to

practices,

applicable to different climates, soils and crops, applic&tipn and the quantity

The

etc.

third relates

and desires which It

must, however,

to

the

be noted

methods

of

water for single irrigation,

of

satisfaction

essential for

is

of

rules

e. g,,

of

social

needs

any community enterprise. there are no clear cut

that

divisions between these phases and the problems in the different

The following pages

phases are interdependent.

are devoted to the last phase.

Meed and Importance, needed

for

agriculture is the

average annual high,

is

it

annual

rainfall in India,

normal

seldom

Excepting a few

by far and

The main source

was

large

it

unevenly distributed.

where is

rainfall.

is

scarce,

vast

There are vast

is fairly

sub-continent.

high, regular

uncertain,

the

Though

being about 45",

over the it

water supply

of

and

certain,

irregular

tracts in

and

which annual

*Soils formed under humid climate and those formed under arid climates differ considerably in their properties, Irrigated soils are more (Though some irrigation is found in humid typical of arid climate soils,

Barrenness regions, it is not extensive.) results from two major factors drought :

and sterlity of arid region soils and alkali. (Though alkali lands

are typical of arid regions, they are neither of general occurence nor are uniformly distributed). Barrenness, caused by drought alone cap be checked and changed into fertility by irrigation, and not that caused by alkali for which there are other methods. Secondly, after long periods of irrigation arid region soils develop

some

soils '

become

some

sterile

of the properties

of

humid region

sojls,

and

because of excessive irrigation, water-logging

precipitation artificial

is

So light that cultivation is hot possible Without

July and

There are

water supply.

which more than 80%

still

larger areas over

of the rainfall being received

between

September, and the remaining year being dry, the

uneven seasonal

distribution results in the lack of moisture

Variations in different at the time required by crops.* catchments and parts of catchments are more marked and frequent.

Beside, the seasonal and local uneven distribution,

variation

the

from year

to

tracts are considered) is so is

said to be one good,

in every ten

resulting in

much

(at

every place

if

separate

that in every 5 years

there

one bad and three indifferent years

years there

is

a scarcity of

;

marked magnitude

famine conditions and

in every about hal-fcentury abnormal over vast areas and there is a ;

monsoon

the

year

is

severe drought resulting in a widespread devastating faminei

and when requiredfor most of the crops, during greater part of the year and over by far a larger area; and there is a great deal of

The

results are that water

insecurity

of

harvests.

is

not available as

The

Irrigation

Commission 1901-3

a expressed an opinion that 25 /o deficiency from average rainfall causes some injury to crops, and 40% deficiency

generally causes severe drought,

On

the basis of the data

supplied by the Meteorological Dept,, and taking

*Where

the

annual rainfall

is

20%

defi-

below 10 or 12 inches, cultivation

Becomes practically impossible without irrigation. On the other hand where the rainfall exceeds 70 or 80 inches and has always been so abundant that the chance of its serious failure may be regarded extremely remote, Between these areas, in which the crops are agriculture is relatively safe, thus rendered safe by exclusive reliance on irrigation or by an assured and abundant rainfall, lies a vast tract of about one million square miles of which, in the absence of irrigation, no portion can be deemed absolutely secure against the uncertainties of tbe season and the scourage of famine. (Irrigation Commission, 1901-3.)

From the view Monsoon is

point of agriculture the most unsatisfactory feature failure or serious deficiency, its liability to It is mostly to overcome or mitigate the sufferings during these drought years that the great irrigation systems of India have been constructed. 35

of the

274

(

)

ciency for considerable injury and

33J%

for severe drought,

the Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation calculated the average frequency of years of drought as follows.*

The

table explains the necessity of protecting agriculture

against the vagaries of the monsoon. for carrying

necessay

providing diversity of production, for

larger yields and longer tion,

it is

on cultivation in arid and semi-arid areas, for

scientific agriculture

and

Besides,

employment

for intensification

to cultivating

popula-

of agriculture so as to maintain

such a thick population in the country and such a huge pressure on land*

The importance

of irrigation

is

also

obvious from the fact that inspite of considerable advantages of soil and climate crop production in India is not so efficient

as in

many

other countries primarily because of the defective

*N, P, C, River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p. 33,

275

(

moisture content of the

emphasized than

)

And

soils*

it

cannot

be over

sadder commentary on our

to state that 'a

economic situation cannot be found than the

close,

direct

correspondence between harvests and birth-rates and inverse correspondence between harvests and mortality/* and the security of harvests depends primarily

on the adequacy of

irrigation.

Irrigation

Irrigation is

Through Ages.

said to

be the

does not seem wrong because dependence of agriculture on rainfall renders cultiva-

oldest applied science in the world,

tion precarious,

and attempts

to

It

make

agriculture safe against

drought by providing systems of artificial irrigation must have been made since the dawn of civilization. On the basis oi the available evidence

it is

ventured

whether

to suggest)

difficult

to

say

(though some have

the earliest attempts

were made

by the Egyptians or the Babylonians or by othtrs, and how far But it is true that these attempts were contemporaneous.

were devised from

in India systeirs oi artificial irrigation

ancient times

North

lift

and in the South storage tanks and in the

irrigation

from wells and flow irrigation from

rivers have been the usual methods of irrigation,

For

the sake of convenience

divided into different periods 2 (i j

1.

2

R K

water for

the study

may be

:

Prior to the Christian Era.

tion of wells, canals, reservoirs

1939. p,

utilizing

The Vedas make men-

and dams, and use

the terms

Mukerjee, Economic Problems of Modern India, Vol.

I,

ix,

For more evidences one can look to Irrigation in India Through Central Board of Irrigation; W, Wilcox, Ancient

Ages, Leaflet No, 7

System

of Irrigation in Bengal, 1930,

have risen in irrigated regions they have also decayed and disintegrated there, Some, therefore, hold that civilization based on is destined to decline sooner or later. This agriculture under irrigation Civilizations

,

Really speaking the perpetuity of any other basis. depends on a number of factors, and of these permanently profitable agriculture is an important factpr,

can be true of civilization

276

(

signifying well, 'kulya'

signifying canal and

's

Kausiba Sutra mention canal, and Manu*

signifying dams*

smrii wells, pools and dams. refer to wells

)

Brihaspati and Narad also

and dams. These ancient writers make mention

seven types and sizes of water works, e, g*prapa kupa Kautalya kulya, padmakara, sarsi and tataka. vapi

of

t

}

t

mentions construction and repairs of lakes, canals, dams and embankments. In Sanskrit literature we come across such terms as pranali

kulya,

t

different types of canals,

kunda and tala

tanks, and tataka and sarsi is

and nalika

%

for

different size of

for

dams. There

for different size of

evidence, specially referring to later

historical

enough

nala

sarasi, nika,

times, of different systems of irrigation followed in different

reference

to different

types of instruments and hydraulic engineering.

The most

Besides, there

parts of the country.

famous was the

great

feat

of

is

engineering of

hydraulic

Ganga by Bhagirath which described in the spiritual language in the Story of Ganga

diverting the course of the sacred is

The whole operation was performed

Avataran.

in

several

stages and took a very long-time.

Beginning of Christian Era

(it)

An

inscription

Rudradaman

of

Kathiawar records cial lake

and Gupta

of

an

artifi-

was repaired by successive Maurya

It

In the

rulers.

Century A, D.

and repairs

the construction

Sudarsan.

to 10th

on the Girnar rock in

I,

south the

Chola rulers

in

1st

dams and controlled the river number of other references to different

century A. D., constructed

Kaveri- There are

a

types of works constructed of tanks

century

said

is ;

Mahendra tank

7th century,

Chingleput in

be

to

and

at

common in

;

in

half a

a big lake near

Walaja taluka in

Tamil

North Arcot

in the latter

district

different times

:

construction

tract

in the 6th

district in the

number

of

early

tanks in the

Conjeevaram and a tank

the 8th century,

by Nandivaram

;

3

number tricts

North Arcot and Salem dis-

of tanks in Chingleput,

by Pallava

King

in 9th century

channels constructed by Parantaka

I

;

number

a

(also called

in the 10th century, as proved by grants and

oi

tanks and

Vir Narayan)

inscriptions, a

channel from the Kaveri near Trichinopoly, and a tank neat Bahur near Pondicherry by Rajaraja in the latter part of the 10th century.

(Hi) 11th Century to 17th Century,

commemorate

cavated a tank and his capital

filled

it

Its

to

have ex-

with water from the Ganges, near

Gangaikonda Cholapuram

llth century.

Rejendra Chola

his victories in the North is said to

in the beginning of the

embankment

present

about 16 miles

is

long. The Bhojpur lake (of proverbial size) was constructed by Raja Bhoj of Dhar near I3hojpur the remains of which are seen about 20 miles South of Bhopal. The story of its

unusually large

size

has survived the

and as an engineering

The copper

feat

plate grants ot

refer to the

it

in 12tb century,

of

tradition;

Anantvarman and Indravarman

existence of two tanks in the

There are many other instances: Mysore

test

must have been a marvel,

llth

century.

tank

Sindhuvalli

in

tank in Musiri in Trichinopoly

a

during Chola king Rajaraja

III in the

beginning

of

the 13th

century, Pakhal lake in north of Warangal in the middle of the 13th century, Anantaraja Sagara (a huge resevoir) con-

structed by

Bhaskara in the middle

Phirangipuram tank

in

Guntur

mitra in the beginning of

Devaraja district

I

in early 14th

district

15th

16th

century, a big tank in

Samudra

dam

by

Anantpur

of the 15th

cen-

Krishnaraja of Vijaya-

century, Korrangal and

channels on the Tungabhadra

century,

constructed by Sur*

by Narsimharaja towards the close

in the early

14th

century, Haridra

tury, Nagalpura tank constructed by

nagar

of the

by the

(a big tank) constructed in the

same

Basaanna king, Sivfr

middle of the 16th

278

(

)

century near Bangalore, and a few canals constructed in the north, the most famous of which are those constructed

by Firozshah Tughlaq, the old Jamuna Canal towards the end of the 14th century, a few others in Punjab and Sindh, the extension of the canals in the north, and con-

from the Ravi by Shahjahan towards

struction of a canal

the

middle

of

17th

the

century.

evidence of maintaining and

Besides, there

is

these

repairing

enough

works, of

municipal supervision, of State help, of mutual feuds, of distribution of water,

These are some traditions

and

and

of private enterprize, etc.

of the

history,

instances furnished by legends,

They prove

against failure of rains through suitable

tion,

that protection

artificial

systems

topographical and other

to

of crops of

irriga-

physical

con-

ditions, (e.g. storage works in the south and canals in the north) was provided by native rulers from the very begin-

They also prove that huge expenditure material was made, and a high degree of

niag.

development was reached specially

gineering,

dams and

in

by

technological

with reference to the construction of

river training.

artificial

money and

drainage and hydraulic en-

Bat there seems

of agriculture in the past being wholly or

ted

in

to be no

evidence

even mainly

protec-

except in small localities,

irrigation

The

available instances simply show scattered attempts; and throughout these ages agriculture was mostly dependent on the vagaries of the rainfall failures as (to)

;

and there were occasional crop

proved by the history of famines.

The British Period.

century the British irrigation works,

they inherited

Upto the middle

Government did

not pay

and therefore some

from

their

of

the

19th

attention to

any works which

of the

predecessors (inundation canals

Upper India and storage works and tanks in the South in Madras) were ruined due to neglect. After that Specially in

279

(

a change in the policy

)

was noticed

in the

form

of

repairing

and reviving the old existing works, such as the Western and Eastern Jamna canals, Ganges canal, works in the deltas of

the

Kishna and Cavery and replacing the old

Halsi canal by the Upper Bari

began the construction

Doab

of canals

Then

canal in Punjab,

through private guaranteed

companies such as the East India Canal Co, in 1858 in Orissa and the Madras

Irrigation Co* in 186J.

It

was an

unsuccessful experiment and the progress was very slow.

On

exhausted the Orissa Co

capital being

by the

in 1866,

government were completed,

in Bihar

a policy

ot

construction

Later on the government adopted and maintenance of productive

works themselves by raising loans. of the greatest irrigation works of ructed,

e.g.,

the

was taken over

and then Orissa canals and some

Under the

this policy

some

country were const-

Western and Eastern Jamna Canals, Lower

Ganges and Agra canals, Sirhind and Colonization canals of the Punjab and the irrigation works ot the deltas of the Krishna and the Cavery, Alter the famine of 1877-78 the government specifically

recognized

works

in

specially

the

it

their

famine in

duty

tracts,

the

to

construct protective irrigation

and accordingly steps were taken and also elsewhere, g,,

Deccan

fi,

Rushikulya Project in Madras, Betwa canal in C,

Nira and Periyar canal systems in Bombay, of heavy costs, failure

of the

irregular

monsoon

demand

for

P.

and

But because

water and occasional

these works did not

pay their way,

After the famine of 187778 the government decided to set apart Rs, 150 lakhs per year as the Famine Relief and Insurance Fund, half of it was to be spent on famine relief when need arose and the other half was Later on the whole of this amount was allotted for canals and railways. used for protective works, The Secretary of State in 1910 sanctioned a provision of an annual subsidy of Hs 25 lakhs for the construction of protective works in addition to Rs 75 lakhs from Famine Relief Fund, This full amount was never utilized upto the war of 191418 when it was

retrenched,

(

and,

the

therefore,

280

)

on

concentrated

government

more

During this period the was considerably influenced by the recomthe Famine Commission of 1880, which

Remunerative works in the Punjab, irrigation policy

mendations

of

emphasised the construction

of

famine protection side by side works.

The

increase

of

Irrigation

food

railways as a

of

with protective irrigation

Commission

supply,

measure

of 1903, insisting on the

recommended

the

constructed of

remunerative works in Sind, Punjab and parts of Madras which were not vulnerable to famines, and where a quick increase in

food supply was possible. of

the construction

For famine areas they suggested

protective

works which,

though not

directly paying, would decrease the expenditure on famine For Bombay Deccan they recommended canals fed relief.

from storage lakes in the Ghats, and also recommended the

As a result of their Kistna and Tungabhadra projects, recommendations a large number of irrigation works were constructed between 1904 and 1914, specially the famine protective

works in the

hilly

tracts

in

C.

P.,

Bombay and

Bundelkhand, Triveni Canal in Bihar and the Triple Canal Project (Upper Jhelum,

Upper Chenab and Lower Bari Doab)

in the Punjab,

Under subject.

the

Reforms of 1919 irrigation became a provincial

The sanction

the Secretary of State

estimated

to

cost

was no longer

of

the government of

was required only when

over Rs, 50 lakhs

restricted

to

;

the use

India and of the

work was

of loan

funds

productive works and funds

were also available from the Provincial Famine Insurance Grants when the same was not required for famine relief. After that, and specially after 1922, we notice a remarkable activity in irrigation, tt>

and many important irrigation schemes The Royal Commission on Indian

have been taken up*

Agriculture advised the provinces to follow the example 6f

Bombay

to investigate the natural

lands from famine,

of

attention to be

improvement

to the

paid

of

and

minor

resources for the protection

recommended more

further

preservation and

construction,

we rks, formation of and

irrigation

assistance to Cooperative Irrigation societies to carry out

maintain protective works, establishment

between

the

Agriculture and the

Irrigation

creation of local advisory committees

about irrigation matters, and the

bureau

information

of

was given

to in

effect

of Irrigation

of

completed during

in India

Dam

and Lloyd

in

Canals in

at

when

the

Some were

the

of :

in U, P,

in

Sutlej Valley

t

in

1934,

and

in the

the

more recent works

Punjab,

Damodar Canal

occupies the

first

policy the

key

is

in

like the

Bengal

P.

The national government in problem have shown remark-

activity in respect of irrigation,

is

1928,

Sukkur Barrage and 1932-3, Punjab Sind in 1932 Cauvery Reservoir and Mettur Project

which (together with Five Year Plan

priority in the

having an allotment of Rs 561*41 out

water

Dam

the

After the Independence,

The new

important works

ft.)

their anxiety to solve the food

power)

Bureau

Bhandardara

the

and the Ganges lube-Well Scheme in U.

able

Central

as an essential adjunct to the

in

Emerson Barrage (V

recommendation

and Nira Right Bank Scheme L Bhatgar in Bombay in 1 25 and 1926 270

the

Madras

in

1931,

time

respectively, Sarda Canals

works

last

Revenue, this

establishment of a central

The

May

Departments,

deal with complaints

Delhi*

was established

Central BOH rd

(the highest

at

to

and

closer relation

of

of

Rs, 1:068*78 crores.

based on the acceptance of the facts that

to the solution of

most of our problems,

i.

en 1

food, industrialization and navigation etc., that agriculturists greatest need is an assured water supply and that irrigation is

the

most potent agent fbr increasing crop-yields; and the 36

(

recommendations

seem

to

of the

form the basis

Year Plan.*

A

282

)

Famine Enquiry Commission, of the

irrigation

distinction is

major or big schemes*

1945,

policy in the Five

made between minor and

The former are intended

to yield

quick results and are to be accomplished mostly by private individual efforts, assisted of course by the government, under the Grow More Focd Compaign. The later involve

huge financial expenditure, are in the form of gigantic dams across rivers, storing water in huge reservoirs and regulating through canals at desired pace whenever needed, using water for several purposes, e. g,, irrigation, navigation, generating power and fish culture, etc* The recently held

its

flow

the measures that may be adopted for increasing the area under and the yield of crops on the land already under cultivation, the first place must be assigned to works for the supply and conservation of water, (The Famine Fnquiry Commission Final Report, 1945 p. 129.)

*Among

cultivation

:

The controversy

'irrigation vs railways' which was very prominent in the closing years of the last century, and in which R, C, Dutt took a leading part, has been abated now. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the construction of railways as a measure of famine protecAs a result of this and tion side by side with protective irrigation works. also for military and administrative considerations there was a phenomenal expansion of railways, The result was that by 1902 the government expenditure on railways was Rs 370 crores and on irrigation only Rs, 38 crores The disparity appeared objectionable on account of the following reasons (a) intensity and recurrence of famines at the close of the 19th :

century, (b) railways being losing concerns

till

then,

(c)

influence of British

manufacturers and capitalists on Government of India to hasten railway construction under guarantee system, fd) protective irrigation works were not paying and hence progress was slow, but at that time a growing sense of responsibility for extending relief to famine tracts developed, and accelerated the decline of indigenous (e) undue hastening of railways industries, increasing the pressure on agriculture, and thus partially defeating the object of protective railways, namely to reduce the severity of famines,

As a result of the recommendations of the Irrigation Commission, 1901, the irrigation policy of the government became more liberal, and railways also began to pay And, therefore, the old controversy ended. But going to the merits of the controversy the proportion of expenditure between irrigation and railways at any time, though disputable, can be decided only with reference to the prevailing conditions. As a measure of protection But it against famine they are supplementary rather than antagonistic, should be noted that irrigation leads to additional food supply while railways

lead to better distribution,

Though both

the pressing food problem necessitates policy in the Five Year Plan,

are inadequate in India at present, of irrigation, and we find this

more

(

International

283

)

Exhibition

Engineering

at

the

Delhi,

Fourth International Congress on large dams, a Sectional Meeting of the World Power Conference and the First International Congress on Irrigation and canals, in Jan

have considerably stimulted interest and

The Extent

of

in

Talking

Irrigation,

1951,

activity,

absolute terms

Our

India's leadership in the field of irrigation is obvious. total

irrigated

acreage

which

about 48 million acres

is

EXTENT OF fw'

50

-

SO

" I0

-%

'

.OF

MST IRRIGATED (

AVERAGE

THE AVERAGE

IRJUGATION AQEA TO

OF -15-46

HfcT

AREA

~

ANHUAL RAIHfAll

!

at

present

is

not only largest in the world but also exceeds the

combined acreage

irrigated

in

U.

S. A.,

U.

S, S.

R,

Japan,

t

and Italy, though they occupy an area of more than 10 times of that of the Indian Union, Our length of irrigation channels is over 60,000 miles, of the earth.

*

.,

The extent

more than 2$ times

of irrigation in different States

basis of the average of 4 yrs.

The extent irrigated)

is

of irrigation

maximum

the circumference

in

(%

45-46

of

to

the

PEPSU, and

4849

is

on the

as follows,

cultivated

area being

is relatively

more in

(

ate

)

Punjab, Madras, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Travancore and Cochin, Bihar atid Ajmer. It is not uniformly distributed, and over 70% of the irrigated area lies The woist in U. P,, Madras, Punjab, Bihar and PEPSU. States in respect

of

irrigation

are Tripura, Bhopal, Coorg,

Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Bilaspur and Kutch, where not even 10% of the cultivated area is irrigated. Taking humid area and the semi-arid and arid areas separately we find that in humid regions about Saurasthra,

15%

of the cropped area is irrigated, and in the alluvial part of the semi-arid and arid region the extent of irrigation is about 45%, and in the central tableland it is only 10%. The net area irrigated by different sources in different States in 1948-49 was as follows (thousands of acres.) :

(a)

Included under private canals,

(b)

Below 500

acres.

286

(

)

UNIfWOiATEO

IRRIGATED

80-5%

(K)'5%)

AREA

PRIVATE

AREA ICUltlVATED

9-6'/i

I

(43-8'/t)

TANKS 16-3% H--+ -n-'4 WELLS, 2<>-Qfc ,-n- f +

OTHERS 5-0% 1

SUN-CULTIVATED *"

AREA (56%)

Of

the total

canals

irrigated

area about

44%

and about

(34% by government

is

irrigated

10% by

by

private

canals) which are the most important source of irrigation at

16% by banks, about 27% by wells including tubeand 13% by other sources Irrigation by canals is

present, wells,

.

done more

in

Madras,

Bihar and Rajasthan.

Madhya Pradesh,

Utter

Pradesh,

Private canals

are

Punjab,

Jammu and Kashmir and common in Madras which has

Bihar, Assam,

Punjab. Tank irrigation

is

most

about 35,000 of them and then come Bihar, Bengal. bad,

PEPSU,

mostly found in

Mysore and Orissa,

Hydra-

Unlike wells which are mostly

owned, tanks are almost always administered by the State. Wells are most common in northen India specially privately

Utter Pradesh,

Punjab, Rajasthan

PEPSU

and Bihar,

the Central and Southern India, they are less in

the area

they are

loans.

number and

commanded by each well is also less, In the South most common in Bombay, There are more than 2J

mill, wells.

truction

In

is

A

They

are mostly private works, but their cons-

helped by the government by advancing 'tacavi large

number

More Food Compaign,

is

recently

1

sunk during the Grow

This sort of development in different

287

(

)

HNlAL CAHALS KOX-PtREHNIAJ. CAHALS

WIMDATiON CAHALS

[SI!

been parts of India has largely

PRIVATE CANALS

governed by physical factors

the soil specially the topography, the river system,

and

profile,

the depth of water table, etc.

The extent considerably.

under difierent crops also varies irrigated area to total area under

of irrigation

The

% of

some important crops

in 1948

was as follows

:

(

'Excluding merged territory. very negligible extent

On soon,

288

Blank

negligible,

the whole Kharif crops

and

irrigation is

Besides, about

80% of

to

crop not grown or grown to a than 500 areas,

(a) less

depend mostly on

mostly devoted

to protect

the food supply being

and only 20% from Rabi devoted

)

cash crops and very

little

to

PEPSU, Madras, Mysore,

Delhi,

mon-

from Kharif crops

crops, these facilities are

food crops,

are by far and large unirrigated, except Punjab,

the

Rabi crops.

to

largely Millets

some extent

in

Ajmer and Kutch,

EXTENT OF

% Of

IfeftltfTlftl

OF DIFFEftEHT CtffS

IRRIGATED TO TpTAL CROP

AREA

OQ48-IW) 100

eo

40

1ST 352 '25

\

20

1-0

*

^

StfSujtit^i o5=cofc< t/>CpeiZ:OCOO 5

About

1/4 of the

5

rice crop is irrigated. in

Cochin,

wheat and barley areas

more uniform so

case barley

These crops are Punjab. Utfcar

an

and Nearly and irriga-

Travancore and

far

essentially

PEPSU

Kashmir,

is

is

Jammu and

crop

tion

It

<*

Madras, Mysore, Hydraban,

irrigated

1/3 of the

5

as

in

the

fcre

case

the different

irrigated

irrigated, of

wheat than in the

States

to a relatively

are

concerned.

greater extent in

PEPSU, Rajasthan, Ajmer, Kutch, Cotton on the whole mostly depends on

Pradesh,

Delhi and Bihar.

monsoon but

mainly an irrigated crop in Punjab, PEPSU and Ajmer, and considerably irrigated in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Sugarcane depends by far

the

is

and large on irrigation except 'amongst the important sugarcane areas) in Bihar where abbut 1/3 of the crop is irrigated, Inspite of such a vast development hardly 20% of the net cultivated the remaining

area

80%

is

protected

by

depend^ oh the

artificial

irrigation

and

vagfcrtes of the mOrtsoon.

Both the percentage of area irrigated and the quantity of water used are comparatively very small. And, therefore^ agriculture 37

is

said

to

be a gamble in the monsoon.

The

290

)

consequences are that crop conditions and farm prosperity are directly governed by the monsoon. The year it is adequate and well distributed, crops Punjab, are good and farmers are better. But the year it is

normal

.

0.,

timely,

abnormal in any way, the crops wither and famine conditions prevail. Besides, there is

there

one more interesting

an impiession that irrigation

is

is

fact,

Generally

very necessary,

if

not

under double cropping, The table on page 284 showing the extent of irrigation, and the following table show that double cropping, at least at indispensable, for increasing the area

prtsent, does not of the

there is

depend on

double cropped area

irrigation. is

actually

a possibility of increasing the

(or intensification

of

its

Irrigation

irrigated,

1012% Hence

double cropped area

even under the existing not the most important factor

cultivation)

circumstances, and irrigation

standing in

Only about

is

way,

Methods and Practices,

irrigation implies the

way

in

The term method

which water

is

applied

Ordinarily speaking there are four methods of doing

of

to land. it.

(i) flooding, practised where irrigation water is abundent and inexpensive. There are several methods

It

is

291

(

of flooding

guide

:

from

(*)

termed as flooding; divided into a number

made

water

is

tip*

(d)

;

made

to

i,

This

border -at rip flooding,

of strips, sufficiently

when

number

a

to flow into relatively level plots

also in

without levees to

e. t

movement.

its

to

permeable

heavy

to

is

;

popularly

when

wide and

flow towards the lower end

covered with water

(c)

of large

field is

long,

and

flooding by

streams are

surrounded by levees,

which should be quickly

soils

prevent losses through deep percolation,

which water percolates so slowly sufficiently moistened during the time a

soils into

they are not

that

(b)

check flooding

suited specially

and

field ditohea,

flow or restrict

its

)

sheet of water flows over them,

and

(e}

baain flooding, which

is

method adopted in irrigating orchards, Sometimes the furrows are deep as for (fi) By furrows. the crops like potatoes or for orchards, and sometimes they essentially the check

are shallows as for beat* Sub-irrigation.

(ill)

bit, if

any.

it is

supply ditches, and

water

to

(it?)

In

which land surface

done in two ways (b)

:

uncontrolled

(a)

is

wetted a

controlled by lateral

by excess application of

higher lands,

Spraying or sprinkling.

Only a limited quantity of and it is generally done

water can be supplied in this way, in the case of pot cultivation.

The term 'method

1

which means the way in which of irrigation water applied to land, should not be confused with the term 'sources of irrigation', which refers to the forms of irrigation works such as canals, ,

is

wells and tanks, etc,, through which water is drawn from its natural position. It is interesting to enquire as to what determines the selection of the method of irrigation, The method depends largely, though not wholly, on the crops produced. And in the selection o' the sub-irrigation method the most important consideration is given to the soil conditions There are many factors influencing the amount of water used in irrigation. They can be put under three broad classes each of which

includes many specific factors and chemical including (i) Biological readily available soluble plant food nutrients in the soil, chemical composition of irrigation water and the kinds and the amount of alkali salts in the t

(ii) Physical, including climatic, such as rain, wind, heat, length of season, soil properties such as texture, depth and permeability, and land preparation such as conveyance and delivery, etc, (iii) Administrative regulating the delivery of water, whether in continuous flow or in otational or turn method or delivery on demand,

soils etc.

t

(

to

292

)

Another way of classifying the methods of irrigation is (i flow irrigation, when put them under two broad heads :

water flows from land in response

when

the

supply

is

source in rivers, reservoirs, or lakes to

its

and

to the force of gravity,

location

and topography

(ii) lift

with

irrigation,

respect

to

water

it cannot flow over the land by gravity, be raised by some mechanical device from its

such that

and has

to

natural source.

The term

'irrigation

practices'

refers to such things as

the size of stream, area covered under a stream, frequency

and the amount of water

of irrigation

conditions: locality,

They are detetmined

etc,

irrigation,

and

(i)

applied in single

Soils

(iii)

under cultivation,

mostly

of

the

Irrigation works

are

(ii)

the crops giown,

Classification of Irrigation

Works.

classified into four kinds, the first three

commonly

are the main, while the forth

is

not

are

Canals,

which

is

is

concerned,

:

They are

Canals,

(i)

of

commonly found, and

not very important so far as the total irrigation

They

by three

climate

of

three

kinds

:

a)

Perennial

They are constiucted by putting some barrage year. The canals

across rivers which flow throughout the are, therefore,

independent

of the natural

water level in the

and have an assured water supply all the year round, The gigantic canal systems of U. P, and Punjab are of this kind, (b) Inundation Canals. They are drawn from rivers

river,

without any barrage.

They

get water only

flooded and water reaches a cettain level, in

the

river,

canal fluctuates with the

natural flood level in the

and becomes scanty when the level

by these canals September.

is

when the river is The water supply

is

low.

Irrigation

mostly confined to a period from June

Sind canals before

the

construction

Sukkur Barrage, some Punjab canals even

of

to

the

at present are of

293

(

this

type,

(o)

Storage

)

Works Canals.

drawing water from storage which a

dam

They

are caqals

constructed by building

is

across a valley to store rain water during the qaonsoon

period.

Such works have been

in

existence in India from

very old times specially in the Deccan,

Madhya Pradesh and

Bundelkhand, (ii)

(Hi)

Wells, including both the surface and the tube-well*

Tanks, of

by constructing

all sizes

dams

ranging from huge lakes, formed

across the beds of irregularly flowing

rivers, to small village

ponds in which a small quantity

of

rain water is collected. (iv)

Other

Works,

generally of

and temporary dams holding The classification of government

rivers

ever,

made

in a different way.

lift

from

irrigation

flood water,

irrigation

works

is,

how-

Upto 1921, for the purpose of

indicating the source from which the funds for the construc-

works were drawn, they were classified as Productive Works, (t) They were expected to yield within 10 years of their completion a net revenue sufficient to tion of these

:

cover the annual interest charges on the capital investment.

They were mostly found

in northern

India and Madras, and

were financed by loans, (ii)

Protective Works.

They were intended

to

seive as

were not expected to be the necessity of diminished They periodical expenditure on famine relief. The cost was charged on the current revenue of the government and was generally met from the annual grant set aside for

insurance against famine, and directly remunerative.

famine

relief

and insurance.

They were constructed

in the

precarious tracts specially in the Deccan. (Hi)

Minor Works,

This] was a miscellaneous

including works (specially tanks) which paent inherited fropa early rulers,

apd

the

also a

British

class

Govern-

few which they

294

(

They were

constructed.

)

financed from current revenues,

all

and loans were permitted only in case of productive ones. those These minor works were further classified into two :

for which capital and revenue accounts for

which they were not

were kept ard those

kept,

After 1921 the old classification has been changed

now

is

it

possible to finance any

loans irrespective of its

The

work

for

which

are classified into two

No

reference

from

}

(protective

and now the

:

Works

(i)

classification

abolished *

and minor works) have been classification is

utility

and

remunerative character or otherwise,

two categories in the old

last

of public

t

is

made

:

(*')

to

accounts are kept,

capital

Productive, and

(ii)

source from which

the

They

Unproductive.

funds for

construction are drawn,

Non-Capital Works,

(ii)

which no

for

capital

accounts

rainfall

amounts

are kept.

The Water to2750mil! is lost

by the

Potential,

ac.

ft,

Of

The mean annual this

51%

or

about

14CO mill.ac.it,

through evaporation and transpiration, and soil.

The remaining 49%

or

is

absorbed

1350 mill

about

ac

ft.

forms the annual surface run-off drained by our mighty rivers, the peak discharge hi the lower reaches of a number of

Converted

which exceeds two million cusecs.

into

a

the rivers carry 1*87 mill* cusecs all the regulated discharge,

'We, however, come across the words

1

and 'major' irrigation under the Grow More Food Compaign, and the Five Year Plan, The word 'minor here has no reference to the old classification. The distinction between major and minor is mostly made in respect of costs involved, time taken in the completion, and by implication it amounts to signify works mostly constructed by the government and those constructed by private individuals, with the help of the government Major works in this context refer to dams, canals and multi-purpose projects, and minor ones refer to construction and repair of wells, tanks, digging of new channels, repairing pr clearing old ones, and small lift irrigation schemes from rivers, etc. works

'minor

in the irrigation plans carried out or suggested

1

295

(

)

year round, and this water spread over the culturable area The idea of the will cover it to a depth of about 3J feet.*

magnitude of our water potential can be formed in another way also. Though the exact proportion of water which seeps into the ground has not been assessed,

form the underground reservoir a huge quantity, and roughly

to

is

it

not

Regarding

the surplus flow

less

the time taken by a

30-35% of the annual

than

speaking

man

said

it is

to

that in

shut his

again rivers discharge 1*87 mill, cubic

The

quantity

meter

is

to

enough

height of about 1400

to a

Qutab Minar. Considered as an enormous volume, and the ''India is

approximately

eyes and open them ft.

a circular

fill

rainfall.

of

water into sea.

tank of 40

ft.

dia-

6 times the height of the whole the water potential is

ft.,

a

CW1NC

believe that

rightly

fortunate in possessing these resources in

abun-

1

The most dance and having them strategically distributed. complacent feature about the water resources is that they are renewable annually, as there

snow on

is

monsoon brings

the

an&

are

a perennial asset.

mountains

fresh quantities

to

So long

feed rivers and the

annually

to

continue the

hydrological cycle the flow of rivers and the sub-soil supply will continue to

be

replenished; and the result

development based on

this asset

must be

of

a

is that

the

permanent

nature.

At present roughly speaking 76 being used in irrigation. This is hardly

Possibilities of Extension. mill, ac,

ft.

"CW1NC

of water is

Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950, p. 3. Irrigation Commission, 1901, approximated the surface flow from an area of 1,434,000 sq, miles (excluding the catchment basin of the Braham:

The

putra and that part of India which

lies west ward of the Indus watershed) on the basis of the computation from the rainfall, The Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation of the N.P.C, 1947, thought that in view of the fresh data being available in regard to the proportion of rainfall running off that calculation was optimistic. (N.P.C, River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p, 32.)

to 51 billion cubic feet,

3% of

and 5'6%

the total potential

The area

and

irrigated

the

quantum

there

seem But

of irrigation.

view

should be noted

that>

factor in question of water supply is the

form

tion (in the

have

to

of rain,

whole of

the

earth,

of

the

potential

be vast possibilities of the extension

to

it

in

water used are

of

quantity

comparatively very small, and

surface run-off,

of the total

it

though the primary

amount

of

precipita-

dew and snow) which reaches

the

we

being not available for irrigation,

take into account only the utilizable

on the other hand, we have

to

And

quantity.

be mindful of the economic and

engineering limitations, In respect of the surface flow, the Irrigation

NPC

the

and the

CWINC

all

agree that a

cannot be made available for Where the rainfull is high there

utilization

part

of

it

in certain tracts*

use

is little

be conditions not favourable

Commission,

large

of

for

water, and

The

there

may

NPC

thought that the surface flow of our rivers amounted

storage.

to

and though most of it could be used for generating power, only a fraction was employable for irriga*

50

billion cubic feet,

'The utilizable quantity

tion

maximum

of

17)

billion

estimated that, 6'75 billion utilized.*

In respect

it is

ground for

1

is

cubic

of the

probably about 15 (with a feet,

cubic feet or quantity

said that not even 2/ of 2

irrigation.

Though

the

and

total

it

of

this,

it

was

45% were being

percolating into the is

drawn by wells

underground supply

is

a

huge quantity, it is not a measure of the potentialities of draft from wells, since extremely slow percolation (usually not 1,

NPC. River The

Training and Irrigation, 1947,

p, 32,

Commission, 1901, estimating the volume of water expended on irrigation from wells at about 1 billion cubic feet, have recorded that this is not more than 1 J% of that portion of rainfall which penetrates the soil. The Sub-Committee on River Training and Irrigation (of the NPC) considered it to be a 'careless statement, since total rainfall minus run-off does not mean ground-water,' Even afte^r making an allowance for evaporation and transpiration, the sub-soil supply is enormous, and a very small 2,

portion of

it is

Irrigation

being tapped at present.

more than

a few feet a day) leads to a slow rate of delivery,

and hence the amount available

at

1 specific point is small.

any

Besides, even in the old controversy regarding the inexhaustibility

or otherwise of the 'and er-flow

opinion

now favours

view

the

1 ,

the majority of the

that the sub-soil supply is

by

no means inexhaustible* 2

The broad conclusions which can be drawn from first,

inspite of a vast irrigational

India a leading place in the psssibilities exist

the potential

word

for further

quantum

is

:

development which gives in this respect,

extension.

measure

not a

this are

still

Secondly, though

of extension,

utilizable quantity is only a small fraction of

it,

the

a tremenous quantity, and only a minor portion of actually used so far, quantitatively

greater

and the latter it

is

being

speaking our resources

are not inadequate, and provide a hope for vast extension.

But a few considerations are

to

be kept in mind

:

(a)

The

resources

imposes two

engineering, pertaining

to the physical

geographical distribution of these

kinds of limitations

:

obstacles, and socio-economic, pertaining to the character of the

land irrigated and

satisfied*

(b)

The

the

socio-economic needs

modern

technological

specially the hydraulic engineering

to

be

developments

and the improvements

methods and the technique of water conservation, are making practicable what formerly was considered to be in the

impossible and impracticable) and are thus adding to our water resources, (c) Development of irrigation is said to

be essentially a community enterprise or a public responsi-

A fair proportion ol water thai percolates into the ground, 1, utlimately reaches the streams acid rivers through discharge by springs Thus the ground-water reservoir is nature's apparatus to ant} seepage. regulate the perennial fiow of fivers, (NPC, River Training and Irrigation 1947, p, 33 K Fora detailed study one, may refer to Stamp, Auden, Brieftic 3, and others, apd the NPC, Tfce experience of the tufoe-well scheme of the western U, F, also proves that uaderfitouBd supply feint ine*faauatibte, 38

298

(

It

bility.

)

for as

seems correct so

the major

works are

concerned because financially, administratively and technologically they

are beyond the individual and cooperative

But so far as most of the minor works are concerned,

effort,

must be developed essentially through

specially wells, they

private

efforts. 1

Talking in terms of the acreage which can be irrigated, it is

impossible to forecast with any degree of

becuse

the ultimate limit,

developments and

gical

it

will

the

depend upon

reliability

the technolo-

other socio-economic factors

which cannot be predicted over a distant future, The NPC have, however, hazarded a guess regarding the possibilities of irrigating

an area of 116 million acres

50 from govern-

'.

ment canals and reservoirs, 60 from other sources utilizing surface flow and 6 from wells drawing the underground 2 Such a forecast can be treated hardly anything supply,

more than a vague hope. assume a limited period. outlined a constructive for the extension of

A

better

The

course,

Irrigation

programme

however,

is

to

Commission, 1901,

for the then

Br, India

about 6 million acres in 20 years under

government canals and

reservoirs,

and further suggested The Advisory

an increase of 16 million acres under wells.

Planning Board, 1947, mentioned

that the

already under construction or in

irrigation projects

contemplation are ex*

1 There is a view that irrigation mostly concerns groups of society, and must be solved through group action, Individual efforts cannot go a long way. There is also an opposite view that development of irrigation from in importance to that from works private works is at least equal constructed by government, (Woodhead Commission, 1945, p, 334.) Their conjecture in regard to expansion under 'minor class' of 2. works is 13 mill, acres 5 under wells, 3 under tanks and 5 under oth.er ,

;

sources, Further out of the total surface flow, taking 17 billion cub* c feet as the maximum utilizable amount, they thought that 110 mill, acres could be irrigated. In the former category the last two forms depend

mostly on surface flow. The total, therefore, comes to about 115 million acres for the next two decades however, they looked forward for an addition ;

of 16 mill acres only,

299

(

)

peered to bring 20 million acres under irrigation in 10*12 years.

A more

1

accurate and

reliable data has

been

fur*

In the beginning of 1951 there were 135

nished recently.

schemes under construction in different parts of the country. They were expected to be completed within 6 to 10 years,

and were

to

take a few years

more

for

irrigation to

be

The additional irrigation developed fully, to be 5'5 mill, acres in 1955-56, 9'2 mill, acres in 1959-60 was expected

and 12 '9

acres

mill*

In

ultimately.

addition

to

these

schemes which were in progress there were 122 other proThe jects which were under various stages of investigation.

under execution

completion of these together with those

was

to

provide

mill, acres *,*,

irrigrtion

an

for a total area of

Planning Commission

and power

to

projects

later

additional area of 42

90

to

100 mill acres, 2

The

on estimated that the irrigation

included

the

in

first

part

of

the

Plan will irrigate an additional area of 8*8 million acres in

1955-56 and 16'5 mill, acres ultimately. 3

The

actual

Plan,

however, has increased these targets, and by 1955-56 aims

an additional acreage of 8*5 million acres under Major Irrigation Works and 11*2 mill, acres under Minor Irrigation

at

Works, and thus mill, acres

The

to

bring the total irrigated area to about 70

by the end

of the First

Five Year Plan,*

rate of extension is also an

important consideration

The

in this study. past history shows that this rate has not been commensurate with needs, and even if the targets under the Five Year Plan are achieved the increasing po[ulation

and

the

growing

demands

for

agricultural

1,

Report of the Advisory Planning Board, 1947,

2,

The Hindustan Times

Engineering

production

p, 10,

Supplement,

January

1951, p, 111, 3,

A

4,

The Hindustan Times, December

Draft Outline of the First Five Year Plan, 1951, p, 123, 9, 1952,

p,

13,

300:

(

The NPC wished

demands,

will pot fresh

)

it

be increased

to

depends on the of the economic country, and in the near progress general future it cannot be very rapid howsoever urgent the needs to

3 times*

pay

But

it

should be noted that

it

be*

The choice of systems.

In view of the pressing needs

enhancing agricultural production, and secondly, in view of the fact that agriculture is mostly a gamble in the

for

monsoon, utmost expansion

of

needed.

is

irrigation

But

the systems of irrigation to be developed in different tracts will be

governed by

meteorological, geological and

local

In the

other physical conditions.

choice of system, there-

there cannot be any uniformity in different regions,

fore,

Besides, there

no question

is

systems on the

basis

of

of choosing

between different

comparative merits and de-

their

They are supplementary and complementary The Woodhead Commission competitive.

rather

merits.

than

observed that

'the

solved by mere

method

problem of wattr supply

extended application

of irrigation but

every possibility plored,

and

of

irrigational

depend on their suitability In

humid regions

all

Drainage to

for is

rightly

not be

particular

methods* *

Hence

expansion has to be exof

different

system

will

for different tracts or regions.

the State

works are said

been generally successful, because

demand

one 1

by the use of

the development

of

will

irrigation-water

is

rainfall

not constant

an important problem in

to

have not

being high, the

and sustained.

this region

which has

be tackled before irrigation can be

considerable extent. offer

great facilities

developed to any The alluvial plains on the other hand for wells and canals, and they have

been taken advantage of considerably, Irrigation in the Central Tableland is poorly developed, and the most common *Final Report of the Famine Enquiry Commission, 1945, p, 129,

system

is of

tanks which

only local

utilize

rainfall,

There

that region is neither copious nor certain.

scope for the

development

which in is

a great

of canals 1 through the provision of

Storage, since the higher slopes of the elevated plateaux have

a

humid climate and

there are

many

there and run through this region* flow irrigation

graphy or due

to insufficient

underground water

will,

water supply, but ample quantity lift irrigation should be deve-

exists,

an expensive form*

it is

loped, though

where

not possible either due to unfavourable topo-

is

of

rivers which start from

Besides, in areas

The

actual

method

however, depend on the quantity of available water.

Considering the different systems separately, private canals do not seems to have great scope, and with the of

development

more

efficient

means

the old private ones are

gradually going out of use as in Bengal,

Bihar and Madras,

Tanks are found most extensively in areas of low rainfall* As storages they are also useful where the rainfall is ill-distribuBut they are expensive in construction and upkeep, and

ted.

liable to

rainfall

fail

water

when most wanted,

since in the years of less

The

supply in tanks is also less.

NPC

believe

most of the suitable sites being utilized, the scope for further extension is limited. On the other hand the CW1NC that

seem

to

be very hopeful about

it,

2

By

entrusting the construc-

repair and upkeep to village communities, however, some development is possible specially through small units. 3

tion,

One advantage

1.

a rise in the spring

in

level.

Schemes aimed

2.

at

developing canal irrigation in this region will be It will

increase the efficiency of wells.

impounding water during the monsoon season,

when large quantities are available, for use during drier parts of the year when insufficient quantities flow in the rivers have to be designed, (CWINC Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950 p. 3). :

Large tanks need considerable finances and technical assistance to safe against breeches. Government alone can construct and maintain them, In case of small units the repairs may be 3

.

make them reasonably

as difficult as maintaining village huts in repair, Besides, irrigation engineers believe that it is less costly in the long run to allow these works

breech every 15 years or so, then to incur expenditure on preventing under abnormal conditions. River Training an| (NPC Irrigation, I947 p, 39).

(o

breakdowns

:

f

302

(

)

In areas of high rainfall and sub-montane tract small storage can be extended considerably, They will be more useful to rice

specially

storage

crop during breaks in the rainfall.

Again

not necessarily confined to open reservoirs only.

is

Underground storage

is

equally important, but the field for

utilization is limited.

its

Wells are a very suitable and specially

and

efficient

where underground water

(as is

The scope

at

is

frequently the case) the quality for their

development is very Commission, 1901, was certain that there

which

form of irrigation

an economic depth, not unsuitable.

is

The

vast. is

Irrigation

no single province

form of irrigation might not be very largely extended with advantage. There is a large scope for

in

this

expansion specially in the sub-montane generally lies so close but

successful,

to the surface

in

tract,

which water

that canals

on the other hand harmful.

will not be

In the areas

served by canals specially the alluvial plains they will add materially

to

the

utility

certain tracts of Central

are frequent and severe,

except

at prohibitive costs,

of

canals as their adjuncts.

In

and South India, where droughts it

is

not possible to construct canals

and

to assure

them

of

water-supply

when most needed, hence wells are the only form of irrigation* Considerable expansion is possible through private efforts, though aided by the government.* *It will not suffice

to

extend

irrigation

by governments, private irrigation works must If the area under irrigation is to be expanded increase in the number of private wells Final Report, 1945, p. 135), sion

is

Wells

ofier

a better

through projects constructed, also be greatly expanded lo the fullest extent,

imparative

a large

(Woodhead Commis-

:

in which State can encourage the development further research into sub-soil water-supply, specially where such information is inadequate, (b) technical advice and assistance where areas such in information is available, staff by special (c)

There are many ways

of private wells

:

(i)

employment means of lifting water, specially in the regions where water table is deep and electric power is likely to be made available, (mechanical devices operated either by animal power or any other power, and increasing the yield of open wells by tapping additional strata) and financial assistance by way of loans and grants, (The Irrigation (d) of better

and more

efficient

808

(

)

crop security,* have an advantage that unlike rainfall and not vary greatly

surface water underground supply does

between wet and dry years, and they are easy because it

as

ol

being within the limits of individual

should be noted that the sub-soil supply is

is

to

develop

efforts*

But

not inexhaustible

of utilizing it for frequently believed, and the problems of are more complex than those using surface

irrigation

The

supplies.

investigation

involves

solution

for

determining the

intensive

research and

extent of

supply being

Commission thought that the best \\ay was a liberal advance of tacau loans under the Land Improvement Loans Act, 1883 The Woodhead Commission took the same view Undei the G, M F Compai^n the government advanced both loans and grants There can be another way of advancing through LanJ Mortgage Banks). *A comparaiive study of agricultural economy under well irrigation and canal irrigation, specialh with reference to the effects is quite interesting, In compansion to canals, wells are said to ha\e an advantage as they offer greater security a^amirt drought v\ater is available when needed and therefore no uncertainty theie is no waste of watei it encourages highly intensive cultivation (makes 3 crops pobsible) and makes man more industrious; does not disturb the balance in water resources as canal do and crop yields are also said to be higher in compansion to those under canals Canal there is irrigation, on the other hand, suffers from many drawbacks considerable waste of \\ater (30 fO% excels \valei used in N. India); uncu taint) of suppl} and its failure at the time of need excessive application of water due to lack of incentive for economising and uncertainty ,

,

,

,

:

,

(Agr, Commission)

,

as a

of

result

fxcessive use considerable

losses

are

camed through water logging and alkali formation (Usar and Reh Reclamation Committee, U, P inferior and nregular crop qualities (Howard), and diseases, specially wheat rust when there is ram in the Spring (Mukerjee), )

accessive water

,

used as

is

a substitute for

good cultivation (weeding

neglected, surface crust left unbroken, less aeration, crops are forced to develop surface xoots, and an attempt for early ripening by abundant water) it discourages high cultivation (water is not sufficient for more than ,

Only in areas of precarious rainfall canals aid materially, and in plains during drought, but lead to agricultural decline in zones of heavy and unscientific canal system has led to decline of water ways rainfall)

2 crops

,

natural

affecting

swamps and But in the

it

drainage,

alkali

silting

of

rivers

and

formation of malarial

lands,

should be noted that many of these defects are not inherent but have come into being as a result of the

canal system as such

neglect of some scientific They can be avoided in

principles,

and are of administrative nature.

future

For a detailed study a reference may be made to Mukerjee Agricultural of India Baljit Singh Land of the Two Rivers and Lavania: Well Irngationm Western U, P. (unpublished thesis Dept, of Agr, Eco,, .

Economy

B, R.

,

College, Agra).

:

;

804

(

available, the

relation

)

between use and depletion, and the

drawing water, Considerable expansion can be made under tube-wells and river-pumingi former in the areas where water-table is

best

methods and equipment

for

not deep, and sufficient quantity of water-supply latter in areas

and the

But their development

canals,

ment of power 1

is

available,

which cannot be served by gravity is

linked with the develop-

.

Taking the 'minor works' as a whole they are mostly a under there is likely to be slow, private enterprise. Progress since their extension depends on the strength of the resources of the people.

underground water

draft of table.

Further, the

It

is the

NPC

thought that an 'excessive

will lead to dessication of water-

surface flow

which holds out prospects

As

extensive use of water for purposes of irrigation.

we can obtain

see ahead, over

its

80/

of

our irrigation

water supply by gravity from surface

have, therefore,

to look to

now approaching

flow of our rivers,

on

flood irrigation!

far as

is likely to

We

flow,' 2

government canals and reservoirs.

But they require a careful consideration. are

of

It is

said

that

we

the limit in the utilization of the natural

In

the

pioneering phase

which had

its

we depended

origin in level surface and

The

superior

commands being

CW1NC

likewise believe that the 'potential of diverting the

available in

alluvial

tracts.

normal flow of rivers for irrigation canals has very nearly These opportunities, specially the been exhausted.' 9 1, Stamp laid down 4 conditions generally essential for the success of the tube- well Scheme : (i) flow of water in the sub -coil must be adequate to meet the surface demand ensuring stable water-table, the depth of (ii) water-table below the ground level must not ordinarily exceed about 50 ft . (ftt) Irrigation demand must prevail over a wide tract for an average period of not less than 3$0tf hrs, in a year, and (iv) electric power must be available over the tract at the rate not exceeding } anna per unit,

2t J,

NPC River training ajid Irrigation, 1947, p, 40, GW1NC Qminquenaial Rfcpott, April 1945 ttf March $Sfr, :

:

195Q, p, 3.

305

(

)

have been

unfailing supplies of snow-fed rivers,

Besides, a considerable

a very great extent.

utilized to

improvement

supplies by replacing inundation canals by weir-controlled canals (which give better supplies and

in regulating the

made.

also for longer periods) has also been

now

that there is

water supply

The

result

is

not only a constant danger of scarcity of

but also of supply being in-

at critical times,

meet the growing needs. We cannot expect any spectacular expansion of such works.

sufficient to

One sion

of

thing

irrigation

and

remembered.

be

to

important

irrigated

and

the

connection

in

expansystem has largest areas which can be

The

apportunities

larger rivers in the arid regions,

need

of a fairly

suitable

adopting a

greatest

with the

uniform flow

of

In

this

for

it 1

region

water specially

lie

along

there is a at

right

Flood irrigation not being possible in this of high water flow of rivers in large scale storage

place and time. tract,

reservoirs and solution. 2

its

distribution

through canals

Unlike irrigation of low alluvial

the

best

tracts,

this

is

These areas have a warmer climate, good facilities for drainage, and mineral plant food, These things make them very suitable diversified farming and high-priced agriculture, Irrigation in this region

1,

soils richer in

for

will give best results, In view of the (inadequate) experience of 2,

such large scale reservoirs Irrigation Commission, 1901, thought that the term storage was 'as suggestive of the limitations as of the possibilities of irrigation as a means

The

of protection ,' because of 'great costs and uncertain operations,' These limitations arise on account of two things : (a) hydrographic, (all the flow-

water cannot be stored), and (b) topographical, (construction of is not always possible due to physical and economic reasons). Even after having a due consideration for both these things we find that our water resources are adequate and there are ample opportunities for storage, because our mountains receive heavy and unfailing rainfall and also furnish facilities for storage, Secondly, the view of 'vmcertainity of operations' seems to be based on two ideas inadequate water-supply being available, and loss of water in long time storage (holding water during favourable years and using it in years of drought), In this regard it should be noted that the technological development in river engineering show that ample water supply is available even when river is low. And water resources being renewable from year to year, it is not a question of preserving it for a long time; and henec holding water for drought years is not the normal ing

reservoirs

:

39

and delivery tract) is bound to

of irrigation (construction of reservoirs of water through canals in an undulating

be costly in the arid uplands superior agriculture the

cost

total

irrigation only.

;

is

it

Besides,

and

to

possibility of

a

other uses also

should not be

of storage

in other forms also

But there

and water being put

is,

charged against economic prosperity

will lead to

a promising field for

therefore,

public investment,

Problems

in

Before any consider-

Extending Irrigation.

able expansion in irrigation is possible,

have

relate to (t)

Some

be overcome.

to

of

the

several

difficulties

important problems

'.

Research and Investigation.

variety of questions

Irrigation

involves a

which need considerable study,

investi-

gation and research particularly land survey, survey of river courses, drainage survey and hydrological research, etCi

Storage and Transmission.

(ii)

not a local question but of

the

mission of water* involves site for a reservoir

may

The supply

whole

many problems.

A

function of reservoir irrigation. works situated not

water

is

Trans-

favourable

not necessarily be suitable

take for the alignment of the canal.

of storage

of

river valley,

Sometimes

as a

off-

the are a

Besides, on the basis of the experience the regions of unfailing rainfall, the

in

Irrigation Commission themselves reported that 'failure occurs less often than might be supposed,' Therefore, these fears should no longer influence the irrigation plans specially of the big reservoirs and multi-purpose projects,

*In the Central Table-land river beds can be utilized as a means of conveying water because of rivers flowing in the lowest parts of the valleys and the beds being rocky. The only loss of water in transmission will be by evaporation. We are fortunate in this respect but the canals should not be too long otherwise transmission will tell upon water too heavily, The Upper Ganges canal in the North and the Tungabhadra project in the South are examples of it, The defect in conveying water to 350 miles in the Upper Ganges canal was rectified by constructing the Lower Ganges Canal which relieved the upper work from irrigation of 128 miles of the Kanpure branch and 130 miles of the Etawah branch, The main canal from the Tungabhadra Reservoir had to be designed to draw of 2 m, c, ft, for everyone m, c, ft, of water which could find its way to the Nellore irrigation system,

(NPC),

wr

(

under

a canal

harmful

to

may be

fcha* pletoty

of water

Land

Ctessifioation.

The

records include in the culturable area some quality

knd

existing land

latid of

which cannot be irrigated with fcdvan&g*,

classification is required

water

to

be applied, since after

be used so as (IP)

to

to all

find

very poor

A

detailed

out lands worth the

water resources should not

be out of balance with areas to be irrigated.

Finding

uses o/ water.

different

multiple use should be

with other

may be

it,

Detailed

(ill)

of a type

)

purposes

explored,

like power,

Possibilities

of

0, g.

combining irrigation navigation, domestic use,

and recreational use, etc. Some of them specially power, which is a great income producing factor, should share the cost of storage, which should not

flood control, sanitation

be wholly charged

to

considerations refering

maximum

benefit to the

irrigation. to

Secondly, the financial

costs should

be decided by the

community.*

*Till recently the government judged the financial soundress of a major irrigation work by estimating the net annual revenue directly attributable to it (i, e, gross receipts from water rates, land revenue, interest on capital receipts from the sale of crown lands, etc,, minus working expenses), The work was not undertaken unless the estimated net annual revenue was sufficient, at the end of the period prescribed for the development, to cover annual loan charges, In the case of protective works account

was

also taken of the saving in relief expenditure. (Both direct relief to the distressed and revenue remissions), The Woodhead Commission, 1945, thought that it was difficult to find schemes calculated to yield on

Hence they suggested a change in the financial that basis of computation, In the first place they criteria of the government in respect of irrigation, suggested an allowance for the indirect additional revenue to the governresult of the increase in wealth of the people, (increased receipts sales tax, stamps, income tax, agricultural income tax, etc ) Secondly, the improvement of the general well being and standard of living of the

ment as a

from

population being direct concerns of the government, and irrigation promoting these ends, they cannot satisfactorily be reduced to calculations of hard cash and revenue, In view of their importance the Commission suggested that general revenue should contribute towards loan charges of irrigation schemes, and that well considered schemes may be under taken even when in their financial aspects they do r*Qt fully conform with the criteria hitherto adopted,

(frnal Report of the

Woddnead Commission,

1945, 132 -33),

(

Territorial

(o)

is

)

divided

of

difficulties

human community

conflicts

water

in

regulations and laws concerning

rendered

difficult,

this question the

economic unit

Workable

rights.

division

of

water

and there are administrative and

developing river valley projects,

difficulties in

The

control,

divided into several political jurisdic-

which create

tions,

308

are

financial

In regard to

whole river basin should be regarded as an it serves, and

for the benefit of all the people

the question should be taken on a regional basis by

all

power-

ful regional bodies,

cultivators

land.

The excessive

Management oj irrigation-

(pi)

tion of canal water

who

are

The problem

land but of injurious to

involves water,

its

is

said

to

drown

not only of

rather than irrigate the

making the water reach the

most appropriate use, because surplus water

both crops and lands,

many problems such

regulation

relations

applica-

has been a general complaint against

of

Management

as controlled

water rates and

is

of irrigation

application of

maintaining proper

between water users.

(9ii) Surface

and under-ground drainage.

cessive water supply (more than

In case of ex-

the soil can

hold),

as has

been the case in some of the canal irrigated areas, seepage and percolation intercept the natural drainage, causing water-logging and salt effervescence, turning fertile lands The

NCP

was more

scientific

in

their attitude

while suggesting the use corpus, and (b) the use of of maximum benefit to the community demands use in the head-water region of rivers to lowest here must be high to compensate for the loss of energy of water is becoming important, and is

combination of irrigation with other uses of water. of water under two heads (a) Use of its inert

They divided

:

energy, The problem reduction of consumptive quantity, as the charges power, The use of the its

helping materially in reducing cost of storage otherwise chargeable to The use of water for power is not inconsistent with its economical employment in irrigation, while irrigation effords large outlets for the use of excess power. For a detailed consideration of the point of the irrigation

costs

and

and

rate of interest

Irrigation, 1947,

one may refer

to

tfoe

NPC

;

River Training *

(

into

malarial

309

swamps and

)

alkali

surface and underground

soils.

Reclamation by become

has, therefore,

drianage an important issue, specially referingto lowering of seepage and reducing alkali formation particularly where the heavy

and underground drainage Irrigation in the Five

ssion

have

is

poor.

Year Plan.

started with the

view

that

The Planning Commiit is

only by utilizing water recources for irrigation and generation of power, and

by the adoption

of

intensive measures for improving the

standards of agricultural cottage, small-scale

cheap

practices,

and the promotion of

and large-scale industries with the help of an appreciable rise in the stand-

electric power, that

ard of living of the people can be achieved,

They

rightly

think that there are large possibilities for the development of the country's

water resources, specially in view

of

the

have taken place in the technique of improvements dam construction, and that agriculturist's greatest need is an assured water supply. In addition to irrigation these that

power and also and navigation. Some of these

projects offer possibilities for generation of in

some cases

for flood control

schemes, therefore, are purely lor irrigation, some only for

power and others are multi-purpose in nature, Plan irrigation has been given the first priority.

hydro-electric

In the

In the Draft Outline the total estimated cost of

all

the

irri-

gation and power projects included in the first part of the Plan was Rs. 734 crores. Of this Rs. 144 crore were spent

by March 1951, during next five years covered by the Plan Rs. 450 crores were to be spent, and Rs. 140 crores after Water is a prime necessity to life but it becomes a menace when it not properly used, Jt is said that civilizations in the past developed in areas where water was easily available, It is also a fact that they crumbled Man's crime against rivers had its Nemesis, For a detailed study there, of the effects of the abuse of wafer one may Jook tp R JC Mukerjee Rural Economy of India. is

:

(

that att

period.

310

)

These projects are calculated

additional area of 9*8 million acres in

generate

I'l mill*

to

kilowatts of additional power,

completion and full development the gated area was estimated to be 16'5 mill kilowatts of power.

total

irrigate

1955 56 and to After the

additional

irri-

and 1'93

mill, acres

In addition to these projects

which

were included in the Plan there were other irrigation and The power projects under consideration at that time. aggregate cost of all these projects was expected to be Rs. 1400 crores. In the actual Plan now presented some additional projects

totafallotment for

are included

for

power and irrigation

execution, is

and the

Rs, 561'41

out of,a total expenditure of Rs, 2068*78 crores.

crores

The addi-

f

tional irrigation is estimated to be 8 5 million acres through

major and 11*2 million acres through minor works, bringing

When

is more than the soil can hold, natural drainages by seepage and percolation, pores of the soil are not allowed to remain open so as to keep it warm and purified by aeration and there is a rise in the sub-soil water level. The result is that where the soil gets so firmly compact that water cannot move freely, there is water-logging and malarial swamps are created, and where there are dissolved salts there is alkali formation, and the land is turned into a barren usar, as has been the case in Nira, Pravara and Godavari canals in Bombay, Upper Chenab

the quantity

are intercepted,

and Upper Jhelum, and canals

of Punjab (now in Pakisthan). It occurs two forms: (i) soil saturation (the first stage is called sem, and in its worst form jheels, t e. collection of water on the surface), and (it) con-

in

t

This happens in several centration of salt in upper layers called thur. stages, and there are distinct signs of the coming danger at each stage, (baratu crops being successful for a few years, kallar patches appearing the fields, and no germination in these patches, reduction in crop yields, depressions beside the canals remaining full of rustly coloured water, spring level coming close to the surface, drinking water tasting raw, obnoxious odour coming from mud walls and their crumbling),

in

This necessitates reclamation by drainage, which means total absence of free water in the soil to a depth sufficiently below that of root penetraThe remedies should be tion so that there may be circulation of air.

both curative and preventive. Surface and sub-soil drainage should be improved, and further seepage must be reduced as far as possible, Some Proofing of canal specific measures which have often been suggested are beds by concrete, pumping out water by tube-wells, opening out of obstructed drainage, checking over irrigation through a regulation of water :

and replacing canal irrigation by well irrigation, etc. But these be considered in the light of their own limitations. suggestions should rates

311

(

the total Irrigated area

end of the period

to

)

nearly 70 million acres by the

of the Plan.

In the preparation of this Plan,

projects

to

likely

yield

additional food at an early date have been given preference

over others and the large multi-purpose projects have been phased with a view tion aspects

;

and taken up

the

to the

early completion of their irriga-

power generation

in stages as the

is

demand

carefully

regulated

Of

arises.

the

pro-

commenced and under

jects execution, some are financed wholly from loans advanced by the Central Government,

and others by State Governments, with the help, to

individual projects, of Central loans,

arrangements the Commission in few suggestions to State Governments.

a

important was a levy

of

regard

Regarding the October 1950,

financial

made

in

The most

betterment fee with the object of

securing for the States a share from the 'unearned incre-

from the increase

ment'

in land values that occurs as a result

of the provisions of irrigation facilities,

There was a large

of agreement on the principle of this levy. The Commission further suggested to the State Governments to consider an upward revision of water rates in view of high

measure

cost

of

and

the

new rise

works, in

increased agricultural

cost

of

prices,

maintenance the

levy

of

agricultural income tax (which has already been introduced some States), and the creation of a non-lapsable in irrigation

and power development ways and means fundt

In the end they very emphatically stated that these

projects

cannot be implemented successfully unless the States can arouse mass-enthusiasm and secure public support* for these projects on a nation-widle scale.

*

While suggesting the ways in which public cooperation can be obtained and the forms it should take, the Planning Commission referred to the levy of betterment contribution in the form of land from larger holdings, and to adopt a scale of wages (in preparing estimates for work in which

(

It

312

should, however, be noted

)

that

these multi-purpose

projects are the basic feature for our economic

general and agricultural development in they are

the

best and the

lasting

progress in

particular;

solution

of

and

the food

problem.

An

abstract of

in the First Part of the Five is

as follows;*

and

schemes

of irrigation included

Year Plan

in the Draft Outline

the actual

fot a detailed

study one can look

to

the

Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, pages 268-295.

unskilled labour was employed) on the basis that work should be done by the villagers on the canals in their villages and not on the basis of work In each village or villages the villagers being entrusted to contractors,

should be organized into cooperatives for taking up the work in their own area. (Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, 1951, pp 128-9.) Sentimentalism rather than the considerations of practicability seem to have influenced Th*se things do the Commission's mind so far as this point is concerned, not appear to us practicable and workable propositions.

*A

Draft Outline of the Five Year Plan, 1951, annexure

II,

(

40

313

)

(

814

)

IV.

POWER RESOURCES.

Alternative Sources of Power. a

to

It is

difficult

to

estimate

reasonably accurate degree, the total production of

energy from

all

sources.

The NPC think

that

does not exceed 100 units per capita per year.

it

Of

probably 60 is

this

from human labour, 15 from animal labour and 25 is from mechanical sources, of which electricity counts for only 8. For a detailed study of the evolution of the Administrative set-up for Irrigation ia the Govt. of India, of the river valley projects and of the schemes of irrigation and power included in the Five Year Plan reference may be made : to Quinquennial Report, 1950, and the Five Year Plan, :

CWINC

316

{

It

means

that

man

)

by far the largest source of power.

is

However, there are numerous sources from which mechanical power, which is technically termed as power, can be produced, But the utilization of these resources depends

upon a number of factors* The use of solar energy and wave power is not economical at present, Wind movements provide vast potentialities, but considerable amount of work has to be done before practical methods of utilizing this

power can be devised, These resources, therefore, are not Forests are exhaustible. of immediate concern at present.

Though they

are

replaceable,

but at a

very

slow

rate.

Besides, their use as a fuel for power will soon exhaust

them

immediate successors, and will create many other Alchohol, a by* problems like soil erosion and floods*

for the

product of sugar industry can serve as an industrial fuel, but it needs considerable development in supply and other

The most important form

research in technology.

however,

Electricity

and

water,

can be

is

generated from

Mineral

(i)

accumulation.

power,

mineral

Being irreplaceable,

rather scanty,

including motor

being

spirit

coal

oil,

requires geological times for

oil

its

utilization

say, living on country's capital resources.

to

of

is electricity.

only

and other

6/

of

fuel oils*

our

is,

so

Our supply requirements

Hence no major

power project can be constructed on th basis of oil fuel, and its use will be confined to those small power stations in areas which cannot be economically served by electrict

other major power projects planned or under consideration.

The

chief sources for generating

electric

power, therefore,

are coal and water.

()

Coal.

estimated the

The total

Indian

Coalfields

Committee,

1946,

reserves of workable coal deposits in

various areas to be as follpw?

:

317

(

)

Bihar.

13.146 (Mill tons,) 2,352

Bengal,

381 14

Madhya Pradesh, .

Assam.

7

Orissa,

574

Other States (Mainly Hydrabad.) Total

16,474

These may be taken as approved workable coal resources*

The Geological Survey of India estimated The probable total reserve may mill. tons. say 60,000 mill, tons.

it

Orissa, 1,

it is

a

cannot be considered abun-

First,

the

known

are found in fairly well defined zones, and are

more

larger,

Besides, in the study of power there are a few

important considerations,

a

be 20,000

comparison with the reserves in

industrialized countries,

dant, 1

to

much

Considered in absolute terms

fairly large quantity, but in

some

it

be

coal

deposits

localized

in

West Bengal, Bihar, 2 Madhya Pradesh and Hydrabad, The supply to

or

less contiguous areas in

Coal resources in million metric tons,

(World Power Conference

;

Statistical

Year Book.)

Occurence of workable deposit of lignite has recently been reported in South Arcot district of Madras and in Kutch. The Geological Survey of India are carrying out detailed investigations in these areas to find out the nature, extent and the practicability of commercial working pf 2,

these deposits.

818

(

distant areas involves

)

considerable

which influence the location

of

costs,

transporation

thermal power stations.

It is,

India and Punjab

therefore, normally expected that in South

which are distant from coal deposits, the development

power

On

will not be based on coal fuel,

thermal power

plants designed

steam pressure

high

power at economic rates Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh,

would generate areas of

for

in

electric

Secondly, the question

is

colliery

not of the total potential but of

how

long the better and the more cheaply got coals will

The

deposits of high quality

coal suitable

for

purposes are said to be 700 to 750 mill, tons, is

being used for steam locomotives, and

last*

metallurgical

The bulk

at the present

of

it

rate

(about 10 mill, tons per year) the

metallur-

reserves will exhaust in 65 to 70 years,

Recently

of consumption gical

of

the other hand, large

revised estimates put this figure

200 years,

at

That too

is

The Coalfields Committee, there* need to restrict the use of high

not a complacent situation, fore, rightly stressed the

quality coking coal to

metallurgical

purposes only, and so

far as possible, to use the coking coals which form of our coal reserves, for

industrial uses

note

that,

the Coal

and esteam locomotives. the

realizing

Government

raising steam

of India

for It

the

power is

bulk

stations,

gratifying to

importance of the

problem, the have recently taken steps to rationalize

Minning Industry and

to

conserve the high grade

metallurgical coal,

Thirdly, coal

is

an important raw material

chemical industries.

In the light of

for synthetic

these considerations

it

appears that in future the large thermal power stations designed to use low grade coal will be located

at

colliery

as

(

)

and those thermal stations which are far distant

pitheads,

from colliery areas will be designed to burn only low ab content fuel The Central Water and Power Commission! however, believe that

'in

ultimate

the

India these thermal power stations would only be of capacities and would be generally intended

as standby to

power

medium either

act

in the area,' 1

power.

2

It

is

electricity only the

Water seems

utilizing

utilized

it

of

gravity

water

There

because when

it,

it

is

is

be the best source

The NPC

in generating used without con-

is

an urgent necessity of

allowed

causes destruction where

mankind.

to

a perpetual mine, and

suming any substance.

to

to

or to supplement other primary sources of

(Hi) Water Power. of

of

power picture

it

think that

run without being could be of service

to

'every horse-power

an annual saving of generated hydraulically represents As a matter of fact any of coal.' 8 4 tons approximately use whatsoever of water all,

since

wasted. is

if it is

And from

preferable

1,

the

it

is

view

power)

is

better than

no use

fit

not stored or conserved

but

point of conservation

use

to that of calorific

Central Water and

Development

(for

not used,

energy

at the

its

same or even

Power Commission: Planning

for

Power

in India, 1951, p, 3,

2, In the past the use of fuel assumed great prominance, because under old conditions thermal power was supposed to be superior to hydel power. The reasons were that under the then technological developments it was cheapest to transport coal than to transmit energy above a certain distance. Therefore, a thermal power station could be located at the most favourable site, whereas the hydro-electric plant could be sited only where nature placed it. Secondly, as regards load factor the hydroelectric plant did not posses as much flexibility as the steam plant, But the conditions are now changed. Now it is cheaper to transmit electricity than to transport coal when the distance is not much larger than 100 miles Electricity is the most adaptable form of power. And now the question is not one of merely supplying a few concentrated loads in the most favourable sites, but of supplying the whole countryside.

3,

NPC

:

River Training and Irrigation, 1947, p, 73,

320

(

somewhat higher

)

Besides, according to the

cost.

electricity possesses the following

NPC

hydro-

advantages over thermal

power.*

Every horse power developed by water preserves Rs. 40 worth coal per annum, and justifies an investment of (a)

Rs. 400 in a hydel plant in excess of a steam plant.

A

(6)

hydro-electric generating unit

than a heat unit because

of

operating

is

more dependable

a comparatively low

at

speed and temperatures*

The non-scheduled

(c)

negligible,

voltage

"when

demand

in

11

is

and hydro-plant units can be placed in operation is important and valuable under sudden

quickly, which

large load increases

and emergencies.

(d)

Less power

is

()

The

developing hydro-electric scheme

cost of

required for station service, is

no

doubt large, usually greater than the erection of a thermal station,

but against this

there

are

substantial

savings in

running expenses. (/)

As

the

load

factor

power increases, and

sales

rises the

which

load curve without affecting the

ever rate they bring In the 'the

form

of

these

mover

out the greatest promise water.'

up

also said to

water

hollows in the

peak are profitable at what-

considrations for generating of social

it

is

believed that

power which holds

success

But any reasonably accurate

It is

the

of

in,

of primite

light

fill

advantage

is

the gravity of

assessment

of the

have some disadvantages, fa) Because of large a corresponding risk of loss which makes capital shy to go in for these undertakings, (b) Demand must be foreseen a longtime advance, and the installation has to be made for a greater capacity than the existing needs, (c) There are technical difficulties also (d) Lonedistance transmission is uneconomical, first

m

cost there

is

321

(

)

water power potential* is not possible at present. A complete assessment will be available when the hydrologies! survey

commenced by

completed, However,

kw.

mill,

But

Water and Power Commission

the Central

it

has been guessed

should be remembered that a large

it

of potential sites

at present

is

be 23

to

number

have not yet been investigated.

Our main sources

of hydro-electric

power are the snow-

Himalayas along a length of about 2000 miles from Kashmir to Assam, and the heavy rainfall fed rivers

rising in the

on the Western Ghats. sites

many

on

the

Besides, in other parts of the country rivers

high head dams can

machinery can be

be

flowing in

constructed

the

plains,

where

and hydro-electric

can likewise be used,

installed,

But

should be noted that every water-fall cannot be used

hydroelectric installation,

since

its

economic

it

for

feasibility

depends not only on the water-flow and the hydraulic head, but also on other factors like accessibility of the site for transporting heavy machineiy,

distance from load centres,

nature of flow, cost of storage and the likely load factor* Besides, in regard to the use of water for generating power there are First, the

a few points

seasonal

evened out

for

construction of

which require careful consideration,

variation of flow

generating power*

dams

to store water,

of our

rivers has to be

This necessitates the for utilizing

during the

time of lean flow and therefore, in our hydro-electric projects, ;

unlike those of western countries, these ancillary civil works

must form a substantial the

country *

The

being

part of

mainly

capital outlay.

agricultural,

and

Secondly, irrigation

assessment of water power resources was made by J,W, which is believed to be very inaccurate, Burrow's estimate He put it at 30 mill, Kilowatts, The is supposed to be more accurate, NPC refer to a conjecture of 5,5 mill, Kilowatts, and themselves estimate it at 11 miSL Kilowatts.

Meats

first

in 1923,

41

382

(

)

depending mainly on the rivers fed by the monsoon) there is a clash of interest between the needs of irrigation and of electricity.

attempted

Therefore,

many

of

the projects have to be

as joint irrigation-cum-electricity measures or as

multi-purpose projects; and in almost

all

such joint measures

a certain amount of compromise) as regards the use of water

has

be accepted

to

as necessary

This

and unavoidable.

nature of the projects, moreover, (multi-purpose character) should be the determining factor in financial considerations of construction costs, etc.

Thirdly, as

is

the

likely,

output of the hydro-electric installation will not

power

be maintained

uniform level over the various seasons of the year. 1 This requires inter-connecting transmission lines between

at a

adjoining large the over

all

power systems

so that

by interchanging power

power output can be maintained more or

uniformly.

And

in

stations will

have

to

smaller

regions

hydro-electric

be coordinated with thermal stations. 3

In the light of these circumstances in our

the

less

it

appears that the power

one of inter-connected development hydro and thermal stations in various regions, and these country will be

regional systems will also be

mission

lines to

The Development tion of

power

industrial

inter-connected through trans-

form a big national

grid.

of Electric Power.

plant in India

development

was made

in

the

The

first

west

was

accelerated by electricity, in our country

it

installa-

and though

in 1897-98,

considerably

was perhaps

1, During rains the discharge in river may exceed the requirements power generation, while in the dry season the available supply will be inadequate, Besides, as a measure of flood control it may be necessary it will reduce to run down the reservoir to safe limits before the monsoon the head and consequently the power output,

of

;

The thermal station will compensate the deficit off hydel power 2. output at the time of low discharge of rivers, and during the season of maximum flow when the entire discharge will be used for power generation, the thermal station will act as standby.

323

(

considered synonymous

with

)

electric

was

It

lighting,

and the companies which took licences under the Indian Electricity Act 1910, being

developed as a private enterprise,

guided by the prospectslof reasonable ireturns, operated in important cities, and due to the absence of mechanized industries power was used for lighting and general purposes. By 1914, however, most of the large cities had electric

supply, but

till

then neither the Central nor the Provincial

Governments followed any progressive

of

policy

power

development.

During the World

War

the helplessness of the country,

I

was proved, and as

specially in the industrial field, of the

recommendations

hydro-electric

result

Commission, and power development was

1918, a policy of industrial

contemplated.

a

of the Indian Industrial

They recommended a systematic survey of Mears was asked to carry power, and J.

W

But beyond that survey no definite action

out that survey,

was taken by the Government was transferred to

at

the subject

the

that

And

time,

in

1921

The Provin-

Provinces,

Governments, however, launched schemes for hydroelectric and the in development, progress power

cial

development was rapid after 1925, which

enabled

the

governments

And to

the Depression

obtain

plants

at

considerably reduced rates from abroad assisted the growth considerably.

The need was

to

promote the development

further realized during the

of

World War

electric II

power

when power

resources proved very inadequate to meet the civil and

war demands. sioner with the to regulate,

with a

view

programme

In 1941 the office of the

Government

assist to

of India

and control the

promote war

effort,

of active assistance

Electric

Commis-

was created in order electric

In

power supply 1944 he initiated a

by Government

of India for

Some

developing country's resources. to

financial principles

guide the electric supply undertakings

circulated.

Work was

were prepared and

started on drafting the legislation

(on the basis of the British Electricity Act 1926) which

intended to to

to

develop promote

develop large sized regional rural

were encouraged

electricity

also to

the

also

Provincial and State

electric

supply undertakings

advance

prepare in

and

system,

grid

electricity supply*

Governments and

was

economical power stations,

their post-war

development plans. They were examined by the Electricity Commissioner from the view point of co-ordinating tham, and further

the

possibilities

of

securing manufacturing

capacity for the plant and equipment

required for the post-

projects were investigated* Central Technical Power Board was

war development In

1945 the

set up.

was merged with the office of the Electricity Commissioner to form the Central Electricity Commission, In

It

1948

was

it

a step to assist the provincial

and other undertakings

power schemes. a further

On

in initiating

the grounds of

and

state

governments and planning the new economy and efficiency

administrative change has been

made

recently,

The two engineering organizations of the Government of India, viz., the Central Electricity Commission and the Central Water-Power, Irrigation and Navigation Commission have been amalgamated to form a new organization called the Central

The Power Wing

Water and Power Commission,

of this organization carries out the duties formerly performed

by the Central Electricity Commission, 1910 which governed also replaced

by

the electricity

the Electricity

The

old Act of

supply industry was

(Supply) Act,

1948,

For a detailed study of the functions of tba the Electricity Supply Act, 1948, reference may be

new made

and Power Commission

Development

1951, pp,

7-9,

;

Planning for Power

and

organizations and to Central

Water

in

Iijdia.

W

(

the International

meeting of the

)

Engineering Exhibition and the sectional

World Power Conference held

Jan. 1951, have considerably stimulated interest in

power development, The progress or the development

of electric

at

Delhi in

and

activity

power

Indian Union from 1900 to 1950, classified according type

of plants, is

Average

as follows

installed

supply installations,

Of

in the to

the

s

generating capacity of public

utility

(kw)

kw

this 1*71 mill,

ment owned power

'6

or 35*6% belonged to 201 govern-

stations, '02

or 1*2% to 19 municipal

owned power stations and 1*08 or 63*2% to 258 power It shows that stations owned by private companies. major part of the

development

has so far been to

in

many

supply

In addition

individual industries and

cases operate their

March 1951 there were 587 such

intalled generating

electric

the private companies.

public utility power stations,

Railways In

made by

of the public utility

own power installations

capacity of '64 mill.

a total of about 2*4 mill, killo watts.

kW,

This

plants*

with an

326

(

A significant the

war

feature in the post

increasing participation

Electric Supply

)

however,

years,

Governments

of State

is

in the

In fact

power development is State Governments, but the govern-

Industry.

being taken up by all ments which have now entered the Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,

considerably are

The

Madhya Pradesh and Bombay* in

is

prevailing tendency

field

Some

public electric concerns.* are being purchased by

favour of State ownership of

the State

of

the private e

Governments,

t

concerns

g.,

in

1947

Madras Govt, acquired the Madras City Thermal Station, and the Uttar Pradesh Government purchased the steam

the

power at

station establishment

But even

Kanpur,

fa, electric

supply

of

Messers Martin Burn, Ltd.

present by far the major part of

at

industry

is

the

of

result

private

enterprise.

The

The Present Position. cluding that of the

and railways,

at the

stations

end

In absolute

kilowatts*

of

needs, if

it

installed

capacity,

in-

serving individual industries

March

1951,

was 2*43 million

sense the extent of electric power

development seems quite relation to the

total

significant,

but

if

viewed in

vast area, the huge population and the power

fades into an insignificant

feature

and

;

further,

compared with the electric development in some indus-

trially

advanced countries,

it

becomes clear

that

we

are

a general tendency all over the world to bring this public under government control, The prevailing opinion is that electricity being a public utility service, this industry should not be permitted to be operated like other industries actuated purely by profit motive.

*There

is

utility service

Ordinarily the argument in favour of public ownership is tions of return are no more than the interest on capital The vate investors will consider very inadequate. public ownership is the comparative inefficiency due

procedure.

This can be remedied

that the expectaoutlay which pri-

argument against lo

administrative

The Madras and Mysore governments

have overcome these difficulties, Besides, the State Electricity Boards under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948, aim at imparting efficiency and expedition in such government bodies,

827

(

far

still

The

way behind,

)

affords a

table

following

comparison.

1946 figures,)

1.

(

(

The development

1947 figures,)

2.

of

electric

throughout the country, but

is

power

1950 figures'^

3,

(

not

is

uniform

concentrated in a few regions^

Again, amongst these regions also, there are considerable differences so far as the nature

development, the etc,,

and extent

a brief discussion of each (i)

South India

:

may

be as follows

States).

Due

collieries the use of coal for generating

:

to

long distance from

power

and, therefore, greater development of power

80%

power

(comprising of Mysore, Madras and

Travancore and Cochin

The

of the

schemes, and nature of loads, ownership are concerned. There seem to be 5 such zones, and of

total is

generating

capacity is

hydel and only 20% thermal,

*3

In

mill.

is

very

is

from water.

kW.

of

costly,

which

the hydro-

Mysore Sivasamudram, Shimsa and Jog, These three are interconnected, and supply power to Mysore State.

electric stations are at

One

of the important loads supplied

Kolar gold

fields, In

by this system is in the Madras there are 3 hydro-electric stations

atPykara, Mettur and Papnasam.

These three are inter-con-

308

(

)

nected and serve mostly South Madras.

There

thermal station in Madras city which

connected with

The

Mettur station.

interconnected system

a steam

station

at

at

is

augmented by

Vijaiwada and Vishakhapatam.

power

and Cochin

In Travancore

which

there is a hydro-electric station at Pallivasal, to

big

Besides, there are two more thermal stations

of these stations

Madhurait

capacity of the

is

a

is

said

is

be mostly responsible for the development of the alumi-

nium,

fertilizer

and chemical industries

two distinct features

of the electric

The

the State,

in

development

in this zone

are that these schemes, specially the generating stations and

main transmission

are State-owned,

lines,

and though

the

aggregate capacity is not very large they are extending power -- >Hc to rural areas for agricultural and other purposes. )

Bombay

(ii)

million

kW.

The

Area.

which 60%

of

is

capacity

is '24

hydel and 40% thermal.

The

total

installed

major public utility stations are the three

hydro-electric

Khopoli, Bhivpuri and Bhira on the slopes of the Western Ghats between Poona and Bombay, belonging at

stations

to

the

Tata Electric

Agencies, and the thermal to

Electricity Ahmadabad, belonging The Tata Electric system is inter-connected with the

station at

Co.

power

Ahmadabad

of

steam power station industrial

ia&wtry,

G.I.P.R. at

installations

The

in

The

Ahmadabad

serves the the

textile

supplies power

Outside the industrial areas of

there.

Bombay and Ahmadabad at Stt*at

Bombay, specially

thermal plant at

to tto textile mills

Kalyan, and

there are two thermal

stations

and Shotopur, sustained mostly by industrial load.

distinct

features in this region are that outside

industrial centres of

Bombay and Ahmadabad

the

there is very

little electrict development, and the electric supply industry almost exclusively in the bands of the private enterprise L 1

exception being

tile

station at Bhatgar).

This explains

329

(

as to

why

has

it

)

remained confined

industrial and

to

urban

areas only.

(m)

The

Area.

Bihar*Bengal

aggregate

capacity including both the public utility and

owned power of

coal

electric

stations

being available

development

sively on steam

in

in

power

at

belonging

to

New

is

supply power

to

and Dishergarh

Ample

supply

Bengal collieries almost exclu-

based

Again the development

plants.

The

enterprise.

Cossipura,

Southern

is

largest of the

steam power

four

Calcutta industrial

stations

and Mulajore and

r

in

and residential areas.

utility stations are at

Gourpore Seebpore Bengal and Sijaa Jheria and Patna in

Besides, there are

a

good number privately owned

collieries plants belonging to railways,

the biggest of

which are belonging

Steel Co,, at Jamshedpur,

the

Steel

and other industries,

of

India

Tata lion and

to the

Corporation of Bengal,

the Rohtas Industries Ltd., Dalmianagar,

Corporation

the privately

the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation,

Other major public

Bihar.

areas

stations at present are the

Cossipura,

kW

Bihar and

this

exclusively due to private

power

'95 mill.

is

installed

near Asansol.

and

the

Except

Aluminium

in the

Calcutta and a few large towns where domestic

about general demands come upto The economical methods

20%

of construction

the

city of

and other

remaining power

and operation, and the pro-

gressive) policy adopted by these three Governments, have largely contributed to the industrial development of South India. Progress in South India

might be pointed out as an argument in favour of bringing electricity under unified control as envisaged under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948 The'-Bombay Government have recently established an Electric Grid Department, which will undertake schemes of electrifying the entire State,

Towards the end of 1948, the load development in the area served by Tata G, I. P. Railway inter-connected system exceed the available capacity, which necessitated the introduction of staggering of working hours and days of the various industries, thereby making it possible to utilize the available capacity to the best advantage until adequate additional generating capacity is provided in the system. The staggering of industrial loads of demand. has enabled a reduction of about 38 thousand

kW

42

(

is

development

due

330

to industrial

)

demand.

And

Bihar and Bengal there electric development.

industrial areas of

outside the

very

is

little

Uttar Pradesh and Punjab* The aggregate installed capacity is '31 mill. kW. The power is partly thermal but mainly hydel. The Uttar Pradesh Government has taken (iv)

a

lead in

There are 8

promoting electric development,

hydro-electric stations are inter-connected

steam stations

at

on the Upper Ganges canals.

with one another, and

also

A

Chandausi and Harduaganj,

Ganga Canal Grid scheme is agricultural and irrigation loads.

They

with two special

feature of the

the

of the

In fact tube-well

irrigation in areas not directly

commanded

predominence

by canals was the

The main objective with which this scheme was initiated. U. P. Government has also installed a steam station at Sohwal, and has recently purchased one Messrs Martin Burn, Ltd, of

U,

P, like

power

is

at

Kanpur belonging

Besides, in several

Agra, Allahabad, Banaras,

big

Lucknow and

to

towns

Bareilly

supplied from steam stations belonging to Martin

Supply in Delhi is obtained from the Central Generating station, Delhi, and in Punjab there is a big hydroBurn, Ltd

electric

station

at

Jogindernagar, which serves several

important centres such as Amritsar, Jullandhar, Ludhiana

and Ferozpur, and also continues areas in West Punjab (Pakistan).

expected done.

On

to

serve

The supply

be gradually reduced.

the other

to

But

considerable to

this

hand India should continue

Pakistan

is

should not be to

export ele*

The hydro-electric station at Jogindernagar was established by the old undivided Punjab Government. It is a costly project, since the river Uhl had to be diverted from its valley through a 3 miles long tunnel to a watershed on the other side of the hill, The major portion ol the load connected with the system happens in the area which after partition forms

A working arrangement, however, has been made part of Pakistan. between the two governments West Punjab (Pakistan) and E. Punjab There is a fear of this (India) in regard to the continuance of the supply. Supply being gradually reduced, :

331

(

ctricity

mean

and increase

the supply so far as possible,

not only dealing in a vital

foreign exchange,

And

load supply through

This will

commodity but also earning

there can be a possibility of a greater

regulating the flow of the

and without adding

storage,

)

to the installed

river or by

capacity of the

plant.* (0) Central Region (Comprising of Hydrabad, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa). The total installed capacity is '15 mill,

kW, and

the

power

portant public

is

utility

almost exclusively thermal. installations are at

Khaperkheda and Hydrabad. power as

plants belonging to

cement

collieries,

and ordnance

mills

power generated in

factories,

this

textiles,

is

region

by

are several

concerns such

chemicals,

The major

etc.

paper

part of

these plants,

the

and

This region has good

therefore through private enterpriseof

Nagpur, Cuttack,

Besides, there

private industrial

factories,

The im-

industrial

development since it possesses such as manganese, coal, bauxite, iron ore and limestone, which have not been systematically

potentiality

rich mineral resources

developed so

The to

far.

total installed

about 2*13 mill.

ing

amount

to the

the

of

present

country

which a *In

is

self

this

capacity of

kW,

power

is

88%

i, e,,

all

these stations comes

of the total.

The remain-

scattered in other parts.

programme

of

Accord-

planned power development power zones in each of

divided into 11 contained

power

scheme no storage

is

development

is

The

is

provided.

result

being that

the

output of the power station at Jogindernagar is subject to the variations in seasonal flow in the Uhl. Hence inspite of the total installed capacity of 4S thousand the dry weather flow in the river is adequate only for generating about 20 thousand kW, A greater output can be made possible by regulating the water supply through storage. Secondly, when the greatest output is made possible, the question may be whether to export it to Pakistan or to extend it in the E, Punjab itself, With reference to the position of our foreign trade it may be advisable to export electricitv

kW

;

to Pakistan,

(

attempted.

zones

is

332

)

The present capacity

of

power plants

in these

as follows*.

The development

of electric

the industrial areas of Culcutta

form

60%

ever,

now

of the load.

a

power is mostly confined to and Bombay which together

In other regions also there

planned programme

for

is,

development!

howIn

several of these power zones regional grid systems are being

developed.

Besides, electric power

subject coming

Governments,

under the perview

The Union

now

is

of

the

Government

a concurrent

Union and

State

down

the

lays

383

(

)

general policy and legislates to guide the working of the

and

day to day administration is the Governments! The Electric Supply Act, 1948, provides the machinery for promoting a rapid and

electric industry,

the

responsibility of the State

coordinated power development in

all the regions.

The Future Development, vital force

At present cheap power is the behind industrial development. As a matter of

power can be taken as a measure of ascertaining the level of production and the trend of technological develop-

fact

ment.

Amongst

said to have electric

mic

power

many advantages over

electricity

is

1

others, Really speaking an such in role modern econopower plays important

life that 1

Electricity,

in

the different forms of

the present period

may be

and the extent of

may be

a country

the

called

electric

'Age of

power development

taken as the pointer

to the

stage of

economic development of the country and an index

of

the

Governments and

the

standard of living of the people, In the

all

post-war period

State

private electricity undertakings began very enthusiastically their plans.

According

to

these

original

it

plans

expected that in 5 years ending 1951 about 1*23 mill,

new generating

was

kW

installed,

and

in

subsequent period of 5 years ending 1956 there

will

be an

of

capacity

addition of 3*12 mill, first

kW,

target could not be

addition ol

4 mill.

kW

will be

But as the result showed the

achieved.

1,

where

It

it is

The

in 20 years. 2

and Power Commission drew up

power development

the

a

NPC

proposed an

The Central Water

planned programme of

in different zones as follows

:

can be transmitted with facility from where it is generated to used it lends itself to easy and effective control and it is ;

;

extremely adaptable for multifarious purposes. The advantage of hydro-electric power increases with a sustained load, and it is more economical to transmit power at a high load factor than at a low one. River Training aud Irrigation, 1947, p, 85, 2,

(

334

The Planning Commission First Five

power

Year Plan Of

projects,

in their Draft Outline

of

the

alloted Rs, 734 crores for irrigation

and

this Rs.

144 crores were

spent by

March

1951, Rs, 450 crores were to be spent during next 5 years and

Rs, 140 crores thereafter,

was

I'l

mill*

kW

after completion

and

the period of 5 yrs.

The

generation

1,

full

The additional power expected end of 5 years and development,

was as follows

:

1*93 mill.

kW

The expectation

for

2

the power completion of their irrigation aspect and taken in is carefully regulated up stages as

demand

2,

the

mul-tipurpose projects have been phased with a view

to the early

the

at

;

arises.

The schemes

in the Draft Outline are

Planning for Power Development

in India, 1951, p, 38,

Draft Outline of the First Five Year Plan, 1951,

p, 123,

:

(

335

)

(

836

)

In

the

revised.

now

Plan

actual

presented these estimates are

Irrigation and power

is

now

alloted

Rs,

561*41

crores out of Rs. 2068*78 crores.

The Union and to the

power,

State

Governments seem

importance and the urgency of developing electric

As

the

Plan

shows, they are actively engaged in

planning and execution of

43

to be fully alive

many

large schemes throughout

388

(

the

The plans appear

country.

view

of

needs

the

our

that

But

and

Under such

the

it

be noted

should

by financial resources, the water resources in some

limited

is

capacity

be modest specially in

to

of the country,

technical know-how, Cases,

)

local

circumstances very

rapid

progress

should not be expected, and the development in some of the States

bound

is

to

remain slow.

Besides, in the development of our water power resources a

few points must be carefully considered,

sources of water power

from Kashmir utilized

only

centres in

to

lie in

the

Himalayan ranges extending

transmitted to distant consuming

it is

Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,

Bengal and Assam.

Recent developments

power transmission

make

accessible

increased sites

to

distant

the large

This potential power can be

Assam.

when

First,

the

in high

West

voltage

power sites and thus has

hydro-electric

consuming

centres,

of water power,

the availability

Bihar,

These potential

and large scale power projects should now benefit many Hence narrow parochial interests should not be

States.

allowed

to

check the progress of water power which should

be conceived from an overall regional or national point of

Secondly, in order to get the

view.

power

potentialities the

development programme should be

carried over a long period

power

units

may

in such

manner

a

Since the power resources

uniformly

throughout the country,

power from surplus to boundaries will have cooperation of several

distant deficit to

applied

to

in

river

of

This

particular

distributed to transmit

will require

projects

and

1

Besides, the principle

natural

valley projects

not

new

when

regions crossing State

be undertaken,

States

development

are

some scheme

establishment of 'regional authorities. unified

that the

be brought into service progressively

required.

of

advantage of water

full

(

resources

TVA

and

recently

DVC

),

389

(

having farther proved the

new approach

to

)

and

utility

resource utilization has been

They should start by taking in view economic and

practicability of

social benefit,

the

made

of

system) leads to it

to

possible

different localities.

conform

and should tackle the problem Thirdly,

inter connected

combine the water powers situated in power-generation has

Further, since

load and water conditions, there

to

overall

power system (grid considerable economy.* The transmision

development

makes

a

possible,

maximum

on a regional basis through regional authorities, the

it,

is

to

an immense

advantage in linking up the different water-sheds, since the inherent disadvantage of the unsteadiness of water supply is overcome by linking up, Though in the initial stages each region has to be developed

when

possible,

the

with local resources as far as

economic limits

reached the possibilities

of the local sources are

of importing

regions have to be explored.

power from adjoining

However, when

the

regional

developments are implemented there will be a need lines

All-India Grid

lopment for

of

it

The Central Water and

between different regions,

Power Commission aims

of

is

possibilities

anil

having an

of

Lastly,

the deve-

ultimately determined by the

or the load factor.

economic

the

as the ultimate objective.

power

scientific

at

Hence

engineering

development as such,

of tie

it

is

not only

a

development, hut It

implies

demand question also

of

a coordination

between the development of load factor (schemes of power

The old

method in which each power station used to feed its own and distribution system, has now (with the development of high voltage pouer transmission) changed into an inter-connected power system, commonly known as the grid development, by uhich the surplus power from one station can be transmitted to make good the output of another station. In the past security and reliability of power supply necessitated the provision of adequate capacity of spare and standby plant Now due to the inter-connection of several power >n each power station, stations by transmission lines the powerful system can serve a very large area, and a very substantial reduction in the amount of standby plant bag been made possible, transmission

340

(

and the production question whether planning

utilization)

a

construction

of

)

of power.

There

load

should

for

however,

precede the

and transmission

generation

is,

facilities,

or

whether power development in an area should be held up till

the possibilities of load are definitely

the

speaking

of

availability

known.* Ordinarily

in

an

in

power

industries and the experience

the

area attracts

load factor growth Madras, Mysore and Travancore and Cochin confirms

in

of

But the scheme should pay within reasonable

this view,

time after installation, and unless there

mum

load

it

is

not prudent to

embark on

is

an assured mini-

large

power

projects.

however, in view of the known shortage of almost all regions there seems to be no in difficulty power

In our case,

of the additional

power, likely

to

under the Five Year Plan, being tinae,

be created by the projects utilized

within reasonable

But in the subsequent years the chances

power being

utilized as

quickly are limited unless planned

efforts for industrialization

Rural Electrification.

has mostly been confined

of additional

are

made

in all regions.

The development of to

electric

urban industrial centres,

supply It

is

*There are opposite views on this point, One view is that unless there an assured minimum load the large power schemes should not be launThe opposite view is that power is a primary requisite for ched,

is

industrialization, industries, e.g., the

and the

availability

development of

of

textiles

in a region attracts near Coimbatore, irrigation

power

pumping and other industries in Mysore and Aluminium, Fertilizers and Rayon manufacture in Travancore and Ccchin, are due to the availability of hydro-electric power in these areas and the growth of load is said to be ;

The answer

cannot be one sided. however, inclined to suggest a moderate policy. It is hazardous to assume that in every region there is an unlimited scope for utilizing The question is how soon can a given load fce developed in a electricity, Jf for any reason the development of industries or the particular area. far

beyond expectations,

We

to this question

are,

creation of load factor takes very long it power projects too much in advance. It

is

is

not prudent to embark on large said that ordinarily small and on miscellaneous load growth,

medium sized power schemes tan depend But large power projects which are very costly should not be undertaken in regions which are too much under-developed unless there are reasonable time.

prospects

of

the

energy being utilized

within reasonable

(

341

)

clear from the following tables.

% of towns and

villages electrified

and the power generated by public some urban and highly industrialized

Installed capacity utilities

alone in

areas.

About 60%

to

only half

industrialized areas,

Besides,

of the electric supply is confined

a dozen big cities and highly

other cities jand lesser industrialized areas occupy most pf

342

(

the remaining supply, with rural areas

fact

if

that

result

electrification in

conspicuous by absence.

is

The need

the

)

of electrifying rural areas is quite obvious,

serve

to

electricity is

general standard of living

There

be in rural areas.

purpose of raising the

the

main

its

In

field of application

must

can increase the production of

it

food and raw materials specially by increasing irrigation It

facilities.

can help

areas and in the areas.

It

c<*n

in

reclamation

the of

prevention

water-logging

water-logged in

low-lying

increase rural occupations by attracting small

scale industries and thus reduce the the beginning rice

in the

selling of the finished products

Further

As

of industries,

In etc,

second stage the processing of

raw materials can be developed.

of transport.

pressure on land.

milling and sawing,

flour

hulling,

can be taken up, and

ment

of

can further help in the

It

by helping in the developenables the

it

a matter of fact in

decentralization

our agriculture by far

the major portion of the cost of production

is

power human

and animal labour) efficient power will bring about considerable savings, and thert is a vast scope for its application. In recent years some State Governments have shown codsiderable inteiest and activities in In

Madras

1600, the

kW,

the

capital

in 1949

energ\

is to

kWh.

Rs, 374

electrify

of

rural

electrified

lakhs.

electrification.

was

villages

areas was 92 thousand mil).

kWh. and

The planning

for

the the

3000 villages, with a connecting

kW

and an energy consumption of 167 The government ot Madras have launhced

load of 203 thousand

million

in

consumption was 76

outlay was

year 1954

number

the

connected load

rural

an intensive economic development of 24 fiikas (sub-division of a taluka)

7 khadi centres, tion in

Madras

is

each

A the

comprising of 50

significant

integrated

t^

feature of

60 villages and rural

development

electrifica-

of both

rural

343

(

)

and urban areas, which amounts to the surplus revenues in urban areas being utilized for the benefit of rural schemes.

There are over 13,500

lift

irrigation

and 1500 rural

pumps;

The general

industries are operated by electricity,

pattern

52% of the total connected loads is in irrigation pumping, 25% in rural industries, 21% is domestic load, 1% in street lighting and 1% miscellaneous* The demand for power is so insistent that the extensions for rural loads is

:

are restricted only by the

other equipment,

In

were

electrified,

same

as in Madras.

Mysore

The

at the

pattern of

As

and

line materials

availability of

end

of 1949,

rural

load

288 villages

is

almost the

a result of the

power supply cottage and toy making have made weaving advancement, In the next 5 years the govern-

industries specially sufficient

ment

is

lation

aiming

of

at electrifying

(in

Travancore

Rural electrification in

fied,

a

villages having

In Travancore-Cochin out

over 1000.

revenue divisions

all

popuof

this State is

more expensive

since in rural areas of this part people live in farm villages)

where length

of distribution lines

adds

to the

Water

cost.

mostly pumped from rivers and canals and there

much

lifting

from

wells,

Power

mation of water-logged area core, is

houses

widely separated from each other,

(and not in

is

and

at

in

is

also utilized

Kutanad

in

not

recla-

north Travan-

Besides, several small scale

rural industries are also in operation. In the villages with a population of

next 5 years 800

more than 5000 each are

and within next 5 years 1200 more.

Pradesh the most fiaction is in

is

for

present about 26,000 acres of water-logged land

brought under cultivation.

electrified,

153

part) 70 have been electri-

significant

development

in

In

rural

to

be

Uttar

electri-

In fact the Ganga Canal Scheme was mainly conceived to supply

regard to tube-wells.

Hydro

Electric

power

to

tube-wells for irrigating

areas which were not

(

commanded by

344

)

There are over 2500

gravitation canals.

tube-wells constructed and operated by government in

Ganga Canal area. Besides, privately owned tube-wells

there are for

a

number

large

which power

the

is

of

supplied

by the goverment.* The new programme of rural electrifition is to electrify 500 villages in the Ganga canal grid area, 130 villages in Sarda scheme, 4 villages and 100 tube-wells Gorakhpur scheme and 60 tube-wells in Faizabad, The

in

Bihar government are operating small rural schemes near

Further

Patna and Dehri-Sassaram,

schemes are being implemented.

extensions of these

Bombay

is

now

giving

About 250 villages

special attention to rural electrification.

and townships will be electrified, Irrigation pumping either from open wells or tube-wells will form a significant position of the

Assam

there

electrification,

anticipated loads.

In

Madhya Pradesh and

have been two successful projects for rural In the former

a State

Electricity

Board

is

formed, and the rural areas within the economic reach of the grid sub-stations will

be electrified.

In

the

Punjab

it

expected that with the commencement of power supply from Nangal power stations it will be possible to extend

is

throughout the State both in rural and urban

electricity

areas.

Bengal

The north is

Calcutta

Electrification

said to have the supply of power

scheme in the

in

W

mofussil

*A peculiar feature of rural electrification in these areas was that the State paid special attention to build up tube-well load, and the development of other load was left in the hands of private licensees. Licenses for distributing electricity for industrial and general purposes were granted in all areas coming whithin the Ganga Canal Scheme, They confined mainly to urban areas and therefore the supply in rural areas made veiy

Though the government had constructed a large net-work could be utilized for general purposes. It was done, but the progress was slow it could be rapid had it not been for an agreement of the U. P. government with the licensees that in virtue of the latter holding distributing licenses in particular area, the government would pay them a royalty of 10% of the gross revenue realized from rural loads other than little

progress.

lines

it

;

tube-wells,

S4S

(

)

townships and villages for industrial and agricultural deve-

lopments as

its

The Orissa government is conlines in the area between Cuttak,

objective.

network of

structing a

Bhubaneshwar and Puri

One

areas* that

significant

for electrifying the adjoining rural

about rural electrification

fact

whatever success has been achieved so far

developed by various government

in

is

is

areas

and private

agencies,

investment, being guided mostly by security of turnover

did not undertake risky enterprise but remaimed confined to safe

areas in urban industrial centres.

Rural electrification means electricity to

villages.

economically poor people residing

As such

benefits of

the

extending

in

scattered

many engineering and economic

there are

But on the other hand, a popular demand for cheap electricity seems to be based on a misconception that a vast hydro-electric potential in the country can be devedifficulties.

loped at a cheap cost.

Really speaking there are

difficulties in electrifying rural areas.

First,

due

many

to the

flung character of the load the transmission, distribution

operation costs

must be high.

kW of

steam station

cost per

station Rs.

hydro be reduced much electric

1,5002,000,

were

commersial loads, '65 anna

and

'96

:

about Rs, 800 and that of

These

costs are not likely to rates

for

2*47 annas for residential

and

anna

for

selling

for large industries, '56

anna overall

Water and Power Commission think increase. 1 figures will show substantial rates are, therefore, limited,

rate,

1,

The chances

44

p,4p,

of

low

But on the other hand, village

Central Water and Power Commission in India. 1951.

The Central

that in future these

to pay high rates, people are not in a position

Development

and

at present the capital

The average

in future,

energy in 1949

electric traction

Besides, is

far

:

Secondly, the

Planning for Power

846

<

)

load density in rural schemes is not always a sure factor. It is

said that most of the rural electrification schemes do not

become

even

self-sufficient

the

at

Thirdly, these schemes involve

The

private investor

and due the

to

huge

end

financial

not attracted due

is

scheme not being

investment.

to

low turnover

self-sufficient for

very long; and

government which can take a longer view does not find

always

Even

it

convenient

to

take

up such big

enterprises.

in the case of subsidies there is a limit to them.

But not an

it

should be noted that electric power development

end

in itself,

it is

sides, the experience

a

means towards betterment.

shows

that

is

Be-

once electricity takes roots

people become electricity minded, and It

10*15 years. 1

of

the

load grows on, a

does not suffer depression except in the rare event of

several large industries closing down, electrification a initial stages, in

long-term

order

view must

to tide

over the

schemes

of rural

be taken,

In the

difficulties,

subsidy

In

should be considered necessary for a shorter period. 1.

Central Eleciricity Commission

:

Rural Electrification

in

The India,

1948, p, 3,

The experience in Canada and U.S. A, was the same, but by taking a long view of the working of the projects they spread out the financial expectations over a longer period. The Sectional Meeting of the World Power Conference held at 2. Viena suggested that experience proved that rural electrification was a more promising field than was at first believed to be so. The experience in Mysore and Madras suggests that there is at present no need to educate the peasant regarding the benefits of electricity or to make special load promoThe study of the growth of load factor in our rural electrification projects proves that the rural load has increased beyond expectations, Besides, the individual rural load may not be high but the total load in the tional efforts,

to a substantial figure, But it is significant to note that actual agricultural load is only a small part of the total load, The Survey of the Damodar Valley project shows that the rural load will be hardly 10% of the total demand in the project, The experience in Madras,

whole area accumulates

Mysore and U.P, showed that actual agricultural load was hardly 3%, 12% and 13% respectively in 1948, This shows that planning for non-agriculbe made in rural areas. In the first period of planing it not be difficult for the additional power being utilized but for successive period care has to be taken in advance, tural load has to

may

847

(

)

whole scheme should be taken up as an integrated one so as to

subsidise rural

electricity,

So

tariffs

far as the

by higher rates on other uses of

agency

is

concerned rural schemes

will not be an attractive

investment for private enterprise

having profit motive,

will

It

not

spreading electricity in villages.

as investment is concerned, costs are also minimised.

The government has

and with them the problems

Reduction in costs

first

which are relatively prosperous,

to

the

also to

oi

be

costs of construction, transmission, operation

our conditions the start should

are good,

is

improvements and adKeeping in mind the security

and maintenance should be reduced.

The low

to

technological

through

ministrative conveniences. of service, the

progress in

They can take a long view so far

take the responsibility.

attempted

make much

and rates

with are

to

made

wht

which

rates

said

be

And

keeping in mind in selected

areas

re the load prospects

the

traffic

will

bear.

have contributed considerably

success of the rural

electrification

in

the

TVA

experiment,*

V.

NEED FOR A CO-ORDINATED POLICY OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION.

In the study of

resource

utilization

the unity,

balance

and harmony complex must be appreciated universal process ot action and reaction of mar It is the and his environment, or of the human community and the of the ecological

complex, that symbolizes itself in a distinctive This genus of life is cieated, genus of life in a given region* consolidated and maintained through subtle, complex, regional

*For a detailed study of power one can refer to Central Water and Power Commission: Planning for Pouer Development in India, 1951 Central Electncity Commission: Rural Electrification in India, 1948, NPC Power and Fuel and River Training and Irrigation, 1947 CWJNC Quinquennial Report April 1945 to March 1950, 1950, and the Fiv :

,

'

:

Year Plan,

.

348

(

)

manifold and ever ramifying relationships between

community on

organic nature on

the other,

i.e.

}

through the binding of

culture with land, water, plants, animals, insects etc.

is

It

termed as man's

reactions

to

in-

human

and climate,

environmental

or man's adaptations to geographical

stimuli,

human

hand and the organic and the

the one

milieu,

or

man's meanings, symbols, designs, values, ideals and goals, or more popularly termed as man's struggle for a more satisfying way of life. The analysis of cultural importing of

complex shows

only those

that

traits

which develop in

harmony with the physical aspect of nature, survive and accumulate as heritage of civilizations

shows

for

coming generations; and the history were founded on and formed

that they

They survived and continued

by Nature.

so long as

man

worked in harmony with his environmental milieu. Theresocial progress the balance fore, to achieve and continue between the various resource patterns must be maintained, The price which man has paid for creating a disequili-

brium

is

rather

The most eloquent testimony

heavy.

furnished by the remains

of

the

is

ancient civilizations of

India,

China and several

other glorious culture areas in the world.

These civilizations

Rome,

Egypt, Babylon, Greece,

decayed and disappeared due to inadequate, indiscreet and indiscriminate manipulation and utilization of resources.*

The decline soil

erosion,

of

Chinese Civilization

the

is explained in terms of decay of Greek Civilization was due to

inadequate resource potential, the fall of Rome is attributed to the declining rainfall and indiscreet resource manipulation,

and the downfall

of the

Indus Valley Civilization

is

said to

have been brought about by a combined effect of the shifting of river beds, decline of rainfall due to reckless denudation *It

is

generally believed that civilizations die as a result of the conquest

of a people by a more virile did their own natural death.

and

intelligent race,

But really speaking they

(

of

849

)

encroachment of salinity from

forests,

Kutch and the

indiscriminate exploitation of vegetable

resources resulting

in the impoverishment of faunal forms.

The neglect

to

of

man

maintain a balance in the ecological complex had Us

The experience has been

Nemises.

doubtful whether

man

but

too costly,

it

is

has yet learnt the lesson of a balanced

resource utilization.

The

earlier sociological speculations,

as a part of nature, considered

him

though treated

man

in a deterministic fashion,

were regarded as extraneous forces rather Social progress was than phases of ecological complex,

and

his efforts

explained in terms of control over Nature. is

considered

as

a part and

relationships by which refined, shifted

The

and broken*

a complete whole.

In

parcel

the regional

many

subtle

of

balance

pattern

now man

But

those

interwoven

is

maintained,

of life

evolves as

ways and through

intricate

relationships man's designs, meanings, sensibilities, values, goals and ideals mix with land and water, plants and animals,

and of

air

and sunshine. Social progress

is

interpreted in terms

adaptations to geographical milieu or obeying

Therefore,

let

and progress balance

is

Nature.

us remember that culture will be sustained

will be maintained only so long

as the regional

maintained through a highly imaginative and

well coordinated policy of resource utilization.

Lastly

it is,

significant

inventive genius of

to

note a few

points

:

first,

the

nations tends to operate along the paths

chaulked out by resource patterns.*

The immense quantity

*Thft use of bones in the Arctic snow deserts, of stones in the regions of rugged relief, of wood tropical forest areas and of shells in coastal The paintings of Italy, sculpture of fringes are a few basic examples,

m

Greece, music of India, mumy cult of Egypt, ancestor worship of China and trade complex of Great Britain have similar explanations, Besides, the labour saving devices of the advanced machine civilization developed

and the coal and iron complex, highly developed banking and commerce and the efforts to subjugate agricultural people $re the complexes of industrial-cum-commercial civilisation,

in thinly populated areas,

<

350

(

and variety

of

)

men and

our resources both in

capable of creating and

material are

advanced

a highly

maintaining

provided the art, science and technology are conserve the mobilized and mobilizable resources,

civilization to

applied

and

them

to utilize

balance intact. to the

opposed

efforts

limits of

as

keep the natural and increment, as bounty and lasting difficulty, the

regions of effort

spiritual

This should

material*

tially

manner

a

must be primarily

civilization

of our

in such

In this country of

demands

populated

paits,

a shifting of

the

a larger

to

balanced

for political

extent In

resource*use

population to the thinly

populated

The demarkations

parts of the central regions of the country,

made

basic policy

Secondly, the

utilization,

development being reached

our thickly

as opposed to essen-

taken as the

be

towards resource

to

and administrative conveniences

act as an

hinderance, and the recent demand of linguistic provinces will be a greater hinderance in

Thirdly, the partition

tion.

of

Pakistan

has been

a

a balanced

resource utiliza-

of the country

and the creation

regional

History has

suicide,

innumerable examples of such impositions also

many examples

remember

that

destructive.

regard to

State is

the

attention

Pradesh, parts of

it

to the

of the

Madhya Bharat which,

if

repeat the history of the

attention paid to

fiess of

Government

Lastly, of

us

and

it

is

be fully realized,

we want

India and the

agricultural

ruin which of the semi-

development Western

Eastern Rajasthan,

in

a creeping danger

way, may

The

the

place as a result

desert conditions

It is

of their resources,

of

Governments concerned

taking

let

harsh

rather

has

Let both the countries, therefore, be wiser in

to the utilization

draw

are

correctives

It

But

Nature's correctives.

of

these

man,

of

Uttar

and Parts of East Punjab. allowed

to

have

its

own

Indus Valley Civilization.

too inadequate.

Let the serio#$-

APPENDIX A Changes

By way

In the Sale

of illustrating the

Value of Land

changes in the sale value of

land a few examples are given below. (a)

Uttar Pradesh

multiples of Net

:

Agra

Profit.) (Rs.

district,

(Value in terms of

per acre.)

Net

profit is

culated

roughly

cal-

as

55-60% of rental value which varies according to soil, right in land and availability of water.

(b)

Madras

:

Chingleput District.

per acre Rs,) Statistical Atlas of p. 493.

351

Average sale value Madras Presidency, 1936, (

{

(c)

Land

)

Madras. Different Districts*

acre, Rs. (Dr.

(d)

352

Average sale value per Sayana Readings in Rural Problems, p, 54.)

Hydrabad

:

Nizamabad and

value in Rs. per acre. (Rural

Hydrabad Hydrabad

State,

Govt.)

1951,

p.

Warangal Districts, Economic Enquiries in

123; Board of Eco. Enquiry,

APPENDIX B The Community Concept Historically

Considered the

evolved from a simple

word

Community

to

a

complex one.

economic

self-governing cities

activities,

unit,

were considered

of parts or

fragments

and nations.

states

Originally the

Thus to

of

by residents engaged in

and constituting a politically

system

be communities, and were thought large

social units

The conception

of

of inter-related

economic

like

principally

came

community, on

from ideas

the

of process,

countries,

community was geographical

institutions,

independent framework of government. ception of

towns and

hamlets, villages,

primarily derived from ideas of structure, a area, a

area with

designated a geographical

definite legal boundaries occupied inter-related

Concept has

community

The newer con-

other hand,

is

derived

The conceptual evolution

as a consequence of general social change

353

and an

by which

354

(

)

communities were significantly influenced, and the introduction of

newer disciplines

from psychology, into the thought its explicit

elements,

community

result of

is a

specially those derived

of social scientists. is

Taking

any consciously organi-

zed aggregation of individuals residing in a specified area or

endowed with

locality,

limited

supporting some primary institutions

degree of interdependence elements,

it

is

is

autonomy,

political

among whom

found; and taking

its

certain implicit

a process of social interaction which gives rise

to a

more intensive

of

interdependence,

or

more extensive cooperation,

attitude

and

colleboration

fication.

PRINTED AT THE MODERN PRESS, AGRA,

practice

and

uni-

INDEX, Adalat, panchayati, 152-157

Aereboe, F, 88 Afforestation, 234, 269

Agricultural activity, nature of,

26-29

Community,

(see

com-

munity) Economics, 1-11, 32 Economy, 36, 39, 63

Environment, 32,-36 Fundamentalism, 12-17 Hazards, 39 Life, 22, 33, 66 (also see farm life) Output, 29-32 (see

pro-

duction)

subsidiary Agriculture, as occupation, 83-84 ; for town dwellers, 82-83; social environment of, 114-118

Akbar, 162, 177/a Alchohol, 316

Barker, 12 Barsodi, 12 Bennett, 218. 230 Bhagirath, 276 Bhaskara, 277 Bluffs,

266

Board,

298

Advisory

Planning,

;

Agriculture and

Animal

Husbandry, 256; Central Technical Power, 324

Bombay

Plan,

2.i

Brand, K*. 14, 90 Briggs, 134 Brihaspati, 276 Brook, N,, 182/a Business, selection of farm, 78-79

Campbell, 182/a, Canal, 275. 278, 279, 286, 292, 293, 301,302, 304, 330 Capacity, 43

Alkali, 255, 257, 309 Alluvial, 266,268,285, 300, 304, 305 American Civil War, 131

Capitalization, 86, 87, 90 Caste, 115, 119 Cato, 10

Anantvarman, 277

CWINC,

Anstay, V,, 115

324 Ceremonies, Social 116 Chalisa, 163

Appraisal, 85, 86,91,203 Process, 85-86 Arid, 255, 285 Artisan, 104, 109, 112, 131

98 Aurangzeb, 163 Avata, 275 Arya, 97,

C

T,

OM

261 295,

296, 301, 304,

Chandragupta, 177/a

Chew,

P.,

14

Civilizaiion, 17, 35, 36, 38, 39,

122,138,204,245,263,348,

350; Industrial-

cum- commer-

Babylonian, 177/a, 270, 275, 348 Badarian, 184 Bakhar, 258

125 Coal, 316-319 Cobweb, 141

Bari.257

Colonization, 262, 279

cial,

Cultural Complex, 348 Curzon, 186

Commercialization, 117

Commission,

Agricultural,

Customary Law, 108

280

108, 240, 252,

Central Electricity, 324 Central Water & Power, 339,

321, 324, 333,

319,

Dalhousie, 130, 134,249

345

Famine Enquiry, Indian Famine, 171,

282, 300 170,

166,

Davis,]. S,, 13 Decentralized, 146 Deciduous, 241 Deforestation,

185,280 296,

-Irrigation, 273, 280, 298, 302

-Lyall, 186

Mac Donnell, 186 Planning, 24, 234,239,251, 252,261, 299,309, 311,

Delafosse, 181

Deluge, 266 Diminishing Return, 27, 44-52, 56 Dipterocarps, 241

Law

of,

Distribution, occupational, 42,

334

128, 129

Committee, Coalfiels, 316, 318 Food Grain's Policy, 259 Fooder & Grazing, 259 National Income, 17, 20 River Training & Irrg. 274 Soil Conservation, 251

Usar Land Reclamation, 257

Community,

agricultural, 6, 7,

9,21,22,33, 37; farm,

33;

Divided, National, 7 Dose, marginal, 48 Double^cropped, 290 Drainage, 300(also see underground) Dravidians, 97, 98 Dredging, 266, 270 Earthflow, 219, 223 Ecological, 41, 245 Complex, 347, 349

-

Economic

activity, regional distribution of, 145-147

of

disintegration

village, self-sufficient

101408,

;

Backwardness, 36 Efficiency, 43

village, 102, 104, 106; vill-

age,

158,227, 245,

252

323

Industrial, 251,

277, 282

Dams, 275, 276, Daubeny, 10

96-108,

human,

347,

301

183,

;

under-

348;

-

Evolution 118, 128 Forces, 129, 137

developed, 23

Institutions,

enterprise, 272, 297 interest, 7

progress, 123, 145 Motive, 7

ownership, 101-102 Company, E, 1., 163

Transition

shifting, 96, 137,

of,

227

(see

transi-

tion)

Conservation, 236-238, 244-246 Cultivation, intensity

119,120,125

5J-56;

Economics,

4-5, 9,

land, labour tural)

(also

and

see

agricul-

iii

(

Economising,

Economy,

5, 7,

Insurance grant, 280

9

agricultural,

36,

126; Deficit, 35; Price, 4; Money, 129, 132; 63,

39,

73;

Suiplus,

Self

Electricity, 316, 319; developrf, 322-326, 329,

future

346; of,

;

position of, 326-333; Electrification, rural, 340-347 Environment, 35, 36, 51, 107,

121,143, 146,147,202,206 agricultural, 32-36; geographical. 36; physical 36, 201; social, 114-118, 119, 122,

123 relationship between and economic, 118. 123 Epharmological, 41 social

Equilibrium, 205,218,245 Erosion, 216-219, 348; causes of,

226-228; effects

231;

extent

of,

^28-

of,

231-234;

geological, 216; types

forms

of,

and

219-226

Etiological, 41

Euphrates, 177/a Extension, agricultural, 258

264 Fallow, 212, 213, 214-215

Famine,

158, 173, 279,

280

history of, 175; 160-1 72, nature of ,175-176;

-Code, 188 Compaign, 189492

types

Community, 33 Life, 66, 137

Production,

63;

varia-

tion in, 39

Management,

3,

10

Farming, advantages of 6566; as an occupation, 6266, 77-78; choice of, 6, 77-

diversified,

79;

70-72,

59,67-68,

73;

collective, 60; commercial, 59,137; co-

operative,

60,

corporate,

60; family, 62; joint, 60; mixed, 59, 74-77 owner, 61 State, 60 subsistence, Tenant, 61 59, 73, 104 specialized, 58, 67-70, 137 Ferozshah, 163 Flood, 266-271, 293; causes of 267-268; control of, 268-270 307 irrigation, 305 -level 292 ways 265 F.A.0,,8, 14 Forces, modern economic, 129 137; sociological 5 ;

;

;

;

;

Forests.234, 235, 237-240,316, ;

Bengal, 169-172, 173; causes of, 158*160; concept of

modern,

7^-82;

57-62

of,

330,

developPresent

333-340

the,

Practices, 73, 137

s

ment

179/a-189,

classification of, 57;

-

fare, 4;

178/a,

Farm, selecting

con-

Egyptians, 270, 275, 348 Elphinston 102

3,'2,

-Relief, 280

15,38, 110; Wel-

tained,

ment

)

349; types of, 240-243; utility of,

243-244

Ganges, 277, 279 Ganga, 276 Gaon Sabha, 148-150 Geographical milieu, 202, 348, 349

Geological Survey, 317 Ghats, 167, 179, 232,241, 321 Gilboa, 177/a Giraar, 275

Indravarman, 277 Indus Valley Civilization, 348, 350

Gtavity, 220, 319, 320

Industrial Revolution, 12, 37, 108, 122, 127

Gray, 3 Greeks, 177/a Grid, 339

Institutions,

120, 125

G. M, F, C., 282, 286

Growth, 42,147

Intensity,

Gully, 219, 221, 228, 231, 232,

Handicrafts, 142 Harappa, 184

optimum degree

281, 272-

;

and practices

241,

98, 108

Hopi, 184 Howard, 3

111,

112,

140 Job-opportunity, 34, 121 Joint cultivation, 138 -family, 115, 119, 120 products, 29 113-114,118,

242, 321

290-295

of,

Isolation. 106, 110,

Himalaya 8,231,232,240,

136,

-village, 99-100

255, 285

Jouzier, 1 Kallar, 257

-region, 225, 285, 300

Humous, 216

Kans, 258

12,

13

Hydraulic, 276, 278, 321 Hydro-electric, 320, 321, 323; 320, 322

Kautalya, 276 Khadar, 261 Kharif, 288

Kikar, 240 Kolarians, 97, 98 Kulya, 276 Kunda, 276 Kupa, 276

project, 321 -stations. 322,327, 328,330, 338 Hydroiogical, 321 Ibn Batuta, 162

Labour Economics, 9

Incas. 177/a

Land,

Income, capitalization variation

of,

55

;

Hastings, 164 Heitland, 10 Hibbaid, 3

-phnt,

economic, 119, social, 114-125

275; extent of 283-290; extension of 300-315 hismethods tory of, 275-283

Harijan, 33 Hass, G. C.. 89

Humphries,

;

Invenfcary, physical, 85 Irrigation, 138, 271-272, 286; importapce of

233

Gypsum, 257

Humid,

;

approach, 87 Indian Electricity Act, 323

Individualism, 132

Granulation, 227 Gravitational, 227

Hindu Law,

national, 7

in

of,

farm,

86 27

40, 46, 52,

93

and

;

virgin

;

importance

of,

(also see

marginal)

;

39-44; pro-

v

(

ductivity

43 214 of,

of,

43-44

;

value

utilization of,

;

21

Monsoon, 159, 289, 290

;

107 corporate, 102, charge in rural, 132-140

Life,

community, 96411,

146

;

Linguistic Provinces, 350 Location, 43, 81 Localization, 135 Lyall, J,, 186

Malthusian, 178 3,

10

Nala, 276 Nalika, 276

Nandivarman, 276 Narad, 276 National Income Committee,

NPC,

234, 239, 296, 298, 300,

301,304,315,319,320,333 Nautor, 235

Forest, 253 River, 255-266

Navigation,

-Soil, 236

229,

266,

281,

307, 309

Manor, 105 Manu, 99 Manusmriti, 276 Maori, 184 Margin, 48, 49, 249 Marginal dose, 48 Productivity, 48 44, 45,

Nazul, 149 Nika, 276

Novgorod, 161 Occupation, choice

of,

109

;

primary, 41 secondary, 41 tertiary, 41 ;

;

48, 49

47,49,51

Marshall, 3, 4, 45 Mears, J. W,, 323 Metcalfe, C., 103

Migration, 120, 181, 182 Milieu, (See Geographical

288 Mir, 105

-Projects, 334

17.

Management, farm,

milieu).

Mudflows, 219, 223 Multipurpose, 322

;

;

farm, 66, 137, 139

Millet,

274,

Motive, (see economic motive) mass, Movement, 140-141 219, 202; social, 140

166, 182/a

Leaching, 237, 258 Leavee, 270

-Return,

173, 241,

Moqui, 184 Moreland,115, 179/a Morse, T. D., 87

hunger, 32 reform, 33

Land,

Mobility, (see social mobility)

Mohinjodaro, 184

1<

classification, 211-214 --economics, 8, 9

Lawrence,

)

Occupational distribution, 42, 128, 129

Groups, 109

Optimum, 43, 236 Organism, 147 Organization, economic, 127 Overgrazing, 227 Padmakara, 276 Pakistan, 330, 350 Plestine, 177/<*

(

Pallava, 277

vi

)

Pastoral, 96, 97

Region, humid, 225, 285, 300 tropical, 160 Regional complex, 347 System, 322 Relationship, economic, 127 human, 142-145

Peasant proprietorship, 61

Relief, (see

Panchayat, 148-157, 235, 242 Panchayati addat, 152-157 Parantaka, 277 Parda, 116

-Work,

Petrie, 181

Phoenicia, 177/0 Pine, 242 Plan, Five Year, 234,237, 261,

231,299,312,340 Planation, 216, ^27

338; resource, 293; water, 294-295,321 Quantum, 296, 297 Powell, Baden, 100 Power, sources of, 315-322 Pranali, 276 Prap, 276 Price, agricultural,

133,

135,

139 Production, quality of agricultrend of agritural, 31 ;

34

(see

;

also

farm production)

Productivity,

43,

marginal, 48 varying, 45 Progress, 145-147

44,

;

211

;

natural,

201-210, 281 shifting of, 38 coordination of, 347;

;

350 water and power, 315-347 Assessment, 201-2C6 Appraisal, 20T -Utilization, 265-350 Return (see diminising return) Rill, 219, 220-221. 228 River training, 265-266 Robbins, 5 Robertson, 246 Rock weathering, 216 ;

Institute

of

Interna-

Rural democracy,

33,

136

of

-Electrification, 340-347

modern

Run off, 221, 226, 269, 296 Sales approach, 87 Sarpanch, 153

Ravines, 232, 235, 246, 258

255-^58

;

classi;

Rudradaman, 276

economic, 123, 145; social, 349 Protective, works, 293, 294 Public utility, 325, 329 Rabi, 288 Raiffeisen, 183

Reclamation, 237,

41

of,

tional Affairs, 14

93;

law

;

276, 282, 304,

269..

305; underground, 295 34 dorment, Resources,

Royal

Function, 141 Productive works, 293, 294

relief)

Relativity, resource, 204

Reservoir,

fication of,

318; power,

Potential, coal,

;

178/0

importance

Poor house 189

cultural,

famine

;

Sarsi, 276

W. 14 Severally villages, 99, 100 Seismic, 231 Schulrz, T.

f

Semi-arid, 255, 274,285,350

Shahjahan, 162, 177/0, 278 Share-cropping, 61

Shelter-belt,

Smith,

Thermal power,

234

318, 319, 830,

331

B,,

181/0 Silviculture, 253

Sleeman, 1771*

-Station, 320, 322, 328 Tidal, 268, 270, 271

Slippage, 219, 221,224

Tigris, 177/0

Slumping. 219

Time

Social groups, 109

Tolley.H.R., 14

31

lag, 30,

Mobility, 111

Transition,

Movement, 140

beginning of, 130-132 economic, 125130 forces of, 130-132 Tropical, 241

Scale, 111

-Welfare,

136,

134,

;

;

5,

8

;

111114

rural,

Society,

130.

140142

;

urban, 113-114 Sociological forces, 5 Sociologist, 117 Soil conservation, 236, 237

Tube-well, 281, 286, 293, 304, 330, 343, 344 Under cultivation, 45, 53, 116

Under developed

countries,

40, 144, 160

Exhaustion, 74 Solifluction, 219, 223

Underground drainage,

73, Specialization, 50, 117, 129, 133, 136 Standardization, 31

111,

300,

308 Storage, 502

-Supply, 296,298,301,303 Water 304 "

Storage, 296,

269,

270,

301

272,

i73,

under-

302;

ground, 302 -Works, 293 Strachey, R-, 182/0, 184/0

Sub-marginal, 230

;

237, 254,

262 Subsidence, 2 19, 224 Sub-soil supply, 295 Subsistence, 137, 138

System, medieval economic,

126128

;

modern econo-

mic, 127-129; social, 125 Tala, 276

Unemployment, seasonal, 21 Urban community, 22 -Society, 113-114 34, 203,205,206, 207, 296 land, 211-214 water, 266 (see also resource utilization) Urbanization, 143, 144 Utilization,

;

;

Unproductive works, 294 Usar, 257, 258 methods Valuation, 85, 91 ;

of,

86-91

Value, economic, 139

capita-

;

Tataka, 276

lized,

Tank, 276, 277, 278, 286, 293

increase in land, 94-95

Taylor, 2

philosophical, 140

Technology, 41, Temple, 246

51,

56

Terracettes, 219, 224

Thar, 229

87;

8991;

human,

119,

social, 111 ries of land, 91-94

;

sale,

;

;

theo-

;

Village, 35, 96-111,142-144, 163, 235 (also see joint and

(

viii

severally village); present oi,

organization types of, 59-101

96-98 110-111 of,

;

108-111 ;

self-sufficing,

Handicrafts, 142 Vapi, 276 Varro, 10

Vedas, 275 Velocity, 221, 227. 233, 244

Virgin land, 52, 216 Virnarayan, 277 Voelcker, 240

Wadai, 181 Wadia, 115

;

origin

)

Wants, 5, 6, 203 Water potential, 294-295

-Power, 319-3^2 Resources 294-300 -Logging, 236, 258,308,342 -Table, 244, 287, 304 Ways, 229, 265 Wells, 275, 286, 293, 302 Weir, 305 VVilcox, 14 Wilson, 12

Xenophon, 10 Zones, electric development, 327-333

CORRECTION

SLIP.

Besides, the number of pages on the form No. 24 have been repeated as on No, 23. The former should be treated as 177/0, 178/a. 179/tf 180/a, The gap is further made up from form 181/#, 182/tf, I83(a and 184/0, .

No,

26.