Учебно-методическое пособие по чтению специальной литературы для студентов 1 курса физического факультета

М И Н И СТ Е РСТ В О О БРА ЗО В А Н И Я РО ССИ Й СК О Й Ф Е Д Е РА Ц И И В О РО Н Е Ж СК И Й ГО СУ Д А РСТ В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е РСИ Т Е Т

У чебно-метод и ческоепособи епо чтени ю специ альной ли тературы д ля студ ентов 1 курсаф и зи ческого ф акультета по специ альностя м 013800, 010400, 014100 ГСЭ . Ф . 01.1

В О РО Н Е Ж 2004

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У тв ерж д ено научно-метод и чески м сов етом ф акультетаромано-германскойф и лологи и П ротокол № 4 от9 апреля 2004 г.

Состав и тели : Д розд ов аИ .В . В оробж анская Т .В . Солов ьев аИ .Ю . И льи чев аН .А .

П особи е под готов лено на каф ед ре англи йского я зыка ф акультета романогерманскойф и лологи и В оронеж ского госуд арств енного уни в ерси тета. Рекоменд уется д ля студ ентов перв ого курсаф и зи ческого ф акультета.

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Unit I Philosophy of Physics Lead-in

a) b) c) d) e)

What do you expect to be in an article that is entitled “Philosophy of Physics”? Choose two points from the list: a brief account of philosophical trends alongside with main discoveries in physics; general philosophical principles on which physics is created; different physical theories related to different definitions of space and time; the problems of time, space and mass as the philosophical basis of physics; new trends in physics and philosophy.

II.

What vocabulary items can you expect based on the title? Fill in the charts.

I.

matter

Philosophy

Physics

materialistic

III.

Choose the synonym (Here is one word, which has more than one synonym)

1. reveal A. release B. observe C. resist D. display

5. resist, v. A. respond B. revolve C. oppose D. break

9. uniform, adj. A. rough B. flat C. varying D. not varying

2. distort A. assert B. divorce C. design D. twist

6. precise, adj. A. casual B. uniform C. exact D. considerable

10. finite, adj. A. limited B. influenced C. complete D. precise

3. cause, n. A. reason B. effect C. course D. sense

7. repulse A. attract B. repel C. neglect D. extend

11. extend A. stretch B. extent C. remain D. resist

8. consciousness, n.

12. contemplation, n.

4. deviate

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A. turn B. destroy

A. wishes B. ideas

C. vibrate D. distort

C. thoughts D. feelings

IV.

-

A. consumption B. degree of heat & cold C. technique D. deep thought

What scientific names do you expect to come across while reading the article? Do these names (Galileo, Newton, Laplace, Faraday, Maxwell) ring the bell in your mind? Work in groups and discuss the following questions about people. What trends in philosophy did they represent? (Were they all “materialists”?) What discoveries in physics did they make? What nationality were they? Which century were they born in? Which one do you know most/least about?

When you have finished, find a partner from each of the other groups and go through the questions together, comparing information. Reading V.

The text is divided into two parts. Read the first part for gist. Choose the title from the following:

A. From the History of Physics. B. Materialists and Idealists. C. Philosophical Basis of Physics. VI. Cover the first part of the text to complete the table. Use English words only. Philosophical principles

Independence of existence of nature from our “сознани е”

Т очныеfacts

Direct contemplation and “наблюд ени е”

Summarize the first part of the text using the table.

Faith in познав аемость при род ы

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VI.

Read the second part of the text quickly and find the key sentences about “space”, “time”, “matter”, “field”, “interactions”. Summarize the second part of the text. properties

time space matter

Philosophy of Physics Part I Physics as a science appeared only due to the fact that its creators, Galileo, Newton, Hooke, Huygens, Euler, Laplace, Faraday, Maxwell and many other researchers adhered to some original philosophical principles and rules for doing science. What are the philosophical principles, on which physics is based? At first, it is the independence of existence of nature from our consciousness; matter is self-sufficient and its laws of motion depend neither on God, nor on the observer. Secondly, researches into nature should be based: - on direct contemplation and observation; - on precise facts; - on experiments; - on a faith in the cognizance of nature; - on a faith that nothing is present in space except moving matter. All laws of nature, all natural phenomena, all facts, connected with the motion, are causal, and these reasons ought to be possible to find. Based on such a (materialistic) philosophy, everyone of the famous researchers (except for the relativists, who deviated from these principles) created or supplemented the rules for doing science. Three of the foremost of these (not counting the Ancient Greek and the middle ages scientists) were Kant, Huygens and Newton. Newton grounded his postulates about the invariance of space, time, and mass by direct contemplation of nature instead of by the invention of hypotheses.

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Part II Space Space is the arena in which matter moves. The metrics of space should be Euclidean in order not to distort the laws for the motion of matter. Space should not have any physical properties, except an infinite volume, which can not in any way influence the laws of motion matter. In other words, “space is irrelative of anything external” (Newton). Thus, space can not be endowed with any properties, with the exception of its threedimensional extension. It can not be called absolute or relative, identical or fixed, etc. It cannot be considered as finite, at least, not until any fact of observation or indisputable proof contradicting this premise comes to be found. Such facts, observation and proofs, are not present. Space is an objective reality revealed to us by sensation. Time Time is the second basic essence. It, as well as space, reveals itself through the motion of matter. Time in and of itself, without relation to anything external, flows uniformly and differentially and is named as duration. It can not influence the state or the laws of motion of matter at all. It only passionlessly and uniformly measures the duration of processes and phenomena. On the other hand, there can not be a process, phenomenon or status of matter influencing the uniform course of time. Any other properties, with the exception of duration and uniformity, can not be referred to it. Time is an objective reality revealed to us by sensation. Matter Matter is a substance or a body having a spatial expansion (volume), impermeability, viscosity, elasticity, hardness, form and spectral responsiveness. Quantity of matter – mass is determined by its resistance to acceleration. In the common case: m = F / a. And above the surface of the Earth – by weight and the acceleration of gravity: m = P / g. Newton’s definition that “mass is a measure of the quantity of matter (quantity of mass is proportional to its density and its volume)” is incomplete, as it does not define more precisely this proportionality to acceleration. Matter is the objective reality given to us be sensation. As a result of the accumulation and extension of knowledge about matter, from astronomical and microscopic observation, with the help of the methods of analogy, induction and deduction, and also of logical analysis, it is possible to assert that

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matter is divisible without limit – in the microcosmos and is accumulated – in the macrocosmos. Now, neither the finiteness, nor infinity of gravitation of matter outside and into infinitesimal depth can be proved. Field A field is power or other (barometric, velocity related, temperature, etc.) spatial characteristic expressed either by a physical law or by a set of numerical data. There can not be a field without the presence of matter. The field expresses the state (i.e., the motion) of matter in space. “There is nothing but moving matter in the world. And matter can not move other than in space and in time”. Energy is a characteristic property of matter. Matter can not be transformed into energy. The observable release of energy from nuclear decay or from the annihilation of fundamental particles is no more than the release of energy of the component parts of the nuclei and other particles, having inside these formations more energy, than the energy of motion of the same particles in a free state in the environment. There are no fundamental particles with so-called “null rest-mass”. All of them are photons – sections of oscillations of ether of batched (quantized) energy, associated with the structure of an atom, a nucleus or a fundamental particle. Interactions Carriers of energy and, therefore, of interactions can only be matter. Different mechanisms of transferring energy - mean different kinds of interactions. There are special mechanisms of interactions at each level of the organization of matter. So, the internal structure of fundamental particles implies interactions between units within their composition ( they can be particles of ether). Further there are nuclear, electromagnetic and gravitational interactions. The electromagnetic interaction concerns charge, as the attraction and repulsion forces depend on the sign of the charges. For the nuclear and gravitational interactions there are no charges forces. The existence of a “space lattice” in the observable universe indicates a charge interaction between galaxies. On the basis of an hypothesis in work the charge interaction is connected with its transference by waves of matter. It is possible to suspect, that the mechanism of transference of interaction between galaxies is also waves of ether, the length of which should be comparable to the dimensions of galaxies. Comprehension check Read the text again and say whether these statements are true of false. 1. Newton turned to hypothesis in his speculations about time, space and matter. 2. Space is absolute and finite.

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Time is “duration”. Matter is indivisible. There can not be a “field” without the presence of matter. Matter can be transformed into energy. There are “null rest-mass” fundamental particles. There are only two types of interactions - electromagnetic and gravitational interactions. 9. Attraction and repulsion forces depend on the signs of the charges. 10. There is no charge interaction between galaxies. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Discussion Develop the following points: 1. What holds the Earth up? In the distant past people gave a simple answer to this question: the three whales. True, it remained unclear, what was holding the whales up. And really, what “holds up” the Earth and the planets? (I think, as far as I know, etc.) 2. A well-known historical anecdote asserts that while sitting in an orchard under an apple tree, Newton … .. You go on. 3. What do you know about Newton’s life? Why is he considered to be so “great”, that the following words are engraved on his tomb stone: “Mortals, congratulate yourselves that so great a man has lived for the honor of the human race”. (Translation from the Latin of inscription on Newton’s tombstone). Here are some highlights of Newton’s career: 1642 1654 1661 1661 1665 until 1678 1678 - 1688 1688 -1700 1685 - 1686 1696 1699 1703 1705 1727

born Woolsthorpe, England Attended one-room country school sent to the Kings school graduated from the King school having shown signs of “mechanically talented” boy student of Cambridge University received Bachelor of Art Degree worked on optical studies concentrated on discovering of universal gravitation developed astronomical work and perfected his mathematics, particularly his method of fluxions worked on “The Principia” – his masterwork appointed to the post of “Warden of the Mint” (д олж ность начальни какоролев ского монетного д в ора) elected one of the eight foreign members of French Academy of Science elected President of Royal Society the dignified title of “Sir” was added to his name died

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Unit II Three Laws of Motion Pre-reading task Everyone knows the famous name of Sir Isaac Newton and his three celebrated laws of motion. I. Put a jumbled version of three laws of motion in an appropriate order. A) Use the chart to choose proper words B) Write your version of the laws. body

direction

equal

in a straight line

motion inside force speed at rest first law

change remain take place force at rest

outside force move act upon continue

proportional to at a constant speed if unless opposite to

second law

change of motion of the body

third law

reaction

II.

Flick through the text to check your version.

III.

Choose the synonym and find in the text the sentence where the underlined word is used. Translate it.

1. immense, adj. A. precise B. complete C. large D. infinite

4. rough, adj. A. smooth B. flat C. rude D. tough

7. steadily, adj. A. gradually B. eventually C. irregularly D. suddenly

2. magnify, v. A. enlarge B. multiply C. magnetize D. hypnotize

5. considerable, adj. A. incomplete B. complicated C. sophisticated D. important

8. grain, n. A. small amount B. gram C. plant D. food

3. neglect, v.

6. unless, conj.

9. visible

A. dismiss B. remain C. observe D. assert

A. if… N. if not … C. provided D. in case …

A. in sight B. possessing a visa C. concerned with D. supreme

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IV.

Read the text and find definitions for “friction”, “momentum”, “impulse” and “acceleration”. Write down four concise sentences about them.

V.

Sum up the text in 10 sentences.

Three Laws of Motion (I. Newton) The great Sir Isaac Newton, who may be considered to be the founder of modern physical science, put forward three celebrated laws of motion, which are at the basis of all scientific considerations of movement. Newton’s first law of motion can be stated as follows: if a body is at rest it will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside force, when it will at once move, and if it is moving in a straight line at a constant speed it will continue to do so unless acted upon by outside force. This may at first sight seem to be contrary to what happens every day before our eyes. We can push against a heavy body, a rock resting on the earth, without moving it, and if we set a body in a motion, for instance by striking a ball lying on a smooth and level piece of ground, it will not continue to move, but will come to rest. The fact is that when we move, or attempt to move any body in contact with another body there is an outside force brought into play, the force of friction. The size of this frictional force depends upon a nature of surfaces, whether rough or smooth, and upon the force which presses the bodies together. In the case of a body resting on a surface, this force pressing the bodies together is the weight of the body. In the case of the heavy rock resting on the earth, the frictional force which has to be equalled if it is to move is so large that, for all practical purposes, the rock can be considered as a part of the earth. In the case of the rolling ball, the friction will be a small force, acting all the time while the ball is moving, which will gradually bring the ball to rest. The first law of motion is strictly true if we take all the forces, including friction into account. Newton’s second law of motion deals with bodies changing their speed and was expressed by him somewhat as follows: the change of motion of a body is proportional to the force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the force. What Newton called ‘motion” is now called momentum and takes into account both mass and velocity: in fact it is mass multiplied by velocity. Thus if a force is acting steadily on a body in a given direction, the velocity in that direction will increase steadily. With a force of the same size acting on a smaller mass the velocity will increase more rapidly. The total change of velocity will depend upon how long the force acts. The force multiplied by the time of action is called impulse. So the second law is expressed thus: the change of momentum of a body is equal to the impulse which produces it, is in the same direction.

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To get a clear notion of what this means, let us consider the case of falling bodies. First of all, we observe that the force of gravity pulling the body down is proportional to the mass of the body. For instance, doubling the mass means double the momentum and double the impulse, for a given time. So that the rate of fall at any moment after the start is the same whatever the mass: neglecting the air resistance, we see that a 2-pound weight and an eight-pound weight, dropped at the same moment from a height, will keep level and reach the ground together, because the force on the 8-pound mass is four times that on the 2-pound mass. Since the increase in velocity is proportional to the force, which is unchanging, the rate of increase of fall must be unchanging. The rate of increase of velocity is called acceleration, so that the man of science says that the acceleration during free fall under gravity is constant. The acceleration of gravity (g) is the most important figure in science, and comes into all kinds of calculations. Newton’s third law of motion is that reaction is always equal and opposite to action. That is, if two bodies, A and B, act upon one another, the action of A on B is always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the action of B on A. Let us make this clear. When a gun is fired the bullet pushes the gun back with a force equal to that with which the gun pushes the bullet forward. Owing to its much greater mass it does not move nearly so fast as the bullet, but the speed can be exactly calculated. Another example is given by the rocket. The downward rush of gases at very high speed results in the body of the rocket being pushed upward. We have now considered Newton’s three laws of motion. They are of immense importance, governing as they do, the movements of every machine and engine and of every object large enough to be visible, a grain of dust to a planet. Comprehension check Read the text carefully and say whether these statements are true or false. Correct false statements. 1. Newton’s first law of motion can be stated as follows: if a body is at rest, it will remain at rest unless acted upon by an inside force. 2. The size of friction doesn’t depend upon the weight of the body. 3. The change of motion of a body is proportional to the force acting on the body and takes place against the direction of the force. 4. “Momentum” is mass divided by velocity. 5. “Acceleration” is the rate of increase of velocity 6. Reaction is always equal and opposite to action.

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Discussion I.

In small groups of students act out the following situation: a school teacher explains three laws of motion in plain English, giving his/her own examples. The pupils are rather inquisitive, asking the teacher numerous questions.

II. You are a man of science. Explain the following: a) An old party trick is to pull a tablecloth from beneath dishes and glasses on a table. How this trick can be done without upsetting or pulling the dishes and glasses with the cloth? b) Explain the kick of a rifle or shotgun in terms of Newton’s third law. Do the masses of the gun and the bullet or shot make a difference? III. In pairs discuss the following: a) the principle of automobile seat belts in terms of Newton’s first law. b) A 10-kg rock and a 1-kg rock are dropped simultaneously from the same height. Some say that because the 10-kg rock has 10 times as much force acting on it, it should reach the ground first. Do you agree? Describe the situation if the rocks were dropped by an astronaut on the moon.

Unit III Newton and the Reflecting Telescope Pre-reading task Have you got any idea of how telescopes work and how they are constructed? 1. What is the main purpose of the telescopes? A. to examine foreign objects B. to magnify distant objects C. to reflect object images D. to collect light waves 2. Add more words describing telescopes and their construction

eyepiece

Telescope

object lens

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3. Look through the opening paragraph of the text to check up the wording. Reading 4. Choose the synonym. Use the dictionary in case you need it. Find in the text the sentences where the underlined words are used. Translate them. 1. aberration, n. A. observation B. distortion C. defect D. consideration

4. faulty, adj. A. imperfect B. impossible C. spherical D. exact

7. startling, adj. A. releasing B. immediate C. shocking D. attacking

2. nuisance, n A. trouble B. achievement C. invention D. lens

5. distinguished, adj. A. unknown B. genuine C. famous D. distinct

8. thorough, adj. A. immense B. sophisticated C. complete D. significant

3. blurred, adj. A. dirty B. broken C. curved D. sharp

6. unaware, adj. A. untrue B. impossible C. inaccurate D. not knowing

9. fringe, n. A. edge B. frame C. image D. particle

5. Read paragraphs 2-3 to find out what “spherical aberration” is. Write down one concise sentence about it. 6. Read paragraph 4-7 to distinguish between refracting and reflecting principles. Note down your ideas. 7. Read paragraph 8-13 to trace the construction and development of the reflecting telescopes. Take down the main steps. 8. Sum up the text in thirteen sentences.

1.

Newton and the Reflecting Telescope A telescope is based generally upon the following principle: an image of some distant object is formed by a lens – called the object lens – and this same image is, in turn, observed by means of another lens – called the eyepiece. However, if the telescope is to be any good at all, the object lens must be able to collect the light rays from points of the observed object and focus them accurately. If the rays from any given point of the object do not give an exact point image, then the telescope suffers from optical confusion, or aberration.

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2.

It is a fact however – as Newton and others before him found out – that the only way light rays from an object point can come to an exact focus at another point is by reflection at a plane, or flat surface. A plane mirror, for example, will reflect an image of an object that is perfect and sharp to the last detail. But when light rays are bent or refracted at a flat, spherical, or elliptical surface between one medium, such as air, and another such as glass, they give images that are indistinct.

3.

This optical nuisance is called spherical aberration. Because most telescopes before Newton’s generation had spherical lenses, they all suffered from it. Even Galileo’s famous telescope was quite a faulty instrument and the strain of spherical aberration probably helped to make Galileo blind toward the end of his life. A thorough search was being made by the scientific minds of the day to try to do away with spherical aberration.

4.

Earlier, the great French scientist, Rene Descartes, thought he had solved the difficulty when he suggested that not spherical lenses were needed but elliptically shaped ones. Yet the grinding and polishing of such surfaces was a difficult, if not possible, task in Newton’s time. Even if the workmen of the day had been able to produce the lenses suggested by Descartes, there would have been little improvement on the problem. However, it was not aberration alone that lay at the heart of the difficulty. Actually the fault lay elsewhere, and not only Galileo and Descartes, but Kepler too, were unaware of this.

5.

At Woolsthorpe, when he was only twenty-three, Newton had begun experimenting with the prism – and had reached the startling conclusion that there was no way to improve the telescope of Kepler and Galileo. Instruments would have to be build according to an entirely new idea if men were to view the heavens with anything like true exactness. Newton had begun to realize that these early telescopes were inaccurate not only because of spherical aberration, but because of colour.

6.

Think back to Newton’s experiment with the prism at Woolsthorpe. He had passed white light through his prism and it had broken down, by refraction, into the colours of the spectrum. Naturally the lenses of these early telescopes refracted light just as a prism did. This resulted in the blurred colour fringes that annoyed Galileo and others when, for example, they focused their instruments on a distant star. Their lenses - whatever their shape – simply could not produce a sharp, clear image of the star because colours had been introduced by refraction.

7.

Newton, however knew that reflection at any surface would not produce colour blurring, and he decided to give up the idea of refracting telescopes altogether. He would build one on the reflection principle. Newton was not the first to think of the idea, however. A few years before, the distinguished Scottish

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mathematician, James Gregory, had suggested a plan for a reflecting telescope, but had never actually made one. Also, Gregory was not acquainted with such an instrument’s main advantage, namely that it would do away with the troublesome colour fringes. 8.

Isaac began shaping, with his own hands, the tiny metal mirror for the first reflecting telescope. Days were spent in polishing its concave surface. The alloy from which it was formed was Newton’s own – a mixture of copper, tin, and arsenic.

9.

Isaac worked with intense enthusiasm. The telescope he finally produced was ridiculously small. It was six inches long, with a diameter of one inch. Yet it could magnify an object forty times – and this, as Newton himself pointed out, was as much as could be expected of a refracting telescope fully six feet long.

10.

Yet Newton faced a new problem in making his telescope. James Gregory had suggested a reflecting instrument made up of two concave mirrors facing one another. Light from the object to be observed was to be reflected from one of them to a focal point in front of the other. But how could an observer see the image unless his head was inside the telescope’s tube? Gregory’s idea was to have the second mirror reflect the light again, and bring it to a focus through a hole drilled in the first mirror. Here the image could be seen by an observer using an eyepiece behind the hole.

11.

Newton realized that this was rather a clumsy arrangement. Instead, he hit on the idea of boring a hole in the side of the telescope’s outer tube and bringing the image out by placing a small, flat metal mirror at an angle of 45° to the telescope’s axis inside the telescope. Thus an observer using an eyepiece at the side of the instrument would catch the objects’ rays being thrown out sideways. Newton was the first man to use this device.

12.

Newton’s instrument was crude. The idea behind it was new. When he finished his telescope, Newton wondered how well it would work in practice. On the first clear night the young Trinity scholar turned it skyward and thrilled. There in the tiny eyepiece were the planet Jupiter and its then-known four moons. With a little difficulty and much practice Newton was also able to observe the phases of the planet Venus. And each of these images shone bright and clear and free from annoying colour fringes!

13.

Newton made this first reflecting telescope in the year 1668. Later in 1671, he was to make a second, which would win him fame and honour all over Europe.

Quiz (see appendix, keys)

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1. A. B. C. D.

How are images brought into a focus in the refracting telescope? by turning the objective from left to right or from right to left; by modifying the distance between the eyepiece and the objective; by magnifying the image in the eyepiece or the objective; by enlarging the size of the eyepiece or the lens.

2. A. B. C. D.

In what instrument is the refracting principle still used today? cameras; telescopes; curved mirrors; opera glasses.

3. A. B. C. D.

What are the advantages of the reflecting telescopes over the refracting ones? they are more powerful; they have more lenses; they can be used in photography; they can be placed within reach.

4. A. B. C. D.

What is the purpose of the mirrors in the reflecting telescopes? to serve as an eyepiece; to angle light intensity; to disperse light rays; to reflect the observed image.

I.

Discussion In small groups of students distinguish between real images and virtual images for convex and concave lenses.

II. In pairs try and find the answer to the following: “ How does a magnifying glass magnify?” Use the introductory phrases: I think ( believe, suppose, … ); as far as I can judge … ; for all I know … ; it is evident (obvious, unlikely, doubtful) that … .

Unit IV Solar wind Pre-reading activity I. What vocabulary items can you expect based on the title? II.

The following are physical terms from this article. Use dictionaries to check the meaning, then fill in the spaces:

light, magnetosphere, heat energy, magnet, radiowaves, ultraviolet, terrestrial atmosphere, x-ray irradiation, corona, ionospheric disturbances

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The Sun

The Earth

heat energy

Reading III. Cover the text and choose the best ending for each sentence. 1. For a long time the sun was considered to emit… a) light and heat energy b) ions c) light and heat energy radiowaves 2. a) b) c)

The solar wind is produced by… the surface of the sun the sun itself its corona

3. Any disturbances of the solar magnetic field cause disturbances in the magnetic field of the Earth manifested as… a) hurricanes b) whirlwinds c) magnetic storms 4. a) b) c)

The solar wind particles move away from the sun at… constant velocity steadily increasing velocity decreasing velocity

5. a) b) c)

The record measurements were registered by the Prognoz sputnik as far back as… 1963 1972 2000

IV.

Skim through the text and summarize it in six sentences.

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The Solar Wind The sun expends 240 tons of its total mass every minute. For a long time it was considered to emit light and heat energy only. But later on it was discovered that it emits into space also radiowaves. The flights made outside the Earth’s atmosphere made it possible to obtain even more data on the Sun’s distant ultraviolet and X- ray irradiation. In January 1959 the Soviet "lunniks" discovered the solar wind-movement of masses not of air but of plasma particles. This wind is produced not by the Sun itself, but by its corona-the silvery pearl-like sphere that stretches tens of millions of kilometres outside the solar disk. The Earth is known to be a colossal magnet and the solar wind influences greatly the shaping of its magnetosphere. On the solar side it is pressed against the Earth and on the opposite side it spreads for many dozens or even hundreds of millions of kilometres, forming a long magnetic train. Any disturbances of the solar magnetic field cause disturbances in the magnetic field of the Earth, manifested as magnetic storms. Under the Intercosmos programme a number of sputniks were launched with the mission of gathering data on solar activity. The instruments aboard the sputniks help to understand the mechanism of short-wave irradiation during solar flares and other active processes in the Sun and also the impact of this radiation upon the density and composition of the upper layers of the terrestrial atmosphere. This, in its turn, has served as a basis for building up a more precise theory of ionospheric disturbances. Research was continued aboard the Prognoz automatic probes. The orbits of the probes are "elongated" towards the Sun and in the apogee reach 200,000 km. This allows to observe solar wind, undisturbed by the terrestrial magnetic field and to study the so called shock waves. The matter is that the solar wind particles move away from the Sun at a steadily increasing velocity-they are being pushed by a hotter gas. The velocity reaches that of sound long before the wind comes near the Earth. When such a supersonic plasma flow hits our planet, a shock wave is produced, the same as that produced when a jet plane travels at supersonic speed in the atmosphere. The density, temperature and velocity of the solar wind can greatly exceed the average parameters with the appearance of solar flares when tremendous masses of plasma are discharged from the solar corona. Their record measurements were registered by the Prognoz sputnik as far back as 1972. The wind velocity reached 2,000 km per sec. And the formation of other shock waves was observed in the interplanetary space.

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The orbit of the Prognoz sputniks allows to study both near Earth and the interplanetary shock waves that originate during solar flares. Research into shock waves is of great importance in the study of phenomena taking place in distant space. Comprehension check. Read the text for details. The following statements are false. Change one word or phrase in each statement to make it true. 1) The flights made outside the Earth’s atmosphere couldn’t make it possible to obtain more data on the Sun’s distant ultraviolet and x-ray irradiation. 2) In January 1959 the American "lunniks" discovered the solar wind. 3) The solar wind doesn’t influence much the shaping of the Earth’s atmosphere. 4) Under the Intercosmos programme a number of sputniks were launched with the mission of gathering data on solar corona. 5) Research was continued aboard the Challenger. 6) The formation of other shock waves was observed on the surface of the Earth. Discussion In small groups of students discuss the following points. 1. What makes the Sun radiate energy? 2. What are neutrinos and photons and how are they different?

Unit V Problem of Waste Disposal Pre-reading activity 1. What do you expect to be in an article that is entitled “Problem of Waste Disposal”? a) environmental problems caused by atomic power plants. b) some new principles of designing and building modern reactors. c) how to get rid of the used up nuclear fuel. 2. The following are all physical terms dealing with nuclear power. Use your dictionaries to check the meaning, then fill in the spaces. Some are already filled to help you: uranium, circulating water, releasing energy, radioactivity, heat, turbine blades, vitrification, electric generators, nuclear fission, water pipes, uranium rods, small-scale separate reactors, small grains encapsulated in ceramic spheres, thick concrete containers, deep damps and bores

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nuclear power

fuel and cooling

principle of working nuclear reactor storage of waste

uraniu m

Reading 3. Work in groups. On a separate piece of paper add to the charts What I know about the problem of producing nuclear energy and waste disposal Example: all nuclear reactors of atomic power plants work by splitting uranium and releasing energy in the form of heat

Questions I’d like to ask about this problem Can the fuel rods melt into uncontrollable mass? What kind of cooling system do they have?

Read the article and try to find the answers to your questions. 4. There are three main ideas in the text. Divide the text into three main parts. Match each part with the most suitable heading from the following list: a) Nuclear energy is the cheapest and safiest kind of energy. b) All nuclear reactors have very simple structure. c) Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plants. d) Problems of radioactive waste disposal. e) Some new ideas for building up and cooling down reactors.

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Problems of Waste Disposal Atomic power plants have become operational in many countries of the world. They could have become an inexhaustible source of electric power but for the danger they might cause to the environment. To understand why people object to building new atomic power plants it is necessary to get to know the process of converting nuclear energy into electrical one. All nuclear reactors of atomic power plants work by splitting uranium atoms and releasing energy in the form of heat. The heat is then used to boil water and produce steam which is directed onto turbine blades to drive the turbines and electric generators. The dangerous part of the process is the release of heat as a result of nuclear fission. The amount of heat is so great that unless the reactor is cooled properly by constantly circulating water, the fuel rods in the active reactor zone can melt into uncontrollable mass capable of destroying the reactor wall and releasing deadly radioactivity. And despite the fact that the reactors are equipped with multiple sets of water pipes and reserve cooling system various faults occur which endanger the entire system. A number of accidents in the course of decades of atomic power plants operation, the most disastrous being the Chernobyl catastrophe, required special measures to make them safer and that, no doubt, will make electricity more expensive. Today designers have found ways to build reactors that are much safer than those now in operation. Instead of one huge reactor with many uranium rods they propose to construct a series of four small-scale separate reactors that use fuel in such small quantities that it can’t melt down under any circumstances. And the fuel itself will be introduced into the reactor in the form of comparatively small grains encapsulated in ceramic spheres that can withstand temperatures as high as 1820°C. (The reactor fuel in this case will never reach temperature higher than 1650°C). The reactor will be cooled by helium, the cooling system being easier to operate. Besides, for greater safety purposes all the reactors would be buried belowground. The only drawback of the proposed design is the comparatively lower electrical output. The problem that has not been solved by the new proposal is how to get rid of the used up nuclear fuel.

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Radioactive waste remains deadly for life during many centuries, contaminating soil and water and causing severe damage to the environment. Unfortunately, the problem of waste disposal has not been solved anywhere in the world. The nuclear powers (the USA, Britain, France, China, and the former USSR) have tried various methods of waste disposal. Here are some of them: 1) Sealed in thick concrete containers it is buried deep in some remote parts of the ocean. Some scientists consider this method to be delayed action atomic bomb aimed against future generations, as nobody can tell what might happen to the containers in the course of time. 2) Nuclear fuel is put into deep shafts of no longer usable coal or salt miners. 3) Used up fuel is buried underground in special damps. The method doesn’t exclude a danger of bringing the fuel back to the surface by underground water. The nuclear waste can’t be in this case controlled efficiently. 4) The French have pioneered a process called vitrification that involves mixing radioactive waste with molten glass. The stable radioactive solid mass сап then be buried deep underground. 5) The US scientists propose to use underground storage of radioactive waste in deep bores drilled in granite mountains. The last two methods alongside with a proper warning system guarding people and animals against access to such areas might be possible solutions of the problem. Comprehension check Read the text again and say whether these statements are true of false. T/F All nuclear reactors of atomic power plants work by splitting uranium atoms and releasing energy in the form of explosion. T/F The fuel rods in the active reactor can melt into uncontrollable mass. T/F The fuel will be introduced into the reactors in the form of comparatively small grains encapsulated in metal spheres. T/F

The advantage of the proposed design is high electrical output.

T/F

Fortunately, the problem of waste disposal has been solved.

T/F

The nuclear powers have tried various methods of waste disposal.

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Discussion Use your background knowledge to answer the questions or to develop the points. 1. Define the following terms: chain reaction, critical mass, control rods. 2. Do we have fusion reactors? If not, why?

Unit VI Laser Pre-reading activity 1. Do you know what the “Laser” stand for? 2. Do you know what “coherent light” is? Reading I. -

Read the text quickly. Match a paragraph 1-5 with a heading below: Laser Types. How a Laser Works. Stimulated Emission. Basic Principles. History.

II. The following statements are false. Read the text and change one word or a phrase in each statement to make it true. a) A laser is a device that produces a beam of energy. b) Information is encoded in the beam as variations in the length or shape of the light wave. c) A laser is made of four basic components. d) According to quantum mechanics, atom will interact with light of two particular frequencies. e) Stimulated emission can happen only to lower-state atoms. f) Ultraviolet laser or excimers haven’t gained widespread use in industry. g) In 1968 Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were jointly awarded the Noble Prize for physics. III. Choose the synonym. Find the underlined word in the text and translate the sentence with it. 1.occur, v. A. repulse B. take place C. extend

5. burst, n. A. bulb B. explosion C. excitement

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D. deviate

D. cause

2. fraction, n. A. section B. attraction C. opposition D. small part, bit

6. complexity, n. A. symmetry B. permittivity C. difficulty D. superiority

3. crucial, adj. A. distinct B. decisive C. thorough D. faulty

7. amplify, v. A. multiply B. increase C. reduce D. generate

4. random, adj. A. aimless B. blurred C. accurate D. rapid

8. temporary, adj. A. speedy B. slow C. a short time only D. eternal

Laser The laser is a device that produces a beam of LIGHT that is both scientifically and practically of great use because it is COHERENT LIGHT. The beam is produced by a process known as stimulated emission, and the word “laser” is an acronym for the phrase “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”. 1.

The meaning of “coherent” light is as follows: Light moves in the form of a wave, with crests and troughs. Like all other kinds of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, it can be characterized both by its frequency, or number of wave crests passing a given point per second, and by its wavelength, or distance between wave crests. (Beams of such radiation travel through a vacuum at the highest velocity anything can achieve). Different wavelengths of light are seen as different colours. Like radio waves, light can also carry information. The information is encoded in the beam as variations in the frequency or shape of the light wave. In fact, because light waves are of much higher frequencies than radio waves, they have a correspondingly higher information – carrying capacity. The smallest unit of light is the PHOTON, which may be thought of as a particle as well as wave. In beams of light from ordinary natural and artificial sources, these individual photon waves are not moving along together because they are not being emitted at precisely the same instant but instead in random short bursts. This is true even when the light is of a single frequency. Such

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beams are called incoherent. A laser is useful because it produces light that is not only of essentially a single frequency but also coherent, with the light waves all moving along together in unison. The MASER, using the same principle of operation, generates or amplifies electromagnetic radiation in the longer-wavelength microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. 2.

A laser is made up of several basic components. One is the so-called active medium, which may consist of atoms of a gas, molecules in a liquid, ions in a crystal, or any of several other possibilities. Another component consists of some method of introducing energy into the active medium. Such as a flash lamp, for example. The third basic component is a pair of mirrors placed on either side of the active medium, one of which transmits part of the radiation that strikes it. In the following discussion the active component is taken to be a gas. Each atom in the active medium of a gas laser is characterized by a set of energy states, or energy levels, in which it may exist. These states may be pictured as unevenly spaced rungs of a ladder, with higher rungs representing states of higher energy. Left undisturbed for a long enough time, an atom will fall to its lowest state. This is called the ground state. As a simple example, suppose that an atom has only two energy states that differ by a certain amount of energy. Then consider how this atom interacts with light. According to QUANTUM MECHANICS, the atom will interact with light of only one particular frequency (determined by a relationship involving a physical constant known as PLANCK’S CONSTANT). Three kinds of interactions can take place between the atom of gas in a laser and light. Either the light is absorbed, or spontaneous emission occurs, or stimulated emission occurs. That is, an atom in its lower energy state can absorb light and be excited to its upper state. If the atom is instead in its upper energy state, it can fall spontaneously to its lower state and emit light in the process. The third possibility is that the atom is stimulated by the presence of light to jump down to its lower energy state, emitting additional light while doing so. Spontaneous emission is unaffected by the presence of light and occurs on a time scale characteristic of the states involved. This time is called the spontaneous lifetime. In stimulated emission the additional light emitted has the same frequency and directional characteristics as the light that stimulates it. This is the crucial feature on which the properties of the laser are based. In order for the laser to work effectively, stimulated emission must predominate over both absorption and spontaneous emission.

3.

The probabilities of occurrence of stimulated emission and absorption are both proportional to the intensity of the light. Stimulated emission, however, can

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happen only to upper-state atoms, and absorption can happen only to lowerstate atoms. For stimulated emission to dominate absorption, therefore, more atoms must be in the upper state than in the lower state. This unusual situation is called population inversion and can be achieved by supplying energy (“pumping” the laser) and carefully selecting the active medium. Typical pumping schemes include the use of light from flash lamps or other lasers, collisions of the atoms with electrically accelerated electrons in a gas discharge tube, excitation with energetic particles from nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, and direct electrical input to semiconductor. Continuous lasing is harder to achieve than pulsed lasing. It is necessary to ensure that the stimulating light is sufficiently strong. Stimulated emission then occurs in a time interval that is short compared to the spontaneous lifetime of the existed state. This situation is achieved by keeping a fraction of the laser light trapped between two mirrors enclosing the active medium. Domination of stimulated emission over spontaneous emission becomes more difficult to achieve as the spontaneous lifetime becomes shorter. Because shorter spontaneous lifetimes are associated with states that emit radiation of higher frequencies, it is difficult to make an ultravioletemitting laser, and an X-ray laser was not successfully demonstrated until 1984. Despite this complexity of construction, however, ultraviolet lasers, or excimers, have gained widespread use in industry. Emitting ultraviolet light when a halogen and rare gas atom combine temporarily, they are used in applications ranging from glass etching and photolithography to sterilization of wines. Atoms initially in a lower state are raised to the upper state by energy from a flash lamp or some other pumping source. Some of these atoms emit light spontaneously in random directions. Light traveling perpendicular to the mirrors stays within the active medium long enough to stimulate emission from other atoms, whereas light traveling in other directions is soon lost. The light amplified by stimulated emission is now more intense and more likely to stimulate further emission. Some light reaching the output mirror is transmitted to form the laser beam; some is reflected back through the medium to continue the stimulated-emission process. 4.

The fundamental principles underlying the operations of the maser and laser were established long before these devices were successfully demonstrated: stimulated emission was proposed by Albert Einstein in 1916, and population inversion was discussed by V.A. Fabrikant in 1940. These fundamental ideas, followed by two decades of intensive development of microwave technology, set the stage for the maser, an ammonia maser, constructed in 1954 by J.P. Gordon, H.J. Zeiger, and Charles H. Townes. Over the next 6 years many workers, including Nickolai G. Basov, Aleksander M. Prokhorov, Arthur L. Schawlow, and Townes, made important contributions that helped to extend

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these ideas from the microwave to the optical wavelength region. These efforts culminated in July 1960 when Theodore H. Maiman announced the generation of a pulse of coherent red light by means of a ruby crystal – the first laser. In 1964, Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov were jointly awarded the Noble Prize for physics. Schawlow received a later Noble Prize, in 1981, for his development of laser spectroscopy, but Maiman, who had produced the first actual laser, received no prize. 5.

There are several types of lasers: carbon-monoxide, color-center, excimer, gasdynamic, helium-cadmium, hydrogen-fluoride, deuterium-fluoride, iodine, Raman spin-flip, and rare-gas halide laser.

Comprehension check I. Read the article more carefully and answer the questions using the language of science. a) What is the smallest unit of light? b) How does a laser work? c) What is “stimulated emission”? d) What do you know about laser invention? e) What types of lasers do you know? II.

Use the list of the above questions as a plan to sum up the contents of the article.

III. Brush up the words. Match the antonyms. 1. convex A. finite 2. infinite B. finally 3. emit C. insulator 4. continuous D. lower 5. initially E. absorb 6. conductor F. unusual 7. upper G. trough 8. ordinary H. artificial 9. crest I. concave 10. natural J. pulsed 11. charge K. on purpose 12. random L. discharge 13. presence M. complex 14. simple N. influenced 15. unaffected O. sophisticated 16. same P. output 17. crude Q. incoherent 18. input R. deliberate 19. coherent S. different 20. spontaneous T. absence

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Discussion In small groups of students discuss the following points: 1. What is unique about light from a laser source and why should you never look directly into a laser beam? 2. Why are microwave ovens constructed in such a way that they will not operate when door is open?

Unit VII Thermodynamics Pre-reading activity I. Make a list of topics that you think will occur in the text. Choose from the following: a) three main laws of thermodynamics b) the principle of the conservation of energy c) waste disposal d) flight into outer space e) a heat engine is a device that converts heat energy into work f) absolute temperature Reading II. Cover the text and choose the best ending for each sentence: 1. The operation of heat engines (e.g. internal-combustion engine) is dealt with in a) nuclear physics b) mechanics c) thermodynamics 2. The first law of thermodynamics is simply the principle of conservation of: a) matter b) field c) energy 3. Heat added to a closed system goes into the a) external energy of the system b) internal energy of the system 4. Thermal efficiency is ratio of a) the work input and the energy output b) the work input and the energy input 5. Heat engine operating in cycle

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a) can convert heat energy completely into work b) can’t convert heat energy completely into work III. The following statements are false. Read the text and change one word or phrase in each statement to make it true. 1. The laws of thermodynamics are important because they give relations between heat energy work and distance. 2. As energy is added to the system (the balloon and the air inside) the temperature increases and the balloon contracts. 3. A heat engine is a device that converts heat into power. 4. A heat engine operates in cycle for continuous energy input. 5. The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in one way. 6. Scientists have tried to reach absolute zero and have come within onehundredth of degree.

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics means the dynamics of heat – that is the production, flow, and conversion of heat into work. We use heat energy, either directly or indirectly, to do most of the work that is done in everyday life. The operation of heat engines, such as internal-combustion engines, and of refrigerators is based on the laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of energy conservation applied to thermodynamic process. For example, let’s consider a balloon heating. As energy is added to the system (the balloon and the air inside), the temperature increases and the balloon expands. The temperature of the air inside the balloon increases because some of the heat goes into the internal energy of the air. Some of the energy also goes into doing the work of expanding the balloon. Keeping account of the energy, for the first law of thermodynamics , we can write, in general, heat added to the system or

increase in internal = energy of the system

+

work done by the system

H = Δ Ei + W

According to this mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics: Heat added to a closed system goes into the internal energy of the system and/or doing work. To understand it better, think of adding heat to a gas in a rigid container. All the energy goes into the internal energy of the system and increases the temperature of the gas. No work is done (W = 0), and according to the first law, H = ΔE i + W.

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Another good example of the first law is the heat engine. A heat engine is a device that converts heat energy into work. There are many different types of heat engines: gasoline engines on lawn mowers and in cars, diesel engines in trucks, and steam engines in outdated locomotives. They all operate according to the same principle. For example, heat input (from the combustion of fuel) goes into doing useful work. In thermodynamics, however, we are not concerned with the components of an engine. We are keen on engine’s general operation. A heat engine involves a hightemperature reservoir and a low-temperature reservoir. These reservoirs are systems from which heat can be readily absorbed and to which heat can be readily expelled. In the process the engine uses some of the input energy to do work. heat in = work + heat out or work = heat in – heat out Normally, a heat engine operates in a cycle for continuous output. In a cyclical heat engine the system comes back to its original state. Thus the temperature and internal energy of the system are unchanged. Since Δ E i = 0, the first law of thermodynamics (Eq. 1) then becomes

H = Δ Ei + W = W Because the net heat added to the system is the heat input from the high-temperature reservoir (Hhot) minus the heat rejected to the low-temperature reservoir (Hcold ), we can write this equation as

Hhot - Hcold = W or Hhot = Hcold + W The conversion of heat energy into work is expressed in terms of thermal efficiency. Similar to mechanical efficiency, it is a ratio of the work output and the energy input. That is,

work -output thermal efficiency = -------------------- x 100% heat input or

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W effth = ------- x 100% Hhot For example, if a heat engine absorbs 1000 J each cycle and rejects 400 J or does 600 J of work, then it has an efficiency of 600/100 = 0.60, or 60%. This efficiency is quite high. The efficiency of an automobile is approximately 15%. It means that 85% of the energy from fuel combustion is wasted or goes into something which has nothing to do with moving the car. For example, running a tape player. The second law of thermodynamics can be stated as follows: No heat engine operating in a cycle can convert heat energy completely into work. Another way of saying this is that no heat engine operating in a cycle can have 100 percent efficiency. A heat engine must lose some heat. It can be shown that the maximum or ideal efficiency is exclusively determined by the high and low temperatures of the reservoirs. This ideal efficiency is given by

Thot-Tcold Tcold ideal eff = ------------ x 100% = 1 - --------- x 100% Thot Thot where Thot and Tcold are the absolute temperatures of the high-temperature reservoir and the low-temperature reservoir, respectively. The actual efficiency of a heat engine will always be less than its ideal efficiency. The ideal efficiency sets an upper limit, but this limit can never be achieved. Notice that the second law forbids a cold reservoir of Tcold = 0 K. If absolute zero could be used, then we could have an ideal efficiency of 100 percent, which would violate the second law. Actually a temperature of absolute zero cannot be attained. That is, thermodynamically, it is impossible to obtain a temperature of absolute zero. This result is sometimes called the third law of thermodynamics. Scientists have tried to reach absolute zero and have come within one-millionth of a degree. However, the third law has still never been violated experimentally.

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Here is another statement of the second law: It is impossible for heat to flow spontaneously from a colder body to a hotter body. Comprehension check Read the text more carefully and answer the questions. 1. What do the first law and the second law of thermodynamics tell you? 2. Distinguish between thermal efficiency and ideal efficiency. 3. What is the dynamics of heat? 4. In what way does the heat engine operate? 5. What does the third law of thermodynamics tell you? 6. Is it possible to construct an engine which will work in a cycle and produce continuous work, or kinetic energy, from nothing? Discussion In small groups of students explain the following: 1. In terms of entropy, why do occupied rooms tend to get messy? What happens when a room is cleaned up? 2. You are teaching a group of fourteen or fifteen year olds. Explain to them three laws of thermodynamics.

APPENDIX Keys (Unit III): 1. B; 2. D; 3. A; 4. D. I. Notice how the following figures are said in English: 2

4 four squared 28% twenty eight per′cent 10.2 ten point two 8 4 eight to the power of four 1/5 one fifth 7 3 seven cubed 3 2/5 two fifths √27 the cube root of 27 4/7 four sevenths √16 the square root of sixteen 1 2/3 one and two thirds 10 m x 12 m ten metres by twelve metres 9/13 nine thirteenths or nine over 32°C or F thirty two degrees centigrade / thirteen Celsius or Fahrenheit

1.623.457 one million, six hundred and twenty-three thousand, four hundred and fifty-seven The numeral “0” can be read differently in different contexts: E.g. My phone number is six 0 [∂ u] two seven. Italy beat Spain two nil in the football match. You must subtract nought point seven.

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It was ten degrees below zero in Canada yesterday. John McEnroe is leading forty love in this game (tennis). 0.2 two tenths or nought point two or point two or zero point two. In the USA: thousand, million, billion, trillion In Britain: thousand, million, milliard, billion i.e. в амери канском тексте “billion” означает 109 , т.е. ми лли ард , а в англи йском тексте1012, т.е. три лли он. II. The plural of the nouns of Greek and Latin origin: phenomenon criterion analysis crisis nucleus formula datum medium nebula

phenomena criteria analyses crises nuclei formulae, formulas data media, mediums nebulae

III. Latin terms and abbreviations: IBIDEM (IB, IBID) = in the cited source – там ж е IN SITU = at the site - наместе PER SE = by itself – само по себе CONDITIO SINE QUA NON = indispensable condition – непременноеуслов и е VIA = through – путем VIZ = namely – аи менно, то есть STATUS QUO = initial condition – и сход ноеполож ени е, в перв оначальном в и д е ERGO = consequently – след ов ательно PROVISO = on condition that - при услов и и SIC! = important - в аж но; под ли нни к AD HOC = made, arranged for a particular purpose – специ альный, устроенный д ля д анной цели IV. Signs and Symbols > ≥ < ≤ ± ≠ ()

greater than (bigger) greater than or equal to less than (smaller) less than or equal to plus or minus not equal to all enclosed are to be treated together

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∴ √ ∑ ≈ ∞ π

therefore square root the sum of approximately infinity pi 22 or 3.1416 (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its radius) 7

V. С пос об ы ф орм а л ьного у ста ревш их на речий hereafter herein heretofore hitherto thereafter thereby therefrom therein therethrough thereunder thereupon whereafter wherefore wherein whereof whereupon wherewith

перевода

below here formerly up to now below thus from smth in smth through smth under smth after which after which for which in which of which after which with which

тра диционно

у потреб л яем ы х

ни ж е при сем д о послед него в ремени д о си х пор д алее в си луэтого, поэтому из … в … через … под … в послед ств и и послечего д ля чего в чем, гд е чего, какого послечего чем

VI. Зна чение прис та вок, пом ога ющ их дога да тьс яос м ы с лес л ова re (back) counter (against) De (down) dis (apart) il, im, in, ir (not) miss (wrong) ex (out of) co (with) sub (under) trans (over) omni (all) ante (before)

reduction counteract decarbonize disconnect illimitable, impossible, insoluble, irrational misfire exhale coaxial subframe transfer omnivorous antechamber

impregnable,

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bi (double) endo (inside) multi (many) uni (single) pre (before) post (after) extra (above)

binocular endotracheal multiply unidirectional preset postgraduate extraordinary

VII. Time 60 seconds 60 minutes 24 hours 7 days 14 days 52 weeks 12 months 365 days 366 days every year every two years 4 years 10 years 100 years 200 years 1.000 years

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

1 minute 1 hour 1 day 1 week 1 fortnight 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 leap year annual biennial olympiad decade century bicentenary millennium

a.m. is short for ante meridiem (Latin for “before noon”) p.m. is short for post meridiem (Latin for “after noon”) BCE is short for before current era AD is short for Anno Domini (Latin for ‘in the year of our Lord”) VIII. Definitions Adjacent:

¡ ¨ ¡¨

close to, lying near, next to or adjoining Congruent: exactly the same shape and size Diagonal:

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a line which joins two non-adjacent angles Diameter:

a straight line passing through the center Horizontal:

-------------

lying flat (think of the horizon) Line of Symmetry:

a line which divides something exactly in half Oblique: sloping line Parallel: 2 lines that never meet (think of train lines) Perpendicular:

2 lines at right angles Vertical:

up and down

IX. Roman Numerals 1 2 3 4 5 6

= = = = = =

I II III IV V VI

20 30 40 50 60 70

= = = = = =

XX XXX XL L LX LXX

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7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

= = = = = = = = = = = = =

VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX

80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000

= = = = = = = = = = = = =

LXXX XC C CC CCC CD D DC DCC DCCC CM M MM

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О снов ная ли тература 1. Knight D.C. Isaac Newton – Mastermind of Modern Science / D.C. Knight. – London: Longman, 1969. – 72 p. 2. Shipman J.T. An Introduction to Physical Science / J.T.Shipman, J.D.Wilson. – Massachusetts Toronto: D.C.Heath and company, 1990. – 630 p. Д ополни тельная ли тература 1. Haughes N. North Star: Focus on Reading and Writing, basic / N.Haugnes, B.Maher. – NY: Longman, 1998. – 208 p. 2. Э лектронный каталог Н аучной би бли отеки В оронеж ского госуд арств енного уни в ерси тета. – (http://www.lib.vsu.ru/)

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Состав и тели ст. пр. Д розд ов аИ ри наВ ольтов на ст. пр. И льи чев аН аталья А лексеев на пр. В оробж анская Т атья наВ и кторов на пр. Солов ьев аИ ри наЮ рьев на Рецензентд .ф .н., проф . Бабуш ки н А .П . Ред актор Буни наТ .Д .