Discerning Wisdom: The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum)

Discerning Wisdom

Supplements to

Vetus Testamentum Edited

by the Board of Quarterly

H . M . BARSTAD - R . P . GORDON - A . HURVITZ G . KNOPPERS - A . VAN DER KOOIJ - A . LEMAIRE C . NEWSOM - H . SPIEGKERMANN J . TREBOLLE BARRERA - H . G . M . WILLIAMSON

VOLUME

116

Discerning Wisdom The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls

by

Matthew J . Goff

BRILL

LEIDEN • B O S T O N 2007

This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data

Detailed Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data are available on the Internet at http://catalog.loc.gov

ISSN 0083-5889 ISBN-13: 978 90 04 14749 2 ISBN-10: 90 04 14749 7 © Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

FOR RUTH BARBOUR

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments Abbreviations Introduction

xi xiii 1

I. A Wisdom Text with an Apocalyptic Worldview: 4QInstruction (1Q26;4Q415-18,423) 9 1. Introduction 9 2. The Text of 4QInstruction 10 3. The Wisdom of 4QInstruction 12 3.1 The Theme of Revelation: The Raz Nihyeh 13 3.1.1 Revelation and Determinism 16 3.1.2 Revelation and Creation 17 3.1.3 Revelation and Instruction .22 3.1.3.1 The Mystery That Is To Be and Judgment 23 3.1.3.2 The Mystery That Is To Be and Soteriological Knowledge 23 3.1.3.3 The Mystery That Is To Be and Family Relations 25 3.1.3.4 The Mystery That Is To Be and Farming 26 3.1.3.5 The Pedagogical Mysteries of 4QInstruction 27 3.1.4 Is the Mystery That Is To Be a Cipher for the Torah? 28 3.2 Revelation and the Vision of Hagu 29 3.2.1 The Elect Status of the Addressee and the Garden of Eden 36 3.2.2 The Elect Status of the Addressee, the Angels and Eternal Life . . . 38 4. Eschatological Judgment 44 5. The Intended Audience of 4QInstruction 47 5.1 Farmers, Artisans and Servants 48 5.2 Women 49 5.3 The Social Location of 4QInstruction 53 5.3.1 Poverty and Debts 54 5.3.2 The Addressee's Poverty, Ethics and His Elect Status 59 5.4 4QInstruction and the Teacher Movement 61 5.5 The Date of 4QInstruction 65 6. Conclusion 67 II. Eschatological Wisdom: The Book of Mysteries (1Q27; 4Q299301) 1. Introduction 2. The Text of the Book of Mysteries and the Question of 4Q301 3. The Eschatological Transformation of the World 3.1 Creation, Eschatology and the Mystery That Is To Be 3.2 Determinism 3.3 Revelation, Licit and Illicit 3.4 The Elimination of the Wicked 4. The Status and Use of the Torah in the Book of Mysteries

69 69 71 73 74 80 82 86 89

VIII

CONTENTS

5. The Genre of the Book of Mysteries 6. The Date and Social Setting of the Book of Mysteries 7. Conclusion

93 99 102

III. Gendered Wisdom: 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184) 1. Introduction 2. The Woman of 4Q184 and Eroticism 3. The Woman, Darkness and Death 4. The Woman's Prey 5. Misogyny and Female Allegory 6. Conclusion

104 104 106 Ill 116 118 121

IV. The Rewards of Wisdom: 4QSapiential Work (4Q185) 1. Introduction 2. Divine Judgment and the Inevitability of Human Death 3. The Torah and the Pursuit of Wisdom 3.1 Lady Wisdom in 4Q185? 3.2 The Yoke of Wisdom in 4Q185? 4. Lessonsfromthe History of Israel 5. Conclusion

122 122 124 130 135 139 140 145

V. Wisdom for the Yahad: 4Q Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn (4Q298) 1. Introduction 2.4QWords of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn 2.1 4QWords of the Maskil and the Wisdom Tradition 2.2 4QWords of the Maskil and the Dead Sea Sect 2.2.1 The Maskil 2.2.2 The Sons of Dawn 3. Conclusion

146 146 147 147 149 150 154 158

VI. Wisdom and Halakhah: 4QWays of Righteousness (4Q420-21)... 1. Introduction 2.4QWays of Righteousness 2.1 Righteousness, Study and Speech 2.2 The Yoke of Wisdom and Sabbath Halakhah 2.3 4QWays of Righteousness and the Dead Sea Sect 3. Conclusion

160 160 161 162 165 173 177

VII. Practical Wisdom: The Instruction of 4Q424 1. Introduction 2. Negative Types of People 2.1 Instruction on Judges and Lawyers 2.2 Instruction on Hiring Managers 2.3 Other Teachings on Unreliable Employees 3. Positive Types of People

179 179 180 181 185 188 191

CONTENTS

IX

3.1 The Opponent of "All Who Move the Boundary Marker" 3.2 Compassion for the Poor 4. Conclusion

191 193 196

VIII. Wisdom and the Torah: 4QBeatitudes (4Q525) 1. Introduction 2. A Pedagogical Prologue 3. The Beatitude Collection 3.1 The Structure of the Beatitude Collection in 4Q525 3.2 The Beatitudes of 4Q525 and the Gospels 4. The Pursuit of Wisdom in 4QBeatitudes 5. The Personification of Wisdom 6. Wrath, Rewards and the Issue of Eschatology 7. Practical Wisdom and the Social Setting of 4QBeatitudes 8. Conclusion

198 198 200 201 203 205 207 214 217 223 229

IX. Songs of Wisdom: Wisdom Psalms in the Hebrew Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls 1. Introduction 2. Wisdom Psalms in the Hebrew Bible—A Chasing After Wind? 3. The Cave 11 Psalms Scroll (1 lQPs ) 3.1 Scholarship on the Psalms Scroll 3.2 1 lQPs and the Wisdom Tradition 3.2.1 HQPs 18 (Psalm 154) 3.2.2 HQPs 21:11-17 and 22:1 (Sir 51:13-30) 3.2.3 1 lQPs 26:9-15 (Hymn to the Creator) 4. Conclusion: The Cave 11 Psalms Scroll and the Issue of Wisdom Psalms a

a

a

a

a

X. The Minor Wisdom Texts 1. Introduction 2.4Q302: An Instructional Text with a Parable 3.4Q303-05: Texts with MotifsfromGenesis 1-3 4.4Q412: Remnants of an Instruction 5.4Q413: Instruction on the Role of God in History 6.4Q419: A Priestly Composition 7.4Q425: Remnants of a Work of Practical Wisdom 8. Small Sapiential-Hymnic Texts 8.1 4Q411 8.2 4Q426 8.3 4Q528 9. Conclusion

230 230 231 236 237 239 240 247 257 260 264 264 265 268 270 272 277 280 281 281 283 284 286

Conclusion: The Qumran Wisdom Texts and the Sapiential Tradition . 287 1. Introduction 287 2. Correspondences 287

X 3. Absences 4. Departures 4.1 Wisdom and Apocalypticism 4.2 Wisdom and Torah 4.3 Wisdom and Piety 5. Function and Milieu 6. Genre Bibliography Index of Authors Index of Texts

CONTENTS

289 2 9 2

292 298 301 303 3 0 6

3 0 9 3 3 7 3 4 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several people deserve credit for their assistance with this project. First and foremost thanks go to Leo Perdue, for inviting me to contribute a volume to this new Brill series. He has been very supportive of my scholarship and I have enjoyed working with him. John Collins read much of the manuscript in draft form and provided numerous helpful comments. I also thank Eibert J.C Tigchelaar for giving detailed responses to several textual questions. Shani Berrin and Greg Goering read drafts of several chapters and provided useful suggestions. Matthew Neujahr read much of the work as well. I am also grateful to two Florida State students. Scott Cason, a Ph.D. student, and Glenn Anderson, who recently finished his undergraduate degree, proofread the entire manuscript with care and attention. Ted Chaffin at Strozier Library was always eager to help me with Interlibrary Loan requests. Benjamin G. Wold provided me with a copy of his manuscript on 4QInstruction before it was officially published. The efforts of these people improved the overall quality of the project. I began this book in 2004. The bulk of the writing was completed in Savannah, Georgia, during my time at Georgia Southern University. Chapter 3 was written in New Zealand and the entire manuscript was revised in Jerusalem. Most of the editing was done in Tallahassee, Florida, where I moved to start working at Florida State University. My department, in particular the chair, John Kelsay, has been supportive of this project. A grant from Florida State's Council on Research and Creativity enabled me to travel to Israel in May 2006 to examine some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. I thank the university for this assistance. This book would not have been possible without the love and companionship of my wife, Diane Rixon. I am also grateful for the support from Brill's editorial staff, especially Mattie Kuiper. Unless otherwise noted, translations of 1 Enoch and Ben Sira are from, respectively, G.W.E. Nickelsburg and J.C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A New Translation (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004) and

XII

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A.A. Di Leila and Patrick W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB 39; New York: Doubleday, 1987). Tallahassee, Florida June 30, 2006

ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations of primary texts follow the guidelines given in Patrick H. Alexander et al., The SBL Handbook ofStyle (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1999). AB ABRL AcOr AGJU AID AnBib ANTZ AOAT ATM BAR BASOR BBB BETL Bib BIS BJS BS BZ BZAW BZNW CahRB CBQ CBQMS CBR CHANE CRBS CRINT DCLY DJD DSD DSSR DSSSE

Anchor Bible Anchor Bible Reference Library Acta orientalia Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums Aramaic Levi Document Analecta biblica Arbeiten zur neutestamentlichen Theologie und Zeitgeschichte Alter Orient und Altes Testament Altes Testament und Moderne Biblical Archaeology Review Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bonner biblische BeitrSge Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium Biblica Biblical Interpretation Series Brown Judaic Studies Biblical Series Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fttr die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Cahiers de la Revue biblique Catholic Biblical Quarterly Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series Currents in Biblical Research Culture and History of the Ancient Near East Currents in Research: Biblical Studies Compendia rerum iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Yearbook Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Dead Sea Discoveries The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (6 vols.; ed. D.W. Parry and E. Tov; Brill, 2004). The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (2 vols.; F. Garcia Martinez and EJ.C. Tigchelaar; Brill, 1997-98).

XIV DTT ECDSS EDSS EstEcl FAT FOTL HBS Hen HSS HTR HTS HUCA IEJ ISDCL JANESCU JBL JJS JNES JQR JR JSJ JSJSup JSNTSup JSOT JSOTSup JSP JSPSup JSS JTS MasSir McCQ MT MU NovTSup NTS OBO OTL PAM par PEQ

ABBREVIATIONS

Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift Eerdmans Commentaries on the Dead Sea Scrolls Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls (2 vols.; ed. L.H. Schiffinan and J.C. VanderKam; Oxford, 2000). Estudios eclesidsticos Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forms of the Old Testament Literature Herders Biblische Studien Henoch Harvard Semitic Studies Harvard Theological Review Harvard Theological Studies Hebrew Union College Annual Israel Exploration Journal International Society for the Study of Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University Journal of Biblical Literature Journal ofJewish Studies Journal ofNear Eastern Studies Jewish Quarterly Review Journal ofReligion Journal for the Study ofJudaism Journal for the Study of Judaism: Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series Journalfor the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha: Supplement Series Journal ofSemitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies The Masada scroll of Ben Sira McCormick Quarterly Masoretic Text Mainzer Universitatsreden Novum Testamentum Supplements New Testament Studies Orbis biblicus et orientalis Old Testament Library Palestine Archaeological Museum parallel (text or fragment) Palestine Exploration Quarterly

ABBREVIATIONS

PVTG QC RB RevQ RevScRel RHPR SBLDS SBLEJL SBLMS SBLSCS SBLSP SBLSymS ScrB SEA Sent SH SIJD SR SSU STDJ SVTP TANZ TBN Text TSAJ TynBul TZ VT VTSup WJ WUNT YJS ZAH ZAW ZKT ZNW ZTK

XV

Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti Graece Qumran Chronicle Revue biblique Revue de Qumran Revue des sciences religieuses Revue d'histoire et de philosophic religieuses Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Scripture Bulletin Svensk exegetisk arsbok Semitica Studia Hellenistica Schriften des Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum Sciences Religieuses/Studies in Religion Studia Semitica Upsaliensia Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha Texte und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter Themes in Biblical Narrative Textus Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum Tyndale Bulletin Theologische Zeitschrift Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplements Women in Judaism Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Yale Judaica Series Zeitschrift fur Althebraistik Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche

INTRODUCTION Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, there were no extant wisdom texts in Hebrew from the time of Ben Sira (ca. 175 BCE) until the compilation of the Mishnah (ca. 200 CE). Most of the Qumran scrolls are from the second and first centuries BCE. They contain portions of at least eight previously unknown writings which are widely considered to be wisdom texts: 4QInstruction (1Q26; 4Q415-18, 423), the book of Mysteries (1Q27; 4Q299-301), 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184), 4QSapiential Work (4Q185), 4QWords of the Maskil (4Q298), 4QWays of Righteousness (4Q42021), 4QInstruction-like Composition B (4Q424), and 4QBeatitudes (4Q525). In the late 1990s the bulk of these writings were published. Some appeared earlier, most notably 4Q184 and 4Q185. The scrolls may include other sapiential works, as reflected in their official titles, such as 4Q411 (4QSapiential Hymn) and 4Q425 (4QSapientialDidactic Work B), but they are often too fragmentary to decide their genre conclusively. In 1964 James Sanders observed that "no work has been done ... on Wisdom thinking generally in Qumran literature." One could not make this complaint today. Interest in this material has grown, particularly during the last few years. But Qumran wisdom literature 1

2

3

4

1

T. E l g v i n et al., Qumran Cave 4.XV: Sapiential Texts, Part 1 ( D J D 2 0 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1997); J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV: Sapiential Texts, Part 2. 4QInstruction (Musdr Le Mebin): 4Q415ff With a re-edition of 1Q26 ( D J D 3 4 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1999). J. A l l e g r o , Qumran Cave 4.1 (4Q158-4Q186) ( D J D 5; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 6 8 ) ; J. Strugnell, "Notes en marge du v o l u m e V d e s ' D i s c o v e r i e s in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan,'" RevQ 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 1 6 3 - 2 7 6 . J . A Sanders, " T w o N o n - C a n o n i c a l P s a l m s in H Q P s , " ZAW 7 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 5 7 - 7 5 (esp. 6 5 ) . S e e also W . L . L i p s c o m b and J.A. Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Israelite Wisdom (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1 9 7 8 ) 2 7 7 - 8 5 (esp. 2 7 7 ) . J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered, in Light o f the Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 6 5 8 1 ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996); idem, "Ten R e a s o n s W h y the Qumran W i s d o m Texts are Important," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 4 5 5 5 ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 1.211-43; S. White Crawford, "Lady W i s d o m 2

3

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INTRODUCTION

is still in the early stages of research. James Crenshaw's authoritative introduction to wisdom literature includes only two pages on material from Qumran, and Roland Murphy's Tree of Life never engages these texts. To date Daniel Harrington is the only author who has written a book-length survey of Qumran wisdom literature. His excellent book, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (1996), is presented as "only a beginning" in the study of this material. This monograph is approximately one hundred pages in length, and much of it consists of translations. At the time this approach made sense, since these writings were not widely available. They are officially published 5

6

and D a m e F o l l y at Qumran," DSD 5 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 5 5 - 6 6 ; A . Lange, Weisheit und Predestination: Weisheitliche Urordnung und Prddestination in den Textfunden von Qumran ( S T D J 18; Leiden: Brill, 1995); idem, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: E i n e Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . Lange and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 . This v o l u m e has m a n y other articles on Qumran w i s d o m literature. T w o other relevant v o l u m e s o f collected e s s a y s h a v e been published: F. Garcia Martinez, ed., Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition ( B E T L 168; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 3 ) ; J J . Collins, G.E. Sterling and R A . Clements, ed., Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center, 20-22 May 2001 ( S T D J 5 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) . S e e also P. Callaway, "Remarks o n S o m e Sapiential Texts from Qumran," OC 8 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 1 2 1 - 2 7 ; A . Caquot, "Les Textes de s a g e s s e d e Qoumran (Aper9u preliminaire)," RHPR 7 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 1-34; A S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J. A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 4 4 - 5 6 ; D.J. Harrington, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Community of the Renewed Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. E. Ulrich and J. VanderKam; Notre D a m e : University o f N o t r e D a m e Press, 1 9 9 4 ) 1 3 7 - 5 3 ; idem, " W i s d o m Texts," EDSS, 2 . 9 7 6 - 8 0 . J.C. VanderKam, "Mantic W i s d o m in the D e a d Sea Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 3 3 6 - 5 3 , f o c u s e s o n divinatory texts such as 4 Q 1 8 6 . Earlier investigations o f w i s d o m at Qumran include M . Kuchler, Friihjudische Weisheitstraditionen ( O B O 2 6 ; Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1 9 7 9 ) 8 8 - 1 1 3 ; C. Romaniuk, "Le T h e m e de la s a g e s s e dans les d o c u m e n t s de Qumran," RevQ 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 4 2 9 - 3 5 ; J. Worrell, "Concepts o f W i s d o m in the D e a d S e a Scrolls" ( P h . D . diss., Claremont Graduate S c h o o l , 1968). J.L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction (rev. ed.; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 8 [orig. pub., 1 9 8 1 ] ) 1 7 8 - 7 9 ; R.E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature (3 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 2 [orig. pub., 1990]). J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) is at present the o n l y survey o f the sapiential tradition that includes a section o n Qumran w i s d o m literature (pp. 1 1 2 31) Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 9 1 . L a n g e ' s Weisheit und Prddestination examines s o m e o f the Qumran w i s d o m texts as w e l l as other documents, such as the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t and the Hodayot, that can b e related to the sapiential tradition. 5

r d

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INTRODUCTION

7

now, and translations abound. Therefore I do not include translations or critical editions of entire texts. Rather the focus is interpretation. Each chapter presents a summary overview of a composition and identifies its main themes and concerns. Issues such as genre classification and provenance are also treated. The texts covered in this book are examined in chapters according to the following format: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

4QInstraction(lQ26;4Q415-18,423) The book of Mysteries (1Q27; 4Q299-301) 4QWilesofthe Wicked Woman (4Q184) 4QSapiential Work (4Q185) 4QWords of the Maskil (4Q298) 4QWays of Righteousness (4Q420-21) 4QInstruction-like Composition B (4Q424) 4QBeatitudes (4Q525) Wisdom psalms from the Cave 11 Psalms Scroll (1 lQPs ) Smaller wisdom texts a

The concluding chapter gives an overview of the core themes and issues in this corpus and its contribution to our understanding of Jewish wisdom. The texts covered in this study are commonly identified as sapiential. But there is a great deal of variety among them and not everyone agrees that they are all wisdom texts. It has been argued, for example, that the book of Mysteries is an eschatological, rather than sapiential, composition. This book does not discuss every Qumran document that has been considered a wisdom text. There is no consensus on how many sapiential writings the caves of Qumran actually contained. John Kampen includes 4Q370 (4QExhortation Based on the Flood) in his survey of Qumran wisdom. Geza Vermes classifies 4QBarki Nafshi (4Q434-438) and 4Q444 (4QIncantation) as wisdom literature. One could perhaps 8

9

10

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G. V e r m e s , The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English ( N e w York: Penguin, 2 0 0 4 ) ; F. Garcia Martinez and E J . C . Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition ( 2 v o l s . ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ) ; D . W . Parry and E. T o v , Calendrical and Sapiential Texts ( D S S R 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) . G. Ibba, "II 'Libro dei Misteri' ( 1 Q 2 7 , £ 1 ) : testo e s c a t o l o g i c o , " Hen 2 1 / 1 - 2 (1999) 73-84. K a m p e n , "Diverse A s p e c t s , " 2 3 4 . V e r m e s , The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls, 4 4 4 - 5 0 . S e e also D . Dimant, "The Qumran Manuscripts: Contents and Significance," in Time to Prepare a Way in the 8

9

1 0

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INTRODUCTION

make a similar case for 4QTime of Righteousness (4Q215a) and 4QSongs of the Sage (4Q510-511). Wisdom is an admittedly vague category. There is a great deal of diversity within the sapiential tradition. From the standpoint of form and content, Job and Proverbs are very different works but both are considered wisdom literature. There are, however, widely agreed upon criteria for identifying sapiential texts. They include a search for order in the natural world and human society, a eudemonistic devotion to the addressee, and practical advice. Wisdom is discerned by a family of resemblances, a combination of compatible ideas and forms. Crenshaw has defined sapiential literature in the following manner: 11

formally, wisdom consists of proverbial sentence, or instruction, debate, intellectual reflection; thematically, wisdom comprises selfevident intuitions about mastering life for human betterment, gropings after life's secrets with regard to innocent suffering, grappling with fmitude, and quest for truth concealed in the created order and manifested in a feminine persona. 12

While there is much debate on how wisdom should be defined, there is core agreement on the biblical texts that constitute sapiential literature: Proverbs, Job, Qoheleth and, among the deutero-canonical works, Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon. With so-called wisdom psalms such as Pss 1 or 119, there is less agreement as to Wilderness (ed. D . D i m a n t and L.H. Schiffman; STDJ 16; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 3 - 5 8 (esp 4 3 - 4 4 ) . For 4 Q 2 1 5 a , see A . Justnes, " 4 Q 2 1 5 a (Time of Righteousness) in Context," in Sapiential Perspectives, 1 4 1 - 6 9 ; T. E l g v i n , "The Eschatological H o p e o f 4 Q T i m e o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 89-102; E.G. Chazon, "A Case o f M i s t a k e n Identity: Testament of Naphtali ( 4 Q 2 1 5 ) and Time of Righteousness ( 4 Q 2 1 5 ) , " in The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. D . W . Parry and E. Ulrich; STDJ 3 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 9 ) 1 1 0 2 3 . In the s a m e v o l u m e as C h a z o n ' s article, s e e the preliminary publication o f 4 Q 2 1 5 a l ii (pp. 1 2 4 - 2 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g to the official classification o f the D e a d S e a Scrolls, 4QInstruction, Mysteries, B e n Sira ( 2 Q 1 8 ; MasSir), 4 Q 4 1 2 , 4 Q 4 2 6 and 4 Q 5 2 5 are "Sapiential Instructions," 4 Q 4 2 4 is a "Collection o f Proverbs," the Treatise o f the T w o Spirits ( 1 Q S 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 6 ) , 4 Q 1 8 5 and 4 Q 2 9 8 are "Didactic S p e e c h e s , " 4 Q 4 1 1 is a "Sapiential Poetic Text" and the f o l l o w i n g are "Sapiential Texts T o o Fragmentary for Further Classification": 4 Q 1 8 4 , 4 Q 3 0 2 , 4 Q 3 0 3 , 4 Q 3 0 5 , 4 Q 4 1 3 , 4 Q 4 2 5 and 4 Q 4 7 3 . S e e E. T o v et al., The Texts from the Judaean Desert: Indices and an Introduction to the D i s c o v e r i e s in the Judaean Desert Series ( D J D 3 9 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 2 ) 140. The rationale for not devoting a chapter to the Treatise is discussed b e l o w . Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 11. a

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INTRODUCTION

whether they should be considered sapiential literature or not and, if so, which hymns should be placed in this category. There are similar issues with some of the material covered in this book. Because of the fragmentary nature of the scrolls and the ambiguous nature of wisdom as a genre, the task of deciding whether a given Qumran text is sapiential or not is somewhat subjective. In this procedure I have followed several guidelines. 1. Pedagogical Intent. Wisdom literature is by nature educational. It typically contains lessons devoted to the formation of character, given by a teacher to a student. Pedagogical intent by itself, however, is not sufficient in indicating whether a work is sapiential or not. Many non-sapiential biblical books are instructional, as is the Torah itself. 13

14

2. Thematic Affinity. If the work has several themes or concerns that are important in biblical wisdom, the text may be sapiential. Prov 3:19, for example, asserts that God made the world with wisdom, and creation theology is an important motif in the sapiential tradition. But prominent ideas in the wisdom tradition are often not restricted to wisdom texts. Creation is a major sapiential theme but is not limited to this corpus (e.g., Ps 104). 3. Key Phrases and Motifs. Every text with terms such as rDDn or nin is not necessarily sapiential. Aside from widely used terminology, there are cases in which a text employs a specific image or motif that suggests continuity with traditional wisdom. 4Q Wiles of the Wicked Woman adapts the depiction of the promiscuous woman in Prov 7. Both 4QInstruction and 4Q424 utilize the image of moving a boundary marker, a motif prominent in Prov 22-24. 4. Innovation in the Wisdom Tradition. Some of the Qumran sapiential texts contain appeals to revelation, proclamations of final judgment, promises of life after death for the elect, and an interest in the angelic realm, all of which are more in keeping with apocalypticism than traditional wisdom. Such motifs are prominent 1 3

Ibid., 3 ; Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered," 2 8 1 . D . M . Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Literature ( N e w York: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 5 ) . 1 4

Origins

of Scripture

and

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INTRODUCTION

in 4QInstruction and Mysteries. In this book I argue that these texts attest a trajectory of wisdom in the Second Temple period that is characterized by influence from the apocalyptic tradition. It is possible for a sapiential composition to be in continuity more with the wisdom of Early Judaism than that of the Hebrew Bible. It is also important to attempt to understand such material as wisdom on the basis of its formal and rhetorical features, aside from its content. Some Qumran sapiential texts identify wisdom with the Torah, most notably 4QBeatitudes and 4Q185. This immediately calls to mind Ben Sira, not Proverbs. As is well known, Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon combine the traditional wisdom of Proverbs with Torah piety and an interest in the history of Israel. Some, but not all, of the Qumran wisdom texts confirm this development. This book is not a comprehensive study of the impact of the wisdom tradition on the Dead Sea Scrolls. The sapiential tradition exerted a significant formative influence on the yahad. The Teacher of Righteousness himself can be understood as a wisdom teacher. The Community Rule (1QS) is a rulebook but contains several different types of literature. The Treatise of the Two Spirits (3:13-4:26) identifies itself at the outset as an instruction. It can be considered, distinct from the rest of 1QS, a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview, like 4QInstruction and Mysteries. The present study 15

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M. H e n g e l , Judaism and Hellenism (2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973) 1.221-22; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 7 5 - 8 0 ; C. H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential T e x t s and the R u l e B o o k s , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 7 7 - 9 5 . M a n y earlier investigations into w i s d o m at Qumran focus almost entirely o n core C a v e 1 d o c u m e n t s such as the C o m m u n i t y R u l e or the Hodayot. This is the case, for example, in Worrell, "Concepts o f W i s d o m , " 4 0 5 , w h o argues that the D e a d S e a sect was a "wisdom community." S e e further L i p s c o m b and Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," 2 8 1 - 8 2 . Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered," 2 8 0 ; C A . N e w s o m , "The S a g e in the Literature o f Qumran: T h e Functions o f the Maskil," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East (ed. J.G. G a m m i e and L.G. Perdue; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1 9 9 0 ) 3 7 3 - 8 3 ; van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," 2 5 5 - 5 6 . S. M e t s o concludes that the Treatise d e v e l o p e d independently from the rest o f the C o m m u n i t y Rule. 4 Q S m a y attest an older version o f the Treatise than 1QS. S e e her The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule (STDJ 2 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 137, 145. B . Otzen understands the dualism o f the Treatise in relation to Prov 1-9. S e e his "Old Testament W i s d o m Literature and Dualistic Thinking in Late Judaism," in Congress Volume: Edinburgh, 1974 ( V T S u p 2 8 ; Leiden: Brill, 1975) 1 4 6 - 5 7 . Consult further J. D u h a i m e , "Coherence structurelle et t e n s i o n s internes dans 1 6

1

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INTRODUCTION

7

could have included a chapter on the Treatise. Many of my assessments would have been similar to those of Armin Lange. Other non-wisdom texts contain passages that resonate with the wisdom tradition. Column 2 of the Damascus Document contains an exhortation to acquire wisdom. The Aramaic Levi Document concludes with a didactic poem that praises the teaching of wisdom (cf. 4Q213 1 i 14). Several hymns of the Hodayot combine 18

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lTnstruction sur les D e u x Espirits ( 1 Q S III 13 - IV 2 6 ) , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1 0 3 - 3 1 ; L.T. Stuckenbruck, " W i s d o m and H o l i n e s s at Qumran: Strategies for D e a l i n g with Sin in the C o m m u n i t y Rule," in Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?: Wisdom in the Bible, the Church and the Contemporary World (ed. S.C. Barton; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999) 4 7 - 6 0 (esp. 4 8 - 5 1 ) ; P. Wernberg-M0ller, "A Reconsideration o f the T w o Spirits in the Rule of the Community ( l Q S e r e k III, 13 - IV, 2 6 ) , " RevQ 3 ( 1 9 6 1 - 6 2 ) 4 1 3 - 4 1 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 121-70. A . - M . D e n i s , Les Themes de connaissance dans le document de Damas ( S H 15; Louvain: Publications universitaires de Louvain, 1967); W . D . D a v i e s , " ' K n o w l e d g e ' in the D e a d S e a Scrolls and Matthew 11:25-30," HTR 4 6 ( 1 9 5 3 ) 1 1 3 - 3 9 . T w o n e w editions o f this work argue that it c o n c l u d e s with a sapiential p o e m . S e e J.C. Greenfield et al., The Aramaic Levi Document ( S V T P 19; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) ; H. Drawnel, An Aramaic Wisdom Text from Qumran: A New Interpretation of the Levi Document (JSJSup 86; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) . The text in question, classified by Greenfield as ALD chapter 13 and by Drawnel as lines 8 3 b - 9 8 , contains instruction from Levi to his children. This p o e m is aptly designated as a sapiential composition. It is similar to exhortations to acquire w i s d o m such as Sir 14:20-15:10. F o l l o w i n g the translation o f Greenfield, ALD 13:4-5 reads: "And n o w , m y sons, reading and writing and teaching < o f > w i s d o m to your children and m a y w i s d o m b e eternal glory for y o u . For he w h o learns w i s d o m will (attain) glory through it, but he w h o despises w i s d o m will b e c o m e an object o f disdain and scorn." The study o f w i s d o m is endorsed ( 1 3 : 7 ) and the man w h o has w i s d o m is praised, b e i n g placed "on the seat < o > f honor in order to hear his w i s e w o r d s " ( 1 3 : 1 0 ) . This line also e x t o l s w i s d o m itself: " w i s d o m is a great wealth o f honor (or: glory) for those familiar with it and a fine treasure to all w h o acquire it." Traditionally ALD has been understood as a testament, but this has been called into question in recent years. Greenfield, The Aramaic Levi Document, 1, states that "it is not clear the work is a testament," but understands the work in relation to the testaments (pp. 2 5 - 3 2 ) . ALD stresses "the sapiential characteristics o f the priesthood," in that it contains instruction o f Levi colored by the w i s d o m tradition (p. 3 4 ) . Greenfield never claims that ALD as a w h o l e is a w i s d o m text. This assertion is at the core o f D r a w n e l ' s book. H e overemphasizes the extent to w h i c h this work can be considered sapiential. For example, he characterizes a lengthy section o f the text (11. 11-61) as a " w i s d o m instruction" (p. 2 5 4 ) . This section contains teachings from Isaac to L e v i on cultic topics, frequently using the expression "my son" in reference to Levi. Isaac teaches h i m the "law o f the priesthood" (1. 13). H e should, for e x a m p l e , avoid fornication (1. 16) and repeatedly w a s h his hands and feet before sacrificing at the T e m p l e (1. 2 0 ) . The teaching often contains very specific and detailed instruction regarding the cultus. Levi is told to split w o o d before sacrificing it and the t w e l v e types o f acceptable trees are listed (1. 2 4 ) . The order o f the portions o f the butchered animal to be sacrificed is specified (11. 2 8 - 3 0 ) , as are the proper 1 8

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21

sapiential vocabulary with a pedagogical intent. Manuscripts of biblical wisdom texts have also been found at Qumran. The focus of this book is the non-biblical sapiential texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. They constitute crucial evidence for understanding the wisdom of the late Second Temple period and the reception of traditional wisdom in Early Judaism. 22

proportions o f oil and flour to be offered with different types o f animals (11. 3 2 - 4 7 ) . W h i l e w i s d o m texts can incorporate priestly topics, the content o f ALD 11-61 has more in c o m m o n with L e v i t i c u s than Proverbs. ALD as a w h o l e is not easily considered a w i s d o m text. The Aramaic Levi Document d o e s not neatly fit into established genre categories. A s Greenfield recognizes, the work is influenced by both the testamentary and sapiential traditions. Neither Greenfield nor Drawnel m a k e substantial u s e o f the Qumran w i s d o m literature. The question o f h o w ALD should be understood in relation to the w i s d o m tradition o f Early Judaism has not yet b e e n thoroughly examined. M.J. Goff, "Reading W i s d o m at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 6 3 - 8 8 ; S. Tanzer, "The S a g e s at Qumran: W i s d o m in the H o d a y o t " ( P h . D . diss., Harvard University, 1 9 8 7 ) . S e e also A . Lange, " l Q G e n A p X E X - X X 3 as Paradigm o f the W i s d o m D i d a c t i v e Narrative," in Qumranstudien: Vortrdge und Beitrdge der Teilnehmer des Qumranseminars auf dem internationalen Treffen der Society of Biblical Literature, Munster, 25.-26. Mi 1993 (ed. H.-J. Fabry et al.; SIJD 4; Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1 9 9 6 ) 1 9 1 - 2 0 4 . The D e a d S e a Scrolls include fragments o f Proverbs ( 4 Q 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 ) , Job ( 4 Q 9 9 101), Qoheleth ( 4 Q 1 0 9 - 1 0 ) , and B e n Sira ( 2 Q 1 8 ) . T h e large P s a l m s Scroll from C a v e 11 ( 1 1 Q 5 ) includes a version o f Sir 5 1 : 1 3 - 3 0 ( s e e section 3 . 2 . 2 o f Chapter 9 ) . There are also t w o targums o f Job ( 4 Q 1 5 7 , 11Q10). 2 Q 1 5 is fragmentary but m a y contain part o f Job 3 3 : 2 8 - 3 0 . N o t e a l s o 4Q4681 (4QFragment M e n t i o n i n g Q o h 1:89). S e e S.J. Pfann et al., Qumran Cave 4 XXVI: Cryptic Texts and Miscellanea, Part I ( D J D 3 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) 4 2 2 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 1 4 - 2 2 ; H. Eshel, " 6 Q 3 0 , a Cursive Sin, and Proverbs 11," JBL 122 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 5 4 4 - 4 6 ; E. Puech, "Qumran e il Libro dei Proverbi," in Libro dei Proverbi: Tradizione, redazione, teologia (ed. G. B e l l i a and A . Passaro; Casale Monferrato [Alessandria]: P i e m m e , 1 9 9 9 ) 1 6 9 - 8 9 ; M.G. A b e g g , Jr., et al., ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1 9 9 9 ) 5 9 0 - 6 2 1 ; E. Ulrich, "An Index o f the P a s s a g e s in the Biblical Manuscripts from the Judean Desert (Part 2 : Isaiah-Chronicles)," DSD 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) 8 6 - 1 0 7 (esp. 104-5); J.A. Fitzmyer, "The First-Century Targum o f Job from Qumran C a v e X I , " in A Wandering Aramean, 1 6 1 - 8 2 ; repr. in The Semitic Background of the New Testament (Grand Rapids/Livonia: E e r d m a n s / D o v e , 1 9 9 7 ) ; J. Muilenberg, "A Qoheleth Scroll from Qumran," BASOR 135 ( 1 9 5 4 ) 2 0 - 2 8 . 2 1

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CHAPTER ONE

A WISDOM TEXT WITH AN APOCALYPTIC WORLDVIEW: 4QINSTRUCTION (1Q26; 4Q415-18, 423)

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

4QInstruction was published in 1999 by John Strugnell and Daniel Harrington. Portions of at least six manuscripts of this document have survived (1Q26; 4Q415-18, 423). The work contains practical instruction on topics such as marriage, the payment of debts and the moderation of food. 4QInstruction often uses the admonition form. It constantly refers to its addressee as mebin Op IE), or "understanding 1

1

J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXW: Sapiential Texts, Part 2. 4QInstruction (Musar Le Mebin): 4Q415jf. With a re-edition of 1Q26 ( D J D 3 4 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e y entitle the text "Musar L e - M e v i n " ("Instruction for a Maven"). The work w a s often called "Sapiential Work A " before the publication o f DJD 34. S o m e scholars use designations such as 1Q/4Q Instruction. This study u s e s the c o m m o n title 4QInstruction. E l g v i n is the official editor o f 4 Q 4 2 3 . R e c e n t scholarship o n 4QInstruction includes F. Garcia Martinez, "Marginalia o n 4QInstruction," DSD 13 ( 2 0 0 6 ) 2 4 - 3 7 ; E. Puech, "Les Fragments e s c h a t o l o g i q u e s de 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 6 i et 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii, 8 1 - 8 1 a , 127)," RevO 22 ( 2 0 0 5 ) 8 9 - 1 1 9 ; B . Nitzan, "The Ideological and Literary Unity o f 4QInstruction and its Authorship," DSD 12 ( 2 0 0 5 ) 2 5 7 - 7 9 ; B.G. W o l d , Women, Men and Angels: The Qumran Wisdom Document 'Musar leMevin' and its Allusions to Genesis Creation Traditions (WUNT 2 / 2 0 1 ; Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 5 ) ; M.J. Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction (STDJ 5 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) ; D . Jefferies, Wisdom at Qumran: A Form-Critical Analysis of the Admonitions in 4QInstruction (Gorgias Dissertations, N e a r Eastern Studies 3 ; Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2 0 0 2 ) ; E.J.C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction (STDJ 4 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) ; T. Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction" ( P h . D . diss., H e b r e w University o f Jerusalem, 1 9 9 7 ) ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1 9 9 6 ) 4 0 - 5 9 ; A . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination: Weisheitliche Urordnung und Prddestination in den Textfunden von Qumran (STDJ 18; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 5 ) 4 5 - 9 2 . S e e also D.J. Harrington, "Recent Study o f 4QInstruction," in From 4QMMT to Resurrection: Melanges qumraniens en hommage a Emile Puech (ed. F. Garcia Martinez, A . Steudel and E.J.C. Tigchelaar; STDJ 6 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) 1 0 5 - 2 3 .

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one." 4QInstruction is eudemonistic and has a pedagogical ethos. There is a teacher-student relationship between author and addressee, although the office of teacher is never mentioned in the composition. In terms of genre it is a wisdom text. But 4QInstruction differs from traditional wisdom in several ways. The composition often appeals to supernatural revelation in the form of the raz nihyeh (rrnj n), which can be translated as "the mystery that is to be." The raz nihyeh is the main tool by which the addressee acquires wisdom. The work includes other themes, such as eschatological judgment, that are more in keeping with apocalypticism than Proverbs. 4QInstruction can be considered the best example available of a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview.

2. THE TEXT OF 4QINSTRUCTION

4QInstruction is a large composition in fragmentary condition. Over 425 fragments have been classified as part of this document. They are in Herodian script. The majority of the fragments belong to 4Q418, which itself may have once been as long as the Hodayot or even the Temple Scroll. The largest 4QInstruction text is 4Q416 2, 3

4

2

4 Q B e a t i t u d e s u s e s this term o n c e to describe its addressee ( 4 Q 5 2 5 14 ii 18). The w o r d b e g i n s 4 Q 3 0 3 and m a y occur in the b o o k o f M y s t e r i e s ( 4 Q 2 9 9 3 4 3 ) , but the text in question is highly fragmentary. E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "The A d d r e s s e e s o f 4QInstruction," in Sapiential Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998 (ed. D . Falk et al.; STDJ 3 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 6 2 - 7 5 (esp. 6 2 ) . DJD 34, 2. F i v e fragments b e l o n g to 1Q26, 3 2 to 4 Q 4 1 5 , and 2 2 to 4 Q 4 1 6 , w h i l e 4 Q 4 1 7 and 4 Q 4 2 3 h a v e 2 9 and 2 4 , respectively. 3 0 3 are associated with 4 Q 4 1 8 . A portion o f these are very small and grouped according to their physical similarity, without full certainty that they are part o f 4QInstruction. S e e ibid., 2 1 2 . This edition also lists three other manuscripts, 4 Q 4 1 8 a - c , the first o f w h i c h comprises 2 5 fragments, with the "b" text h a v i n g t w o and the "c" text one. Tigchelaar offers an alternative reconstruction o f 4 Q 4 1 8 material into 4 Q 4 1 8 , 4 Q 4 1 8 a and 4 Q 4 1 8 * . S e e his To Increase Learning, 61-139. T h e different options in reconstructing this material d o not h a v e a major impact o n the interpretation o f 4QInstruction. O n e minor fragment o f 4QInstruction has b e e n identified since the publication o f DJD 34. The text is classified as X Q 7 and appears in DJD 36 as "XQUnidentified Text." S e e E. P u e c h and A . Steudel, " U n N o u v e a u Fragment du manuscrit 4QInstruction ( X Q 7 = 4 Q 4 1 7 o u 4 Q 4 1 8 ) , " RevQ 19 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 6 2 3 - 2 7 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 125. 3

4

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4QINSTRUCTI0N

which retains a substantial portion of four columns. Other fragments that preserve a sizable amount of text include 4Q416 1, 4Q417 1-2, 4Q418 55 and 4Q418 69 ii. The manuscripts of 4QInstruction occasionally overlap. These copies are essential to the reconstruction of certain passages. For example, fragmentary parts of 4Q417 1 i are safely reconstructed with the help of overlapping sections of 4Q418 43. The overlaps contain some variants that are of value to the interpreter. The fragmentary condition of 4QInstruction makes it difficult to ascertain its original structure. Strugnell and Harrington do not attempt to reconstruct the work as a whole. Tigchelaar, a premier expert on the reconstruction of 4QInstruction, concludes "we do not have sufficient materials and evidence to place the Instruction fragments in subsequent columns of a manuscript or of the composition." He contends, however, that a "relative 5

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T h e editors of DJD 34 re-arranged the classification o f 4 Q 4 1 7 1 and 2 ( s e e pp. 1 5 1 , 172). Older scholarship often identifies 4 Q 4 1 7 1 as 4 Q 4 1 7 2 and vice versa. Overlaps a m o n g the fragments o f 4QInstruction include 4 Q 4 1 5 11 -> 4 Q 4 1 8 167; 4 Q 4 1 6 1 4 Q 4 1 8 1-2; 4 Q 4 1 6 2 i-ii -> 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i-ii; 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iv -> 4 Q 4 1 8 10; 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii -> 4 Q 4 1 7 5; 4 Q 4 1 8 81 - » 4 Q 4 2 3 8; 4 Q 4 2 3 3 -> 1 Q 2 6 2 ; 4 Q 4 2 3 4 -> 1 Q 2 6 1. S e e Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 148-50. For e x a m p l e , 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 16 includes the tautological statement "For as a father (DKD) is to a man, s o is h i s father and as the Lord is to a person, s o is his mother." The parallel text 4 Q 4 1 8 9 17 reads S o for 31©. This produces a more coherent text: "For as G o d ( b i o ) is to a man, so is his father and as the Lord is to a person, s o is his mother." DJD 34, 17-19. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 161. S e e also idem, "Towards a Reconstruction o f the B e g i n n i n g o f 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 6 Fragment 1 and Parallels)," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 9 9 - 1 2 6 . T. E l g v i n has applied the reconstruction m e t h o d s o f H. S t e g e m a n n to 4QInstruction. C h a n g e s in distance o f wear patterns a l l o w speculation into the number o f turns o f the scroll, and thus its original number o f c o l u m n s . Elgvin suggests that there w e r e four c o l u m n s b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 1 7 2 ii and 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i. H e c o n c l u d e s that 4QInstruction originally had 2 3 c o l u m n s . This is p o s s i b l e but speculative. S e e T. E l g v i n , "The Reconstruction o f Sapiential Work A , " RevQ 16 ( 1 9 9 5 ) 5 5 9 - 8 0 ; H. Stegemann, " M e t h o d s for the Reconstruction o f Scrolls from Scattered Fragments," in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. L.H. Schiffman; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1990) 1 8 9 - 2 2 0 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 3 0 - 3 8 . 6

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CHAPTER ONE

reconstruction" is possible. Reconstructing 4QInstruction is not a major issue in terms of the interpretation of the work. Wisdom texts often have a loose organizational format, if any at all. The extant content of 4QInstruction does not appear to be arranged in any organized pattern. 4Q416 1 is an important exception. It is regarded as the beginning of the work. This is the best way to explain its wide right margin (3.3 cm). The main theme of this fragment is divine judgment. 4Q416 1 provides an eschatological horizon against which subsequent instruction is to be understood. The first fragment of 4QInstruction to be published was 1Q26, which appeared in 1955. In 1956 Strugnell reported that four Cave 4 manuscripts were reminiscent of this fragment. The editors eventually realized that they possessed different portions of a larger composition. In 1992 Daniel Harrington joined John Strugnell as co-editor of 4QInstruction, leading to its publication seven years later. 11

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3. THE WISDOM OF 4QINSTRUCTION

Strugnell and Harrington argue that 4QInstruction is a "'missing link' in the history of the common (i.e., non-sectarian) Jewish wisdom traditions, datable between Proverbs and Sirach." The composition's teachings on mundane topics regarding ordinary 16

For example, he suggests that m o s t o f 4 Q 4 1 8 4 6 - 5 9 originally w a s located b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 1 7 1 and 2 , a v i e w based in part o n the overlaps b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i-ii and 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 , 4 4 and 4 5 i. S e e his To Increase Learning, 162. S e e section 4 o f this chapter. D . Barthelemy and J.T. Milik, Qumran Cave 1 (DJID 1; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 5 5 ) 1 0 1 - 2 . S e e also J.A. Sanders, " T w o N o n - C a n o n i c a l Psalms in H Q P s , " ZAW 7 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 5 7 - 7 5 (esp. 6 5 ) ; idem, The Psalms Scroll of Cave 11 ( D J D 4; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 6 5 ) 6 9 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 - 1 3 . J. Strugnell, "Le Travail d'edition d e s fragments de Qumran: C o m m u n i c a t i o n de J. Strugnell," RB 6 3 ( 1 9 5 6 ) 6 4 - 6 6 . DJD 34, xiii. Pre-ZX/D 34 publications o f 4QInstruction include B.Z. Wacholder and M . G . A b e g g , A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew and Aramaic Texts from Cave Four (Washington, D . C . : Biblical A r c h a e o l o g y Society, 1 9 9 2 ) 2 . 4 4 - 1 5 4 , 1 6 6 - 7 1 ; R. E i s e n m a n and M . O . W i s e , The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered ( N e w York: Barnes and N o b l e , 1 9 9 2 ) 2 4 1 - 5 5 . S e e also J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington, "Qumran C a v e 4 Texts: A N e w Publication," JBL 112 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 4 9 1 99. DJD 34,31. See also Harrington, "Recent Study," 122. 1 1

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spheres of life such as family and finances accord with this assessment. But the editors' perspective does little to explain aspects of 4QInstruction that are reminiscent of the apocalyptic tradition. They include themes such as supernatural revelation, appeal to a heavenly book (the vision of Hagu), eschatological judgment, the elect status of the addressee and the prospect of eternal life after death. 4QInstruction combines traditional wisdom with an apocalyptic worldview.

3.1 THE THEME OF REVELATION: THE R A Z NIHYEH

The enigmatic expression raz nihyeh (irrti H) constitutes an appeal to heavenly revelation that is at the core of 4QInstruction. The phrase can be translated as "the mystery that is to be," but different translations are possible. The expression occurs over 20 times in the composition. The phrase is used twice in one passage of the book of Mysteries and once in the Community Rule. In Mysteries the term is associated with eschatological judgment. The wicked do not know the raz nihyeh and will not save themselves "from" this mystery (T")D 17

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E.R. W o l f s o n , " S e v e n Mysteries o f K n o w l e d g e : Qumran E/Sotericism R e c o v e r e d , " in The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L Kugel (ed. H. Najman and J.H. N e w m a n ; JSJSup 8 3 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 1 7 7 - 2 1 3 ; M . Kister, " W i s d o m Literature and Its Relation to Other Genres: From B e n Sira to Mysteries," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center, 20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and R.A. Clements; STDJ 5 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 13-47 (esp. 3 1 - 3 2 ) ; J.J. Collins, "The Mysteries o f God: Creation and E s c h a t o l o g y in 4QInstruction and the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition (ed. F. Garcia Martinez; B E T L 168; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 3 ) 2 8 7 - 3 0 5 (esp. 2 8 8 - 9 1 ) ; M. B o c k m u e h l , Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990); R.E. B r o w n , The Semitic Background of the Term "Mystery" in the New Testament ( B S 2 1 ; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 6 8 ) ; B . R i g a u x , "Revelation d e s mysteres et perfection a Qumran et dans le N o u v e a u Testament," NTS 4 ( 1 9 5 8 ) 2 3 7 - 6 2 ; E. V o g t , "'Mysteria' in textibus Qumran," Bib 3 7 ( 1 9 5 6 ) 2 4 7 - 5 7 . Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 3 3 - 3 4 . S e e , for example, 4 Q 4 1 5 6 4; 4 Q 4 1 6 2 i 5 (par 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 10); 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 9, 14, 18, 21 (par 4 Q 4 1 8 9 8, 15; 4 Q 4 1 8 10 1, 3 ) ; 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 3 , 6, 8, 18, 21 (par 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 2 , 4, 6, 14, 16); 4 Q 4 1 7 1 ii 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 7 7 2 , 4; 4 Q 4 1 8 123 ii 4; 4 Q 4 1 8 172 1; 4 Q 4 1 8 184 2 ; and 4 Q 4 2 3 4 1 , 4 (par 1 Q 2 6 1 1, 4 ) . The phrase is reasonably reconstructed in 4 Q 4 1 5 2 4 1; 4 Q 4 1 6 17 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 179 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 190 2 - 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 2 0 1 1; 4 Q 4 1 8 c 8; 4 Q 4 2 3 3 2; 4 Q 4 2 3 5 2; and 4 Q 4 2 3 7 7. 1 8

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20

mm) (1Q27 1 i 3 [par 4Q300 3 3]). In 1QS 11:3-4 the speaker uses the term to describe his reception of revelation: "For from the source of his knowledge he has disclosed his light, and my eyes have observed his wonders, and the light of my heart the JTTti TV The word raz is of Persian provenance. It occurs numerous times in Second Temple literature, often referring to higher revelation. The only book of the Hebrew Bible that attests this word is Daniel, primarily its second chapter (2:18-19, 27-30, 47 [2x]; 4:6). The content and interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar's dream are "mysteries" that are revealed to Daniel. The Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch use the word H in reference to knowledge revealed to Enoch by the angels: "I know the mysteries of (T")) that the holy ones have revealed and shown to me" (7 En. 106:19; cf. 4QEn° 5 ii 26-27). The term is employed elsewhere in the Dead Sea Scrolls in a similar fashion. For example, 1QH 10:13 reads: "you have set me like a banner for the elect of justice, like a knowledgeable 23 mediator of wondrous mysteries (K^D '•n)." 21

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S e e section 3 o f Chapter 2 . The term m a y occur in Isa 2 4 : 1 6 (cf. Zeph 2:11). This verse includes the phrase -h - n -b T I . This is a l o n g standing interpretative crux, - n could be derived from the root m i , "to b e lean." T h e N R S V , for example, renders the phrase "I pine away, I pine away." B l e n k i n s o p p translates "I have m y secret, I h a v e m y secret!" N o t i n g that the expression d o e s not appear in the L X X , h e suggests *h T I -h T I "may be a marginal g l o s s imparting a more explicitly apocalyptic color to the passage." This is possible. The phrase remains enigmatic and cannot b e interpreted with confidence. S e e J. B l e n k i n s o p p , Isaiah 1-39 ( A B 19; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 2 0 0 0 ) 3 5 3 - 5 4 ; J.J. N i e h a u s , "Raz-Pesar in Isaiah X X I V , " J T 3 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 7 6 - 7 8 . This f o l l o w s the reconstruction in G.W.E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36, 81-108 (Hermeneia; M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress Press, 2 0 0 1 ) 5 3 7 . 4 Q E n G i a n t s ar 9 3 reads: "[be bljessed because [you] k n o [ w ] all mysteries ( K T I ) " (cf. 4 Q E n 1 iv 5; 1 En. 8:3). The word "mystery" signifies revealed k n o w l e d g e in texts o f 1 Enoch that have not survived in Aramaic. S e e , for e x a m p l e , 1 En. 4 1 : 3 ; 5 2 : 2 ; 1 0 4 : 1 0 - 1 2 . For m o r e o n the Aramaic E n o c h texts, s e e S.J. Pfann et al., Qumran Cave 4.XXVI: Cryptic Texts and Miscellanea, Part 1 ( D J D 3 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) 3 - 1 7 1 (esp. 3 4 , 3 6 ) ; J.T. Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976); M . Knibb, "The B o o k o f E n o c h in the Light o f the Qumran W i s d o m Literature," in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1932 1 0 (esp. 2 0 3 - 4 ) ; idem, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (2 v o l s . ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 7 8 ) ; F. Garcia Martinez, Qumran and Apocalyptic ( S T D J 9; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) 45-96. 1QH 9 : 2 1 ; 1 2 : 2 7 - 2 8 ; C D 3:18; l Q p H a b 7:4-5. B e n Sira u s e s the word raz with regard to secrets that are not divinely revealed (8:18; 12:11). 2 1

2 2

a

a

2 3

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4QINSTRUCTI0N 24

mnj is a Niphal participle of the verb mn, "to be." This form of the verb often signifies the entire scope of history—the past, present and future. 1QS 11:11, for example, reads: "By his knowledge everything will come into being (mm) and all that is ( m n *7D) he establishes with his calculations." Lines 17-18 of this column similarly assert: "You have taught all knowledge and all that exists (mmn *7D) is so by your will." The Treatise of the Two Spirits (1QS 3:13-4:26) begins by declaring "From the God of Knowledge stems all there is and all there will be (n^mi mm ^D)" (3:15). m^m has a future sense but the passage asserts that all of history, not just the future, is a product of the knowledge of God. 4QInstruction associates the mystery that is to be with a tripartite division of time: "Everything that exists in it, from what has been to what will be in it Co nai mn r\nb na mmn bv) ... His period which God revealed to the ear of the understanding ones through the mystery that is to be" (4Q418 123 ii 3-4; cf. 4Q417 1 i 3-4; Wis 7:18). In 4QInstruction the raz nihyeh signifies God's dominion over all of history, from beginning to end. 25

26

2 4

A . Schoors, "The L a n g u a g e o f the Qumran Sapiential Works," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 6 1 - 9 5 (esp. 8 6 - 8 8 ) . rpru m a y refer to the future in 11:8-9, in w h i c h the intended audience is described as an "eternal planting throughout all future a g e s (rrrn pp SID)." Cf. 10:4-7; C D 2 : 9 - 1 0 ; 13:7-8; 4 Q 4 0 2 4 12; 1QH 5 : 1 7 - 1 8 ; 1 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; Sir 4 2 : 1 9 ; 4 8 : 2 5 ; 1 Q M 1:11-12; 17:4-5; W i s 8:8. This participle has b e e n plausibly reconstructed in the b o o k o f Mysteries ( 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b 11). Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 6 0 ; L.H. Schiffman, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s : A Preliminary Edition," RevQ 16 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 2 0 3 - 2 3 (esp. 2 0 4 ) ; Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 3 0 - 3 2 ; T. E l g v i n , " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m in the Early S e c o n d Century B C E — T h e E v i d e n c e o f 4QInstruction," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25, 1997 (ed. L.H. Schiffman et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine o f the B o o k , Israel M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0 ) 2 2 6 - 4 7 (esp. 2 3 5 ) ; J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (OTL; L o u i s v i l l e : Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) 1 2 2 . D.J. Harrington has argued that the mystery that is to b e refers to texts that c o m p r i s e a "body o f teaching." S e e h i s "The R a z N i h y e h in a Qumran W i s d o m T e x t ( 1 Q 2 6 , 4 Q 4 1 5 - 4 1 8 , 4 2 3 ) , " RevQ 17 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 5 4 9 - 5 3 ; idem, Wisdom Texts, 4 9 . W h i l e the raz nihyeh is an important aspect o f the educational program o f 4QInstruction, it is n e v e r treated as a physical document. The chronological s c o p e o f the rrm n p o s e s difficulty in translating the expression. A translation has to d e c i d e u p o n o n e tense. B u t rrna refers to all o f t i m e (the past, present and future), w h i c h can n o t be properly expressed in a s i n g l e tense. For this reason translations that a v o i d a single tense should not be d i s m i s s e d . Translations in this category include "the mystery o f existence" and " G e h e i m n i s des W e r d e n s . " S e e , respectively, DSSSE, 1.67; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 97. 2 5

2 6

b

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CHAPTER ONE

3.1.1 Revelation and Determinism The dominion of God is manifested in a deterministic divine plan according to which reality unfolds: He has [exjpounded for their un[der]standing every d[ee]d (ETi[S] ri[ra]0 biDb anr[3]6b) so that one may walk in [the inclination] of their understanding ... in proper understanding were made [known the secrjets of his plan (irQEnn "nn[o: ir]T)°3), along with his walking [perfectly [in all] his [de]eds ( 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 10-12). 27

This larger "plan" guiding history can be understood through the raz nihyeh: "And you, understanding son, gaze into the mystery that is to be and know [the path]s of all life" (4Q417 1 i 18-19; cf. Prov 10:5). A similar perspective may have been put forward in 4Q418 77 2: "... the mystery that is to be, and grasp the nature of [m]an (nH^in D-I[K]) (cf. 1QS 3:13). 4QInstruction teaches that the fate of all creatures is an "inheritance" allotted by God: "For God has distributed the inheritance (hbhl) of [eve]iy [living being]" (4Q418 81 20). The wicked have received an "inheritance": "according to his inheritance (in^nb) in it he (a wicked person) will be tr[eated as wicked]" (4Q417 1 i 24). The eternal life enjoyed by the angels is understood as their "inheritance." They are "the so[ns of] heaven, whose inheritance is eternal life (unbm 0^117 D"n)" (4Q418 69 ii 12-13; cf. 1 En. 103:3). The "inheritance" of the addressee is much better than that which is accorded to most people. The determinism of 4QInstruction is compatible with that of the book of Mysteries and the Treatise of the Two Spirits. Similar to 4QInstruction's claim that there is a "plan" (rDBITO) orchestrating events, 4Q299 3a ii-b 11 reads: "... every mystery and establishes every plan (rOEra bis fOlil TI b*)3). He causes everything [which 28

W

29

30

31

Regarding the s e c o n d attestation o f onraa ("their understanding"), Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 2 , prefers a singular suffix rather than a plural o n e . I f o l l o w DJD 34, 153. For this reconstruction, see ibid., 166. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 96. 4 Q 4 2 3 5 3 reads: "[H]e divided the [pjortion o f all rulers and fashioned every [dee]d by his hand, and the w a g e s o f [their deeds h e k n e w ] " (cf. 4 Q 4 1 6 3 2 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 81 2 - 3 ) . S e e DJD 34, 5 1 8 ; Nitzan, "The Ideological and Literary U n i t y o f 4QInstruction," 2 6 8 - 7 4 . Garcia Martinez, "Marginalia," 2 9 - 3 6 . T h e elect status o f the addressee is e x a m i n e d in sections 3 . 2 . 1 - 2 and 5.3.2 below. 2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

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4QINSTRUCTI0N

comes into being]" (cf. 1. 13; cf. 4Q299 5 5). The Treatise uses related terminology to make a similar point: Before they [all things] existed he established their entire design (•mora T D ) . And when they have come into being, at their appointed time, they will execute all their works according to his glorious design, without altering anything (1QS 3:15-16). The Treatise attributes the history of humankind to spirits of light and darkness: "in their (two) divisions all their armies have a share (iSnr) for their generations" (4:15). 4QInstruction never mentions angelic forces of light and darkness. Both compositions, however, use the root to underscore that the destiny of each human being is established by God. 32

33

3.1.2 Revelation and Creation Gerhard von Rad proposed that the great didactic poems of Prov 8, Sir 24 and Job 28 testify to the "self-revelation of creation." The wisdom immanent in the world, exemplified by the figure of Lady Wisdom, must "signify something like the 'meaning' implanted by God in creation, the divine mystery of creation." If the world bears the imprint of God, observing the cosmos conveys his nature. The statement of Lady Wisdom in Prov 8:22-31 regarding the creation of the world assumes this perspective. This 'natural theology' is explicit in the creation hymns of Ben Sira (39:12-35; 42:15-43:33). In a sense 4QInstruction does not disagree with this perspective. This 34

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3 2

1QS 4:16 states that each deed falls into one o f these divisions in accordance with the "inheritance o f m a n " (STK r6m). The Treatise states that the deterministic divine plan guiding reality w a s established before anything w a s created ( 1 Q S 3:15). This idea is never directly affirmed in 4QInstruction. T h e v i e w that G o d established an overarching plan for the w o r l d before h e created it is explicit in the Treatise and implicit in 4QInstruction. G. v o n Rad, Wisdom in Israel (LondonA^alley Forge: S C M Press Ltd/Trinity Press International, 1 9 7 2 ) 1 4 4 - 1 7 6 . Ibid., 148. S e e also L.G. Perdue, "Revelation and the Problem o f the Hidden G o d in S e c o n d T e m p l e W i s d o m Literature," in Shall Not the Judge of All the Earth Do What is Right?: Studies on the Nature of God in Tribute to James L. Crenshaw (ed. D . Penchansky and P.L. Redditt; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2 0 0 0 ) 2 0 1 - 2 2 ; idem, " C o s m o l o g y and the Social Order in the W i s d o m Tradition," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East (ed. J.G. G a m m i e and L.G. Perdue; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1 9 9 0 ) 4 5 7 - 7 8 . For e x a m p l e , Sir 4 2 : 1 6 reads: "As the shining sun is clear to all, so the glory o f the Lord fills his works." 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

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CHAPTER ONE

Qumran text affirms that the world has a rational structure that can be perceived through empirical observation/ But the mebin is urged to trust in the knowledge given to him through revelation more than his own senses. 4Q417 1 i 25-27 declares: "O wise son, understand your mysteries ... you shall not search out aftefr] you[r] own heart, and ^ your own e[y]es" (cf. Num 15:39). In this text creation itself is a raz, or mystery. 4Q417 1 i 6-9 reads: 7

38

[Day and night meditate upon the mystery that is] to be. Inquire constantly. Then you will know truth and iniquity, wisdom and [foll]y you will [recognize] ... Then you will distinguish between [goo]d and [evil according to their] works, for the God of Knowledge is a foundation of truth. By means of the mystery that is to be he has laid out its foundation and its works (rrraoi m &na mna m ) ... [with all wisd]om and all [cleverness he has fashioned it (n&[r>n bzb] niT

no[-W

39

]bDb\).

4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 3 - 4 , for e x a m p l e , teaches that the regular m o t i o n o f the w a v e s attests "truth": " D o not all their [waters] flow with truth and with k n o w l e d g e all their w a v e s ? " (cf. 4 Q 4 2 3 5 5-6; 1 En. 101:6). Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 184; P u e c h , "Les Fragments e s c h a t o l o g i q u e s , " 100. M.J. Goff, "The M y s t e r y o f Creation in 4QInstruction," DSD 10 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 1 6 3 - 8 6 . S e e also F. Garcia Martinez, "Creation in the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in The Creation of Heaven and Earth: Re-interpretations of Genesis 1 in the Context of Judaism, Ancient Philosophy, Christianity, and Modern Physics (ed. G.H. van K o o t e n ; T B N 8; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) 4 9 - 7 0 ; B. N i t z a n , "The Idea o f Creation and Its Implications in Qumran Literature," in Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition (ed. H.G. R e v e n t l o w and Y . Hoffman; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 2 ) 2 4 0 - 6 4 ; K. K o c h , "Das G e h e i m n i s der Zeit in Weisheit und Apokalyptik u m die Z e i t e n w e n d e , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 3 5 - 6 8 . DJD 34, 1 5 1 , 158; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 2 - 5 3 . T h e w o r d rrcnx ("its foundation") can b e transcribed as :TCPK ("woman"). This reading is advocated b y W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 9 9 , w h o argues that "the description o f laying truth's foundation in w i s d o m and fashioning it with craftiness" s e e m s "implausible" ( s e e also pp. 1 9 7 - 9 9 ) . In his opinion this situation is resolved b y reading riant. Thus the line "refers to the separation o f w o m a n from m a n in G e n e s i s 2 . 2 0 - 2 5 . " This v i e w merits consideration. The letter in question can b e transcribed as either a waw or a yod. W o m e n are an important topic o f 4QInstruction and the creation o f humankind is rooted in an understanding o f G e n 1-3 in 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 1 3 - 1 8 ( s e e sections 3.2 and 5.2). But W o l d d i s m i s s e s the "foundation" reading t o o readily. It is not just a matter o f c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n rrarK and rrariK. The issue is the creation t h e o l o g y o f 4QInstruction. 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 8-9 is a crucial text for understanding this theme. The raz nihyeh is integral t o the presentation o f the natural order in 4QInstruction. The gender-oriented reading o f these lines should not b e presented as alternative to o n e rooted in creation t h e o l o g y . It d o e s not make s e n s e to say that the creation o f w o m a n k i n d is associated with the mystery that is to be but the creation o f the world is not. This is particularly the case g i v e n that Proverbs e n v i s i o n s the w i s d o m inherent 3 8

3 9

19

4QINSTRUCTI0N

The statement of 4Q417 1 i 9 that God created "[with all wisd]om and all [cleverness" refers to the formation of the world. This is suggested by the claim that God laid out the "foundation" and "works." Elsewhere 4QInstruction associates the nature of the cosmos with divine wisdom. 4Q418 126 ii 4-5 reads: "He has spread them out; truthfully he has established them ... Furthermore, they do not exist without his will, and apart from [his] wis[dom] (Xlb D31 [ i n n p i r a i m s n Ki^n rru) ..."(cf.4Q4i8 55 5-6). 4QInstruction and Proverbs use the term HQDn to refer to God's innate intelligence which he used when making the world, explaining its orderly structure. In 4QInstruction the mystery that is to be also signifies the fashioning of the world. God created "by means of the mystery that is to be" (rrrfl r Q ) (4Q417 1 i 8-9), using the preposition bet in an instrumental sense, as does Prov 3:19 with regard to "wisdom" (rDDro). In 4QInstruction the mystery that is to be refers not only to the disclosure of revelation but also to the content of what is revealed. The raz nihyeh represents God's act of creation. 4Q417 1 i proclaims: "Then you will know the glory of 40

41

42

in the created order as a w o m a n . A l s o , the statement o f 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 8 that G o d is a "foundation o f truth" (nm T D ) supports the v i e w that G o d laid out the "foundation" (»IK) o f creation through the mystery that is to be. T h e k e y word in question should b e understood as rraiK, w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g that it is o p e n to a gender-based d o u b l e m e a n i n g . C o l l i n s , Jewish Wisdom, 122, writes that reading "foundation" is "more satisfactory" than " w o m a n , " noting that the proper transcription is disputed. See further Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 5 3 ; Goff, "The M y s t e r y o f Creation," 1 7 0 - 7 1 ; B . G . W o l d , "Reading and Reconstructing 4 Q 4 1 6 2 II 2 1 : C o m m e n t s o n M e n a h e m Kister's Proposal," DSD 12 ( 2 0 0 5 ) 2 0 5 - 1 1 (esp. 2 0 8 - 9 ) ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 50. T h e f e m i n i n e suffixes o f these w o r d s probably refer to the w o r d "truth," as s u g g e s t e d in DJD 34, 154. 4 Q 4 1 8 148 ii 6 reads: "[To] understanding the former things (nro-imp) set [your m i n d ] . " J.L. Crenshaw has s u g g e s t e d that 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 2 0 m a y appeal to G o d ' s creation o f the world (personal correspondence). T h e first portion o f this line reads: " [ B y ] his mouth everything c o m e s into b e i n g (bv r r r r ) . A n d that w h i c h h e provides for y o u , eat." In B e n Sira Lady W i s d o m c l a i m s that she c a m e forth from G o d ' s mouth ( 2 4 : 3 ) , and the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n m a y also attest this trope (7:25; cf. Prov 2:6). But 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 2 0 , unlike Sir 2 4 : 3 , is more about G o d sustaining the w o r l d than the first m o m e n t s o f creation. G o d creates life, thus providing the mebin w i t h food. 4QBirth o f N o a h ar ( 4 Q 5 3 4 ) 1 i 7-8 u s e s " w i s d o m " and "mystery" together: "Counsel and prudence will b [ e ] with h i m [and] h e will k n o w the secrets o f m a n ( n KEHN). A n d his w i s d o m (nnnsin) will reach all the p e o p l e s . A n d h e will k n o w the secrets o f all living things (K-TI T I ) " (cf. 1QH 9 : 7 - 1 9 ; 17:23; 4 Q 5 3 6 2 i + 3 8 - 1 2 ) . S e e E. Puech, Qumran Grotte 4.XXII: Textes Arameens, Premiere Partie (4Q529549) ( D J D 3 1 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 1 ) 132, 140; DSSSE, 2 . 1 0 7 1 . 4 0

1

4 2

a

s

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CHAPTER ONE

[his] m[ight, together wi]th his wondrous mysteries (D[tf 1T1]U TOD and the mighty acts of his deeds (V»»B n r a ) (1. 13; cf. 1. 2). The word TI is parallel to m m By presenting the act of creation as a "mystery," 4Q417 1 i 8-9 declares that it demonstrates God's overwhelming power. 4QInstruction does not offer the "self-revelation of creation" that von Rad discerned in Proverbs and Ben Sira. In 4QInstruction the speaker does not call out like Lady Wisdom, urging all passers-by to understand the nature of the world (Prov 8:4-5). Rather the structure of creation is itself a revealed truth available only to the elect (cf. 1 En. 61:13). This combines traditional wisdom and apocalypticism. Creation is a prominent theme in wisdom literature; it is also present in some apocalypses (e.g., 1 En. 2-5). For Lange the JTro n represents the "praexistente Ordnung des Seins." The mystery that is to be is thus in direct continuity with the sapiential idea in Proverbs that the world has an inherent order. In Lange's view the rational structure of the cosmos has been elevated to the status of divine knowledge because of the putative "crisis of wisdom" exemplified by Job and Qoheleth. Elgvin contends instead that "4QInstruction's understanding of the world and man is determined more by apocalypticism than by traditional wisdom." He proposes that the work comprises two distinct literary layers. One is an older work of practical instruction akin to Prov 10-31. This was then substantially w

IK^D

43

4 4

45

46

47

4 3

T h e reconstruction o f the w o r d [in]i? is not certain. T h e transcription I u s e f o l l o w s DJD 34, 160, and Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 2 . The phrase *6s - n ("wondrous mysteries") often refers to revealed k n o w l e d g e . S e e , for e x a m p l e , 1QS 9 : 1 2 - 1 3 , 1 8 - 1 9 ; 11:4-5; 1QH 9 : 2 1 ; 15:6; 19:10; 11Q11 3 7-8. Prov 8:14; 4 Q 2 9 9 5 2 ; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 i 7; C D 13:8; Sir 4 2 : 2 1 ; 1QS 4:3; 1 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 62. Ibid., 9 1 . Job and Qoheleth challenge the traditional v i e w o f Proverbs that righteousness and w i s d o m w i l l be rewarded and w i c k e d n e s s and folly punished. It is not clear, h o w e v e r , that these t w o b o o k s represent a broader revolution in sapiential thought. S e e v o n Rad, Wisdom in Israel, 231' R.E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature (3 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 2 [orig. pub., 1990]) 5 5 . E l g v i n , " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , " 2 3 9 . S e e also K . B . Larsen, " V i s d o m o g apokalyptik i Musar l e M e v i n (lQ/4QInstruction) [ W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c in Musar l e M e v i n ( l Q / 4 Q I n s t r u c t i o n ) ] , " DTT 65 ( 2 0 0 2 ) 1-14; D.J. Harrington, " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c in 4QInstruction and 4 Ezra," in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 3 4 3 - 5 5 . 4 4

4 5

4 6

4QINSTRUCTI0N

21

expanded by people who had an apocalyptic worldview. Lange and Elgvin agree that the mystery that is to be refers to a divine plan that gives order to history and creation. They also recognize that 4QInstruction represents a shift from traditional wisdom. It is not clear that this development should be related to Job or Ecclesiastes, since the work never shows any interest in these books. There is no unambiguous evidence in 4QInstruction that the work can be divided into separate sapiential and apocalyptic strata. Elgvin's thesis implies that wisdom and apocalypticism are mutually exclusive traditions. But 4QInstruction provides evidence for the exact opposite view. The raz nihyeh is the basis of the inherent order of the world which in Proverbs is associated with wisdom, as Lange has stressed. The association of this order with revelation represents a departure from biblical wisdom that is reasonably attributed to influence from the apocalyptic tradition. Traditional wisdom and apocalypticism should be understood as complementary influences in 4QInstruction. Its author's knowledge of the apocalyptic tradition can be plausibly ascribed to familiarity with a version of I Enoch, although this cannot be confirmed. 49

50

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Elgvin, " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , " 2 4 6 . S e e also N i t z a n , "The Ideological and Literary U n i t y o f 4QInstruction," 2 5 9 . L a n g e ' s v i e w that 4QInstruction, Mysteries and part o f Q o h 12 have a c o m m o n provenance is e x a m i n e d b e l o w . J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m , A p o c a l y p t i c i s m and Generic Compatibility," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (JSJSup 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 3 8 5 404. Goff, "The Mystery o f Creation," 164. E l g v i n argues that specific phrases and sections o f 4QInstruction are inspired by E n o c h i c material. H e c l a i m s "The Epistle of Enoch is a main source for the compiler o f 4QInstruction." S e e his "The Mystery to C o m e : Early E s s e n e T h e o l o g y o f Revelation," in Qumran between the Old and New Testaments (ed. F.H. Cryer and T.L. T h o m p s o n ; J S O T S u p 2 9 0 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1 9 9 8 ) 1 1 3 - 5 0 (esp. 138). H e also equates the mystery that is to be with the "sevenfold w i s d o m " d i s c l o s e d to the elect in 1 En. 9 3 : 1 0 . W h i l e the claim o f direct literary d e p e n d e n c e is unpersuasive, it is plausible that the author o f 4QInstruction borrowed apocalyptic ideas and c o n c e p t s from an E n o c h i c source. For m o r e o n this issue, consult L.T. Stuckenbruck, "4QInstruction and the Possible Influence o f Early E n o c h i c Traditions: A n Evaluation," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 4 5 - 6 1 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 1 2 - 1 7 ; Knibb, "The B o o k o f E n o c h , " 1 9 3 - 2 1 0 . S e e also A . Y o s h i k o Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 5 ) . 4 9

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3.1.3 Revelation and Instruction 4Qlnstruction emphasizes the study of the mystery that is to be. The mebin is told to "gaze" (M3) upon, "examine" QDH), "meditate" (nan) upon, and "grasp" (npb) the raz nihyeh. This mystery has already been revealed to him (e.g., 4Q418 184 2), and he is to contemplate it. In Daniel typically a mystery (raz) is disclosed to the seer by a heavenly figure who then interprets it. The mebin of 4QInstruction has a more arduous task. No angel explains the raz nihyeh to him. He is told what he can learn from this mystery and it is his responsibility to acquire the knowledge himself. The combination of the raz nihyeh with the admonition form is characteristic of the composition. 4QInstruction emphasizes the study of revealed wisdom to a greater extent than Daniel or other apocalypses. This can be understood as a combination of the theme of supernatural revelation drawn from the apocalyptic tradition with a pedagogical intent informed by traditional wisdom. Learning and study are advocated throughout 4QInstruction. Like Prov 1:1-7, the work seeks to instill a love of learning in the addressee: "Increase in understanding greatly, and from all of your teachers (rD^DQJD blD) get ever more instruction" (4Q418 81 17). 4Q418 221 2-3 is fragmentary but also stresses pedagogical goals: "to make all the simple ones (D^ms) understand ... [And to in]crease learning for the intelligent ones ( D T M ) " The term "simple ones" is also a designation for students in Proverbs and 4Q185. 4QInstruction evokes the angels for pedagogical purposes. They are depicted as tirelessly studying "the works of truth." They are ideal students whom the mebin should emulate (4Q418 69 ii 13-14; cf. 53

54

55

56

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4 Q 4 1 6 2 i 5 (par 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 10); 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 3 , 18 (par 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 2 , 14). Cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 123 ii 5. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 9 (par 4 Q 4 1 8 9 8); 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 4 (par 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 6 ) ; 4 Q 4 1 8 7 7 4. N o t e also the fragmentary 4 Q 4 1 5 6 4: "By the mystery that is to b e test (]na) these things." M.J. Goff, " W i s d o m , A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , and the P e d a g o g i c a l E t h o s o f 4QInstruction," in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism (ed. L. W i l l s and B . G . Wright; S B L S y m S 3 5 ; Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Literature, 2 0 0 5 ) 57-67. S e e also E. P u e c h , "Apports des textes apocalyptiques et sapientiels d e Qumran a l ' e s c h a t o l o g i e du judaTsme ancien," in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1 3 3 - 7 0 (esp. 165). N o t e the fragmentary expression "to make your heart [ u n d e r s t a n d " ( 4 Q 4 2 3 7 7; cf. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 13; 4 Q 4 1 8 126 ii 10; 4 Q 4 1 8 169 + 170 3). Prov 1:22; 8:5; 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 14. Cf. 1 l Q P s 18:3; 4 Q 5 2 5 2 6 2. 5 4

5 6

5 7

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4Q418 55 8-10)/* Through the raz nihyeh the addressee can understand "[the path]s of all life" and the "nature" (miSin) of humankind (4Q417 1 i 19; 4Q418 77 2). 4Q417 1 i 6 and 4Q416 2 iii 14-15 promise that one who studies this mystery will understand truth and iniquity. 4Q417 1 i 6-8 states further that wisdom and folly can be learned in this way, as can the knowledge of good and evil (cf. 11. 17-18). By connecting this knowledge to the raz nihyeh, the comprehension of good and evil represents more than the ability to make moral decisions. This knowledge signifies comprehension of the broader divine framework guiding human life that has been revealed to the mebin (cf. 1QS 4:2526; 4Q300 3 2). 59

3.1.3.1 The Mystery That Is To Be and Judgment Through the mystery that is to be the addressee can learn about the final judgment: "[Day and night meditate upon the mystery that is] to be ... in all their ways with their reckoning for all the periods of eternity, and the eternal reckoning (na imps'! ublS b*ob)" (4Q417 1 i 6-8). Thefinaljudgment is understood in relation to "all the periods," referring to the full spectrum of history from beginning to end (cf. 4Q418 123 ii 6). The raz nihyeh is also associated with judgment in 4Q423 5 1-2. This fragmentary text reads: "... the judgment of Korah. And as he opened your ear [to the mystery that is to be] ..." This refers to the biblical figure of Korah, who is swallowed by the earth in Num 16 for his rebelliousness (cf. 4Q418 126 ii 7-8; 4Q418 201 2). 4Q418 77 2-3 urges the addressee to grasp the mystery that is to be and then promises that he can "discern the judgment of humankind (ETON CDSIM)." 60

61

3.1.3.2 The Mystery That Is To Be and Soteriological Knowledge The mystery that is to be enables the addressee to know a person's ultimate destiny. 4Q417 2 i 10-11 exhorts: "[Gaze upon the mystery] 5 8

S e e section 3 . 2 . 2 . This perspective explains 4 Q 4 2 3 5 6, w h i c h relates raising crops t o understanding g o o d and evil: " [ U n d e r s t a n d all your crops. In your labor pay attentio[n t o the k n o w l e d g e o f ] g o o d and evil." T h e main j u d g m e n t s c e n e s o f 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 6 1; 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii), w h i c h never appeal to the mystery that is to be, are e x a m i n e d in section 4. J.M. Scott, "Korah and Qumran," in The Bible at Qumran: Text, Shape, and Interpretation (ed. P.W. Flint; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 1 ) 1 8 2 - 2 0 2 . 5 9

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that is to be, grasp the birth-times of salvation (UEP "H'TIB) and know who is inheriting glory and who ini[qu]ity." The term "glory," given the reference to salvation, probably refers to a blessed afterlife. This suggests that "ini[qu]ity" signifies the fate of the wicked. The expression J7EP *lblD probably refers to the times of year in which the elect, who can receive salvation, are born. The term iblQ is prominent in 4QHoroscope. This text offers an astrological understanding of human origins, using the word ibvs to situate the birth of the individual within a broader deterministic conception of the cosmos. 4Q416 2 iii 9-10 employs the term in relation to a deterministic understanding of human birth. This text, like 4Q417 2 i 10-11, associates this word with the raz nihyeh: "If he restores you to glory, walk [in it], and with the mystery [that] is to be examine one's origins (TH^E BIT!). Then you will know his inheritance" (cf. 4Q418 9 8). The phrase "If he restores you to glory" assumes that the addressee has experienced some lack of understanding about his elect status and its ultimate rewards but can regain that focus. He can then "examine one's origins" and understand "his inheritance." The mebin can perceive a person's ordained allotment in the divine plan that orchestrates the flow of history—the exact same prospect discussed in 4Q417 2 i 10-11. 4Q415 2 ii 9 attests the phrase Dn^O ma, 62

63

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E l g v i n , "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 196; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 5 . For the w o r d "ini[qu]ity" (b[i]b) Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 1 7 3 , transcribe bhb ("toil"). For the r e c o m p e n s e o f the righteous and the w i c k e d , s e e section 3 . 2 . 2 . 4 Q 1 8 6 1 ii 8 reads, for e x a m p l e , "this is the sign (iS-inn) in w h i c h h e w a s born (-rfr)" (cf. 4 Q 1 8 6 2 i 8; 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b 13; 1QH 2 0 : 8 ) . S e e F. Schmidt, "Ancient Jewish A s t r o l o g y : A n Attempt to Interpret 4QCryptic ( 4 Q 1 8 6 ) , " in Biblical Perspectives: Early Use and Interpretation of the Bible in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. M . E . Stone and E.G. C h a z o n ; STDJ 2 8 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1 8 9 - 2 0 5 . 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 0 m a y express the s a m e idea: "you h a v e taken a w i f e in your poverty; take [ n J - ^ i D " (cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 2 0 2 1). Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 123, understand -bio as "offspring." T h u s the line is about the w i f e bearing children. W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 9 4 - 9 5 , argues that instead [nJ-nS-iD refers to her "origins," that is, the "birth-times" o f the wife. R e a d this w a y , 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 0 urges the addressee to a s s e s s the fate G o d has allotted to his prospective wife. I am inclined towards W o l d ' s position. In section 5.2 I argue that the mebin is to marry a w o m a n w h o is considered a m o n g the elect. But the interpretation put forward in DJD 34 cannot b e d i s m i s s e d . 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 0 b e g i n s a s e c t i o n on marriage; a reference t o h a v i n g children w o u l d b e entirely appropriate (cf. 4 Q 4 1 5 9 2 ) . A l s o , 4 Q 4 1 5 11 11 m a y associate the w o r d -bin with pregnancy. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 0 is fragmentary and unfortunately d o e s not provide e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to d e c i d e w h i c h interpretation o f [nfnbia is superior. N o t e that 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 0 , like 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 11 (and 6 3

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probably referring to the house in which a woman was bora. 4QInstruction shows no familiarity with the astronomical lore contained in 4QHoroscope. But the wisdom text has the analogous perspective that the fate of the individual has an established place in the overarching divine plan guiding history and creation. The allotted destiny of a person can be perceived by understanding the time of his/her birth. 3.1.3.3 The Mystery That Is To Be and Family Relations The mystery that is to be is related to the addressee's practical and daily life. 4Q416 2 iii 20 begins a section that discusses his marriage. He is told to continue his study of the raz nihyeh "while you keep company with her (nD"12nnri3)" (1. 21). The mebin is to balance his education with the demands of his family. 4QInstruction does not have the same view as Paul, who doubts that a married man can devote himself sufficiently to God (1 Cor 7:32-35). The mystery that is to be is connected to the addressee's relationship with his parents: Honor your father with your poverty (rDETia) and your mother with your lowly status (rD'HJJSM). For as God is to a man, so is his father and as the Lord is to a person, so is his mother, for they are the crucible (i.e., womb) that bore you. And as he gave them authority over you, and the inclination over the spirit, so serve them; and as he revealed to you through the mystery that is to be, honor them for the sake of your glory and with [reverence] honor them for the sake of your life and the length of your days (4Q416 2 iii 15-19; cf. 4Q418 9 17). 67

Honoring one's parents is advocated throughout wisdom literature. For example, Prov 30:17 reads: "The eye that mocks a father and scorns to obey a mother will be pecked out by the ravens of the valley

perhaps 4 Q 4 1 5 11 11), c o m b i n e s the word I S D with the verb npb in the imperative form. Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 4 7 , transcribe "house o f [your] orig[ins]" in line 7 o f this fragment. This reconstruction is not endorsed in Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 3 2 . M. Morgenstern relates the expression to human birth. S e e his "The M e a n i n g o f n-i'ra rra in the Qumran W i s d o m Texts," JJS 51 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 1 4 1 - 4 4 . The word ronrxB o f 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 16 could b e transcribed as ns-nrxB ("your steps"). I favor the " l o w l y status" reading because o f the w o r d ' s parallelism with rowra (cf. 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 10). S e e DJD 34, 120; Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 222. 6 6

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58

and eaten by the vultures." Like Sir 3:6-7, 4Q416 2 iii 18-19 posits that one who respects his/her parents will enjoy a long life. Aspects of 4Q416 2 iii 15-19 diverge from traditional wisdom. No other sapiential text connects the theme of filial piety to poverty. 4QInstruction bases its exhortation to honor one's parents on an appeal to esoteric revelation to the elect. The raz nihyeh does not reveal that parents should be honored. This was presumably selfevident. The mystery that is to be provides incentive for such conduct. This mystery discloses the breadth of God's dominion to the addressee. Comprehending this theological truth demands that one act in accordance with this knowledge. The revelation of the raz nihyeh encourages worldly wisdom that is eudemonistic and grounded in daily life. 69

70

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3.1.3.4 The Mystery That Is To Be and Farming Farming is associated with the mystery that is to be. 1Q26 1 4-6 reads in part: "As he revealed to your ear through the mystery that is to [be] ... Take care lest she honor you more than him ... and (lest) you be cursed in all your crops, and be [asha]med for all your deeds" 73

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Prov 2 0 : 2 0 ; 2 3 : 2 2 , 2 5 ; 2 8 : 2 4 ; 2 9 : 1 5 . Filial piety is also a t h e m e in covenantal lawfExod 20:12; Deut5:16). Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s of 4QInstruction," 2 3 0 . S e e also J.L. Kugel, " S o m e Instances o f Biblical Interpretation in the H y m n s and W i s d o m Writings o f Qumran," in Studies in Ancient Midrash (ed. J.L. K u g e l ; Cambridge: Harvard University Center for Jewish Studies, 2 0 0 1 ) 1 5 5 - 6 9 (esp. 1 6 6 - 6 7 ) . T h e t h e m e o f poverty in 4QInstruction is examined in section 5 . 3 . B e n Sira's teaching o n the subject ( 3 : 1 - 1 6 ) is highly dependent o n the D e c a l o g u e and thus connected to the revelation at Sinai. S e e A . A . D i Leila and P . W . Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira ( A B 3 9 ; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 8 7 ) 1 5 4 - 5 7 . In section 3 . 1 . 4 I critique t h e claim that the mystery that is to b e should b e equated with the Torah. Compare the instruction o f P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s , w h i c h offers primarily ethical exhortations and practical advice. T h e epilogue summarizes t h e teachings o f the work: "These are the mysteries o f righteousness (SLKaioouvng u-uonpia); living thus m a y y o u live o u t a g o o d life, right up to the threshold o f old age" (11. 2 2 9 - 3 0 ) . There is nothing in t h e work that s u g g e s t s it reveals h e a v e n l y k n o w l e d g e to the elect. T h e Similitudes of Enoch appears t o u s e the expression "mysteries o f righteousness" in this w a y (cf. 1 En. 4 9 : 1 ; 5 8 : 5 ; cf. 7 1 : 3 ) . P. van der Horst r e a s o n a b l y suggests that with t h e term "mystery" P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s " s e e m s t o say: the secret o f life is t o live SIKOCIGX;, as it is described in m y p o e m . " S e e h i s The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides (Leiden: Brill, 1978) 2 6 1 ; J.J. Collins, Between Athens and Jerusalem ( 2 ed.; Grand Rapids/Livonia: E e r d m a n s / D o v e , 2 0 0 0 [orig. pub., 1983]) 1 6 8 - 7 4 ; W . T . W i l s o n , The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2 0 0 5 ) . S e e also section 5 . 1 . 7 0

7 1

7 2

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(cf. 4Q423 4 1-2). The fragment appears to warn the addressee to ensure that his wife knows that God is responsible for any agricultural success, not his own labor in the fields. This knowledge is available through the mystery that is to be (1. 4). Both the man and woman are to understand that the dominion of God impacts their lives. Otherwise they risk the prospect of a poor yield. 4Q423 3 2 is fragmentary but relates the raz nihyeh to a bountiful harvest: "... [through the mystery] that is to be. Thus you will walk, and al[l your] cfrops will multiply]." The connection between this mystery and farming in this text has not survived. Perhaps the fragment construed success in farming as a practical benefit of understanding how God has structured the world, as attained through the mystery that is to be. 4Q423 5 5-6 teaches that the addressee will succeed at farming by understanding the agricultural seasons: "observe the appointed times of the summer, gather your crops in their time and the season [of harvest in its appointed time]" (cf. 4Q418 123 ii 6; 4Q418 172 7-12). The raz nihyeh is plausibly supplemented in line 2. Presumably 4Q423 5 originally associated this mystery with farming in a manner similar to 4Q423 3 2. 74

75

3.1.3.5 The Pedagogical Mysteries of 4QInstruction 4QInstruction is inconsistent in its use of the mystery that is to be. While several types of knowledge are explicitly connected to this mystery, other important teachings never mention the raz nihyeh. This is the case with the two main judgment scenes of 4QInstruction (4Q416 1; 4Q418 69 ii) and the lesson on the elect status of the addressee in 4Q418 81. 4Q416 2 ii 14-21 contains a series of vetitives (negative admonitions) on topics such as social relations and financial affairs. This pericope does not discuss revelation. The legitimacy of these admonitions is rooted in their inherent common sense, as in Proverbs. It is reasonable to posit that 4QInstruction as a whole presumes the revelatory authority of the mystery that is to be. This is implied by the frequency of the term and the comprehensive nature of this revelation. The expression signifies knowledge regarding history and creation in general. Furthermore, 4QInstruction connects the raz DJD 34,511. Ibid., 5 1 8 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase

Learning,

142.

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nihyeh to its teachings by calling them "mysteries": "O wise son, understand your mysteries (rrrrD pnnn)" (4Q417 1 i 25). 4Q418 177 7a exhorts the mebin to "know his mysteries (VD)." The book of Mysteries similarly refers to its intended audience as "those who hold fast to mysteries" (4Q299 43 2; 4Q300 8 5; cf. 4Q299 3a ii-b 9). In other texts the term "mystery" describes the content of an esoteric teaching. For example, 1 En. 104:10-13 reads: "And now I know this mystery, that sinners will alter and copy the words of truth ... And again I know a second mystery, that to the righteous and pious and wise my books will be given for the joy of righteousness and much wisdom" (cf. 103:2). Paul uses the word "mystery" in a similar way: "Listen, I will tell you a mystery (|iuarr|piov)! We will not all die, but we will all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet" (1 Cor 15:51). In 4Q417 1 i 25 and 4Q418 177 7a the term "mystery" signifies instruction that assumes the revelation of the raz nihyeh. In this sense all the teachings of 4QInstruction can be understood as "mysteries." But not every statement in the work should be considered revealed knowledge. Because the mystery that is to be discloses knowledge about history and the created order, in principle the mebin can learn about any topic by studying this mystery. 76

77

3.1.4/5 the Mystery That Is To Be a Cipher for the Torah? One can associate the mystery that is be with the revelation at Sinai. This position is advocated by Armin Lange. 4Q416 2 iii 15-19 connects the mystery that is to be to the theme of filial piety, as does the Decalogue (e.g., Exod 20:12; Deut 5:16). This allows Lange "rPH3 H mit der Thora zu identifizieren." He likens the status of the Torah in 4QInstruction to its treatment in Bereshit Rabbah, which interprets the figure of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs as a reference to the 78

7 6

Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 4 9 - 5 0 . For example, I argued a b o v e that 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 1 5 - 1 9 d o e s not present filial piety as a revealed truth. Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 58. S e e also J.T. Sanders, "When Sacred Canopies Collide: T h e R e c e p t i o n o f the Torah o f M o s e s in the W i s d o m Literature o f the S e c o n d - T e m p l e Period," JSJ 32 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 121-36; G. Sauer, "Weisheit und Tora in qumranischer Zeit," in Weisheit ausserhalb der kanonischen Weisheitsschriften (ed. B . Janowski: Gtitersloh: Kaiser, 1 9 9 6 ) 1 0 7 - 2 7 ; Elgvin, "The Mystery to C o m e , " 1 3 3 , 136. 7 7

7 8

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Torah. Elgvin, by contrast, understands the mystery that is to be as available only to the elect, whereas the Torah is a public source of knowledge. 4QInstruction asserts, Elgvin suggests, that "true wisdom is not found in the Torah but in raz nihyeh.''' The author of 4QInstruction used the Torah and considered it a source of wisdom. This Qumran text incorporates biblical figures such as Korah and Adam into its teaching. Lange could be correct that there is a connection between the mystery that is to be and the Torah. 4Q416 2 ii 8-9 uses the word "mysteries" in parallelism with "statutes": "And do not abandon your statutes. Carefully observe your mysteries." "Statutes" may signify the Torah but could refer more generally to the teachings of 4QInstruction. Two unfortunately fragmentary texts attest the phrase "through the hand of Moses" (T2 HOB) (4Q418 184 1; 4Q423 11 2). It is possible that 4QInstruction appealed to the Torah as an authoritative source. But there is simply not enough evidence for this position. The composition never mentions the Torah by name. The wisdom text never praises the Mosaic covenant or explicitly bases its instruction on its authority, in contrast to Ben Sira. The Torah is not a theme in its own right. 1 Enoch similarly appeals to revelation in a way that does not invoke the Torah. It is not clear that the Torah and the mystery that is to be should be equated in 4QInstruction. At the very least the raz nihyeh and the revelation at Sinai are compatible forms of revelation. The author of 4QInstruction is obsessed with the mystery that is to be. While he shows surprisingly little interest in thematizing the Torah, he assumes its validity as a source of teaching. 19

80

81

82

3.2 Revelation and the Vision ofHagu The other term in 4QInstruction that signifies heavenly revelation is

E l g v i n , " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , " 2 3 7 . N e h 8 u s e s the word p a several times in relation to the Torah. V e r s e 7, for example, asserts that the Levites "helped the p e o p l e to understand ( e r a s ) the law" (cf. vv. 2 , 9). In 4QInstruction the w o r d p a is never explicitly associated with the Torah in the manner o f N e h 8. I thank A . L a n g e for pointing out this reference to m e . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch, 5 0 - 5 4 . S e e further section 4.2 o f the c o n c l u s i o n to this book. 8 0

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the "vision of Hagu" ("nann |"ITn). While the raz nihyeh is found throughout the composition, this vision occurs only twice, in a lesson regarding the "spiritual people" and the "fleshly spirit" in 4Q417 1 i 13-18. This passage reads: 83

84

13. And you, 14. understanding one, inherit your reward by remembering the mi[ght because] it is coming. Engraved is the statute, and ordained is all the punishment, 15. because engraved is that which has been ordained by God against all the iniquities of] the sons of Sheth. The book of remembrance is written before him 16. for those who keep his word—that is, the vision of Hagu for the book of remembrance. He bequeathed it to together with a spiritual people, be[cau]se 17. he fashioned it (lit. "him") according to the likeness of the holy ones. Moreover, he did not give Hagu to the fleshly spirit because it did not distinguish between 18. [go]od and evil according to the judgment of its [sp]irit. 85

The addressee can "inherit (his) reward" (ron^UD BP1) by remembering God's "mi[ght]" (1. 14). Since the line states "ordained is all the punishment," "mi[ght]" is presumably a reference to divine judgment. God has established a decree against "the iniquities of] the sons of Sheth" (JVC [nhl]S) which is probably a designation for the wicked. If he lives in an upright way, he will attain the 9

86

This phrase can be translated in various w a y s . In DJD 34, 155, for example, it is rendered as "the appearance/vision o f the meditation." I prefer the translation "vision o f Hagu." It can also b e transcribed "Haguy" or "Hagi." GofT, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 8 0 - 1 2 6 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 1 2 4 - 4 9 ; J.J. Collins, "In the L i k e n e s s o f the H o l y O n e s : T h e Creation o f Humankind in a W i s d o m Text from Qumran," in The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. D . W . Parry and E. Ulrich; STDJ 3 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 9 ) 6 0 9 - 1 9 ; Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 8 5 - 9 4 ; idem, "The Mystery to C o m e , " 1 3 9 - 4 7 ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 80-90. For discussion o f the transcription upon w h i c h this translation is based, see Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 8 4 - 8 8 . N o t e that the reading "the m i f g h t ] " ([n]»n) is not entirely certain and that it has b e e n reconstructed as [ m ^ n . S e e DJD 34, 1 6 2 - 6 6 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 2 - 5 4 ; A . Caquot, "Les T e x t e s de s a g e s s e de Qoumran (Apercu preliminaire)," RHPR 7 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 1-34 (esp. 17-19). The phrase "sons o f Sheth" has b e e n interpreted as a reference to the patriarch Seth. Early Jewish literature generally portrays the patriarch Seth in a positive light. 8 4

8 5

8 6

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"reward" that God has established for him, which is probably eternal life with the angels after death. The final judgment is presented as an inevitable truth. It is understood in deterministic terms. The phrase "ordained is all the punishment" is in parallelism with "engraved is the statute" (JTHn pinn). This suggests that the "statute" is another reference to divine judgment. Line 15 affirms that the fate ordained against the "sons of Sheth" is "engraved" ( m i n ) as well. The image of the decree written down underscores its authority and inevitability. Exod 3 2 : 1 6 describes the Mosaic tablets as "engraved" (riTin). The engraved statute of 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 1 4 may allude to the Torah. But, if one grants this position, the image of the Torah is used to underscore that divine judgment will take place. The emphasis is on judgment more than the Torah itself. 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 15 mentions a "book of remembrance" QTDT 1 D 0 ) . It is written "for those who keep his word." It is probably intended for the elect, or at least the righteous (cf. Mai 3:16). The text is "written before him," referring to God. It is a heavenly book that can be compared to those of 1 Enoch and Jubilees (e.g., I En. 9 0 : 2 0 ; 9 3 : 2 ; Jub. 6 : 3 1 ; 15:25). This book, inscribed with divine knowledge, 87

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Josephus and Philo, for example, praise the "virtue" o f Seth {Ant, 1.68; Post. 173), and the figure is represented in the Animal Apocalypse as a white bull (7 En. 85:9; cf. T. Ben. 10:6). The "sons o f Sheth," clearly a negative expression, is more likely an allusion to N u m 2 4 : 1 7 , w h i c h m e n t i o n s the "Shethites," a M o a b i t e tribe (cf. Jer 4 8 : 4 5 ) . This text proclaims the destruction o f the Moabites, asserting that a scepter "shall crush the borderlands o f M o a b , and the territory o f all the Shethites (•» rra-M)." B o t h the War Scroll and the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t allude to this verse to describe t h o s e w h o will be destroyed ( 1 Q M 11:6-7; C D 7:21). 4QInstruction u s e s the expression "sons o f the Sheth" in a similar way. S e e Collins, "In the L i k e n e s s o f the H o l y O n e s , " 6 1 1 - 1 2 ; S.D. Fraade, Enosh and His Generation: Pre-Israelite Hero and History in Postbiblical Interpretation ( S B L M S 3 0 ; Chico: Scholars Press, 1984); A.F.J. Klijn, Seth in Jewish, Christian and Gnostic Literature ( N o v T S u p 4 6 ; Leiden: Brill 1 9 7 7 ) . * S e e section 3 . 2 . 2 . E x o d 17:14; Jer 17:1; 1 En. 3 9 : 2 ; 9 0 : 1 7 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 8 3 ; Elgvin, "The Mystery T o C o m e , " 1 4 1 . P u e c h suggests reconstructing this expression in 4 Q 4 1 8 81 14. S e e h i s "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 109. T h e phrase is attested nowhere e l s e in the c o m p o s i t i o n (cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 - 4 5 i 12). Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 123; Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 8 8 ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 6 9 - 7 9 ; C. Werman, "'The r m n and the rm»n' Engraved o n the Tablets." DSD 9 ( 2 0 0 2 ) 7 5 - 1 0 3 ; S. Paul, "Heavenly Tablets and the B o o k o f Life," JANESCU 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) 3 4 5 - 5 3 . 1

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represents an appeal to revelation. The tome is associated with memory ("remembrance"; p " D T ) , and in the previous line the addressee is told to remember (]1"DT3) that divine judgment will arrive. Divine judgment has been written down ("engraved"; 4Q417 1 i 15). The "book of remembrance" emphasizes further that God's inevitable punishment of the wicked is a revealed truth. The book may also signify the Torah. If this is the case, the Torah is used to emphasize the theme of judgment, not unlike the phrase "engraved is the statute" of line 14. The "book of remembrance" is equated with the "vision of Hagu" in 4Q417 1 i 16. This "vision" remains obscure. The expression "vision of Hagu" is not attested elsewhere. The Damascus Document and the Rule of the Congregation stipulate that group leaders must be familiar with a "book of Hagu" (CD 10:6; 14:6-8; lQSa 1:6-7). This expression is also enigmatic. The vision is introduced without elaboration in 4Q417 1 i 16, unlike the "book of remembrance." The author probably assumed that his audience knew what the "vision of Hagu" meant. If the heavenly "book of remembrance" was inscribed with a decree of judgment, the "vision of Hagu" reinforces the motif of judgment with an additional appeal to revelation. The revealed content of the "vision of Hagu" is probably similar to the revealed content of the raz nihyeh. The vision is associated with divine judgment. One can also learn about this topic from the mystery that is to be (4Q417 1 i 6-8). The "fleshly spirit" is denied the "vision of Hagu" because it does not possess the knowledge of good and evil (4Q417 1 i 17-18) (see below). It is implied that the vision was considered a source for this knowledge. One can know good and evil through the mystery that is to be (11. 6-8). 4Q417 1 i 6 92

93

Hab 2:2 associates a "vision" with writing: "Write the v i s i o n (pm); make it plain o n tablets." There h a v e been numerous attempts to identify the "book o f H a g u . " It m a y refer to the texts o f the Torah revered b y the D e a d S e a sect. For this v i e w s e e I. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran A u t h o r ' s spr hhgw/y," JNES 2 0 ( 1 9 6 1 ) 1 0 9 - 1 4 . T h e "vision o f H a g u " m a y b e the inspiration o f the title o f the "book o f Hagu." T h e "vision o f H a g u " is associated with a b o o k ( 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 16). The rulebooks treat the "book o f H a g u " as if it were an actual text, w h i c h is never the c a s e in 4QInstruction with regard to the "vision o f H a g u " or the "book o f remembrance." Consult further D . Steinmetz, "Sefer H e H a g o : T h e C o m m u n i t y and the B o o k , " JJS 5 2 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 4 0 - 5 8 ; C. H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 7 7 - 9 5 (esp. 2 8 5 - 8 6 ) ; C. Werman, "What is the B o o k o f H a g u ? " in Sapiential Perspectives, 125-40. 9 3

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urges the addressee to "meditate" (run) on the raz nihyeh, an imperative with the same root as "Hagu" (cf. 4Q418 43 4). It is reasonable to suppose that the vision of Hagu, like the raz nihyeh, signifies an overarching divine plan that endows history and creation with a rational structure. There is no direct evidence for this view, but it can be inferred from the affinities between this vision and the mystery that is to be. There are differences between the two expressions. 4QInstruction never exhorts the mebin to study or contemplate the vision of Hagu, as is so often the case with the mystery that is to be. The composition never tells the addressee that this vision has already been revealed to him, whereas such reminders occur several times with regard to the raz nihyeh (e.g., 4Q418 123 ii 4). 4QInstruction is more interested in the issue of access to the vision of Hagu than its content. This vision is given to the "spiritual people" (mi DI7) and not to the "fleshly spirit" (*W2 mi). This is a relatively early example of a flesh-spirit dichotomy. The expression "spiritual people" is not attested elsewhere in 4QInstruction but "fleshly spirit" is. In 4Q416 1 12 "every fleshly spirit will be laid bare," or destroyed, during the final judgment. 4Q418 81 1-2 tells the addressee that he has been separated from the "fleshly spirit" in order to remove him "from all that he (God) hates" (cf. 4Q417 1 ii 14; 4Q416 1 16). The "fleshly spirit" will not survive God's judgment. It does not know good from evil and presumably has a predisposition towards wickedness. But it is never directly stated that the "fleshly spirit" is wicked. If one compares designations for evil-doers in the Qumran rulebooks, such as those who follow the "spirit of deceit" (1QS 4:9) or the "congregation of traitors" (CD 1:12-2:1), 4QInstruction exhibits substantially less scorn and disdain towards the "fleshly spirit." In the Hodayot the speaker refers to himself as a "fleshly spirit." He asks "In the mysteries of your insight [you] have apportioned all these things ... [However, what is] the fleshly spirit 94

95

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9 4

4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 2 1 - 2 2 , w h i c h is fragmentary, u s e s the terms "mystery that is to be" and "every v i s i o n " (prn b-o). J. Frey, "Flesh and Spirit in the Palestinian Jewish Sapiential Tradition and in the Qumran Texts: A n Inquiry into the Background o f Pauline U s a g e , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 3 6 7 - 4 0 4 . Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 9 1 , supplements the phrase "spiritual p e o p l e " in 4 Q 4 1 6 1 13. 9 5

9 6

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(ien m i ) to understand all these matters?" (5:19-20; cf. v. 4; 18:23; 1QS 11:9). The poet refers to his base humanity with the term "fleshly spirit" and he acknowledges its tension with his reception of revelation. In 4QInstruction the "fleshly spirit" is denied revelation. It is a general designation for people not among the elect. While the "fleshly spirit" is associated with humankind, the "spiritual people" are like the angels. God "fashioned it (the "spiritual people") according to the likeness of the holy ones (rrjnrD D^ttnnp)" (4Q417 1 i 17). Collins has proposed that the expression D ^ H p JTOSrD is a paraphrase of the expression "in the image of God" (OTI^K nbx2) from Gen 1:27, "taking D'TlS* in its angelic sense." The vision is also possessed by ETtfX (4Q417 1 i 16). This can be interpreted as a reference to Adam. The Treatise of the Two Spirits uses the same word to denote this figure: "He created Adam (BUN) to rule the world" (1QS 3:18). The OTK of 4QInstruction could signify the patriarch Enosh or humankind in general. Since ETttK is given revelation which is not granted to the "fleshly spirit," it is not clear that the term refers to people in a universal sense. The "Enosh" reading is adopted by Lange and the 97

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T h e word MY can be translated as a n o u n with a pronominal suffix, in w h i c h case the "inclination'' o f the spiritual p e o p l e w o u l d be similar to that o f the h o l y o n e s . Semantically there is not a major difference b e t w e e n understanding this word as a verb or a noun. Collins, "In the Likeness o f the H o l y Ones," 6 1 3 , 6 1 5 ; DJD 34, 166. There m a y be a parallel in 4 Q 3 0 1 . 4 Q 3 0 1 2 b 5 has the phrase "the image o f a male" ( m a n -DT). T h e context o f this phrase regards angels: " W h o a m o n g y o u s e e k s the presence o f light and the lum[inary]?" (1. 4 ) . S e e also W.R. Garr, In His Own Image and Likeness: Humanity, Divinity, and Monotheism ( C H A N E 15; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) ; S. Bunta, "The L i k e n e s s o f the Image: A d a m i c Motifs and o^s A n t h r o p o l o g y in Rabbinic Traditions about Jacob's Image Enthroned in H e a v e n , " JSJ 3 7 ( 2 0 0 6 ) 5 5 84. W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 1 3 5 - 4 1 , endorses reading BTUK as a reference to all o f humankind. H e is critical o f m y translation (in The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 8 4 ) o f the phrase -ran in 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 17 as "moreover." H e translates "but n o more d o e s he g i v e H a g u y to a spirit o f flesh" (p. 139). Thus all o f humanity w a s g i v e n the v i s i o n o f H a g u but it w a s taken a w a y from s o m e p e o p l e , the "fleshly spirit." This interpretative option is intriguing but simply d o e s not h a v e e n o u g h support. T o maintain that 4QInstruction taught that all p e o p l e were g i v e n revelation but that it w a s taken a w a y from s o m e at a later point is a tremendous claim that relies on a brief expression, vrb -run o f 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 17. The other occurrences o f the "fleshly spirit" in 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 6 1 12; 4 Q 4 1 8 81 1-2) are negative; there is n o u n a m b i g u o u s statement that the "fleshly spirit" ever p o s s e s s e d revelation. 4 Q 4 1 8 81 1-2 e m p h a s i z e s the separation b e t w e e n the "fleshly spirit" and the addressee, not that 9 8

9 9

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editors of DJD 34. Enosh is nowhere else in Second Temple literature depicted as a recipient of revelation. The "humanity" and "Enosh" readings are difficult, but not impossible, to endorse. Considering "according to the likeness of the holy ones" an allusion to Gen 1:27 is supported by the reference to the knowledge of good and evil, which evokes Adam (4Q417 1 i 17-18). The vision of Hagu pericope roots a conception of two different kinds of humanity in Gen 1-3. These chapters contrast Adam's creation in the image of God (1:27) and his formation from the dust of the earth (2:7). If EnJK is understood as Adam, it is implied that he, like the "spiritual people," is similar to the angels. The "vision of Hagu" pericope is intentionally enigmatic. It is addressed to the niebin (4Q417 1 i 14). It is a teaching for him to study. He had to figure out how to understand it. One important lesson for him, in my opinion, is to identify with the "spiritual 101

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there w a s originally n o distinction b e t w e e n the "fleshly spirit" and the rest o f humankind. S e e also The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 9 9 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 87; DJD 34, 165. Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 88. The "Enosh" interpretation is easier to uphold if o n e understands the phrase rrra m o f 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 15 as a reference to the patriarch Seth, the father o f E n o s h ( G e n 4:26). This v i e w is critiqued above. Collins, "In the Likeness o f the H o l y Ones," 6 1 7 . Philo resolved the tension b e t w e e n Gen 1:27 and 2:7 by arguing that G e n e s i s attests a "double creation" o f humankind, based o n t w o different A d a m s , o n e heavenly, the other worldly (Opif. 134; Alleg. Interp. 1.31). This is similar to the distinction b e t w e e n "spiritual" and "fleshly" p e o p l e in 4QInstruction. Collins, "In the Likeness o f the H o l y O n e s , " 6 1 7 , s u g g e s t s that the "double creation" e x e g e s i s b y Philo appropriates Palestinian sapiential traditions. S e e further T. Tobin, The Creation of Man: Philo and the History of Interpretation ( C B Q M S 14; Washington, D . C . : T h e Catholic Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n , 1983); J.R. L e v i s o n , Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism from Sirach to 2 Baruch (Sheffield: JSOT, 1 9 8 8 ) ; J.T.A.G.M. van Ruiten, "The Creation o f M a n and W o m a n in Early Jewish Literature," in The Creation of Man and Woman (ed. G.P. Luttikhuizen; T B N 3; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 3 4 6 2 ; J.J. Collins, "Before the Fall: The Earliest Interpretations o f A d a m and E v e , " in The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L. Kugel (ed. H. N a j m a n and J.H. N e w m a n ; JSJSup 8 3 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 2 9 3 - 3 0 8 . Cf. Jub. 3:15 and L X X G e n 3:15. The Treatise o f the T w o Spirits associates the reception o f angelic w i s d o m with A d a m , proclaiming to "make those o f perfect behavior understand the w i s d o m o f the s o n s o f heaven" so that they can r e c e i v e the "glory o f A d a m " (CIK TOD) ( 1 Q S 4 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . This phrase may signify eternal life for the elect. The "glory o f A d a m " is associated with eternal life in C D 3:20 and 1QH 4:15 (cf. 1QS 4:7; 4 Q 1 7 1 3 1-2). S e e further C.H.T. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (STDJ 4 2 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) 9 5 - 9 7 ; K.P. Sullivan, Wrestling With Angels: A Study of the Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New Testament (AGJTJ 5 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 8 5 - 9 0 . 1 0 0

1 0 1

1 0 2

1 0 3

1 0 4

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people." They signify the elect who are given revelation. The "spiritual people" possess the "vision of Hagu," as the addressee has the mystery that is to be. He is in the lot of the angels; the "spiritual people" are in the likeness of the holy ones. Like the "spiritual people," the mebin is distinguished from the "fleshly spirit" (4Q418 81 1-2). The "spiritual people" represent an ideal to which the addressee is to aspire. 3.2.1 The Elect Status of the Addressee and the Garden of Eden Like the "spiritual people," the mebin is described in ways that recall Adam. The first three lines of 4Q423 1 read: ... every fruit that is produced and every delightful tree, pleasing to give knowledge (ryorb nam p bD). Is [it] not a plefasant] garden [and pleasing] to gi[ve] g[re]at knowledge? He put you in charge of it to till it and keepit (TIOB'TI rinsb ra^TOn 13) ... [the earth,] thorns and thistles ("i-nii yip) it will sprout for you, and its strength will not yield to you ... 105

This passage makes the extraordinary claim that the addressee has been given authority over the garden of Eden. The garden represents his acquisition of wisdom. He can obtain the knowledge of good and evil through the raz nihyeh (4Q417 1 i 6-8). This motif occurs in 4Q423 as well. All the trees in the garden can provide knowledge. The prohibition of Gen 2:17 is not acknowledged. The situation is similar with Sir 17:7 (cf. 4Q305 2 2). Presenting the mebin as a steward of Eden implies that the divine revelation 106

107

DJD 34, 5 0 7 - 8 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 1 4 1 . S e e further idem, "Eden and Paradise: The Garden M o t i f in S o m e Early J e w i s h Texts," in Paradise Interpreted: Representations of Biblical Paradise in Judaism and Christianity (ed. G.P. Luttikhuizen; T B N 2; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 9 ) 3 7 - 5 7 ; E.G. Chazon, "The Creation and Fall o f A d a m in the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in The Book of Genesis in Jewish and Oriental Christian Interpretation: A Collection of Essays (ed. J. Frishman and L. van R o m p a y ; L e u v e n : Peeters, 1997) 1 3 - 2 4 . T h e term "Eden" m a y occur in 4 Q 4 1 8 7 7 5. The w o r d is in poor condition and its immediate context has not survived. 4 Q 4 2 3 2 i 7 reads "[rejecting] the evil and k n o w i n g the g o o d . " Unfortunately not enough o f the immediate context o f this statement has survived. DJD 34 presents 4 Q 4 2 3 1 and 2 as a single text. A distant j o i n connects these fragments. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 1 4 1 , d o e s not present the t w o texts as a single c o l u m n . 1

6

1 0 7

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disclosed to him is knowledge once possessed by Adam. 4Q423 1 1-3 adapts phrases and motifs from Gen 1-3. The expression "every delightful tree, pleasing to give knowledge" of line 1 combines language from Gen 2:9 and 3:6. In line 2 the verb ^ E B N signifies the bestowal of authority over the garden to the mebin. This probably alludes to the grant of dominion of Gen 1:28. Retellings of this verse in ancient Jewish literature generally use this word rather than the verb R M of Gen 1:28. 4Q422 (4QParaphrase of Genesis and Exodus) 1 i 9-10, for example, reads: "he set him (Adam) in charge ( L ^ O O N ) to eat the frui[t of the soil,] that he shoulfd n]ot eat from the tree that gives knowledge of good and evil]." The verb ^ O D N is employed elsewhere in 4QInstruction in reference to the elect status of the mebin. 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 reads: "he has given you authority (HD^EJEn) over an inheritance of glory" (cf.4Q418 813). 4Q423 1 2 exhorts the addressee to "till" and "keep" the garden (TlBBbl TQtfb). Gen 2:15 commands Adam to "till it and keep it" ( M B C B L RTDTFB). The bestowal of elect status and revelation upon the mebin are not gifts outright. They demand effort and study. The call to nurture the garden conveys to him that significant labor is required to obtain wisdom. 4Q423 1 3 includes the fragmentary statement that the earth will produce "thorns and thistles" ("nTtl yip). This appropriates Gen 3:18: "thorns and thistles (T7TT1 f 1p) it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field" (cf. 4:12). In Genesis the expression signifies Adam's toil in the land once he has left Eden. 4QInstruction reinterprets this phrase to envision the garden itself falling into disarray (cf. 1QH 16:24-25). Whereas tilling Eden 109

110

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1 0 8

For a different formulation o f a similar idea, see Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, 117. 4 Q 4 2 3 1 1 reads b^mrb NAM c-ra p bD. G e n 2:9 includes the phrase -nam pir^D and 3:6, *TO©r6 p n i»RU. S e e DJD 34, 5 0 9 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 114. H. Attridge et al., Qumran Cave 4. VIII: Parabiblical Texts, Part 1 ( D J D 13; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994) 4 2 1 - 2 2 . S e e also P s 8:7; 1QS 3 : 1 7 - 1 8 ; 4 Q 2 8 7 4 2; 4 Q 3 8 1 1 7 ; 4 Q 5 0 4 8 4-6. Cf. W i s 10:2; 4 Q 2 9 9 13b 2. Chazon, "The Creation and Fall o f A d a m , " 18. A parable about a tree in 4 Q 3 0 2 m a y h a v e a similar lesson. S e e section 2 o f Chapter 10. " DJD 34, 5 1 0 , 5 1 4 ; J. Dochhorn, " ' S i e wird dir nicht ihre Kraft g e b e n ' — A d a m , Kain und der Ackerbau in 4 Q 4 2 3 2 und A p e M o s 2 4 , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 3 5 1 - 6 4 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 116. 1 0 9

1 1 0

1 1 1

1 1 2

3

3

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represents the addressee's development and education, the decline of the garden's beauty symbolizes choosing the wrong path. 3.2.2 The Elect Status of the Addressee, the Angels and Eternal Life The "spiritual people" are similar to the angels. 4Q418 81 1-5 reads:

114

The mebin is too.

He has opened up your lips as a fountain in order to bless the holy ones ( • ^ n p "["13*?). And you, like an eternal fountain, praise [his name. Long ag]o, he separated you from every fleshly spirit. And you, keep yourself separate from all that he hates, and keep apart from every abomination of [his] soul. [Fo]r he has made everyone and has given each man his own inheritance. He is your portion and your inheritance among the sons of Adam. [And over] his [in]heritance he has set you in authority. And you, with this honor him: by consecrating yourself to him, as he has established you as (the) most holy one [of all] the world (*?3n [bob] ••'ttrnp vmpb). With all the [div]ine being[s] he has cast your lot. Your glory he has magnified greatly and he has established you for himself as a first-born son among ... 11

This passage describes the elect status of the addressee. He is separated from "every spirit of flesh" (11. 1-2). The statement "He is your portion and your inheritance" of 4Q418 81 3 is reasonably considered an allusion to Num 18:20. This text recounts the special allotment accorded to priests (cf. Ezek 44:28). Strugnell and Harrington suggest that the intended audience of 4QInstruction possesses "a priestly or quasi-priestly authority." There is not enough evidence to conclude that the mebin is a priest. An interest in cultic and halakhic issues is present in the composition. The 116

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For angels in S e c o n d T e m p l e literature, consult Sullivan, Wrestling With Angels, 2 2 7 - 3 6 ; L.T. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John ( W U N T 2 / 7 0 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1995); M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabbinischer Zeit (TSAJ 3 4 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1992); M.J. D a v i d s o n , Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and Sectarian Writings from Qumran (JSPSup 11; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1992). DJD 34, 3 0 0 - 1 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 3 2 . The phrase "[Long a g ] o " (T[KB]) is in poor material condition and should b e regarded as a legitimate possibility rather than a c o n c l u s i v e reading. This reconstruction is not endorsed in Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 108. E l g v i n , "The Mystery to C o m e , " 121. DJD 34, 2 0 . 1 1 5

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39

instruction on farming in 4Q418 103 ii incorporates the law of diverse kinds of Lev 19 and Deut 22. The document appears to encourage participation in the Temple cultus (4Q418 103 ii 3; 4Q423 3 4-5). But such concerns are by no means prominent. Topics such as ritual purity or liturgical prayer are conspicuously absent. It is more likely, as Elgvin argues, that 4QInstruction uses priestly tropes to describe the elect status of the addressee. His "inheritance" is holy and superior to that of most people. 4Q418 81 5 declares that God has established the mebin as his "first-born son" ("113)3) (cf. 1Q26 3 2). This term traditionally denotes the son who is to receive his father's inheritance. The addressee is among the "sons of God," a designation for angels. 4Q418 81 also claims that "With all the [div]ine being[s] he has cast 118

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your lot (rD*ma ^ a n [ t r ] ^ * ] ^ M ) " (U. 4-5; cf. 1 En. 69:11).

123

Line 1 encourages the mebin to bless the "holy ones" (D^OVIp), a common term for angels in Second Temple literature. Similarly lines 11-12 exhort: "Before you receive your inheritance from his hand, glorify his holy ones (VETnp ... begin [with] a song ( n n s

L.H. Schiffman, "Halakhic E l e m e n t s in the Sapiential Texts," in Sapiential Perspectives, 8 9 - 1 0 0 (esp. 9 4 - 9 9 ) . 4 Q 4 2 3 5 l a m e n t i o n s "Levi the prie[st]" in a fragmentary context. T. E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? T h e M i l i e u s o f Origin o f 4 Q M y s t e r i e s and 4QInstruction," in Sapiential Perspectives, 67-87. Cf. 4 Q 4 1 6 4 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 8 8 ii 8; 4 Q 4 1 8 102 5; 4 Q 4 1 8 172 5. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, 1 7 9 , contends that 4 Q 4 1 8 81 is written t o Aaronic priests w h o b l e s s the "holy o n e s , " w h o m h e understands as the "laity o f Israel." But 4QInstruction never m a k e s a distinction b e t w e e n "priest" and "laity." The c o m p o s i t i o n is intended for p e o p l e with differing professions ( s e e section 5 ) , but this social diversity i s never expressed in a hierarchical sense. S e e also Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 3 6 ; L.T. Stuckenbruck, " ' A n g e l s ' and ' G o d ' : Exploring t h e Limits o f Early Jewish M o n o t h e i s m , " in Exploring Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism (ed. L.T. Stuckenbruck and W . E . S . North; J S N T S u p 2 6 3 ; N e w York/London: Continuum, 2 0 0 4 ) 4 5 - 7 0 . Elgvin, ^ A n A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 1 4 0 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 3 3 . T h e transcription o f the w o r d [ D ^ M is not fully certain. It has a poor material basis. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is a reasonable reconstruction since 4 Q 4 1 8 8 1 1 - 5 explains the addressee's special relationship with G o d and the angels. S e e DJD 34, 3 0 5 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 9 4 ; A . Lange, "The Determination o f Fate b y the Oracle o f the L o t in the D e a d S e a Scrolls, the H e b r e w B i b l e and A n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a n Literature," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Oumran, 39-48. 1 2 0

1 2 1

1 2 2

1 2 3

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124

]) of all the holy ones." 4Q418 81 4 uses the verb 123 when urging the addressee to give glory to God. 4Q416 2 iii 11 tells him to "praise his name constantly" (cf. 4Q417 1 ii 6, 9). Praise of God by the angels is a widespread trope in Early Jewish writings. It is a core element, for example, in Dan 7 and the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (cf. Ps 103:20-21; 148:1-2; 1 En. 61:12). By exalting God the mebin acts in a way that is similar to the angels. The Hodayot also associates the placement of the elect in the "lot of the holy ones" with the praise of God (1QH 19:6-12; cf. 1QS 11:7-8; 4Q511 2 i 8). 4Q418 81 underscores the similarity between the addressee and the "holy ones" by teaching that the mebin himself is holy. Lines 3-4 read: "And you, with this glorify him: by consecrating yourself to him, as he has established you as (the) most holy one [of all] the world (bin [bvb] n^vrnp vnpby (cf. 4Q423 8 3; llQPs 26:9). The Community Rule describes the establishment of the "Community Council" as "the Holy of Holies for Aaron" QTinK*? D ^ T i p ttmp), claiming that the elect community has assumed the atoning function of the Temple (1QS 8:5-6). 4Q418 81 3-4 has been understood as an analogous description of the elect as "the Holy of Holies." 1QS 8:5 calls the elect an "eternal planting" (ublX ntftDB); this phrase occurs in a fragmentary context in 4Q418 81 13. But caution is required when using 1QS 8 to interpret 4Q418 81 3-4. In 4QInstruction the elect group never assumes any intercessory role. The wisdom text never polemicizes against the Temple (cf. CD 6:11-12). onp D^cmp should be interpreted in a superlative sense ("most holy") rather than as a direct reference to the Holy of Holies. The phrase nevertheless brings the Holy of Holies to mind. The line alludes to the Temple to underscore the holiness of the addressee. His holiness is a prominent theme throughout 4QInstruction. 4Q416 2 ii 6-7 125

3

126

127

128

Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 9 4 , offers a more cautious transcription o f this passage than DJD 34, 3 0 1 . T h e version in DJD 34, w h i c h I use above, d o e s not have a strong material basis but is plausible on semantic grounds. S e e also Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 109. A fragmentary passage o f 4 Q 4 1 8 126 ii could refer to angels praising God: "Continually they praise his n a m e " (1. 10). DJD 34, 3 0 2 ; DSSSE, 2 . 8 7 1 . Cf. 1 En. 10:16; 9 3 : 1 0 ; C D 1:6-7. S e e Stuckenbruck, " ' A n g e l s ' and ' G o d , ' " 6 3 - 6 6 ; P.A. Tiller, "The 'Eternal Planting' in the Dead Sea Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 312-35. P u e c h , "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 112. 1 2 5

1 2 6

1 2 7

1 2 8

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affirms that the mebin has a holy spirit (cf. 1QS 3:7). 4Q415 probably mentions his "holy seed." Fragmentary texts declare that he possesses an "inheritance of holifness]" and a "ho[ly] heart," and that he should not depart from the "ways of holiness." The angels are presented as models for conduct. They never cease searching for truth: "Indeed, would they say: 'We are tired of works of truth, [we] are weary of ...' Do [they] not wal[k] in eternal light? ... [gl]ory and an abundance of splendor are with them" (4Q418 69 ii 13-14). 4Q418 55 8-10 also describes the angels as a pedagogical ideal: 129

130

[Do] you [not k]now, or have you not heard, that the angels of holiness are h[is] (God's) in heaven? ... They pursue after all the roots of understanding and are vigilant for ... [according to their knowledge they are glorified, each more than his neighbor, and according to one's intelligence his splendor is increased. The addressee's establishment among the "lot" of the angels is not guaranteed. Rather he must nurture and improve it over time, through the study of the raz nihyeh. This lesson is similar to the exhortation of 4Q423 1 that he should till the garden. If the addressee acts like the angels he will join them after death. This is not stated directly but can be inferred. According to 4Q418 69 ii 12-13, the angels live forever: the so[ns of] heaven, whose inheritance is eternal life" (cf. 1. 7). The addressee is reminded that he will die. 4Q418 103 ii 9 teaches that neither a person's property nor body will last: "[More]over your wealth is together with your flesh. [When the days of] your life [come to an end], they (also) will come to an end together" (cf. 4Q416 2 iii 7-8; 4Q418 55 l l ) . 4Q418 69 ii 6 claims that "the foolish of heart" will return "to the eternal pit (0*711} nTO)" (cf. 4Q418 126 ii 7-8). This probably refers to punishment after death. 6C

131

132

A c c o r d i n g to DJD 34, 4 5 , 4 Q 4 1 5 2 i + 1 ii 4-5 attests the phrase "your h o l y seed" (rora-np ani). T h e first w o r d is on fragment 2 i and the second is o n 1 ii. T h e t w o texts are connected b y a distant j o i n . Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 226, considers this j o i n "virtually certain" because the t w o fragments, w h e n placed together, make coherent statements on both the recto and verso, on w h i c h is written 4Q414. S e e , respectively, 4 Q 4 1 8 2 3 4 1, 4 Q 4 1 8 2 3 6 3 and 4 Q 4 2 3 9 3 . DJD 34, 3 3 1 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 9 9 . If the author o f 4QInstruction w a s familiar with a version o f 1 Enoch ( s e e section 3.1.2), h e could h a v e read accounts o f the fiery torment o f the w i c k e d after 1 3 0

1 3 1

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When the addressee is told he can learn about who will inherit glory and who iniquity in 4Q417 2 i 10-12, the lesson makes a distinction between mourning and joy: Do not rejoice in your mourning lest you toil in you[r] life. [Gaze upon the mystery] that is to be, grasp the birth-times of salvation and know who is inheriting glory and who ini[qu]ity. Is not [joy established for those contrite of spirit?] Or eternal joy (D^II? nnBE?) for those who mourn? "Mourning" is associated with the present. "Eternal joy" appears to be something that the addressee will enjoy in the future. 4Q418 102 5 reads: "[from the] iniquity of abomination you will be innocent, and in the joy of truth (DBK n n » M ) you will ..." In this text the term "joy" describes being spared from divine judgment. 4Q416 4 3 associates joy with the special inheritance allotted to the mebin, who is urged to "rejoice in the inheritance of truth" (DDK n^naa nroiB) (cf. 4Q416 2 iii 8). In 1 Enoch joy has an eschatological sense in reference to the fate of the righteous. The Epistle of Enoch, for example, promises that "you will have great joy like the angels of heaven" (7 En. 104:4). In 4QInstruction "eternal joy" probably signifies eternal life with the angels, which the addressee can attain after death. He is urged to protect his "holy spirit" by following the teaching of the composition (e.g., 4Q416 2 ii 6). Having preserved this spirit, it continues to exist after the death of the body. In 133

134

135

death such as 1 En. 1 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 and 103:7-8. The Treatise o f the T w o Spirits u s e s the phrase "eternal pit" (u^bus nnrc) in reference to the punishment o f the w i c k e d after death ( 1 Q S 4:12). T h e "dark regions" (c-oona) o f 1QS 4:13 are associated with anguish, whereas the D-SOTTO o f 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 7 are unaccompanied b y any description o f punishment after death (cf. P s 143:3; 4 Q 5 2 5 21 1). It is reasonable to posit that the author o f 4QInstruction w a s familiar with a conception o f punishment after death for the w i c k e d . H o w e v e r , this idea is never explicit in the text and he s h o w s minimal interest in this motif. Cf. 1 En. 5 1 : 4 - 5 ; Jub. 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 ; 1QS 4:6-8. N o t e the phonetic similarity b e t w e e n the contrasting fates o f the "eternal pit" (pbvs nno) and "eternal j o y " (c*?i» mora). The Treatise o f the T w o Spirits also distinguishes b e t w e e n the "eternal pit" ( c n ^ i s TWO) and "eternal j o y " (p^nbiss m a c ) (1QS 4:6-14). E l g v i n has argued that 4QInstruction affirms the resurrection o f the righteous. In "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 2 4 9 , for example, h e translates 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 7 as "the seekers o f truth will w a k e up to the j u d g m e n t s [ o f G o d ? ] . " H e understands this statement along the lines o f 1 En. 9 1 : 1 0 , w h i c h asserts that "the righteous w i l l arise from his sleep." S e e also his "Early E s s e n e Eschatology," 1 4 3 - 4 4 . E. P u e c h has argued at length that 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 7 attests a b e l i e f in resurrection. S e e his "La 1 3 3

1 3 4

1 3 5

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4Q417 2 i 10-12 the present, construed as a state of mourning, contrasts with the "joy" the addressee will receive after death. This grim assessment of his life accords with his poverty. Other texts depict the life of the mebin in a different manner. 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 reads: "He (God) has raised your head out of poverty (rDfflto o n n W i n ) . With the nobles (D^ITHJ) he has placed you, and he has given you authority over an inheritance of glory (rD^TOn T D D n^TOD)" (cf. 4Q415 6 2; 4Q418 126 ii 8; 4Q418 177 5). This statement occurs between reminders that the addressee is "poor" (4Q416 2 iii 8, 12). Many members of the intended audience of 4QInstruction struggled financially, as discussed below. Therefore the claim that the mebin has been lifted out of poverty should be understood metaphorically. The assertion that he has been seated with the "nobles" is in parallelism with his "inheritance of glory," a reference to his elect status. It is reasonable to understand the "nobles" as angels. Admittedly, the word D'O'Ha does not have this meaning elsewhere in Second Temple literature. 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 gives the impression of realized eschatology, as if joining the angels were possible during the life of the addressee. But 4Q417 2 i 10-12, with its distinction between "mourning" and 136

137

138

Croyance a la resurrection des justes dans un texte qumranien de s a g e s s e , " in Sefer Moshe: The Moshe Weinfeld Jubilee Volume. Studies in the Bible and the Ancient Near East, Qumran, and Post-Biblical Judaism (ed. C. C o h e n et al.; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2 0 0 4 ) 4 2 7 - 4 4 ; idem, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 1 0 0 - 3 ; idem, "La C o n c e p t i o n de la v i e future dans le livre de la S a g e s s e et les manuscrits de la M e r Morte: U n Apercu," RevQ 21 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 2 0 9 - 3 2 (esp. 2 2 8 - 2 9 ) ; idem, "Apports des textes apocalyptiques et sapientiels," 1 4 0 - 4 4 . A c c o r d i n g to 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 7, "the seekers o f truth" "exist forever." This section is addressed to the "foolish o f heart" w h o are j u d g e d . Line 13 affirms that the angels have eternal life. In line 7 the "seekers" "rouse t h e m s e l v e s " ( m r ) for "your" j u d g m e n t , referring to the "foolish o f heart." This suggests that the "seekers" are not the righteous w h o are resurrected but angels w h o participate in the divine j u d g m e n t o f the w i c k e d . S e e also Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 1 1 ; J.J. Collins, "The E s c h a t o l o g i z i n g o f W i s d o m in the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in Sapiential Perspectives, 496 5 (esp. 56). * S e e section 5 . 3 . 1 . 4 Q 4 2 7 7 ii 8-9 reads: "(God) casts d o w n the haughty spirit s o that there is no remnant and lifts up the poor from the d u s t . . . and to the clouds he magnifies h i m in stature and (he is) with the h e a v e n l y b e i n g s in the a s s e m b l y o f the c o m m u n i t y " (cf. 1 Sam 2:6-7; 1QH 2 6 : 1 - 2 ; 4 Q 5 2 5 14 ii 3). S e e also W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 155-56. N o t e , h o w e v e r , 1QH 14:14: "They will be your princes (ns-nc) in the lo[t o f your h o l y o n e s ] . " Cf. Sir 11:1; C D 6 : 2 - 1 1 ; 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 9. 36

1 3 7

1 3 8

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"eternal joy," suggests that 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 does not make the exact same claim as the Self-Glorification Hymn. The speaker of this aptly named text boldly asserts that he is with the angels: "I am counted among the gods" (4Q491c 1 7). The Hodayot similarly asserts that the elect have been purified from sin "to become united wi[th] the sons of your truth and in the lot with your holy ones" (1QH 19:11-12; cf. 11:19-22). 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 promotes the deterministic view that the elect status of the mebin and its eternal rewards have been established by God. For this to take place he must live in a way that is characterized by piety, righteousness and wisdom. 4QInstruction can be understood to have a "realized eschatology," but in a weaker sense than how the expression is often understood. Fellowship with the angels is not fully realized until death. 139

140

4. ESCHATOLOGICAL JUDGMENT 141

Eschatological judgment is an important theme in 4Qlnstruction. It is a prominent motif in the "vision of Hagu" pericope and the composition is filled with brief allusions to this topic. 4Q416 1, considered to be the beginning of the composition, establishes the 142

1 3 9

M . G . A b e g g , Jr., " W h o A s c e n d e d to H e a v e n ? 4 Q 4 9 1 , 4 Q 4 2 7 , and the Teacher o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , " in Eschatology, Messianism, and the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. C A . E v a n s and P . W . Flint; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 9 7 ) 6 2 - 7 0 ; E. Eshel, " 4 Q 4 7 1 b : A Self-Glorification H y m n , " RevO 17 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 1 7 5 - 2 0 3 ; M . O . W i s e , " D ^ K S T T M -a: A Studv o f 4 Q 4 9 1 c , 4 Q 4 7 1 b , 4 Q 4 2 7 7 and l Q H 2 5 : 3 5 - 2 6 : 1 0 , " DSD 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 1 7 3 - 2 1 9 . B . Frennesson, "In a Common Rejoicing": Liturgical Communion with Angels in Qumran ( S S U 14; Uppsala: University o f Uppsala Press, 1999); D . Dimant, "Men as A n g e l s : T h e S e l f - i m a g e o f the Qumran Community," in Religion and Politics in the Ancient Near East (ed. A . Berlin; Bethesda: University Press o f Maryland, 1 9 9 6 ) 9 3 - 1 0 3 ; Sullivan, Wrestling With Angels, 147'-67; J.H. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal o f the R i g h t e o u s as an A n g e l , " in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism: Profiles and Paradigms (ed. J.J. Collins and G . W . E . Nickelsburg; S B L S C S 12; Chico: Scholars Press, 1 9 8 0 ) 1 3 5 - 5 1 . T. Elgvin, "Early E s s e n e Eschatology: Judgment and Salvation according to Sapiential Work A , " in Current Research and Technological Development on the Dead Sea Scrolls: Conference on the Texts from the Judean Desert, Jerusalem, 30 April 1995 (ed. D . W . Parry and S.D. R i c k s ; STDJ 2 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 6 ) 1 2 6 - 6 5 ; Collins, "The E s c h a t o l o g i z i n g o f W i s d o m , " 4 9 - 6 5 . S e e , for example, 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 2 4 ; 4 Q 4 1 7 1 ii 11; 4 Q 4 1 7 4 ii 4 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 6 8 2 - 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 7 7 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 113 1 - 2 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 121 1; 4 Q 4 1 8 c 5; 4 Q 4 2 3 4 3a; and 4 Q 4 2 3 6 4. a

1

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theological horizon for the teachings that follow.

Lines 10-13 read:

F r o m h e a v e n he will j u d g e over the work o f w i c k e d n e s s .

B u t all t h e

s o n s o f his truth w i l l b e a c c e p t e d w i t h f a v o r . . . T h e y (the w i c k e d ) w i l l b e i n terror.

A n d all t h o s e w h o d e f i l e d t h e m s e l v e s i n it ( w i c k e d n e s s )

w i l l cry out. depths will be ("Kzn

rrn

F o r the h e a v e n s w i l l b e afraid . . . T h e [ s ] e a s a n d the i n terror a n d e v e r y

fleshly

spirit w i l l b e

laid

bare

bD rijniHT). B u t t h e s o n s o f h e a v e [ n w i l l r e j o i c e o n t h e d a y

o f ] its [ j u d g ] m e n t a n d all i n i q u i t y w i l l c o m e t o a n e n d , a n d t h e p e r i o d o f t r u [ t h ] w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d (cf. 4 Q 4 1 6 3 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 6 4 l ) .

1 4 4

Divine judgment is depicted as a mighty act that overwhelms the natural world. This text is similar to theophanies of the Hebrew Bible such as Judg 5:4-5. Theophanic proclamations of judgment are prominent in the biblical prophets (e.g., Hab 3:10), and the author of 4QInstruction may have been familiar with this tradition. I Enoch also begins with a declaration of theophanic judgment. Some will be punished and others rewarded. The expression "sons of his truth" probably refers to the elect (4Q416 1 10; cf. 4Q418 81 10; 1QS 4:6). According to 4Q416 1 12, the "fleshly spirit" will be destroyed. The phrase denotes people who are not among the elect. They do not have the revealed knowledge necessary for salvation, which is available to the "sons of his truth." "The period of tru[th]" ( [ n j O K H f p) probably refers to the time during which iniquity is vanquished (4Q416 1 13; cf. 4Q418 123 ii 4). This period is understood in relation to "all the periods of eternity" (10 Sp bD) in a text that is unfortunately too fragmentary to interpret sufficiently (4Q416 1 14; cf. 4Q417 1 i 7-8). 4QInstruction does not enumerate different periods of history or recount the events that take place in each one in the manner of the Enochic Apocalypse of Weeks. There is no sense that the author considers himself to be living in the final period. But 4Q416 does understand history as 145

146

n

1 4 3

Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 126; Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 8 9 . Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 174, 180, j o i n s material from 4 Q 4 1 8 2 1 2 to 4 Q 4 1 6 1 1 1 . H i s version o f this line states: "For the h e a v e n s shall fear, and the earth shall b e shaken from [its p l a c e ] . " T h e extra s e c o n d phrase fits w e l l with the theophanic tenor o f the passage. Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 8 6 , consider the difficult verb runyrr in 4 Q 4 1 6 1 1 2 "obscure." It may b e a Hithpalpel o f the root T W , "to m a k e bare" (cf. Jer 5 1 : 5 8 ) . Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 9 0 - 9 1 , 9 7 , reconstructs 4 Q 4 1 6 1 13 as attesting discussion o f divine praise. Collins, "The E s c h a t o l o g i z i n g o f W i s d o m , " 5 2 . J.C. VanderKam, "The Theophany o f E n o c h 1 3 B - 7 , 9," in From Revelation to Canon (JSJSup 6 2 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 3 3 2 - 5 3 . 1 4 4

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1 4 6

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divided into periods, a common motif in the apocalyptic tradition. A fragmentary portion of 4Q416 1 affirms the regulated nature of the cosmos: "season upon season ... according to their host to r[ule by dominion ... for kingdom] and kingdom, for pr[ovince and province, for each and every man ... the judgment of all of them belongs to him]" (11. 3-6; cf. 1 En. 2-5; 100:10-11). The ordered nature of reality underscores the extent of divine control and the inevitability of judgment. The other major judgment scene of 4QInstruction is in 4Q418 69 ii, part of which reads: 148

... and your return will be to the eternal pit (pb\3 nnwb), for it will awaken [to condemn] you[r] sin ... its dark regions will roar against your case (Man) and all who exist forever, those who seek truth, will rouse themselves for yo[ur] judgment. [And then] all the foolish of heart will be destroyed (nb 'bm b*D HOttr), the sons of iniquity will be found no more [and a]ll who seize wickedness will wither [away. And then] at your judgment the foundations of the firmament will shout and all... will thunder ... (11. 6-9). 149

This passage, like 4Q416 1, has theophanic elements, such as thunder and the shouting of the firmament. Use of the word m suggests familiarity with prophetic tradition (cf. Mic 6:1-8; 1Q26 1 7; 4Q423 4 3a). 4Q418 69 ii 4-9 is addressed to the "foolish of heart" and lines 10-15 to the "truly chosen ones." The former are told of their destruction and the latter are urged to pursue the truth. No other text of 4QInstruction affirms an opposition between these two groups. 4Q418 69 ii favors the second person plural, as does 4Q418 55, whereas the composition in general uses the second person singular. Some commentators have suggested that these two fragments have a provenance distinct from the rest of the composition. This is possible. But there is not enough evidence to endorse this opinion. A 150

J.J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination (2 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 9 8 [orig. pub., 1 9 8 4 ] ) 6 3 - 6 5 . DJD 34, 8 2 . Tigchelaar's reconstruction o f this passage is slightly different from that o f DJD 34. S e e To Increase Learning, 176-77. Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 9 9 , offers a slightly different reconstruction o f this passage. H e plausibly suggests that line 6 states that the pit will a w a k e and expose your sin (italics m i n e ) . H e supplements the line so that it claims that the "[inhabitants of] its dark regions" will contend against the foolish o f heart. B a s e d o n a visible sade, h e m a k e s the interesting proposal that the eternal host (KDS) thunders in line 9. DJD 34, 14; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 1 1 - 1 2 . 1 4 9

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47

shift in person is not necessarily an indication of different authors. The "truly chosen ones" are to study, following the model of the angels (4Q418 69 ii 12-14; cf. 4Q418 55 8-11). The education of the elect is emphasized throughout the work, as is their affinity with the angels. 4QInstruction emphasizes the wickedness of the "foolish of heart." The expression is parallel to phrases such as "the sons of iniquity" and "[a]ll who seize wickedness." The "fleshly spirit" is not associated with wickedness in the same manner. If the "fleshly spirit" represents all people not among the elect, the "foolish of heart" can be understood more specifically as those who are wicked. Both expressions refer to those who will be destroyed in the final judgment. The addressee is told about the fate of such people in order to encourage him not to join their ranks. 4QInstruction appeals to judgment to foster ethical conduct. Proverbs teaches that the wicked and the foolish will meet an untimely death. Their demise is presented as a natural consequence of their own actions (e.g., Prov 26:27), eliminating any need for God to intervene to destroy the wicked. The form of retribution in 4QInstruction is more in keeping with prophecy and apocalypticism than traditional wisdom. 151

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5. THE INTENDED AUDIENCE OF 4QINSTRUCTION

4QInstruction typically refers to its addressee in the second person singular. The document was, however, intended for a group. The word mebin is used several times in the plural. 4Q418 123 ii 4, for example, asserts that the mystery that is to be has been revealed to the

1 5 1

K. K o c h has termed this the "Tat-Ergehen-Zusammenhang" (deedc o n s e q u e n c e relationship). S e e his "Gibt e s ein V e r g e l t u n g s d o g m a i m A l t e n Testament?" ZTK 5 2 ( 1 9 5 5 ) 1-42; idem, "Is There a Doctrine o f Retribution in the Old Testament?" in Theodicy in the Old Testament (ed. J.L. Crenshaw; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 8 3 ) 5 7 - 8 7 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 1 8 8 - 9 0 , c o m p e l l i n g l y s u g g e s t s that the t h e m e o f j u d g m e n t in 4QInstruction represents the 'eschatologizing' o f the TatErgehen-Zusammenhang. This proposal makes sense since 4QInstruction c o m b i n e s traditional w i s d o m with an apocalyptic w o r l d v i e w . 1 5 2

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153

meUinim (cf. 4Q415 11 5; 4Q418 221 3). The composition uses other group designations in relation to the elect, such as "sons of his truth" and "men of favor" (4Q416 1 10; 4Q418 81 10). These expressions probably refer to the intended audience of 4QInstruction. The composition may prefer the singular in order to address each mebm more directly. 5.1 Farmers, Artisans and Servants Several professions are represented among the intended audience of 4QInstruction. 4Q423 3 2, 4Q423 4 1-2 (par 1Q26 1 5-6), and 4Q423 5 5-6 assume the addressee is a farmer. 4Q418 103 ii urges that one not mix crops of different kinds together (cf Lev 19; Deut 22). 4Q418 81 15 proclaims that the mebin has been given •"'T riEDn, "manual skill." The phrase is used in relation to an artisan in Sir 9:17 (cf. Wis 7:16). This may also be the case in 4Q424 3 7. 4Q418 81 19 extols manual wisdom as a way to achieve an abundance of good things. This suggests some of the target group had skills as craftspeople. Other texts present the mebm as a kind of tradesman (4Q417 2 i 17-18; cf. 4Q418 126 ii 15). These passages probably refer to the sale of his own agricultural goods or crafts that he made. 4Q416 2 ii 9-18 recommends that the addressee work diligently as a "servant" (1317). The exact form of work is not specified, but the circumstances are difficult. He may "hate" his employer (1. 14). Line 17 states that he should work without wages, attending to his "oppressors freely." Since there is no payment, this could be instruction designed for a debt-slave. 4Q416 2 ii 9-18 154

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The plural form o f this w o r d has been reconstructed in 4 Q 4 1 6 1 16 by Puech, "Les Fragments eschatologiques," 9 1 . The phrase is attested in fragmentary texts ( 4 Q 4 1 8 102 3 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 137 2; 4 Q 4 1 8 139 2). S e e section 2.1 o f Chapter 7. Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 3 0 3 , 3 0 9 , interpret 4 Q 4 1 8 81 15 as claiming that the addressee has authority over manual artisans rather than manual skill. R e a d in this w a y , the text is directed towards a scribe w h o s e superiority o v e r physical laborers is affirmed, as in Sir 3 8 : 2 4 - 3 4 . This reading is unlikely, g i v e n the social location o f the addressee (see b e l o w ) . This interpretation is supported by the prominence o f instruction regarding debts and surety, w h i c h is e x a m i n e d in section 5 . 3 . 1 . S e e Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 46. 1 5 4

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envisions an addressee who is in some sort of low level domestic position. 5.2 Women 158

The intended audience of 4QInstruction includes women. 4Q415 2 ii is exceptional among wisdom texts, and ancient Jewish literature in general, because it addresses women. The fragment has not survived well, but it discusses the authority of the husband over the wife versus that of her father. Its first legible phrase reads "like (your) father honor 0122)) ..." (1. 1). The father's authority over his recently married (or soon to be married) daughter is transferred to her husband. This interpretation is suggested by the fragmentary material of lines 7 and 9, which probably mention the household in which the woman was born. The transfer of control to the husband from the woman's parents is stressed in 4Q416 2 iv 3: "From her mother he has separated her, but towards you [shall be her desire]." This perspective is applied to the daughter of a male addressee: "Your daughter he will separate unto another man" (1. 4). 4Q415 11 also offers advice to a father regarding the marriage of his daughters. Ben Sira recommends that a father be intensely vigilant over his 159

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W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 183-240. S e e also T. Han, Integrating Women into Second Temple History (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2 0 0 1 ) . B.G. Wright, " W i s d o m and W o m e n at Qumran," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 4 0 - 6 1 (esp. 2 5 2 - 5 3 ) ; D.J. Harrington, "Ten R e a s o n s W h y the Qumran W i s d o m Texts are Important," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 4 5 - 5 5 (esp. 2 5 2 ) . W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 8 6 . A s suggested in DJD 34, 125, lines 2-3 are reasonably reconstructed as attesting a parallel statement: "[Her father] he has not set in authority over her." Line 6 reads: "[A]ll her b l e m i s h e s recount to him, and m a k e [him] understand her bodily defects." 4 Q D ( 4 Q 2 7 1 ) 3 7-9 stipulates that a father should d i s c l o s e the b l e m i s h e s o f h i s daughter to the m a n she is about to marry (cf. D e u t 2 7 : 1 8 ) . It is not clear h o w "blemishes" should b e interpreted in 4 Q 4 1 5 11 6. This could refer to her appearance. Line 4 attests the w o r d "beauty" in an incomplete context. Her "blemishes" could relate to childbirth. 4 Q 4 1 5 11 6 m a y urge the father to report to the g r o o m w h e n the bride is in her menstrual cycle, with an e y e towards the conception o f a child. 4 Q 4 1 5 9 2 stresses that the addressee is to acquire children from his w i f e (cf. 4 Q 4 1 5 11 11). In 4 Q 2 7 1 3 the "blemishes" o f the w i f e refer to her promiscuity and loss o f virginity (11. 12-13). S e e DJD 34, 5 9 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 2 2 6 - 3 0 . 1 5 9

1 6 0

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1 6 2

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daughters. 4QInstruction does not teach a father to remain in a state of anxiety over his female children. Ben Sira has a caustic attitude towards daughters, and women in general, that is not found in 4QInstruction. Marriage is an important topic in 4QInstruction. According to 4Q415 2 ii 4, a woman is not to neglect the "ho[ly] covenant" (cf. 1. 7). This could refer to her observance of the Torah. Since the passage is on gender relations, it is more likely that "covenant" refers to marriage, as in Prov 2:17. 4Q415 2 ii 4 exhorts the female mebin to obey the bonds of marriage, which, for 4QInstruction, includes deferring to her husband. Such a woman is apparently praised as an ideal wife, who will become "a subject of praise [on the mou]th of all men" (1. 8). 4QInstruction alludes to the Torah to emphasize the importance of marriage: "Walk together with the helper of your flesh (rD~)ED ")TI7) (4Q416 2 iii 21). This recalls Eve by conflating material from Gen 2. She is Adam's "helper" ( I T S ) (2:18) and they are "one flesh" ( l E D n n « ) (2:24; cf. 4Q418 126 ii 9). 4Q423 1 models the elect status of the addressee after Adam. 4Q416 2 iii 21 is a practical application of this trope. As the mebin is to maintain the garden, as Adam did, he is, also like Adam, to take a wife. 4Q416 2 iv 1 preserves part of a 164

W

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Sir 4 2 : 9 - 1 1 , for example, reads: "A daughter is a treasure that k e e p s her father wakeful and worry over her drives a w a y sleep: lest in her youth she remain unmarried, or w h e n she is married, lest she be childless ... M y son, keep a c l o s e watch on your daughter, lest she make y o u the sport o f your e n e m i e s " (cf. 2 2 : 3 - 5 ; 2 6 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) . S e e further Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 6 4 - 7 0 ; W . C . Trenchard, Ben Sira's View of Women (Chico: Scholars Press, 1982); C. Camp, "Understanding a Patriarchy: W o m e n in S e c o n d Century Jerusalem Through the E y e s o f B e n Sira," in "Women Like This": New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman Period (ed. A.-J. Levine; S B L E J L 1; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991) 1-39. B e n Sira considers daughters more trouble than they are worth. Their marriage is presented as a source o f relief: "Giving your daughter in marriage is an end to anxiety" ( 7 : 2 5 ) . S e e Trenchard, Ben Sira's View of Women, 165. 4QInstruction never g i v e s a d v i c e regarding a "bad wife," unlike B e n Sira and Proverbs (cf. Sir 2 5 : 1 6 - 2 6 ; Prov 12:4). Cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 a 16b + 17 3. A l s o note 4 Q 3 0 3 1 0 - 1 1 : "He m a d e for him a helper fit [for h i m ... H e g a v e her] to him for a wife, because from h i m [she w a s taken]." DJD 34, 123; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 9 5 - 9 7 ; Wright, " W i s d o m and Women," 252. There is a parallel in Tobit. Shortly after Tobias takes Sarah as a w i f e ( 7 : 1 3 ) , h e says a prayer, part o f w h i c h reads: " Y o u made A d a m , and for him y o u m a d e his w i f e E v e as a helper and support ... Y o u said 'It is not g o o d that the man should b e 1 6 4

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statement that a man should leave his "father [and] his mother and should cl[eave to his wife]," alluding to Gen 2:24. The assertion of Gen 2:24 that Adam and Eve are "one flesh" has been understood as an affirmation of their equal status, at least before their expulsion from Eden. 4QInstruction is less ambiguous on this point. 4Q416 2 iv 4 tells a man that his wife will be "for you one flesh." The following line asserts "you will become a unity with the wife of your bosom, for she is the flesh of [your] nak[edness] ([rDm]'")!?)." This is addressed to a man. They are one flesh—his. 4Q415 9 2 expresses the same idea. Addressing a male (cf. 1. 8), it states: "Your womb is to conceive for y[ou]." The term "womb" presumably refers to the wife, pars pro toto. Her ability to bear children, and her body in general, is considered the domain of her husband. The verb bwft, used in 4Q423 1 2 to claim that the mebm has been entrusted with Eden, is employed several times to assert his 168

169

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alone; let u s m a k e a helper for h i m like himself. I n o w am taking this k i n s w o m a n o f m i n e , not b e c a u s e o f lust, but with sincerity" ( 8 : 6 - 7 ) . 168 p T } b i Q} > Rhetoric of Sexuality (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 7 8 ) 101. S e e also J.J. Collins, The Bible after Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 5 ) 8 6 - 9 6 . The pronominal suffix o f [ r o m ] ^ has b e e n supplemented. This addition m a k e s s e n s e g i v e n the rest o f the line but d o e s not h a v e a material basis. This reconstruction is endorsed b y Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 4 8 . W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 190, s u g g e s t s [ r o D ^ n s . T h e expression "flesh o f [your] n a k [ e d n e s s ] " resonates with Gen 1-3. T h e w o r d "naked" ( d t i » ) is important in these chapters ( 2 : 2 5 ; 3:1). 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 21 probably refers to the w i f e o f the addressee in a similar w a y . A c c o r d i n g t o Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 9 0 , this line attests the phrase: r o p ^ n ] ^b2, w h i c h they translate as " ' v e s s e l ' o f your b o s o m . " T h i s has b e e n related t o the w o r d ok€0o<; in 1 T h e s s 4:4. M . Kister has c h a l l e n g e d the transcription o f 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 21 in DJD 34. O n the basis o f the parallel text 4 Q 4 1 7 2 ii 2 6 , h e has proposed reading rDpi[n] iSa. T h u s the line reads "And d o not be disgraced by (living) not according to your prescribed portion." S e e his "A Qumranic Parallel to 1 T h e s s 4:4? R e a d i n g and Interpretation o f 4 Q 4 1 6 2 II 2 1 , " DSD 10 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 3 6 5 - 7 0 (esp. 3 6 6 ) . Garcia Martinez, "Marginalia," 2 4 - 2 8 , has persuasively argued in favor o f the transcription in DJD 34. H e remarks that the oldest photograph o f 4 Q 4 1 6 ( P A M 4 0 . 6 1 3 , taken o n M a y 1 9 5 3 ) clearly s h o w s a leap in the first letter o f the disputed phrase. W o l d contends that both the readings o f DJD 34 and Kister are legitimate options. S e e his "Reading and Reconstructing 4 Q 4 1 6 2 II 2 1 , " 2 0 5 - 1 1 ; idem, Women, Men and Angels, 1 9 1 - 9 7 . Consult also J. Strugnell, "More o n W i v e s and Marriage in the D e a d S e a Scrolls ( 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 21 [Cf. 1 T h e s s 4:4] and 4 Q M M T , B ) , " RevQ 17 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 5 3 7 - 4 7 ; T. E l g v i n , " T o Master H i s O w n V e s s e l ' : 1 T h e s s 4:4 in Light o f N e w Qumran E v i d e n c e , " NTS 4 3 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 6 0 4 - 1 9 ; J.E. Smith, "Another L o o k at 4 Q 4 1 6 2 i i . 2 1 , a Critical Parallel to First Thessalonians 4:4," CBQ 6 3 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 4 9 9 504. r

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authority over his wife. God has granted this control: "He has set you in authority ( ^ E H ) over her" (4Q416 2 iv 2). Lines 6-7 likewise declare: "And whoever, apart from you, tries to rule (SlOT ) over her has moved the boundary marker of his life. Over [her spirit] he has set you in authority ("j^B&n), so that she can walk according to your good pleasure." Admonitions against moving property markers are found in traditional wisdom and covenantal law (e.g., Prov 22:28; Deut 19:14). In 4Q416 2 iv 6 this trope is used to assert that the wife is within the husband's sphere of authority (cf. 11. 2-3; 4Q415 2 ii 1; 4Q424 3 9). This power is manifested by his control over the vows of his wife. He is to limit the number of vows she makes and he can annul them with an utterance (4Q416 2 iv 7, 9; cf. CD 16:10-12; Num 30:6-15). This is a rare example of halakhah in a Second Temple wisdom text. According to Strugnell, when assessing the theme of gender in 4QInstruction one should always allow "for the misogyny to be expected in wisdom texts." While this view is appropriate for Ben Sira and Qoheleth, in the case of 4QInstruction the evidence is more mixed. The document's unequivocal assertion that a husband has authority over his wife leaves no room for equal treatment. But the attitude towards women in 4QInstruction is by no means wholly negative. 1Q26 1 4-6 takes an interest in the theological education of the addressee's wife, who is to attribute her husband's success at farming to God (cf. 4Q423 4). The affirmation in 4Q416 2 iii 15-19 that the mebin should honor his parents with his poverty, referring to an attitude of humility and respect, is also applied to his wife: "you have taken a wife in your poverty" (1. 20). 4QInstruction often addresses a married male, showing a surprising degree of interest in 1

171

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4 Q 4 1 5 9 8 reads: "Have authority (bmn) o v e r her spirit." Line 7 o f this fragment reads "together the d o m i n i o n o f the male over the f [ e m a l e ] . " S e e DJD 34, 5 6 ; W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 230-32. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 8-9 e m p l o y s this m o t i f to ensure that the addressee understands the elect status that has been allotted to him: " Y o u are poor, do not desire anything except your inheritance. D o not b e confused by it lest y o u m o v e your boundary marker (rD^-nii a-'on)." S e e section 2 . 2 o f Chapter 6. Consult further Schiffman, "Halakhic E l e m e n t s , " 100; G.J. B r o o k e , "Biblical Interpretation in the W i s d o m Texts from Qumran," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 0 1 - 2 0 (esp. 2 0 8 - 1 1 ) . DJD 34, 109. See, for example, Sir 4 2 : 1 4 ; Q o h 7:28. 1 7 2

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important women in his life, including his mother, wife and daughter. More importantly, that women are addressed implies they are among the elect. 4Q416 2 iv indicates they do not have equal status within the intended audience. There is no evidence, however, that women were denied the mystery that is to be or that they were not considered among the lot of the angels. Men were taught that they have been separated from the "fleshly spirit" (4Q418 81 1-2), referring to people not among the elect. The male mebm would not marry a woman who is among the "fleshly spirit." Thus some women are accorded a status not possessed by most men. This realization may explain why 4QInstruction is so insistent that the male elect has authority over the female elect. In the wake of the theological superiority the female addressee has over most men, the author is compelled to assert that traditional patriarchal norms dictate gender relations among the members of the intended audience. The attitude towards women in 4QInstruction is at once conservative and radical. Since the personification of wisdom as a woman is often understood as a way to encourage male students to seek wisdom, the inclusion of women in 4QInstruction may explain why the document never appeals to Lady Wisdom. 176

177

5.3 The Social Location of 4QInstruction According to the editors of DJD 34, the intended audience of 4QInstruction comprises people in training for scribal and administrative positions in the state bureaucracy. The fact that 4QInstruction is a written document designed for students implies some sort of scribal and pedagogical setting. But one is hard pressed 178

1 7 6

The phrase "council o f men'' ( c ^ 3 K n o ) occurs t w i c e in fragmentary contexts (4Q415 6 1,6). 4 Q 4 1 5 1 1 9 states "with a w e i g h t their spirit will be meted out in . . . " W h i l e the exact antecedent o f the word "spirit" is unclear, this line may teach that the g r o o m is to assess the "spirit" o f his wife. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 6-7 asserts that the addressee has a "holy spirit." I argued in section 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 that 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 10-12 teaches that p e o p l e w h o can attain salvation h a v e an inherent predisposition to this fate, understood in relation to their birth. The g r o o m ' s a s s e s s m e n t o f the "spirit" o f the bride can b e understood as an effort to ensure that h e marries a w o m a n w h o is a m o n g the elect. 4 Q 4 1 5 11 9 may allude to the g r o o m ' s determination o f the "birth-times o f salvation" o f his prospective wife. DJD 34, 2 0 - 2 1 . 1 7 7

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to find evidence that the text is a product of an aristocratic milieu or a retainer class. While a range of people and professions are represented among the addressees of 4QInstruction, the class indicators consistently point to a humble and austere social setting. The document includes no guidelines regarding etiquette at banquets or dealings with wealthy and powerful people, unlike Proverbs and Ben Sira. Some members of the original audience of 4QInstruction could have been wealthy. However, such people are by no means the focus of the composition. 179

5.3.1 Poverty and Debts 180

The mebin is often reminded that he is poor. 4QInstruction's refrain "you are poor" is unique in Second Temple literature (4Q415 6 2; 4Q416 2 ii 20; 4Q416 iii 2, 8, 12, 19; 4Q418 177 5). Wisdom literature often demonstrates a sincere concern for the poor. Proverbs, for example, teaches: "The field of the poor may yield much food, but it is swept away through injustice" (13:23; cf. 14:2021). 4QInstruction is exceptional among sapiential texts by 181

182

Prov 2 3 endorses moderation with regard to eating and drinking as proper decorum w h e n dining with the wealthy and the powerful. V e r s e s 1-2 read: "When y o u sit d o w n to eat with a ruler, observe carefully what is before y o u , and put a knife to your throat if y o u h a v e a big appetite." Sir 3 2 advocates moderation o f speech during banquets ( w . 7-9). 4QInstruction endorses restraint with regard to food and drink ( 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 18-20). But, unlike Proverbs and B e n Sira, this is never stressed in the context o f interaction with aristocrats. A c c o r d i n g to Strugnell and Harrington, DJD 34, 176, 178, 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 2 includes the phrase "without reproaching the n o b l e (-ittDn)," w h i l e noting that the passage is obscure. It is not clear that "the noble" is the proper translation o f -iran. H.-J. Fabry, "Die Armenfrommigkeit in den qumranischen Weisheitstexten," in Weisheit in Israel (ed. D.J.A. Clines, H. Lichtenberger and H.-P. Muller; A T M 12; Minister: Lit-Verlag, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 4 5 - 6 5 ; B.G. Wright III, "The Categories o f Rich and Poor in the Qumran Sapiential Literature," in Sapiential Perspectives, 101-23; C M . Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Qumran Community (STDJ 4 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) 1 6 3 - 2 0 9 . T h e s e instances u s e either cn/ran or p-a* in reference to the addressee's poverty. Several survive in unfortunately fragmentary contexts. This is the case, for e x a m p l e , in 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 2 and 19. Cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 148 ii 4; 4 Q 4 1 8 2 4 9 3. S e e DJD 34, 315' Tigchelaar, "The A d d r e s s e e s o f 4QInstruction," 70. T.J. Sandoval, The Discourse of Wealth and Poverty in the Book of Proverbs ( B I S 77; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) ; L.J. H o p p e , There Shall Be No Poor Among You: Poverty in the Bible (Nashville: A b i n g d o n Press, 2 0 0 4 ) 1 0 4 - 2 1 ; J.D. Pleins, The Social Visions of the Hebrew Bible: A Theological Introduction (Louisville: 1 8 1

8 2

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addressing the poor directly. The composition shows little interest in the poor as an economic class but is fixated upon the poverty of the mebm. * 4QInstruction gives advice for people experiencing different levels of material hardship. 4Q417 2 i 17-18 reads: 1

3

And as for you, if you have need for food, [br]ing your surpluses [together, i]f you have surplus, (and) carry (them) to the place of his business (I2£3n rra). Receive your inheritance (ron^m) from him, but do not (take) any mo[re]. 184

185

This is written for a person who can satisfy his basic needs. But the intended addressee is not wealthy. When lacking food he should be able to alleviate the problem. He may not, however, have the "surplus" required to do so. The "surplus" probably refers to agricultural yields. "Inheritance" here signifies not the addressee's elect status, as in texts such as 4Q416 2 iii 11-12, but rather the payment rendered in exchange for his "surplus." He is not to take any more from his business partner beyond the "inheritance." This encourages ethical trading practices. The mebm should not overcharge for his goods. 4Q417 2 i 17-18 is followed by instruction for people in a more dire situation: "If you lack, borrow, being without m[on]ey for what 186

Westminster John K n o x , 2 0 0 1 ) 4 5 2 - 8 3 ; R . N . Whybray, Wealth and Poverty in the Book of Proverbs ( J S O T S u p 9 9 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1990). The fragmentary texts 4 Q 4 1 8 137 3 , 4 Q 4 1 8 146 2 and 4 Q 4 1 8 168 3 m a y exhibit concern for the poor in a broader sense. The phrase issn nna is similar to the expression osDn nnn o f P s 107:30, often translated "their desired heaven.'' In 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i the phrase denotes where o n e ' s trading partner d o e s business. S e e further E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "-rrra Kan in 4QInstruction (4Q418 6 4 + 199 + 6 6 par 4Q417 1 i 17-19) and the H e i g h t o f the C o l u m n s o f 4041S," RevO 18 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 5 8 9 - 9 3 ; idem, To Increase Learning, 5 5 , 77; DJD 34, 1 7 3 , 4 2 0 . S o m e texts g i v e trading instruction that assume the addressee has the required resources without m e n t i o n i n g poverty. 4 Q 4 1 8 107 4 reads: "the resources (CBTK), your merchandise and the r e c o m p e n s e in the business dealings o f . . . " S e e also 4 Q 4 1 7 2 ii 12 and 4 Q 4 1 8 81 15-20. T h e word aix is enigmatic in 4QInstruction but occurs frequently (e.g., 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 1; 4 Q 4 1 8 81 16; 4 Q 4 1 8 126 ii 2 , 12, 13; 4 Q 4 1 8 177 8). W h i l e the exact m e a n i n g o f BIK is unclear, it is probably a financial term referring to s o m e sort o f assets or resources. For further discussion o f this term, see G o f f The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom, 1 5 2 - 5 3 . 4 Q 4 1 8 126 ii 12-13 a c k n o w l e d g e s that the person with w h o m o n e is trading m i g h t not have the ability to "meet your need." The addressee's trading partner d o e s not necessarily h a v e sufficient resources for a successful e x c h a n g e . The mebin is likely trading with s o m e o n e o f m o d e s t means. 1 8 3

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you need (TO-nOTO), for he (God) does not lack treasure" (1. 19). This is for someone with no surplus to trade. He is recommended to rely on God's bounty for survival (cf. Prov 19:17). He will ultimately provide for the destitute mebin: "[By] his mouth everything comes into being. And that which he provides for you, eat, and take no more" (11. 19-20). 4QInstruction does not endorse a radical material dependence on God that evokes John the Baptist. The composition gives advice about how to alleviate a difficult situation rather than advocate an ascetic way of life. Elsewhere the document encourages business transactions that enable the addressee to be selfsufficient. The ideal is not to become a hermit but to live in a way that is simple and austere. 4Q417 2 i 17-20 assumes two different economic levels. In lines 17-18 the addressee is poor but basically self-sufficient. In lines 1920 he no longer has the ability to support himself. This range accords with the view that the typical mebin is a farmer and/or artisan. As in most pre-industrial agrarian societies, the majority of people in Palestine during the Second Temple period were subsistence farmers. They generally owned little or no land. Maintaining financial self-sufficiency was a constant struggle. The language of poverty reflects genuine financial hardship. 4QInstruction underscores the vulnerable financial position of the addressee with frequent advice regarding indebtedness. This was a widespread problem throughout the Second Temple era, as in preexilic Israel and the ancient near East in general. The risks 188

189

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191

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DJD 34, 187; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 179. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 i 22-ii 1 makes a similar point: "Ask for your food for he has let l o o s e his c o m p a s [ s i o n ] . " In both 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 17-18 and 19-20 o n e is urged not to take any more than h e needs. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 4 5 . J. Pastor, Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine ( L o n d o n / N e w York: R o u t l e d g e , 1997); D . A . Fiensy, The Social History of Palestine in the Herodian Period: The Land is Mine (Lewiston/Queenston/Lampeter: T h e E d w i n M e l l e n Press, 1991); J. Klausner, "The E c o n o m y o f Judea in the Period o f the S e c o n d Temple," in The Herodian Period (ed. M. A v i - Y o n a h ; N e w Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1975) 1 7 9 - 2 0 5 . S e e also M. Aperghis, "Population - Production - Taxation Coinage: A M o d e l for the Selukid E c o n o m y , " in Hellenistic Economies (ed. Z.H. Archibald et al.; L o n d o n / N e w York: Routledge, 2 0 0 1 ) 6 9 - 1 0 2 . Wright, "The Categories o f Rich and Poor," 1 1 1 - 1 2 ; Fabry, " D i e Armenfrommigkeit," 158. Fiensy, The Social History of Palestine, 2 1 - 6 0 ; Pastor, Land and Economy, 26; M . G o o d m a n , "The First Jewish Revolt: Social Conflict and the Problem o f Debt," 1 8 8

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associated with debts and surety are addressed in both the sapiential and covenantal traditions, and elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Deut 24:6; 2 Kgs 4:l-6). Proverbs presents indebtedness as a serious problem. The book depicts a person who has gone surety, or pledged to guarantee the loan of someone else, as obsessed with eliminating this obligation: "go, hurry, and plead with your neighbor. Give your eyes no sleep and your eyelids no slumber; save yourself like a gazelle from the hunter" (6:3-4; cf. 17:18; 22:7; 20:16 = 27:13). 4QInstruction advocates a similar attitude. 4Q417 2 i 21-22 reads: "if you borrow the wealth of m[e]n for your need, there will be no [sleep for y]ou day or night, and there will be no rest for your soul [until] you pay back [your] creditor his loan]" (cf. 4Q416 2 ii 9-10). Like Prov 6:3-4, this passage emphasizes the dangers associated with indebtedness through the image of being too worried to sleep. 4Q417 2 i 21-22 follows the assertion that one can safely "borrow" from God (11. 19-20). The risk of borrowing from others is contrasted with relying on God in a time of need. 4Q417 2 i advocates an ethical comportment towards one's creditor: "Do not lie to him lest you bear guilt. And also because of reproach to [your] creditor ... And you will no long]er [trust] his neighbor, and when you are in need he will be tight-fisted" (11. 22-24; cf. Deut 15:7). The mebm is to maintain a good reputation as a borrower. The composition acknowledges that the addressee must borrow despite the risks. If he were to engage in any form of deceit with regard to an outstanding loan, it would be difficult for him to obtain credit in the future. The ethical stance of the mebm towards his lender need not be reciprocated. He could have the addressee flogged (4Q417 2 i 25-27). A comparable attitude of quiet dignity 193

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JJS 3 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 4 1 9 - 2 8 ; F.C. Fensham, " W i d o w , Orphan, and the Poor in A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern Legal and W i s d o m Literature," JNESll (1962) 129-39. Pleins, Social Visions, 5 1 7 - 3 2 ; H o p p e , There Shall Be No Poor, 7 - 1 3 0 . Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 5 ; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 180. K e y portions o f this fragmentary text read: "And if a f l o g g i n g befall y o u ... pain d o not conceal from h i m w h o flogs y o u , lest h e uncover your shame." Traditional w i s d o m endorses the beating o f students as part o f their education (cf. Prov 13:24; Ahiqar 8 1 - 8 2 ; Sir 30:1); this passage c o u l d assume this perspective. Considering the warnings regarding debts in the immediate context (cf. 11. 2 1 - 2 4 ) , lines 2 5 - 2 7 probably discuss the harsh tactics o f creditors w h o m the addressee cannot repay. A l s o note 4 Q 4 1 7 1 ii 9, w h i c h is unfortunately fragmentary: "Praise G o d , and 1 9 3

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amidst difficult circumstances is recommended in 4Q416 2 ii 9-18, which tells a "servant" to contend with a harsh superior. 4Q416 2 ii 4-6 stresses caution with regard to debts: As much as [the one lending to him, if in money ... quickly] repay, and you will be on equal footing with him. For the money-bag of your treasures (nilnax O^D) you have re[ckoned to the one lending to you on account of your neighbors;] you [have giv]en all your life (rD^n bD) to him. Quickly give what belongs to him, take back [your] money-bag [and do not] be [feeble]-spirited [with your words]. 196

This assumes that the addressee is not destitute. He has pledged collateral on behalf of someone else. The mebin has already gone surety and 4QInstruction considers this practice dangerous. His "life" is in jeopardy (cf. Deut 24:6; Sir 29:15). He should act forcefully to get out of this risky financial situation. 4Q416 2 iii 5-7 advocates a cautious attitude towards lending: "Also, from anyone whom you do not know do not take money lest it will increase your poverty. And if they hold you responsible for it, till death account for it." The mebin should not borrow money from someone he does not know. This teaching does not discourage borrowing but recommends doing it in a way that reduces risk. The mebin has to honor and repay the loan, regardless of the ethics or identity of the creditor. Borrowing in and of itself does not mean the addressee is materially poor. Both the rich and poor borrow. The wealthy often do so in order to engage in business ventures that can make them even 197

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upon every b l o w b l e [ s s his n a m e ] . " S e e J.E. Burns, "Practical W i s d o m in 4QInstruction," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 1 2 - 4 2 . DJD 34, 9 0 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 4 6 , 7 6 . Compare 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 3-5: "[and if asset]s are entrusted to y o u , do not set your hand upon them, lest y o u be scorched [and] your body will burn with its fire; a[s y o u h a v e takjen it so return it, and y o u will h a v e j o y if y o u are freed o f it." The addressee is financially stable e n o u g h for assets b e l o n g i n g to s o m e o n e e l s e to be entrusted with him. K e e p i n g these assets is considered a burden. H e is told not to spend them, i m p l y i n g h e m a y be tempted to do so. This passage m a y discuss the depositing o f a p l e d g e in order to guarantee a loan. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 3-5 d o e s not necessarily m e a n that the mebin is wealthy, but the advice w o u l d not be appropriate for s o m e o n e w h o is extremely poor. Cf. Prov 17:18; 4 Q D 4 11. 4 Q 4 1 5 8 2 m a y h a v e prohibited surety in its original form. It reads " D o not g o surety." B u t the text is fragmentary and easily could h a v e described a particular situation in w h i c h o n e should not g o surety. 4 Q 4 1 8 8 7 7 reads "go surety for a stranger." This is also fragmentary. T h e statement could h a v e originally included a negation. 1 9 6

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richer. The loans of the mebin do not have this character. He borrows to make ends meet. The danger with which 4QInstruction views indebtedness only makes sense if the addressee might not be able to repay his loans, risking reprisals from creditors. This posture towards debts accords perfectly with the view that he is a farmer, artisan or some other sort of commoner. People in this economic category had means of subsistence that were unstable. Becoming financially destitute was a constant danger. The intended audience of 4QInstruction had to contend with varying levels of poverty. It is reasonable to consider the typical mebm poor in a material sense and to posit that a substantial portion of the original addressees were farmers and/or artisans. 199

5.3.2 The Addressee's Poverty, Ethics and His Elect Status The poverty of the addressee is related to teachings on other topics. He is told to "honor your father with your poverty" (4Q416 2 iii 15). This does not teach that to have harmonious family relations one must be without money. Rather poverty is associated with the humility and modesty with which the mebin should treat his family. Proverbs never associates poverty with marriage or filial piety but does connect material scarcity to ethical ideals. 4Q417 2 i, which stresses the importance of paying debts in lines 21-24, depicts the poor man as a recipient of divine mercy. Lines 1415 read: "Do not overlook your [transgress]ions. Be like a humble COS?) man when you strive for his judgment... Then God will appear, his anger will turn aside and he will take away your sins." The word "OS? connotes both humility and poverty. The term is used in parallelism with ]V2K: "Without forgiveness [h]ow [can any] poor man (]V2X) [stand before him?]" (11. 16-17). 4Q417 2 i 14-17 describes the soteriological rewards of the humble attitude advocated throughout the composition. This ethical comportment is 200

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The legible part o f 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 19 reads "If y o u are poor . . . " It is p o s s i b l e that the poverty o f the addressee is b e i n g compared to that o f something else ("if y o u are poor as . . . " ) . N o t enough o f the line has survived to interpret it sufficiently. Prov 1 5 : 1 6 - 1 7 , for example, reads: "Better is a little with the fear o f the Lord than great treasure and trouble with it. Better is a dinner o f v e g e t a b l e s where l o v e is than a fatted o x and hatred with it" (cf. 17:1; 18:23). 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 9 m a y attest a similar idea. This line can b e transcribed as: "And d o not for yourself alone boast (nnin) [in your poverty]." It is not clear, h o w e v e r , that 2 0 0

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associated with poverty. The elect status of the mebin is related to his poverty. 4Q416 2 iii 11-12 claims that the addressee has been raised symbolically from poverty and given an "inheritance of glory." When 4Q416 2 ii 17-18 urges him to work "without wages," it also states: "[Do not se]ll your soul for wealth. It is good that you are a servant in spirit (m"Q 12V) ... And for a price do not sell your glory. And do not pledge money (|in ^K) for your inheritance lest it dispossess your body" (cf. 4Q417 2 ii 23). The special "inheritance" of the mebin can be jeopardized by making poor economic decisions. This attitude is also evident in 4Q416 2 ii 6-7, which exhorts "do not exchange your holy spirit for any wealth (pn), because there is no price (TITO) equal [to it]" (cf. 1QH 6:20). This statement occurs in a teaching on debts (4Q416 2 ii 4-6). The addressee's "holy spirit" is presented as a basis for not maintaining indebtedness. His elect status is a form of wealth more valuable than money. This may explain why 4QInstruction contains no "woes against the rich," in contrast to the 202

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this is the correct reading. The w o r d is g i v e n as arnn in DJD 34, 173, and Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 5 5 . Understanding the word in question as "to enlarge," Strugnell and Harrington interpret the line as about not increasing your appetite (cf. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 18-20). The material question is whether this word has a he or het. O n P A M 4 3 . 5 1 6 o n e can s e e a faint speck that could be part o f a left overhang, suggesting the former, not the latter. This trace is not visible on the original (using infra red t e c h n o l o g y ) . O n this portion there are creases on the leather, causing s o m e distortion. The speck visible on the photo might not be ink but a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the creases. There is not e n o u g h material e v i d e n c e to resolve this issue conclusively. Since there is n o u n a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e for the overhang on the topstroke o n e w o u l d expect from a he, it is best to posit that the word had a het. S e e also Elgvin, "An A n a l y s i s o f 4QInstruction," 196. 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 3-8 may exhibit a comparable v i e w . A s m e n t i o n e d above, lines 3 5 r e c o m m e n d that the addressee resist the temptation to touch the assets o f another person that have been entrusted to him. Lines 7-8 m a y describe the ultimate rewards for such righteous conduct: "Then y o u shall sleep with the truth and w h e n y o u die your m e m o r y shall b l o s [ s o m fore]ver. A n d in the end (rormn*) y o u will inherit j o y . " "Sleep" is a reference to death. T h e word romnK c o u l d be translated as "your posterity," as in DJD 34, 112. In this case the passage e m p h a s i z e s that if the addressee a v o i d s unsound financial entanglements, his offspring will be more likely to benefit after his death. If romnK m e a n s "in the (lit. your) end," 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 7-8 could assert that if o n e avoids u n w i s e e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n s h e w i l l be rewarded after death with "eternal j o y . " 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 1 0 - 1 2 associates "eternal j o y " with inheriting "glory." It is not clear that the interpreter n e e d s to c h o o s e o n e o f these readings over the other. They are compatible ideas that illustrate the benefits o f h e e d i n g 4QInstruction's financial teaching. Cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 76 3 ; 1QS 3:7; 9:3; C D 7:3-4. Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 166-74. 2 0 3

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Epistle of Enoch (e.g., 1 En. 97:8-10). Like Proverbs, 4QInstruction advocates a cautious attitude towards borrowing. But using the elect status of the mebin to support such advice is alien to older wisdom. Many members of the intended audience could not forget that they were poor, or close to it. The addressee does not need to be told that he is poor. He is taught what it means to be poor. The link between his poverty and his elect status explains why 4QInstruction frequently tells the mebin "you are poor." 206

5.4 4QInstruction and the Teacher Movement Some writings produced by the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness understand the elect as poor. The Psalm 37 Pesher claims that Ps 37:11 refers to "the congregation of the poor (D^V^KH ms) who will tough out the period of distress and will be rescued from all the snares of Belial" (4Q171 2 10-11). Similarly, Ps 37:21-22 is related to "the congregation of the poor ... They will inherit the high mountain of Isra[el and] delight [in his] holy [mountain" (4Q171 3 10-11). CD 19:9 describes those who will be spared when God judges as "the poor ones of the flock" (]KSn "3D)The War Scroll may present the elect as the poor. 1QM 13:12-14 reads: "We, instead, in the lot of your truth, rejoice in your mighty hand ... Who is like you in strength, God of Israel, whose mighty hand is with the poor?" (cf. 14:7). This could, however, assert God's solidarity with the poor without making a direct reference to the elect (cf. 1QH 10:31-32; 13:21; 23:14). There is similar ambiguity in the Habakkuk Pesher, which condemns the Wicked Priest for attempting "to destroy the poor" (D^rnK mbzb) (12:6). This may refer to his 207

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G . W . E . N i c k e l s b u r g , "Riches, the R i c h , and G o d ' s Judgment in 1 E n o c h 9 2 105 and the G o s p e l according t o Luke," NTS 2 5 ( 1 9 7 9 ) 3 2 4 - 4 4 . W o l d , Women, Men and Angels, 2 9 . Fabry, "Die Armenfrommigkeit," 1 4 5 - 5 0 ; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 4 4 7 - 5 5 ; L. Keck, "The P o o r a m o n g the Saints in Jewish Christianity and Qumran," ZNW 5 7 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 5 4 - 7 8 ; N . Lohfink, Lobgesange der Armen (Stuttgart: V e r l a g Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1 9 9 0 ) . M . P . Horgan, Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books ( C B Q M S 8; Washington, D . C . : Catholic Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 7 9 ) 1 9 2 - 2 2 6 ; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2 4 0 - 4 1 ; T.H. L i m , Pesharim (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 2 ) . 2 0 6

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efforts to oppose the sectarian community (cf. 12:3; 9:4-8) but could allude to his policies towards the poor in a more general sense. With the notable exception of the Psalm 37 Pesher, there are few unambiguous characterizations of the elect as poor in the writings attributed to the Dead Sea sect. The Community Rule, for example, never presents the elect as poor. In general members of this sectarian movement were encouraged to lead frugal and austere lifestyles, as was the audience of 4QInstruction. But this wisdom text is much more interested in the poverty of its addressees than any composition of the yahad. Some commentators have argued that 4QInstruction was written by the sect that produced the Qumran rulebooks. Jefferies, for example, situates the provenance of this text in the "camps" of the Damascus Document. Others, most notably Elgvin, understand the composition as "pre-Essene." In his view the Dead Sea sect is the product of a merger between apocalyptically oriented lay teachers who produced 4QInstruction and Zadokite priestly circles. Others have downplayed an association between this wisdom text and the Dead Sea sect. This position is exemplified by the editors of DJD 34, who, as discussed in section 3, understand 4QInstruction as an example of "common" and "non-sectarian" wisdom. Of the three positions the second is closest to the mark. But the characterization of 4QInstruction as "pre-Essene" needs qualification. The wisdom text has a sectarian mentality. It transmits higher revelation to an elect community whose members are promised rewards after death. They have affinity with the angels (4Q418 81 45). They were taught a deterministic conception of the natural order 209

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Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 4 4 9 , 4 5 1 . Jefferies, Wisdom at Qumran, 3 2 3 . S e e also Scott, "Korah and Qumran," 2 0 2 . E l g v i n , "Early E s s e n e Eschatology," 164. L a n g e also understands 4QInstruction as pre-Essene but his position is different from E l g v i n ' s . Lange argues that 4QInstruction, a l o n g with the b o o k o f Mysteries, influenced the writings o f the D e a d Sea sect. H e has also argued that these b o o k s originate from the Jerusalem Temple. S e e his "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel: zur Auseinandersetzung z w i s c h e n K o h e l e t und weisheitlichen Kreisen am Jerusalemer T e m p e l , " in Qohelet in the Context of Wisdom (ed. A . Schoors; B E T L 136; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1998) 1 1 3 - 5 9 . This position is problematic. T h e s e texts are situated in the T e m p l e because, in his opinion, they have similar v i e w s with regard to the Torah and the cult. Such concerns are not major issues in 4QInstruction, as argued above. This is a slim basis for a T e m p l e provenance. This is discussed in more detail in section 4 o f Chapter 2. 2 1 0

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and had an apocalyptic worldview. Broadly speaking, all of these statements can be made with regard to the Dead Sea sect as well. However, 4QInstruction does not originate from this movement. The wisdom text shows no familiarity with the Teacher of Righteousness. The composition uses the word 11V but never in a sectarian sense (e.g., 4Q417 2 i 17). Its community is depicted in a way that is fundamentally different from that of the Qumran rulebooks. Key rituals and organizational structures described in the Damascus Document and the Community Rule are not in 4QInstruction, although it is not clear such topics should be expected in a wisdom text. According to the rulebooks, group leaders wield an imposing degree of oversight over members in terms of their personal lives. Ordinary financial decisions are monitored by such figures, who also approve a member's choice in a marriage partner (CD 13:14-16). Their personal wealth is ceded to the group (1QS 1:11-12), although individual members did not surrender complete control. There are strict penal codes enforcing the sect's stringent halakhah on various topics such as the Sabbath, prayer and meals. The situation is markedly different in the case of 4QInstruction. The work does not provide halakhah in the manner of the Damascus Document. The composition does not mandate that each member obey the rules of the sect under threat of punitive action. Rather, as in traditional wisdom, it is the student's responsibility to carry out the instruction given to him. The focus is on the individual rather than the group as a whole. The community behind 4QInstruction exhibits a looser leadership structure than that of the rulebooks. The author of this wisdom text shows no interest in asserting his own authority or any other type of leadership apparatus. While 4QInstruction shows some interest in cultic affairs, as in 4Q418 103 ii, this topic is less prominent than in the rulebooks. For example, 4QInstruction urges the addressee to praise God (4Q416 2 iii 11), but never in connection with liturgical practice or communal worship. Neither a preference for worshipping according to a solar calendar nor polemic towards groups who do not are present in this document. 212

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Murphy, There is 7-9 discuss the S e e Schiffman, 2 1 3

Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 4 5 4 . an e x c e p t i o n in the case o f v o w s . B o t h C D 16:10-12 and 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iv husband's ability to annul the v o w s o f his w i f e (cf. 1 1 Q T 5 3 : 1 6 - 1 9 ) . "Halakhic E l e m e n t s , " 9 0 - 9 4 .

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4QInstruction's use of the Torah is noticeably different from that of literature composed by the yahad. The Community Rule stipulates that scripture must be read and studied when at least ten sectarians are gathered (1QS 6:6-7). The writings of this movement constantly prooftext biblical writings. The Teacher of Righteousness is praised as a divinely inspired exegete (e.g., lQpHab 7:4-5). 4QInstruction does not cite the Torah in the manner of the pesharim and shows little interest in the national history of Israel. The work utilizes the Torah but never appeals to it as an authoritative source. The movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness is a much more Torahcentered organization than the one behind 4QInstruction. But it would be a mistake to conclude that 4QInstruction has nothing to do with the Dead Sea sect. The substantial number of manuscripts of the work found at Qumran (at least six) suggests it was popular among members of the yahad. The Community Rule mentions the mystery that is to be (1QS 11:3-4), and the "vision of Hagu" of 4QInstruction invites comparison to the "book of Hagu" mentioned in the Rule of the Congregation and the Damascus Document. 4QInstruction and the Treatise of the Two Spirits have striking similarities in terms of themes such as determinism, revelation and life after death for the elect. They have key phrases in common such as "eternal joy." The Treatise, however, makes more extreme deterministic claims than 4QInstruction (1QS 3:15), and the imagery of light and darkness that is so central to the former is not present in the latter. Lange puts forward the plausible view that the Treatise is the product of further reflection and elaboration of themes contained in 4QInstruction. I have argued elsewhere that the Hodayot used this wisdom text as a source. These two compositions have broad thematic affinities and share terminology, including verbatim agreement between 1QH 18:27-28 and 4Q418 55 10. It is not clear that the group behind 4QInstruction is a direct 214

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M a n y o f these affinities are also found in the b o o k o f Mysteries, the topic o f Chapter 2. Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 2 6 . S e e also Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 0 0 - 3 . M.J. Goff, "Reading W i s d o m at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 6 3 - 8 8 . S e e also Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 297; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 0 6 . 2 1 6

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predecessor of the yahad. It is possible that some of the mebinim went to Qumran to join a community there, bringing the wisdom text with them. But there is no direct evidence for this view. The relationship between 4QInstruction and the Dead Sea sect is best understood along the lines of 1 Enoch and Jubilees. Several copies of both works were found at Qumran and read by members of the yahad. Few, however, would claim that a member of the Dead Sea sect wrote them. 4QInstruction likewise had an impact on the writings of this movement but there is scant evidence that any of its members composed it. 217

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5.5 The Date of 4QInstruction Understanding 4QInstruction as a formative influence upon some of the compositions attributed to the Dead Sea sect has implications for establishing the date of the composition. A first century BCE dating can be plausibly excluded. The influence of apocalypticism on 4QInstruction suggests that it was composed at a time in which this tradition was widespread in Palestine. This favors a second century dating over the third century, but the latter can not be excluded. If the author of 4QInstruction was familiar with a version of 1 Enoch, it is likely that this exposure took place when this apocalypse was relatively well-known and no longer in its early stages of formation. This also suggests a second century date of composition. 4QInstruction was probably written in the second century BCE, but a third century dating is not impossible. 219

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G. B o c c a c c i n i has claimed that the D e a d Sea sect is the product o f a split from "Enochic Judaism." This is an intriguing suggestion but there is not e n o u g h support in the scrolls for this v i e w . S e e h i s Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways Between Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998); idem, ed., Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 5 ) . The influence 4QInstruction exerted o n this m o v e m e n t is s o m e w h a t different from that o f 1 Enoch or Jubilees. Jubilees played a role in the group's adoption o f a solar calendar, as did E n o c h i c w o r k s such as the Astronomical Book. This is not the case with the w i s d o m text. Jubilees is cited as an authoritative text in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( 1 6 : 3 - 4 ) . N o citation o f 4QInstruction is evident in the yahad literature, with the p o s s i b l e exception o f the text c o m m o n to 1QH 18 and 4 Q 4 1 8 5 5 . Strugnell and Harrington contend that 4QInstruction w a s written in either the Persian, Ptolemaic or Seleucid periods. S e e DJD 34,21. 2 1 8

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Several commentators date 4QInstruction to the early second century. Elgvin has suggested that the document was written before the Maccabean revolt. Lange has offered a similar dating, contending that 4QInstruction was composed in the Temple before the middle of the second century and influenced by the tumult of the Maccabean crisis. The time of composition put forward by Lange is difficult to support because the work has few, if any, hallmarks of the Maccabean era. 4QInstruction, unlike Daniel, gives no impression that it was written during any sort of national crisis. There is no sense that the Temple or maintenance of the cult is in jeopardy. The author of the wisdom text shows no interest in the Seleucids and Gentiles are never a prominent theme in the document. The silence on these topics is compatible with an early second century dating. The evidence for an early second century provenance, however, is by no means conclusive. An absence of Maccabean concerns does not necessarily mean 4QInstruction is pre-Maccabean. The document could have been written at a later date when this crisis was no longer of immediate interest. The traditional scholarly consensus holds that the rise of the Teacher of Righteousness and the formation of the sectarian movement associated with him took place in the middle of the second century. Some scholars, on the basis of both archaeological evidence and the scrolls themselves, have pushed up the date of the Teacher and the yahad, and the settlement of the Qumran site, to the early first century BCE. A later dating of the Dead Sea sect weakens the argument for an early second century provenance for 4QInstruction. Debate on these major issues will continue. It is 220

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Elgvin, "Priestly S a g e s ? " 8 3 . Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit der Tempel," 157. In "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 2 4 , L a n g e dates 4QInstruction to either the end o f the third century or the beginning o f the second. F. M o o r e Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran (3 ed.; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995 [orig. pub., 1958]); H. Stegemann, The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1998 [orig. pub., 1993]). J. M a g n e s s , The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 2 ) 6 5 ; M . O . W i s e , "Dating the Teacher o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s and the Floruit o f H i s M o v e m e n t , " JBL 122 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 5 3 - 8 7 . See, for example, K. Galor et al., ed., The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates. Proceedings of the Conference held at Brown University, November 17-19, 2002 (STDJ 57; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) . 2 2 1

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beyond the scope of the present chapter to discuss them further. The early second century dating favored by Elgvin remains a legitimate possibility. But it is prudent to posit that 4QInstruction was written in the second century without specifying a more specific date within that period. In general it is difficult to date wisdom texts since they tend not to include clear allusions to historical events and figures. 4QInstruction is no exception.

6.

CONCLUSION

4QInstruction is a wisdom text. It encourages its audience to make prudent and ethical decisions regarding ordinary spheres of life such as marriage and finances. In this regard the work is in continuity with the traditional wisdom of Proverbs. But, whereas this book is available to all, 4QInstruction is intended for an elect community. The mebin has revealed knowledge not available to the rest of humankind. While the claims made about the elect status of the mebin are extraordinary, his social status is ordinary and common. He is poor. The means of support available to many of the addressees were tenuous and unstable. A substantial portion of them were farmers and/or craftsmen. Their elect status is presented as a type of wealth that is more valuable than money. The social location of 4QInstruction is not the aristocratic milieu of Ben Sira. The raz nihyeh is the chief means by which the mebin is to acquire wisdom. From the study of this revelation he can learn about various topics, such as the fate of people after death. The mystery that is to be discloses the full extent of God's dominion over history and creation, manifested as a deterministic plan that orchestrates events. This is presented as a numinous revealed truth. Comprehending the nature of God's dominion is to inculcate in the mebin an attitude of humility and reverence. He is to praise God unceasingly and treat others with respect and dignity, even if this conduct is not reciprocated. Such behavior is in harmony with his ordained lot in the overarching divine plan guiding reality. If he lives in this way he will join the angels after death in "eternal joy." Such an incentive to 225

Wright, "The Categories o f R i c h and Poor," 121.

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heed instruction is alien to traditional wisdom, as is the central role of supernatural revelation in the pedagogy of the composition. 4QInstruction is the best example available of a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview. The book of Mysteries suggests this is not an isolated phenomenon.

CHAPTER TWO

ESCHATOLOGICAL WISDOM: THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES (1Q27; 4Q299-301)

1. INTRODUCTION

The book of Mysteries is a fascinating and enigmatic text. It is not surprising that there has recently been a tremendous amount of interest in this composition. It contains a powerful scene of the ultimate obliteration of the wicked and offers a deterministic theology compatible with that of the Treatise of the Two Spirits (1QS 3:134:26). Mysteries appeals to higher revelation and, like 4QInstruction, uses the phrase rrrfo H ("the mystery that is to be"). The text of Mysteries from Cave 1 has been available for many years. De Vaux published a preliminary edition of 1Q27 1 i in 1949, calling it a "fragment d'un ouvrage inconnu." All the fragments of 1Q27 appeared in 1955 under the title "Livre des Mysteres." The 1

2

3

1

T. E l g v i n , "Priestly Sages? The M i l i e u s o f Origin o f 4 Q M y s t e r i e s and 4QInstruction," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center, 20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and R.A. Clements; STDJ 5 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 6 7 - 8 7 ; M. Kister, " W i s d o m Literature and Its Relation to Other Genres: From B e n Sira to Mysteries," in Sapiential Perspectives, 1 3 - 4 7 ; E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly: T h e Case o f l - 4 Q M y s t e r i e s , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition (ed. F. Garcia Martinez; B E T L 168; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 3 ) 6 9 - 8 8 ; G. Ibba, "II 'Libro dei M i s t e d ' ( 1 Q 2 7 , f . l ) : testo e s c a t o l o g i c o , " Hen 21 ( 1 9 9 9 ) 7 3 - 8 4 ; A . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination: Weisheitliche Urordnung und Prddestination in den Textfunden von Qumran (STDJ 18; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 5 ) 9 3 - 1 2 0 ; idem, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel: zur Auseinandersetzung z w i s c h e n K o h e l e t und weisheitlichen Kreisen am Jerusalemer Tempel," in Oohelet in the Context of Wisdom (ed. A . Schoors; B E T L 136; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1 9 9 8 ) 113-59. R. de V a u x , "La Grotte des manuscrits hebreux," RB 6 6 ( 1 9 4 9 ) 5 8 9 - 6 0 9 (esp. 605-9). D . Barthelemy and J.T. Milik, Qumran Cave 1 ( D J D 1; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 5 5 ) 102-7. The title these editors g a v e to the c o m p o s i t i o n is reminiscent o f de V a u x ' s earlier assertion that it is "un livre qui traite de 'secrets' c a c h e s a la 2

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editors also refer to this composition as "Livre/Apocalypse des Mysteres." The Mysteries material from Cave 4 was published in the 1990s (4Q299-301). There are no explicit indicators that the work is a product of the Dead Sea sect. Mysteries is often considered a sapiential work. But the classification of its genre is disputed. In this chapter I argue that Mysteries should be understood as a wisdom text, but the case for this identification is not clear cut. If one's definition of wisdom is restricted to biblical wisdom, Mysteries is not a sapiential composition. Mysteries, like 4QInstruction, is an example of Jewish wisdom in the late Second Temple period that is influenced by the apocalyptic tradition. 4

5

6

multitude." S e e de V a u x , "La Grotte," 6 0 9 . Consult further I. Rabinowitz, "The Authorship, A u d i e n c e and Date o f the D e V a u x Fragment o f an U n k n o w n Work," JBL 71 ( 1 9 5 2 ) 1 9 - 3 2 ; O.A. Piper, "The ' B o o k o f M y s t e r i e s ' (Qumran I 2 7 ) : A Study in Eschatology," JR 3 8 ( 1 9 5 8 ) 9 5 - 1 0 6 ; M. H e n g e l , Judaism and Hellenism (2 v o l s . ; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973) 1.220-24. DJD 7, 103. There is also a rabbinic text k n o w n as the B o o k o f Mysteries ( c n n -iao). For more o n this c o m p o s i t i o n , s e e M. Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim (Jerusalem: Y e d i o t Achronot, 1 9 6 6 ) ; G. S c h o l e m , Origins of the Kabbalah (Princeton: Princeton University Press/Jewish Publication Society, 1 9 8 7 [orig. pub., 1 9 6 2 ] ) 1 0 6 - 2 3 ; M . A . Morgan, Sepher Ha-Razim: The Book of Mysteries (Chico: Scholars Press, 1 9 8 3 ) . The official editor o f 4 Q M y s t e r i e s is L.H. Schiffman. S e e T. E l g v i n et al., Qumran Cave 4.XV: Sapiential Texts, Part 1 ( D J D 2 0 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1997) 3 1 123. S e e also E.J.C. Tigchelaar, " N o t e s on the R e a d i n g s o f the D J D Editions o f 1Q and 4 Q M y s t e r i e s , " RevQ 21 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 9 9 - 1 0 7 ; L.H. Schiffman; "4QMysteries : A Preliminary Edition and Translation," in Solving Riddles and Untying Knots: Biblical, Epigraphic, and Semitic Studies in Honor of Jonas C Greenfield (ed. Z. Zevit et al.; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1995) 2 0 7 - 6 0 ; idem, "4QMysteries: A Preliminary Translation," in Proceedings of the Eleventh World Congress of Jewish Studies, Jerusalem, June 22-29, 1993, Division A: The Bible and the World (ed. D . Assaf; Jerusalem: The World U n i o n o f Jewish Studies, 1994) 1 9 9 - 2 0 6 ; idem, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s : A Preliminary Edition," RevQ 16 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 2 0 3 - 2 3 . S e e also T. Elgvin, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s : A N e w Edition," in From 40MMT to Resurrection: Melanges qumraniens en hommage a Emile Puech (ed. F. Garcia Martinez, A . Steudel and E.J.C. Tigchelaar; STDJ 6 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) 7 5 - 8 5 . A . Lange, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . Lange and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 12-16); J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 vols.; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 2 9 - 3 0 ) ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1 9 9 6 ) 7 0 - 7 3 ; J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered, in Light o f the Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 6 5 - 8 1 (esp. 2 7 6 ) ; D . W . Parry and E. Tov, Calendrical and Sapiential Texts ( D S S R 4; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 1 9 8 - 2 3 9 . 4

5

a

b

c

6

THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES

71

2. THE TEXT OF THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES AND THE QUESTION OF 4Q301

Mysteries was originally a relatively large composition, of which tattered remains have survived. Thirteen fragments belong to 1Q27, 106 to 4 Q 2 9 9 , fourteen to 4 Q 3 0 0 and ten comprise 4 Q 3 0 1 . 4 Q 2 9 9 is in a developed Herodian semi-formal script. 1 Q 2 7 , 4 Q 3 0 0 and 4 Q 3 0 1 are in late Herodian. No fully intact columns of text have survived. Given the fragmentary condition of the document, its common designation as a "book" is somewhat misleading. Additional witnesses to the eschatological event described in 1Q27 1 i are in 4 Q 2 9 9 1 and 4 Q 3 0 0 3 . There are several other overlaps in Mysteries. These related fragments aid in the reconstruction of certain passages. There appear to be no major variants among the Mysteries manuscripts. The state of preservation of Mysteries is too poor to estimate its original length or where extant material was located in its original structure. Some commentators have speculated that the beginning of the work is retained in 4 Q 3 0 1 l. This fragment begins with an instructional exhortation: "[I] will speak my mind, and according to your kinds I will apportion my words to you" (1. 1). This is reminiscent of the pedagogical prologue to the book of Proverbs (1:17)." Milik designated 4 Q 3 0 1 as a Mysteries text. This fragment, however, has no clear overlap with other manuscripts from this work. No text from 4 Q 3 0 1 attests the judgment scene recounted in 7

8

9

10

12

7

DJD 20, 3 3 , 9 9 , 114; Elgvin, "Priestly S a g e s ? " 6 9 - 7 0 . S o m e o f the overlaps are 4 Q 2 9 9 2 1 Q 2 7 1 ii: 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b - » 4 Q 3 0 0 5; 4 Q 2 9 9 3 c - » 4 Q 3 0 0 l a ii-b; 4 Q 2 9 9 7 - » 4 Q 3 0 0 6 and 4 Q 3 0 0 7. For criticism o f the final overlap in this sequence, see Tigchelaar, "Notes o n the R e a d i n g s / ' 1 0 1 . There are s o m e variants. T h e m o s t extensive o n e i n v o l v e s 4 Q 2 9 9 1 3 - 4 and 1 Q 2 7 1 i 1 0 - 1 2 . T h e latter preserves a longer text than the former. T h e additional material in 1 Q 2 7 d o e s not significantly c h a n g e the m e a n i n g o f the passage. S e e DJD 20, 3 5 . Elgvin, "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 0 ; Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly," 7 2 . 4 Q 3 0 1 1 2 attests the w o r d s "[a par]able and a riddle," as d o e s Prov 1:6. This line also m e n t i o n s "those w h o search the roots o f understanding," apparently a designation for the intended addressees w h o are to listen to the instruction. Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly," 7 3 , has suggested that there m a y b e an overlap b e t w e e n 4 Q 2 9 9 9 5 and 4 Q 3 0 1 3a-b 4. 4 Q 2 9 9 9 5 is a fragmentary line that preserves the term "long su[ffering]" ([CD]K -pit). 4 Q 3 0 1 3a-b 4 includes the expression TDK "p["i]K3. T h e s e phrases are similar and both fragments have the theme 8

9

1 0

1 1

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1Q27, 4Q299 and 4Q300, and 4Q301 exhibits less interest in eschatology than these other manuscripts (but see 4Q301 3a-b 8). Moreover, 4Q301 never mentions the mystery that is to be. This text is reminiscent of later hekhalot literature of Jewish mysticism. This is not the case with 1Q27 and 4Q299-300. For these reasons the classification of 4Q301 as part of Mysteries has been challenged. Schiffman concludes that it is "extremely unlikely that 4Q301 (4QMyst°?) and the other manuscripts constitute witnesses to the same composition." Other scholars, most notably Tigchelaar, have defended Milik's understanding of 4Q301 as part of Mysteries. There is some basis for this view. 4Q300 la ii-b 1 and 4Q301 1 2 are rare among the Dead Sea Scrolls in that they use the terms "proverb" (*?t0D) and "riddle" (HTn) together (cf. lQpHab 8:6). They employ these terms, however, in different ways. The unusual expression "those who walk in simplicity" (T1S •obnn) occurs in both 4Q300 8 4 and 4Q301 1 3. The term "root of wisdom" in 4Q300 la ii-b 3 is similar to the expression "root of understanding" ( n m t0TK0) in 4Q301 1 2 (cf. 4Q418 55 9; Wis 3:15). The phrase those who hold fast to [the wondrous] my[steries]" may have been in the original version of 4Q301 1 2, but there is not enough support to endorse this possibility conclusively. Such an attestation would be significant since "those 13

14

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16

C4

17

o f the praise o f God. But "long suffering" is not an u n c o m m o n phrase. Additional e v i d e n c e is required to endorse an overlap b e t w e e n 4 Q 2 9 9 9 and 4 Q 3 0 1 3a-b. 4 Q 3 0 1 is concerned with understanding the h e a v e n l y world: "Who a m o n g y o u seeks the presence o f light and the lum[inary]?" ( 4 Q 3 0 1 2 b 4; cf. 4 Q 3 0 1 5 4-5). The S o n g s o f the Sabbath Sacrifice also provides Qumran parallels to later forms o f Jewish mysticism. S e e DJD 20, 1 1 7 - 1 8 ; G. S c h o l e m , Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tradition (2 ed.; N e w York: The Jewish T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary, 1965 [orig. pub., I 9 6 0 ] ) 128; J.R. Davila, Descenders to the Chariot: The People Behind the Hekhalot Literature (JSJSup 70; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) . S e e also A . Lange, " P h y s i o g n o m i e oder Gotteslob? 4 Q 3 0 1 3 , " DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 8 2 - 9 6 . A l s o note that Cryptic A script is used in 4 Q 3 0 1 3. S e e E. T o v , Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert (STDJ 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 3 6 3 ; Elgvin, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s , " 8 0 . DJD 20, 113. Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly," 7 0 - 7 3 ; Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel," 1 3 1 . S e e also Elgvin, "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 0 ; idem, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s , " 7 6 . In 4 Q 3 0 0 l a ii-b 1 the "magicians w h o are skilled in transgression" u s e proverbs and riddles, g i v i n g these terms a negative sense. In 4 Q 3 0 1 1 these words d o not h a v e a negative connotation. The transcription g i v e n in DJD 20, 114, is [vbs V]I -oam. The phrase - o e i n [n^]i is also possible. Elgvin, " 4 Q M y s t e r i e s , " 76, transcribes a hit and reconstructs 1 3

n d

c

1 4

1 5

c

1 6

1 7

c

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who hold fast to mysteries" occurs in 4 Q 2 9 9 43 2 and 4 Q 3 0 0 8 5. In terms of understanding 4 Q 3 0 1 as a part of Mysteries, it makes sense to heed Schiffman's skepticism. There are some intriguing terminological similarities between 4 Q 3 0 1 and the main Mysteries manuscripts. But more evidence is required to accord 4 Q 3 0 1 the same status as a Mysteries fragment given to 1 Q 2 7 , 4 Q 2 9 9 and 4 Q 3 0 0 . The author of 4 Q 3 0 1 may have used Mysteries as a source, or the influence could have gone in the other direction. Tigchelaar has offered the engaging but hypothetical suggestion that 4 Q 3 0 1 represents a different recension of Mysteries, producing a situation not unlike the different versions of the so-called "Self-Glorification Hymn." 18

3. THE ESCHATOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE WORLD

The book of Mysteries describes the ultimate elimination of the wicked and the Utopian transformation of the world. This is evident from a composite text that comprises 1 Q 2 7 1 i 1 - 1 2 , 4 Q 2 9 9 1 1-9 and 4Q300 3 1-6. Taken together, these texts recount the following: 19

... in order that they might know the difference between good and evil, and between falsehood and truth, [because] the mysteries of transgression (OTD T ) ) ... all their wisdom. But they do not know the mystery that is to be (mna n ) and the former things they do not understand. They do not know what will happen to them. They will not save their lives from the mystery that is to be (mna nn). And this shall be the sign to you that it is taking place: when those begotten of iniquity are locked up, wickedness will disappear before righteousness, as darkness disappears before light. As smoke vanishes and is no more, so will wickedness vanish forever. Righteousness will be revealed like the w o r d rraon. The k e y question is i f traces o f a res can b e identified, from w h i c h o n e c a n reconstruct the word n . Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Your Folly," 7 2 , supports reading a res in this expression. A c c o r d i n g t o P A M 4 1 . 6 9 5 and 4 3 . 3 9 4 , after the term -omri it is p o s s i b l e to discern only a very small remnant o f a letter. Res is a legitimate option. B u t the traces in question are s o meager, it d o e s n o t s e e m p o s s i b l e to reconstruct this letter conclusively. M.O. Wise, V a c ^ : A Study o f 4 Q 4 9 1 c , 4 Q 4 7 1 b , 4 Q 4 2 7 7 and l Q H 2 5 : 3 5 - 2 6 : 1 0 , " DSD 1 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 1 7 3 - 2 1 9 . T h e s e texts h a v e b e e n a focus o f scholarship o n Mysteries. See, for example, Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 2 5 - 2 8 ; E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? " 6 9 - 7 7 ; Ibba, "II 'Libro dei Misteri,'" 7 4 - 7 6 ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 9 8 - 1 0 9 ; Piper, "The ' B o o k o f Mysteries,'" 9 5 - 9 9 ; Rabinowitz, "The D e V a u x Fragment," 2 0 - 2 9 . 1 8

1 9

a

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the sun (throughout) the measure of the world and all those who hold fast to mysteries ( n) [of wickedness] will be no more. But knowledge will fill the world and folly will never be there again. The thing (or: word) is certain to take place and the oracle is true." n

0

The first section of this passage (1Q27 1 i 1-4; 4Q300 3 1-4) asserts that some people will not be spared from divine judgment. This fate is attributed to their lack of knowledge. The next section (1Q27 1 i 58; 4Q300 3 4-6) describes the destruction of wickedness. Several important topics are raised in this passage. They include the following, each of which will be examined in turn: • • • •

Eschatology and Creation Determinism Revelation Judgment

3.1 Creation, Eschatology and the Mystery That Is To Be The title of the book of Mysteries is based on the prominence of the term n ("mystery") in the core passage of the composition. As 2 0

This text is based o n 1 Q 2 7 1 i 2 - 8 and 4 Q 3 0 0 3 1-6. S e e DJD 20, 3 5 - 3 8 ; Tigchelaar, " N o t e s o n the R e a d i n g s , " 1 0 0 - 1 . The expression b e g i n n i n g "[because] the mysteries o f transgression" is rendered in DJD 20, 3 6 , as "[and that they might understand (ira-i)] the mysteries o f transgression." is a supplement Schiffman adds to the line before the expression rraa T I . Tigchelaar, "Notes o n Readings," 1 0 1 , plausibly argues that could not h a v e been the original reading. There is room for three letters at m o s t before rras T I . The translation g i v e n a b o v e a s s u m e s that the lacuna originally contained the word -o. A c c o r d i n g to Schiffman, 1 Q 2 7 1 i 7 asserts those w h o hold fast to "the mysteries o f [Belial] will b e n o more." H e explains (DJD 20, 3 7 ) that this line actually has the word *6s ("wonder") and that "it is o b v i o u s from the context that it must be e m e n d e d to bT'bn ("Belial") or s o m e s y n o n y m . " The expression "wondrous mysteries" ( T I *6B) generally refers to supernatural revelation. D e V a u x leaves the word after T I blank in his 1949 reconstruction. S e e h i s "La Grotte," 6 0 5 (in w h i c h the phrase in question is on line 6 rather than 7). H e translates "et tous c e u x qui detiennent les mysteres de ... n e seront plus." There is a discoloration mark after T I . T h e word *6s, h o w e v e r , is faintly discernible in P A M 4 0 . 5 2 8 . B u t Schiffman's reconstruction "the mysteries o f Belial" cannot be endorsed. N o surviving fragment o f Mysteries s h o w s any interest in this figure. H e is right to speculate that the phrase *6s T I is an error, since the k n o w l e d g e in question is p o s s e s s e d by the w i c k e d . A better supplement is something m o r e general, such as "the mysteries [ o f w i c k e d n e s s ] " ([sen] T I ) . T h e "Belial" reconstruction is criticized in Tigchelaar, " N o t e s on the Readings," 1 0 1 . S e e also DJD 1, 103. Cf. 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 4.

THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES

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discussed in the previous chapter, in Second Temple literature H often refers to knowledge obtained from supernatural revelation. The enigmatic phrase "the mystery that is to be" (rrru H) occurs frequently in 4QInstruction and once in the Community Rule (1QS 11:3-4). In 4QInstruction the mystery that is to be refers to a divine plan guiding history and creation that is revealed to the addressee. In the Community Rule the expression is also associated with revelation. Its meaning in Mysteries is broadly compatible with its usage in 4QInstruction and the Treatise. Mysteries emphasizes the raz nihyeh in relation to eschatological events. The wicked will not be spared because they do not know "the mystery that is to be" (1Q27 1 i 3; par 4Q300 3 3). They will not be able to save themselves "from the mystery that is to be (rrrD HE)" (1Q27 1 i 4; par 4Q300 3 4). De Vaux originally translated the expression as "le mystere passe" on the basis of biblical texts in which the Niphal participle rrrtD refers to completed actions (e.g., Prov 13:19) Subsequent scholarship corrected this translation to reflect the text's assertion that the destruction of the wicked will take place in the future. 4QInstruction connects the raz nihyeh to the eschatological future, as in 4Q417 2 i 10-11. But the two most extensive judgment scenes of 4QInstruction, 4Q416 1 and 4Q418 69 ii, never mention the mystery that is to be. The expression is often not related to eschatological events. Of the over twenty occurrences of the raz nihyeh in 4QInstruction, only once is the phrase combined with the preposition mem, as in 1Q27 1 i 4 {bet is used with greater frequency). 4Q416 2 iii 20-21 preserves remnants of a teaching on marriage that uses the expression rPHJ HE. This passage does not invoke the raz nihyeh in relation to eschatological events. 4QInstruction associates the mystery that is to be with the creation of the world, which it describes as a demonstration of God's strength and dominion (4Q417 1 i 8-9). Mysteries also relates the raz nihyeh to the distant past. The phrase is parallel to the "former things" 21

22

23

2 1

D e V a u x , "La Grotte," 6 0 5 - 6 . DJD 7, 103, translates "mystere fiitur." S e e also Rabinowitz, "The D e V a u x Fragment," 2 2 . Ibba, "II 'Libro dei Misteri,'" 7 6 - 7 7 . The War Scroll u s e s the word raz in an eschatological sense. A c c o r d i n g to 1 Q M 3:9, s o m e o f the trumpets o f the h e a v e n l y host h a v e " G o d ' s mysteries (SK ••n) to destroy w i c k e d n e s s " inscribed upon them. 2 2

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( n r J I Q i p ) (1Q27 1 i 3). The wicked do not understand them, as they do not know the mystery that is to be. It is not specified what the "former things" are. Kister, observing that Isa 43:18-19 uses the word n v j i o n p , has suggested 1Q27 1 i 3 urges the audience to "remember the former things of the days of old" (cf. Isa 46:9). The motif of recalling the "days of old" is generally associated with the salvation history of Israel. Mysteries never reviews the deeds and punishments of past generations in order to admonish one to be righteous, as in, for example, the Damascus Document (CD 2-3 ). The theme of the "days of old" occurs often in the Psalms, in which the speaker, who, experiencing a moment of distress, beseeches God to act on his behalf and reminds the deity of great things he accomplished in the past (e.g., Ps 77). There is no indication in Mysteries that the intended audience is suffering. It is more likely that the "former things" of 1Q27 1 i 3 signify the beginning of creation and the primeval period. The addressees have the capacity to understand both the eschatological future and the origins of creation. Mysteries uses the mystery that is to be and the former things in parallelism. This can be read as a merism. The whole of the created order is expressed by referring to its beginning and its end. 1Q27 1 i 3-4 refers to an understanding of history and creation that the wicked do not understand. One can infer that the intended audience of Mysteries can attain genuine knowledge of the created order. A similar merism is imparted to the student addressees of 4QWords of the Maskil: "a[dd kn]owledge of the appointed [t]imes, whose interpre[ta]tion [I will recou]nt, in order that you may give heed to the end of the ages and that you may look upon for[m]er things in order to know ..." (4Q298 3-4 ii 8-10). The 4QMysteries fragments establish that the knowledge of good and evil is mentioned in the judgment scene. The beginning of the passage has not survived in full but states: "... in order that they might know (WT T Q I D ) the difference between good and evil" (4Q300 3 2). This knowledge, particularly in relation to the "former things," evokes the primeval period. The text is fragmentary but the 24

25

26

2 4

Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 3 2 . Ibid., 3 3 . In 1QS 11:3-4 the mystery that is to be is related to the expression "what a l w a y s is" (obiv i n n ) . 2 5

2 6

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nearest referent for those who "might know" good and evil are the ones who do not possess the mystery that is to be. 1Q27 1 i 2 is not well preserved but suggests this group did know the "mysteries of transgression." It may be implied that these people had an opportunity to learn the knowledge of good and evil but did not. In any case, there is a correspondence between knowledge and salvation. It is safe to presume that the wicked do not have the knowledge of good and evil or of their ultimate fate, and that the righteous possess both forms of knowledge. In 4QInstruction the addressee has the ability to attain the knowledge of good and evil through the raz nihyeh (4Q417 1 i 6-8). The wicked in Mysteries are similar to the "fleshly spirit" of 4QInstruction. It is not given the vision of Hagu because it does not know good and evil (4Q417 1 i 1718). Mysteries, however, never appropriates material from Gen 1-3 to the extent of 4QInstruction. Ibba has suggested that the raz nihyeh should not be translated in the same way in 4QInstruction and Mysteries. For the former he proposes "mistero delPesistenza" ("mystery of existence"), and for the latter "mistero fiituro" ("future mystery"). Ibba has a point in that the raz nihyeh is oriented more consistently towards eschatological events in Mysteries than 4QInstruction. But the meaning of the phrase in both compositions is broadly compatible. This would be obfuscated by employing different translations of the expression. In both works the mystery that is to be signifies a divine plan that orchestrates creation and history, from beginning to end. In 1Q27 1 i 3-4 the mystery that is to be is in parallelism with the "former things" (JTmftlp); in 4Q417 1 i 3 the phrase is associated with the "deeds of old" (Dip •'BfflO) (cf. 4Q418 43 2). In Mysteries and 4QInstruction the mystery that is to be is connected not only to the future but also the distant past. Elsewhere in Mysteries the term raz is not related to the future. 4Q299 5 apparently preserves remnants of a creation hymn along the lines of texts such as Sir 42:15-43:33 and the Hymn to the Creator (1 lQPs 26:9-15) (cf. 4Q299 6 i). Though fragmentary, 4Q299 5 uses 27

28

29

a

A . Klostergaard Petersen, " W i s d o m as Cognition: Creating the Others in the B o o k o f Mysteries and 1 Cor 1-2," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 4 0 5 - 3 2 . Ibba, "II 'Libro dei Misteri,'" 77. Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 3 2 . 2 8

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the word raz when praising the grandeur of God's creation: "[light]s of the stars for the re[membr]ance of [his] name ... [migh]ty mysteries of light 11) and the ways of dark[ness] ... seasons of warmth as well as periodfs of . . . ] " (11. 1-3). The term "mystery" refers to the ordered structure of the natural world. The creation hymn in 1QH 9 also employs the term raz when describing the regulated structure of the world: 30

You have stretched out the heavens for your glory. Everything [which it contains] you have [established according to your will ... luminaries according to their mysteries (arm*?), stars according to [their] circuits, [all the stormy winds] according to their roles, lightning and thunder according to their duties and well-designed storehouses according to th[eir] purposes ... according to their mysteries (Dmn6) (11. 9-13). 31

4QInstruction similarly presents creation as a kind of raz or mystery by claiming that "By means of the mystery that is to be he has laid out its foundation and its works" (4Q417 1 i 8-9). The "mystery" in this material is that the cosmos, through its ordered and rational nature, reflects the grandeur of God. Mysteries also uses the term "eternal mysteries" (117 11). In 4Q300 la ii-b 2 (par 4Q299 3c 5) the "magicians" are accused of not knowing them. While the fate of these "magicians" is never specified, one can infer that they are among the wicked in 1Q27 1 i (par 4Q300 3) who will be destroyed. They do not know the mystery that is to be. The "magicians" do not know mysteries that are "eternal." The phrase "eternal mysteries" in 4Q300 la ii-b approximates the merism of the "former things" and "mystery that is to be" in 1Q27 1 i 3 (par 4Q300 3 3). In both texts the term "mystery" signifies a full understanding (which the wicked do not have) of God's dominion of the cosmos. Poorly preserved texts of Mysteries are addressed to "those who hold fast to mysteries" ( D l l •omn) (4Q299 43 2; 4Q300 8 5). Line 32

33

The w o r d for "period" (pp), w h i c h can refer to "end" in an eschatological sense (e.g., D a n 8:19; 11:35), here refers to ordinary natural processes. There is a fragmentary reference to G o d ' s creation in 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b 11: "He causes everything [which c o m e s into b e i n g . ] " M.J. Goff, "Reading W i s d o m at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 6 3 - 8 8 (esp. 2 7 3 - 7 4 ) ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 217-18. S e e also section 3.3 o f this chapter. This v i e w is bolstered if 4 Q 2 9 9 3 c , w h i c h is parallel to 4 Q 3 0 0 1 a ii-b, f o l l o w s the deterministic teaching in 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b. 3 1

j 2

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9 of 4Q299 3a ii-b begins an exhortation: "Listen, O you who hold fast ("Oftin ISJEtB) ..." Since mystery language is prominent in this manuscript, one can posit that 4Q299 3 a ii-b 9 was originally addressed to those "who hold fast to mysteries" (cf. 4Q301 1 2). This claim is supported by 4QInstruction. This composition uses the word raz in reference to instruction given to the addressee: "O wise son, understand your mysteries ( r O T D p i n n n ) " (4Q417 1 i 25; cf. 4Q418 177 7a). Two of the main teachings of Mysteries are the transformation of the world (1Q27 1 i) and that God has arranged all things (4Q299 3a ii-b). The content of these texts can be regarded as "mysteries" given by a teacher to his students. The "mysteries" include knowledge that relates to the eschatological future but is not limited to this topic. The fact that instruction presumes the disclosure of revealed knowledge to the addressees suggests they had a form of elect status. Not all of the teachings of Mysteries, however, should be considered revealed knowledge. In several instances the student is to ponder a question the teacher has asked (e.g., 4Q300 7 l). In general the text presumes the disclosure of revelation to the intended addressees as a basis for instruction. In that sense the teachings of the work can be considered "mysteries." Contra Ibba, one should not choose a translation that distinguishes the raz nihyeh of Mysteries from that of 4QInstruction. Both appeal to the mystery that is to be when asserting that God's mastery over the natural world extends from creation to final judgment. The latter is emphasized to a greater extent in Mysteries than 4QInstruction. But in 1Q27 (par 4Q300 3) the raz nihyeh should be understood in relation to the entire history of the world, not just its eschatological transformation. 4QInstruction and Mysteries do, however, use the mystery that is to be in different ways. The former constantly exhorts the addressee 34

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L a n g e , Weisheit und Prddestination, 1 0 1 , points out the use o f the verb -pn in participial form in Proverbs and 4QBeatitudes. S e e , for e x a m p l e , Prov 3:18 and 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 1. In these texts the w o r d refers to those w h o f o l l o w the path endorsed by these c o m p o s i t i o n s . This is also the case in Mysteries. In 4 Q 1 8 4 1 9 the verb -|nn is associated with p e o p l e w h o f o l l o w the w r o n g path. 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 4 claims that s o m e t h i n g is hidden from "those w h o hold fast to ([-]5mn) . . . " A s in 1Q27 1 i 7 and 4 Q 2 9 9 3a ii-b 9, the word after w i n has not survived. 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 4 could refer to the "magicians" mentioned in 4 Q 3 0 0 l a ii-b (par 4 Q 2 9 9 3 c ) from w h o m true k n o w l e d g e is hidden. S e e section 5 o f this chapter. 3 5

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to meditate upon and ponder the mystery that is to be in order to learn knowledge on various topics. The raz nihyeh is an enigmatic phrase, and the teacher who offered the instruction in Mysteries surely intended his students to reflect on the meaning of this expression. But the composition never encourages the study of the mystery that is to be in the manner of 4QInstruction. This seems to be more an issue of rhetorical style than a substantive difference between the meanings of the raz nihyeh in these works. 3.2 Determinism The conception of the natural order in 4QInstruction is deterministic, affirming that all things have been arranged by God. This is also the case in the book of Mysteries. If such a mindset is implicit in 1Q27 1 i (par 4Q300 3), it is explicit in 4Q299 3a ii-b. Though the fragment is not fully preserved, its overall deterministic perspective is clear: ... the schemes of every creature ... every mystery and establishes every plan (rarano b\D fDBl n biD). He causes everything [which comes into being.] H[e is from befjore eternity; the Lord is his name, and for efternity ... p]lan of the time of birth he opened be[fore them] (11. 10-13). 37

In this passage the word "mystery" is in parallelism with "plan" (rQWTO). Both words are prominent. The usage of the term raz in this fragment is compatible with its meaning in 4Q299 5. The word rQWTIO also has a deterministic resonance in 4QInstruction. 4Q417 1 i 11-12 claims that "... in proper understanding were made [known the secr]ets of his plan (TDOnD nn[03]), along with his walking [perfectly [in all] his [de]eds" (cf. 4Q215a 2 l). 1QH 9, like 4Q299 3 a ii-b 11, uses both ro^TO and n when making deterministic 38

,

39

Schiffman, DJD 20, 4 2 , translates the word p a as "preordains." For n , see line 15; for ratona, lines 10, 11 and 13. Schiffman, DJD 20, 4 1 , reconstructs naona in line 5. S e e also the poorly preserved phrase o f 4 Q 3 0 0 5 1, "thought o f under [standing]" ([n^J-fi riirana). This fragment overlaps with 4 Q 2 9 9 3a ii-b. Compare Sir 4 3 : 2 3 : "His is the plan ( i n a B n a ) that c a l m s Rahab and plants the islands in the deep." 3 8

3 9

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claims. After stating that the lighting and thunder operate "according to their duties," 1QH 9:12-13 asserts that the "storehouses of the plan" (nDOTO JTnxlK) function "according to th[eir] purposes ... according to their mysteries." The phrase "[p]lan of the time of birth (D^IB ITS raflnpD]) he opened before them" of 4Q299 3a ii-b 13 apparently affirms an astrological understanding of human birth. The fate and origin of the individual is understood in relation to a deterministic conception of the natural order. The deterministic meaning of the phrase rP3 CH^IQ has implications for the interpretation of "those begotten of iniquity" (nbw nblto) (1Q27 1 i 5). It is likely that God ordained them to be wicked before they were born. After describing the future transformation of the world, the text asserts that this will undoubtedly happen and "will not be reversed ( 3 W K1 ?)" (1Q27 1 i 8; cf. 4Q299 8 8). Mysteries relates its deterministic mindset to the theme of eschatology. The determinism of Mysteries invites comparison to the Treatise of the Two Spirits: 41

1

From the God of Knowledge stems all there is and all there will be. Before they existed he established their entire design (Drorano). And when they have come into being, at their appointed time, they will execute all their works according to his glorious design (rQOTiM TTDD), without altering anything (1QS 3:15-16). 42

The word rQBTTO is prominent in this passage (cf. 1QS 4:4). The Treatise employs the term raz in reference to the regulation of the 4 0

1QS 11 also connects these t w o terms. Lines 1 8 - 1 9 o f this c o l u m n read: " B e y o n d y o u there is n o o n e ... to understand any o f your h o l y thoughts (narana roB-np), to gaze into the abyss o f your mysteries (HDTI paira)." The expression D-H^TD rra occurs in 4 Q 2 9 9 5 5 and 4 Q 2 9 9 1 4 (cf. 4 Q 4 1 5 2 ii 9). T h u s the phrase can b e placed at the end o f the reconstructed text that incorporates 1Q27 1 i and 4 Q 3 0 0 3 . Schiffman, DJD 20, 3 7 , understands onbm rra as referring to the "time o f birth w h i c h is s e e n to affect the nature and nature o f the individual." E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 1 - 7 2 , translates "Zodiac sign o f o n e ' s birth." M . Morgenstern adopts a similar position. S e e his "The M e a n i n g o f • n ^ n rra in the Qumran W i s d o m Texts," JJS 51 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 1 4 1 - 4 4 . W h i l e neither 4QInstruction nor Mysteries attests astrological lore, in both texts onSin rra probably signifies a deterministic understanding o f the c o s m o s . N o t e that the expression is in 4 Q 2 9 9 5, w h i c h recounts the structure and harmony o f the natural order. S e e the discussion o f 4 Q H o r o s c o p e ( 4 Q 1 8 6 ) in section 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 o f Chapter 1. Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 1 2 1 - 7 0 ; C A . N e w s o m , The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran ( S T D J 5 2 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 9 1 - 1 9 0 . 4 1

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natural order, as do 4Q299 5 and 1QH 9. The creation of human wickedness by the "Angel of Darkness" is "in compliance with the mysteries of God" (^K T) ^b) (1QS 3:23). The relatively common epithet "God of Knowledge" (minn SK) occurs in passages in 4QInstruction and the Hodayot that put forward a deterministic theology (4Q417 1 i 8-9; 1QH 9:26-27). The expression is found in unfortunately fragmentary portions of Mysteries (4Q299 35 2; 4Q299 73 3). With regard to the theme of determinism, the Treatise makes a compatible but more extreme claim than Mysteries. The Treatise asserts that God devised the "entire design" of the cosmos before its creation (1QS 3:15). The author of Mysteries may have believed that this was the case. The 'pre-determined' nature of reality can be inferred from 4Q299 3a ii-b. But this idea is explicit in the Treatise and is at best implicit in Mysteries. The situation is similar with regard to the imagery of light and darkness. The book of Mysteries compares the elimination of wickedness before righteousness to the removal of darkness before light and claims that righteousness will be revealed like the sun (1Q27 1 i 5-6; par 4Q300 3 5-6). With its famous description of the "Prince of Lights" and the "Angel of Darkness," the Treatise turns to the dualism of light and darkness to explain human conduct (1QS 3:18-26). There is no comparable account of human behavior in Mysteries. Lange has suggested that Mysteries is part of the sapiential milieu that influences the Treatise, and that the latter presents ideas found in the former in a more developed form. The Treatise would then represent further reflection and elaboration of motifs found in the book of Mysteries. This is a plausible way to understand the relationship between the two compositions. 43

44

3.3 Revelation, Licit and Illicit When 4QInstruction claims that there is a divine plan orchestrating 4 3

4 Q 2 9 9 5 2 m e n t i o n s both light and darkness in its account o f the natural order, and this appears to be the case in 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 10 as well (cf. 4 Q 2 9 9 3 0 3). Neither text relates them to human activity. S e e also 4 Q 3 0 1 2 b 4 and 4 Q 3 0 1 5 4 - 5 . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 168; idem, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 13. 4 4

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the natural order, it asserts that this knowledge is available to the addressee through supernatural revelation (4Q417 1 i 11-12). Mysteries likewise associates its deterministic perspective with higher revelation. Key passages of the work, however, never appeal to revelation. Neither the main fragment in terms of the theme of determinism (4Q299 3a ii-b) nor the texts that recount the destruction of the wicked (1Q27 1 i; 4Q300 3) directly state that they transmit revealed knowledge. There is no angel disclosing and interpreting a vision for a seer, as in Daniel and 4 Ezra. But Mysteries claims that its addressees have received knowledge from heavenly sources. This is explicit in 4Q299 8 6: "With great intelligence 2T\2) he opened (T\bl) our ear." Line 8 of this fragment asserts that "all intelligence is from eternity; it will not be changed." Mysteries connects the theme of revelation to the moral conduct of its addressees, although the evidence for this association has not survived fully. 4Q299 8 7 asserts that there is an "inclination of understanding (riTQ "12T) for all who pursue knowledge." Line 6 attests the phrase "the inclination of ou[r] heart." In Second Temple literature the term yeser often refers to an innate capacity within a person that helps determine his behavior. Since 4Q299 8 6 mentions the disclosure of revelation to the intended audience, the yeser of each member is somehow related to divine knowledge. Not enough of this passage has survived to interpret it sufficiently. But what is extant suggests that full transformation into a morally upright individual is possible only through the reception of revelation. According to Mysteries, some people do not have access to revealed knowledge. 1Q27 1 i teaches that the wicked do not know the mystery that is to be. The "magicians" of 4Q300 la ii-b (par 4Q299 3c) do not know several things. The work asserts that "the [s]eal of the vision is sealed from you, you have not considered the eternal mysteries and you have not come to understand wisdom ... 45

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T h e language o f G o d revealing, using the verb r6a, to the "ear" o f the addressee is frequent in 4QInstruction. S e e , for example, 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 18, 4 Q 4 1 8 123 ii 4 and 4 Q 4 1 8 1 8 4 2. J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m , A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , and the D e a d Sea Scrolls," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (JSJSup 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 3 6 9 83. 4 6

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you have not considered the root of wisdom" (11. 2-3). These "magicians," however, are not ignorant. They "utter the parable and riddle" (1. 1). They are "skilled in transgression" ( 1 7 0 3 H » S B ) . Mysteries claims that these "magicians" possess some form of knowledge, while emphasizing that the truth has not been revealed to them. This suggests that the "magicians" understood themselves as having access to supernatural revelation. The wicked of 1Q27 1 i possess an illegitimate form of revealed knowledge. They "hold fast to mysteries ( T 1 ) [of wickedness]" (1. 7) and probably understand "the mysteries of transgression" (1703 T I ) , although the key texts for this latter claim are not well preserved (1Q27 1 i 2; par 4Q300 3 2). Above I argued that the "magicians" should be included among those who will be destroyed in the judgment scene of 1Q27 1 i. Kister understands the tension between the "magicians" and the intended audience of Mysteries as a form of "wisdom contest," a process of debate and questioning that involves opposing sages. This is a helpful approach. There very well could have been actual debate between the two groups. But the dispute Mysteries has with the "magicians" goes beyond intellectuals debating one another. The "magicians" are a group that claims to transmit heavenly revelation. The author of Mysteries disputes this assertion. Comparison with the Book of the Watchers can elucidate the attitude in Mysteries towards the "magicians." When the petition Enoch takes to heaven on behalf of the Watchers is rejected, Enoch is to tell them: ,

48

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You (the Watchers) were in heaven, and no mystery was revealed to you; but a stolen mystery you learned; and this you made known to the women ... and through this mystery the women and the men are multiplying evils on the earth (7 En. 16:3). 50

4

Line 4 asserts that "it will b e kept secrfet from y o u . . . ] all [yo]ur w i s d o m . " The antecedent is probably the w o r d "vision" o f line 3 . The fragmentary text 4 Q 3 0 0 9 m a y h a v e discussed the magicians. Line 1 reads "secrets, they did not grasp i t . . . " Line 2 reads "for on it is the day o f dispute," suggesting that the p e o p l e mentioned in the first line do not understand secrets that relate to the final judgment. T h e phrase "hidden w i s d o m " ( r n r o a n n ^ n ) occurs in a fragmentary section o f lines 4-5 o f 4 Q 3 0 0 l a ii-b (par 4 Q 2 9 9 3 c 4 ) . T h e expression is also in a poorly preserved portion o f 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b (1. 4; cf. 4 Q 3 0 0 5 5). Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 2 3 - 2 5 . Cf. 1 Q M 14:9; 1QH 13:36; 2 4 : 5 . A Greek variant for "but a stolen mystery" reads "and a mystery that w a s from G o d . " S e e G.W.E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch: A 4 8

4 9

5 0

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This text condemns the Watchers for transmitting heavenly knowledge that should not have been disclosed. The "magicians" of Mysteries are analogously denounced for imparting illicit revelation. From the beginning of scholarship on Mysteries commentators have discerned a thematic link between this work and the Book of Watchers. De Vaux interpreted "those begotten of iniquity", (1Q27 1 i 5; par 4Q300 3 4) as a reference to the Watchers. In response, Rabinowitz contended that the wicked who will be eliminated should be understood as humans, not angels. I agree with Rabinowitz. Those who are destroyed in 1Q27 1 i/4Q300 3 transmit mysteries, or revealed teachings. This does not mean that they should be equated with the Watchers, who also disclose revelation. There are no indications that either "those begotten of iniquity" or the "magicians" descend from heaven. They are wicked humans. Lange has argued that the "magicians" should be understood as Jews who teach a kind of magic and mantic wisdom that is somewhat analogous to the improper revelations of the Watchers of 1 Enoch. There is room for speculation that the "magicians" (D^OBin) engaged in a form of mantic wisdom. The Babylonian "magicians" (D^DtDin) in Daniel are trained in dream interpretation. But there is no evidence in Mysteries itself that its "magicians" participated in such practices. The composition never recounts specific teachings espoused by this group. The wisdom of the "magicians" cannot, unfortunately, be reconstructed. 51

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Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36, 81-108 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2 0 0 1 ) 2 6 9 ; M . Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch ( 2 v o l s . ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 7 8 ) 1.102-3; M . Black and A . - M . D e n i s , Apocalypsis Henochi Graece: Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum Quae Supersunt Graeca ( P V T G 3 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 0 ) 3 0 ; M . B o c k m u e h l , Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 9 0 ) 4 0 - 4 1 . J.J. Collins, "The Origin o f Evil in A p o c a l y p t i c Literature and the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages, 2 8 7 - 9 9 . D e V a u x , "La Grotte," 6 0 7 . S e e also Piper, "The ' B o o k o f M y s t e r i e s , ' " 9 5 . Rabinowitz, "The D e V a u x Fragment," 2 5 . L a n g e , Weisheit und Prddestination, 109-19. It has b e e n claimed that D a n i e l is an important source for Mysteries. I e n g a g e this v i e w in section 4 b e l o w . 5 1

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3.4 The Elimination of the Wicked The key event of Mysteries is the ultimate transformation of the world (1Q27 1 i 5-7; 4Q300 3 4-6). Wickedness will "disappear" (rfa) and "vanish" (DIV) (1Q27 1 i 5-6). The elimination of the wicked is likened to the dissipation of smoke and the removal of darkness before light. "Folly" (r6lK) will be removed (1. 7). Once evil has been destroyed, "righteousness will be revealed like the sun" and "knowledge will fill the world" (11. 6-7). This proclamation of judgment is dualistic and relies on polar oppositions such as light/darkness, righteousness/wickedness and knowledge/folly. The passage is eschatological in that it describes the final demonstration of God's power over the wicked. Their demise is expected to come during the lifetime of the intended addressees. They are given a "sign" by which they can recognize when the events described have begun (1. 5). No surviving portion of Mysteries, however, contains a frenzied sense of immediate expectation. Mysteries is not the only text that compares the fate of the wicked to vanishing smoke. There is a similar account in the apocalypse 2 Baruch: 56

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You ought to know that our Creator will surely avenge us on all our brothers according to everything which they have done against us ... they do not keep the statutes of the Most High; but as smoke they will pass away ... like grass which is withering, they will fade away (82:27). In the Wisdom of Solomon the wicked, realizing the stark reality of 5 6

1Q27 1 i 5 u s e s the w o r d rbi t w i c e in unusual w a y s . The verb often refers to the disclosure o f h e a v e n l y revelation, as in line 6. The context o f line 5 m a k e s clear that rb: signifies the disappearance o f w i c k e d n e s s and darkness. This c h o i c e o f w o r d underscores that the ultimate defeat o f evil is considered revealed k n o w l e d g e . N o t e the fragmentary line 4 Q 2 9 9 3a ii-b 8: "... violated the c o m m a n d o f his Creator, his name shall b e erased from the mouth o f every . . . " Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 4 2 , argues that the depiction o f the elimination o f the w i c k e d in Mysteries is based o n an interpretation o f P s 104:35. This verse reads: "Let sinners b e c o n s u m e d (inrr) from the earth, and let the w i c k e d b e n o more ( e r a ) . " This is similar to 1Q27 1 i 6. B o t h texts use these t w o verbs to describe the fate o f the w i c k e d . The w o r d s are standard options for asserting that the w i c k e d will b e destroyed. P s 104:35 is a g o o d parallel, but it s e e m s maximalist to claim that Mysteries offers an interpretation o f this P s a l m s verse. N o t i c e the unfortunately fragmentary phrase in 4 Q 3 0 0 8 1, "[the v i ] s i o n o f our days." 5 7

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human death, understand that their fate is like "smoke before the wind" (5:14; cf 4Q185 1-2 i 9-13). It is not clear if Mysteries means that the wicked vanish forever or that they are removed to the underworld. The "sign" that they are to be destroyed is "when those begotten of iniquity are locked up ( - f l o m ) " (1Q27 1 i 5). Milik interpreted this as a reference to "remprisonnement dans PEnfer" (cf. 1QH 11:18). If this is the case, the fate of the wicked according to Mysteries is not unlike the depiction of their fate in the Book of Watchers, or other parts of I Enoch that refer to an abode of infernal punishment (e.g., 10:4-5; 27:2; 108:5-6). The verb "130 is used in 4QInstruction in relation to the punishment of the wicked: "... to repay vengeance to the workers of iniquity (]1K *bss) ... and to shut (the door) upon the wicked (D^ttD n i n "mo ?)" (4Q418 126 ii 6-7; cf. 4Q418 201 2). In the previous chapter I argued that the author of this text operated with the view that there was punishment after death for the wicked, but that this is not a prominent issue in the work. The situation is similar with regard to the book of Mysteries. It is possible that "those begotten of iniquity" are to be swallowed up by the earth to face anguish in the underworld. This can be inferred from 1Q27 1 i 5. But this is never stated directly and punishment after death is never emphasized. By comparison the Book of Watchers is much more dramatic, describing the hijrling of the wayward angels into a fiery abyss in 1 En. 10. In Mysteries the reward of the righteous is not astral immortality with the angels, as in Daniel and the Epistle of Enoch (Dan 12:3; I En. 104:4); rather they will enjoy a Utopian existence in a renewed and purified world. This promise is reminiscent of the proclamation 60

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DJD 1, 104. For the phrase ]IK ^UB, see E.J.C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction (STDJ 4 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) 103. J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington read ]TK ^bsi. S e e their Qumran Cave 4.XXIV: Sapiential Texts, Part 2. 4QInstruction (Musar Le Mebin): 4Q415ff. With a re-edition of 1026 ( D J D 3 4 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 9 ) 3 5 0 - 5 4 . Piper, "The ' B o o k o f Mysteries,'" 9 9 , m a k e s a distinction b e t w e e n "abstract" and "dramatic" eschatology, g i v i n g Mysteries as an e x a m p l e o f the former and Daniel and Revelation o f the latter. E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 6 , argues that Mysteries is the product o f scribal circles " w h o hoped for the national restoration o f Israel." This is presumably the basis o f his v i e w that the work w a s written in Jerusalem. E l g v i n insists that 4 Q 2 9 9 6 1

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in Isa 65:17-25 that God will "create new heavens and a new earth." Similar statements can be found in the apocalypses. According to the Book of Watchers, once the evil caused by the wicked angels has been eradicated, the earth will be changed into a new paradise. Part of this account reads: "Cleanse the earth from all impurity ... and all impurities that have come upon the earth, remove. And all the sons of men will become righteous, and all the peoples will worship (me)" (7 En. 10:20-21). It is possible that the author of Mysteries was familiar with a version of the Book of Watchers. However, prominent elements of this apocalypse, such as angels or God on his throne, are not major aspects of Mysteries. It is perhaps better to understand 1 En. 10 and Mysteries as attesting variants of a tradition that the world will be purified after eschatological judgment. There are compatible depictions in the Dead Sea Scrolls of the transformation of the earth after judgment. One of the most extensive is in the Treatise of the Two Spirits: God, in the mysteries of his knowledge ("to© T ) ) and in the wisdom of his glory, has determined an end (f p) to the existence of injustice and on the appointed time of the visitation he will obliterate it for ever. Then truth shall rise up forever (in) the world ... Then God will refine, with his truth, all man's deeds, and will purify for himself the structure of man, ripping out every spirit of injustice from the innermost part of his flesh (1QS 4:18-21; cf. T. Levi 18:3-5). 64

This scene has several points in common with Mysteries. At a specific point in the future evil will be destroyed. The claim that "truth" will spread throughout the world is analogous to the assertion in Mysteries that "knowledge will fill the world" (1Q27 1 i 7), and both compositions promise that humanity will exist without wickedness. The Treatise uses the word raz when stating that the 65

10 and 1Q27 9 - 1 0 attest such aspirations. But these are fragmentary texts. There is scant e v i d e n c e for h o p e s o f D a v i d i c national restoration in the b o o k o f Mysteries. Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 162. T h e t w o texts use similar terminology to make this point. 1QS 4:19 states m ban n D K nx:b Ksn; 1 Q 2 7 1 i 7 bin xbnn run. 4 Q 4 1 6 1 13 associates the destruction o f the w i c k e d with a "period o f truth." 4 Q T i m e o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s ( 4 Q 2 1 5 a ) m a k e s an a n a l o g o u s claim. Part o f this text reads: "And they will refine b y them the c h o s e n o f justice and h e will w i p e out [al]l iniquity o n account o f his piofus] o n e s ; for the age o f w i c k e d n e s s is fulfilled and all injustice will [pass a] way. [For] the time o f j u s t i c e has arrived, and the earth is filled with k n o w l e d g e and the praise o f G o d ( p a n n>6» n b n m r u n ) " ( 4 Q 2 1 5 a 1 ii 3 - 5 ; cf. Hab 2:14). Compare 4 Q 4 7 5 ( 4 Q R e n e w e d Earth) 1 4-5: "there will be n o more guilty d e e d s on the earth . . . and all the world will be 6 4

6 5

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ordained end of evil is in accordance with God's dominion over the world (1QS 3:23). 1Q27 1 i 4 (par 4Q300 3 4) states that the wicked will not save themselves from the raz nihyeh. The Treatise directly affirms life after death for both the righteous and wicked (1QS 4:614), whereas Mysteries does not. The Treatise is more explicit than Mysteries about the role of God in the final recompense of the righteous and wicked. 1Q27 1 i (par 4Q300 3) never mentions God, although his guidance of events is clearly implied.

4. THE STATUS AND USE OF THE TORAH IN THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES

An important issue in the interpretation of Mysteries is the extent to which this document appropriates and appeals to the Torah. According to Lange, Mysteries exhibits "ein starkes Interesse an Tora und Eschatologie." In his opinion, the work is reliant on both Qoheleth and Daniel. Lange relates both Mysteries and 4QInstruction to Qoheleth. He understands these works as the product of sapiential circles based in the Jerusalem Temple that were critical of Qoheleth. This view is based on the prominence of cultic issues in Mysteries and 4QInstruction. The redactor who supplied Qoh 12:12-14 is also considered a member of these circles. Lange contends that the expression -b "irvr of 1Q27 1 ii 3 is dependent on Qoh 6:8, 11; and 7:11. The word MB ("inadvertent sin") in 1Q27 6 2 is considered a response to Qoh 5:5, which attests this term in a discussion of vows. The terminology of Mysteries that for Lange reflects a "Kohelet66

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like Eden." For more on 4 Q 2 1 5 a , see Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 3 7 - 4 2 ; T. E l g v i n , "The Eschatological H o p e o f 4 Q T i m e o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 8 9 - 1 0 2 ; A . Justnes, " 4 Q 2 1 5 a (Time of Righteousness) in Context," in Sapiential Perspectives, 1 4 1 - 6 9 . T h e official edition o f this text is in S.J. Pfann et al., Qumran Cave 4.XXVI: Cryptic Texts and Miscellanea, Part 1 ( D J D 3 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) 1 7 2 - 8 4 . Lange, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 15. Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit dem Tempel," 1 1 3 - 5 9 . S e e also idem, "Eschatological W i s d o m in the B o o k o f Qohelet and the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25, 1997 (ed. L.H. Schiffman et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine o f the B o o k , Israel M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0 ) 8 1 7 - 2 4 ; E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? " 68-69. Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel," 145. Ibid., 125. 6 6

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Rezeption" is too common to claim that the work directly engages the book of Qoheleth. Lange's view is helpful in that it emphasizes the cultic elements of Mysteries. 4Q299 55 5 mentions "his holy [serv]ice and atonement" (cf. 4Q299 83 5; 1Q27 6 3). Fragment 79 of this manuscript discusses Aaron and a "[fragrant offering" (11. 6-7). Priests are mentioned in 4Q299 67 3 and 1Q27 3 2. The biblical cultic objects Urim and Thummim appear in 4Q299 69 2. Unfortunately, all of these references occur in fragmentary texts. It is not possible to reconstruct fully the cultic instruction of the composition. There is not enough evidence to place the production of the work in the Temple or to posit that some of the intended addressees were priests. There is even less to understand Mysteries as in debate with Qoheleth. It has been claimed that Daniel exerted an important influence on the composition of Mysteries. 4Q300 la ii-b 1-2 states that "the [s]eal of the vision is sealed from you" ( p t n n Dn[n ]DDO Dinn), referring to the "magicians." This language recalls Daniel. In Dan 9:24 the act of sealing a vision occurs in the context of the eschatological elimination of iniquity: "Seventy weeks are decreed for your people and your holy city: to finish the transgression, to put an end to sin ... to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal both vision and prophet (fcFlMI p t n Dnnb), and to anoint a most holy place" (cf. 12:4). Schiffman writes that "title seventy-weeks prophecy [of Dan 9]" "is formative for the language and conception of 4QMyst [4Q300]." The sealing of the vision in Dan 9:24 confers authenticity on the prophecy of the seventy weeks. It signifies that the oracle will take place. In Mysteries the vision is sealed from the magicians. They do not know it. The vision probably refers to the revealed teachings imparted to the intended audience of the composition. The author of Mysteries emphasizes that his proclamation of judgment is true and will come to pass (1Q27 1 i 8), but never uses the image of a sealed vision to give his prediction legitimacy in the manner of Dan 9:24. 70

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Ibid., 133. For a different opinion, s e e Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly," 7 8 . Elgvin, "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 3 . DJD 20, 102. J.J. Collins, Daniel (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1 9 9 3 ) 3 5 4 . C f . 4 Q 3 0 0 l a ii-b 6; 4 Q 3 0 0 8 1.

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The sealing of the vision in 4Q300 la ii-b functions in a way that is closer to the vision of Hagu passage of 4QInstruction than Dan 9. The vision of Hagu is not given to the "fleshly spirit" (4Q417 1 i 1718), as the vision is hidden from the magicians. The eschatological perspectives of Daniel and Mysteries are substantially different. The destruction of the wicked in Mysteries is never linked to a time-frame analogous to the "seventy weeks" of Daniel. The latter, not the former, gives indications that some were counting the days before an expected end-time date (Dan 12:12-13). The Qumran text never relates the theme of judgment to the suffering of the righteous at the hands of Gentile oppressors, unlike Daniel. This book accords a central role to the archangel Michael in the final judgment (12:1), and this figure was probably the intended referent of the "one like a human being" in 7:13. God on his heavenly throne and his retinue of angels are crucial motifs in the judgment scene of Dan 7. Mysteries has much less fanfare. There is no divine throne that issues fire, as in Dan 7:10, and there is no heavenly host implementing God's recompense. Angels are not a prominent theme in Mysteries. The fate of the wicked after judgment differs in Daniel and Mysteries. In the latter text they may be removed from earth to an underworld in which they are to suffer, but this is never stated directly, as discussed above. Daniel, by contrast, affirms the wicked will endure "shame and everlasting contempt" (12:2). This is not necessarily a reference to eternal torment in an underworld. But the wicked are to endure some form of disgrace after death. In Dan 12 the righteous are resurrected to enjoy a form of astral immortality with the angels. In Mysteries those who are spared from divine wrath continue living on earth after it has been cleansed of wickedness. There is no mention of resurrection. Mysteries has also been related to the story of Nebuchadnezzar's dream in Dan 2. Lange discerns an "Anspielung" ("allusion") to this 76

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Collins, Daniel 3 1 0 . Piper, "The ' B o o k o f Mysteries,"' 9 9 . A f e w small fragments o f Mysteries may mention angels, but in each instance not e n o u g h text is preserved to be sure. S e e , for e x a m p l e , 4 Q 2 9 9 3 5 2; 4 Q 2 9 9 51 1; 4 Q 2 9 9 7 2 2; 4 Q 2 9 9 7 4 3. Tigchelaar, " N o t e s on the R e a d i n g s , " 102, disputes the reading "ho[st]" in 4 Q 2 9 9 9 4 that is put forward in DJD 20, 5 1 . Collins, Daniel, 393. 7 7

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chapter in 4Q300 la ii-b and uses this to help establish the terminus a quo of Mysteries at approximately 150 BCE. The texts have points in common. Dan 2 frequently uses the word raz to signify supernatural revelation (e.g., w . 29, 30). The term "magicians" (DTOtDin) (4Q300 la ii-b), used for the Egyptian magicians in both the Joseph novella and Exodus, denotes the Babylonian wise men in Daniel (1:20; 2:27). In Exodus and Daniel Jews trump Gentile "magicians." Daniel does not denounce the wisdom of the Babylonians, as is the case elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Isa 44:25). Rather Daniel is better at dream interpretation than the Babylonians sages. In Exodus the magicians try, and ultimately fail, to outdo the miracles of Moses and Aaron. Mysteries is more insistent than both Exodus and Daniel in its rejection of the knowledge of the "magicians." I argued above that they should be included among those who will be destroyed in 1Q27 1 i 7. By contrast, Daniel's successful interpretation of the king's dream saves the Babylonian wise men from death. Mysteries uses the expression "magicians" to describe those who possess a form of inferior wisdom. The work employs the word in a way that is different from its meaning in Exodus and Daniel. Mysteries and Daniel both appeal to supernatural revelation and predict the eschatological destruction of the wicked. It is useful to compare the two works to understand Mysteries in relation to apocalypses. The use of the word D^ttin in Mysteries probably reflects some degree of familiarity with Daniel and, perhaps, Exodus. 80

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Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel," 132. S e e also Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 2 6 . See, for e x a m p l e , Gen 4 1 : 8 ; E x o d 7:22; 8:3. The attestations o f the term D»-in in the D e a d Sea Scrolls aside from Mysteries refer to the Egyptian sorcerers in retellings o f the Joseph n o v e l l a and the E x o d u s . S e e 4 Q 2 2 3 - 2 2 4 (4QpapJub ) 2 v 2 0 ; 4 Q 3 6 5 ( 4 Q R e w o r k e d Pentateuch ) 2 3 - 4 and 4 Q 3 6 5 3 2 - 3 . S i n c e the term in E x o d u s and Daniel refers to pagan sages, it is p o s s i b l e that the "magicians" o f M y s t e r i e s are also Gentile. Gentiles w e r e a t h e m e o f the c o m p o s i t i o n in its original form. T h e y are discussed in several texts ( 1 Q 2 7 1 ii 10; 1 Q 2 7 9 3 ; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 8; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 0 3 - 4 ; 4 Q 2 9 9 7 9 8; cf. 4 Q 2 9 9 3 a ii-b 16) and s o m e p a s s a g e s m a y distinguish Israel from the other nations ( 4 Q 2 9 9 10 3 ; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 8 1). Unfortunately, all o f these texts are in short fragments, and the contexts in w h i c h this material m e n t i o n s Gentiles cannot b e recovered. There is not e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to c o n c l u d e that the "magicians" o f Mysteries are Gentiles. J.J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination ( 2 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 9 8 [orig. pub., 1 9 8 4 ] ) 9 1 . 8 1

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But the two compositions are too different to understand them as a major formative influence on Mysteries. The question of Daniel aside, the author of Mysteries shows familiarity with the Torah. The work alludes to aspects of the national history of Israel that are recounted in the Hebrew Bible. 4Q299 74 2 mentions Moses. Aaron appears in 4Q299 79 6. Fragment 69 of this manuscript discusses Urim and Thummim (line 2), and Abraham appears to be the topic of 4Q299 106 2. There may be some fragmentary references to laws and commandments (4Q299 32 2; 4Q299 61 2; 4Q299 78 1; 4Q299 80 3), and the word "Torah" could be in 1Q27 5 2. Unfortunately, all of these texts are poorly preserved. They cannot be interpreted sufficiently. But they suggest that the author of this work utilized a version of the Torah. The status of the Torah in Mysteries is like that of 4QInstruction. Both compositions use the Torah without making it a prominent theme. Neither 4QInstruction nor Mysteries associates wisdom with the Torah in the manner of 4QBeatitudes. 84

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5. THE GENRE OF THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES

Mysteries has been classified in different ways. Daniel Harrington understands Mysteries as a sapiential text, as do most commentators, and includes it in his survey of Qumran wisdom literature. Geza Vermes places the composition in a section entitled "Historical and Apocalyptic Works." Florentino Garcia Martinez, in an earlier translation of the Dead Sea Scrolls, avoids the issue entirely by putting the text in a section called "Other Compositions." Scholarship on the genre of Mysteries has taken two decisively 87

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Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 3 2 , understands 1 Q 2 7 1 i 3 - 4 as an allusion to Isa 4 3 : 1 8 - 1 9 . I argued that this w a s probably not the case in section 3 . 1 . Piper, "The ' B o o k o f Mysteries,'" 9 5 , understands t h e s e same lines o f M y s t e r i e s as displaying a "striking familiarity" with P s 7 3 : 1 8 - 2 0 . In section 3.4 I evaluated Kister's argument that 1Q27 1 i 6 is an interpretation o f P s 104:35. S e e section 3.1.4 o f Chapter 1. Contra Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel," 1 4 4 - 4 5 . Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 7 0 - 7 3 . G. V e r m e s , The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English ( N e w York: Penguin, 2004) 408-9. ™ F. Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated ( 2 ed.; Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1 9 9 6 ) 3 9 9 - 4 0 1 . 8 5

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different directions. One is to argue that it is not a wisdom text. This position is represented by Ibba. He asserts that Mysteries is an eschatological, not a sapiential, composition. The other is to contend that it is a wisdom writing, but one that is very different from Proverbs and biblical wisdom in general. This viewpoint has been articulated by Kister. He understands Mysteries as a wisdom text that "is a fusion of concepts and genres," reflecting not only biblical and post-biblical wisdom tropes, but also influence from other traditions as well, including apocalypticism and prophecy. Kister is closer to the mark than Ibba. It is beyond dispute that Mysteries contains elements that are foreign to traditional wisdom. The work uses the term raz in its appeals to supernatural revelation, like Daniel and 1 Enoch. Mysteries proclaims the eschatological destruction of the wicked. The composition is deterministic and designed for an audience with elect status. One can reasonably claim that Mysteries has an apocalyptic worldview. The apocalyptic aspects of Mysteries are not found in Proverbs. But they are in 4QInstruction. No one disputes that this composition is a wisdom text. This classification is based on its pedagogical intent, admonitions and advice regarding ordinary spheres of life, as discussed in the previous chapter. The document combines practical wisdom in the tradition of Proverbs with an apocalyptic worldview. By comparison, Mysteries has less balance between older wisdom and apocalypticism. Mysteries has some material that echoes Proverbs. The text has a limited amount of practical advice. 1Q27 1 ii contains a highly fragmentary lesson about how wealth will not assist one who commits evil: "He will have no success in anything. So all the benefit of his money ... without wealth, and will be sold without a price" (11. 4-6). 4Q299 7, though not well preserved, warns against bearing grudges: "... before him than the one who bears a grudge [to a]ve[n]ge unjufstly]" (1. 5; cf. Lev 19:18). There are remnants of instruction 90

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Ibba, "II 'Libro dei Misteri,'" 8 4 . Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 4 7 . DJD 1, 105-6; DSSSE, 1.68-69. Schiffman, DJD 20, 4 9 , supplements the phrase "There is n o (greater) p o i s o n " to the beginning o f this line, based on parallels in 4 Q 3 0 0 6-7. The relationship b e t w e e n 4 Q 2 9 9 7 and 4 Q 3 0 0 6-7 is challenged in Tigchelaar, " N o t e s on the Readings," 1 0 1 . 9 1

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on jealousy in 4Q300 2 i i . 4Q299 6 ii 12, which is also fragmentary, may be on social relations: "the heart of his neighbor, and he ambushes ..." The next line preserves part of a teaching regarding a fool and wealth. The main issue of the following lines may have been farming. Line 14 attests the phrase "according to the crops" and line 18, "if he threshed, he shall add to ..." Not enough of 4Q299 6 ii has survived to know if lines 14-18 originally contained practical advice regarding the harvesting of successful crops, as 4QInstruction does (e.g., 1Q26 1 4-6), or if farming is used as a metaphor to illustrate a point that cannot be recovered. The texts that mention cultic affairs such as sacrifice (e.g., 4Q299 55 5) endorse participation in Temple worship, reflecting a concern for the routine and regular affairs of the intended audience. The material in Mysteries on practical and mundane topics are in fragmentary sections of the work. They cannot be interpreted satisfactorily. Mysteries includes a degree of practical instruction that is compatible with the traditional wisdom of Proverbs. But, when compared to 4QInstruction and Ben Sira, Mysteries shows markedly less interest in this form of teaching. One other aspect of Mysteries that can be understood in relation to older wisdom is the theme of pedagogy. Mysteries is a self­ consciously educational document. The phrase "those who pursue knowledge" ( n i n "•STH) in 4Q299 8 7 probably refers to the intended audience of the composition. This expression denotes those who are to heed instruction in 4QWords of the Maskil (4Q298 1-2 i 2; cf. 4Q418 69 ii l l ) . 4Q300 8 4 may refer to its addressees as "those who walk with simplicity" (^HS " O ^ n ) , using a term similar to the expression "simple ones," which designates students in several wisdom texts. Mysteries can be reasonably considered an instruction. A critical dimension of wisdom literature is "its use as 95

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Lines 2-5 o f this poorly preserved fragment read: "falsehood. What fear [for a person] ... h e shall abandon the j e a l o u s strife ... his transgression w h i c h he committed ... evil, except for him, the b e l o v e d . " N o t e the phrase "who search the roots o f understanding" in 4 Q 3 0 1 1 2. In Proverbs Lady W i s d o m refers to those w h o are to receive w i s d o m as the "simple o n e s " ( D W I S ) (8:5; cf. 1:4), and this sapiential tradition is continued in 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 8 221 2 ) and 4QSapiential Work ( 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 14) (cf. H Q P s 18:3). A l t h o u g h it is not clear that it is a manuscript o f Mysteries, note that 4 Q 3 0 1 1 b e g i n s with a pedagogical prologue. 9 5

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instructional material." Educational intent is not a distinctively sapiential issue. Pedagogy is an important aspect of several apocalypses (e.g., 1 En. 82; 2 Bar. 44-45). But, given the similarity of the terminology for the student addressees in Mysteries and that used in wisdom texts, it is plausible to understand the theme of pedagogy in Mysteries in continuity with the wisdom tradition. The rhetorical questions in Mysteries merit consideration when assessing the genre of the work. They are found throughout the composition. The best known example is in 1Q27 1 i. After describing the destruction of the wicked and the transformation of the world, the author asserts the validity of his proclamation: The thing is certain to come and the oracle is true. And from this you will know that it will not be reversed: Do not all the peoples hate iniquity? But it goes on at the hands of all of them. Does not the truthful report (issue) from the mouth of all the nations? Is there a language or a tongue which upholds it? What nation desires that (a) stronger one should oppress it? Yet what nation (is there) which has not stolen property (1Q27 1 i 8-12; par 4Q299 1 1-4)? 98

All peoples of the earth know what is right but they do not cany it out. In the mindset of Mysteries, this is proof that God will destroy the wicked. The existence of sin is evidence that God will eliminate it. The following column, which is poorly preserved, includes a rhetorical question that relates to human behavior: "what advantage is there to ... except one who does good and one who does evil" (1Q27 1 ii 3-4; par 4Q299 2 2-3)." There appear to have been originally at least four rhetorical questions in 4Q299 3a ii-b. Three of them have several words intact. These questions relate to human conduct, especially the practice of iniquity. Lines 3-4, for example, read "[And what] shall we call a per[son] ... wise and righteous, for it is not to a person ... [hidden wisdom, exjcept the wisdom of evil cunning (STi nOTlff rw»Tl)" (par 4Q300 5 4-5). There is a 100

Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered," 2 8 1 . L a n g e , Weisheit und Prddestination, 100. Rhetorical questions are also prominent in 4 Q 4 1 8 5 5 and 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii. S e e Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 1 8 19. There m a y h a v e b e e n another rhetorical question in 1 Q 2 7 1 ii 7. The line is t o o poorlv preserved to confirm this. Schiffman, DJD 20, 4 2 , reconstructs the phrase "and the [devices o f B e l i a l ] " after "the w i s d o m o f evil cunning." Parallelism suggests that the portion o f the line that has not survived refers to a kind o f w i c k e d k n o w l e d g e . But, as observed by 9 8

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similar question in 4Q300 7 1: "[what is worse for a human being than] evil, and what is more exalted for a man than righteousness?" In 4Q299 3c 3-4 the addressees are urged to contemplate the nature of wisdom: "Listen: for what is hidden wisdom?" (cf. 4Q300 la ii-b 5). 4Q299 8 5 is fragmentary but appears to be on a similar topic: "And how can a ma[n] understand who did not know and did not hear ..." Line 6 asserts that God has given revelation to the intended audience. This suggests that the question in line 5 asks how a man can understand without possessing revelation. 4Q299 6 ii 5, which is poorly preserved, is on the relationship between a father and his offspring: "Why is a father (better) for children than (another) man?" 4Q299 7 3 asks "[What is furth]er from a person than an ac[t of . . . ] " before discussing grudges in line 5. Other questions are extant elsewhere in Mysteries. Questions are characteristic of the teaching style of the author. Rhetorical questions have been understood as a sapiential form. This stylistic device is not uniquely sapiential. For example, there is a series of Qoheleth-like questions about the inability of humankind to understand God in 1 En. 93:11-14. Nevertheless the rhetorical questions of Mysteries can be reasonably understood in continuity with the wisdom tradition. This is suggested not only by the questions themselves as a rhetorical device but also by their content. The author consistently uses this form to encourage his audience to reflect on ethical issues and proper social relations. Considering the instructional aspect of Mysteries as a whole, along with its rhetorical questions and limited practical advice, it is plausible to claim that the 101

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Tigchelaar, " N o t e s o n the Readings," 1 0 1 , there is n o u n a m b i g u o u s attestation o f Belial in Mysteries (see the d i s c u s s i o n o f 1 Q 2 7 1 i 7 in section 3.3). This s u g g e s t s that the w o r d "Belial" should not be supplemented. 4 Q 2 9 9 3a ii-b has a rhetorical question in line 16: "[and what are] the p e o p l e s th[at] h e created them, and [their] deed[s]?" There m a y be another rhetorical question in line 15, but the text is poorly preserved. Line 4 o f this fragment asks "[what is] more evil than hating?" There m a y h a v e b e e n another rhetorical question with regard to revelation in 4 Q 3 0 0 8 7, w h i c h attests the phrase "what mystery" ( h no). S e e , for e x a m p l e , 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 8, 14; 4 Q 2 9 9 3 2 2 (?); 4 Q 2 9 9 3 3 4; 4 Q 3 0 0 6 2 , 6; 4 Q 3 0 0 8 2; 4 Q 3 0 0 10 2. Cf. 4 Q 2 9 9 3a i 5; 4 Q 2 9 9 2 7 3 ; 4 Q 3 0 0 2 ii 2; 4 Q 3 0 0 12 1. For 4 Q 3 0 1 , see 4 Q 3 0 1 2 b 1, 3 , 4; 4 Q 3 0 1 4 3 ; 4 Q 3 0 1 5 3 . Cf. 4 Q 3 0 1 2 a 2 . J.K. Kuntz, "The Canonical W i s d o m P s a l m s o f A n c i e n t Israel—Their Rhetorical, Thematic, and Formal D i m e n s i o n s , " in Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of James Muilenburg (ed. J J . Jackson and M. Kessler; Pittsburgh: P i c k w i c k Press, 1 9 7 4 ) 1 8 6 - 2 2 2 (esp. 191). 1 0 1

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work draws on traditional wisdom and in terms of genre can be considered a sapiential text, contra Ibba. This opinion is bolstered by the affinities between Mysteries and 4QInstruction. Although 4QInstruction draws on traditional wisdom to a greater extent than Mysteries, each composition can be understood as a wisdom text that has been influenced by the apocalyptic tradition. Ibba contends that Mysteries is an example of "un nuovo genere di profeti." The addressees are given a "sign" that the elimination of the wicked will occur. The phrase "and this is the sign for you" ( m a n nzb n n ) (1Q27 1 i 5) is found in prophetic contexts in the Hebrew Bible and in the Jeremiah Apocryphon (2 Kgs 20:9; Jer 44:29; 4Q387 2 iii 5; 4Q389 8 ii 5). Regarding the fiiture elimination of the wicked, 1Q27 1 i asserts "The thing (or "word"; "Din) is certain to take place and the oracle ( K O & n ) is true" (1. 8). The term KttJE signifies a form that is well attested in the biblical prophets, often designating judgment against foreign nations. In Mysteries the word refers to divine judgment against the wicked. This suggests that the composition reflects a degree of influence from the prophetic tradition. Parts of the work draw on prophetic speech forms, but as a whole the composition is better characterized as a wisdom instruction. 105

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Ibba, "II 'Libro dei M i s t e r i / " 82. Kister, " W i s d o m Literature," 35-36. H e understands this as a "mantic formula" based on 1 S a m 14:10. S e e also D . Dimant, Qumran Cave 4.XXVI: Parabiblical Texts, Part 4; Pseudo-Prophetic Texts ( D J D 30; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 0 6

2001) 186, 228. 1 0 7

S e e , for example, Isa 13:1; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1; H a b 1:1; N a h 1:1; Z e c h 9:1; 12:1; Mai 1:1. M a n y o f the "oracles" in the biblical prophets are directed towards Gentiles. This could m e a n that the "oracle" o f 1Q27 1 i is addressed t o non-Jews as well. T h e biblical "oracles" are at t i m e s addressed t o Israel, as in M a i 1:1. T h e u s e o f the term "oracle" in Mysteries is n o t a clear indication that it is a proclamation directed against Gentiles, although this is a possibility. Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel," 136; Piper, "The ' B o o k o f Mysteries,'" 97; Rabinowitz, "The D e V a u x Fragment," 29. Mysteries m a y exhibit familiarity with the fib (an) or disputation form, a traditional prophetic genre (e.g., M i c 6:1-8). S e e Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Y o u r Folly," 79-81. There are several fragments o f Mysteries that e m p l o y the word an in the context o f judgment. For example, 4Q299 59 2-3 reads: "with justice h e will contend (:TT) wi[th] . . . against all those w h o violate [his] c o m m a n d . " Line 7 o f this fragment attests the phrase "and let u s contend in dispute (an nanri)." For other e x a m p l e s o f an in the context o f judgment, s e e 4Q299 53 8; 4Q299 62 2; 4Q300 9 2. Unfortunately, n o n e o f the texts o f Mysteries that e m p l o y the word an are w e l l 1 0 8

1 0 9

1 1 0

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4QInstruction demonstrates that the sapiential genre can accommodate points of view that are alien to traditional wisdom. Mysteries can also be understood as an example of this phenomenon. The classification of Mysteries as a wisdom text involves not only identifying material in the work that is reminiscent of Proverbs. It demands understanding the ways in which the sapiential tradition changed in the late Second Temple period. Mysteries has more in common with the wisdom tradition of Early Judaism than that of the Hebrew Bible. In a sense Mysteries is closer to the Treatise of the Two Spirits than 4QInstruction. Mysteries and the Treatise have easily discernible apocalyptic worldviews. It is reasonable to understand them as wisdom texts in terms of genre, but for both this is less obvious than in the case of 4QInstruction.

6. THE DATE AND SOCIAL SETTING OF THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES 111

Mysteries was written for a group with elect status. 4Q299 8 6 claims its audience has received divine revelation (cf. 4Q300 8 4a), and this manuscript presumably describes its addressees as "those who hold fast to mysteries." One can infer that they did not consider themselves among the wicked who will be destroyed in 1Q27 1 i (par 4Q300 3). This attitude is compatible with the mindset of the yahad group. The sectarian mentality of Mysteries is suggested by its disdain for the "magicians." Their appeals to divine revelation are deemed false. The "magicians" probably had a similar opinion about the group that produced Mysteries. The precise relationship between the two cannot be reconstructed. One of these groups may have split off from the other. preserved. The c o m p o s i t i o n has n o full b l o w n e x a m p l e o f the covenant lawsuit disputation form. J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age ( O T L ; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) 128. Tigchelaar, "Your W i s d o m and Your Folly," 7 3 - 7 8 , has observed that s o m e texts o f Mysteries are addressed to different groups. 1 Q 2 7 9 3 , for example, is an admonition to "the kings o f the nations," in a fashion similar to W i s 6:1. A s i d e from the "magicians," n o n e o f the various terms for addressees can b e correlated to audiences other than the main group for w h i c h the c o m p o s i t i o n is intended. W i s 6:1 is an exhortation to Jews, although its conceit is to address Gentiles. Rhetorically there could b e something similar at work in 1 Q 2 7 9 3 . 1 1 1

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There is no strong evidence that Mysteries was written by a member of the Dead Sea sect. In terms of the relationship between Mysteries and the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness, the most interesting issue is how to understand this wisdom text vis-a-vis the Treatise of the Two Spirits. In section 3.2 I endorsed Lange's suggestion that the Treatise expands ideas and themes found in Mysteries. This composition can be labeled a preEssene text but the point requires elaboration. If one posits that the author of the Treatise was influenced by the book of Mysteries, it does not necessarily follow that its original audience is a direct predecessor to the yahad movement. It is possible that some of "those who hold fast to mysteries" joined the Dead Sea sect, bringing Mysteries with them. But there is no evidence for this position. As is the case with 4QInstruction, members of this group read and reflected upon Mysteries. Elgvin suggests that Mysteries was written during the time of the Maccabean conflict, ca. 175-165 BCE. Lange similarly contends that the work is written no later than the middle of the second century, and that it was shaped by the policies of the Maccabean era high priests Jason and Menelaus. Elgvin's dating is based on the view that Mysteries can be situated in the same "apocalyptic milieus" that produced Daniel, and Lange's on the idea that Mysteries is a product of the Jerusalem Temple. Above I critiqued the claim that the composition originated from the Temple. Familiarity with Daniel is not sufficient evidence to place Mysteries in a social setting close to that of this biblical book. Core Maccabean issues, such as oppressive Gentile rulers or the disruption of Temple purity, are not present in this wisdom text. It is reasonable to understand Mysteries as written in the second century BCE. The probable use of Daniel by the composition suggests it was written in the middle or late portions of this century. But there is not enough evidence to arrive at a more specific date of composition. The situation between the group responsible for Mysteries and the "magicians" accords with the rise of Jewish 112

113

114

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1 1 3

1 1 4

E l g v i n , "Priestly S a g e s ? " 7 1 . Ibid., 7 3 . Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit der Tempel," 157.

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THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES 115

sectarianism in the second century BCE in general. The aspects of Mysteries that resonate with the apocalyptic tradition, such as eschatological judgment and appeal to higher revelation, make it plausible to posit that this text was written in a period in which apocalypticism was prevalent in Palestine. This factor allows a date of either the second or first centuries BCE. It has been traditional to place the rise of the Teacher of Righteousness in the middle of the second century, but recent scholarship suggests that his community flourished, and perhaps originated, in the early first century BCE. Understanding the Treatise as to some extent reliant upon Mysteries establishes the date of the latter text as earlier or contemporary with the sectarian movement that produced the Treatise. This criterion favors a second century dating for Mysteries, but does not a priori exclude a first century provenance. In the previous chapter I argued that 4QInstruction can be safely placed in the second century BCE. Broadly speaking, it is reasonable to situate this work and Mysteries in the same sapiential milieu, in the sense that a number of similar traditions shape both works. Mysteries has more in common with 4QInstruction than any other wisdom text from Qumran. Both appeal to revelation beyond that of Sinai. They employ the term raz nihyeh. The two compositions are designed for communities with elect status. They have deterministic perspectives and proclaim the elimination of the wicked. Each work can be understood as having an apocalyptic worldview. Both were probably used as sources by the group associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. If 4QInstruction was written in the second century BCE, it is plausible to date the composition of Mysteries to this century as well. Mysteries and 4QInstruction probably do not originate from the same group. Unlike 4QInstruction, Mysteries never uses the word 116

117

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1 1 5

A.I. Baumgarten, The Flourishing of Jewish Sects in the Maccabean Era: An Interpretation (JSJSup 5 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) . The relevant scholarship is discussed in section 5.5 o f Chapter 1. 4 Q T i m e o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s ( 4 Q 2 1 5 a ) has also b e e n understood as from the s a m e general milieu that produced 4QInstruction and Mysteries. S e e Justnes, " 4 0 2 1 5 a , " 1 6 1 ; Elgvin, "The Eschatological H o p e , " 100. A . Lange, " D i e B e d e u t u n g der Weisheitstexte aus Qumran fur die hebraische Bibel," in Weisheit in Israel (ed. D.J.A. Clines, H. Lichtenberger and H.-P. Miiller; A T M 12; Minister: Lit-Verlag, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 2 9 - 4 4 (esp. 134). 1 1 7

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CHAPTER TWO

mebm in reference to its intended audience. 4QInstruction contains a great deal of financial advice regarding the precarious economic situation of the addressee and constantly reminds him that he is poor. Mysteries shows much less interest in poverty. The composition contains some financial language but offers hardly any of the monetary advice of the sort in Proverbs or 4QInstruction. The intended audience of Mysteries is never presented as poor. In the previous chapter I contrasted 4QInstruction and its commonplace, agricultural setting with Ben Sira, which is the product of an aristocratic milieu. Mysteries does not provide a lot of evidence to reconstruct the economic position or social status of its author and his intended addressees. Mysteries never takes up the issue of financial hardship. This suggests, but does not prove, that the audience of Mysteries did not deal with the kind of poverty that was a realistic prospect for the mebin of 4QInstruction. 120

121

7. C O N C L U S I O N

Unfortunately, many aspects of the book of Mysteries remain mysterious. But several claims can be plausibly made about the composition. Mysteries was probably written in the second century BCE in Palestine. It is intended for a group that is considered to have elect status with access to supernatural revelation. Mysteries proclaims the destruction of the wicked and teaches the nature of God's dominion over the world. The text is pedagogical and the addressees are understood as students who acquire knowledge from the author. The work employs the phrase raz nihyeh, which probably refers to a deterministic divine plan that orchestrates the nature of creation and history, as in 4QInstruction. Mysteries connects the expression to eschatological judgment more emphatically than 4QInstruction. There are some topics in Mysteries that appear to 122

1 1 9

The word has been reconstructed in 4 Q 2 9 9 3 4 3 . N o t e n o u g h o f the fragment has survived to assess its usage o f this term. S e e section 5.3.1 o f Chapter 1. Wealth appears to b e o n e o f the main topics o f 1Q27 1 ii. Lines 4 - 7 probably teach that wealth will not help the person w h o d o e s evil. For e c o n o m i c terms e l s e w h e r e in Mysteries, see, for example, 1Q27 1 i 12; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 ii 13; 4 Q 2 9 9 10 7; 4 Q 2 9 9 6 5 3. Cf. 4 Q 3 0 1 2 b 3 ; 4 Q 3 0 1 6 2 . Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 7 3 . 1 2 0

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THE BOOK OF MYSTERIES

103

have been major themes in its original form, but, due to the fragmentary nature of the document, are poorly attested. Issues I place in this category include Gentiles, Torah and the cult. Mysteries has affinities with the Treatise of the Two Spirits, and the latter probably appropriated and elaborated motifs in the former. Although Mysteries was not written by a member of the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness, the text has a sectarian mindset. The work polemically describes another group, called "the magicians," that claims to possess divine revelation. The book of Mysteries can be understood as a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview.

CHAPTER THREE

GENDERED WISDOM: 4QWILES OF THE WICKED WOMAN (4Q184)

1. INTRODUCTION

4Q Wiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184) consists of six fragments, of which the first is by far the largest. The work was officially published in 1968 by John Allegro, making it one of the first Qumran wisdom texts to appear. The accuracy of his edition was called into question soon after its debut. 4Q184 contains a portrayal of a woman who leads people to sin and death. There have been several attempts to interpret this figure. Allegro suggested that she symbolizes Rome in a manner similar to the book of Revelation. Rev 17 depicts this city as a woman, the "Whore of Babylon." Strugnell has emphasized that she should be understood against the backdrop of the wicked women of Prov 1-9, Dame Folly and the Strange Woman (m? nttfK). Some have argued, most notably Carmignac, that the woman of 4Q184 is a veiled 1

2

3

4

1

J.M. A l l e g r o , Qumran Cave 4.1 (4Q158-40186) ( D J D 5; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 6 8 ) 8 2 - 8 5 . S e e also idem, " W i l e s o f the W i c k e d W o m a n : A Sapiential Work from Qumran's Fourth Cave," PEQ 9 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 5 3 - 5 5 . A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 4 , states that 4 Q 1 8 4 2 is "in private hands." T h e Oriental Institute o f the University o f C h i c a g o purchased this fragment in Jordan in 1 9 5 6 ( O I M A 3 0 3 0 3 ) . In January 2 0 0 5 this fragment w a s included in an exhibition at the Institute. S e e further the discussion in http://paleojudaica.blogspot.com o f an article from the Chicago Sun-Times, " M u s e u m ' s basement reveals hidden treasures" (January 2 8 , 2 0 0 5 ) . J. Strugnell, " N o t e s e n marge du v o l u m e V d e s ' D i s c o v e r i e s in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan,'" RevQ 1 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 1 6 3 - 2 7 6 (esp. 2 6 3 - 6 8 ) . H e understands the script o f the c o m p o s i t i o n as "Rustic Semiformal." There is a revised edition o f DJD 5 forthcoming from M.J. Bernstein and G.J. B r o o k e {DJD 5a). Regarding the n a m e o f the c o m p o s i t i o n , Strugnell n o t e s (p. 2 6 3 ) that the title is "heureusement abandonnd maintenant par son auteur," presumably referring to A l l e g r o . W h i l e it might not be the m o s t appropriate designation, as discussed b e l o w , "Wiles o f the W i c k e d W o m a n " is still the c o m m o n l y u s e d title for 4 Q 1 8 4 . A l l e g r o , "Wiles o f the W i c k e d W o m a n , " 5 3 . Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 6 - 6 7 . 2

3

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4QWILES OF THE WICKED WOMAN ( 4 Q 1 8 4 )

105

critique of a group that rivals the Dead Sea sect or a person who opposes the community. Others interpret the text as a product of a general fear of women. Baumgarten claims that the wicked woman should be understood as a demonic figure. Moore suggests that she is "the personification of a general, abstract concept"—evil. Current scholarship has moved away from the search for a single referent for the woman, focusing instead on issues such as gender and pedagogy. The most useful clues for interpreting the woman in 4 Q 1 8 4 are the text's affinities with Prov 1-9, as Strugnell has suggested. The appropriation of Proverbs by 4 Q 1 8 4 is important for understanding it as a wisdom text. Both works associate a wicked woman with death. 5

6

7

8

9

5

J. Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique sur la secte rivale," RevQ 5 ( 1 9 6 5 ) 3 6 1 - 7 4 . S e e also H. Burgmann, "The W i c k e d W o m a n : D e r Makkabaer S i m o n ? " RevQ 8 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 3 2 3 - 5 9 ; A . M . Gazov-Ginzberg, " D o u b l e - M e a n i n g in a Qumran Work: T h e W i l e s o f the W i c k e d W o m a n , " RevQ 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ) 2 7 9 - 8 5 . M. Broshi argues that 4 Q 1 8 4 reflects an E s s e n e fear o f w o m e n . S e e his "Beware o f the W i l e s o f the Wanton W o m a n , " BAR 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 5 4 - 5 6 . A l s o consult A . D u p o n t - S o m m e r , "Le P s a u m e CLI dans H Q P s ( a ) et le probleme de son origine essenienne," Sem 14 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 2 5 - 6 2 (esp. 5 4 - 5 5 ) ; Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 372. J.M. Baumgarten, "On the Nature o f the Seductress in 4 Q 1 8 4 , " RevQ 15 ( 1 9 9 1 9 2 ) 1 3 3 - 4 3 (esp. 143). S e e also S. White Crawford, "Lady W i s d o m and D a m e F o l l y at Qumran," DSD 5 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 5 5 - 6 6 (esp. 3 6 1 ) ; B.G. Wright, " W i s d o m and W o m e n at Qumran," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 4 0 - 6 1 (esp. 2 4 3 - 4 6 ) . R . D . M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil: 'The W i l e s o f the W i c k e d W o m a n / " RevQ 10 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 5 0 5 - 1 9 . M. A u b i n , " ' S h e is the beginning o f all the w a y s o f perversity': Femininity and Metaphor in 4 Q 1 8 4 , " WJ 2 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 1-23; S.C. Jones, " W i s d o m ' s P e d a g o g y : A Comparison o f Proverbs VII and 4 Q 1 8 4 , " VT 53 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 6 5 - 8 1 . S e e further J. Licht, "The W i l e s o f the W i c k e d W o m a n , " in The Bible and the History of Israel (ed. B . Oppenheimer; Tel A v i v : Tel A v i v University Faculty o f Humanities, 1 9 7 2 ) 2 8 9 - 9 6 (Hebrew); Y . Zur, "Parallels b e t w e e n A c t s o f T h o m a s 6-7 and 4 Q 1 8 4 , " RevQ 16 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 1 0 3 - 7 ; W.L. L i p s c o m b and J.A. Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien (ed. J.G. G a m m i e et al.; M i s s o u l a : Scholars Press, 1 9 7 8 ) 2 7 7 - 8 5 (esp. 2 8 0 ) ; A . S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al:; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 4 5 - 4 7 ) ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996) 3 1 - 3 5 ; J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1997) 1 1 4 - 1 6 ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 2 3 2 4 ) ; A . Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 9 - 1 0 ) ; M . Kuchler, Fruhjudische Weisheitstraditionen (OBO 26; Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1 9 7 9 ) 102. 6

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4Q184 emphasizes more than Proverbs that she dwells in Sheol. In Proverbs Dame Folly and the Strange Woman are offset by Lady Wisdom. No surviving portion of 4Q184 mentions Lady Wisdom and the work never alludes to her. 4Q184 appropriates the Strange Woman of biblical wisdom and reconfigures her into an evil dweller of Sheol. 4Q184 does not contain any unambiguous historical markers. This prevents the text from being dated with precision. It probably was composed in either the second or first centuries B C E .

2. THE WOMAN OF 4Q184 AND EROTICISM The version of 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman in DJD 5 is excessively sexualized. For example, according to Allegro, 4Q184 1 3 reads "In perversion they seized the fouled (organs) of passion, they descended to the pit of her legs to act wickedly" (mn "^MJ H T JTtthr6 m^ri mo "Don). Strugnell, by contrast, renders this same text as "[her eyes] are defiled with iniquity, her hands descend to the pit, her feet go down to act wickedly." This has the support of Prov 5:5: "Her feet go down to death; her steps follow the path to Sheol." 4Q184 1 3 describes a woman associated with Sheol. It does not refer to her vagina. The woman of 4Q184 is portrayed in starkly negative terms. Fragment 1 begins: 10

11

[From] her [mouth] she brings forth vanity ... she constantly seeks [to] make [her] words smooth (pw[b]). Mockingly she says smo[ot]h things together with speaking scornfully ("IIT f ^ n ^ l p f ^ n n ) with l[ips] of iniquity (bw [ T a j E D ) . Her heart prepares a snare and her kidneys tr[aps] ([m©]po) (11. 1-2). 12

1 0

DJD 5, 8 2 - 8 3 . Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 4 . H e reads A l l e g r o ' s mn as rrr, and as •f?»u. S e e also Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 6 4 - 6 5 . The transcription pop?] f o l l o w s a suggestion in Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 4 . Allegro, DJD 5, 8 2 , reads prc|>], "to sharpen." O n e can s e e on P A M 4 3 . 4 3 2 the remnants o f a top stroke o f the k e y letter, favoring a mem over a nun. The reading ]o»[V| makes sense g i v e n the emphasis o f the w o m a n speaking "smo[ot]h things." Either option produces a word that c o n v e y s the idea that the w o m a n e n g a g e s in deceptive speech. 1 1

1 2

4QWILES OF THE WICKED WOMAN

(4Q184)

107

Allegro's edition presents the woman as a prostitute. The first letter of the first line is a he, which concludes a word that has not survived. He reconstructs npltn], "[the har]lot." If this were the proper reading, traces of the ligature of the letter nun would be visible. It is not clear that the woman is a prostitute. Interpreting this figure requires comparison with Prov 7. The Strange Woman and the woman of 4Q184 search for potential victims and ensnare them in similar ways. 4Q184 1 2, for example, mentions the smooth speech of the woman, using the verb pbn, and line 17 asserts that she deceives people with "flatteries" (mp^n). Prov 7:5 exhorts one to follow wisdom and insight "that they may keep you from the strange woman, an alien who speaks smooth words (np^nn m o * ) " (cf. 2:16; 6:24; 7:21). She speaks in this way in order to seduce unsuspecting males. Prov 7 contains a famous description of this woman in search of prey: 13

14

15

16

17

Then a woman comes toward him, decked out like a prostitute (H31T), wily of heart. She is loud and wayward; her feet do not stay at home; now in the street, now in the squares, and at every corner she lies in wait (3-iKn) (w. 10-12).

I tentatively u s e the option n[-sn] ("[from] her [mouth]") since it fits the context semantically. A c c o r d i n g to Strugnell, "Notes e n marge," 2 6 6 , this possibility w a s first suggested b y P . W . Skehan. S e e also A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 4 ; Baumgarten, "On the Nature o f t h e Seductress," 137; M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil," 5 1 0 . DJD 5 , 8 2 . Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 6 4 . S e e also Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 6 4 : A u b i n , " S h e is the beginning," 12. For further discussion about the Strange W o m a n , s e e M . V . F o x , Proverbs 1-9 ( A B 18a; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 2 0 0 0 ) 1 3 4 - 4 1 , 2 5 2 - 6 2 ; Jones, " W i s d o m ' s P e d a g o g y , " 6 7 - 7 5 ; R.J. Clifford, Proverbs ( O T L ; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 9 ) 8 4 - 8 7 ; A . B a c h , Women, Seduction and Betrayal in Biblical Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1 9 9 7 ) 2 7 - 3 3 ; C A . N e w s o m , " W o m a n and the D i s c o u r s e o f Patriarchal W i s d o m : A Study o f Proverbs 1-9," in Gender and Difference (ed. P.L. D a y ; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1 9 8 9 ) 1 4 2 - 6 0 ; C . V . Camp, Wise, Strange and Holy: The Strange Woman and the Making of the Bible ( J S O T S u p 3 2 0 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 0 ) ; C. Maier, Die "fremde Frau" in Proverbien 1-9: eine exegetische und sozialgeschichtliche Studie ( O B O 144; Freiburg/Gottingen: Universitatsverlag/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995). For assessment o f this line in relation to the "seekers o f s m o o t h things" mentioned in Qumran texts, see section 4 b e l o w . F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 3 8 ; Jones, " W i s d o m ' s P e d a g o g y , " 7 5 ; M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil," 5 1 1 . 13

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The woman has been considered a prostitute. She wears the garments of a H31T, but there is no exchange of money between her and the male (7:10; cf. 6:26). It is obvious that she is married (7:1920). That she is a prostitute is not. Her activities are not motivated by financial concerns but by loose morals. The woman of 4Q184 1 also roams streets looking for victims: 19

She lies in ambush (aTiKn) in secret places ... in the squares of the city she veils herself, and in the gates of the town she sets herself up, without rest[ing] from ... her eyes glance here and there and she raises her eyelids wantonly to spo[t a] righteous [m]an and overtake him (11. 11-14). 20

Both texts use the verb 3~)K to describe a woman lying in wait for victims (Prov 7:12; 4Q184 1 11). The woman of 4Q184 and the Strange Woman of Proverbs are set in urban contexts. Both are in the "squares" (maim) of a city (Prov 7:12; 4Q184 1 12; cf. 4Q184 6 1). The Strange Woman is constantly on the move from place to place (Prov 7:11-12) and a similar point may be made in 4Q184 1 12-13. Like the Strange Woman, the woman of 4Q184 does not charge money as a prostitute would her clients. She is not a harlot in the 21

F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 1 3 8 - 3 9 ; K. van der Toorn, "Female Prostitution in Payment o f V o w s in A n c i e n t Israel," JBL 108 ( 1 9 8 9 ) 1 9 3 - 2 0 5 ; D . A . Garrett, " V o t i v e Prostitution A g a i n : A C o m p a r i s o n o f Proverbs 7 : 1 3 - 1 4 and 2 1 : 2 8 - 2 9 , " JBL 109 (1990) 681-82. Prov 7 : 1 9 - 2 0 states that the w o m a n ' s husband is a w a y o n a l o n g business trip, suggesting that their h o u s e h o l d is in g o o d financial condition and that she is not forced to find an additional source o f i n c o m e . This is also implied by the fine coverings o n her bed (7:16). For another interpretation, s e e van der Toorn, "Female Prostitution," 199. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 7 . T h e verb ^ n n o f line 12 ("she v e i l s h e r s e l f ) is understood b y A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 84, as a "euphemism"; he translates "she displays herself." This is f o l l o w e d in Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 7 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 2 . She d o e s not publicly e x p o s e herself; rather she lurks in public places l o o k i n g for victims. T h e word ^ n n m a y imply that she covers herself with an intent to d e c e i v e , as d o e s Tamar in G e n 3 8 : 1 4 . Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 7 0 , translates "elle se masque." 4 Q 1 8 4 1 12 ends with the expression "without restfing]" ([njr]nr6 p t ) . T h e next line begins ]nn. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 5 , suggests either [-ran nw]no ("from perpetual fornication") or [-ran robjno ("from perpetual walking"). He prefers the former (ibid., 2 6 7 ) but both options h a v e b e e n adopted by other commentators. S e e A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 6; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 2 . I tentatively prefer -ran robnn since the phrase in question c o m e s in the context o f the w o m a n m o v i n g throughout a city, but the proper reading can not b e restored with confidence. 1 9

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strict sense of the term. A key difference between the Strange Woman and the woman of 4Q184 regards eroticism, as Jones has observed. Prov 7 is sexually charged. The Strange Woman embraces and kisses a man (7:13). She boldly suggests to him: "I have decked my couch with coverings, colored spreads of Egyptian linen; I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. Come, let us take our fill of love until morning, let us delight ourselves with love" (7:16-18; cf. 5:19). The description of her chambers prepared for erotic pleasures echoes the Song of Songs. Song 4:14 associates a woman with myrrh and aloes (cf. 4:6; 5:5), and the poem begins famously with a woman's call to have sex with her male lover, akin to Prov 7:18 (Song 1:2, 4). The woman in 4Q184 1 never asks a man to sleep with her. There is no account in the text of a woman kissing or embracing a man. 4Q184 never describes the difficulty of resisting the advances of a beautiful female. In this sense 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman is not the best title for this text. The woman is not particularly wily. Her bed chambers seem less enticing than those of the Strange Woman. Rather than a couch bedecked with fine Egyptian linen, the female of the Qumran text has "couches of darkness" (-[OTt "q3TO) (4Q184 1 6). The "bed" (010) of the Strange Woman is alluring and covered with fine cloth (Prov 7:16). The beds of the woman in 4Q184 1 are associated with Sheol (DI10 rPB"W) (1. 5). There are, however, erotic aspects of her portrait. She raises her eyelids "wantonly" (tttb3) (1. 13; cf. 1. 15; 4Q184 3 5; Prov 6:25). Parts of her body and articles of her clothing are mentioned. But the effect of these 23

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A u b i n , "She is the beginning,'' 12. Jones, " W i s d o m ' s P e d a g o g y , " 7 8 . Ibid., 7 0 ; F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 4 7 ; Clifford, Proverbs, 8 6 ; C.V. C a m p , "What's S o Strange about the Strange W o m a n ? " in The Bible and the Politics of Exegesis (ed. D. Jobling et al.; Cleveland: Pilgrim, 1 9 9 1 ) 17-31 (esp. 2 2 ) . 4 Q 1 8 4 1 8-9 states the w o m a n is "destruction for a[ll] w h o take h o l d o f her ( m " O D T I ) . " The e m p h a s i s o f this phrase is on the d o o m e d fate prescribed for t h o s e w h o grasp her, not on the physical contact itself. 4 Q 1 8 4 1 3 m e n t i o n s her hands and feet. Line 4 attests the e x p r e s s i o n "her garments" but the rest o f this phrase has not survived. Her "ornaments" ( m » ) are described briefly in line 5. T h e w o r d ^ n n in line 12 refers t o her v e i l s or s o m e other sort o f covering. A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 17, reads the phrase "many sins are in her skirts (rrDJD)" o f 4 Q 1 8 4 1 4 as implying that "her genitals are filled with transgressions." E v e n i f o n e w e r e to grant this reading, there is less explicit sexual content in 4 Q 1 8 4 1 than Prov 7. 2 3

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descriptions is different from Prov 7. The "coverings" (PTOSO) of the woman in 4Q184 1 5 are associated with darkness, not with lavish fabrics or the sexual appeal of her body. The woman of 4Q184 is immoral and can easily be read as sexually active. She ensnares men. But there is markedly less language of seduction than in Prov 7. Sexuality is not described in 4Q184 1 as graphically as in Prov 1-9. While the Strange Woman can be interpreted in various ways, it makes sense to understand her as a pedagogical construct designed to teach sexual ethics to young men. This figure is to instill marital fidelity and resistance to sexual temptation. There is a sapiential tradition of instruction on avoiding seductive women whom one does not know. Prov 22:14 stresses the dangers of the speech of such a female: "The mouth of a strange woman is a deep pit; he with whom the Lord is angry falls into it." Prov 23:27-28 teaches: "A prostitute is a deep pit; an adulteress is a narrow well. She lies in wait like a robber and increases the number of the faithless" (cf. 30:20). Chapter 3 of the Egyptian Instruction of Any offers a similar teaching: 27

28

Beware of a woman who is a stranger, one not known in her town; don't stare at her when she goes by, do not know her carnally. A deep water whose course is unknown, such is a woman away from her husband. "I am pretty," she tells you daily, when she has no witnesses; she is ready to ensnare you, a great deadly crime when it is heard. 29

The woman of this text is strange in the sense that she is not known.

30

Baumgarten, "On the Nature o f the Seductress," 139, argues that r r e » should be translated "her w i n g s , " a reading that w o u l d cast the w o m a n as a d e m o n i c figure. The term rrs3D occurs in the context o f a s e q u e n c e o f phrases describing her "garments" (1. 4 ) and "coverings" (1. 5). This suggests that rra» refers to s o m e sort o f clothing rather than w i n g s ( s e e also b e l o w ) . G. B o s t r o m argued that the w o m a n is a sacral prostitute for a B a b y l o n i a n deity. C. C a m p has situated the Strange W o m a n in the early postexilic period, particularly to the time o f the marriage reforms o f Ezra and N e h e m i a h and late prophetic texts such as Z e c h 5 : 5 - 1 1 . S e e G. B o s t r o m , Proverbiastudien: Die Weisheit und das fremde Weib in Spriiche 1-9 (Lund: C.W.K. Gleerup, 1 9 3 5 ) ; C a m p , "What's S o Strange about the Strange W o m a n ? " 18; eadem, Wisdom and the Feminine in the Book of Proverbs ( B i b l e and Literature 11; Sheffield: The A l m o n d Press, 1 9 8 5 ) 1 1 2 20, 265-71. F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 6 2 . M . Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (3 v o l s . ; Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1 9 7 3 - 8 0 ) 2 . 1 3 7 . A c c o r d i n g to the D e m o t i c w i s d o m text Papyrus Insinger, f o o l s are unable to resist the allure o f w o m e n ( 7 . 2 1 - 2 3 ; 8.2) and the w i s e d o not associate with them ( 8 . 1 7 ) . F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 135. 2 7

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Her 'otherness' is construed in a social, not ethnic, sense. She can seek out other men without worrying about her husband or damage to her social standing. Proverbs' Strange Woman stands in continuity with such instruction. She is a sexually enticing woman who embodies the dangers of illicit sex and adultery. The female of 4Q184 represents a departure from this sapiential tradition. This text is less interested in teaching sexual ethics than Prov 1-9. The marital status of the woman in 4Q184 is not an issue, in marked contrast to the Strange Woman. The danger of committing adultery is a major theme of Prov 1-9, especially in 6:20-35. This topic is never raised in 4Q184, although one can infer from the work that promiscuous women should be avoided. 31

3. THE W O M A N , DARKNESS AND D E A T H

In comparison to Proverbs, 4Q184 intensifies the themes of darkness and death. A connection between death and wicked women is in both compositions. Prov 2:18 asserts that the Strange Woman leads people to death: "For her way leads down to death, and her path to the shades." Prov 7:27 associates her house with the "ways of Sheol," and in 5:5 her feet descend to Sheol. The connection between the Strange Woman and Sheol indicates that she is not just a symbol of carnal pleasures to be resisted. She represents a way of life to be avoided. She is an allegory for wickedness and folly. The so-called "Dame Folly" (m^OD n©K), who appears explicitly only in Prov 9:13-18, is never described as sexually tempting. Proverbs relies on 32

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Jones, " W i s d o m ' s P e d a g o g y , " 7 4 - 7 5 . T h e w o r d "path" a s s u m e s that nrra should b e e m e n d e d t o nrnTu. S e e F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 1 2 1 . F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 6 2 , writes that "the Strange W o m a n is the negative counterpart o f the human w i f e , not o f personified Lady W i s d o m . " B o t h D a m e F o l l y and the Strange W o m a n are set in urban contexts (Prov 7:12; 9 : 1 4 ) . B o t h seek out the simple and dim-witted (7:7; 9:16). D a m e F o l l y never lies in wait for her v i c t i m s in the manner o f the Strange W o m a n ( 7 : 1 2 ) . T h e former w o m a n calls out t o passersby, as d o e s Lady W i s d o m ( 8 : 5 ; 9:15). W h i l e the portrait o f the Strange W o m a n s e e m s d e s i g n e d for teaching sexual ethics, this d o e s n o t appear t o b e the case with D a m e Folly. S h e o p p o s e s Lady W i s d o m more explicitly than the Strange W o m a n d o e s . For example, D a m e F o l l y and Lady W i s d o m h a v e contrasting banquets in Prov 9. T h e t w o w i c k e d w o m e n m a y stem from different layers in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Proverbs. S e e also Clifford, P r o v e r b , 102-7. 3 2

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a form of dualism. Wisdom is associated with life and folly death. Prov 8:35-36, for example, reads in part: "For whoever finds me finds life ... but those who miss me injure themselves; all who hate me love death." Having wisdom results in a long and prosperous life, while a life of folly is shortened by mistakes and poor decisions. Allegories of women are used to illustrate two opposing ways of life. Prov 1-9, and the book in general, often uses "path" terminology, including -pn, mK, iTQTU and *?a»B, to describe these contrasted lifestyles. The woman of 4Q184 1 is associated with death. In line 5 both her "ornaments" and "beds" are related to the "pit" ( J I T O ) . Line 6 mentions "the depths of the pit" (TO "poiND). She has "gates of death" (mo (1. 10). Line 10 also is reasonably reconstructed as stating that the entrance of her house leads to Sheol (cf. Prov 2:18; 7:27). In 4Q184 1 3 her hands and feet descend to the pit (cf. Prov 5:5). The woman brings people to death. According to 4Q184 1 8-9, she is "ruin for all who possess her" (rr^lTO b*ch mn) and "destruction for a[ll] who take hold of her" flV)]^ m i B 712 •'DBin). In the same vein, line 11 claims that "all who possess her descend to the pit" (rra Y7T m^ma). Prov 9:18 similarly asserts that all who have listened to Dame Folly are in the "depths of Sheol" (cf.2:19). Like the Strange Woman and Dame Folly, the woman of 4Q184 35

36

There is a later parallel in Philo. Sacr. 2 0 - 2 1 reads "For each o f u s is mated with t w o w i v e s , w h o hate and loathe each other ... A n d o n e o f these w e love, because w e find her w i n n i n g and gentle, and think her our nearest and dearest. H e r n a m e is pleasure. T h e other w e hate; w e think her rough, ungentle, crabbed, and our bitter enemy. H e r n a m e is virtue. S o Pleasure c o m e s languishing in the g u i s e o f a harlot or courtesan. Her gait has the l o o s e n e s s w h i c h her extravagant w a n t o n n e s s and luxury has bred; the lascivious roll o f her e y e s is a bait to entice the s o u l s o f the y o u n g . . . a strumpet o f the streets, s h e takes the market-place for her h o m e ; d e v o i d o f true beauty, s h e pursues the false." S e e B.R. R o s s i n g , "City V i s i o n s , F e m i n i n e Figures and E c o n o m i c Critique: A Sapiential Topos in the A p o c a l y p s e , " in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism (ed. L. Wills and B . G . Wright; S B L S y m S 3 5 ; Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Literature, 2 0 0 5 ) 1 8 1 - 9 6 (esp. 1 8 6 ) . B . Otzen, "Old Testament W i s d o m Literature and Dualistic Thinking in Late Judaism," in Congress Volume: Edinburgh, 1974 ( V T S u p 2 8 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 5 ) • 146-57. Contrast, for e x a m p l e , the h o u s e s o f D a m e F o l l y and the Strange W o m a n , w h i c h are associated with death (Prov 7:27; 9:18), with m a t o f Lady W i s d o m , w h i c h is built with w i s d o m (9:1). See, for example, Prov 2:12 (an -pi); 3:17 (n»ro-n TOTT); 4:11 (im^bvm); 8:20 (np-re-mK; asran maTia). F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 1 2 8 , asserts that behavior construed as a path "is the ground metaphor o f Prov 1-9." (Italics his.) 3 4

3 5

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represents a way of life that results in death. A core statement of 4Q184 1 is in line 8: "She is the beginning of all the ways of iniquity" ( ^ W 5-n VlD m o m n * r f t ) . This assertion may attempt to reverse statements made about wisdom in the Hebrew Bible. In Prov 8:22 Lady Wisdom roots herself at the "beginning of his (God's) way (•DTI rPBlO)." 4Q184 1 9 states regarding the woman that "her ways are ways of death" (niB " O T I r P D T l ) (cf. 1. 17). This may be reliant on Prov 3:17, which asserts about wisdom that "her ways are ways of pleasantness" (DD2 '•DTI JTDT1). Like Proverbs, 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman is rich in "path" terminology. Prov 2:18-20 warns about the Strange Woman so that one can keep on the "paths of the righteousness" (D'p'HX m m x ; v. 20), and in 8:20 Lady Wisdom declares that she walks on the "righteous path" ( n p i ^ n^K) (cf. 5:6). According to 4Q184 1 16, the woman intends to lead people from the "ways of righteousness" (^DTl p*!S). In Prov 4:11 the speaker wants the addressee to walk on the "tracks of uprightness" fl&p-6a»Q); 4Q184 1 17 claims that the woman's victims will not be on the "tracks of uprightness." After declaring that her "ways are ways of death," 4Q184 1 states that "her paths (rpmmiK) are the roads of sin (nKttn ^ I M ) . Her tracks (rpm^aUD) lead astray to iniquity, and her bywa[y]s ( n ^ n J I T r f l ) to the guilt of transgression" (11. 9-10). Both the Strange Woman and Dame Folly are associated with the netherworld (7:27; cf. 2:18; 5:5). Dame Folly can be understood as physically in the netherworld, but Proverbs is ambiguous on this point. She sits at her house calling out to people, suggesting that her house is in a town. Her guests, however, are in the "depths of Sheol" (9:18). The house of the Strange Woman is not in Sheol itself. The 38

0,

39

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Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 115. This statement has b e e n understood to be at the structural center o f the work. A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 3 , 5 , argues that according t o the "poetic architecture" o f the c o m p o s i t i o n this p a s s a g e is the w o r k ' s "medial statement." S e e also M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil," 5 0 9 . The phrase in question encapsulates the overall impression 4 Q 1 8 4 g i v e s o f the w o m a n . B u t it is not clear that the work w a s crafted with 4 Q 1 8 4 1 8 at its center. This fragment attests a top and bottom margin, but it is i m p o s s i b l e to discern h o w m a n y c o l u m n s the text originally had or where the surviving c o l u m n w a s in this sequence. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 6 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 4 . DJD 5, 8 4 . Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 7 ; A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 5. F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 3 0 2 . 3 8

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woman of 4Q184 1 is presented as a dweller of Sheol. Her "beds" and "tents" are there (11. 5, 7). This may mean that she is a demon, as Baumgarten has argued, although no demonic attributes are explicitly given. This female, however, is not situated in a single locale. 4Q184 1 may claim that her house leads to Sheol, as is reasonably reconstructed in line 10, based on Prov 2:18 and 7:27. The woman of 4Q184 1 also looks for men in the streets (1. 12). The imagery of the netherworld is more elaborate and colorful in 4Q184 than Proverbs. Terms that refer to a "pit," such as nTO, or I'D, are prominent in 4Q184 1 (11. 3, 5, 6, 11, 17), but are not used with regard to the Strange Woman and Dame Folly in Prov 1-9 (cf. 22:14; 23:27). The claim that the woman has "gates of death" (4Q184 1 10), an image that evokes Sheol by giving a visual sense of the portal leading to it, is an expression from the Psalms, not Proverbs. 4Q184 1 7 states that the woman lives in "tents of silence" ( H B H '•SnK). H B H is a term for the netherworld in the Psalms (94:17; 115:17). Several images of darkness enrich the description of the woman. The woman has foundations of "darkness" ("JOTl), couches of "darkness" and "gloom" (rfl%K) (4Q184 1 4, 6). Line 4 also associates the woman with the night. The theme of darkness in 4Q184 relies on the portrait of the Strange Woman in Proverbs. Prov 7:9 depicts her wandering "in the twilight (*]&?}), in the evening, at the time of night and darkness (H^DKT irrb p«PK)" (cf. 20:20). The 44

45

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Baumgarten, "On the Nature o f the Seductress," 139. A c c o r d i n g to Baumgarten, ibid., 1 3 9 - 4 0 , the w o m a n o f 4 Q 1 8 4 has w i n g s and horns and m a y b e depicted as flying in the night. A b o v e I critique the first claim and h e proposes the third only as a possibility. The s e c o n d argument, that she has horns, is based o n the phrase rfrb msmn o f 4 Q 1 8 4 1 4. This is related to the expression OKI m a r i n in N u m b e r s ( 2 3 : 2 2 ; 2 4 : 8 ) , w h i c h refers to horns. A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 3 , translates the phrase "the depths o f the night," and m o s t commentators h a v e f o l l o w e d this understanding o f the expression. A l l e g r o ' s understanding o f the term is supported b y Job 11:17, in w h i c h the word n a m refers to darkness. The lines o f this section repeatedly m e n t i o n darkness using various terms (11. 4 - 6 ) . This suggests that the c o n s e n s u s v i e w o f the phrase rfrb msmn should be f o l l o w e d . But the word majnn remains s o m e w h a t obscure and its exact nuance is not clear. P s s 9:14; 107:18. Cf. Job 38:17. 4QInstruction includes the i m a g e o f a door shutting upon the w i c k e d ( 4 Q 4 1 8 126 ii 6-7). There are also several references to the "pit" in 4QInstruction, as in 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 6 and 4 Q 4 1 8 177 2. DJD 5, 8 4 ; Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 367. Baumgarten, "On the Nature o f the Seductress," 141. F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 3 8 , 2 4 3 . 4 4

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clothing of the woman of 4Q184 1 is associated with "shadows of twilight" rvbsK) (1. 5). The next line states that "her [t]ents (nTv6ra[K]) are in the dark of nigfht] ([T\]b*b ^ttPK)" (cf. 4Q184 3 5). These expressions do not describe the time of night when the woman stalks through city streets, as in Prov 7. It is the darkness of the underworld where she resides. 4Q184 elaborates the claim in Proverbs that the Strange Woman represents a path to death. The language of darkness and death is intensified with a more vivid description of Sheol than in Proverbs. The tents of the woman are in the midst of "eternal flames" ('HpID ubw) (4Q184 1 7; cf. Isa 33:14). Proverbs never describes the Strange Woman in this way. The "eternal flames" suggest that the author of 4Q184 believed in punishment after death. The Habakkuk Pesher claims that those who have derided God's elect will suffer "judgments of fire" (tDK ^BaWD) (10:13) and the Treatise of the Two Spirits instructs that the wicked will endure eternally "the fire of the dark regions" (D'OtttfTO m) (1QS 4:13; cf. 4Q491 8-10 i 15). The affirmation that her domain is amidst the "eternal flames" is immediately followed by the statement that "none of her inheritance is among all who shine brightly (mia ••TKB)" (4Q184 1 7-8). This suggests a form of astral immortality for the righteous after death, in a manner similar to Dan 12:3 and 1 En. 104:2-6 (cf. 1QM 1:8-9; Matt 25:41). While those who are to enjoy a blessed afterlife are distinguished from the woman of 4Q184, those who are part of her allotment suffer punishment after death. The conception of death in 49

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Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 5 . The word rrm^oM is transcribed by A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 2 , as r r m ^ n n ] . Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 6 7 , points out that the lacuna d o e s n o t h a v e e n o u g h room for t w o mems. Transcribing rrm ro[B] is p o s s i b l e materially, producing "her d o m i n i o n s . " This option is also attractive semantically. I prefer rrm^oM, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e the word in question is in parallelism with "her lodgings." The m y t h o l o g i c a l depiction o f the netherworld is heightened in 4 Q 1 8 4 1 i f o n e f o l l o w s Baumgarten. For e x a m p l e , h e argues that her association with rrrro ("destruction") in line 8 is an allusion to the w o r d TTCT in P s 9 1 : 6 , w h i c h m a y m e n t i o n a d e m o n named Qeteb (cf. D e u t 3 2 : 2 4 ; H o s 13:14). T h i s could b e the case, but 4 Q 1 8 4 never explicitly d i s c u s s e s any type o f d e m o n . S e e his "On the Nature o f the Seductress," 1 4 1 . A fragmentary portion o f 4 Q B e a t i t u d e s describes a figure w h o s e "foundation" is "flames o f sulfur" ( 4 Q 5 2 5 15 6). It is not clear w h o the referent is. It c o u l d b e Belial or M a s t e m a (cf. 4 Q 5 2 5 19 4 ; 4 Q 5 2 5 2 5 2). Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 5 . Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 3 . 4 9

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4Q184 is more consistent with other Qumran texts than Proverbs. The imagery of light and darkness in 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman indicates a form of dualism. In that sense the work can be compared to the Treatise of the Two Spirits. But their dualisms are not equivalent. The Treatise discusses numerous qualities and fates, associating good ones with light and evil with darkness. The dualism of 4Q184 has less balance between opposing images. The text depicts the woman as wicked and uses language of darkness to describe her. There is no countervailing figure associated with imagery of light. This is also different from Proverbs, which contrasts the Strange Woman (and Dame Folly) with Lady Wisdom. The Strange Woman of Proverbs is a wicked human female who is associated with darkness and death. Unlike 4Q184, images of darkness are never used to place her in the netherworld. The darkness in 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman is of a different magnitude than that of Prov 1-9. The theme of darkness in 4Q184 enriches the mythological portrait of the woman as a figure of the netherworld. 54

4. THE WOMAN'S PREY

The final section of 4Q184 1 describes the victims of the woman. The last lines of the fragment read in part: "... to cause the humble (0^30) to transgress from God, and to turn their steps from the ways of righteousness ... so they do not walk on the righteous paths, to lead people astray in the ways of the pit" (11. 15-17). The Strange Woman and Dame Folly seek men who are dim-witted fools. They are "simple ones" (D KDD) and "without sense" (a^-ion) (Prov 7:7; 9:16). The woman of 4Q184 1 has more ambition. She seeks to sway the "righteous [ma]n," the "[mijghty man," the "upright," the "righteous elect" and "those who walk in uprightness" (11. 13-15). Her victims are more capable than those of the Strange Woman. They are currently on the right path and the woman intends to make 55

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Proverbs also contrasts light and darkness. Prov 4 : 1 8 - 1 9 , for example, reads: "But the path o f the righteous is like the light o f dawn, w h i c h shines brighter and brighter until full day. The w a y o f the w i c k e d is like d e e p darkness; they d o not k n o w what they stumble over" (cf. 6:23). Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 2 ; Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 6 . Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 4 ; Wright, " W i s d o m and W o m e n , " 2 4 4 - 4 5 . 5 5

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them stumble and veer off course. The positive descriptions of the woman's prey have been used to claim that 4Q184 was written by members of the Dead Sea sect. She uses "flatteries" (mpSn) to make people stumble (1. 17). The movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness often describes another group, probably the Pharisees, as "those who seek smooth things" (mpSnn wn) (e.g., CD 1:18; 4Q169 3-4 iii 3). 4Q184 1 16 can be understood as stating that the woman seeks out the "poor" (D'OJO). The Psalm 37 Pesher uses poverty language to describe addressees with elect status. But the victims of the woman of 4Q184 are never presented as a specific community. The terms used to describe them evoke the righteous in a general sense. The last legible expression for those the woman seeks is &PK ^ 3 , a standard term for humankind (1. 17). The "flatteries" of the woman in 4Q184 are more likely enticements derived from the Strange Woman than allusions to a rival group. The term pbu is prominent in the descriptions of the speech of the Strange Woman (Prov 2:16; 7:5, 21). The sectarian interpretation of 4Q184 favored by Carmignac is unlikely. The members of the Dead Sea sect who read and copied 4Q184, however, could have easily identified themselves with its description of the righteous. The righteous in 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman have also been associated with the Torah. 4Q184 1 14-15 states that the woman wants to prevent the "righteous elect from keeping the commandment (ms» TUHB)" (cf. 4Q184 2 2; 4Q184 5 5). Line 15 claims that she 61 wants "those who walk in uprightness to change a st[atute] ([p1]n)." 57

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Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique,'' 3 7 3 ; M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil," 5 1 9 . T h i s text interprets P s 3 7 : 1 1 as referring t o "the congregation o f t h e p o o r (D-jraKn m r ) w h i c h will t o u g h out the period o f distress and will b e rescued from all the snares o f Belial" ( 4 Q 1 7 1 2 10-11). Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 6 4 , also argues that the w o r d irr in 4 Q 1 8 4 1 2 should b e translated as "la Communautd." T h e w o r d in question occurs in the context o f t w o verbs, TTP p-^nbn p[^nn. T h e w o m a n utters t w o kinds o f speech. T h e word i r r e m p h a s i z e s that s h e is d o i n g both o f them together: "she says s m o [ o t ] h things together with speaking scornfully." T h e term TTP is not used in a sectarian sense. Lange, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 9; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 4 . See also E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul ( W U N T 2 / 1 6 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1 9 8 5 ) 2 1 9 . T h e material e v i d e n c e for the reconstruction [pi]n is slim. This reading is proposed b y A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 2 , and endorsed b y Strugnell, "Notes e n marge," 2 6 5 . 5 8

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The woman intends to stop people from observing the Torah. This issue is never raised by Proverbs in relation to the Strange Woman. The reliance on this book suggests the author of 4Q184 utilized some version of the Hebrew Bible. This Qumran text also seems to borrow language from the Psalms, as examined in the previous section. The allusion to the Torah in 4Q184 1 15 may itself be influenced by Proverbs. Prov 3:1, for example, reads: "My child, do not forget my teaching ( v m n ) , but let your heart keep my commandments (THSD)" (cf 2:1; 4:2; 6:20). But Torah piety is not a central feature of 4Q184. The document never appeals to the authority of the Torah or praises it in the manner of Ben Sira. This Qumran text never uses prooftexts from the Hebrew Bible in the manner of the rulebooks.

5. MISOGYNY AND FEMALE ALLEGORY Another important issue in the study of 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman is the extent to which the text is misogynistic—that is, if it exhibits hatred towards women. Broshi argues that 4Q184 reflects an "Essene fear of women." Aubin has claimed that this text may have "functioned to limit the roles of women within traditional Judaism." It is possible that 4Q184 contributed to patriarchal norms. But the author does not seem interested in women in general. The wickedness of the female is never applied to all women, although this could be inferred. Women are more prominent in other wisdom texts than 4Q184. The portrayal of the Strange Woman in Proverbs is combined with teachings for men regarding women. Prov 7 is preceded by instruction on adultery. Prov 6:20-35 describes the sexual advances of an alluring married female: "Do not desire her beauty in your heart, and do not let her capture you with her eyelashes" (v. 25). Proverbs 62

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Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 7 1 , suggests the term y n instead. Semantically this is a possibility (note the word j n in 4 Q 1 8 4 1 14). B u t pin is the preferable option b e c a u s e o f the preceding statement about a c o m m a n d m e n t . Broshi, " B e w a r e o f the W i l e s o f the W a n t o n W o m a n , " 5 4 . S e e also A u b i n , "She is the beginning," 9 - 1 0 . A u b i n , "She is the b e g i n n i n g , " 2 2 . Prov 6:24 urges o n e to avoid an "alien w o m a n " ( r r o a ) as d o e s 7:5. The expression sn rra* o f 6:24 can b e translated as either "wicked w o m a n " or "wife o f a 6 2

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wants men to be wary of women who are immoral and physically enticing. It encourages men not to marry women who would make bad wives. But the book never makes negative claims about the entire female gender. The addressees are also to avoid wicked men (e.g., 1:10-18). Ben Sira is a good candidate for the label of misogyny. Sir 25:1326:27 contains well-known, if unfortunate, teachings regarding women (cf. 7:26; 23:22-27; 36:26-31; 40:19). The instruction echoes that of Proverbs. Sir 25:21, for example, warns about the allure of an attractive woman, as does Prov 6:25 (cf. Sir 26:9). Also like Proverbs, Ben Sira wants his students to avoid wicked females, particularly with regard to marriage. Sir 25:16-18, for example, reads: "With a dragon or a lion I would rather dwell than live with an evil woman. Wickedness changes a woman's looks, and makes her sullen as a female bear. When her husband sits among his neighbors, a bitter sigh escapes him unawares." Ben Sira's discussion of bad wives goes beyond anything Proverbs in its negative assessments of womankind. Sir 25:24 infamously asserts "In a woman was sin's beginning (pi) nbnn rTOKE): on her account we all die." This statement interprets Gen 3. It points to Eve's disobedience to account for sin and death. In the immediate context of Sir 24-25, this appeal to Eve explains why some women make bad wives—they have an innate disposition towards sin because of her. Ben Sira also grants that some women would make good wives (26:1-18). He teaches that women have a wicked nature to encourage his students to make a cautious and wise choice when deciding whom to marry. 65

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neighbor," although commentators generally prefer the latter. S e e F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 2 3 0 ; Clifford, Proverbs, 78. Prov 2 5 : 2 4 reads, for example, "It is better to live in a corner o f the h o u s e t o p than in a h o u s e shared with a contentious w i f e " ( = 2 1 : 9 ; cf. v. 19; 2 7 : 1 5 ) . Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 6 4 - 7 0 ; W . C . Trenchard, Ben Sira's View of Women ( C h i c o : Scholars Press, 1 9 8 2 ) ; C. C a m p , "Understanding a Patriarchy: W o m e n in S e c o n d Century Jerusalem Through the E y e s o f B e n Sira," in ''Women Like This": New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman Period (ed. A.-J. L e v i n e ; S B L E J L 1; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991) 1-39. Trenchard, Ben Sira's View of Women, 7 2 - 7 5 . Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 6 7 ; C a m p , "Understanding a Patriarchy," 2 9 ; Trenchard, Ben Sira's View of Women, 8 1 - 8 2 . J. L e v i s o n has argued that this verse d o e s not refer to E v e but rather to a w o m a n w h o should b e avoided. H e appeals to 4 Q 1 8 4 in support o f his argument. S e e his "Is E v e to B l a m e ? A Contextual A n a l y s i s o f Sirach 2 5 : 2 4 , " CBQ 4 7 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 6 1 7 - 2 3 (esp. 6 2 2 ) . 6 5

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The situation is quite different in the case of 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman. Unlike Proverbs and Ben Sira, 4Q184 offers virtually no practical instruction regarding marriage or women in general. The statement that "She is the beginning of all the ways of iniquity" of 4Q184 1 8 is not a clear reference to Eve. The woman of this text is associated with the beginning of a person's life on the path of sin, not the primordial emergence of sin into the world. The woman's mythological portrait as a personage of the underworld makes it difficult for her to function as a figure who represents the entire female gender. Aubin is probably right that 4Q184 relies on "feminity's 'othering' value," since the document allegorizes wickedness as a woman. That is different from claiming that all women are wicked. Ben Sira is a much better example than 4Q184 of misogynistic attitudes in the wisdom tradition during the late Second Temple period (cf. Qoh 7:28). The appropriation by 4Q184 of the Strange Woman may be informed by biblical metaphors that describe debauched females, as Carmignac has suggested. One example of this biblical trope is Ezek 16. This text graphically depicts Israel as a woman who was betrothed to God. She was unfaithful to him and followed other gods, an act depicted as akin to sexual betrayal. The issue is Israel and its apostasy. This is not the case in 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman. The woman of this text is not described in cultic terms. She is not a devotee of Baal or a symbol for wayward Israel. One is hard-pressed to reconstruct a set of religious practices and beliefs based on the descriptions of the woman's wickedness. This should be kept in mind when assessing claims that she is a symbol for a group that rivals the Dead Sea sect. The choice by the author of 4Q184 to use a woman to symbolize wickedness may be informed by texts like Ezek 16. But this decision is much more firmly rooted in this wisdom tradition. The Strange Woman and Dame Folly of Proverbs represent a way of life to be avoided. In keeping with this tradition, the woman of 4Q184 represents the wrong path. What constitutes wicked behavior or practices is left relatively open. The woman of 4Q184 can be 69

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Aubin, "She is the beginning," 3 . N o t e the parallel in Zechariah w h i c h contains a v i s i o n o f a w o m a n in a basket w h o represents w i c k e d n e s s (5:8). Carmignac, " P o e m e allegorique," 3 7 4 . S e e also Aubin, "She is the beginning" 1. M o o r e , "Personification o f the Seduction o f Evil," 5 0 6 . 7 0

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understood as a kind of 'floating signifier' representing wickedness in general.

6. CONCLUSION 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman is unique among Qumran wisdom texts in its interest in the Strange Woman of Prov 7. 4Q184 appropriates details about this woman and provides a new portrait of her. Her marital status is no longer an issue and there is less emphasis on her sexual overtures. Both the Strange Woman and the woman of 4Q184 lead victims to their death. But the latter figure is more colorfully associated with death than the former. The figure of 4Q184 is situated in Sheol in a more explicit manner than the Strange Woman. 4Q184 offers a more vivid portrait of Sheol than Proverbs, describing it as a realm of darkness and flames. The text exhibits a dualism of light and darkness, with the former associated with a blessed afterlife for the righteous and the latter with eternal punishment for the wicked. Like the Strange Woman, the woman of 4Q184 represents a way of life that results in death. But the conception of death in 4Q184 is different from that of Proverbs, influenced by late Second Temple concepts of eschatology and punishment after death. 4Q184 transforms the Strange Woman from an alluring but dangerous married woman into a mythological figure of evil.

CHAPTER FOUR THE REWARDS OF WISDOM: 4QSAPIENTIAL WORK (4Q185) 1. INTRODUCTION 4Q185 is composed of six fragments. Most of the document is preserved in a composite of the first two fragments, which contains material from three columns. 4Q185 was published by Allegro in DJD 5, along with 4Q184. As with 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman, the official edition of 4Q185 should be read together with Strugnell's critique. Lichtenberger evaluated the text of 4Q185 in 1978 and he published an edition of the document in 2002. It is not disputed that 4Q185 is a wisdom text. Strugnell considers the composition an instruction. Tobin has written that "The point of the instruction or admonition Is to exhort the hearers not to follow vanity but to seek God's wisdom and follow his will." 4Q185 1

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J.M. A l l e g r o , Qumran Cave 4.1 (4Q158-40186) ( D J D 5; Oxford: Clarendon, 1968) 85-87. J. Strugnell, "Notes en marge du v o l u m e V des ' D i s c o v e r i e s in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan,'" RevQ 1 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 1 6 3 - 2 7 6 (esp. 2 6 9 - 7 3 ) . M.J. Bernstein and G.J. B r o o k e are preparing a revised edition o f DJD 5. H. Lichtenberger, "Eine w e i s h e i t l i c h e Mahnrede in den Qumrantunden ( 4 Q 1 8 5 ) , " in Qumran: sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu (ed. M. Delcor; B E T L 4 6 ; Paris: Duculot, 1 9 7 8 ) 1 5 1 - 6 2 ; idem, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 — E i n e n e u e Edition," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 1 2 7 - 5 0 . S e e also his "Makarismen in den Qumrantexten und im N e u e n Testament," in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition (ed. F. Garcia Martinez; B E T L 168; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 3 ) 3 9 5 - 4 1 1 (esp. 4 0 4 - 6 ) . Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 9 . T.H. Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," in Of Scribes and Scrolls: Studies on the Hebrew Bible, Intertestamental Judaism and Christian Origins (ed. H . W . Attridge et al.; Lanham: University Press o f America, 1 9 9 0 ) 1 4 5 - 5 2 (esp. 146). S e e also D J . Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Epistle o f James," JBL 117 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 6 9 1 - 7 0 7 ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts (London: Routledge, 1996) 3 5 - 3 9 ; A . S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of 2

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describes the benefits of possessing wisdom. One can acquire riches, glory and long life (4Q185 1-2 ii 12). The author of 4Q185 shows familiarity with Lady Wisdom, but she is not prominent in the text. There is less ambiguity regarding the theme of the Torah. Like Ben Sira, 4Q185 associates wisdom with the Torah. The document urges one to observe "the words of [his] covenafnt]" (4Q185 1-2 iii 9). The work is "quite anthological in style," with much of its language reflecting familiarity with the Hebrew Bible. There are connections between 4Q185 and the hymnic tradition. Strugnell writes that the text is "dans le style du Psaume 78." This psalm recounts historical events of Israel in order to demonstrate the might of God. 4Q185 has a similar goal. The text appeals to the national history of Israel, drawing the Exodus event and the patriarchs Isaac and Jacob into the instruction. Assessing a date of composition for 4Q185 is difficult. It has been argued that it predates the formation of the Dead Sea sect, because the document gives no indication that it was written by members of that movement. Tobin has suggested that the work is from the end of the third century BCE or the beginning of the second. This could be the case. But a non-yahad provenance does not require a pre-yahad dating. It is reasonable to speculate that 4Q185 is from either the second or first centuries BCE. There is nothing in the text that allows a more precise dating. 4Q185 is 6

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J. A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 4 7 - 4 8 ) ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment (2 vols.; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 2 4 ) ; E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul ( W U N T 2 / 1 6 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1 9 8 5 ) 2 1 9 ; J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) 1 1 6 - 1 7 ; A. L a n g e , " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: E i n e Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 3 3 0 (esp. 11); M . Kuchler, Fruhjudische Weisheitstraditionen ( O B O 2 6 ; Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1 9 7 9 ) 103-5. In the s a m e v o l u m e as L a n g e ' s article, s e e J. Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m T e x t s F o u n d at Qumran: Variations, R e s e m b l a n c e s , and L i n e s o f D e v e l o p m e n t , " 3 1 - 6 0 (esp. 4 1 - 4 2 ) ; G.J. B r o o k e , "Biblical Interpretation in the W i s d o m Texts from Qumran," 2 0 1 - 2 0 (esp. 2 1 1 - 1 2 ) . Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 146. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 9 . T h e paleography o f the d o c u m e n t s u g g e s t s it w a s c o p i e d at the end o f the H a s m o n e a n era. S e e Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 6 9 . Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 129. S e e also v a n der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," 2 4 8 . Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 152. 6

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roughly contemporary with Ben Sira and 4QInstruction.

2. DIVINE JUDGMENT AND THE INEVITABILITY OF HUMAN DEATH

The first well-preserved section of the work affirms divine judgment: "Who can endure to stand ("nDU ?) before his angels? For with flaming fire [they] will judge" (4Q185 1-2 i 8-9). Although this is not the original beginning of the composition, this passage provides a backdrop for the instruction that follows. The judgment scenes that begin 4QInstruction and 1 Enoch perform a similar function. The theme of judgment is bolstered by the assertion that God knows, and has created, the innermost parts of the human being (4Q185 1-2 iii 11-13; cf. 2 Bar. 83:3). The wicked are unable to hide anything they do from God, a view that encourages one to be righteous (cf. Sir 16:17; T. Naph. 2:4-5). 4Q185 1-2 i 8-9 is preceded by a fragmentary expression: "there is no strength to stand before her (msb 7\nsb) ..." (1. 7). This is clearly parallel to the description of the angels carrying out judgment. The referent of the expression, however, is less obvious. The descriptions of wisdom later in the instruction favor the feminine suffix, as in 4Q185 1-2 ii 13. It is unlikely that the author understood either Lady Wisdom or the Torah as implementing fiery judgment, although these options cannot be dismissed outright. It is more plausible that the antecedent is a feminine noun from a section that has not survived. The description of judgment in 4Q185 1-2 i 8-9 allocates an 1

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Cf. J En. 6 8 : 2 . The phrase "[they] will j u d g e " m a y be in the singular. The word BB«r is visible before a lacuna. I f o l l o w Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 2 , in a s s u m i n g that a wow f o l l o w e d , making the verb plural, referring t o "his angels." It is possible, however, that the verb is in the singular with G o d as its subject, as argued by Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 130, 133. S e e also idem, "Eine weisheitliche Mahnrede," 153. The Torah helps carry out the j u d g m e n t o f the w i c k e d in 4 Ezra 1 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 , in w h i c h a messianic figure destroys p e o p l e with a stream o f fire from h i s mouth. The fire s y m b o l i z e s the Torah (v. 3 8 ; cf. W i s 18:15-16). The Hagu passage o f 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 13-18) m a y allude to the Torah to e m p h a s i z e eschatological judgment. S e e section 3.2 o f Chapter 1. It m a y refer to the word "anger" (nan) in line 5. S e e Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 146. 1 2

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important role to the angels, as in apocalyptic texts. According to 1 Enoch 1, God will arrive with an army of angels when he judges the world (w. 4 , 9 ) . The War Scroll accords the angels a prominent place in the eschatological holy war, and the book of Daniel proclaims that the archangel Michael has an important role in the final judgment ( 1 2 : 1 - 4 ) . Column 2 of the Damascus Document (CD), like 4 Q 1 8 5 , combines an exhortation regarding wisdom with a declaration of judgment. After praising God for establishing "wisdom and counsel" (2:3), the text describes the fate of those who do not obtain knowledge: "strength and power and a great anger with flames of fire by the hand of all the angels of destruction (b2U "OK^D) against those turning aside from the path" (2:5-6). This, work's description of judgment includes fire and angels, as does 4 Q 1 8 5 . The "angels of destruction" are.also associated with fire in the Treatise of the Two Spirits. It depicts the suffering of the wicked: 15

And the visitation of all those who walk in it (wickedness) will be for an abundance of afflictions at the hands of all the angels of destruction (bin "OK^Q) ... for permanent terror and shame without end with the

Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 1 5 1 ; Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 1 1 6 - 1 7 ; M . M a c h , Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabbinischer Zeit ( T S A J 3 4 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1992); M.J. D a v i d s o n , Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and Sectarian Writings from Qumran (JSPSup 1 1 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press. 1992). Prophetic texts c o m b i n e the question " w h o can stand?" with the imagery o f divine j u d g m e n t and fire, as in 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 8-9 ( N a h 1:6; M a i 3 : 2 ; cf. P s 76:8; 130:3). B e n Sira also affirms the p o w e r o f divine j u d g m e n t . Sir 3 5 : 2 2 - 2 3 , for e x a m p l e , reads: "God indeed will not delay, and like a warrior, will not b e still till h e breaks the backs o f the merciless and w r e c k s v e n g e a n c e o n the nations; till h e destroys the scepter o f the proud, and breaks o f f short the staff o f the w i c k e d " (cf. 1 6 : 1 7 - 2 3 ) . Sir 5:7 declares "suddenly h i s wrath (IBSJT) g o e s forth." T h e word DJ?T occurs in an unfortunately fragmentary context in 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 8. Strugnell, " N o t e s e n marge," 2 7 2 , reconstructs "the indignation o f her wrath," and Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 1 3 0 , transcribes [irrbK *]K ]nwb, translating "angesichts d e s zornigen [Grimms unseres G o t t e s ] . " S e e also idem, "Eine w e i s h e i t l i c h e Mahnrede," 153. For attestations o f the word DPT in proclamations o f j u d g m e n t in the H e b r e w B i b l e , s e e A . A . D i Leila and P.W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira ( A B 3 9 ; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 8 7 ) 1 8 2 . Cf. 4 Q E n 1 i 5-6; 1 En. 100:4-5; 102:3. S e e G . W . E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36, 81-108 (Hermeneia; M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress Press, 2 0 0 1 ) 1 4 2 - 4 9 ; J.C. VanderKam, "The T h e o p h a n y o f E n o c h 1 3 B - 7 , 9," in From Revelation to Canon (JSJSup 6 2 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 332-53. 1 5

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humiliation of destruction by the fire of the dark regions (1QS 4:1113). 16

The role of the angels in 4Q185 may reflect influence from the Psalms. According to Ps 78:49, angels helped God pour out his wrath against the Egyptians when he delivered Israel: "He let loose on them his fierce anger, wrath, indignation, and distress, a company of destroying angels (D^m "OK^D nn^ED)." The final section of 4Q185 1-2 i 13-15 appeals to God's mighty acts in Egypt but never mentions angels. 4Q185 provides lessons from the history of Israel only after emphasizing the overwhelming power of divine judgment. The text's appeal to judgment has the pedagogical intent of encouraging upright conduct. The theme of death is another context for the exhortations of 4Q185 on wisdom. The description of angels and judgment is followed by a statement on the finitude of human life: 17

18

As for you, O sons of man (D1K ^D), w[oe to you!] For behold, he sprouts up from the earth like grass (Tiro), and his kindness (Hon) blooms like a flower (f ^ 3 ) . His wind blow[s upon him] ([*Q n]2Wl irrri), his shoot withers (ED'') and wind carries away his flower until there is nothing left stanfding, for it will per]ish. It will not be found for it is but breath (mi). They will search for him but will not find him; there is no hope. As for him, his days are like a shadow upon the la[nd](4Q185 1-2 i 9-13). 19

In 1 Q M 13:12 the bnn -OKSO are in the lot o f Belial and walk in darkness. In 4 Q S o n g s o f the S a g e they are included in a list o f d e m o n i c p o w e r s such as Lilith and "the bastard spirits," over w h o m the MasBl is to have d o m i n i o n ( 4 Q 5 1 0 1 5). Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 147. The K i n g James V e r s i o n translates B-»S-I ^ * 6 n as "evil angels." S e e section 4 o f this chapter. The proper reading o f several expressions in this passage is difficult t o determine. Regarding the phrase "O s o n s o f man, w [ o e to y o u ! ] , " I f o l l o w Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 2 . After the expression OIK •»» is an "dlep f o l l o w e d by a lacuna, w h i c h Strugnell reconstructs as [ash •»I]K. Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 133, offers a different reading. H e argues that -12 stands alone, as it d o e s in 4 Q 1 8 5 12 ii 3 , and should not b e paired with DTK. H e reconstructs [ro f ]K, translating the phrase as "meine Sonne, der M e n s c h i[st kraftlos!]" Reconstructing na ] • * w o u l d e v o k e a t h e m e established in 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 7. But since the p a s s a g e is about death as a human constant, it makes s e n s e to read DIK with Strugnell. The reconstruction " w [ o e t o y o u ] " is a tentative but g o o d suggestion since it accords with the m o o d o f the passage. T h e phrase "from the earth" ( i s i x n ) o f line 10 is in Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 2 , and Allegro, DJD 5, 8 5 , but is disputed by Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 133. Lichtenberger argues that this reading is not certain palaeographically 1 7

1 8

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Whereas the passage following this text is explicitly addressed to Israel ("my people"; 1. 13), the author here seems to speak to all of humankind. This is not a shift in audience. Rather the addressees, who are elsewhere told to observe the Torah and learn from the history of Israel, are reminded in lines 9-13 of the frailty and ephemerality inherent to the human condition. The passage is rich in allusions to passages from the Hebrew Bible. The botanical metaphor of "grass" in line 10 is reliant on Isa 40:6-8, which reads in part: All people are grass (TSn), their constancy (Hon) is like the flower (fSD) of the field. The grass withers 003*0, theflowerfades, when the breath of the Lord blows upon it (13 H3^2 rnJT mi); surely the people are grass ... but the word of our God will stand forever. 20

The Psalms also employ the image of grass to contrast the lowliness of humankind with the power of God (90:5-6; 103:15-16). The statement "his days are like a shadow upon the la[nd]" (VW b%2 [fl]Kn by) of 4Q185 1-2 i 13 is found almost verbatim in 1 Chron

and that it d o e s not m a k e s e n s e since p e o p l e do not spring from the earth. He s u g g e s t s instead irn&sn ("und seine Schonheit"). This reading is also advocated in idem, "Eine w e i s h e i t l i c h e Mahnrede," 154. W h i l e the traces are difficult to read, •crino is plausible. Semantically, it helps express the botanical metaphor o f the passage. T h e expression m a y allude to Gen 2:7. The expression "his shoot" o f line 11 translates an obscure word, TTW. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 0 , " s u g g e s t s reading IT:, "his m o w e d grass." H e also reports a proposal b y P . W . Skehan that nas is a metathesis o f isra. This option is favored b y Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 134. I also prefer this reading. Either option supports the text's botanical metaphor. The reconstruction o f the phrase translated "until there is nothing left stan[ding, for it will perjish" o f line 11 is disputed. T h e H e b r e w probably reads nipik ia[ Ji»j?b (the s e c o n d yod is supralinear). Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 0 , finds oip"»K "bizarre." H e l e a v e s this section blank in his translation, but s u g g e s t s that o n e read o i p < n > p«. The w o r d Dip^K, w h i c h A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 6 , translates as "oblivion," is obscure but basically m e a n s "non-existence," w h i c h fits w e l l with the t h e m e o f death. This is also favored b y Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 134. A s for the s e c o n d part o f this phrase, 1 f o l l o w Strugnell w h o s u g g e s t s transcribing i2[w K O . H e also puts forward [i]i3i7b as an option for the first w o r d o f this phrase. Lichtenberger transcribes -ripra m]hsb. T h e original s u g g e s t s that either o f Strugnell's options is better than that o f Lichtenberger. Part o f a downstroke is v i s i b l e before the lacuna, connected t o the basestroke o f the preceding letter. This is compatible with either a bet-wow or mem-waw combination. Compare G i l g a m e s h ( 1 0 . 6 ) : "Mankind's fame is cut d o w n like reeds in a reedbed . . . S a v a g e Death just cuts mankind d o w n . " S e e S. D a l l e y , Myths from Mesopotamia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) 108; Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 146; Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 147; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 7 .

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29:15, and the depiction of human life as a fleeting shadow is in the Psalms (102:12; 144:4). 4Q185 1-2 i 9-13 contains a Qoheleth-like realization of the reality of death. But whereas Qoheleth questions the value of wisdom, 4Q185 encourages its acquisition. The text declares that all people fade away after proclaiming the fiery judgment of God and his angels (4Q185 1-2 i 8-9). Often judgment is invoked to assert the demise of the wicked rather than humankind in general. Ben Sira affirms that God's judgment brings death to the wicked as recompense for their sins (5:7). But the sage also understands that death is the fate of all humankind: "Fear not death, the decree for you ... From God this is the decree for all flesh; why then should you reject the Law of the Most High?" (41:3-4; cf. 14:12-19; 40:l-2). The prospect of death influences his instruction. For example, remembering death prevents excess pride and encourages humility: "Why are dust and ashes proud? Even during life the human body decays" (10:9; cf. 7:36). The attitude towards death in 4Q185 is compatible with that of Ben Sira. The acknowledgement of death is a context for instruction. If one acquires wisdom, he will live a prosperous and long life (4Q185 1-2 ii 12). There is no clear affirmation of life after death for the righteous in this text. In this regard this sapiential text is closer to Ben Sira 21

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Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 0 . S. Burkes, God, Self, and Death: The Shape of Religious Transformation in the Second Temple Period (JSJSup 7 9 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 0 9 - 1 7 . Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 7 8 . S e e also his "The R o o t o f Immortality: D e a t h in the Context o f Jewish W i s d o m , " in Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (JSJSup 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 351 -67. The prospect o f eternal life with the a n g e l s m a y h a v e b e e n originally in 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 ii 6-7, but this is h i g h l y tentative. A c c o r d i n g to Strugnell, " N o t e s e n marge," 2 7 3 , these lines include the fragmentary phrase, "to be separated (^nanb) from his angels, for there is n o darkness nor g l o o m . . . " If this is the correct reading, it m a y describe the eternal life o f the addressee after death, in w h i c h h e is n o longer separated from the a n g e l s and e n j o y s a c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e o f darkness (cf. D a n 12:3). The transcription o f Vnan ? is disputed. Strugnell s u g g e s t s that it could b e -in«rr?. Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 137, transcribes [ p ] a r 6 . The k e y portion o f the manuscript is in a p o o r state o f preservation, and from a material standpoint it is difficult t o assert any transcription with confidence. B a s e d on the original, h o w e v e r , the traces d o not s e e m compatible with ^-nn ?. Tigchelaar (personal correspondence) s u g g e s t s [p]»Kr6. 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 ii 2 - 3 , w h i c h is also in poor condition, m a y read: " W h y d o y o u g i v e your [souls] to the pi[t] ([n]n»b)?" This last word is suggested in Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 136. If this is correct, it could imply that the m e m b e r s o f the intended audience h a v e the opportunity not to send their s o u l s to Sheol. Strugnell, 2 2

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than 4QInstruction, which holds up the prospect of eternal life for its mebm. 4Q185 advocates a "carpe diem" approach to wisdom. The inevitability of death provides an existential backdrop for the pursuit of a long and fulfilling life. Regarding the combination of the motifs of judgment and death, 4Q185 can be profitably compared to a later sapiential text, the Wisdom of Solomon. It includes a judgment scene that is reminiscent of the apocalyptic tradition (4:20-5:23). It contains some reflections on death that are reminiscent of 4Q185: 25

All those things (the wealth accrued in life) have vanished like a shadow, and like a rumor that passes by; like a ship that sails through the billowy water, and when it has passed no trace can be found, no track of its keel in the waves ... Because the hope of the ungodly is like thistledown carried by the wind ... it is dispersed like smoke before the wind (Wis 5:9-14; cf. 4 Ezra 4:24; 7:61). The finality of human life is realized by the wicked. They understand their fate is death at the moment of judgment, when it is too late. The themes of judgment and death are together, as in 4Q185. But in the Wisdom of Solomon death is not a universal prospect. It is the destiny of the wicked, whereas the soul of the righteous is immortal (1:13-14; 5:15). This is different from 4Q185 and Ben Sira, in which death is a human constant. While the Wisdom of Solomon is influenced by Greek philosophical ideas about the immortality of the soul, the text is also shaped by Jewish tradition. Whereas Isa 40 and Ps 90 assert that all humankind is "grass" inevitably cut down by God, Ps 92 directs this 26

"Notes en marge," 2 7 0 , transcribes the final word not as "pit" but "vanity" (KIE). Materially the word in question is hard to read. T h e upper-stroke o f the letter het m a y b e visible. This w o u l d favor Lichtenberger's reconstruction. O n the original it is not a smooth stroke and could be from the top o f t w o letters. This w o u l d support Strugnell's understanding o f the traces. T h e y are, h o w e v e r , t o o faint to d e c i d e the issue. J.J. Collins, " C o s m o s and Salvation: Jewish W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m in the Hellenistic A g e , " in Seers, Sibyls and Sages, 3 1 7 - 3 8 ; S. Burkes, " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m in the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n , " HTR 9 5 ( 2 0 0 2 ) 2 1 - 4 4 . Collins, "The R o o t o f Immortality," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages, 3 6 1 . A similar contrast b e t w e e n the fates o f the righteous and the wicked is in 1 En. 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 . The Similitudes of Enoch asserts a position similar to the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n : "For humans were not created to b e different from the angels, so that they should remain pure and righteous. A n d death, w h i c h ruins everything, w o u l d not have laid its hand on them. B u t through this, their k n o w l e d g e (from the Watchers), they are perishing, and through this p o w e r it devours u s " (1 En. 6 9 : 1 1 ; cf. W i s 2:24). 2 5

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botanical metaphor to the wicked alone: "though the wicked sprout like herbage (3017) and all evildoers flourish (12F2F), they are doomed to destruction forever" (v. 8; cf 37:20; 129:6; 4Q171 3 7-8). 2 Baruch, a first century CE work, provides consolation by asserting that those oppressing the Jews will die out like "grass" (82:7; cf. 1 En. 48:9). The New Testament Letter of James, which is squarely in the sapiential tradition, proclaims divine judgment against the wealthy and applies the language of Isa 40 to them: "the rich will disappear like a flower in the field" (1:10; cf. 5:1-6). These texts use botanical metaphors to express the ephemeral nature of human life in order to emphasize God's punishment against the wicked. This seems to be the case in 4Q185 as well. It is reasonable to understand the powerful judgment implemented by the angels asserted in 4Q185 1-2 i 8-9 as directed towards the wicked. The fragile and temporal nature of the human condition explains why no one is able to "stand" before the angels in judgment. The theme of death in 4Q185 1-2 i 9-13 has two functions, one in relation to what precedes it and the other to what follows. The transitory nature of humankind underscores the ability of God to overwhelm the wicked at judgment (4Q185 1-2 i 8-9). Second, acknowledging the universality of death is to galvanize the addressees in their pursuit of wisdom and a meaningful life (4Q185 1-2 ii 8-15). This is compatible with reflections on death in Ben Sira. 27

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4QSapiential Work urges its intended audience to acquire wisdom. 4Q185 1-2 ii 8-12 reads: [Be]fore him knowledge goes forth to all people. Happy is the man to whom she is given (nana) ... The wicked should not boas[t], saying "She has not been given to me, nor [has she been measured out to me." Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Epistle o f James," 6 9 3 . 4QInstruction reminds its addressee that h e w i l l die in order to teach h i m about the fleeting nature o f monetary wealth ( 4 Q 4 1 8 103 ii 9). T h e p o e m o n w i s d o m in Sir 1 4 : 2 0 - 1 5 : 1 0 is preceded by a botanical metaphor about death: "All flesh g r o w s old, like a garment; the a g e - o l d law is: all must die. A s with the l e a v e s that g r o w o n a v i g o r o u s tree: o n e falls o f f and another s p r o u t s — s o with the generations o f flesh and blood: o n e dies and another flourishes. A l l o f a pe r s o n' s w o r k s will perish in decay; h i s handiwork will f o l l o w after h i m " ( 1 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) . 2 8

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God has given her] to Israel and with the meas[ure of good]ness he measures her out. He redeems all his people, but he kills all those who hate [his wi]sdo[m]. The one who glorifies himself through her should [not] say that he has taken her as a po[ssess]ion. Find her and [hold fast] to her and get her as an inheritance. With her are [length of d]ays (DTDf "[")*<]), fatness of bone, joy of heart, rich[es and honor]. 1

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The readings o f several portions o f this passage require c o m m e n t . The phrase "Happy is the man to w h o m she is g i v e n " m a y b e f o l l o w e d with "O son o f m a [ n ] " ([•]ik p ) in line 9. This is suggested b y Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 138. Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 1 , endorses reading "thus" ( p ) . If line 8 asserts that k n o w l e d g e has b e e n g i v e n to all p e o p l e (a claim that is debatable and discussed b e l o w ) , it is reasonable that the text w o u l d use the term "son o f man" (or "human being") to describe its addressee. There are not e n o u g h visible traces to reconstruct the phrase in question. P A M 4 3 . 5 1 4 indicates that this portion o f the manuscript is fragmentary and suffers from substantial ink erosion, and n o n e o f the immediate context o f the phrase has survived. The visible traces after the probable 'alep s e e m t o o high for a dalet. This argues against Lichtenberger's reading. T h e supplement "has she b e e n measured out to m e " in line 10 f o l l o w s Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 3 . Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 138, offers a different but semantically equivalent expression. B o t h options reasonably a s s u m e that the lacuna contained a phrase parallel in m e a n i n g to the phrase "She has not been g i v e n to m e . " Regarding the statement rendered "with the meas[ure o f g o o d ] n e s s h e measures her out" in line 10, Strugnell accepts the transcription in A l l e g r o , DJD 5, 8 6 , n]Tnni fnzr n[a. Lichtenberger reads rra? m[a] iatoi. It is difficult to reconstruct the phrase with confidence. The lacuna s e e m s t o o large for just o n e letter. This portion o f the original has discoloration marks (also the surface s e e m s s o m e w h a t crumpled, m o v i n g the letters before the lacuna closer together), but I cannot find any ink traces that w o u l d form a zayin where o n e should be, f o l l o w i n g Lichtenberger. T h e s e factors favor Strugnell's transcription. There is not a major semantic difference b e t w e e n the t w o options. B o t h express the idea that G o d has distributed w i s d o m to Israel. The statement "he kills all those w h o hate [his w i ] s d o [ m ] " in line 11 is suggested by Strugnell and challenged b y Lichtenberger. Semantically Strugnell's reading is attractive, and I tentatively f o l l o w it. B u t the phrase "[his w i ] s d o [ m ] " is reconstructed from traces o f j u s t t w o letters, w h i c h Strugnell reads as kap and mem. Materially it is not difficult to critique this reading. H o w e v e r , context s u g g e s t s that this reconstruction, or its semantic equivalent, m a k e s sense. G o d kills those w h o hate whatever the disputed phrase reads. It refers to s o m e t h i n g that the righteous like and the w i c k e d do not. O n the original there is a hint o f a top stroke visible o n the letter that Strugnell suggests is a kap. This supports his understanding o f the traces. M y translation o f line 12 includes the phrase "[hold fast] to her and get her as an inheritance." This is based o n Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 1 , w h o transcribes rbmi na pm-i. Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 139, contends that this is "nicht zweifelsfrei" from a paleographic standpoint. After r « s m h e s u g g e s t s [-2] V? f6\± rbi. Lichtenberger is right that the transcription o f the phrase in question is not free o f doubt. It is i m p o s s i b l e to reconstruct the phrase with c o m p l e t e certainty. B a s e d on P A M 4 1 . 5 8 5 , rbnai and m are easier to discern than prm. M u c h o f this w o r d is not extant. O n e cannot see the expected descender o f a final qdp, w h i c h c o u l d b e due to ink erosion. Semantically Strugnell's reading, or its equivalent, is to

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This text uses the beatitude form, which is prominent in the Psalms and Proverbs, and occurs elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. It is also found in later literature, particularly the apocalypses, as in 2 En. 42 and 52. The aptly titled 4QBeatitudes uses the form in relation to wisdom: "Happy is the man who has obtained wisdom and follows the Torah of the Most High" (4Q525 2 ii + 3 3-4). Pss 1 and 119, often regarded as wisdom psalms, begin with beatitudes that may praise the Torah in a manner similar to 4Q525. Ps 1 states at its outset: "Happy are those who do not follow the advice of the wicked ... their delight is in the law of the Lord." These texts may draw on traditional wisdom, since Proverbs uses the form to encourage the pursuit of wisdom: "Happy are those who find wisdom, and those who get understanding" (3:13; cf. 8:32, 34). Ben Sira employs the beatitude in a similar way: "Happy is the person who meditates on wisdom and fixes his gaze on understanding" (14:20; cf. 50:28). He also employs the form in relation to practical instruction. Sapiential texts, and perhaps some of the psalms, use the beatitude in relation to wisdom and the Torah. 4Q185 1-2 ii 8-12 never explicitly states what one should seek or what is given to the man that makes him happy. A feminine suffix is used for the desirable entity. Grammatically, the suffix could refer to wisdom or the Torah. Wisdom is clearly what is given to the happy man. The rewards of having "her" as an inheritance in 4Q185 1-2 ii 12, while they can be found in non-sapiential texts, resonate with 30

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be preferred, since his reconstruction produces an admonition that encourages the acquisition o f w i s d o m . The supplement "rich[es and h o n o r ] " o f line 12 is in Lichtenberger, not Strugnell. This is a reasonable addition based o n context. Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 139, points out that Lady W i s d o m is associated with t h e s e t w o things in Prov 3:16 and 8:18. S e e section 3 o f Chapter 8. Whether or not the Torah is a t h e m e in the biblical Psalter is a topic o f debate. S e e J.D. L e v e n s o n , "The Sources o f Torah: Psalm 119 and the M o d e s o f R e v e l a t i o n in S e c o n d T e m p l e Judaism," in Ancient Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross (ed. P . D . Miller et al.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 8 7 ) 5 5 9 - 7 4 . P s 119:1-2 reads: "Happy are t h o s e w h o s e w a y is b l a m e l e s s , w h o walk in the law o f the Lord. H a p p y are t h o s e w h o keep h i s decrees, w h o seek h i m with their w h o l e heart." Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Epistle o f James," 6 9 6 . S e e , for example, Sir 2 5 : 8 - 9 ; 2 6 : 1 . Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 148; Verseput, "Wisdom, 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Epistle o f James," 6 9 9 . 3 0

3 1

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traditional wisdom (cf. Deut 30:20; Ps 21:5). Prov 3:16, for example, depicts Lady Wisdom with "length of days" (CfT "[IK) in her right hand, a reference to long life, and "riches and honor" in her left. Phrases similar to "fatness of bone" (DSB ]ttn) and "joy of heart" (22b nn&rc) are in Prov 15:30. 4Q185 asserts that the person who obtains wisdom will have a happy, successful and fulfilling life. The rewards of wisdom are in continuity with the worldly, eudemonistic ethos of Proverbs. The beatitude in 4Q185 1-2 ii 8 is also similar to Ps 154, which proclaims that "For to make known the glory of the Lord is wisdom given (PNWin nana)" (1 lQPs 18:3). 4Q185 1-2 ii 3 contains a call for Torah obedience: "Listen to me, my sons, and do not rebel against the words of YHWH (l")Dn bk m m n n n ) " (cf. 4Q185 1-2 iii 9). The use of the tetragrammaton is unusual in Qumran wisdom texts. This divine name occurs in 4Q411 and Ps 154, which is probably influenced by the sapiential tradition (llQPs 18:3, 14, 15). 4Q185 also appeals to the national events of Israel's past that are preserved in the Torah, especially the Exodus (see below). The second beatitude of 4Q185 exclaims "Happy is the man who does her (nJlKP)" (1-2 ii 13). This teaches that one's wisdom should be expressed in his conduct. The stress on 'doing' wisdom is likely another encouragement to follow the Torah 36

37

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S e e also Prov 2 2 : 4 ; Sir 1:20; 4 Q 4 1 6 2 iii 19. Cf. 1QS 4:7; 1 Q M 1:9. Prov 15:30 reads: "The light o f the e y e s rejoices the heart ( ^ T I D S T ) , and g o o d n e w s refreshes the body (csirjsnn)." D.J. Harrington, "Ten R e a s o n s W h y the Qumran W i s d o m Texts are Important,'* DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 4 5 - 5 5 (esp. 2 4 7 ) ; van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," 2 5 1 - 5 3 . T h e rewards o f attaining w i s d o m are also praised in the sapiential p o e m included in the Aramaic Levi Document, fragments o f w h i c h were found at Qumran ( 4 Q 2 1 3 14): "And n o w , m y sons, < t e a c h > reading and writing and teaching < o f > w i s d o m to your children and m a y w i s d o m b e eternal glory for y o u . For h e w h o learns w i s d o m will (attain) glory through it, but he w h o despises w i s d o m will b e c o m e an object o f disdain and scorn" ( 1 3 : 4 - 5 ) . This p o e m also claims " w i s d o m is a great wealth o f honor (or: glory) for t h o s e familiar with it and a fine treasure to all w h o acquire it" ( 1 3 : 1 0 ) . This translation f o l l o w s J.C. Greenfield et al., The Aramaic Levi Document ( S V T P 19; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) . S e e also H. Drawnel, An Aramaic Wisdom Text from Qumran: A New Interpretation of the Levi Document (JSJSup 8 6 ; Leiden: Brill, 2004). Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 148; Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 129; Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts," 3 7 ; A . Schoors, "The L a n g u a g e o f the Qumran Sapiential Works," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 6 1 - 9 5 (esp. 8 1 ) . 3 7

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(cf. lQpHab8:l). Line 10 of 4Q185 1-2 ii states "[God has given her] to Israel." Wisdom is God's gift to Israel. This is clearly a reference to the Torah. It is a consequence of God's unique covenant with Israel. A few lines earlier in the column, however, knowledge is associated with the entire world: "[Be]fore him knowledge (HITI) goes forth to all people" (1. 8). This line asserts that God's wisdom is present throughout the world. 4Q185 never directly appeals to the earliest stages of creation in the manner of Prov 8. The text never encourages the direct observation of nature. But the author of 4Q185 presents the view that the natural order of things is a consequence of divine wisdom. It is implicit that nature is a source of wisdom for the addressee. 4Q185 associates wisdom and Torah. But the two are not synonyms. The Torah is both an important source of wisdom and. God's unique offering to Israel. But the law is not the only source of knowledge. The relationship between the Torah and wisdom in 4Q185 recalls Ben Sira. In chapter 24 God famously commands Lady Wisdom to make her dwelling place in Israel, more specifically in Jerusalem (w. 8, 11). The product of her residence in Israel is the Torah (v. 23; cf. 6:37; 15:1). The poem relates her to the entire world before she begins her relationship with Israel: "Over waves of the sea, over all the land, over every people and nation I held sway" (24:6). At the outset the instruction claims that all living things reflect God's wisdom: "He (God) it is who fashioned her ... he has poured her forth upon all his works, upon every living thing according to his bounty; 41

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43

4 0

S. White Crawford, "Lady W i s d o m and D a m e Folly at Qumran," DSD 5 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 5 5 - 6 6 (esp. 3 6 3 ) . N o t e that the beatitude that immediately f o l l o w s this claim m a y b e addressed to "O son o f m a [ n ] " (1. 9; cf. 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 9). This w o u l d e m p h a s i z e the humanity o f the m e m b e r s o f the intended audience rather than their particular status as Jews. The w o r d understood as run ("knowledge") is perhaps better transcribed as nsn ("evil"). The origin o f evil, h o w e v e r , is a topic n o w h e r e e l s e in this document. 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 8-9 e m p h a s i z e s the p o w e r o f divine j u d g m e n t but s h o w s minimal interest in the deeds o f the w i c k e d or what c o m p e l s t h e m to act in this way. It is better to understand the word in question, with Strugnell, as run "avec dalet e n d o m m a g e . " S e e his " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 1 ; Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 129. The w o r d is g i v e n as njn in DSSSE, 1.378. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 8 . Other Early Jewish texts associate w i s d o m with the Torah. See, for example, 2 Bar. 46:5 and 4 M a c e 1:16-17 (cf. 1 Q M 10:10; Ezra 7:25; P s 3 7 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) . 4 1

4 2

4 3

4QSAPIENTIAL W O R K

(4Q185)

135

he has lavished her upon his friends" (1:9-10). For Ben Sira the distribution of wisdom is worldwide but not equally so. The creation hymns of Sir 39:12-35 and 42:15-43:33 teach that God's wisdom is manifested in the world. Ben Sira balances this natural theology with an unequivocal assertion that the Torah is God's gift to Israel and a source of wisdom particular to Jews. There is a similar issue in the Wisdom of Solomon, which is oriented around the figure of Solomon and other biblical figures, while assuming that in principle wisdom is available to everybody. The work is addressed to the "rulers of the earth" since all leaders need wisdom to rule justly (1:1; cf. 6:1; Prov

8:15-16). 3.1 Lady Wisdom in 4Q185? The statement in 4Q185 1-2 ii 8 that knowledge "goes forth" (K2$n) from God could refer to the creation of Lady Wisdom. Using a different word, in Proverbs Lady Wisdom claims that "when there were no depths I was brought forth On^in)... before the hills, I was brought forth On^in)" (Prov 8:24-25). Sir 24:3 embellishes this image: "From the mouth of the Most High I came forth (€£f|X0ov), and mistlike covered the earth." That 4Q185 alludes to the fashioning of Lady Wisdom is an intriguing possibility that should be left open. This figure is by no means prominent in this text. Several of the core Lady Wisdom motifs from Proverbs and Ben Sira are absent. 4Q185 contains no explicit description of a woman, allegorical or otherwise. There is no Lady Wisdom calling out to passers-by. She provides no eyewitness account of the primordial phase of creation. She is not compared to a fragrant tree (Sir 24:13-19). She offers no banquets and is never contrasted with an opposing figure such as Dame Folly, as in Prov 9. Sidnie White Crawford claims that 4Q185 1-2 ii 8-15 refers to "a personified female figure" but grants that specific descriptions of wisdom as a woman are hard to find. She observes that Lady 44

45

4 4

(pK

M . H . Segal reconstructs the Hebrew o f this line with the verb « r for €£f|X0ov ^ITOD ^S-WST

]vbv

••DD ^ D K ) . See his ob&n STD

p

IDD (Jerusalem: Bialik,

1953)145. White Crawford, " L a d y Wisdom and Dame Folly," 3 6 2 . See also Harrington, " T e n Reasons," 2 5 1 - 5 2 ; Strugnell, " T h e Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 3 9 . 4

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Wisdom is a "far more active figure" in Sir 24 than 4Q185 and contends that in the latter text "she more closely resembles the nonpersonified figure of Wisdom" of texts such as Job 28 or Bar 3:9-4:4. In her opinion, the beatitude of 4Q185 1-2 ii 13 about 'doing' wisdom is a reference to the Torah that "seems to be the best understanding of the female figure in this text." If this is the best evidence available for Lady Wisdom in 4Q185, one could reasonably claim that she is not in this text. White Crawford is certainly right that in terms of Lady Wisdom 4Q185 is more reminiscent of Baruch than Ben Sira. In the latter work she cannot be separated from the presentation of wisdom vis-a­ vis the Torah. She stands at the center of Sir 24. Baruch, by contrast, associates wisdom and the Torah in a way that accords less prominence to personified wisdom. But even Baruch alludes to the Lady Wisdom tradition more than 4Q185. Bar 3:36-4:1 reads: He (God) found the whole way to knowledge, and gave her to his servant Jacob and to Israel, whom he loved. Afterwards she appeared on earth and lived with humankind. She is the book of the commandments of God, the law that endures forever. 46

This refers to the descent of wisdom to earth, a motif given fuller expression in Sir 24. No text of 4Q185 alludes so clearly to this trope. I agree, however, with White Crawford that 4Q185 personifies wisdom as a woman to a limited extent. 4Q185 1-2 ii 13 declares that "his mercies are her youth (ITD^S) and [his] salvation." The antecedent of "her" is wisdom—wisdom's youth. Associating "her youth" with divine mercy and salvation appears to be an anthropomorphic way of teaching that God favors those who possess wisdom. In Proverbs and Ben Sira Lady Wisdom is anything but young. She is as old as creation itself. Ben Sira emphasizes that the 47

4 6

White Crawford, "Lady W i s d o m and D a m e Folly," 3 6 3 . The transcription o f the key phrase r r e ^ has been disputed, rrehw is in Allegro, DJD 5, 8 6 , and is not contested b y Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 3 . Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 140, considers this transcription "unpassend." He prefers rroift, w h i c h h e translates as "fur ihre Volker." T h e transcription rrnbv appears to be valid according to P A M 4 3 . 5 1 4 and 4 1 . 5 8 5 , although the ink o f m u c h o f the first t w o letters has not survived. The first letter has a slanting stroke that accords better with ayin than lamed. There is n o n e e d to e m e n d the text. 4 7

c

4QSAPIENTIAL WORK ( 4 Q 1 8 5 )

137

ideal student is young, not wisdom ( 6 : 1 8 ; 5 1 : 1 3 ) . The image of wisdom's "youth" seems intended to evoke her beauty and desirability. Instilling a devotion to wisdom is one of the main goals of 4 Q 1 8 5 . Other sapiential texts employ feminine allegories to inculcate a love of wisdom. According to Proverbs, Lady Wisdom declares: "I love those who love me, and those who seek me diligently find me" ( 8 : 1 7 ) . In the poem that concludes the book of Ben Sira, the speaker likens his pursuit of wisdom to romantic love of a woman: "I burned with desire for her, never relenting. I became preoccupied with her, never weary of extolling her" ( 5 1 : 1 9 ; cf. 4 : 1 2 ) . The version of this work preserved in HQPs emphasizes the passion and intensity of the search for wisdom. The poet of Sir 5 1 : 1 3 - 3 0 recounts his personal search for wisdom in order to encourage students to acquire instruction. The promotion of wisdom is also prominent in Sir 6 and 14. 4 Q 1 8 5 similarly urges that one strive for wisdom. Just before "her youth" is associated with salvation, the text exhorts: "Find her and [hold fast] to her and get her as an inheritance" ( 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 ii a

49

N o t e , h o w e v e r , Sir 15:2, w h i c h states that Lady W i s d o m will m e e t the student "like a y o u n g bride." S e e section 3 . 2 . 2 o f Chapter 9. T h e stich in question is preceded b y the claim that "The o n e w h o glorifies h i m s e l f through her should [not] say that h e h a s taken her as a p o [ s s e s s ] i o n " (1. 11). It is p o s s i b l e that the section quoted a b o v e from line 12 continues the thought o f the previous line. In this case line 12 w o u l d not exhort o n e with imperatives t o encourage w i s d o m . Rather it w o u l d put forward claims that the o n e w h o glorifies h i m s e l f should n o t make—that h e has found her, that h e h o l d s her fast, that h e h a s gotten her as an inheritance. Line 9 o f this c o l u m n asserts that the w i c k e d should not say w i s d o m h a s been g i v e n t o them. L i n e s 1 3 - 1 4 describe h o w not to seek or h o l d fast t o w i s d o m . I prefer marking o f f the w o r d rmn o f line 12 as the b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w thought, in w h i c h case it reads best as an imperative with an object suffix ("find her"). This is suggested b y the fact that the statement in question is immediately f o l l o w e d b y the rewards o f w i s d o m . It m a k e s sense t o c o m b i n e a recitation o f the benefits o f w i s d o m with admonitions encouraging the pursuit o f w i s d o m . "The o n e w h o glorifies h i m s e l f (i±:nnn) is difficult to interpret. I tentatively f o l l o w the suggestion o f Strugnell, "Notes e n marge," 2 7 3 , that the statement in w h i c h the expression is found should b e supplemented with a negation. Whether a commentator endorses this addition or n o t depends on i f o n e understands "the o n e w h o glorifies h i m s e l f in a negative or positive sense. If negative, the person is "selfglorious," b e i n g e x c e s s i v e l y vain in h i s claim o f acquiring w i s d o m , and h e should therefore not say that h e p o s s e s s e s w i s d o m . "The o n e w h o glorifies h i m s e l f could also b e understood as a person w h o h a s earned glory and honor through w i s d o m , in w h i c h case there w o u l d b e n o n e e d t o add a negation. B o t h options are valid and 4 9

5 0

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A key passage with regard to theme of the acquisition of wisdom is 4Q185 1-2 ii 13-15. Strugnell translates the passage in the following way: Happy is the man who does her (wisdom) and does not play tricks agfainst her, nor] with [a spirit] of deceit seek her, nor hold fast to her with flatteries (hpbh). As she was given to his fathers, so he himself will inherit her, and [hold fast] to her with all the power of his strength and with all hi[s mig]ht that is immeasurable; and he will give her as an inheritance to his offspring. 51

The beatitude in this passage not only encourages that one 'do', or carry out, wisdom but also that one pursue it with a devotion that is all-encompassing and sincere. This is the same basic point of Sir 51. 4Q185 is less reliant than Sir 51 on the metaphor of romantic love to teach the proper approach to wisdom. But this trope is not absent in 4Q185 1-2 ii 13-15. To affirm that one should not "play tricks" against her or seize her with "flatteries" describes the acquisition of wisdom in romantic terms. The Strange Woman of Prov 1-9, who is beautiful and promiscuous, "speaks (np"6nn) flattering words" to ensnare unsuspecting men (7:5; cf. 6:24; 7:21). The idea of holding fast to wisdom construes seizing it as kind of a physical embrace (cf. Prov 3:18; 4:13; 7:13). The emphasis of the romantic metaphor in 4Q185 is not on desiring or loving wisdom in the erotic fashion of Sir 51 but rather on the honesty and integrity of one's devotion. 4Q185 1-2 ii 13-15 portrays wisdom in anthropomorphic terms, as a feminine entity one should seek with sincerity and fidelity. A similar point is made in 4QBeatitudes (4Q525 2 ii + 3 1-6). The one who finds "her" will be rewarded with a prosperous and fulfilling life. In 4Q185 the man who has wisdom is analogous to a man in a healthy marriage. Portraying wisdom as a woman is not an overarching goal of 4Q185. When describing wisdom in anthropomorphic terms, the text is not fully consistent. 4Q185 1-2 ii 14 presents wisdom as given to 52

produce coherent readings. I favor Strugnell's v i e w that "the one w h o glorifies h i m s e l f is a negative expression. T h e Hithpael o f IID is clearly negative in other w i s d o m texts. 4QInstruction urges that the addressee not boast about his poverty: " D o not glorify yourself (naann **) with what y o u lack, for y o u are poor" ( 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 2 0 ) . Prov 12:9 reads "Better to be despised and have a servant, than to be selfimportant (nasnn) and lack food" (cf. N a h 3:15). Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 3 . That this passage states that o n e should not "play tricks" against w i s d o m is debatable. This is discussed in the f o l l o w i n g section. 5 1

5 2

4QSAPIENTIAL

139

WORK ( 4 Q 1 8 5 )

the "fathers." This may be a reference to the patriarchs, but the claim is connected to the idea of transmitting wisdom within the family. The importance of seeking wisdom is not neatly distinguished from the idea that it is a divine gift that is given (4Q185 1-2 ii 8), not pursued. This is also the case in Proverbs. While a major theme of chapters 1-9 is for people to heed the call of Lady Wisdom, Prov 2 claims that "the Lord gives wisdom" and that it "will come into your heart" (w. 6, 10). 4Q185 is clearly reliant on traditions preserved in Proverbs. Since one of the most important traditions in that book is Lady Wisdom, it is plausible to posit that the author of 4Q185 was familiar with this figure. But given the centrality of Lady Wisdom in Prov 1-9, Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon, it is surprising how poorly attested this figure is in 4Q185. 4Q525 appears to employ a feminine allegory in its description of wisdom, as discussed in Chapter 8. This work contains no explicit mention of Lady Wisdom, like 4Q185. The author of the latter text felt no need to reproduce much of the mythology of wisdom found in Proverbs. 4Q185 1-2 may allude to the creation of wisdom in line 8 of column ii, but the preexistence of wisdom is not a prominent theme in the composition. This is a noticeably different perspective from Sir 24. There is diversity within the sapiential tradition of Early Judaism regarding the use of feminine metaphors to describe wisdom. 53

54

3.2 The Yoke of Wisdom in 4Q185? One problem with discerning the extent to which 4Q185 1-2 ii 13-15 attests Lady Wisdom traditions is the poor state of preservation of the manuscript in some key locations. The phrase Strugnell renders as "and does not play tricks ag[ainst her]" (pT^S bn K^l) in line 13 is a suggestion he proposes "tres hypothetiquement." Lichtenberger 55

T h e role o f the patriarchs in 4 Q 1 8 5 is e x a m i n e d in section 4 o f this chapter. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 3 9 ; B.G. Wright, " W i s d o m and W o m e n at Qumran," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 4 0 - 6 1 (esp. 2 4 7 ) . Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 1 . The k e y word c o u l d also b e read as br\, "to slander." A n area o f discoloration m a k e s this section hard to read. B o t h options are p o s s i b l e from a material standpoint and assert that o n e should search for w i s d o m with honesty. 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 1-6, w h i c h , like 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 ii 1 3 - 1 5 , u s e s the beatitude form, attests the word br\ in line 1. 5 4

5 5

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offers a different transcription of this phrase: [n]*?tf b[^]T K ^ l . He translates this as "und ihr Joch nicht verachftet]." If Lichtenberger is correct, this line refers to the yoke of wisdom. The exhortations to acquire wisdom in Sir 6 and 51 employ this image (6:30; 51:26). The trope is also attested in 4QWays of Righteousness (4Q421 la ii-b 10). It is difficult, unfortunately, to decide if 4Q185 attests wisdom's "yoke," as Lichtenberger suggests, or if it recommends not playing tricks against her, following Strugnell. Not enough immediate context survives to reproduce the key phrase with confidence. It would be highly significant if 4Q185 attests the yoke of wisdom. Strugnell's rendering of the passage should be preferred since the disputed phrase is followed by the parallel expressions that one should not seek wisdom with deceit or flatteries. Lichtenberger's option should be regarded as an intriguing possibility. 56

4. LESSONS FROM THE HISTORY OF ISRAEL

The importance of the Torah in 4Q185 is demonstrated in its appeals to the traditions of Israel. The Exodus and two patriarchs, Isaac and Jacob, are invoked. 4Q185 offers an exhortation to learn from God's wonders in Egypt: And now pray listen to me, my people! Pay attention to me, simple ones, and draw wisdom from the [p]ower of our God. Remember the wonders he performed in Egypt and his portents in [the land of Ham]. Let your heart tremble before his dread and do [his] wi[ll] ... Seek a path towards life, a highway ... (4Q185 1-2 i 13-ii 2 y %

5 6

Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 1 3 1 , 145. The "yoke o f w i s d o m " m o t i f i s discussed in greater detail in section 2.2 o f Chapter 6; T h e proper transcription o f the phrase "and draw w i s d o m " (insm) from line 14 has b e e n disputed. The a b o v e translation f o l l o w s Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 3 . Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 130, transcribes lairr. T h e letter het appears to b e visible, although not entirely clear. T h e letter before the mem is t o o thick to b e a waw but a full kap is also not evident. The skin in this section s e e m s s o m e w h a t u n e v e n , w h i c h obscures the letters, and there also appears to b e s o m e ink erosion. Semantically it m a k e s s e n s e to understand the letter in question as a kap that is damaged, f o l l o w i n g Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 0 . T h e fragmentary expression "up to ten t i m e s " in 4 Q 1 8 5 1-2 i 6 has b e e n understood as a reference to the ten plagues. S e e Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 5 7

4QSAPIENTIAL WORK (4Q185)

141

This text merges national and sapiential traditions. "Simple ones" (EPKDS) is the term Lady Wisdom employs to refer to those she urges to acquire understanding. In the context of the Exodus story "my people" can only refer to Israel. This term is also used in an exhortation in Ps 78:1 (cf. 50:7; 81:9; Isa 51:4). The Exodus story is included in the recitation of Israel's past in several Psalms (78, 105, 106). The addressees of 4Q185 are to recall God's "wonders" (m*6s3) and "his portents" (rflSID) in Egypt (1-2 i 14-15). Perception of God's might is to encourage one to do "[his] wi[ll]" (paTpri) (4Q185 1-2 ii 1; cf. 1. 7). The word p s i often connotes God's stewardship over the created order and humankind in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Ben Sira (e.g., 4Q416 2 iii 12; 1QH 13:4; Sir 43:26). There is no indication in 4Q185 that the term implies a deterministic understanding of reality along the lines of 4QInstruction and the book of Mysteries. Reflection on the Exodus event is to make one's heart tremble, evoking "dread" (nnB) of God (4Q185 1-2 i 15; cf. 4Q185 1-2 ii 5). This fear is to invigorate one's search for a "path towards life" (yn D^nb) (4Q185 1-2 ii 1-2). This reflects a combination of covenantal and sapiential traditions. Proverbs famously asserts that the "fear of the Lord" is the beginning of wisdom (1:7; 9:10). This is a central concept in Ben Sira and is also attested in the Psalms. 4Q185 attests a variant of this tradition. The pursuit of a "path towards life" is reminiscent of Proverbs, which associates wisdom with both life and the right path. Prov 6:23, for example, refers to the "reproofs of 59

60

61

62

63

64

65

4Q185," 146. In ibid., 139, he tentatively suggests a reading of 4Q185 1-2 ii 11 that also relates to Egypt. Prov 1:4; 8:5; Ps 119:130; 1QH 5:2; 4Q418 221 2; 11Q5 18:3 (cf. 4Q418 223 3; 4Q525 26 2). 5 9

6 0

Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 37.

61

Pss 105:27 and 106:22 are similar to 4Q185 1-2 i 15. See Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 270; Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4Q185," 147; idem, "Eine weisheitliche Mahnrede," 156. Cf. 1QS 11:3; 1QM 14:14; 4Q401 14 ii 2. For more on this term, see J.K. Aitken, "Divine Will and Providence," in Ben 6 2

6 3

Sira's

God: Proceedings

of the International

Ben Sira Conference,

Durham,

Ushaw

College 2001 (ed. R. Egger-Wenzel; BZAW 321; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2002) 282-301. Sir 1:14; Ps 111:10; cf. 112:1; 119:161. See J. Haspecker, Gottesfurcht bei 6 4

Jesus Sirach:

Ihre religiose

Struktur

und ihre literarische

und doktrindre

Bedeutung

(AnBib 30; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1967); Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom 6 5

of Ben Sira. 75-80.

M.V. Fox. Proverbs

1-9 (AB 18a; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 128.

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discipline" (1010 mnmn) as a "path towards life" (ETTl ? f n ) (cf. Jer 21:8; 4Q299 79 3). Proverbs, however, does not turn to the history of Israel in order to encourage fear of God or the search for the right path. 4Q185 is closer in this regard to Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon, both of which make use of the Exodus and other biblical events, especially in chapters 44-49 and 11-19, respectively. God's deeds on behalf of Israel are intended to terrify the Egyptians and other peoples (Ex 15:14-16). It is to have a comparable effect on Israel. When crossing the Red Sea, the Israelites look at the dead Egyptians on the shore and "the people feared the Lord and believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses" (Ex 14:31). Fear is an important motif in the Exodus narrative. The theme of dread in 4Q185 draws from this Pentateuchal tradition and applies it to eudemonistic goals that resonate with traditional wisdom. 4Q185 appeals to the "wonders" (mK^SJ) God wrought in Egypt so that one can "draw wisdom from the [p]ower of our God" (1-2 i 14). The word translated as "power" is m U 3 . Strugnell renders this as "mighty wisdom." Tobin observes that the use of this term in 4Q185 "goes beyond what one finds in biblical wisdom literature," with a possible exception in Prov 8:14, and is reminiscent of its employment elsewhere in the Dead Sea Scrolls (e.g., 1QS 4:3). 4QInstruction claims that if its addressee follows its teaching "you will know the glory of [his] m[ight, together wi]th his wondrous mysteries (IK^D and the mighty acts of his deeds (nTTQa •PBfla)" (4Q417 1 i 13). This statement combines the words mina and K^D, as does 4Q185 1-2 i 14. In both texts these terms refer to God's might. But in 4QInstruction this power is demonstrated not in national lore but through the revelation of the deterministic structure of the created order. The terms ITTQJI and are often together in Qumran literature. The speaker of the concluding hymn in the Community Rule claims that God's "might" OnTna) and "the mysteries of his wonder" On •»6a) are available to him (11:5; cf. 11. 19-20). According to CD 1

66

67

68

69

6 6

Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 146; Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 148. Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 2 7 3 . Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 150. The phrase "mighty acts o f his w i s d o m " (in&Dn nmaa; m s . B m ) in Sir 42:21 refers to the splendor o f the natural order. 6 7

6 8

6 9

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(4Q185)

143

13:8, the Examiner is to teach the sectarian community "his mighty wonders" (IK^D mTna). In the Dead Sea Scrolls the terms mina and K^S more often refer to revelation than biblical history. 4QInstruction testifies to the former usage and 4Q185 the latter. There are no claims of esoteric revelation in 4Q185, unlike 4QInstruction or I Enoch. 4Q185 turns to the Torah to demonstrate the might of God. The connection of mTDJ and X^B to Torah lore in 4Q185 is reminiscent of 4QExhortation Based on the Flood (4Q370). Carol Newsom has claimed that one of these two texts may have influenced the other, although their precise relationship is not clear. 4Q370 draws lessons from the flood that are surprisingly similar to the use of the Exodus event in 4Q185. After recounting the flood in column 1, a fragmentary text exhorts that God's power be understood: "... the might of YHWH (mm mma); remember the won[ders] ([niK]SM)" (4Q370 2 7). The tetragrammaton is used in this statement (see also 4Q370 2 2), as in 4Q185. 4Q370 2 8 attests the phrase "before his dread" (Tina ^BB), as does 4Q185 1-2 i 15. One is supposed to develop a fear of God from this recitation of the Flood story. The days of the wicked are compared to a shadow in 4Q370 2 5, an assertion similar to 4Q185 1-2 i 13. According to 4Q370 2 9, understanding the flood should lead to Torah observance: "Do not rebel (TIDn) against the word[s of YHWH]," a claim not unlike that of 4Q185 1-2 ii 3. Newsom's suspicion that that there is some sort of direct relationship between 4Q185 and 4Q370 is well-founded. The reference to God's strength and wonders in 4Q185 may reflect reliance on the historiographic Psalms. For example, Ps 78:4 reads: "we will tell to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the Lord, 70

71

72

73

74

7 0

Cf. 4 Q 2 9 9 5 2 ; 1QH 17:27; 1 Q M 11:9; 13:9; 14:5; 15:13. M. Broshi et al., Qumran Cave 4.XIV: Parabiblical Texts, Part 2 ( D J D 19; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995) 8 5 - 9 7 ; C A . N e w s o m , " 4 Q 3 7 0 : A n A d m o n i t i o n B a s e d o n the F l o o d , " RevQ 13 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 2 3 - 4 3 . DJD 19, 8 9 - 9 0 ; N e w s o m , " 4 Q 3 7 0 , " 3 9 , 4 2 . She also suggests that the author o f 4 Q 3 7 0 cites the H y m n to the Creator o f 1 l Q P s 2 6 . This work is the topic o f section 3.2.3 o f Chapter 9. S e e also Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 149. DJD 19, 9 6 . Tobin, " 4 Q 1 8 5 and Jewish W i s d o m Literature," 146; Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Epistle o f James," 6 9 8 . 7 1

7 2

a

7 3

7 4

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75

and his might (mi?), and the wonders (TTn*6w) that he has done." The psalm then asserts the centrality of the Torah as a source of instruction (78:5-6). 4Q185 makes a similar move. After encouraging its intended audience to develop a fear of God through understanding his mighty acts in Egypt at the end of column 1 (11. 1315), the text offers a call for Torah observance: "Listen to me, my sons, and do not rebel (TIBD) against the words of YHWH" (4Q185 1-2 ii 3). In the context of Torah piety the verb THO evokes the wilderness motif (e.g., Num 20:10, 24; Deut 9:23-24). 4Q185 also draws on the national history of Israel by appealing to patriarchs from Genesis: "Do not walk [... but in the way he laid down for Ja]cob and the path he appointed for Isaac" (1-2 ii 4). The adaptation of material from Genesis is not widely attested among Qumran wisdom texts. 4QInstruction is unique in this corpus with its extensive appropriation of imagery from Gen 1-3. There is no clear allusion in 4Q185 to a specific narrative from Genesis. Jacob and Isaac are invoked as emblematic of the right path. This is rather ironic given the accounts of these two figures in Genesis, particularly in the case of Jacob, who is treacherous and deceitful (e.g., Gen 27:529). The author's understanding of the patriarchs is based less on the content of the Torah than its status. Jacob, as a synonym for Israel, is associated with the reception of the Torah (cf. Gen 32:28). The review of biblical history in Ps 78 is preceded by the declaration that "He established a decree (mil?) in Jacob, and appointed a law (min) in Israel" (v. 5; cf. 105:9-10; 147:19). The poem in Sir 24 evokes Jacob, asserting that God commanded Lady Wisdom: "In Jacob make your dwelling, in Israel your inheritance" (v. 8). Sir 45:1-5 declares that Moses was given the "law of life" "that he might teach his precepts to Jacob, his covenant decrees to Israel" (v. 5). Jacob is also 76

77

7 5

P s 105:5 reads " R e m e m b e r the wonderful works (rniKbsa) h e has done, h i s portents (YTISB), and the j u d g m e n t s he has uttered" (cf. 136:4; M i c 7:15). T h e word m o occurs in P s 7 8 : 1 7 in the context o f the wilderness. It is p o s s i b l e that the appeal to the E x o d u s in 4 Q 1 8 5 relies o n the v i e w in the P s a l m s that the E x o d u s generation itself did not draw the appropriate l e s s o n s about G o d from the events they s a w first hand. P s 106:7 reads, for example: "Our ancestors, w h e n they w e r e in Egypt, did not consider y o u r wonderful w o r k s (ynwbai) ... but rebelled ( r u r ) against the M o s t H i g h at the R e d Sea" (cf. 105:28). S e e Strugnell, " N o t e s en marge," 270. T h e supplement for this line is in Strugnell, "Notes en marge," 2 7 3 . S e e also Lichtenberger, "Der Weisheitstext 4 Q 1 8 5 , " 137. 7 6

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WORK (4Q185)

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associated with Israel in relation to the Torah in Bar 4:1-2 (cf. 2 Bar. 46:4). The appeal to the patriarchs in 4Q185 1-2 ii 4 seems influenced by a tradition of associating Jacob with the Torah. It is therefore likely that the admonition to keep on the path of Jacob and Isaac was intended as another exhortation to obey the Torah.

5. CONCLUSION

It is common to assert that at some point after the exile the sapiential tradition reached a new phase, characterized by the incorporation of a sense of national identity and Torah piety into traditional wisdom. Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon support this general assessment. If the only Qumran wisdom texts were 4Q185 and 4Q525, this view would be easier to uphold. With the full Qumran sapiential corpus available, the evidence is more mixed. Several wisdom texts from Qumran, such as 4Q298 and 4Q424, show little or no interest in the Torah or the history of Israel. 4QInstruction, the largest wisdom text of the Dead Sea Scrolls, does not give prominence to either the Torah or Israel. Ben Sira is the best example available of a wisdom text transformed by Torah piety and identification with the national traditions of Israel. 4Q185 is another witness to this type of Jewish wisdom, as is the Wisdom of Solomon. 4QInstruction and the book of Mysteries shed light on another stream of the sapiential tradition, transformed by influence from the apocalyptic tradition. The core intent of 4Q185 is to promote the acquisition of wisdom. The text invokes fiery judgment and the inevitability of human death as incentives to lead an ethical and fulfilling life. The work exalts the man who has wisdom as happy and enumerates the rewards of wisdom. 4Q185 personifies wisdom as a woman to a limited extent. The association of wisdom with the Torah is a more important lesson in the composition than the conception of wisdom as a woman. 4Q185 teaches that wisdom should be obtained with sincere and honest devotion. 78

This topic is e x a m i n e d in section 4 . 2 o f the conclusion to this book.

CHAPTER FIVE

W I S D O M F O R T H E YAHAD: 4 Q W O R D S O F T H E M A S K I L T O A L L S O N S O F D A W N (4Q298)

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

At an earlier stage of Qumran scholarship, some commentators claimed that the sectarian movement associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls did not produce sapiential texts. Lipscomb and Sanders wrote in 1978 "there are no true wisdom texts among the scrolls of undisputed Essene authorship." This view was later endorsed by A.S. van der Woude, who explained that the sectarians "did not feel the necessity to elaborate on and to develop wisdom texts since eternal knowledge (d t wlmym) was revealed to them by the Teacher of Righteousness." 4Q Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn (4Q298) is a wisdom text that is reasonably considered a product of the Dead Sea sect. It 1

c

c

2

3

1

W.L. L i p s c o m b and J.A. Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien (ed. J.G. G a m m i e et al.; M i s s o u l a : Scholars Press, 1 9 7 8 ) 2 7 7 - 8 5 (esp. 2 8 0 ) . A . S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J.A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1995) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 5 6 ) . H e is critical o f the opinion o f D . D i m a n t w h o argues that several w i s d o m texts should b e attributed to the D e a d Sea sect (she d o e s not put 4 Q 2 9 8 in this category). S e e her "The Qumran Manuscripts: Contents and Significance." in Time to Prepare a Way in the Wilderness (ed. D . D i m a n t and L.H. Schiffman; STDJ 16; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 2 3 - 5 8 (esp. 4 3 - 4 4 ) . Consult also H. Stegemann, The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1998 [orig. pub., 1 9 9 3 ] ) 100. This c o m p o s i t i o n is edited by S.J. Pfann and M. Kister. S e e T. E l g v i n et al., Qumran Cave 4.XV: Sapiential Texts, Part J ( D J D 2 0 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 7 ) 13 0 . S e e also S.J. Pfann, " 4 Q 2 9 8 : T h e M a s k i P s Address to All S o n s o f D a w n , " JQR 8 5 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 2 0 3 - 3 5 ; M. Kister, "Commentary to 4 Q 2 9 8 , " JQR 85 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 2 3 7 - 4 9 ; D . D . S w a n s o n , "4QcrypA W o r d s o f the Maskil to All S o n s o f D a w n : The Path o f the Virtuous Life," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998 (ed. D . Falk et al.; STDJ 3 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 4 9 - 6 1 ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996) 6 5 - 6 6 ; J. 2

3

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is a work of exhortation, encouraging its audience to seek wisdom in a manner that is reminiscent of Prov 1-9. The instructor is identified as a Maslcil, a term for a key pedagogical functionary in the rulebooks. The addressees of 4Q298 are introduced as the "sons of dawn," an expression that occurs in the Damascus Document (13:14). The wisdom tradition influenced the group associated with the Teacher of Righteousness in many ways. The impact of this tradition is evident in the Hodayot, the Community Rule and the Damascus Document. 4QWords of the Maskil establishes that the yahad could write sapiential texts. 4QWays of Righteousness suggests they revised older wisdom compositions as well. 4

5

2.4QWORDS OF THE MASKIL TO ALL SONS OF DAWN

4Q298 is a relatively brief composition that comprises eight fragments. Fragments 1 and 3-4 are among the best preserved. With the exception of the first line of the document, it is written in a cryptic script. Milik announced the existence of this composition in 1956. It was officially published in 1997 in DJD 20. The two main issues in the study of this document are its relationship to the wisdom tradition and the extent to which it can be associated with the Dead Sea sect. 6

2.1 4QWords of the MasMil and the Wisdom Tradition The two best preserved fragments of 4QWords of the Maskil contain paraenetic material. 4Q298 3-4 ii 3-6 reads: "And now give ea[r, O wise ones]; and you who know, listen! And men of understanding, in[crease learning] and you who see[k] justice, (add) modesty" (cf. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 3 3 ) ; A. Lange, "Die W e i s h e i t s t e x t e aus Qumran: E i n e Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A. L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 12). A . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination: Weisheitliche Urordnung und Prddestination in den Textfunden von Qumran ( S T D J 18; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 5 ) . This text is the topic o f Chapter 6. J.T. Milik, "Le Travail d'edition des fragments de Qumran: C o m m u n i c a t i o n de J.T. Milik," RB 63 ( 1 9 5 6 ) 6 0 - 6 2 ; DJD 20, 1. 4

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4Q525 5 13). Fragment 1, as reconstructed with fragment 2 i, similarly exhorts: "Lend your ea[r to me, a]ll men of understanding; [and you who pur]sue righteousness, do understa[n]d my words; and you who seek truth, li[st]en to my words in all that [isjsues from [my] lips" (11. 1-3). 4Q298 uses several expressions to describe its intended audience. These phrases emphasize ethics and the acquisition of knowledge in a way that resonates with the wisdom tradition. The text addresses "knowers" (D^T) (4Q298 1-2 i 3; 4Q298 3-4 ii 4). The speaker beckons to "[a]ll men of heart" (22b bl[D]) (4Q298 1-2 i l). The only calls to 22b in the Hebrew Bible are in Job 34:10 and 34. 4QWords of the Maskil describes the intended audience as ones "who see[k] justice" (JDSOO flttnn) (4Q298 3-4 ii 5). 4QInstruction and the book of Mysteries have phrases similar to the expression " y ° h ° love kindness" (Ton "Dlttf) of 4Q298 3-4 ii 7 (cf. 4Q418 169 + 170 3; 4Q299 54 3). Such terms for the addressees establish that 4QWords of the Maskil is a pedagogical document. The exhortations in 4Q298 accord with those of Prov 1-9, in which Lady Wisdom encourages people to listen to her and acquire wisdom. The Hiphil form of the verb ^0^ ("to increase") occurs twice in 4Q298 3-4 ii (11. 6, 7). In Proverbs the word is used thirteen times in the causative stem, typically in calls to increase learning (rip*? *]OT; 1:5; 9:9; 16:21,23). The combination of 7

8

9

10

u w

11

12

7

Cf. 4 Q 4 1 2 4 4; Job 3 4 : 2 ; D e u t 1:13. S e e S w a n s o n , " 4 Q c r y p A Words o f the Maskil" 54. This phrase is in fragment 2 i. A c c o r d i n g to Pfann and Kister this text's j o i n with fragment 1 is "not certain." S e e DJD 20, 2 0 . L i n e s 3 - 4 o f this fragment m a y refer to the addressees as " m e n o f h i s will" (cf. 4 Q 4 1 8 81 10), but not e n o u g h survives o f this phrase to assert this transcription c o n c l u s i v e l y . B e c a u s e o f this and other terminological similarities b e t w e e n 4 Q 2 9 8 and the b o o k o f Job, S w a n s o n posits a direct link b e t w e e n the t w o works. H e points out that m a n y o f the Qumran t e x t ' s parallels with Job are in the s p e e c h o f Elihu in chapters 3 2 - 3 7 , w h i c h is often considered a later addition to the book. Therefore the authors o f this later Joban material m a y b e "precursors o f the Qumran c o m m u n i t y . " S e e S w a n s o n , " 4 Q c r y p A W o r d s o f the Maskil,'" 5 6 . It is p o s s i b l e that the author o f 4 Q 2 9 8 k n e w the b o o k o f Job and that it influenced h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . But the parallels in vocabulary b e t w e e n these w o r k s are t o o general t o endorse a direct c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the authors o f these works. T h e y share w o r d s such as -So, ipn and - p i . S e e also DJD 20, 2 2 . 4 Q 4 1 8 81 7; 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b 3 ; 4 Q 4 2 4 3 4; 4 Q 2 9 9 8 7. Pfann and Kister, DJD 20, 2 7 , persuasively argue that the waw o f the phrase ion iaiN should b e understood as yod. S w a n s o n , " 4 Q c r y p A W o r d s o f the Maskil" 5 3 . 8

9

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the verb ^0^ and the word npb is found elsewhere in Qumran wisdom (4Q418 81 17; 4Q418 221 3; cf. 4Q525 1 3). The phrase is plausibly reconstructed in 4Q298 3-4 ii 5 (cf. 1. 8). 4Q298 urges the acquisition of wisdom. There is less focus on specific instruction that would accomplish that goal. Remnants of one lesson are preserved at the end of 4Q298 3-4 ii: "a[dd kn]owledge of the appointed [t]imes, whose interpre[ta]tion [I will recoujnt, in order that you may give heed to the end of the ages and that you may look upon for[m]er things in order to know ..." (11. 8-10). As discussed below, this suggests a deterministic understanding of the natural order that encompasses history from the primeval era to the period of final judgment. 4Q298 endorses an eschatological perspective that is alien to Proverbs. 4QWords of the Maskil and Prov 1-9 both seek to inculcate a desire for learning and ethics by addressing those who have an aptitude for wisdom (e.g., Prov 1:5). In Proverbs the "simple," who are unlearned, are also exhorted to acquire wisdom (1:4; 8:5), which is never the case in 4Q298. 4Q298 is pedagogical, includes prominent exhortations and has several sapiential terms. The overall goal of the work is to encourage a life-style characterized by ethics and learning. 4QWords of the Maskil is aptly considered a wisdom text.

2.2 4QWords of the MasKil and the Dead Sea Sect 4Q298 has specific links with the sectarian movement that produced the Qumran rulebooks. The script of 4QWords of the Maskil is often termed "Cryptic A." Several other Qumran texts preserve this form of writing. They include 4Q249 (4Qpap cryptA Midrash Sefer Moshe) and 4Q317 (4QcryptA Lunisolar Calendar) (cf. 4Q250; 4Q313). The letters ydd and wow are not identical in this script. Pfann and Kister observe that the waw/ydd error in 4Q298 3-4 ii 7 suggests that the document was originally written in a more standard 13

14

1 3

15

For an o v e r v i e w , s e e DJD 20, 9 - 1 3 . E. T o v , Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert (STDJ 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 2 0 3 ; idem, "Letters o f the Cryptic A Script and P a l e o - H e b r e w Letters U s e d as Scribal Marks in S o m e Qumran Scrolls," DSD 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) 3 3 0 - 3 9 . DJD 20, 13. 1 4

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square script. Cryptic A is a scribal practice of the Dead Sea sect. Letters from this script are attested as marginal markings in Qumran texts written in block letters. For example, some biblical manuscripts have Cryptic A scribal signs. Several instances of Cryptic A are attested in documents produced by the Teacher movement. This letter is also a mark in texts that are not undisputedly products of this group (e.g., 4Q186; 4Q504). The use of Cryptic A does not by itself prove that 4Q298 was written by the Dead Sea sect. But it does establish that members of this group had a strong interest in the document. Pfann and Kister call this form of writing an "Essene esoteric script." In their view the use of Cryptic A in 4Q298 suggests that the document was taken off-premises to teach people who are not full members of the yahad, ensuring that the contents of the text would be hidden. This is possible but speculative. 16

17

18

19

2.2.1 The Maskil The title of 4Q298 is the only part of the composition written in block letters. It reads: "[Word]s of a Ma'sKil which he spoke to all Sons of Dawn." Several core documents of the Dead Sea Scrolls attest the word maslal in their opening lines, or at the beginning of new sections (e.g., lQSb 1:1; 4Q403 1 i 30; 4Q511 2 i l). This is also the case with Cave 4 versions of the Community Rule (4Q256 [4QS ] 9 1; 4Q258 [4QS ] 1 1), and the word is plausibly reconstructed in 1QS 20

21

b

d

1 6

a

T h e sade o f Cryptic A is found, for example, at l Q I s a 2 1 : 2 3 . S e e Tov, Scribal Practices, 205. See, for e x a m p l e , 1QS 9:3 and the bottom margin o f 1QS 7. Consult T o v , Scribal Practices, 3 6 3 ; Pfann, " 4 Q 2 9 8 , " 2 3 3 - 3 4 . DJD 20,2. Ibid., 17. 1 tentatively f o l l o w the translation proposed by Pfann and Kister in DJD 20,21. The transcription o f the first w o r d o f this passage is according to ibid., 2 0 . From a material standpoint the term "[Wordjs" cannot b e confirmed. H o w e v e r , as the opening o f a c o m p o s i t i o n , this reconstruction makes sense. T h e editors, ibid., 19, correctly state that letter traces before the word b^m are visible on P A M 4 0 . 5 8 1 . In Pfann, " 4 Q 2 9 8 , " 2 2 5 , the key term is g i v e n as n[:n]. For the possibility that the first visible word o f 4QInstruction is 'TOBQ, s e e E.J.C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4Qlnstruction (STDJ 4 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) 183. 1 7

18

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2 0

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1:1. Some hymns of the Hodayot begin with the expression "nBTE b^DWtib, which can be translated "Chant for the Instructor," and some with just b^mb. In several undisputed compositions of the yahad, the term b'OOQ designates an important office. It is a position of leadership that entails various responsibilities, including the education of group members. 1QS 9:12-26 gives guidelines for the "Instructor." He is to "fulfill the will of God" (9:13). He is to evaluate and promote "the sons of Zadok," a responsibility that may refer to the annual ranking of sectarians according to the "purity" of their hands and their "intellect" (9:14-15). Teaching members of the yahad is emphasized: "He should lead them with knowledge and in this way teach them the mysteries of wonder and of truth ... so that they walk perfectly, one with another, in all that has been revealed to them" (9:18-19). The Treatise of the Two Spirits (3:13-4:26) also highlights the educational duties of the ^DtOD: "The Instructor should instruct and teach all the sons of light about the nature of all the sons of man" (3.13). CD 13:7-8 may make a similar claim regarding the educational duties of this office, although it is addressed to the Hp 3D ("Examiner") rather than the S'OED. 23

24

25

26

27

28

C. H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 7 7 - 9 5 (esp. 2 8 9 ) ; S. M e t s o , The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule (STDJ 2 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 1 3 5 - 4 0 . See, for e x a m p l e , 1QH 5:1 and 7 : 1 1 . The transcription b-otrab -nnra in 1QH 5:1 a s s u m e s E. P u e c l r s reconstruction and restoration o f fragment 15 in the original Sukenik edition o f the H o d a y o t . S e e his "Un H y m n e e s s e n i e n en partie retrouve et les Beatitudes: 1QH V 1 2 - V I 1 8 ( = col. X I I I - X I V 7) et 4 Q B e a t , " RevQ 13 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 5 9 88 1QH 2 0 : 4 ; 2 5 : 1 0 ; 4 Q 4 2 8 12 ii 3 (cf. 4 Q 4 2 7 3 4 ) . S e e further A . K i m Harkins, "Observations o n the Editorial Shaping o f the S o - C a l l e d C o m m u n i t y H y m n s from l Q H and 4 Q H ( 4 Q 4 2 7 ) , " DSD 12 ( 2 0 0 5 ) 2 3 3 - 5 6 (esp. 2 3 7 ) . C.A. N e w s o m , "The S a g e in the Literature o f Qumran: T h e Functions o f the M a s k i l , " in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East (ed. J.G. G a m m i e and L.G. Perdue; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990) 3 7 3 - 8 3 . M e t s o , The Textual Development, 1 4 4 , suggests that this p a s s a g e m a y s t e m from an early stage o f the history o f the D e a d S e a sect. S h e argues that the oldest layer o f the C o m m u n i t y R u l e included a version o f 1 Q S 5-9 addressed to the MasJCiL S e e ibid., 147. For more o n the Treatise, s e e C.A. N e w s o m , The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran ( S T D J 5 2 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) ; Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination, 1 2 1 - 9 2 ; M. H e n g e l , Judaism and Hellenism (2 v o l s - Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 7 3 ) 1.218-24. C D 13:7-8 reads "He shall instruct the M a n y in the d e e d s o f G o d , and shall teach them his m i g h t y marvels." This is in reference to the Examiner (npao). C. 2 3

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The descriptions of the ^DtDB in the Qumran rulebooks fit relatively well with 4Q298. As mentioned above, the only teaching of this work on a specific topic is in 4Q298 3-4 ii 8-10. This passage is eschatological. It urges one to "a[dd kn]owledge of the appointed [t]imes (rm»n ^ p ] ) " (1. 8). The Instructor provides such knowledge to help the intended audience understand "the end of the ages" (mob'm fp) (11. 9-10). This could also be understood as "the period of the ages," but the translation "end" in this case is more appropriate. The expression is followed by the claim that the addressees can learn about the "for[m]er things" (nvri[E]"Ip), apparently a reference to primeval events (1. 10). The passage contains a merism, teaching that God's ordained periods give structure to history from creation to judgment. The book of Mysteries and 4QInstruction contain similar lessons (1Q27 1 i 3; 4Q417 1 i 3; 4Q418 148 ii 6). 4Q298 3-4 ii 8-10 seems to refer to a divine comprehensive plan guiding reality. The teaching of the MasKil according to the rulebooks is similar. The Community Rule emphasizes that he should obtain "wisdom that has been gained according to the periods (DYUJn **b) and the decree of the period (n»n pin)" (9:13-14; cf. 1:9; 9:18; 1QH 20:5). While this statement is ambiguous, it relates to the idea that God's will shapes history and the created order. This is one of the main lessons of the MasKil for the "sons of light" in the Treatise of the Two Spirits. He teaches that the created order unfolds according to a design established by the "God of Knowledge" before the world was fashioned (3:15). Spirits of light and darkness dictate human history 29

H e m p e l has suggested that this text originally contained guidelines for the bvm. CD 12:20-21 and 13:22 introduce rules for the Instructor. The Examiner appears in 13:6 and 13:7 introduces a section, "the rule o f the Examiner o f the c a m p . " H e m p e l ' s argument relies o n the similarities b e t w e e n C D 13:7-8 and 1QS 9:18, w h i c h is part o f the guidelines for the Instructor. B o t h texts affirm that the figure in question will offer instruction about the w a y s o f G o d , w h i c h in both p a s s a g e s is associated w i t h "wonder" (*6s). H e m p e l speculates that C D 1 2 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 13:7-8, 14-15 and 2 2 are remains o f a rule for the Instructor, not unlike 1QS 9:12-26, w h i c h has b e e n redacted into a rule for the Examiner. S e e her The Laws of the Damascus Document: Sources, Tradition and Redaction (STDJ 2 9 ; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 1 1 9 - 2 0 . It has also been suggested that the t w o titles refer to the same office. S e e F. Garcia Martinez and J. Trebolle Barrera, The People of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Writings, Beliefs and Practices (trans. W . G . E . Watson; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 57. A n o t h e r possibility is that both the offices o f Instructor and Examiner entail pedagogical duties. S e e section 3.2 o f Chapter 2. 2 9

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"for all eternal periods (Wftbw ^ p ) . For God has sorted them (the divisions of light and darkness) into equal parts until the last period (p-HK fp)" (4:16-17). This text uses the word yp in reference to the epochs giving structure to history and the final judgment. CD 13:7-8 declares that the Examiner is to teach the Many "his mighty marvels and recount to them the eternal events with their interpretations ( D m n M obw JTPm)." 4Q298 3-4 ii 8-9 affirms that the MasKil will discuss "the appointed [t]imes" according to "their interpretations" ( D n p j n n s ) . CD 13:22-23 claims that the Instructor is to help the elect walk in accordance with the "appointed time" f n p D (cf. 12:21; 4Q267 9 v 2). The similarities between these passages support Hempel's contention that parts of CD 13 originally described functions of the MasKil, rather than the Examiner. The rulebooks and 4QWords of the Maskil depict the Instructor giving lessons on eschatological matters and primordial events. The call to a righteous life in 4QWords of the Maskil is similar to material in the Community Rule, particularly in columns 5 and 8. According to 1QS 5:1-4, the "men of the Community" are to submit to the authority of the "sons of Zadok" "to achieve together truth and humility (main T P m»»b), righteousness and justice (npTS tDSOQl), compassionate love and modesty (mb MSm i o n r a n * ) . " 1QS 8:1-4 describes the implementation of several of these virtues as the consequence of the establishment of a "Community council" of twelve men and three priests. 4Q298 3-4 ii encourages many of the same qualities. Some of them are described with general ethical terms such as TOK and 5T13B, which occur in lines 7 and 8, respectively. Others are stronger parallels. 4Q298 3-4 ii 7 urges "you who love kindness" ( i o n 1DHK) to increase humility. i o n nana is presented several times in the Community Rule as a desirable quality 30

31

32

33

34

l

T h e phrase "and eternal light" ([•J'riru}[ TIKJI), if properly reconstructed, is in 4 Q 2 9 8 1-2 i 4. S e e also 1 Q S 4:8; 1 Q M 17:6, and, with nbw in the singular, in 1 Q H 2 0 : 1 5 and 4 Q 4 1 8 6 9 ii 14. T h e scribe intended to write the word o m n a a , but accidentally u s e d rrmaa. This is confirmed b y 4 Q 2 6 7 9 iv 5. H e m p e l , The Laws of the Damascus Document, 1 2 1 ; eadem, "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " 2 8 9 . 33 DJD 20, 16. There is a waw/yod error in the phrase i o n -anx. 3 0

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3 4

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5

for group members (1QS 2:24; 5:4, 25; 8:2; cf. 10:26). The Treatise of the Two Spirits depicts the Instructor teaching about a spirit associated with numerous positive qualities, including "humility" 0TU») and "living modestly" (mb MSPI) (4:3-5). 4Q298 3-4 ii 5-6 urges people to acquire modesty using this same, relatively rare phrase (cf. Mic 6:8). On the basis of these parallels Pfann and Kister argue that the Community Rule and 4QWords of the Maskil (as well as 4QBarki Nafshi) attest a fixed "list of Essene virtues." Given the similarities between 4Q298 and the rulebooks, it does seem reasonable to understand 4Q298 as affirming core ethical values of the Dead Sea sect. There are differences, however, between the descriptions of the MasJal in the rulebooks and 4Q298. According to the Community Rule, the basis of the Instructor's pedagogical authority is his possession of heavenly knowledge, which he imparts to his students (9:18-19; cf. CD 13:8; 1QH 20:12-13). The theme of revelation is paramount. An appeal to supernatural revelation is probably implicit in the claim of 4Q298 3-4 ii 8-10 that the speaker is to recount eschatological knowledge. But no extant passage directly mentions revelation. Furthermore, the angels of light and darkness that are prominent in the MasJaFs lesson in the Treatise are not in 4QWords of the Maskil. 36

37

2.2.2 The Sons of Dawn The addressees of 4QWords of the Maskil are referred to as "sons of dawn" On® (4Q298 1-2 i 1; cf. 4Q298 5 ii 8). This expression is in CD 13:14-15: "And none of those who have entered the C D 1 3 : 1 7 - 1 8 describes the Examiner as teaching children with "humility" (mar) and "compassionate l o v e " (non m r w ) (cf. 4 Q 2 6 6 9 iii 7). It is possible that this text, as m a y be the case with C D 13:7-8, originally discussed the office o f Instructor, not Examiner. H e m p e l l e a v e s C D 1 3 : 1 6 b - 1 9 unassigned in her redactional analysis o f this document. S e e The Laws of the Damascus Document, 190. DJD 20, 16. Several N e w Testament texts, such as 2 Pet 1, and other Hellenistic writings, record lists o f virtues similar to that o f 4 Q 2 9 8 . Swanson, "4QcrypA W o r d s o f the Maskil;' 5 7 - 6 1 , claims that 4 Q 2 9 8 3 - 4 ii is an e x a m p l e o f the Hellenistic rhetorical d e v i c e sorites, w h i c h g i v e s a s e q u e n c e o f virtues that is designed to culminate in the last ethical quality o f the list. B u t the virtues in 4 Q 2 9 8 3 - 4 ii d o not s e e m arranged in a particular sequence or end in a culminating ethical quality that is more important than the others mentioned. For this topic see section 3 o f this chapter. 3 6

3 7

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n

covenant of God should buy or sell to the sons of dawn (TK&n 3 3 ) , except hand to hand." In earlier scholarship the key phrase was often understood as nn^n ^ 3 , "sons of the pit," as transcribed by Rabin. This is not implausible. The passage refers to a group with which one should not engage in commerce, and CD 6 : 1 4 - 1 5 urges avoidance of the "sons of the pit." Baumgarten argued in 1983 that the phrase in question should be read as "\TVOn ^ 3 . Solomon Schechter recorded this transcription in the editio princeps of the Cairo Damascus Document. Baumgarten claimed that 4 Q 2 9 8 supports this reading. His transcription of CD 1 3 : 1 4 - 1 5 is now generally endorsed, although the final letter of "TOPI *02 is difficult to read. Baumgarten considered the expression a variation of the phrase "sons of light," which is used by members of the Dead Sea sect to describe themselves. CD 1 3 : 1 4 - 1 5 would then not be banning financial relations with people outside the sect ("the sons of the pit") but rather prohibiting monetary transactions within the group itself (cf. J.W. 2 . 1 2 7 ; Ant. 18.20). This was to encourage "the fraternal concept of mutual help and exchange of services." CD describes the sons of dawn in deference to the authority of the Examiner. In 4 Q 2 9 8 the sons of dawn are associated with the Instructor. This difference can be explained by Hempel's suggestion that CD 1 3 : 1 4 - 1 5 originally belonged to a text describing guidelines for the Instructor, although 38

39

4 0

41

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T h e phrase -inion ••aa d o e s not occur in the 4 Q D material, but probably w a s originally attested at the bottom o f 4 Q 2 6 7 9 iv. C. Rabin, The Zadokite Documents. I The Admonition II. The Laws (Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 5 4 ) 67. J.M. Baumgarten, "The ' S o n s o f D a w n ' in C D C 13:14-15 and the B a n o n C o m m e r c e a m o n g the E s s e n e s , " 1EJ 33 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 8 1 - 8 5 (esp. 8 2 ) ; S. Schechter, Documents of Jewish Sectaries (Cambridge: T h e University Press, 1910). This reading is in the edition o f C D b y E. Qimron. S e e M. Broshi, ed., The Damascus Document Reconsidered (Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration S o c i e t y / T h e Shrine o f the B o o k , Israel M u s e u m , 1 9 9 2 ) 3 4 . For additional support for the transcription .-inon -oa, see, for example, C M . Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Qumran Community (STDJ 4 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) 5 8 ; H e m p e l , The Laws of the Damascus Document, 124. From a material standpoint the core question is whether the last letter o f the phrase in question is a res or a taw. T h e photograph o f C D 13 in Q i m r o n ' s edition indicates that 11. 14-15 has suffered from ink erosion. What remains o f the ink o f the last letter suggests it is a res. T h e letter could be a taw, i f o n e a s s u m e s the ink o f the left downstroke is lost. There is confusion in DJD 20 regarding the transcription o f -irran ^a in C D 13. In DJD 20, 16 (n. 2 8 ) , the taw reading is tentatively endorsed. B u t in ibid., 2 1 , the res reading "seems materially preferable." Baumgarten, " S o n s o f D a w n , " 8 3 . 4 0

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both offices could have been related to the "sons of dawn." Pfann and Kister, in the official edition of 4QWords of the Maskil, tentatively interpret the expression ^2 as a reference to people who are "'dawning' out of the darkness and into the light, and are thus on the verge of becoming 'Sons of Light.'" Thus the sons of dawn of 4Q298 are carrying out the two-year probationary period described in 1QS 6 required for full admission into the group. This view has been cautiously endorsed elsewhere in scholarship. Hempel, however, has disputed this opinion, arguing that "sons of dawn" should be considered simply a synonym for "sons of light," echoing Baumgarten's earlier position on CD 13:14-15. Hempel's perspective has much to commend it. She points out that 4Q298 never mentions the admission process described in the rulebooks and that they never relate the term "sons of dawn" to a probationary period. In the rulebooks the Maskil is associated with the instruction of full-fledged members of the community. The values endorsed in 4Q298 are valid for all participants in the Dead Sea sect. As mentioned above, the "sons of light" are given instruction in the Treatise of the Two Spirits that is similar to that offered to the "sons of dawn" in 4Q298 3-4 ii 8-10. Unlike CD 13:14-15, however, 4Q298 never shows any interest in the economic practices of the "sons of dawn." Implicit in the interpretation put forward in DJD 20 is that the "sons of dawn" are to be associated with a weaker form of light than the "sons of light," placing the former lower than the latter in the hierarchy of the sect. This idea is flawed. As Baumgarten has observed, in the Hodayot the dawn is "a symbol for divine illumination": "Like perfect dawn inttD) you have revealed yourself to me with perffect] light" (1QH 12:6; cf. Wis 16:28). The only attestation of the phrase "HO ]2 in the Hebrew Bible is associated with bright light. In the famous poem about the king of 43

44

45

46

47

43

DJD 20,

17. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 5 ; Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered, in Light o f the Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 6 5 - 8 1 (esp. 2 7 7 ) ; Kampen, "Diverse A s p e c t s , " 2 3 3 . H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " 2 9 3 . Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2 5 5 . Baumgarten, "Sons o f D a w n , " 8 3 . The H y m n to the Creator uses the w o r d s T I K and in© in parallelism, without indication that o n e refers to a m o r e intense form o f light than the other (1 l Q P s 2 6 : 1 1 ) . 4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

a

4QWORDS OF THE MASKIL (4Q298)

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Babylon in Isa 14, the prophet proclaims: "How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of dawn (TK0 p bb*H)\" (v. 12). The word bb^Tl derives from the verb bbn, which means "to shine brightly" (cf. Isa 13:10; Job 31:26). The term "Day Star" is generally considered a reference to Venus, which is also known as "Morning Star." In this case the expression "son of dawn" refers to the time of day in which the star is visible. It is not an indication of poor light but rather of light from a star bright enough to be visible at daybreak. The phrase "sons of dawn" designates illumination in a twofold way. Along with the reference to light, the word "dawn" (TUB) can be plausibly understood as a play on the verb "TO, which means "to seek" or "to investigate." The term is prominent in sapiential exhortations to acquire knowledge. 4QInstruction, after giving a lesson on the nature of the created order, urges its addressee to "seek these things continually" ( T a n "TO H^K) (4Q417 1 i 12). The composition chastises the wicked because "they have not sought after understanding] ([n]V»a n n o vb) (4Q418 55 5; cf. 4Q418 69 ii 10). In the eloquent call to acquire wisdom in Sir 6, the sage urges his students to find good teachers: "If you see a prudent person, seek him out (irPTKD); let your feet wear away his doorstep!" (v. 36). In a similar vein Lady Wisdom declares in Proverbs: "I love those who love me, and those who seek me diligently ('Hnrao) find me" (8:17; cf. 1:28; 11:27; 13:24). In 4QWords of the Maskil TIB is the last word in block letters. It marks the transition to Cryptic A and prefaces an exhortation to acquire knowledge and live uprightly. The expression "sons of dawn" supports the overall instructional intent of 4Q298. It is a work of pedagogical poetry in the tradition of Prov 19. 48

49

50

n

4 8

J. B l e n k i n s o p p , Isaiah 1-39 ( A B 19; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 2 0 0 0 ) 2 8 8 . W . G . E . Watson, " H e l d , " in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible ( 2 ed.; ed. K. van der Toorn et al.; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 9 ) 3 9 2 . T h e declaration that bb*7\ is the s o n o f -into m a y b e an e c h o o f ancient N e a r Eastern myth. The t w o terms are found in Ras Sharma texts in reference to m y t h o l o g i c a l figures but are not used together. S e e Watson, "Helel," 3 9 3 . B l e n k i n s o p p , Isaiah 1-39, 2 8 8 , suggests that m y t h s i n v o l v i n g the descent to the underworld, a trope underpinning the Babylonian k i n g ' s fall from p o w e r in Isa 14, are "inspired b y the rise o f V e n u s the morning star and its rapid disappearance at sunrise." 4 9

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3. C O N C L U S I O N

4QWords of the Maskil is a wisdom text. It is characterized by paraenetic statements designed to instill a desire for knowledge and ethics in its intended audience. The composition stresses these goals but does not provide a lot of instruction on specific topics. Many of its statements are unexceptional and standard fare within the wisdom tradition. The core issue in the study of 4Q298 is not its content but rather its place in the Dead Sea sect. This work contains exhortations from a Maskil. "Instructor" is an appropriate designation for any teacher, whether he is part of the yahad or not. In contrast to the Community Rule, the authority of the Maskil in 4Q298 is not explicitly based on his possession of divinely revealed knowledge, although this is reasonably presumed. 4Q298 does not have a sectarian mentality in that it never asserts that its addressees have elect status, or that they are to be distinguished from ordinary people. In general the epithets for the intended audience, such as "you who see[k] justice" (4Q298 34 ii 5), give the impression that the speaker is calling out to anyone who wants knowledge, in a manner similar to Lady Wisdom in Prov 1-9. The most important designation for the original audience of 4Q298 is "sons of dawn." In CD 13 group members described by the same phrase, if it can be understood as a reference to full members of the community, are not to use money in their interactions with other sectarians, and the Examiner must be informed when they marry or divorce and of their financial practices (11. 15-17). The Damascus Document uses the term "sons of dawn" in a way that indicates that they are members of a sect. This is not explicitly the case in 4QWords of the Maskil. Also this document shows no interest in messianism, dualism or halakhah, in contrast to the rulebooks. There is also no understanding of the "sons of dawn" in a hierarchal sense, unlike the Community Rule, in which the Maskil evaluates sectarians to help establish their placement in the group hierarchy (1QS 9:15-16; cf. CD 13:11-12). While 4Q298 mentions virtues similar to those of 1QS 5 and 8, in the Community Rule they are discussed in relation to the authority of priests. 4Q298 contains no deference to priestly considerations. Such considerations do not disqualify the claim that 4Q298 was written by the Dead Sea sect. There is nothing in 4Q298 that is

4QWORDS OF THE MASKIL (4Q298)

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incompatible with the communities described in the rulebooks. The text endorses ethical virtues that are encouraged in the Community Rule and the Damascus Document. The MaslCil of 4Q298 gives eschatological instruction, as does the MaslCil in the Community Rule and the Damascus Document (CD 13:22-23). CD 13:14 and 4Q298 share the significant expression "sons of dawn." The use of Cryptic A in 4Q298 also indicates a close affiliation with the movement that produced the rulebooks. It is reasonable to conclude that this document is a product of the group associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. There is never any explicit assertion in 4Q298 that its addressees have elect status or belong to a sect. Following the view that its intended audience comprises members of the yahad, this status can be assumed. 4QWords of the Maskil had a role in the educational practices of the Dead Sea sect. This work probably functioned primarily as an inspirational text, designed to invigorate the dedication of group members to wisdom and righteousness, with other compositions containing specific teachings sectarians were obliged to know. Hempel has argued that the Maskil material in the rulebooks can be traced back to an early stage of their development and Mesto has made similar claims with regard to the Community Rule. Dating 4Q298 early in the history of the community would explain why many aspects of the sect described in the rulebooks are not present in this text. The general nature of this work, however, makes it difficult to determine with precision its exact function or situate it during a specific period in the history of the sect. Nevertheless 4Q298 was used in the education of group members. Despite its commonplace sapiential content, 4Q298 is important. 4QWords of the Maskil is a rare example of a wisdom text that can be attributed plausibly to the Dead Sea sect. 51

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T h e fragmentary phrase "he m e t e d out their portion" in 4 Q 2 9 8 3 - 4 i 6 m a y b e a remnant o f a discussion o f the elect status o f the addressees. H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " 2 9 2 ; eadem, The Laws of the Damascus Document, 106; M e t s o , The Textual Development, 146-47. 5 2

C H A P T E R SIX

WISDOM AND HALAKHAH: 4QWAYS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS (4Q420-21)

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

4QWays of Righteousness has traditionally been considered a sapiential text. It gives advice regarding deliberation and patience in speech. The document also refers to a "yoke of wisd[om]." In recent years scholars have become increasingly reluctant to classify this work as a wisdom text. Tigchelaar has argued that 4QWays of Righteousness is better understood as a rulebook than a sapiential work. The introductory article to The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought, the first collection of essays exclusively devoted to this literature, pointedly does not consider 4Q420-21 a wisdom text. In this volume Hempel also 1

2

3

1

Its official editor is Torleif Elgvin. S e e idem et al., Qumran Cave 4.XV: Sapiential Texts, Part I ( D J D 2 0 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 7 ) 173^202. S e e also idem, " W i s d o m in the Yahad: 4 Q W a y s o f Righteousness," RevQ 17 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 2 0 5 - 3 2 ; idem, "Admonition Texts from C a v e 4," in Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects (ed. M . O . W i s e et a l ; A n n a l s o f the N e w York A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s 7 2 2 ; N e w York: N e w York A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s , 1 9 9 4 ) 1 7 9 - 9 6 (esp. 1 8 4 - 8 5 ) ; D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1 9 9 6 ) 6 3 - 6 4 ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 3 0 - 3 1 ) ; A . Caquot, "Les T e x t e s de s a g e s s e de Qoumran (Apercu preliminaire)," RHPR 7 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 1-34 (esp. 2 8 - 2 9 ) . E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha and Worship in 4 Q W a y s o f Righteousness: 4 Q 4 2 1 11 and 1 3 + 2 + 8 par 4 Q 2 6 4 a 1-2," RevQ 18 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 5 9 - 7 2 . S e e also idem, "More o n 4Q264A (40HalakhaA or 40Ways of Righteousness !)," RevQ 19 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 453-56. A . Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A. Lange and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 7). In the Dead Sea Scrolls Reader ( D S S R ) series 4 Q 4 2 0 - 2 1 is not in v o l u m e 4, w h i c h includes the sapiential texts, but rather v o l u m e 1, w h i c h covers "texts concerned with religious law." 2

0

3

4QWAYS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS (4Q420-21)

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claims that this work should no longer be considered sapiential. Tigchelaar contributes an improved transcription of 4Q421 11 and 13 and establishes that the text is more halakhic than previously thought. But this does not necessarily mean that 4QWays of Righteousness is a rulebook. 4Q420-21 can be profitably interpreted in light of the sapiential tradition. It is aptly considered a wisdom text, albeit one that blurs the distinction between wisdom and halakhah. Portions of the text are quite similar to stipulations in the Community Rule and the Damascus Document. Elgvin argues that the oldest part of 4QWays of Righteousness consists of wisdom sayings and that this document was redacted at a later point by the yahadox circles close to it. Since 4Q420-21 is an instructional work that shows significant influence from the sapiential tradition, it can be considered a wisdom composition as a whole, but, strictly speaking, it is better understood as a wisdom text that has been expanded with material that resembles the rulebooks—a composite work, as Elgvin argues. 4Q420-21 shows that the Dead Sea sect could revise sapiential compositions. 5

6

2. 4QWAYS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS

Two partially preserved copies of 4QWays of Righteousness have survived—4Q420 and 4Q421. Both are in Herodian script. Seven fragments belong to 4Q420 and thirteen to 4Q421. A relationship between these two manuscripts is clear from a substantial overlap. 4Q421 la ii-b 13-17 attests almost the same text as 4Q420 la ii-b 1-7. The major exception is that 4Q421 is missing a line that is in 4Q420. The lacuna of 4Q421 la ii-b 14 has space for three or four words,

4

C. H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential T e x t s and the R u l e B o o k s , " 2 7 7 - 9 5 (esp. 2 8 3 ) . J. Strugnell's article in this v o l u m e considers 4 Q 4 2 0 - 2 1 a w i s d o m text. S e e his "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m T e x t s F o u n d at Qumran: Variations, R e s e m b l a n c e s , and L i n e s o f D e v e l o p m e n t , " 3 1 - 6 0 (esp. 4 4 - 4 6 ) . DJD 20, 2 0 2 . Ibid., 173; T. E l g v i n , " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m in the Early S e c o n d Century B C E — T h e E v i d e n c e o f 4QInstruction," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25, 1997 (ed. L.H. Schiffman et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine o f the B o o k , Israel M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0 ) 2 2 6 - 4 7 (esp. 2 3 1 ) . 5

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7

whereas the corresponding part of 4Q420 la ii-b 2-3 has ten words. The simplest explanation is to posit that the scribe of 4Q421 copied 4Q420 and made an error. Elgvin divides 4QWays of Righteousness into three categories. The first, best represented by 4Q421 la i, deals with the organization of the text's intended audience. The second comprises wisdom sayings, found primarily in 4Q420 la ii-b and 4Q421 la ii-b. The third involves the Temple service. Elgvin identifies 4Q421 12-13 as part of this section. Tigchelaar demonstrates that a major theme of this portion, including 4Q421 11, is the Sabbath. For Elgvin the first section is a product of the sect associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls. Because of the text's poor state of preservation, relatively little can be said with confidence about the structure of 4Q420-21. Since 4Q421 la i precedes 4Q421 la ii-b, it is possible that instruction on sectarian organization was placed before older wisdom sayings. 8

2.1 Righteousness, Study and Speech The modern title of 4Q420-21 is based on the prominence of the term "righteousness" (pTS) in the composition. This virtue should guide one's conduct: "[A man] who is trustworthy will not turn from the ways of righteousness" (4Q420 la ii-b 5; cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 16; 4Q421 10 1). The word is also understood in a theological sense: "By righteousness is he (the trustworthy man) redeefmed] ([^jKti)" (4Q420 la ii-b 6; cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 17). Righteousness is elsewhere associated with walking "in the ways of God" (4Q421 la ii-b 12-13). 4Q420 2 9 contains a fragmentary reference to "[ri]ghteous ones" (D'p'Hp]). This could be a reference to the intended addressees, or perhaps to types of people whom one should emulate. Demonstrating a pedagogical interest, the text urges one to study righteousness: "[he will see]k true judgment (tDDBE HEX), and by 9

10

11

7

Elgvin, " W i s d o m in the Yahad? 2 1 2 . DJD 20, 173. 4 Q 4 2 0 - 2 1 u s e s both p i s and npns. For p i s , s e e 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b 3 , 5, 6 (cf. 4 Q 4 2 1 l a ii-b 14); for n p i s , see 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b 8 and 4 Q 4 2 1 l a ii-b 13. DJD 20, 1 7 9 - 8 0 . In ibid., 179, Elgvin tentatively reconstructs the word D-^-OBO in this line o n the basis o f a fragmentary mem. 8

9

1 0

1 1

4QWAYS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS (4Q420-21)

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studying righteousness (pis I p r i M ) he will understand [its conseq]uences" (4Q420 la ii-b 3-4; cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 14-15). Righteousness is associated with truth and justice in the Community Rule (1QS). In its covenant renewal ceremony one is enjoined "to do truth and righteousness and justice (DS^ftl n p l S I TOK) on earth" (1:5). In 1QS 8:2 these three virtues, among others, are associated with what has been revealed from the law to the yahad (cf. 5:4). 4Q420 la ii-b 3 may suggest that the term "righteousness" in 4Q42021 is associated with the Torah, since it says one is to "study" righteousness. The verb "lpn could be understood in the sense of "to seek," a rendering which would not necessarily imply the study of a written text. The translation "studying" makes sense in 4Q420 la ii-b 3 since the word is probably parallel to B11. The identification of righteousness with the Torah is supported by 4Q421 11-13, which establishes that the observance of halakhah is an important theme in the composition. But righteousness is never explicitly associated with the Torah in 4Q420-21. Righteousness is related to moderation and deliberation in speech. In order to "walk in the ways of God" and practice "righteousness," one is exhorted to do "as follows: he will not answer before he hea[rs,] and [not spea]k be[fore he understands. ]With great patience will he give answer" (4Q420 la ii-b 1-2; cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 13-14). Proverbs recommends the same attitude towards speech: "If one gives answer before hearing, it is folly and shame" (18:13). This teaching is echoed in later wisdom texts. Ben Sira, for example, reads: "Before investigating, find no fault; examine first, then criticize. Before hearing, answer not, and interrupt no one in the middle of his speech" (ll:7-8). Deliberation is advocated in Qumran wisdom 12

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1 2

It is possible, h o w e v e r , that 4 Q 4 2 1 1 1 - 1 3 should not be attributed to the circles w h o produced 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b, as discussed b e l o w . Similar advice is prominent in the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope. It teaches, for example, that "another thing g o o d in the heart o f the g o d : to pause before speaking" ( 6 . 7 - 8 ; cf. 11.13). S e e M . Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (3 v o l s . ; Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1 9 7 3 - 8 0 ) 2 . 1 5 0 . E l g v i n , DJD 20, 177, argues that 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b 1-2 and Sir 11:7-8 " s e e m to b e t w o versions o f the s a m e saying." T h e t w o p a s s a g e s are similar and g i v e the s a m e advice. B u t it is not necessary t o posit that both authors appropriated the same saying. N o t e also Sir 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 : " B e swift to hear, but s l o w to answer. If y o u h a v e the k n o w l e d g e , answer your neighbor; i f not, put your hand over your mouth." S e e a l s o E l g v i n , "Admonition Texts from C a v e 4 , " 184. 1 4

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texts: "a man who passes judgment before investigating ... do not set him up in authority over those who pursue knowledge" (4Q424 3 12). 4QBeatitudes preserves a lesson on proper speaking in 4Q525 14 ii. The stress on careful speech in 4Q420-21 is reasonably attributed to influence from the sapiential tradition. Like 4Q424, 4QWays of Righteousness is reminiscent of the wisdom tradition in its stress on ideal types. 4Q420 la ii-b 5 does not exhort one to "turn from the ways of righteousness" (cf. 4Q421 la iib 16). Rather it affirms that "[a man] who is trustworthy" would not shun righteousness. A parallel passage has a similar, but fragmentary, statement regarding "[a man] who is humble and meek in mind" (4Q420 la ii-b 4; cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 15). This is presumably another ideal type. 4Q421 la ii-b 12 includes a fragmentary reference to a "man" (cf. 1. 10). It is reasonable to presume that a positive adjective followed this word, referring to a righteous man who, as it says at the end of line 12, follows the "ways of God." The X EPK form is typically used to urge one to associate with or avoid the type described (e.g., Prov 3:31; 22:24). The X ttPK pattern in 4Q424 focuses disproportionately on negative types of people. This is not the case in 4Q420-21. It emphasizes ideal types to emulate. Righteousness in 4Q420-21 may allude to charitable works. 4Q424 3 7-10 gives advice regarding kindness towards the poor: "a man of generosit[y perfo]rms charity (np"t£) for the poor" (1. 9). nplS is used several times as a term for almsgiving in Ben Sira. Sir 3:30-4:6 is on this topic and reads in part: "As water quenches flaming fire, so alms (71pl%/kler)\ioo\)vr\) atone for sins. The kindness a person has done crosses his path as he goes" (3:30-31; cf. 12:3; 16:14; 40:24). Compassion for the downtrodden is a prominent theme in traditional wisdom (e.g., Prov 14:31; 21:13; 22:7). This topic is highlighted also in the covenantal tradition and elsewhere in 15

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The expression "his righteous c o u n s e l " (ipns nxu) is associated with wealth in 1QS 1:11-13. 4 Q T o b i t also appears to u s e the word n p i s as a term for a l m s g i v i n g . It is a prominent theme in this work ( 1 : 3 ; 4 : 7 - 1 1 ; 12:8-9). 4 Q 1 9 8 1 corresponds t o T o b 14:2-6. T h e first line o f this fragment attests the word np-is. This is translated in the official version o f this text as "[and g a v e ] alms." In both the A B and S Greek texts o f T o b 14:2, the word kkeqioovvac, is used. N o t e also 4 Q 1 9 6 10 1, w h i c h corresponds to T o b 4:7. S e e M . Broshi et al., Qumran Cave 4.XIV: Parabiblical Texts, Part 2 ( D J D 19; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 5 ) 17, 5 8 . 1 6

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the Hebrew Bible. Almsgiving is not explicit in 4QWays of Righteousness, but there is nothing in the text that is incompatible with this theme. That 4Q420-21 recommends almsgiving remains a reasonable possibility.

2.2 The Yoke of Wisdom and Sabbath Halakhah A key phrase for the classification of 4QWays of Righteousness as a wisdom text is in 4Q421 la ii-b 10. This line mentions a "yoke of wisdfom]" ([J"!]EDn b*\V). This image resonates with the sapiential tradition. The yoke is a prominent metaphor in the presentation of wisdom in Ben Sira. Part of the famous poem in Sir 6:18-37 about the acquisition of knowledge reads: 18

Her net will become your throne of majesty; her noose, your apparel of spun gold. Her yoke (nbiJ?) will be your gold adornment; her bonds, your purple cord. You will wear her as your glorious apparel, bear her as your splendid crown (w. 29-31). In the Hebrew Bible a yoke typically represents submission to oppression. This is exemplified by Jeremiah, who advocates the acceptance of Babylonian rule by walking throughout Jerusalem carrying a yoke (Jer 27-28). The ill-fated policy of King Rehoboam to increase the burden on Israel imposed by the state is similarly understood as a yoke (1 Kgs 12:9). The use of the term "yoke" in Ben Sira is not completely at odds with its traditional meaning. He uses the word when advocating a stern approach towards children: "Discipline your son, make heavy his yoke (I^W)" (30:13). He also employs the term in his instruction on idle slaves: "Yoke (blV) and harness are a cure for stubbornness; and for a refractory slave, punishment in the stocks" (33:27). The yoke of Sir 6 is likewise a burden and implies discipline. While such qualities have the negative sense of accepting oppression, in this poem they are celebrated. Taking the yoke is a metaphor for the student's desire and search for wisdom: "With all your soul draw close to her; with all your strength J.D. Pleins, The Social Visions of the Hebrew Bible: (Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 2 0 0 1 ) . J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) 4 5 . 1

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keep her ways" (6:26). Wisdom is presented not as a divine gift but a human attribute acquired through hard work and development. But to the wise the burden of the yoke is not excessive or harsh. The image of a yoke also occurs in Sir 51: "Submit your neck to her yoke, and let your mind weigh her message. She is close to those who seek her, and the one who is in earnest finds her" (51:26). The speaker in this poem emphasizes, as does Sir 6, that it is not difficult for the wise man to accept the yoke (51:27). The theme of the yoke in Ben Sira promotes self-control and rigor to an extent not found in Prov 1-9. In Proverbs one is urged to "lay hold" and "embrace" Lady Wisdom (3:18; 4:8; cf. v. 13). This implies dedication and discipline, but such labors are associated with wisdom more prominently in Ben Sira. No yoke is proclaimed in Proverbs. But Sir 6 draws on Prov 1-9 in its description of the rewards of accepting the yoke. It will be worn as a "splendid crown" ( m * « n mCDS) (Sir 6:31). The image relies on Prov 4:8-9, which asserts that wisdom "will honor you if you embrace her ... she will bestow on you a splendid crown ( m K S n mtDS)" (cf. 1:9; 16:31). Ben Sira's call to accept the yoke in chapter 6 is explicitly connected to the Torah: "Reflect on the law of the Most High, let his commandments be your constant meditation" (v. 3 7 ) . The rabbinic collection of wisdom sayings Pirke Avot understands the Torah as a yoke: "He that takes upon himself the yoke of the Law, from him shall be taken away the yoke of the kingdom and the yoke of worldly 20

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D i Leila writes with regard to Sir 6 : 2 6 - 2 8 : "the student is the hunter, and w i s d o m is the prey, w h i c h o n c e captured must never b e let g o . " S e e his "God and W i s d o m in the T h e o l o g y o f B e n Sira: A n O v e r v i e w , " in Ben Sira's God: Proceedings of the International Ben Sira Conference, Durham, Ushaw College 2001 (ed. R. E g g e r - W e n z e l ; B Z A W 3 2 1 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 1 7 (esp. 12). S e e also R.J. C o g g i n s , Sirach (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1998) 9 6 - 9 9 . Sir 6:19b reads: "For in cultivating her y o u will labor but little, and s o o n y o u will eat o f her fruits." T o the fool w i s d o m will appear to i n v o l v e an overly burdensome amount o f toil (vv. 2 0 - 2 2 ) . This p o e m , and the version o f it in l l Q P s , is e x a m i n e d in section 3 . 2 . 2 o f Chapter 9. A . A . D i Leila and P.W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira ( A B 3 9 ; N e w York: Doubleday, 1987) 194-95. E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul ( W U N T 2 / 1 6 ; Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1985). 2 0

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care" (3:5; cf. m. Ber. 2:2). The affirmation of a yoke of Torah in Avot represents a rabbinic appropriation of this sapiential image. The New Testament attests a version of this trope in Matt 11:29-30: "Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me ... For my yoke is easy and my burden is light." The yoke motif may be in 4Q185 and the version of Sir 51:13-30 in the Cave 11 Psalms Scroll, but this cannot be claimed with certainty. Unfortunately 4QWays of Righteousness does not fully preserve the context of the phrase "yoke of wisd[om]" in 4Q421 la ii-b 10. Elgvin reconstructs the word "carry" (n&O ?) at the end of line 9, producing the phrase "to carry the yoke of wisd[om]." The traces from which Elgvin derives this word are highly fragmentary. The "yoke of wisd[om]" is followed by a lacuna. Line 10 refers to someone who has acquired learning: "[a ma]n who is knowledgeable and has understanding (|*Q31 ^DEE)." He can be understood as an ideal man of wisdom who has accepted the yoke. 4Q421 probably urges that one submit to the yoke of wisdom, an ideal that accords with Sir 6:18-37. This suggests reading the word "carry" in line 9, despite its poor material support. Elgvin argues that the "yoke of wisd[om]" "serves as a prolegomenon to the wisdom sayings." This is valid in that the image of the yoke is followed by instruction on speech and ethics. He contends that the structure of 4Q421 la ii-b is similar to that of the book of Proverbs, which has poetic descriptions of wisdom in chapters 1-9 followed by sayings on specific topics in chapters 10-31. Following the analogy with Proverbs, for Elgvin the "yoke of 25

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J. Goldin, The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan (YJS 10; N e w York/London: Y a l e University Press, 1983 [orig. pub., 1 9 5 5 ] ) 2 3 7 . The Torah is also presented as a y o k e in 2 Bar. 41:3 and Did. 6:2 (cf. b. Sank 9 4 b ) . A . Tropper, Wisdom, Politics, and Historiography: Tractate Avot in the Context of the Graeco-Roman Near East (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 4 ) ; L B . Gottlieb, "Pirqe A v o t and Biblical W i s d o m , " K T 4 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) 1 5 2 - 6 4 . A version o f this saying is preserved in Gos. Thorn. 9 0 . The law is presented as a y o k e in a negative manner in A c t s 15:10 and Gal 5:1. S e e further C. D e u t s c h , Hidden Wisdom and the Easy Yoke: Wisdom, Torah and Discipleship in Matthew 11:25-30 ( J S N T S u p 18; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1 9 8 7 ) ; eadem, Lady Wisdom, Jesus, and the Sages: Metaphor and Social Context in Matthew's Gospel ( V a l l e y Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996). S e e , respectively, Chapters 4 and 9. DJD20, 188. Ibid., 189. 2 5

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wisd[om]" corresponds to Lady Wisdom. He claims that the yoke "refers to the Wisdom of God as a hypostatic concept." Elgvin may be correct. Lady Wisdom is attested in the Qumran wisdom corpus, although not as explicitly as in Prov 1-9. The personification of wisdom is an important biblical sapiential tradition, and it is entirely possible that the circles that produced 4Q420-21 were familiar with it. But there is no explicit evidence in the composition to support this claim. The text never mentions her. Even if one were to grant that the yoke of 4Q421 la ii-b 10 refers to Lady Wisdom, the context of the expression is so incomplete that it would not be clear how this figure is presented. Tigchelaar challenges Elgvin's interpretation of the "yoke of wisd[om]," asserting that the yoke should instead "be equated with righteousness and the yoke of the Law." He grants that there are sapiential elements in 4Q421 la ii-b but prefers to consider the composition a kind of rulebook. Tigchelaar's argument relies on 4Q421 11 and 13. Fragment 11 mentions eating and drinking (1. 2) and partially preserves two vetitives (11. 3, 4). In the official edition Elgvin suggests that this text is probably part of the "wisdom sayings" section, while acknowledging that physically it shares many characteristics with fragments 12 and 13. He relates these fragments to the Temple service. The word "Temple" is not attested. There is language about offering sacrifice (e.g., 4Q421 13 2, 6), and a reference to not entering the "gate of its court" (4Q421 12 3). Elgvin's view that fragments 12 and 13 discuss the Temple is plausible. 4Q421 11 and 13 offer halakhic instruction regarding the Sabbath. Tigchelaar improves on the official edition of 4Q421 13 by pointing out overlaps with 4QHalakha B (4Q264a), drawing upon the work of Lutz Doering. He also establishes that 4Q421 2 and 8 are portions 30

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Ibid., 190. S e e section 5 o f Chapter 8. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 7 1 . DJD 20, 184. Elgvin, ibid., 197, tentatively reconstructs the phrase b« snpa ("Temple o f God") from a mem in 4 Q 4 2 1 12 2. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 6 2 . 4 Q 2 6 4 a is available in J.M. Baumgarten et al., Qumran Cave 4.XXV: Halakhic Texts ( D J D 3 5 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1999) 5 3 56. Baumgarten is its editor. S e e also Elgvin, " W i s d o m With and Without Apocalyptic," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: 3 1

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of the same text. For example, the official version of 4Q421 13 2 reads "[a]ll the burnt-offerings and the sacrifices." In Tigchelaar's edition the line also includes the phrase K1")pb ISO n^[3D] ("[a scr]oll of a book to read") from 4Q421 8 2. This expanded version corresponds to 4Q264a 1 3-5: "[all] the burnt-offerings and the sacrifices, which ... [Let no man check the scrol]l of a book by reading ([K11]p^ ISO h[bm]) its writing on the [Sabbath] day, [but] they may read [and] learn from them" (cf. 4Q251 1-2 5). Tigchelaar conclusively demonstrates that 4Q421 13 preserves Sabbath halakhot. Tigchelaar also offers compelling readings of material in 4Q421 11. For example, line 2 has the phrase "to eat and drink from it all (*7D "UDD mrmbi bimb)..." Preceding this text are the letters ITTCD. Elgvin tentatively supplements a bet, producing the word "[Reliable." Tigchelaar argues that no letter should be added to ni£D, reading it as "sealed," referring to a sealed vessel. His translation of 4Q421 11 2 reads: "[one should not open a] sealed [vessel] to eat or drink from it any ..." This has a strong parallel in CD 11:9: "He is not to open a sealed vessel (mtD ^bz) on the Sabbath." There is also a prohibition regarding food in 4Q421 12 2 (cf. 4Q264a 1 8). The connection to Sabbath legislation also provides a better reading of 4Q421 11 4. This line includes the phrase brn SK, which Elgvin translates as "Let him not wait." Tigchelaar prefers "One should not profane [the Sabbath day]." This translation is supported by CD 11:15: "No one should profane *?IT bn) the Sabbath." There are no explicit references to halakhah in the rest of the composition. But there seem to be plausible allusions. Earlier I 36

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Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Oumran Studies, Oslo 1998 (ed. D . Falk et al.; STDJ 3 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 15-38 (esp. 2 0 21);

idem, " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m , " 2 3 1 ; L. Doering, " N e w A s p e c t s o f

Qumran Sabbath L a w from Cave 4 Fragments," in Legal Texts and Legal Issues:

Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Cambridge 1995, Published in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten (ed. M.J. Bernstein et al.; STDJ 2 3 ; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 2 5 1 - 7 4 ; Tigchelaar, "More o n

4Q264A," 454. DJD 20, 2 0 0 . 36

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DJD 35, 5 4 - 5 5 . Baumgarten interprets this passage as discussing "the manner o f reading." In h i s opinion 4 Q 2 6 4 a 1 3-5 teaches that o n e can read the Torah o n the Sabbath to learn but m a y n o t read letter b y letter to check for errors, an approach that w o u l d denote work. S e e also Tigchelaar, "More on 4Q264A," 4 5 5 . 38 DJD 20, 196. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 6 1 . 3 9

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argued that it is reasonable to understand the call to study righteousness in 4Q420 la ii-b 3-4 (cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 14-15) as a reference to the Torah. The theme of halakhah can explain the connection between righteousness and the call "to walk (nsbb) in the ways of God" in 4Q421 la ii-b 12-13 (cf. 1QS 3:9-10), although this could be a general expression without any halakhic implications. The claim of 4Q420 la ii-b 4 that by studying righteousness "he will understand [its conseqjuences ([rpmK]2T)n)" can be considered a reference to halakhah. Tigchelaar interprets the word rPniKSin in "the technical sense of 'specification.'" Elgvin suggests that the term refers to esoteric revelation, arguing that it has this sense in 4QInstruction (4Q417 1 i 12-13). This form of revelation, however, is not a prominent topic of 4QWays of Righteousness. The halakhah suggests that the Torah is considered the main source of revelation. Given the legislation in 4Q420-21 on topics such as eating and drinking, Tigchelaar's understanding of the word rpmKXin is reasonable. While the composite text of 4Q421 13+2+8 is related to 4Q264a, no other texts of 4QWays of Righteousness overlap with this work. Elgvin reports that 4Q421 11-13 share physical characteristics that are not found in other fragments of the document. There is no unambiguous mention of righteousness in 4Q421 11-13. Strugnell has suggested that these three fragments comprise a copy of 4Q264a that should be distinguished from the rest of 4QWays of Righteousness. The material designated as 4Q420-21 would then contain two distinct works, a wisdom text and a halakhic one, both written in the same hand. If Strugnell is correct, the view that the work as a whole is a halakhic rulebook is harder to sustain. To what extent can 4Q421 11-13 be correlated with the rest of the work? 40

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Ibid., 3 7 1 . The word rnrnKxin is guaranteed b y 4 Q 4 2 1 l a ii-b 15. DJD 20, 1 7 7 - 7 8 . E l g v i n s u g g e s t s that these fragments "must have b e e n together in o n e w a d . " Tigchelaar concurs. S e e DJD 20, 184; Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 6 0 . In DJD 20, 195, E l g v i n reconstructs the word "righteous" in 4 Q 4 2 1 1 1 4 : "for a rigfhteous] deed it is." The only material basis for the term is, according to h i s transcription, a fragmentary sade. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 6 0 , reads the letter in question as a possible "ayin. P A M 4 2 . 6 3 3 and 4 3 . 5 3 7 demonstrate that the extant traces are s o m e w h a t different from the w a y sade is written elsewhere o n this fragment. This favors T i g c h e l a a r s transcription over that o f E l g v i n . Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts," 4 5 . 4 1

4 2

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There are orthographic reasons for considering 4Q421 11-13 part of 4QWays of Righteousness. The scribe of 4Q421 13 uses a medial mem in final position in the word "with" (EK) of line l. This is an attested but somewhat rare practice in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The scribe does not adopt this style exclusively. The same column includes the expected final mem twice (11. 2, 3). The main fragment of 4Q421 also uses a medial mem in final position. 4Q421 la ii-b 16 includes the expression DET'l. There are no traces or lacunae that would suggest this was followed by additional letters. 4Q421 la ii-b, like 4Q421 13, also uses the standard final mem (11. 11, 13). The orthographic affinities between 4Q421 la ii-b and 4Q421 13 are not conclusive proof that they are part of the same composition. But they make it a plausible assertion, as do the probable allusions to halakhah in 4Q420 la ii-b (par 4Q421 la ii-b) mentioned above. It remains to be explained why only 4Q421 13+2+8 among the 4Q420-21 texts overlaps with 4Q264a so closely. It is possible that the latter work was inserted into 4QWays of Righteousness. Another option is that a halakhic section of 4Q420-21 circulated independently and that 4QHalakha B is the sole surviving evidence of this. 4Q264a could be the only extant portion of another copy of 4Q420-21. There is not enough evidence to make a conclusive claim on this issue. If it is reasonable to follow the traditional understanding that the 4Q420-21 fragments comprise a single work, one must address how the Sabbath legislation of 4Q421 11-13 impacts the assessment of the genre of this text. Given the halakhot, it is reasonable to agree with 45

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Tigchelaar has demonstrated that 4 Q 4 2 1 13 1 also has a medial pi in final position, a reading not in DJD 20. The version o f this line in DJD 20, 2 0 0 , reads IOS [(?) •6B,i franf^lsSK OR, w h i c h Elgvin translates as "but on their f[aces they should prostrate]." S o understood, 4 Q 4 2 1 13 1 is about participation in the T e m p l e cult. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 6 2 , observes that this line overlaps with 4 Q 2 6 4 a 1 1. O n this basis h e transcribes the phrase in question as HDK[3 ]£b* m K-6, producing "except for o n e thousand cubits." Tigchelaar, ibid., 3 6 5 , interprets this as a reference to the "Sabbath limit." This s a m e limit o n the Sabbath day is stipulated in C D 10:21 (cf. 11:5-6). 4 Q 2 6 4 a 1 1 has the final pe o n e w o u l d expect. S e e DJD 35, 5 4 ; C M . Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Qumran Community ( S T D J 4 0 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) 6 6 - 7 1 . This p h e n o m e n o n is m o s t c o m m o n in small w o r d s such as na, DK and DI>. S e e E. T o v , Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert (STDJ 5 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 2 3 2 . Cf. 4 Q 4 1 2 1 10; 4 Q 4 2 6 10 4; 1 1 Q 5 1 8 : 1 1 ; 19:6. Tigchelaar, "More o n 4Q264A," 4 5 6 . 4 6

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Tigchelaar that the "yoke of wisd[om]" in 4Q421 la ii-b 10 is an allusion to the law. But this does not refute the classification of the composition as a wisdom text. On the contrary, it supports this designation. As mentioned above, both Ben Sira and the Pirke Avot associate Torah with a yoke. The Qumran wisdom texts 4Q185 and 4Q525 associate wisdom with the Torah and this is also the case with the apocryphal work Baruch and the New Testament Letter of James. With regard to 4QWays of Righteousness, the identification of wisdom with the Torah in Ben Sira is especially interesting. Sir 24 poetically describes the Torah as the product of the descent of Lady Wisdom to Israel. There is nothing like this in 4QWays of Righteousness. Ben Sira's mode of persuasion is more reminiscent of Proverbs than Leviticus. He offers no instruction on the Sabbath. The Jerusalem sage promulgates general ethical guidelines rather than halakhot. This is the case even when he teaches on cultic topics. For example, Sir 34:21-35:22 discusses unacceptable and acceptable sacrifices. The opening lines of this section read: "Tainted his gift who offers in sacrifice ill-gotten goods! Presents from the lawless do not win God's favor" (34:21-22). Ben Sira does not offer his students detailed legislation regarding their participation in the Temple cult. Rather the general thrust of his teaching is that sacrifices should be accompanied by high ethical standards. The general viewpoint of Ben Sira is that the Torah is an important source of wisdom, and that the eudemonistic goals endorsed by the sapiential tradition can be achieved by heeding the commandments. 4Q420-21 is compatible 48

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Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 7 0 . H e writes that the attestation o f this phrase "is not e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to characterize the first part o f 4Q421 l a ii-b as an admonition to submit to the y o k e o f w i s d o m . " H e disparages the sayings on moderation and deliberation, w h i c h as discussed in section 2 . 1 . represent instruction squarely in the sapiential tradition. In his opinion the sayings "hardly g i v e concrete guidelines for life." Bar 3:9-4:4; Jas 2 : 8 - 1 2 . Avot 6:7 praises the Torah with a string o f citations from Prov 1-9. S e e further section 4.2 o f the conclusion to this book. Consult also T.C. Penner, The Epistle of James and Eschatology: Re-reading an Ancient Christian Letter ( J S N T S u p 1 2 1 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1996); M . A . JacksonM c C a b e , Logos and Law in the Letter of James: The Law of Nature, the Law of Moses, and the Law of Freedom ( N o v T S u p 100; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) ; C. B e n n e m a , "The Strands o f W i s d o m Tradition in Intertestamental Judaism: Origins, D e v e l o p m e n t s and Characteristics," TynBul 52 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 6 1 - 8 1 (esp. 6 8 - 7 0 ) ; Schnabel, Law and Wisdom, 6 9 - 1 6 5 . 4 9

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with this perspective. It teaches that Sabbath observance should be accompanied by ethical righteousness. But the work does not celebrate or thematize the Torah as Ben Sira does. The theme of the law in 4QWays of Righteousness is expressed through the promotion of halakhah, which is not the case in Ben Sira. Halakhah is more important in 4Q420-21 than Lady Wisdom. These texts attest two different ways the Torah was incorporated into the wisdom tradition during the late Second Temple period.

2.3 4QWays of Righteousness and the Dead Sea Sect Elgvin argues in the official edition of 4QWays of Righteousness that the sectarian movement associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls expanded the text into its final form. This view has in general been endorsed. It is reasonable to claim that members of this group played some role in the production of this text. Above I pointed out terminological similarities between 4Q420 la ii-b 3-4 and 1QS 1:5. The points of contact between the Sabbath halakhah of 4Q421 11 and 13 and the Damascus Document are also discussed above. 4Q421 la i has affinities with the rulebooks as well. One of its best-preserved passages is in lines 2-3: "[he shall bring all] his [wi]sdom and knowledge and understanding and good things [into the Community OirTQ) of God]." The "sectually explicit" expression *irP3 is supplemented by Elgvin. It is not an entirely unreasonable addition since this line is similar to the well-known stipulation that new members of the yahad "will convey all their knowledge, their energies, and their riches to the Community of God" (1QS 1:11-12; cf. 3:2; CD 13:11). The only attribute in both texts is "knowledge" 50

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DJD 20, 173, 202. Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 371-72; Kampen, "Diverse Aspects," 231; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 254-55; G.J. Brooke, "Biblical Interpretation in the Wisdom Texts from Qumran," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 201-20 (esp. 217). Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 63, treats the claim with caution. DJD 20, 186; Elgvin, "Admonition Texts," 185. C.A. Newsom, "'Sectually Explicit' Literature from Qumran," in The Hebrew Bible and Its Interpreters (ed. W. Propp et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990) 167-87. For the theme of wealth in the Community Rule, see Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 117-62. 51

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(nin). The crucial issue of bringing wealth is not explicit in this 4Q421 text, although money may be implicit in the expression "his good things" (ifno) (cf. 1. 15; 4Q421 5 2). It is possible that 4Q421 la i 2 offers a more general version of the basic idea emphasized in 1QS 1:11-12 that members should wholeheartedly devote themselves to the group. 4QWays of Righteousness does not highlight the donation of wealth but rather that the addressees should shape their intelligence and knowledge according to the education offered by the group. This is a plausible, but not certain, interpretation. Elgvin's view that 4Q421 la i 2-3 should be interpreted in light of the rulebooks is suggested by the statement that follows. Line 3 reads: "to muster everyone, each before [his] neighbfor]" Cpob [in]m *)*b EPK blSTl). While none of these terms are particularly rare, this statement is a near verbatim match with part of 1QS 5:23: "And they shall be recorded in order, one before the other ("p02 inin **isb EPX ^13*1), according to one's insight and one's deeds" (cf. CD 13:12). On the basis of this strong parallel Elgvin reasonably argues that 4Q421 la i 3 describes the inscription of members of the yahad in a hierarchal fashion. 1QS 6:18 emphasizes that members are to be evaluated in terms of their "insight" and "deeds" in relation to the Torah. According to 1QS 9:15-16, one of the responsibilities of the MaslCil is to promote each sectarian "according to his intellect" O^DO ^b). The term "intellect" appears to refer to the ability of members to learn and practice the way of life of the group. Their hierarchy is related to their education. This realization explains why 4Q421 la i 2 has several terms referring to one's acquisition of wisdom and line 3 mentions the ranking of people. These lines discuss the evaluation of sectarians according to their receptiveness to the pedagogical practices of the yahad. The intended audience of 4Q421 la i is reasonably considered part of the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. 4Q421 la i 4 supports a sectarian reading of the fragment. It reads: "the first lot [will fa]ll, and then they will go out" (*rmn KpP] 55

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DJD 20, 187. S e e also D . Hamidovid, " 4 Q 2 7 9 , 4QFour Lots, une Interpretation du P s a u m e 135 Appartenant a 4 Q 4 2 1 , 4 Q W a y s o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , " DSD 9 ( 2 0 0 2 ) 1 6 6 - 8 6 (esp. 1 8 1 - 8 2 ) . C.A. N e w s o m , "The S a g e in the Literature o f Qumran: The Functions o f the Maskil," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East (ed. J.G. G a m m i e and L.G. Perdue; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990) 3 7 3 - 8 3 . 5 6

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1

IKS' p i yrernn). The term "lot" is used in the rulebooks as a term for a member's ranking within the group (1QS 2:23; CD 13:12). The word S"113 is used in the Community Rule together with the verb no less than five times. The phrase typically refers to decisions involving group members, with regard to the change of a person's status in the sect. 1QS 6:21-22, for example, reads: "And when the second year is complete he will be examined by command of the Many. And if the lot results in him ( ^ T i a n lb joining the Community, they shall enter him in the order of his rank among his brothers" (cf. 5:3; 6:16, 18; 9:7; lQSa 1:16). Not enough remains of 4Q421 la i 4 to interpret it fully. But the line's hierarchical language resonates with the Community Rule. All three of the best preserved lines of 4Q421 la i have strong affinities with the Qumran rulebooks, especially 1QS 5-6. Elgvin argues that 4Q421 la i relates "probably to the joining of new members" of the community. I agree with him that the topic of this fragment is "sectarian organization." The fragment may have originally discussed the examination of new members or perhaps the annual evaluation of people in their knowledge of the ways of the group. In any case, it is reasonable to posit that 4QWays of Righteousness has some sort of direct link to the yahad. It is not clear that 4QWays of Righteousness as a whole should be considered a product of the yahad, although this possibility cannot be excluded. The work as a whole is often quite different from the undisputed compositions of the Teacher movement. 4Q420-21 shows no interest in esoteric revelation to the elect, eschatology or messianism. There is no deference to the Zadokites. The work displays no knowledge of the Teacher of Righteousness. 4Q420-21 does not portray the intended audience as the elect, although this 57

58

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A . Lange, "The Determination o f Fate b y the Oracle o f the Lot in the D e a d S e a Scrolls, the H e b r e w B i b l e and A n c i e n t M e s o p o t a m i a n Literature," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran, 3 9 - 4 8 . N o t e the parallel in 4 Q F o u r Lots ( 4 Q 2 7 9 ) 5 2-4: "... w h o is listed after ... and in accordance with o n e ' s g e n e a l o g i c a l origins ... [for the priejsts, the s o n s o f Aaron, the Tfirst] lot shall appear (lor)." S e e H a m i d o v i c , " 4 Q 2 7 9 , " 1 6 7 - 7 7 . Another point o f contact b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 2 1 l a i and the rulebooks is the expression O*?T» m^K, "eternal enmity." This phrase is the o n l y legible portion o f the first line o f 4 Q 4 2 1 l a i. The only other attestation o f the expression in the D e a d S e a Scrolls is in 1QS 4:17. S e e DJD 20, 187. DJD 20, 186. 5 { f

6 0

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posture could be presumed. It is reasonable to understand this text as having a role in the educational practices of the sect, and to claim with Elgvin that the yahad added material to 4Q420-21, in particular fragments la i, 11 and 13 of 4Q421. If this is correct, there is less reason to doubt that these fragments belong to 4QWays of Righteousness. Since 4Q421 13 gives instruction regarding participation in the Temple cult, it is likely that the expansion of this text took place at a relatively early stage of the community, before it apparently placed a ban on Temple worship (contrast CD 6:11-14 with 16:13-16 and 9:13-14). This would suggest 4Q420-21 was composed during the second century BCE. The sayings on righteousness and speech were probably written at some earlier point but cannot be dated with precision. There may also be sectarian redaction in 4Q421 la ii-b. This fragment encourages the intended audience to be righteous by presenting ideal figures of wisdom, such as "[a ma]n who is knowledgeable and has understanding ^DOID)" (1. 10). Another figure may be related to the term ^DtBQ in a different way: "[A man of will recei]ve the admonition of the knowledgeable nnmn nDlf])" (11. 11-12). This reconstruction is based on the plausible view that the line describes an ideal figure who heeds admonitions. The exhortation is to come from a ^DOD. The text can be read as asserting that the admonition will come from the Maskil, an important pedagogical office in the sect. According to 1QS 9:17-18, this is one of the official duties of tire Maskil: "He should reproach (rPDin*?) (with) truthful knowledge and (with) just judgment those who choose the path" (cf. CD 9:16-20). 4Q421 la ii-b 11-12 strengthens the view that the composition, in its final form, presents righteousness as a virtue achieved through training in the regulations of the group. The goal is not only to become righteous in a general 61

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C. H e m p e l , The Damascus Texts (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 0 ) 3 1 ; Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 3 4 - 4 5 . S e e H e m p e l , "The Qumran Sapiential Texts and the R u l e B o o k s , " 2 8 7 - 8 8 ; N e w s o m , "The S a g e in the Literature o f Qumran," 3 7 4 - 7 8 . Reproach is also a prominent t o p i c in 4 Q R e b u k e s Reported b y the Overseer ( 4 Q 4 7 7 ) . This work has explicitly sectarian terms such as c a i n (frgs. 2 i 3 ; 2 ii 3 ) and TTP (frg. 2 ii 6). It u s e s the verb vsr in the Hiphil in reference to reproaching c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , like 1 Q S 9 : 1 7 - 1 8 . S e e S.J. Pfann et al., Qumran Cave 4.XXVI: Cryptic Texts and Miscellanea, Part 1 ( D J D 3 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) 4 7 4 - 8 4 . 6 2

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4QWAYS OF RIGHTEOUSNESS ( 4 Q 4 2 0 - 2 1 )

177

sense but also an "ideal member of the Community." This is how the document must have been understood by the Dead Sea sect. Elgvin observes that the work's general advice on moderation in speech is compatible with the rules on speaking during sectarian assemblies (1QS 6:9-13). 4QWords of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn is also devoted to the education of sect members, as discussed in the previous chapter. According to this text, the Mailed addresses those "[who pur]sue righteousness" (4Q298 1-2 i 2; cf. CD 1:1). It makes sense to view both documents as having a role in the pedagogical practices of the sect associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. 65

3. CONCLUSION

4QWays of Righteousness is a wisdom text that is interested in the Torah and halakhah. The importance of the Torah in 4Q420-21 is compatible with attitudes held by the sectarian community associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls. The rulebooks are the product of a Torah centered movement. Its writings frequently cite the Torah and mandate its veneration (1QS 6:6-8). The Sabbath halakhah of 4Q421 13 is similar to that of the Damascus Document. 4Q420-21 is also reminiscent of this rulebook since it contains both instruction that evokes the sapiential tradition, particularly in CD 2, and halakhic regulations. 4QWays of Righteousness seems to have undergone some editing by people associated with the movement that produced the rulebooks, as Elgvin proposes. The image of the yoke in both Ben Sira and 4QWays of Righteousness to describe the Torah indicates that they have traditions in common. 4Q420-21 includes practical advice on moderation and deliberation that resonates with traditional wisdom. The text also has an overtly instructional and ethical focus—to inculcate righteousness in the life of its addressees. It is reasonable to consider 4Q420-21 a wisdom text, as was traditionally the case 66

Tigchelaar, "Sabbath Halakha," 3 7 0 . S e e also Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 4 . DJD20, 111. H e m p e l , The Damascus Texts, 4 4 - 5 3 . S e e also eadem, The Laws of the Damascus Document: Sources, Tradition and Redaction (STDJ 2 9 ; Leiden: Brill, 1998). 6 5

6 6

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among Qumran scholars. Its final form contains elements from both the sapiential tradition and the rulebooks. 4QWays of Righteousness can be understood as a wisdom text adapted to a sectarian milieu. This text, along with 4Q298, illustrates that members of the yahad could write and redact sapiential compositions. The realization that 4Q420-21 contains Sabbath legislation does not force a re-classification of its genre. But it does lead to a re­ assessment of the ways in which wisdom texts can thematize the Torah. Halakhah in the wisdom corpus is highly unusual. Some is present in 4QInstruction (e.g., 4Q416 2 iv 7-10; 4Q418 103 ii 6-9), but there is no other example among other Qumran sapiential texts. Pirke Avot values halakhah (3:12; 5:7-8) but does not provide legal guidelines in the manner of 4Q421 13. The presence of halakhah in a wisdom text should not be considered impossible given the prominence of the Torah in Ben Sira and other sapiential texts. The halakhah of 4QWays of Righteousness, and to a lesser extent that of 4QInstruction, represents a development in the incorporation of the Torah into the wisdom tradition. 67

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J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m Reconsidered, in Light o f the Scrolls," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 6 5 - 8 1 (esp. 2 7 7 - 7 8 ) . L.H. Schiffman, "Halakhic E l e m e n t s in the Sapiential Texts," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center, 20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and R.A. Clements; STDJ 5 1 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) 8 9 - 1 0 0 . 6 8

CHAPTER SEVEN

PRACTICAL WISDOM: THE INSTRUCTION OF 4Q424

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N 1

4Q424 has an awkward title—"4QInstruction-like Composition B." Officially published in 2000, this document consists of four fragments. Most of its text is preserved in fragments 1 and 3, which have, respectively, thirteen and twelve lines. There are five extant lines in fragment 2 and fragment 4 preserves just seven letters. Its paleography is in the Herodian semi-formal tradition. Nothing survives of this text that is explicitly its introduction or conclusion. The original structure of the composition cannot be fully recovered. There are no explicit historical markers in the text. It was probably written in the second or first centuries BCE but could have been composed earlier. 4Q424 is a wisdom text. It is characterized by admonitions that offer advice on practical topics such as money and interactions with others. Virtually all of its sayings delineate kinds of people that fall into one of two categories—those who cannot be trusted to carry out 2

1

Its official editor is Sarah Tanzer. S e e S J . Pfann et al., Qumran Cave 4.XXVI: Cryptic Texts and Miscellanea, Part I ( D J D 3 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) 3 3 3 - 4 6 . S e e also D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996) 6 0 6 3 : G. Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " K T 4 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 2 7 1 - 9 5 , idem, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," RevQ 18 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 1 - 4 2 ; A. Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A. L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 2 6 - 2 8 ) ; A . Caquot, "Les T e x t e s de s a g e s s e de Qoumran (Apercu preliminaire)," RHPR 7 6 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 1-34 (esp. 3 0 - 3 2 ) ; A . S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J.A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 4 9 ) ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment (2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 1.2114 3 (esp. 2 3 2 ) . T w o other fragments, Unidentified Fragments A and B , h a v e been associated with 4 Q 4 2 4 but are probably not part o f the composition. S e e DJD 36, 3 4 6 .

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tasks successfully and those who emulate virtues such as compassion for the poor. These topics are in continuity with the wisdom tradition. Brin has speculated that the intended addressee may be a "ruler" or "one of the heads of society." He is probably wealthy and may come from an aristocratic milieu. The forms of 4Q424 are quite consistent. A vetitive is typically used, placed after its object, which is usually one of the negative types of people. They are often described with either the phrase "X DB" or "X ttPK," with the latter preferred, as in 4Q424 1 10: "A greedy man do not put in charge of [your] wefalth]." These two forms are also used in instruction in Proverbs and Ben Sira on foolish or wicked types (e.g., Prov 16:27-29; Sir 8:15-17). 3

4

5

2. NEGATIVE TYPES OF PEOPLE

4Q424 contains twelve descriptions of negative types of people and six of positive kinds. The concept of individuality is not prominent in this text. Rather, it is taught that there are good and bad types of people and that the former should be emulated and the latter avoided. Wisdom texts, such as the book of Proverbs and the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, often describe negative kinds of people and the consequences of being involved with them (e.g., Prov 29:27; 6

3

G. Brin, " W i s d o m Issues in Qumran: T h e T y p e s and Status o f the Figures in 4 Q 4 2 4 and the Phrases o f Rationale in the D o c u m e n t , " DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 9 7 - 3 1 1 (esp. 3 1 1 ) . S e e also idem, "The Relationship b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 2 4 and the B o o k o f Ben-Sira," in nSnn m^ao ipnS bnv (ed. G. Brin and B . Nitzan; Jerusalem: Y a d B e n Zvi, 2 0 0 1 ) 2 5 3 - 7 4 (Hebrew). The first form is u s e d with a vetitive in 4 Q 4 2 4 1 2 - 5 (cf. 11. 6-7), and the s e c o n d elsewhere in the c o m p o s i t i o n ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 7, 8, 10, 13; 4 Q 4 2 4 2 4 ; 4 Q 4 2 4 3 1, 3 , 6 ) . T h e X HTK form occurs six t i m e s in 4 Q 4 2 4 3 7-9 without a vetitive. DJD 36, 3 3 5 . T h e n e g a t i v e kinds o f p e o p l e include: "a separatist" (o-na) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 2 ) ; "a dissembler" (nhm) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 4 ) ; "one w h o strays" (DDMOTO) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 4 ) ; "a slothful m a n " (bxs) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 6 ) ; "a man w h o murmurs" (ru-bn BTK) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 7); "a m a n with d e v i o u s lips" ( e n s © rb BTK) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 8); "a greedy m a n " (y» m BTR) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 10); "a short-temp[ered] m a n " ([•J'BK nsp) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 1 12); "a man w h o p a s s e s j u d g m e n t before investigating" (wrrr m e n BBIE BTR) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 3 1); "a m a n w h o s e e y e s are smeared over" (DT» SVB BTK) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 3 3 ) ; "one dull o f hearing" (|TK ISD) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 3 4 ) ; "a man with a dull heart" (ib pra BTK) ( 4 Q 4 2 4 3 6 ) . Poorly preserved descriptions o f negative t y p e s are in 4 Q 4 2 4 1 13 and 4 Q 4 2 4 2 3 - 4 . S e e also DJD 36, 3 3 5 ; Brin, " W i s d o m Issues," 3 0 5 . 4

5

6

4Q424

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7

Amen. 5.10-16). The latter work repeatedly recommends avoiding the "heated man," as in 11.13-14: "Do not befriend the heated man, nor approach him in conversation" (cf. 6.1-7; 13.11). Proverbs also warns about this type: "One who is quick-tempered (D^SK ISp) acts foolishly, and the schemer is hated" (14:17; cf. v. 29; 15:18). With different terminology, Ben Sira also urges his students to stay away from those disposed to anger: "Show no defiance to the quick­ tempered bsi), nor ride with him through lonely country" (8:16; cf. Prov 22:24-25). 4Q424 1 12 contains remnants of a warning about "a short-temp[ered] man" ([DJ'DK "ISp). There would be disastrous consequences if such a person were given authority over the "simple": "... the simple, for certainly he will destroy them (D^DS D»Sr vbl -O)" (1. 13). The "simple" is a common term in the sapiential tradition, generally referring to people who need instruction or fools (e.g., Prov 1:4; 22:3). It is not clear that the word has this sense in 4Q424. Tanzer speculates that 4Q424 1 12-13 may have a judicial context, in which case the short-tempered person would loose his temper against those who come to him for rulings. This interpretation is supported by fragment 3 of the work. 8

10

2.1 Instruction on Judges and Lawyers 4Q424 3 1 mentions "a man who passes judgment before investigating." Such a person would not be appropriate for a legal profession: "do not set him up in authority over those who pursue knowledge (nin ^mm in^BDn bti), for he will not understand their judgment to declare the righteous righteous and the wicked w[icked] JTOnn^l p ^ S p"HSr6)" (1. 2; cf. 4Q424 1 8-10; CD 4:7). Line 3 affirms that this person would become "despised." The phrase asnrrnK lITttnm p n a r r n a I p n s n occurs in an 7

This tradition is continued in the Pirke Avot: "Nittai the Arbelite said: ' K e e p yourself far from an evil neighbor and consort n o t with the w i c k e d and lose not b e l i e f in retribution"' (1:7). S e e J. Goldin, The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan ( Y J S 10; N e w Y o r k / L o n d o n : Y a l e University Press, 1 9 8 3 [orig. pub., 1955]) 2 3 1 . M . Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (3 v o l s . ; Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1 9 7 3 - 8 0 ) 2 . 1 5 3 . Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 4 0 - 4 1 . In DJD 36, 3 4 0 , she suggests the reconstruction: "One short o f tem[per d o not put in a position o f authority to j u d g e ] the simple." 8

9

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11

explicitly judicial context in Deut 25:1. Prov 17:15 gives comparable advice on judging wisely: "One who justifies the wicked and one who condemns the righteous are both alike an abomination to the Lord." The expression nin ••STn occurs in the book of Mysteries (4Q299 8 7). In 4Q418 69 ii 10-11 the "truly chosen ones" are urged to seek tirelessly for wisdom: "How can you say 'we have toiled for insight and have been vigilant in pursuing knowledge (nin ^m*?)?'" As discussed in Chapter 1, 4QInstruction construes devotion to study as a lifestyle that resembles that of the angels. In 4Q424 3 2 "those who pursue knowledge" have nothing to do with angels. Given the legal context of the passage, the phrase probably refers to people who would come before some sort of decision-maker for rulings. They probably correspond to the "simple" of 4Q424 1 13, as Tanzer suggests. 4Q424 3 3-7 seems to presuppose a judicial context as well: A man whose eyes are smeared over (DTJ7 jn© urx) do not send to observe the upright (D'HEPb mrnb) ... [a man] who is dull of hearing do not send to investigate a case ErmV), for a dispute among men he will not smooth out, like one who winnows in a wind [ ] which does not separate (it), so is one who speaks to an ear that is not able to hear, and who tells a tale to a person who is asleep ... A man with a dull mind (3*?. pt&) do not send to examine thoughts (marcrra nmob) for the wisdom of his heart is hidden, and he will not have authority over i[t] ... wisdom of his hands (VT n&nn) he will not find. This pericope is similar to Isa 6:10: "Make the mind of this people dull (2b port), and stop their ears, and shut their eyes, so that they may not look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and comprehend with their minds." The author of 4Q424 was probably familiar with some form of the Hebrew Bible, although the Torah is never praised or thematized in the manner of Sir 24. In Isaiah the three physical defects express a lack of sufficient mental capabilities. This is also the case in 4Q424, which associates these deficiencies with specific tasks that should not be entrusted to such people. These 12

13

1 1

Ibid., 3 4 4 ; Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 . " 2 7 8 . Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 8 2 ; DJD 36, 3 4 2 - 4 4 . There are also similarities b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 2 4 1 3 and E z e k 1 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 . S e e DJD 36, 3 3 8 ; A . Lange, " D i e B e d e u t u n g der Weisheitstexte aus Qumran fur die hebraische Bibel," in Weisheit in Israel (ed. D.J.A. Clines, H. Lichtenberger and H.P. Muller; A T M 12; Minister: Lit-Verlag, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 2 9 - 4 4 (esp. 1 4 1 - 4 4 ) . 1 2

1 3

4Q424

183

defects should probably be understood in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense, referring to people who lack wisdom. The person with dim eyesight would not be able to "observe the upright." Talking to a man "dull of hearing" would be a waste of time, since he would not understand. Since 4Q424 3 2 mentions the ability to declare righteous righteous and the wicked wicked, the phrase "to observe the upright" of line 3 probably refers to the capacity to discern correctly who is righteous. Brin suggests that the "upright" may be "an explicitly sectarian term." The word clearly has this sense in CD 20:2 and 1QS 3:1, for example. But there is no compelling reason to understand 4Q424 3 3 in this way. There is no discernible sectarian mentality in this document—no sense of group consciousness, deference to a leader, dissatisfaction with wider Israel or claims of special revelation. The "upright" are probably the innocent whom a person with "smeared over" eyes would not be able to assess appropriately. The phrase "to investigate a case" (tDSBB B i n ? ) of line 4 also implies a judicial context. The word tDSED is used in this line in parallelism with 2*1 and in line 2 has an explicitly legal sense. As Tanzer has observed, the meaning of the phrase "to investigate a case" is similar to 1QS 8:24, where the expression wn refers to the application of rules from the sect's penal code. The wisdom of the "dull man" is "hidden," meaning that the required mental faculties would be unavailable (4Q424 3 6). Hidden wisdom is clearly negative, in marked contrast to 4QInstruction and Mysteries. He also does not have V T HQDn (1. 7), literally "wisdom of his hands," an expression that refers to manual skill in 14

15

1

16

17

4 Q 4 2 5 1 + 3 7 m a y associate a man w h o s e e y e s are smeared over, using jno- CTK D T J J , with a "worthless man." S e e section 7 o f Chapter 10. S e e also Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 7 9 . Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 8 0 . The phrase "sons o f righteousness" in 4 Q 4 2 4 3 10 is discussed below. F o l l o w i n g the reconstruction o f DJD 36, 3 4 0 , 4 Q 4 2 4 1 8-9 reads: " A man w h o is d e v i o u s o f lips do not tr[ust in h i m to pronounce] j u d g m e n t s in your favor; surely h e will be d e v i o u s in his speech; after the truth h e will not run." This may b e another warning about a type o f person w h o w o u l d not be competent to judge. Its advice c o u l d b e more generic, r e c o m m e n d i n g that such a person should not be entrusted with any position o f responsibility. In either c a s e it is about the person's ability to speak honestly. DJD 36, 3 4 4 . In 1QS 6:7 the expression refers to the interpretation o f the Torah. 1 5

17

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4QInstruction and Ben Sira. The phrase is not explicitly associated with this ability in 4Q424 3 7. Brin suggests that it means he is not fulfilling his "inner talents," but it probably refers to some sort of manual skill. Two kinds of wisdom are not available to this person—that of his heart and his hands. The "dull man" is the opposite of a complete man of wisdom. In both an inward and outward sense, he cannot show wisdom. This instruction may presume some sort of legal context, as with the people with poor eyesight and hearing. A person with a "dull mind" would not make a good judge or lawyer. 4Q424 3 stresses prudence and deliberation when making decisions. Line 1 of this fragment warns about "a man who passes judgment before investigating." This advice is rooted in traditional wisdom, in particular instruction on speech. Prov 18:13 states: "If one gives answer before hearing, it is folly and shame" (cf. 14:15). 4Q420 la ii-b 1-4 reads: "He will not answer before he hea[rs,] and [not spea]k be[fore he understands ... he will see]k true judgment, and by studying righteousness he will understand [its conseq]uences" (cf. 4Q421 la ii-b 13-15). A similar attitude is advocated in 4QBeatitudes (4Q525 14 ii 21-28). Sir 11:7-9 teaches: "Before investigating, find no fault; examine first, then criticize. Before hearing, answer not, and interrupt no one in the middle of his speech. In what is not your quarrel do not become angry; in the strife of the arrogant (D*HT T " Q ; ms. B) take no part" (cf. 5:10-14). Sir 11:9 may urge against participation in a legal case (TI) if wicked people are involved. Sir 7:6 exhorts: "Seek not to become a judge if you have not strength to root out crime, or you will be browbeaten by some prominent person and mar your integrity." Ben Sira shows more caution than 4Q424 about the hazards of participating in legal proceedings. Ben Sira gives instruction to people about being directly involved in legal affairs, whereas 4Q424 offers advice on selecting others to do legal work. According to 4Q424 3 1-3, the intended addressee has the power to 19

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S e e section 5.1 o f Chapter 1. Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 8 8 . Ibid., 2 7 5 . S e e section 7 o f Chapter 8. T h e N R S V translation o f Sir 11:9b is "do not sit with sinners w h e n they j u d g e a case"(cf. 10:1-5). 1 9

2 0

2 1

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hire some form of legal decision maker. He may be a relatively highranking state functionary who can appoint judges. This is not, however, necessarily the case. All segments of society require some sort of system of adjudicating disputes. The Qumran rulebooks describe the responsibilities of judges who are to resolve disputes (CD 10:4-10; cf. 1QS 6:24-27). There is never any indication that such people are wealthy. The legal instruction of 4Q424 is consistent with an upper-class setting but an aristocratic context is not required.

2.2 Instruction on Hiring Managers 4Q424 warns more consistently than Proverbs about negative types of people with regard to employment. Such advice is, however, in Prov 10:26: "Like vinegar to the teeth, and smoke to the eyes, so are the lazy to their employers" (cf. 25:13). The phrases nSttfn b\< ("do not send") and bwftn bx ("do not give authority") are used frequently in 4Q424 in relation to unreliable people. There are several warnings about the "greedy man," literally "a man evil of eye" (f» in in the wisdom tradition. Prov 28:22 reads "The miser (ps in EPK) is in a hurry to get rich and does not know that loss is sure to come." Ben Sira is also critical of the greedy man: "Wealth ill becomes the mean person (lit. "one small of heart" []Bp 2b]); and to the miser (ps sn ttPK), of what use is gold?" (14:3; cf. v. 10; 31:13; 4Q525 13 2). The miser is apparently one of the negative types about which students are warned in Sir 37:11. 4Q424 1 10-12 discourages giving the greedy man authority: 23

24

25

2 3

For the former, s e e 4 Q 4 2 4 1 6; 4 Q 4 2 4 3 3 , 6; for the latter, 4 Q 4 2 4 1 10; 4 Q 4 2 4

3 2. 2 4

Prov 23:6: " D o not eat the bread o f the stingy (*pu i n ) ; do not desire their delicacies." G i v e n vv. 1-5, the "stingy" are probably wealthy. S e e also DJD 36, 3 4 0 ; Brin, "Studies in 40424 1-2," 3 8 - 3 9 . T h i s l o n g verse m e n t i o n s nine types o f p e o p l e with w h o m o n e should not consult. A c c o r d i n g to the N R S V version o f Sir 3 7 : l i e , advice is not to b e sought from a miser about generosity. T h e expression rendered as "miser" is, in the B and D H e b r e w manuscripts, i n BPK, w h i c h literally m e a n s "wicked man" not "greedy man." The N R S V reflects the idea that Sir 3 7 : l i e read originally not i n «PK but yv i n «TK. This is plausible. The Greek translation o f i n TZPK in Sir 37:11 is paoKavoc. T h i s w o r d is u s e d to translate yv i n in Prov 2 3 : 6 ; 2 8 : 2 2 ; and Sir 14:3 (cf. 18:18). T h e basic l o g i c o f Sir 37:11 is that o n e should not ask s o m e o n e for advice o n topics about w h i c h they cannot g i v e unbiased counsel. It is u n w i s e to ask, for example, "a coward about war" and "an indifferent worker about his work." The B text o f the k e y 2 5

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"A greedy man (yiJ m EPN) do not put in a position of authority over [your] we[alth] ... he will arrange your surplus (rDIKB p n ) to your satisfaction ... but in the time of gathering (f3p HO) he will be found a hypocrite (*pn)" (cf. 4Q424 2 3). Tanzer has speculated that this passage may discuss the gathering taxes or assembling people for some sort of legal purpose. The text probably refers to the management of the addressee's accounts or at least money in some sense. In this case "NOT denotes a type of remainder, perhaps the money that remains once expenses have been paid. The phrase HI? f2p would then refer to the gathering of money, not unlike Prov 13:11: "Wealth hastily gotten will dwindle, but those who gather ( p p ) little by little increase it" (cf. lQpHab 8:11). Following this interpretation, the "greedy man" makes the accounts appear as if the addressee is making profit, but when the money is counted it is clear that the greedy person has been deceitful. The use of the expression p i n ETK in Proverbs and Ben Sira suggests in 4Q424 1 10-12 it denotes a person excessively concerned with wealth. This interpretation is also indicated by the last phrase of line 10, which warns one not to give the "greedy man" authority over his "wealth," using the word ]in. Such an individual should not be trusted to manage someone else's money. Alternatively, the "surplus" of 4Q424 1 10-12 could refer to s

26

27

28

passage reads ion nbon bv m BPK OJJ. The D manuscript has ion m'raa bv jn «TK OJJ. If this verse warns about a "greedy man" in reference to ion m'roa, it is reasonable to understand this expression as referring to charitable acts, since such a person would not be willing to carry them out. Sir 3 7 : l i e could be a precedent to the "deeds of loving kindness" that are praised by Simon the Righteous in Avot 1:2 (cf. m. Peak 1:1). The importance of Sir 37:11 for understanding the rabbinic o^ion rrfrna has been disputed by J. Goldin.

See his Studies

in Midrash

and Related

Literature

(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1988) 28. Consult further E. Urbach, The Sages (Cambridge/London: Harvard University Press, 1975) 286; P.C. Beentjes, The Book of Ben Sira in Hebrew (VTSup 68; Leiden: Brill, 1997) 154; A. A. Di Leila and P.W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB 39; New York: Doubleday, 1987) 43233; P.A. Vaccari, "Ecclesiastico, 37, 10.11: criticaed esegesi," EstEcl 34 (1960) 70513. DJD 36, 340. 2 6

2 7

C M . Murphy, Wealth

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls

and the Qumran

Community

(STDJ 40; Leiden: Brill, 2002) 177; B.G. Wright III, "The Categories of Rich and Poor in the Qumran Sapiential Literature," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature Symposium

in Light of the Dead of the Orion Center,

Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International 20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and

R.A. Clements; STDJ 51; Leiden: Brill, 2004) 101-23 (esp. 106). Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 40. 2 8

4Q424

187

agricultural yields and f np no the "time of harvesting." In this case the "greedy man" is not to be entrusted with the management of crops. If given authority over one's fields, this person would make everything appear as if he were doing his job appropriately. But when the yield is actually harvested his deceit, his true nature as a "hypocrite" would become clear (cf. Prov 11:9; Job 15:34). But it is not clear how the "greedy man" could be deceitful with the surplus of the addressee if it refers to crops. One can speculate that the exact amount of the yield is being under-reported and that the man is skimming off the top for his own personal gain. In 4Q424 1 10-12 the inappropriate handling of the "surplus" is done before the "gathering" takes place. But, if agricultural surplus, it would only be available once the crops have been harvested. The author therefore probably did not have an agricultural situation in mind. It is more plausible to posit that this passage describes a type of person who would not make a good accountant or financial manager. The financial interpretation of 4Q424 1 10-12 is also suggested by lines 7-8: "A man who murmurs do not tru[st] to collect money for your needs CpiOFTO? ]in nnp^)." Tanzer translates this passage as "A man who is always complaining about his luck, do not expfect from him] to receive money when you are in need." In this rendering it is difficult to understand what the employment relationship would be between the murmurer and the addressee. There is no strong indication elsewhere in the document that the latter would ever be in need. The term "HOTO, however, often has this connotation. The word appears in both Proverbs and 4QInstruction in relation to material hardship. Prov 21:17 reads: "Whoever loves pleasure will suffer want ("HOnE); whoever loves wine and oil will not be rich." This seems to refer to poverty as a consequence of the 29

4

30

31

4QInstruction g i v e s advice about trading a "surplus" in 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 1 7 - 1 8 . The w o r d for "surplus" is i m a . T h e w o r d ] ' T m » occurs in a fragmentary section o f 4 Q 4 2 4 1 1 1 , suggesting that it is parallel with the w o r d -IWD. 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 17-18 states that the surplus is to b e carried and other texts a s s u m e the mebin is a farmer ( 4 Q 4 1 8 103 ii 2 9; 4 Q 4 2 3 5 5). N o w h e r e in 4 Q 4 2 4 is the addressee explicitly depicted as a farmer. It is more likely that "surplus" refers to agricultural y i e l d s in 4QInstruction than 4 Q 4 2 4 . The reconstruction "tru[st]" ( f r J o N n ) is from Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 3 4 . Tanzer, DJD 36, 3 3 6 , reconstructs ([i]DKn), also adding the w o r d -ana. I prefer using the word "trust" since the general thrust o f the document is to provide instruction o n unreliable kinds o f people. DJD 36, 3 3 7 . 3 0

3 1

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misuse of wealth. 4QInstruction uses the term when acknowledging that the rriebin may be forced to borrow: "if you borrow the wealth of m[e]n for your need ( n D I I D n Q ^ ) ..." (4Q417 2 i 21; cf. 1. 24). Use of this term in 4Q424 implies that the addressee could suffer some sort of loss of revenue, but this is never stated directly in the text. Reminding the rriebin of his poverty is a major theme in 4QInstruction. This is not the case in 4Q424. Brin's translation of 4Q424 1 7-8 avoids the possibility of the addressee being poor: "Do not trust in a contentious man to collect money for your necessities." He suggests that these lines refer to a man who should not be trusted with a job that requires him to collect money. In this case the "murmuring" man should perhaps not be hired as a debt collector. This interpretation is reasonable and would accord with the view that 4Q424 has a wealthy addressee. If 4Q424 1 8 shows awareness of the possibility of a decline in position, such a scenario is more likely if his financial affairs are not handled properly. The word "murmuring" (ruibn) connotes not following leaders (cf. Num 14:2, 27). This kind of person could not be trusted with money. If the addressee were to endure a reversal of fortune, it would make sense for him to collect money from outstanding debts. 33

2.3 Other Teachings on Unreliable Employees 4Q424 1 6 warns about the sluggard: "In the hand of a lazy person (b%y) do not entrust resources, for he will not keep your affair discreet." This figure is a topic elsewhere in the wisdom tradition. He is insulted in Prov 6:6-11, which reads in part: "Go to the ant, you lazybones (^XB); consider its ways, and be wise ... How long will you lie there, O lazybones? When will you rise from your sleep?" Prov 26:13-16 derides the sloth as too sluggish even to eat: "The lazy person buries a hand in the dish, and is too tired to bring it back to the mouth" (v. 15 ; cf. 19:24; 22:13). Not surprisingly, he does his tasks poorly. One of the few sayings in Prov 10-31 in the first person reads: "I passed by the field of one who was lazy (^17), by the 3 2

R. Clifford, Proverbs ( O T L ; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1999) 192; J.D. Pleins, The Social Visions of the Hebrew Bible: A Theological Introduction (Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 2 0 0 1 ) 4 6 9 . Brin, "Studies in 40424 1-2," 34. 3 3

4Q424

189

vineyard of a stupid person; and see, it was all overgrown with thorns ... and its stone wall was broken down" (24:30-31 ). Ben Sira is also critical of the idler. Sir 22:1-2 reads: "The sluggard (oianpoG) is like a filthy stone so vile that everyone hisses at it. The sluggard is like a lump of dung; anyone who picks it up scours his hand." These verses are not preserved in Hebrew, but the word oKvipcx; has been understood as a translation of bxv (cf. 37:1 lg). Admonitions against laziness are found elsewhere in traditional wisdom. 4Q424 1 emphasizes the problems of a lazy person in relation to employment, as does Prov 10:26. One should not "entrust resources" (CDK npan) to this figure. This is the only occurrence of the enigmatic word tDK in late Second Temple literature outside of 4QInstruction, which attests the term numerous times (e.g., 4Q416 2 ii 1; 4Q418 126 ii 12). In 4QInstruction the term has a financial sense but it has been translated "secret." In 4Q424 the word seems to have both meanings. Since the sloth should not be trusted with the of the addressee, the term seems to refer to some sort of job or assignment. The lazy person "will not keep your affair discreet" ("[rDK^D Kb) (4Q424 1 6). For the matter to be conducted successfully, it must be kept private. In wisdom literature the root generally refers to modesty (cf. 4Q298 3-4 ii 5). The person of 4Q424 1 6 would not be discreet with regard to the affairs entrusted to him. Traditional wisdom stresses the importance of keeping secrets. Prov 20:19 urges that one avoid the "babbler": "A gossip reveals 34

35

36

37

38

39

40

3 4

Compare Prov 2 0 : 4 : "The lazy person d o e s not p l o w in season; harvest c o m e s , and there is nothing to be found" (cf. 13:4; 19:15). M . H . Segal, abm X T D p iso (Jerusalem: Bialik, 1 9 5 3 ) 130. Pap. Chester Beatty IV, for e x a m p l e , exhorts " A v o i d b e i n g lazy, s o that y o u m a y establish all your affairs" (verso; 1.5). S e e M . V . F o x , Proverbs 1-9 ( A B 18a; N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 2 0 0 0 ) 2 1 9 . Cf. Instruction ofAnkhsheshonq 23.17-18. Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 3 1 . The D e m o t i c w i s d o m text Papyrus Insinger states: "One d o e s not discover the heart o f a m a n in its character if o n e has not sent h i m (on a m i s s i o n ) " ( 1 2 . 1 4 ) . S e e Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 3.195. * M.J. Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction (STDJ 50; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) 152. Brin, "Studies in 1-2," 3 1 . Ibid., 3 2 . A c c o r d i n g to the B manuscript o f B e n Sira, Sir 42:8 affirms that the person w h o f o l l o w s his teaching "will b e truly, strictly observant, a humble person (jnax crx) before all living (humans)." This relies o n the translation o f E . D . R e y m o n d , "Remarks on B e n Sira's 'Instruction on S h a m e ' , Sirach 4 1 , 1 4 - 4 2 , 8 , " ZAW 115 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 3 8 8 - 4 0 0 (esp. 3 9 8 ) . S e e also D i Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 476-83. 3 5

3 6

3 7

3

3 9

4 0

4Q424

190

CHAPTER SEVEN

secrets; therefore do not associate with a babbler (TT190 n n s ) " (cf. 11:13; 25:9). Ben Sira condemns garrulous talk in 19:5-12, part of which reads: "Never repeat gossip, and you will not be reviled" (v. 7; cf. 28:13-26). 4Q424 1 6 echoes the instruction of Proverbs and Ben Sira on the subject of keeping secrets, emphasizing this topic in relation to deciding whom to hire. In Proverbs the b%V is derided for sleeping excessively and being too lazy to feed himself. In 4Q424 the problem with this figure is his inappropriate speech. Perhaps this is why Tanzer translates the word as "stupid." The figure may be too lazy to retain his instructions about keeping the affair private. Lines 6-7 of fragment 1 exhort with regard to this type: "And do not send [through him] wordfs] of instruction (npb [ ^ " o n ) : " Tanzer unpersuasively suggests one read np as an "unknown adjective" (with the preposition lamed) that is parallel to b%3, producing the statement: "do not entrust a message to a dullard for he will not help all your affairs along." According to Brin, this passage warns the addressee not to send the lazy person to "collect a thing of value (npb [Ijin)." It is characteristic of wisdom texts to urge one to acquire learning, using the term n p ^ . The phrase npb [^"Dl of 4Q424 should be understood in light of this tradition. Typically npb is used to praise wisdom in an abstract, general sense. This is the case, for example, in the opening poem of Proverbs: "let the wise also hear and gain in learning (npb) (1:5). 4Q424 does not invoke the acquisition of knowledge in order to inculcate a love of wisdom or to praise Lady Wisdom. Rather, as Brin has suggested, in 4Q424 1 6-7 the "word[s] of instruction" refer to directives the addressee should not give to the sluggard. These missives should not be given to this figure "for he will not keep all your paths straight" (-pmmK bD O^ST *6) (1. 7; cf. 4Q424 3 4). He will not perform his tasks correctly. In Prov 5:6 the image of keeping 41

42

43

44

45

99

46

47

4 1

Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 292-93. Tanzer translates "Into the hand of one who is stupid do not entrust a secret." Note that the sloth is considered "stupid" (a^non) in Prov 24:30. DJD 36, 337, 339. Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 33. A. Lange, "Kognitives Iqh in Sap A, im Tenak und Sir," ZAH9 (1996) 190-95. Compare 4Q418 8117: "Increase in understanding greatly, and from all of your teachers get ever more instruction (ripb)." See also Prov 9:9; Sir 8:8; 51:16; 4Q418 221 3. Brin, "Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 33. 4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4Q424

191

straight on the path is part of a pedagogical effort to encourage students to avoid the "Strange Woman": "She does not keep straight to the path of life" (O^Drrp D^n n i K ) . 4Q424 1 7 uses similar terminology in relation not to allegorical figures but to people who should not be hired. 4 8

3. POSITIVE TYPES OF PEOPLE

4Q424 gives significantly less attention to positive types of people. Only 4Q424 3 7-10 is devoted to such persons. Unlike the statements about unreliable people, the good persons are never explicitly discussed in relation to employment. 4Q424 3 7 declares that "a man of intelligence accepts instruction]" and "a man of knowledge obtains wisdom" (cf. 4Q420 la ii-b 5). Line 8 affirms that "a man of uprightness takes delight injustice (£DSEHD)." Given the legal content of parts of 4Q424 3, it is reasonable to understand the "man of uprightness" as an ideal judge, embodying the practical application of wisdom to the resolution of disputes (1 Kgs 3:16-28). The types of people in 4Q424 3 7-8 have attained wisdom. It is a product of their instruction and love of learning. In that sense they are like the receptive students in Proverbs (e.g., 1:8; 4:1). 49

3.1 The Opponent of "All Who Move the Boundary Marker " According to 4Q424 3 8-9, the "man of valor" (hT\ EPK) is an "adversary to all who move the boundary marker" (b*)Db T") bS2 bl21 TOD). In the Hebrew Bible "those who move the boundary marker" is a by-word for the wicked. Hosea proclaims "The princes of Judah have become like those who remove the landmark (TOM 50

4 8

DJD 36, 3 3 9 ; F o x , Proverbs 1-9, 1 8 8 - 2 1 0 . A c c o r d i n g to DJD 36, 3 4 3 , 4 Q 4 2 4 3 8 reads " A man o f truth re[joices in a prov]erb." T h e relevant portion o f the text suffers from considerable distortion. The phrase "man o f truth" is legible in P A M 4 4 . 1 9 7 . Tanzer's reconstruction o f what f o l l o w s this expression m a k e s s e n s e but cannot be taken as a c o n c l u s i v e reading b e c a u s e o f the poor material condition o f the fragment. S e e also Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 7 2 . The ideal w o m a n o f Prov 3 1 : 1 0 - 3 1 is described as an nm. 4 9

5 0

192

CHAPTER SEVEN

51

bm); on them I will pour out my wrath like water" (5:10). Removing such demarcations is forbidden in biblical law (Deut 19:14; cf. 27:17). This motif is also prominent in traditional wisdom. Amenemope admonishes "Do not move the markers on the borders of fields" (7.11). The same idea ism Prov 22:17-24:22. Prov 22:28 reads: "Do not remove the ancient landmark (^133 aOJT^K) that your ancestors set up." This is echoed in Prov 23:10 (cf. Job 24:2). 4QInstruction adapts this image. 4Q416 2 iii urges the addressee to desire nothing except his "inheritance," a reference to his elect status, otherwise he will move his "boundary marker" (11. 8-9). 4Q416 2 iv 6 affirms the authority of a husband over his wife: "And whoever, apart from you, tries to rule over her has moved the boundary marker of his life Orm bl2) ron)" (cf. 4Q420 la ii-b 7; 4Q421 la ii-b 18). In both cases moving the boundary is understood not in a literal sense but as a designation for people who transgress social expectations. In 4Q424 3 9 "all who move the boundary marker" is a negative expression. The "man of valor" is opposed to such people. He is a T*l bV2 in relation to these transgressors, suggesting the translation "adversary." But this Hebrew phrase is ambiguous. It is quite rare, occurring elsewhere only in 4QInstruction (4Q417 2 i 12), where it seems to have the sense of "advocate," and the Hodayot (15:22-23), in which it refers to people making complaints. The "man of valor" of line 9 could refer to a judge or some type of prosecutor. 2*1 bv2 52

53

54

55

C D 5:20 uses this expression as a designation for the w i c k e d : "and in the age o f devastation o f the land there arose t h o s e w h o shifted the boundary and made Israel stray." The D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t draws directly from H o s 5:10 ( C D 19:15-16; cf. l:16-4QD 14). T h e prologue to this text describes the ideal "scribe o f Egypt" as, a m o n g other things, o n e "who records the markers o n the borders o f fields." Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 2 . 1 4 9 , 1 5 1 ; Clifford, Proverbs, 211. N . Shupak, "The Instruction o f A m e n e m o p e and Proverbs 2 2 : 1 7 - 2 4 : 2 2 from the Perspective o f Contemporary Research," in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to Honor Michael V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. R.L. Troxel et al.; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2 0 0 5 ) 2 0 3 - 2 0 ; H . C . Washington, Wealth and Poverty in the Instructions of Amenemope and the Hebrew Proverbs ( S B L D S 142; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994) 1 3 5 - 4 5 ; Clifford, Proverbs, 208. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 3 , suggests that the "boundary marker" alludes to the Torah. J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington suggest that m bin c o u l d mean "adversary" or "advocate," tentatively favoring the latter (cf. Judg 12:2; Jer 18:19). S e e their Qumran Cave 4.XXIV: Sapiential Texts, Part 2. 4QInstruction (Musar Le Mebin): 4Q415ff With a re-edition oflQ26 ( D J D 3 4 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 9 ) 183. a

5

5 4

5 5

4Q424

193

can be translated as "master of the lawsuit.' Those who move boundary markers will be rebuked and/or punished by the "man of valor." In 4QInstruction moving the boundary marker signifies people who do not properly follow social miens. This represents a typological adaptation of Proverbs, which advises against moving actual property markers. The expression may have a similar meaning in 4Q424, although the text never specifies what transgressions have been committed by those "who move the boundary marker." Given the practical and financial focus of the composition, the phrase could be used in a way that is more like Proverbs than 4QInstruction. In this case the "man of valor" opposes people who change the location of boundary stones for their own unjust gain.

3.2 Compassion for the Poor 4Q424 3 asserts that the ideal man of wisdom has compassion for the poor. Line 9 declares that "a man of generositfy perfo]rms charity for 57 the poor (°Vra*6 npn:*)." This statement is elaborated in line 10: "he takes care of a[l]l who lack property (pn "Hon); the sons of righteousness ..." Parallelism suggests the phrase "sons of righteousness" is another term for those who lack property, but the text is too fragmentary to state this conclusively. The expression could refer to the Dead Sea sect, but there is little in the text to endorse this possibility. The stress on sympathy for the poor in 4Q424 is in continuity with traditional wisdom. This theme is prominent in Proverbs, as in other books of the Hebrew Bible. Prov 14:20-21, for example, affirms that "The poor are disliked even by their neighbors, but the rich have many friends. Those who despise 58

59

60

5 6

DJD 36, 3 4 5 ; Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 9 3 . For more o n the term np-ix, see section 2.1 o f Chapter 6. T h e visible w o r d s o f line 11, "in all wealth," suggest that the disposition o f wealth w a s a k e y topic o f this part o f the fragment. The w o r d D-STOK has b e e n reconstructed in 4 Q 4 2 4 2 5 in DJD 36, 3 4 1 . S e e Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 188; Wright, "The Categories o f R i c h and Poor," 106; H.-J. Fabry, " D i e A r m e n f r o m m i g k e i t in den qumranischen Weisheitstexten," in Weisheit in Israel, 1 4 5 6 5 (esp. 1 6 0 - 6 1 ) . * Brin, "Studies in 4 Q 4 2 4 , fragment 3 , " 2 9 4 . C f , for example, Isa 3 : 1 6 - 2 4 ; A m o s 2:8; P s 4 0 : 1 8 . L.J. H o p p e , There Shall Be No Poor Among You: Poverty in the Bible (Nashville: A b i n g d o n Press, 2 0 0 4 ) . 5 7

5 8

9

6 0

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their neighbors are sinners, but happy are those who are kind to the poor." Prov 31:9 exhorts: "Speak out, judge righteously, defend the rights of the poor and needy" (cf. 19:17; 28:27; 29:7, 14; 31:20). Some sayings portray poverty as a plight: "The wealth of the rich is their fortress; the poverty of the poor is their ruin" (10:15; cf. 18:11). Ben Sira demonstrates concern for the poor that is reminiscent of Proverbs. Sir 7:32, for example, reads: "To the poor also extend your hand, that your blessing may be complete." He emphasizes the vulnerability of the needy: "The bread of charity is life itself for the needy; whoever withholds it is a person of blood" (34:25; cf. 4:8; 21:5; 31:4). He appeals to the Torah to advocate charity for the poor: "Because of the precept, help the needy; do not send them away empty-handed in their want" (29:9; cf. Deut 15:7-11). Whereas Proverbs (and Deuteronomy) warns against going surety (6:1-5; 11:15; 17:18; 22:7; Deut 24:12), Ben Sira advocates it even though it entails risk: "A good person goes surety for his neighbor" (29:14; cf. w . 18-20; 8:12-13). Ben Sira puts forward a philanthropic ethos, teaching that one has a moral obligation to lend money. Surety is also a topic of 4Q424. A fragmentary line from fragment 2 of this text reads: "do not give surety for him among the poo[r]" (1. 3). Not enough of this line survives to interpret it sufficiently. Tanzer has suggested that this vetitive was originally preceded by a negative type of person, perhaps the "hypocrite." If this is the case this person would be among the poor. The advice is probably similar to Sir 29:16-17, which recommends not going surety for an unscrupulous person: "The wicked turns the favor of a pledge into disaster, and the ungrateful schemer abandons his protector." The neighbor for whom 61

62

V . M . A s e n s i o , "Poverty and Wealth: B e n Sira's V i e w o f P o s s e s s i o n s , " in Der Einzelne und seine Gemeinschaft bei Ben Sira (ed. R. E g g e r - W e n z e l and I. Krammer; B Z A W 2 7 0 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1 9 9 8 ) 151-78; M. Gilbert, " W i s d o m o f the Poor: B e n Sira 1 0 , 1 9 - 1 1 , 6 , " in The Book of Ben Sira in Modern Research: Proceedings of the First International Ben Sira Conference, 28-31 July 1996, Soesterberg, Netherlands (ed. P.C. Beentjes; B Z A W 2 5 5 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1 9 9 7 ) 1 5 3 - 6 9 ; B.G. Wright III and C.V. Camp, " W h o H a s B e e n Tested by Gold and Found Perfect? B e n Sira's D i s c o u r s e o f R i c h e s and Poverty," Hen 2 3 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 153-74. DJD 36, 3 4 1 . Before the visible words o f 4 Q 4 2 4 2 3 a final pe is clear. Tanzer reconstructs this as *]3n. This option has the support o f 4 Q 4 2 4 1 12, w h i c h m e n t i o n s this type o f person. It is p o s s i b l e that fragment 2 continues instruction on the "hypocrite" that is at the end o f fragment 1, but the material e v i d e n c e is t o o fragmentary to assert this conclusively. S e e also Murphy, Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 182; Wright, "The Categories o f Rich and Poor," 106. 6 2

4Q424

195

one should go surety in Sir 29:14 is not described as poor. Generosity towards those in need is endorsed but this does not necessarily include going surety for them. 4Q424 seems to have a similar attitude. Surety for the poor is considered a risk. The teaching on surety and almsgiving in 4Q424 sheds light on its social milieu. Ben Sira advocates charitable treatment of the poor in a way that implies that his intended audience does not have financial difficulties. He urges one to "store up almsgiving in your cash box" (29:12), assuming his students have the wherewithal to do so. Similarly, 4Q424 3 9-10 advocates charity for the poor as if it were a group that does not include the addressee. This Qumran text does not endorse the philanthropic attitude espoused by Ben Sira. It is reasonable to understand the intended addressee of 4Q424 as a wealthy person, although perhaps not as aristocratic as Ben Sira. Brin has emphasized the similarities between Ben Sira and 4Q424 with regard to social issues. They both advocate charitable treatment of the poor and offer advice that presumes their addressees are not needy. Ben Sira also describes negative types of people to avoid (e.g., 22:13-18). But the two works do not seem to stem from the same social milieu. Unlike Ben Sira, 4Q424 contains no overt references to a scribal establishment (Sir 38:24-39:11). There is no indication that the addressee of 4Q424 is in training to become a scribe. 4Q424, unlike Proverbs or Ben Sira, never provides instruction on etiquette at formal banquets or other types of interaction with nobility. The emphasis is on him hiring others rather than his service to aristocrats. The retainer class setting of Ben Sira accords with 4Q525 much more than 4Q424. 4Q424 shows no interest in the Temple or cultic piety, in marked contrast to Ben Sira (e.g., 35:1-22). Unlike the Jerusalem sage, 4Q424 shows no interest in Lady Wisdom or the national traditions of Israel. The Qumran text alludes to Torah passages, as in 4Q424 3 2, but never appeals to the text as a whole in the laudatory fashion of Ben Sira. 4Q424 probably is not a product of the scribal class that produced Ben Sira. 63

64

65

6 3

Brin, "The Relationship b e t w e e n 4 Q 4 2 4 and the B o o k o f Ben-Sira," 2 6 5 ; idem,

"Studies in 4Q424 1-2," 27. 6 4

S e e section 7 o f Chapter 8. For example, Sir 4 4 : 6 u s e s the phrase Vri in relation to revered figures in the history o f Israel. 4 Q 4 2 4 3 8 uses the expression (in the singular) in reference to s o m e o n e w h o persecutes social infractions. S e e Brin, " W i s d o m Issues," 3 0 5 . 6 5

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4Q424 does not stem from the same milieu as 4QInstruction. While both documents give advice on trading (e.g., 4Q418 81 18; 4Q418 126 ii 12), they are markedly different in terms of the social status of their audiences. 4QInstruction constantly reminds the addressee of his poverty and deals with the possibility of facing real material hardship, such as a lack of food (4Q417 2 i 17). He is also at times assumed to be a farmer (4Q418 103 ii). In the case of 4QInstruction it is reasonable to understand much of its intended audience as having a relatively low socio-economic status. The same cannot be said for 4Q424. One is encouraged to give to the poor and is not considered among their ranks. There is nothing in 4Q424 about how to trade when in need of food. This document does not have the strong sense of danger with regard to debts that is characteristic of 4QInstruction (e.g., 4Q416 2 ii 4-6). While 4Q416 2 ii 12-17 gives instruction on how to deal with a difficult employer, 4Q424 offers advice on avoiding unreliable employees. The two works have noticeable terminological similarities, such as the rare term £DK. It is possible that the author of one of these texts had read the other. But it is highly unlikely that the same community produced both works. There is no reason to suppose the addressee of 4Q424 has access to the mystery that is to be. The official title of 4Q424 notwithstanding, the similarities between these two texts should not be overstated. 66

67

4.

CONCLUSION

4Q424 contains nothing incompatible with the practical and conservative ethos of Prov 10-31. This Qumran text is dedicated to the traditional sapiential goal of promoting financial and social success. There is almost nothing in 4Q424 that is explicitly theological. The document shows very little interest in God (but see 4Q424 2 2) or the structure of the created order. 4Q424 exhibits no 68

The X CTK format characteristic o f 4 Q 4 2 4 is used with a vetitive in 4 Q 4 1 7 2 i 7: "do not count a man o f iniquity (b-m CTK) as a helper." Strugnell has suggested that 4 Q 4 2 4 may b e derived from 4QInstruction. S e e his "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts Found at Qumran: Variations, R e s e m b l a n c e s , and Lines o f D e v e l o p m e n t , " in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 3 1 6 0 (esp. 4 7 ) . 4 Q 4 2 5 also s e e m s to be a text devoted primarily to practical instruction. This c o m p o s i t i o n is the topic o f section 7 o f Chapter 10. 6 7

6 8

4Q424

197

concern for revelation, eschatology, the angelic world or anything else that could be considered apocalyptic. There is nothing explicit in 4Q424 that establishes that its addressee is aristocratic or wealthy. But this is not an unreasonable conclusion. He is, in the words of Harrington, "a 'man of affairs'— someone who engages in lawsuits, commerce, and the search for wisdom." He has responsibilities and requires trustworthy people working for him. He appoints judges or some other sort of decision maker. An employer, however, need not be an aristocrat. The text could have originated in a rural context. If the document was written in a village setting, the addressee would have power locally, being influential in terms of employment and decision-making, but would not be among the elites of the country. In any case, he is not poor. It is unlikely that the author of 4Q424 was a member of the yahad. He has certainly not donated his wealth to a group leader (1QS 1:11-12). 4Q424 has a prominent interest in the administration of legal affairs but displays no concern for halakhah in a manner compatible with the Damascus Document. 4Q424 includes neither messianism nor familiarity with the dualism and determinism put forward by the Treatise of the Two Spirits. 4Q424 is exclusively devoted to practical and common sense topics in a manner consistent with Prov 10-31. 69

70

Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 2 . T. E l g v i n , " W i s d o m and A p o c a l y p t i c i s m in the Early S e c o n d Century B C E — The E v i d e n c e o f 4QInstruction," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25, 1997 (ed. L.H. Schiffrnan et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine o f the B o o k , Israel M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0 ) 2 2 6 - 4 7 (esp. 2 3 1 ) . 7 0

CHAPTER EIGHT

WISDOM AND THE TORAH: 4QBEATITUDES (4Q525)

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

4QBeatitudes (4Q525) was part of the lot assigned to Jean Starcky in the 1950s. He reported the existence of a text that contained macarisms. The document was officially published by Emile Puech in 1998. 4Q525 is a relatively lengthy document. It consists of fifty fragments. Fragments 2 and 3 preserve a substantial portion of three columns, and fragments 5 and 14 also contain a significant amount of text. 4Q525 is written in Herodian script. 4QBeatitudes is widely regarded as a wisdom text. Its editor 1

2

3

4

1

J. Starcky, "Le Travail d'edition des fragments de Qumran: C o m m u n i c a t i o n de J. Starcky," RB 63 ( 1 9 5 6 ) 6 6 - 6 7 . E. Puech, Qumran Grotte 4.XVIII: Textes Hebreux (4Q521-40528, 4Q5764Q579) ( D J D 2 5 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1998) 1 1 5 - 7 8 . For preliminary publications, see idem, "The Collection o f Beatitudes in H e b r e w and in Greek ( 4 Q 5 2 5 1-4 and M t 5,3-12)," in Early Christianity in Context (ed. F. M a n n s and E. Alliata; Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1993) 3 5 3 - 6 8 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les pericopes des Beatitudes en B e n Sira et Matthieu," RB 98 ( 1 9 9 1 ) 8 0 - 1 0 6 ; idem, "Un H y m n e essenien en partie retrouve et les Beatitudes: 1QH V 12-VI 18 ( = col. X I I I - X I V 7) et 4QBeat," RevQ 13 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 5 9 - 8 8 (esp. 8 4 - 8 8 ) . N o t e also M. Morgenstern, "A 'Reconstructionist' Approach to the D e a d S e a Scrolls: E. P u e c h ' s Edition o f Discoveries in the Judaean Desert XXV? JJS 55 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 3 4 7 - 5 3 . E.J.C Tigchelaar has suggested that P A M 4 3 . 6 8 0 frg. 3 2 c o u l d also b e l o n g to 4 Q 5 2 5 . This fragment attests the phrase "those w h o inherit righteousness." S e e his "On the Unidentified Fragments o f DJD X X X I I I and P A M 4 3 . 6 8 0 : A N e w Manuscript o f 4QNarrative and Poetic Composition, and Fragments o f 4 Q 1 3 , 4 Q 2 6 9 , 4 Q 5 2 5 and 4 Q S b ( ? ) , " RevQ 21 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 4 7 7 - 8 5 (esp. 4 8 4 ) . D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts (London: Routledge, 1 9 9 6 ) 6 6 - 7 0 ; A . S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J.A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1 9 9 5 ) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 5 0 - 5 1 ) ; A. Lange, " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: E i n e Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2 0 0 2 ) 3 - 3 0 (esp. 2 8 - 2 9 ) ; idem, "Die B e d e u t u n g der Weisheitstexte aus Qumran fur die hebraische Bibel," in Weisheit in Israel (ed. D.J.A. Clines, H. Lichtenberger and H.-P. Mttller; A T M 12; Munster: Lit-Verlag, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 2 9 - 4 4 (esp. 134-35); J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea 2

3

4

4QBEATITUDES

(4Q525)

199

describes the document as "un rouleau de Sagesse dont le vocabulaire se rapproche de celui du livre canonique des Proverbes." 4Q525 is a work of instruction. The speaker is a teacher who gives exhortations to a student. Like Prov 1-9, 4Q525 praises wisdom in poetic terms and encourages its pursuit. The author seems to have a conception of personified wisdom, but the work contains no allegory of wisdom as a woman that is lengthy or detailed. 4QBeatitudes explicitly associates wisdom with the Torah (4Q525 2 ii + 3 3-4), and Torah piety is a distinguishing feature of the work. In this regard 4Q525 resembles Ben Sira and 4Q185. Many commentators have focused on the beatitudes of 4Q525 and their contribution to the study of the gospels. 4Q525 includes a collection of five beatitudes, providing a parallel to the sequence of beatitudes in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5:3-12). The significance of 4Q525 is by no means limited to this topic. 4Q525 2 ii + 3 is the only section of the work that contains beatitudes. There are similarities between 4QBeatitudes and the undisputed writings of the Dead Sea sect. The Torah is central, for example, in the rulebooks and 4QBeatitudes. However, there is no unambiguous evidence indicating that these texts should be attributed to the same movement. Puech dates 4Q525 to the middle of the second century BCE. This is a reasonable assessment. But this work, like many 5

6

7

Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment (2 v o l s . ; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 3 1 - 3 2 ) ; C. B e n n e m a , "The Strands o f W i s d o m Tradition in Intertestamental Judaism: Origins, D e v e l o p m e n t s and Characteristics," TynBul 5 2 ( 2 0 0 1 ) 6 1 - 8 1 (esp. 7 7 ) ; J.C.R. de R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " in The Scrolls and The Scriptures (ed. S.E. Porter and C.A. Evans; JSPSup 2 6 ; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1997) 3 3 8 - 6 7 . In the s a m e v o l u m e as L a n g e ' s first article, see J. Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts F o u n d at Qumran: Variations, R e s e m b l a n c e s , and Lines o f D e v e l o p m e n t , " 3 1 6 0 (esp. 4 9 - 5 2 ) . * DJD 25, 115. J.H. Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes ( 4 Q 5 2 5 ) and the N e w Testament (Mt 5 : 3 - 1 1 , Lk 6 : 2 0 - 2 6 ) , " RHPR 8 0 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 13-35; J.A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian Origins (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 0 ) 1 1 1 - 1 8 ; idem, " A Palestinian Collection o f Beatitudes," in The Four Gospels 1992: Festschrift Frans Neirynck (ed. F. v a n Segbroeck et al.; B E T L 100; Leuven: L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1 9 9 2 ) 5 0 9 - 1 5 ; B . V i v i a n o , "Eight Beatitudes from Qumran and in Matthew? A N e w Publication from C a v e Four," SEA 5 8 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 7 1 - 8 4 ; G J . B r o o k e , "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes ( 4 Q B e a t and Mt. 5:3-12)," ScrB 19 ( 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 ) 3 5 - 4 1 . This last essay is reprinted in idem, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2 0 0 5 ) 2 1 7 - 3 4 . DJD 25, 119. 6

7

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CHAPTER EIGHT

wisdom texts, is difficult to date because it has no clear allusions to historical events. 4Q525 5 7-8, which urges its intended audience to not give over its "lot" to foreigners, could indicate that the text was written against the backdrop of the Maccabean crisis. An anti-Gentile mindset could also be a reaction to the Roman occupation of the first century BCE.

2. A PEDAGOGICAL PROLOGUE

A portion of the beginning of 4QBeatitudes may have survived. This fragment is classified as 4Q525 l. The text reads: "[which he spo]ke by the wisdom (ITODTQ) that Go[d] gave to him ... [to acquijre wisdom and discipline] ([")0]1Q iTODTt n[mS]), to understand (*7O0r6) ... to increase knowledge] ([ni7]n ^Oin*?)" (11. 1-3). This resembles the prologue to the book of Proverbs (l:l-7). Both texts establish the theme of the acquisition of wisdom and set the pedagogical tone for what follows. They employ similar language to make this point. Prov 1:2 asserts that the book is "for learning about wisdom and instruction ("JOE HEDn nir6)" (cf. v. 7). The thematic similarity between Prov 1 and 4Q525 1 supports Puech's suggestion that the fragment is from the beginning of the composition. Unlike the prologue to Proverbs, 4Q525 1 presents wisdom as given by God. This claim is probably not an appeal to esoteric revelation in a manner similar to 4QInstruction. 4QBeatitudes endorses the Torah as a source of wisdom and never describes any revelation aside from that of Sinai. It is reasonable to understand 4Q525 1 1 as a reference to God giving the Torah. The law is also mentioned in the beginning of the prologue to Ben Sira. Puech has proposed that the person in line 1 who receives wisdom 8

9

10

11

8

Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 3 - 5 4 . P u e c h , DJD 25, 1 2 1 , grants that the word transcribed as ["IDJIB could "theoriquement" b e reconstructed as [rrajrn. T h e word "knowledge]" o f line 3 has a very slim material basis. T h e dominant theme o f the acquisition o f w i s d o m supports reading this term. D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 3 9 . T h e first line o f the p r o l o g u e reads: "Many notable truths have b e e n g i v e n u s through the L a w , the Prophets, and the later authors; and for these the instruction and w i s d o m o f Israel merit praise." 9

1 0

1 1

4QBEATITUDES (4Q525)

201

from God is either David or Solomon. He has suggested that this line be supplemented so that it reads: "[Words (or Proverbs) of David (or of Solomon son of David), which he spok]e (or wrote) by the wisdom that Go[d] gave to him." Neither Solomon nor David is mentioned anywhere else in 4QBeatitudes. If one wishes to look to biblical lore for an antecedent to the word "him" in 4Q525 1 1, Moses is a more plausible referent, given the prominence of Torah piety in the work. But the document never explicitly appeals to Moses either. The line could function as a title to the work as a whole, describing the author who possesses wisdom in the third person. This would help legitimate the composition as an instruction. The prologue to Ben Sira has a similar function (v. 4; cf. 24:32). The person in question could also be the student addressee, to whom God has given wisdom through his teacher and the Torah. The passage is too fragmentary to decide this issue with more precision. 13

3. THE BEATITUDE COLLECTION

Of the fragments of 4QBeatitudes, 4Q525 2 ii + 3 has attracted the most attention. Lines 1-6 read: 14

[Happy is he who speaks truth] with a pure heart and does not slander with his tongue. Happy are those who cling to her statutes (mpin) and do not cling to the ways of iniquity. Hap[py] are those who rejoice in her and do not burst out upon the ways of folly. Happy are those who seek her with pure hands and do not search for her with a deceitful heart (riDID 3^3). Happy is the man who has obtained wisdom, follows the Torah of the Most High (]rbv nmna "f?nrr), sets his heart toward her ways, controls himself with her disciplines (iTH'iO'O and takes pleasure alwfays] in her chastisements; who does not forsake her in the affliction of [his] trouble[s], does not abandon her in the time of anguish, does not forget her [in the days of] dread and who does not reject [her] with the humility of his soul. 15

DJD 25,121. P u e c h , "The C o l l e c t i o n o f Beatitudes," 3 5 4 . DJD 25, 1 2 2 - 2 8 ; Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 3 - 6 2 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les p e r i c o p e s des Beatitudes," 8 3 - 8 6 ; B r o o k e , "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes," 3 5 - 4 0 ; Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1 1 4 - 1 8 ; Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 1 8 - 2 1 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 7 - 6 9 . T h e e x p r e s s i o n "[his] trouble[s]" in line 5 is based on the transcription [v]~is?a. Puech, DJD 25, 122, observes that it can be reconstructed as [is]nsn, "[his] tria[l]." 1 3

1 4

1 5

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This passage is exceptional for two reasons. While beatitudes are relatively common in the Hebrew Bible and late Second Temple literature (see below), they normally occur alone or in pairs. 4Q525 2 ii + 3 1-6 provides a rare example of a sequence of beatitudes in Hebrew. The praise in lines 3-4 of the man who has wisdom and reveres the "Torah of the Most High" is the most explicit association of wisdom with the Torah in the Qumran sapiential corpus. A beatitude is a literary form that describes an ideal type of person. They usually begin with 'HIBK in Hebrew or fiaioxpioc in Greek. These words are often translated as "blessed" or "happy." I prefer "happy" since 'HIBK should be distinguished from "p"Q ("blessed"). The former is used to praise a human being while the latter typically extols God. Fabry has defined the beatitude as "ein Synergismus zwischen menschlichem Wohlverhalten und uberreichem gottlichen Lohn." The beatitude is often considered a sapiential form but is attested in both wisdom and non-wisdom texts. In the Hebrew Bible beatitudes occur predominately in Proverbs and the Psalms. A beatitude that may be taken as representative is in Prov 8:34, in which Lady Wisdom exhorts "Happy is the one who listens to me, watching daily at my gates, waiting beside my doors." The form is prominent 16

17

18

B o t h are materially p o s s i b l e and there is n o major semantic difference b e t w e e n the t w o options. S e e also P u e c h , "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 5 , 3 6 7 . Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 8 . H.-J. Fabry, "Der M a k a r i s m u s — M e h r als nur eine weisheitliche Lehrform: Gedanken zu d e m neu-edierten Text 4 Q 5 2 5 , " in Alttestamentlicher Glaube und Biblische Theologie: Festschrift fur Horst Dietrich Preuss zum 65. Geburtstag (ed. J. Hausmann and H.-J. Zobel; Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 1 9 9 2 ) 3 6 2 - 7 1 (esp. 3 6 2 ) . S e e also Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 117. A classic study o f the beatitude is J. Dupont, Les Beatitudes (3 v o l s . ; Paris: Gabalda, 1 9 5 2 - 7 3 ) . H e classifies beatitudes into t w o categories, sapiential and eschatological. There are over forty beatitudes in the Hebrew Bible. S e e , for example, Prov 3:13; 8:32; 14:21; 16:20; 20:7; 2 8 : 1 4 ; 2 9 : 1 8 ; P s s 1:1; 2:12; 3 2 : 1 - 2 ; 8 4 : 4 - 5 ; 128:1-2; 144:15; D e u t 3 3 : 2 9 ; Isa 3 0 : 1 8 ; Dan 12:12; 1 K g s 10:8; 2 Chr 9:7. T h e form is rare in narrative texts. T h e e x a m p l e s o f the form in K i n g s and Chronicles praise those w h o are able to hear S o l o m o n ' s w i s d o m . T h e Septuagint has additional beatitudes, m a n y o f w h i c h are in B e n Sira ( 1 4 : 1 - 2 ; 2 5 : 8 - 9 ; 2 6 : 1 ; 2 8 : 1 9 ; 3 1 : 8 ; 4 8 : 1 1 ; 5 0 : 2 8 ) . S e e also 2 M a c 1:17; T o b 13:14; W i s 3 : 1 3 14. For a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e list o f beatitudes in the H e b r e w B i b l e and Septuagint, see R.F. Collins, "Beatitudes," ABD, 1.629-31. Consult further V i v i a n o , "Eight Beatitudes," 7 2 - 7 3 ; Fitzmyer. The Dead Sea Scrolls, 112; W. Janzen, "'asre in the Old Testament," HTR 5 8 ( 1 9 6 5 ) 2 1 5 - 2 6 . 1 6

1 7

1 8

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4QBEATITUDES (4Q525)

in some apocalypses, particularly 2 Enoch. The beatitude is widely attested throughout ancient Jewish and Christian literature. 20

3.1 The Structure of the Beatitude Collection in 4Q525 4Q525 2 ii + 3 exhibits a degree of structure that is uncommon in the Qumran wisdom corpus. Each time the word "HEX appears it is preceded by a vacat. Each 'HttJK-statement is followed by another beginning with KlSl, producing a pattern "Y KlSl X TDK vacat? This structure supports Puech's claim that the first line of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 contains the second half of a beatitude, the rest of which can be safely reconstructed: "[Happy is he who speaks truth] with a pure

1 9

See, for example, I En. 58:2; 81:4; 82:4; 99:10; 103:5; 2 En. 41:2; 42:6-14; 52:1-14; 66:7; Sib. Or. 3:371-72. For other beatitudes in the pseudepigrapha, see Pss. Sol. 4:23; 5:16; 17:44; 18:6-7 (cf. 2 Bar. 10:6; 54:10). The New Testament has approximately forty beatitudes. Aside from Matt 5:311 and Luke 6:20-23, see, for example, Luke 23:29; John 20:29; Rom 14:22; Rev 1:3; 19:9. Rom 4:7-8 cites the beatitudes of Ps 32:1-2. For other early Christian beatitudes, see Gos. Thorn. 7, 19, 49. The Gospel of Thomas also preserves versions of several beatitudes attested in Matt 5 and Luke 6 (see Gos. Thorn. 54, 68-69; cf. Gos. Thorn. 79 with Luke 11:27-28). There is a lengthy sequence of beatitudes in 2 0

Acts Paul 5-6.

There are not many beatitudes in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Aside from 4Q525 2 ii + 3, see 4Q185 1-2 ii 8, 13; 4Q528 5; 4Q163 23 ii 9; 4Q200 7 i 4. The beatitude in 4Q163 (4QIsaiah Pesher ) is part of a citation of Isa 30:18. The beatitude in 4Q200 (4QTob ) is a reconstructed version of Tob 13:14. Puech, "Un Hymne essenien," 66, 79, has reconstructed a beatitude in 1QH 6. Also note 1QM 13:2-3. This text employs the word yni to praise God and then repeats it in reference to those who serve him. For beatitudes in rabbinic literature, see, for example, b. Hag 14b; b. 0

e

Yoma 86a; b. Ber. 61b.

For surveys of ancient Jewish and Christian beatitudes, see Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 22-33; Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 111-14; Fabry, "Der Makarismus," 364-68; idem, "Seligpreisungen in der Bibel und in Qumran," in The Wisdom

Texts

from

Qumran,

189-200; M.

Hengel,

Judaica,

Hellenistica

et

Christiana: Kleine Schriften II (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 224-33; H.D. Betz, The Sermon on the Mount (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995) 97-105; H. Lichtenberger, "Makarismen in den Qumrantexten und im Neuen Testament," in Wisdom

and Apocalypticism

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls

and in the Biblical

Tradition

(ed. F. Garcia Martinez; BETL 168; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 2003) 395-411. Lichtenberger has a similar article on this topic in Weisheit in Israel, 16782. See also idem, "Makarisms in Matthew 5:3ff. in Their Jewish Context," in The Sermon

on the Mount

and its Jewish

Setting

(ed. H.-J. Becker and S. Ruzer; CahRB

60; Paris: Gabalda, 2005) 40-56. In the same volume, see J. Frey, "The Character and Background of Matt 5:25-26: On the Value of Qumran Literature in New Testament Interpretation," 3-39.

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heart and does not slander with his tongue" (cf. Ps 15:2-3). 4Q525 originally had at least five beatitudes. Only the last, in lines 3-6, deviates from the "Y Klbl X nDK vacat" format. This beatitude is longer than the other four. After the initial 'HEJK-stich it contains four positive statements and then four with JO^I. The sequence of beatitudes in 4Q525 attests a "4 + 1" pattern. Puech has argued that 4Q525 2 ii + 3 preserves roughly half of an original sequence of probably nine beatitudes, that is [4] + 4 + l. This view is based on an elaborate analysis of other beatitude collections. These include 1QH 6:13-16, Sir 14:20-27 and Matt 5:310. His version of 1QH 6:13-16 produces one strophe of 31 words. Sir 14:20-27 is composed of eight units of 5-7 words each. These fall into two pairs of distiches, with each pair forming a strophe of 23 words. The whole unit consists of 46 words. Analyzing Matt 5:310, Puech finds comparable symmetry. This unit has 72 words and contains nine beatitudes, as he posits for 4Q525. The Matthean beatitudes comprise two strophes, each of which has 36 words. Each strophe has a distich of 20 words and one of 16 words. This material exhibits a striking degree of regularity in terms of the word counts of its strophes. Puech concludes that he has discovered strict formal principles that shape the structure of beatitude collections. In each case "These figures are certainly due to the use of a precise pattern and definite rules by the different authors" of these beatitude collections. The beatitudes of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 form two strophes, each 31 words in length, the same amount of words, by Puech's reckoning, as in the collection in 1QH 6. Each strophe of beatitudes in 4Q525 consists of 22

23

24

25

26

2 1

DJD 25, 126; Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 4 ; Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 117; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 8 . DJD 25, 127. Ibid., 128; Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 6 1 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les pericopes des Beatitudes," 8 0 . S e e P u e c h , "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 7 - 6 2 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les pericopes des Beatitudes," 9 0 - 1 0 1 . H i s analysis o f the p a s s a g e from the H o d a y o t presumes his o w n reconstruction. The word is not extant in this section. H e reconstructs this text partially o n the basis o f 4QBeatitudes. S e e his "Un H y m n e essenien," 7 9 . T h e pericope in question is listed in DSSSE, 1.153-54, as 1QH 6:2-5. For analysis o f structuralist features in other texts o f B e n Sira, s e e E . D . R e y m o n d , Innovations in Hebrew Poetry: Parallelism and the Poems of Sirach (Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Literature, 2 0 0 4 ) . Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 6 1 . 2 1

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two distiches, one of 15 words, and one of 16. Puech infers that the extant beatitudes in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 were preceded by at least one strophe of beatitudes containing 31 words. This fragment has a visible upper margin, so the lost portion of the collection was "obviously copied at the unpreserved bottom of frg. 2 i." Puech's views regarding the number of words and beatitudes of the original collection cannot be verified, since it involves claims about material that has not survived. He should be credited for discerning structural patterns in collections of beatitudes. It is not clear that they were written according to such strict guidelines in every instance. For example, while the original text of 2 Enoch has not survived, the beatitude collections in chapters 42 and 52 of that book do not appear to be shaped by the symmetrical patterns discerned by Puech. Also there are noticeable formal differences among the beatitude collections he analyzes. For example, only the first statement of Sir 14:20-27 has the word the rest of the collection adds participial phrases that provide further description of the one who is happy. The relevant passage in 1QH 6 has an "HttfN-statement only in its first line as well, assuming Puech's reconstruction. Matt 5 is a closer structural parallel than 1QH 6 or Sir 14. Matt 5:3-10 consists of eight beatitudes, each of which begins with a jiaKapioi-statement followed by another that starts with o i l . There is a longer beatitude in Matt 5:11, producing an 8 + 1 structure that makes Puech's proposal of a [4] + 4 + 1 beatitude format for 4Q525 a legitimate possibility. He could be correct, but it is not necessary to apply the structural principles he discerns to sections of 4Q525 that did not survive. 27

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3.2 The Beatitudes of 4Q525 and the Gospels The Lucan beatitudes (6:20-23) bear little resemblance in terms of symmetry to Sir 14, 4Q525 2 ii + 3 or Matt 5. Luke 6 also balances its beatitudes with woes (w. 24-26). There are woes neither in the 2 7

Ibid., 361; DJD 25,128. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 116. Lichtenberger, "Makarismen," 396. Puech, "The Collection of Beatitudes," 357. Matt 5:11-12 has been considered "the result of an expansion" of the beatitudes in w . 3-10. See Betz, The Sermon on the Mount, 105. 2 8

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Sermon on the Mount nor 4Q525. Puech concludes that 4QBeatitudes helps fill out the "substrat semitique" of Matt 5:3-12 and that this background does not influence Luke 6:20-23. The former pericope represents "une composition mattheenne originelle." The Lucan beatitudes are therefore "secondary and later" in relation to those of Matthew. The standard synoptic view is that Luke preserves a more original form of Q than Matthew, whose author was more willing to re­ arrange his source material. Puech's thesis regarding Matthew would turn this consensus opinion on its head. He never engages substantively with the issue of Q. 4Q525 should not force a major revision of standard views in synoptic studies. If one grants Puech's claims it does not necessarily follow that the beatitudes of Matthew must be older than those of Luke. A common view is that Q included a sequence of three beatitudes, which are preserved in Luke 6:20b23. Thus both the authors of Luke and Matthew expanded the Q beatitudes. Luke appended a series of woes (6:24-26) and Matthew made several changes of his own, including the addition of several beatitudes. If the author of Matthew were aware of the formal guidelines that are attested in 4Q525 and Sir 14, these principles could have guided his reworking of the Q beatitudes. The beatitudes of Matthew are not necessarily older than those of Luke. 32

33

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DJD 25, 115; Puech, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les pericopes des Beatitudes," 8 0 . Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 6 2 . J.-M. van Cangh, "Beatitudes de Qumran et beatitudes evangeTiques. Anteriorite d e Matthieu sur L u c ? " in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 413-25. D . Flusser idiosyncratically argues that the synoptic beatitude collection had ten beatitudes, whereas Matt 5 has nine. H e claims that the tenth is Luke 6:21b, w h i c h w a s r e m o v e d b y Matthew. See his Judaism and the Origins of Christianity (Jerusalem: M a g n e s , 1 9 8 8 ) 1 1 2 - 1 3 . Consult also J.C. VanderKam and P.W. Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls ( N e w York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2002) 336-38. B r o o k e , "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes," 3 7 , writes regarding the beatitudes o f M a t t h e w and Luke "It m a y n o longer b e p o s s i b l e to propose w h i c h is the more original." V i v i a n o , "Eight Beatitudes," 8 2 ; van Cangh, "Beatitudes de Qumran," 4 2 4 . J.S. K l o p p e n b o r g Verbin, Excavating Q: The History and Setting of the Sayings Gospel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2 0 0 0 ) 6 8 . S e e also J.S. Kloppenborg, The Formation of Q (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1999 [orig. pub., 1987]); Betz. The Sermon on the Mount, 1 0 9 - 1 1 . There is also no reason to attribute direct influence from 4QBeatitudes upon Matthew, although this possibility can not be dismissed out o f hand. Brooke, "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes," 3 9 , claims that several beatitudes in Matthew 3 3

3 4

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3 7

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4. THE PURSUIT OF WISDOM IN 4QBEATITUDES

The overall goal of 4Q525 is to encourage the pursuit of wisdom. The text stresses that this search should be sincere, devout and focused on the Torah. In this regard there is continuity between 4Q525 and the Sermon on the Mount. Torah observance is explicitly advocated in the Sermon (Matt 5:17-20), although none of its beatitudes mention the law directly. Puech argues that the "poor in spirit" of Matt 5:3 refers to those who "submit themselves to the divine Law." The "poor in spirit" of Matt 5:3 has a parallel in the expression m"l •naif of 1QH 6:3, part of Puech's reconstructed beatitude collection (cf. 23:14-15; 1QM 14:7; 1QS 4:3). In this text the term is part of a sequence of expressions, such as "men of truth," which apparently refer to the Dead Sea sect. According to 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6, the one who is happy should not reject wisdom "with the humility of his soul (1033 HUM)" (cf. 1QS 3:8; T. Jud 19:2). Humility is a prominent feature of the character development fostered by 4QBeatitudes, as in 4QWords of the Maskil (cf. 4Q298 3-4 ii 5-6). 4Q525 5 13 teaches that those who love God "humble themselves in her (PG liraST)." Line 12 of this fragment encourages one to follow "her ways," as in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 4, which, given its context, presumably alludes to wisdom and the Torah. Humility is thus 39

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"may b e interacting with E s s e n e understanding." This perspective a s s u m e s that 4 Q 5 2 5 is an E s s e n e text. Earlier D . Flusser had put forward the related v i e w that the g o s p e l beatitudes w e r e designed with E s s e n e traditions in mind. S e e his Judaism and the Origins of Christianity, 105-6; Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 2 9 . T h e provenance o f 4 Q 5 2 5 v i s - a - v i s the D e a d Sea sect is examined in section 7 o f this chapter. Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 6 3 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les pericopes d e s Beatitudes," 1 0 1 . For further discussion, see H e n g e l , "Zur matthaischen Bergpredigt und ihrem jtidischen Hintergrund," in Judaica, Hellenistica et Christiana, 219-92; A.J. Saldarini, Matthew's Christian-Jewish Community (Chicago: University o f C h i c a g o Press, 1994) 1 2 4 - 6 4 ; W . D . D a v i e s , The Setting of the Sermon on the Mount ( B J S 186; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1 9 8 9 ) ; Flusser, Judaism and the Origins of Christianity, 1 0 2 - 2 5 ; L.E. Keck, "The Poor a m o n g the Saints in Jewish Christianity and Qumran," ZNW51 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 5 4 - 7 8 . In P u e c h ' s reconstruction this text is in 1QH 6:14. S e e his "Un H y m n e essenien," 6 6 . D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 8 ; H.-J. Fabry, " D i e A r m e n f r o m m i g k e i t in den qumranischen Weisheitstexten," in Weisheit in Israel, 1 4 5 6 5 (esp. 163). The immediate context o f the d i s c u s s i o n o f humility in 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 e m p h a s i z e s not abandoning the pursuit o f w i s d o m amidst difficult circumstances ( s e e below). 4 0

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associated with both. The stress on humility can be read as a call to submit oneself to the Torah, as Puech has argued regarding the "poor in spirit" of Matthew (cf. Avot 4:10). Also, 4Q525 14 ii 20 teaches that one should speak with "just humility" (fHS mai7) (cf. 4Q525 10 4; 4Q525 27 1). The theme of acquiring wisdom runs throughout 4QBeatitudes. One is repeatedly urged to heed the words of the speaker. 4Q525 14 ii 18 reads, for example: "And now, understanding one (p3Q), listen to me and set your heart to the w[ords of my mouth]." While the word y o o is used constantly in reference to the addressee in 4QInstruction, in 4Q525 the term is only used once in this way (cf. 4Q303 l ) . hi 4Q525 2 ii + 3 12 the speaker refers to his audience as "sons" in the vocative, a common term for students in Proverbs and Ben Sira: "[And] now, O sons, lifsten . . . ] " ([*U7D]t8 D^W nn»[1]) (e.g., Prov 4:1, 10; Sir31:22). 4Q525 14 ii 18 encourages its addressee to orient his heart towards the speaker. 4Q525 2 ii + 3 3 states that one should not seek wisdom with a deceitful heart. 4Q525 5 7 reiterates not pursuing wisdom with a deceitful heart. 4Q185 also emphasizes that to acquire wisdom one must search for it with honesty and sincerity (1-2 ii 13-15). A person desiring wisdom must have a "pure heart" (4Q525 2 ii + 3 1), a posture also endorsed in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5:8). Sir 14:21a reads "ob rPD"n bs DWH ("who ponders her ways in his 42

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While the poor in Matthew and the rewards offered to them are often understood in relation to the eschatological good news promised to the poor in Isa 61, there is no indication that this chapter is important for the humility of the soul advocated in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6. See Puech, "4Q525 et les pericopes des Beatitudes," 106; van Cangh, "Beatitudes de Qumran," 419; Hengel, Judaica, Hellenistica et Christiana, 243-49. Other exhortations to listen to the speaker include 4Q525 10 3; 4Q525 13 6: 4Q525 24 ii 2; and 4Q525 31 1 (cf. 4Q525 26 2). The phrase "w[ords of my mouth]" in 4Q525 14 ii 18 is a reconstruction suggested by Puech, DJD 25, 146, that has a poor material basis. Given the parallelism of the line, this reading is plausible. Note the term piaa in 4Q525 16 3, a Niphal participle of the verb p . See E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "The Addressees of 4QInstruction," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical 4 3

4 4

Texts from Organization

Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998 (ed. D. Falk et al.; STDJ 35; Leiden:

Brill 2000) 62-75 (esp. 69). 4Q525 2 ii + 3 12 is similar to Prov 8:32a, which reads "And now, O sons, listen to me (-h wao •••aa nnm)." The relevant portion of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 3 reads n a n a &2 n n n a r KV? and of 4

4 6

4Q525 5 7 nana ibi 4 7

rrra[-n]n

Brooke, "The Wisdom of Matthew's Beatitudes," 38.

4QBEATITUDES

(4Q525)

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heart"). This can be rendered as "the one who fixes his heart upon her ways," referring to the Torah and wisdom. This is similar to 4Q525 2 ii + 3 4, which declares that the one who is happy "sets his heart toward her ways" ("ob T D T l b p ^ ) . The importance placed on the "heart" of the student of wisdom is reminiscent of Ps 37:30-31, which declares that those who speak with wisdom have "the law of their God" in their hearts. The basic goal of Sir 14:20-27, as in 4Q525 2 ii + 3, is to encourage the acquisition of wisdom. Sir 14:20-21 reads: "Happy is the person who meditates on wisdom (HIUT n & D m ttHJK ")E7K), and fixes his gaze on understanding; who ponders her ways in his heart and pays attention to her paths." The sequence of statements about the happy man in 14:20-27 is immediately followed by the assertion that the Torah is a key source of wisdom: "He who fears the Lord will do this; he who is practiced in the Law will come to Wisdom" (15:1). Ben Sira shares with 4QBeatitudes a Torah-centered conception of wisdom. Sir 14:20 uses the verb nan to describe the happy man's focus on wisdom. This verse endorses the study of the Torah, as in Sir 6:37, which culminates another poem on wisdom (cf. 50:28). The verb nan is used in Ps 1:2: "on his law he meditates ( i r n i n n nan*0 day and night" (cf. Josh 1:8). 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6 declares that one who is happy "meditates upon her always" ( T E H n a T n3) (cf. 4Q525 14 ii 19). Given the theme of Torah piety, this line probably refers to the study of the law, as in Sir 14. Line 4 of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 calls the law the "Torah of the Most High" (]vbu n i T l ) . This expression is used for the Torah several times by Ben Sira (41:4, 8; 48

49

n

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51

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N o t e the fragmentary expression "to make your heart [understand" in 4QInstruction ( 4 Q 4 2 3 7 7). Puech, "The C o l l e c t i o n o f Beatitudes," 3 5 8 - 5 9 ; idem, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et l e s pericopes des Beatitudes," 9 1 - 9 5 . T h e Torah is also associated with w i s d o m in 2 Baruch ( 3 8 : 2 , 4 ; 4 8 : 2 4 ; 7 7 : 1 6 ; cf. T Levi 13:1-9; W i s 9:9). Cf. Prov 8:7; P s 3 7 : 3 0 . In 4 Q 4 1 8 4 3 4 this verb is associated with the contemplation o f the mystery that is t o be. A . A . D i Leila and P . W . Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira ( A B 3 9 ; N e w York: Doubleday, 1987) 263. T h e word nmtzr o f 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 6 is in parallelism with narr. S e e P s s 119:15, 2 3 , 2 7 , 4 8 and 7 8 . Consult also DJD 25, 1 2 5 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 69; Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 2 0 ; G.W.E. Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins: Diversity, Continuity, and Transformation (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2 0 0 3 ) 2 9 - 5 1 . 4 9

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42:2; 49:4; cf. 45:5). The phrase also occurs in the Cave 11 Psalms Scroll (HQPs 18:12). The happy man "walks" Cf?nJT) according to the Torah of the Most High (4Q525 2 ii + 3 3-4). 4Q525 5 11 calls those who avoid iniquity CTDn " O ^ i n , "those who walk in perfection," an expression that is prominent in the sectarian rulebooks. This may be an allusion to halakhah. However, 4QBeatitudes exhibits no concern for issues such as the Sabbath or ritual purity, in contrast to the Damascus Document and the Community Rule. 4QBeatitudes is closer in spirit to Ben Sira's instruction, which praises God's Torah as the key to following the right path, without showing interest in the details of its legal material. Sir 14 and 4Q525 are not the only texts that employ beatitudes to endorse a Torah-centered conception of wisdom. 4Q185 uses the form to praise wisdom: "Happy is the man who does her (wisdom) and does not play tricks ag[ainst her, nor] with [a spirit] of deceit seek her, nor hold fast to her with flatteries" (4Q185 1-2 ii 13-14). Line 8 reads: "Happy is the man to whom she is given." As discussed in Chapter 4, "she" refers to wisdom. The author also advocates observance of the Torah: "do not rebel against the words of YHWH" (4Q185 1-2 ii 3). This text, like 4Q525, combines wisdom and Torah. The tradition of using beatitudes to praise the acquisition of wisdom seems reliant on both Proverbs and the Psalms. The beatitude of Prov 3:13 reads "Happy are those who find wisdom ( T O D n ) and those who get understanding (nainn)" (cf. 8:32, 34). The so-called wisdom psalms employ beatitudes to praise a conception of wisdom that may refer to a version of the Mosaic law or perhaps "instruction" in a more a

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a

T h e k e y section o f 1 l Q P s 18:12 reads "their meditation is on the Torah o f the M o s t H i g h " (]vbv rmra onrrra). S e e also DJD 25, 124; de R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 0 . 1 Q S 2:2; 3:9; 9:19; C D 1:20-21. The expression has also been plausibly reconstructed in 4 Q 5 2 5 1 1 - 1 2 3 (cf. 4 Q 5 2 5 2 7 4 ) . The fragmentary text 4 Q 5 2 5 2 0 2 attests the phrase j n ^ i n . S e e also P s s 15:2; 8 4 : 1 2 ; Prov 2 8 : 1 8 . Consult further DJD 25, 134; de R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 9 . A s d i s c u s s e d in section 6, 4 Q 5 2 5 14 ii 15, referring to the students the ideal addressee will eventually have, states that they "will walk together in your teaching" (ITP -ohm n r r o ^ r a ) . Cf. 4 Q 1 6 9 3 - 4 ii 8. T h e t w o terms for k n o w l e d g e in this verse are also in the beatitude o f Sir 14:20. The "path" t e r m i n o l o g y o f Sir 14:21 matches that o f Prov 3:17. S e e Puech, " 4 Q 5 2 5 et les p e r i c o p e s d e s Beatitudes," 9 2 ; V i v i a n o , "Eight Beatitudes," 7 9 ; D i Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 2 6 3 . 5 5

5 6

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general sense. Ps 119:1-2 reads "Happy are those whose way is blameless, who walk in the law of the Lord. Happy are those who keep his decrees, who seek him with their whole heart." Ps 1 begins "Happy is the one who does not follow the advice of the wicked ... his delight is in the law of the Lord" (cf. 94:12; 112:1). There are differences between the depictions of the pursuit of wisdom in Sir 14 and 4Q525 2 ii + 3. The former envisions the student as never taking his eye off wisdom. He is stalking "her like a scout and watching her entryways; [he] peeps through her window and listens at her doors" (14:22-23). No one in 4Q525 is described as pursuing wisdom like a hunter. Ben Sira envisions wisdom as a tree, an image reliant on Prov 3:18 (Sir 14:26-27). This motif is not found in 4QBeatitudes. The portrayals of the pursuit of wisdom in 4Q525 and Sir 51:13-30 are also different. The latter poem construes the search for wisdom as one of passion and intensity, underscored with erotic language: "My whole being was stirred to seek her; therefore I have made her my prize possession" (51:21). 4Q525 portrays the search for wisdom in less romantic terms. The search for wisdom in 4Q525 is in some ways closer to Sir 6:18-37 than 14:20-27. Sir 6:18 reads: "My son, from your youth embrace discipline; thus you will gain wisdom (HDDn -Ptt?n) with graying hair." The beatitude of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 3 employs similar vocabulary: "Happy is the man who has obtained wisdom (NBn riBDn)." A major theme of Sir 6:18-37 is the acceptance of the discipline of wisdom. Ben Sira advocates that one submit to the fetters and bonds of wisdom: "Put your feet into her net and your neck into her noose. Stoop your shoulders and carry her and be not irked at her bonds" (w. 24-25). There is an association between education and discipline in traditional wisdom. Prov 22:15, for example, reads "Folly is bound up in the heart of a boy, but the rod of discipline (1010 MO) drives it far away." Ben Sira emphasizes the rewards of accepting the yoke of wisdom. It will turn into "glorious apparel" and a "splendid crown" (w. 30-31; cf. Prov 4:9; 4Q421 la 59

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J.D. L e v e n s o n , "The Sources o f Torah: P s a l m 119 and the M o d e s o f R e v e l a t i o n in S e c o n d T e m p l e Judaism," in Ancient Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross (ed. P . D . Miller et al.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 5 5 9 - 7 4 . This text, and its version in 1 l Q P s , is discussed in section 3.2.2 o f Chapter 9. DJD 25 124. Prov 13:1, 2 4 ; 19:18; 2 3 : 1 3 ; 2 9 : 1 7 . 5 9

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ii-b 10). 4QBeatitudes never employs the yoke of wisdom motif. The text does, however, associate wisdom with discipline. 4Q525 2 ii + 3 4 declares that one with wisdom "controls himself with her disciplines (rPT)O ) and takes pleasure alw[ays] in her chastisements (rPBia)" (cf. Prov 3:11). The ideal student enjoys the moral restraint that accompanies devotion to wisdom. 4Q525 5 11 asserts that those who "walk in perfection" "do not reject her disciplines (miO^)." This fragment does not emphasize that the discipline of wisdom can be harsh and painful, in contrast to Prov 22:15. Lines 8-9 of 4Q525 5 affirm that "the wis[e ... i]nstruct with sweetness" (pHM). Discipline is associated not with rigor and difficulty but with delight. Ben Sira teaches that accepting the yoke of wisdom is not arduous. Sir 6:19 reads "For in cultivating her (wisdom) you will labor but little, and soon you will eat of her fruits" (cf. 51:27). To the foolish, however, "she will be like a burdensome stone" (6:21). In different ways Sir 6 and 4Q525 portray the pursuit of wisdom not as a struggle but rather an experience to be treasured. Discipline is not always related to sweetness in 4QBeatitudes. Wisdom is associated with difficult circumstances. After describing the one who is happy taking pleasure in "her chastisements," 4Q525 2 ii + 3 asserts that he "does not forsake her in the affliction of [his] trouble[s] ([V]"I2E ^W), does not abandon her in the time of anguish (HpIS no), [and] does not forget her [in the days of] dread" (1. 5; cf. 4Q525 5 2; Ps 37:39). De Roo has argued that the distress mentioned in 4QBeatitudes should be interpreted as "the direct cause of wisdom's disciplines." The speaker realizes that his suffering is from "divine chastisements" that are "for his own good" (cf. 1QH 17:10). She understands 4Q525 as a product of the Dead Sea sect and this informs her view that these chastisements can come from men in the lot of Belial. The distress described in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 could be related to an evil entity. 4Q525 25 2 has been reconstructed as reading "[s]ons of Be[lial]," and 4Q525 19 4 attests "the Mastema (n&tDEDn)." If these readings n

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De Roo, "Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?" 358. For a different interpretation, see Brooke, "The Wisdom of Matthew's Beatitudes," 38. De Roo, "Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?" 359. DJD 25, 156, 164. 6 j

6 4

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are correct, they would be the only instances in the Qumran wisdom corpus in which these figures are mentioned. The distress in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 is never directly connected to Belial, Mastema or people in their lots. 4QBeatitudes presents the adverse circumstances of the intended audience as situations in which they could, but should not, abandon the pursuit of wisdom. 4Q525 14 ii 6 mentions "an affliction (SJM) on your paths" and, in response to this, claims "you will not be shaken." Line 12 of this fragment affirms that God "will release you from every evil." The suffering of the typical addressee may be "for his own good," as de Roo suggests, but this assessment should be qualified. The emphasis is not on God teaching him through suffering itself but rather on the continuation of study despite adversity. 4Q525 strengthens the conviction that God will bring the difficult circumstances to an end. 4Q525 23, though fragmentary, helps illustrate the theme of suffering in 4QBeatitudes. The first line reads: "they have seized my entrails before God." The next visible portion reads: "I totter. And on the decreed day ... to go down to the depths of the pit" (11. 2-3). Since "the decreed day" is associated with going to the pit, the expression probably refers to the day of death. The speaker, in a rare use of the first person, describes a situation in which he is threatened and reminded of the reality of his own death. 4Q525 23 8 mentions "insolent men," suggesting, as does the first line of the fragment, that the speaker is dealing with people hostile to him. The scenario laid out in 4Q525 23 can be reasonably interpreted in the tradition of biblical psalms of lament. In Ps 88, for example, the speaker complains that his companions regard him as a "thing of horror" and that he is full of sorrow (w. 9-10). He is also distraught about going to the "pit," a reference to death, and the speaker associates his death with God's "wrath" (w. 7-8). The adverse situations described in the Psalter are often not specific; rather the speaker complains of difficult circumstances in general terms. This allows the reader to identify with the suffering described in a given psalm. This seems to be the case in 4Q525 23 as well. 65

4Q525 16 3 states "understanding ones go astray in it" (cniD3 nsn HD). At issue are people with training in wisdom who go down the wrong path. This theme is also suggested by line 4 which mentions "snares." It is unclear from the surviving text what could cause such people to go astray.

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The long beatitude in lines 3-6 of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 can be understood along the lines of Ps 119. The author of 4Q525 probably believed that this psalm discussed the Torah. So understood, the speaker of Ps 119 never forsakes his commitment to the Torah, even when faced with difficult circumstances. Ps 119:23 reads, for example, "Even though princes sit plotting against me, your servant will reflect (rwzp) upon your statutes" (cf. w . 69, 92, 110, 143). This is similar to the statement in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6 that "in his distress he reflects (nrnBT) [upon her]." 4Q525, and perhaps Ps 119, advocate not abandoning devotion to the Torah during a period of difficulty. Ben Sira also recommends patient endurance in difficult times: "Accept whatever befalls you, and in periods of humiliation be patient. For in fire gold is tested, and those God favors, in the crucible of humiliation" (2:4-5; cf. 1:13; 18:13-14). In contrast to 4QBeatitudes, Ben Sira never uses the theme of persevering through adversity to assert the importance of the pursuit of wisdom. It never occurs to him that his students could undergo something difficult enough for them to consider abandoning wisdom. In this regard 4QBeatitudes is closer to the Sermon on the Mount than Ben Sira. Suffering is a major theme of the Sermon on the Mount. But Matthew describes a greater degree of adversity than 4Q525. The beatitudes in Matthew tell one to rejoice when he is persecuted because of the reward awaiting him in heaven (5:11-12). There is no indication that the addressees of 4QBeatitudes are being persecuted. 66

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5. THE PERSONIFICATION OF WISDOM

In 4Q525 5 9-10 one is urged to seek "her" and follow "her paths"

J.L. Crenshaw, "The Problem o f T h e o d i c y in Sirach: On H u m a n B o n d a g e , " JBL 9 4 ( 1 9 7 5 ) 4 7 - 6 4 ; J.J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ) 9 2 - 9 5 ; P.C. Beentjes, " T h e o d i c y in W i s d o m o f B e n Sira," in Theodicy in the World of the Bible: The Goodness of God and the Problem of Evil (ed. A. Laato and J.C. de Moor; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) 5 0 9 - 2 4 . B r o o k e , "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes," 3 8 . 4 Q 5 2 5 probably d o e s not operate with a conception o f an afterlife for the righteous. This is discussed in section 6 o f this chapter. 6 7

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(rPDTl) and "her statutes" ( I T p T l ) . 4Q525 2 ii + 3 4-5 asserts that the man with wisdom "sets his heart toward her ways, controls himself with her disciplines and takes pleasure alw[ays] in her chastisements." The word "her" in this material clearly refers to wisdom. The word also signifies the Torah. Both wisdom and Torah are feminine terms. It is not a case of deciding whether the antecedent is wisdom or Torah. The law is the main source of wisdom available to the addressees, as in Ben Sira. In Ben Sira the merging of wisdom traditions and Torah piety culminates in its description of Lady Wisdom, who is associated with the Torah (24:23). This figure may also appear in 4QBeatitudes. The evidence is less clear-cut than in Ben Sira. White Crawford argues that 4Q525 "contains mention of a female Wisdom figure, although the referent is not as clearly personified as in 4Q185." I observed in Chapter 4 that wisdom is not personified that clearly in 4Q185. 4QBeatitudes includes no explicit or extensive description of Lady Wisdom. But White Crawford's assessment of 4Q525 is probably correct. Reminiscent of 4Q525 2 ii + 3, Lady Wisdom utters a beatitude urging that one keep her "ways": "And now, my children, listen to me: happy are those who keep my ways" (Prov 8:32). The encouragement to seek "her" in fragments 2 ii + 3 and 5 of 4Q525 echoes the calls of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs. The fragmentary text 4Q525 2 iii 2 describes a feminine entity: "she cannot be obtained with gold" (cf. 4Q525 17 6). Several of the extant words in this fragment refer to items of beauty and value: "precious stones" (1. 3), "purple flowers" (1. 5), and "jewels" (1. 7) (cf. 4Q525 26 4-5). The theme of wisdom is prominent in the second column of this fragment. It is reasonable therefore to understand the feminine entity of 4Q525 70

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For seeking "her," s e e 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 2, 3 (cf. 1. 5; 4 Q 5 2 5 13 5); 4 Q 5 2 5 5 6, 7; for "her paths," 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 4; 4 Q 5 2 5 5 7, 9; for "her statutes," 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 1; 4 Q 5 2 5 5 10 (cf. 1. 7). "Her disciplines" are mentioned in 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 4 and 4 Q 5 2 5 5 11. 4 Q 5 2 5 5 also teaches about "her reproaches" (rrmrraw) (1. 10), "her depths" ( r r p a » n ) (1. 12) and that those w h o l o v e G o d humble t h e m s e l v e s "in her" (1. 13). A c c o r d i n g to 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 2 , the o n e w h o is happy rejoices "in her." S e e also 4 Q 5 2 5 21 7. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 8 . S. White Crawford, "Lady W i s d o m and D a m e Folly at Qumran," DSD 5 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 5 5 - 6 6 (esp. 3 6 3 - 6 4 ) . S e e also D.J. Harrington, "Ten R e a s o n s W h y the Qumran W i s d o m T e x t s are Important," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 4 5 - 5 5 (esp. 2 5 1 - 5 2 ) ; B.G. Wright, " W i s d o m and W o m e n at Qumran," DSD 11 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 2 4 0 - 6 1 (esp. 2 4 8 - 4 9 ) . 7 0

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2 iii as wisdom. Lady Wisdom is praised as superior to things of great value, including "jewels," in Prov 3:14-15. There is no explicit presentation, however, in 4Q525 2 iii of wisdom as a woman. 4Q525 24 ii, which is not well preserved, recounts the teaching of a female figure. The fragment begins: "[and trjuly she pours out her speech" ( r n » K JPnn f n [ 3 1 ] ) . The next visible portion is a call to heed the speaker, in the first person: "Pay attention to me" (*b i r t K H ) (1. 2). This fragment seems to preserve remnants of a wisdom poem uttered by Lady Wisdom. She states in Prov 1:23 that "I pour out" ( n i T 3 K ) words, using the same verb as 4Q525 24 ii 1. The speaker in the latter text is a feminine figure who is a teacher, exhorting one to hear her words (cf. Prov 1:20-21; 8:1-10). The teaching of 4Q525 24 ii is perhaps connected to agricultural abundance, since line 7 may mention gathering harvests. The speaker has a house. She discusses it, in the first person, in 4Q525 24 ii 4 and 5 ( T P 3 ) . No extensive description of this dwelling has survived. It is associated with water. Line 3 reads "I have established. Drink wat[er ...]" (Tl'D'On [nfft inttn). Line 8 has the phrase "all who drink" and line 9 "a well of waters of a spr[ing]" WIS "1*0). The "well of water" is not a prominent image in Proverbs (but see 18:4). The book, however, associates wisdom with material bounty in part by describing a banquet offered by Lady Wisdom at her house (9:1-12; cf. 5:15-18; 24:3-4). In both wisdom and non-wisdom texts the image of water represents the Torah. Ben Sira concludes his poem about Lady Wisdom with a description of his own teaching as nurturing water (24:30-34). The well mentioned in Num 21:18 is interpreted by the Damascus Document as a reference to the Torah (CD 6:4; cf. 4Q418 811; 4Q418 103 ii 6). The prosperity of the elect community in 1QH 72

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Cf. 8:10-11, 19; Wis 7:8-9; 8:5. See DJD 25, 130; de Roo, "Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?" 340. The Torah may be described as better than gold i n P s l l 9 ( v v . 72, 127). Solomon's wisdom is associated with abundance and a house (1 Kgs 10:4-5). Cf. Sir 15:3. M. Fishbane, "The Well of Living Water: A Biblical Motif and its Ancient 7 3

7 4

Transformations," in Sha 'arei Talmon: Studies in the Bible, Qumran, and the Ancient Near East presented to Shemaryahu Talmon (ed. M. Fishbane and E. Tov; Winona

Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992) 3-16. Ps 1 depicts those who study the law as fruit-laden trees growing beside a stream (v. 3). 7 5

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14 and 16, based in part on devotion to the Torah, is associated with life-giving waters. Because of the prominence of Torah piety in the work, the "well of waters" in 4Q525 24 ii 9 is probably a reference to the Torah, even though the law is not mentioned in the fragment. If 4Q525 24 ii does in fact recount a first person speech from Lady Wisdom, she associates her teaching and her house with the Torah. It is reasonable to suppose that if all of 4Q525 24 ii were available, it would be a wisdom poem similar to Sir 24. Understanding 4Q525 24 ii as a poorly preserved wisdom poem spoken by Lady Wisdom is supported by 4Q525 11-12 2: "[with] majestic raiment (Tin JTTO) for a[l]l those who cling to me (^[Ip ? • ' D O i n ) T h e phrase "majestic raiment" probably refers to the rewards of accepting wisdom. This is similar to Sir 6:31, which likens one's embrace of wisdom to putting on "glorious apparel" (H")SS 'Has) and a "splendid crown" (JTIKan mttS). The beatitude collection praises those who "cling to her statutes (JTpTl 'OOTI)" (4Q525 2 ii + 3 1). This beatitude encourages one to seize "her" commandments, whereas fragment 11-12 urges clinging to "me." This text probably contains remnants of a poem in which wisdom is cast in anthropomorphic terms. Wisdom is given a voice with which she describes the rewards of attaining her, as is probably the case in 4Q525 24 ii. In 4QBeatitudes the personification of wisdom is not as developed as in Prov 1-9. The beatitudes of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 discuss wisdom as a feminine entity but provide no vivid depiction of her as a woman. The author of the composition was familiar with Lady Wisdom traditions from Proverbs. 4Q525 24 ii suggests that the pronouns in phrases such as "her paths" are not just feminine in a grammatical sense. But at most one can say that the document presupposes Lady Wisdom without making her a central motif. 76

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Puech argues that the beatitudes of 4Q525 are eschatological in that M.J. Goff, "Reading Wisdom at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot," DSD 11 (2004) 263-88 (esp. 285-87). The expression is also discussed in section 6 of this chapter. Viviano, "Eight Beatitudes," 79-80. 7 7

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the wise revere God and the final judgment. He reconstructs 4Q525 2 ii + 3 9 as stating that "she" will place a crown of gold on his head and has suggested that this refers to an "eschatological reward" (cf. Ps 21:4). 4Q525 5 8 advocates that the addressees not abandon their "portion" to foreigners or their "lot" to strangers. In Puech's opinion this line refers to the elect who are awaiting salvation. The author of 4Q525 probably believed that his students should be aware of the final judgment and that those who do not heed his instruction will face divine punishment. 4Q525 10 5 is fragmentary but appears to state that all of humankind will be judged. Judgment may have been mentioned in other poorly preserved fragments (4Q525 8 3; 4Q525 21 2). But the eschatology of 4QBeatitudes is muted at best. There is no judgment scene or any indication that it is to arrive soon. If there is a crown in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 9, it probably symbolizes the acquisition of wisdom, as in Sir 6:31, rather than eschatological rewards. There is no messianic speculation elsewhere in the document. This makes a messianic interpretation of line 10 unlikely. The beatitudes teach that members of the intended audience are to endure a period of hardship (e.g., 4Q525 2 ii + 3 5), but this is never understood as a sign that the age is wicked or that the world is out of joint. 4Q525 5 seems to present the intended audience as members of an elect group, as Puech suggests. The text asserts that the "fearers of 79

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Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 6 4 . Here this fragment is presented as 4 Q 5 2 5 4. S e e also A . Lange, "In D i s k u s s i o n mit d e m Tempel: zur Auseinandersetzung z w i s c h e n K o h e l e t und weisheitlichen Kreisen a m Jerusalemer Tempel," in Qohelet in the Context of Wisdom (ed. A . Schoors; B E T L 136; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1 9 9 8 ) 1 1 3 - 5 9 (esp. 144). The antecedent o f "his" in this line, as reconstructed by P u e c h , is the person w h o w o u l d receive the c r ow n o f gold. H e could be the student w h o acquires w i s d o m or perhaps the ideal man described in the beatitudes. H i s transcription o f this portion o f line 9 is TO[TK"I bv rr«n] iin[T TS m a n ] . S e e DJD 25, 122. The phrase is based o n only three letters that are certain. The material e v i d e n c e for this section is slim, and no reconstruction o f it can b e taken as c o n c l u s i v e . P u e c h has contended that the reconstructed word "scepter" in 4 Q 5 2 5 2 ii + 3 10 could b e related to a m e s s i a n i c figure, but this reading is not endorsed in the official edition o f 4QBeatitudes. In DJD 25, 125, h e grants that the reconstruction o f this line is not secure. The word BUB, if this is the correct reading, m a y b e better translated as "rod," in w h i c h case its interpretation could be sought along the lines o f Prov 2 2 : 1 5 , w h i c h declares that the "rod o f discipline" (IDID BDE) is the key to the removal o f folly. ^ DJD 25, 139. Contra Brooke, "The W i s d o m o f M a t t h e w ' s Beatitudes," 3 7 . 8 1

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God (DTTlbx ->KT) will keep her paths" (1. 9). Line 13 declares that the "lovers of God" (DTn^K -arm) are humble. But the document does not appear to be the product of a sect. The addressees of 4QBeatitudes are never told that they possess revealed secrets or that the rest of Israel is wayward or wicked. Their elect status seems to be membership in the covenant community of Israel. The "lot" described in 4Q525 5 is associated with wisdom and the Torah, and the Gentiles are emphatically excluded. The expression "her paths" of 4Q525 5 9 should be understood along the lines of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 3-4, which affirms that the one who is happy sets his heart to "her paths" and the Torah. 4QBeatitudes can be understood as asserting a kind of covenantal nomism. Participating in the covenant obliges one to follow the Torah and be a "fearer of God." The reward of being a member of this group is a successful and fulfilling life. The special "lot" of the addressees of 4Q525 is never prominently associated with eschatological motifs or life after death (see below). The conception of election in 4QBeatitudes is closer to Deuteronomy than the Community Rule. De Roo proposes that the eschatology of 4Q525 is akin to that of the book of Joel. A characteristic feature of this biblical book is its description of God's judgment as a theophanic and overwhelming "day of the Lord" (2:1-11). The analogy between the eschatology of 4QBeatitudes and that of Joel is based on fragments 15, 22 and 23 of 4Q525. "Wrath" is mentioned in 4Q525 22 5, and fragment 15 discusses "darkness" and the "flames [of] death" (11. 1, 5). 4Q525 23 3 attests the phrase "depths of the pit." De Roo contends that this material sheds light on the eschatology of the beatitudes in fragment 2 ii + 3. In this formulation, if the members of the intended audience do not imitate the one who is happy described in the beatitudes, they will suffer the wrath of God during the final judgment. The addressees of 4Q525 were probably taught that they could 82

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T h e fragmentary 4 Q 5 2 8 5 includes a beatitude that m e n t i o n s "fearers o f God": " B l e s s e d are y o u , all w h o fear G o d . " Contrast the u s e o f the expression "fearers o f G o d " in 4 Q 5 2 5 to that o f l Q S b 1:1 (cf. C D 10:2). T h e provenance o f 4 Q B e a t i t u d e s is also d i s c u s s e d in the f o l l o w i n g section. S e e further Strugnell, "The Smaller W i s d o m Texts," 5 0 . D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 3 . S e e also Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitude," 3 1 ; V i v i a n o , "Eight Beatitudes," 8 1 . D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 2 - 4 3 . 8 3

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face divine wrath if they turned away from the Torah. This wrath is never explicitly connected to eschatological judgment. Rather the "wrath" of God is manifested against them in the form of death. 4QBeatitudes never threatens them with an explosive "day of the Lord" along the lines of Joel. De Roo is right to look to fragments 15, 22 and 23 to understand the forms of punishment the students of 4Q525 could face if they choose the wrong path. 4Q525 23 2-4 contains terms such as the "day decreed" and a "furnace of wrath." "Wrath" Op-in) is also mentioned in 4Q525 21 8 (cf. 4Q525 22 5). Much of the context for these phrases is unfortunately lost. These texts could refer to an eschatological day of judgment but there is no clear evidence for this view. Ben Sira uses the terms "wrath" (DI7?) and "the day of vengeance" (Dpi DV) with regard to the day of a person's death, without relating this event to an ultimate judgment of humankind (5:7; Prov 11:4). Given the reference to the "depths of the pit" in 4Q525 23, this fragment probably describes the inevitable natural death of the individual or a moment in which death seems near. All members of the intended audience could identify with this teaching. The main form of retribution in 4QBeatitudes is not eschatological and in that sense is closer to traditional wisdom than the apocalypses. A person who does not follow the Torah is without wisdom, and, as such, would be unable to lead a long life. He meets an untimely death. The author was probably aware of a final judgment but this concept does not play a major role in his instruction. The prospect of divine disfavor is also at issue in 4Q525 15. This fragment mentions several unfavorable things. Line 1 discusses "darkness" (^EIX). There is also a reference in this line to "poverty" (^TH). Snakes are surprisingly prominent in this text. Line 2 mentions "serpent's" (D^ns) and line 3 reads "... a burning serpent (*pO). With angui[sh] he will raise a serpent (jHD) on high." The phrase "venom of vipers" (DT3n ran) occurs in line 4 (cf. 4Q525 17 4). This is associated with "eternal curses." Yet another term for snake is in line 5 (I7D2S). This serpent may be the antecedent of the 86

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S. Burkes, God, Self, and Death:

The Shape of Religious

Transformation

in the

SecondTemple Period (JSJSup 79; Leiden: Brill, 2003) 109-17. This may also be the case in line 6. DJD 25, 151, transcribes the first term of this line as - ^ [ T P ] . Puech, ibid., 152, considers the yod "certain." DSSSE, 2.1058, lists the word as "|«n[n]. Also note crDran[&] in 4Q525 21 1. 8 7

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phrase that immediately follows: "with him fly the flame[s of] death (mD[ ^SET))." This creature could also be the subject of line 6: "His foundation is flames of sulfur; his place is fi[re . . . ] " Line 7 mentions the "pit." De Roo argues that this fragment provides "a vivid description of the day of judgment." It is reasonable to understand the litany of horrible things in 4Q525 15 as negative consequences that face the wicked. A cataclysmic judgment may be implied, but this is never asserted directly. Given the prominence of Torah piety in 4QBeatitudes, 4Q525 15 can be plausibly understood in the tradition of the covenant curses of Deuteronomy. They are a prominent theme in the final portion of this book. In Deut 32 God condemns the Israelites for being unfaithful and he recounts the various ways he will punish them. This sequence of punishments includes serpents. God claims "the teeth of beasts I will send against them, with venom of things crawling in the dust" (32:24; cf. Sir 39:30). He also affirms that the people of Israel will drink the wine of Sodom and Gomorrah, using language similar to 4Q525 15: "their wine is the venom of vipers (DTJn ran), the cruel poison of asps ( D ^ n s OKI)" (32:33). The "flames of sulfur" of 4Q525 15 6 may be derived from Deut 29:22-23, in which God promises that "all its soil (will be) burned out by sulfur and salt (nsn» n^m rmaa)" (cf. lQpHab 10:5). In 4Q525 the flaming sulfur is associated with "his foundation," which is presumably a reference to Sheol. There is no analogue for this in Deuteronomy. 4Q525 15 6 is reminiscent of 4Q184 1, which depicts Sheol as a place of fire and darkness, and as the residence of an evil female figure. Since 4Q525 15 discusses "darkness," the "flames of death" and the "pit," it seems that this fragment offers a description of Sheol, as does 4Q184 1. 4Q525 15 describes a resident of the underworld in line 6. Unfortunately not enough of 4Q525 15 survives to offer a full portrait 88

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D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 3 . M. Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Eisenbrauns: W i n o n a Lake, 1 9 9 2 [orig. pub., 1972]) 116-46. M . Thiessen, "The Form and Function o f the S o n g o f M o s e s ( D e u t e r o n o m y 3 2 : 1 - 4 3 ) , " JBL 123 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 4 0 1 - 2 4 (esp. 4 1 7 ) . DJD 25, 153. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t cites this verse. It interprets the serpents as Gentile kings, w h o are considered the form o f G o d ' s wrath against the "builders o f the wall." This is apparently a reference to a rival group ( C D 8:9-13; cf. 19:22). S e e also P s 5 8 : 5 ; Jer 8:17; Job 2 0 : 1 6 . Neither c o m p o s i t i o n e m p h a s i z e s eschatological judgment. 8 9

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of this figure. Lines 5-6 suggest it is a snake with wings that is associated with flames and death. Snakes, however, do not appear elsewhere in the text. Mythological figures of evil may be attested in 4QBeatitudes, as mentioned above (4Q525 19 4; 4Q525 25 2). They are never associated with snakes in the document. The author of 4QBeatitudes incorporated language from the final section of Deuteronomy and combined its punishments with a conception of the underworld as a place of fire and torment. 4QBeatitudes teaches that one who turns away from God will receive the curses described in the Torah. Ben Sira may as well. Based on the references to flames and poison, it is reasonable to claim that the author understood Sheol as a place of eternal anguish for the wicked, although this is never explicitly asserted. The wayward student was probably taught that he would go to a place of punishment after death, a type of retribution not dependent on an eschatological day of judgment. 4Q525 is less eschatological than the Sermon on the Mount. The "kingdom of heaven" is promised in the present but fully realized only after death (Matt 5:3). 4QBeatitudes never reflects on the fate of the righteous after death. The beatitudes of the Sermon on the Mount are explicitly connected to rewards after death. There is no clear indication that the addressees of 4QBeatitudes expect rewards after death. 4Q525 14 ii 14 states that one will inherit "glory" (TIM) and "eternal rest" (-117 n T O ) after death (cf. 4Q525 32 2-3). But the passage does not describe eschatological prospects. By the time of his death the envisioned addressee could be a great teacher, whose students would mourn him and continue his teachings: "all who know you will walk together in your teaching ... together they will mourn, and on your paths they will remember you" (11. 15-16) (cf. Sir 1:13; 39:9-11). Being remembered with such respect would demonstrate that he lived a successful and fulfilling life. This is a this-worldly incentive to pursue wisdom. 4Q525 14 ii 14-16 is consistent with traditional wisdom, which teaches that one's name will be remembered after death (Prov 10:7; cf. Sir 41:11-13). 4QBeatitudes 93

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Compare, for example, the H e b r e w o f Sir 4 0 : 8 - 9 with D e u t 2 8 : 2 2 . S e e M.J. Goff, "Hellenistic Instruction in Palestine and Egypt: B e n Sira and Papyrus Insinger," J S / 3 6 ( 2 0 0 5 ) 1 4 7 - 7 2 (esp. 1 6 6 - 6 7 ) . G. V e r m e s , The Religion of Jesus the Jew (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) 143. 9 4

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never mentions life with the angels after death or the kingdom of heaven. The TDD one is promised in 4Q525 14 ii 14 probably has the sense of "honor" rather than "glory." The term could signify rewards after death, and if the text has a conception of punishment after death for the wicked, one can infer that some form of blessed afterlife is envisioned for the righteous. But the text shows no interest in such prospects. Eschatological rewards could be described in 4Q525 11-12. Lines 1-2 of this fragment attest the phrases "plentiful peace" (Dl^tt? 2T\) and "majestic raiment" (Tin ITTO). These expressions are used in 1QS 4:7-8 to describe the eschatological gifts promised to the righteous. The "majestic raiment" of 4Q525 11-12 1-2 is associated with "a[l]l who cling to me." I argued in the previous section that this is a reference to personified wisdom. 4Q525 11-12 presents "plentiful peace" and "majestic raiment" as rewards of obtaining wisdom. 1QS much more explicitly associates these expressions with life after death. In 4QBeatitudes DI^E a n and Tin rrin could refer to a blessed afterlife, but there is no strong evidence in the text for this position. One is also promised DlStt? 2T\ in 4Q525 14 ii 13. The description of a student's death in this fragment focuses not on post­ mortem rewards but rather on the end of a good life, after which the memory and teaching of the departed is recalled fondly. 95

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7. PRACTICAL WISDOM AND THE SOCIAL SETTING OF 4QBEATITUDES

The beatitudes of 4Q525 promote ethical conduct and Torah study without providing a great deal of instruction on specific topics. The only practical issue that the beatitudes of 4Q525 2 ii + 3 address regards speech; this is also the case in Sir 51:13-30 (cf. v. 22). The first line of this fragment reads "[Happy is he who speaks truth] with a pure heart and does not slander with his tongue." The ideal man of The addressee of 4QInstruction is told that he has authority over an "inheritance of glory" (TQD rbni) (4Q416 2 iii 11-12), and he is promised rewards after death. See section 3.2.2 of Chapter 1. DJD 25, 141-42. Puech proposes that the spirit of light in the Treatise of the Two Spirits replaces the role of wisdom in 4Q525 11-12. This possibility is an option that must remain open. The differences between the two texts regarding eschatology make it difficult to claim that there is a direct line of dependence connecting them. 96

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wisdom speaks with honesty. An interest in speech is common in the wisdom tradition. 4QWays of Righteousness teaches that one should speak only with patience and caution: "He will not answer before he hea[rs,] and [not speajk be[fore he understands. ]With great patience will he give answer" (4Q420 la ii-b 1-2). Deliberation is also stressed in 4Q424 3, although the emphasis is more on decision­ making than speech. Instruction on proper speaking is also prominent in Proverbs and Ben Sira (e.g., Prov 10:20; 15:2; Sir 5:13; 20:18). In the rest of 4QBeatitudes speech is the only specific topic of practical instruction that is given extensive treatment. 4Q525 14 ii 18-28 begins with an exhortation to heed the words of the speaker (11. 18-19). Then follows instruction on speech: "With just humility speak (KSin) [your] words" (1. 20). Humility is advocated elsewhere in 4QBeatitudes (e.g., 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6), and it is also endorsed in Proverbs and Ben Sira (e.g., Prov 22:4; Sir 2:17)." Like 4QWays of Righteousness, 4QBeatitudes teaches that in conversation one should not speak until he has heard and understood his interlocutor: "Respond to the words of your neighbor ... Answer your listener as befits him" (4Q525 14 ii 21-22). Shortly thereafter the text teaches "first hear their words. Afterwards reply ... With patience 97

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4 Q 5 2 5 13 m a y contain teachings o n avoiding negative t y p e s o f p e o p l e , but the text is fragmentary. Line 2 m e n t i o n s "greedy m e n " (p» T - I ) . There are warnings to avoid the yv in in B e n Sira and 4 Q 4 2 4 . ( S e e section 2.2 o f Chapter 7.) It is plausible that 4 Q 5 2 5 13 is a minor e x a m p l e o f a w i s d o m text that urges the avoidance o f the greedy. A c c o r d i n g to P u e c h ' s reconstruction, 4 Q 5 2 5 2 5 4 contains advice about spending m o n e y . P u e c h reconstructs this line as [O^D p< naijKDi *d[ioi bbv Tin S>K], w h i c h h e translates as " [ N e s o i s ni glouton ni iv]rogne alors qu'il n 'y a [rien dans la b o u r s e ] " ("Be neither a glutton nor a drunkard w h e n there is nothing in the purse") (cf. D e u t 2 1 : 2 0 ) . This reconstruction is based o n Sir 18:33. In DJD 25, 165, P u e c h claims that this m a x i m from B e n Sira can be read in 4 Q 5 2 5 2 5 4 ( s e e also p. 118). H e has also argued that this line is a citation o f B e n Sira. S e e h i s "Le Livre de B e n Sira et les manuscrits de la M e r Morte," in Treasures of Wisdom: Studies in Ben Sira and the Book of Wisdom. Festschrift M. Gilbert (ed. N . C a l d u c h - B e n a g e s and J. V e r m e y l e n ; B E T L 143; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1 9 9 9 ) 4 1 1 - 2 6 (esp. 4 1 8 ) . 4 Q 5 2 5 2 5 4 has o n l y five visible letters and three o f them are difficult to read. This is scant e v i d e n c e from w h i c h to reconstruct a saying o f s e v e n words. S e e also Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 9 - 7 0 ; de R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian Document?" 341. Puech, DJD 25, 150, points out that the verb KSP in the Hiphil also refers to the act o f speech in 4 Q 4 1 2 1 4 and 4 Q 4 2 0 l a ii-b 3 , a m o n g other texts. S e e also 4 Q 5 2 5 14 ii 2 2 and 2 5 . D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 1 . 9 8

9 9

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225

speak them (DK'Sin) (your words)" (11. 24-25). Proverbs and Ben Sira also advocate not speaking until the words of one's conversation partner have been heard (Prov 18:13; Sir 11:7-9). There appears to be an aristocratic context for the instruction on speech in 4Q525 14 ii. Line 25, which is unfortunately fragmentary, reads in part: "Answer correctly among princes" ("pro ]1D3 H30 ono) (cf. 4Q525 2 ii + 3 9). The first part of the line urges that one speak with patience (D'SK ["]1K3]). 4Q525 14 ii 25 is similar to the version of Sir 5:11 in the C manuscript, JlJUn H3» - p t t . This can be translated "with patience make an appropriate reply." Line 23 of 4Q525 14 ii may recommend not sighing during a conversation: "[Do not] utter a sigh (ITtB) before you hear their words." This could also be understood as prohibiting whispering or complaints. The final teaching of the column reads: "Take great care against a slip of the tongue ... lest you be caught in your own words [and tr]apped together with the ton[gue]" (11. 26-27). The basic sentiment of this teaching accords with traditional wisdom (e.g., Prov 10:31-32; 12:18-19). Such advice takes on extra importance when speaking before influential people. There is no instruction in 4QBeatitudes regarding banquets or manners as in Prov 23:1-8 or Sir 31:12-32:13. But4Q525 14 ii 18-28 is similar to the advice Ben Sira gives regarding speech when dining with the influential and wealthy. In his lesson on proper behavior during a banquet, Ben Sira exhorts: "Young man, speak only when necessary, when they have asked you more than once. Be brief, but say much in those few words; be like the wise, taciturn" (32:8). Sir 32:9 gives instruction for conduct among D^pT ("elders") and D'Htt) ("princes" or "nobles"), using the same word as 4Q525 14 ii 25. Ben Sira has been aptly characterized as teaching an "ethics of caution," a posture of prudence and restraint which he advocates for interactions with powerful people (cf. 13:9-13). 4QBeatitudes puts forward a compatible ethics of caution. It is beyond dispute that Ben Sira, who has a retainer class background, lived in an aristocratic setting (38:24100

1 0 1

102

103

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T h e w o r d p a is prominent in 4QBeatitudes. S e e also 4 Q 5 2 5 6 ii 5; 4 Q 5 2 5 7 2 ; and 4 Q 5 2 5 21 9. DJD 25, 1 5 1 . L i n e 2 8 m e n t i o n s "unseemly w o r d s " (nbsin -nai). J.T. Sanders, Ben Sira and Demotic Wisdom (Chico: Scholars Press, 1983). 1 0 1

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39:11; cf. 8:8). With 4QBeatitudes the evidence is less clear-cut. But it is reasonable to understand 4Q525 as the product of an aristocratic scribal milieu. The intended audience of 4Q525 is never depicted as poor. There is never any advice regarding financial problems or avoiding indebtedness, unlike 4QInstruction. The posture of humility advocated by 4QBeatitudes is never related to the economic life of the addressees. Poverty is briefly mentioned in 4Q525 15 1: lffH As Puech observes, this could be reconstructed as "[you] will gather poverty," but this is not the only option available. Above I argued that fragment 15 contains a sequence of covenant curses. If this view is correct, 4Q525 15 1 presents poverty as something awful which could befall the person addressed. This would presume that he is currently not in such a state. The text associates poverty with snake venom and the fire of Sheol. Economic hardship is not construed as a likely scenario but rather a form of extreme punishment. 4Q525 stresses the addressees' pursuit of wisdom, assumes they will interact with nobility and gives them the prospect of being great teachers later in life. It is plausible to claim that the author of 4QBeatitudes is from a scribal retainer class, much like Ben Sira. The members of the intended audience of 4Q525 comprise people in training to be wise men. No other profession aside from becoming a teacher is mentioned for them. With their knowledge of the Torah, they developed proficiency in reading and writing. They could have served in a variety of scribal or administrative positions. This is also the case with the students of Ben Sira. 4Q424 is a wisdom text that may also come from an upper-class setting. The work assumes its addressee has considerable means and responsibilities that require hiring various types of people. The focus is on his interactions with people below his station. There is never any caution about making slips of the tongue around people whose power outstrips his own. 4Q424 never presents him as a student who will one day become a teacher, unlike 4Q525 14 ii 14-16. In terms of social setting 4QBeatitudes is closer to Ben Sira than 4Q424. 105

106

1 0 4

O. Wischmeyer, Die Kultur

des Buches

Jesus Sirach

(BZNW 77; Berlin: de

Gruyter, 1995)49-69. t05

DJD25, 152. D.M. Carr, Writing

1 0 6

Literature

on the Tablet

of the Heart:

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

Origins

of Scripture

and

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(4Q525)

227

The upper class milieu of 4QBeatitudes has implications for the assessment of its relationship to the movement that produced the Qumran rulebooks. Some members of the Dead Sea sect were probably from the aristocracy. But the compositions written by this sect never give advice for dealing with nobles in the manner of Ben Sira and 4QBeatitudes. According to the rulebooks, one must cede a degree of control of one's wealth (e.g., 1QS 1:11-12), suggesting that any upper-class members have left their wealthy circles. De Roo has argued that 4QBeatitudes is a product of the Dead Sea sect. She goes so far as to suggest that the speaker could be the Teacher of Righteousness himself. This argument is made on the basis of terms common to 4Q525 and the writings of the yahad. For example, both texts have the expressions "humility of soul" and "those who walk in perfection," as mentioned above. 4Q525 16 3 asserts that the "discerning ones" (D'O'DJ) go astray. She relates this to 1QS 3:22, which states that the iniquities of the "sons of righteousness" are attributed to the Angel of Darkness. 4QBeatitudes addresses a specific community. They are called the "fearers" and "lovers" of God (4Q525 5 9, 13). There is no compelling reason to understand this group as the same movement that authored the rulebooks. The similarities in terminology between 4QBeatitudes and the compositions of the Teacher movement are far outweighed by differences between 4Q525 and this corpus. 4QBeatitudes shows no knowledge of the Teacher of Righteousness or any of the leadership offices described in the rulebooks. The prominence of the Torah in 4Q525 accords with its status in other Qumran texts. But in 4Q525 the Torah is never 107

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D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 6 5 - 6 6 . See also Puech, "Le Livre de B e n Sira," 4 1 8 . D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 4 7 - 5 0 . Ibid., 3 5 2 . D e R o o interprets 4 Q 5 2 5 5 8, w h i c h urges the addressees not to forsake their inheritance to foreigners, as a call for sectarians to remain separate from n o n m e m b e r s (ibid., 3 5 5 ) . A b o v e I interpreted this line as an assertion o f Israel's covenant rather than a sect's exclusionist v i e w s . Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 2 1 . 4 Q B e a t i t u d e s and the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t e m p l o y similar imagery w h e n describing the Torah. 4 Q 5 2 5 5 12 reads "the clever dig her paths" (rro-n emir) (cf. 4 Q 5 2 5 2 3 5; 4 Q 4 1 8 5 5 3). This phrase is similar to C D 6. This column offers an interpretation o f N u m 2 1 : 1 8 , w h i c h speaks o f a well dug b y princes. This is considered a reference to the Torah. There is n o well in 4 Q 5 2 5 5 and the fragment 1 0 8

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connected to claims of esoteric revelation, an important part of the Dead Sea sect's commitment to the Torah (cf. lQpHab 7:4-5). There is no sectarian halakhah in 4Q525 to compare with that of the Damascus Document. The humility advocated by 4QBeatitudes never translates into an endorsement of poverty as a virtue or a selfdefining characteristic. The elect are presented as poor in the Pesher on Psalm 37 (4Q171 3 10-11). There is no call in 4Q525 for the addressees to offer their property to the community. 4QBeatitudes' lack of interest in their economic transactions is substantially different from the mindset of the Damascus Document (e.g., CD 13:12-16; 14:12-17). There are too many differences between 4Q525 and the undisputed writings of the yahad to posit a common provenance. There is no reason to understand the "fearers of God" as a sect. They do not have a polemical attitude to other Jewish groups. The expression probably refers to the student-addressees, who are encouraged to revere God and obey the Torah. Members of the yahad read 4QBeatitudes and drew ethical lessons from it. This is implied by its inclusion among the Qumran scrolls. That 4QBeatitudes is "pre-Essene" cannot be ruled out entirely. It is possible that one or more of the intended addressees of 4QBeatitudes abandoned an aristocratic life-style to join the Dead Sea sect, bringing 4QBeatitudes with them. If one grants such a view, 4Q525 had little influence on the organizational structure of the group associated with the Teacher of Righteousness, or its apocalyptic worldview. 113

114

never relates ' d i g g i n g ' the Torah to o b e d i e n c e to a specific set o f interpretations. W i s d o m d o e s , h o w e v e r , appear to be associated with a w e l l o f water in 4 Q 5 2 5 2 4 ii (for discussion o f this fragment s e e section 5 o f this chapter). D e R o o , "Is 4 Q 5 2 5 a Qumran Sectarian D o c u m e n t ? " 3 6 5 . Puech, "The Collection o f Beatitudes," 3 5 4 , suggests that 4QBeatitudes w a s written b y the Hasideans, w h o are m e n t i o n e d in 1 M a c e 2 : 4 2 . This argument is based on this group's dedication to the Torah, and their nationalist sentiments are compatible with the warning in 4 Q 5 2 5 5 8 that the addressees not g i v e their inheritance to foreigners. H o w e v e r , there is nothing militaristic in 4QBeatitudes to suggest its author w a s directly e n g a g e d in the Maccabean conflict. In DJD 25, 118, he dates the work to s o m e point in the s e c o n d century B C E after 164 but d o e s not attribute the text to a specific community. S e e also Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes," 2 1 . 1 1 3

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(4Q525)

229

8. CONCLUSION

The beatitude collection of 4Q525, and its contribution to the synoptic beatitudes, has dominated academic interest in this composition. The work is important in many other respects. 4QBeatitudes is a wisdom text designed for the instruction of students. The text instills ethical ideals such as humility, a pure heart and dedication to the Torah. One is urged to acquire wisdom. Members of the intended audience are given the prospect of becoming great teachers and the text assumes that they will interact with influential people. 4Q525 is similar to 4Q185. This document also contains beatitudes associated with the search for wisdom and encourages fidelity to the Torah. These compositions personify wisdom as a woman, but neither attests a full blown portrait of Lady Wisdom. The latter proclaims fiery judgment in a manner reminiscent of Jewish apocalypses, whereas this is never the case in 4QBeatitudes. The rewards of wisdom according to both 4Q525 and 4Q185 are in general this-worldly and consistent with Proverbs. The affinities between 4Q525 and 4Q185 also invite comparison with Ben Sira. The pedagogical culture described by 4Q525 is probably the product of an upper-class scribal milieu, similar to that of the Jerusalem sage. 4Q525, also like Ben Sira, praises wisdom in order to inculcate in its students a desire to pursue it. 4QBeatitudes is a work of poetic instruction.

CHAPTER NINE

SONGS OF WISDOM: WISDOM PSALMS IN THE HEBREW BIBLE AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS

1

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

James Sanders, in the official edition of the massive Psalms Scroll from Cave 11(1 lQPs ; 11Q5), argues that the work contains material that is reminiscent of the sapiential tradition. This is an apt observation. Column 21 of this scroll partially preserves a variant of Sir 51:13-30. The composition in column 18 of 1 lQPs known as Ps 154 declares that "to make known the glory of the Lord is wisdom given" (18:3). One of the earlier examinations of Qumran wisdom literature devotes more attention to HQPs than any other manuscript. Daniel Harrington's survey of sapiential literature from Qumran includes the hymns in columns 18, 21 and 26 of llQPs . Gerald Wilson has claimed that these three compositions are "all manifestly wisdom psalms." Lange does not discuss any hymn from a

2

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The phrase " s o n g s o f w i s d o m " is from S. M o w i n c k e l , The Psalms in Israel's Worship (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 4 [orig. pub., 1962]) 2 . 1 1 1 . J. A . Sanders, The Psalms Scroll of Cave 11 ( D J D 4; Oxford: Clarendon, 1965) 6 9 ; j d e m , " T w o N o n - C a n o n i c a l P s a l m s in 1 l Q P s , " ZA W 7 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 5 7 - 7 5 (esp. 6 5 ) . W . L . L i p s c o m b and J.A. Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien (ed. J.G. G a m m i e et al.; Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978) 2 7 7 - 8 5 (esp. 2 7 9 - 8 0 ) . D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996) 2 3 - 3 0 ; idem, "Ten R e a s o n s W h y the Qumran W i s d o m Texts are Important," DSD 4 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 2 4 5 - 5 5 (esp. 2 5 1 - 5 2 ) . G.H. W i l s o n , "The Qumran Psalms Scroll ( l l Q P s ) and the Canonical Psalter: Comparison o f Editorial Shaping," CBQ 5 9 ( 1 9 9 7 ) 4 4 8 - 6 4 (esp. 4 5 4 ) . S e e also A S . van der W o u d e , " W i s d o m at Qumran," in Wisdom in ancient Israel: Essays in honour of J.A. Emerton (ed. J. D a y et al.; Cambridge: University o f Cambridge Press, 1995) 2 4 4 - 5 6 (esp. 2 5 3 ) ; J. K a m p e n , "The D i v e r s e A s p e c t s o f W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment ( 2 vols.; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 ) 1.211-43 (esp. 2 2 5 - 2 6 ) . M. H e n g e l h a s considered P s 154 a " w i s d o m psalm." S e e his Judaism and Hellenism (2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1 9 7 3 ) 1.80. 2

a

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4

5

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231

a

HQPs in his survey of Qumran sapiential texts, and the Psalms Scroll is not a prominent subject of scrutiny in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought, the volume which Lange's essay introduces. Some commentators consider it obvious that HQPs should be included in a discussion of Qumran wisdom. Others do not. The issue of wisdom psalms in the biblical Psalter is an on-going topic of debate. The validity of this designation as a category for biblical psalms has been attacked and defended. The large Psalms Scroll from Cave 11 can contribute to this debate. In this chapter I will examine hymns from 18, 21 and 26 of HQPs , since they have often been understood in relation to the sapiential tradition. I will argue that Ps 154 (11Q5 18) is a psalm influenced by the wisdom tradition, that the variant of Sir 51:13-30 in col. 21 is a wisdom poem in the tradition of Sir 6:18-37, and that Hymn to the Creator (col. 26) is better understood as a creation hymn along the lines of Ps 104 than as a wisdom text. These texts do not confirm that there is a wisdom psalm genre that can be identified as a distinct Gattung. But 1 lQPs 18 and 21 can be understood as wisdom psalms in the sense that they are hymnic writings that demonstrate substantial influence from the wisdom tradition. 6

a

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2. WISDOM PSALMS IN THE HEBREW BIBLE—A CHASING AFTER WIND? 8

Even some who defend wisdom psalms complain about the difficulty of determining whether a given psalm is sapiential. J. Kenneth Kuntz, a leading proponent of wisdom psalms, grants that the

6

A . L a n g e , " D i e Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: E i n e Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. C. H e m p e l , A . L a n g e and H. Lichtenberger; B E T L 159; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 2002) 3-30. In addition, several small c o m p o s i t i o n s a m o n g the D e a d S e a Scrolls h a v e b e e n interpreted in relation to both the sapiential and h y m n i c traditions. S o m e o f these writings, such as 4 Q 4 1 1 , 4 Q 4 1 3 and 4 Q 5 2 8 , are e x a m i n e d in the f o l l o w i n g chapter. J.K. Kuntz u s e s this phrase from E c c l e s i a s t e s in a similar fashion. S e e his "Reclaiming Biblical W i s d o m P s a l m s : A R e s p o n s e to Crenshaw," CBR 1 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 1 4 5 5 4 (esp. 145). 7

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classification is "not trouble-free." Some scholars have concluded that searching for wisdom psalms is a misguided endeavor. Although he discerns sapiential elements in the Psalter, J. Luyten argues "a genre 'wisdom psalm' as such cannot be reconstructed." In his introduction to the Psalms, James Crenshaw doubts that any psalm can be considered sapiential. He has also published a scathing critique of the work of Kuntz. In the early twentieth century Hermann Gunkel claimed that some biblical psalms reflect sapiential influence. He argued that there is Weisheitsdichtung ("wisdom poetry") in the Psalter. Gunkel discerned "wisdom sayings" which he placed in a stage of development earlier than wisdom poetry. He considered psalms 10

11

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13

14

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J.K. Kuntz, " W i s d o m P s a l m s and the Shaping o f the H e b r e w Psalter," in For a Later Generation: The Transforming of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity (ed. R.A. Argall et al.; Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2 0 0 0 ) 1 4 4 - 6 0 (esp. 146). S e e also idem, "The Canonical W i s d o m P s a l m s o f Ancient Israel—Their Rhetorical, Thematic, and Formal D i m e n s i o n s , " in Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of James Muilenburg (ed. J.J. Jackson and M. Kessler; Pittsburgh: P i c k w i c k Press, 1 9 7 4 ) 1 8 6 - 2 2 2 . J. Luyten, "Psalm 73 and W i s d o m , " in La Sagesse de VAncien Testament (ed. M. Gilbert; B E T L 5 1 ; L e u v e n : L e u v e n University Press/Peeters, 1990) 5 9 - 8 0 (esp. 6 3 ) . R . N . Whybray, w h o is critical o f the term " w i s d o m psalm," compares the quest to identify w i s d o m p s a l m s "to m a k i n g bricks without straw." I. Engnell writes "The truth o f the matter is that the B o o k o f P s a l m s d o e s not contain any ' w i s d o m p o e m s ' , at all." S e e his A Rigid Scrutiny: Critical Essays on the Old Testament (trans. J.T. Willis; N a s h v i l l e : Vanderbilt University Press, 1969) 9 9 ; Whybray, "The W i s d o m Psalms," in Wisdom in ancient Israel, 1 5 2 - 6 0 (esp. 152); L.G. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult: A Critical Analysis of the Views of Cult in the Wisdom Literatures of Israel and the Ancient Near East ( S B L D S 3 0 ; M i s s o u l a : Scholars Press, 1977) 2 6 1 . J.L. Crenshaw, The Psalms: An Introduction (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 1 ) 8 7 - 9 5 . In the latest edition o f his introduction to w i s d o m literature he argues that " w i s d o m is but o n e o f several traditions that enrich" the psalms. S e e his Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction (rev. ed.; Louisville: Westminster John K n o x , 1998 [orig. pub., 1 9 8 1 ] ) 171. J.L. Crenshaw, " W i s d o m P s a l m s ? " CRBS 8 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 9 - 1 7 . S e e the response o f Kuntz, "Reclaiming Biblical W i s d o m P s a l m s . " H. Gunkel and J. Begrich, Introduction to Psalms (trans. J.D. N o g a l s k i ; M a c o n : Mercer University Press, 1 9 9 8 ) 2 9 3 - 3 0 5 . This w a s originally published as Einleitung in die Psalmen (Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1933). For r e v i e w s o f scholarship on w i s d o m psalms, s e e Whybray, "The W i s d o m P s a l m s , " 152-54; Crenshaw, " W i s d o m P s a l m s ? " 9 - 1 5 ; Kuntz, "The Canonical W i s d o m Psalms," 1879 1 ; Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 2 6 1 - 6 5 . H e considered P s 127:1 an e x a m p l e o f a " w i s d o m saying": " U n l e s s the Lord builds the house, those w h o build it labor in vain. U n l e s s the Lord guards the city, the guard keeps watch in vain." S e e Gunkel and Begrich, Introduction to Psalms, 295, 299. 1 0

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such as Ps 37, which deals with theodicy, and Ps 49, which discusses death and the finitude of the human condition, examples of Weisheitsdichtung. The influence of the wisdom tradition can also be discerned, he argued, in lyric genres he identified in the Psalms such as the "thanksgiving song" or the "individual complaint song." Sigmund Mowinckel attempted to provide greater clarity to the Sitz-im-Leben of the "wisdom poetry" of the Psalter. He designated this material "private learned psalmography," that is, prayers composed by sages as an expression of their personal piety and didactic profession. Such psalms are, in his view, "free prayer" unattached to the cultus but inspired by Temple worship. These writings derived much of their "nourishment in the synagogue and in the lecture-room (the school) of the learned men." Ben Sira is considered representative of such sages. For Mowinckel the noncultic wisdom psalms were Pss 1, 19b, 34, 37, 49, 78, 105, 106, 111, 112 and 127. In the 1960s and 70s there were efforts to provide greater precision to the study of wisdom psalms. Roland Murphy proposed several stylistic criteria for identifying wisdom psalms, such as a teacher addressing sons (e.g., Ps 34:12) and beatitudes (e.g., Ps 1:1). He also put forward thematic criteria. These include the fear of Yahweh, retribution and a contrast between the wicked and the righteous. Murphy argued that there are seven wisdom psalms: Pss 1, 32, 34, 37, 49, 112 and 128, with sapiential material discernible in portions of many other psalms, including Pss 25:8-10, 40:5-6 and 92:7-9. Kuntz developed an elaborate set of criteria for identifying wisdom psalms that incorporates rhetorical features, vocabulary, thematic elements and forms. The "better saying" (Tob-Spruch) (e.g., Ps 15

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18

19

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21

For e x a m p l e , he contended such influence is evident in P s 34:12, regarding the former category, and in the latter, P s 25:12. S e e ibid., 297-98. M o w i n c k e l , The Psalms in Israel's Worship, 2.104-25. S e e also idem, "Psalms and W i s d o m , " in Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient Near East (ed. M . N o t h and D. W i n s t o n T h o m a s ; V T S u p 3; Leiden: Brill, 1969) 205-24. M o w i n c k e l , The Psalms in Israel's Worship, 2.108. Ibid., 2.111. R.E. Murphy, "A Consideration o f the Classification ' W i s d o m P s a l m s , ' " in Congress Volume: Bonn, 1962 ( V T S u p 9; Leiden: Brill, 1963) 156-67 (esp. 162-63). S e e also idem, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature (3 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002 [orig. pub., 1990]) 103-4. Murphy, "A Consideration," 161, 165. Kuntz, "The Canonical W i s d o m Psalms," 186-222. 1 5

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119:72), for example, is understood as a rhetorical feature of wisdom psalms and the fear of Yahweh is a theme that marks psalms in this category (e.g., Ps 19.10). Kuntz proposes three "sub-types of wisdom psalms": 1) sentence wisdom psalms, which are characterized by the use of "expansive" wisdom sayings, as in Pss 127 and 128, 2) acrostic wisdom psalms (e.g., Pss 9-10, 25), and 3) integrative wisdom psalms, a category that is "admittedly the most difficult to define," which includes psalms that "manifest a certain order and wholeness," such as Ps l. Kuntz expands Murphy's list of seven wisdom psalms by two, adding Pss 127 and 133. Perdue argues that sapiential forms are critical to several psalms. He classifies Pss 1, 19B, 34, 37, 73, 112 and 127 as "proverb poems" on the basis that they are didactic compositions which "developed around a simple saying." He contends that Pss 32 and 119 are " 'Ashre poems," in which a beatitude supplies the core statement of each psalm, and that Pss 49 and 19A are "riddle poems," in which the poem is structured around a riddle. He also suggests that Pss 19A-B and 119 were written by people in the wisdom tradition for use in the cult. In terms of the delineation of wisdom psalms, biblical studies suffers from an abundance of riches. The criteria used to identify them, and the lists of psalms that can be placed in this category, are legion. In this regard Crenshaw's critique of the category "wisdom psalm" is enormously helpful. He points out that many of the clues used to discern wisdom literature are not distinctively sapiential. For 22

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2 2

Ibid., 1 9 1 , 2 1 1 . Ibid., 2 1 7 - 2 0 . Crenshaw, " W i s d o m P s a l m s ? " 11. Kuntz n o w considers P s 73 a w i s d o m psalm as well. S e e his " W i s d o m P s a l m s , " 149. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 2 6 1 - 3 2 4 . Ibid., 3 2 3 ; K.J. Dell, "'I Will S o l v e M y Riddle to the M u s i c o f the Lyre' (Psalm X L I X 4 [5]): A Cultic Setting for W i s d o m P s a l m s ? " FT 5 4 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 4 4 5 - 5 8 . S e e also S. Terrien, " W i s d o m in the Psalter," in In Search of Wisdom: Essays in Memory of John G. Gammie (ed. L.G. Perdue et al.; Louisville: Westminster/John K n o x , 1 9 9 3 ) 5 1 - 7 2 ; A.R. Ceresko, Psalmists and Sages: Studies in Old Testament Poetry and Religion (Bangalore: St. Peter's Pontifical Institute, 1994); idem, "The S a g e in the Psalms," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East (ed. J.G. G a m m i e and L.G. Perdue; W i n o n a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1 9 9 0 ) 2 1 7 - 3 0 ; R . M . A . D a v i d s o n , Wisdom and Worship (London/Philadelphia: S C M Press/Trinity Press International, 1 9 9 0 ) 17-46; A . Hurvitz, " W i s d o m Vocabulary in the H e b r e w Psalter: A Contribution to the Study o f ' W i s d o m P s a l m s , ' " FT 3 8 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 4 1 - 5 1 . Crenshaw, " W i s d o m P s a l m s ? " 9 - 1 7 . 2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

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example, several of the thematic criteria endorsed by Murphy for locating wisdom psalms are also found in the book of Amos. But few would consider this sufficient evidence to claim "wisdom influence" in Amos. There is a similar problem with formal criteria. Admonitions, similes and rhetorical questions are found throughout the Hebrew Bible. Psalms with these features are not necessarily wisdom psalms. The use of terminology is also problematic. Kuntz's discernment of sapiential vocabulary is based on a list of seventyseven words tabulated by R.B.Y. Scott. Some psalms Kuntz does not consider sapiential have at least nine words from this list (such as Pss 10 and 107), but several of his wisdom psalms have two or fewer of Scott's terms. The phrase "fear of the Lord," considered a sign of sapiential influence, occurs in three psalms (19:10; 34:12; 111:10). However, of these three only Ps 34 is a wisdom psalm, according to Murphy and Kuntz. Crenshaw concludes that "wisdom psalm" is a dubious category: 29

30

31

I do not see any profit in attributing such [wisdom] psalms to the sages when we know so little about the authors and their social contexts. Perhaps we should limit ourselves to what can definitely be affirmed: some psalms resemble wisdom literature in stressing the importance of learning, struggling to ascertain life's meaning, and employing proverbial lore. 3

Crenshaw's skepticism is compelling. His basic argument is that there are common ideas and forms of expression in various types of biblical literature and these affinities do not need to be explained by positing that one tradition influenced another. The range of criteria 2 9

Ibid., 11. See also idem, "Method in Determining Wisdom Influence upon 'Historical Literature,'" JBL 88 (1969) 129-42. Kuntz, "The Canonical Wisdom Psalms," 200-1; R.B.Y. Scott, The Way of Wisdom (New York: Macmillan, 1971). Ps 128 has two, Ps 127 one and Ps 133 none. See Crenshaw, "Wisdom Psalms?" 12; Kuntz, "Reclaiming Biblical Wisdom Psalms," 147-48; idem, "The Canonical Wisdom Psalms," 208. Crenshaw, "Wisdom Psalms?" 15. See also idem, "A Proverb in the Mouth of 3 0

3 1

3 2

a Fool," in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to Honor Michael V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. R.L. Troxel et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2005) 103-15 (esp. 111-15). S. Weeks has also displayed skepticism regarding wisdom psalms. For him the category "wisdom psalm" does retain some value, claiming, for example, that Ps 37 is reasonably considered a wisdom psalm. See his "Wisdom Psalms," in Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel (ed. J. Day; London/New York: T & T Clark, 2005) 292-307 (esp. 304). See also Whybray, "The Wisdom Psalms," 160.

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for identifying wisdom psalms and the differing lists of them also produce doubt regarding the viability of the entire project. A

3. THE CAVE 11 PSALMS SCROLL (1 lQPs ) The Dead Sea Scrolls can contribute to the issue of wisdom psalms. The Psalter is better represented at Qumran than any other biblical book. 126 of the 150 masoretic psalms are attested in some form among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Thirty-six Psalms manuscripts were found in Caves 1-6, 8 and 11, twenty-three of which are from Cave 4. The largest Qumran Psalms manuscript is from Cave 11 (1 lQPs ). The scroll was copied around 30-50 CE. It is one of the longest texts from Qumran. 11Q5 consists of twenty-eight columns and several additional fragments. It contains forty-nine or fifty works. Thirty-nine of the psalms from this scroll correspond to hymns from books four and five of the masoretic Psalter, often (but not always) in a different order. llQPs includes ten (or eleven) works not in the masoretic Psalter. One, known as "David's Last Words," is a version of 2 Sam 23:1-7, most of which is no longer extant. Five are non-canonical writings available in other ancient versions. These are Sir 51:13-30, and Pss 151 A, 151B, 154 and 155. Four were previously unknown. They have been entitled "Plea for Deliverance," "Apostrophe to Zion," "Hymn to the Creator" and "David's Compositions." The Psalms Scroll also attests numerous 33

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3 3

3

P.W. Flint, "The Contribution o f the Cave 4 P s a l m s Scrolls to the P s a l m s Debate," DSD 5 ( 1 9 9 8 ) 3 2 0 - 3 3 (esp. 3 2 0 ) . P.W. Flint, "The B o o k o f P s a l m s in the Light o f the D e a d S e a Scrolls," VT AS ( 1 9 9 8 ) 4 5 3 - 7 2 (esp. 4 7 1 ) . P.W. Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls and the Book of Psalms ( S T D J 17; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 2 7 - 4 9 (esp. 3 3 ) . There are t w o additional P s a l m s manuscripts from M a s a d a and o n e from Nahal Hever. S e e ibid., 4 3 - 4 5 . Ibid., 144. Ibid., 4 0 . Sanders w a s not aware o f o n e o f these fragments (E) w h i l e h e w a s preparing DJD 4. Y . Y a d i n brought this fragment to his attention. Fragment E is included in J.A. Sanders, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1 9 6 7 ) 155-59. 1 1 Q 5 16 attests a version o f P s 118 and a catena o f h y m n i c material that m a y be a separate unit. S e e Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 4 0 . For the order o f the contents o f 1 1 Q 5 , s e e ibid., 2 5 3 . S e e also M.G. A b e g g , Jr., et al., ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible ( S a n Francisco: HarperCollins, 1 9 9 9 ) 5 0 5 - 8 9 . 3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

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textual variants when compared to the masoretic and LXX Psalters/ 3.1 Scholarship on the Psalms Scroll a

The scholarship on 1 lQPs has focused on issues of canon, authority and provenance. Sanders argued that this work was a "Qumran Psalter" that had canonical status for the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. He claimed that when 1 lQPs was originally composed Pss 1-89 had already achieved the canonical arrangement preserved in the Hebrew Bible but that the rest of the Psalter was still fluid. Talmon and Skehan asserted, contra Sanders, that HQPs was a secondary arrangement of material taken from a fixed arrangement of psalms reflected in the masoretic Psalter. These counter-proposals present 11Q5 as a liturgical arrangement of psalms that had no independent canonical authority of its own. Flint has offered a comprehensive presentation of all the Qumran 42

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a

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a

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4 1

Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 6 5 - 8 0 . For a summary o f scholarship o n l l Q P s , see Flint, "The Contribution o f the C a v e 4 P s a l m s Scrolls," 3 2 6 - 3 2 . J. A . Sanders, "Cave 11 Surprises and the Question o f Canon," McCQ 21 ( 1 9 6 8 ) 2 8 4 - 9 8 (esp. 2 9 4 - 9 5 ) . S e e further idem, "Variorum in the Psalms Scroll ( l l Q P s ) , " HTR 5 9 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 8 3 - 9 4 ; idem, "Psalm 1 5 4 Revisited," in Biblische Theologie und gesellschaftlicher Wandel: fur Norbert Lohfink SJ. (ed. G. Braulik et al.; Freiburg: Herder, 1 9 9 3 ) 2 9 6 - 3 0 6 (esp. 3 0 1 - 2 ) . A s s o c i a t i n g the provenance o f this scroll with the D e a d S e a sect can b e supported by " D a v i d ' s C o m p o s i t i o n s , " w h i c h declares that D a v i d wrote numerous psalms, s o m e o f w h i c h are to b e sung in a cultic context based o n a solar calendar ( 1 1 Q 5 2 7 : 6 - 7 ; cf. Sir 4 7 : 1 0 ) . It has b e e n argued that U Q 5 as a w h o l e w a s shaped with calendrical concerns in mind. S e e Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 1 9 2 - 9 3 ; M. Chyutin, "The Redaction o f the Qumranic and the Traditional B o o k o f P s a l m s as a Calendar," RevQ 16 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 3 6 7 - 9 5 . Sanders, "Cave 11 Surprises," 2 9 3 . S e e also idem, "Adaptable for Life: The Nature and Function o f Canon," in Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God (ed. F . M . Cross et al.; Garden City: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 7 6 ) 5 3 1 - 6 0 ; idem, Torah and Canon (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972); idem, "The M o d e r n History o f the Qumran P s a l m s Scroll and Canonical Criticism," in Emanuel: Studies in Hebrew Bible, Septuagint, and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honor of Emanuel Tov (ed. S.M. Paul et al.; V T S u p 9 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) 3 9 3 - 4 1 1 . M . H . Goshen-Gottstein, "The P s a l m s Scroll (1 l Q P s ) : A Problem o f C a n o n and Text," Text 5 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 2 2 - 3 3 ; S. Talmon, "Pisqah B e ' e m s a ' Pasuq and H Q P s , " Text 5 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1 1 - 2 1 ; P.W. Skehan, "A Liturgical C o m p l e x in l l Q P s , " CBQ 3 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) 1 9 5 205. 4 2

a

4 3

a

4 5

a

a

3

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Psalms manuscripts that supports and refines the views of Sanders. He argues that there is no manuscript from Qumran that attests the masoretic arrangement of Pss 90-150. He asserts that the order of psalms in llQPs is found in two other scrolls (4QPs and HQPs ). This endorses the view that the Cave 11 Psalter possessed a form of scriptural authority. The Davidic character of 11 QPs , emphasized by the claim in col. 27 that David composed 4,050 psalms, also indicates that this arrangement of hymns was authoritative. Flint therefore regards 1 lQPs as a "true scriptural Psalter." Current scholarship on 11Q5 is characterized by critical engagement of the views of Flint. Fabry, echoing earlier criticism of Sanders, contends that it cannot be proven that a non-masoretic psalms collection ever had "kanonische Wertigkeit." Dahmen has produced a reconstruction and interpretation of 1 lQPs designed as a "Gegenentwurf" of Flint's approach. Dahmen understands 11Q5 as a secondary collection of psalms and suggests that it could have been 3

e

b

47

a

a

48

49

a

50

4 6

Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 2 4 0 ; idem, "The Contribution o f the C a v e 4 P s a l m s Scrolls," 3 3 1 - 3 2 . S e e also idem, "The '1 l Q P s - P s a l t e r ' in the D e a d Sea Scrolls, Including the Preliminary Edition o f 4 Q P s , " in The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders (ed. C A . E v a n s and S. Talmon; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 1 7 3 - 9 6 . G.H. W i l s o n also affirms that the Qumran P s a l m s texts endorse Sanders' v i e w s regarding the ' o p e n ' status o f P s s 9 0 - 1 5 0 . H e contends further that the material in the C a v e 11 P s a l m s Scroll is arranged according to organizational principles not unlike those shaping b o o k s four and five o f the masoretic Psalter. S e e his "The Qumran Psalms Manuscripts and the C o n s e c u t i v e Arrangement o f P s a l m s in the Hebrew Psalter," CBQ 4 5 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 3 7 7 - 8 8 ; idem, "The Qumran P s a l m s Scroll Reconsidered: A n a l y s i s o f the Debate," CBQ 4 7 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 6 2 4 - 4 2 ; idem, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter ( S B L D S 76; C h i c o : Scholars Press, 1985). Consult also D . D . S w a n s o n , "Qumran and the Psalms," in Interpreting the Psalms: Issues and Approaches (ed. P.S. Johnston and D . G . Firth; Leicester: A p o l l o s , 2 0 0 5 ) 2 4 7 - 6 2 . Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 2 0 0 , 2 3 9 . Ibid., 2 2 6 . H.-J. Fabry, "Der Psalter in Qumran," in Der Psalter in Judentum und Christentum (ed. E. Zenger; H B S 18; Freiburg: Herder, 1 9 9 8 ) 1 3 7 - 6 3 (esp. 155, 159). S e e also E. Jain and A . Steudel, "Les manuscrits psalmiques de la M e r Morte et la reception du Psautier a Qumran," RevScRel 11 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 5 2 9 - 4 3 ; G.J. B r o o k e , "The P s a l m s in Early Jewish Literature in the Light o f the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in The Psalms in the New Testament (ed. S. M o y i s e and M.J.J. M e n k e n ; L o n d o n / N e w York: T & T Clark International, 2 0 0 4 ) 5 - 2 4 (esp. 10-11). U. Dahmen, Psalmenund Psalter-Rezeption im Fruhjudentum: Rekonstruktion, Textbestand, Struktur und Pragmatik der Psalmenrolle llQPs aus Qumran (STDJ 4 9 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) 2 2 . a

e

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

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WISDOM PSALMS

239

compiled for liturgical purposes. a

3.2 HQPs and the Wisdom Tradition Several compositions of 11Q5 relate to the wisdom tradition. A large portion of the scroll, nine of its twenty-eight columns (cols. 6-14), contains Ps 119, which is sometimes considered a wisdom psalm. The manuscript contains portions of other works that have been placed in this category. The discernment of wisdom psalms in 1 lQPs could shed light on the development of the canonical Psalter. There has been speculation that the biblical wisdom psalms were a product of the same circles that helped establish "the Psalter in its final form as a collection of sacred texts." In the non-masoretic compositions of 11Q5 acrostics are surprisingly prominent. Apostrophe to Zion (HQPs 22:1-15), Ps 52

53

a

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55

a

5 1

D a h m e n , Psalmenund Psalter-Rezeption, 274-76. S e e also Fabry, "Der Psalter in Qumran," 160. Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 4 0 , observes that P s 119 is the o n l y c o m p o s i t i o n in 11Q5 that is written stichometrically. S e e also ibid., 6 9 - 7 3 ; D a h m e n , Psalmen- und Psalter-Rezeption, 1 5 4 - 8 4 ; DJD 4, 2 7 - 3 5 . For example, Kuntz, "The Canonical W i s d o m Psalms," 2 1 7 , argues that P s s 127, 128 and 133 are "sentence w i s d o m psalms." Fragments o f P s 127:1 are in 1 l Q P s 4:16. 1 l Q P s 5:1-3 has a version o f P s 128:4-6. For P s 1 3 3 : 1 - 3 , see 1 l Q P s 2 3 : 7 - 1 1 . Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 1 9 5 , considers P s 133 a w i s d o m psalm. Kuntz, " W i s d o m Psalms and the Shaping o f the H e b r e w Psalter," 160. S e e also E. Zenger, "'Durch den M u n d e i n e s W e i s e n werde das L o b l i e d g e s p r o c h e n ' (Sir 15,10): W e i s h e i t s t h e o l o g i e im Finale d e s Psalters P s 1 4 6 - 1 5 0 , " mAuf den Spuren der schriftgelehrten Weisen: Festschrift fur Johannes Marbock (ed. I. Fischer et al.; B Z A W 3 3 1 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2 0 0 3 ) 1 3 9 - 5 5 ; A . Lange, "Die Endgestalt d e s protomasoretischen Psalters und die Toraweisheit," in Der Psalter in Judentum und Christentum, 1 0 1 - 3 6 ; J.L. M a y s , "The Place o f the Torah-Psalms in the Psalter," JBL 106 ( 1 9 8 7 ) 3 - 1 2 ; J.C. M c C a n n , " W i s d o m ' s D i l e m m a : The B o o k o f Job, the Final Form o f the B o o k o f Psalms, and the Entire B i b l e , " in Wisdom, You are My Sister: Studies in Honor of Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm., on the Occasion of His Eightieth Birthday (ed. M . L . Barre; C B Q M S 2 9 ; Washington, D . C . : Catholic Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 9 7 ) 1 8 - 3 0 ; W i l s o n , "The Qumran Psalms Scroll ( H Q P s ) and the Canonical Psalter," 4 4 8 - 6 4 ; idem, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, 199-228; N.L. deClaisse-Walford, Reading From the Beginning: The Shaping of the Hebrew Psalter ( M a c o n : Mercer University Press, 1 9 9 7 ) 9 6 ; Crenshaw, "A Proverb in the M o u t h o f a F o o l " 111. H. Eshel and J. Strugnell, "Alphabetical Acrostics in Pre-Tannaitic Hebrew," CBQ 6 2 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 4 4 1 - 5 8 (esp. 4 4 3 - 4 5 ) . S e e also H. Eshel, " c - n ^ ^ K rrmm STO-IK jKimpa rn'rana c i » i n n n "wn rran ^ n , " in Studies in the History of Eretz Israel Presented to Yehuda Ben Porat (ed. Y . B e n - A r i e h and E. Reiner; Jerusalem: Y a d B e n - Z v i Press, 2 0 0 3 ) 3 9 - 5 6 . 5 2

5 3

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a

155 (1 lQPs 24:3-17), and the material related to Sir 51 in cols. 21-22 are in the acrostic style (cf. 4QPs 9-10). Several psalms, such as Pss 119 and 145, and Prov 31:10-31 are acrostics, and it has been argued that the acrostic form is a feature of some wisdom psalms. There is a sapiential quality to the presentation of David in the 11Q5. David's Compositions (HQPs 27:2-11) depicts him in a manner reminiscent of the biblical Solomon. According to lines 2-4, "David, the son of Jesse, was wise (D3n), and a light like the light of the sun, and literate (1210), discerning, and perfect in all his ways before God and men. And the Lord gave him a discerning and enlightened spirit (rWDJ FTP f

56

a

nm*o)."

5 7

The question of wisdom psalms in 11Q5 has focused on its nonmasoretic writings. The three compositions from HQPs that have received the most attention in this regard are in columns 18 (Ps 154), 21:11 -17 and 22:1 (Sir 51:13-30), and 26:9-15 (Hymn to the Creator). a

3.2.1 HQPsf 18 (Ps 154) 3

Column 18 of HQPs preserves a poem in Hebrew that was previously available in Syriac as part of a collection of five apocryphal psalms. A twelfth century manuscript attaches these hymns to the end of the biblical Psalter. The hymn in 1 lQPs 18 is known as both Ps 154 and Syriac Psalm II. Neither the beginning 58

59

8

60

Murphy, " A Consideration," 160. DJD 4, 9 2 - 9 3 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 2 4 ; Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 195. 1 K g s 3:12 states that G o d g a v e S o l o m o n a "wise and discerning mind (pan can ib)." DJD 4, 6 4 - 7 0 . For a preliminary publication, s e e Sanders, " T w o N o n Canonical Psalms," 5 7 - 6 7 . Consult also J.H. Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls: 57

Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations, Volume 4A; Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers (Tubingen/Louisville: M o h r Siebeck/Westminster John K n o x Press, 1997) 170-77; D a h m e n , Psalmen- und Psalter-Rezeption, 88. 5 9

H. Eshel and E. Eshel, " 4 Q 4 4 8 , Psalm 154 (Syriac), Sirach 4 8 : 2 0 , and 4 Q p I s a , " JBL 119 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 6 4 5 - 5 9 (esp. 6 4 7 ) ; Sanders, "Psalm 154 Revisited," 2 9 6 . In the late 1 9 5 0 s , w h e n l l Q P s w a s unavailable to scholars, D e l c o r and P h i l o n e n k o argued that these five p s a l m s were E s s e n e c o m p o s i t i o n s . S e e M . Delcor, "Cinq N o u v e a u x P s a u m e s e s s e n i e n s ? " RevQ 1 ( 1 9 5 8 ) 8 5 - 1 0 2 ; M . Philonenko, "L'Origine e s s e n i e n n e des cinq p s a u m e s syriaques de D a v i d , " Sem 9 ( 1 9 5 9 ) 3 5 - 4 8 . S e e also M. D e l c o r , "Zum Psalter v o n Qumran," BZ 10 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1 5 - 2 9 (esp. 2 4 - 2 5 ) ; idem, Les Hymnes de Qumran (Hodayot) (Paris: L e t o u z e y et A n e , 1 9 6 2 ) 2 9 9 - 3 1 9 . 1 l Q P s also preserves versions o f P s s 151 and 155 (Syriac P s a l m s I and III) in cols. 2 8 : 3 - 1 4 and 2 4 : 3 - 1 7 , respectively. The Syriac recension o f P s 154 is attributed a

3

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241

nor the end of 11Q5 18 have survived. The Hebrew of these missing lines can be approximated from Syriac Psalm II. When 4Q448 was published in 1991, it became apparent that it contains material (especially 11. 8-10 of column A) that is similar to 1 lQPs 18:14-16. As a result, Sanders slightly modified his original edition of the hymn. It is possible that one of these works was a source for the other. Ps 154 has been dated relatively early. Sanders has argued that the composition was older than the yahad group. Luhrmann dated the poem to the end of the third century BCE. If the original core of Ps 154 is from 4Q448, as the Eshels argue, the date of the psalm would be significantly later, following the view that 4Q448 praises Alexander Jaimaeus (103-76 BCE). Even before the emergence of the Dead Sea Scrolls, commentators understood Ps 154 in relation to the wisdom tradition. In 1930 Martin a

61

62

63

64

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to Hezekiah, not David. The work is entitled "The Prayer of Hezekiah, when the Assyrians were surrounding him; and he asked of God deliverance from them." See Eshel and Eshel, "4Q448, Psalm 154," 649. E. Eshel et al., "A Scroll from Qumran which Includes Parts of Psalm 154 and a Prayer for King Jonathan and his Kingdom," Tarbiz 60 (1991) 295-324 (Hebrew); eadem et al., "A Qumran Composition Containing Part of Ps. 154 and a Prayer for the Welfare of King Jonathan and his Kingdom," 7 £ / 4 2 (1992) 199-229. Sanders, "Psalm 154 Revisited," 300. Eshel and Eshel, "4Q448, Psalm 154," 648, argue that 4Q448 A attests "the original nucleus of this hymn." See also A. Lemaire, "Attestation Textuelle et Critique Litteraire: 4Q448 col. A et Psalm 154," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years 6 1

6 2

6 3

After Their Discovery:

Proceedings

of the Jerusalem

Congress,

July 20-25,

1997 (ed.

L.H. Schiffman et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, 2000) 12-18; idem, "Le Psaume 154: Sagesse et Site de Qoumran," From

4QMMT

to Resurrection:

Melanges

qumraniens

en hommage

a Emile

Puech

(ed. F. Garcia Martinez, A. Steudel and E.J.C. Tigchelaar; STDJ 61; Leiden: Brill, 2006) 195-204. DJD 4, 70. D. Luhrmann, "Ein Weisheitspsalm aus Qumran ( l l Q P s XVIII)," ZAW 80 (1968) 87-98 (esp. 93, 97). R. Polzin asserted that 11Q5 18 and other non-masoretic hymns of the scroll are "late Persian/Hellenistic compositions." See his "Notes on the Dating of the Non-Massoretic Psalms of HQPs ," HTR 60 (1967) 468-76 (esp. 475). See also A. Hurvitz, "Observations on the Language of the Third Apocryphal Psalm from Qumran," RevQ 5 (1965) 225-32. Alexander Jannaeus is the only king from this period whose name in Hebrew is 6 4

6 5

3

a

6 6

Jonathan.

See H. Stegemann, The Library

of Qumran:

On the Essenes,

Qumran,

John the Baptist, and Jesus (Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1998 [orig. pub., 1993]) 133-34; M.O. Wise, "Dating the Teacher of Righteousness and the Floruit of His Movement," JBL 122 (2003) 53-87 (esp. 69). G. Vermes understands Jonathan Maccabee as the focus of 4Q448. Consult his "The So-Called King Jonathan Fragment (4Q448)," JJS 44 (1993) 294-300.

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Noth identified both hymnic and sapiential elements in this text and distinguished them. Luhrmann disagreed with this approach, contending that the hymn is a unified example of "Weisheitsdichtung," using the terminology of Gunkel. Several years later Magne claimed that Ps 154 was originally "un poeme sapiential" transformed by the incorporation of a psalm that was a call to praise God. It is not surprising that scholars have interpreted Ps 154 in relation to the sapiential tradition. The two central themes of this poem are wisdom and the praise of God. According to the Syriac version, the hymn begins with a call to communal praise: "With a loud voice glorify God; in the congregation of the many proclaim his majesty. In the multitude of the upright glorify his name and with the faithful recount his greatness" (Ps 154:1-2; cf. 4QH 7). In 1 lQPs 18:1 one is exhorted to join "the good ones" and "the perfect ones" in order "to glorify the Most High." The goal is to proclaim "his salvation" and "his might and his majesty to all the simple ones (imKSm 1TV o w n s bvby (11.2-3). The celebration of God is connected to wisdom: "For to make known the glory of the Lord is wisdom given (mrp TOO SFTinb nEDYt rtirti), and to recount his many works she is made known to 67

68

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a

6 7

M. Noth, "Die funf syrisch uberlieferten apokryphen Psalmen," ZA W 48 (1930) 1-23 (esp. 19-20). He translated the five aprocryphal Syriac psalms into German and reconstructed a Hebrew Vorlage for Psalms II-IV. See also J. Strugnell, "Notes on the Text and Transmission of the Apocryphal Psalms 151, 154 ( = Syr. II) and 155 ( = Syr. Ill)," HTR 59 (1966) 257-81 (esp. 272-75); H.F. van Rooy, "Psalm 154:14 and the Relation between the Hebrew and Syriac Versions of Psalm 154," JBL 116 (1997) 321-24; A.S. van der Woude, "Die funf syrischen Psalmen," JSHRZ 4 (1974) 29-47. Luhrmann, "Ein Weisheitspsalm," 91. J. Magne, "Le Psaume 154," RevQ 9 (1977) 95-102 (esp. 102). For a similar view, see P. Auffret, "Structure litteraire et interpretation du Psaume 154 de la grotte 11 de Qumran," RevQ 9 (1977-78) 513-45 (esp. 545). Consult also A. DupontSommer, "Explication de textes hebreux decouverts a Qoumran," Annuaire du College de France 66 (1966) 358-67; 67 (1967) 364-68; Lemaire, "Le Psaume 154," 204. DJD 4, 69; Sanders, "Two Non-Canonical Psalms," 65. Lipscomb and Sanders, "Wisdom at Qumran," 279, refer to the poem in 11Q5 18 as a "wisdom psalm." See also D.J. Harrington, "Wisdom at Qumran," in The Community of the 6 8

6 9

70

Renewed

Covenant:

The Notre

Dame

Symposium

on the Dead

Sea Scrolls

(ed. E.

Ulrich and J.C. VanderKam; Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994) 137-53 (esp. 137); idem, "Ten Reasons," 247-48; idem, Wisdom Texts, 26-28; van der Woude, "Wisdom at Qumran," 251; Kampen, "The Diverse Aspects," 225. DJD 4, 65. 7 1

WISDOM PSALMS a

243 72

humanity (Dl*6 nim3)" (HQPs 18:3-4). The themes of wisdom and praise are not easily separated, as Luhrmann argued against Noth. Luhrmann supported this position by appealing to Ben Sira. In his instruction the possession of wisdom is expressed through the praise of God. Sir 15:9-10, for example, reads: "Unseemly is praise on a sinner's lips ... but praise (nSnn) is offered by the tongue of the wise, and its rightful master teaches it" (cf. 17:10; 39:15; 43:30; Wis 10:20-21). The themes of wisdom and praise are combined in Qumran wisdom texts. 4QInstruction exhorts its addressee: "Praise his name constantly" ( T o n bbfl IDE) (4Q416 2 iii 11). 4Q418 81 1 claims "He has opened up your lips as a fountain in order to bless the holy ones" (cf. 4Q417 1 ii 9). 4Q185 1-2 ii 8, using the same verb as 1 lQPs 18:3, extols the gift of wisdom: "Happy is the man to whom she is given (713113)." Also like this apocryphal psalm, 4Q185 urges that the "simple ones" acquire wisdom in order to comprehend the might of God: "Pay attention to me, simple ones (D'KnS), and draw wisdom from the [p]ower of our God. Remember the wonders he performed in Egypt and his portents in [the land of Ham]" (1-2 i 1315). Those who are to receive instruction are called "simple ones" in Proverbs and 4QInstruction as well. 4Q185 and llQPs 18 both emphasize the strength of God, using different terminology. They also appeal to the national traditions of Israel, with both mentioning Jacob (4Q185 1-2 ii 4; llQPs 18:16). llQPs 18 connects the themes of wisdom and praise in a way 73

74

a

75

3

76

3

77

3

7 2

a

J.C. Lebram argued that the word cnx of 1 lQPs 18:4 should be understood as a reference to Adam rather than humanity in a general sense. This is an intriguing idea that merits consideration, but it cannot be endorsed. 11Q5 18 contains no unambiguous allusion to Adam. See his "Die Theologie der spaten Chokma und haretisches Judentum," ZAW11 (1965) 202-11 (esp. 208). Lebram's interpretation is supported in Magne, "Le Psaume 154," 97. Luhrmann, "Ein Weisheitspsalm," 91-2. See also Lebram, "Die Theologie der spaten Chokma," 203. 7 4

M. Reitemeyer, Weisheitslehre

als Gotteslob:

Psalmentheologie

in Buch

Jesus

Sirach (BBB 127; Berlin: Philo, 2000). Cf. 4Q418 221 2. The use of this term in Proverbs is discussed below. 4Q185 1-2 i 14 urges that the simple understand the lrn^K m-ofa] ("the [p]ower of our God"); in 11Q5 18:4 one is to proclaim "his might" (ITW) to the simple (cf. 4Q417 1 i 13). The reconstruction of 1 lQPs 18:16 from the Syriac of Ps 154:19 presents God as one who "[raises up the horn of Ja]cob." See Sanders, "Psalm 154 Revisited," 7 5

7 6

7 7

a

306; Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls,

111.

244

CHAPTER NINE

which personifies wisdom, although not as explicitly as Prov 8 or Sir 24. After comparing God's acceptance of praise to his approval of cultic sacrifices (11. 8-10), the psalm describes the sound of the righteous extolling God: "From the gates of the righteous is heard her voice (r6lp), and from the assembly of the pious her song (SnpD n m B T D^TOn)" (11. 10-11). The feminine pronoun refers to wisdom, as in line 3. Lines 10-11 present wisdom in an anthropomorphic way in that she has a voice. Proverbs emphasizes the voice of Lady Wisdom. Prov 1:20 reads: "Wisdom cries out in the street; in the squares she raises her voice (rhlp)" (cf. 8:1, 4). She calls out to the "simple ones," urging them to acquire wisdom (1:22; 8:5). Proverbs offers a full-blown personification of wisdom, presenting Lady Wisdom calling out to passers-by. In Ps 154 the simple hear the voice of wisdom when they listen to the pious praise God. Feminine pronouns are important elsewhere in HQPs 18. Lines 5-6 describe the ignorant as "those far from her gates (irnna), those who stray from her portals (rp*03Q)." Sanders has argued that this refers to the "doors of Wisdom." In Proverbs Lady Wisdom teaches at her "gates": "Happy is the one who listens to me, watching daily at my gates (TinSn), waiting beside my doors ( T i n a ) " (8:34). Lady Wisdom then invites the simple to a banquet at her house (Prov 9:112). Ps 154 seems to rely on this tradition, as Sanders suggests. 11Q5 18:10 describes the voice of wisdom coming from "the gates of the righteous." Within these gates the righteous enjoy a meal: "When they eat with satiety she is cited (m&K3), and when they drink in fellowship together, their meditation is on the Torah of the Most High" (11. 11-12). It would be easier to conclude that the hymn describes a ritual meal if the numerous terms used to describe the righteous who praise God, such as the "good ones" (1. 1), displayed a sectarian consciousness or if it were explicit that a specific 78

79

80

81

a

82

DJD 4, 69; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 27; Lebram, "Die Theologie der spaten Chokma," 203; B.G. Wright III, "Wisdom and Women at Qumran," DSD 11 (2004) 240-61 (esp. 241). DJD 4, 67. The word Sip could be rendered "sound" rather than "voice." "Her sound," in parallelism with "her song," would not be substantially different in meaning from "her voice." Lebram, "Die Theologie der spaten Chokma," 205. 7 9

8 0

8 1

8 2

DJD 4, 67; Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls,

171.

WISDOM PSALMS

245

community was the intended audience. The eating and drinking of line 11 is better understood as a symbolic description of the bounty of wisdom enjoyed by the righteous, a poetic image that is reminiscent of the banquet of wisdom of Prov 9. In the expressions "she is cited" of line 11 and "her word" of the following line wisdom is understood as a text. Like 4Q185, 4QBeatitudes and Ben Sira, llQPs 18 associates wisdom with the Torah. The phrase "Torah of the Most High" (]vbv m m ) of line 12 is also in 4QBeatitudes and Ben Sira, as discussed in the previous chapter. This line states further that "their meditation" (DnrPE?) is on the Torah. Ps 119 may use this verb in relation to the Torah. The law is associated in 11Q5 18:12 with the proclamation of the might of God. The theme of Torah relates to the issue of revelation. According to Harrington, the assertion in llQPs 18:3 and 4Q185 1-2 ii 8 that wisdom "is given" (nmj) indicates the prominence of divine revelation in the wisdom literature from Qumran. He is right but the point needs qualification. Ps 154 never appeals to any form of supernatural revelation aside from that of Sinai (nor does 4Q185). This is in stark contrast to 4QInstruction, which frequently invokes the mystery that is to be. In HQPs 18 wisdom is given by God through the Torah. There is no indication in this hymn that the righteous have access to esoteric heavenly knowledge. The image in llQPs 18:10-12 of eating and drinking in celebration of God and the Torah invites comparison with the Community Rule (1QS). Unlike Ps 154, this rulebook gives explicit 84

3

85

3

86

a

3

87

83

DJD 4, 70; Luhrmann, "Ein Weisheitspsalm," 92-93. Below I discuss the differences between 11Q5 18:11-12 and the ritual meal described in 1QS 6. The "gates" of 11Q5 18:5 and 10 could denote an actual building in which the intended addressees would gather. This position is not unreasonable since the call for congregational praise is so prominent in the work. If one grants such an interpretation, such gatherings do not necessarily imply that the participants were members of a sect. Harrington, "Ten Reasons," 247. The author of Ps 154 would have understood Ps 119 in this way. See Ps 119:15, 23, 48 and 78. The first three of these verses are found, respectively, in H Q P s 7:1, 9; 8:12 (with the variant r r a w i for MT r m w i ) . Ps 119:78 would have occurred in the damaged bottom portion of 1 lQPs 9. The verb rrra is employed in relation to the Torah in 4Q525 2 ii + 3 6. Harrington, "Ten Reasons," 250. 8 4 8 5

a

a

8 6

8 7

J.J.

Collins, Jewish

Westminster John Knox,

Wisdom

in the Hellenistic

Age

(OTL;

Louisville:

1997) 112; M. Klinghardt, Gemeinschaftsmahl

und

246

CHAPTER NINE

guidelines for meals conducted by members of a sectarian group. 1QS 6:6-8 stipulates that the Torah is to be read and interpreted constantly, day and night. This rule is given immediately after regulations regarding the conduct of meals (6:4-6). The Torah was probably read and contemplated during these meals. In contrast to 1 lQPs 18, 1QS 6:4-6 gives a priest an important role at the meal and seating is arranged according to a group hierarchy. There are no compelling indicators that 1 lQPs 18 was produced by the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness, although the poem's emphasis on praise of God and the Torah would have certainly appealed to its members. Sanders originally argued that HQPs 18 could be "proto-Essenian, or Hasidic." The psalm may be preEssene, but this cannot be proven conclusively. Ps 154 contains no red flag markers of yahad provenance such as the Teacher of Righteousness or familiarity with its organizational structure. 88

a

89

a

90

a

91

92

Mahlgemeinschaft:

Soziologie

und Liturgie

fruhchristlicher

Mahlfeiern

Tubingen: A. Francke Verlag, 1996) 223-27; D.E. Smith, From Eucharist:

The Banquet

in the Early

Christian

World

2003) 155-58. The material in 1QS 6:1-8 could be composite. Development

of the Qumran

Community

(TANZ 13;

Symposium

to

(Minneapolis: Fortress Press,

See S. Metso, The Textual

Rule (STDJ 21; Leiden: Brill, 1997) 133; C.

Hempel, "Interpretative Authority in the Community Rule Tradition," DSD 10 (2003) 59-80 (esp. 66-67). The description of the communal meal in 1QS 6 has similarities to Josephus' account of the Essenes (J. W., 2.130-33). He claims they took their bread "in order" and that a priest blessed the meal. He also emphasizes that participants ate in silence. This is different from 11Q5 18:11-12, in which one hears the righteous praise God while they eat and drink. Sanders, "Psalm 154 Revisited," 301. DJD 4, 70. He was criticized by Lebram and Luhrmann for making a connection between Ps 154 and the yahad sect. They considered the work's affinities with the wisdom tradition evidence that it was not a product of this movement. See Lebram, "Die Theologie der spaten Chokma," 206; Luhrmann, "Ein Weisheitspsalm," 93. While 11 QPs does not accord with the militant piety of the Hasideans described in 1 Maccabees, the phrase •"•Ton bnp of 11Q5 18:10 is similar to the expression "a company of Hasideans" in 1 Mace 2:42 (cf. Pss. Sol. 4:1). See G. Nickelsburg, 8 9

9 0

91

a

Ancient

Judaism

and Christian

Origins:

Diversity,

Continuity,

and

Transformation

(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003) 177; Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1.80, 176. It is possible to interpret the phrase i r r w a n n of l l Q P s 18:1 in a sectarian way. The stich in which this expression occurs can be translated "Form a yahad to proclaim his salvation." If the composition had more specific links to the Dead Sea sect, this translation would be appropriate. The line comes in the context of calls for communal praise of God, and this seems to be the point of the phrase in question as well. Sanders, "Psalm 154 Revisited," 305, translates the expression as "Form a community." See also Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 171. 9 2

8

247

WISDOM PSALMS

Furthermore, eschatology is not prominent in this work, a theme which runs throughout the compositions of the yahad. Ps 154 is reasonably understood in relation to the sapiential tradition. In this hymn wisdom is given to the simple ones, as in Proverbs. The two works do not have the same conception of wisdom. Unlike Proverbs, in Ps 154 wisdom never refers to an aptitude to make appropriate decisions in ordinary situations. Rather wisdom is the ability to perceive and proclaim the majesty of God. There is a degree of personification of wisdom in the psalm, but it includes no portrait of Lady Wisdom as vivid as those of Proverbs or Ben Sira. The association between wisdom, the praise of God and Torah piety accords with the mindset of Ben Sira, as Luhrmann has stressed. 11Q5 18 can thus be compared to Pss 1 and 119, which are often considered wisdom psalms. Many formal criteria that have been proposed for the identification of wisdom psalms, however, are not found in Ps 154. For example, the work has no "better than" sayings, admonitions or exhortations addressed to "sons." 11Q5 18 is a hymn of praise with substantial influence from the wisdom tradition. In this sense it can be considered a wisdom psalm. 93

94

3.2.2 llQPsf 21:11-17 and22:1 (Sir 51:13-30) 3

95

llQPs 21:11-17 contains a Hebrew version of Sir 51:13-30. Verses 13-20a correspond to 11Q5 21:11-17. The first two words of 1 lQPs 22:1 accord with Sir 51:30b. The material in column 21 after line 17, which has not survived, was probably similar to Sir 51:20ba

Dahmen, Psalmen- und Psalter-Rezeption, 238-40, argues that Ps 154 was written at Qumran because it is similar in terms of mindset and terminology to the Dead Sea sect. The examples he gives are general and do not require positing authorship of Ps 154 to the movement that produced the Qumran rulebooks. Dahmen, ibid., 317, contends that 1 lQPs as a whole has an eschatological and messianic character because the collection is attributed to David. If "Messianologie" were an important feature of the Psalms Scroll one would expect more material in it regarding the end of days, the arrival of an eschatological redeemer or the final judgment. Dahmen's view echoes the position advocated by B.Z. Wacholder. He argues that 11Q5 is a collection of songs that the eschatological David will sing with Israel at the end of days. See his "David's Eschatological Psalter: HQPsalms ," HUCA 59 (1988) 23-72. Kuntz, "The Canonical Wisdom Psalms," 192-94. DJD 4, 43, 79-85. See also Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 187-91; Dahmen, Psalmen- und Psalter-Rezeption, 91-92, 242-44. 9 3

a

a

9 4 95

248

CHAPTER NINE

6

3 0 . The B text, one of the manuscripts of Ben Sira discovered in the Cairo Geniza in 1896, contains another Hebrew recension of this poem. The version from 11Q5 is probably more authentic than the B text. llQPs 21:11-17 follows an easily discernable acrostic 97

98

3

Other sections of Ben Sira have been found in Hebrew documents from Qumran and Masada. One manuscript from Cave 2 (2Q18) may preserve a few words from Sir 6. At Masada Y. Yadin discovered leather fragments that contain material from Sir 39-43. 11Q5 is the only ancient Judean manuscript that includes a version of Sir 51:13-30. See M. Baillet et al., Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumran (DJD 3; Oxford: Clarendon, 1962) 75-77; Y. Yadin, The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada (Jerusalem: The Israel Exploration Society and the Shrine of the Book, 1965). Ancient witnesses of this poem are also in Greek, Latin, Syriac and other ancient languages. Editions of Ben Sira are available in P.C. Beentjes, The Book of Ben Sira in Hebrew (VTSup 68; Leiden: Brill, 1997); F. Vattioni, Ecclesiastico: 9 7

Testo ebraico

con apparato

critico

e versioni

greca,

latina e siriaca

(Naples: Istituto

Orientale di Napoli, 1968); M.H. Segal, abvn NTD JD IDO (Jerusalem: Bialik, 1953). For reviews of the Sirach material from Judean manuscripts and the Cairo Geniza, and other versions, see DJD 4, 79-83; A.A. Di Leila and P.W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB 39; New York: Doubleday, 1987) 51-62, 572-80; J.M. Oesch, "Textdarstellungen in den hebraischen Sirachhandschriften," in Auf den Spuren der schriftgelehrten Weisen, 307-24; E. Puech, "Le Livre de Ben Sira et les manuscripts de la Mer Morte," in Treasures

of Wisdom:

Studies

in Ben Sira

and the Book

of

Wisdom. Festschrift M. Gilbert (ed. N. Calduch-Benages and J. Vermeylen; BETL 143; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 1999) 411-26; C. Martone, "Ben Sira Manuscripts from Qumran and Masada," in The Book of Ben Sira in Modern Research:

Proceedings

of the First

International

Ben Sira

Conference,

28-31

July

1996, Soesterberg, Netherlands (ed. P.C. Beentjes; BZAW 255; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997) 81-94; W.T. van Peursen, "Sirach 51:13-30 in Hebrew and Syriac," in Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic

and Greek

Studies

Presented

to Professor

T. Muraoka

on the

Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday (ed. M.F.J. Baasten and W.T. van Peursen; Leuven: Peeters, 2003) 357-74; M. Gilbert, "Venez a mon ecole (Si 51,13-30)," in Auf den Spuren der schriftgelehrten Weisen, 283-90; T. Muraoka, "Sir. 51, 13-30: An Erotic Hymn to Wisdom?" JSJ 10 (1979) 166-78; I. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Original of Ben Sira's Concluding Acrostic on Wisdom," HUCA 42 (1971) 173-84; P.W. Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem in Sirach 51:13-20," HTR 64 (1971) 387-400; J.A. Sanders, "The Sirach 51 Acrostic," in Hommages a Andre Dupont-Sommer (Paris: Librairie d'Amerique et d'Orient Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1971) 429-38; J. Marbock, Weisheit

im Wandel:

Untersuchungen

zur Weisheitstheologie

bei Ben Sira

(BZAW

272; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1999 [orig. pub., 1971]) 121-23; O. Rickenbacher, Weisheitsperikopen bei Ben Sira (OBO 1; Freiburg/Gottingen: Schweiz Universit&sverlag/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973) 197-214; M. Delcor, "Le Texte hebreu du cantique de Siracide LI, 13 et ss. et les anciennes versions," Text 6 (1968) 27-47; Polzin, "Notes on the Dating," 471-73; M.R. Lehmann, "Ben Sira and the Qumran Literature," RevQ 3 (1961) 103-16; J. Carmignac, "Les Rapports entre l'Eccl6siastique et Qumran," RevQ 3 (1961) 209-18. Only the B text of Sir 51:30 gives the name of the author of the instruction as "Simon ben Yeshua ben Eleazar ben Sira" (cf. 50:27). This does not agree with other manuscripts. Most Greek versions of this line, for example, give the author's name as "Jesus, son of Sirach." J.J. Collins reasonably suggests that the B text in this instance contains a scribal mistake introduced because of the proximity of material 9 8

249

WISDOM PSALMS

format ("alep through kap), whereas the B text attests substantial corruptions of this pattern." The poem in 11Q5 21:11-17 and 22:1 is located between Ps 138:18 and Apostrophe to Zion. There is no mention of Ben Sira whatsoever and the Psalms Scroll as a whole is attributed implicitly to David (27:2-11). At the very least, llQPs does not endorse Ben Sira's authorship of Sir 51:13-30. Although the evidence is ambiguous, the Jerusalem sage probably did not compose this work. The work has been dated to the third or second century 3

100

101

about the High Priest Simon in Sir 50. See his Jewish Skehan, The Wisdom

Although 11Q5 18 Other manuscripts may The Ben Sira Scroll, 1, B text and its glosses. Mulder, "Three Psalms Wisdom," in Prayer

Wisdom,

23; Di Leila and

of Ben Sira, 579.

is older, it does not follow that the B text is not authentic. support the reliability of this document. For example, Yadin, argues that the Masada scroll endorses the authenticity of the The superiority of the B text also has been affirmed in O. or Two Prayers in Sirach 51? The End of Ben Sira's Book of

from

Tobit to Qumran:

Inaugural

Conference

of the ISDCL

at

Salzburg, Austria, 5-9 July 2003 (ed. R. Egger-Wenzel and J. Corley; DCLY 2004; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004) 171-201. A topic of debate is the extent to which the Hebrew Cairo manuscripts of Ben Sira are translations of Syriac manuscripts. This view has been defended by van Peursen, "Sirach 51:13-30," 373-74. In 1962 Di Leila claimed that Ben Sira material from the Cairo Geniza are versions of documents removed from the Qumran site in the early medieval period. See Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom

of Ben Sira, 54; A.A. Di Leila, The Hebrew

Text of

Sirach:

A Text-Critical and Historical Study (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966); idem, "Qumran and the Geniza Fragments of Sirach," CBQ 24 (1962) 245-67. H Q P s confirms the claim, put forward by Bickell in 1882, that the Hebrew Vorlage of Sir 51:13-30 was an acrostic. See DJD 4, 79; Strugnell and Eshel, "Alphabetic Acrostics," 445-46; G. Bickell, "Ein alphabetisches Lied Jesus Sirach's," ZKT6 (1882) 319-33. Sanders, DJD 4, 85, argues that the poem was "originally independent" of Ben Sira's instruction. Ben Sira's authorship of the canticle is affirmed by Di Leila. See Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 576. For this position see also Mulder, "Three Psalms or Two Prayers," 198. See further idem, Simon the High 9 9

a

1 0 0

Priest in Sirach 50: An Exegetical Study of the Significance of Simon the High as Climax to the Praise of the Fathers in Ben Sira's Concept of the History of

Priest Israel

(JSJSup 78; Leiden: Brill, 2003). Sir 50:27-29, called a "postscript" by Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 556, has the appearance of being the book's ending. These verses name the author and praise his wisdom, in a manner similar to the ending of Ecclesiastes (12:912). Sir 51 follows with hymnic material. Verses 1-12 contain a song of thanksgiving reminiscent of psalms such as Pss 116 and 138. The B text includes a sixteen line hymn of praise between verses 12 and 13 that is similar to Ps 136. Even Di Leila, who holds that Ben Sira wrote most of Sir 51, believes he did not write Sir 51:12i-xvi. See The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 569. For an argument for this text's authenticity, see Mulder, "Three Psalms or Two Prayers," 186-87. Ben Sira could have ended his instruction with a hymn. Concluding with three is less likely. It is reasonable to contend that 51:13-30 is secondary to Ben Sira. 1 0 1

250

CHAPTER NINE 102

BCE. The composition contains no evidence that it was composed by a member of the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. Even if Ben Sira did not write Sir 51:13-30, the poem is an appropriate conclusion to his instruction. The work is an autobiographical account of a sage's life-long devotion to wisdom and he recommends that others follow his example. The canticle resonates with key themes in the rest of the instruction, particularly the exhortations to acquire wisdom in Sir 6:18-37 and 14:20-15:10. Sir 51:13-30 had been understood as a sapiential hymn before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is not surprising that several surveys of the wisdom literature from Qumran discuss 11Q5 21:1117, 22:1. The poem begins with a male speaker looking back at a momentous event of his youth: "I was a young man before I had erred when I looked for her. She came to me in her beauty ( m r Q ) and up till the end I searched for her" (llQPs 21:11-12). Wisdom is envisioned as a woman whom the speaker loves. This is evident 103

104

105

106

107

3

108

109

1 0 2

1 0 3

Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 53.

187.

1 0 4

C. Deutsch, "The Sirach 51 Acrostic: Confession and Exhortation," TAW 94 (1982)400-9. 105

Marb6ck, Weisheitim

Wandel,

123.

1 0 6

In 1937 P.A. Munch appealed to Sir 51:13-30 when arguing that wisdom psalms were written in wisdom schools. See his "Die judischen ' Weisheitspsalmen' und ihr Platz im Leben,"^cOr 15 (1937) 112-40 (esp. 134-35). Note also H. Ludin Jansen, Die spatjudische Psalmendichtung: Leben." Eine literaturgeschichtlich-soziologische

ihr Entstehungskreis Untersuchung

und ihr "Sitz im (Oslo: i kommisjon

hosJ.Dybwad, 1937)93. Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 28-30; idem, "Ten Reasons," 247-48, 250; Kampen, "Diverse Aspects," 226; van der Woude, "Wisdom at Qumran," 253-54; Lipscomb and Sanders, "Wisdom at Qumran," 279. DJD 4, 81; Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 189. For the phrase "before I had erred" (TPW DIM), the B text has the variant TPTI. The Greek text here reads npiv r\ irAavr|8f|vaL fie, which is closer to 11Q5 21:11 than the B text. There are differing views regarding the expression m m , which I translate above as "in her beauty." This assumes a defective orthography, since one would expect an "alep in this word. Most commentators take this position. See Sanders, DJD 4, 81; Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem," 391; Gilbert, "Venez a mon £cole," 285; Delcor, "Le Texte hebreu," 31, 37. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 176, prefers mrr, "her abundance." It is possible that the poet wrote mro to allow for a double-meaning with "Torah," which would produce the line "She came to me through the Torah." This option would be more attractive if the Torah were a prominent theme in this poem. Deutsch, "The Sirach 51 Acrostic," 405. 1 0 7

108

1 0 9

WISDOM PSALMS

251

from Sir 51:20b (which is not attested in the Psalms Scroll): "At first acquaintance with her, I gained understanding, such that I will never forsake her." Because of this encounter the speaker has acquired the ability to speak well (v. 22), and he urges the listeners to reside in "my house of instruction" OEmB im) (v. 23). The word "wisdom," however, never occurs in the Qumran version of this 110

in

poem. The poem personifies wisdom, envisioning it as a woman the poet pursues romantically: My foot trod in uprightness, for from my young manhood have I known her. I inclined my ear a little and I found much learning (npb). And she became for me a nurse (7\bv); to my teacher I give my ardor. I determined to enjoy myself; I was zealous for the good and would not turn away. I kindled my desire for her and would not turn away my face. I bestirred my desire for her and on her heights I would not waver. My hand op[ened her gates] ... I perceived her unseen parts (mm an) (11 QPs 21:13-17). a

112

Sir 51:25 cautions against reading v. 23 as evidence of a "school" in a bureaucratic or institutional sense: "I open my mouth and speak of her: gain wisdom for yourselves, without money." Nevertheless the sage encourages people to study under him. The speaker's call for people to acquire wisdom is reminiscent of the exhortations of Lady Wisdom to the uneducated (e.g., Prov 8:1-2). See Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 578; J.L. Crenshaw, Education in Ancient Israel (ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1998) 271. This is not the case with the other recensions. The Greek of 51:13 includes the expression "I sought wisdom (oo^iav)." See the B text of 51:15. The term occurs in the Greek of 51:17 but not in the B version of this stich. The B text of 51:25 and 30 includes the word rraDn. These verses do not have the word "wisdom" in the Greek. See Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem," 390. The enigmatic word rbv is examined below. Line 17 is the last visible line of column 21 and is partially damaged. The translation "My hand op[ened]" is based on the transcription ]nns ••-p. The reconstruction assumes that the missing portion of this line is similar to the corresponding stich of the B text, which reads m » » nnns T ("My hand opened her gates"). The Greek version of this phrase reads xac, x^tpac JAOI) kEpnkxoLoa itpbc, U\|K)C ("I spread out my hands on high"). It is possible to understand the word k^eiaoa as translating &ns, not nns. Di Leila reconstructs [TIJE-ID ••T in 11Q5 21:17, as restored from the Greek. See Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 575. This reading is also favored by Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 180. The transcription of Sanders is supported in Delcor, "Le Texte hebreu," 31; Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem," 388; Gilbert, "Venez a mon ecole," 286; Puech, "Le Livre de Ben Sira," 415. Plate XIII in DJD 4 is a better witness to this line than the version of PAM 43.788 in the CD-Rom. The letter after the visible pe has a left stroke that goes slightly above the top stroke, just like the letter taw elsewhere on this column. This, along with the B text, supports 111

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According to Sanders, the theme of eroticism is the key to understanding the work's portrayal of wisdom: The first part of the poem is the Wisdom teacher's confession of his youthful experience with Wisdom as his nurse, teacher, and mistress, a commendable manner of sublimation in celibacy and undoubtedly highly meaningful in every spiritual sense for the celibates at Qumran. 113

This interpretation guides Sanders' understanding of several images in the poem. He suggests, for example, that the expressions "my foot" of HQPs 21:13 and "my hand" of line 17 may be euphemisms for the phallus. The phrase translated above as "my ardor" OTin) (1. 15) could signify "my manhood." Muraoka has criticized these suggestions but has offered others that are equally suggestive, if not more so. He considers Sanders' translation of a phrase from the tet line of the acrostic, "and on her heights I would not waver," to be vague (1 lQPs 21:16). One cannot say the same about Muraoka's proposed translation: "in the moments of her exaltation, i.e. orgasm, I will not let up, put the break." He also suggests that the phrase beginning with "my hand" in line 17 be rendered "my hand forced open her portals." Interpreting 11Q5 21 as a sexually explicit poem has not gone unchallenged. Both Rabinowitz and Di Leila have expressed doubts regarding the level of eroticism discerned by Sanders. They have a point. It is easier to think of wisdom as the speaker's "nurse, teacher, and mistress" if one understands the word 7]bs of HQPs 21:14 as "nurse." Other options are possible. Rabinowitz argues that the word means "reason." He offers the translation: "And for me she has a

114

115

116

a

117

118

119

a

120

reconstructing nns over ens. The extant trace of the letter after n is compatible with the letter het. DJD 4, 84. In both DJD 4 and the Charlesworth edition Sanders translates the word of line 15 as "pleasure," producing the phrase "I was zealous for pleasure." DJD 4, 82. Sanders affirms his position in his "The Sirach 51 Acrostic," 434, and, more recently, in Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 189. Muraoka, "Sir. 51, 13-30," 170-71. Sanders suggests that "heights" is a reference to breasts. See Charlesworth, 1 1 3

1 1 4

115

1 1 6

1 1 7

The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1 1 8

189.

Muraoka, "Sir. 51, 13-30," 172. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 184; Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 579. See also Puech, "Le Livre de Ben Sira," 415. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 177-78. 1 1 9

1 2 0

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253

been the reason I give thanks to my teachers.' The term corresponding to 7\by in the Greek does not have an erotic sense. Since wisdom became the 7\bti of the speaker, the word could also be understood as "yoke." In Sir 6:30 Ben Sira recommends that one accept the yoke of wisdom. This metaphor describes the acceptance of a lifestyle guided by wisdom. Since acquiring wisdom is the main theme of the poem, I am inclined to read T\b$ as a reference to a yoke. In Sir 51:26, which is not extant in the Psalms Scroll, the speaker refers to the yoke of wisdom: "Submit your neck to her yoke ((uyov; n^U, ms. B)„ and let your mind weigh her message." The "yoke" reading of H^D in 1 lQPs 21:14, however, is not trouble-free. The image of wisdom as a yoke in Sir 6 cannot be separated from the view that the Torah is a source of wisdom (v. 37; cf. 15:1). Elsewhere the yoke signifies the Torah (Avot 3:5; 4Q421 la ii-b 10). The Torah has no explicit role in Sir 51:13-30. "Yoke" could simply refer to the teaching that the speaker has embraced, without allusion to the Torah. If the word refers to wisdom's "yoke," the final /ie remains a problem. The letter could be a case of dittography, since the following word (nn^n) begins with he. The phrase [mOO n]nna -»T of llQPs 21:17 can be read erotically. I have already mentioned that Muraoka translates this as "my hand forced open her portals." The phrase contains a pedagogical image that can be read as a sexual double-entendre. Lady Wisdom praises those who tarry at her portals and listen to her teaching: "Happy is the one who listens to me, watching daily at my gates (^nnSl), waiting beside my doors (Tina)" (8:34; cf. Wis 122

123

124

a

125

126

3

1 2 1

Ibid., 175. For the word nbv o f 1 1 Q 5 2 1 : 1 4 the G r e e k reads iTpoKoirf], "progress." Sanders understands the root o f r6» to b e bis, "to g i v e suck" (cf. G e n 3 3 : 1 3 ) . Rabinowitz, "The Qumran H e b r e w Original," 178,- suggests that the Greek translator understood the w o r d as n^s, "(means of) ascent." S e e also D e l c o r , "Le T e x t e hebreu," 3 3 - 3 4 ; Rickenbacher, Weisheitsperikopen bei Ben Sira, 2 0 3 - 4 . D e l c o r translates the w o r d in question in 11Q5 as "nourrice" ("wet-nurse") but in his translation o f the Syriac h e opts for "joug" ("yoke"). S e e his "Le Texte hebreu," 3 7 , 4 5 ; D e u t s c h , "The Sirach 51 Acrostic," 4 0 6 ; Mulder, "Three P s a l m s or T w o Prayers in Sirach 5 1 ? " 190; D i Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 5 7 5 . S e e section 2 . 2 o f Chapter 6. Collins, Jewish Wisdom, 5 4 . A b o v e I speculated that the expression m m in 1 1 0 5 2 1 : 1 1 could b e a reference to the Torah. In this case the phrase w o u l d read " S h e b e c a m e for m e her y o k e . " 1 2 2

1 2 3

1 2 4

1 2 5

2 6

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6:14). Opening the gates of wisdom is a metaphor that describes the speaker heeding the call of wisdom. The poet of 1 lQPs 21 is like one of the passers-by in Prov 8 who sits down at the gates of Lady Wisdom. He has become her student. The phrase "I perceived her unseen parts (pi3HK iTBISB)" of 1 lQPs 21:17 can also be read in a sexual way. Sanders and others have understood this as a reference to nudity. The Greek translation of this phrase does not emphasize physical nakedness but the revelation of things that are unknown: ta uyvov^uxoL a\)xr]Q eiTevorjoa ("the things unknown about her I have pondered"; Sir 51:19). According to the poem on the rewards of wisdom in Sir 4:11-19, personified Wisdom says: "Then when his heart is fully with me I will ... reveal to him my secrets CnnOD)" (w. 17-18). The expression piUDK rPE"!17E makes a similar point. ITBIUB signifies the revelation of wisdom to the speaker. Sir 42:18 has a comparable phrase: p ' O m DiT&IUM (ms. Mas) ("he understands their secrets"). This verse has no erotic sense whatsoever. Sir 42:18 refers to God's ability to know what is hidden in the human heart and the abyss. The romantic context of the word rrftlUE in 11Q5 21 suggests that in this case the word has some erotic resonance. Skehan has observed that the root DID describes the intelligence of the snake in Gen 3:1. The term also refers to the nakedness of Adam and Eve (3:7). iT»-)»B in 1 lQPs 21:17,1 would a

a

128

129

130

131

132

133

a

In the previous section I noted that the "gates of wisdom" is an important trope in HQPs 18. DJD 4, 82. Sanders suggests that the act of understanding her "unseen parts" could be a euphemism for 'piercing' them. rrm»n is considered a term for nudity in Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 189; Delcor, "Le Texte hebreu," 38; DSSSE, 1.1175. Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 180. The B text does not attest the expression in question. See also Rickenbacher, Weisheitsperikopen bei Ben Sira, 205-6. Note the parallel in the wisdom poem that concludes the Aramaic Levi Document. According to Greenfield, ALD 13:12 reads "(Yet) the treasure houses of wisdom they will not plunder, and they will not find its hidden places ( m i o B n ) and they will not enter its gates" (cf. 4QLevi 8:2). See J.C. Greenfield et al., The Aramaic Levi Document (SVTP 19; Leiden: Brill, 2004) 104-5, 213. Consult also H. a

128

1 2 9

1 3 0

f

Drawnel, An Aramaic

Wisdom

Text from

Qumran:

A New Interpretation

of the Levi

Document (JSJSup 86; Leiden: Brill, 2004). Harrington, "Ten Reasons," 250. 131

1 3 2

1 3 3

Yadin, The Ben Sira Scroll,

27; Beentjes, The Book of Ben Sira, 169.

Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem," 396. Also note Sir 6:32b: "if you apply yourself, you will be wise ( D - W I ) . "

WISDOM PSALMS

255

argue, has a similar double meaning. The "nakedness" interpretation advocated by Sanders is valid. But the phrase does more than provide a titillating image to male addressees. Perceiving the "nakedness" of wisdom signifies the disclosure of special and precious knowledge to the speaker. There is an erotic element in the portrayal of wisdom in this poem, even if one does not agree wholly with the readings of Sanders and Muraoka. The Qumran version is more sexual than the Greek recension. The sage describes how he sought out wisdom as a young man and has been filled with desire and delight for her ever since. Sanders over-emphasizes the extent of eroticism in Sir 51:1330. He is influenced by the idea that there was a community at Qumran that was celibate, a view few today would accept at face value. But the sexual element of the poem should not be dismissed. The theme of eroticism gives expression to the intensity and passion of the speaker's love of wisdom. Sanders argues that the sexual aspects of 11Q5 21 should be understood in terms of the sapiential tradition of praising wisdom as a woman. This is an astute observation. The presentation of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs is not particularly sexual. The loose woman of Prov 7 is a much more erotic figure (e.g., v. 18). But Lady Wisdom does invite men to accept her wisdom and declares "I love those who love me" (8:17). Later Jewish wisdom texts elaborate this trope. In the Wisdom of Solomon, Solomon declares: "I loved her (wisdom) and sought her from my youth; I desired to take her for my bride, and became enamored of her beauty" (8:2; cf. v. 18). In Sir 14:20135

136

137

Contra Rabinowitz, "The Qumran Hebrew Original," 180, who argues that the Masada version of Sir 42:18 proves that the erotic interpretation of 11Q5 21:17 has no basis. In the Greek the speaker claims that he sought her, as in the Psalms Scroll ( H Q P s 21:11), but adds that he searched "openly in my prayer. I prayed for her before the temple" (Sir 51:13-14). The Greek has no reference to her "beauty," unlike 11Q5 21:11. See Skehan, "The Acrostic Poem," 393. DJD 4, 84. Philo uses a comparable romantic metaphor to describe his love of wisdom. In Congr. 74 he states: "when first I was incited by the goads of philosophy to desire her I consorted in early youth with one of her handmaids, Grammar, and all that I begat by her, writing, reading and study of the writings of the poets, I dedicated to her mistress." He also describes his infatuation with geometry and music as if they were women whose beauty attracts him (75-76; cf. Contempt 68). See D. Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon (AB 43; New York: Doubleday, 1979) 193. 1 3 5

a

1 3 6

1 3 7

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15:10, she is also called a bride: "Motherlike she will meet him, like a young bride (omitt D^KD/cbc, ywr\ rapQeviac;) she will embrace him" (15:2; cf. 6:26-28). Reminiscent of Sir 51:19 (11Q5 21:17), personified wisdom elsewhere asserts: "Whoever obeys me will judge nations; whoever listens to me will dwell in my inmost chambers (JTOB m n a ) (Sir 4:15; cf. Prov 9:1). Von Rad has aptly called this tradition "intellectual love." He writes: "This invitation on wisdom's part to give oneself intellectually to her and this gift of hers to men are no longer means towards a purpose for life, they have become ends in themselves." The telos of the language of desire in 11Q5 21 is to inculcate in the male student a love of wisdom. The sapiential text 4Q185 understands wisdom as a woman who should be desired. A key section reads: w

138

139

140

Find her and [hold fast] to her and get her as an inheritance. With her are [length of d]ays, fatness of bone, joy of heart, richfes and honor] ... Happy is the man who does her (wisdom) and does not play tricks agfainst her, nor] with [a spirit] of deceit seek her, nor hold fast to her with flatteries (4Q185 1-2 ii 12-14). There is comparable material in 4QBeatitudes: "Hap[py] are those who rejoice in her and do not burst out upon the ways of folly. Happy are those who seek her with pure hands and do not search for her with a deceitful heart" (4Q525 2 ii + 3 2-3). These texts associate wisdom with the Torah and emphasize that one must search for wisdom sincerely and devoutly. Sir 51:13-30 stresses the passion and intensity of the desire for wisdom to a greater extent than 4Q185 and 4Q525. llQPs 21:11-17, 22:1 is reasonably considered a sapiential text. Practical instruction regarding ordinary spheres of life is not a major theme. But the poem is clearly eudemonistic and presumes some sort of pedagogical setting (Sir 51:23). The work describes wisdom in a way that shows significant reliance on the sapiential tradition. The personification of wisdom as a woman is important in this work. It is a wisdom poem, similar to works such as Sir 6:18-37 and 14:203

1 3 8

Di Leila and Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 172. G. von Rad, Wisdom in Israel (London/Valley Forge: SCM Press Ltd/Trinity Press International, 1972) 166-76. Ibid., 173. 1 3 9

1 4 0

WISDOM PSALMS

257

15:10. Formally the poem is an acrostic, a form that has been considered a feature of wisdom psalms. But this is one of few such criteria found in the work. HQPs 21:11-17, 22:1 can be understood as a wisdom psalm but not in a strict form critical sense. 142

143

a

a

3.2.3 HQPs 26:9-15 (Hymn to the Creator) a

HQPs 26:9-15 preserves a composition that is otherwise unattested entitled "Hymn to the Creator." In its editio princeps Sanders describes the work as "a sapiential hymn of praise." Hymn to the Creator recounts God's dominion over the cosmos and its orderly structure. The work begins by celebrating the holiness of God: "Great and holy is the Lord, the holiest ( D ^ n p ©Hp) from 144

1 4 1

Jansen, Die spdtjudische Psalmendichtung, 7 3 , argues that Sir 5 1 : 1 3 - 3 0 is in the style o f "Dankpsalmen." Murphy, "A Consideration," 160. For example, Kuntz, "The Canonical W i s d o m Psalms," 2 1 1 - 1 5 , argues that there are four thematic elements in w i s d o m psalms: 1) fear o f Y a h w e h and veneration o f the Torah; 2 ) the contrast b e t w e e n the righteous and the w i c k e d ; 3) retribution; and 4 ) a d v i c e regarding daily life. N o n e o f these elements are prominent in Sir 5 1 : 1 3 - 3 0 . DJD 4, 8 9 ; Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1 9 8 - 9 9 . The o p e n i n g o f the work is in col. 2 6 : 9 and 1. 15 is the last legible line o f the c o l u m n . 11Q5 2 7 b e g i n s with part o f 2 S a m 2 3 : 7 . A s s u m i n g that the rest o f D a v i d ' s Last W o r d s ( w . 1-7) w a s written o n the bottom portion o f col. 2 6 , there w o u l d not h a v e been m u c h room after line 15 for the part o f H y m n to the Creator that did not survive. For further d i s c u s s i o n o f 1 l Q P s 2 6 : 9 - 1 5 , see Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls, 190; D a h m e n , Psalmenund Psalter-Rezeption, 9 6 , 2 4 9 - 5 1 ; F. Garcia Martinez, "Creation in the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in The Creation of Heaven and Earth: Re-interpretations of Genesis 1 in the Context of Judaism, Ancient Philosophy, Christianity, and Modern Physics (ed. G.H. van K o o t e n ; T B N 8; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) 4 9 - 7 0 (esp. 6 6 - 7 0 ) ; K. S e y b o l d , "Das Hymnusfragment 1 l Q P s X X V I 9 - 1 5 : A u s l e g u n g und Einordnung," in Studien zur Psalmenauslegung (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1 9 9 8 ) 1 9 9 - 2 0 7 ; G. Xeravits, " N o t e s sur le HQPs Creat 7-9," RevQ 18 ( 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ) 1 4 5 - 4 8 ; Skehan, "Liturgical C o m p l e x , " 2 0 3 ; idem, "Jubilees and the Qumran Psalter," CBQ 3 7 ( 1 9 7 5 ) 3 4 3 - 4 7 ; E. C h a z o n , "The U s e o f the B i b l e as a K e y to M e a n i n g in P s a l m s from Qumran," in Emanuel, 8 5 - 9 6 (esp. 9 0 - 9 4 ) ; J. Carmignac, "Le Texte de Jeremie 10,13 (ou 5 1 , 1 6 ) et celui d e 2 Samuel 2 3 , 7 ameliores par Qumran," RevQ 1 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 2 8 7 - 9 0 ; M . Weinfeld, "The A n g e l i c S o n g over the Luminaries in the Qumran Texts," in Time to Prepare a Way in the Wilderness (ed. D . D i m a n t and L.H. Schiffman; STDJ 16; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 131-57. Several commentators h a v e included H y m n to the Creator in surveys o f Qumran w i s d o m literature. S e e Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 2 5 - 2 6 ; idem, "Ten R e a s o n s , " 2 5 0 ; K a m p e n , "Diverse A s p e c t s , " 2 2 5 - 2 6 ; L i p s c o m b and Sanders, " W i s d o m at Qumran," 2 8 0 . J. Worrell calls the c o m p o s i t i o n a "psalm o f the sapiential variety." S e e his "Concepts o f W i s d o m in the D e a d Sea Scrolls" (Ph.D. diss., Claremont Graduate School, 1 9 6 8 ) 2 2 0 . 1 4 2

1 4 3

1 4 4

8

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a

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generation to generation" (1. 9; cf. 4Q381 76-77 7). Alluding to Gen 1:4, the hymn affirms God's separation of light from darkness (llQPs 26:11; cf. 4Q303 4-5; Jub. 2:2-3). Like Ben Sira in his hymns to creation, 11Q5 26 celebrates the usefulness of creation for humankind: "Crowning the hills with fruits, good food for every living being" (1. 13; cf. Sir 39:25-35; Ps 104:14-23). The psalm praises God, who created the world with his wisdom: 3

146

147

Blessed be he who makes the earth by his power (imra), establishing the world with his wisdom OnBSTt:}). By his understanding (lnainra) he stretched out the heavens, and brought forth [wind] from [his] storehouses]. He made [lightning for the rai]n and caused mist[s] to raise [from] the end of [the earth] (1 lQPs 26:13-15; cf. 4Q416 2 i 22-ii 2; 4Q299 5-6 i). a

This description of creation is similar enough to Jer 10:12-13, 51:1516 and Ps 135:7 to posit that these verses have some sort of direct connection to Hymn to the Creator (cf. 1QH 9:14). It does not appear that 1 lQPs 26:9-15 is a wisdom psalm or that it exhibits substantial influence from the wisdom tradition. Creation is 148

a

1 4 5

This may allude to Isa 6:3. See Chazon, "The Use of the Bible," 93. Weinfeld, "The Angelic Song," 132-49, points out parallels between Hymn to the Creator and later Jewish liturgical texts. The phrase c^-np umpb of 4Q418 81 4 is discussed in section 3.2.2 of Chapter 1. Skehan, ''Jubilees and the Qumran Psalter," 344. C A . Newsom has suggested that this part of 11Q5 26 is utilized by 4Q370 (4QExhortation Based on the Flood) 1. The first line of this column reads "[And] he crowned the mountains with pro[duce and] poured out food upon them. And (with) good fruit he satisfied all. 'Let all who do my will eat and be satisfied' said Y[H]WH." Newsom's assessment of the relationship between these texts is plausible, but the issue cannot be resolved conclusively. See M. Broshi et al., 1 4 6 1 4 7

Qumran

Cave 4.XIV: Parabiblical

Texts, Part 2 (DJD 19; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995)

90-91; C A . Newsom, "4Q370: An Admonition Based on the Flood," RevQ 13 (1988) 23-43 (esp. 30); Garcia Martinez, "Creation in the Dead Sea Scrolls," 70. Jer 10:12-13 reads "It is he who made the earth by his power, who established the world by his wisdom, and by his understanding stretched out the heavens. When he utters his voice, there is a tumult of waters in the heavens, and he makes the mist rise from the ends of the earth. He makes lightnings for the rain, and he brings out the wind from his storehouses." Jer 51:15-16 contains essentially the same text. Ps 135:7: "He it is who makes the clouds rise at the end of the earth; he makes lightnings for the rain and brings out the wind from his storehouses." Sanders, DJD 4, 89, suggests that 11Q5 26 is the inspiration for the corresponding verses of Jeremiah. Others have argued that the Hymn to the Creator relies on Jeremiah and other biblical texts. See Garcia Martinez, "Creation in the Dead Sea Scrolls," 67; Chazon, "The Use of the Bible," 91-93. Consult also Dahmen, Psalmenund Psalter-Rezeption, 249; Seybold, "Das Hymnusfragment," 200; Carmignac, "Le Texte de Jeremie 10,13," 287; Xeravits, "Notes sur le llQPs '' 147. 1 4 8

0

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an important theme in biblical and Qumran wisdom literature. But it does not follow that all writings in which this motif is prominent are wisdom texts. If the assertion that God made the world "with his wisdom" of line 14, which echoes Prov 3:19, were sufficient grounds for designating the hymn a sapiential text, should Jer 10:12 and 51:15, which make a similar claim, be considered wisdom texts? If the phrase "with his wisdom" of HQPs 26:14 has a source, it is more likely Jeremiah than Proverbs. Several biblical psalms praise creation in a manner similar to 11Q5 26. Some of them occur elsewhere in this scroll. A version of Ps 104, for example, is found in fragment E of llQPs . This psalm extols the grandeur of creation but few, if any, consider it a wisdom text. It would be easier to associate Hymn to the Creator with the sapiential tradition if the work connected personified wisdom to creation in a manner similar to Prov 8:22-31. Harrington has written that HQPs 26:9-15 "point[s] toward and prepare[s] for fuller personifications of Wisdom and Folly." But there is no explicit personification of wisdom in Hymn to the Creator. 11Q5 26:14 uses the phrase "with his wisdom" (inDDTQ), whereas Prov 3:19 reads "with wisdom" (HDDrQ). Hymn to the Creator presents wisdom as a quality of God more explicitly than Prov 8. The Qumran hymn leaves no ambiguity for interpreting wisdom as a co-creatrix. The situation is different in Prov 8. One of the standard interpretative options of the word in Prov 8:30 is that Lady Wisdom is an "artisan" beside God, a translation that suggests she helped him create the world. HQPs 26:9-15 does not extol wisdom but God, unlike the poem in column 21. Furthermore, Hymn to the Creator never emphasizes wisdom as a feminine entity. 1 lQPs 26:9-15 asserts that God was not alone when he created the world. However, the work makes clear that he received no assistance. a

3

150

a

151

152

a

a

1 4 9

L.G. Perdue, Wisdom

and Creation:

The Theology

of Wisdom

Literature

(Nashville: Abingdon, 1994); M.J. Goff, "The Mystery of Creation in 4QInstruction," DSD 10(2003) 163-86. Ps 104:24 claims that God fashioned all things "with wisdom" (nnDnn). Versions of the line are in l l Q P s E ii 4 and 4QPs 4:15. See Flint, The Dead Sea 1 5 0

3

Psalms 1 5 1

Scrolls,

58, 66; Dahmen, Psalmen-

d

und Psalter-Rezeption,

251.

Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 26. See also idem, "Ten Reasons," 251-52. M.V. Fox, Proverbs 1-9 (AB 18a; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 285-87. He translates ]IDK as "growing up." See also idem, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," JBL 116 (1997) 613-33 (esp. 628). 1 5 2

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Line 12 reads: "When all his angels had witnessed it (the creation of the dawn; 1. 1 1 ) they sang aloud, for he showed them what they had not known" (cf. Sir 42:17; 1QH 5:17). Other heavenly figures were present at the creation of the world not to help God but to praise him. Hymn to the Creator is better understood along the lines of creation psalms such as Ps 104 rather than as a wisdom text. 1QH 9 is another creation hymn from the late Second Temple period, and 4Q411 may be one as well. It cannot be ruled out entirely that the author of 1 lQPs 26:9-15 was influenced by sapiential works such as Prov 8. But there is little evidence for this position in the composition itself, and even less to understand it as wisdom literature from the standpoint of genre. 153

154

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4. CONCLUSION: THE CAVE 11 PSALMS SCROLL AND THE ISSUE OF WISDOM PSALMS

None of the three compositions from the Psalms Scroll discussed in this chapter fit well with the biblical wisdom psalm genre, as it is often defined. Many of the various criteria used to identify such psalms are not present in these works. But Ps 154 can be understood as a wisdom psalm. It is a hymn influenced by the sapiential tradition and has Torah piety as a theme, like Ben Sira. The poem in 1 lQPs 21:11-17 and 22:1 can also be considered a wisdom psalm. The composition is in the tradition of wisdom poems such as Sir 6:18-37 and 14:20-15:10. Both the Psalter and the Psalms Scroll illustrate the ambiguity inherent to form critical classifications. It is difficult to isolate with precision exact criteria found in all wisdom texts and the same applies to hymnic compositions. Classifying writings from the Qumran scrolls into these genres is an exercise in putting fragmentary texts into vague categories. This does not mean, however, that such an endeavor is pointless or without value. It simply cautions against 153

1 5 4

Weinfeld, "The Angelic Song," 153-54. A.

Lange,

Weisheit

und

Predestination:

Weisheitliche

Urordnung

und

Pradestination in den Textfunden von Qumran (STDJ 18; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 20432. See also J. Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts Found at Qumran: Variations, Resemblances, and Lines of Development," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 31-60 (esp. 37). 4Q411 is the subject of section 8.1 of Chapter 10.

a

WISDOM PSALMS

261

relying too much on rigid form critical definitions. The inability to describe a precise "wisdom psalm" genre does not mean that the wisdom tradition had no influence on hymnic writings. Crenshaw argues that the term "wisdom psalm" has no value in part because the criteria used to identify such psalms, such as the fear of the Lord, are not distinctively sapiential. And regarding such criteria he is certainly right. Crenshaw's basic insight is similar to observations made earlier by von Rad. He, however, does not reach Crenshaw's negative conclusion: one cannot speak of a particular Gattung of didactic prayers, only of a common language and motif. We have no certain criteria for the determination of these psalms. On the contrary, these poems belong to various psalm-types which they appear to imitate. Thus it is, rather, a general impression, one of a certain erudition and didactic quality, of a preponderance of theological thoughts, etc., which entitles us to separate these psalms from the great body of predominantly cultically orientated psalms. 155

Common ideology and terms lead von Rad to conclude that there are sapiential elements in the Psalter. He grants, however, that these features are "obscure." They are discerned from a "general impression" of material in the psalms that appears sapiential rather than precise formal criteria. Von Rad avoids the pretence, unlike Kuntz, that one can develop clear and objective criteria that delineate the wisdom psalm as a specific genre category. This leaves von Rad open to the criticism that his means of discerning sapiential material in the Psalter are vague and subjective, a point he readily admits. Scholars such as Murphy and Kuntz attempted to provide greater precision in the discernment of wisdom psalms. Crenshaw has successfully demonstrated that the efforts to delineate the form criticism of wisdom psalms have had mixed results at best. This does not mean, however, that the wisdom tradition did not influence the composition of psalms, but rather, as von Rad has stressed, our means of discerning such influence are subjective and imprecise. 156

157

1 5 5

Von Rad, Wisdom

in Israel,

48. See also Whybray, "The Wisdom Psalms,"

153. 1 5 6

1 5 7

Von Rad, Wisdom

in Israel,

47.

E.S. Gerstenberger, in a book on the Psalter for FOTL, the series that offers form critical commentaries of Old Testament books, endorses this approach. He

262

CHAPTER NINE

The term "wisdom psalm" can be useful in cases in which one can reasonably argue that a given psalm is influenced substantially by the sapiential tradition—not in terms of vague criteria such as similes or admonitions, but rather if a psalm contains several specific sapiential motifs. Columns 18 and 21 of the Psalms Scroll do not provide a template for the identification of wisdom psalms in the masoretic Psalter and they do not solve the question of which biblical psalms should be considered wisdom psalms, if any. The Psalms Scroll also does not shed light on the issue of the Sitz im Leben of wisdom psalms. But columns 18 and 21 of llQPs are hymnic compositions that reflect influence from the wisdom tradition. In that sense they can be understood as wisdom psalms. They do not endorse the classification "wisdom psalm" as a precise form critical Gattung. In terms of the search for biblical wisdom psalms, the goal, perhaps, should not be to devise form critical methodology for identifying wisdom psalms upon which all scholars can agree, but to argue, subjectively, whether or not a given psalm reflects significant influence from the wisdom tradition. The Psalms Scroll demonstrates that some hymns composed in ancient Israel were shaped by the sapiential tradition. The late Second Temple period has produced several other clear cut examples of hymnic writings influenced by the wisdom tradition. Ben Sira wrote hymns, such as the hymn to creation in Sir 42:15-43:33, and included them in his instruction. This and other poetic sections of 158

3

159

defines "wisdom psalm" as "a very general term without form-critical connotations." See his Psalms:

Part

I, with

an Introduction

to Cultic

Poetry

(FOTL 14; Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988) 257. Murphy's assessments of his own system for identifying wisdom psalms ends on an apt note of humility: "The reader is invited to form his or her own criteria for wisdom, and challenge the number of psalms that have been classified as 'wisdom.'" See his The Tree of Life, 103-4. In a similar vein Kuntz, "Reclaiming Biblical Wisdom Psalms," 152, writes "Scholars invested in our topic do not sing in unison." The Psalms Scroll does not support the view of von Rad and Mowinckel that didactic psalms should be distinguished from those designed for a cultic setting. Murphy, Tree of Life, 71-72; M. Kister, "Wisdom Literature and Its Relation to Other Genres: From Ben Sira to Mysteries," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom 1 5 8

1 5 9

Literature Symposium

in Light of the Dead of the Orion Center,

Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International 20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and

R.A. Clements; STDJ 51; Leiden: Brill, 2004) 13-47 (esp. 16); Reitemeyer, Weisheitslehre als Gotteslob, 346-407; W. Baumgartner, "Die literarischen Gattungen in der Weisheit des Jesus Sirach," ZAW 34 (1914) 161-98; A. Sivertsev, "Some Notes on the Relationship between Liturgical and Wisdom Writings in

WISDOM PSALMS

263

Ben Sira draw heavily from the Psalter, as do the Qumran wisdom texts 4Q185 and 4Q525. The Hodayot also illustrates that wisdom was one of the streams of tradition shaping the composition of hymns in this era. 4Q426 could be considered a wisdom psalm, but it is quite fragmentary. The theme of divine praise is more prominent in Ben Sira, 4QInstruction and the Wisdom of Solomon than Proverbs. The category "wisdom psalm" may be more useful outside of the masoretic Psalter than as a tool for interpreting biblical psalms. Late Second Temple literature exhibits a greater degree of overlap between the hymnic and sapiential traditions than is evident in the Hebrew Bible. 160

161

162

Qumran and in Second Temple Literature in General," Vestnik universiteta Moskve 21 (2000) 7-24 (Russian). 1 6 0

1 6 1

Collins, Jewish

Wisdom,

eureiskogo

87.

M.J. Goff, "Reading Wisdom at Qumran: 4QInstruction and the Hodayot," DSD 11 (2004) 263-88; H. Germann, "Jesus ben Siras Dankgebet und die Hodajoth," TZ 19 (1963) 81-87. See section 4.3 of the conclusion to this book. 1 6 2

CHAPTER TEN THE MINOR WISDOM TEXTS 1. INTRODUCTION This book has focused on the core group of Qumran wisdom texts. Aside from this corpus, several small, fragmentary works have been considered sapiential. Lange, for example, mentions compositions such as 4Q307, 4Q308 and 4Q408 in his review of numerous smaller wisdom texts. There are other lists of minor sapiential writings that differ slightly. It is not surprising that there is variety regarding this material. In general the texts in question are small and poorly preserved fragments. There is often not enough evidence to decide satisfactorily whether a given fragment is from a wisdom text or not. In this chapter I will review some of the more substantial minor 1

2

1

A. 4Q307, 4Q472, 4Q528.

Lange's list of smaller sapiential works includes 4Q294, 4Q302, 4Q303-05, 4Q308, 4Q408, 4Q410, 4Q411, 4Q412, 4Q413, 4Q419, 4Q425, 4Q426, 4Q473, 4Q474, 4Q475, 4Q476 and 4Q476a, 4Q486, 4Q487, 4Q498 and See his "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom

Texts from

Qumran

and the Development

of Sapiential

Thought

(ed. C. Hempel, A.

Lange and H. Lichtenberger; BETL 159; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 2002) 3-30 (esp. 4-9). 4Q455 could be added to this list (see below). In the same volume as Lange's article, see J. Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts Found at Qumran: Variations, Resemblances, and Lines of Development," 31-60. Lange's sequence of texts relies on E. Tov and S.J. Pfann, The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche:

A Comprehensive

Facsimile

Edition

of the Texts from

the Judean

Desert.

Companion Volume (Leiden: Brill, 1993). Note also D.J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996) 73-74. D. Dimant, for example, considers 4Q480 and 4Q524 wisdom texts. See her "The Qumran Manuscripts: Contents and Significance," in Time to Prepare a Way in the Wilderness (ed. D. Dimant and L.H. Schiffman; STDJ 16; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 23-58 (esp. 43-45). See also A.S. van der Woude, "Wisdom at Qumran," in Wisdom 2

in ancient

Israel:

Essays

in honour

of J.A. Emerton

(ed. J. Day et al.; Cambridge:

University of Cambridge Press, 1995) 244-56 (esp. 254); J. Kampen, "The Diverse Aspects of Wisdom at Qumran," in The Dead

Sea Scrolls

after

Fifty

Years:

A

Comprehensive Assessment (2 vols.; ed. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 1.211-43 (esp. 235-36); A. Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse de Qoumran (Apercu preliminaire)," RHPR 76 (1996) 1-34 (esp. 2).

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

265

Qumran texts that have been related to the wisdom tradition: 4Q302, 4Q303-05, 4Q412, 4Q413, 4Q419 and 4Q425. Several hymnicsapiential works will also be examined: 4Q411, 4Q426 and 4Q528. I will assess the extent to which these texts can be considered sapiential. This chapter does not review all Qumran writings that have been listed as possible wisdom texts. They are often too fragmentary to interpret sufficiently. In several cases a composition has been given a sapiential title, such as 4QDidactic Work C (4Q455), but its official editor only tentatively endorses this designation. 3

4

5

2.4Q302: AN INSTRUCTIONAL TEXT WITH A PARABLE 4Q302 (4QpapAdmonitory Parable) has been considered a wisdom

3

Aside from these works, there are several compositions with a few relatively well preserved passages that have been associated with the sapiential tradition. There is not sufficient evidence to understand them as wisdom texts or to claim they were influenced by the wisdom tradition. I put in this category 4Q408, 4Q410, 4Q473 and 4Q475. 4Q408 (4QapocrMoses°?) has a substantial amount of text, with sixteen small fragments associated with this composition. But it contains scant evidence that it should be considered a wisdom text. 4Q408 3 + 3a 7 praises God as "understanding" (pan). 4Q410 (4QVision and Its Interpretation) appears to contain the interpretation of a vision, as its title suggests. It is not impossible for wisdom texts to contain visions (cf. Job 4). However, this does not mean 4Q410 is a sapiential work. 4Q473 (4QThe Two Ways) contains a few lines that put forward a dualistic theology that is reminiscent of the Treatise of the Two Spirits (1QS 3:134:26). The "two ways" theology of 4Q473 is widespread in the apocalypses and other types of Second Temple literature. Ethical dualism is not distinctive to the sapiential tradition and it is not clear that 4Q473 should be considered a wisdom text. 4Q475 (4QRenewed Earth) evidently describes the establishment of Utopian bliss on earth after the elimination of the wicked during the final judgment. The cleansed world is "like Eden" (1 5). Texts such as 1 En. 10 and Mysteries also recount what the earth will look like after the wicked are obliterated (cf. 1 En. 60:23; 4 Ezra 7:123). The scene narrated in 4Q475 is not incompatible with the late Second Temple wisdom tradition. But its content is not distinctively sapiential. 4Q498 has been entitled "4QHymnic or Sapiential Fragments." It is a collection of fifteen small fragments, which preserve a few complete words. The text does not contain enough material to relate it with confidence to either the wisdom or hymnic traditions. The work has four visible lines and eight preserved words. Line 2 is exhortative, urging with an imperative in the second personal plural to "declare" (rran). Line 3 advocates separation from falsehood. Its editor, Esther Chazon, suggests that this composition "may be sapiential or legal instruction." See S.J. 4

5

Pfann et al., Qumran

Cave 4.XXVI:

Oxford: Clarendon, 2000) 351-52.

Cryptic

Texts and Miscellanea,

Part I (DJD

36;

266

CHAPTER TEN 6

text. It has also been classified as "SapA." The work has been understood as two separate works (4Q302 and 4Q302a). Its official editor, Bilhah Nitzan, argues that they are from different sections of the same work. 4Q302 consists of twenty-three fragments. The majority of the surviving text is found in the first three. There is no evidence that the work was written by the movement associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. 4Q302 could be a sapiential work. But not enough text has survived to reach a firm conclusion. 4Q302 2 ii provides the main evidence for understanding the document as a wisdom composition. Line 2 begins: "Discern this, O wise men" ( O ^ M n n nKTn KD Yrnn). Then follows a narrative about a tree: "If a man will possess a good tree that towers unto the sky ... it produces the best fruit" (11. 2-4) (cf. 4Q302 10 2). The story about the tree seems to have continued at least through 4Q302 2 iii 7. Though fragmentary, it seems apt to characterize this material as a parable. The text contains a tale from which the wise are to draw lessons. The call for wise men to listen is a marker of pedagogical intent that is consistent with the sapiential tradition. Comparable exhortations, however, can be found in non-wisdom texts, such as the Damascus Document (e.g., CD 1:1; 2:2; cf. 4Q381 76-77 8). The parable also signals that 4Q302 is an instructional work. There is no other example of a parable in the Qumran wisdom corpus and I am not aware of one occurring elsewhere in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In the Hebrew Bible parables occur in non-wisdom texts (e.g., Judg 9; 2 Sam 12), and few, if any, are found in wisdom writings. Regarding the exhortation in 4Q302 2 ii 2 and the parable of the tree, Nitzan writes that "they do not impart a distinct sapiential nature to the 7

8

9

10

11

6

T. Elgvin et al., Qumran

Cave 4.XV: Sapiential

Texts, Part 1 (DJD 20; Oxford:

Clarendon, 1997) 125-49. See also B. Nitzan, "4Q302/302A (Sap. A): Pap. Praise of God and Parable of the Tree. A Preliminary Edition," RevQ 17 (1996) 151-73; van der Woude, "Wisdom at Qumran," 254; Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 5. Kampen, "The Diverse Aspects," 234. Nitzan, "4Q302/302A," 152. Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 5; Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 44. DJD 20, 136. The book of Mysteries may mention parables, but this can not be claimed with confidence (4Q299 3c 3; 4Q300 l a ii-b 1; cf. 4Q301 1 2). 7

8 9

1 0

11

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

267

composition, but do direct the reader towards a sapiential lesson." No surviving text specifies the intended lesson of the parable. 4Q302 appears to reflect some influence from the wisdom tradition, although there is not enough evidence to conclude it is a sapiential work in terms of genre. The genre of 4Q302 is influenced by the fib, or covenant lawsuit, tradition of the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Mic 6:1-9). Fragment 3 ii, which may conclude the parable, admonishes someone and proclaims divine judgment against him, accusing him of betrayal (1. 6). Lines 7-8 claim that God "did not confront you to argue with you and reply to your contention ("p'n)." The reproach has some grounding in the national traditions of Israel since 4Q302 1 i 7 mentions the "seed of Abraham." The Damascus Document and 4QNon-Canonical Psalms B (4Q381) also contain admonitions that rely on the rib tradition. 4Q302 seems to be an admonition that draws upon biblical genres such as the parable and the covenant lawsuit, as Nitzan suggests. Regarding the lesson the wise are to learn from the parable of the tree, some speculation is possible. The tree is in the possession of a man (4Q302 2 ii 2-3). Line 4 claims that the tree yields the "best fruit" (ptD "HD). Line 5 mentions the "early and late rains" and line 7 attests the phrase "to increase branches," suggesting that the cultivation of the tree is an important theme. The statement "in winter and in thirst" may be found in line 5. The line describes conditions in which the tree could not grow. While at one point the tree was producing fruit (1. 4), the man who owns the tree apparently has become lax in helping it thrive. This could be the context for the stern rebuke of 4Q302 3 ii. 4Q302 2 ii 6 can be translated as "does he not lo[ve] it ... or keep it?" Nitzan argues that this line expresses 13

14

15

1 2

DJD 20, 127.

13

B. Nitzan, "Post-Biblical Rib Pattern Admonitions in 4Q302/302A and 4Q381

69, 16-11"

in Biblical

Perspectives:

Early

Use and Interpretation

of the Bible

in

Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. M.E. Stone and E.G. Chazon; STDJ 28; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 159-74. Regarding the first part of this expression, Nitzan, DJD 20, 136, suggests that either "in winter" (^TO) or "in scorching heat" (anm) are possible. Only the top portion of the word is extant. PAM 43.395 makes it clear that the visible bet in this line has a top stroke with a little flourish on the top. The last letter of the word in question does not have any such flourish. This favors the reading "in winter." There is not a major semantic difference between the two options for this word. Both signify climates in which the tree could not flourish. Nitzan translates this line "Is it not that he lo[ves] i t . . . and that he guards it." 1 4

15

268

CHAPTER TEN

"the idea of God's love for Israel." Another interpretation is that the tree represents wisdom and that the man is a student formerly on the path to wisdom who went astray. He should have continued to love the tree but did not. It suffered and the student in turn is reproached severely (4Q302 3 ii). The lesson for the "wise men" addressed in 4Q302 2 ii 2 would be to ensure that the tree bears fruit; that is, to continue on the path of wisdom. They should not leave the path like the man in the parable. The interpretation of the parable given above is supported by 4QInstruction. In 4Q423 the garden of Eden is a metaphor for the addressee's acquisition of wisdom. Drawing on Gen 2:15, he is supposed to "till it and keep it (the garden) (nD^bl 113B ?)" (4Q423 1 2). Though admittedly a common word, the verb is also used in 4Q302 2 ii 6 to describe the man's responsibilities regarding the tree. 4Q423 1 3 mentions "thorns and thistles," relying on Gen 3:18. If the mebin neglects the garden, it will fall into disarray. 4Q302 seems to preserve a compatible story of a man who did not fully love or care for a tree, which ceased to bear fruit. 4Q302 has no explicit link to the Eden tradition, unlike 4Q423. However, like the nurturing of the garden in 4Q423, in 4Q302 the cultivation of the tree is a metaphor for the acquisition of wisdom. 17

1

3.4Q303-05: TEXTS WITH MOTIFS FROM GENESIS 1-3 DJD 20, the first official volume of Qumran sapiential literature, includes three small texts, 4Q303-05. They are entitled "4QMeditation on Creation A-C." They are never explicitly identified in DJD 20 as wisdom texts. It is by no means obvious that they should be understood in this way. Most surveys of Qumran wisdom literature, such as Harrington's Wisdom Texts from Qumran, make no mention of 4Q303-05. In the opinion of Armin Lange, they might be sapiential texts, but they are too poorly preserved to make this claim with confidence. The most prominent feature of 4Q303-05 is their reliance on Gen 18

19

1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

DJD 20, 137; Nitzan, " 4 Q 3 0 2 / 3 0 2 A , " 1 6 1 . Cf. Sir 14:26; 2 4 : 1 3 - 1 7 ; Prov 3 : 1 8 ; Avot 3:18. DJD 20, 1 5 1 - 5 8 . Their editor is T. Lim. Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 5.

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

269

1-3. 4Q303, the largest of the three fragments, mentions light (1. 4), the void (1. 5), the knowledge of good and evil (1. 8), and God's creation of a wife for Adam (11. 10-11). "Darkness" is one of the few visible words in the small fragment 4Q304 (1. 2). The bestowal of knowledge to Adam (D~IK) is a topic of 4Q305 2 2. The adaptation of themes from Gen 1-3 is an important issue in some wisdom texts from the late Second Temple period, such as Sir 17 and 4Q423. But reliance on Gen 1-3 by itself is not a sufficient criterion for understanding a composition as a wisdom text. 4Q422 (4QParaphrase of Genesis and Exodus) and the book of Jubilees appropriate material from Genesis. But few would claim they are wisdom texts. The assessment of 4Q303-05 as sapiential depends on the interpretation of 4Q303. The first line preserves two full words: D mE The official editor translates this expression as "having understood, they listened." Jacobson has reasonably argued that the expression more likely begins an exhortation. He renders the phrase as "you who understand, pay heed." This understanding of 4Q303 1 is supported by the content of the composition. 4Q303 contains teaching based on Genesis. Thus it is appropriate for the work to begin with a pedagogical exhortation. Not enough of 4Q303 has survived to know what the addressees were to learn from the document's review of major elements of Gen 1-3, although Lim is probably correct that "lessons are being drawn from the created order to illustrate the wondrous work of God" (cf. 4Q303 3). The combination of Genesis themes with a call to listen is reminiscent of 20

21

n

22

23

24

Lim, DJD 20, 158, translates D T K as "man." G i v e n the prominent allusions to G e n 1-3, "Adam" is a better translation. J.J. Collins, " W i s d o m , A p o c a l y p t i c i s m and the D e a d S e a Scrolls," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (JSJSup 54; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 7 ) 3 6 9 8 3 (esp. 3 7 1 - 7 8 ) . DJD 20, 1 5 3 . H. Jacobson, " N o t e s o n 4 Q 3 0 3 , " DSD 6 ( 1 9 9 9 ) 7 8 - 8 0 . S e e also B . Nitzan, "The Idea o f Creation and Its Implications in Qumran Literature," in Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition (ed. H.G. R e v e n t l o w and Y . Hoffman; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 2 ) 2 4 0 - 6 4 (esp. 2 5 3 ) ; E.J.C. Tigchelaar, "The A d d r e s s e e s o f 4QInstruction," in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998 (ed. D . Falk et al.; STDJ 3 5 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) 6 2 - 7 5 (esp. 6 9 ) . DJD 20, 1 5 1 . 2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

270

CHAPTER TEN

25

4Q370 (4QExhortation Based on the Flood). Strugnell has written that the "sapiential nature of 4Q303 becomes much more apparent" in light of Jacobson's understanding of the text. Those who are to heed the speaker are referred to as As examined in Chapter 1, y a o is frequently used as a term for the addressee in 4QInstruction. A teaching on proper speech in 4QBeatitudes begins with an exhortation: "And now, understanding one, listen to me" PU70B f a n nn»1) (4Q525 14 ii 18). DT30 as a designation for addressees suggests an instructional context and is reminiscent of some key Qumran wisdom texts. It is not clear, however, that the exhortation of 4Q303 1 is sufficient evidence to claim that this work is a wisdom composition. Aside from this line, 4Q303-05 contains no other unambiguous markers of reliance on the sapiential tradition or indications that they are wisdom texts. At most one can conclude, with Lange, that 4Q303-05 may be wisdom writings, but that not enough of them have survived to endorse this assessment fully. 26

4. 4Q412: REMNANTS

OF AN INSTRUCTION 27

The official title of 4Q412 is "4QSapiential-Didactic Work A." It contains four fragments. It is not certain that the fourth belongs to this work, since its handwriting is different from the other three. The best-preserved section of this composition is fragment 1, which contains remnants of ten lines. At an earlier stage of scholarship 4Q412 1 was erroneously considered part of 4QInstruction. Annette Steudel, the official editor of 4Q412, writes that the work "seems to be a didactic collection, giving instructions for the life and behavior of a person, as well as liturgical commands." 4Q412 may 28

29

2 5

M. Broshi et al., Qumran

Cave

4.XIV: Parabiblical

Texts, Part

2 (DJD

19;

Oxford: Clarendon, 1995) 85-97; C.A. Newsom, "4Q370: An Admonition Based on the Flood," RevQ 13 (1988) 23-43. Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 37. DJD 20, 163-67. See also Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 4; Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 6; Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 38. M.O. Wise, M. Abegg, Jr., and E. Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (San Francisco: HarperSan Francisco, 1996) 378-90 (esp. 379). Note also Kampen, "The Diverse Aspects," 227. DJD 20, 163. 2 6 27

2 8

2 9

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

271

be a sapiential text, but it is too poorly preserved to reach sound conclusions. If reconstructed correctly, the first phrase of this text is a vetitive: "[And yo]u, do not d[o]" (4Q412 1 1). Remnants of another vetitive may be in line 2 of this fragment (cf. 4Q412 2 2). The best rationale for considering 4Q412 a wisdom text is its pedagogical intent. 4Q412 1 4 connects a teacher figure with knowledge: "understanding, he spreads words." This instructor may be the speaker in 4Q412 4 3: "I cry and [my] voi[ce . . . ] " (cf. 4Q412 3 2; Prov 8:4). 4Q412 1 5 presumes its addressee is some sort of student: "[PJlace instruction (HOIO) on your lips." The speaker urges one to learn from him in lines 5-6: "[And now, my son, listen] to me, justice ponder in them." The first portion of this statement is a supplement from the editor. It is a reasonable addition since the extant portion of the line suggests it is an exhortation by a teacher to a student. The addressee appears to be part of a group of people who learn from an instructor. 4Q412 1 6 attests the phrase "concerning those who seek (^paE)," an expression Steudel plausibly completes with the word "understanding." 4Q412 4 4 mentions "those who know" (D I7T). Both of these terms are used to describe the community that is addressed in 4Q Words of the Maskil to All Sons of Dawn (4Q298 1-2 i 2, 3; 4Q298 3-4 ii 4). These expressions may describe student-addressees in 4Q412 as well. While 4Q412 encourages learning, unfortunately, little information is extant regarding the content of the instruction. The most explicit topic is the praise of God: "with all your mouth, praise (bb?\) ... give thanks ( m i n ]n) to his name" (4Q412 1 7-8). The phrase "your trembling" of line 7 expresses the frame of mind one should have while praying. The addressee is apparently to participate in communal prayer. 4Q412 1 9 attests the phrase "in an assembly of many" (era") br\p2) (cf. 4Q438 2 2). This group designation may also be in line 2. The fragmentary expression "day and nigh[t]" in line 10 probably refers to constant prayer, given the context of the 30

n

1

Steudel, ibid., 165, translates noio as "bond." The phrase "your lips" has a poor material basis but semantically is a good reconstruction, l l i e expression is in parallelism with "your tongue." Line 2 has the phrase CTDIS. Steudel, DJD 20, 165, suggests that the lamed may be from the word bnp, in which case the two words are not separated by a space. This scribal practice is apparently found in line 3 in the phrase amrrn, which the editor tentatively translates as "evil defamation." 3 1

272

CHAPTER TEN

second half of this text. The phrase could also signify studying, as in 4QInstruction (4Q417 1 i 6; cf. 1QS 6:6). There is insufficient evidence in 4Q412 to reconstruct a specific liturgical ceremony. 4Q412 has affinities with the Hodayot. The speaker of the Hodayot is often presumed to be a teacher (e.g., 1QH 10:13), as is the speaker in 4Q412. Both texts refer to their intended audiences as the "many," as in, for example, 1QH 12:27-28. Two important characteristics of the speaker in the Hodayot are that he encourages his students to learn from him and that they praise God. These themes resonate with 4Q412. The statement "[P]lace instruction on your lips" in 4Q412 1 5 is in parallelism with "for your tongue (place) doors of protection] Tibl)" Elsewhere in the Qumran scrolls the phrase "doors of protection" occurs only in the Hodayot (1QH 14:27; cf. 4Q429 4 ii 10). It is part of a metaphor in which the "truth" of God, upon which the speaker leans, is likened to a mighty fortress (1QH 14:25). Since the Hodayot associates the "truth" of God with the heavenly revelation given to the speaker (18:20-21), it is possible that the "doors of protection" signify this divine disclosure. 4Q412 could use the expression in a similar way. This claim cannot be made with confidence. The affinities between 4Q412 and the Hodayot do not provide enough evidence to conclude that 4Q412 is a product of the Dead Sea sect. It is intriguing, however, that 4QSapiential-Didactic Work A apparently urges one to pray among the "many." This is a designation for the intended audiences of the Qumran rulebooks (1QS 6:8; CD 13:7). It is reasonable to consider 4Q412 a wisdom text, although this can not be affirmed with full certainty. It is didactic and written by a teacher to a student. 4Q298 and 4Q412 describe their studentaddressees with some of the same expressions. 5. 4Q413: I N S T R U C T I O N

O N T H E R O L E OF G O D IN H I S T O R Y

4Q413 (4QComposition concerning Divine Providence) has been generally regarded as a small hymnic-sapiential text. This 32

This work is edited by E. Q i m r o n in DJD 20, 1 6 9 - 7 1 . S e e also Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 5; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 4 - 6 5 ; Lange, " D i e Weisheitstexte

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

273

impression is provided by the official version of its beginning: "a plan of knfowledge find] and let me teach you wisdom" (cf. Ps 34:12). 4Q413 is a combination of two texts that comprises four lines. There is good reason to question if these two fragments belong to the same work. They are connected by a distant join, a move which in general should be treated with caution. Strugnell reports that these fragments were joined because of a "hesitant suggestion" he made in 1959. In 1992 Strugnell informed Elgvin about his doubts regarding this join and asked him to study the problem. At a conference in New York that year, Elgvin concluded that "the proposed connection seems questionable" and the two fragments "can hardly belong together." He has more recently presented a fuller critique of this join. Hair follicles on the leather skin are visible on the larger fragment, but not on the smaller one. The smaller text is slightly curved, whereas the larger is not. There are also differences between the two in terms of paleography. Furthermore, the smaller text uses defectiva orthography, whereas the larger prefers plene spelling. In Elgvin's opinion the two fragments are mistakenly combined. Separating the two, he designates the larger fragment of 4Q413 "4QExhortation," and the smaller 4Q413a, which he entitles "4QAprocyrphal Psalm B." Elgvin's case is persuasive and has a 33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

aus Qumran," 6-7; E. Qimron, "A Work Concerning Divine Providence: 4Q413," in Solving

Riddles

and

Untying

Knots:

Biblical,

Epigraphic,

and Semitic

Studies

in

Honor of Jonas C. Greenfield (ed. Z. Zevit et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1995) 191-202; T. Elgvin, "Admonition Texts from Cave 4," in Methods of Investigation of the Dead

Sea Scrolls

and the Khirbet

Qumran

Site: Present

Realities

and

Future

Prospects (ed. M.O. Wise et al.; Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 722; New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994) 179-96 (esp. 183, 185); idem, "4Q413—A Hymn and a Wisdom Instruction," in Emanuel: Studies in Hebrew Bible, Septuagint,

and Dead

Sea Scrolls

in Honor

of Emanuel

Tov (ed. S.M. Paul et al.;

VTSup 94; Leiden: Brill, 2003) 205-14. DJD 20, 170. The rationale given for the join by Qimron, DJD 20, 169, is that both fragments have an upper margin. He writes "they evidently belong to the top of the same column." Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 38. Italics his. Elgvin, "Admonition Texts" 183. Elgvin, "4Q413," 205-7. According to Elgvin, ibid., 207, the former has ruling lines demarcating each line of text and the latter does not. Compare, for example, the way the letter mem is written in the two fragments. Elgvin, "4Q413," 210, suggests that 4Q413a should perhaps be related to 4Q451 (4QPrayerC). 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6 3 7 3 8

3 9

4 0

274

CHAPTER TEN

strong material basis. Distinguishing the two fragments undercuts the view that 4Q413 is both hymnic and sapiential. Elgvin claims that one is a hymn and the other is from a wisdom text. This is plausible. 4Q413a, according to Elgvin, begins with the word " J f t V D , which is in the title of many biblical psalms (e.g., Pss 30:1; 67:1; 68:1). Qimron transcribes TOTO, "plan," in the construct state. I prefer Elgvin's transcription. Other commentators have also favored this reading. There is little in this fragment that can be considered sapiential, but it can be understood as remnants of a hymn. The other fragment, Elgvin's 4Q413, begins with a call to obtain knowledge: "Then I will teach you wisdom" (1. I). The text is reasonably considered part of a lost wisdom composition, as Elgvin suggests. It urges one to acquire knowledge about human nature and broad patterns in human behavior. The first sentence of 4Q413 proclaims: "Then I will teach you wisdom, so you may understand the conduct of human beings (ETUK •O'H) and [contemplate] the actions of [man and his lot]" (11. 1-2; cf. 1QH 12:31). The Treatise of the 41

42

43

44

45

4 1

Qimron, DJD 20, 169, understands the first phrase of this work as "a plan of knowledge find]" ([IKXD ns?]i rain) (cf. Prov 8:12). This reconstruction of the phrase accentuates the theme of providence. Elgvin, "4Q413," 208, is surely right that Qimron's understanding of the expression is influenced by the join of these two fragments. Elgvin, "4Q413," 208, points out the similarity of the last letter of the word in question to the res in line 3 of this smaller fragment. Qimron, DJD 20, 169, reads the visible traces of the letter of the word that follows as dalet, from which he reconstructs ran ("knowledge"). Elgvin reads these traces as a fin, which he understands as the beginning of the word T» ("song"). The expression T» -IDTO, while rare in Qumran hymnic compositions (but see 4Q448 A 1), is a title of psalms in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Ps 92:1). In DSSSE, 2.842, the letter sin is read, with the word SDE ("insight") reconstructed. PAM 43.499 suggests that the letter sin is possible, but that this is by no means a conclusive reading. The traces are certainly different from the top stroke of the dalet in line 4 of this fragment in the word ion. Elgvin recognizes that 'ayin is another possibility. Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 5; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 64. The fragment may mention folly. DJD 20 transcribes a phrase in line 2 as [D]TK ("human beinfgs]"). Elgvin, "4Q413," 208, reconstructs [(?)n]5iK *aa ("sons of fol[ly]"). The traces in question are quite fragmentary. Any reconstruction of the word after is tentative. Elgvin, "4Q413," 211, fills out the beginning of this line with the supplement "Listen to me, my sons, and acquire knowledge!" This and subsequent quotations are based on the translation in Elgvin, "4Q413," 211. Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 7, has suggested that 4Q413 may preserve remnants of an introductory sapiential section of a rulebook, along the lines of CD 1-2. 4 2

4

4 4

4 5

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

275

Two Spirits purports to teach the "sons of light" about "the nature of all the sons of man" (1QS 3:13). 4QInstruction also claims to provide knowledge on this subject: "And you, understanding son, gaze into the m m n and know [the path]s of all life" (4Q417 1 i 18-19; cf. 4Q418 77 2). As discussed in Chapter 1, these texts are deterministic in that they teach that human history unfolds according to a comprehensive divine plan. This may also be the case in 4Q413. The theme of determinism is emphasized by the title "Composition concerning Divine Providence." But 4Q413 never states that God establishes a master plan when he created the world. It is reasonable, however, to posit that the author of 4Q413 believed that God's control over history took the form of a deterministic plan guiding events. This may be implicit in the call in line 4 to "understand the years of every generation] (Tli[1 11]"! In this statement one is apparently asked to perceive the role of God throughout all history. In the Hodayot the expression i m TH is used when promoting a deterministic concept of God: You have created the earth with your strength ... everything which is in them you have determined according to your will ... You have allocated their tasks in all their generations and the regulation at its predetermined times to rule ... generation after generation ("im inb) (1QH 9:13-17; cf. 11Q5 26:9; 4Q436 1 i 2-3). The general idea of 4Q413 is that human history is shaped by God's allocation of rewards and punishments: "[As] God [loved] a man he increased his share in the knowledge of his truth (T\bm lb 71217] HITD); and as he despised another [he diminished the share of one who follows what] his ears hear and what his eyes see, so that he will not live" (11. 2-3; cf. Isa \ 1:3). The phrase "knowledge of his truth" is ambiguous but connotes the reception of divine favor. The line also suggests that those whom God rewards follow his will rather than their own inclination. Those who heed their own eyes and ears are punished. 4QInstruction makes a similar point: "O wise son, understand your mysteries ... you shall not search out afte[r] you[r] own heart, and your own e[y]es" (4Q417 1 i 25-27). The emphasis on not heeding one's own senses suggests that the 46

47

4 6

T h e s e g m e n t "he diminished the share o f o n e w h o f o l l o w s what" is plausibly added to the text by Elgvin, " 4 Q 4 1 3 , " 2 1 1 . S e e also Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 4 . DJD 20, 111; Qimron, " A Work Concerning D i v i n e Providence," 1 9 5 - 9 8 . 4 7

276

CHAPTER TEN

instruction of 4Q413 is based on a claim of supernatural revelation. This is plausibly assumed by Elgvin. But such an assertion is never explicit in the document. 4QInstruction distinguishes following your own senses from heeding "mysteries" provided through divine revelation. In both the Treatise and 4QInstruction, the speaker's authority to give instruction on the nature of humankind is based on an appeal to revelation. The Treatise is an instruction to be taught by the Maskil, and elsewhere the Community Rule stresses that he should teach "the mysteries of wonder" (K^D -»n) (1QS 9:18). The instruction of 4Q413 could be associated with revelation as well. A fragmentary text calls for its addressees to study the past: "[contemplate] the former things and understand the years of every generation], as God revealed ..." (1. 4; cf. 1Q27 1 i 3; 4Q298 3-4 ii 9-10). The "former things" may be an allusion to primeval events associated with creation. The general thrust of the line is that the will of God has shaped the past and that this has implications for the present and the future. Some have acted in accordance with God's wishes, whom he favored, and others did not, whom he rejected. Because of the fragmentary nature of the text, it is not clear if God has made this knowledge available through a vision or angelic mediator, as in the apocalypses, or if God "revealed" this truth through the opposed outcomes of the righteous and the wicked throughout history. The possibility that the instruction of 4Q413 is based on revelation raises the question if the work was written for a specific community with elect status. The Hodayot praises members of the Dead Sea sect in language that is reminiscent of 4Q413. 1QH 18:28-29 proclaims: "You have increased his share in the knowledge of your truth (ron&K D i m irbm nn^^n)." 4QInstruction and the rulebooks contain teachings on the impact of God upon human history that are compatible with 4Q413 and these texts are written to groups with elect status. Elgvin's version of 4Q413 assumes it is written to an elect community. This opinion is reasonable. But the text never 48

49

Elgvin, " 4 Q 4 1 3 , " 2 1 1 , c o m p l e t e s the phrase "as G o d revealed" with the expression "mysteries o f w o n d e r ( i 6 a TI) to his true sons." Stressing the text's affinities w i t h 4QInstruction, E l g v i n supplements the final exhortation o f 4 Q 4 1 3 to read: "And n o w [understanding ones (c^raon) and truly elect ones, contemplate] the former things." S e e his " 4 Q 4 1 3 , " 2 1 1 ; Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 6 5 . 4 9

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

277

makes this claim. While the role of God in history according to 4Q413 is compatible with the writings of the Dead Sea sect, there is no compelling reason to attribute the authorship of this work to this group. The overall teaching of 4Q413 is akin to the Treatise of the Two Spirits and 4QInstruction. All three of these works purport to provide knowledge that will make the conduct and fate of human beings discernible. 4Q413 teaches this in a way that emphasizes history. The prologue of the Damascus Document recounts numerous episodes in primeval and biblical history to illustrate that those who heed God's precepts are rewarded and that those who do not earn punishment (CD 2:14-5:19). Although 4Q413 does not discuss specific events, the work promotes the compatible idea that the will of God shapes human history, and that this is borne out by whom God has rewarded and punished in the past. The intent of 4Q413 is to encourage one to live in a way that will produce divine favor. 50

6. 4Q419: A PRIESTLY COMPOSITION 51

The official title of 4Q419 is "4QInstruction-like Composition A." Based on this designation one could reasonably consider 4Q419 a wisdom text. But there is little evidence for this view. Its editor, Sarah Tanzer, writes that the text is "vaguely paraenetic" and Harrington doubts if it can be considered a wisdom text. 4Q419 contains no practical advice or any sort of pedagogical material designed to help an addressee make sound decisions. This absence is not simply due to the fragmentary state of the composition. It is one of the better preserved documents considered in this chapter. There are eleven fragments associated with this work and Tigchelaar has identified a twelfth. Most of the extant lines of 4Q419 are in 52

53

5 0

Earlier Elgvin argued that 4Q413 2-3, which is similar to 1QH 18:28-29, indicates that it was written by the Dead Sea sect. See his "Admonition Texts," 185; idem, "4Q413,"214. DJD 36, 320-32. The work has also been titled "Sapiential Work B." See further Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 7; Kampen, "Diverse Aspects," 236* Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 28. 51

6 2

5 3

DJD 36, 321; Harrington, Wisdom

Texts, 73.

E.J.C. Tigchelaar has noticed an overlap between 4Q419 1 10-12 and 4QMisc (PAM 43.679 Fragment 10). See his "More Identifications of Scraps and Overlaps," RevQ 19 (1999) 61-68 (esp. 64-65); DJD 36, 332.

278

CHAPTER TEN

fragments 1 and 8 ii. 4Q419 1 emphasizes priestly and covenantal themes. Lines 1-2 advocate following the commandments which God gave "by the hand of Moses" (JTOQ T D ) , a phrase that also occurs in fragmentary texts of 4QInstruction (4Q418 184 1; 4Q423 11 2). 4Q419 1 3 calls the priests the "faithful ones of the coven[ant of God]" and includes the fragmentary phrase "by the hand of his priests" (VJiTD T D ) . The priests are probably exalted as the mediators of the Mosaic covenant. The author asserts the election of the Aaronic line: "he chose the seed of Aaron" (1. 5). Line 6 contains a fragmentary description of cultic worship: "his [w]ays and to bring near a soothing [offering made by fire]." There are also remnants of an account of God on a "throne which is lofty" and the text asserts that "he lives forever and his gl[o]ry is forevfer]" (11. 9-10). The prominent interest in priestly concerns and the covenant does not a priori rule out the classification of 4Q419 as sapiential. Ben Sira's instruction endorses Temple observance and the Mosaic Torah. However, there is nothing in 4Q419 that requires the conclusion that it is a wisdom text. The view that 4Q419 is a sapiential text derives from its association with 4QInstruction. There had been speculation that 4Q419 is a manuscript of this larger composition. This view has influenced the numerical designation and title of 4Q419. But this opinion has been disregarded. The main reason to connect the two works is a striking verbatim agreement between 4Q419 8 ii 7 and 4Q416 2 ii 2-3. Both texts attest the phrase naOMI I T f l D j T DK ")ED *7D m i ("if he closes his hand, then the spirit of all flesh will be gathered"). They use the expression in different ways. 4Q419 8 ii 54

55

56

57

The priestly tenor o f the d o c u m e n t is compatible with the mindset found in the sectarian rulebooks. Tanzer, DJD 36, 3 2 2 , suggests that the text m a y be "more than a work simply preserved by the c o m m u n i t y . " There is, however, n o explicit e v i d e n c e in the text that it w a s c o m p o s e d by the D e a d S e a sect. E l g v i n , "Admonition Texts," 180; A . Lange, Weisheit und Prddestination: Weisheitliche Urordnung und Prddestination in den Textfunden von Qumran (STDJ 18; Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 5 ) 4 5 ; D.J. Harrington, " W i s d o m at Qumran," in The Community of the Renewed Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. E. Ulrich and J.C. VanderKam; Notre D a m e : University o f Notre D a m e Press, 1 9 9 4 ) 1 3 7 - 5 3 (esp. 145). In 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 2 the w o r d OK and the s e g m e n t nn nsowi are based o n the parallel texts 4 Q 4 1 7 2 ii 4 and 4 Q 4 1 8 8 1. i r a is reconstructed in 4 Q 4 1 9 8 ii 7. S e e DJD 36, 3 2 9 ; E.J.C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: Reading and Reconstructing the Fragmentary Early Jewish Sapiential Text 4QInstruction 5 5

5 6

279

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

emphasizes the dominion of God, in part by stressing divine judgment. Lines 3-4 read "he will recount them ... confusing thenways with the punishme[nt o f . . . ] " In this context line 7 is clearly an affirmation of divine judgment. This is also suggested by line 8: "[t]o their earth they will return" CpmttT Dntinx *?[*<]). In 4Q416 2 ii 2-3 the main theme is not judgment but compassion. The text encourages the addressee to rely on God for food: "Ask for your food for he has let loose his compas[sion ... to give food to all that lives]" (4Q416 2 i 22-ii 2). 4QInstruction affirms the power of God to sustain life. He provides all food that humans eat to survive and can, if he wishes, stop making any available. Food is a sign of divine favor. This seems to be intended as inspiration for the rriebin to show comparable mercy. 4Q416 2 ill, though fragmentary, reads "if you shut your hand," as if others would suffer if he did so. Deut 15:7, like 4Q416 2 ii 2, uses the expression "closing the hand" to signify stinginess: "do not be hard-hearted or tight-fisted C-[T*nK f apn K ?) towards your needy neighbor." There may be a direct connection between 4QInstruction and 4Q419. Strugnell and Harrington suggest that the latter quotes the former. 4QInstruction could have placed a phrase from 4Q419 in a new context, but 4Q416 2 ii 2-3 seems to develop terminology from Deut 15:7. It is more likely that 4QInstruction influenced 4Q419 rather than the other way around, although there is not enough evidence to assert this with confidence. 4Q417 1 i 7 and 4Q419 8 ii 6 are also similiar. The textual agreement between 4Q416 2 ii 2-3 and 4Q419 8 ii 7 is not sufficient grounds for considering 4Q419 part of 58

1

59

60

61

( S T D J 4 4 ; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) 4 6 ; J. Strugnell and D.J. Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV: Sapiential Texts, Part 2. 4QInstruction (Musar Le Mebin): 4Q415ff. With a re-edition oflQ26 ( D J D 3 4 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1999) 9 0 - 9 1 . DJD 36, 3 3 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o DJD 34, 9 3 , part o f 4 Q 4 1 6 2 ii 3 reads "[And in h i s poverty y o u will n o t make the poor stumble because o f it. N o r ] because o f [his] shame will y o u hide your face." This line is fragmentary and it is n o t clear that it can b e restored with confidence. T h e k e y word "stumble" ( W 5 ) is n o t endorsed in Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 4 6 . T h e second sentence o f the passage m a y m e a n that the shame felt b y a person w h o is poor should not prevent the addressee from helping him. P s 1 0 4 : 2 8 - 3 0 ; 4 Q 4 1 8 8 8 ii 5; Sir 4 : 3 1 . DJD 34, 9 5 . 4 Q 4 1 7 1 i 7 includes the phrase "their reckoning for all the periods o f eternity" (obir bvb brmpa). 4 Q 4 1 9 8 ii 6 attests the expression nb-u ••sp 'rob. This t e r m i n o l o g y is relatively c o m m o n (e.g., 1 Q H 5:26-27; 4 Q 4 2 7 7 ii 6; 1 Q S 4:16). S e e also DJD 36, 3 3 0 ; Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning, 2 4 0 - 4 1 . 5 7

5 8

5 9

6 0

6 1

280

CHAPTER TEN

4QInstruction. There is no clear basis for understanding 4Q419 as a wisdom text. 7. 4Q425: REMNANTS

OF A WORK OF PRACTICAL WISDOM

4Q425, which is entitled "4QSapiential-Didactic Work B," consists of six fragments. The longest text of this work is a composite of fragments 1 and 3. Strugnell has suggested that 4Q425 could stem from the same work as 4Q426. There is not enough extant material to endorse this claim. 4Q425 apparently contained teachings on speech, a standard topic in traditional wisdom. The word "tongue" (\Vttb) occurs three times, all in unfortunately fragmentary contexts (4Q425 1 + 3 5; 4Q425 2 + 4 i 3; 4Q425 6 4). The text also has an interest in fools. The phrase "foolish of heart" (2b ^ I K ) is found in 4Q425 1 + 3 8. This expression is not in Proverbs, although the book often uses the word b^X (e.g., 10:14; 12:15). In 4QInstruction those destroyed in the final judgment are referred to as the "foolish of heart" (4Q418 69 ii 4; cf. 4Q418 58 1; 4Q418 205 2). 4Q425 may have taught a similar lesson. A fragmentary text reads "he will judge on the day" (4Q425 6 3). 2b is also found in the Hodayot (1QH 9:37). Also like the Hodayot, 4QSapiential-Didactic Work B encourages the praise of God. 4Q425 4 ii 4 attests the phrase "to offer thanksgiving to God" (bxb nmnS). 4Q425 includes material that is reminiscent of 4Q424, which is characterized by common sense instruction regarding ordinary spheres of life. 4Q425 1 + 3 7 includes the expression "a man whose eyes are smeared over" (DTtf tfTO ttTK). This phrase also occurs in 4Q424 3 3. This composition discusses the man with smeared over eyes in the context of a larger collection of sayings on negative types of people. This may have been the case in 4Q425 as well. The 62

63

64

65

66

6 2

DJD 20, 203-10. See also Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 8; Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 33. Strugnell, "The Smaller Hebrew Wisdom Texts," 47. 4Q426 is the topic of section 8.2 of this chapter. Note the phrase "and let him not spea[k]" in 4Q425 6 2. Steudel, DJD 20, 209, is tempted to supplement this phrase with a negation. See section 2.1 of Chapter 7. 6 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

281

phrase "a worthless man" is reconstructed in 4Q425 1 + 3 7 and line 6 may have the word "man." There may be additional overlaps between the two documents. The affinities between 4Q424 and 4Q425 do not demonstrate that one of these texts is dependent on the other or that they have a common author. But their similarities suggest that instruction on practical, commonplace topics was prominent in the original form of 4Q425. It is reasonable to conclude that 4Q425 is a remnant of a wisdom text in the tradition of Prov 1031. 67

8. SMALL SAPIENTIAL-HYMNIC TEXTS

Some fragmentary works have been identified as both sapiential and hymnic. 4Q411, 4Q426 and 4Q528 have been classified in this way. Other compositions could have been placed in this category. 4Q412, for example, is designated as a wisdom text and its editor argues that it contains psalm-like material. 68

8.1 4Q411 4Q411 is entitled "4QSapiential Hymn" by its editor, Annette Steudel. Only one fragment of this work survives. Remnants of two columns are visible, connected by a seam of stitching. Of the first only two letters are visible. The right-hand portion of seventeen lines is intact on the second. About one or two words on each line are preserved. The word PIDDn is plausibly reconstructed in line 1 and line 7 asks "who is wise" ( M n ^E). The term "his understanding" (inaian) occurs in line 9. 4QSapiential Hymn seems to attest remnants of a poetic recitation of the works of creation, along the lines of Ps 104 and Hymn to the 69

6 7

According to DJD 20, 204, 4Q425 1 + 3 6 includes the phrase "in respect to w[ei]ght, [he] will not [do his work]" ([inbra nro?]^ p M * ) - The basis of this reconstruction is 4Q424 3 1, which reads inbuD rrair *6[ ]bpmn. This part of 4Q425 1 + 3 6 has not survived well. It is not clear that any expression can be salvaged from this line. The word oSs may be in line 10. It also occurs in 4Q424 1 7 and 4Q424 3 4. See also Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 33. 3

6%

DJD20,

6 9

163.

Ibid., 159-62. See also Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 6.

282

CHAPTER TEN

a

Creator (llQPs 26:9-15). Lines 12 and 13 both begin with the phrase "YHWH created" (*rn m ^ ) . The phrase "good is one day" of line 3 may evoke Gen 1. The tetragrammaton is rare in Qumran wisdom texts (cf. 4Q185 1-2 ii 3). 4Q411 1 ii 11 preserves part of the divine name as well, suggesting that there may have been additional repetitions of the phrase K"Q m n \ In line 13 this expression is followed by a fragmentary sin, from which Steudel plausibly reconstructs D^OO, "heaven." The phrase "they shine out" of line 14 could refer to heavenly luminaries. The creation of humankind may have been a topic of the text. Joy is another theme of this work. 4Q411 1 ii 1 begins: "[and] you take pleasure in wis[dom]." Line 16 attests the phrase "for deli[ght]" ([nw]VISVb). The editor suggests that the Torah may have been the intended topic of this line. Ps 119 may use the word D^STO in reference to the law (w. 24, 70, 77, 92, 143, 174). 4Q411 1 ii 16 may also allude to the Torah. Given the theme of creation in this text, the expression "for delifght]" could be part of a longer section that praises the harmony between divine wisdom and the created order. In Prov 8:30 Lady Wisdom declares "I was daily his delight (D^IBUtD), rejoicing before him always." Joy would be appropriate in a poetic recounting of the works of creation. Although 4Q411 is poorly preserved, the theme of creation is prominent in this work. It has sapiential vocabulary and hymnic repetitions. 4Q411 can be reasonably understood in relation to the wisdom and hymnic traditions. It can be considered a wisdom psalm, but not enough of the work survives to permit firm conclusions. 71

72

73

74

7 0

Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts," 3 7 - 3 8 . G.J. B r o o k e , "Biblical Interpretation in the W i s d o m T e x t s from Qumran," in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran, 2 0 1 - 2 0 (esp. 2 1 5 ) . Strugnell, "The Smaller H e b r e w W i s d o m Texts," 3 7 . In the same v o l u m e , see A. S c h o o r s , "The Language o f the Qumran Sapiential Works," 6 1 - 9 5 (esp. 81). The word "flesh" (noa) precedes the tetragrammaton in line 11 and line 5 has the expression c-n6, w h i c h the editor translates as "concerning m a n . " This phrase may evoke Adam. DJD 20, 162. 7 1

7 2

7 3

7 4

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

283

8.2 4Q426 75

The title of 4Q426 is "4QSapiential-Hymnic Work A." It comprises thirteen fragments, most of which are quite small. Fragment 1 preserves part of two columns. 4Q426 may be a hymnic wisdom composition. But the evidence for this position is not overwhelming. In 4Q426 1 i 4 the speaker exclaims: "God has put into my heart knowledge and understanding." He claims to have received wisdom from God. He may be celebrating God's disclosure of revelation to him. Similar first-person declarations are at the core of the Hodayot and the hymn that concludes the Community Rule. There are no strong indicators that 4Q426 can be considered a hymn, although this classification can be used quite loosely. The text contains no calls to prayer or praise and it never poetically describes the majesty of God. The speaker never expounds on how God has delivered him from suffering, as is often the case in the Psalter. The composition may have originally contained praise of the Torah. 4Q426 1 i 1-2 reads: "[gl]ory, a measure of knowledge and length of days ... [those who k]eep all his commandments, but the seed of (the) wicked ones ..." This passage distinguishes between those who obey the law and the wicked. The material from line 1 regarding knowledge and long life seems to be the remnant of a description of the rewards allotted to those who keep the Torah. Long life is a classic goal of traditional wisdom. Here this reward is associated with observance of the law. This would suggest that the speaker in line 4, who claims that God has put knowledge into his heart, understands the Torah as the means by which God gave him wisdom (cf. 4Q525 1 1). 4Q426 could be an example of a tradition that is preserved much better in Ben Sira, in which the older wisdom 76

77

78

79

7 5

The editor of this text is A. Steudel. See DJD 20, 211-24. Consult also Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 8; Caquot, "Les Textes de sagesse," 33-34. C. Coulot, "LTmage de Dieu dans les ecrits de sagesse 1Q26, 4Q415-18, 7 6

4Q423," in Wisdom

and Apocalypticism

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls

and in the

Biblical

Tradition (ed. F. Garcia Martinez; BETL 168; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 2003) 171-81 (esp. 175). See, for example, 1QH 6:8, "[Blessed are you,] Lord, who puts wisdom in the heart of [your] servant"; 1QS 11:15-16, "Blessed be you, my God, who opens the heart of your servant to knowledge!" Prov 3:18; 8:36; 10:16,27; 14:27; 19:23. Long life is praised as a product of Torah-based wisdom in Ben Sira (4:12) and Baruch (3:14). This is also the case in 4QSapiential Work (4Q185 1-2 ii 12). 7 7

7 8

7 9

284

CHAPTER TEN

of Proverbs is merged with Torah piety. 4Q426 also discusses national traditions contained in the Torah. A fragmentary text mentions several sons of the patriarch Shem, "[A]sshur, Arpachshad, L[ud]" (4Q426 12 3). This may rely on Gen 10:22. The context of this appeal to the patriarchal past is lost. Other evidence suggests the work should be considered a wisdom text. 4Q426 has a pedagogical component. 4Q426 1 ii 3-4 reads: "he will understand, and I will tell you ... and I will understand it among the deeds of me[n]." Although the precise topic of instruction is unclear, this text seems to depict a teacher figure speaking to its intended audience. 4Q426 may contain the remains of a lesson regarding negative and positive types of people. The "greedy man" is a topic of 4Q426 2 1, a trope in both biblical and Qumran wisdom (4Q424 1 10; Prov. 28:22). "[A m]an who is a scorner (f^)" is discussed in 4Q426 8 4. Prov 10-31 often condemns such people (e.g., 13:1; 19:25). 4Q426 1 ii 5 mentions a "learned man" (17T ETK). The phrase "man of understanding" may be attested in 4Q426 10 2, but the word "man" is badly preserved and the transcription EPK is only a suggestion. The contexts for these expressions have not survived. In wisdom texts positive types of people are described so that they might be emulated, and negative kinds in order to avoid them. 4Q424 is an example of this phenomenon and 4Q426 could be as well. 4Q426 can be considered a wisdom psalm. Not enough of the text has survived, however, to make this claim. The sparse remains of this work provide more grounds for considering it a wisdom text than a hymnic one, but the evidence is not conclusive. 80

81

8.3 4Q528 4Q528 has also been related to the wisdom and hymnic traditions. This work, of which only one small fragment has survived, is

DJD 20, 223. 8 1

The word "me[n]" is a good reconstruction from a semantic standpoint but has a poor material basis. Steudel, DJD 20, 214, transcribes [afro. This option is supported by the term "man" (era) in lines 5 and 9.

MINOR WISDOM TEXTS

285

officially entitled "4QOuvrage hymnique ou sapientiel B." Lines 25 read: "your [peo]ple whom you bless ... [you will ga]ther [those who fe]ar you, the s[ons of| Israel ... your perfect ones. You redeem the perfect ones (D^nnn Wan) in every a[ffjai[r](?) ... the ele[c]t. Happy are you, all who fear the Lord (7V\7P n
83

84

85

n

,

8 2

E. Puech, Qumran

Grotte

4.XVIII:

Textes

l

Hebreux

(40521-4Q528,

4Q576-

4Q579) (DJD 25; Oxford: Clarendon, 1998) 187-90. See also Lange, "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 9. The proper transcription of the phrase conn bvbn in line 4 is not fully clear. Puech, DJD 25, 189, transcribes •'•nnn SKITI, which he translates as "tu exiges l'integrite" ("you demand integrity"). Above I tentatively follow DSSSE, 2.1060-61. Materially, the question is if the second letter of the first word of this expression is a gimel or a waw. The key part of the fragment suffers from ink erosion. In PAM 43.575 one can discern traces of a downstroke from the letter in question. These ink traces are compatible with both options. The remaining space for this letter seems too large for a waw. Use of the verb b*i would suggest that the object (conn) refers to a group of people (the elect) rather than an abstract quality. Understanding crnnn in this way is supported by line 5, which mentions "the ele[c]t" and those "who fear the Lord." The phrase "[those who fe]ar you" of line 3 may be in parallelism with j n ^ n ("your perfect ones") of line 4. Furthermore, the use of a beatitude indicates discussion of an ideal type of people. See section 3 of Chapter 8. DJD 25, 190. 8 3

8 4

8 5

286

CHAPTER TEN

veneration of the Torah, since this theme is so prominent in that document. This seems to be the case in the Sermon on the Mount as well (Mt 5:48), and perhaps Ps 119 (cf. v. 1). The emphasis in 4Q528 to be perfect can be understood as a call to commit oneself fully to the Torah. The stress in the composition on fearing the Lord is consistent with this interpretation. But the Torah is not an explicit theme in 4Q528. The beatitude opens up the work to comparison with the sapiential tradition. But not enough of 4Q528 survives to decide if it is a hymn or a wisdom text.

9. CONCLUSION

Several minor texts from Qumran have been associated with the wisdom tradition. A few of these compositions can be reasonably understood as sapiential texts, such as 4Q412 and 4Q425. Some of this material, I have argued, has no clear relationship to the wisdom tradition. This is the case with 4Q419. Many of the works reviewed in this chapter may be wisdom texts but do not contain enough evidence to be certain. These fragments demonstrate that the textual evidence at our disposal for the wisdom tradition in the late Second Temple period is far from complete.

CONCLUSION THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS AND THE SAPIENTIAL TRADITION 1. INTRODUCTION Five biblical documents represent the corpus of Jewish wisdom literature: Proverbs, Job, Qoheleth and, from the deutero-canonical writings, Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon. Of this material, only the last two are from the late Second Temple period. Comparing Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon to the older wisdom of Proverbs demonstrates that the sapiential tradition changed over time. Ben Sira equates wisdom with the Torah, which is not a theme in Proverbs. The Wisdom of Solomon is influenced by Hellenistic philosophy, an intellectual tradition unknown to Proverbs. The sapiential texts from Qumran provide additional evidence for understanding the nature of Jewish wisdom during the late Second Temple period. At the very least, these writings indicate that there was more diversity within the tradition than was previously realized. The corpus contains a wide range of ideas, motifs and forms. The Qumran wisdom texts exhibit correspondences with the five biblical wisdom texts. Some issues that are prominent in biblical wisdom are absent in the Qumran material, or muted. The Qumran sapiential works also attest departures from traditional wisdom.

2. CORRESPONDENCES The Qumran wisdom literature is pedagogical and eudemonistic, as is the sapiential tradition in general. A consistent theme in all wisdom writing is character formation, through ethical advice and the development of an accurate understanding of the world. The Qumran wisdom texts are no exception. They contain teachings that are designed to help people lead fulfilling and stable lives. 4Q525 and 4Q185 encourage their addressees to pursue wisdom, as does the

288

CONCLUSION

hymn in 11Q5 21:11-17 (cf. Sir 51:13-30). The same general goal is important in Proverbs, Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon. 4Q185 and 4QInstruction present long life as a goal of heeding instruction, a classic goal throughout wisdom literature (4Q416 2 iii 15-19; 4Q185 1-2 ii 12). In terms of form there are links between Qumran and biblical wisdom literature. Several Qumran sapiential texts are instructions written by a teacher to students. 4Q298 contains lessons by a MasMil (instructor) for students, who are called "the sons of dawn." 4QInstruction is written to a mebin ("understanding one"), and the work is designed for the education of a group of students (4Q418 221 2-3). However, while the importance of learning is stressed several times in Qumran wisdom literature (e.g., 4Q525 1), the office or authority of a teacher is rarely praised in these writings (but see 4Q418 81 17). Like Proverbs, the Qumran sapiential texts contain exhortations in the admonition form, as in the sequence of vetitives in 4Q416 2 ii 14-21. 4Q525 and 4Q185 contain didactic poetry reminiscent of Prov 1-9. These two texts use the beatitude form in their praise of wisdom, as do Proverbs (3:13; 8:34) and Ben Sira (14:20). Like biblical wisdom, the Qumran sapiential writings provide practical instruction that relates to ordinary spheres of life. 4QInstruction emphasizes the risks associated with indebtedness, as does Proverbs. 4QInstruction, however, is the only wisdom text from Qumran that offers a great deal of financial advice. This text provides instruction on marriage, like Proverbs, but stresses the authority of the husband to a greater degree than this biblical book. 4QInstruction associates marriage with poverty (4Q416 2 iii 20), which is not the case in Proverbs. 4Q424 is characterized by common sense teachings that are reminiscent of Proverbs. This Qumran text describes negative types of people who should be avoided. 4QInstruction does as well (4Q417 2 i 7), and similar material abounds elsewhere in the wisdom tradition (e.g., Prov 29:27). 4Q424 teaches that unreliable men should not be employed. This emphasis is present but not prominent in Proverbs (10:26). Proper speech is another commonplace topic in the wisdom tradition that is well represented in Qumran sapiential literature. 4Q420-21 and 4Q525 stress caution and deliberation in speech and that a person should speak only after understanding the words of his

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

289

interlocutor. 4Q525 14 ii 18-28 is the best example of such advice in this corpus. Proverbs and Ben Sira similarly recommend that a person listen to his conversation partner before talking (e.g., Prov 18:13; Sir 11:7-8).

3. ABSENCES

Some prominent features of biblical wisdom are absent or at best muted in the Qumran wisdom texts. Solomon plays no role in this corpus. None of its material is presented as age-old wisdom handed down from a legendary figure of the past. None are pseudepigrapha, although the Cave 11 Psalms Scroll, which is ascribed to David, contains hymns influenced by the sapiential tradition. Unlike Ben Sira, no Qumran wisdom text is attributed to a specific sage. The Qumran sapiential writings do not include a single collection of proverbs. They include some material that could be considered a proverbs or common sayings, but this is not a characteristic feature of the corpus. While the Qumran wisdom texts often echo material in Proverbs, this material has little, if anything, to do with Job and Qoheleth. Neither the theodicy of Job nor the epistemological despair of Qoheleth resonates with this corpus. In the opinion of Armin Lange, 4QInstruction reconfigures the sapiential idea that the world is imbedded with a sense of order into a revealed truth in response to the "crisis of wisdom" that is associated with Job and Qoheleth. According to this formulation, endowing an assertion of cosmic order with the status of revealed knowledge protects this conception of the world from the challenge posed by these biblical books. Lange's thesis is compelling and merits further consideration. But it suffers 1

2

1

As discussed in Chapter 6, Elgvin understands 4Q420 l a ii-b (par 4Q421 l a iib) as containing "wisdom sayings." Some parts of 4QInstruction, such as the vetitives in 4Q416 2 ii 14-21 on topics such as social relations and financial affairs, could be considered proverbs, or at least sayings that are fully compatible with Prov 10-31.

See T. Elgvin et a l , Qumran

Cave 4.XV: Sapiential

Texts, Part 1 (DJD 20;

Oxford: Clarendon, 1997) 173. 2

A.

Lange,

Weisheit

und

Prddestination in den Textfunden also J.C. Rylaarsdam, Revelation of Chicago Press, 1946).

Prddestination:

Weisheitliche

Urordnung

und

von Qumran (STDJ 18; Leiden: Brill, 1995). See in Jewish Wisdom Literature (Chicago: University

290

CONCLUSION

from the basic fact that neither 4QInstruction nor any other Qumran wisdom text explicitly engages Job and Qoheleth. Nevertheless, he is probably right to relate the absence of theodicy in Qumran wisdom literature to the theme of revelation. The mebm of 4QInstruction is given the mystery that is to be, from which he can learn how God has structured the world. There is no theological arena for despair and the legitimacy of the raz nihyeh is never challenged. But while none of the Qumran wisdom texts deal with theodicy, not all of them appeal to revelation, as discussed below. To understand the lack of theodicy one must seek an answer beyond the issue of revelation. One possible explanation is that Job and Qoheleth, the validity of their critiques notwithstanding, are not representative of a broader revolution in sapiential thought. Personified wisdom is another surprisingly muted element in Qumran wisdom literature. On the basis of the biblical evidence it is easy to surmise that the trope of wisdom allegorized as a woman, immanent in the world and rooted in creation theology, is a core element of the wisdom tradition. Lady Wisdom is a towering figure in the book of Proverbs. Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon appropriate her in different ways but she is central to both works. The Qumran wisdom literature, and the Dead Sea Scrolls in general, contain virtually no vivid portrait of Lady Wisdom. Like the issue of theodicy, this absence has been understood in relation to the theme of revelation. With regard to 4QInstruction, Elgvin argues that "Raz nihyeh is clearly a reinterpretation of the divine Wisdom of Proverbs 1-9," referring to Lady Wisdom. This could be the case. The 3

4

5

6

3

Lange has argued that 4QInstruction, the book of Mysteries and parts of Qoh 12 have a common provenance and that Mysteries shows familiarity with Qoheleth. In Chapters 1 and 2 I critique these claims. Extrapolating a "crisis of wisdom" from Job and Qoheleth has been questioned. For example, G. von Rad has written "is it at all feasible that two individual works will have brought about a rethinking of later Israel's understanding of the world?" See his Wisdom in Israel (London/Valley Forge: SCM Press Ltd/Trinity Press International, 1972) 237. Consult also J.T. Sanders, "Wisdom, Theodicy, Death and the Evolution of Intellectual Traditions," JSJ 36 (2005) 263-77. S. White Crawford, "Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran," DSD 5 (1998) 355-66. T. Elgvin, "Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Early Second Century BCE— 5

6

The Evidence of 4QInstruction," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25, 1997 (ed. L.H.

Schiffman et al.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society/Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, 2000) 226-47 (esp. 235).

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

291

mystery that is to be is associated with the rational structure of the world in 4QInstruction, as is Lady Wisdom in Proverbs. However, it would be easier to concur with Elgvin if 4QInstruction more explicitly engaged the figure of Lady Wisdom. Also, this Qumran text considers the terms "wisdom" and "mystery that is to be" complementary descriptions of the means God used to create the world, rather than opposing concepts (4Q417 1 i 8-9; 4Q418 126 ii 45). Some Qumran wisdom texts show a degree of familiarity with the Lady Wisdom tradition. 4QBeatitudes claims "she cannot be obtained with gold," presenting wisdom as superior to items of value, much like Prov 3:14-15 (4Q525 2 iii 3). 4Q525 24 ii contains remnants of a poem in which a female speaker, in the first person, "pours out" speech, as Lady Wisdom does in Prov 1:23. The woman of 4Q525 24 ii has a dwelling that is associated with agricultural abundance and water, evoking the banquet at the house of Lady Wisdom in Prov 9. 4Q185 1-2 ii 13-15 describes the search for wisdom in romantic terms, urging one not to "play tricks" against wisdom or attain her with "flatteries." The version of Sir 51:13-30 in HQPs 21 likens the search for wisdom to a man in love with a woman. llQPs 21:11-12 reads "I was a young man before I had erred when I looked for her. She came to me in her beauty and up till the end I searched for her." 4Q185 stresses the honesty and devotion of one's search for wisdom and llQPs 21 underscores the intensity and passion of the speaker's desire for wisdom. These texts are more interested in inculcating a love for wisdom than the allegory of wisdom as a woman. They never associate hypostatic wisdom with creation. Lady Wisdom has no speaking role in the Qumran sapiential corpus, with the fragmentary 4Q525 24 ii as a probable exception. The Qumran wisdom writings do not give the impression that its authors were polemical or hostile to the Lady Wisdom tradition but that they rather considered it a peripheral motif. There is not enough evidence to decide conclusively why this is the case. One can speculate that the authors of this material chose not to highlight the figure of Lady Wisdom to avoid ambiguity regarding God's sole creation of the world (cf. llQPs 26:12). Ben Sira, however, has no problem asserting both God's supreme control while associating hypostatic wisdom with creation (Sir 24:3). a

3

3

3

292

CONCLUSION

The Qumran sapiential corpus attests no explicit interest in mantic wisdom, which is associated with divination and the interpretation of dreams. The "magicians" mentioned in the book of Mysteries have been understood in relation to this tradition. It has been suggested that the origins of apocalypticism are rooted in mantic wisdom. Nothing in the Qumran sapiential literature endorses this claim. 7

8

4. DEPARTURES

Several aspects of the Qumran wisdom corpus constitute departures from the traditional wisdom of Proverbs. Three key innovations involve apocalypticism, the Torah and piety.

4.1 Wisdom and Apocalypticism Core aspects of Proverbs are at odds with characteristic features of an apocalyptic worldview. In this book wisdom is an innate mental aptitude that leads to success and fulfillment in this world. There is no prospect of rewards after death. Recompense for misdeeds is allocated in this world, without appeal to eschatological judgment. Wisdom is publicly available and there is no interest in esoteric revelation to the elect. One who discloses secrets is chastised as a gossip (Prov 11:13; 20:19). Ben Sira, writing in a context in which apocalypticism was prevalent, dismisses the study of hidden knowledge and dreams (3:21-24; cf. 20:30; 34:5; 41:14). This can be understood as a critique of a type of wisdom speculation based on esoteric revelation that is exemplified by 1 Enoch. However, Ben 9

7

1 evaluate this opinion in Chapter 2. H.-P. Miiller, "Mantische Weisheit und Apokalyptik," Congress Volume: Uppsala, 1971 (VTSup 22; Leiden: Brill, 1972) 268-93; A. Bedenbender, "Jewish Apocalypticism: A Child of Mantic Wisdom?" Hen 24 (2002) 189-96 {The Origins of 8

Enochic Judaism: Sesto Fiorentino,

Proceedings Italy, June

of the First Enoch Seminar. University of Michigan, 19-23, 2001 [ed. G. Boccaccini]); J.C. VanderKam,

"Mantic Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls," DSD 4 (1997) 336-53. R.A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach (SBLEJL 8; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995). Some commentators consider Sir 3:21-24 polemic against Greek wisdom. See, for example, A.A. Di Leila and P.W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB 39; New York: Doubleday, 1987) 160; M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973) 1.139. 9

293

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

Sira does contain elements that are fully consistent with apocalyptic literature, such as the proclamation of judgment (e.g., 16:18; 35[32]:22-26). The Wisdom of Solomon has an elaborate judgment scene (4:20-5:23) that is more in keeping with the apocalypses than traditional wisdom and the work affirms the immorality of the soul for the righteous, echoing the assertion of Dan 12:3 that they will join the angels in heaven (Wis 3:7; cf. 1 En. 104:2-6). 4QInstruction and the book of Mysteries reflect significant influence from the apocalyptic tradition. Both of these texts appeal to supernatural revelation in the form of the raz nihyeh (rrnj H), an enigmatic phrase that can be translated "the mystery that is to be." In Mysteries this expression is associated with eschatological judgment (1Q27 1 i 3-4) and the work's addressees are apparently called "those who hold fast to mysteries" (DTI "ODin), referring to their possession of revealed knowledge (4Q299 43 2; 4Q300 8 5; cf. 4Q299 3a ii-b 9). The mebin of 4QInstruction is asked repeatedly to study the mystery that is to be. From this raz he can learn many things, such as the knowledge of good and evil, and who will inherit "glory" after death (4Q417 1 i 6-8; 4Q417 2 i 10-12). 4QInstruction and Mysteries teach that God's dominion over the world is expressed in a comprehensive plan that orchestrates history and creation. The mystery that is to be signifies a deterministic conception of the natural order, presented as revealed knowledge. Creation is a prominent theme in Proverbs and elsewhere in the wisdom tradition. But the structure of the cosmos and the means of perceiving it in 4QInstruction and Mysteries 10

11

1 0

According to Wis 2:22, the wicked do not know the "mysteries of God." See further J.J. Collins, "The Reinterpretation of Apocalyptic Traditions in the Wisdom of Solomon," in The Book

of Wisdom

in Modem

Research:

Studies

on

Tradition,

Redaction, and Theology (ed. A. Passaro and G. Bellia; DCLY 2005; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005) 143-57; M. Gilbert, "Sagesse 3,7-9; 5,15-23 et l'apocalyptique," in Wisdom

and Apocalypticism

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls

and in the Biblical

Tradition

(ed. F. Garcia Martinez; BETL 168; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 2003) 307-22; S. Burkes, "Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Wisdom of Solomon," HTR 95(2002)21-44. F. Garcia Martinez, "Wisdom at Qumran: Worldly or Heavenly?" in Wisdom and

Apocalypticism

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls,

1-15; K.B. Larsen, "Visdom og

apokalyptik i Musar leMevin (lQ/4QInstruction) [Wisdom and Apocalyptic in Musar leMevin (lQ/4QInstruction)]," DTT 65 (2002) 1-14; J.J. Collins, "Wisdom Reconsidered, in Light of the Scrolls," DSD 4 (1997) 265-81 (esp. 272-78). In the same volume as the Garcia Martinez article, see M. Knibb, "The Book of Enoch in the Light of the Qumran Wisdom Literature," 193-210 (esp. 199-204).

294

CONCLUSION

represent a radical departure from the creation theology of Proverbs. The cosmos requires revelation to be understood. This accords with the epistemology of apocalypses such as 1 Enoch and Daniel. 4QInstruction and Mysteries resonate in other ways with the apocalyptic tradition. Both disclose revelation to the elect. While angels are not a major concern in Mysteries, 4QInstruction displays a strong interest in the angelic world. The work holds up the angels as models for the addressee to emulate (4Q418 69 ii 13-14), and his elect status is construed as a special affinity with them (4Q418 81 4-5). Mysteries gives the impression that the righteous will enjoy a Utopian existence on a transformed earth, cleansed of evil, not unlike J En. 10. 4QInstruction and Mysteries include judgment scenes that recount the ultimate destruction of wickedness. Each is a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview. One can make a similar case for the Treatise of the Two Spirits (1QS 3:13-4:26). Other Qumran wisdom texts have features that resemble apocalyptic literature more than traditional wisdom. 4Q Words of the Maskil urges its intended audience to understand "the end of the ages" (4Q298 3-4 ii 9-10). 4QSapiential Work proclaims that the angels will judge with "flaming fire" (4Q185 1-2 i 8-9). 4Q184 imagines the netherworld as a place of "eternal flames" to which a female figure leads those who go astray (4Q184 1 7). The text then claims that "none of her inheritance is among all who shine brightly" (11. 7-8). This expression, which is dualistically opposed to the "eternal flames," can be understood as an indirect allusion to the prospect of astral immortality with the angels, not unlike Dan 12:3. Beyond 4QInstruction and Mysteries, however, there is not a great deal in the Qumran wisdom corpus that is reminiscent of apocalypticism. Aside from these two texts no Qumran sapiential work explicitly appeals to supernatural revelation. No other work is clearly oriented to an elect community, although in some cases, such as 4Q298, this may be assumed. 4Q424 shows no interest in apocalypticism. No Qumran wisdom composition attests an imminent eschatology, although Mysteries claims that its addressees 13

1 2

M.J. Goff, "The Mystery of Creation in 4QInstruction," DSD 10 (2003) 163-86. D.J. Harrington has written "Perhaps the most striking contribution of the Qumran wisdom texts is their insistence on wisdom as a gift from God." See his 13

Wisdom

Texts from

Qumran

(London: Routledge, 1996) 83.

295

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

will recognize the "sign" of the final judgment in their own lifetime (1Q27 1 i 5). There is no messianism whatsoever in this material. None of these texts presents the world as radically out of joint or under the dominion of Belial. Because of its apocalyptic worldview, 4QInstruction, despite its length and significance, is not fully representative of the Qumran wisdom corpus. The apocalyptic features of 4QInstruction and Mysteries are important for understanding Jewish wisdom in the Second Temple period. These compositions demonstrate that in this era, despite Ben Sira's emphatic rejection of esoteric speculation, a wisdom text could be significantly influenced by the apocalyptic tradition. The later Wisdom of Solomon attests this phenomenon to an extent, as does the saying source Q of the New Testament, following the standard view that it contains several sapiential instructions. 4QInstruction is the best example of a wisdom text with an apocalyptic worldview. 4QInstruction's practical advice and admonitions demonstrate that its author was familiar with the traditional wisdom represented by Proverbs. Von Rad asserted that scholars of wisdom literature must "take seriously the idea that the forms can never be separated from the contents." The forms in which wisdom is expressed, such as the proverb or instruction, in that they are pithy, concise and didactic, are themselves considered expressive of a sapiential worldview. James Crenshaw likewise argues that the wisdom tradition is characterized by "a marriage of form and content." John Collins observes that the Qumran wisdom texts, and above all 4QInstruction, illustrate that "the marriage of form and worldview seems to end in divorce." The tradition was able to incorporate modes of thought that are completely alien to the older wisdom of Israel. In Early Judaism the wisdom 14

15

16

17

1 4

M.J. Goff, "Discerning Trajectories: 4QInstruction and the Sapiential Background of the Sayings Source Q," JBL 124 (2005) 657-73; J.S. Kloppenborg, The Formation of Q (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1999 [orig. pub., 1987]); K. Lining, "Die Konfrontation des Menschen: Elemente einer sapientialen Soteriologie," in Rettendes Wissen: Studien zum Fortgang weisheitlichen Denkens im Fruhjudentum und im fruhen Christentum (ed. K. Loning; AO AT 300; Munster:

Ugarit-Verlag, 2002) 1-41 (esp. 23-24); M. Kuchler, Weisheitstraditionen (OBO 26; Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1979) 558. 1 5

1 6

Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, 25. J.L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom:

An Introduction

Westminster John Knox, 1998 [orig. pub., 1981]) 11. Collins, "Wisdom Reconsidered," 280. 1 7

Fruhjudische

(rev. ed.; Louisville:

296

CONCLUSION

tradition was both conservative and adaptable to new ideas. Lange has argued that 4QInstruction confirms von Rad's claim that apocalypticism is a development out of the sapiential tradition. But 4QInstruction was probably written in the second century BCE, which would date it after the early Enochic apocalypses, the Book of Watchers and the Astronomical Book. 4QInstruction does not represent "erste Schritte auf dem Weg zur Apokalyptik." It is more likely that the apocalyptic tradition influenced 4QInstruction. Furthermore, it is well known that von Rad's engaging thesis cannot stand as originally formulated. It cannot explain sufficiently the substantial differences between the two traditions. Apocalypses typically appeal to heavenly revelation, whereas knowledge in the wisdom tradition is generally rooted in empirical observation. Sapiential literature often presupposes stability and continuity, whereas the conviction that the world is fundamentally out of joint is paramount in apocalypses such as Daniel and Revelation. Wisdom and apocalypticism should not be thought of two wholly separate pure streams of tradition. But they are nevertheless two different traditions, each with its own origins and process of development. By the late Second Temple period the boundaries and distinctions between them can become quite nebulous. The two traditions can overlap, a possibility best represented by 4QInstruction, and various kinds of Early Jewish literature reflect influence from both wisdom and apocalypticsim, such as the testaments and the Qumran rulebooks. Collins has put forward the well-received view that Jewish apocalypticism represents a new synthesis in the Hellenistic period of elements drawn from older traditions such as post-exilic prophecy, Persian apocalypticism and ancient Near Eastern myth. The 18

19

20

21

22

23

1 9

Lange, Weisheit Lange, Weisheit

und Predestination, und Predestination,

301-6; von Rad, Wisdom 305.

in Israel,

263-83.

2 0

In Chapter 1 I support the possibility that the author of 4QInstruction was familiar with a version of 1 Enoch. J.J. Collins, "Wisdom, Apocalypticism and Generic Compatibility," in Seers, 2 1

Sibyls and Sages

in Hellenistic

Roman Judaism

(JSJSup 54; Leiden: Brill, 1997) 385-

404. 2 2

L. Wills and B.G.

Wright, ed., Conflicted

Boundaries

in Wisdom

and

Apocalypticism (SBLSymS 35; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005). J.J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination ( 2 ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998 [orig. pub., 1984]) 24-37; idem, "Cosmos and Salvation: Jewish Wisdom and 2 3

n d

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

297

Qumran wisdom literature, and the sapiential tradition of Early Judaism in general, should be understood in a similar way. The late Second Temple period attests a transformation of wisdom. Traditional wisdom is combined with new ideas from traditions such as apocalypticism, prophecy and Torah piety. One of the most important concepts in this period is appeal to supernatural revelation. Hengel has argued that one strand of Hellenistic thought is characterized by the "idea of 'higher wisdom by revelation. ' " In the context of increased influx of influence from other cultures, a loss of native control of political events and widespread economic disparity, Jews needed knowledge that transcended the reality they faced to assert God's justice and control of events. It is a kind of cultural theodicy. An intellectual climate developed in which it became popular to understand the world in terms of revelation and determinism. 4QInstruction fits very well with this prevailing mood. The work discloses revelation regarding a deterministic plan guiding history and creation. 4QInstruction also emphasizes the poverty of the addressee who is given revelation. His ordinary life is difficult and he is taught to endure the indignities caused by his low social station. He needs heavenly knowledge to consider himself among the elect. While the book of Mysteries does not give the impression its intended audience endured difficult political or economic circumstances, the work presents the deterministic order of creation as divinely revealed knowledge. The theme of revelation in 4QInstruction and Mysteries is better understood against this broad Hellenistic milieu than as a response to Job and Qoheleth. 24

25

26

27

Apocalypticism in the Hellenistic Age," in Seers, Sibyls and Sages, 317-38. In the same volume, see his "Jewish Apocalypticism against its Hellenistic Near Eastern Environment," 59-74. T. Elgvin, "An Analysis of 4QInstruction" (Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1997) 59-62. M. Kister, "Wisdom Literature and Its Relation to Other Genres: From Ben Sira 2 4

2 5

to Mysteries," in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium

in Light of the Dead of the Orion Center,

20-22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and R.A. Clements; STDJ 51; Leiden: Brill, 2004) 13-47 (esp. 47). Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, 1.217 (italics his). See also Collins, "Wisdom, Apocalypticism and Generic Compatibility," 388; Loning, "Die Konfrontation des Menschen," 3. Goff, "Mystery of Creation," 184-86. 2 6

2 7

298

CONCLUSION

4.2 Wisdom and Torah In some Qumran wisdom texts the theme of higher revelation is prominent in the form of appeal to the Torah. 4Q185 and 4Q525 confirm developments within the wisdom tradition that have long been evident from Ben Sira. He teaches students about the value of wisdom and its rewards. The sage reveres figures from the national history of Israel as moral exemplars. He celebrates the Torah as a source of wisdom. His instruction turns to the motif of Lady Wisdom to explain the relationship between Torah and wisdom. Many of these statements can be made about 4Q185 and 4Q525 as well. 4Q185 holds up Jacob and Isaac as models to follow (1-2 ii 4), and utilizes the Exodus tradition (1-2 i 13-ii 2). The work recounts the rewards of wisdom. The Torah is revered by the author, who urges one to follow "the words of [his] covena[nt]" (4Q185 1-2 iii 9). 4Q525 offers no prominent appeal to specific events in the history of Israel but contains the most explicit association of wisdom with the Torah in the Qumran sapiential corpus (4Q525 2 ii + 3 3-4). 4Q185 and 4Q525 also show familiarity with Lady Wisdom. Some commentators consider the centrality of the Torah as one of the defining characteristics of Qumran wisdom literature. Lange has claimed that the entire corpus, with the exception of 4Q424, demonstrates "Toraweisheit." The texts confirm, in his view, the rise of the Torah in sapiential thought that is discernible in Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch (3:9-4:4), and perhaps in putative wisdom psalms such as Pss 1 and 119. In the opinion of Jack Sanders, the Qumran wisdom texts "go somewhat further" than Ben Sira in terms of the incorporation of the Torah. Lange and Sanders 28

29

A. Lange. "Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung," in The Wisdom Texts from

Qumran

and the Development

of Sapiential

Thought

(ed. C. Hempel, A.

Lange and H. Lichtenberger; BETL 159; Leuven: Leuven University Press/Peeters, 2002) 3-30 (esp. 30). See also idem, "Die Bedeutung der Weisheitstexte aus Qumran fur die hebraische Bibel," in Weisheit in Israel (ed. D.J.A. Clines, H. Lichtenberger and H.-P. Muller; ATM 12; Munster: Lit-Verlag, 2003) 129-44. J.T. Sanders, "When Sacred Canopies Collide: The Reception of the Torah of Moses in the Wisdom Literature of the Second-Temple Period," JSJ 32 (2001) 12136 (esp. 127). See also idem, "Wisdom, Theodicy, Death," 263; White Crawford, "Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly," 365; G.W.E. Nickelsburg, "Wisdom and Apocalypticism in Early Judaism: Some Points for Discussion," in Conflicted 2 9

Boundaries

in Wisdom

and Apocalypticism,

17-37 (esp. 34); D.M. Carr, Writing

on

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

299

are correct insofar as the Torah is important for several Qumran sapiential texts. But to hold up "Toraweisheit" as a defining feature of Qumran wisdom literature obscures more than it explains. If one defines "Torah wisdom" as any instance in which a sapiential work shows familiarity with the Torah, the view of Lange is basically accurate. But such an open definition offers little assistance in understanding the different ways the Qumran wisdom texts use the Torah. There is a difference between showing familiarity with the Torah and appealing to it as an authoritative source of revelation. Most Qumran wisdom texts exhibit familiarity with the Torah. The figure of Adam is important in 4QInstruction and the composition adapts language from Gen 1-3. The book of Mysteries mentions Aaron (4Q299 79 6) and probably reflects knowledge of the book of Daniel, as discussed in Chapter 2. 4Q184 shows extensive reliance on Prov 7. Numerous other examples could be cited. But when one asks which wisdom texts from Qumran thematize the Torah and proclaim it as the main source of wisdom, the list becomes much smaller—4Q185 and 4Q525. It is implied that 4QWays of Righteousness reveres the Torah, since it provides halakhah regarding the Sabbath (4Q421 11-13). But this text never praises, let alone mention, the Torah, whereas Ben Sira celebrates the law but never provides halakhah. 4QWays of Righteousness attests a different kind of Torah wisdom from that of Ben Sira. If 4QInstruction can be said to merge the sapiential and apocalyptic traditions, Ben Sira combines the sapiential and covenantal traditions. The book of Mysteries and the Treatise of the 30

31

the Tablet

of the Heart:

Origins

of Scripture

and Literature

(New York: Oxford

University Press, 2005) 225-28; Kuchler, Fruhjudische Weisheitstraditionen, 33-61. 4Q426 may reflect this tradition as well. Note also that 11Q5 18 (Ps 154) praises the Torah. It has been argued that rabbinic Judaism develops the combination of traditional wisdom with the covenantal tradition to the point where sapiential literature as a distinct entity essentially disappears. Rylaarsdam, Revelation in Jewish Wisdom Literature, 46, claims that "the Hebrew wisdom movement" was "submerged by and lost in rabbinism." Gerald Sheppard writes "Biblical wisdom literature seems fully appropriated as commentary on the torah within Judaism." See his "Biblical Wisdom Literature at the End of the Modern Age," in Congress Volume: Oslo, 1998 (ed. A. Lemaire and M. Saebo; VTSup 80; Leiden: Brill, 2000) 369-98 (esp. 387). He also asserts that wisdom literature was not absorbed by Christianity. Sanders, "Wisdom, Theodicy, Death," 276-77, echoing Rylaarsdam, likens the wisdom tradition to a "dinosaur": "big and important in one epoch, gone in the next." The Pirke Avot is an early rabbinic work that is widely considered a 3 0

3 1

300

CONCLUSION

Two Spirits attest the same phenomenon as 4QInstruction, suggesting that it is representative of a broader wisdom trajectory in the late Second Temple period. 4Q185 and 4Q525 are examples of sapiential developments expressed in fuller form in Ben Sira. This instruction can thus be taken as the best example of another type of Jewish wisdom from this era. For heuristic purposes the sapiential trajectory associated with 4QInstruction and Mysteries can be called raz wisdom, and the one with Ben Sira, 4Q185 and 4Q525 (and other texts such as Bar 3:9-4:4), Torah wisdom. The delineation of these two types should not be made too rigidly, and not every Qumran wisdom text can be easily placed in either category. For example, 4QInstruction, like 4QWays of Righteousness, attests halakhah in a wisdom text (4Q416 2 iv 7-10; 4Q418 103 ii), but neither praises the Torah nor appeals to the revelation at Sinai. The crucial difference between raz and Torah wisdom is that in one the authoritative source of wisdom is the Torah, and in the other obtaining wisdom chiefly relies on an esoteric form of revelation available only to the elect. In 4QInstruction acquiring wisdom through the raz nihyeh is not incompatible with obtaining it through the Torah. Rather the former is encouraged much more than the latter. Ben Sira, by contrast, 32

33

wisdom text. The rabbis do not for the most part continue the production of wisdom genres attested in biblical and Early Jewish literature. They develop their own genres and do not merely mimic biblical forms. But I am not sure if it follows that the wisdom tradition becomes "lost" in rabbinic Judaism. It is perhaps better to say that the rabbis continue the wisdom tradition in very different ways. The Pirke Avot is not considered an abandoned relic of a by-gone tradition; rather the rabbis expanded and rewrote it with a version in the Mishnah and the two recensions of Avot de-Rabbi Nathan. The wisdom text found in the Cairo Geniza is another example of a sapiential work produced by rabbinic Judaism. Kugel has argued that the rabbis continued the biblical wisdom tradition in texts such as Genesis Rabbah and the Mekhilta

deR. Ishmael.

See G.W. Nebe, Text

und Sprache

der

hebrdischen

Weisheitsschrift aus der Kairoer Geniza (Frankfurt: P. Lang, 1993); H.P. Ruger, Die Weisheitsschrift aus der Kairoer Geniza (WUNT 53; Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1991); K. Berger, Die Weisheitsschrift aus der Kairoer Geniza (Tubingen: Francke, 1989); J. Goldin, The Fathers

According

to Rabbi Nathan

(YJS 10; New York/London: Yale

University Press, 1983 [orig. pub., 1955]); J.L. Kugel, "Wisdom and the Anthological Temper," Prooftexts 17 (1997) 9-32. In section 3.1.4 of Chapter 1 I critique the opinion that the raz nihyeh can be equated with the Torah. A. Bedenbender has argued that the Enochic apocalyptic tradition relies upon 3 3

the authority of Moses. See his Der Gott der Welt Tritt auf den Sinai: Entstehung, Entwicklung und Funktionsweise der fruhjudischen Apokalyptik (ANTZ 8; Berlin:

Institut Kirche und Judentum, 2000) 264-66.

301

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

praises the Torah while dismissing esoteric sources of wisdom (3:2124). The Community Rule venerates the Torah and its claims of possessing secret knowledge relate to the interpretation of scripture. The Dead Sea sect claims to possess both the ITl^M and the m i n 0 3 , referring to the public revelation of the Torah and its hidden interpretation, respectively (1QS 5:11-12; CD 3:13-14; cf. lQpHab 7:4-5). There is no Early Jewish wisdom text that invokes different forms of revelation in an equally harmonious way. With the full evidence of the Qumran wisdom texts available, it is clear that in the late Second Temple period sapiential texts turned to divine sources of wisdom. The incorporation of the Torah into the wisdom tradition in this era can be understood against the backdrop of prevailing Hellenistic intellectual currents described above with regard to the theme of supernatural revelation. 34

4.3 Wisdom and Piety The sapiential material from Qumran exhibits a greater interest than older wisdom in God and humanity's response to him. Proverbs assumes regular participation in worship (e.g., 15:8) and its prologue famously reveres the fear of God as the beginning of wisdom. But its content, particularly the sayings of chapters 10-29, is often not explicitly oriented to God but rather ordinary and mundane aspects of human life. By contrast, many Qumran wisdom texts emphasize the praise and worship of God. 4QInstruction teaches the mebin "to praise his name constantly" (4Q416 2 iii 11). This composition emphasizes the holiness of the addressee and encourages him to participate in the cultus. Mysteries mentions, albeit briefly, related topics such as priests (4Q299 67 3; 1Q27 3 2) and Urim and 35

3 4

A p p e a l s to esoteric revelation for the elect and to the M o s a i c revelation at Sinai are c o m b i n e d together in the first century CE. 2 Baruch turns to apocalyptic revelation to help legitimate traditional covenantal t h e o l o g y grounded in the Torah (e.g., 2 Bar. 5 4 ) . From roughly the same time, 4 Ezra 14 recounts the restoration o f both the Torah and additional literature disclosed only to the elect. S e e Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 2 2 1 ; Kuchler, Fruhjudische Weisheitstraditionen, 80. L.G. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult: A Critical Analysis of the Views of Cult in the Wisdom Literatures of Israel and the Ancient Near East ( S B L D S 3 0 ; Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977). 3 5

302

CONCLUSION

Thummim (4Q299 69 2). 4QWays of Righteousness discusses the Temple service and the observance of the Sabbath (4Q421 11-13). For 4Q185 and 4Q525 a life guided by the Torah is characterized by reverence of God. The version of Ps 154 in the Cave 11 Psalms Scroll makes the praise of God a central theme. Several fragmentary compositions blur the distinction between hymnic and sapiential literature. 4QSapiential-Didactic Work A, for example, exhorts: "with all your mouth, praise ... give thanks to his name" (4Q412 1 78). Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon also celebrate God more than Proverbs. Ben Sira includes hymns that praise the power and magnitude of God (e.g., 42:15-43:33). The sage endorses the Temple cultus, reflecting, for example, on the value of acceptable sacrifices (35:l-26). He makes the fear of God a more prominent theme than in Proverbs (e.g., Sir 1:27; 10:22; 19:24; 25:10-11). The Wisdom of Solomon never addresses liturgical issues or ritual purity but praises God as a transcendent, ineffable being (Wis 9:13-18). Job and Qoheleth are not consistent with the emphasis on divine praise and worship in Qumran wisdom. These books deal with theological topics such as the power of God and his relationship with humankind. However, their reflection on these issues does not encourage the praise of God. Qoheleth is intensely aware of God and his control over the world. This is considered cause for despair. His observance of Temple worship seems motivated by a sense of trepidation with regard to God rather than an outpouring of love: "Guard your steps when you go to the house of God; to draw near to listen is better than the sacrifice offered by fools" (4:17). The situation is similar with regard to Job. The book teaches not that the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom but that to be afraid of God is itself wisdom (28:28). Job is portrayed as a pious participant in the sacrificial cult in the beginning of the book, before God disrupts his life (1:5). At the end of the work God displays his transcendent power from the whirlwind to Job and his fortunes are restored (42:6). 36

37

38

G. Boccaccini understands Ben Sira as the product of "rapprochement between Zadokite and Sapiential Judaism." See his Roots of Rabbinic Judaism: An Intellectual 3 7

3 8

History,

from Ezekiel

Crenshaw, Old Testament J.J. Collins, Jewish

to Daniel

Wisdom, Wisdom

(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002) 125.

143-47. in the Hellenistic

Westminster John Knox, 1997) 199-209.

Age

(OTL;

Louisville:

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

303

Job submits to God but does not extol him. For him acknowledging the power of God is not an occasion for praise. Job and Qoheleth, which are generally considered to have been written before Ben Sira, support the view that in the late Second Temple period the wisdom tradition develops a strong interest in piety and worship. This is compatible with the tendency of sapiential texts in this era, examined above, to appeal to a divine source, be it the Torah or esoteric revelation to the elect. Rather than an occasion for theodicy or despair, several Early Jewish wisdom texts purport to provide divine knowledge in part to help people deal with difficult circumstances. This is the case, for example, in Ben Sira, 4QInstruction and 4QBeatitudes. Praise and worship are considered natural responses to the conviction that God is a transcendent being in supreme control of the world. 40

5. FUNCTION AND MILIEU

Most of the Qumran wisdom texts are instructional and written to further the education of students. In that sense they are the product of "schools." But it is not clear that they are from a single, unified social movement or that they were written in schools in a formal, institutional sense. 4Q298 is the only Qumran wisdom text that is considered a product of the sect associated with the Teacher of Righteousness. In Chapter 6 I endorsed the suggestion that portions of 4QWays of Righteousness can also be attributed to this movement. Since the texts examined in this book are among the Dead Sea Scrolls, one can assume that members of the yahad read them and used them in their education. 4QInstruction and Mysteries have much in common with the undisputed literature of the yahad, in particular the Treatise of the Two Spirits, as Lange has emphasized. In Chapters 1 and 2 I endorse the view that these two texts were probably used as sources by the 41

3 9

In 42:8-9 God commands Job to pray to him on behalf of his friends. This is not portrayed as a spontaneous act that reflects his love for God. This passage presupposes the viability of the sacrificial cult since the friends make a burnt offering. See, for example, Sir 2:4-6; 4Q416 2 ii 9-18; 4Q525 2 ii + 3 4-5. Carr, Writing on the Tablet, 12-13. 4 0

41

304

CONCLUSION

writings of the Dead Sea sect. In these chapters I critique the opinion that 4QInstruction and Mysteries were written by priests. One could perhaps make this claim with regard to 4QWays of Righteousness, with its interest in halakhah and the Temple, and the prominence of the Torah in 4Q185 and 4Q525 could also imply a priestly provenance. But there is no unambiguous evidence that any Qumran wisdom text was written by a priest. The educational function of 4QInstruction is for the rriebin to develop the means to have success, or at least stability, in this world and to enjoy eternal life with the angels after death. The available evidence from Mysteries suggests that its overall purpose was to encourage its addressees to be righteous, so that they will be spared from God's judgment. There is no sense that after death they would join the angels but rather live a Utopian existence on a transformed earth. The fate of the rriebin during judgment is a concern of 4QInstruction. This is the case in 4QSapiential Work as well (cf. 4Q185 1-2 i 8-9). 4Q184 does not emphasize judgment but locates the fate of the wicked in Sheol, which is associated with flames and a female figure derived from Prov 7. It is implied that one should avoid this fate through ethical conduct. It is difficult to posit a specific milieu for the Qumran wisdom texts because they cannot be dated with precision. This is generally the case with wisdom texts. The Qumran sapiential writings were probably written in the second and first centuries BCE, as were most of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some could have been composed earlier. The wisdom compositions of Qumran contain no markers of specific historical events or personages. The main clue to dating 4QInstruction and Mysteries is the possibility that they were used as sources by the Teacher movement, in which case they were written prior to or relatively early in the history of this group. But this community's history is itself disputed, making it difficult to use as a benchmark. Granting the position that 4QInstruction and Mysteries were utilized as sources by the yahad, one can exclude a first century provenance with relative safety. If one follows the opinion that the 4 2

Harrington, Wisdom Texts, 85, argues that "the Qumran wisdom writings (or, at least some of them) represent the intellectual and religious heritage of a larger movement within Second Temple Judaism," and suggests that the Dead Sea sect might have been a "break-away Essene faction" from this broader movement. This could have been the case but the position is speculative.

305

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

Dead Sea sect wrote 4Q298 and part of 4Q420-21, it is not clear when exactly this composition took place. Since 4QWays of Righteousness provides instruction regarding the Temple cult, it is likely that members of the Teacher movement reworked this composition at a relatively early point in its history, before any interaction with the Temple was prohibited (CD 6:12-21). Some Qumran wisdom texts give indications about their social setting. 4QInstruction emphasizes the poverty of its addressee to an extent not attested elsewhere in ancient Jewish literature. Much of its intended audience suffered from material hardship. Some texts assume the mebin is a farmer and/or craftsman. He could easily be forced to borrow. 4QInstruction is a written document devoted to the education of students. It presupposes a scribal, pedagogical setting. Not all wisdom texts were produced by a patrician class of intellectuals serving in the royal court or other aristocratic circles, as Robert Gordis, in an earlier generation of scholarship, asserted. The social background of 4QInstruction is analogous to that of the saying source Q of the New Testament. This is also a written work that gives the impression that its original addressees led simple, commonplace lives and that few were among the aristocracy. The social background of 4QInstruction differs from that of Ben Sira. The instruction of the Jerusalem sage is widely regarded to be the product of a retainer class. He lauds the superiority of the scribe over menial professions (38:24-39:11). His students are likely from upper-class circles. In Ben Sira's view they have a moral obligation to lend money and go surety despite the risks. "Store up almsgiving in your cash box," he teaches, assuming they are in a financial position to do so (29:12). Ben Sira instructs his students to be ethical creditors. The author of 4QInstruction teaches his to be ethical borrowers (4Q417 2 i 22-24). 4QBeatitudes is the only Qumran wisdom text that can be reasonably placed in Ben Sira's social milieu. 43

Gordis argued that the wisdom literature of Israel "had little in common with the poorer peasants clinging desperately to their holdings, or with the petty tradesmen and the artisans in the cities." This view is bolstered by the sapiential instructions written elsewhere in the ancient near East, particularly Egypt, which are often produced by an elite administrative class. See his Poets, Prophets, and Sages: Essays in Biblical Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971) 162; idem, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," HUCA 18 (1943-44) 77-118; J.D. Pleins,

The

Social

Visions

of

the

Hebrew

Bible:

(Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001) 453-57.

A

Theological

Introduction

306

CONCLUSION

This link is significant since 4Q525 associates wisdom with the Torah so explicitly. 4QBeatitudes tells its addressees that they can become great teachers by the time of their deaths (4Q525 14 ii 14-16). They are students in training to join an educational profession. According to a lesson on proper speech, one should "Answer correctly among princes" (4Q525 14 ii 25). This suggests that the members of the intended audience will interact with nobles and aristocrats. The stress on the Torah implies they are developing skills in reading and writing. This would suit a variety of administrative positions. The view that 4QBeatitudes is the product of a retainer class is not as clear cut as in the case of Ben Sira. But 4Q525 provides more evidence for this position than any other wisdom text from Qumran. The only other Qumran sapiential text that appears to have been written for a person of means is 4Q424. The addressee is not a scribe in training. There is no emphasis on caution before nobles or the duties of scribes. The intended audience is more interested in hiring people than serving others. 4Q424 probably stems from an aristocratic context, but this is not necessarily the case. Hiring people and giving them responsibility are tasks not restricted to the wealthy. This is nevertheless a reasonable position to take.

6. GENRE

Wisdom literature is a form critical category that contains several genre types. As is well known, the genre classifications of wisdom are somewhat loose and ambiguous. Crenshaw writes that the five biblical wisdom texts "retain a mysterious ingredient" that binds them together. The Qumran wisdom literature includes sapiential genres that are well attested, including instructions explicitly intended for students, such as 4QInstruction and 4Q298, and didactic poetry in the 44

4 4

Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 9. For an assessment of how contemporary genre theory can be applied to traditional conceptions of genre in biblical studies, see C.A. Newsom, "Spying out the Land: A Report from Genology," in Seeking Out the Wisdom

of the Ancients:

His Sixty-Fifth 437-50.

Birthday

Essays

Offered

to Honor

Michael

V. Fox on the Occasion

of

(ed. R.L. Troxel et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2005)

THE QUMRAN WISDOM TEXTS

307

45

tradition of Prov 1-9, as in 4Q185 and 4Q525. Some Qumran sapiential texts attest genres that do not accord well with traditional wisdom. This is a major interpretative problem and a key reason there is no consensus on how many Qumran texts should be considered wisdom writings. (The other reason is the fragmentary nature of the material.) The exegetical poem of 4Q184 is rare among wisdom texts. Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon recount figures from biblical lore and in that sense they practice a type of exegesis (Sir 44-49; Wis 11-19). This is quite different from the free and creative adaptation of the promiscuous woman of Prov 7 by 4Q184. 4QWays of Righteousness obscures the distinction between wisdom and halakhah. The book of Mysteries best illustrates the problem of genre in the Qumran wisdom texts. The text contains a limited amount of practical advice, as in 1Q27 1 ii, but several hallmark features of sapiential genres are absent, such as admonitions, vetitives or eudemonistic parenesis. Much of the document accords with the apocalyptic and prophetic traditions more than traditional wisdom. It is a sapiential text that does not resemble traditional wisdom in either form or content. It would be difficult to consider it a wisdom text were it not for 4QInstruction and the Treatise of the Two Spirits. As examined in Chapter 2, Mysteries has numerous affinities with these works in terms of theme and terminology. This makes it easier to understand this work as part of a sapiential trajectory. If one grants this view it must be admitted that, when considering the biblical and non-biblical Jewish wisdom texts together, the loose nature of wisdom as a genre appears even looser. Menahem Kister understands Mysteries as a "fusion of concepts and genres," including elements drawn from apocalypticism, prophecy and traditional wisdom. This development confirms, in his opinion, the assertion of Michael Stone that "wisdom terminology" in the Second Temple period can be become divorced 46

47

4 5

Lange, "Die Bedeutung der Weisheitstexte aus Qumran," 140, argues that Qoheleth, Ben Sira, 4QInstruction, Mysteries and 4QBeatitudes are all examples of "eine Spatfrom der weisheitlichen Lehre (Instruction)." G.J. Brooke, "Biblical Interpretation in the Wisdom Texts from Qumran," in 4 6

The Wisdom 4 7

Texts from Qumran,

201-20 (esp. 208-11).

Kister, "Wisdom Literature," 47.

308

CONCLUSION

from its usage in older wisdom to suit new purposes. Kister realizes that Stone's observation pertains beyond the issue of terminology to concepts and genres. This insight is valid with regard to the Qumran wisdom corpus in general. They developed new forms of expression by combining ideas and genres from older traditions in new ways. Their authors did not follow a model of an ideal wisdom text or apocalypse. The Qumran wisdom literature comprises a diverse corpus of texts—diverse in form, worldview and milieu. They confirm some developments in sapiential thought discernible by comparing Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon with Proverbs. Others they do not support. The Qumran wisdom texts question, for example, the centrality of personified wisdom in the tradition and the view that all wisdom texts in this period thematize the Torah and incorporate the national history of Israel into their teachings. The Qumran sapiential texts attest some developments that were relatively unexpected. Before the publication of 4QInstruction scholars had no example of a wisdom text that encourages the study of esoteric revelation. This work and Mysteries illustrate the extent to which a wisdom text can be transformed by the apocalyptic tradition. 4QInstruction and 4QWays of Righteousness provide some of the earliest instances of halakhah in the sapiential tradition. 4QBeatitudes provides a rare example of a sequence of beatitudes in Hebrew. 4Q184 appropriates imagery from Proverbs more creatively and loosely than perhaps any other wisdom composition. The Qumran sapiential texts provide an impression of the variety of Jewish wisdom during the late Second Temple period. 49

50

4

M.E. Stone, "Apocalyptic Literature," in Jewish

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c

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a

INDEX OF AUTHORS Abegg, M.G., Jr., 8, 12, 44, 236, 270 Aitken, J.K., 141 Allegro, J.M., 1, 104, 106, 107, 108, 114, 115, 117, 122, 126, 127, 131, 136 Alliata, G., 198 Aperghis, M . , 56 Archibald, Z . , 56 Argall, R.A., 232, 292 Asensio, V . M . , 194 Assaf, D . , 70 Attridge, H., 37, 122 Auffret, P., 242 Aubin, M . , 105, 107, 108, 109, 113, 118, 120 Avi-Yonah, M . , 56 Baasten, M.F.J., 248 Bach, A . , 107 Baillet, M . , 248 Barre, M.L., 239 Barthelemy, D . , 12, 69 Barton, S.C., 7 Baumgarten, A.I., 101 Baumgarten, J.M., 105, 107, 110, 114, 115, 155, 156, 168, 169 Baumgartener, W., 262 Bedenbender, A . , 292, 300 Becker. H.-J., 203 Beentjes, P.C., 186, 194, 214, 248, 254 Begrich, J., 232 Bellia, G., 8, 293 B e n - A r e h , Y . , 239 Ben Porat, Y . , 239 Bennema, C , 172, 199 Berger, K., 300 Berlin, A . , 44 Bernstein, M J., 104, 122, 169 Betz, H.D., 203, 205, 206 Bickell, G., 249 Black, M . , 85 Blenkinsopp, J., 14, 157 Boccaccini, G., 65, 292, 302 Bockmuehl, M . , 13, 85

Bostrom, G., 110 Braulik, G., 237 Brin, G., 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 195 Brooke, G.J., 52, 104, 122, 123, 199, 201, 206, 208, 214, 218, 282, 307 Broshi, M . , 105, 118, 143, 155, 258, 270 Brown, R.E., 13 Bunta, S., 34 Burgmann, EL, 105 Burkes, S., 128, 129, 220, 293 Burns, J.E., 58

184, 191, 173, 238, 164,

Calduch-Benages, N., 224, 248 Callaway, P., 2 Camp, C.V., 50, 107, 109, 110, 114, 194 Cangh, J.-M. van, 206, 208 Caquot, A . , 2, 30, 160, 179, 264, 270, 272, 274, 277, 280, 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 Carmignac, J, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 248, 257, 258 Carr, D . M . , 5, 226, 298, 303 Ceresko, A . R . , 234 Charlesworth, J.H., 44, 199, 201, 203, 207, 209, 219, 227, 228, 240, 243, 244, 246, 247, 250, 252, 254, 257 Chazon, E.G., 4, 24, 36, 37, 257, 258, 265, 267 Chyutin, M., 237 Clements, R.A., 2, 13, 69, 178, 186, 262, 297 Clifford, R.J., 107, 109, 111, 119, 188, 192 Clines, D.J.A., 54, 1 0 1 , 1 8 2 , 198, 298 Coggins, R.J., 166 Cohen, C , 43 Collins, J.J., 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, 15, 19, 2 1 , 26, 30, 31, 34, 35, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 69, 70, 83, 85, 90, 91, 92, 96, 99, 105, 113, 119, 123, 125, 128, 129, 156,

338

I N D E X OF A U T H O R S

165, 178, 186, 214, 245, 248, 253, 262, 263, 269, 293, 295, 297, 301, 302, 308 Collins, R.F., 202 Cook, E., 270 Corley, J., 249 Coulot, C , 283 Crenshaw, J.L., 2, 4, 17, 19, 47, 231, 232, 234, 235, 239, 251, 295, 302, 306 Cross, F.M.. 66, 1 3 2 , 2 1 1 , 2 3 7 Cryer, F.H., 21

250, 296,

Emerton, J.A., 2, 105, 123, 146, 179, 198, 230, 264 Engnell, I., 232 Eshel, E., 44, 240. 241 Eshel, H., 8, 239, 240, 241, 249 Evans, C.A., 44, 199, 238

214, 261,

Fabry, H.-J., 8, 54, 56, 61, 193, 203, 207, 238, 239 Falk, D., 10, 146, 169, 208, 269 Fensham, F.C., 57 Fiensy, D . A . , 56 Firth, D.G., 238 Fischer, I., 239 Fishbane, M . , 2 1 6 Fitzmyer, J.A., 8, 199, 202, 203, 205 Fletcher-Louis, C.H.T., 35, 37, 39 Flint, P.W., 1, 23, 44, 70, 105, 123, 160, 179, 199, 206, 230, 231, 238, 239, 240, 257, 259, 264 Flusser, D., 206, 207 F o x , M . V . , 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 119, 141, 189, 191, 235, 259, 306 Fraade, S.D.,31 Frennesson, B., 44 Frey, J., 33, 203 Frishman, J., 36

Dahmen, LL, 238, 239, 247, 257, 258, 259 Dalley, S., 127 Davidson, M.J., 38, 125 Davidson, R.M.A.. 234 Davies, W . D . , 7, 207 Davila, J.R., 72 Day, J., 2, 105, 123, 146, 179, 198, 230, 235, 264 Day, P.L., 107 deClaisse-Walford, N.L., 239 Delcor, ML, 122, 240, 248, 250, 251, 253. 254 Dell, K.J., 234 Denis, A . - M . , 7, 85 Deutsch, C , 167, 250, 253 Di Leila, A . , 26, 125, 141, 166, 186, 189, 190, 209, 210, 248, 249, 2 5 1 , 252, 253, 256, 292 Dimant, D . , 3, 4 , 4 4 , 98, 146, 257, 264 Dochhorn, J., 37 Doering, L., 168, 169 Drawnel, H., 7, 8, 133, 254 Duhaime, J., 6 Dupont, J., 202 Dupont-Sommer, A . , 105, 242 Egger-Wenzel, R., 141, 166, 194, 249 Eisenman, R., 12 Elgvin, T., 1, 4, 9, 11, 15, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 38, 39, 42, 44, 51, 60, 62, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 84, 87, 89, 90, 100, 101, 146, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 197, 266, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 289, 290, 291, 297

202,

204,

147, 237,

112, 192,

Galor, K., 66 Gammie, J.G., 6, 17, 105, 146, 151, 174, 230, 234 Garcia Martinez, F., 2, 3, 9, 13, 14, 16, 18, 51, 69, 70, 93, 122, 152, 203, 241, 257, 258, 283, 293 Garr, W.R., 34 Garrett, D.A., 108 Gazov-Ginsberg, A . M . , 105 Germann, H., 263 Gerstenberger, E.S., 261 Gilbert, M . , 194, 224, 232, 248, 250, 251,293 Goff, M.J., 8, 9, 13, 18, 19, 2 1 , 22, 28, 30, 55, 64, 78, 189, 217, 222, 259, 263, 294, 295, 297 Goldin, J., 167, 181, 186, 300 Goodman, M . , 56 Gordis, R., 305 Goshen-Gottstein, M.H., 237 Gottlieb, I.B., 167

INDEX OF A U T H O R S

Greenfield, J.C., 7, 8, 70, 133, 254, 273 Gunkel, H., 232, 242 Hamidovic, D . , 174, 175 Harrington, D.J., 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 19, 20, 24, 38, 45, 48, 49, 51, 54, 56, 60, 65, 70, 87, 93, 102, 105, 108, 113, 115. 116, 117, 122, 133, 134, 135, 139, 141, 146, 156, 160, 173, 177, 179. 192, 197, 198, 2 0 1 , 202, 204, 209, 215, 224, 230, 240, 242, 244, 245, 250, 254, 257, 259, 264, 268. 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 294, 304 Hausmann, J., 202 Haspecker, J., 141 Hempel, C., 2 , 6, 11, 32, 70, 105, 122, 147, 151, 152, 153, 154. 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 176, 177, 198, 2 3 1 , 246, 264, 298 Hengel, M . , 6, 70, 151, 203, 207, 208, 230, 246, 292, 297 Hoffinan, Y . , 18, 269 Hoppe, L.J., 5 4 , 5 7 , 1 9 3 Horgan, M.P., 61 Horst, P. van der, 26 Hurvitz., A . , 234, 241 Ibba, G., 3, 69, 73, 75, 77, 79, 94, 98 Ilan, T., 49 Jackson, J.J., 97, 232 Jackson-McCabe, M . A . , 172 Jacobson, H., 269, 270 Jain, E., 238 Janowski, B., 28 Jansen, H.L., 250, 257 Janzen, W . , 202 Jefferies, D . , 9, 62 Jobling, D . , 109 Johnston, P.J., 238 Jones, S.C., 105, 107, 109, 111 Justnes, A., 4, 8 9 , 1 0 1 Kampen, J., 1, 3, 70, 105, 123, 147, 156, 160, 173, 179, 198, 230, 242, 250, 257, 264, 266, 270, 277 Keck, L . E . , 6 1 , 2 0 7 Kessler, M , 97, 232 Kister, M , 13, 15, 19, 51, 69, 73, 76, 77, 84, 86, 89, 92, 93, 94, 98, 146, 148,

339

149, 150, 154, 156, 262, 297, 307, 308 Klausner, J., 56 Klijn, A.F.J.,31 Klinghardt, M . , 245 Kloppenborg Verbin, J.S., 206, 295 Klostergaard Petersen, A . , 77 Knibb, M . , 1 4 , 2 1 , 8 5 , 293 K o c h , K., 18, 47 K o o t e n , G . H . van, 18, 257 Krammer, I., 194 Kuchler, M . , 2, 105, 123, 295, 299, 301 Kugel, J.L., 13, 2 6 , 3 5 , 300 Kuntz, J.K., 97, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 239, 247, 257, 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 Laato, A . , 214 Lange, A . , 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 19, 20, 2 1 , 28, 29, 30, 3 1 , 34, 35, 39, 47, 62, 64, 65, 69, 70, 72, 73, 78, 79, 81, 82, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96, 98, 100, 101, 105, 117, 122, 123, 147, 160, 175, 179, 182, 190, 198, 199, 218, 230, 2 3 1 , 239, 260, 264, 265, 268, -270, 272, 274, 277, 278, 280, 2 8 1 , 283, 285, 289, 290, 296, 298, 299, 303, 307 Larsen, K.B., 2 0 , 2 9 3 Lebram, J.C., 243, 244, 246 Lehmann, M . R . , 248 Lemaire, A . , 2 4 1 , 2 4 2 , 299 Levenson, J.D., 132,211 Levine, A.-J., 50, 119 Levison, J.R., 3 5 , 1 1 9 Licht, J., 105 Lichtenberger, H., 2, 11, 54, 70, 101, 105, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 147, 160, 179, 182, 198, 203, 205, 231, 264, 298 Lichtheim, M . , 110, 163, 181, 189, 192 Lim, T . H . , 6 1 , 2 6 8 , 269 Lipscomb, W . L . , 1, 6, 105, 146, 230, 242, 250, 257 Lohfink,N.,61,237 Loning, K., 295, 297 Luhrmann, D . , 2 4 1 , 242, 243, 245, 246, 247 Luttikhuizen, G.P., 35, 36 Luyten, J., 232

340

INDEX OF A U T H O R S

Mach, M . , 38, 125 Magne, J., 242, 243 Magness, J., 66 Maier, C , 107 Manns, F., 198 Marbock, J., 239, 248, 250 Margalioth, M . , 70 Martone, C , 248 Mays, J.L., 239 McCann, J.C., 239 Menken, M.J.J., 239 Metso, S.,6, 151, 159, 246 Milik, J.T., 12, 14, 69, 71, 72, 87. 147 Miller, P.D., 132,211 Moor, J.C. de, 214 Moore, R . D . , 105, 107, 113, 117, 120 Morgan, M . A . , 70 Morgenstern, M . , 25, 81, 198 Mowinckel, S., 230, 233, 262 Moyise, S., 238 Muilenberg, J., 8, 97, 232 Mulder, O., 249, 253 Mttller, H.-P., 54, 101, 182, 198, 292, 298 Munch, P.A., 250 Muraoka, T., 248. 252, 253, 255 Murphy, C M . , 54, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 155, 156, 157, 171, 173, 176, 186, 193, 194 Murphy, R.E., 2, 20, 233, 234, 235, 239, 240, 257, 261, 262 Najman, H., 13, 35 Nebe, G.W., 300 Newman, J.H., 13, 35 Newsom, C.A., 6, 81, 107, 143, 151, 173, 174, 176, 258, 270, 306 Nickelsburg, G.W.E., 14, 29, 44, 61, 84, 125, 209, 246, 298 Niehaus, J.J., 14 Nierynck, F., 199 Nitzan, B , 9, 16, 18, 2 1 , 180, 266, 267, 268, 269 Nogalski, J.D., 232 North, W.E.S., 39 Noth, M . , 233, 242, 243 Oesch, J.M., 248 Oppenheimer, B., 105 Otzen, B., 6, 112

Parry, D . W . , 3, 4, 30, 44, 70 Passaro, A., 8, 293 Pastor, J., 56 Paul, S., 31, 237, 273 Penchansky, D . , 17 Penner, T.C., 172 Perdue, L.G., 6, 17, 151, 174, 232, 234, 259, 301 Pfann, S.J., 8, 14, 89, 146, 150, 154, 156, 176, 179, 264, 265 Philonenko, M . , 240 Piper, O.A., 70, 73, 85, 87, 9 1 , 93, 98 Pleins, J.D., 54, 57, 165, 188, 305 Polzin, R., 241, 248 Porter, S.E., 199 Preuss, H.D., 202 Propp, W., 173 Puech, E., 8, 9, 10, 18, 19, 22, 31, 33, 38, 40, 42, 45, 46, 48, 151, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 217, 218, 220, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 248, 251, 285 Puersen, W . T . van, 248, 249 Qimron, E., 155, 272, 273, 274, 275 Rabin, C , 155 Rabinowitz, L, 32, 70, 73, 75, 85, 98, 248, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255 Rad, G. von, 17, 20, 256, 261, 262, 290, 295, 296 Redditt, P.L., 17 Reiner, E., 239 Reitemeyer, M . , 243, 262 Reventlow, H.G., 18, 269 Reymond, E.D., 189, 204 Rickenbacher, O., 248, 253, 254 Ricks, S.D., 44 Rigaux,B., 13 Romaniuk, C., 2 Rompay, L. van, 36 R o o , J. de, 199, 200, 207, 210, 212, 213, 216, 219, 220, 221, 224, 227, 228 R o o y , H.F. van, 242 Rossing, B.R., 112 Ruger, H.P., 300 Ruiten, J.T.A.G.M. van, 35 Ruzer, S., 203 Rylaarsdam, J.C., 289, 299

I N D E X OF A U T H O R S

S<eb0, M., 299 Saldarini, A.J., 207 Sanders, J.A., 1, 6, 12, 105, 146, 230, 236, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246, 248. 249, 250, 252. 253, 254, 255, 257, 258 Sanders, J.T., 28, 225, 290, 298, 299 Sandoval, T.J., 54 Sauer, G., 28 Schechter, S., 155 Schiffinan, L.H., 4, 11, 15, 39, 52, 63, 70, 72, 73, 74, 80. 81, 89, 90, 94, 96, 146, 161, 178, 197, 241, 257. 264, 290 Schmidt, F., 24 Schnabel, E.J., 117, 123, 166, 172 Scholem, G., 70, 72 Schoors, A . , 15, 62, 69, 133, 218, 282 Scott, J.M., 23, 62 Scott, R.B.Y., 235 SebroeckF. van, 199 Segal, M.H., 135, 189, 248 Seybold, K., 257, 258 Sheppard, G., 299 Shupak, N., 192 Sivertsev, A . , 262 Skehan, P.W., 26, 107, 125, 127, 141, 166, 186, 189, 190, 209, 210, 237, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253. 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 292 Smith, D.E., 246 Smith, J.E., 51 Starcky, J., 198 Stegemann, H., 11, 66, 146, 241 Steinmetz, D . , 32 Sterling, G.E., 2, 13, 69, 178, 186, 262, 297 Steudel, A . , 9, 10, 70, 238, 241, 270, 2 7 1 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 2 , 283, 284 Stone, M.E., 24, 267, 307, 308 Strugnell, J., 1, 5, 9, 11, 12, 24, 25, 38, 45, 48, 51, 52, 54, 60, 65, 87, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 113, 115, 116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 161, 170, 192, 196, 199, 219, 239, 242, 249, 260, 264, 266, 270, 273, 279, 280, 282 Stuckenbruck, L.T., 7, 21, 38, 39, 40 Sullivan, K.P., 35. 38, 44

341

Swanson, D . D . , 146, 148, 154, 238 Talmon, S., 216, 237, 238 Tanzer, S., 8, 179, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187, 190, 191, 194, 277, 278 Terrien, S., 105, 146, 230, 234 Thiessen, M . , 221 Thompson, T.L., 21 Tigchelaar, E.J.C, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 30, 36, 38, 39, 40, 4 1 , 43, 45, 46, 5 1 , 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 64, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 87, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 128, 150, 160, 161, 162, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 177, 198, 208, 241, 269, 277, 278, 279 Tiller, P.A., 40 Tobin, T.H., 35, 122, 123, 125, 127, 132, 133, 142, 143 Toora, K. van der, 108, 157 Tov, E., 3, 4, 70, 72, 149, 150, 171, 216, 237, 264, 273 Trebolle Barrera, J., 152 Trenchard, W . C . , 5 0 , 1 1 9 Trible, P., 51 Tropper, A . , 167 Troxel, R.L., 1 9 2 , 2 3 5 , 306 Ulrich, E., 2, 4, 8, 30, 242, 278 Urbach, E., 186 VanderKam, J . C , 1, 2, 45, 70, 105, 123, 125, 147, 160, 179, 199, 206, 230, 242, 264, 278, 292 Vattioni, F., 248 Vaux, R. de, 69, 70, 74, 75, 85 Vermes, G., 3, 93, 222, 241 Vermeylen, J., 224, 228 Verseput, D.J., 122, 130, 132, 143 Viviano, B., 199, 202, 206, 210, 217, 219 Vogt, E.,13 Wacholder, B . Z . , 12, 247 Washington, H . C , 192 Watson, W.G.E., 152, 157 Weeks, S., 235 Weinfeld, M . , 43, 221, 257, 258, 260 Werman, C . , 3 1 , 3 2 Wernberg-Meller, P., 7

342

INDEX OF A U T H O R S

White Crawford, S., 1, 105, 134, 135, 136,215,290,298 Whybray. R.N., 55. 232, 235 Willis, J.T., 232 Wills, L., 22, 112. 296 Wilson, G.H., 230, 238, 239 Wilson, W.T., 26 Winston, D., 255 Winston Thomas, D., 233 Wischmeyer, O., 226 Wise, M . O . , 12, 44, 66, 73, 160, 241, 270, 273 Wold, B.G., 9, 11, 18, 19, 24, 30, 34, 37, 43, 49, 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 6 1 Wolfson, E.R., 13 Worrell, J., 2, 6, 257

Woude, A . S . van der, 2, 105, 122, 123, 133, 146, 179, 198, 230, 242, 250, 264, 265 Wright, B.G., III, 22, 49, 50, 54, 56, 67, 105, 112, 116, 139, 186, 193, 194, 215, 244, 296 Xeravits, G., 257, 258 Yadin, Y . , 236, 248, 249, 254 YoshikoReed, A.,21 Zenger, E., 238, 239 Zevit, Z . , 273 Zobel, H.-J., 202 Zur, Y . , 105

INDEX OF TEXTS HEBREW BIBLE Genesis 1 1-3

19:18

1:4 1:27 1:28 2:7 2:9 2:15 2:17 2:18 2:20-25 2:24 2:25 3 3:1 3:6 3:7 3:15 ( L X X ) 3:18 4:12 4:26 10:22 27:5-29 32:28 33:13 38:14 41:8

282 18, 77, 144, 268, 269, 299 258 34,35 37 35, 127 37 37,268 36 50 18 50,51 51 119 51,254 37 254 35 37,268 37 35 284 144 144 253 108 92

Exodus 7:22 8:3 14:31 15:14-16 17:14 20:12 32:16

92 92 142 142 31 26,28 31

Leviticus 19

39,48

94

Numbers 14:2 14:27 15:39 16 18:20 20:10 20:24 21:18 23:22 24:8 24:17 30:6-15

188 188 18 23 38 144 144 216,227 114 114 31 52

Deuteronomy 1:13 5:16 9:23-24 15:7 15:7-11 19:14 21:20 22 24:6 24:12 25:1 27:17 27:18 28:22 29:22-23 30:20 32:24 32:33 33:29

148 26,28 144 57,279 194 52, 192 224 39,48 57,58 194 182 192 49 222 221 133 115,221 221 202

Joshua 1:8

209

344

I N D E X OF T E X T S

Judges 5:4-5 9 12:2

45 266 192

1 Samuel 2:6-7 14:10

43 98

2 Samuel 12 23:1-7 23:7

266 236,257 257

1 Kings 3:12 3:16-28 10:4-5 10:8 12:9

240 191 216 202 165

2 Kings 4:1-6 20:9

57 98

2 Chronicles 9:7

202

Ezra 7:25

134

Nehemiah 8:2 8:7 8:9 Job 1:5 4 11:17 15:34 20:16 24:2 28 28:28 31:26 32:37 33:28-30 34:2 34:10

29 29 29 302 265 114 187 221 192 17, 136 302 157 148 8 148 148

34:34 38:17 42:6 42:8-9 Psalms 1 1:1 1-89 1:2 1:3 2:12 8:7 9-10 9:14 10 15:2 15:2-3 19 19:10 21:4 21:5 25 25:8-10 25:12 30:1 32 32:1-2 34 34:12 37 37:11 37:20 37:21-22 37:30-31 37:39 40:5-6 40:18 49 50:7 58:5 67:1 68:1 73 73:18-20 76:8 77 78 78:1

148 114 302 303

4, 132, 234, 247, 298 202,211,233 237 209 216 202 37 234 114 235 210 204 233 234,235 218 133 234 233 234 274 233,234 202,203 234 233,235,273 233, 234, 235 61,117 130 61 134,209 211 233 193 233,234 141 221 274 274 234 93 125 76 123,141,233 141

INDEX OF T E X T S

78:4 78:5-6 78:17 78:49 81:9 84:4-5 84:12 88:7-8 88:9-10 90 90-150 90:5-6 91:6 92 92:1 92:7-9 92:8 94:12 94:17 102:12 103:15-16 103:20-21 104 104:14-23 104:24 104:28-30 104:35 105 105:5 105:9-10 105:27 105:28 106 106:7 106:22 107 107:18 107:30 111 111:10 112 112:1 115:17 116 118 119 119:1

143 144 144 126 141 202 210 213 213 129 238 127 115 129 274 233 130 211 114 128 127 40 5, 231, 259, 260, 281 258 259 279 86,93 233 144 144 141 144 233 144 141 235 114 55 233 141,235 233,234 141,211,285 114 249 236 4, 132, 234, 239, 240, 247, 298 286

119:1-2 119:15 119:23 119:24 119:27 119:48 119:69 119:70 119:72 119:77 119:78 119:92 119:110 119:130 119:143 119:161 119:174 127 127:1 128 128:1-2 128:4-6 129:6 130:3 133 133:1-3 135:7 136 136:4 138:1-8 143:3 144:4 144:15 145 147:19 148:1-2 Proverbs 1 1-9

1:1-7 1:2 1:4 1:5 1:6 1:7 1:8 1:9

345

132,211 209,245 209,214,245 282 209,216 209,245 214 282 214,234 282 209,245 214,282 214 141 214,282 141 282 233,234,235 232,239 233,234,235 202 239 130 125 234,235 239 258 249 144 249 42 128 202 240 144 40

282 6, 104, 105, 147, 158, 167, 199, 217, 290, 307 22,71,200 200 95, 141, 149, 181 148,149,190 71 110,200 191 168, 172

346

1:10-18 1:20 1:20-21 1:22 1:23 1:28 2:1 2:6 2:10 2:12 2:16 2:17 2:18 2:18-20 2:19 3:1 3:11 3:13 3:14-15 3:16 3:17 3:18 3:19 3:31 4:1 4:2 4:8-9 4:9 4:10 4:11 4:13 4:18-19 5:5 5:6 5:15-18 5:19 6:1-5 6:3-4 6:6-11 6:20 6:20-35 6:23 6:24 6:25 6:26

I N D E X OF T E X T S

119 244 216 22,244 216,291 157 118 19, 139 139 112 107,117 50 111, 112, 113, 114 113 112 118 212 132, 202, 209, 288 216,291 132, 133 112,113,210 79, 138, 166, 2 1 1 , 2 6 8 , 283 5,19,259 164 191,208 118 166 211 208 112,113 138, 166 116 106, 111, 112, 113 113,190 216 109 194 57 188 118 111 116,141 107,118,138 109,118,119 108

7

8:35-36 8:36

5, 110, 115, 121, 299, 304, 307 107, 117, 118, 138 111,116 114 108 107 108 111 109, 138 108 109 109,255 108 107,117,138 111, 112, 113, 114 17, 134, 244, 254, 260 244 216 251 244 20 22, 95, 111, 141, 149, 244 209 216 274 20, 142 135 137,157,255 132 216 112,113 113 17,259 135 259,282 132, 202, 208, 210,215 132, 202, 210, 244, 253, 288 112 283

9 9:1 9:1-12

135,245,291 112,256 216,244

7:5 7:7 7:9 7:10 7:10-12 7:11-12 7:12 7:13 7:16 7:16-18 7:18 7:19-20 7:21 7:27 8 8:1 8:1-10 8:2 8:4 8:4-5 8:5 8:7 8:10-11 8:12 8:14 8:15-16 8:17 8:18 8:19 8:20 8:22 8:22-31 8:24-25 8:30 8:32 8:34

I N D E X OF T E X T S

9:9 9:10 9:13-18 9:14 9:15 9:16 9:18 10-31

10:5 10:7 10:14 10:15 10:16 10:20 10:26 10:27 10:31-32 11:4 11:9 11:13 11:15 11:27 12:4 12:9 12:15 12:18-19 13:1 13:4 13:11 13:19 13:23 13:24 13:27 14:15 14:17 14:20-21 14:21 14:27 14:29 14:31 15:2 15:8 15:16-17 15:18 15:30 16:20 16:21

148, 190 141 111 111 111 111,116 112,113 20, 167, 188, 196, 197, 281, 289 16 222 280 194 283 224 185,189,288 283 225 220 187 190,292 194 157 50 138 280 225 211,284 189 186 75 54 157,211 57 184 181 54, 193 202 283 181 164 224 301 59 181 133 202 148

16:23 16:27-29 16:31 17:1 17:15 17:18 18:4 18:11 18:13 18:23 19:5-12 19:15 19:17 19:18 19:23 19:24 19:25 20:4 20:7 20:16 20:19 20:20 21:9 21:13 21:17 21:19 22-24 22:3 22:4 22:7 22:13 22:14 22:15 22:17-24:22 22:24 22:24-25 22:28 23:1-2 23:1-5 23:1-8 23:6 23:10 23:13 23:22 23:25 23:27 23:27-28 24:3-4

347 148 180 166 59 182 57,58,194 216 194 163, 184, 225, 289 59 190 189 56, 194 211 283 188 284 189 202 57 189,292 26,114 119 164 187 119 5 181 133,224 57, 164, 194 188 110,114 211,212,218 192 164 181 52, 192 54 185 225 185 192 211 26 26 114 110 216

348

I N D E X OF T E X T S

24:30 24:30-31 25:9 25:13 25:24 26:13-16 26:27 27:13 27:15 28:13-26 28:14 28:18 28:22 28:24 28:27 29:7 29:14 29:15 29:17 29:18 29:27 30:17 30:20 31:9 31:10-31 31:20

190 189 190 185 119 188 47 57 119 190 202 210 185,284 26 194 194 194 26 211 202 180,288 25 110 194 191 194

Ecclesiastes 1:8-9 4:17 5:5 6:8 6:11 7:11 7:28 12 12:9-12 12:12-14

8 302 89 89 89 89 52, 120 21,290 249 89

Song of Songs 1:2 1:4 4:6 4:14 5:5

109 109 109 109 109

Isaiah 3:16-24 6:3 6:10

193 258 182

11:3 13:1 13:10 14:12 15:1 17:1 19:1 24:16 30:18 33:14 40 40:6-8 43:18-19 44:25 46:9 51:4 61 65:17-25

275 98 157 157 98 98 98 14 202,203 115 129, 130 127 76,93 92 76 141 208 88

Jeremiah 8:17 10:12 10:12-13 17:1 18:19 21:8 27-28 44:29 48:45 51:15 51:15-16 51:58

221 259 258 31 192 142 165 98 31 259 258 45

Ezekiel 13:10-11 16 44:28

182 120 38

Daniel 1:20 2 2:18-19 2:27 2:27-30 2:29 2:30 2:47 4:6 7 7:10

92 91 14 92 14 92 92 14 14 40 91

349

INDEX OF TEXTS

7:13 8:19 9 9:24 11:35 12:1 12:1-4 12:2 12:3 12:4 12:12 12:12-13

91 78 91 90 78 91 125 91 87, 115, 293, 294 90 202 91

Hosea 5:10 13:14

191 192 115

Joel 2:1-11

220 219

Amos 2:8

235 193

Micah 6:1-8 6:1-9 6:9

46,98 267 154

7:15

144

Nahum

128,

1:1 1:6 3:15

98 125 138

Habakkuk 1:1 2:2 2:14 3:10

98 32 88 45

Zephaniah 2:11

14

Zechariah 5:5-11 5:8 9:1 12:1

110 120 98 98

Malachi 1:1 3:2 3:16

98 125 31

NEW TESTAMENT John

Matthew 5:3 5:3-10 5:3-11 5:3-12 5:8 5:11 5:11-12 5:17-20 5:48 11:29-30 25:41

207,222 204,205 203 199,206 208 205 205,214 207 286 167 115

Luke 6:20-23 6:21 6:24-26 11:27-28 23:29

203, 205, 206 206 205,206 203 203

20:29

203

Acts 15:10

167

Romans 4:7-8 14:22 1 Corinthians 7:32-35 15:51

203 203 25 28

Galatians 5:1

167

1 Thessalonians 4:4

51

350

I N D E X OF T E X T S

James 1:10 2:8-12 5:1-6

130 172 130

2 Peter 1

154

Revelation 1:3 17 19:9

203 104 203

APOCRYPHA 6:18-37

Baruch 3:9-4:4 3:14 3:36-4:1 4:1-2

136, 1 7 2 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 0 283 136 145

1 Maccabees 2:42

228,246

2 Maccabees 1:17

202

Sirach Prologue 1:9-10 1:13 1:14 1:20 1:27 2:4-5 2:4-6 2:17 3:1-16 3:6-7 3:21-24 3:30-4:6 4:8 4:11-19 4:12 4:15 4:17-18 4:31 5:7 5:10-14 5:11 5:11-12 5:13 6 6:18

200,201 135 214,222 141 133 302 214 303 224 26 26 292,301 164 194 254 137,283 256 254 279 125, 128, 220 184 225 163 224 166,248 137,211

6:19 6:20-22 6:21 6:24-25 6:26-28 6:29-31 6:30 6:30-31 6:31 6:32 6:36 6:37 7:6 7:25 7:26 7:32 7:36 8:8 8:12-13 8:15-17 8:16 8:18 9:17 10:1-5 10:9 10:22 11:1 11:7-8 11:7-9 12:3 12:11 13:9-13 14 14:1-2 14:3 14:10

165, 167, 211, 231, 250, 256, 260 166,212 166 212 211 166,256 165 140,253 211 166,217,218 254 157 134, 166, 209, 253 184 50 119 194 128 190,226 194 180 181 14 48 184 128 302 43 163,289 184,225 164 14 225 137, 206, 209 202 185 185

INDEX OF T E X T S

14:12-19 14:17-19 14:20 14:20-27 14:20-15:10 14:21 14:22-23 14:26 14:26-27 15:1 15:2 15:3 15:9-10 16:14 16:17 16:17-23 16:18 17 17:7 17:10 18:13-14 18:18 18:33 19:24 20:18 20:30 21:5 22:1-2 22:3-5 22:13-18 23:22-27 24 24:3 24:6 24:8 24:11 24:13-17 24:13-19 24:23 24:30-34 24:32 25:8-9 25:10-11 25:13-26:27 25:16 25:16-18 25:21 %

128 130 132,209,211,288 204,205,209,211 7, 130, 250, 255, 256, 260 208,210 211 268 211 134,209,253 137,256 216 243 164 124 125 293 269 36 243 214 185 224 302 224 292 194 189 50 195 119 17, 136, 139, 172, 1 8 2 , 2 1 7 , 244 19, 135, 291 134 134, 144 134 268 135 134,215 216 201 132,202 302 119 26 119 119

25:24 26:1 26:9 26:10-12 28:19 29:9 29:12 29:14 29:15 29:16-17 29:18-20 30:1 30:13 31:4 31:8 31:12-32:13 31:13 31:22 32:7-9 32:8 32:9 33:27 34:5 34:21-35:22 34:25 35:1-22 35:1-26 35:22-23 35[32]:22-26 36:26-31 37:11 38:24-34 38:24-39:11 39-43 39:9-11 39:12-35 39:15 39:25-35 39:30 40:1-2 40:8-9 40:19 40:24 41:3-4 41:4 41:8 41:11-13 41:14 42:2

119 132,202 119 50 202 194 195,305 194, 195 58 194 194 57 165 194 202 225 185 208 54 225 225 165 292 172 194 195 302 125 293 119 185,186,189 48 195,226,305 248 222 17, 135 243 258 221 128 222 119 164 128 209 209 222 292 210

352 42:8 42:9-11 42:14 42:15-42:33

I N D E X OF T E X T S

51:15 51:16 51:17

189 50 52 17, 77, 135, 302 17 260 254,255 15 20, 142 80 141 243 142,307 195 144,210 237 202 15 210 249 132,202,209 138 249 249 249 137,249,251 255 247 8, 167, 211, 230, 231, 236, 247, 248, 249, 253, 255, 256, 288, 291 251 190 251

51:19 51:20 51:20-30 51:21 51:22 51:23

137,254,256 251 247 211 223,251 251,256

42:16 42:17 42:18 42:19 42:21 43:23 43:26 43:30 44-49 44:6 45:5 47:10 48:11 48:25 49:4 50:27-29 50:28 51 51:1-12 51:12 51:12i-xvi 51:13 51:13-14 51:13-20 51:13-30

261,

223, 240, 250, 257,

51:25 51:26 51:27 51:30

251 140,166,253 166,212,248 247,248,251

Tobit 1:3 4:7 4:7-11 7:13 8:6-7 12:8-9 13:14 14:2-6

164 164 164 50 51 164 202,203 164

Wisdom of Solomon 1:1 135 1:13-14 129 2:22 293 2:24 129 3:7 293 3:13-14 202 3:15 72 4:20-5:23 129,293 5:9-14 129 5:14 87 5:15 129 6:1 99, 135 6:14 254 7:8-9 216 7:16 48 7:18 15 7:25 19 8:2 255 8:5 216 8:8 15 8:18 255 9:9 209 9:13-18 302 10:2 37 10:20-21 243 11-19 142,307 16:28 156 18:15-16 124

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA Ahiqar 81-82

57

2 Baruch 10:6

203

353

INDEX OF T E X T S

38:2 38:4 41:3 44-45 46:4 46:5 48:24 54 54:10 77:16 82:2-7 82:7 83:3

209 209 167 96 145 134 209 301 203 209 87 130 124

1 Enoch 1:4 1:9 2-5 8:3 10 10:4-5 10:13-14 10:16 10:20-21 16:3 27:2 39:2 41:3 48:9 49:1 51:4-5 52:2 58:2 58:5 60:23 61:12 61:13 68:2 69:11 71:3 81:4 82 82:4 85:9 90:17 90:20 91:10 93:2 93:10 93:11-14 97:8-10

125 125 20,46 14 265,294 87 42 40 88 84 87 31 14 130 26 42 14 203 26 265 40 20 124 39,129 26 203 96 203 31 31 31 42 31 21,40 97 61

99:10 100:4-5 100:10-11 101:6 102:3 103-104 103:2 103:3 103:5 103:7-8 104:2-6 104:4 104:10-12 104:10-13 106:19 108:5-6

203 125 46 18 125 129 28 16 203 42 115,293 42,87 14 28 . 14 87

2 Enoch 41:2 42 42:6-14 52 52:1-14 66:7

203 132,205 203 132,205 203 203

4 Ezra 4:24 7:61 7:123 13:10-11 13:38 14

129 129 268 124 124 301

Jubilees 2:2-3 3:15 6:31 15:25 23:30-31

258 35 31 31 42

4 Maccabees 1:16-17

134

Psalm 151

236, 240

Psalm 154

133, 230, 2 3 1 , 236, 240, 2 4 1 , 244, 245, 246, 247, 299, 302 242,260 243

154:1-2 154:19

354

Psalm 155

I N D E X OF T E X T S

236, 240

Psalms of Solomon 4:1 246 4:23 203 5:16 203 17:44 203 18:6-7 203 Pseudo-Phocylides 229-30 26

Testament of Benjamin 10:6 31 Testament of Judah 19:2 207 Testament of Levi 18:3-5 88 Testament of Naphtali 2:4-5 124

Sibylline Oracles 3:371-72 203

D E A D SEA S C R O L L S A N D R E L A T E D L I T E R A T U R E Aramaic Levi Document (Greenfield) 13:4-5 7, 133 13:7 7 13:10 7, 133 13:12 254 (Drawnel) 11-61 13 16 20 24 28-30 83-98

7,8 7 7 7 7 7 7

C D (Cairo Damascus Document) 1:1 177,266 1-2 274 1:6-7 40 1:12-2:1 33 1:16 192 1:18 117 1:20-21 210 2 7, 177 2-3 76 2:2 266 2:3 125 2:5-6 125 2:9-10 15 2:14-5:19 277 3:13-14 301

3:18 3:20 4:7 5:20 6 6:2-11 6:4 6:11-12 6:11-14 6:12-21 6:14-15 7:3-4 7:21 8:9-13 9:13-14 9:16-20 10:2 10:4-10 10:6 10:21 11:5-6 11:9 11:15 12:20-21 12:21 13:6 13:7 13:7-8

14 35 181 192 227 43 216 40 176 305 155 60 31 221 176 176 219 185 32 171 171 169 169 152 153 152 272 15, 151, 152, 153, 154

13:8 13:11 13:11-12 13:12

20, 143 173 158 174, 175

355

INDEX OF T E X T S

13:12-16 13:14 13:14-15 13:14-16 13:15-17 13:16-19 13:22 13:22-23 14:6-8 14:12-17 16:3-4 16:10-12 16:13-16 19:9 19:15-16 19:22 20:2 lQIsa 21:23

8

228 147, 159 152, 154, 155, 156 63 158 154 152 153, 159 32 228 65 52,63 176 61 192 221 183 a

(lQIsaiah ) 150

lQpHab (lQHabakkuk Pesher) 7:4-5 14,64,228,301 8:1 134 8:6 72 8:11 186 9:4-8 62 10:5 221 10:13 115 12:3 62 12:6 61 lQ26(lQInstruction) 1, 3, 9, 10, 12 1 1 13 14 13,27 1 4-6 26, 52, 95 1 5-6 48 1 7 46 2 11 3 2 39 1Q27 (lQMysteries) 1,3, 72 1 i 69, 71, 80, 83, 99 1 i 1-4 74 1 i 1-12 73 1 i2 77, 84 1 i 2-8 74 1 i3 1 4 , 7 5 , 7 8 , 152,276 1 i 3-4 76. 77. 93. 293

1 i4 1 i5 1 i 5-6 1 i 5-7 1 i 5-8 1 i6 1 i7 1 i8 1 i 8-12 1 i 10-12 1 i 12 1 ii 1 ii 3 1 ii 3-4 1 ii 4-6 1 ii 4-7 1 ii 7 1 ii 10 3 2 5 2 6 2 6 3 9 3 9-10

75, 89 81,85,87,98,295 82 86 74 93 79, 84, 88, 92, 97 81,90,98 96 71 102 71, 307 89 96 94 102 96 92 90, 301 93 89 90 92, 99 88

1QS (lQCommunity Rule) 1:1 151 1:5 163, 173 1:9 152 1:11-12 63, 173, 174, 227 1:11-13 164 2:2 210 2:23 175 2:24 154 3:1 183 3:2 173 3:7 49,60 3:8 207 3:9 210 3:9-10 170 3:13 16,275 3:13-4:26 4, 6, 15, 69, 265, 294 3:15 64,82,152 3:15-16 17,81 3:17-18 37 3:18 34 3:18-26 82 3:22 227 3:23 89

197,

151,

356

4:3 4:3-5 4:4 4:6 4:6-14 4:7 4:7-8 4:8 4:9 4:11-13 4:12 4:13 4:15 4:16 4:16-17 4:17 4:18-21 4:22-23 4:25-26 5 5:1-4 5-9 5:3 5:4 5:11-12 5:23 5:25 6 6:1-8 6:6 6:6-7 6:6-8 6:7 6:8 6:9-13 6:16 6:18 6:21-22 6:24-27 7 8 8:1-4 8:2 8:5-6 8:24 9:3 9:7 9:12-13 9:12-26 9:15-16 9:17-18

I N D E X OF T E X T S

20,142,207 154 81 45 42,89 35, 133 223 153 33 126 42 42,115 17 17,279 153 175 88 35 23 158 153 151 175 154, 163 301 174 154 156,245 246 272 64 177 183 272 177 175 174, 175 175 185 150 158 153 154, 163 40 183 60, 150 175 20 151, 152 158, 174 176

9:18 9:18-19 9:19 10:4-7 10:26 11:3 11:3-4 11:4-5 11:5 11:7-8 11:8-9 11:9 11:11 11:15-16 11:17-18 11:18-19 11:19-20

276 20 210 15 154 141 14,64,75,76 20 142 40 15 34 15 283 15 81 20,142

l Q S a ( l Q R u l e o f the Congregation) 1:6-7 32 1:16 175 l Q S b ( l Q R u l e o f Benedictions) 1:1 150,219 1 Q M ( l Q W a r Scroll) 1:8-9 115 1:9 133 1:11-12 15 3:9 75 10:10 134 11:6-7 31 11:9 143 13:2-3 203 13:9 143 13:12 126 13:12-14 61 14:5 143 14:7 61,207 14:9 84 14:14 141 15:13 143 17:4-5 15 17:6 153 lQH(lQHodayot) 4:15 5:1 5:2 5:4 5:17

35 151 141 34 260

357

I N D E X OF T E X T S

5:17-18 5:19-20 5:26-27 6 6:2-5 6:3 6:8 6:13-16 (Puech) 6:14(Puech) 6:20 7:1 9 9:7-19 9:9-13 9:12-13 9:13-17 9:14 9:21 9:26-27 9:37 10:13 10:31-32 11:18 11:19-22 12:6 12:27-28 12:31 13:4 13:21 13:36 14 14:14 14:25 14:27 15:6 15:22-23 16 16:24-25 17:10 17:23 17:27 18 18:20-21 18:23 18:27-28 18:28-29 19:3-4 19:6-12 19:10 19:11-12 20:4

15 34 279 203,205 204 207 283 204 207 60 151 80,260 19 78 81 275 258 14,20 82 280 14,272 61 87 44 156 14,272 274 141 61 84 216 43 272 272 20 192 216 37 212 19 143 65 272 34 64 276,277 15 40 20 44 151

20:5 20:8 20:10 20:12-13 23:14 23:14-15 20:15 24:5 26:1-2 Frg. 15

152 24 151 154 61 207 153 84 43 151

2Q15 (2QJob)

8

2Q18 (2QBen Sira) 4, 8, 248 a

4Q83 (4QPsalms ) 4:15 259 e

4Q87 (4QPsalms ) 238 f

4Q88 (4QPsalms ) 9-10 240 a

b

c

4Q99-101 (4QJob - ; 4QpaleoJob ) 8 a

b

4Q102-103 (4QProverbs - ) 8 4Q157 (4QTargum o f Job) 8 c

4Q163 (4QIsaiah Pesher ) 23 ii 9 203 4Q169 (4QNahum Pesher) 3-4 ii 8 210 3-4 iii 3 117 8

4Q171 (4QPsalms Pesher ) 2 10-11 61,117 3 1-2 35 3 7-8 130 3 10-11 61,228 4Q184 ( 4 Q Wiles o f the Wicked Woman) 1, 3, 4, 104, 105, 111, 121, 122, 299, 304, 307, 308 1 221

358 1 1 1 1-2 12 1 3 14 1 5 15-6 16 1 7 17-8 18 1 8-9 1 9 19-10 110 111 1 11-14 1 12 1 13 1 13-15 114 114-15 115 115-17 116 1 17 2 22 3 5 55 61

I N D E X OF T E X T S

107 106 107,117 106, 109, 112, 113 109,110 109, 110, 112, 115 114 109,112,114 114 115,294 113,120 109, 112 79 113 112,114 112,114 108 108,109,114 109 116 118 117 109,118 116 113,117 107, 109, 113, 114, 117 104 117 109,115 117 108

1-2 ii 1-2 1-2 ii 2-3 1-2 ii 3 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

ii ii ii ii ii

4 5 6-7 7 8

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

ii ii ii ii ii ii

8-12 8-15 9 10 11 12

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

ii 12-14 ii 13 ii 13-14 ii 13-15 iii 9 iii 11-13

141 128 126, 133, 143, 144, 210, 282 144, 1 4 5 , 2 4 3 , 2 9 8 141 128 141 131, 133, 134, 139, 2 0 3 , 2 1 0 , 243, 245 132 130,135 131, 134, 137 131,134 131, 137, 141 123, 128, 131, 137, 283,288 256 124, 133, 136,203 137,210 138, 1 3 9 , 2 0 8 , 2 9 1 123, 133,298 124

4Q186 (4QHoroscope) 81, 150 1 ii 8 24 2 i8 24 3

4Q196 (4Qpap Tobit ar) 101 164 c

4Q185 (4QSapiential Work) 1, 3, 4, 6, 122, 167, 172, 199, 229, 263, 287, 300, 302, 307 1-2 i 5 124 1-2 i 6 140 1-2 i 7 124, 126 1-2 i 8-9 124, 125, 128, 134, 294, 304 1-2 i 9-13 87, 126, 127, 130 1-2 i 13 143 1-2 i 13-15 144,243 1-2 i 13-ii 2 140,298 1-2 i 14 22, 95, 142 1-2 i 14-15 141 1-2 i 15 143

4Q198 (4QTobit ar) 1 164 129, 215, 299,

e

4Q200 (4QTobit ) 7 i4 203 a

4Q201 (4QEnoch ar) 1 i 5-6 125 1 iv 5 14 130, a

128,

4Q203 (4QEnGiants ar) 9 3 14 c

4Q204 (4QEnoch ar) 5 ii 26-27 14 a

4Q213 (4QAramaic L e v i ) 1 i 14 7 a

d

4Q213-214 (4QAramaic L e v i - )

359

INDEX OF T E X T S

3 7-9 3 12-13

133

49 49

f

4Q214b (4QAramaic Levi ) 8:2 254

4Q279 (4QFour Lots) 5 2-4 175

4Q215a (4QTime o f Righteousness) 89, 101 1 ii 4 1 ii 3-5 88 2 1 80

b

4Q287 (4QBlessings ) 4 2 37 4Q294 (4QSapiential-Didactic W o r k C ) 264

h

4Q223-224 (4QpapJubilees ) 2 v 20 92 4Q249 (4Qpap cryptA Midrash Moshe) 149

Sefer

4Q250 (4Qpap cryptA Text Concerning Cultic Service A ) 149 4Q251 (4QHalakhah A ) 1-2 5 169 8

4Q255 (4QRule o f the Community ) 6 6

4Q256 (Rule o f the Community ) 9 1 150 6

4Q258 (Rule o f the Community ) 1 1 150 4Q264a (4QHalakhah B ) 168, 170 1 1 171 13-5 169 1 8 169

4Q298 ( 4 Q Words o f the Maskil to All Sons o f Dawn) 1, 3, 4, 145, 146, 150, 157, 178, 272, 288, 303, 305, 306 1 147 1-2 i l 154 1-2 i 1-3 148 1-2 i 2 95,177,271 1-2i3 271 1-2 i 3-4 148 1-2i4 153 1-2 i 6 159 3-4 ii 3-6 147 3-4 ii 4 148,271 3-4 ii 5 148, 149, 158, 189 3-4 ii 5-6 154,207 3-4 ii 6 148 3-4 ii 7 148, 149, 153 3-4 ii 8-9 153 3-4 ii 8-10 76, 149, 152, 154, 156 3-4 ii 9-10 226, 294 5 ii 8 154 a

8

4Q266 (4QDamascus Document ) 14 192 9 iii 7 154 5

4Q267 (4QDamascus Document ) 4 11 58 9iv 155 9iv5 153 9v2 153 1

4Q271 (4QDamascus Document )

4Q299 (4QMysteries ) 1, 3, 69, 70 1 1-4 96 1 1-9 73 1 3-4 71 1 4 81 2 71 2 2-3 96 3ai5 97 3a ii-b 71,82,83 3a ii-b 3-4 96 3a ii-b 4 84 3a ii-b 5 80 3a ii-b 8 86

360 3a ii-b 9 3a ii-b 10-13 3a ii-b 11 3a ii-b 13 3a ii-b 15 3a ii-b 16 3c 3c 3 3c 3-4 3c 4 3c 5 5 5 1-3 5 2 5 5 5-6 i 6i 6 i7 6 ii 4 6 ii 5 6 ii 8 6 ii 10 6 ii 12 6 ii 13 6 ii 14 6 ii 14-18 7 7 3 7 5 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 9 9 4 9 5 10 10 3 10 7 13b2 27 3 30 3 32 2 33 4 34 3 35 2 43 2 51 1 53 8 54 3 55 5

I N D E X OF T E X T S

28, 79, 293 80 16,78 17,24,81 80,97 92,97 71, 79, 83 266 97 84 78 77. 80, 82 78 20, 82, 143 17,81 258 77 20 74, 79 97 92, 97 82 95 102 97 95 71 97 94, 97 97 83, 97, 99 83,95,148,182 81,83 72 91 71 87 92 102 37 97 82 93, 97 97 10,102 82, 91 28, 73, 78, 293 91 98 148 90, 95

59 2-3 60 3-4 612 62 2 65 3 67 3 68 1 69 2 72 2 73 3 74 2 74 3 78 1 79 3 79 6 79 6-7 79 8 80 3 83 5 106 2

98 92 93 98 102 90, 301 92 90, 93, 302 91 82 93 91 93 142 93, 299 90 92 93 90 93 b

4Q300 (4QMysteries ) 1, 3, 69, 70, 72 l a ii-b 71,79,83,91,92 l a ii-b 1 72,84,266 l a ii-b 1-2 90 l a ii-b 2 78 l a ii-b 2-3 84 l a ii-b 3 72 l a ii-b 4-5 84 l a ii-b 5 97 l a ii-b 6 90 2 ii 2 97 2 ii 2-5 95 3 71, 79, 80, 81, 83, 99 3 1-4 74 3 1-6 73, 74 3 2 23, 76, 84 3 3 14,75,78 3 4 75, 85, 89 3 4-6 74, 86 3 5-6 82 5 71 5 4-5 96 5 5 84 6 71 6-7 94 6 2 97 6 6 97 7 71

361

INDEX OF T E X T S

7 1 7 4 8 1 8 4a 8 4 8 5 8 7 9 1 9 2 10 2 12 1

79, 97 86, 99 72, 28, 97 84 84, 97 97

97 90

8 10 10-11

269 269 50

95 73, 78, 293

4Q304 (4QMeditation on Creation B ) 264, 265, 268, 270 2 269

98

4Q305 (4QMeditation on Creation C ) 4, 264, 265, 268, 270 2 2 36, 269

c

4Q301 (4QMysteries °) 1, 3, 69, 70, 73 1 1 71 1 2 71, 72, 79, 95, 266 13 72 2a 2 97 2b 1 97 2b 3 97,102 2b 4 34, 72, 82, 97 2b 5 34 3a-b 4 71 3a-b 8 72 4 3 97 5 3 97 5 4-5 72, 82 6 2 102

4Q307 (4QText Mentioning Temple) 264 4Q308 (4QSapiential Fragments) 264 g

4Q313 (4QcryptA M M T ? ) 149 4Q317 (4QcryptA Lunisolar Calendar) 149 0

4Q365 (4QReworked Pentateuch ) 2 3-4 3 2-3

92 92

4Q302 (4QpapAdmonitiory Parable) 4, 264, 265 2 ii 2 268 2 ii 2-3 267 2 ii 2-4 266 2 ii 4 267 2 ii 5 267 2 ii 6 267 2 ii 7 267 2 iii 7 266 3 ii 268 3 ii 6 267 3 ii 7-8 267 10 2 266

4Q370

4Q303 (4QMeditation on Creation A ) 4, 10, 264, 265, 268 1 208, 269, 270

4Q387 (Apocryphon o f Jeremiah C ) 2 iii 5 98

3 4 4-5 5

4Q389 (Apocryphon o f Jeremiah C ) 8 ii 5 98

269 269 258 269

1 2 2 2 2 2

2 5 7 8 9

(4QExhortation Based Flood) 3,270 258 143 143 143 143 143

on

4Q381 (4QNon-Canonical Psalms B ) 267 1 7 37 76-77 7 258 76-77 8 266 b

d

the

362

I N D E X OF T E X T S

4Q413 (4QComposition concerning Divine Providence) 4, 231, 264, 265, 272, 273 1-2 274 2-3 275,277 3 274 4 274, 275, 276

4Q401 (4QSongs o f the Sabbath Sacrifice ) 14 ii 2 141 6

4Q402 (4QSongs o f the Sabbath Sacrifice ) 412 15 0

4Q403 (4QSongs o f the Sabbath Sacrifice ) 1 i 30 150 6

4Q414 (4QRitual o f Purification) 41 0

4Q408 ( 4 Q Apocryphon o f M o s e s ? ) 264 3 + 3a 7 265 4Q410 (4QVision and Its Interpretation) 264, 265 4Q411 (4QSapiential Hymn) 1, 4, 231, 260, 264, 265 liil 281,282 Iii 3 281 1 ii 5 282 Iii 7 281 Iii 9 281 I i i 11 282 1 ii 12 282 1 ii 13 282 1 ii 14 282 1 ii 16 282 4Q412 (4QSapiential-Didactic Work A ) 4, 264, 265, 281, 286 1 270 1 1 271 1 2 271 1 3 271 1 4 224, 271 1 5 272 1 5-6 271 1 7-8 271, 302 1 9 271 110 171,271 2 2 271 3 2 271 4 3 271 4 4 148,271

a

4Q415 (4QInstruction ) 1,3, 9, 10 2 i + I i i 4-5 41 2 ii 1 49, 52 2 ii 4 50 2 ii 7 25, 49, 50, 52 2 ii 8 50 2 ii 9 24,49,52,81 6 2 43,54 6 4 13,22 8 2 58 9 2 24,49,51 9 7 52 9 8 51,52 11 11 114 49 11 5 48 116 49 11 9 53 1111 24,25 24 1 13 b

4Q416 (4QInstruction ) 1,3,9 1 11, 12, 23, 27, 44, 75 1 3-6 46 1 9 46 1 10 48 1 10-13 45 1 12 33, 34 1 13 33, 88 1 14 45 1 16 2 2i-ii 2 i5 2 i 21 2 i 22-ii 1

33,48 10 11 13,22 279 56

INDEX OF T E X T S

2 i 22-ii 2 2 iii 2 ii 2-3 2 ii 4-6 2 ii 6 2 ii 6-7 2 ii 8-9 2H9-10 2H9-18 2 ii 12-17 2 ii 14-21 2 ii 17-18 2 ii 18-20 2 ii 20 2 ii 21 2 iii 2 2 iii 3-5 2 iii 3-8 2 iii 5-7 2 iii 7-8 2 iii 8 2 iii 8-9 2 iii 9 2 iii 9-10 2 iii 11 2 iii 11-12 2 iii 12 2 iii 13 2 iii 14 2 iii 14-15 2 iii 15 2 iii 15-19 2 iii 16 2 iii 18 2 iii 19 2 iii 20 2 iii 20-21 2 iii 21 2iv 2 iv 1 2 iv 2-3 2iv4 2 iv 6 2 iv 6-7 2 iv 9 2 iv 7-9 2iv7-10 3 2

258, 279 55,189 278, 279 58, 60, 196 112 40, 53, 60 29 57 48,58,303 196 27,288,289 60 54,60 54,138 51 54 58 60 58 41 42, 43, 54 52,192 13,22 24 63,243,301 37, 40, 43, 44, 55, 60, 223 54, 141 22 13 23 59 25,26,28,52 11 13,83 54, 59, 133 24, 25, 52, 288 75 13,25,50 11,53 50 49, 52 49,51 192 52 52 63 178,300 16

3 3 4 1 4 3 173

363

45 45 39, 42 13 c

4Q417 (4QInstruction ) 1, 3, 9, 10 1 i 11 1 i2 20 1 i3 13,22,152 1 i 3-4 15 1 i6 13,22,272 1 i 6-8 23, 32, 36, 77, 293 1 i 6-9 18 1 i7 279 1 i 7-8 45 1 i8 13 1 i 8-9 18, 19, 20, 75, 78, 1 i 10-12 l i 11-12 1 i 12 l i 12-13 1 i 13 l i 13-18 1 i 14 1 i 15 1 i 16 1 i17 1 i 17-18 1 i 18 l i 18-19 1 i 19 1 i 21 l i 21-22 1 i 24 1 i 25 l i 25-27 1 i-ii Iii 3 1 ii 6 1 ii 9 I i i 11

82, 291 16 80,83 157 170 20,142,243 18,30,124 31,32,35 31,32,35 32, 34 34 23,32,35,77,91 13,22 16,275 23 13 33 16, 44 28, 79 18,275 12 13 40 40, 57, 247 44

1 2 2 2 2 2 2

33 12 11 54 196,288 59 13,22,25

ii 14

i-ii i2 i7 i9 i 10 o i in_i i

IA

I N D E X OF T E X T S

2 i 10-12 2 i 12 2 i 14-17 2 i 17 2 i 17-18 2 i 17-20 2 i 19-20 2 i 20 2 i 21 2 i 21-22 2 i 21-24 2 i 22-24 2124 2 i 25-27 2 ii 4 2 ii 12 2 ii 23 2 ii 26 4 ii 4 5

42,43,53,60,293 192 59 63,196 48,55,187 56 57 19 188 57 59 57, 305 188 57 278 55 60 51 44 11 d

4Q418 (4QInstruction ) 1, 3, 9, 10 1-2 11 8 1 278 9 8 13,22,24 9 15 13 9 17 11,25 10 11 10 1 13 103 13 43 11,12 43-45 i 12 31 43 2 13,20,77 43 4 13,22,33,209 43 6 13 43 14 13,22 43 16 13 44 12 45 i 12 46-59 12 55 11,46,65,96 55 3 227 55 5 157 55 5-6 19 55 8-10 23,41 55 8-11 47 55 9 72 55 10 64 55 11 41 58 1 280

68 2-3 69 ii 69H3-4 69 ii 4 69 ii 4-9 69 ii 6 69 ii 7 69 ii 10 69 ii 10-11 69 ii 10-15 69 ii 11 69 ii 12-13 69 ii 12-14 69 ii 13 69 ii 13-14 69H14 76 3 77 2 77 2-3 77 3 77 4 77 5 81 81 1 81 1-2 81 1-5 81 2-3 81 3 813-4 81 4 81 4-5 81 7 81 10 8111-12

44 11,23,27,75,96 18 280 46 41,114 4 1 , 42, 43 157 182 46 95 16,41 47 43 22,41,294 153 60 13,16,275 23 44 13,22 36 11,27 216 33,34,36,53 38,39 16 37 40 258 62,294 148 45,48,148 39

81 13 81 14 81 15 81 15-20 81 17 81 18 81 19 8120 87 7 88 ii 5 88 ii 8 102 3 102 5 103 ii 103 ii 2-9 103 ii 3 103 ii 6

40 31 48 55 22, 149, 1 9 0 , 2 8 8 196 48 16 58 279 39 48 39,42 48, 63, 196, 300 187 39 216

365

INDEX OF T E X T S

103 ii 6-9 103 ii 9 107 4 113 1-2 121 1 123 ii 3-4 123 ii 4 123 ii 5 123 ii 6 123 ii 8 123 ii 9 126 ii 2 126 ii 4-5 126 ii 6-7 126 ii 7-8 126 ii 10 126 ii 12 126 ii 13 126 ii 15 137 2 137 3 139 2 146 2 148 ii 4 148 ii 6 167 168 3 1 6 9 + 170 3 172 1 172 5 172 7-12 1772 177 5 177 7a 177 8 179 3 184 1 184 2 190 2-3 201 1 201 2 205 2 212 221 2 221 2-3 221 3 234 1 236 3 249 3

178 41,130 55 44 44 15 13,33,45,47,83 22 23,27 43 50 55 19,291 87,114 23,41 22,40 55, 189, 196 55 18 48 55 48 55 54 19,152 11 55 22,148 13 39 27 114 43, 54 28,79 55 13 29,278 13,22,83 13 13 23, 87 280 45 95,141,243 22,288 48, 141, 149, 190 41 41 54 e

4Q418a (4QInstruction )

1 6 + 17 3

10 50

4Q418b (4QText with Quotation from Psalm 107?) 10 f

4Q418c (4Qlnstruction ?) 10 5 44 8 13 4Q419 (4QInstruction-like Composition A) 264, 265, 280, 286 1 1-2 278 1 3 278 1 5 278 1 6 278 1 9-10 278 1 10-12 277 8 ii 3-4 279 8 ii 6 279 8 ii 7 278, 279 8 ii 8 279 3

4Q420 (4QWays o f Righteousness ) 1, 3, 172, 175, 176, 178, 288, 305 l a ii-b 171,289 l a ii-b 1-2 163,224 l a ii-b 1-4 184 l a ii-b 1-7 161 l a ii-b 2-3 162 l a ii-b 3 148, 1 6 2 , 2 2 4 l a ii-b 3-4 163, 170, 173 l a ii-b 4 164 l a ii-b 5 191 l a ii-b 6 162 l a ii-b 7 192 l a ii-b 8 162 2 9 162 6

4Q421 (4QWays o f Righteousness ) 1, 3, 160, 288, 305 lai 162,176 lail 175 l a i 2-3 173,174 lai 4 174,175 l a i 15 174 l a ii-b 162,289 l a ii-b 9 167

366

I N D E X OF T E X T S

l a ii-b 10

l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b l a ii-b la ii-b 2 5 2 8 8 2 101 11 11-13 11 2 113 11 4 12 2 12 3 12-13 13 13 13 13 13

1 2 3 6

11 11-12 12 12-13 13 13-14 13-15 13-17 14 14-15 15 16 17 18

140, 164, 165, 167, 168, 172, 176, 211, 253 171 176 164 162, 170 162,171 163 184 161 162 163, 170 164,170 162, 164, 171 162 192 168, 171 174 168, 170, 171 169 162 161, 162, 173, 176 163, 170, 171, 299, 302 168,169,170 168 168,169,170 168,169 169 162 161, 173, 176, 177, 178 171 168,169,171 171 171

4Q422 (4QParaphrase o f Genesis and Exodus) 269 1 i 9-10 37 8

4Q423 (4QInstruction ) 1,3, 9, 10, 269 1 41,50 1 1-3 36,37 1 2 51,268 1 3 268 2\1 36 3 11 3 2 13,27,48

3 4-5 4 4 1 4 1-2 4 3a 44 5 la 5 1-2 5 2 5 3 5 5 5 5-6 5 6 6 4 7 7 8 8 3 9 3 11 2

39 11,52 13 27, 48 44, 46 13 39 23 13,27 16 187 18,27,48 23 44 13,22,209 11 40 41 29,278

4Q424 (4QInstruction-like Composition B) 1, 3, 4, 5, 145, 197, 226, 288, 294, 298, 306 1 179 1 2-5 180 1 3 182 1 6 185,188,189 1 6-7 180, 190 17 191,281 1 7-8 187, 188 1 8 180 1 8-10 181 1 9 180 1 10 180,185,284 1 10-12 185, 186, 187 1 12 180, 181, 194 1 13 180, 181, 182 2 179 2 2 196 2 3 186,194 2 3-4 180 2 5 193 3 179,224 3 1 180, 181, 184,281 3 1-2 164 3 1-3 184 3 2 181, 182, 183, 185 3 3 180, 181, 183, 185, 280

367

INDEX OF T E X T S

3 3-7 3 4

182 148, 180, 183, 190, 281 3 6 180,183,185 3 7 48, 1 8 3 , 1 8 4 3 7-9 180 3 7-10 164, 191 3 8 195 3 8-9 183 3 9 52, 192, 193 3 9-10 195 3 10 183, 193 3 11 193 4 179 Unidentified Fragments A and B 179 4Q425 (4QSapiential-Didactic Work B ) 4, 196, 264, 265, 286 1 +3 5 280 1 +3 6 281 1 +3 7 183,280,281 1+ 38 280 1 + 3 10 281 2 + 4 i3 280 4 ii 4 280 6 2 280 6 3 280 6 4 280 4Q426 (4QSapiential-Hymnic W o r k A ) 4, 263, 264, 265, 280, 2 8 1 , 2 9 9 1 i 1-2 283 1 i4 283 1 ii 3-4 284 1 ii 5 284 1 ii 9 284 2 1 284 8 4 284 10 2 284 104 171 12 3 284

b

4Q428 (4QHodayot ) 12 ii 3 151 c

4Q429 (4QHodayot ) 4 ii 10 272 a

e

4Q434-438 (4QBarki Nafshi " ) 3 c

4Q436 (4QBarki Nafshi ) 1 i 2-3 275 6

4Q438 (4QBarki Nafshi ) 2 2 271 4Q444 (4QIncantation) 3 4Q448 (4QApocryphal Psalm and Prayer) Al 274 A 8-10 241 4Q451 (4QPrayer C ) 273 4Q455 (4QDidactic Work C ) 264 2 265 3 265 4Q4681 (4QFragment Mentioning Qoh 1:8-9) 8 4Q472 (4QEschatological W o r k B ) 264 4Q473 (4QThe T w o Ways) 4, 264, 265 4Q474 (4QText Concerning Rachel and Joseph) 264 4Q475 (4QRenewed Earth) 264 1 4-5 88 1 5 265

a

4Q427 (4QHodayot ) 34 151 7 242 7 ii 6 279 7 ii 8-9 43

4Q476 (4QLiturigcal Work B ) 264 4Q476a (4QLiturigcal Work C )

368

INDEX OF T E X T S

264 4Q477 2 i3 2 ii 3 2 ii 6

(4QRebukes Reported Overseer) 176 176 176

by

the

4Q480 (4QNarrative F) 264 4Q486 (4QSapiential Work A ? ) 264 4Q487 (4QSapiential Work B ? ) 264 8

4Q491 (4QWar Scroll ) 8-10 i 15 115 b

4Q491c (4QSelf-Glorification H y m n ) 1 7 44 4Q498 (4QHymnic or Sapiential Fragments) 264, 265 8

4Q504 (4Q Words o f the Luminaries ) 150 8 4-6 37 8

4Q510 (4QSongs o f the Sage ) 4 1 5 126 b

4Q511 (4QSongs o f the Sage ) 4 2 i1 150 2 i8 40 4Q524 (4QTemple Scroll) 264 4Q525 (4QBeatitudes) 1, 3, 4, 139, 140, 172, 195, 206, 229, 263, 287, 299, 300, 302, 304, 307 1 288 1 1 201, 283 1 1-3 200 1 3 149

2 2ii 2ii 2ii 2ii 2 ii 2ii 2H

+ + + + + + +

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1-6 1 2 2-3 3 3-4

2 ii 2ii 2ii 2H 2 ii

+ + + + +

3 3 3 3 3

3-6 4 4-5 5 6

2H + 3 9 2ii + 310 2 ii + 3 12 2 iii 2 iii 2 2 iii 3 2 iii 5 2 iii 7 3 5 5 2 5 6 5 7 5 7-8 5 8 5 8-9 5 9 5 9-10 5 10 5 11 5 12 5 13 6 ii 5 7 2 8 3 10 3 10 4 105 11-12 1-2 11-122 11-123 13 2 13 5

198 203,205,213,223 138, 1 3 9 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 2 79,208,215,217 215 256 208,211,215 132, 199, 210, 219, 298 204,214 207,209,212 215,303 212,218 207, 208, 209, 224, 245 43,218,225 218 208 216 215 215,291 215 215 198 198,215 212 215 208,215 200 218,227,228,285 212 215,219,227,285 214 215 210,212,215,285 207,215,227 148,207,215,219, 227 225 225 218 208 208 218 223 217 210 185,224 215

369

INDEX OF T E X T S

13 6 14 14 ii 14 ii 3 14 ii 6 14 ii 12 14 ii 13 14 ii 14 14 ii 14-16 14 ii 15 14 ii 18 14 ii 18-28 14 ii 19 14 ii 20 14 ii 21-28 14 ii 22 14 ii 25 15 1 15 2 15 3 15 4 15 5 15 5-6 15 6 15 7 16 3 164 17 4 176 19 4 20 2 21 1 212 218 21 9 22 5 23 1 23 2-3 23 2-4 23 3 23 5 23 8 24 ii 24 ii 1 24 ii 2 24 ii 3 24 ii 4 24 ii 5 24 ii 7

208 198 164 43 213 213 223 223 222,226,306 210 10,208,270 224,225,289 209 208 184 224 224, 306 219,229,226 220 220 220 219,220 222 115,220,221 221 208,213,227 213 220 215 115,212,222 210 220 218 220 225 219,220 213 213 220 219 227 213 228,291 216 208,216 216 216 216 216

24 ii 8 24 ii 9 25 2 25 4 26 2 26 4-5 27 1 274 31 1 32 2-3

216 216,217 115,212,222 224 22,141,208 215 208 210 208 222

4Q528 (Hymnic or Sapiential Work B ) 2 3 1 , 2 6 4 , 265, 281, 284, 286 2-5 285 5 203,219 a

4Q534 (4QBirth o f N o a h ar) 1 i 7-8 19 c

4Q536 (4QBirth o f N o a h ar) 2 i + 3 8-12 19 8

11Q5 (Psalms Scroll ) 3, 8, 137, 166, 167, 2 1 1 , 2 3 8 , 299 E 236 E ii 4 259 4:16 239 5:1-3 239 6-14 239 7:1 245 7:9 245 8:12 245 9 245 16 236 18 231, 240, 247, 254, 262 18:1 242,244,246 18:2-3 242 18:3 22, 95, 133, 141, 230, 244, 245 18:3-4 243 18:5 245 18:5-6 244 18:8-10 244 18:10 246 18:10-11 244 18:10-12 245 18:11 171

370

I N D E X OF T E X T S

18:11-12 18:12 18:14 18:14-16 18:15 18:16 19:6 21 21:11 21:11-12 21:11-17

244,246 210,245 133 241 133 243 171 230,231,259,262 253,255 291 240,247,248,249, 250, 256, 257, 260, 288 252 251 252,253 252 252 251,252,253,254, 255 240,247,249,250, 256, 257, 260 239 239 240 143,230,231

21:13 21:13-17 21:14 21:15 21:16 21:17 22:1 22:1-15 23:7-11 24:3-17 26

26:9 26:9-15 26:11 27 27:2-11 27:6-7 28:3-14

40,275 77, 240, 257, 258, 259, 260, 282 156 238,257 240,249 237 240 6

H Q 6 ( l l Q P s a l m s Scroll ) 238 l l Q 1 0 ( l l Q T a r g u m o f Job) 8 11Q11 ( H Q A p o c r y p h a l Psalms) 3 7-8 20 3

H Q 1 9 ( l l Q T e m p l e Scroll ) 53:16-19 63 X Q 7 (XQUnidentified Text) 10 Mas lh (Ben Sira) 4, 248, 254

JOSEPHUS A N D PHILO Joseph us Jewish 1.68 18.20

Antiquities 31 155

Jewish War 2.127 2.130-33 Philo Allegorical (Legum 1.31

155 246

Interpretation allegoriae) 35

On the Contemplative Life (De vita contemplativa) 68 255

On the Creation of the (De opificio mundi) 134 35 On the Posterity (De posteritate 171

World

of Cain Caini) 31

On the Preliminary Studies (De congressu eruditionis gratia) 74 255 75-76 255 On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel (De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini) 20-21 112

371

I N D E X OF T E X T S

R A B B I N I C SOURCES Avot de Rabbi Nathan 300

Mekhilta deR. Ishmael 300

Babylonaian Talmud Berakot

Mishnah Berakot

61b

203

2:2

Hagigah

Pe "ah 1:1

14b

203

Sanhedrin 94b

167

167

Yoma 86a 203 Cairo Wisdom Text 300 Genesis (Bereshit) Rabbah 28, 300

187

PirkeAvot 1:2 1:7 3:5 3:12 3:18 4:10 5:7-8 6:7

166,299,300 186 181 167,253 178 268 208 178 172

Sefer ha-Razim

70

E A R L Y CHRISTIAN SOURCES Acts of Paul 5-6

203

Didache 6:2

167

19 49 54 68-69 79 90

203 203 203 203 203 167

Gospel of Thomas 7 203

OTHER ANCIENT N E A R EASTERN SOURCES Gilgamesh 10.6

127

Instruction of Amenemope 180 Prologue 192 5.10-16 181 6.1-7 181

6.7-8 7.11 11.13 11.13-14 13.11

163 192 163 181 181

Instruction of Ankhsheshonq 23.17-18 189

372 Instruction of Any 3 110 Papyrus Chester Beatty IV 1.5 (verso) 189

INDEX OF T E X T S

Papyrus Insinger 7:21-23 110 8:2 110 8:17 110 12:14 189